. -^ ^-^i --^r- r PS ■'HSii CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 924 099 385 225 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924099385225 In compliance with current copyright law, Cornell University Library produced this replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1992 to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. 2004 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY ACCOUNT OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN IN ARABIA. PRINTED BY T. AND A. CONSTABLE, PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY, AT THE EDINBURGH UNIVERSTTV PRESS. AN ACCOUNT OF The British Settlement OF Aden in Arabia. COMPILED BY CAPTAIN F. M. HUNTER F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S. (BOMBAY BRANCH), BOMBAY STAFF CORPS, ASSISTANT POLITICAL RESIDENT, ADEN. ' Haran, and Canneh, and Eden, the merchants of Sheba, Asshur, and Chilmad, were thy merchants.' — Ezekiel xxvii, 23. TRUBNER & CO., LONDON, 1877. PREFACE. The following monograph has been prepared at the request of Dr. W. W. Hunter, Director-General of Statistics to the Government of India, and so far as the local circum- stances of Aden permitted, upon the general plan drawn up by him for all India. Since the publication of the History of Yemen by Captain Playfair in 1859, no account of the Settlement of Aden, beyond the yearly Administration Reports, has been written, and it is hoped that this compilation will be found useful if not interesting. Several subjects have been treated very cursorily owing to the absence of reliable data, but this very incompleteness will serve a purpose, if thereby the investigation be induced of matters which have been briefly or imperfectly noticed. Several officers and gentlemen have afforded assistance in collecting materials, and it is desired here to fully recog- nise the obligation due to them for their valuable co-opera- tion. The compilation has been prepared in the intervals of current duties, and it is entirely due to the consideration shown the compiler by Brigadier-General Schneider, the Political Resident, that any measure of success has been attained. The work has been divided into six parts, and it may not be amiss to say a few words regarding each. vi PREFACE. Part I. has been compiled from the Records of the Aden Residency and other independent sources. Part II. is almost entirely the result of personal experience, observation, and inquiry. The materials for Part III. were obtained by a variety of inquiries, and a free use of all available authorities. Part IV. it is hardly necessary to notice. Part V. has been compiled from the Aden Residency Records and Playfair's History of Yemeni. Part VI, is an attempt to introduce some items of information that seem worthy of record, but cannot appro- priately be included in any of the other parts. The Map of the Peninsula has been corrected up to date. The Sketch Map showing the Kafilah routes has no preten- sions to geographical accuracy, and is only intended to give a general idea of the relative positions occupied by the neighbouring tribes whose territories are not included in the map prepared under the superintendence of Major Stevens. A list of the authorities consulted will be found in the Appendix, and if any plagiarism has been committed without acknowledgment, it must be set down to inadvertence. F. M. H. 1877. GENERAL CONTENTS. Map. PAGES Part I. — Geography and General Aspects : — Position, Limits, Area, and Population, I Physical Aspects, . ' . 1-2 Harbour, .... 2 Geological Notes, 2-3 Clirnate, 3-6 Botanical Notes, 6-7 The inhabited portion of the Peninsula, 7-9 Water Supply, 9-21 Wells, .... ID Aqueduct, ID Tanks and Reservoirs, II Rain-fall, .... 13-14 Condensers, .... 14-16 Conveyance, .... 16-17 Possible sources of Supply, . 17-21 Toban, .... 18-19 Sahiba, ) ^ ■ Rivers, 19-20 Hussan, , Missana Spring, .... 20-21 Improvements under construction, . 21 Natural History, .... 21-25 VIU TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part II. — The People: Population, Different Races, Occupation, Material Condition, Money-lending, Expenditure, Morals, Dress, . Arabs, Somalis, Jews, Other Races, Food, Europeans, . Arabs, Somalis, Jews, Indians, Domestic Ceremonies, Arabs, Somalis, Jews, Other Races, Religion, Games and Amusements, Ornaments, Arabs, Jews, . Somalis, and Other Races, PAGES 26-27 27-28 28-36 36-43 36-39 39-43 43 43-46 43-45 45 45-46 46-48 46 46 47 47 47 48 48-54 48-51 51-52 52-54 54 54-56 56-58 58-62 58-61 61 62 TABLE OF CONTENTS, IX Part III.— Chapter I.— Supplies :— . PAGES Food Grains, . . . . 63-67 Rice, 63 Jowari, 63-65 Wheat, 65 Bajri, 65-66 Pulse, 66 Maize, 66-67 Fodder, 67 Firewood, 67 Vegetables and Fruits, 67-69 Domestic Animals, 69-72 Horse, . . . , 69-71 Camel, . . . . 71 Ass, . . . . . 71-72 Ox and Cow, 72 Sheep and Goat, 72 Mule, 72 Poultry, . . . . 72 Part III. — Chapter II.— Trade and ( ZIOMMERCE : — Weights and Measures, 73-75 Currency and Exchange, 75-76 Communications and Conveyances, . 76-79 Manufactures and Industries : — House-Building, 79-80 Mat and String Making, 80 Weaving and Spinning, 81 Oil Pressing, 81 Lime Burning, 81 Charcoal Bun ling, . b 81-82 X TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part III. — Trade and CouyiEKCE—contimied. PAGES Potash Burning, 82 Salt Drying, .... 82 Dyeing, ..... 82 Distilling, ..... 82 Boat Building, .... 83-85 Printing, ..... 85 Manufacture of Soda and Aerated Waters, 85-86 Photography, .... 86 Water Condensing, 86 Manufacture of Ice, .... 86 Map showing Kafilah Routes, 86 Kafilah Routes, .... 86-88 Imports and Exports, .... 88-98 Principal Articles of Commerce, 99 Coal and Patent Fuel, 99-100 Coffee, 100-103 Cotton (Twist and Piece Goods), 103-105 Dyes, ..... 105-108 Feathers, . ". . 108-110 Gums, ..... 1 10- 1 16 Hides and Skins, .... 116-117 Shells, 117-119 Silk (Raw), ... 119-121 Silk (Piece Goods), .... 121-122 Spices, ..... 122-123 Sugar, ..... 123-125 Tobacco, ..... 126-128 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI Part IV. — Administration : — PAGES System of Administration, 129 Police, ..... 129 Civil and Criminal Justice, I29-I3I Prisons, .... 131 Municipal System, 132-135 Land Tenure, I3S-I36 Finance, .... 136-137 Treasury and Account, 137 Abkari Revenue, I 37-141 Military, I4I-I42 Fortifications, . 142-143 Trooping, 143 Marine, .... 143-144 Royal Navy and Indian Marine, 144-145 Medical Aid, .... 145-146 Contagious Diseases, 146-147 Ecclesiastical Arrangements, . 147-148 Education, .... 148-15 I Post-Office, .... 151-154 Part V. — Political Relations and His- tory :— The Arab Tribes Government have to deal with at Aden, Abdali, Fadhli, Akrabi, Other Tribes, 155-157 155-156 156 156-157 157 xn TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part V.— Political Relations and His- TO RY — con tinued. Chiefs having Political Relations with the Aden Residency, who are entitled to Salutes, Abdali, and Fadhli, . Makalla, and Shehr, Socotra, .... Somali and other African Tribes, History, .... Perim, .... Other British Possessions in the neighbourhood, Massah Islands, Eibat Island, and Kuriah Muriah Islands, .... Part VI. — Miscellaneous : — Language, Foreign Consuls, Ziarahs, or Visitations and Masjids, Natural Calamities, .... Wrecks and Casualties, Telegraph, Extract from an Arabic Work relating to Aden, 157 -1S8 157 157 157- 158 . 158- 159 159- 171 171- 172 i 172 172 173 173 173-176 176-178 178-180 I8I-I83 183-196 APPENDIX. A. List of Authorities, B. Aden Act, . C. Lighthouses, D. Marine Department — Port Rules, Index, .... 197-202 203-206 207 208-211 213-232 AN ACCOUNT OF THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. PART I.— GEOGRAPHY AND GENERAL ASPECTS. POSITION, Limits, Area, and Population. — Aden is a penin- sula situated on the south coast of the Province of Yemen in Arabia Felix, and is located in latitude 12° 47' north, longitude 45° 10' east. The British territory includes the peninsula, and extends to a creek named Khor Maksar, about two miles to the northward of the defensive works across the Isthmus. The adjoining peninsula of Jebel Ihsan, generally called Little Aden, is within British limits, as is also the harbour. The area of the land may be approximately stated at about thirty-five square miles. The population — exclusive of the garrison — was 19,289 in 1872. The inhabited peninsula is about fifteen miles in circumference, of an irregular oval form, five miles in its greater and three in its lesser diameter; it is connected with the continent by a narrow neck of land 1350 yards in breadth, but which is in one place nearly covered by the sea at high spring-tides, in fact would be, were it not for a causeway constructed for the convenience of the land traffic, and the passage of the Shaikh O'thman Aqueduct. Physical Aspect. — Aden is a large crater formed of lofty precipitous hills, the highest peak of which has an altitude of 1775 feet; these, on the exterior sides, slope towards the sea, throwing out numerous spurs, which form a series of valleys, radiating from a common centre. A gap exists opposite the fortified island of 2 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Seerah, the position of which would induce the belief that the circle was at one time complete, but that some convulsion of nature pro- duced the gap. Harbour. — Bunder^ Tawayyi or Aden West Bay, more generally known as Aden Back Bay, is formed by the peninsula of Jebel Ishsan on the west and Jebel Shum Shum on the east. It is about eight miles broad from east to west, by four miles deep ; and is divided into two bays by a spit, which runs off half a mile to the southward of the small island of Aliyah : the entrance between Ras Salil on the west and Ras Tarshyne on the east is three and a third miles in width. The depths of water in the Western Bay are from three to four fathoms, decreasing gradually towards the shore ; across the entrance the depths are four and a half to five fathoms, and at a distance of two miles outside ten to twelve fathoms ; bottom, sand and mud, both inside and outside the bay. There are several islands in the inner bay; the eastern and principal, named Jazirah Sawayih,^ is 300 feet high, and almost joined to the mainland at low-water springs ; the others are named Marzuk Rabir, Kais-al-Hamman, Kalfatain, and Faringi; on the sand-spit, at the north side of the entrance into the inner bay, are two small islets named Jamah Aliyah ; opposite Ordnance Bay, about two cables distant from the shore, is the island Shaikh Ahmad or Flint Rock, with a channel of two fathoms. Geological Notes.' — The varieties of rock met with in both peninsulas are very numerous ; there are perfectly compact lavas of brown, grey, and dark green tints, sometimes containing crystals of Anjite, and not unfrequently those of Sanidin, and there are rocks exhibiting every degree of vesicularity until we arrive at lavas resembling a coarse sponge, and passing into scoriae. The vesicles are in some specimens globular, and in others flat and drawn out. In some places the lava is quite schistose, and might be easily taken for metamorphic rock. Volcanic breccias are also met with, as near the Main-pass, where fragments of dark green lava are imbedded in a reddish matrix. Tufas are also present, but appa- rently to a limited extent. Pumice ' is found in many places, and is exported in considerable ^ See Gulf of Aden Pilot. ^ Generally called Slave Island. ^ Abridged from the Mevioirs of the Geological Survey of India., volume vii. part iii. ' In 1876 nearly 4000 tons were sent to Bombay by the contractor of the CLIMATE. 3 quantities to Bombay. Obsidian is to be met with occasionally in the seams. Secondary and accidental minerals are not numerous ■ Chalcedony is common, lining cavities in the rocks ; and thin seams of Epidote occur, as also of Gypsum. Climate. — The climate during the north-east monsoon, or from October to April, is cool, and in the months of November, December, and January, pleasant and agreeable. During the remainder of the year hot sandy winds, known as 'Shamal' or north, indicating the direction from which they come, prevail within the crater ; but on the western, or Steamer Point side, the breezes condng directly off the sea are fairly cool, and that locality is accord- ingly much preferred by European residents. The months of May and September are especially disagreeable, those being the periods of the change of monsoons, when the wind almost entirely ceases, and the air is close and oppressive, more particularly during the earlier part of the night ; towards morning a cool and refreshing land breeze generally springs up. Aden is not usually considered by medical men to be an unhealthy station, but it is a well-ascertained fact that long residence impairs the faculties and iindermines the constitution of Europeans, and even natives of India suffer from the effects of too prolonged an abode in the Settle- ment. The prevalent diseases are malarious fever, generally con- tracted elsewhere, scurvy, dysentery, ulcers (supposed by some to be of a specific character), phthisis, and rheumatism. Experience has shown that in the case of Europeans, recovery frorq. any disease, wound, or fracture, is very tedious, and it is advisable that patients should be removed to a more genial climate as soon as any signs of sinking or depression appear. It is only within the last three years that any attempt has been made to obtain an accurate register of the births and deaths that take place in the Settlement, and the result for the year 1875-76 is given in the accompanying Table :— ' Prince's Dock ' at that port. A fee of one rupee per ton is levied on all pumice exported, and the proceeds are credited to the municipal fimd. The chemical analyser in his report to Government for the year 1872-73 remarks, — ' With reference to the Aden pumice, it was found that this differed from ordinary pumice in containing gypsum or hydrated sulphate of lime. In the specimens examined the quantity of this constituent was found to be 18 '68 per cent. Aden pumice has for some time been used in the Bombay Reclamation Works as a constituent of the cement employed in making concrete blocks, and in hydraulic work generally, and has been found to give admirable results. ' THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Deaths, Births. X o 1 en a If ^3 H 6 ■a .2 70 234 164 22 37S 86s 38-06 per 1000 237 117 3S4 Register of Deaths showing Races. w la §1 d s .a 1 5 1 29 2 20 16 SI 745 2 3 868 Note. — The deaths that take place in Aden are very greatly increased from the following abnormal causes : — Persons suffering from disease are brought in from the interior to be cured ; others are landed during the pilgrim season with small- pox ; if a European dies at sea in the vicinity he is brought into Aden to be buried ; Somali mothers take no trouble with their children, and many die in infancy. It must be noticed, however, that the mortality in the case of Euro- peans, although much increased by the deaths amongst the passengers and crews of vessels, amounts to 23 '2 per 1000 only. The total number of Europeans in the settlement, inclusive of military and followers, is upwards of 1300. Too much reliance should not be placed on the thermometrical readings given in the subjoined statements, as there is no meteoro- logical station,' and no one is intrusted with the particular duty of superintending the registration of meteorological phenomena. The average temperature during the year at the three military positions, based on the recorded observations of three years, is as follows : — ' During the year 1849 a meteorological observer was stationed at Aden, and the records of his labours were compiled under the auspices of the Bombay Geo- graphical Society (Proceedings of Bombay Geographical Society, May 1850). It would be interesting, were it hereafter possible to obtain any reliable observa- tions, to compare the results, in order to ascertain if there be any truth in the assertion made by ' the oldest inhabitant ' that the climate of Aden has much altered, especially of late years ; this has been attributed, and apparently without sufficient grounds, to the construction of the Suez Canal. CLIMATE. Camp. Months. 1873-74. S 1874-75. S 1875-76. April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December, January, February, March, Average, 88 82 8'; 91 86 88-1 95 90 92-5 97 90 9.V.1 9b 92 9.-? 9?, 88 qo-i; 89 84 86-^ «S 84 «4-S 81 79 80 80 77 7«-S «3 79 81 84 81 82 -s 92 97 102 100 95 95 92 85 84 84 82 86 8i 86 89 80 V> 84 67 66 71 75 86-5 91-5 955 90 is 89-5 82-5 77-5 75-5 75 76-5 80-5 86 90 94 96 94 91 87 85 82 78 78 82 77 80 84 86 84 81 78 76 72 71 72 79 84-1 86-3 91 -I 76-5 83-8 86-9 78-3 81 -s 89 91 89 86 82-5 80-5 77 74-5 75 80-5 826 Isthmus. Months. 1873-74. 1874-75. 1875-76. a ^ i a ^- ^ a ^ a a s a A a A 's .1 % i .a % i a s a g s s s s April, 97 82 89-^ 89 79 84 86 83 May, 88 84 86 96 83 89-5 90 S7 88 '5 June, 93 87 90 lOI 86 93-5 93 89 91 July, . . 93 88 90-5 99 83 91 93 88 90-5 August, 93 87 90 97 82 89-5 92 86 89 September, 90 85 87 -I 98 84 91 90 87 88-5 October, . 85 80 82. s 92 77 84-5 86 77 81 -5 November, 81 78 79-5 85 73 79 81 88 79-5 December, 79 76 77-5 81 72 76-5 78 7b 77 January, . 78 75 76-5 80 71 75-5 78 7b 77 February, . 80 77 78-S 80 74 77 77 74 Z5'^ March, . Average, 82 79 80-5 87 79 83 81 80 8o-s 86-5 81 -s 84- 90-4 78-5 84-5 85-4 82-5 83-4 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Steamer Point. 1873-74. 1874-75. 1875-76- E g E e g E Months. 3 3 C 3 p C a d .1 E E .1 V .§ J 3 S ■5 S 'I c s S "E S s s s s s S April, 90 79 84'5 88 I^ !3 90 80 85 May, 91 83 87 93 8s 89 92 83 87-5 June, 93 84 88-5 95 84 89 '5 93 86 89-5 July, . . 92 84 88 92 82 87 90 84 ^2 August, 92 85 88-5 88 80 84 90 82 86 September, 91 84 87-5 93 84 885 §3 85 89 October, . 88 77 82-5 89 78 83-5 89 79 84 November, 84 76 80 84 74 79 86 74 80 December . 81 74 77-5 82 72 77 82 73 77-5 January, 80 74 77 80 70 75 81 75 7? February, 82 7S 78-5 81 70 75-5 81 75 78 March, Average, 86 77 81 5 86 76 Si 84 77 80-5 87-5 79-3 83-4 87-58 7775 82-6 8777 7941 83-5 Botanical Notes. ^ — The vegetation of Aden closely resembles that of Arabia Petrasa ; it is eminently of a desert character, the species being few in number (only 94), and being quite dispropor- tioned to the number of general and natural orders. Most of the species are limited in the number of individuals, a few only of the more arid forms predominating. Dipterygium glaucum, six or seven species of Caparidaceae, Reseda Amblyocarpa, Cassia pube- scens and obovata, Acacia ebumea, and a few Euphorbiacese, are the only common plants, and some of these are so plentiful that in many places they abound to the exclusion of all others. All the species are more or less peculiar in their habits, and some are so strange as to constitute the anomalies of the natural orders to which they belong. As examples may be enumerated— Sphserocoma Hookeri, among Caryophyllaceae, Adenium obesum, with its almost globular fleshy trunk, naked branchlets, bearing a tuft of leaves and umbel of beautiful flowers ; Moringa aptera, in which the leaves are reduced to long sub-rigid raches ; the prickly Jatropha spinosa, and, strangest of all, the ^luropus Arabicus, a grass with short spiny > Abridged from the Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society. Sup- plement to Volume v. of Botany. Thomas Anderson, M.D., F.L. S., Bengal Medical Service. INHABITED PORTION OF THE PENINSULA. 7 leaves. The bright green colour which forms so pleasing a feature of the vegetation of the temperate and tropical regions of the globe is quite unknown in Aden. Here foliage is reduced to a minimum, and the superfluous moisture given off by leaves in less arid climates is stored up in fleshy stems against seasons of long con- tinued drought. With the exception of some Reseda Amblyocarpa and Caparidaceas, all plants have either glaucous whitened stems or are completely covered with a hoary pubescence. Aridity, while reducing the amount of cellular tissue, has also favoured the pro- duction of spines \ and though in many cases the development has not attained actual spinosity, still in rigid or distorted branches and asperities of stem and leaf, bears witness to the modifying influence of the climate. Of the ninety-four known species that constitute the flora, sixteen bear sharp thorns in some part of their structure. Several species yield gums or resinous matter, and many are characterised by more or less pungency or aromatic odour, qualities always possessed by plants of desert regions.^ The Inhabited Portion of the Peninsula. — The town and part of the military cantonment are within the Crater, and conse- quently are surrounded on all sides by hills, save on the eastern face, where a gap exists. Ibn Batuta ^ describes Aden as a large city without either seed, water, or trees, but it is not so absolutely destitute of vegetation as might be inferred from this account. Some of the remains of its former magnificence are still visible in the ruins of the forts which crown every summit and the far-famed tanks.^ At present the town of Aden consists of about 2000 white-washed houses built of stone and mud, divided into streets and lanes ; it is nearly 1400 yards broad.* Many of the houses are double-storied but none are noteworthy for their architecture. The whole town 1 With regard to the absence of vegetation an attempt was made in 1875 to naturalise the ' Casuarina lateriflora,' 1000 plants of which were sent from Reunion by Mr. Perry, H.B.M.'s Consul there, but the experiment proved unsuccessful, and General Schneider reported that it was doubtful whether abundant vegetation would prove an altogether unmixed benefit, as it might render the climate more moist. In 187?, during the months of February and March, many parts of the settle- ment were covered with a green mantle of portulaca. Rain fell in frequent showers during those months. 2 Travels of Ibn Batuta, translated by the Rev. Samuel Lee, B.D., London, 1829. ' Playfair. • This does not include cantonment limits. (See Plan.) >, 8 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. has been rebuilt since the British occupation. The dry bed of a water-course runs down to the sea from the valley in which the tanks are situated, and divides the town into two nearly equal parts. It serves to carry off the surplus of water when the reservoirs have been filled to overflowing. The only building of any pretension in the Crater is the Court- house and Treasury office ; the barracks are commodious but not handsome ; the Protestant church,^ situated on a hill, has some slight claim to honourable mention. The mess-houses of the two regiments ^ stationed in the Crater are substantial and commodious buildings. There is a Roman Catholic establishment denominated the ' Good Shepherd ' Convent, which gives shelter to emancipated slave girls. It is superintended by a mother superior and a Roman Catholic clergyman, who is also connected with the French missions in Abyssinia.^ There are^ three outlets from the. Crater;, to the south, a gate protected by a drawbridge leads into Hokkat Bay, where the English Cemetery * is situated, and further south lies the promontory of Marshag, on which is placed a lighthouse.' A few houses have been erected on the higher parts of this Cape, in the belief that they afford a cool residence in the hot weather. ' A tunnel leads from the Crater into the Isthmus^ position. To the northward lies the Main Pass through which the harbour is reached. A steep hill forms the approach to this entrance on the town side, and on the harbour side a considerable decline has to be traversed by tortuous windings before the sea-level is reached ; however, the road is good, and finally turns off in a westerly direc- tion.^ About half a mile from the foot of the Main Pass lies the village of Maala. It consists partly of houses built of stone, but chiefly of mat huts, occupied by Somalis. Here is situated a Custom-house for the registration only, of trade, and a pier runs out from the fore- ' Erected in 1869. ' British and Native. ' See Part IV. — Ecclesiastical Arrangements, p. 147. * Opened in 1866. * See post, Appendix C, p. 107. ' For a description of the Isthmus position, see under Fortifications, p. 142. ' A road leading from the interior, and which is connected with one of the gates of the Isthmus position, here joins the main road. At the limit of the fortifica- tions there is a pier of obstruction and Barrier Gate. (See Plan.) WATER SUPPLY. g shore, alongside which native craft can lie and discharge cargo on payment of a small fee. Proceeding along the road about a mile to the westward, another pass has to be crossed where a spur of the main chain of hills runs down to the sea. After a few windings in and out along the water's edge, Steamer Point is arrived at, where there is a crescent^ consisting of some fair-sized stone houses nearly all double and some treble-storied. Behind these again are several streets of double and single-storied houses reaching to the hillside. Here are two hotels,* a police station, and the residences of a few consuls.' Close by lie the coal grounds of Government and the various steam navigation companies which have depots at Aden. Not far from the crescent to the north-westward is the la nding-pier, covered in by a cast-iron shed,* with_corrugated roof, [whSe six twelve-pounder guns are placed for saluting puiposes. Beyond and close to the sea-shore are situated a few buildings, including the Police Court and Post-ofEce. From nearly opposite the latter a pier runs out terminating in a handsome cast-iron jetty ,^ serviceable for landing at all times of the tide. Above this part of the road, on a spur which is connected with the more lofty hills in the interior of the peninsula, barracks, a hospital, and other public buildings have been erected, as also the residences and ofBces of the Harbour- master, the Peninsular and Oriental and Messageries Maritimes Companies' agents. On a conical hill about a quarter of a mile beyond the Post-office stands the station flagstaff, below which lies the Protestant church.' Near this the road crosses the spur on which the barracks, etc., are situated, and after traversing in a ■ south-westerly direction a plain of about 500 yards in extent, it terminates on Ras Tarshyne, on which headland are built the Residency and the mess-house and quarters of the officers of the Royal Artillery. The Eastern Telegraph Company have erected handsome premises on Ras Baradlee to the south. Water Supply. — The supply of water is a most important pro- ■ Called after H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, in memory of his visit to the settlement in November 1875. » H5tel de I'Univers and H6tel de 1' Europe, both kept by Frenchmen. ' See/flj/, p. 173. < Erected in 1876. ° Erected in 1876. 6 Erected in 1863 out of funds contributed half by Government, and half col- lected by public subscription. See Ecclesiastical AiTangements, p. 147. 10 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. blem ; it has caused anxiety to both ancients and moderns, and is derived from four sources : — («.) Wells, (i5.) Aqueduct, (c.) Tanks and Reservoirs, (d.) Condensers : — (a.) Wells. — These may be divided into two classes, those within, and those without British limits. Water of good quality is found at the head of the valleys within the Crater and to the west of the town, where wells are very numerous ; they are sunk in the solid rock to the depth of from 120 to 190 feet; in the best the water stands at a depth of 70 feet below sea level; the sweetest is the Banian Well, situated near the Khussaf Valley ; it yields a daily average of 2500 gallons; the temperature of the water is 102° Fahrenheit, the specific gravity •999, and it contains i'i6 parts of saline matter in every 2000 gallons. Outside of British limits, close to the village of Shaikh O'thman, and on the northern side of the harbour, there is a piece of neutral * ground, where the bed of a mountain torrent meets the sea.^ From wells dug in this watercourse a limited supply of water may always be obtained. It is brought over to the southern side of the bay in boats, and it is also conveyed in leather skins on camels round by land across the isthmus into the Settlement. Water of a fair quality is also obtained from wells in the village of Shaikh O'thman, and is carried into Aden by land as above described. During the hot season these two^ latter sources of supply yield no inconsiderable portion of the quantity of water used by the civil population, as may be gathered from the fact that during the year 1875-76, 71,910 camel-loads* of water passed the barrier gate. (b^ Aqueduct. — In the year 1867 the British Government entered into a convention with the Sultan of Lahej, by which they obtained permission to construct an aqueduct from two^ of the best wells in the village* of Shaikh O'thman, seven miles distant. The water is received inside the fortifications into large reserve tanks, and it is thence distributed to the troops and establishments, and also to the ' Nominally British property, and called the Hiswah. ^ After very heavy rains on the neighbouring hills, the flood occasionally empties itself into the harbour by this outlet. ' Hiswah and Shaikh O'thman Wells. ' Or upwards of 3,500,000 gallons. ' Burgess and Key's water-lifts are used at the Shaikh O'thman wells with a minimum of labour and a maximum of lifting power. They are admirably adapted for the East ' See ante. WATER SUPPLY. n public in limited quantities, at one rupee per loo gallons. This water is very indifferent in quality, and is only fit for the purposes of ablution. The Sultan of Lahej receives half the profits reahsed by the sale of the aqueduct-water, his share being seldom less than 1200 rupees per mensem, and he is therefore pecuniarily interested to a considerable extent in the protection and preservation of this source of supply. The aqueduct cost 2,96,933 rupees to construct, and the original intention was to extend the work up to Darab, eight miles farther inland. This latter place is situated on the bank of the torrent, the outlet of which, on the northern side of the harbour, has been already referred to, and the object was to take advantage, before the thirsty sands had time to drink it up, of the heavy rainfall in the months of May, June, July, August, and Sep- tember on the hills some twenty miles farther inland. {c.) Tanks attd Reservoirs.^ — The expediency of constructing reser- voirs in which to store rain-water has prevailed in Arabia from a very early date. These are generally found in localities devoid of springs and dependent on the winter rains for a supply of water during the summer months. The most remarkable instance on record is the great dam of Mareb, built about 1700 b.c This doubtless suggested similar reservoirs in other parts of Arabia and the neighbouring coasts of Africa, which have usually been subject to it All the travellers who have penetrated into Yemen describe many such in the mountainous districts, while others exist in the islands of Saad-ad-d!n, near Zaila ; in Kotto in the Bay of Am- philla ; and in Dhalak Island near Massowah. Those in Aden are about fifty in number, and if entirely cleared out would have an aggregate capacity of nearly thirty million imperial gallons. There is no certain record of the construction of these reservoirs, but it is probable that they were first commenced about the second Persian invasion of Yemen in 600 A.D.- It is certain that they cannot be attributed to the Turks, as the Yenetian oflBcer who de- scribed the expedition of the Rais Suliman in 1538, the first occa- sion of Aden being conquered by that nation, says — ' They (the inhabitants of Aden) have none but rain-water, which is preser\'ed in cisterns and pits 100 fathoms deep.' Ibn Batuta also mentions ' The description of the tanks has been abridged from Playfair's ITistifry of Yemyu ' See Part VI. — Translation from Tarikh et Mostabsir, pp. 183 stf. 12 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. this fact as being the case in his day. Mr. Salt, who visited Aden in 1809, thus describes the tanks as they existed at that period — ' Amongst the ruins some fine remains of ancient splendour are to be met with, but these only serve to cast a deeper shade over the devastation of the scene. The most remarkable of these reservoirs consists of a line of cisterns situated on the north-west side of the town, three of which are fully eighty feet wide and proportionately deep, all excavated out of the solid rock, and lined with a thick coat of fine stucco, which externally bears a strong resemblance to marble. A broad aqueduct may still be traced which formerly con- ducted the water to these cisterns from a deep ravine in the moun- tain above ; higher up is another, still entire, which at the time we visited it was partly filled with water. Some Arab children who followed us in our excursions were highly pleased when we arrived at the spot, and plunging headlong into the water much amused us with their sportive tricks.' When Captain Haines, then engaged in the survey of the Arabian coast, visited Aden in 1835, several of the reservoirs appear still to have been in a tolerably perfect state ; besides the hanging tanks, or those built high up on the hills, several large ones were traceable round the town, but from the British occupation until very lately, no steps having been taken to repair or preserve them from further destruction, they became entirely filled up with stones and soil washed down from the hills by the rain ; the people of the town had been permitted to carry away the stones for building purposes ; and, with the exception of a very few which could not easily be destroyed or concealed, all trace of them was lost, save where here and there a fragment of plaster appearing above the ground indi- cated the supposed position of a reservoir, believed to be ruined beyond the possibility of repair. In 1856, the restoration of these magnificent public works was commenced, and thirteen have been completed, capable of holding 7,718,630 gallons of water.i It is almost impossible to give such a description of these extraordinary buildings as to enable one who has not seen, thoroughly to understand them. The range 2 of hills which forms the wall of the Crater is nearly circular ; on the western side the hills are precipitous, and the rain- ' A number of trees have been planted in the vicinity of the tanks, and gardens laid out, making the only evergreen spot in the Settlement. ^ Shum Shum, etc. WATER SUPPLY: RAINFALL. 13 water descending from them is carried rapidly to the sea by means of a number of long, narrow valleys unconnected with each other ; on the interior or eastern side, the hills are quite as abrupt, but the descent is broken by a large tableland occurring midway between the summit and the sea-level, which occupies about one-fourth of the entire superficies of Aden. The plateau is intersected with numerous ravines, nearly all of which converge into one valley, which thus receives a large proportion of the drainage of the penin- sula. The steepness of the hills, the hardness of the rocks, and the scarceness of the soil upon them, all combine to prevent any great amount of absorption, and thus a very moderate fall of rain suffices to send a stupendous torrent of water down the valley, which, ere it reaches the sea, not unfrequently attains the proportions of a river. To collect and store this water the reservoirs are constructed. They are extremely fantastic in their shapes ; some are formed by a dike being built across the gorge of a valley ; in others the soil in front of a re-entering angle on the hill has been removed and a salient angle or curve of masonry built in front of it; while every feature of the adjacent rocks has been taken advantage of and connected by small aqueducts, to insure no water being lost The overflow of one tank has been conducted into the succeeding one, and thus a complete chain has been formed reaching to the town. These reservoirs were filled for the first time on the 23d October 1857, when, though a very small proportion of the whole had been re- paired, more water was collected from a single fall of rain than the whole of the wells would yield during an entire year. The annual fall of rain in Aden is very limited, seldom exceeding six or seven inches ; it is manifest therefore that a large city could not entirely depend on this precarious source of supply. To remedy this defect the Sovereign of Yemen, Abd-al-Wahab, towards the close of the fifteenth century, constructed an aqueduct to convey the water of the Bir Mahait^ into Aden, and the ruins of this magnificent public work still exist to the present day. Rmnfall. — Registers are now kept at the hospitals in the Crater, Isthmus, and Steamer Point positions, and the subjoined statement gives the registered rainfall in the Crater since 1871; previous to that year the maximum recorded in the preceding eleven years was 8'03 inches in 1870, and the mean quantity 2*45 ; while in 1871 the fall amounted to 24 cents only : — ' Playfair says ' Bir Hamid. ' 14 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Rainfall as Registered at the Civil Hospital in the Crater. Months. 1872-73. 1873-74- 1S74-75- 1S73-76- 1 Inches. , Cents. 1 Icches. Cents. Inches. Cents. Inches. Cents. April, May June, . . July, . August, . September, October, . November, . December, January, . February, . . March, . . Total, I \ 9 41 98 21 42 S5 53 I 10 2 27 28 12 II 45 I 58 5 4^ u I I ? Z2, Is 49 17 65 8 69 -- 1 35 I 2 j 05 3 1 73 The amount of rainfall registered in the Crater is no criterion of the actual fall on the hills, the drainage of which goes to fill the reservoirs. Since the entire restoration of the tanks, they have been completely filled on two occasions onl)', in the month of May 1864 a-nd in the same month of 1870; the heavy rainfall in 1872-73 did not entirely fill them.* It should be mentioned that the renewal of these great works, including repairs, had cost about 375,520 rupees^ up to the 31st March 1S74. During such time as there may be water in the tanks, the condenser in the Crater, where the major portion of the troops are stationed, is not worked. The water collected, besides being issued to the troops, is also sold to the public at one rupee per 100 gallons. The sources of supply above referred to, which are dependent for their adequacy on natural causes, are of covu-se very uncertain, as may be gathered from what has been written ; and it occasionally happens that the poorer classes of the civU population, who are unable to afford the price of distilled water, are compelled to purchase that necessary at a cost of eight annas (or nearly one shilling sterling) for a skin containing five gallons of brackish water. {d.) Condensers. — Shortly before the opening of the Suez Canal, Government were impressed with the necessity of obtaining a plen ^ Since the above was written, the tanks have been filled in September 1877. " About ;f 37, 000. WATER SUPPLY. 15 tiful and unfailing supply of good water, and in 1867 several condensers, on the most approved principle, were ordered from England. During the year 1869 one was erected at the Isthmus, subsequently another was located at the Crater, on the island of Seerah, which is connected with the mainland of the peninsula by a causeway. At Steamer Point an old river-flat was converted into a floating condenser. These three distilleries are capable of producing daily fresh water in the under-mentioned quantities : — Government Property — Seerah Condenser, . . . 9,000 gallons. Isthmus ditto 5,600 ,, ' Hyderabad ' Flat, . . . 7,000 ,, Private Property (see post) — Messrs. Luke, Thomas, & Co., Condenser, 12,000 gallons. Peninsular and Oriental Co. , do., 9,000 ,, Messrs. Eduljee Maneckjee & Sons, do., 4,000 ,, 21,600 gallons. 25,000 Total amount of condensed water obtainable on an emergency, 46,600 gallons per diem, — or water for 9320 Europeans at five gallons per head. In 1875-76 condensed water was sold at the three positions at the following rates, including carriage : — Isthmus, . . . . Rs. 3 4 6 per 100 gallons. Steamer Point, . 3 9 ditto. Camp, .... 2 10 9 ditto. The cost of working the three' condensers in the same year was Rs.18,077-7-0. Several private companies have also established condensers. The manufactory of the Peninsular and Oriental Company, which is situated on the east of Ras Morbat, is capable of producing at a pinch 9000 gallons per diem. This Company do not sell water to the public, but only supply it to their own vessels. The Joint-Stock firm of Messrs. Luke, Thomas, & Company (Limited) have erected a condenser near the Little Pass, and sell water to the public, and more especially to the shipping, at an average cost of £1 sterling per ton of 250 gallons, delivered on board. On an emergency they could supply 1 2,000 gallons per diem. This firm also possesses an ice manufactory,^ capable of turning out daily four tons of ice, which is sold at one anna per lb. Messrs. Eduljee Maneckjee & ' Government. ' Seepost, Part III. — Manufactures and Industries, p. 86. i6 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Sons have also a condenser at Maala Bunder, from which they sell water to the public, but principally to the native craft ; 4000 gallons per diem of water can be produced by this manufactory. They have also a small ice-manufactory, which can produce one ton of ice per diem. Conveyance. — Besides the difficulty of obtaining water, there is the labour and expense of conveying it to the various parts of the Settlement where it is required for use, and the means of carriage is one of the peculiarities of the place. The Commissariat Depart- ment, which has charge of the Government sources of distribution, annually sells the contract for the conveyance of water to the different stations of the garrison. The following statement gives the average rate for the past five years at which this contract was sold : — Camp, . . . . Annas, 7 2J per 100 gallons. Isthmus, . . • 5 34 ditto. Steamer Point, . . . . 9 8J ditto. The contractors, who make the agreement with the Commissariat Department, and who are called upon to furnish heavy security for the fulfilment of their bargain, sub-let their contracts to the pos- sessors of troops of donkeys,^ and the water, which is put in skins, is carried by these animals all over the Settlement. The following is the amount of water allowed per diem to Govern- ment servants : — Designation. British Soldier, Wife of ditto, Child of ditto, . Native Soldier, Wife of ditto, Child of ditto. Public Followers, Officers, Wife of ditto, Child of ditto, Each Officer for Mess (additional), Officer's Servant, Clerk, Wife of ditto, Child of ditto, ' %te. post. Part III. — Domestic Animals, Gallons. 5 5 5 5 3 ij 3 10 10 5 5 3 S 5 4 p. 71. WATER SUPPLY. 17 The water that is brought in from the interior is conveyed, as before noticed, by camels, each animal carrying eight or ten large skins, containing about eight gallons each. Possible Sources of Supply. — In connection with the subject of water supply at Aden, the following extract from a report drawn up by Major Walter Ducat, R.E., regarding the physical geography of the neighbourhood, may prove interesting. After reviewing the various possible means of obtaining water in the peninsula itself and concluding the impracticability of a constant and good supply being available from sources' within British limits or the Hiswah, Major Ducat goes on to say, — ' Immediately on leaving Aden we come on a low-lying sandy plain, on which nothing but a small scrubby bush will grow. The water, which is to be met with at a depth below the surface varying from three feet to about eighteen feet throughout this tract, is directly influenced by the rise and fall of tide ; and is, of course, brackish to a degree, being in fact almost, if not quite, simple sea-water. This tract of sand extends nearly to Shaikh O'thman north, and skirts the foreshore of Aden bay and the coast-line eastward, as far as El- Konis, extending inland in a belt of varying thickness, sometimes running right up into the sand-drift, at others only a few hundred yards from the sea-coast. ' Between this salt belt and the hills is an alluvial plain falling from the hills towards the sea, with a slope near the foot of the hills of about thirty feet in a mile, easing off to about seventeen feet in a mile, till it reaches the salt belt, which is very nearly dead level. Throughout this alluvial tract of country a slightly brackish, but drinkable water, is met with at a. depth- of from sixty to seventy feet. The water-bearing stratum seems nearly parallel to the surface of the soil when the latter has fairly taken its incline after leaving the coast. ' The soil of this part of the country is composed of a sandy clay, very retentive of moisture, and capable of high cultivation. On the '(a.) Khussaf Valley scheme (since carried out). In September 1877 this reservoir was filled almost to the top of the dam, but unfortunately a pipe burst and much water thus escaped in a few hours ; about 24 feet 6 inches remained, but this also disappeared into the bed in twenty-four hours. The water-retain- ing property of the rock seems entirely valueless. (b.) Construction of small tanks on the hUl-side from the Main Pass to Steamer Point. (c. ) Digging of more wells. (7 40 47 28 193 Total. 208 I 5346 144 Grand Total, 3 851 121 I43S 2614 8566 5024 19,289 POPULA TION.— DIFFERENT RA CES. 2 7 The classification according to employment is as follows : — Persons employed under Government or Municipal or Local Autho- rities, 542 Professional Persons . 74 Persons in Service or performing Personal 0£5ces 1760 Persons engaged in Agriculture or with Animals 1386 Persons engaged in Commerce or Trade, ...... 2734 Persons engaged in Mechanical Arts, Manufactures, and Engineering, and persons employed in the sale of articles manufactured, or otherwise prepared for consumption, .... 3004 Miscellaneous Persons 9789 Military. The Garrison and Camp-followers numbered . . . . 3433 Making a Grand Total of . 22, 722 It will be seen from the above that in spite of the increasing pro- sperity of the Settlement, there has been an augmentation of 2000 persons only in the sixteen years that have intervened between the two last enumerations. In 1866 the population was estimated at 20,654, exclusive of the troops, so that in the past six years there has been, if anything, a slight decrease. Within the last four years there has been a considerable amoimt of immigration from the surrounding district of Yemen, owing to the dissatisfaction felt by the people with Turkish rule ; — moreover, the demand for unskilled labour must have increased, and as there is no diminution in the supply, the only inference is that the popula- tion has also increased. Different Races. — The Europeans enumerated in the census consist of the agents, managers, employes, etc., of Mercantile and Steam Navigation Companies. The Africans are principally from the east coast of that continent, the Somalis who occupy the African coast of the Gulf of Aden furnishing the greater number ; these races seldom rise above the labouring class. The more respectable of the Arabs are merchants, the remainder are shopkeepers, brokers, camel and donkey drivers, porters, day- labourers, and coal-coolies. The Chinese are nearly all carpenters and boatmen. The Persians are merchants and shopkeepers ; the Turks are hawkers and petty dealers ; the Egyptians employ them- selves like the Arabs ; the Hindus are mostly Banian traders, artisans, and menial servants ; the Parsis are nearly all in business ; 28 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. the Jews are merchants, petty dealers, reed and mat workers, and jewellers ; the Mahomedan natives of India consist chiefly of belated hadjis who have settled down into petty shopkeepers, artisans, masons, policemen, domestic servants, etc. ; a considerable sprinkling of Borahs, Khojahs, Mehmons, are also occupied in mercantile affairs, and do not come under the category of hadjis who have made Aden their home. It is unnecessary to refer to the military element of the population. A very full account of the various races inhabiting Aden will be found in the travels of Von Maltzen,' which, although written in 1870, may well serve, with a few modifications, for the present day. It is necessary to justify the remark regarding the frequent over- estimation of the population. Very many of the Somalis and Aratjs who enter the Settlement in search of employment are not married, or have not their families with them ; these live in messes or parties of fellow-tribe or countrymen, eating their meals in the Mokhbazah or cook-shop, and sleeping in coffee-shops or the open, as they find themselves when darkness falls. It is obvious that the numerous coal-coolies and labourers who are always passing and repassing in- the pursuit of their usual avocations, or who are lounging about coffee-shops and places of public resort waiting to be engaged, must often present themselves to the eye of the casual observer, a second, if not a third or fourth time, thus giving an exaggerated idea of the actual number of persons in the Settlement. Moreover, during certain hours of the day, almost all the male native inhabitants are to be found out of doors. Occupation. — The occupation of the various inhabitants of Aden may be classified as follows : — (a.) Merchants. ((5.) Hawkers. (c.) Shopkeepers. {d.) Domestic servants. («.) Carriage-drivers, camel and donkey drivers, porters, etc. (/) Artisans and skilled labourers, clerks, etc. (g.) Coal and cargo coolies, etc. (/%.) Boatmen, sailors, fishermen, etc. {k}) 'Military followers. (m!) Non-residents. (a!) Merchants. — These may be divided into three classes, the first class belonging to old-established, well-known, and compara- ' Reisen : Von Maltzen (1873). OCCUPATION. 29 lively wealthy English, American, German, French, Italian, and Indian firms. They carry on mercantile business according to the usual practice of civilised countries, and it is therefore unnecessary to enter into further particulars regarding them. The second class of merchants are almost all Arabs. They are sometimes very wealthy men, and their principal business is the importation of coffee for sale to the first described class of mer- chants. The third class may be more properly termed ' petty traders.' It consists of Arabs, Somalis, and Indians, who go across to the various ports in the Somali country, where they remain during the whole of the trading season — that is, from October to May, — sending over small consignments of merchandise and live stock to the merchants in Aden, who have advanced them piece goods, rice, dates, etc., with which to carry on barter with the Somalis, etc. (3.) Hawkers. — Hawkers are very numerous ; perhaps it would be more proper to call them brokers, and their Arabic name, Dallal, is well known to all who have ever visited the East. These people act as middlemen in almost every wholesale transaction that takes place, from the purchase of a sheep, for three or four rupees, to an investment in coffee of the value of $10,000 (;^2ooo). They re- ceive a small percentage from both purchaser and seller, which varies with the value of the purchase. The following are the usual rates of brokerage : — Article or Animal. Sheep or Goat, Camel, Horse, Bullock or Cow, Donkey, Fowls, Coifee, Saffron, Hides, Dates, Rice, Grain, Grass, Wood, Kirbee, Fruit, Vegetables, Water, . Rate. 6 pies, 2 rupees, 8 annas, 3 >. 3 pies, 6 „ 2$, 1 anna, 2 annas, 9 pies. I anna. Per head. dollar. •100$, bag. camel-load. Remarks. Paid by purchaser only. Paid half by buyer and half by seller. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. By seller only. Ditto. By the seller %i\ and buyer IJ. By the buyer. By the seller. By the seller 6 pies, and buyer 3 pies. By the seller. 30 THE BRITISH SETTIEMENT OF ADEN. This occupation is so congenial to the Arabs and Somalis, requir- ing, as it does, no physical exertion, no capital, and affording an unlimited field for intrigue and chicane, that the number of brokers would be unlimited were it not that every one practising this pro- fession requires to obtain a license from the Political Resident ; even the necessaries of every-day life, such as fowls, eggs, firewood, forage, etc., cannot be purchased without the intervention of these grasping middlemen. The following is an example of their method of doing business. The live stock that is imported is landed at a pier about a mile from the gate leading into the Crater. On the arrival of a boat from the African coast, as soon as the sheep, etc., are landed, they are eagerly purchased by these brokers, who promise payment if the owner will accompany them to the Crater. On the way thither the first purchaser disposes of his investment to another buyer on con- sideration of a small percentage, and the original seller is turned over to the new purchaser, and this operation has been known to take place four times during the passage of a single sheep from the landing-pier to the main gate. Some idea may be gathered of the profits of this profession when it is stated that brokers can afford to pay a monthly tax of three, two, or one rupee, according to their classification. (c.) Shopkeepers. — These are of all races. The Indians and Per- sians are mostly belated hadjis ; the Aralis are, as a rule, men who have failed to earn their living in any other way. Several Banians have small unpretending shops, where they retail cloth, etc., to a considerable value. The grain-seller, the confectioner, grocer, general dealer, and water-seller, are all amply represented. Bread, fruits, etc., are hawked about the street by women. Money-chang- ing is carried on at street corners by Jews and Banians. A few persons are permitted to trade afloat, purchasing and selling fruit, vegetables, etc., under license from the Conservator of the Port, for which a monthly tax of two rupees is charged, and credited to the Port Fund. There are several large shops in the Settlement kept by Parsis and Borahs. The principal are the establishments of Messrs. Cowasjee Dinshaw and Brothers at Steamer Point, and of Mr. Mun- cherjee Eduljee's son, in the Crater. At both these shops almost anything that could ever be wanted may be purchased. (d.) Domestic Servants. — There are, of course, a considerable number of persons employed by the European and Indian residents OCCUPATION. 31 as domestics ; but as these people differ in nowise from the ordi- nary Indian servants, either in name or the work they perform, it is needless to describe them, further than to say that only particular tribes of Somalis and the lower classes of Arabs affect this employ- ment. The wages of Indian servants are very high in Aden, as the accompanying scale will show. This is due to the difficulty ex- perienced in inducing good domestics to live in Aden, on account of the distance from their native country, and the general expen- siveness of living in the Settlement Establishments are generally framed after the model of the Bombay Presidency, and Indian servants are as a rule inhabitants of that division of British India. Rupees. Head Servant, .... 20 to 30 Second do., . 15 to 20 Washerman (depends on the number in family), .... 7 to 25 Cook, IS to 25 Coachman or Groom, . 10 to 18 Female Servants, 10 to 20 Peons or Messengers, . 10 to 15 Boatmen, ... TO to 15 Tailor, 15 to 20 N.B. — All the above expect also a daily ration of one gallon condensed and two gaUons of brackish water, or a corresponding increase in pay. {e.) Carriage-Drivers, etc. etc. — The Aden carriage-driver, with his extreme volubility though limited vocabulary, is familiar to all passengers Eastward i>ia the Suez Canal. He is paid from three to four annas out of each rupee he hands over to his employer. Public conve)'ances are licensed under Bombay Act vi. of 1863. The average earnings of a carriage-driver are about R. i per diem, and it is considered by the Somalis one of the most profitable and desirable of occupations, owing to the opportunity it affords for dis- honesty. An owner is entirely in the hands of his drivers. At present the business is almost altogether in the hands of the Ajryal Ahmed tribe of Somalis, who have succeeded in ousting nearly all drivers of other races or tribes. It is a peculiarity of the Somalis to hang togethCT by tribes and families in their occupations, and it gives them great advantages, by enabling them to combine to coerce employers. 32 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. The camel and donkey drivers form a very numerous class ; the former, not including Arabs from the interior, chiefly employ their animals in carrying water ; the latter, besides the conveyance of water, also use their asses in carrying the materials required for building, road-making, etc. ; a considerable number of donkeys are kept or hired out for riding purposes. It is extremely difBcult to estimate accurately the earnings of these men ; but, judging from appearances, their trade cannot be very lucrative, and this class probably do not make more than eight annas per diem. A large number of the camel and donkey drivers were formerly inhabitants of the now ruined sea- port town of far-famed Mokha. Porters, etc. — Only Jews and Arabs ever care to endure the physical exertion required for the occupation of porter ; the former are not numerous, and the latter not unfrequently are of Egyptian origin. Although small in stature, and not very powerfully built, they yet manage to stagger along under surprisingly heavy loads. Their earnings are inconsiderable, and, as they are not licensed, the only tariff is that of established custom ; for instance, for carrying a moderate load from the Crater to Steamer Point from four^ to eight annas is usually asked ; for doing odd jobs within a small radius the sum demanded is from one to two annas a trip, unless hired by the day. The earnings of an Aden porter may be roughly estimated at about six annas per diem. In connection with these men must be mentioned the ordinary day-labourer, whose services can be obtained at five annas per diem to assist in building, road-making, carpentering, and the numerous odds and ends of work for which unskilled labour suffices. Numbers of Indian, Somali, and Seedee women are employed in sifting and cleaning coffee ; the Indians are, most of them, the wives of the Sepoys of the native regiment and camp-followers. Of course, employment of this nature is not continuous, yet ten rupees per mensem may be earned in this way by any energetic adult woman. ^ Children working as day-labourers receive from two to three annas per diem ; and, if well looked after, can do as much work, provided no great physical power is required, as adults. Arabs seem to find the occupation of water-carrier congenial. The sweepers are generally Indians ; the outcast Arabs (Khadims),* ' Generally four annas one way, and returning with a load, six to eight annas. ^ As a consequence, married Sepoys are but seldom in debt to local money- lenders in Aden. ' The origin of these people is a matter of dispute. OCCUPATION. 33 and low-born Somalis and negroes (Jarbarti), do scavengers' work. The pay of water-carriers and scavengers is about ten rupees per mensem. Many Arab and Somali women go about vending cakes ^ of fer- mented and unfermented bread, as also cups of buttermilk (Katib), and occasionally sweetmeats. (/) Artisam^ etc. — Besides the artisans and skilled labourers in Government employ, there are a considerable number of tradesmen who work for hire, such as jewellers, blacksmiths, carpenters, tin- workers, masons, mechanics, shoemakers, tailors, dyers, mat and reed workers, bookbinders, bakers, butchers, etc. The jewellers are mostly Jews, and their handicraft is not ver)' excellent A few Indians also follow this calling. The blacksmiths are almost invariably Indians, and their services are very difficult to obtain, most being in private employ. Some, however, occupy themselves m repairing carriages. The best carpenters are Indians, but some Arabs employ them- selves in boat-building, — a branch of industry which formerly flourished at ' Mokha,' but owing to the decay of that sea-port has been, of late years, transferred to Aden.^ Many Indian Borahs work in tin, and the large number of gallon measures used in the distribution of water must find them in itself sufficient work. The masons, bricklayers, eta, are all indifferent workmen, as may be judged from the appearance of the houses. This class are gene- rally Indians, Arabs, and Jews. The mechanics are few in number, and are entirely employed by the large private companies as engineers,' boiler-makers, etc., and they are generally Indians and Parsis. The shoemakers are very few in number, and they are usually Indians, but particular tribes of Somalis also practise this trade. Tailoring seems to be a favourite occupation with the poorer classes of Indians, who have settled down on their way to or from the pilgrimage. Very little can be said for the excellency of their workmanship. The occupation of dyer is entirely in the hands of a few Arabs, whose operations are limited to giving piece goods a blue colour, •• See under Food Grains, Part III., p. 64. - See also under Manufactures and Industries, Part III., p. 79. ^ For an account of boat-building, as carried on at Aden, see Part III. , p S3. ' Europeans and East Indians are also employed. 34 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. and the process, judging from the appearance of the wearers of the materials dyed, seems to have the effect of tinting the person clothed almost as brilliantly as the fabric ; other dyes are also used with very similar results.^ Mat and reed work constitutes one of the numerous occupations of the Jews, but, of late years, owing to the discouragement given by the authorities to the construction of temporary dwellings and outhouses, etc., the number of persons engaged in this calling is on the decrease. The Somali women, who are naturally industrious, weave excellent mats.^ There are a few bookbinders in the Settlement, chiefly Jews. Their workmanship is very indifferent. Aden boasts of a Government Steam Bakery, which may be said to have taken the bread out of the mouths of the journeymen bakers ; still, a few Indians continue to carry on this trade in a desultory way, chiefly at Steamer Point, where the demands of the shipping require a capricious supply, which the Government bakery cannot always furnish. Butchers are numerous, and are always, as might be expected, Mahomedans, more frequently Arabs. The Government commis- sariat contractor has a monopoly of the slaughter-houses, and charges a small amount per head for animals killed on his pre- mises. Lime-burning is also practised by a few Arabs ; the business is lucrative.' A certain number of better-educated Eurasians, Parsis, and Indians, and a few Arabs, are employed as accountants and clerks in the offices of mercantile firms. There are no persons in Aden, with the exception of Government servants, who practise any of the learned professions. , The following wages table may have some value : — Class of Workmen. Boiler Maker, Hammerman, Blacksmith, Bellows Boy, Carpenter, . Engineer, Monthly Wage. Rs.45 to 60 „ 25 to 30 „ 50 to 70 „ 7 to 9 „ 45 to 60 ,, 90 to 150 See also Manufactures and Industries, Part III., p. 82. See ibid. Part III., p. 80. « See ibid. Part III., p. 81. OCCUPATION. 35 Class of Workmen. Monthly Wage. Clerks (English), .... Rs.30 to 300 Fireman, Stoker, . . . „ 12 to 20 Labourer, „ 10 to 15 Mason, „ 30 to 45 (^.) Coal and Cargo Coolies} — The number of persons at a port like Aden required to unload fuel from vessels and to coal steamers is of course great ; but the supply seems to equal the demand. In discharging ships laden with coal, the local agent or the captain generally contracts with a headman (Muccadum) to supply such number of labourers as may be required to discharge the ship within the number of days allowed in the charter-party, and it has been found that these men can discharge upwards of 500 tons per diem under favourable circumstances. This branch of business is much affected by the Somalis, who, unless left to do their work in their own time and way, are apt to cause shipmasters much trouble by striking at inopportune times; many of these men are half, if not whole, savages, and their impatience of restraint and interfer- ence often leads to affrays with the European crews of vessels in which they are employed. The coaling of steamers is carried out by gangs of Arabs, and sometimes Somalis, who work under headmen in the employ of the Company to which the vessel may belong or may be consigned ; these men work cheerfully day or night, and they can put on board fifty to sixty tons per hour. Forty men can coal a steamer at the rate of thirty tons an hour. Coolies employed in loading and discharging cargo are of the same class, and are worked under a similar system. The wages earned by the above classes varies from eight annas to one rupee per diem. All the above Coolies pay a yearly license-tax of 4 annas per head. (Ji.) Boahneti,^ etc. — The boatmen in Aden are entirely Somalis ; they are necessarily under Government control, as passenger-boats are licensed under an Act^ of the Bombay Legislature. The earn- ings to be gained in this pursuit depend of course on the share the worker has in the boat, and varies from ten to fifty rupees per mensem. Boatmen are licensed in the same way as Coolies. ' There are upwards of 900 men thus employed. "^ Including the crews of ballast and bumboats, there are upwards of 700 persons engaged as boatmen. ' Bombay Act VI. of 1863. 36 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Many Arabs, Negroes, and Somalis engage themselves as fire- men on board steamers,* and they receive from twelve to eighteen rupees per mensem, with rations ; and unless British subjects, or hired for service in British registered vessels, when the shipping master engages them, they are taken on at the office of the Consul of the nation to which the vessel may belong. These men pay a yearly license-tax of 8 annas per head. Many Arabs employ themselves as fishermen ; the calling is a poor one, the earnings can be seldom more than eight annas per diem. This class of men seem to prefer the hand-to-mouth exist- ence, never caring to work while they have a penny in their pockets. There are of course a considerable number of Arabs and Africans who work as sailors, and have their houses and families in Aden. The calling is precarious, and barely suffices to support them during the time they may remain unemployed. A considerable number of Jews, Indians, and Somalis employ themselves as bumboat-men. {k.) Military. — Besides enlisted men there are the usual number of followers, who attach themselves to military camps, and at an isolated station like Aden, where every establishment requires to be self-contained and perfect, the number of these people is of course greater than it would otherwise be. (m.) Non-Residents. — The non-resident population may be divided into two classes — the floating and the land. The former comprises the crews of all vessels and native craft visiting the port; the latter are Arabs from the interior, who accompany the numerous Kafilahs that enter the Settlement. Many Arabs from the Lahej, Fadhli, Akrabi, and neighbouring districts are almost daily visitors. Material Condition. — The inhabitants of Aden are, with a few exceptions, not very wealthy. Many Arabs, Somalis, and Seedees earn a few rupees by working afloat, after which they proceed to purchase a mat-house in the Maala village, where they settle down until they have spent all their earnings, and are frequently com- pelled to sell their very dwellings ; they then go off again, occasion- ally leaving their wives and families in utter destitution. Others again, who work or trade in the Settlement itself, manage to scrape together enough money to buy or build a stone house, which is frequently mortgaged before three months' possession are over. Of course there are a considerable number of well-to-do persons in the Settlement, but even they often have recourse to the money-lender. Money-lending. — The Aden money-lender is almost invariably ' Nearly 600 men follow this calling. MATERIAL CONDITION. 37 a Jew or Banian, it being contrary to the precepts of the Koran for the faithful to take interest from a co-religionist, but in lieu thereof such Mahomedans as advance money (generally Indians) avoid the letter of the sacred law by accepting a mortgage on moveable or immoveable property, which is allowed to remain in the custody of the mortgager, who is charged a certain amount per diem or per mensem as hire. Most agreements are now written on stamped paper, which is supposed by the more ignorant classes to possess a virtue in itself, apart from the writing it may contain. With the exception of documents drawn up elsewhere under legal advice, or prepared in the Municipal Office, or by the Establishment of the Residents' Court, under the superintendence of the Assistants, most contracts are very loosely worded, and sometimes are quite unintelligible. This is of course due to the entire absence of legal advisers of all kinds in Aden. The rates of interest charged vary with the means of the borrower and the nature of the security. In small transactions on personal security, in loans up to 100 rupees, where an article is given in pawn, or merchandise hypothecated, and in mortgages upon immoveable property, the rate of interest is from one to two per cent per mensem. In almost all transactions the Government rupee is the standard used. Six per cent, per annum is considered a fair return for money invested in the pur- chase of houses. A few wealthy firms are the principal money- lenders. Interest is charged for the English year. Banians and Indian Mahomedans keep their accounts as in India ; Jews and Arabs have but one account-book, in which they enter all transac- tions. The amount of property mortgaged varies little from year to year, and the Civil Court is universally used as a machine for recovering debts; but few false claims are ever brought forward, and the Court officials are never accused of keeping defendants in ignorance of the fact that suits have been filed. In cases where decrees have been passed, application for execution is almost in- variably made, but the Court seldom permits the creditor to im- prison the debtor, and the civil jail has not often more than sixteen or seventeen occupants during the course of a year. The better classes of artisans appear to keep pretty free from debt. The following examples are given as illustrations of the method of conducting business in Aden : — A. purchases two bales of shirting from B. on three months' credit, one-third of the price to be paid at the end of each month. A. carries the goods to Berbera, where he barters them for ghee, gum. 38 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. coffee, etc., which he consigns to a friend in Aden for disposal, and remaining absent avoids payment for the piece-goods at the agreed intervals ; his friend sells the consignment in Aden and pur- chases more cotton goods with the proceeds, which he forwards to A. In this manner A. uses B.'s money for five or six months. At the close of the season A. returns to Aden with coffee and other merchandise, B. at once duns him, and, not obtaining satisfaction, immediately files a suit, and attaches A.'s goods before judgment. If A.'s transactions have proved profitable, he pays B., otherwise a decree is given against him, and his goods are sold in execution ; but if A. has sustained loss, or if he be dishonest, as not unfrequently happens, B. does not obtain the full amount of his debt by the sale of A.'s goods, and he accordingly applies to the Court for execution against the person ; if there be any evidence of fraud the debtor is imprisoned, otherwise some arrangement is come to, invariably to the loss of the creditor. It occasionally happens that a debtor, finding himself considerably involved, absconds, and from a safe distance, out of British territory, through a friend in Aden, com- promises with his creditors for a few annas in the rupee, when he returns and commences afresh. Men of little means can carry on business as petty traders or general merchants by means of this three months' credit system. The 20th of each month is usually the day fixed for payment, and a dishonest person may succeed in working it very profitably. For instance : A. possesses 200 rupees in cash ; with this he proceeds to purchase goods from several merchants on three months' credit. None of the persons dealing with him are of course aware of the actual extent of his means, and trust him to the amount of 300 or 400 rupees each. A. opens a shop, in which he sells the goods, for one, perhaps two months, paying the necessary instalments ; he then conceals his cash, makes away with the rest of the goods on his hands, and declares himself bankrupt. The creditors resort to the Court and obtain an attachment on any property that can be found, which is eventually sold for their benefit, and they obtain a few annas in the rupee. Occasionally persons of this description dis- appear altogether. It sometimes happens that one of these gentle- men is imprisoned for a considerable time in the civil jail, until his creditors are weary of paying for his subsistence. This style of doing business is more particularly practised by Mehmons from Kutch, and instances have been known of individuals succeeding three or even four times in imposing on the credulity of those who MATERIAL CONDITION. 39 have been foolish enough to trust them, and have already suffered at their hands. The action of the Courts would elsewhere be considered inquisi- torial, but in Aden it seldom happens that either the plaintiff's or defendant's circumstances are unknown to the officer before whom the suit is heard, and the latter must be guided by this knowledge in deciding what order to make. Expenditure (Ordinary). — It will be convenient to divide the population into four divisions, viz., Europeans, Asiatics (including Arabs, Indians, etc.), Africans (including Somalis and Dankalis, but excluding Seedees, who live like the Arabs), and Jews : — Europeans. — Europeans live in Aden in exactly the same manner as in India, but the actual expenditure incurred is about twenty per cent, in excess of what it would be in Bombay, and con- sequently still greater than what would be required in the Mofussil. Of course wines, spirits, beer, and European stores are somewhat cheaper than in India, owing to Aden being a free port, but, unless private individuals import for their own requirements, such articles can only be purchased from the local shopkeepers at about Indian prices. Expenditure of course is regulated by circumstances. Asia tics. — Under this head are included all Asiatic races and Seedees, that is, Swahilis. It will be convenient to subdivide this division into three classes, — wealthy, middling, and labouring ; and the descriptions which follow are to be taken as referring to the case of a family consisting of a man, his wife, and two children. Wealthy. — In this class are included merchants, traders, and others, who are comparatively rich. These persons spend about 300 rupees per mensem j they possess substantial houses of their own, consisting of three or four rooms, furnished with a few carpets, pillows, Indian-made cots, cooking utensils, and the universal hookah, with an ornamental stand. Travelled Arabs and Indians have also chairs, cupboards, tables, and other articles used by Europeans. Three indoor servants are kept, receiving from six to ten rupees per mensem, with food. A groom, on Rs.io to Rs.is, is also required when a carriage and horse is kept. The latter luxury requires at least Rs.3S per mensem, and the average expen- diture for servants (outdoor and indoor), and a carriage and horse, amounts to about Rs.8o per mensem. The kinds of food used will be hereafter noticed. The bazar bill for butcher-meat, groceries, etc., generally amounts to Rs.2S. Rs.io are spent on grain, Rs.s on oil, Rs.5 on ghee, Rs.4 on fuel, 40 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Rs.30 for water, and Rs.25 to Rs.30 on kat, — the total expenditure for food (including kat) averaging Rs. 100 per mensem. A description of the clothing worn will be hereafter given, and it is difficult to estimate the amount expended on this account ; probably Rs. 10 to Rs. 1 5 per mensem would be sufficient under ordinary circumstances. The ornaments worn are described elsewhere, and their value depends upon the wealth of the individual. Two or three rupees a month are spent on charity. Middling. — In this class are included traders, artisans, and other persons in comfortable circumstances, who spend about Rs.30 to Rs.40 per mensem. It is considered a point of honour to possess a house which costs from Rs.300 to Rs.soo, and is generally mort- gaged. It consists of two rooms, and an open court-yard. The furniture comprises one or two small carpets, two or three boxes, common cots, and a hookah. One servant is kept, generally a boy or girl, who receives Rs.2 or Rs.3 per mensem, with food. Each family possesses two or three milch-goats ; bazar expenses amount to from Rs.io to Rs.is ; grain, oil, ghee, salt, etc., cost from Rs. 15 to Rs.2o; water, Rs.3 to Rs.4; clothes, from Rs.3 to Rs.5 per mensem. This class generally possess ornaments to the value of Rs. 100 and upwards. A rupee and upwards is expended on charity. Labouring. — The permanent resident labouring class expend from Rs.7 to Rs. 12 per mensem. They hire a house, at a daily rent of from 3^ to \\ annas, which contains one room and a court-yard. Their furniture consists of two common cots, one or two boxes, one or two copper and several earthen cooking-pots. They keep no ser- vants. The bazar expenses amount to about Rs.3 ; grain, oil, ghee, and relishes, Rs.5; water, R.i to Rs.2; clothes, R.i per mensem. They usually possess ornaments to the value of Rs.40 or Rs.50. There are also a considerable number of labourers who come to Aden in search of employment. They are invariably single men, and they expend about Rs.6 or Rs.7 per mensem on their sub- sistence. They have no houses, sleeping in coffee-shops, and on the highways and byways. Sometimes eight or ten club together, and hire a small house at a low daily rent. They take their meals in the Mokhbazah or eating-house, and after a residence of about a year they return to their native country with their savings, re- appearing again when they are spent. MATERIAL CONDITION. 41 Meals. — Breakfast is taken about 6 a.m., and comprises, in the wealthy and middling classes, tea, coffee, milk, and bread ; in the labouring, bread and water. Dinner is eaten at noon ; the wealthier partaking of bread, ghee, dates, and baked meat; the poorer of bread, ghee, fish, or meat. Supper is taken at 7 p.m., and consists of meat, rice, fish, etc., according to circumstances. Labourers work from 6 to 4. All go to rest before 10 p.m. Expenditure (Extraordinary). — The following exhibits the extra- ordinary expenditure incurred by each class •} — Wealthy. Middling. Labouring. Rupees. Rupees. Rupees. Birth, . . . . 200 to 300 14 to 16 4 to 8 Circumcision, 200 20 to 30 4 to 8 Puberty, = . . . . 100 20 to 40 4 to 8 Betrothal, . 100 5 to 10 3 to 5 Marriage of a son, 1000 I to 300 10 to 40 Marriage of a daughter, 700 to 1000 100 10 Pregnancy, 200 40 10 Death, 150 to 500 15 6 Africans. — There are three classes of Somalis who frequent the Settlement : — {a.) merchants who come to trade; (b.) men who come to seek their livelihood; (c.) children abandoned by their parents. (a.) Merchants. — These are generally members of the Habr Awal tribe. They bring from Harrar and the Galla country, coffee, saffron (bastard), tusks, and feathers, taking away in return zinc, brass, broad cloth, and piece goods. They remain in Aden for about twenty days at a time during the trading season, which lasts about' nine months,' making four trips. During their residence they hire a house, and are accompanied by their own domestics. Somalis of the Habr Gerhajis tribe arrive from Ogadain with feathers, myrrh, gum, sheep, cattle, and ghee, carrying away in exchange piece goods ; they also make four trips in the season ; they remain for less than a month, and during their stay reside with fellow-tribes- men, taking their meals in the mokhbazah or eating-house. Somalis of the Habr Tuljaala and Dhulbanta tribes bring similar articles ' See/oj/, Domestic Ceremonies, p. 48. ^ No particular ceremony takes place beyond a dinner. ^ August to April. 42 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. from Ogadain, and trade in the same manner. The Mijjertayn and Warsangli tribes arrive from Ras Hafun, Bunder Morayah, and Las Gori, etc., with frankincense and feathers, etc., taking away in return cotton-piece goods and jowarl. They also live with their friends, and take their meals at the mokhbizah. These latter tribes only make two trips in the season. (^.) Men who come to seek their livelihood. — These are of all tribes ; the Mijjertayn and Warsangli contribute but few. On arrival, as they are usually ignorant of any language but their own, they work as coal and cargo coolies, under muccadums of their own tribe. When a year's residence has rendered them fairly proficient in Arabic, Hindustani, and English, they take employment as indoor and outdoor domestic servants, boat-boys, etc. Many work as punkah coolies in the hot months ; the idly disposed prey on their friends, and shirk labour of any kind. Some are employed as policemen, and they make very fair detectives. When enough money has been saved to enable them to start as traders, they pur- chase a few pieces of shirtings, with which they return to their native country, investing a portion in live stock, and living on the balance. When the latter is expended, they leave their cattle and sheep in charge of their relations, and return to Aden to gain more money. Some develop into merchants. (f.) Children abandoned by their Parents. — The Somalis who come over in search of employment marry (as soon as they are able to afford it) a wife in Aden. When their migratory habits take them back to their own country, they either divorce or abandon their wives, who frequently are thus left either pregnant, or with one or two children on their hands. The husbands leave a small sum with the unfortunate women, which is soon expended, and the latter are forced to re-marry, or earn their own living. The male offspring of these marriages are generally abandoned by their mothers as soon as they are four or five years old. A relative sometimes takes charge of them in a desultory sort of way, but they are compelled to earn their own living by begging, stealing, working as servants, diving, steering boats, running errands for passengers, etc. These boys have generally been taught to trace their descent on the father's side for six or seven generations, with the object of enabling them to be identified, if required, by their parents or their tribesmen to assist in inter-tribal quarrels. Girls generally either remain with their mothers or some relative, working as female ser- vants to Arabs, Indians, or Europeans. When of a marriageable MORALS.— DRESS. 43 age, they are taken as wives by Soraalis, and sometimes by Arabs or Indians. Meals. — Somalis eat twice a day, at 9 a.m. and 6 p.m. They expend from 7 to 15 rupees on their food ; those resident in Aden generally possess a mat-house in the Maala village. As will be noticed, their clothing, consisting of little, does not cost much, the price of a ' tobe ' being about a dollar, and the garment lasting a year. SomaUs generally possess ornaments to the value of 80 or 100 rupees; these, however, they are frequently obliged to sell. Dankalis.^ — The members of this tribe, who visit Aden, are mostly traders or boat-owners. They live, when in the Settlement, in the same manner as the Somalis, sleeping and messing in their boats. They come from Zaila and Tajurrah during the months of August, September, October, and November, bringing sheep, goats, hides and skins, mats and jowlees, ostrich eggs and feathers, and take away grain (jowari), black cotton cloth, broad cloth, iron and brass. They remain about fifteen days, returning in the same boat that they have arrived in. The Dankalis make three or four trips in the season. They are never accompanied by their families, but an occasional woman finds her way to Aden, via Mokha. Their dress consists of the Arab kilt and the tobe ; the women dress like Somalis ; but few Dankalis are permanent residents in Aden. Abyssintans and Natives of Massowa and Sowakin are occasional visitors. They live according to their own customs. Morals.— In conclusion, it remains only to be noticed that the morality of the inhabitants of Aden is not of a high order. This is the natural consequence of the incessant absence of Arab and Somali husbands on trading expeditions. The Indians very fre- quently bring no wives when they come to Aden, and cannot afford the expense of marriage with a virgin ; they consequently take up with divorcees, and the perpetual change of husbands, combined with the natural aptitude for intrigue possessed by Arab and Somali women, lead to frequent liaisons on the part of the fair sex. Dress. — Arabs. — The Arabs of Aden have adopted the dress of the people inhabiting the Lahej district. This consists, in the male sex. Firstly, of a turban (doosmal) of Surat manufacture, composed, in the case of the wealthy, of silk, but more generally of cotton. It is rolled jauntily round the head, with a slight cock over one ear, and is worn well on the back of the head and low down on the ' See Part V.— Other African tribes, p. 159. 44 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. neck ; an end is left hanging down the back ; sometimes a skull-cap is worn under this turban. Secondly. — A loose jacket (shaiah), reaching to the hips, made of white or dyed cotton, and sometimes of broad cloth, which is fas- tened down the front with four or more buttons. Thirdly. — A sort of kilt (maawiz) made of cotton, with a white coloured border, formerly imported from Zebid,^ but now made more cheaply at Surat. This kilt is wound round the loins, ending generally on the right side, and reaching a few inches above the knee ; it is kept firm in its place by a waistband (maajiz) made of cotton thread, woven into a parti-coloured pattern. Fourthly. — Over the left shoulder is hung a sort of scarf (radif), made of cotton, sometimes of Surat, and occasionally of Madras manufacture. When anything has to be carried, such as money, provisions, etc., it is placed in the scarf and slung over the shoulder; when active exertion is necessary it is wound round the loins as a waistband. Fifthly. — Sandals (madas) are worn of various patterns, and are imported from Hodaida and Singapore ; a very indifferent kind is manufactured in Aden. These sandals consist of a thick leather sole, shaped like the human foot ; from this springs a strong leathern strip at the spot where the junction of the big toe falls ; on reaching the centre of the instep, this strap passes down on each side of the foot to the sole. Under the two side arms of the strap above referred to, a band about an inch and a hair wide passes completely over the foot; at the junction of this band with the sole there is a sort of wing of leather to protect the side of the foot. Females of the same class wear a single shirt-like garment (thobe) of cotton or silk, girdled with a green leather belt (nissaa) ; they have a bright red or black shawl (makramah), also of cotton or silk, over the head, covering half the face ^ when out of doors. A small handkerchief, generally of silk, binds the head tightly, con- cealing the hair, which is plaited in a succession of small queues well greased. These are periodically opened for a few days, producing the effect of the modern chignon. Women generally tattoo their foreheads, cheeks, lips, chin, throat, chest, upper part of the neck, and hands and feet, with a composition made of the soot of frank- incense mingled with oil. Both sexes are much addicted to scenting themselves and their houses with ambergris, sandalwood, myrrh, frankincense, etc. ' Near Mokha. ^ In Aden itself a veil completely conceals the features. JDJiESS. 45 The women wear ornaments of gold and silver, i The Arabs of Mokha, Hodaida, Jiddah, MusMt, Makalla, and Shehr, all wear the style of dress peculiar to their several districts, which it would be tedious and out of place here to describe.^ Somalis? — The men wear a single white garment (tobe) of cotton, about thirty inches wide and three to four yards long, which is simply folded round the body, an end being brought occasionally over the head or the shoulder. This cloth is not secured in any way, being retained in its place by the wearer's hands, and accord- ingly presents the appearance of always being about to fall oif, as it occasionally does, shocking the modesty of beholders ; but in Aden such little accidents lead to fine when too frequently repeated, and consequently many wear also the Arab kilt. The head is kept bare, except among the more wealthy, and when not shaved or covered with curly locks, or resembling a mop, is plastered tightly all over with a mixture of white earth or lime, which when washed off makes the hair, after careful combing, crisp and frizzy.* Many Somalis dress like Arabs, Indians, and even Europeans. Married women dress their hair in a different manner from the unmarried, covering the head with a blue network handkerchief, of which the ends hang down the neck. Girls before marriage part their hair in the middle, and twist it into a number of thin plaits. On feast-days flowers are worn, and a Somali girl on these occasions resembles the pantaloon of the Christmas pantomime. The women wear a single garment like that of the men, but it is put on differently, being fastened round the waist like a petticoat, with a number of folds behind ; one end is then brought up across the left or right shoulder, and a lappet is left, which can be brought over the head like a hood. The breeze is apt to discompose this drapery, and girls before marriage wear a piece of string round the waist to prevent the upper portion of their robe from being occa- sionally indecorous. Married women are not so particular. The petticoat portion is open in front, and very frequently the leg is exposed far above the knee. For a description of the ornaments see under that head. Jews. — Round the waist is fastened the kilt (fotah) so common ' See under ' Ornaments,' p. 58. = For description of these see Travels of Burckhardt, Niebuhr, Welsted, and Palgrave. " See Burton's First Footsteps in Eastern Africa for a more complete account of the Somali dress. * Some wear crimson sheepskin wigs. 46 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. among the Arabs, with a striped border ; this garment is allowed to reach nearly to the feet. On the upper part of the body a long shirt (khamis) is worn next the skin, reaching over the kilt to the knees, and made of white cotton ; over this goes a sort of small cotton sheet (thalith), with a hole in it, through which the head passes, leaving the two ends hanging down before and behind, as low as the hips. Above this is sometimes worn a waistcoat (sidairiah), generally of silk, and embroidered at the pockets and edges. Lastly, over all comes a sort of robe or gabardine, made of cotton, reaching to the knee. In the hand, or over the shoulder, is carried the ' mandll,' of cotton or light semi-transparent silk ; this garment is usually 2\ yards long by i J broad ; at each end there is a fringe, and at each of the four corners is sewed a piece of coloured silk, generally green, about 3 inches square ; in the centre of this there is a sewed eyelet, through which four silken cords pass, which are knotted at the distance of the eyelet from the edge of the ' mandll,' and the eight ends are allowed to droop 1 1 inches long. The ' mandll ' is worn at Divine worship over the head like a veil, but not hiding the face. During the time prayers are being repeated the four corners are held in both hands by the pendent strings ; these are at the conclusion of each supplication raised first to the right, and then to the left eye, then kissed : this is done at least eight times. The head is shaved every Friday, except two scanty curls, one on each side of the fore- head, and a sort of skull-cap of Surat-work is worn. Sandals, similar to those used by the Arabs, are put on when proceeding out of doors. Women wear trousers 1 (sarwal) of cotton or silk, tight at the ankle. Next, a garment resembling a sleeveless shirt, which reaches nearly to the ground, of some striped material. Round the head is bound a ' masr ' or handkerchief of coloured cotton or silk, com- pletely hiding the hair, which it is not respectable to allow to be seen. Over this handkerchief is thrown a ' makramah,' or sort of veil, similar to that worn by Arab women. The Jews of Aden are not, as a rule, very cleanly in their habits, only washing and changing their clothes once a week. Other Races. — Indians and other races wear their national costumes. Food. — It is only necessary here to notice the various articles of food used by each class of the eastern portion of the population. Europeans live as in India. ' Not invariably worn. FOOD. 47 Arabs. — The better class of Arabs subsist on wheaten bread (hand-made), ghee, honey, rice, and meat, rarely using fish and vegetables. The lower classes use bread made of jowaree, dates, fish, rice, and a kind of soup made of 'maithee'^ seeds, called 'holbah;' they rarely eat meat. Negroes subsist on the same food as Arabs. As a beverage the husks of the coffee-berry are decocted and flavoured with ginger, and sometimes cardamoms. This coffee is drunk night and day in considerable quantities, and there are a number of coffee-shops in the Settlement where it is sold to all comers. The Arabs do not use any stimulants except tobacco and kit.^ Playfair, on the authority of an old Arab writer of the sixteenth century, mentions that formerly a decoction of kat was used in Aden, but was superseded by coffee about 1420-30.^ Some of the upper classes use coffee made of the berry. It is only those Arabs who have become debauched by contact with Europeans who drink spirits ; drunkenness is not common among them. Nearly all smoke and chew tobacco. Somalis. — The food of Somalis resembles that of Arabs, but they do not eat fish or ' holbah.' They prefer half-baked meat with boiled rice, and use an immoderate amount of ghee. Animal food and milk are -their favourite food when at home ; but meat is too expensive in Aden to be frequently indulged in. Somalis drink coffee made of husks, similar to the beverage used by the Arabs. Many Somalis are addicted to the use of tobacco,* which they chew in the form of a powder, but few smoke, and none ever drink any kind of intoxicating liquor. An inebriated male Somali has, it is believed, never been heard of, but Somali women who have taken to prostitution drink freely. Jews. — The people of this race live almost entirely on jowari, bread, dates, and fish, the latter forming their principal article of diet Jews do not drink much coffee; they are much addicted, however, to strong waters, and themselves distil from dates a kind of spirit,' of which they partake in large quantities. Many male ' Fenugreek. ' Catha Edulis (Forsk.) See p.-ige 139 for a description of this drug. ' Playfair's History of ycnuti, p. 2a ' Surat tobacco, made into a quid called ' takhztnali. ' ' See Manufactures and Industries, Part III., p- Sj. 48 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. \ Jews have a very dissipated appearance, probably from the effects of over-indulgence in spirituous liquors. Indians. — The natives of India eat precisely the same kind of food in Aden, when attainable, as they would if at home. Hindus find considerable difficulty in obtaining a sufficiency of vegetables. Domestic Ceremonies. — The domestic ceremonies observed by the Arabs will be first noticed ; they consist of those practised on the occasions of birth, circumcision, marriage, and death. N.B. — The ceremonies hereafter described are those which take place in ordinary middle-class families ; riches or poverty enhance or curtail the expense and ceremony. Birth. — On the birth of a child a goat is sacrificed near the infant, and the flesh is distributed to delations and neighbours. On the seventh night after birth the child receives its name, either from the parents, or a Moolah, or a relation. The ' Idthan,' or summons to prayer, is whispered in the infantile ears. Relatives and neigh- bours are summoned, and an empty dish is placed in the centre of the assemblage, into which each person present casts a coin, generally a rupee ; this money is given to the accoucheuse who has attended the mother. The guests are then regaled ; rose-water, incense, and other scents are handed round, and the company dis- perse. Circumcision. — On the day of the ceremony, which usually takes place about the seventh, tenth, or twentieth day after birth, friends and relations are called together, and a barber performs the operation, and apphes the usual remedies. A dish, as in marriages, is placed in the centre of the room for gratuitous contributions, which are on this occasion appropriated by the barber. After about a week the parents give an entertainment to friends and relatives ; a religious session is held at night, when hymns are sung and much kati is consumed. Marriage. — When an Arab wishes to betroth his son, he sends a messenger on his behalf to the house of the parents of the selected damsel. If an understanding has been come to, the boy's father or nearest relative goes to the girl's father, and settles with him the ' Dafa,' which is usually from I50 upwards.^ After a few days he returns, accompanied by friends and relations to the number of about fifty or sixty, in whose presence he delivers the ' Dafa ' to the girl's father ; coffee, scents, and sweetmeats are then dis- tributed to the assembly, after which they all take their leave. ' .See above,, ' i $=21 rupees. DOMESTIC CEREMONIES. 49 In about a week the marriage takes place ; the boy's father erects a covered shed or 'makhdarah' in front of his house, and sends written invitations to his friends and relatives to attend the ' Makil'^ and ' Samrah.' ^ These continue for a day and a night ; the following morning the bridegroom is bathed with henna or ' mahdi,' and is clad in rich garments. He wears a sword and ' jambiah ' or dagger. The plate is again present, and is filled by the company, the barber" and musicians receiving the amount collected. The Kazi and the girl's father are then summoned ; the former asks the latter and the bridegroom if they both consent to the marriage ; on their replying in the affirmative, the girl's father settles the amount of the ' mahr ' or dowry, usually ^60, more or less, with the bridegroom ; the Kazi then joins their hands and utters some 'suras' (verses) from the Koran, registers the marriage in the ' daftar ' or record, and takes his departure after receiving his fee, generally eight annas to one rupee. The same morning fifty to a hundred men proceed to Maala Bunder, or the Barrier Gate, and bring into Aden with pomp and ceremony a camel-load or more of kit,' which has arrived for the bridegroom's father. The camels bearing the kat are adorned with silver ornaments, and the kat itself is covered with an em- broidered cloth ; the men accompanying the cavalcade sing, beat drums, and burn incense up to the bridegroom's house, where the camel-drivers receive a present of rich apparel. The camels are unloaded, and the kat is taken into the shed before mentioned with great ceremony.* As soon as the kat is fairly installed in the marriage shed, the guests begin to arrive, each bearing kat (to the value of from one to two dollars), tobacco, and water-vessels, for his own use. This kat, etc., is in addition to what is provided by the bridegroom's father. The day is passed is eating kat, singing hymns,' smoking, and burning incense ; in the evening supper is served, after which all retire to their houses. After nightfall they again return, each person bearing three or four long wax-candles, which being lighted he places near himself. The guests pass the night in the same manner as the day, reclining on their sides on ' Makil — Day conversazione. " Samrah — Night do. ' See under Food. ' The following reason is given for the veneration which k3.t receives on these occasions : — It is said that devout and religious-minded men in Yemen have always found kat of special service in producing wakefulness at night when they consider adoration of the Almighty especially acceptable, D so THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. small low cots or chairs, the head resting on the arm, which is supported by a pillow, and the snake-like tube of the hookah in their mouths. These pipes are ranged in front, on long stools, with candles burning in their midst ; the water-jugs rest on long brass stands ; pots of flowering and other shrubs are ranged amongst the hookahs ; the bridegroom sits on a dais about eight or nine feet high, with a MooUah by his side. All the persons present occasionally join together in song \ and the music, and the lights, and the gay dresses, and the attitudes of the actors, combined, present a spectacle worthy of the Arabian Nights' Entertainments. In the harem the women amuse themselves singing, dancing, and feasting, at the cost of the bridegroom's father. All the guests in the marriage-shed before leaving, present the bridegroom with one or two dollars, going up the ladder to the dais to do so, and placing the money in his hands ; the party breaks up about dawn. The next day the bridegroom, accompanied by his friends and relations, and preceded by musicians playing on drums and other musical instruments, goes at nightfall to the bride's residence ; those who accompany him remain outside, and are regaled with coffee, sprinkled with rose-water, and scented with incense. The bride- groom is taken inside and seated by his bride on a couch ; the latter's face is covered with a veil ; rose-water is then sprinkled freely on the face of the bridegroom, and one of his female relations decorates his forehead with a row of gold or silver coins, the pieces being kept in their places by wetting the side next the skin with rose-water. Presently the coins fall ; they are then taken up and placed on one side. Another of the women present repeats the ceremony, which continues as long as any female is found willing and wealthy enough to take advantage of the privilege each woman possesses of performing it three times. The large sum of money thus collected is distributed amongst the barbers, hired singers, musicians, and drummers. The bridegroom then rises, and taking the hand of the bride leads her to the door, where he leaves her with his mother and the other women, who seat her in a carriage, in front of which the bridegroom with some thirty companions pro- ceeds to his father-in-law's house, where they are all hospitably entertained. Female relatives of the bridegroom continue for four days in his house enjoying themselves, singing, listening to music, etc. Marriages with widows or divorcees are not attended with any beyond the religious ceremony and perhaps a small 'samrah' or • DOMESTIC CEREMONIES. 51 night conversazione. The ' Dafa ' is usually half what is given on the occasion of marriage with a virgin. Deaths. — As soon as the breath leaves the body, a MooUah or priest is called, who bathes the corpse, which is then wrapped in a white shroud and covered with a mat. The body is placed on a cot, which is carried to the nearest mosque by the relatives or friends of the deceased. Prayers are there offered up and blessings invoked on the dead ; the corpse is then carried to the graveyard, where it is at once buried. Some incense is burnt, and the Moollah utters the requisite verses from the Koran ; bread, dates, and fruit are distributed by one of the relations of the deceased to the poor who may be present, after which all return home. For three days all relatives and friends attend one of the Musjids nightly, and read the Koran for two or three hours, the deceased's family paying the expense of illuminating the house of prayer, and for light refresh- ments, such as sweetmeats and coffee, which are given to those who attend these readings. On the fourth day the family give an enter- tainment according to their means. Mourning continues for four days more, after which all betake themselves to their respective avocations. All female relatives and neighbours visit the women of deceased's household to condole with them for three days after the death. Somalis. — No particular ceremony is observed by Somalis on the occasion of birth and circumcision ; the few that possess sufficient wealth to indulge in such luxuries imitate the Arabs. Circumcision. — This rite amongst the Somalis does not take place until the seventh or eighth year. A very singular custom prevails amongst the Somal — ' Hac in gente, ad castitatem servan- dam, hujusmodi mos est. Puellarum vulvas filo ex corio confecto constringunt ; has, cum connubiale jugum ferre poterint, magno cum apparatu solvunt'^ Marriage. — As amongst more civilised nations, marriages usually take place from mutual inclination. When a man is satisfied re- garding the temper and qualifications of a girl, he addresses the elders of her family, who betroth him to the chosen damsel. Three or four members of the would-be Benedict's family visit the girl's relations and settle the amount of the 'Dafa' 2 (which is seldom more than $30), as amongst Arabs. After a year's probation five or ten of the man's relations go to the girl's parents and present the > Female circumcision is also practised as among the Abyssinians (Rigby). ^ See ante. 52 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. ' Dafa ; ' they are hospitably entertained and treated. A few days afterwards the religious ceremony or 'Akd' is performed by the Kazi in the same manner as at Arab weddings. The bridegroom now goes to live with his father-in-law for se\en days, during which dancing is kept up with great spirit in front of the bride's house. On the seventh day the guests are entertained by the girl's father, and the bridegroom is permitted access to the bride. During the ceremony the bridegroom wears his arms. Neither he nor his family are put to any expense beyond the ' Dafa ;' he lives with his father-in- law about a week, after which he takes the bride to his own house. No ceremony beyond the religious one is observed in second marriages ; widows frequently marry their deceased husband's nearest relative. Deaths. — The ceremonies observed by the Somalis on the occasion of the decease of a friend or relative do not materially differ from those practised by the Arabs, except that the ' Daras ' or reading is held in the house of the deceased in place of the Musjid, and the mourning continues only two days. Jews. — The following ceremonies are observed by the Jews : — Birth. — As soon as a child is bom a goat is slaughtered under the couch of the mother, and the flesh is distributed with wet dates to the relatives and friends. On the seventh night some fifty threads of twist are brought, a head of garlic is threaded on each, and these are divided amongst relations and neighbours, who bind them to the arms of their children. On the same day seven black lines are drawn on each door of the house in which the child is born, and three eggs are broken and thrown away, in the belief that the above ceremonies will prevent the devil troubUng the child or its mother. The infant, if a girl, is named the same night (seventh) ; no enter- tainment takes place. If however the child be a boy it is at once circumcised by the head priest (called Mori or Rabbi), no one else being allowed to perform this ceremony, which takes place in the presence of an assembly of men; at the same time the child is named by the priest, who holds a glass full of wine in his hand and utters the necessary form of prayer for the child's recovery from the effects of circumcision, which at so early an age frequently proves fatal to weakly infants. It is incumbent the ceremony should take place on the eighth day. Soon after the naming a dinner is given by the boy's father. DOMESTIC CEREMONIES. 53 Marriage Ceremony. — The preliminary arrangements are settled by the female relatives, after which the father of the proposed bridegroom sends two persons to the girl's parents to obtain confir- mation of the betrothal. These envoys are received hospitably, and, if all goes well, a few days afterwards two females on the part of the bridegroom proceed to the bride's house and present her with half a guinea and one dollar. A few months after the mar- riage ceremony commences, and lasts for fourteen days. On three or four days ' Samrah,' or evening meetings are held in the bride- groom's house, when coffee and wine are handed round ; hymns are also sung on these occasions. Each party give two or three enter- tainments to friends and relations. On the first day of the marriage a boy or girl is despatched to the bride's house with the ' Dafa,' or preliminary offering, which consists of clothes and ornaments. The same day the bridegroom's head is anointed, and he is then bathed with henna and dressed up in rich apparel. Friends and relations are called together, and the dish for voluntary offerings is passed round. The contributions seldom exceed four annas from each person, and are given to the barber. An entertainment is held on the tenth day by the bride's father, when the bridegroom, accom- panied by a priest and ten or twenty companions, proceeds to the bride's father's house, where a heifer covered with rich housing and decorated with silver ornaments is brought before the assembly. The priest slaughters the animal, holding the hand of the bride- groom, who previously touches the knife. The 'Akd' or marriage settlement is effected during the first week of the ceremony, usually on a Monday night, at the bridegroom's house, where the priest and the bridegroom sit side by side facing the bride's father and the relations of both contracting parties. The priest then produces a written certificate of marriage, which has been previously prepared. He presents the document, holding in his hand a glass filled with wine, both of vi^hich the bridegroom takes, and after drinking the wine returns the bond to the priest ; the latter then reads it aloud. After this the writing is kissed once by all present, and two of the guests sign it as witnesses. The remainder of the day is passed in singmg hymns and drinking coffee, etc., until two a.m., when the priest and bridegroom accompanied by ten friends proceed to the bride's house. The bride is concealed by a screen, behind which the priest takes the bridegroom, and the latter presents the bride with the written certificate, and causes her to drink a glass of wine which he hands her; the bridegroom and bride reciprocally inquire one 54 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. another's names. The witnesses to the writing are called, and the bride is permitted to see them and hear them testify to their signa- tures with their own lips; the bridegroom then presents another glass of wine to the bride, which she drinks. The marriage certifi- cate is retained by the bride as long as she lives. It is merely a declaration or certificate of marriage. The dower is usually sixteen dollars. On the following Friday the bridegroom goes to the synagogue, and after prayers proceeds to his father-in-law's house accompanied by a few friends; they are hospitably received, and after a short session all depart except the bridegroom, who from that time remains in his father-in-law's house for life, provided the latter is willing and able to pay the young couple's expenses, other- wise the bridegroom resides for a short time only, returning with his bride to his father's house. Deaths. — As soon as a male Jew dies the body is bathed, wrapped in a winding-sheet, and placed on a cot, which is carried to the synagogue, where prayers are offered up. The corpse is then taken to the cemetery and interred. During the latter operation the priest who accompanies the procession uses some religious form of words, and all then return home. Soon after death the oldest male of the deceased's family rends his upper garment and wears it torn for seven days as a sign of mourning. The dead bodies of females and children under the age of one month are not taken to the synagogue, but are carried direct to the cemetery. Three days after death a light is burnt under the bedstead on which the deceased expired. On the third day the person engaged for the purpose removes this light, which consists of a small earthen vessel with oil and a wick ; he also takes away a water-jug and a small drinking cup. These he breaks over the grave of the deceased. For seven days visits of condolence are made, and on the last day of mourn- ing coffee is handed round. Jewish women visit the graves of rela- tives. Other Races. — Indians follow the custom of their own country in carrying out domestic ceremonies, but of course those who marry Arab women are obliged to a certain extent to introduce modifica- tions suitable to the taste of the bride's family. Seedees follow Arabs in a humble way. Hindus seldom if ever bring their families to Aden. Religion. — The great majority of the inhabitants of Aden are Mahomedans, among whom are town and country Arabs, Somalis, Seedees, Persians, Indians, including Mehmons, Borahs, Khojas, Shaikhs, Kokanis, Pathans, etc. RELIGION. 55 The Persians, Borahs, Khojahs, and a few other Indian sects are Shiahs. The Arabs of Yemen, from the districts north of Taizz, Jibla, and Ibb, are Zaidis (Shiahs) ; the remainder of the Arabs that visit Aden are Sunnees, as are also the Somalis, Seedees, and other African tribes. Somalis, Arabs, and other African tribes are ShafTai Muslims. The Indians, Egyptians, and Turks are Hanafi Muslims. Bigotry and fanaticism are confined to the lower and uneducated classes ; it is more especially apparent in the Somalis and Arabs of the Zaidi sect. There are a few Wahabis, probably about a hundred ; they are all Indians, and most of them menial servants, such as tailors, barbers, peons, butlers, and a few uninfluential traders and contractors. The feeling of the Mahomedan population of Aden and the neighbouring districts of Arabia and the Dankali and Somali coasts is, on the surface at least, friendly to the English from a religious point of view; toleration being appreciated, if not practised, by Muslims. The French are considered hasty and despotic ; the Turks and Egyptians are regarded with aversion up to a certain point (although co-religionists), as will be presently noticed. Turkish rule is hated on account of the misgovernment and oppression practised by the provincial governors, yet the Turks as a nation are sympathised with by reason of the religious tie — the idea being that it is necessary for Mahomedanism that there should be one great ruling Muslim power, and assistance would no doubt be rendered towards the upholding of the representative of that power, if threatened by unbelievers. Russians are looked upon with dislike and scorn, they being considered the bitterest enemies of Islam. As to other European powers, their very names, until recently, were unknown. The Portuguese are entirely forgotten. All classes of Muslims in Aden are especially attentive to their devotions, and pray the full five times per diem. The double row of worshippers, consisting of perhaps fifty to a hundred men, stand- ing in some open space and guided in their several genuflexions and prostrations by an Imam, who is placed a few paces in front, at once strikes the attention of strangers. On Fridays in some of the Musjids a ' khutbah ' or sermon is delivered by the Moollahs and a prayer is entreated for the Sultan of Turkey as the ' Amir Al Momi- nain Khalifah Russool Allah, wa Khadim al Haramain as Shart- fain,' that is, The Commander of the Faithful, the Khalif of the Prophet of God, the Servant of the two Holy Sanctuaries. 56 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Indian servants, who in their native country seldom say a prayer, are in Aden specially attentive to their devotions. The Maho- medans in the military service do not, however, with few exceptions, increase their outward religious observances. It is unnecessary here to refer to the various forms of Hindu worship which are practised by its votaries in Aden, with perhaps less attention than when at home. There are five temples in the Settlement The Jews of Aden bear a special reputation for attention to out- ward religious observance. There is only one synagogue in the Settlement. No work is ever done by a Jew in Aden after twelve noon on Friday until Sunday morning. They do not evidently con- sider the law of Moses forbids the use of intoxicating drinks. A somewhat serious religious riot took place in 1873 between the Jews and Mahomedans, which arose out of a trivial quarrel between two individuals, one of each race, and it might have led to serious consequences had it not been speedily repressed by the authorities, who interfered for the protection of the Jews. Games and Amusements. — The various amusements of the Arabs and Somalis are none of a very violent character, as might be judged from the nature of the people themselves. Certainly the dancing, which will be hereafter described, requires considerable physical exertion, but it is only indulged in by especially energetic individuals. The following games ^ are pretty generally known and played by grown-up people -.—(a.) Kawaia, (^.) Bangala, (c.) Tab, (d.) Damah, (e.) Sari, (/) Sharah, (g.) Batal, (A.) Barah, {k.) Safa. An account of the games played by the Somalis will be found in Burton's First Footsteps in Eastern Africa, pages 41, 42, edition of 1856. (a.) Kmvaia. — Two rows of holes are made parallel to each other, thus — 123456 000000 7 8 9 10 II 12 000000 In each hole are placed four date-stones, and the game (which requires two players) then commences by one taking up four stones out of any hole and passing round as shown above, depositing one ' Children's games are the same as in India, — kites, marbles, hockey, hop- scotch, etc. GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS. 57 stone in every hole passed until all the stones in the hand are exhausted ; the player then takes up all the stones in the hole next the one he deposited the last stone in, and continues until an empty hole is come to, when he appropriates all the stones in the hole beyond the empty one, and the other player takes his turn, com- mencing where his adversary left off, and so on until all the stones are finished, when the player who has the greater number wins, the loser being called ' a donkey.' (^.) BangSbla is a similar game played with shells (cowries), the loser standing the winner a cup of coffee. (^.) Tab. — This game is played as follows : — A diagram is drawn on the ground, containing twenty-five squares, thus — X X r^ 1 r > J X x^ X I V J f V -> X- -^ Supposing there to be four players, each starts from his own spot, the object being to gain the centre first. This is done by means of shells or counters and four pieces of cane (instead of dice), each about six inches long, which are shaken in the hand and thrown down ; according to their position after falling, their value is calcu- lated ; for instance, if a piece lie with the cut side up it counts one ; if reversed, nothing, unless all fall the same way, when eight are counted. The game is too intricate to describe here ; it resembles backgammon. {d. ) Damah. — The Indian game of draughts. ( Subaihi, . 840 „ Somali, 450 >. {c.) The ^M.— Aden has the credit of possessing a fine breed of asses,2 and certainly they seem to possess wonderful powers of endurance ; they are small in stature, generally dark in colour, and very sure-footed ; they trot along at a fast amble, each carrying a load of from five to eight small skins, containing on an average each four gallons, that is, about two cwt. of water in all. The best asses come from Zebid, near Mokha; they are princi- pally used for riding purposes, and, when in good condition, fetch $15 each. The asses that come from the neighbouring hill districts are sold for about $6 per head. ' The nominal value of a dollar is two rupees two annas. For rate at the time this was written, see under head of Currency. = Burton's Mecca and Medina, vol. ii. p. 292. 72 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. No asses are reared in Aden itself, and female donkeys are but seldom seen. (d.) Ox and Cow. — Good bullocks for draught purposes are obtainable in the Lahej district, at an average price of $30 per pair; those from other parts of the country are cheaper. The Arabian very much resemble the Indian species. Aden cows are justly celebrated. They are small in size ; but when taken care of and well fed will yield, immediately after calv- ing, two gallons of good milk in the morning, and the same quantity in the afternoon. The usual price of a fair cow is $15, but a really good animal can command $50. The best cows come from Kidam and Haski, in the Lahej district. The bullocks that are used for food are imported from the African coast ; they are superior in size and quality to those that are found in Arabia. The average price of an animal for slaughter is from $8 to $10. Each skin is worth %\\ uncured. No cows are ever sent over from the Somali coast, except for slaughter. (e.) Sheep and Goat. — The fat-tailed, black-faced, Berbera sheep is well known and needs no description. The usual price paid for an animal in good condition in the season (that is, from September .to April or May) is about %\\. Male goats from the African coast fetch nearly $2 a head on account of their skins, which are sold for about twelve annas each. No female sheep or goats are brought from the Somali coast so long as they are in milk or capable of producing young. Some few however come over from the Dankali country. Milch goats and sheep are brought in from the surround- ing districts ; the best come from the F'adhli country, and fetch $2 and upwards per head ; those from Lahej seldom more than %\. Arabian sheep and goats are smaller in size than the African, and are totally different in appearance. The annual demand for sheep and cattle for food purposes is yearly increasing, and during the year 1875-76, 63,262 sheep and goats and iio4_cattle were imported from Africa by sea. (/) Mule. — A few mules are annually imported from the African coast; they are brought from Harrar, a district situated 160 miles south-west from Berbera, and are sold in Aden for about I40 each. {g.) Poultry. — Considerable numbers of fowls are reared by the people of the neighbouring districts, by which means the Settlement is kept well supplied with eggs. A good-sized fowl can always be purchased for eight annas. Ducks, geese, and turkeys are brought from Suez, and are very expensive, averaging Rs.5, Rs.io, and Rs.20 a pair respectively. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 73 CHAPTER II.— TRADE AND COMMERCE. Weights and Measures. — The follo\ving weights and measures are in use in the Settlement : — I Wakeeah = i ounce (avoirdupois) = i German crow-n. 16 ditto = I Rattal = I pound (avoirdupois). 30} Rattals = I Farasilah of Jebel (used for coffee only). 32^ ditto = I ditto ofBerbera. 33 ditto = I ditto of Jebel (Interior). 35 ditto = I ditto of Harrar or Zaila. Besides the above the following are also used : — Table ii. I Bahar = 3 hundredweight (avoirdupois). I Hakisah = 3 J ditto. I Hamal of dates = 4 bags or k6sarah = 5 hundredweight (avoirdupois). I ditto' by land = 6 to 7 hundredweight = 2 la]^e packages. I ditto'bysea = 14 to 15 ditto = 8 small ditto. 6 cwt. of grain = I candy. 8cwt. of firewood = I candy. H.B. — Pounds, quarters, hundredweights, and tons of the Eng- lish standard (avoirdupois), and maunds and candies of the Indian standard are also in use in the Settlement. Measures of Capacity. I Thuman or payall = SJ lbs. avoirdupois. 3 ditto = Kailah = I5f lbs. avoirdupois. 1 KasSmah = 3 lbs. (ghee and oil) = 2 quarts. 2 ditto = I imperial gallon. Lineal Measure. 2 Dthara' = i yard. I Thobe = 8 yards. Coins are used as the standard in making and selling gold and silver ornaments. The German cro\\Ti and a gold coin* caUed ' AU other articles except dates. > Generally Turkish. 74 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEX. ' Putli ' or ' Maskas ' are melted down for the manufacture of orna- ments. There is no particular weight used in buying and selling pearls and other precious stones. Notes. — ' Wakiak.' — This standard weight is equal to very nearly an ounce or one silver German crown, and is used in weigh- ing small quantities and fractional parts of a ' rattal.' ' EattjL' — Valuable articles, such as feathers, saffron, shells (tor- toise), sUk (raw), cotton twist, and yams, also latterly grey cotton goods are sold and purchased by this weight ' FitrdsilaJi.' — There are three kinds of this weight all used in different places ; by it gums, coffee, wax, honey, ivorj-. shells, and tallow are weighed. There does not appear to have ever been an original standard 'FarSsilah;' the recent practice was to &s a stone standard or ' Farisilah ' for each transaction ; gradually however the ' Farasilah ' assumed a fixed weight in different places, and the standards are now as given in Table No. I. ' Bj/uir.' — There are three kinds of ' BahSr,' \-arj-ing in size according to the article to be weighed. For cotton, i Bahar = 3^ cwt. Incense and gum maithee, i Baliar = 3 cwt. Tobacco, I Bahar = 2i cwt. It is used only by the inhabitants of Shehr and Makalla in the Arabian Gulf. ' Haklsjh.' — Cotton only is sold to the Arabs of the interior by this weight ^ Ha ma J' — Jowari and dates are sold by the 'Hamal" or load, which also ^■aries with the article weighed, and the manner of im- port or export (vide Table No. II.) ' Candy' — An Indian weight used at Aden in weighing grain and pulse, cotton from India, and firewood. ' Thuman ' or ' PayaTt,' — A measure used in selling small quantities of grain. It is equal to four Bombay seers, or 5:| lbs. avoirdupois. ' Kailah ' or 'JLastmaA,' — The former is used for measuring grain, and the latter for measuring liquids, such as oil, ghee, and vinegar. The weight of these differs according to the article measured. The annexed table shows their equivalents in English and Indian weights as fixed by Government ' Dthard! — The Somalis and Arabs use this lineal measure for lengths of cotton piece goods of different manufactiue. It is sup- posed to equal the distance from the tip of the forefinger to the elbow. Two ' Dthara' ' are nearly equal to one yard. CURRENCY. 75 Table showing the equivalent, as fixed by Government, in English and Indian weights, of the standards used in Aden for weighing certain articles : — Avoir- ■^■" ■■"" dupois wi M Measures. Articles. Weight. z s g ■< S Lbs. Oz. Kaslmah, Ghee S 7 Do. . Oil (gingelly), ■\ 7 Do. . Rain water, ■\ ■; 10 Kailah,' Bajrl, . . . I6 4 14 Do. . Beans 14 12A 3 Do. . Dhal (Toor), . 16 12 Do. . Grain (Bengal), •S IS 12 Do. Jowarl, .... 11 <) Do. . Maize, 14 14 4 Do. . Oorud, 17 2 5 Do. . Oprud (dhall), . IS 8 9 Do. . Peas, 16 12 Do. . Rice, .... 16 12 8 2 Do. . Salt Ig II* q 2 Do. . Wheat (Hansia), 16 12 8 2 Do. . Wheat (country). IS 6 7 8 Currency. — The various currencies in use in the Settlement are given below :- ^^^^_ Coin. Quasi Value. Remarks. British sovereign, Ditto half ditto, . Australian sovereign, Ditto half ditto, Feanch. Napoleon of 20 francs each. Ditto 10 ditto, . Ditto s ditto, . America. Dollar (eagle of the United States), 20 silver dols. each, Ditto 10 ditto. Ditto s ditto. Ditto t ditto, TURKEV. Piece of 100 piastres each. Ditto 50 ditto. Ditto 25 ditto, EACH. RS. A. p. 10 4 S 2 10 4 520 840 420 2 I 42 8 o 21 4 10 10 220 900 480 240 Varies with the rate of exchange. In January 1877 a sovereign was worth Rs.ii-4-0, Coinage dated 1829, 1830, 1832, 1852, and 1875. Ditto. Ditto Rs.5-10-6. Coinage dated 1874. Ditto. Ditto Rs. 1 1-5-0. Ditto 1870. Ditto. Ditto Rs.5-10-6. Ditto 1856. Varies with the rate of exchange. In January 1877 its value was Rs.8-12. Coinage dated 1854. Ditto. Ditto R5.4-6-0. Ditto 1856. Ditto. Ditto Rs. 2-3-0. Ditto i859-'6o-'64. Varies with the rate of exchange. In January 1877 was worth Rs.44. Coinage dated 1866. Ditto. Ditto Rs.22. Ditto 1849. Ditto. Ditto Rs.ii. Ditto 1849. Ditto. Ditto Rs.2-3-2. Ditto 1859. Varies with the rate of exchange. In January 1877 was worth Rs.9-i2-o. Coinage dated 1859. Ditto. Ditto Rs.4-14-0. Ditto 1859. Ditto. Ditto Rs.2-7-0. Ditto 1859. ' 3 payalls = I kailah. 76 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Silver. — The Indian coinage is in general use. An English shilling passes as half a rupee, and sixpence as four annas. The following foreign silver coins are also current : — Coin. Value Remarks. Annual DUMANB. Austria. Rs. Dollar (Maria Theresa), 100$ 212J Varies with the rate of exchange. Value in January 1877, Rs.2l6. 1,200,000 These dollars are all dated 1 780, but are of recent coinage. Spain. Dollar, lOo $, . 230 Ditto. Ditto Rs.233, Coinage dated 1788-90, 1806, and 1817. 60,000 Netherlands. Dollar (2^ Guilders), 100 $, 220 Ditto. Ditto Rs. 224, Coinage dated 1867. 100,000 America. Dollar (Eagle), too $, 220 Ditto. Ditto Rs.224, Coinage dated 1863. 15,000 France. 5 Franc Piece, 100 $, 200 Ditto. Ditto Rs.217, Coinage dated 1851. 30,000 The smaller silver coins of foreign countries have no fixed value, and are taken at about their nominal value in Indian currency. The favourite coin in use in this part of Arabia is the Maria Theresa dollar. The average value of each is about 2 rupees and 2 annas, or 212 rupees per 100 dollars. Of course, as already noticed, this is affected by the local demand. The value of all other gold and silver foreign coins is fixed by the bullion merchants, in accordance with information received by telegraph from Bombay as to the rates ruling there. In default of advices from Bombay, foreign coins are sold by weight and touch. The relative value of gold to silver is about fifteen to one. The mark used for dollars is $. Exchange. — The rate of exchange on Europe is regulated in Aden by advices from Bombay, and during 1876 it averaged 15^ per cent, at sight, and i4fths per cent, at 30 days' sight. Merchants in Aden who do business in Europe remit by bills of exchange in payment of goods so long as drafts are to be purchased at less than 8 to 10 per cent. ; but when more is demanded they remit by produce, such as coffee, skins, gum, etc. Communications and Means of Conveyance. — Main Roads. — COMMUNICATIONS AND CONVEYANCE. 77 The main roads in the Settlement are in charge of the Public Works Department, and a certain sum annually is set aside for repairs, from Imperial revenues. Great difficulty is experienced in keeping the roads in the Settlement in good order, owing to the high winds which blow with considerable and almost incessant violence during the south-west and north-east monsoons. These remove the top- dressing of earth or sand, leaving the bare metal, which soon loses its compactness and becomes uneven and broken. By-Roads. — The by-roads and streets are constructed and kept in order out of municipal funds. Main Pass. — The steepness of the approaches to the main pass on both sides adds very greatly to the inconvenience caused by the separation of the town and harbour. The distance by road from the Saluting Pier to the mess of the British regiment in the Crater is exactly five miles. Conveyances. — These may be divided into those for man and those for goods. Public Land Conveyances. — Conveyances for man are either public or private. The former are under Government* control, and on land the superintendent of police licenses and inspects all carriages for hire. At present there are forty-five licensed carriages. The class of vehicles used is that usually known as ' American Spider;' the wheels are very light, as is indeed the whole carriage, for a public conveyance ; the great disadvantage is the unpleasant proximity of the Somali driver, and the small space between the front and hind wheels makes it very difficult for a lady to get in or out. These traps are drawn by one or two Somali ponies ; the harness when new is not of the best, and it not unfrequently happens that something gives way either in the carriage, which is never taken care of, or the harness, which is usually patched with rope, on a journey from Steamer Point to the Crater. The remedy is not easy; of course the licenses could be suspended, but the owners of hired conveyances are seldom wealthy. Vehicles are dear (the original cost of an American carriage is usually Rs.800 to Rs.iooo).^ The wear and tear is very great both for horse and trap ; grass and grain are expensive ; passengers are not unfrequently too sharp to become the subjects of ' tricks on travellers.' Altogether the profits are small, hardly 10 per cent, net on the outlay ; the fares are as low as they can well be placed, taking * Bombay Act VI. of 1863. ^ For price of ponies, see Domestic Animals. Harness about Rs.50 a set. 78 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. into consideration the distances to be gone ; and as high, looking to the nature of accommodation at present provided. From Steamer Point to the Crater, for one or two persons, the charge is i rupee 8 annas, and 12 annas as return fare ; any detention over an hour is paid for at 6 annas per hour. For more than two persons the fares and detention charges are one-fourth more.^ Full jjarticulars can be obtained on reference to the ' Table of Fares ' in possession of each driver. Besides carriages, a number of donkeys are let out for hire, the fare from the Crater to Steamer Point being 4 annas, and 2 annas return. Public Water Conveyance, — There are jolly-boats which [)ly for hire in the harbour ; they are under the supervision of the Conser- vator of the port. Each boat is licensed under Bombay Act vi. of 1863. The crews are usually five in number, invariably Somalis, and are very troublesome. An inspector is stationed at the Saluting Pier, who tells off the boats for duty in their turn, and hears complaints. Each boat can hold from six to twelve iias- sengers ; the fares are regulated by the distance gone, and the detention ; the lowest charge is 4 annas to a vessel inside the light-ship, and 2 annas return. A salutary and very necessary rule exists, that the boat-inspector is not to provide a boat for any passenger who has not settled his carriage fare. Private Conveyances. — Many persons possess private carriages^ in the Settlement — phaetons, victorias, dog-carts, buggies, etc. A carriage for Aden requires to be light enough to allow of its being drawn by a Somali pony ; strong enough to stand the jar of metalled roads ; well-seasoned in the wood-work to endure the dry climate ; comfortable to sit in for long distances, and should have a light and moveable hood coming well down in front to keep out the morning and afternoon sun, the main road from the Crater to the Point running nearly due east and west for nearly three miles. People whose avocations take them afloat possess private boats ; a few are kept for pleasure. Conveyance of Goods — Land. — The principal method of conveying goods is on camels. Camels are licensed,' the fare being 6 annas from the Crater to Steamer Point. For the loads carried, see under Domestic Animals, as also for an account of donkeys, riding and burden. ' By the day the charge is 4 or 5 rupees ^ Private carriages and horses are not taxed. ' See Municipal Rates and Taxes, p. 133. LOCAL AND EUROPEAN INDUSTRIES. 79 Carts are licensed ; they are drawn by bullocks (the municipal rubbish-carts are drawn by camels), and the fare is i rupee 4 annas from the Crater to Steamer Point. Many camels, asses, and carts are private property. Water. — All boats ^ for conveyance of goods are licensed under section 161 of the Indian Customs Act (1863); the fee is Rs.3 per boat per annum. Bumboats are taxed under local rules at Rs.2 per mensem, the proceeds going to the Port Fund. Local and European Industries. — The following local in- dustries are practised : — (a.) Housebuilding; (p.) Mat and String making; (c.) Weaving and Spinning; (d.) Oil-pressing; (e) Lime- burning; (/) Charcoal-burning; (g.) Potash-burning; {h^ Salt- drying; (?.) Dyeing; (/) Distilling; (^.) Boat-building. (a.) House-building. — Arabs, Jews, and Indians work as masons. No attention is paid to architectural style in the construction of the houses, which consist of four walls and a rocJf. The walls are built of irregular blocks of stone cemented with lime or mud, and are usually 1 1 to 2 feet thick. The timber or beams rest on the walls instead of on wooden posts ; this is done to save expense, timber being very expensive. For the same reason, as little timber as possible is used in construction ; reeds or bamboos take the place of planks for roofs and upper stories; mortar mixed with small stones or pebbles is spread on the reeds or bamboos, which are first covered with mats, and the surface is then smoothed and polished. So long as the outer coating of mortar remains intact, rain is kept out, but one crack is sufficient to render a house unpleasantly leaky. Taylor's tiles are being gradually introduced for Govern- ment buildings, also asphalt for flooring. The timber used for building purposes is imported from the undermentioned places : — Place. Wood. Bombay, ■ Teak and Ben Teak. Malabari Ben Teak and Jungle Wood Spars. Singapoor, . • Java Wood. Zanzibar, . Rafters and Spars of Jungle Wood. Trieste, .... Deal. Teak is sparingly used on account of its high price. — Each house generally consists of a front room, a back verandah, and a small yard, surrounded with a high wall to guard the harem 1 Including coal and cargo lighters, bungalows, zaimahs, etc. 8o THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. from the. vulgar gaze when employed in domestic affairs. The front room serves the occupant for sitting and sleeping purposes, the verandah for cooking and keeping water-jars, and the yard for washing, bathing, etc. Arab houses are generally decorated with an infinite number of coffee-cups stuck all over the walls, as also copper pots, etc. The cost of building an ordinary-sized house (with two rooms, verandah, and yard behind) of mud and stone would be from Rs.soo to Rs. 1000. The houses used by, and built specially for, Europeans, when constructed of stone and lime masonry, and properly finished wood- work, can be erected for from Rs.5000 to Rs. 10,000 each. Some of the buildings that occupy the front of ' Prince of Wales' Cres- cent' at Steamer Point, and the regimental mess-houses, cost pro- bably not less than Rs. 15,000 or Rs.20,000 each, and in a few cases very much more. In several parts of the Settlement, houses for Europeans, espe- cially for officers of the garrison at Steamer Point, are built of reeds and mats on a raised plinth, T^'he poorer classes build reed and mat houses for from Rs. 10 to Rs.ioo. Somalis bring their dwellings with them from Africa and erect them at the village of Maala. These huts consist of bamboo frames covered with the skins of animals, hair outwards ; they are very like bee-hives in appearance, especially when standing isolated. So rooted is the Somali prejudice against stone walls, that when his means allow of his living in a stone dwelling, he frequently erects his hut of skins inside one of the rooms. - {b.) Mat and String-making. — Dry leaves of the doom and date palms are imported from the ports on the Dankali coast and Massowah ; they are manufactured into mats. String is also made by twisting the leaves together with the hand ; this is called ' Aden string.' To make mats the leaves are divided into small strips, which are plaited into a ribbon three or four inches wide and of great length. This ribbon is stitched or spliced spirally into a cylindrical shape, the diameter representing the required breadth, and the axis the necessary length ; this hollow cylinder is then cut down with a knife parallel to the axis, and the broken edges are bound. Somali women are exceedingly expert in the manufacture of these mats, which are in great request for sleeping purposes amongst Somalis themselves. The coarser kinds are used for the construction of sheds and roofing of houses. Plates, baskets, LOCAL AND EUROPEAN INDUSTRIES. 8i sacks, and many other articles are made of these strips of mat- ting. {c.) Weamngatid Spinnirtg. — Cotton is spun into thread by hand- spindles, and sometimes machine-made yarns or twists are used in hand-looms of the very simplest construction. The threads are passed through a frame, which is held together by strings at the top and bottom, and is attached to a board worked by the feet ^^^len the board is pressed, one set of threads is lifted, and the shuttle is passed between the two sets with the hand ; by continuous labour a fabric of a coarse texture is woven. There are about twenty-five hand-looms in Aden, worked by Arabs and Jews. Lungies, man- dils, and other narrow-breadth cloths are made. Machine-made twist is now almost generally used. There are two looms which weave silken cloths. Spinning is practised by a few industrious Jewish women, who obtain profit and pleasure in the employmtnt {d.) Oil-pressing.— OTliTom 'til'' or gingelly seeds is extracted by a simple contri\'ance. A log of wood is hollowed out conically and fixed in the ground. A wooden shaft is fitted into this perpendicularly, and a pole is attached horizontalh-, one end of which is weighted with stones to increase the pressure created by the upright sh^ ; to the other end of the pole a camel is yoked, which works blindfolded in a circle ; the seed is thus pressed in the conical trough, and the oil is removed by steeping a cloth in the fluid, and squeezing it into another receptacle. The refuse is used as fodder for camels and cattle. There are about twelve of these mills in Aden. (ft) Ume-burmng. — Lime, or ' Chunam,' as it is usually called, is manufactured in Aden for house-building purposes by Arabs, who work fifteen kilns. Lumps of coral, found on the opposite coast of the harbour, are placed in a circular oven, which is heated to a red heat ; salt water is then thrown in, when tlie coral crumbles into a dry powder ; wood from the interior, and cinders fi-om the furnaces of condensers, are used as fuel. Lime is sold by a cubic measure, if feet square by i foot deep ; this is called a ' Farah.' Four or five of these measures are sold for one dollar (equal to 2 rupees and 2 annas), exclusive of carriage. Each owner of a limekiln paj^s to the municipal fund a fee of Rs.3 per quarter. (/) Charcoal-burning. — Charcoal is brought from the interior and the African coast ; it is used by the Arabs for cooking and other • Sesamum Indicam. — Black, imported from interior, white from Bombay. F 82 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. household purposes. Pieces of a soft kind of wood, from i to f ths of an inch in diameter, are placed in a pit ; rubbish, dry cattle-dung, etc., are thrown in ; the whole is then covered over with earth, four or five holes being left to allow the smoke to escape. The mass is fired, and, after being permitted to smoulder from four to six days, the covering of earth is removed, and the charcoal is ready for use. It is sold in Aden at R. i, 5 annas per ' maund' of 28 lbs. {g.) Potash or Alkali-burning. — Aden balsam, which is however not found in any quantity in the place itself, is prepared in the Abdali and Fadhli districts. The balsam is thrown into small pits, about two feet wide by one deep, and wood is added : the mass is then set fire to, and as the sap exudes from the plant, it mingles with the ashes ; the mixture is stirred and allowed to cool, when it is dug up and sent into Aden on camels for sale. The price is 8 annas per maund of 28 lbs., and the potash is exported to Bombay for washing purposes. (/z.) Salt-dressing. — The salt-marshes, near the village of Shaikh O'thman, yield considerable quantities of salt, which is obtained, as elsewhere, by evaporating sea-water in shallow pans. The salt, after removal from the pans, is piled in little heaps on dry ground. It is sold at \\ anna per ' Payali.' (/.) Dyeing. — A blue colour is given to grey cotton-piece goods with indigo, by saturating the cloth and then drying it in the sun. The material when dried is folded and laid on a wooden block ; it is then beaten with a wooden club ; this process gives the upper fold of the cloth a glaze, and it is repeated till the whole fabric is glazed. The colour is not fast, and now-a-days much blue-coloured cloth is imported from Surat and Bombay in pieces of from four to six yards each. {J.) Distilling. — The privilege of distilling country liquor for use by the Jewish community is farmed out annually, under the Indian Abkari' laws. The process of distilling is simple. Rotten wet dates are immersed in water until almost disintegrated, after which the mixture is placed in a sort of copper boiler. A pipe passes out of the upper side, through which the steam of the boiling liquid is conveyed into another vessel, which acts as a condenser, cold water being poured on the outside of this receptacle, from which the distilled liquor drops into vessels placed beneath it ; the extract thus obtained is re-distilled. This liquor has a far from pleasant flavour, and a still more disagreeable smell ; its chief recommenda- ' See Part IV,, p. 138. LOCAL AJS/D EUROPEAN INDUSTRIES. 83 One tion IS Its cheapness, it being sold at 3 annas a bottle quart of date liquor is equal in strength to one dram of rum. (k.) Boat-building.— lYi^ various descriptions of native craft that frequent and ply in Aden harbour are as follows •— Names. (a.) Zaimah, (^.) Sambuk, (r.) Ganjah, (d.) Euggalow, . («.) Kotia, (/):Abr{, . (g.) Buden, (,h.) Batil, Description. Curved bows ; stem-post slightly raked aft ; mat bulwarks forward ; small deck forward and aft. Larger vessels of this kind carry two masts ; the smaller, one. Overhanging stem, slightly curved at the upper part ; small decks forward and aft; centre part fitted with a temporary bamboo-deck for the con- veyance of cattle ; bulwarks raised high round the stem, which is square and slightly overhanging ; two masts raked forward. Long overhanging stem, square stem, with quarter galleries ; two masts raked forward ; lateen sails ; small decks forward and aft ; centre open ; mat bulwarks ; carved stern-head. Long overhanging stem square stem with quarter galleries ; two masts ; decked all over ; raised poop ; low bulwarks that can be heightened with matting when deeply laden. Resembles Ganjah. Long overhanging bows ; mast slightly raked forward. The larger size have generally two masts, and the smaller one. A raised deck aft and light deck forward ; removable mat bul- wark ; straight keel ; stem-sharp, and stem-post raking afl. Stem and stern posts upright ; straight plank sheer ; a small raised deck aft for the protection of the crew; rest of vessel open ; a very high rudder post built to and some dis- tance from the stem ; steers by lines to either quarter; one upright mast. Long sloping stem ; sharp stem with high rudder post ; steers with ropes to either quarter ; no fixed decks ; generally very fine in their lines, and fast sailers ; one mast raked forward. Remarks. Cargo or ballast boats of 2 to 12 tons each. Country crafts, 15 to 50 tons each. Country crafts, from 50 to 70 tons each. Sea-going craft, from 50 to 400 tons. Indian sea-going craft, 40 to 150 tons. Small boat of 5 to 15 tons. Fishing boats fi-om 15 to 40 tons. Ditto, ditto. 84 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Names. Description. Remarks. («.) Zarugah or Baghirah, . . (/.) Machwah, . (A) Jolly Boats, Resembles Batil. Carved stem and square stem. Smaller size have no decks, and only one mast. The larger size are decked and have two masts ; rig lateen. Built after the model of an English rowing boat with stronger and heavier frames ; workmanship very rough. N.B. — All the above vessels are built and rigged nearly on the same prin- ciples. They are carvel built and fastened with iron ; their timbers and frames are chosen from wood of which the natural bend suits the lines of the vessels. They are as a rule very fine in their lines, and fast sailers. In bad weather, when they cannot get into shelter, they generally run before the gale under a storm sail. Their rig is lateen, and they are furnished with three sets of sails of different sizes, which they use according to the strength of the wind. Fishing boats from 15 to 40 , tons. Ditto, ditto. Passenger boats licensed to ply in the harbour. Boat-building is carried on at the following places : — Hodaida, Lohaia, Mokha,^ and Aden, where the Zaimah, Sam- buk, Ganjah, and Buggalow are built, and at Zailah,^ where the Zaimah and Sambuk only are constructed. The Abri is built at Makalla,' the Budan, Zarugah, or Battl at Sharjah,^ and other ports on the south-east coast of Arabia, and in the Persian Gulf. The Kotia and Machwah are of Indian construction. The jolly-boats that ply in the harbour with passengers are built in Aden. The country craft that are constructed on the coasts of Arabia and Africa in the neighbourhood of Aden, and in the latter place itself, are built of teak, with ben-teak for the keel and timbers ; Maithi wood, which comes from the Somali coast, is used for the ribs, knees, and clamps. The bottom is not coppered, but in order to protect it from the ravages of marine animals, it is coated with a ' Turkish Red Sea ports. '^ Egyptian Dankali port. ' Independent port on the south-east coast of Arabia- LOCAL AND EUROPEAN INDUSTRIES. 85 mixture of chunam (lime) and tallow, or grease. The iron-work (such as nails, etc.) is generally country made. Masts and spars are brought from Malabar, sail-cloth^ from Persia, rigging fixed and running, generally of coir-rope, is obtained from Zanzibar, Malabar, and Bombay. Country crafts are built from i to 150 tons, and of course, as already described, there is considerable diversity in construction, but the principal point is the manner in which the bottom is made ; this varies even in vessels of the same class. Flat bottom, or ' Markabi,' are used for coasting and harbour purposes ; deep, or ' Gilabi,' for sea-going craft. Before commencing to build, a craft of the required size is taken as a pattern, and its lines are imitated even to the imperfections. There are about twenty Arabs who employ themselves at Aden in boat-building, where — Native crafts of 5 tons can be built for 150 dollars. Do. 10 to 15 tons can be built for 400 dollars. Do. 15 to 30 do. do. 1000 do. Do. 50 to 60 do. do. 3000 do. Do. 60 to 100 do. do. 4500 do. Do. 100 to 150 do. do. 5000 do. European Industries. — The European industries carried on in Aden are — (a.) Printing and book-binding ; (i5.) Manufacture of soda and other aerated waters ; (r.) Photography; (i/.) Water-condensing ; and (09,S4,937 65,19,601 Rupees. I, S9, 69,749 19.4S.SSS 21,66,766 Rupees. 2,00,82,070 i,44,78,S6S Exports by Sea, . . . 56,80,865 Do. do. Land, . . 8,38,736 Treasure (private), . . No record. 1,11,39,609 10,05,907 23,33,049 Total Rupees, 1,74,74,538 3,45,60,635 Increase, Rs. 1,70,86,097. The trade of Aden therefore has nearly trebled since the opening of the Suez Canal, and it is believed to be still increasing. It has to be noticed that the above figures do not include the value of merchandise transhipped from one vessel to another with- out the intervention of a local consignee, and they therefore repre- sent the value of the mercantile business transacted in the Settlement itself. Were it possible to show the value of the goods transhipped at this port either to Europe and America, to the westward ; or Natal, Reunion, Seychelles, Zanzibar, Muscat, Persian Gulf, British India, and China, to the eastward, it would be made apparent how com- mercially important Aden has become. It is difficult to give even an approximate estimate of the number of packages transhipped, and their weight and value it is impossible to ascertain accurately, but from such data as are attainable, the transhipment trade has been calculated to have reached the value of nearly ^2,000,000 in 1876-77. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 91 The following table exhibits the total value of the sea import and export trade, exclusive of transhipment during the year 1875-76 : — 1875-76. 1 Countries. Total Import, Total Import, value 1874-75. value 1875-76. Increase. United Kingdom, 55,30,290 42,33,876 ,. 12,96,414 Austria, .... 1,92,971 2,63,599 70,628 France, .... 1,86,914 1.77.693 »> 9^221 Italy, . . . . 51.343 93.152 41,809 »» Other countries in Europe, . 7,463 33.064 25,601 East coast of Africa, . 11,13.172 12,15,533 1,02,361 ^j Zanzibar, .... 12,99,865 19,68,055 6,68,190 J» Egypt, 6,58,483 88233 7,01,395 42,912 )» Mauritius, .... 1,24,637 36,404 »» United States, . 1,52.495 3.22,763 1,70,268 Red Sea and Arabian Gulf, . 34.97.310 38.65,198 3,67.888 ,j Hong Kong, 20,697 15,021 *« 5,676 Persian GiJf, 4,40,490 5.60,309 1,19,819 >> Straits Settlement, 4,34,953 3,35,539 >» 99,414 Other countries in Asia, }} 11,012 11,012 «1 Bombay, . . . . 40,95,263 34,69,826 >> 6,25,437 Broach, 4,941 >» )» 4,941 Calcutta, 5.19.534 3.57.769 >> 1,61,765 Karachi, >» 6.330 6,330 Madras, . 1,316 4,050 2,734 '» Malabar, . 85,499 1,18,726 33.227 >» Cutch Total, 3,66,756 2,58,968 I» 1.07,788 1,87,47,988 1,81,36,515 16,99,183 23,10,656 Net Decrease, 6,11,473 The following is an alphabetical list of the imports and ex- ports : — Name of Articlk. Imported from Exported to Remarks. Animals, living. Apparel (haberdash- ery and millinery included). Arms and Ammuni- tion : — Gunpowder. Books and printed matter. Building and en^neer- ing materials : — 1. Asphalt, . 2. Tiles, 3. Cement, African coast. In- terior. Europe, India, United Kingdom, . Bombay, England, Bombay, England, Arabia, African coast, Persian Gulf,and Red Sea- Hodaida, Jiddah, . Consumed at Aden, and supplied to shipping. Berbera and Zaila. Local use for sporting purpose. Imported also for the reading portion of the community (Euro- pean and native). Local use. 92 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Name of Article. Imported from Exported to Remarks. 4. Chalk and lime, Makalla. 5. Pumice, Bombay. Cabinet ware and fur- Bombay, Trieste, . Local use. niture. Candles, of sorts. England, Trieste, Interior. Canes and rattans, . Singapore, Hodaida, Hodaida. Carriages and carts, . Bombay, England, France, Trieste, United States. Local use. Chemical products and preparations— I. Brimstone, Bombay, England, Bilhaf, Lohaia, Acids used in the manu- 2. Quinine, France, and Italy. Shugrah, Interior. facture of aerated 3. Other sorts, waters. Consumed locally. Chinese and Japan- Hong Kong, Japan, Exported^ to different ese ware. Singapore. places, in small quan- tities, as curiosities. Clocks and Watches, Bombay, England, Trieste, United States. Hodaida, Interior, Massowa. Local use. Coal and Patent fuel. Coke. England. Supplied to the ship- ping, and used in the Government and pri- vate companies' con- densers. Coke is con- sumed locally. Coffee, Berbera, Hodaida, Bombay, China, Large quantities of ber- Lohaia, Mokha, England, France, ries are imported from Yemen ; the pods or Yemen, Zaila. Japan, Makalla, Suez, Trieste, husks are separated United States. at Aden. Berries are also exported to Ma- kalla. The Arabs use the husk in preference to the berry in prepar- ing the beverage they themselves drink. Coir (unmanufactured) Malabar. Coral (real). Italy, Suez, . Bombay, Zanzibar. Cordage and Rope (of vegetable fibre). Bombay, England, Hodaida, Persian Used by boats plying Galle, Malabar. Gulf. in the harbour. Corks, England, France, For local use. Cotton (raw), Bombay, Cutch, Lohaia, and Muscat Interior, Makalla, Massowa. Cotton (twist), . Bombay, Liverpool, Trieste. Bilhaf, Hodaida, Mokha, Makalla, Massowa, Shu- grah, and Interior. Cotton (piece goods), America (New Interior, Ports on There is a considerable York), Bombay, the African Coast, demand for English England, France, Ports in the Red grey and dyed goods. Cutch, Makalla, Sea. Ports in the as also of American Muscat, Singa- Arabian Gulf, and Bombay manu- pore. Massowa. Zanzi- bar. facture. American shirtings are exported in large quantities to Hodaida and Mokha. White and fancy piece goods are used for local purposes. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 93 Name of Article. Drugs and Medicines, Dyeing and Colour- ing Materials — Indigo. Madder. Myraboloms. Waras or bas- tard saffron. Other sorts. Earthenware Porcelain, Feathers, Fireworks, and Imported from Fruits and Vege- tables — Cocoa-nut. Wet dates. Raisins. Potatoes. Almonds. Glass- Sheet and Plate. Beads and false pearls. Bottles. Otherwise. Grain and Pulse — Grain. Rice. Wheat. Pulse. Jowari. Bajrl. Grass and fodder. Gums and Resins — Arabic. Myrrh. Incense. Benjamin. Olibanum. Mai thee. Copal. Resin. Hardware and Cut- lery (including plated ware). Hemp (raw), Hides and Skins (raw)j Exported to Bombay, Hodaida, Interior, Malabar, and Persian Gulf. African (^ast, Bombay, Interior, Madras, Mokha. Bombay, England, Singapore. Bailool, Berbera, Makalla. Bombay, China, Bombay, Interior, Malta, Mokha, Persian Gulf, Suez, Zanzibar. Bombay, England, France, Tneste. Bombay, Calcutta, Interior, Karachi, Cutch, Lamu, Lohaia, Persian Gulf, Zanzibar. Interior, African Coast, Berbera, Interior, Makalla, Singa- pore, Zaila, Zan- zibar. Bombay, England, Berbera, African Coast, Arabian Gulf» Hodaida, Inte- rior, Mokha. Interior, Red Sea. Bombay, England, Persian Gulf. Arabian Gulf, African Coast, Interior, and Red Sea Ports. Alexandria, Eng- land, Suez. Interior. African Coast Ports, Bombay, Interior^ Red Sea Ports. African Coast, In- terior, Zanzibar. African Coast, BilhSf, Hodaida, Interior, Mokha, Massowa, Shu- grah, Bombay. England, France, Suez, Trieste, United States. Interior. Suez. England, France, Genoa, Suez, Trieste, United States. Remarks. Ostrich feathers are sold to passengers passing through Aden ■ m considerable quan- tities. Consumed at Aden. Partly consumed Aden. Grain, wheat, and jowari imported from Persian Gulf ; rice from Calcutta and Bombay ; bajri, j o wari , and wheat from Interior. Brought from Interior on camels for local use. For use at Aden. 94 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Name of Article. Imported from Exported to Remarks, Horns (btiifalo and antelope). African Coast, Berbera, Interior, Cutch. Suez. Instruments and Ap- England, France, For use at Aden. paratus — Italy. Musical. Photographic. Scientific. Philosophical, etc. Ivory — Bombay, Berbera, Bombay, England, Manufactured ivory is Unmanufactured. China, Massowa, France, New imported from the Manufactured. Zaila, Zanzibar. York (United States). two last-mentioned places. Jewellery — England, Hong- Bombay. Pearls unset. kong, Lohaia, Jewellery (gold and silver). Plate. Jute, Manufacture Massowa. Bombay, Calcutta, Gunny bags from Cal- of- Hodaida, Lohaia. cutta and Bombay Gunny bags. are used for landing Rope and twine. and shipping coals, also in packing coffee for exportation. KSt, . Interior, The leaves of a kind of tree used by the Arabs as a stimulant, and brought on camels for consumption at Aden. Leather, Manufacture of— Boots and shoes. Bombay, England, France. For home consumption. Saddlery and har- ness. Liquors — England, France, Berbera, Perim, Consumed at Aden, and Malt. Gibraltar, Italy, Zaiia, Zanzibar. exported to Berbera Spirits. Trieste^ Suez, and Zaila, for the use Wine and Liqueurs. Mauritius. of Europeans in the Egyptian service. Machinery, England, France, For use in water-con- densers and ice machines at Aden. Matches — Bombay, England, African Coast, In- Lucifer and others. terior. Mats- Bailool, Bombay, Other sorts of mats are China. France, Singa- used for making Other sorts. pore. covers for packages, bags of grain, etc. Metals- Bombay » England, African Coast, Brass. France, Singa- Hodaida, In- Copper. pore. terior, Jiddah, Iron. Makalla, Mokha. Lead. Tin. Zinc or Spelter. Steel. Oils- Bombay, Calcutta, Bombay, Interior, For local consumption. Cocoa-nut. Malabar, United Red Sea Ports. Gingelly or sweet. Castor. Mineral. States, Zanzibar. Essential oil. Animal. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 95 Name of Article. Opium, Paints and Colours, . Painters' materials, . Paper and Pasteboard, Perfumery, Ktch, Tar, Dammar, Provisions — Butter. Ghee. Salted fish. Beef. Oilman's stores. Fruits and Vege- tables- Dried, salted, and fresh. Other sorts. Flour. Fish fins and maws. Salt, . Saltpetre, . Seeds, Shells and Cowries, . Silk (raw), Silk (piece goodsX . Spices, Stationery, Sugar and Sugar- candy. Tallow, . Tea. - . . Telegraph, materials for construction of. Imported from Bombay, France, Persian Gulf. Bombay, Calcutta, England, France, Bombay, England, France, Trieste, Suez. England, France, Persia. Bombay, England, Arabian Gulf. A&ican Coast, Bombay, France, Interior, Trieste, United Kingdom Interior, Mokha, Bombay, Bombay, Interior, Lamu, Persian Gulf. African Coast, Makallah. Mas- sowa. Bombay, China, Calcutta. Bombay, Calcutta, China. Bombay, Malnbar Coast Singapore, Zanzibar. Bombay, England, Bombay, Calcutta, China, Malabar, Mauritius. African Coast, Bombay. Bombay, Calcutta, China, Madras- Bombay, England, Exported to China, England, Reumon, Zanzi- bar. Hodaida. Interior. African Coast, Hodaida, Mak- alla, Mokha. Bombay, Berbera, Red Sea Ports, Zaila. Remarks. Berbera, Calcutta, Zaila. Arabian Gulf Ports, Hodaida, In- terior, Mokha. England, France, Suez, Trieste. Hodaida, Interior, Mokha. Hodaida, Interior, Mokha. ogland. Fiance, Hodaida, In- Hokha^ England, Hoda terior, Trieste, Hodaida, Interior, Mokha. Mokha, Transhipped to the different places (in export column). For local use also. Consumed at Aden. For the use of the shipping. Many of the articles are consumed at Aden, and are also supplied to vessels ; ^hee in large quantities is imported from Ber- bera. For home consumption. For home consumption. Consumed at Aden for greasing crafts. country For home consumption. For the use of the Tele- graph Company, Aden. THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Name of Article. Imported from Exported to Remarks. Tobacco- Unmanufactured. Manufactured. Cigars. Other sorts. Bombay, Cutch, Makalla, Madras, Persian Gulf, Singapore, Suez, United Kingdom, United States. African Coast, Hodaida, In- terior, Mokha, Massowa. Toys and requisites for games. Bombay, England, For local use. Umbrellas, Bombay, China, Hodaida, Massowa. Wax, Hodaida, Interior, Singapore. Water (drinking), Interior, Brought on camels for consumption at Aden. Wood and Timber, African Coast, Bombay, Mala- bar, Singapore, Zanzibar. Berbera, Hodaida, Mokha. Also for home consump- tion. Firewood, . Interior, Brought from the in- terior on camels for consumption at Aden. Woollen goods. Bombay, Makalla, Persian Gulf, United Kingdom. African Coast, Hodaida, Mokha, Massowa. The various articles that arrive in' regard to the country from which imported are given below : — United Kingdom. — Apparel, arms, building materials, candles, carriages, clocks, coal and patent fuel, cordage, cotton twist, cotton piece goods, earthenware, glass, hardware, jewellery, leather manufactures, liquors, machinery, matches, metals, paints, paper, perfumery, pitch, provisions, stationery, telegraph materials, tobacco, toys, woollen goods. Austria. — Cabinet ware, carriages, clocks, cotton twist, glass, liquor, papers, provisions. France. — Candles, carriages, chemical products, cordage, cotton piece goods, glass, instruments, leather manufactures, liquors, machinery, metals, paints, paper, provisions. Italy. — Chemicals, coir, instruments, liquors. Other Countries in Europe. — Fruits, liquors. East Coast of Africa. — Animals, coke, coffee, dyeing materials, feathers, gums, hemps, hides, horns, ivory, mats, provisions, seeds, shells, tallow, and wood. Zanzibar. — Fruits, grain, gums, ivory, oil, spices, wood. Egypt. — Fruits, liquors, paper, tobacco. Mauritius. — Liquors, sugar. United States. — Carriages, clocks, cotton piece goods, oils, tobacco. Red Sea and Arabian Gulf. — Building materials, coke, coffee, cotton (raw). IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 97 cotton piece goods, drugs, dyeing materials, feathers, fruits, grain, gums, hides, ivory, jewellery and precious stones, jute manufactures, mats, pro- visions, salt, shells, tobacco, wax, firewood. China and Japan. — Chinese and Japanese ware, fireworks, ivory manufac- tures, tea, umbrellas. Persian Gulf and Muscat.— Cotton (raw), cotton piece goods, drugs, fruits and vegetables, grain, seeds, and woollen goods. Straits Settlements. — Canes, Chinese ware, cotton piece goods, earthen- ware, gums, metals (tin), spices, tobacco, wood. Bombay. — Apparel, books, etc, building materials, cabinet and furniture, car- riages, chemicals, clocks, cordage, cotton (raw, twist, piece goods), drugs, dyeing materials, earthenware, fireworks, fruits, etc, glass, grain, hardware, ivory (manufoctured), jute (manufactured), leather (manufac- tured), matches, mats, metals, oils, opium, paints, paper, pitch, pro- visions, saltpetre, seeds, silk, spices, stationery, sugar, tallow, tea, tobacco, woollen goods. Calcutta. — Grains, jute (manufactured), oils, paints, sUk (raw) piece goods, sugar, tea. Malabar. — Coin, cordage, drugs, oils, spices, sugar, wood. Madras. — Dyeing materials, tea, tobacco. CuTCH. — Cotton (raw) piece goods, grain, horns, tobacco. The various articles exported in regard to the country to which sent are given below : — United Kingdom. — Coffee, dyeing and colouring materials, feathers, dates (wet), gum-arabic, myrrh, olibanum, copal and mayeti, hides and skin (raw), ivory, natural curiosities, ambergris (perfumery), shells (mother-o'- peaxl), cloves, and treasure (gold). Austria. — Cabinet ware and furniture, Chinese and Japanese ware, coffee, drugs and medicines, feathers, gums, myrrh and olibanum, hides and skins (raw), shells (tortoise and mother-o'-pearl), cloves, wax. France, — Coffee, senna leaves, gums (arabic and olibanum), hides and skins (raw), shells (mother-o'-pearl), wax, carpets (woollen). Italy. Coffee, drugs and medicines, gum, copal, hides and skins (raw), shells (tortoise and mother-o'-pearl). Other Countries in Europe. — Coffee. Egypt. Coffee, cotton twist and piece goods, drugs and medicines, feathers, dates (wet), glass beads, gums, resin, myrrh, olibanum, copal, mayeti, benjamin, hemp (raw), jute, manufactured (gunny bags), provision and oilman's stores, shells (tortoise and mother-o'-pearl), spice, cinnamon, ginger, cloves, pepper, cardamom, alia or gurrowood, honey, tobacco (unmanufactured), specie in silver. G 98 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Abyssinia (Massowa and Sowaken). — Apparel, cabinet-ware and furniture, cordage and rope, cotton (raw, twist, and goods), drugs and medicines, dates (wet), glass-beads and bottles, grain and pulse, metals (wrought and unwrought), oils, gingelly, and kerosine, provision (ghee), silk piece goods, spices, cloves, and pepper, sugar, tobacco (unmanufactured), wood (sandal and other timber), woollen piece-goods, and specie in silver. East Coast of Africa Apparel, books printed, candles, carts, coal, coffee (husks), cotton (twist and piece-goods), dates (wet), glass-beads, grain and pulse, metal (wrought and unwrought), oils, gingelly, provisions, spices, sugar, tobacco (unmanufactured), timber and wood, woollen blankets. Zanzibar.— Apparel, coffee (clean and husks), cotton piece goods, drugs and medicines, dyeing and colouring materials, glass-beads, liquors, copper coins, tin-slabs, provisions, silk piece goods, spices, pepper, turmeric, and aglawood, tobacco (manufactured), and specie in silver. Mauritius. — Coffee, spices, pepper, turmeric, and specie in gold and silver. United States of America. — Coffee, hides and skins (raw), and gum. Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. — Apparel, books (printed), candles, cabinet- ware, brimstone, coffee (berries and husks), cordage and rope, cotton (raw, twist, and piece goods), drugs and medicines, dyeing and colouring materials, earthen and porcelain ware, fireworks, wet dates, glass-beads, bottles, and otherwise, grain and pulse, gums and resins, horns, jute (gunny bags), and twine, leather (manufactured), metals (iron, copper, lead, steel, tin, zinc or spelter), oils (gingelly, cocoa-nut, and kerosine), paints and colours, papers (writing), perfumery, provisions (ghee), salt- fish, fruits and vegetables, salted or preserved and other sorts of pro- vision, seeds (essential), silk (raw and piece goods), spices (betel-nut, cin- namon, ginger, cloves, pepper, cardamoms, turmeric, and aglawood), sugar and molasses, tobacco (unmanufactured), timber (rafters and other sorts), woollen piece goods, .specie in silver. Jap Ail and Java. — Coffee, honey, and wax. Straits and Settlements. — Apparel, books (printed), cotton piece goods, dates (wet), gums, fish fins or maws, ghee and other sorts of provisions, shells (tortoise), silk piece goods, honey, wax, specie in silver. Persian Gulf and Muscat. — Coffee (clean and husks), cotton piece goods, wurras or safHower, grain and pulse, gum, olibanum, mayeti, oils, kerosine, ghee, aglawood, sugar, timber and rafters, specie in silver. Bombay. — Animals, horse, apparel, pumice, carriages, coffee, cordage and ropes, cotton piece goods (American grey), senna leaves, alkali, aloes, madder and other dyes, gum-arabic, myn'h, olibanum, mayeti, and gum, coarse myrrh, hides (raw), ivory, pearls, fish fins or maws, shells (tor- toise, mother-o'-pearl, and cowries), silk piece goods, spices, cloves, honey, treasure (gold and silver). Calcutta. — Salt and coffee. CUTCH. — Coffee (clean and husks), cotton piece goods, dyeing and colouring materials, grain and pulse, gum, gunny bags, mats, metals, paper (writing). PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 99 Principal Articles of Commerce. — The following account of the principal articles of import has been collected, and will at least serve to indicate the sources of trade ; in some instances the infor- mation given may have a value of its own, as not (so far as is known to the writer), having been previously recorded. These articles are : — I. Coal and patent fuel. 7- Hides and skins. 2. Coffee. 8. Shells. 3- Cotton, twist and piece 9- Silk (raw). goods. 10. Silk (piece goods) 4- Dyes. II. Spices. 5- Feathers. 12. Sugar. 6. Gums. 13- Tobacco. I. Coal and Patent Fuel. — Coal. — Coal is imported from the United Kingdom in considerable quantities. During the year 1875-76, 94,033 tons arrived. It is supplied to the shipping at a fairly remunerative price. During the year before mentioned, the average cost per ton was 43s. for coal put free on board. The Welsh and North-country varieties are those preferred. It is brought to Aden now-a-days almost entirely in steamers ; but occa- sionally in sailing ships, both of which arrive in the months of December, January, February, March, and April, generally leav- ing the port in ballast for the rice ports, under charter-parties made in England. Coal deteriorates much in Aden when left for more than a few months in the sun, especially during June, July, and August, when the hot winds blow, causing the gases to evapo- rate, and the coal thus loses in quality and weight, becoming light, and so brittle that it crumbles when moved. There are two Com- panies in Aden which supply coal, and they compete very vigor- ously for patronage. The large Steam-ship Companies have their own depots. Government purchases from one of the local firms. Barges are held in readiness, loaded with from 50 to 150 tons ; these are got alongside of vessels within an hour, more or less, of their arrival, according to whether they happen to be berthed in the inner or outer harbour. One hundred tons can easily be put on board in three hours. Some further information regarding the manner in which vessels are unladen and coaled will be found in Part II., under the head of Occupation. Patent Fuel. — Patent fuel is imported by the Messageries Mari- times Company for the use of their own vessels. 4922 tons arrived during 1875-76. loo THE BRITISH SETTLEMEN7 OF ADEN. In the same year 839 merchant-steamers entered the port, out of which only about fifty did not coal. Besides these, 160 vessels, belonging to the British and foreign Governments, called at Aden, nearly all of which coaled. 2. Coffee. — Coffee is imported from the interior of Yemen by land, from Hodaida and the African coast by sea. The coffee that arrives from the interior is brought in on camels ; that which comes by sea is carried by country craft. Sometimes coffee arrives in the berry, but more frequently the seed only. The principal districts where it is grown are Jebel Habur, Wadi Shardud, and Wadi Laa, near Lohaia; Boorak, Rahima, Dus, Safor, and Al- Hajir, near Hodaida; Jebel Kharaz, Jebel Hofash, Haima, and Jebel Habbashi, in Kaukaban ; Bani Matar, Bilad Onis, Jebel Ha- bash, Odain, and Ossab, in the district of Sanaa ; Bani Hamad, Bani Awadh, in Hajariya. A considerable quantity is also brought from the Yaffai district. The Arabian coffee is known in Aden by the name of ' Jebeli ' or Mokha. In Hodaida it is called after the district producing it, as ' Buraki,' from Burak, etc., and there are two sorts, ' Sargi ' and ' Sharabi.' Coffee is cultivated in the hilly districts of Yemen, and there are three distinct stages in its culture. First, the preparation of the seed ; second, the sowing ; and third, the bedding out of the plant. The seed is prepared by removing the shell or pericarp ; it is then mingled with wood-ashes, and dried in the shade. Seed thus prepared is frequently purchased by planters, who seek to avoid the trouble of preparation. The seed is planted in prepared beds of rich soil, mingled with manure con- sisting of cattle and sheep dung. The beds are covered with the branches of trees to protect the young plants from the heat of the sun during October, November, and December. They are watered every six or seven days. After about six or seven weeks the plants are carefully removed from the ground in the early morning, placed in mat-bags and carried to the fields or gardens, which are always in the vicinity of springs of water. The plants are placed in rows, at a distance of from two to three feet from each other, and are watered every fortnight ; if necessary, the soil is manured. After about two, or sometimes three, or even four years, 'the tree begins to yield. Niebuhr, who visited the coffee-mountains of Yemen, near Bulgose, thus describes the gardens as they appeared in the middle of March : — ' The tree which produces coffee is already well known in Europe. It was in flower in Bulgose, and gave forth an agreeable PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. loi odour. The gardens are all constructed (in terraces) one above the other. Some are only watered by the rain, others have, in their highest part, large tanks, whence fresh water is distributed to all the beds, wherein the trees are generally so close together that the sun can hardly penetrate. They told us that the trees which are watered artificially produce fruit twice a year, but that the beans only ripen once, and that those which do not completely mature are not so good as those of the large crop.' ^ When the berries are ripe, they are plucked from the tree, after which they are dried in the sun. The unhusked berry is called by the Arabs, ' Jafal.' The pericarp is removed by grinding in a stone hand-mill. Coffee is sometimes imported in the berry, and is shelled in Aden, either by mills of the above description, or by European machinery similar to that used by the planters of Ceylon and Malabar. Coffee arrives packed in mat or gunny bags, called ' Garrara,' and is sold by weight. The price at Hodaida is from Rs.260 to Rs.330 the ' Bahar'= 7 J cwts. In Aden it is sold by the 'Farasilah'=3o|lbs. The prices of the various sorts in Aden were as follows in 1876 : — Coffee Sargi, . . . 6^ dollars per farasilah of 3of lbs. Coffee Sharabi, . . sf » » » » Bani Awadh, . . . 5J „ „ „ „ Coffee in berries or ' jafal,' 3^ to 4 „ ,, of 33 lbs. Ten maunds of berries 3aeld 5 maunds clean coffee, 3I shells or pericarps, \ black and refuse, and \\ husks. The shells and husks are used by the Arabs ; the former called ' Kashar,' costing from Rs.iJ to Rs.2 per maund of 28 lbs., and the latter ' Dukah Kashar,' which sells for R. J per maund. The uncleaned berry is called ' Bun,' and the cleaned, ' Bun Safi ' For exporUtion it is packed in mat or gunny bags, each package weighing \\ cwt., — the average price of a cwt. of clean coffee ready for export being Rs.so to Rs.53, including cost of cleaning, pacldng, and carriage to the wharf. The coffee that arrives from the African coast is grown in the neighbourhood of Harrar, about 160 miles south-west of Zaila.* It grows in the gardens about the town, in greater quantities among the Western Gallas, and in per- fection at Jarjar, a district about seven days' journey from Harrar on the road to Efat. It is cultivated as in Arabia, except that the seed is not prepared in any way for planting, the outer shell only • Voyage en Arabu, par C. Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 267. ^ Burton's First Footslep in Eastan Africa, page 341. 102 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. is removed, and the double bean covered with the husk is sown. The plants after bedding out are watered by being occasionally flooded unless rain fall. The coffee produced by artificial irrigation is better than that grown in the more elevated gardens on the hill- sides. There are two descriptions of soil, called respectively ' Wartab ' and ' Barakat ;' the former is yellow and the latter red in colour. Sowing commences in March, bedding in May, and the crop is gathered in September. The first crop that the tree pro- duces is not allowed to mature, but is plucked and used by the Abyssinians, as are also the dried leaves of the tree. The berry is separated from the husk by pounding in a wooden mortar. It is then cleaned and packed in leathern bags called ' Dabula,' made of the skins of goats. A camel carries two of these skins, which weigh about \\ cwt. each, and sell at Aden for from $6J to I7 per ' Farasilah ' of 3 5 lbs. The price at Harrar was ini876$i5foriJ cwt. When Burton visited Harrar in 1854 the price was about $1 per cwt., and the hire for a camel to Berbera is $5. Including freight and duty levied at Zaila, a 'Dabula' of i| cwt. costs the person bringing it |2i|- to land at Aden, but it is seldom sold at less than from $30 to $35 ; 50 percent, being considered by the Somalis and Harraris to be the least profit that should be earned. The quantity and value of coffee imported from the under- mentioned countries in 1875-76 was as under ; — Africa (by sea) : Abyssinia, 189 cwt. Value Rs. 7,563 Zaila, . 2,167 ,, „ 103.579 Berbera, 905 ,- ,, 41,738 Total, 3,261 „ »» Rs.152,880 Arabia (by sea) : Jiddah, . 255 cwt. Value Rs. 10, 700 Hodaida, 38,749 „ »» 1,590,701 Mokha, . 439 „ n 10,198 Lohaia, . 8,496 „ n 392,575 Gaizan, . 829 ,, )J 38,014 Farsan, 462 „ 1) 22,000 Shugrah, . Total, 328 „ 49,558 „ J) 9-037 Rs. 2,073,225 Arabia (by land) : Coffee, not in husk, 2203 camel-loads ; estimated vi Rs. 385, 525, and weight 8762 cwt. Coffee, in berries, 4535 camel-loads ; estimated value, Rs. 45 3, 500, and weight 16,196 cwt. Total camel-loads 6738 ; value Rs. 839,025. The aggregate import trade in coffee amounts to 77,777 cwt. ; Rs.3,065, 130 in value. PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 103 The quantity and value of coffee exported from Aden during the year 1875-76 to different countries were as under : — Coffee Clean. Berries. Husks & Refuse. Where Exported. CwL Value. CwL Value. CwL Value. United Kingdom, iSi.-igs Rs. 8,86,119 i4oi Rs. 3,950 Austria (Trieste), 7,274i 3.98,779 France, 27,635 14.34.131 io8 2,i6o Germany, 62i 3.500 Holland, 3"i 17,500 Italy, 148 7.733 Malta, 36} 1,650 Spain, ... 2 120 Turkey in Europe, 3 159 Massowa, '2oi 44 Zaila, . 50 237 Berbera, . 77 605 Somali ports (other), '■ li 72 2oi 380 Zanzibar, . 179 7.752 42i Rs.i,r3o 119} 2.655 Egypt,. 5i5i 26,787 1,520^ 31,799 Mauritius, . S8i 1,463' America, U.S., 4.098 2,21,182 Hddah, 8 75 Hodaida, 3.079 18,159 Mokha, 70 1,680 525 4.o'5 Lohaia, i8i 8SS 235 1.747 Gaizan and Kamran, 42 224 Arabian Gulf Ports, 49 2,008 S.65I 1.35,720 Muscat, 9oi 4,469 140 2,328 Persia, 12 532 163 1,967 Java, 22 1.234 Perim, "8 35 Bombay, ,66 37.976 3i 100 Calcutta, 3 40 Cutch, Total, 21 " 868 50 1,099 S6,897i 30,54.889 5.763! 138,530 6,3i2i 71,619 (3.) Cotton Twist and Yarn. — Twist and yams are imported from Bombay, the United Kingdom, and Trieste. Mule twist, of the quali- ties known as Nos. 5, 6, 10, and 20, Bombay made, come from that port. Coloured and water twist, of the qualities known as Nos. 10, 20, 30, and 40, of English make, are imported from the United Kingdom; Turkey-red twist, Nos. 30 and 40, is imported from Trieste, and is exported in considerable quantities to Massowa, whence it is sent to Suakin. The imports and exports during 1875-76 are shown in table on next page. Twist is sold by bundles of 5 and 10 lbs. each, called by the Arabs ' Tabbal.' It is packed in bales of 300 lbs. ; a bale of Turkey-red weighs 250 lbs. The average prices of the various qualities are as under : — Turkey-red, Do. Do. Water Twist, No. 40, No. 30, No. 20. No. 10, English, @. Rs. 8 per bundle of 5 lbs. do. 7J do. do. do. l\ do. do. do. 5 do. of 10 lbs. I04 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Mule Twist, No. lo, Bombay, @ Rs.4 to 4J per bundle of 10 lbs. Do. No. 6, do. do. 3ito4J do. do. Do. No. 5, do. do. 3I to 34 do. do. Do. No. 20, do. do. SAtosJ do. do. Table showing the Imports and Exports of Cotton Twist AND Yarn during 1875-76. Imports. Exports. Countries. Quantity. Countries, Quantity. United Kingdom, Trieste, Bombay, Total Imports, 120,250 14,360 1,124,165 Massowa, Hodaida, Mokha, Makalla and Shehr, Interior of Arabia, Total Export, 44,550 236,180 256 17,930 699,664 1.258,775 1,098,580 Cotton Manufactured Piece Goods. — The principal kinds imported are grey or unbleached, 'white or bleached, coloured, printed and dyed. These goods arrive from the following countries, and of the descriptions named : — Grey : — Shirtings, Long cloths, T. cloths, Domestics, Drills, . Sheetings, Dhuties or Lungies, White : — Shirtings and long cloths. Striped and figured shirtings, Brocades, Dresses and garments, MadapoUams and Jacconets, Mulls, Nets and Gauze, Dhuties, .... Scarfs and Chudders, Handkerchiefs, Coloured, Printed, or Dyed Mulls, Turkey-red, . Dyed Shirtings and Jacconets, Saaries, dyed, . Printed Shirtings and Chintzes, Do. Muslins, Do. Saaries, Do. Handkerchiefs, Ginghams and Tickens, Scarfs and Chadders, V Bombay, England, and America. America and England. America, England, and Bombay. Bombay and England. Bombay, England, Singapore. Bombay and England. Bombay. Bombay and England. Bombay and England. Bombay and England. Bombay. Bombay and England. Bombay, England, and Cutch. Bombay and England. Bombay and Singapore. Bombay. Bombay. Bombay and England. Bombay and England. Bombay and England. Bombay and England. Bombay. Bombay and Cutch. 27 do. 3° do. 32 do. 36 do. 40 do. 45 do. PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 105 Indian hand-made cotton goods are imported from Surat and Cutch. These consist of hudnees, chudders, lungees, turbans, and waistbands. Bombay machine-made goods are imported in pieces of 72 yards in length, and in various widths, as under ; — 26 inches wide, weighing 14 to 15 lbs. do. 16 lbs. do. 17 to 18 lbs. do. 19, 20, and 21 lbs. do. 22 to 23 lbs. do. 24 lbs. do. 25 to 32 lbs. The 14, 15, and 16 lbs. shirtings are exported to Zaila, and Harrar in the Galla country; the 17 and 21 lbs. to Berbera and Somali country ; and the heavier kinds to Hodaida. Somalis and Arabs prefer Bombay manufactured cotton goods. They believe that the starch, etc., used in sizing Manchester goods destroys the fabric ; bales, when left unopened for a few months, are often found to be mildewed, or covered with large patches. The wholesale price fluctuates with the rates ruling in the English and Bombay markets. The retail price of English-made goods, when disposed of in large quantities, is from 7^ to 8 annas per lb., and from J to i anna per lb. more is asked in small sales. Bombay-made goods are sold at 9 annas per lb. Grey long cloths, English, 8J lbs. ; a piece of 39 yards is sold for Rs-S- Grey drill, English, 14 to 15 lbs. j 40 yards, Rs.6|. American piece goods are sold in bales of 750 yards. Grey American shirtings, 36 inches wide, distinguished by the name of six-strings, are sold at from |6o to $64, and that of five-strings, 30 inches wide, from $48 to $50. Grey American drill (40 yards piece), fetches 3^ annas per yard. The table on p. 106 exhibits the quantities of piece goods im- ported and exported from and to various countries in 1875-76. (4.) Dyes. — The following dyes are imported : — Madder, Indigo, and Bastard Saffron Madder or Munjeet. — The root of the Rubia Tinctorum and Munjista, which grows in Arabia, is imported by sea from Hodaida, Shugrah, and Bilhaf ; and also by land from the interior. It is called ' Fuwah ' by the Arabs. Large quantities are exported to Cutch, Bombay, Zanzibar, and Makalla. It is sold at Aden at from Rs.4 to Rs.5 per Surat maund of 42 lbs., according to the quality. The imports and exports during 1875-76 are shown in the table on page 107. io6 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Table exhibiting the Quantities of Piece Goods Imported AND Exported to various Countries in 1S75-76. Countries. Imports. United Kingdom, America, France, Trieste, Italy, Hodaida, Makalla, Batavia, Muscat, Singapore, Bombay, Do. Exports. Massowa, Da Dankali coast, Do. Zaila. Do, Berbera, Do. . . Other Somali ports, Do. ... Zanzibar and adjacent countries. Do. Jiddah, Hodaida, Do. Mokha, Do. Lohaia, Do. Gaizan, Do. . . Arabian ports in the Gulf of Aden, Do. Muscat, Do. Persia, Singapore. Do. Perim, Do. Bombay, Cutch, \-ards pairs >'^rds pairs yards pairs I'ards pairs yards pairs yards pairs yards j-ards yards pairs 5-ards pairs yards pairs yards pairs yards pairs yards pairs 5-ards yards pairs yards pairs yards yards Grey Cotton Piece Goods. Yards. 4,894,184 1,780,435 9,5oo 3.637-749 3 3. =49 228,965 33-594 104,158 759>3S2 15 2,084,813 94,928 19.500 10,000 1.578,972 367 101,422 3.152 V.S47 1, 096,922 6,040 38,240 1,200 Coloured, Printed, AND Dyed. 8,232 3.442 Yards. 39,086 18,114 >-ards 104,135 „ 28,800 „ Whits. 142,620 2,066,483 149,348 310,837 36,238 76,139 2,Si8 157,068 8,864 6o,55S 3.130 5.498 1,157 61,040 8,150 107,005 55.714 3.664 460 900 794,184 3-171 2,l6o 131 6,000 90 40 10 4,226 11-336 Yards, 198,580 76157 a 433.126 22,986 103.450 50,562 912 15 60S 1,200 79,430 519 1,080 1,160 85 52.963 348 1,280 American Grey. Yards. 1,569,041 Coloured, etc. 3,274 pairs 29,018 „ 812 ,. 654 > 9.040 20.599 70,49s 7,500 2,047,908 446,350 382,276 3.750 14.250 94.336 15,500 Iiidigo. — Indigofera Tinctoria (Arabic Nil). Indigo plants grow in abundance in Arabia, and also in Africa, but the natives of those countries do not manufacture much dye. In the Somali country the plant is called ' Gubuldi.' Indigo is manufactured in Mokha, and imported into Aden in small quantities ; that made in Mokha is of PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 107 a very inferior quality. The best is imported from Madras. The mode of preparation in Mokha is as follows : — The plant is im- mersed in water for two or three days, after which it is pounded with a wooden club, and allowed to stand in the vat until the remains of the plant, in a pulverised state, sink to the bottom. The value of Mokha indigo during 1876 was Rs.20 per maund of 28 lbs., and that of Madras was Rs.50. Table exhibiting Imports and Exports of Dyes during 1875-76. Place. CWT. Rupees. Imports. Hodaida, . . Bilhaf and Shugiah, Interior by land, .... Total, Exports. Makalla, . . . . Zanzibar, Bombay, . . . . . Cutch, . . . . Total, 462 343 1,570 5,225 5,132 23.550 2,375 33,907 75 108 261 1,467 1,228 1,646 3,645 21,860 1,911 28,379 ' Waras ' or Bastard Saffron. — Grows in Harrar and in Yemen (Arabia). From the former place it is brought to Berbera and Zaila, whence it is imported to Aden ; from the latter it is brought by land. In Arabia, the plant from which ' Waras ' is obtained grows to the height of the cotton-tree, and yields a bean of the size and shape of gingelly or sesame, which, when ripe, is plucked and dried in the shade. While drying, the bean opens at one end, and a red fecula or powder is shaken out; this is called 'Waras.' The seeds are sown with jowari in April and May, and the plant reaches its full, growth by the time the jowari is ready for harvest. In Sep- tember and October the beans ripen, and the ' Waras ' is obtained as above described. From information collected from the natives of Harrar, where the African ' Waras ' is produced, the tree is said to be larger than the Arabian species, and yields a fruit resembling the coffee-berry, but more flat, which is plucked and dried in the sun. The berry becomes red when dried, and a powder is then io8 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. separated from the upper cover of the berry by slightly tapping it with a stick. It would appear, therefore, that the Arabian and African plants are of different specie% as the ' Waras ' produced in the former country is obtained from the inside of the bean, and in the latter from the outside. It is exported to Persia and Zanzibar in large quantities, where it is used for anointing the skin as a pro- tection against malarious fever. It is sold by the pound, which costs about Re.| to Re. i. The imports and exports were as follows in 1875-76 : — Place. Quantity. Value. Imports. Zaila, . Berbera, . . Hodaida, .... ... Mokha, Shehr and Makalla, Interior, ... ... Total, Exports. 'Zanzibar, . Jiddah, . . Hodaida, ... Shehr and Makalla, Muscat, . . Persia, . . . . . , . Total, Lbs. 4.490 1,244 100 260 126 23,000 Rupees. 5,087 1,466 100 200 192 23,000 29,220 30.045 320 SO 90 5.819 34.232 2,464 640 so 90 6,119 35.093 2,788 42.975 44,780 (5.) Feathers. — Ostrich feathers are imported from the Somali and Dankali coasts. Feathers are also brought by the Somalis from the neighbourhood of Ras Hafoon to Shehr and Makalla, whetice they are imported into Aden. The feathers that arrive are of three colours, — white, brown, and black; they are not obtained by any regular system, such as exists at the Cape of Good Hope ; they are plucked from the bird after death. The best description are the wing and tail feathers, they being obtained from the male bird. Live birds frequently arrive, and three were presented to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, on the occasion of his visit in November 1875. The lower classes of Somalis eat the flesh of the ostrich, and it is considered derogatory to keep tame birds for breeding purposes. It is but seldom that the hunters themselves reach Aden ; they dis- PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 109 pose of their feathers to other tribes, receiving in exchange rice, jowari, or cloth. The mode of capture is as follows : — A female domesticated bird is taken out by the hunter, and when another ostrich is seen in the distance, the man conceals himself as well as he can under the wing of the decoy, and endeavours to approach the wild bird, which usually displays no fear. When the hunter is sufSciently near, he shoots his game with a poisoned arrow, and plucks it immediately. The feathers are carefully packed in skins, being first made up into bundles of different sizes, brown, black, and white being kept separate. Large white feathers uncleaned are sold at from Rs.300 to Rs.400 per pound, equal to eighteen German crowns in weight.^ No allowance is made for the string with which the feathers are tied. Brown are sold at from Rs.24 to Rs.30 per pound. Black at from Rs.14 to Rs.i6 per pound. For exportation they are packed in cases covered with gunny, and are sent to England, France, and Egypt The feathers that are sold to passengers are cleansed by two processes. First, by im- mersing the feather in lime-water to destroy the animal oil, after which it is dried in a well-ventilated room in a current of air. Second, by washing the feather well with white soap, and drying as above. The business of feather-cleaning is entirely in the hands of the Jews, who make a great mystery of the above simple processes, which, however, are not so easily accomplished as might be imagined. For retail sale the feathers are made into bundles of four, a good one being generally placed at the top and bottom. These bunches are sold at the following prices : — Best white, Rs.20 to Rs.30 per bunch. Medium „ 16 to 20 „ Inferior „ 8 to 16 Best grey, 4 to 8 Medium „ I to 4 Black feathers, 2 to 8 !', Muffs and boas are made of small black and bro\\Ti feathers, that have been injured in the cleaning. In a recent work on Ostriches and Ostrich-hunting by Messrs. J. de Mosenthal and J. E. Hasting, nothing is said of the feathers sent from Aden. In a Consular report furnished from Egypt to this edition, it is written : ' Small quantities are occasionally shipped direct to Europe vid, Aden, but their value is insignificant compared ' Wholesale. no THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. with the quantities forwarded to Cairo.' Now it will be seen that the reverse is the case, not one-sixtieth part of the feathers exported to Europe from Aden being sent to Egypt. Of course this was probably the fact before the opening of the Suez Canal, Egypt possibly taking credit for the Overland transhipment trade. Unfor- tunately time does not allow of the many inquiries which would elucidate the feather trade. The quantity of feathers imported and exported in the year 1875-76, with value, was as under: — Imports. To WHERE. Exports. 1 Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Lbs. Rupees. Lbs. Rupees. Zaila, . 214 8,028 United Kingdom, 5.2" 115,658 Other Dankali Ports, 129 4,060 Trieste, . 272 4,110 Berbera, 2,075 73.837 Egypt, . 119 2,480 Other Somali Ports, 2,137 40,548 Bombay, \ 81 Zanzibar, 13 322 Hodaida, 5* 1,650 Makalla and Shehr, 835 23,986 Perim Island, Total, 2 80 Total, S.410J 152.511 5,602} 122,329 (6.) Gums and Resins. General description. — The principal gums imported and exported are : — Gum-arabic, Frankincense, Myrrh, Gum-Mastic, Copal, Benjamin, Aloe (Socotra), and Dragon's-blood. Much gum arrives from the African coast, as also from the south coast of Arabia, and is exported to Bombay, United Kingdom, Suez, Trieste, and France. The Soraalis divide all gums into two classes, sweet and bitter,^ the former including Gum-arabic, Mastic, and Frankincense ; and the latter, Myrrh of various kinds, and other gums not imported, such as ' Hodthai,' used by the Somal as soap, etc. There are four species of Acacia which produce gum-arabic, and four of the Boswellia from which frankincense is obtained. In some cases the trees are cut in order to allow the gum to exude, in others the process takes place naturally. The hotter the season, the more gum is obtained. If the bark be incised more than five or six times in one season the tree dies. In the country of the Yaflfai, and other districts in the south of Arabia, Somalis gather incense • Miles. PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. iii on the ranges of hills parallel to the coast, but farther eastward, in the vicinity of Ras Morbat, Dhaf§,r, Ras Fartak, etc., it is collected by the inhabitants of the district. In the Mahara country the tree is called ' Magharah,' and the gum ' Shihaz.' Arabian is inferior in quality to African gum, and the latter is termed ' Asli.' The sweeter sorts, Arabic and Mastic excepted, are used for chewing as well as for incense. Interesting particulars regarding African and Arabian gums will be found in the Journal of the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, volume ii. (1848, Carter) ; Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society, vol. vii. (1846, Cruttenden) ; Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xlii. (1872, Miles). Gum-arabic {Arabic ' Samagh'). — This gum is obtained from the Acacia Arabica, Vera, Tortilis, and Ehrenberghii. It is imported from Berbera, Zaila, Karam, and Antarad on the African, and Shehr and Makalla on the Arabian coast. The Arabian gum is exported to Bombay direct from the two latter ports, and conse- quently but little reaches Aden. The African gum arrives mixed from diiferent places, and is divided for commercial purposes into the following varieties and qualities : — General name — ' Samagh.' Varieties. Berb eri. Souc Qualities. kini. 1. Karami. 2. Adad. 3. Failki. Samagh Souakini 4. Jair 5. Wa( 6. Jig. i. ii. That denominated Berberi comes from the Somali coast, and is gathered from trees on the ranges running parallel to the Gulf of Aden. The Souakini arrives direct from Massowa, and is the produce of Souakin. 'Jig' and 'Wadi' are hard, brittle, and of inferior quality; the latter is red in colour, and possesses none of the starchy qualities of gum. Gum-arabic, after being cleaned and sorted, is exported to the United Kingdom, the inferior sorts being sent to Bombay, where it is sold to dyers and mixed with the Indian gum called ' Ghati.' Gum from the African 112 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. coast arrives in skins or ' Kirbah,' as they are called ; Arabian gum is packed in mat bags. The average weight of a ' Kirbah ' is \ cwt. Gum is sold by the ' Bahar ' of 2 cwt., and also by the maund of 28 lbs. In 1876 the market value of the various kinds was : — Adad, . . . $2 to $2^1 per 28 lbs. Karami, Jairl, Jig> • Failki, Wadi, 4 if to 2 I to l\ 2 I to li The quantity imported and exported in 1875-76 was as under :- Place. Quantity. Imports. Massowa, . . • »■ Zaila, ....... Berbera, Other Somali Ports, Lohaia, ....... Arabian Ports in the Gulf of Aden, . Total, Exports. United Kingdom France, Turkey, Hodaida, Mokha Muscat, Singapore, Bombay, ...... Calcutta, ...... Cutch Total, Cwt. 1.637 131 1,250 306 6 32 Rs. 19,708 1,891 15.929 3.929 IZO 416 3.362 41.993 1,236 26| S3 4 li 1. 594 I 165 36, 186 200 57 406 467 48 o'3 34.809 12 2,088 3.192 74,z86 Frankincense, Gum Olibanum (^Arabic ' Luban '). — This gum is derived, so far as is known, from five different species of trees — Boswellia Papyrifera,^ ' Mohr Madow ' of Soraal. Carterii, „ „ ' I represents a dollar^Rs.2 as. 2. ' There is considerable doubt as to whether the Boswellia Papyrifera. ' Mohr Madow ' is the PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 113 Thiirifera, ' Magharah Shihaz ' of Mahari country, 400 miles east of Aden. Frereana, ' Yegaar of Sonial.' Bhau Dajiana, ' Mohr Add ' of Somal. Boido tree of Somal. ^ It grows on the limestone ranges in Warsangali and Mijjertayn countries on the Somali coast, and on the south coast of Arabia. The ' Mohr Add ' yields ' Luban Shehri,' the ' Mohr Madow ' exudes ' Luban Badawi ;' ' Maieti,' or ' Maiti,' is obtained from the Yegaar tree. ' Magharah Shihaz '• produces ' Luban Dthafari.' The ' Boido ' is a somewhat taller species of tree, and its gum runs down in long tears, hence the name. The ' Mohr Add ' and ' Madow ' are found farther inland than the other species. This gum is named, after the country producing it, as ' Dthafari,' from Dthafir, a district in the south-east of Arabia ; ' Barajami,' from ' Bar Ajam,' the usual name for the Somali coast ; ' Luban Shehri,' however, is not grown in the neighbourhood of Shehr, but is brought thither from the African coast. There are three qualities of 'Luban,' viz., 'Fusus,' 'Safi,' and 'Jandal.' It arrives in semi- transparent, pear-shaped drops or tears, less than one inch long, and of a yellowish or pale brown colour. The finer descriptions consist of nearly colourless tears. There are two qualities of ' Maieti,' viz., ' Amshot' and 'Duka.' It arrives in large milky-white flakes or coagulated lumps. The gum is usually brought packed in wooden cases or baskets, formed like cages and covered with matting, called by the Somal, ' Hori.' Sometimes mat bags are used. It is cleaned and sorted for exportation. Arabs chew frankincense, and also bum it as incense, of which they are extravagantly fond. The market value of this gum in 1876 was as under : — Luban ' ' Fusus,' . $ij to $if per 28 lbs 'Safi,' . 1 ' Jundal,' 1 „ Maieti ' ' Amshot,' 2 ' Duka,' . ito \ The quantity Imported and exported in 1875-76 was as fol- lows : — ' Scientific name not known. H 114 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Place. Olibanum. Maihti. Imports. Cwt. Rupees. Cwt. Rupees. Berbera, . . . . i 2 Other Somali Ports, . 3.278 41,888 1,538 19,681 Shehr and Makalla, 1,360 1S.414 390 3,955 Persia, 4i 52 Singapore, Total, . Exports. 4 48 4,646! 57.404 1,928 23,636 United Kingdom, 212J 5.794 250 7,493 Trieste, 766J 16,316 France, . ... 12I 125 Massowa, . . . . 46 216 "l 4 Dankali Coasts, 134 99 52 264 Zaila, .... 59 360 76 386 Zanzibar, 52 327 Egypt, ... 494 7,039 796 14,787 Jiddah, . . ... 395 4.38s 413 2,598 Hodaida, 337 4.335 299 4,182 Mokha, . ... 8 32 Lohaia, ... . . 74 32 ... Gaizan, . .... 38 256 Arabian Ports in the Gulf of Aden, . 31 338 2 12 Muscat, 7 70 10 90 Persia, 36 448 38 302 Singapore, 6 60 Bombay, . . ... 1,793 24,581 170 1,700 Cutch, 12 168 Total, . 4,24if 64,725 2,i44i 32,074 Myrrh. — But little is accurately known to botanists regarding the tree from which this gum is obtained. It has been classified as Balsamodendron Myrrha and B. Ehrenbergianum.' It is brought to Aden from the Somali and Arabian coasts. Two trees produce myrrh, viz., ' Didthin ' and ' Habaghadi ' of the Somal. The first is common to Arabia and Africa, while the latter is found only in Ogadain and in the districts round Hanar. The gum of the ' Didthin ' is called ' Mulmul ' by the Somal, ' Mflr ' by the Arabs, and ' Hirabol ' by the Indians. This tree is also found in Arabia, in the provinces of Yemen, Hadhramaut, and probably the southern portion of Oman. In Africa it is found on the range of hills which runs parallel to the Somali coast. True myrrh is exported to the 1 Pharmaceutical Journal, April 19, 1873 (D. Hanbury, F. R. S.) PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 115 United Kingdom, and ' Habaghadi ' only to Bombay. Myrrh (true) comes in dark red-coloured round lumps two inches and upwards in diameter j it is sold at from $5 to $5 J per Berbera Fardsilah of 32 lbs. Besabol or ' Habaghadi ' costs $2 to $2^ a leather package called ' Jild,' weighing from 40 to 50 lbs. The imports and exports in 1875-76 were : — Country. CWT. Rupees. Imports. Zaila, ... Berbera, Other Somali ports, ... . . Zanzibar, Shehr and Makalla, Total, Exports. United Kingdom, Trieste, Egypt, Hodaida, Muscat, Bombay, ... Total, loi 357 142J 19 455 428 14,269 5.725 666 16,880 9834 37.968 SOS 47 149 4 24 710 45,501 2,026 6,065 160 960 22,292 1.439 77,004 Mastic. — This gum is yielded by the Pistacia lentiscus and Pis- tacia vera, the former being indigenous in Egypt, and the latter in Persia. Mastic also comes from the Somali coast. But small quantity of this gum arrives ; it is used by the Arabs as a medicine. The value of Egyptian or ' Sooltani Mastaka,' as it is called, is from Rs.6 to Rs.7 per maund, and of Persian or ' Ajami,' Rs.s to Rs.6 per maund of 28 lbs. Somali is very inferior. Copal, called in Arabic ' Farah ' or ' Sandarus,' is imported from Zanzibar in considerable quantities for re-exportation. It is found on the island of Zanzibar and the neighbouring mainland. Burton thus describes its origin : — ' The true or ripe copal, popularly called " Sandarusi," is the produce of vast extinct forests ; ... the gum, buried at depths beyond atmospheric influence, has, like amber and similar gum-resins, been bitumenised in all its purity, the volatile principles being fixed by moisture, and by the exclu- clusion of external air. . . . That it is the produce of a tree is proved by the discovery of pieces of gum imbedded in a touch- ii6 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. wood, which crumbles under the fingers. The " goose skin," which is the impress of sand or gravel, shows that it was buried in a soft state, and the bees, flies, gnats, and other insects which are some- times found in it, delicately preserved, seem to disprove a remote geological origin.' ^ The value in Aden is as under : — ist sort, at 1^15 per maund of 28 lbs. 2d sort, at 8 per maund of 28 lbs. 3d sort, at 5 per maund of 28 lbs. in small pieces. In 1875-76, 352J cwt. were imported from Zanzibar, valued at Rs.40,516, which were exported to the United Kingdom and Italy in nearly equal proportions. Benjamin. — Styrax Benzoin is called by the Arabs ' Jawi,' and is imported from China and the Straits Settlements. It is used as incense, and is sold at from $7 to $10 per maund of 28 lbs. A small quantity is exported to the Arabian Red Sea ports. The total imports in 1875-76 amounted to 913 cwt., valued at Rs.34,636. Aloe Socotra. — The juice of the leaves of the Aloe Socotrina is imported from Socotra via Makalla and Shehr, as also from Douan, in Hadhramaut and the vicinity of Sanaa in Yemen. It arrives in both a semi-liquid and solid state in skins, and is sold at Rs.7 per 28 lbs. for Socotra, and Rs.5 per 28 lbs. for Arabian gum. Dragon's Blood. — A tree yielding the Sanguis Draconis {Ptero- carpus Draco'') grows in Socotra ' on the tops of the hills. It arrives in but small quantity, and is exported to Bombay. The value is Rs.14 to Rs.2o per maund. (7.) Hides and Skins. — There are five different varieties of this article of commerce imported into Aden : — (a.) Hides, oxen (raw). (3.) „ camel „ {c) Skins, goat „ ((/.) „ sheep „ (455 5o6f Genoa, 4,630 371 940 10 Egypt, . . . . 10,410 812 10,080 116 (8.) Shells. — The different kinds of shells imported into Aden are, (a.) Mother-o'-Pearl ; (b.) Tortoise; (f.) Nakhla; (d) Cowries. ii8 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. (a.) Mother-d -Pearl (Meleagrina margaritifera) is imported in considerable quantities from the Red Sea and the Somali coast. The fishing in the Red Sea is carried on by Arabs from the ports of Farsan, Kamran, Lohaia, and Jiddah, and on the African coast by the inhabitants of Soor, and other places between that port and Shehr. The boats used in the Red Sea fishery are from 20 to 80 tons burthen. They have a crew of from thirty to fifty men, three- fourths of whom are divers, and the remainder seamen. The crew are sharers in the profits of the fishing, which is carried on between the months of March and December. About one-fifth of the earn- ings go to the owner, and the remainder, after deduction of 4 per cent, on account of provisions supplied, is divided among the crew, who receive advances for the support of their families during their absence. The boats are furnished with a scaffolding of rafters, bamboos, and reeds, on each side. The divers work by turns under water. As soon as the shells are brought up, the valves are opened, and the fishy part removed. On the Somali coast the method of fishing is somewhat similar ; but the boats used are smaller, and the crews have but small share in the profits, the Nacodas being themselves the owners ; neither are the boats so well equipped or provisioned. The ' Zarugah," ' Bagharah,' and ' Batil,' are the description of craft used. Shells are sold in Aden as a rule by the candy, equal to 20 ' Farasilahs ' of 32 lbs. each. Sometimes they are disposed of with the sand and carbuncles still attached to them, by the boat-load ; otherwise they are cleaned and sold by the weight as above. In 1875 the demand for mother-o'-pearl was so great, that a candy of clean shells fetched from Rs.250 to Rs.300; but the price has since gone down, and now averages Rs. 175 for the same quantity. (iJ.) Tortoise-shell is imported from the Red Sea and Somali coast. The shell is not really that of the tortoise, but consists of the scales of the carapace or shield of the hawksbill turtle (Caretta imbricata and Chelonia imbricata). There are four kinds of this marine animal which furnish shells, and they are differently named by the Arabs. The first is ' Hamsah,' found between Massowah and Zaila ; second, ' Bissa,' found between Berbera and Ras Hafoon ; third, ' Abdul Bekr,' found near the island of Perim ; and fourth, ' Dabbah-Socotra,' obtained near the island of the latter name. ' See under Boat-Building, ante, p. 84. PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 119 The best description of shell is obtained from the ' Hamsah,' the next best from the ' Dabbah-Socotra ;' the other two kinds furnish- ing thin and inferior shells are not consequently much sought after. The method of fishing in the Red Sea is as follows : — Small boats, called 'Zaimah,' of from 5 to 10 tons, are used by the Dankali tribe and the Arabs of the ports of Jiddah and Hodaida. The fishing is carried on close to the shore, one of the crew keeping a look-out from the mast-head. When a turtle is seen, it is cautiously ap- proached and harpooned ; when the animal is worn out by playing, a man dives after it, and secures it with another rope, and it is then hauled in. Sometimes the turtle is caught when it goes to the beach to lay its eggs ; the head is dexterously covered with a cloth, and the animal is turned on its back and killed. The flesh and eggs are eaten, and the carapace or shield is placed over a slow fire until the scales become loose, when they are carefully removed with a knife, after which they are dried and brought for sale, under the name of ' Dabbal.' The average price of so-called tortoise-shell is about Rs.4 per lb. {c.) ' Nakhla' are the opercula or lids of a univalve shell of the genus Murex and Vasciolaria. This article of commerce is brought from the African shores of the Red Sea, and is exported to Bombay, from whence it is sent to the United Kingdom, but for what purpose is not known. The price of the first sort is Rs. 15 per maund of 28 lbs., and of the second sort Rs. 10. ((/.) Cowries. — The small Cowrie, or Cyprsea Moneta, is imported from Zanzibar, Massowa, Shehr, Makalla, and Mokha. They are much used by the Somalis to ornament their articles of furniture, such as baskets, stools, jars, etc., and also as necklaces. The price of unbored small cowries is Rs.s^ per 80 lbs., and of bored, Rs.13 per 28 lbs. The larger kinds are sold at from Rs.3 to Rs.4 per 1000. The quantities of shells exported and imported to and from the various countries in 1875-76 are shown in table on next page. (9.) Silk (raw). — Inferior kinds of raw silk are technically known as 'punjam' and ' cutchra,' and are imported, dyed red, yellow, green, and blue. Surat silk, being better dyed than that of Bombay, is sold at a higher price. A small quantity of silk from Calcutta and China is imported for transhipment to Hodaida in country crafts. It is used by the Arabs in ornamenting the cotton cloths 120 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. which they wear, by the addition of a bright silken border. Very little raw silk is exported to Africa. Raw silk arrives packed in bundles, of which two, three, four, or eight go to the pound. The price of one pound of Surat dyed silk Table showing Quantities of Shells Exported and Imported to and from the various countries in 1875-76. Place. MOTHER-O'- Pearl. Tortoise. Cowries, Small. Imports. Cwt. Lbs. Cwt. Massowa, . .... 6J 13' 41 Dankali Coast, . ... lOf 4 Zaila, 37J Berbera, I7J 100 Ports between Berbera and Ras Hafoon, 2209 7 Zanzibar I 34l Jiddah, . .... 74 356 Hodaida, 118 168 Mokha, .... 2 ID 6 Lohaia, ... 717 1800 Gaizan, . . . . 15 Konfidah and Kamran, 411 Farsan, 59 Shehr and Makalla, i84i 7 I'e Perim Island, 3 Persia, Total, Exports. 140J 4003 2582 lOlJ United Kingdom, >37o4 Trieste, 755 422 France, 596 Italy, . ... 85 25 Massowa, . . ,- . . 16 Somali Ports, \ Egypt, . . . 444 112 Hodaida, ... . „ IS Singapore, 3 259 Bombay, ... 204 140 "8 Cutch, . . . . Total, 3 3058 958 42i varies from Rs.3 J to Rs.3f, and of Bombay dyed from Rs,2i to Rs.3 ; the retail price of the former per ounce is about 4 annas, and of the latter 3 J annas. In 1875-76 the following quantities were imported and exported from and to various countries : — PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 121 Imports. EXPOKTS. Place. Lbs. Place. Lbs. China, Bombay, Calcutta, Total, 2,581 63.72" 1,800 ZaUa, . Berbera, Massowa, Jiddah, Hodaida, Mokha, Interior, 45 14 2 140 29,025 10,071 6,326 68,102 Total, 36.623 The quantity imported in 1875-76 was nearly double that deceived in former years. (10.) Silk Pica Goods. — These goods are imported from Bombay, Calcutta, and China. The kinds used by the Arabs for wearing apparel are those made at Surat by hand-looms, and which are im- ported by Borah merchants, who have branch firms at Mokha and Hodaida. The quantity of silk piece goods received from Calcutta and China is small. The value depends on the quality of the raw silk used in the manu- facture, and the quantity of cotton that is introduced into the fabric. The following descriptions of silk goods are imported, and the names by which they are known to the Arabs are given : — Name. Description and Length. Width. O'mart, . Luki, Harkin, . Baharaluk, Hamr Akhdhar, Manabati, Khanajaii, Ma' Ammal, A'lajah Suratt, . Dana Manj, A'Ujah Aswad, Atlas Chinawi (China), . Atlas Suratl (Surat), Garam Sut (cotton and silk), ShSdir Subihi, . Footah KikwSa'i, Shadir a'raijl, . Mumaial (gold brocade), . Kbam Kham, . Piece of S to 8 ya rds, 21 inches 6 yards, 21 „ 6 „ 21 „ 6 „ 21 „ 6 „ 21 >, 6 „ 21 „ 6 „ 21 ,, 6 „ 21 „ 5 to 8 ya rds, 21 ,, 5 to 8 , 21 „ 5 to 8 , 21 „ 10 to 15 , . • 21 ,, 10 to 15 , 1 • 21 ,, SJto? , . • 2S „ 4 ■ • 54 „ 4 > • 54 „ 34 , • 72 „ 5 to 7 . • 21 ,, S to8 1 • 21 ,, 122 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. A few other kinds, such as ' Shadir Nakashi,' ' Boti,' etc., are also imported. The value of the silk piece goods which arrived from the various countries in 1875-76 was as under : — Countries. Yards. Rupees. Pairs. Rupees. Dozen. Rupees. United Kingdom, Massowah, 285 1,280 "5 2 so Jiddah, '. Hodaida, Makalla and Shehr, 1,790 200 974 100 4,478 120 394 150 245 60 775 360 ... China, Bombay, Calcutta, Kutch, Total, 1,097 106,258 5,971 9'5 1,215 1,63,856 5,234 895 6,953 '" 6 45,134 110 61 850 26J 100 6,476 461 117,705 177,737 7,264 46,379 883 7,087 (11.) spices. — The different kinds of spices that are imported are given below : — (a.) Betel-nut. — Areca Catechu (Arabic, Fofil). {b^ Cinnamon. — ") ^. -y ^ ■ /a i.- xr r^, \ ; / _ . . J- CmnamomumZelanicum (Arabic, Kurfah). \'') v^3.SS13. XjlQ^n€3.. — j (d.) Cloves. — Caryophyllus Aromaticus (Arabic, Koorumphul). («.) Cardamom. — Elettaria Cardamomum (Arabic, Hail). (/.) Ginger.— Zingiber officinale (Arabic, Zangibil). (g.) Pepper. — Piper nigrum (Arabic, Filfil). (A.) Turmeric. — Curcuma longa (Arabic, Koorkum or Hoorud). (i.) Agla or Aloe wood. — Aloexylou Agallochum (Arabic, Ag- gar). (/) Chillies, dry. — Capsicum frutescens (Arabic, Disbas). (a.) Betel-nut. — Imported from Bombay and Malabar. Used for chewing purposes by the Hindus residing in Aden. Local wholesale approximate value, Rs.7 per maund of 28 lbs., and Rs.4 per 1000, with shells. {6. and c) Cinnamon and Cassia Lignea. — Imported from Bom- bay and China, and used by the Arabs in cooking. Exported to Hodaida, Jiddah, and the interior. Local approximate value, Rs.8J to Rs.9 per maund of 28 lbs. (d.) Cloves. — Imported from Zanzibar. After the hurricane in 1873 in that island, which destroyed the clove plantations, the quantity that arrived fell off, but the import of cloves has now PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 123 almost reached its former level. Local approximate value, Rs. 16 to Rs.18 per maund of 28 lbs. («.) Cardamoms. — Imported in limited quantities from Bombay and Malabar. The Arabs are beginning to appreciate this spice. Local approximate value, Rs.65 per maund of 28 lbs. for the first sort, Rs.S2 for the second sort, and Rs.44 for the third. (/) Ginger. — Imported from Bombay and Malabar, and used by the Arabs to flavour their coffee. Local approximate value, Rs.4f to Rs.5 per maund of 28 lbs. {g.) Pepper. — Imported from Bombay, Malabar, and Singapore. Used for cooking purposes. Local approximate value, Rs.5^ to Rs.sf. (A.) Turmeric. — Imported from Bombay and Malabar. Exported to Jiddah, Hodaida, and the interior. Used by the Arab women for dyeing the skin. It is believed to act as a preventive against fever when applied externally. It is also used for cooking pur- poses. Local approximate value, Rs.2i to Rs.2f per maund of 28 lbs. (/.) Agla or Aloe wood. — Imported from Singapore and China. Used as incense by the Arabs, especially to perfume garments ; to effect this a lighted brazier is placed inside a sort of open wicker- work frame, on which the garments to be fumigated are hung. Local approximate value, Rs.5 to Rs.6 per lb. Superior Rs.io to Rs. 1 2 per lb. (j.) Chillies, dry. — Imported from Bombay and Malabar, and used to flavour food. Local approximate value, Rs.4 to Rs.4^ per maund. The spices that arrive from Malabar are generally packed in mats, made up into round bundles, weighing about 7 maunds each, called by the natives ' Mura.' Spices imported from Bombay are packed in gunny-bags. The quantity imported and exported in 1875-76 is given in table on next page. (12.) Sugar. — Imported from Mauritius, Bengal, Bombay, China, Malabar, and Zanzibar. The three kinds used by Arabs are known respectively as ' Maurice,' ^ ' Bengali,' ' Massari.' The latter arrives in small quantities. The white sort of Mauritius sugar is termed 'Abiadh;' the brown 'Ahmar;' the molasses 'Gur;' and sugar- candy ' Nabad.' Mauritius sugar is always crystallised, and is used in the preparation of sweetmeats. Bengal sugar, which is not ' Includes Malabar sugar. 134 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. crystallised, is imported of two sorts, white and brown, and is used with coffee and inxooking. The ' Massari,' or Egyptian sugar, is called by the Arabs ' Barmil ' or ' Ghobali,' according to the manner in which it is packed or shaped. It used to arrive formerly in con- siderable quantities from Suez. Malabar sugar is of two kinds, the ' Koompti ' and ' Sholapori.' It is very inferior, but cheap, and is much used by the Arabs in consequence. Since the establishment of a regular line of steamers with Zanzibar, molasses and brown sugar have been imported from that island. The latter is preferred by the natives of India in Aden to the Malabar kind. Table showing Quantity of Spices Imported and Exported IN 1875-76. 3 g E -d Place. 2 S 1 t i. g .2 « c n B a. d 15 a U u (1. H < u Imports. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Lbs. Cwt. Bombay, 152^ ii8i 106 2268 908 2046 125 IQb Malabar, 2 7 2181 808 750 100 Singapore, 120 4 37S 879s Zanzibar, 8093 91 Shehr and Makalla, 5 9i 4 23i 48 Calcutta, 12 258 Cutch, 5 12 Jiddah, 3 Batavia, . Total, . Exports. 234 ■■'67i 259I 8097 •17 4742} 2230 2796 9154 300 Interior of Arabia, . M 2 13 1274 1049 ir02 271 50 f.gypj. s 676 2 73 42 140 Jiddah, 4 13 121 3 75 41 . Hodaida, Mokha, 13 '\ 46 i 43 ''\ 583 2 433 19 42 1883 10 Lohaia, Gaizan, . 3 2 loj 179 233 23 34 Shehr and Makalla, Muscat, . 2 18J 2 4 235 20s '"'j 160 Persia, . S6 Perim Island, ■ J i 3 Cutch, . "e United Kingdom, , 3018 90 Trieste, 437 Massowa, 2 225 r'i 46J 92 92 3 Dankali Ports, Zaila, Berbera, . Zanzibar, Bombay, Mauritius, Total, . 1 3362 3* 10 75 611 2j 4j 35i 124I 78974 61S 428si 2247i 21705 4120 160 PRTNCrPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 125 Sugar-candy is imported from China, Singapore, and Bombay, being called respectively ' Chinchin,' ' Singapori,' and ' Kompti.' The average market price of the various sorts of sugar is given below : — Mauritius Sugar from Rs.4 to Rs.5^ per maund of 28 lbs. avoirdupois. Bengal Sugar from Rs.32 to Rs.35 for a bag of white, and Rs.29 to Rs.30 per bag, brown, each weighing yf maunds (gross). Sugar (loaf) from Rs-sJ to Rs.6 per maund (3 or 4 loaves to a maund). Malabar Sugar from Rs.i^ to Rs. if per maund of 28 lbs. Zanzibar Sugar from Rs. 2 to Rs. 2^ ,, ,, Do. Molasses from Rs.2^ to Rs.3 ,, ,, Sugar-Candy (China) Rs.7| • „ „ Do. (Singapore) Rs.6J „ „ Do. (Bombay) RS.5J to Rs.6 ,, ,, The quantity imported and exported to different places was as follows in 1875-76 : — Imports. Exports. Place. Sugar and Candy. Jagree or Molasses. Place. Sugar and Candy. Jagree or Molasses. France, Holland, Italy, Zanzibar, Egypt, Mauritius, Makalla and Shehr, Muscat, Singapore, Bombay, Malabar, Calcutta, . Total, . Cwts. 72 20 172 50 36 6,825 48 19 5.777 404 1,740 Cwts. I.71S '" 6 2,030 "3 Interior of Arabia, Massowa, Dankali Ports, . Zaila, Berbera, Jiddah, Hodaida, . Mokha, . Lohaia, Gaizan, Farsan, Makalla and Shehr, Persia, Perim, Bombay, . Total, . Cwts. 918 191 8 77 45 45 5. 663 296 195 '5? 28 355 27 ''2 58 Cwts. 228 12 .7 10 •3 3 •.047 166 278 28 14 i,oi8 4 15.750 3.864 8,098 2,828 126 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. (13.) Tobacco. — Tobacco is imported from Suez, United Kingdom, United States of America, Persia, Makalla, Siiehr, Bombay, Madras, and Singapore. Suez. — Turkish tobacco is imported from Egypt, and is used by Europeans, Egyptians, and Turks. It is sold at from Rs.2 to Rs.3 per lb. United Kingdom and United States of America. — Cavendish, or stick tobacco, as it is called, is imported from these places. It is used by the soldiers of the garrison and by sailors. It is sold at about Rs.f per lb. Persia (Nicotina Persica). — Known by the name of ' Shiraz,' or Persian tobacco in English, and ' Kazroon' in Arabic, is imported in large quantities, in an unmanufactured state, for transhipment to Jiddah, Hodaida, Mokha, and the interior of Arabia. It is sold at from Rs.3 to RS.3J per maund of 28 lbs. Makalla and Shehr. — The tobacco imported from these ports is unmanufactured, and is called by the Arabs ' Hamumi.' It is grown at Al'Harai, Ghail, Bowish, Fuah, Al'Kiha, Al'Hutah, and Broom, in Hadhramaut. In the months of October and November beds are prepared of rich soil, into which seed is cast. These beds are then flooded and covered over with dry branches, to protect the seedlings from the heat of the sun. After this the plants are watered every six or seven days, and they are covered with a thin layer of manure consisting of small dried fish. A small quantity of guano (obtained from Socotra and Ras Hafoon) is then used to destroy insects. Beds are prepared for transplantation by being sprinkled with guano, and in about fifty days the plants are bedded out. Cattle -dung manure is used to make the soil richer, and the plants are watered every eight days. When two to two and a half months have elapsed, the stalks are cut down to within three or four inches of the ground ; this crop is called by the Arabs ' Umia,' and is of two kinds, ' Bowraga' and ' Garin,' the latter being the better of the two. In another two months a second crop called ' Akda' is cut in a similar manner, and the plant is allowed to run to seed. It is then taken up by the roots, and the ground is pre- pared for grain, for the growth of which it is used until next season. The land is occasionally allowed to lie fallow. When the green leaves and stalks are cut, they are placed in large store-rooms and suspended with the tops downwards to dry for thirty or forty days ; after drying, the best are removed and made into small bundles. PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. 127 which are piled one over the other, and the mass is pressed with heavy stones for twenty or thirty days ; the tobacco is then ready for the market. ' The prices of the three kinds are : — f Garin, Rs. 10 per maund of 28 lbs. Hamumi, \ Bowraga, Rs.6 to Rs.8 do. do. (. Akda, Rs. i to Rs. 2 do. do. Bombay and Cutch. — The tobacco imported from these places is chiefly that grown in Guzerat, and is uimianufactured. It is called by the Arabs 'Surati,' and is of three sorts — ' Vastanee,' 'Sunow,' and Mehlow.' It arrives in bales weighing 3 and 5 cwt. The first sort is exported to Massowa, the second is used by Somalis and Arabs of the interior, and the third by such of the latter as can a£Ford to purchase it. Snuif, packed in small round earthenware jars, containing J to J lb. each, is impiorted from Kutch. One ' Sallah,' or bamboo basket of circular shape, contains 520, \ lb. jars, or 280, \ lb. jars. It is used by the Arabs of the interior. The prices of Bombay and Kutch tobacco are as follows : — ' Mehlow,' RS.3I to RS.4J per maund of 28 lbs. ' Vastanee,' Rs.2 to Rs. 2J „ 'Sunow,' Rs.if to Rs.2 ,, ,. Snuff (Arabic, Burdagan Nahs) — Rs. 10 to Rs.2 2 per 'sallah' of 520 quarter-pound jars. Rs.10toRs.20 ,, „ 280 half „ „ Madras. — The cigars and cheroots called ' Trichinopoly ' are im- ported fi-om Madras, and ManOla cheroots and cigars from Singa- pore ; they arefused by Europeans, the price being— Trichinopoly cigars and cheroots, Rs-s to Rs.12 per 1000. Manilla „ ,, Rs.30 to Rs.40 „ Indian unmanufactured tobacco is prepared in Aden for use by the Somalis and Arabs, by drying in the sun, after which it is pounded in a wooden mortar until converted into powder ; it is then mixed with sal-ammoniac and retailed as snuff, or ' nassuk,' as it is called by the Arabs. It is sold at 4 annas a bottle. The quantity of tobacco imported and exported during the year 1875-76 was as follows : — 128 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Place. Manufactuked. Unmanufac- tured. Cigars and Cheroots. Imports. Lbs. Lbs. No. United Kingdom, . 4,200 14,000 Austria, . 7,000 France, . 72 22,800 Holland, •.319 17,000 Spain, 3. 500 Turkey in Europe, . 3,546 Greece, . 4.940 Egypt, 2,165 4,250 Makalla and Shehr, 371,056 Muscat, . 336 China, . 56,500 Persia, . 5«5.424 Straits Settlements, 150 98^000 Bombay, 7,535 2,057,888 49,900 Madras, . 58,000 Calcutta, 8,820 Cutch, Total, Exports. 153,504 718,224 186,101 3,663,028 330,950 United Kingdom, 1,000 Malta, . 10,000 Massowa, 376,492 Dankali Coast, 48,132 ZaUa, . 36,744 10,000 Berbera, 38,385 2,000 Other Somali Ports, 2,044 Zanzibar, 227 56,650 Egypt, . 14,252 Jiddah, . 378,448 Hodaida, ".. 337,568 Mocha, .... 463,260 Lohaia, 27,972 Gaizan, . 644 Farsan 1,232 28,224 Ports in the Gulf of Aden, If Muscat 112 Singapore, 164 Perim Island, 2,520 480 Bombay, Cutch, . 1,470 Total, If 1.758.370 79,650 POLICE. 139 FART IV.— ADMINISTRATION. Systkm of Apministration. — The Settlement is presided o^•er by an officer who is styled Political Resident. The duties of military commandant of the garrison are frequently combined with those of civil governor. The Resident resides at Steamer Point on Ras Tarshyne, but his office is in the Crater. The Resident has two assistants, and there is a cantonment magis- trate, who is also, ex offido, an assistant. These officers perform all the civil, revenue, judicial, and ministerial duties of the Settle- ment Aden is politically subject to the Govarnment of Bombay, and is considered for legal purposes as part of British Indix PoucE. — The Aden police force is regulated by Bombay Act vii. of 1S67, and consists of, — a European inspectors ; 2 jemadars ; 6 havildars (ist class) ; 6 ditto (ad class) ; 50 constables (ist class) ; 75 constables (^d class). Total, 141. There is also a water police, as under, — r h.avildars; 10 constables. The second Assistant-Resident is, ex offUio. superintendent of police. The force is distributed as follows : — In the Crater, . . . . S5 Isthmus, ..... 5 M.vala, IS Sto.uner Point, .... 36 Total, 141 The water police are employed afloat in matters connected with the shipping and maritime population. The maintaiance of the force (exdusi\-e of the water police, who are paid from the port fund) costs Government about Rs. 33,000 annually ; Rs.3000 .ire further contributed from municipal collec- tions. In 1S76, II 7 J persons were apprehended by the police, of whom 913 were convicted, and j6o were acquitted and discharged. Civil .\nd Criminal JtreriCK. — The administration of civil and I30 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. criminal justice is regulated by a special Act of the Government of India.' The Bombay Cantonment Act^ is also in force within military limits, as is also Act in. of 1859, which defines the civil jurisdiction of cantonment magistrates. The procedure in civil cases is that followed in the Mofussil in India ; in criminal matters the Indian Criminal Procedure Code ' is the guide, and the Indian Penal Code is the substantive criminal law. Most of the Acts of the Government of India that are applicable to the whole of British India are in force at Aden, as also are others that have been specially extended ; this is the case with some Acts of the Bombay Government. Aden has been declared to be one of the scheduled districts by Government of India Act xiv. of 1874. Civil suits are disposed of daily in the Resident's Court, situated in the Crater, by the Assistants to the Resident, and the Registrar of this Court has been invested with jurisdiction, under Section 40, Act XI. of 1865,* to hear and determine suits not exceeding Rs.20. In 1876, 2796 suits were disposed of in the above manner, to the value of Rs.142,941. The cost of the maintenance of the establishment on both the civil and criminal sides of the Resident's Court amounts annually to about Rs.ii,ooo, and the receipts on account of Court Fees, etc., to Rs. 17,000 and upwards. The officers exercising criminal jurisdiction are : — Political Resident,' . . ( Magistrate of the District, Justices of I the Peace, and Sessions Judge, ist Assistant Resident, . \ 2d Ditto, . f ist Class Magistrates and Justices of Cantonment Magistrate f the Peace. and ex officio Assistant, / Officer Commanding Aden ) ^^ ^,^^^ Magistrate. Troop, J Officer Commanding at ) Power to punish native followers under Perim, / Sec. 166, Act v. of 1869. One of the Assistants to the Resident sits daily on the bench, in the Court House in the Crater, to try magisterial cases and to hear ' See Appendix B., p. 203. '^ Bombay, Act III. of 1867. ' Act X. of 1872. ■* Mofussil Small Cause Court Act. ' The Resident has also jurisdiction as a Judge of the Vice- Admiralty Court in connection with the Slave Trade Treaties made with the Sultan of Zanzibar and other Chiefs. PJ^/SONS. 131 complaints, etc. There is also a Court-house at Steamer PoiDt, where cognisable cases, occurring in that locality and on board the shipping in harbour, are disposed of by the Assistant who resides in that part of the Settlement The Cantonment Magistrate tries cases arising in military limits, and the Officer Commanding the Aden Troop exercises jurisdiction over offences occurring outside the barrier gate within British limits. The number of cases disposed of in the Resident's Court by the Magistrates in the Settlement in 1876 was 717, and the number of persons arraigned was 1172. Fifty per cent, of the offences occurring in the Settlement .ore committed by the Somalis, whose savage instincts are essentially predatory and decidedly bellicose. Serious crimes are not of frequent occurrence ; only one execution has taken place in the last ten years.* An office for the Registration of Deeds and Assurances is esublished in Aden, which has been declared a Registration Dis- trict under Act viii. of 187 1. This establishment is superintended by the ist Assistant Resident, who is ex officio Registrar, the head clerk of the Resident's court being Sub-Registrar. In 1S75-76, 208 compulsory and :;4 optional registrations took place, the documents presented being principally mortgages. The value of the property affected was Rs.23S,s6i. There has always hitherto been, and probably always will be, a yearly deficit in tlie maintenance of this office. Prisons. — The Aden jail is not a very substantial building, con- sisting merely of a few sheds surrounded by a high wall ; but it has been found that this style of construction is best suited to the climate, and escapes are almost unheard of. The jail is under the superintendence of the Civil Surgeon, as is the practice in India. The cost of maintenance of prisoners, including charges for the fixed establishment and the military guard, seldom amounts to less than Rs.300 per head per annum. The daily average of prisoners aggregated seventy-five in the year 1S75-76. The produce of con- vict labour was sold for Rs. 1 795 in the same year. There is also a Civil Jail, in which a limited number of debtors can be confined, but the inmates seldom exceed fifteen or si.Kteen per annum, and the daily average of prisoners is barely one. The building is hired for the purpose, and the annual expenditure amounts to Rs.240. ' Among the ci\-il population. 132 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Municipal System.— Shortly after the occupation of Aden it became obvious that some means must be speedily taken to insure the town being built with regularity, and after full consideration Government decided to grant land for building purposes on condi- tion that the holders consent to pay all taxes which Government might see fit to impose thereafter, and further to pay a quit-rent of one pie^ per square yard ; this ground-rent however was not insisted on till 1855. The proceeds of this cess were to be devoted to municipal pur- poses, and form the nucleus of a ' Municipal Fund.' Gradually it became necessary to impose certain small taxes for the improve- ment of the town, such as sweeping and watering cess, horse, donkey, and camel tax ; the proceeds of the sale of water from wells were also credited to this fund. Brigadier-General Coghlan, who was then Political Resident, by his vigorous administration, speedily reduced matters to order, and in 186 1 Government decided to leave the Political Resident entirely unfettered in all matters relating to the fund. Tables are annexed showing the various rates, taxes, etc., now in force. Until 1874 the establishment and expenses of the Resident's Court were paid from the Municipal Fund, to which all judicial fines, fees on summonses, and other civil and criminal processes, were credited; but 'The Court Fees Act'^ was introduced into the Settlement in the above year, and the cost of the judicial establish- ment and contingent expenses are now defrayed by Government. The receipts of the Municipal Fund amounted to Rs. 5 7,868 in 1875-76, this income being realised from the sources shown in Table A ; and the expenditure, besides the entertainment of the various establishments for lighting, scavenging, watering, etc., purposes, is devoted to various works of improvement. The superintendence of municipal matters is usually in the hands of the Second Assistant Resident, who however is compelled to refer all questions of annual expenditure to the Resident for sanc- tion. There can be no doubt the Settlement is not yet ripe for muni- cipal government under the Indian system. There are but few really influential inhabitants, and there are many foreign merchants, whose stay is seldom protracted beyond a few years, and who on their departure sever all connection with the place. It does not ' Increased to two pies per square yard in 1861. ' Government of India Act vii. of 1870. LIST OF TAXES, ETC. 133 seem advisable that in a purely military settlement like Aden the Resident's authority should be other than absolute in municipal matters. Table A. List of Taxes, Rates, etc., payable to the Aden Municipal Fund. Rate. Per Amount realised Licenses. in 1875-76. R. A. P. I. Liquor shop, . Rs.so Annum, 650 2. Tobacco shop, „ 3 », 801 3. Coffee shop, . 25 ,, 1,195 4. Booza shop. , IS », 97 8 5. Carriage, . . 3 Each, . 344 6. Cart, , 2 », 54 7. Camel, . , I ,1 ■' 120 8. Boat, , 2 ,j . 210 9. Donkey, . , I ,» 26 00 10. Arms, . 2 », • 12 n. Lime-kiln, . 3 Quarter, 51 Total, . Taxes. 3,560 8 R. A. p. I. Carriage,'. Rs.3 Mensem, 1,683 2. Cart,' „ 2 402 3. Camel,' . As. 8 484 8 4. Boat,' Rs. 2 1,442 5. Donkey,'. „ I 204 6. StaU, 1st Class, ,, 4 1,992 „ 2d ,, „ 2 2,640 „ 3d .. >, I 3,450 7. Sweeping Tax on 1 Kutcha Huts, j As. 2 250 square feet per \ annum, . . ' 2,718 11 6 8. Quit-rent, Pies 2 Square yard p. annur a 5,264 7 Rs. 3 1-200 sq. yds. ,, ' ,. 6 201-500 ,, ,, . 9 501-1000 ,, ,, 9. Sweeping tax, . , 12 , 15 , 18 , 21 1001-1500 ,, ,, 1501-2000 ,, „ 2001-2500 ,, ,, 2501-5000 ,, „ ► 9,144 . 24 5001 and upwards „ . ID. Watering tax,* . Total, . . 3 Each separate grant. 1,449 30,873 10 6 ' Levied in addition to the License Fee. ' Levied only in those quarters of the town which are watered. 134 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Table B. Fees. Rate. Per Amount realised in 1875-76. R. A. P. As. 8 .. 4 Camel, . Bull or cow, . I. Poimdage, ,. 4 Horse, . Donkey, Goat or sheep. 306 2 .. I Dog, . 2. Notice, . .. 4 Each, . 39 3. Building memo. >. 4 ,, . . . 25 12 4. Water tickets, . >, 2 ,, . . . 69 12 5. Registration of car- riage-drivers, . >> 4 )) 4 12 Rs. s .. 4 » 4 Camel, . Horse, . Cow or buU, . 6. Burial of carcases, ., 2 " 4 Donkey, Goat or sheep. Kid, . 93 13 As. 6 Dog, . J 7. Grants for wells. Rs.io Each, . 20 8. ,, „ land. ,, 10 )i • • • 35° 9. Tom-toming notices. „ 2/6/0 ,, . . . 260 10 f .. 6 Deed of sale, . '\ 622 10. Drawing up deeds, . < .. 3 Mortgages, . . > 237 \ .. 3 Deed of gift, . . I 3 II. Removmg pumice for export, . >> I Per ton. 930 3 2 12. Fees received from Resident's Court, main gate passes. etc J to f kaila I pailee to J As. 2 Camel-load of grain, " „ gingelly seed, ,, cofiFee, . 202 4 13. Fees on Articles I, I ,, aloes, . weighed or measured ■ .. 3 „ ghee, . . ■ 5-631 2 I in the Zareeba,^ „3 » 2 ,, skins, . Camel-load henna madee, Total, . „ all other articles, . 8,795 6 3 1 • These articles are weighed and measured under Government superintendence to prevent the Bedawins from the interior being imposed upon. LAND TENURE. 135 Table C. Miscellaneous. Amount realised in 1875-76. 1. Wells, by sale of water, 2. do., by lease to contractor, . 3. Coal grounds,' assessment of 2 pies per square yard. Total, . R. A. P. 4,337 4 1,498 603 13 10 6,439 • 10 Land Tenure. — The terms on which land is granted in Aden are of two descriptions :^ — (a.) Ground conceded for building purposes within the limits of the townships. {b!) Land leased to individuals or companies on the foreshore and elsewhere for a specific purpose. (a.) Ground conceded for building purposes is granted to appli- cants by the Political Resident, under the general sanction of Government, conveyed in 1842, on the following conditions : — I St, The ground shall be examined and measured by an officer appointed to that duty. 2d. Buildings hereafter erected on the ground shall be constructed straight with the line of road or street, shall be pucka built, or of mud and stone, chunamed outside, and coloured yellow or grey. 3d. Government shall receive a quit-rent for the same, and such other local taxes as may from time to time be fixed. 4th. If the building or buildings be not completed within a reason- able time, the ground to be liable to resumption without compensa- tion. Government, on the other hand, in the event of the ground being required for public purposes, engage to give fair compensation^ (d.) All other land is leased subject to an assessment and certain specified conditions as to term, etc., and is resumable under the provisions of the Land Acquisition Act ' — the main point of diff'er- • Peninsula and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, Messageries Maritimes Company, Luke Thomas and Company, Messrs. Cowasjee Dinshaw and Brothers, Aden Coal Company. ' Does not include ground temporarily granted for the erection of reed and mat houses or sheds. ' Government of India Act x. of 1870. 136 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. ence being that land held under (a) is inalienable, but transferable at will to other owners, whereas property held under {b) is not trans- ferable without the sanction of Government. The latter kind of tenure is that under which pieces of land are held by various private companies, to be used as coal-grounds, and for the erection of condensers, ice-manufactories, and warehouses. The assessment charged on ground occupied under {V), and the quit-rent paid by the holders under (a), is at present the same, and amounts to two pies per square yard per annum. Several companies hold land under special conditions, not included in those mentioned above, but it is uimecessary here to refer to these isolated cases, which have arisen out of unforeseen contingencies, and cannot affect any future grants of land. The Settlement is divided into three portions : — (i.) The town of Aden. (2.) The village of Maala. (3.) The township of Steamer Point. Each of these is again subdivided into sections; the number of houses in each of the divisions is as follows : — /''■ Stone. Reeds and Mats. / Town of Aden, . . . 1879 432 1 Village of Maala, . . 213 562 ' , Township of Steamer Point, . 300 Nil. No formal grants are made in the case of houses constructed of mats and reeds, but each holder receives a memo, showing the position of the ground given, and its boundaries. It also exhibits the amount leviable monthly on account of sweeping-tax, which is the only rate collected on houses of this description ; the present cess is at the rate of 2 annas per 20 square yards. A full account of the various municipal taxes, levied in the case of stone houses, will be found under the head of Municipal System (see ante), from which it will be observed that all collections on account of quit-rent and assessment are credited to the municipal fund. Finance. — Financially speaking, Aden is a heavy burden on the revenues of India. The amount collected for imperial purposes is very small, only an average of Rs.53,000 per annum for the past three years. This sum is made up of excise on spirits and drugs, about Rs. 20,000, stamps,! Rs. 10,000, and miscellaneous, Rs. 23,000. ' Not including postage stamps, which come under the head of Remittance Account. TREASURY AND ACCOUNT. 137 The sum credited to the provincial revenues averages Rs. 13,000, consisting of receipts on account of jail manufactures, registration, printing, medical and miscellaneous collections. The expenditure from imperial revenues is about Rs. 16,50,000, made up as follows: — military department, Rs. 13,00,000 ; public works, Rs.2,4o,oooj miscellaneous, Rs. 1,10,000. The disbursements on account of provincial services average R.59,000 yearly. Aden therefore costs India nearly 15^ lacs of rupees per annum, or roughly ;£^iso,ooo. Her Majesty's Government do not contribute anything from British or Colonial revenues towards the support of the Settlement, although Great Britain, Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, and China all partake equally with India in the benefits derived from Aden being a British possession. The local income and expenditure from marine and municipal sovu'ces will be found mentioned under those heads. Treasury and Account. — The treasury is in charge of the Political Resident, one of whose Assistants performs the duties of treasury officer. The system of accounts in use is that termed the ' unclassified.' Most military payments are made by cheques drawn by the military paymaster in Bombay. The executive engineer has a drawing account against a monthly credit order ; the commissariat officer has a yearly assignment, against which he draws, as also is the case with the paymaster of the British regiment A cash account is furnished monthly to the accountant-general in Bombay, to whom lists of payments are also sent The monthly receipts average Rs. 1,70,000,1 and the disbursements Rs. 1,80,000. There are three ways of filUng the treasury — by remittances in silver, by remittances in notes, and by granting supply-bills to local merchants on Bombay. The latter, which is obviously the most convenient and least expen- sive method, is not always possible, being affected by the specie remittances that are made to Zanzibar and the neighbouring Arabian "ports, as also by the rate of exchange. Notes are in great demand in Aden for remittance purposes ; and were it not opposed to the accountant-general's orders to issue notes in ex- change for cash where it is known they will be used for remittance purposes, it would only under very exceptional circumstances be ever necessary to obtain consignments of silver from India. Abkari Revenue.— The following contracts are sold yearly :— 1 Includes money received on account of supply-bills and remittances. 138 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. (i.) Contract for the exclusive privilege of sale of malt and spiri- tuous liquors to petty officers and seamen of the Royal Navy and Indian Marine ; to the crews of all merchant vessels, British or foreign ; to the inhabitants of the Settlement ; to the native troops and followers, and to European troops in the Cantonment, under passes from commanding officers (not including sergeants' messes and canteens). (2.) Contract for the exclusive privilege of the manufacture and sale of date liquor for the use of the Jewish community only. (3.) Contract for the exclusive privilege of the sale of opium by retail. 1 (4.) Contract for the exclusive privilege of the sale of ganja and charas by retail. ' (5.) Contract for the exclusive privilege of the sale of madad and chundul by retail.^ (6.) License for the sole privilege of recovering the duty ^ on kat imported into Aden. An average annual revenue of Rs.6465 is collected from this last source, and is credited to the municipal fund. Contracts i to 5 are sold under Regulation 21 of 1827 and Act III. of 1852. No. 6 is more in the nature of ,an octroi duty on a luxury, and the proceeds are devoted to municipal purposes. The Resident also grants a limited number of licenses to shop and hotel keepers to retail spirits, etc., to particular classes, under certain restrictions, in consideration of a fee of Rs.so per annum for each license, the proceeds being credited to the municipal fund. Liquor. — The farmers of Contract No. i are permitted to have a limited number of shops in the Settlement, and at present they have six. They sell rum, arrack, and French brandy to the poorer classes, and Europe wines, spirits, and malt liquor to others. Natives are allowed to drink on the premises of the contractors, but they are not permitted to remove liquor, except under passes signed by magistrates or commanding officers. Date Liquor. — The farmers of contract No. 2 possess one distil- lery, and are only permitted to sell liquor at one shop to the Jewish community. In former times Jews used to distil in their own • To the native inhabitants of the Settlement, and to the native troops and foUovirers in the Cantonment. ' The authorised duty for every 25 lbs. weight of Makhtrai kat, and for every 30 lbs. of Sabrai kat is R. I. ABKARI RE VENUE. 139 houses. For an account of the process of distilling, see Part III., Manufactures and Industries. Opium. — The farmers of Contract No. 3 purchase opium from the Government depot at Government rates, and sell at eleven annas per tola. The sale of opium is permitted at only one shop, and more than quarter of a Sural seer must not be sold, within three successive days, to one individual, except under a magisterial pass. Europeans may not purchase at all, except under a pass. Smug- gling of inferior opium from the interior is sometimes detected and punished. Ganja atid Cfiaras. — These articles are sold from Rs.3 to Rs.io per maund ; but, in order to prevent abuse, ganja may not be sold in Aden at less than Rs.ioo per maund, and charas at Rs.200 per maund. Only one retail shop is allowed. Madad and Chundul. — These are preparations of opium. The contractor purchases the latter drug from the licensed farmer at eleven annas a tola, out of which weight he makes eighteen balls of madad or chundul, and sells them at an anna each. Only one retail shop is allowed. K&t. — The following description of this drug is from the London Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xii.. No. 5, Nov. i, 1859 — Notes upon the Drugs observed at Aden, Arabia, by James Vaughan, M.R.C.S.E., Assistant-Surgeon, B.A., Civil and Port-Surgeon, Aden, Arabia : — ' Kat, the name of a drug which is brought into Aden from the interior, and largely used, especially by the Arabs, as a pleasurable excitant It is generally imported in small camel-loads, consisting of a number of parcels, each containing about forty slender twigs, with the leaves attached and carefully wrapped so as to prevent as much as possible exposure to the atmosphere. The leaves form the edible part, and these, when chewed, are said to produce great hilarity of spirits, and an agreeable state of wakefulness. Some estimate may be formed of the strong predilection which the Arabs have for this drug from the quantity used in Aden alone, which averages about 280^ camel-loads annually. The market price is one and a quarter rupee per parcel, and the exclusive privilege of selling it is farmed by the Government for 1500 2 rupees per year. Forskkl found the plant growing on ±e mountains of Yemen, and has enumerated it as a new genus in the class Pentandria, under the name of Catha. He notices two species, and distinguishes 1 In 1876, 1200. ' In 1876, Rs-Sooo for privil^e of collecting duty on. 140 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. them as Catha edulis and Catha spinosa. According to his account, it is cultivated on the same ground as coffee, and is planted from cuttings. Besides the effects above stated, the Arabs, he tells us, believe the land where it grows to be secure from the inroads of plague, and that a twig of the kit carried in the bosom is a certain safeguard against infection. The learned botanist observes, with respect to these supposed virtues, " Gustus foliorum tamen virtutem tantam indicare non videtur." Like coffee, kit, from its acknow- ledged stimulating effects, has been a fertile theme for the exercise of Mahomedan casuistry, and names of renown are ranged on both sides of the question, whether the use of kit does or does not con- travene the injunction of the Koran, — " Thou shalt not drink wine or anything intoxicating.'" The succeeding notes, borrowed chiefly from De Lac/s researches, may be deemed worthy of insertion here : — ' Sheikh Abdul Kadir Ansari Jezeri, a learned Mahomedan author, in his treatise on the use of coffee, quotes the following from the writings of Fakr-ud-DIn Makki : — " It is said that the first who introduced coffee was the illustrious saint Abu Abdallah Mahomed Dhabbani ibn Said ; but we have learned, by the testi- mony of many persons, that the use of coffee in Yemen, its origin, and first introduction into that country, are due to the learned Ali Shadeli ibn Omar, one of the disciples of the learned Doctor Nasr-ud-Dln, who is regarded as one of the chiefs among the Order of Shadeli, and whose worth attests the high degree of spiri- tuality to which they had attained. Previous to that time they made coffee of the vegetable substance called cafta, which is the same as the leaf known under the name of kit, and not of boon (the coffee-berry), nor any preparation of boon. The use of this beverage extended, in course of time, as far as Aden, but in the days of Mahomed Dhabbani the vegetable substance from which it was prepared disappeared from Aden. Then it was that the Sheikh advised those who had become his disciples to try the drink made from the bpon, which was found to produce the same effect as the kit, inducing sleeplessness, and that it was attended with less expense and trouble. The use of coffee has been kept up from that time to the present." ' D'Herbelot states that the beverage called ' calmat al catiat' or ' caftah ' was prohibited in Yemen, in consequence of its effects upon the brain. On the other hand, a synod of learned Mussulmans is said to have decreed that, as beverages of kit and caftah do not impair the health, or impede the observance of religious duties, but MILITAR V. 141 only increase hilarity and good humour, it was lawful to use them, as also the drink made from the boon or coffee-berry. I am not aware that kat is used in Aden in any other way than for mastica- tion. From what I have heard, however, I believe that a decoction resembling tea is made from the leaf by the Arabs in the interior ; and one who is well acquainted with our familiar beverage assures me that the effects are not unlike those produced by strong green tea, with this advantage in favour of kat, that the excitement is always of a pleasing and agreeable kind.' ^ Military. — The garrison is commanded by an oflScer holding the rank of Brigadier-general, and consisted, on the ist January 1877, of three batteries of Garrison Artillery, under the command of a Colonel, with an Adjutant as Staff-officer, one British Infantry regiment (less one company), one Native Infantry regiment, one company of Native Sappers and Miners, and one hundred sabres of Cavalry, called the ' Aden Troop.' ^ • ' Mr. Vaughan has transmitted two specimens, called Sabrai kit and Makhtrai kit, from the districts in which they are produced ; the latter fetches the lower price. Catha edulis (Forsk.), Nat. Ord. Celastraceae, is figured in Dr. Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom, p. 588 (London, 1846). But there is a still more complete representation of the plant, under the name of Catha Forskalii Richard, in a work published under the auspices of the French Government, entitled Voyage en Abyssinie ixecuti pendant les annies 1839-1843, par une com- mission scientifique composee de MM. Th^ophile Lefebvre, Lieut, du Vaisseau, A. Petit et Martin-Dillon, docteurs medecins, naturalistes du Museum, Vignaud dessinateur. The botanical portion of this work, by M. Achille Richard, is regarded either as a distinct publication, under the title of Tentamen Flora Abyssinicce, or as a part of the Voyage en Abyssinie. M, Richard enters into some of the particulars relative to the S3Tionyms of the plant, from which it appears that Vahl referred Forskal's genus Catha to the Linnsean genus Celastrus, changing the name of Catha edulis to Celastrus edulis. Hochstetter applied the name of Celastrus edulis to an Abyssinian species (Celastrus obscurus, Richard), which he imagined identical with Forskal's Catha edulis ; while, of the real Catha edulis, Forsk., he formed a new genus and species, under the name of Trigonotheca serrata, Hochs., Nat. Ord. Hippocrataceae. I quote the following references from the Tentamen Florce Abyssinicce, vol. i. p. 134 :— Catha Forskalii Nob. Catha, No. 4, Forsk., loc. cit. (Flor. ..Egypt. Arab., p. 63) ; Trigonotheca serrata, Hochs., in pi. Schimp. Abyss., sect. ii. No. 649; Celastrus eduhs, Vahl Eel. i. 21. Although, in the Flora ^gyptiaco Arabica of Forskal, no specific name is applied to the Catha at p. 63, it is enumerated as Catha edulis at p. 107. The reference to Celastrus edulis is not contained in the Eclogts Americance of Vahl, but in the author's Symbolce Botanies (Hanmse, 1790, fol.), pars. i. p. 21 (Daniel Hanbury, signed). ' " A local corps, one hundred strong, raised for service in the interior. Twenty Arabs of the Abdali and Fadhli tribes, mounted on camels, are attached to the troop as guides. 142 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. The Staff-officers usually are, — one Brigade-major, one Commis- sary of Ordnance, one Executive Engineer, one Assistant Engineer, and one Executive Commissariat Officer. The troops are stationed in the following positions ; — Steamer Point, — head-quarters, and two batteries of Garrison Artillery, and two companies of British Infantry. Isthmus Position, — two com- panies of British and two companies Native Infantry. Crater (camp), — head-quarters and remainder of British Infantry, head- quarters and four companies Native Infantry, a battery of Garrison Artillery, and the company of Sappers and Miners. Khor Maksar, — the Aden Troop. Perim, — fifty rank and file of Native Infantry, under a European officer. The reliefs are generally arranged as follows : — The British regi- ment remains one year, and leaves for England in a troop-ship about February, being relieved by another regiment from India. The Artillery are portion of the brigade which garrisons Bombay (Colaba), and batteries usually remain two years in Aden. The Native Infantry regiment is relieved every two years, as is also the company of Sappers and Miners. The Aden Troop are a local corps, and do not move. The native troops and followers, as well as the British troops, draw rations at Aden. The cost per head per annum is seldom less than — British soldier, Rs.iSol Native do., . 77 1 per head. Public followers, . 53' Native troops draw also field batta. Perim is provisioned for three months during the north-east, and six months during the south-west monsoon. Fortifications. — Since its capture in 1839 by the British, great attention has been paid to the fortifying of Aden, and all the latest improvements in engineering and artillery are about to be applied to render it even stronger than it now is. The isthmus is guarded by massive lines of defence, strengthened by a broad ditch, bastions, demi-bastions, redans, and casements, armed with what was formerly considered heavy ordnance ; this line is divided into two parts by a hill which is pierced by a tunnel. A line of scarp running along the Munsoorie range of hills, de- fended by batteries and towers, connects the two ends of the isthmus defences, and completes the enceinte of the defensible position. Within it are located an arsenal, magazine, barracks for MARINE. 143 a portion of the garrison, a condenser, capacious water tanks, wells, and a few public buildings. A tunnel, 350 YaiA% long, connects the isthmus position, as it is called, with the Crater. The seaward defences consist of martello towers, batteries on the hills, piers of obstruction, and other subservient works. At Steamer Point there are heavy batteries on Ras Tarshyne and Ras Morbat, and a mole battery has been constructed at the extremity of the latter head- land. Trooping. — The annual relief of the British regiment arrives in one of the Indian troop-ships about the end of February ; the regi- ment for Aden is landed, and the regiment for England is put on board under local arrangements. The superintendence of the embarkation and disembarkation is intrusted to the Conservator of the port, who hires lighters and steam-tugs for the purpose. At present there are five steam-tugs available for towing purposes, of which Messrs. Luke, Thomas, and Company own two, and the Peninsular and Oriental Company, the Messageries Maiitimes Company, and the Aden Coal Company, one each. On three occasions within the past six years the troop-ships have entered the inner harbour, greatly facilitating the embarkation and debarkation of the troops. When the vessel remains outside, the operation can seldom be accomplished under twelve hours ; otherwise six hours suffice. The other reliefs arrive in Indian Government vessels, or steamers chartered by Government, and similar arrangements are made for shipping and landing the troops. Marine. — The Port of Aden is regulated by the Indian Ports Act,^ under which a port-due of i anna, and a pilotage-fee of 4 pies, per registered ton, is levied. These collections are employed for the support and maintenance of the Harbour Establishment and plant ; considerable sums are also expended in improvements ; the cast-iron shed over the Saluting Pier, and the iron extension of the Post-Office Pier were paid for from the Port Fund ; the deepening of the harbour is under consideration, and borings in connection with the project are now being executed. The port is in charge of a Conservator, who attends to all matters connected with the berthing, mooring, etc., of vessels that enter the harbour. The lighthouses^ attached to the Settlement are also in > Government of India Act xil. of 1875. ' See Appendix C. , p. 207. 144 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. charge of this officer. In accordance with the above-quoted Act, Port Rules! ^ave been published by the authority of Government. During the year 1875-76 the number of vessels that entered the port was 999 ; they were classified as follows : — Royal Navy, 23 Her Majesty's troop-ship, 5 Indian Government vessels, . 21 Merchant steamers. 846 Foreign ships of war, . 19 Foreign troop-ships. 39 Merchant sailing ships, . 46 Total, 999 The passenger boats that ply in the harbour are under the control of the Conservator of the Port, and are licensed under Bombay Act VI. of 1863. A shipping office is attached to that of the harbour, and is chiefly useful for the relief of distressed seamen, and for the regis- tration and noting of protests, the Conservator of the Port being always appointed a Justice of the Peace for this purpose. The duties of transport officer are performed by the Conservator of the Port, as also those under the Native Passengers Act.^ The balance to the credit of the Port Fund on the 31st August 1876 was Rs. 2,15,502. The pilotage fees collected in 1875-76 amounted to Rs.15,550, and the harbour dues to Rs.54,455 ; the total revenue for that period, including sale of stores and other miscellaneous items, being Rs.71,104, and the expenditure amounted to Rs.57,891. There are two European, three native, and two apprentice pilots, besides seventy-eight Lascars, in the harbour and pilotage depart- ments. Royal Navy and Indian Marine. — Since the opening of the Suez Canal, it has become more and more obvious that a vessel of war of some size should always be stationed at Aden. The Egyp- tians have seven or eight, and the Turks three or four men-of-war always in the vicinity. Moreover, the visits of ships of foreign xiavies are becoming more frequent yearly. It seldom, however, happens that the Admiral on the East India Station, within whose ' See Appendix D., p. 208. * Government of India Act viii. of 1876. MEDICAL AID. 145 command Aden lies, finds it in his power to send anything larger than a gun-boat, or at best a sloop of war, to this port. A vessel of the Indian Marine is almost invariably in harbour. She is under the orders of the Political Resident, who employs her in carrying out the relief of the Native Infantry detachment at Perim, on political duty to the neighbouring ports of Arabia and Africa, and to render assistance to vessels that may be wrecked, or otherwise disabled, in the vicinity. For an account of the services rendered in this way by Indian Government vessels, see ' Wrecks and Casualties,' Part VI. Medical Aid. — Besides the military hospitals attached to the troops composing the garrison, there are three places where medical aid is afforded gratis to the general public : — {a.) The Civil Hospital. {b.) The Prince of Wales Charitable Dispensary. (c.) The European General Hospital and Dispensary. (a.) The Civil Hospital. — This hospital is situated in the centre of the town, and is in charge of the civil surgeon, who is always a commissioned officer of the Indian Medical Department. He resides in the Crater, and affords medical assistance to all Govern- ment servants living in that locality. The Civil Hospital was built by voluntary subscription in i860; the establishment is kept up by Government at an average outlay of Rs. 20,000 per annum, and the municipality contribute from Rs.3000 to Rs.4000 yearly towards the support and maintenance of this hospital, which is conveniently located for the inhabitants.^ It accommodates fifty patients without overcrowding.^ The patients seeking advice and relief are for the most part pilgrims and mendicants, but persons of a better class from the provinces of Yemen and Hadhramaut, and from the coast of Africa, come to be operated on, or to receive medicine. (b!) The Prince of Wales Charitable Dispensary. — This institution was established in commemoration of the visit of His Royal High- ness the Prince of Wales to Aden in November 1875. The native inhabitants of the Settlement subscribed Rs. 20,000, Government gives a yearly grant in aid of Rs.2000, and the Municipal Fund ' Native seamen, and servants who are entitled to medical aid from their em- ployers, are charged a small daily sum for subsistence. 2 This excludes the ' Mayo Ward,' erected in 1870 to memorialise the visit of Lord Mayo, who presented a donation of £,il, and a similar amount was con- tributed by the inhabitants. This ward is used for special surgical cases. K 146 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. contributes Rs.iooo per annum. A native assistant-surgeon of the Indian Medical Department is in medical charge. The Dispensary is conveniently situated in the Crater, and the average daily attend- ance is nearly loo. Since this Dispensary was opened a very large number of native inhabitants have sought medical advice from the native assistant- surgeon in charge. For some reason or other there seems to be a reluctance on the part of the inhabitants to consult European prac- titioners unless in severe illness'(except in the case of Parsis and other educated natives of India), but this does not extend to surgical operations. (f.) The European General Hospital and Dispensaryy — This hospital is at Steamer Point, and is in charge of a commissioned member of the Indian Medical Department, who is port surgeon, and attends Government servants who live in that part of the Settle- ment. The chief inmates are seamen of the British and Foreign Marine. There is accommodation for twenty-four patients. The cost of the establishment and maintenance is defrayed by Government, and amounts to Rs. 7600 annually, exclusive of the salary of the medical officer in charge. R. i per diem on account of diet is charged for each patient in the general ward, and Rs.2 for each ship's officer or other person treated in the separate ward. A boat and crew are placed at the disposal of the port surgeon for the performance of his duties afloat, and the expense of this establishment is borne by the Port Fund. These men are also useful for quarantine and sanitary purposes within harbour limits. Contagious Diseases. — The rules framed under section xi. of Bombay Act iii. of 1867 have been extended to civil limits, and all the known prostitutes in the Settlement are registered. These women are compelled to live in a particular place set apart for them. There are at present nineteen registered prostitutes ; but there is every reason to believe that a very large number of women, who are not on the register, practise prostitution, yet the amount of disease is comparatively small ; the number of admissions into hos- pital from venereal disease at Aden among the European troops was only 76-37 per 1000 in 1875, Karachi being the only station during that year, in the Bombay Presidency, where the admissions were less. ' The present building is very unsuitable, and the construction of a new hospital has been under contemplation for many years past. Aden is apparently not better off than Bombay in this respect. ECCLESIASTICAL ARRANGEMENTS. 147 Most of the public prostitutes are Somalis ; there are also a few Arabs. These unfortunate women have to pay a daily sum for the hire of a house, furniture, clothes, and ornaments, and they are all addicted to intemperance. Ecclesiastical Arrangements. — Protestant. — From the capture of Aden by the British up to the year 1864 there was no church, and service was conducted in what were called ' divine sheds ;' one of the woodcuts in the last charge delivered by Bishop Harding is a sketch representing one of these temporary substitutes for a church. The reproach was however removed in the above year, for, from funds partly raised by public subscription (chiefly on board the Peninsular and Oriental Company's steamers, where many passengers to India must recollect seeing a box labelled 'Aden Church'), and pardy by Government contribution, a handsome church was erected at Steamer Point, which was consecrated by Bishop Harding on the loth January 1864. The chancel is 96 feet long and 52 feet wide. The church can accommodate 350 persons, and is called ' Christ Church.' In the Crater, Government have built a church,^ which was conse- crated by Bishop Douglas on the 7th November 1871. The size of the church is as follows : — The nave. The two transepts, The chancel, The vestry, . There are seats for about 350 people. Both the above churches are served by a chaplain, who is ap- pointed and paid by Government. A service is held once every Sunday in each church, and occasionally on week-days. In the absence of the chaplain, prayers are read by one of the officers of the garrison. Cemeteries. — There are four cemeteries at Aden, two in the Crater, and two at Steamer Point ; one in each place is now disused. The chaplain is in charge of these cemeteries, and Government allows Rs.iS per mensem to water trees and to keep them in order. The rules for the erection of monuments, eta, are the same as those in force in India, and the usual estabUshment for the church and cemeteries is maintained by Government. Roman Catholic. — The Roman Catholic mission at Aden was > Church of St. Mary the Virgin. ■ 44 X 30 . . . IS' X 3°' . 22' X 14' . 11' X 1\ 148 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. founded in 1840, soon after the British occupation. It is perfectly independent of all other missions, and is subservient only to the head of the Roman Catholic Church. The superior has the title of Prefect Apostolic ; he enjoys the same faculties as bishops, save the ordination of priests. In 1855 the mission was intrusted to the Order of Saint Francis of Assisi (instituted in 121 2), the members of which are called Capuchins. The order has numerous missions in different parts of the world, and, as regards British possessions in the East, is intrusted with the apostolic charge of Agra and Patna, and also with that of the Seychelles Islands. The Roman Catholic community in Aden, whose spiritual wants these ministers attend to, is composed of Europeans of different nationalities, and Indians, AbyssinianS, Shoas, Swahilis, etc. One of the resident missionaries is appointed by Government Roman Catholic chaplain to the troops of the garrison. Divine service is performed every Sunday at the chapels in the Crater and Steamer Point, and in the barracks at the Isthmus Position. All the build- ings occupied or used by the mission, including the chapel in the Crater (built 1852), and that at Steamer Point (built i860), the residence of the missionaries, and the convent, were constructed at the cost of the mission, out of subscriptions and donations collected from Catholics of different nations. Convent. — The nuns, or sisters of the ' Good Shepherd,' came to Aden in 1868, with a view to their educating girls of all persuasions, and also to afford an asylum to any converts or reformed characters. The chief convent of the 'Good Shepherd's' Institute is at Angers (Department of Maine-et-Loire), in France. The nuns residing in Aden are usually British-born subjects. The order possesses several convents in England and Ireland, as well as in other British possessions. Education. — In 1856 Brigadier-General Coghlan, at the sug- gestion of the Rev. P. Badger, then chaplain of Aden, obtained Government sanction to the establishment of a school in the Settlement. The object sought was to enable the inhabitants of Aden to give their children a good sound education, and it was also hoped that the surrounding Arab chiefs would make use of the institution to educate their children, and thus, in time, some of the deep-rooted fanatic prejudices common to most Arabs against people of other religions might become modified, if not eradicated. The services of a well-educated Englishman were obtained as head- master, and he was assisted by an adequate staff of teachers. The EDUCATION. 149 ignorance and apathy of the inhabitants, however, and the with- holding of their patronage by the chiefs, led to the abolishing of this school within the short period of two years. In 1866, Colonel Merewether, then Resident, applied and ob- tained sanction to the re-opening of a Government School at Aden, but it was this time established on a less pretentious basis and on a less expensive scale. The idea of giving the institution the character of a college or academy was wisely put on one side, and nothing more was aimed at than to make the school the medium of communicating an elementary education to all who might choose to attend. At first, as might be expected, but litde encouragement was received from the townspeople, and for two years the progress of the Institution could hardly be considered satisfactory. Most of the pupils were the sons of the sepoys of the native regiment stationed at Aden, and only six boys belonging to the town were on the register. In the next four years the school showed signs of greater vitality, and the daily attendance increased from twenty-one to fifty. Traders soon found out the advantages of an English education. Some boys succeeded in obtaining employment in Government offices ; this gave a great stimulus to the zeal of both parents and children. Gradually Arabs also began to send their sons. During the past four years the institution, which is called the Aden Residency School, has been freely attended' by children of all classes and creeds. Banians, Khojahs, Mehmons, Borahs, Jews, Arabs, Parsis, and native Christians avail themselves largely of the institution, and the standard of instruction has been raised. It is now the fifth standard, according to the rules in force in the Bombay Presidency. The Elementary Histories of England, India, and Rome ; Euclid as far as the first book ; Geography, Arithmetic, and Algebra, comprise the subjects taught. ' Present attendance, 1877 : — Parsis, . Banians, Khojas, . Mehmons, 7 Borahs, 5 Jews, 3 Arabs, 5 Other Mahomedans 15 Native Christians 6 60 I50 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. The annual expenditure on account of establishment, etc., amounts to about Rs.4500 per annum. Fees are paid by all pupils, the better class being charged R. i, 8 as., and the remainder 4 as. only per head per mensem. Children of very indigent parents are admitted free of charge. The average daily attendance now reaches sixty-three. Parsis seem to have the greatest aptitude for learning, Banians the least The latter leave the school after learning enough Guzerati to enable them to keep their accounts, and EngUsh as far as the Primer. It is a very exceptional thing to hear a Banian talking English, and in the case of Parsis the reverse is the case. The ad^-antages which an institution of this kind affords to an isolated Settlement like Aden are great It enables Indian officials and settlers to send for their families, which they used not to do formerly, and there is conse- quently more contentment and less temptation to irregular habits. The poorer classes, even of Arabs, see their way to comparative affluence by educating their sons for Government employ. Within the past ten years, twenty-four bo)^ educated in Aden have been successful in obtaining service in Government offices as clerks, etc. A knowledge of English is indispensable to the better class of traders in their dealings with European firms in Aden and elsewhere. It is curious that no Somali has ever been known to acquire much beyond a colloquial knowledge of English, but the race are exceedingly expert in speaking, and enunciate with an excellent accent It is probably the facility with which, in following their vagabond habits, they can acquire sufficient knowledge of English for their own purposes, that deters them from going deeper into the study. An Arabic Government School was founded at the same time as the English. It is partly supported by Government and partly by the Municipal Fund.i About 130 boys and 20 girls attend daily, and are taught gratuitously. The instruction imparted is, as is customary in Mahomedan countries, through the medium of the Koran, but latterly secular reading, writing, and elementary arithmetic have been introduced with considerable success. Girls seldom learn to do more than read, as they leave school at eight years old. Private Schools. — There are also many private schools in the ' Government RS.4S0 Municipal Fund, 820 Total per annum, . 1300 POST-OFFICE. 151 Settlement ; one is usually attached to each Masjid, the mulah teaching a knot of fifteen to twenty boys for the small remunera- tion of 2 as. monthly per head. Nothing but repetition of the Koran is taught in these schools. At Maala village there is a similar school which is attended by Somalis ; writing is taught at this establishment, which is held in a wretched hovel. The Jews have three schools, managed by private individuals, where religious instruction only is imparted. In the aggregate 125 boys attend these institutions. Military Schools. — The military schools attached to regiments and batteries it is not necessary here to refer to. Roman Catholic Mission and Convent Schools. — The members of the Roman Catholic Mission have always opened their doors to orphans and castaway boys of all creeds. At present they maintain fifteen boys at their own expense, whom they instruct in reading and writing English. An attempt is also made to teach them to work, but not with much success. The boys, after a few years' residence, leave the mission.' There is a Catholic Convent school under the direction of the ladies of the Good Shepherd. This school affords European families facilities for obtaining a complete education. The school-rooms and dormitories occupied by the boarders are large and well ventilated. Pupils of all denominations are received, and proselytising is not practised. There is an orphanage into which the children of British soldiers and employes are received. A second orphanage for liberated slave- girls is also established. Government paying a small sum monthly for each girl. A good plain elementary education is given to these children. Post-Office. — In January 1839, the month and year of the occupation of Aden by the British, a post-ofSce was opened in the Settlement, and an establishment, with two clerks and four peons, was sanctioned. One of the assistants to the Political Agent, or the civil surgeon, performed the duties of postmaster, and received for so doing Rs. 100 per mensem. In 1857 the Aden office was placed under the director-general of post-offices in India, a postmaster was appointed on Rs.250 per mensem, and one clerk was added to the establishment. Up to this time there had been no office at Steamer Point, and when mails were received or despatched, a clerk and peon used to come down > A new house is being constructed as a Normal School for boarders and day scholars. 152 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. for the purpose from the Crater, the mails being carried on camels. After the opening of the overland route, this arrangement proved inconvenient, and accordingly the head-quarters of the office were removed to Steamer Point. A building of mud and plaster was constructed, but the growing wants of the Settlement led in 1868 to the building of a more commodious structure, which was completed at a cost of about Rs. 20,000 (much improved and enlarged in 1877). Mails, Local. — There is a local mail between Steamer Point, the Isthmus, and the Crater ; it is carried by a runner, who leaves the head office at 1 1 a.m. daily, and the Crater, or camp office, as it is called, at 3 p.m. About 400 letters per mensem are carried by this service, which is charged for at Indian inland postage rates. Mails, Ocean. — Correspondence passing direct between Aden and other places is governed by the same condition as correspond- ence between India and other places, except in respect of letters conveyed by French packet, which in some instances are charged at a higher rate when sent from Aden. Correspondence from Aden to India, or any Indian post-office, is charged at the rates shown in the schedule to the Indian Postal Guide. Correspondence from Aden to Zanzibar by British packet is subject to the rates applicable to Indian correspondence, but prepayment is compulsory. Mail Steamers. — Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Com- pany. — This company carries the mails to and from the United Kingdom and India, as also the Continental, China, and Australian mails, arriving in Aden, from the West, on Wednesdays or Thurs- days, and from the East on Mondays or Tuesdays. Two steamers arrive from the East, and two from the West, every alternate week. These vessels seldom remain more than six hours in port. Messageries Maritimes Company. — This company carries a mail to the Continent and China, as also to Mauritius, Reunion, and the Seychelles. Their steamers arrive every alternate Saturday from the East and West, making a stay of about twelve hours in port. A steamer also arrives from Mauritius every fourth Thursday, and awaits the arrival of both outward and homeward bound vessels of the same company, leaving for Mauritius every fourth Monday. British India Steam Navigation Company. — This company carries a mail between Aden and Zanzibar, being due every fourth Friday, and leaving the following Friday. Letters for Mozambique and Cape of Good Hope go by this route. The British India Steam Navigation Company also conveys mails from Karachi and the Per- sian Gulf to Aden, arriving once every month. POST-OFFICE. IS3 Rubattino Company. — This company carries a nominal mail between Bombay and Genoa, arriving in Aden from both sides about the 9th of each month. Austrian Lloyd's. — This company carries a nominal mail between Bombay and Trieste, arriving in Aden once every six weeks. Postage. — The rates of postage to the principal parts of the world from Aden are as under : — To United Kingdom, ,, United States of America, „ Continent of Europe, . ,, Canada, , Vi& BrindisL Annas. 6 7i Vi^ Southampton. To Egypt, . . ,, India, ,, China, „ Australia, . ,, Zanzibar, „ Cape of Good Hope, Annas. 5 6J Annas. 5 4 4 5 I Perc Perc The Overland Parcel Post has been established from the United Kingdom to Aden, but not as yet vice versa, though its introduction is promised shortly. Banghy parcels are carried by the Rubattino and other companies at Indian inland rates. Covers. — The average number of covers received and despatched during the past five years has been as under : — Received. Despatched. Letters 97,5o6 98,651 Papers, .... S^.^SS 21,897 Books, 5,958 2,533 Parcels, .... 144 56 It must be recollected that upwards of 12,000 passengers pass through Aden in the course of a year, and a considerable number of the letters have been received and posted by them. Moreover, Aden is visited by many men-of-war of all nations, especially British, and a large number of letters are received and despatched by the crews of these vessels. The same remark applies to papers reposted ; those despatched 154 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. would not otherwise amount to so large a number, there being no local newspaper. Stamps. — During the past five years an average of Rs. 25,600 worth of ordinary, and Rs.68oo worth of service stamps, has been sold per annum to the public, and an average yearly sura of Rs.6ooo has been collected in cash. The value of ordinary stamps sold shows a yearly increase of about Rs. 2000 during the same period. A large number of stamps is sold to the passengers and crews of vessels. Expmditure. — The average yearly disbursements for five years amount to Rs. 10,4005 there has therefore been an average yearly credit in favour of the Aden oflBce of about Rs. 2 8,000, out of which about two-thirds would go to the British, and one-third to the Indian post-office, to cover the mail subsidies. THE ARAB TRIBES. iSS PART v.— POLITICAL RELATIONS AND HISTORY. The Arab Tribes we have to deal with at Aden. 6 a 1 "S u 5i -a 3 C ■1 ti nt « 1 .2 Q 1 g > 1 4J a ■figs •Sis Hh Abdali, Fadhli, Akrabi, Subaihi, Haushabi, Alawi, Amir, Yaffai, 1 -3 1 German crowns. 6,492 2,160 480 1,182 648 360 50 250 15.000 25,000 800 20,000 6,000 1,500 30j00o 35,000 1 One in .the / capital 1 "' ( Hautah. ■5 Sfi iH g; ^ £J 4) rt u H II it C. A ¥ 1 45,000 20,000 2,000 7,000 6,000 25,000 20,000 a §• s = s ilg H Yes. No. Yes. No. Yes. Yes. Yes. No. s a OSS »-Se« J\r.B. — The map which prefaces this part shows the geographical position and liinits of the territories occupied by the above tribes. The Abdali Tribe. — The district inhabited by this tribe is about 33 miles long by 8 broad, lying in a north-north-westerly direction from Aden. It is usually called Lahej, and the capital, Al-Hautah, is situated about 21 miles from the barrier-gate. Here the Sultan and his family reside. The country, to within three or four miles of Al-Hautah, is a desert, covered here and there with a thick babul jungle. About Al-Hautah cultivation commences, and, with a trifling amount of labour, red and white jowari, sesame, vegetables, grass, and a little cotton, are grown. There are also several groves of date-palms, and badam or wild almond trees. The people are the most civilised but least warlike of all the 156 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. tribes in south-western Arabia. By the treaty ^ of 1849 the Sultan charges an ad valorem duty of 2 per cent, on all articles which pass out of or enter into Aden through his territories, except grass, kurbi, wood, and vegetables, which are free. It has been calcu- lated that he makes about Rs. 11,000 a year by this duty alone. Since the accession of the present Sultan no cause of disagree- ment has arisen between the British Government and this tribe. The number of the tribe is about 8000 ^ souls, and of fighting men 800. The late Sultan, Fadhl bin Mohsin, was present in Bombay during the Duke of Edinburgh's visit in February 1870. The Fadhli Tribe. — This tribe has a sea-board of 100 miles, extending eastward from the boundary of the Abdali. The country is divided into two large districts, — the lowlands of Abyan, and the highlands to the north-east. Abyan produces red and white jowari and sesame. On the highlands wheat is also raised, and myrrh-trees grow in abundance. These limestone heights strikingly resemble the incense-bearing ranges of the opposite coast. Shograh is the chief sea-port ; it is. situated 60 or 70 miles from Aden. A considerable amount of coffee, grown in the Yaffai country, is exported from this port, which now consists of only fifteen houses. The place was destroyed by our troops in January 1866, but is being gradually rebuilt. The Fadhlis are proud, warlike, and independent, possessing in a high degree the virtues and vices of the true Bedawin. Transit dues^ were formerly charged on goods from Aden as follows : — On every camel-load of spices, cloth, and iron, %\ ; on other articles, $|- per camel-load. Since the conclusion of the treaty of 1867 the tribe have adhered to their engagements. The total number of fighting men is about 6700. The Akrabi Tribe. — The coast-line of the district inhabited by this tribe stretches from Bir Ahmed to Ras Amran. The Akrabis have one village, about two miles inland, called Bir Ahmed. The people have a high reputation for courage. The Shaikh's income, chiefly derived from transit duties, amounts to about $600 per ' For this and other engagements see Aicheson's Treaties, vol. vii. ' The population given in the table is that of the district, not the numbers of the tribe. ' Abrogated by treaty of 1872. CHIEFS ENTITLED TO SALUTES. 157 annum, exclusive of his stipend. Since 1857 we have always had friendly relations with the Akrabl There are about 300 fighting men in the tribe. Other Tribes. — A list of the other tribes has been given, but as they do not reside in the immediate vicinity of Aden it is unneces- sary to refer more particularly to them. A full account of all the neighbouring tribes will be found on reference to a memorandum drawn up by Captain W. F. Prideaux, Bombay Staff Corps, dated 20th January 1872, printed by the Government of India in its selections,^ — from which most of the above information has been abstracted. See also vol. vii.. Treaties, Engagements, etc., Calcutta, 1876. Chiefs having Political Relations with the Aden Resi- dency WHO ARE entitled TO Salutes. — The following chiefs in the neighbourhood, and having political relations with this Resi- dency, are entitled to salutes^ as under : — Chiefs. Salute. Remarks. Sultan of the Abdali, Sultan of the Fadhli, Omar bin Sallah bin Mahomed Nakeeb ) ofMakalla, | Awndh bin Omar Al Kaieti, Sultan of Socotra, .... (Ali bin Abdallah bin Salem bin Saad bin Towaree bin Afreer.) Guns. 9 9 12 12 9 Attached to chiefship. Ditto. PersonaL Ditto. Ditto. The Abdali and Fadhli have been already mentioned. Makalla and Shehr.^ — Makalla and Shehr are two towns or rather ports on the Hadhramaut coast of Arabia, the chiefs of which have been independent since the occupation of Aden, and have always entertained the niost friendly relations with the British Government. For the past few years these chiefs have been at war with one another, but there now appears some prospect of a settlement of the long-standing dispute between them, through the mediation of the Resident of Aden. Socotra. — An engagement has recently been entered into by the ' No. VIII. » Gazette of India, No. 3, D.C. P., Foreign Department Notification, dated 13th January 1877. ' See Ptolemy I. Ixx. ; also Welsted, vol. ii. pp. 427, 435. iS8 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. British Government with the chief of this island, in which he binds himself, his heirs, and successors, among other matters, to protect any vessel, Foreign or British, with the crew, passengers, and cargo, that may be wrecked on the island of Socotra, or its dependencies, and he receives an annual stipend of $360 for the above purpose. Somali and other African Tribes. — Somali. — The country inhabited by the Somalis extends from several degrees south of Cape Guardafui nearly as far as the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. The origin of the Somal is not known with certainty, but it seems pro- bable they are descended from Arab settlers, who came from Hadhra- maut, and, intermarrying with the Galla inhabitants, raised a new family. They themselves assign a period of between four or five centuries to this immigration. Some of the Mahra tribe who occupy the opposite Arabian coast have a tradition that the Somal are descended from them, and call them ' Beni am,' or cousins.' The name of Somal and the time when it was first used is not known. Their language is composed almost wholly of words de- rived from the Arabic and Galla languages. The original founders of these people were two or, as some say, three ^ in number; at any rate there are two great divisions of the Somali family. These are called by the people themselves the ' Buri ' or eastern, and the ' Gulbedh ' or western. These are known and recognised by the Arabs as ' Makhar ' and ' Dabir ' respectively. The former includes the Mijjerthayn, Warsangalli, and Dulbhanta tribes ; the latter, the Habr Awal, Habr Tul Jaala, and Habr Gerhajis, etc. These again are numerously subdivided. It is chiefly members of the western tribes that visit Aden, where they bring from Ankor, Karam, Antarad, and Berbera, sheep, cattle, gums, myrrh, ivory, feathers, etc. ; and take away corn, dates, iron, lead, beads, cotton goods, etc. The principal port is Berbera (possibly the ancient Mosyllon of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea), situated about 1 50 miles due south of Aden. The Somal are Shaffai moslems. The Mijjerthayn is the only tribe under the sway of a Sultan ; other tribes have nominal heads whose authority is but slight. ' Abbans ' or pro- tectors have to be taken by all strangers visiting this coast. Within the past few years the Egyptians have laid claim to this part of Africa, and have occupied Berbera ; they have also sent an expedition to Harrar, the capital of the Galla country. ' Miles, jfournal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xlii. p. 61 et seq. ' Rigby, yournal of the Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society, 1849. HISTORY. ■ IS9 Somalis are very numerous in the Settiement of Aden. They are a wild, high-spirited, yet timorous race, and in spite of the dose contact into which they are brought with western civilisation, but seldom seem to profit by their experience. The men are little inclined for hard work, but they make excellent boatmen, carriage- drivers, cow-boys, punkah-pullers, etc. Every one who has visited Aden must be familiar with the half-naked, dark-coloured, well- built, and generally pleasant-featured savages, who, with hair stained yellow, rowed him ashore or drove him to visit the tanks, and the small boy of the same race has afforded him an hour's amusement with his sportive tricks in the water and perpetual cry of ' I dive, I dive.' The women, on the contrary, are very industrious, and are seldom idle, employing themselves in weaving mats, and in their domestic concerns. Many also take service as ' ayahs ' or female servants. Some account of the Somalis will be found in Burton's First Foot- steps in Eastern Africa, Miles On the neighbourhood of Bunder Marayah (volume xlii. of the Royal Geographical Society's Journal), also in the Journals of the Bombay Geographical Society,^ which contain interesting memoirs by Rigby and Cruttenden. Note. — For a description of the mode of living in Aden, and other particulars, see under Food, Dress, Domestic Ceremonies, Ornaments, Part II. Other African Tribes. — The only other African tribe that frequents Aden in any numbers is the Dankali, who occupy the country in the vicinity of Zaila and the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. They are somewhat like Shohas in appearance, and are a very lively and industrious race ; they do not, however, take service, either public or private, but confine themselves either to trade, or some such independent business, as suppliers of ballast, and owners of cargo boats. Abyssinian, Galla, Nubian, and other African tribes, more especially those fi-om Zanzibar, Johanna, etc., are of course repre- sented. History. — The authorities from which this has been compiled are given in the Appendix, but as most of the information, up to 1858 at least, was carefully collected by Colonel Playfair in his History of Yemen, it has not been considered necessary to give the particular authority for each passage. Any matter not to be found in Colonel Playfair's valuable work will be specially noted. ' Vols. vii. and ix. i6o THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. History. — The history of Aden is so inseparably bound up with that of Yemen, it is impossible in tracing the annals of the Settle- ment from the earliest times to avoid following, to a certain extent, that province through the various vicissitudes of fortune that have overtaken it. Of the earliest inhabitants of those countries which lie at and near the mouth of the Red Sea, no records now exist ; there is little doubt, however, that they belonged to a branch of that great Cushite race whose extinction is perhaps the most wonderful of all the vicissitudes of history. They were of kindred race to the giant builders in the plain of Shinar. The influence of a neighbouring Semite people gradually made itself felt among the Cushite race inhabiting southern Arabia, and eventually the amalgamation (or whatever it may be appropriately termed) took place, most probably about the time of the prophet Isaiah,' who refers to them under the names of Seba the son of Cush, and Sheba|the son of Joktan. From the lofty stature of the people of Seba, and from other indica- tions, Caussin de Percevale thinks that the people of Ad, famed in early traditions as the earliest inhabitants of Yemen, and the builders of the celebrated Item Dhat-al-Imad^ in Abyan, were no other than the Cushite Sabaeans. The amalgamation took place about 700 years b.c, and Lieutenant-Colonel Prideaux, from whose interesting pamphlet^ the above information has been collated, is of opinion that the era of the Himyarites must be attributed to this period, and that the designation of Sabaeans or Shabaeans was later on changed to that of Himyarites,* probably from their practice of inscribing and daubing with red their public buildings. The form of govern- ment was monarchical, and, as far as has been ascertained, this dynasty commenced to decline after the destruction of the dam of Marib, which took place approximately in a.d. 120. The expedition of ^lius Gallus appears to have been the first invasion of Yemen by a foreign power, and its ill-starred result is ' Isaiah xlv. 14. ' A village of that name still exists near Aden, but no local tradition is attached to the spot. '- 'On some recent discoveries in South-western Arabia,' by Captain W. F. Prideaux, B.C.S., F.R.G.S. ; reprinted from the Transactions of Biblical Archao- logy, 1873, * Wellsted supposes the word to be derived from Homeiri, the Homeritii of Ptolemy. Wright suggests as its origin, Hamyar, the first of the descendants of Kahtan, who reigned over the whole of Yemen, and who, he says, was so called from the colour of the garments he constantly wore. HISTORY. i6i now hardly a matter of fable. The long line of succession of the Himyarite kings presents but little interest except to the archseologist. We first find Aden mentioned as one of the places where churches were erected by the Christian embassy sent by the Emperor Con- stantius in a.d. 342.'- At the request of the Emperor Justin, Caleb, the sovereign of Abyssinia, despatched an army to Yemen for the punishment of Dthu NowaSj^one of the last of the Himyarite kings, whose persecution of the Christians had become famous. This was about A.D. 525, when Yemen fell an easy prey to the Abyssinians, who were again ousted by the Persians during the reign of Kisra Anowsharwan about a.d. 575. For some time Yemen was filled with violence and bloodshed, and it was not until a.d. 595, in the reign of Klisra Parwis, that it was again brought firmly under the rule of the Persians, Aden, with the neighbouring ports, at the same time passing completely into their possession. No ruler of note seems to have governed Yemen as Viceroy, until B^dan, who was appointed shortly before the commencement of Islamism, about a.d. 606. In the tenth year of the Hijirah, some disturbances having broken . out in Yemen, Mahomed sent his lieutenant Ali thither at the head of 300 horsemen, and Badan, who had previously acknowledged the supremacy of the prophet, gladly accepted his assistance in restoring order. About this time the two rival prophets Moosailmah and Al-Aswad sprung up in Yemen, and on the death of Badan, which occurred in 632, the latter seized upon the government, but he was subsequently murdered by a party of Mahomed's friends. Moosailmah then managed to possess himself of the throne, but he was defeated by Khalid, who was sent by Aboo Bakr, the successor of Mahomed. Soon after this Akramah Aboo Sahl visited Aden, where his presence served to put to flight several turbulent persons who had been endeavouring to instigate the Himyarites to revolt. After the death of Ali, Yemen became subject to the Caliphs of the house of Umayyah, and remained so until 749, when it passed into the hands of the Abbasides. Daud ibn Abd-al-Majid was at that time appointed Governor of Aden. In 905 Yemen came under the sway of the Kiramite Caliphs, and in 932 it threw off its allegiance and became independent, its rulers assuming the style and title of Imam. The name of the first of his dynasty was Asad ibn Yafur. \ » But see Ezekiel, chap, xxvii. verse 23. Also Forster's Historical Geography 1 of Arabia, vol. i. p. 20. Aden is no doubt the Arabias Emporion of Ptolemy. j ' This is disputed by some Arab historians, Hamza, p. 34 ; Abulfeda, p. 10 ; j Procopius de Bel. Pers. lib. i. c. 30. L i62 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. In 1038 we find Aden in the possession of one Zahir Ayyah, who appointed as its governor Sahli, but Ibn Omar, chief of Lahej, suddenly attacked and captured the place, putting the governor to death. It continued under the successors of Ibn Omar until ir37, when it was captured by Belal ibn Yari Mahomed. In the same year, however, it was retaken by Saba, a descendant of Ibn Omar. Sultan Al Mansur Hatim, a rival of the then Imam of Yemen, obtained possession of Aden by treachery, and his family continued in possession of the fortress until expelled by the Imam Mazaffar Shamso-ud-Din in 1249. During the next few years Aden con- tinued to be the scene of perpetual struggles, and in 1325 we find it under the rule of Abd-al-Hassan Ali, the then Imam of Yemen. Until 1454 Aden continued under the government of the Imams of Yemen, when it was seized by two brothers, one of whom, Malik A'li, subsequently succeeded to the imamship, and it was his nephew, A'bd-al-Wahhab, who constructed the aqueduct to convey water from Bir Mahait into Aden (a distance of 16,000 yards), the rains of which exist to the present day; this was about the year 1500. Towards the end of the fourteenth century the Portuguese com- menced their voyages to this part of the world, and in 1503 Aden was visited by Ludovico de Varthema, whose quaint account cor- responds with contemporary Arabian history. I In 1 5 13 Don Alphonso d'Albuquerque, who had been despatched to the Red Sea in the hope of his being able to aid the Abyssinians against the Mahomedans, was also charged by King Emmanuel to endeavour to obtain the stronghold of Aden by capture. His expedition started from India on the i8th February 15 13, and consisted of twenty ships manned by 1700 Portuguese and 800 Indian sailors. It arrived at Aden on Easter Eve, and on the foUovsdng morning troops were landed with scaling ladders. They succeeded in capturing an outwork, where many of the defenders were slain, and thirty-nine pieces of ordnance were taken ; but after a siege of four days they were repulsed with great slaughter, and Albuquerque, having plundered and burnt the vessels in the har- bour, and cannonaded the town, sailed for the Red Sea. He first touched at Mokha, in the hope of being able to unite with the Abyssinian Christians against the Mahomedans, but being unsuc- cessful, he proceeded to the island of Kameran, where he wintered. Notwithstanding the gallant defence of the Governor of Aden, the Amir Morjan (styled by the Portuguese authors Mora, Morzin), this attack filled the inhabitants of Yemen with the greatest con- sternation. HISTORY. 163 In 15 16 Soleiman, an officer of Kansu-al-Ghurt, the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt, attacked Aden, but was repulsed with severe loss. Later in the same year, on the arrival of Luarez De Abergaria, the Governor, making a virtue of necessity, owing to the defences being somewhat injured by Rais Suleiman, offered the keys to the Portuguese, but the latter did not take actual possession, and on the return of Luarez shortly after, the defences having been repaired, the Governor Amir Morjan refused to deliver up the city. About 15 1 7 Selim i.. Sultan of Turkey, after the overthrow of the Mameluke power in Egypt, formed the design of seizing Aden on accoimt of its excellent harbour, whence all the Turkish ejqjedi- tions against the Portuguese and towards India might emanate ; but it was reserved for his son Soleiman, surnamed the Magnificent, to carry out the project, and the expedition was intrusted to the Rais Soleiman, who was then an old man. In August 1538, the fleet arrived at Aden, and the Sultan, whose name was U'mar bin Daud, was invited to do homage to the Grand Seigneur through his representative the Pasha Soleiman. On his arrival on board of the lattefs vessel he was treacherously seized and hung. Previous to this many soldiers had been sent on shore, lying on beds as if sick, and they had been provided with quarters in the town. These, as soon as the chief was put to death, seized the city, and Soleiman proceeded on his voyage to India. After his repulse at Goa, he called in at Aden on the sth December 1538, and being desirous of securing the post, he caused a hundred pieces of artillery, great and small, to be landed from the fleet, together with a large quantity of ammunition, and a garrison of 500 men. From this time, in con- sequence of the submission of Mokha and Zabid, the whole coast of Arabia acknowledged the power of Soleiman the Magnificent, and his armies penetrating inland obtained possession of Yemen ; this was in 1539. Some time previous to 1551 the inhabitants of Aden rebelled and handed the place over to the Portuguese, from whom it was recaptured in that year by Peri Pasha, the Capidan of Egypt, and a considerable garrison provided with the necessary means of defence was left for its protection. In 1609 Aden was visited by Captain Sharkey of the East India Company's ship 'Ascension.' He was at first well received, but subsequently kept in durance for six weeks until the Governor had obtained as much out of the ship as he could, when h5 was released, but two of his companions were detained until the sum of $2000 should be paid. This was refused, whereupon the two Englishmen were sent to the Pasha at Sana'a. 1 64 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. Captain Sharkey proceeded to Mokha, which was then the great mart for the trade between India and Egypt. The Turkish Gover- nor was courteous and liberal, and permitted foreigners to trade without molestation. In the following year Admiral Sir Henry Middleton was sent on a trading voyage by the East India Com- pany. He visited Aden on the loth November, where he found as Governor Yafa Pasha. The ' Peppercorn' was left behind at Aden while Sir Henry proceeded to Mokha in the ' Darling.' At both ports the expedition was treacherously treated ; but in 1612, when Captain Saris visited Mokha, he was well received, and the Governor and chief men of the city begged that the treatment experienced by Sir H. Middleton, at the hands of the former Governor, might be forgotten. Two years after this, Van den Brock visited Aden, at the instance of the Dutch East India Company, and was well received. He subsequently, however, obtained a hint that he had better leave, as the resident merchants viewed his arrival with con- siderable jealousy ; he accordingly proceeded to Shehr, where he succeeded in establishing a factory. In the following year he visited Mokha, but was obliged eventually to return unsuccessful to India, as the Pasha of Yemen viewed the advances of the Dutch with distrust. In 1 6 1 8 Captain Shilling, in the ' Anne Royal,' by the desire of Sir Thomas Roe, the ambassador at the court of the Mogul, proceeded to Mokha, and succeeded in obtaining permission to establish a factory there. In 1630 the Turks were compelled to evacuate Yemen, which fell again into the hands of the Imams, and a descendant of the family of Barakat, who claimed descent from Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomed, was placed on the throne. Aden appears to have also passed into the possession of its former masters, for in r7o8 we find the French visiting the port, which is described as being under the control of the Imam al Mahdt. In 1735 the Abdali Sultan of Lahej, who was then practically independent of the Imams, first possessed himself of Aden. His rapacity and extortions soon ruined the port. He was killed in 1742, and was succeeded by his son A'bd-al-Karlm, who was a wise and benevolent prince. In 1753 A'bd-al-Rab, the heroic chief of Hajaria, blockaded Aden, but was bought off, and in the same year A'bd-al-Karim died, and was succeeded by his son A'bd-al- Hadi. In 17 7 1 Aden was stormed by Azab Makhi, chief of the Azai- bees, who retained it for two days, when he was driven out. After HISTORY. 165 A'bd-al-Hadi came Fadhl, his brother, who died in 1792 ; he was succeeded by another brother Ahmed, who was visited by Mr. Salt in 1809, and by Captain Haines of the Indian Navy in 1820. Sir Home Popham, in 1802, concluded a treaty of friendship and commerce with this chief, who died in 1827. His nephew and suc- cessor, Mohsin bin Fadhl, was a man of a different stamp, being inhospitable, deceitful, avaricious, and unscrupulous. In 1829 the Court of Directors entertained the notion of making Aden a coaling station, but the idea was abandoned owing to the difficulty of obtaining labour. In 1833 an attempt was made to gain possession of Aden by Turkchee Bilmas, but his demands were refused and his emissaries slain. It was visited again by Captain Haines in 1835, and in the following year the Fadhlis attacked and sacked the town. In consequence of an outrage committed on the passengers and crew of a buggalow wrecked near Aden, an expedition was de- spatched against the place by the Government of Bombay, and in January 1838 Captain Haines demanded and obtained restitution; it was further arranged that the peninsula should be ceded to the British. Owing to the treacherous behaviour of the Sultan's son. Captain Haines left, but returned in October, authorised to complete the cession. The negotiations were anything but friendly, and finally the port was blockaded. In January 1839 a force consisting of Her Majest/s steamer 'Volage,' twenty-eight guns, and 'Cruizer,' ten guns, with 300 Europeans and 400 Native troops, under Major Baillie, bombarded and took the place by assault. ^ The loss on the British side was fifteen, and on that of the Arabs 150 men killed and wounded. Aden thus fell into the hands of the British, being the first new accession of territory in the reign of Queen Victoria, and treaties of peace and friendship were entered into with the surrounding tribes. In June the Sultan received the first payment of his stipend of 541 1 In regard to the condition of Aden at the time of the British occupation. Captain Haines says :— ' The little village (formerly the great city) of Aden is now reduced to the most exigent condition of poverty and neglect. In the reign of Constantine this town possessed unrivalled celebrity for its impenetrable forti- fications, its flourishing commerce, and the glorious haven it offered to vessels from all quarters of the globe. But how lamentable is the present contrast ! With scarce a vestige of its former proud superiority, the traveller sees and values it only for its capabilities, and regrets the barbarous cupidity of that government under whose injudicious management it has fallen so Xo-^.'—MS. Journal, pp. 44, 49- 1 66 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. German crowns (equivalent to the original purchase-money, and various small sums paid to surrounding chiefs, formerly chargeable to the revenues of Aden), which Government conferred on him so long as he should remain faithful. The Abdali proved fickle, however, and attempted, in conjunc- tion with the Fadhli, to retake Aden in November, but was defeated. Shograh was blockaded on account of the share the Fadhli chief had in the affair. In 1840 a second attack was made by the united tribes in the pay of the Sultan of Lahej, but it was repelled with heavy loss. A third attempt to take Aden occurred on the 5th July 1841. In this attack the Abdali and Fadhli were concerned, but they were driven off with great loss. Many atrocities continued to be perpetrated, and it became necessary to dislodge the enemy from Bir Ahmed. This was done with but small loss, by a force of 300 Europeans and 200 Native Infantry, with a detachment of Royal Artillery. Shaikh O'thman was also destroyed, an d the Fadhli coast was blockaded. The Fadhli chief implored forgiveness, and the Abdali entered into a new engagement of peace and friendship; the latter's stipend, which had been stopped, was restored in February 1844. In 1846 a fanatic named Sayyid Isma'il, assisted by the neigh- bouring tribes, after preaching a Jihad or religious war, attacked Aden, but was repulsed by a well-directed fire from the line of works and the gun-boats in harbour ; dissensions then broke out in the Sayyid's army, which melted rapidly away. Sultan Mohsin bin Fadhl died at Lahej in November 1847; he was succeeded by his son Ahmed, who was very friendly to the British, and who visited Aden in 1848, but unfortunately died in 1849, and was succeeded by his brother Ali. Soon after his acces- sion a new treaty was concluded ; it bears date May 1849, and was ratified by Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General of India, in October of the same year. In May 1850 the first of a series of atrocities which, for many years, complicated the relations of the British with the Arab tribes, occurred. A boat's crew, of the Honourable Company's ship ' Auck- land,' were attacked on the north coast of the harbour ; one man was killed, and a boy wounded. Shortly afterwards a sepoy, of the 3d Madras Native Infantry, was wounded by a fanatic near the Barrier Gate ; the intended assassin was shot by the sentry. In February a party of officers, on an excursion in the Lahej HISTORY. 167 territory, were attacked by night at Wahit, a Sayyid village. Cap- tain Mylne, Commissariat officer, was murdered, and Lieutenant M'Pherson, 78th Highlanders, was seriously wounded. The assassin obtained refuge in the Fadhli territory. A few days later a man attacked Lieutenant Delisser, 78th Highlanders, on the road, but was killed by that officer with his own ' jambiah' (dagger). In June, a sepoy, of the 3d Madras Native Infantry, was wounded outside the Barrier Gate ; and in July the mate and a seaman of the ship ' Sons of Commerce,' which was wrecked near Aden, were murdered by the Abdali ; but the Sultan executed the instigator of this crime, and the tribe continued on terms of intimacy with the British ; whereas the Fadhli's stipend was stopped from the time Captain Mylne's murderer took refuge with him, and Bir Ahmad was blockaded for the share its inhabitants had in the murder of the seamen of the 'Auckland.' Depredations on the road con- tinued, and Shograh was blockaded. In 1855 the Fadhli ex- pressed a desire to make peace, and the blockade of Shograh was raised. Fearing his influence would be diminished. Sultan A'li, the Abdali, did his best to prevent any understanding being come to, but the end of 1856 found the British free from any aggressions on the part of the neighbouring tribes. In the opening of the year 1857 a bond was entered into by the Fadhli, to the effect that Captain Mylne's murderers had been expelled, and should never again find refuge in his territories, and he solemnly engaged to restrain his people from plundering on the roads. Soon after the Akrabi tendered their submission and sued for friendship. Sultan A'li, the Abdali, continued to give much annoyance ; he imposed an exorbitant toll upon the well of Shaikh O'thman, on which the town and shipping were, to a great extent, dependent for water. He was taken severely to task by the Bombay Government, and eventually the matter was settled. In January 1858 Sultan A'li wrote a letter, stating that he had decided to close his country until, as he put it, ' Government should come to its senses.' In February three complaints were made by the Fadhli against the Abdali of plundering ; a few days later another complaint was preferred, that the latter had seized a consignment of coffee, the property of a British subject. Restitution was demanded, and as it was refused, all communication was broken off with the Abdali, and his stipend was further discontinued. 1 68 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. In March ^ the Sultan occupied, in force, the village of Shaikh O'thman, when he filled up the well and committed other acts of hostility. This could no longer be endured, and on the 13th March an adequate force of artillery and infantry, together with a party of seamen from the Honourable Company's vessels of war, under the personal command of Brigadier Coghlan, Political Resi- dent and Commandant, marched against Shaikh O'thman, which, after some resistance, was captured. Eventually a parley was de- manded, and the Resident's demands were promised concession. These protestations were made apparently in good faith, and the request that he would not any longer continue hostile possession of the Lahej territory, was acceded to by the Resident. .After blowing up Shaikh O'thman, the force returned to Aden without_a_siiigle-caaualty. The loss on the Arab side was reported at from thirty to forty. On the following day supplies began to come into Aden, and in a short time Sultan Fadhl arrived in the Settlement to arrange the basis of a reconciliation. It was not until the end of 1865 that the Arab tribes in the vicinity of Aden again began to give trouble. The Fadhli, Sultan Ahmed bin Abdallah, grew exceedingly arro- gant, and plundered right and left. To punish him, a force was despatched into the interior, consisting of four guns, twenty Euro- pean and twenty native artillery, 200 of H.M. 109th Regiment, and 300 of the ist Grenadier Native Infantry, under Colonel Wool- combe, and accompanied by the Political Resident.^ The enemy were found at Bir Saeed, eight miles from Shaikh O'thman, where they were speedily routed. To show them that their own country was not inaccessible, the troops, after being slightly reinforced, marched into the Fadhli district, and destroyed the villages of A'salah, Al Koor, Amudiyah, etc., and returned to Aden within eleven days. Subsequently, Shograh was attacked from the seaward, and its forts destroyed. This brought the Fadhli to his senses, and an engagement was completed in May 1867 by which he bound himself to abstain from plunder, to maintain peace with the neigh- bours, and to give a hostage. In 1868 the British Government became possessor, by purchase, of the peninsula of Little Aden, situated to the westward. Sultan Ahmed bin Abdoollah, the Fadhli, died in February 1870. ' Aden Residency Records. ^ Sir William Merewether. HISTORY. 169 In this year the Mansuri, a sub-tribe of the Subaihi, plundered some Kafilahs, and a portion of the Aden troop was sent against them. Eight or nine of the Bedawlns were killed, and two were taken prisoners. Three troopers of the Aden Troop were slightly wounded. A short time after this event, the three chiefs of the principal sub-tribes of the Subaihi came into Aden, and agreements were entered into with them, by which, in consideration of the payment of 95 German crowns per mensem to them collectively, the roads which pass through their territories were declared free of transit dues. The chiefs further engaged to keep the roads secure and peaceful. Towards the close of 1872 the effects of the advance of the Turkish conquests in Yemen began to be felt in the neighbourhood of Aden. Turkish officials sought to allure the chiefs of the tribes in the vicinity of Aden to make their submission to the Porte ; but the Haushabi was the only Shaikh who responded to the invitation, and he only did so in the hope of gaining some advantage over the Abdali, with whom he was at enmity. Demonstrations were made by marching Turkish troops through the neighbouring districts. The Alawi was forced into submission, and the Amir of Zhali was made prisoner. In May the Ottoman troops, at the invitation of the Haushabi, advanced to Shagah, on the borders of the Lahej district. Representations were at once made by Her Majesty's Government to the Porte, who gave assurances that the troops should be withdrawn ; but this was not done, and the Haushabi, under the protection of the Turks, began to encroach on Lahej territory. In the meantime, Abdullah bin Mohsin, the eldest brother of the Lahej Sultan, together with his son and another brother, intrigued with the Turks, and invited them to occupy their fortified house at Al-Hautah. As the Turks accepted the offer of Abdullah Mohsin, the Government of India authorised the Resi- dent to support the Lahej Sultan, but not to attack the Turks ; and accordingly a force of 350 officers and men, consisting of artillery, cavalry, and infantry, occupied the Lahej territory. The Resident (Brigadier-General J. W. Schneider, C.B.) accompanied the troops, who were commanded by Colonel J. R. Mackenzie, of the 105th L. 1. Still the Turks refused to withdraw, and two Ottoman men-of-war, with 1200 troops on board, entered the harbour, re- maining until the arrival of H.M.'s ship 'Wolverine,' and their presence was doubtiess intended as a demonstration in favour of 170 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. the Turkish detachment near Aden. In consequence of the repre- sentations made by Her Majesty's Government, the Turkish troops were eventually withdrawn in December, and Abdullah Mohsin, his son, and brother surrendered, and were sent into Aden as pri- soners. The force moved on to Zaidah, but the Haushabi fled, and the Zaidah district was handed over to the Lahej Sultan, after which the troops returned to Aden. Subsequently, A'li bin Mani, the Haushabi Shaikh, tendered his submission to the Resident, and was forgiven. The Amir of Zhali contrived^to escape from the Turks, only to find his country in the hands of an usurper, whom he failed to oust. The Alawi at once resumed friendly relations with the British. His son, who was kept in chains for many months as hostage by the Turks, was released at the desire of the British Government. On the opening of the trading season of 1873, the Egyptians occupied Berbera, on the opposite Somali coast, whence most of the ghee^ and live stock required for the use of the Aden garrison is brought, but up to the close of the year there was no diminution in the supplies coming from that port. In 1875 the usurper, Mahomed Mussa'ad, still ruled in the Amir country, supported by the Turks, notwithstanding the assurances given by the Porte. The Egyptians closed the port of Bulbar, on the Somali coast, this year, contrary to the provisions of certain treaties concluded direct with the Somalis in 1827 and 1856; and early in 1876, at the end of the trading season, when the concession was valueless, and after repeated representations by the British Government to His Highness the Khedive, the port was declared open. Towards the middle of the same year, the usurper in the Amir district, Mahomed Mussa'ad, fled, and threw off Turkish allegiance, but the country in the immediate vicinity of Aden continued undis- turbed, and the Kafilah routes remained open ; towards the end of the year the Turkish authorities restored A'li Mokbil to his Amir- ship, and almost vacated K'attaba. During this year the Fadhli Sultan and the chief of the YafTai came to a settlement regarding the royalty to be paid by the latter for the water of the river Na'aza, a dispute which had led to the withholding of the Y'affai's stipend for a period of more than two years.' ^ Clarified butter. PERIM. 171 An arrangement was entered into in 1876 between the Akrabi and Abdali by which they mutually bound themselves not to give shelter to members of one tribe against the wishes of the ruler of the other. Perim. — Attached to the Government of Aden is the island of Perim, which it may not be out of place here to describe. It is called by the author of The Periplus the island of Diodorus, and is known among the Arabs as Mayoon. It is situated in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, a mile and a half from the Arabian, and eleven miles from the African coast. The formation is purely volcanic, and consists of long, low, and gradually sloping ranges of hills, sur- rounding an excellent and capacious harbour about a mile and a half in length, half a mile in breadth, and with a varjring depth of from four to six fathoms m the best anchorages. The hiUs have formerly been intersected with bays and indentures, which in the course of time have been filled up with coral and sand, and are now low plains, scantily covered with salsola, sea lavender, wild migno- nette, and other plants which delight in a salt sandy soil. These plains occupy about one-fourth of the island, and occur principally on the north side. The rocks, which are all igneous, are nowhere exposed, save where they dip perpendicularly into the sea; they are covered with a layer of volcanic mud of from 2 to 6 feet in depth, above which is another layer of loose boulders, or masses of black vesicular lava, in some places so thickly set as to resemble a rude pavement. The highest point of the island is 245 feet above the level of the sea.^ All endeavours to procure water have failed, and but a scanty supply is procurable from the adjacent coasts. Water-tanks were constructed, which used to be chiefly supplied from Aden, and it was proposed to erect reservoirs to collect the rain, but, as at Aden, a condensing apparatus was found more suitable. Perim has never been permanently occupied by any nation save the British. Albuquerque landed upon it in 15 13 on his return from the Red Sea, and having erected a high cross on an eminence, called the island Vera Cruz. It was again occupied for a short time by the pirates who frequented the mouth of the Red Sea, and who amassed considerable booty by plundering the native vessels engaged in the Indian trade. They formed a project of settling here and erecting strong fortifications, but having with much labour dug through the solid rock to a depth of fifteen fathoms in a fruitiess » Playfair. 172 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. search for water, they abandoned their design, and removed to Mary's Island, on the east side of Madagascar.^ In 1799 it was taken possession of by the East India Company, and a force under Lieutenant-Colonel Murray was sent from Bombay to garrison it, with the view of preventing the French troops, then engaged in the occupation of Egypt, from proceeding to India to effect a junction with Tippoo Sahib ; but it was deemed untenable as a military position, and the Straits were too broad to be com- manded by any batteries on the shore ; the troops were accordingly withdrawn.^ In consequence of increasing steam navigation in the Red Sea the attention of the Indian Government was directed to the necessity of a lighthouse to facilitate the navigation of the Straits ; Perim was consequently re-occupied in the beginning of 1857. The lighthouse was completed in 1861, and quarters were also built for a detach- ment of native infantry, fifty strong, who now garrison the island under the command of a European officer. The detachment is relieved every two months when practicable. For a complete account of the island, see Description and History of the British Outpost of Perim, by Lieutenant J. S. King, Bombay Staff Corps s (1877). Other British Possessions in the Vicinity of Arabia. — The only other British possessions in the vicinity of Arabia are the Massah Islands, in the Bay of Tajurra, the island of Eibat, near Zaila, and the Kooriah Mooriah Islands, on the Mahra coast of Arabia. The two first were purchased by the British in 1840, but have never been occupied, and the last was ceded by the Imam of Muscat in 1854 ; they are only valuable for the guano deposits which are found upon them. ' Playfair. " Residency records. ' Published as a selection from the records of the Government of Bombay. No. xlix. New Series. ZI ARABS. 173 PART VI.— MISCELLANEOUS. Languages spoken in the Settlement. — The position of Aden is such that it is inevitable there should be a variety of tongues spoken by the inhabitants, and it would tax the ability of the most celebrated polyglot to understand and converse in their own languages with the various members of the numerous races to be met with in a walk from Steamer Point to the Crater.^ The European languages that are spoken are English, French, Italian, German, Dutch, Turkish, and Greek. The language of the place is Arabic, but other Asiatic tongues and dialects are also in use — Hindustani, Guzerati, Mahrati, Scindi, Persian, Malay, etc. Of African languages the Somali is most coinmon, but Swahili, Am- haric, and other dialects are also spoken to a considerable extent. The language of the Resident's Court is English, that is to say, the whole of the proceedings in all cases, civil and criminal, are taken down in that language ; processes however are generally printed in Arabic ; and in the disposal of cases Hindustani, Arabic, and Somali are in daily use in about equal proportions. Foreign CoNSULS.^The following countries have at present representatives at Aden : — Germany, .... Consul. Netherlands, .... Consul. Norway and Sweden, . . Consul. Italy, Vice-Consul. Austro-Hungary, . . . Vice-Consul. France, Vice-Consular Agent. By far the most business is done in the French Vice-Chancellerie, and it is surprising that country is not represented by a full Consul. ZiARAHS. — The following account of the various ' Ziarahs ' or visi- tations held at Aden may prove interesting. As previously mentioned, one of the principal amusements of all classes in Aden is the occasion of a ' Ziarah ' or visitation. There are fourteen ' Ziarahs ' altogether ; of these, thirteen take place in the Crater and one at Steamer Point. Some of the saints in whose honour they are held have had ' masjids ' erected to their memory ; in other cases tombs only have been built. ' The order both here and hereafter in which a language is placed denotes also the position it holds in regard to frequency of usage. 174 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. The following account of the origin of each of these ' Ziarahs ' has been collected from different sources : — 1. 1 Shaikh Jauhir Abdalla was a released slave, who carried on the business of a cloth merchant with such honesty and uprightness that no one was ever known to lose by dealing with him. He died in the year 626^ of the Hejira, and a Ziarah has been held annually ever since on the 12th Rabi-al-Awal. He erected a masjid which was rebuilt by the Mehmon inhabitants of Aden in a.d. 1863. 2. 5 Shaikh Abdallah bin Ahmed was educated in Al-Hijjah, near Sanaa' ; he was Kazi of Aden for three years prior to his death, which took place in a.h. 703,* when Mahomed Umar was governor. A masjid was erected to his memory by Shaikh Said-al-Zobaidi in 1856. The Ziarah has been held annually since his death on each 13th Rabi-al-Akhir. 3. ^ Shaikh and Sayyid Abobekr-bin-Abdalla-al-Aidrus-ba-Alawi was a devout, virtuous, and wise person, who lived in the reign of Abdul Wahab, and died in a.h. 914.^ He erected a masjid which bears his name. It was rebuilt at the cost of upwards of a lakh of rupees in a.d. 1859 by a Mehmon named Ismail Habib of Bombay. The Ziarah is held on the 15 th Rabi-al-Akhir. 4. ' Shaikh Hussain bin Sidik-al-Ahdal was a wise and eloquent man, whose knowledge of religion and divinity was great. He died about 915 A.H.8 A masjid was erected on the site of his tomb by A'li Abdalla in 1847. It was recently repaired by Hassan A'li Rajab A'li. Ziarah held on i6th Rabi-al-Akhir. 5. ^ Shaikh Ahmed Hussain-al-Mahdali, son of the last mentioned, in whose footsteps he walked. He died in a.h. 932.1" ^ rnasjid was erected in his memory by Mahomed Yehia-al-Jebeli in i860. Ziarah held 17th Rabi-al-Akhir. 6. 11 Shaikh Alawi bin Mahomed Aidrus was a learned and devout person, who died between a.h. iooo and iioo.i^ He built a masjid. Ziarah held nth Rabi-al-Akhir. 7. 1^ Shaikh Abdul Latif-al-Iraki was a learned and devout man, who lived about the same time as the last mentioned. He has no masjid. Ziarah held 15th Rajab. 8. '* Shaikh Ali bin Mahomed-al-Iraki was a religious and wealthy man, who died at the age of eighty-eight in a.h. 685. ^^ He gave ' Ba Makrama's Tarikh Thagar, Aden. ' a.d. 1228. ' Ba Makrama. * A.D. 1303. ' From an inscription on his tomb. 'a.d, 1508. ' Local traditions. » A.D. 1509. ° Local tradition. "a.d. 1526. " Local tradition. " A.D. 1591 or 1688. " Local tradition. " Ba Makrama. "a.d. 1286. ZIARAHS. 175 annually $40,000 in charity. No masjid has been erected to his memory. Ziarah held 13th Shaaban. 9. 1 Shaikh Ahmed bin A'li was a learned Kazi of Aden, who died about A.H. 563.2 A Ziarah is held once annually at his tomb at Steamer Point, near the Saluting Bunder, on the isth Rajab. 10. 3 Shaikh al Hakam, bin Abban, bin Othman, bin Affan, the grandson of the third Caliph after Mohamed, was a devout and learned Kazi of Aden, who lived about a.h. 154.* He used nightly to pray by the seashore and exclaim, ' I with the fish and beasts Thee do worship.' His father Abban built the masjid which bears his name, and it was repaired recently by Ismail Habib, a Bombay Mehmon. Ziarah held isth Shaaban. 11. 5 Shaikh Ahmed bin Alwan lived about a.h. 647.^ He is said to have worked miracles both when living and after death. His tomb is at Jafaria, near Taizz, where a Ziarah is also held on the loth Rabi-al-Awal. A masjid was built to his memory in 1847 in Aden by Mahomed Hassan-al-Misri. Ziarah held 12th Shaaban in Aden, since the last twenty years only. 12.' Shaikh abu Suliman, A'bd-er-Rahmon was a" devout and learned man who died in a.h. 205. ^ No masjid has been erected to his memory. A Ziarah has been held in his honour for the past ten years on the nth Rajab. 13. 'Shaikh Salim Mahomed al Iraki was a wise, religious, and virtuous man, whose advice was sought by all ; even those living at some distance used to visit him. He died about a.h. 635.1° A mas- jid was built to his memory in 1871 by Mahomed Kuvar. A Ziarah has been held in his honour for the past five years on the 13th Rajab. 14. 11 Shaikh al Haradee was a religious man who lived in Mokha, whence his Ziarah has been transferred to Aden by the late residents of that abandoned sea-port. The date of his death is not known ; his Ziarah has been held for the past fifteen years on 12th Rajab. These Ziarahs have, of course, ostensibly a religious object, but the ceremonies observed are very simple ; the tomb of the saint is visited and some flowers are cast on it, a short prayer is said, and the visitor takes his departure. During the Ziarah of Sa3fyid Abobekr bin Abdalla-al-Aidrus (No. 3), which is much the largest and most important, the masjid is illuminated at night, and many pious men and women collect there and sing hymns from 10 p.m. to 3 a.m. Hundreds of people, principally women from the sur- ' Ba Makrama. ' A.D. 77a ' Bin Khalkan. ^a.d. 820. 1236. " Local tradition. ' Ba Makrama. ' A.D. 1 167. ' Dewan bin Alwan. 'A.D. 1249. « Bin Khalkan. "a.d. 176 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. rounding districts, visit Aden on the occasion of a Ziarah, especi- ally that last mentioned. As is usual in Arabia on festive occasions, every one puts on gay and clean apparel, even down to the smallest children. A sort of fair is held near the saint's masjid or tomb, with numerous booths, where coffee, sweetmeats, toys, etc., are sold. There are also swings of various kinds, but the chief amuse- ment is the dancing, the several descriptions of which have been described under the head of ' Amusements.' Every race and tribe has its own dancers and circle of spectators. Seedees, Arabs of Aden, Arabs of Radaa,i Somalis of the Habr Awal, Habr Tuljaila, and Habr Gerhajis tribes, enjoy themselves in separate bands, and sometimes little squabbles arise, but very seldom, as no one is allowed to wear arms, and heavy sticks are forbidden to be carried. The fair is kept up till a late hour, but the women and children, who attend in great numbers in the day-time, go home soon after lo p.m. The more respectable class of the community confine themselves to a visit to the tomb or masjid. The minaret standing near the new Court and Treasury build- ing is the sole surviving relic of a large masjid that has passed into ruin within the memory of some of the older inhabitants. It is described as having been of considerable size, and to have been built at great cost by a woman of the Bani-Ghassan, who held sway in Yemen between a.h. 800 and looo.^ Abul Feda states that there was also a large jami' masjid built some time before a.h. too' by Umar bin Abdul Aziz, a just and upright ruler, the 8th of the caliphs of the Bani Umaya. It was built on the seashore, in the Crater, where the barracks now stand, and was repaired and enlarged by Abu Abdalla al Husain ba Salama, who was by origin a Nubian slave in the house of the Bani Ziad, who then governed Yemen. This man rose to the dignity of Vizier, and after the fall of the Bani Ziad he conquered the rebellious tribes, and himself became ruler of Yemen. Ba Makrama gives A.H. 402* as the date of his death. Natural Calamities.^ — The following natural calamities have visited the Settlement and surrounding districts since British occupation : — (a.) Cholera. (c.) Dengue. («.) Famine. ((5.) Small-pox. (if.) Murrain. (a!) Cholera.; — In 1846 the disease broke out in Aden; about 386 persons were carried off, of whom 20 were Europeans ; the ' Town in Yemen. ' A.D. 1397 and 1597. ' A.D. 718. *a.d. ioii. ' Extracts from Aden Residency records. NATURAL CALAMITIES. 177 daily average of deaths was 15. The epidemic spread to some extent among the troops and camp followers, and the shipping in harbour was affected. The disease appeared at Makalla, and to the eastward, at Lahej, Mokha, Jiddah, and nearly all the Red Sea ports. It broke out in Aden after a heavy fall of rain, on the same day as it did at Mokha under similar circumstances. The direction of travel was north-north-west. The attack lasted 33 days in Aden, but elsewhere it raged for a longer period. In 1849 cholera raged at Mecca and Jiddah, and in the sur- rounding districts. Upwards of 5000 deaths occurred in Mecca alone, but Aden was not touched. 1858. — In this year cholera broke out at Aden, when 15 Euro- peans and 560 natives fell victims to the scourge, which raged most fatally in the interior and on the African coast. The disease re- appeared in 1859, carrying off in Aden i European and 83 natives. From May to August 1865 cholera raged in Aden without inter- mission. I European and 53 natives died. The disease passed into the interior through South Arabia, up to Muscat and the Persian Gulf, causing great havoc. The epidemic was probably intensified by the congregation of pilgrims at Mecca. On this occasion the disease was first heard of at Hodaida, then Jiddah and Mecca, thence it passeif down the Red Sea to Aden along the South Arabian coast. From Jiddah it spread to Egypt, and down the western littoral of the Red Sea to Massowa, thence inland to Abyssinia and the GaUa country. 1867-68. — There was a slight epidemic in Aden, when 57 persons were carried off. (A) Small-pox.— \vi. 1844 a most virulent type of this disease broke out in the town; it raged at Sanaa' and the siurounding villages, carrying off 250 persons daily. 1848. — In this year very bad small-pox broke out at Lahej and the neighbouring districts, but few casualties occurred in Aden. The same year Berbera and Zaila were fatally afflicted, upwards of 500 persons being carried off in the former place alone. The attack lasted six weeks. 1849. — The disease continued to rage on the Somali coast, but disappeared from the vicinity of Aden. 1865-66. — A considerable number of cases occurred in these years, and the disease prevailed in the interior. T 869-70. — A virulent type broke out in Aden this year, chiefly among the Somalis, 103 out of 273 persons afflicted dying. 1875-76. — Small-pox was imported by pilgrims from Mecca, and M 178 THE BRITISH SETTLEMENT OF ADEN. lasted in a desultory way for about a month, but the deaths were few in number. The disease is always more or less present in Aden, and is yearly imported by pilgrims, but it will be seen from the above that the epidemic has seldom proved serious in the Settlement, although raging in the surrounding districts. (c.) Dejigiie.—i2,']2-']^. — In this year a severe epidemic of dengue broke out, and hardly any person escaped being attacked, but no casualties occurred. The disease was, it is believed, imported from Zanzibar, and was transmitted to India through a troopship, and it raged in the Bombay Presidency with great violence. {d.) Murrain. — 1863-64. — Cattle-disease was present in the neighbourhood in this year ; it proved most deadly ; very few animals were spared, and the people were reduced to sore distress. Cattle were imported freely, and grain became scarce and dear. 1864-65. — The disease continued, and the imported cattle also died. Famine became imminent. 1873-4. — Cattle-disease was present in the interior, and many animals in Aden died. ( J3 4-» J (1) J3 13 -to CI q T3 a n n a p c^ n -1 W hJ •ia M rt ;z; 'A < M lU n J3 fi) Tl C <: (U C/3 a nl ? d O - w SQu S— «. G4*Sici m ?« )-■ o S > S?iS 2 o K o" S Ho" o i5 OS 9>t! " -•5oS I § ^ s A'° S § 3sa<" d rt ^ • H H 6, o"£ o g«^o S O s g-g'Sli-3-S^ e-s* s*; g. 8*^ g ^&3 °"3 o^'S S-S g 3 u o H