CORNELL 
 
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 arV1489 
 
 A treatise on anatomy physiology, and h 
 
 3 1924 031 244 431 
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Cornell University 
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 the Cornell University Library. 
 
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TREATISE 
 
 ON 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, 
 AND HYGIENE. 
 
 DESIGNED FOR 
 
 COLLEGES, ACADEMIES, AND FAMILIES. 
 
 By CALVIN GUTTEK, M.D. 
 
 WITH ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 REVISED STBKBOTYPE EDITION. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 
 
 CINCINNATI : SARGENT, WILSON & HINKLE. 
 
 ST. LOUIS, MO. : KEITH &. WOODS. 
 
 CHICAGO, ILL. : S. C. GRIGGS & CO. 
 
Entered accordiDg to Act of CoBgress, in tbe year 1852, by 
 
 CALVIN CUTTER, M.D., 
 
 in the Clerk'a Offlee of the Sistriet Court of the District of Massachusetts. 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 Agesilaus, king of Sparta, when asked what things boys 
 should learn, replied, " Those which they will practise when 
 they become men." As health requires the observance of 
 the laws inherent to the different organs of the human system, 
 so not only boys, but girls, should acquire a knowledge of the 
 laws of their organization. If sound morality depends upon 
 the inculcation of correct principles in youth, equally so does 
 a sound physical system depend on a correct physical edu- 
 cation during the same period of life. If the teacher and 
 parents who are deficient in moral feelings and sentiments, 
 are unfit to communicate to children and youth those high 
 moral principles demanded by the nature of man, so are they 
 equally incompetent directors of the physical training of the 
 youthful system, if ignorant of the organic laws and the phys- 
 iological conditions upon which health and disease depend. 
 
 For these reasons, the study of the structure of the human 
 system, and the laws of the different organs, are subjects of 
 interest to all, — the young and the old, the learned and the 
 unlearned, the rich and the poor. Every scholar, and particu- 
 larly every young miss, after acquiring a knowledge of the 
 primary branches, — as spelling, reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic, — should learn the structure of the human system, and 
 ] * 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 the conditions upon which heallh and disease depend, as this 
 knowledge will be required in practice in after life. 
 
 " It is somewhat unaccountable," says Dr. Dick, " and not 
 a little inconsistent, that while we direct the young to look 
 abroad over the surface of the earth, and survey its moun- 
 tains, rivers, seas, and continents, and guide their views to 
 the regions of the firmament, where they may contemplate 
 the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and thousands of 
 luminaries placed at immeEisurable distances, * * that we 
 should never teach them to look into themselves ; to consider 
 their own corporeal structures, the numerous parts of which 
 they are composed, the admirable functions they perform, the 
 wisdom and goodness displayed in their mechanism, and the 
 lessons of practical instruction which may be derived from 
 such contemplations." 
 
 Again he says, " One great practical end which should 
 always be kept in view in the study of physiology, is the 
 invigoration and improvement of the corporeal powers and 
 functions, the preservation of health, and the prevention of 
 disease." 
 
 The design of the following pages is, to diffuse in the 
 community, especially among the youth, a knowledge of 
 Human Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. To make 
 the work clear and practical, the following method has 
 been adopted : — r 
 
 1st. The structure of the different organs of the system 
 has been described in a clear and concise manner. To 
 render this description more intelligible, one hundred and 
 fifty engravings have been introduced, to show the situation 
 of the various organs. Hence the work may be regarded 
 as an elementary treatise on anatomy. 
 
PBEFACB. 
 
 2d. The functions, or uses of the several parts have been 
 briefly and plainly detailed ; making a primary treatise on 
 human physiology. 
 
 3d. To make a knowledge of the structure and functions 
 of the different organs practical, the laws of the several 
 parts, and the conditions on» which health depends, have 
 been clearly and succinctly explained. Hence it may be 
 called a treatise on the principles of hygiene, or health. 
 
 To render this department mofe complete, there has been 
 added the appropriate treatment for burns, wounds, hemor- 
 rhage from divided arteries, the management of persona 
 asphyxiated from drowning, carbonic acid, or strangling, 
 directions for nurses, watchers, and the removal of disease, 
 together with an Appendix, containing antidotes for poisons, 
 so that persons may know what should he- done, and what 
 should not he done', until a surgeon or physician can be 
 called. 
 
 In attempting to effect this in a brief elementary treatise 
 designed for schools and families, it has not been deemed 
 necessary to use vulgar phrases for the purpose of being 
 understood. The appropriate scientific term should be applied 
 to each organ. No more effort is required to learn the mean- 
 ing of a proper, than an improper term. For example : a 
 child will pronounce the word as readily, and obtain as 
 correct an idea, if you say lungs, as if you used the word 
 lights. A little effort on the part of teachers and parents, 
 would diminish the number of vulgar terms and phrases, and, 
 consequently, improve the language of our country. To 
 obviate all objections to the use of proper scientific terms, a 
 Glossary has been appended to the work. 
 
8 PREFACE. 
 
 The author makes no pretensions to new discoveries in 
 physiological science. In preparing the anatomical depart- 
 ment, the able treatises of Wilson, Cruveilhier, and others 
 have been freely consulted. In the physiological part, the 
 splendid works of Carpenter, Dunglison, Liebig, and others 
 have been perused. In the department of hygiene many 
 valuable hints have been obtained from the meritorious 
 works of Combe, Rivers, and others. 
 
 We are under obligations to R. D. Mussey, M. D., formerly 
 Professor of Anatomy and Surgery, Dartmouth College, 
 N. H., now Professor of Surgery in the Ohio Medical Col- 
 lege ; to J. E. M'Girr, A. M., M. D., Professor of Anatomy, 
 Physiology, and Chemistry, St. Mary's University, IIL ; to 
 E. Hitchcock, Jr., A. M, M. IX, Teacher of Chemistry and 
 Natural History, Williston Seminary, Mass. ; to Rev. E. Hitch- 
 cock, D. T>., President of Amherst College, Mass., who examined 
 the revised edition of this work, and whose valuable suggestions 
 rendered important aid in preparing the manuscript for the 
 present stereotype edition. 
 
 We return our acknowledgments for the aid afforded by the 
 Principals of the several Academies and Normal Schools who 
 formed classes in their institutions, and examined the revised 
 edition as their pupils progressed, thus giving the work the 
 best possible test trial, namely, the recitation-room. 
 
 To the examination of an intelligent public, the work is 
 respectfully submitted by 
 
 CALVIN CUTTER. 
 
 ■Wariien, Mass. 
 
TO TEACHERS AND PARENTS. 
 
 As the work is divided into chapters, the subjects of 
 which are complete in themselves, the pupil may com- 
 mence the study of the structure, use, and laws of the 
 several parts of which the human system is composed, 
 by selecting such chapters as fancy or utility may dic- 
 tate, without reference to their present arrangement, 
 —as well commence with the chapter on the digestive 
 organs as on the bones. 
 
 The acquisition of a correct pronunciation of the 
 technical words is of great importance, both in recita- 
 tion and in conversation. In this work, the technical 
 words interspersed with the text, have been divided 
 into syllables, and the accented syllables designated. 
 An ample Glossary' of technical terms has also been 
 appended to the work, to which reference should be 
 made. 
 
 It is recommended that the subject be examined in 
 the form of topics. The questions in Italics are de- 
 signed for this method of recitation. The teacher 
 may call on a pupil of the class to describe the anat- 
 omy of an organ from an anatomical outline plate ; 
 afterwards call upon another, to give the physiology 
 of the part, while a third may state the hygiene, after 
 
W TO TEACHERS AND PARENTS. 
 
 which, the questions at the bottom of the page may 
 be asked promiscuously, and thus the detailed knowl- 
 edge of the subject possessed by the pupils will be 
 tested. 
 
 At the close of the chapters upon the Hygiene of 
 the several portions of the system, it is advised that 
 the instructor give a lecture reviewing the anatomy, 
 physiology, and hygiene, of the topic last considered. 
 This may be followed by a general examination of 
 the class upon the same subject. By this course a 
 clear and definite knowledge of the mutual relation of 
 the Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, of different 
 parts of the human body, will be presented. 
 
 We also suggest the utility of the pupils' giving 
 analogous illustrations, examples, and observations, 
 where these are interspersed in the difiierent chap- 
 ters, not only to induce inventive thought, but to 
 discipline the mind. 
 
 To parents and others we beg leave to say, that 
 about two thirds of the present work is devoted to a 
 concise and practical description of the uses of the 
 important organs of the human body, and to show 
 how such information may be us.efully applied, both 
 in the preservation of health, and the improvement of 
 physical education. To this have been added direc- 
 tions for the treatment of those accidents which are 
 daily occurring in the community, making it a treatise 
 proper and profitable for the FAMiLr library, as well 
 as the school-room. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter. Pago. 
 
 1. Oknebal Rekaxks .' 13 
 
 2. Stbvctube of Man, 17 
 
 3. Chemistry op the Human Body 26 
 
 1. Anatomy of the Bones, 29 
 
 6. Anatomy op the Bones, continted, 39 
 
 6. Fhysioloqy op the Bones 18 
 
 7. Hyqiene op the Bones, 53 
 
 8. Anatomy op the Muscles, 64 
 
 9. Fhysioloqy op the Muscles 76 
 
 10. Hyqieke op the Muscles, 8d 
 
 11. Hyqiene op the Muscles, continued, 96 
 
 12. Anatomy op the Teeth ." 105 
 
 12. Fhysioloqy op the Teeth, 1 09 
 
 12. Hygiene of the Teeth 110 
 
 13. Anatomy OF the Diqestiye Orqans 113 
 
 14. Fhysioloqy op the Diqestiye Obqans, 124 
 
 15. Hygiene op the Digestive Orqans ,, 129 
 
 16. Hygiene of the Digesttve Organs, continued, 142 
 
 17. Anatomy of the Circulatory Organs, 154 
 
 18. Fhysioloqy of the Circulatory Organs, 164 
 
 19. Hygiene op the Circulatory Organs', 172 
 
 20. Anatomy op the Lymphatic Vessels 181 
 
 20. Fhysioloqy of the Lymphatic Vessels 183 
 
 20. Hygiene op the Lymphatic Vessels 188 
 
 21. Anatomy op the Secretory Organs, 192 
 
 21. Fhysioloqy OP the Secretory Organs, 193 
 
 21. Hygiene op the Secretory Organs , 197 
 
 22. Nutrition 200 
 
 22. Hygiene of Nutrition, .' 205 
 
 23. Anatomy of the Respiratory Organs, 209 
 
12 CONTENTS. 
 
 Cbaptflr. F.ig« 
 
 24. Physiolooy of the Kebfis^toby Obqaks 217 
 
 2d. Hyoi£xe of the Kesfibatoky Obqans, 228 
 
 26. Hygiene op the Eespibatoby Obqahs, continued, 239 
 
 i27. Animal Heat, 252 
 
 28. Hyoienb of Anijiai Heat, - 261 
 
 29. Anatomy op the Vooax Ubgans, 268 
 
 29. Physiology op the Vooal Obgaks, 272 
 
 30. Hygiene of the Vocal Oboans 274 
 
 31. Anatomy of the Skin 282 
 
 32. Physiology of the Skin 293 
 
 33 . Hygiene of the Skin, 301 
 
 34. Hygiene of the Skin, continued, 311 
 
 35. Appendages op the Skin 322 
 
 ^6. Anatomy of the Nebtoub System, 327 
 
 37. Anatomy op the Nebvous System, continued, 340 
 
 38. Physiology op the Nebvous System, 346 
 
 39. Hygiene op the Nebvous System, 358 
 
 40. Hygiene op the Nebvous System, continued, 368 
 
 41. The Sense of Touch, 373 
 
 42. Anatomy of the Oegans of Taste, 384 
 
 42. Physiology op the Oboans op Taste, 386 
 
 43. Anatomy of the Obgans of Smell 389 
 
 43. Physiology op the Obqans op Smell ." 391 
 
 44. Anatomy op the Obgans of Vision 394 
 
 45. Physiology op the Obgans of Vision, 404 
 
 45. Hygiene op the Oboans op Vision 410 
 
 46. Anatomy op the Oboans of Heabing 414 
 
 47. Physiology op the Oboans op Heabing, 420 
 
 47. Hygiene of the Obqans op Heabing, 422 
 
 48. Means op pbesebvinq the Health, 425 
 
 49. Dibectionb pob Nubses, 432 
 
 APPENDIX, 439 
 
 GLOSSAHY, 45J 
 
 INDEX, 463 
 
ANATOMY, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL REMAEKS. 
 
 1. Anatomy is the science which treats of the structure 
 and relations of the different parts of animals and plants. 
 
 2. It is divided into Vegetable and Animal anatomy. The 
 latter of these divisions is subdivided into Human anatomy, 
 which considers, exclusively, human beings ; and Comparative 
 anatomy, which treats of the mechanism of the lower orders 
 of animals. 
 
 3. . Physiology treats of the functions, or uses of the organs 
 of animals and plants. Another definition is, " the science of 
 life." 
 
 4. This is also divided into Vegetable and Animal physiol- 
 ogy, as it treats of the vegetable or animal kingdom ; and 
 into Human and Comparative physiology, as it describes the 
 vital functions of man or the inferior animals. 
 
 5. Hygiene is the art or science of maintaining health, oi 
 a knowledge of those laws by which health may be preserved. 
 
 6. The kingdom of nature is divided into organic and in- 
 organic bodies. Organic bodies possess organs, on whose 
 
 I. What is anatom^ 2. How is it divided 7 How is the latter diTision 
 subdivided 7 3. What is physiology 1 Give another definition. 4. How is 
 physiology divided ? Give a subdivision. 5. What is hygiene J 6. Define 
 organic bodies. 
 
 2 
 
14 ANATOMY, PHYSIOI.OGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 action depend their growth and perfection. This division 
 includes animals and plants. Inorganic bodies are devoid of 
 organs, or instruments of life. In this division are classed 
 the earths, metals, and other minerals. 
 
 7. In general, organic matter differs so materially from 
 inorganic, that the one can readily be distinguished from the 
 other. In the organic world, every individual of necessity 
 springs from some parent, or immediate producing agent ; 
 for while inorganic substances are formed by chemical 
 laws alone, we see no case of an animal or plant coming 
 into existence by accident or chance, or chemical opera- 
 tions. 
 
 8. Animals and plants are supported ly means of nourish- 
 ment, and die without it. They also increase in size hy the 
 addition of new particles of matter to all parts of their sub- 
 stances ; while rocks and minerals grow only by additions to 
 their surfaces. 
 
 9. " Organized bodies always present a combination of 
 both solids and fluids ; — of solids, differing in character and 
 properties, arranged into organs, and these endowed with 
 functional powers, and so associated as to form of the whole 
 a single system ; — and of fluids, contained in these organs, 
 and holding such relation to the solids that the existence 
 nature, and properties of both mutually and necessarily de- 
 pend on each other." 
 
 10. Another characteristic is, that organic substances have 
 a certain order of parts. For example, plants possess organs 
 to gain nourishment from the soil and atmosphere, and the 
 power to give strength and increase to all their parts. And 
 animals need not only a digesting and circulating apparatus, 
 but organs for breathing, a nervous system, &c. 
 
 Define inorganic bodies, 7. What is said of the diBerence, in general, be- 
 tween organic and inorganic bodies ? 8. What of the growth of organic and 
 inorganic bodies ? 9. What do organized bodies always present ? 10. Give 
 another characteristic of organized substances. 
 
GENERAL REMARKS. 15 
 
 11. Individuality is an important characteristic. For in- 
 stance, a large rock may be broken into a number of smaller 
 pieces, and yet every fragment will be rock ; but if an or- 
 ganic substance be separated into two or more divisions, 
 neither of them can be considered an individual. CJosely 
 associated with this is the power of life, or vitality, which is 
 the most distinguishing characteristic of organic structure ; 
 since we find nothing similar to this in the inorganic creation. 
 
 12. TAe distinction \etween plants and animals is also of 
 much importance. Animals grow proportionally in all 
 directions, while plants grow upwards and downwards from a 
 collet only. The food of animals is organic, while that of 
 plants is inorganic ; the latter feeding entirely upon the ele- 
 ments of the soil and atmosphere, while the former subsist 
 upon the products of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. 
 The size of the vegetable is in most cases limited only by the 
 duration of existence, as a tree continues to put forth new 
 branches during each period of its life, while the animal, at a 
 certain time of life, attains the average size of its species. 
 
 13. One of the most important distinctions between ani- 
 mals and plants, is the different effects of respiration. Ani: 
 mals consume the oxygen of the atmosphere, and give off 
 carbonic acid ; while plants take up the carbonic acid, and 
 restore to animals the oxygen, thus affording an admirable 
 example of the principle of compensation in nature. 
 
 14. But the decisive distinctions between animals and 
 plants are sensation and voluntary motion, the power of ac- 
 quiring a knowledge of external objects through the senses, 
 and the ability to move from place to place at will. These 
 
 11. What is said of the individuality of organized and inorganized bodies I 
 What is closely associated with this ? 12. Give a distinction between ani 
 mals and plants as regards growth. The food of animals and plants. What 
 is said in reaped to size 1 13. What important distinction in the effects of 
 respiration of animals and plants 7 14. What are the decisive distinotions 
 between animals and pl&nts I 
 
16 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 are the characteristics which, in their fullest •development in 
 man, show intellect and reasoning powers, and thereby in a 
 greater degree exhibit to ns the wisdom and goodness of the 
 Creator. 
 
 15. Disease, which consists in an unnatural condition of the 
 bodily organs, is in most cases under the control of fixed laws, 
 which we are capable of understanding and obeying. Nor 
 do diseases come by chance ; they are penalties for violating 
 physical laws. If we carelessly cut or bruise our flesh, pain 
 and soreness follow, to induce us to be more careful in the 
 future ; or, if we take improper food into the stomach, we 
 are warned, perhaps immediately, by a friendly pain, that we 
 have violated an organic law. 
 
 16. Sometimes, however, the penalty does not directly fol- 
 low the sin, and it requires great physiological knowledge to 
 be able to trace the effect to its true cause. Jf we possess 
 good constitutions, we are responsible for most of our sick- 
 ness ; and bad constitutions, or hereditary diseases, are but 
 the results of the same great law, — the iniquities of the 
 parents being visited on the children. In this view of the 
 subject, how important is the study of physiology and hygiene ! 
 For how can we expect to obey laws which we do not under- 
 stanfl ? 
 
 15. What is said of disease ? 16. Why is the study of physiology and 
 hygiene important ? 
 
STRUCIUEE OP MAN. " ' 17 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 STETTCTXTRE OF MAN. 
 
 17. In the structure of the human body, there is a union 
 of fluids and solids. These are essentially the same, for the 
 one is readily changed into the other. There is no fluid that 
 does not contain solid matter in solution, and no solid matter 
 Ihat is destitute of fluid. 
 
 IS. In different individuals, and at different periods of life 
 the proportion of fluids and solids varies. In youth, the fluids 
 are more abundant than in advanced life. For this reason, 
 the limbs in childhood are soft and round, while in old age 
 they assume a Hard and wrinkled appearance. 
 
 19. The fluids not only contain the materials from which 
 every part of the body is formed, but they are the medium 
 for conveying the waste, decayed particles of matter from the 
 system. They have various names, according to their nature 
 and fiinction ; as, the blood, and the bile. 
 
 20. The solids are formed from the fluids, and consequent 
 ly they are reduced, by chemical analysis, to the same ultimate 
 elements. The particles of matter in solids are arranged 
 variously ; sometimes \n fibres, (threads,) sometimes in lam'i- 
 nee, (plates,) sometimes homogeneously, as in basement mem- 
 branes. (Appendix A.) » 
 
 21. The parts of the body are arranged into Pi'bres, Fas- 
 dc'u-li, Tis'sues, Or'gans, Ap'pa-ra'tus-es, and Sys'tems. 
 
 17. "What substances enter into the structure ef the human body ? Are 
 they essentially the same ? 18. What is said of these substances at differ- 
 ent periods of life ? 19. "What offices do the flmds of the system perform ? 
 20. What is said of the solids ? How are the particles of matter ar- 
 rfinged in solids F 21. Give an arrangement of the parts of the body. 
 2* 
 
18 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 22. A FiBEE is a thread of exceeding fineness. It is either 
 cylindriform or flattened. 
 
 23. A FASCICULUS is the term applied to several fibres 
 united. Its general characteristics are the same as fibres. 
 
 24. A TISSUE is a term applied to several different solids 
 of the body. 
 
 25. An ORGAN is composed of tissues so arranged as to 
 form an instrument designed for action. The action of an 
 organ is called i^fiinction, or use. 
 
 Example. The liver is an organ, and th^ secretion of the 
 bile from the blood is one of its functions.* 
 
 26. An APPARATUS is an assemblage of organs designed 
 to produce certain results. 
 
 Example. The digestive apparatus consists of the teeth 
 stomach, liver, &c., all of which aid in the digestion of food 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Vig. S. Represents a portion of broken muscular fibre of animal Hfb, (magnifleil 
 about seven hundred diameters.) 
 
 27. The term system is applied to an assemblage of 
 organs arranged according to some plan, or metliod ; as the 
 nervous system, the respiratory system. 
 
 * Where examples and observations are given or experiments 
 suggested, let the pupil mention other analogous ones. 
 
 22. Define a fibre. 23. Define a fasciculus. 24. Definp a tissns. 25. De- 
 fine an organ. What is the action of an organ called ? Give examples. 
 MeiUion other examples. 26. What is an apparatus ? Give an example 
 27. How is the term system applied ? 
 
STEUCTUEE Ol' MAN. 19 
 
 28. A TISSUE is a simple form of organized animal sub- 
 stance. It is flexible, and formed of fibres interwoven in 
 various ways, as the cellular tissue. 
 
 29. However various all organs may appear in tbeir struc- 
 ture and composition, it is now supposed that they can be 
 reduced to a few tissues, as the Gel'lu-lar, Os'se-ous, Mus'cio- 
 lar, Mu'cous, JVer'vous, &c. (Appendix B.) 
 
 30. The CELLULAR TISSUE,* now called the areolar tissue, 
 consist^ of small fibres, or bands, interlaced in every .direc- 
 tion, so as to form a net-work, with numerous interstices that 
 communicate freely with each other. These interstices are 
 filled, during life, with a fluid resembling the serum of blood. 
 The use of the areolar tissue is to connect together organs and 
 parts of organs, and to envelop, fix, and protect the vessels and 
 nerves of organs. 
 
 Kg. 3. 
 
 Fig. 3. Arrangement of fibrea of the cellular tissue magnified one hundred and 
 thirty diameters. 
 
 Observations. 1st. When this fluid becomes too great in 
 quantity, in consequence of disease, the patient labors under 
 general dropsy. The swelling of the feet when standing, and 
 their return to a proper shape during the night, so often 
 noticed in feeble persons, furnish a striking proof both of the 
 
 * The Cellular, Serous, Dermoid, Fibrous, and Mucous tissues are very 
 generally called membranes. 
 
 28. What is a tissue ? 29. What is said respecting the structure and com- 
 position of the various organs? Name the primary membranes. 30. De- 
 scribe the cellular tissue. How are the cells imbedded in certain tissues 7 
 Give observation 1st, relative to the cellular tissue. 
 
20 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 existence and peculiarity of this- tissue, which allows the 
 fluid to flow from cell to cell, until it settles in the lower ex- 
 tremities. 
 
 2d. The free communication between the cells is still 
 more remarkable in regard to air. Sometimes, when an ac- 
 cidental opening has been made from the air-cells of the 
 lungs into the contiguous cellular tissue, the air in respiration 
 has penetrated every part until the whole body is so inflated 
 as to occasion sufi'ocation. Butchers often avail themselves 
 of the knowledge of this fact, and inflate their meat to give 
 it a fat appearance. 
 
 31. " Although this tissue enters into the composition of all 
 organs, it never loses its own structure, nor participates in the 
 functions of the organ of which it forms a part. Though 
 present in the nerves, it does not share in their sensibility ; 
 and though it accompanies every muscle and every muscular 
 fibre, it does not partake of the irritability which belongs to 
 these organs." 
 
 32. Several varieties of tissue are formed from the cellular; 
 as, the Se'-rous, Der'moid,, Fi'brous, and several others. 
 
 33. The SEROUS tissue lines all the closed, or sac-like 
 cavities of the body ; as, the chest, joints, and abdomen. It 
 not only lines these cavities, but is reflected, and invests the 
 organs contained in them. The liver and the lungs are thus 
 invested. This membrane is of a whitish color, and smooth 
 on its free surfaces. These surfaces are kept moist, and pre- 
 vented from adhering by a se'rous fluid, which is separated 
 from the blood. The use of this membrane is to separate 
 organs, and also to facilitate the movement of one part upon 
 another, by means of its moist, polished surfaces. 
 
 34. The DERMOID TISSUE covers the outside of the body. 
 
 Give observation 2d. 31. What is said of the identity of this tissue ? 
 32. Name the varieties of tissue formed from the oellular. 33. Where is 
 the serous tissue found? What two offioes does it perform? Give its 
 structure. What is the use of this membrane ? 
 
STETJCTTJEE OP MAH. 21 
 
 It is called the cu'tis, (skin.) This membrane is continuous 
 with the mucous at the various orifices of the body, and in 
 these situations, from the similarity of their structure, it is 
 difficult to distinguish between them. 
 
 Observations. 1st. In consequence of the continuity and 
 similarity of structure, there is close sympathy between the 
 mucous and dermoid membranes. If the functions of the 
 skin are disturbed, as by a chill, it will frequently cause a 
 catarrh, (cold,) or diarrhcea. Again, in consequence of this 
 intimate sympathy, these complaints can be relieved by ex- 
 citing a free action in the vessels of the skin. 
 
 2d. It is no uncommon occurrence that diseased or irri- 
 tated conditions of the mucous membrane of the stomach or 
 intestines produce diseases or irritations of the skin, as is seen 
 in the rashes attendant on dyspepsia, and eating certain spe- 
 cies of fish. These eruptions of the skin can be relieved by 
 removing the diseased condition of the stomach. 
 
 35. The riBROTJS tissue consists of longitudinal, parallel 
 fibres, which are closely united. These fibres, in some situ- 
 ations, form a thin, dense, strong membrane, like that which 
 lines the internal surface of the skull, or invests the external 
 surface of the bones. In other instances, they form strong, 
 inelastic bands, called lig'a-ments, which bind one bone to 
 another. This tissue also forms ten'dons, (white cords,) by 
 which the muscles are attached to the bones. 
 
 Observation. In the disease called rheumatism, the fibrous 
 tissue is the part principally affected; hence the joints, where 
 this tissue is most abundant, suffer most from this affection. 
 
 36. The ADIPOSE tissue is so arranged as to form distinct 
 bags, or cells. These contain a substance called fat. This 
 
 - 34. Describe the dermoid tissue. What is said of the sympathy between 
 the functions of the skin and mucous membrane ? Give another instance 
 of the sympathy between these membranes. 35. Of what does the fibrous 
 tissue consist? How do these appear in some situations ? How in others? 
 What tissue is generally affected in rheumatism ? 
 
22 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 tissue is principally found beneath the skin, abdominal mus- 
 cles, and around the heart and kidneys ; while none is found 
 in the brain, eye, ear, nose, and several other organs. 
 
 Observation. In those individuals who are corpulent, there 
 is, in many instances, a great deposit of this substance. This 
 tissue accumulates more readily than others when a person 
 becomes gross, and is earliest removed when the system 
 emaciates, in acute or chronic diseases. Some of the masses 
 become, in some instances, enlarged. These enlargements 
 are called adipose, or fatti/ tumors. 
 
 Kg. 4. 
 
 * a 
 
 Kg. 4. I, A portion of the adipose tissue. 2, 2, 2, Minute bags coatoiiUDg fat. 3, 
 A cluster of these hags, separated and suspended. 
 
 37. The CARTILAGINOUS TISSUE is firm, smooth, and highly 
 elastic. Except bone, it is the hardest part of the animal 
 frame. It tips the ends of the bones that concur in forming 
 a joint. Its use is to facilitate the motion of the joints by its 
 smooth surface, while its elastic character diminishes the 
 shock that would otherwise be experienced if this tissue were 
 inelastic. 
 
 36. Describe the adipose tissue. Wliere does this tissue principally 
 exist ? Give observation in regard to the adipose tissue. 37. Deeoribe the 
 cartilaginous tissue. What is its use ? 
 
STRUCTURE OP MAN. 23 
 
 38. Tie OSSEOUS tisstje, in composition and arrangement 
 of matter, varies at different periods of life, and in different 
 bones. In some instances, the bony matter is disposed in 
 plates, while in other instances, the arrangement is cylindrical. 
 Sometimes, the bony matter is dense and compact ; again, it is 
 spongy, or porous. In the centre of the long bones, a space 
 is left which is filled with a fatty substance, called mar'row. 
 
 Observation. Various opinions exist among physiologists in 
 regard to the use of marrow. Some suppose it serves as a 
 reservoir of nourishment, while others, that it keeps the bones 
 from becoming dry and brittle. The latter opinion, however, 
 has been called in question, as the bones of the aged man 
 contain more marrow than those of the child, and they are 
 likewise more brittle. 
 
 Kg. 6. 
 
 Fig. 5. A section of the^femur, (thigh-bone.) 1, 1, The extremitjea, showing a 
 thin plate of compact texture, which covers small cells, that diminish in size, but 
 increase in number, as they approach the articulation. 2, 2, The walls of the shaft, 
 which are very firm and solid. 3, The cavity that contains the marrow. 
 
 39. The MUSCULAR tissue is composed of many fibres, 
 that unite to form fasciculi, each of which is enclosed in a 
 delicate layer of cellular tissue. Bundles of these fasciculi 
 constitute a muscle. 
 
 Observation. A piece of boiled beef will clearly illustrate 
 the arrangement of muscular fibre. 
 
 38. "What is said of the osseous tissue ? How is the bony matter arranged 
 in different parts of the animal frame ? What is said of the usp of marrow ? 
 39. Of what is the muscular tissue composed ? How may the arrangement 
 of muscular fibre bo illustrated ? 
 
24 ANATOMY, PnVSIOLOGY, AND UYQIENE. 
 
 40. The MUCOUS tissue differs from the serous by its 
 lining all the cavities which communicate with the air. The 
 nostrils, the mouth, and the stomach afford examples. The 
 external surface of this membrane, or that which is exposed 
 to the air, is soft, and bears some resemblance to the downy 
 rind of a peach. It is covered by a viscid fluid called mu'cus. 
 This is secreted by small gland-cells, called ep-i-thefli-a, or 
 secretory cells of the mucous membrane. The use of this 
 membrane and its secreted mucus is to protect the inner sur- 
 face of the cavities which it lines. 
 
 Observation. A remarkable sympathy exists between the 
 remote parts of the mucous membrane. Thus the condition 
 of the stomach may be ascertained by an examination of the 
 tongue. 
 
 41. The NEEVOUS tissue consists of soft, pulpy matter, 
 enclosed in a sheath, called new-ri-lem'a. This tissue consists 
 of two substances. The one, of a pulpy character and gray 
 color, is called cin-e-rifiious, (ash-colored.) The other, of a 
 fibrous character and white, is named med'vl-la-ri/, (marrow- 
 like.) In every part of the nervous system both substances 
 are united, with the exception of the nervous fibres and fila- 
 ments, which are solely composed of the medullary matter, 
 enclosed in a delicate sheath. 
 
 40. How does tlje mucous differ from the serous tissue? What is 
 the appearance of the external surface of this membrane ? Where is the 
 mucus secreted ? What is the use of this membrane ? 41. Of what does 
 the nervous tissue consist ? Describe the two substances that enter into 
 the composition of the nervous tissue. 
 
CHKMISTEY OS THE UUMAN BODY. 25 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BOBY. 
 
 42. An ULTIMATE ELEMENT IS the simplest form of matter 
 with which we are acquainted ; as gold, iron, &c. 
 
 43. These elements are divided into metallic and 
 non-metallic substances. The metallic substances are Po- 
 tas'si-um, So'di-um, Cal'ci-um, Mag-ne'si-um, A-lu'min-um, 
 Tron, Man'ga-nese, and Cop'per. The non-metallic sub- 
 stances are Ox'y-gen, Hy'dro-gen, Car'lon, Ni'tro-gen, Si-li'- 
 ci-um, Phos'phor-us, Sul'phur, Chlo'rine, and a few others. 
 
 44. Potash (potassium united with oxygen) is found m 
 the blood, bile, perspiration, milk, &c. 
 
 45. Soda (sodium combined with oxygen) exists in the 
 muscles, and in the same fluids in which potash is found. 
 
 46. Lime (calcium combined with oxygen) forms the prin- 
 cipal ingredient of the bones. The lime in them is combined 
 with phosphoric and carbonic acid. 
 
 47. Magnesia (magnesium combined with oxygen) exists 
 in the bones, brain, and in some of the animal fluids; as milk. 
 
 48. SiLEX (silicium combined with oxygen) is contained in 
 the hair and in some of the secretions. 
 
 49. Iron forms the coloring principle of the red globules 
 of the blood, and is found in every part of the system. 
 
 ■ Observation. As metallic or mineral substances enter into 
 the ultimate elements of the body, the assertion that all min- 
 erals are poisonous, however small the quantity, is untrue. 
 
 42. What is an ultimate element 7 Give examples. 43. How are they 
 divided 7 Name the metallic suDstances. Name the non-metallic substances. 
 44. What is said of potash 7 45. Of soda 7 46. Of lime 7 47. Of magnesia ? 
 48. Of silex 7 48.. What forms the colonng principle of the blood 1 What 
 IS said of mineral substances 7 
 3 
 
26 ANATOMY, PHYsiOLoay, a;!jd hygiene. 
 
 50. Oxygen is contained in all the fluids and solids of the 
 body. It is almost entirely derived from the inspired air and 
 water. It is expelled in the form of carbonic acid and water 
 from the lungs and skin. It is likewise removed in the other 
 secretions. 
 
 51. Hydrogen is found in all the fluids and in all the solids 
 of the body. It is derived from the food, as well as from 
 water and other drinks. It exists in the greatest abundance in 
 the impure, dark-colojed blood of the system. It is removed 
 by the agency of the kidneys, skin, lungs, and other excretory 
 organs. 
 
 52. Carbon is an element in the oil, fat, albumen, fibrin 
 gelatin, bile, and mucus. This element likewise exists in the 
 impure blood in the form of carbonic acid gas. Carbon is 
 obtained from the food, and discharged from the system by 
 the secretions and respiration. 
 
 53. Nitrogen is contained in most animal matter, but is 
 most abundant in fibrin. It is not contained in fat and a few 
 other substances. 
 
 Observation. The peculiar smell of animal matter when 
 burning is owing to nitrogen. This element combined with 
 hydrogen forms am-mo'ni-a, (hartshorn,) when animal matter 
 is in a state of putrefaction. 
 
 54. Phosphorus is contEftned in many parts of the system, 
 but more particularly in the bones. It is generally found in 
 combination with oxygen, forming phosphoric add. The 
 phosphoric acid is usually combined with alkaline bases ; as 
 lime in the bones, forming phosphate of lime. 
 
 55. Sulphur exists in the bones, muscles, hair, and nails. 
 It is expelled from the system by the skin and intestines. 
 
 56. Chlorine is found in the blood, gastric juice, milk, 
 perspiration, and saliva. 
 
 60. What is said of cxygcn ? 61. Of hydrogen f 52. What is said of 
 carbon? 63. Of nitrogen ? How is ammonia formed? 64. What is said 
 of phosphorus ? 55. What is said of sulphur ? 56. Of chlorine ? 
 
CIIEMISTEY OF THE HUMAN BODY, 27 
 
 57. Proximate elements are forms of matter that exist 
 in organized bodies in abundance, and are composed cbiefly 
 of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, arranged in dif- 
 ferent proportions. They exist already formed, and may be 
 
 separated in nmany instances, by heat or mechanical means 
 The most important compouniis are Al-hu'men, Fi'brin 
 Gel'a-tin, Mu'cus, Fat, Ca'se-ine, Chon'drine, Lac'tic acid, 
 and Os'ma-zome. ^.^ 
 
 58. Albumen is found in the body, ooth in a fluid and solid 
 form. It is an element of the skin, glands, hair, and nails 
 and forms the principal ingredient of the brain. Albumen la 
 without color, taste, or smell, and it coagulates by heat, acids, 
 and alcohol. 
 
 Observation. The white of an egg is composed of albu- 
 men, which can be coagulated or hardened by alcohol. As 
 albumen enters so largely into the composition of the brain, is 
 not the impaired intellect and moral degradation of the inebri- 
 ate attributable to the effect of alcohol in hardening tlie albu- 
 men of this organ .' 
 
 59. FiBKiN exists abundantly in the blood, chyle, and 
 lymph. It constitutes the basis of the muscles. Fibrin is 
 of a whitish color, inodorous, and insoluble in cold water It 
 differs from albumen by possessing the property of coagu- 
 lating at all temperatures. 
 
 Observation. Fibrin may be obtained by washing the thick 
 part of blood with cold water ; by this process, the red glob- 
 ules, or coloring matter, are separated from this element. 
 
 60. Gelatin is found in nearly all the solids, but it is not 
 known to exist in any of the fluids. It forms the basis of the 
 cellular tissue, and exists largely in the skin, bones, ligaments, 
 and cartilages. 
 
 67. What are proximate elements ? Do they exist already formed in ofgan 
 ized bodies 1 Name the most important compounds. 58. What is said of 
 albumen ? Give observation relative to this element. 59. Of fibrin 7 How 
 does albumen differ from fibrm 7 How can fibrin be obtained 7 60. ^Vhat 18 
 said of gelatin 7 
 
28 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Observation. Gelatin is known from other organic principles 
 by its dissolving in warm water, and forming " jelly." When 
 dry, it forms the hard, brittle substance, called glue. Isin- 
 glass, which is used in the various mechanical arts, is obtained 
 from the sounds of the sturgeon. 
 
 61. Mucus is a viscid fluid secreted by the gland-cells, or 
 epithelia. Various substances are included under the name 
 of mucus. It is generally alkaline, but its true chemical 
 character is imperfectly understood. It serves to moisten and 
 defend the mucous membrane. It is found in the cuticle, 
 brain, and nail^ ; and is scarcely soluble in water, especially 
 when dry. (Appendix C.) 
 
 62. OsMAZOME is a substance of an aromatic flavor. It is 
 of yellowish-brown color, ^nd is soluble both in water 
 and alcohol, but does not form a jelly by concentration. 
 It is found in all the fluids, and in some of the solids ; as 
 the brain. 
 
 Ohservation. The characteristic odor and taste of soup are 
 owing to osmazome. 
 
 63. There are several acids found in the human system ; 
 as the A-ce'tic, Ben-zo'ic, Ox-al'ic, Uric, and some other sub- 
 stances, but not of sufficient importance to require a particu- 
 lar description. 
 
 How is it 'known from other organic principles ? 61. What is said ol 
 raacus ? 62. Of osmazome ? To what are the taste and odor of soup 
 owing 1 63. What acids arc found in the system i 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES 29 
 
 CHAPTER 17. 
 
 THE BONES 
 
 64. The bones are firm and hard, and of a dull while 
 color, In all the higher orders of animals, among which is 
 man, they are in the interior of the body, while in lobsters, 
 crabs, &c., they are on the outside, forming a case which 
 protects the more delicate parts from injury. 
 
 65. In the mechanism of man, the variety of movements 
 he is called to perform requires a correspondent variety of 
 component parts, and the different bones of the system are 
 so admirably adapted to each other, that they admit of nu 
 merous and varied motions. 
 
 66. When the bones composing the skeleton are united by 
 natural ligaments, they form what is called a natural skeleton , 
 when united by wires, what is termed a.n artificial skeleton. 
 
 67. The elevations, or protuberances, of the bones are 
 called proc'es-ses, and are, generally, the points of attach- 
 ment for the muscles and ligaments. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 
 
 68. The BONES are composed of both animal and earthy 
 matter. The earthy portion of the bones gives them solidity 
 and strength, while the animal part endows them with vitality 
 
 64. What is said of the bones ? 65. Is there an adaptation of the bones 
 of the system to the oiHoes they are required to perform ? 66. "What is a 
 natural skeleton ? What an artificial .' 67. What part of the bones are 
 called processes ? 68 — 73. Give the structure of the bones. 68. Of what are 
 the bones composed ? What are the diffeient uses of the component parts 
 of the bones ? 
 3* 
 
30 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOCIY, AND HYaiENB. 
 
 Experiments. 1st. To show the earthy without the animal 
 matter, burn a bone in a clear fire for about fifteen minutes, 
 und it becomes white and brittle, because the gelatin, or ani- 
 mal matter of the bone, has,been destroyed. 
 
 2d. To show the animal without the earthy matter of tho 
 bones, immerse a slender bone for a few days in a weak acid, 
 (one part muriatic acid and six parts water,) and it can then 
 be bent in any direction. In this experiment, the acid has 
 removed the earthy matter, (carbonate and phosphate of lime,) 
 yet the form of the bone is unchanged. 
 
 69. The bones are formed from the blood, and are sub- 
 jected to several changes before they are perfected. At their 
 early formative stage, they are cartilaginous. The vessels of 
 the cartilage, at this period, convey only the lymph, or white 
 portion of the blood ; subsequently, they convey red blood. 
 At this time, true ossification (the deposition of phosphate and 
 carbonate of lime) commences at certain points, which are 
 called the points of ossification. 
 
 70. Most of the bones are formed of several pieces, or 
 centres of ossification. This is seen in the long bones which 
 have their extremities separated from the body by a thin 
 partition of cartilage. It is some time before these separate 
 pieces are united to form one bone. 
 
 71. When the process of ossification is completed, there 
 is still a constant change in the bones. They increase in 
 bulk, and become less vascular, until middle age. In ad- 
 vanced life, the elevations upon their surface and near tho 
 extremities become more prominent, particularly in individ- 
 uals accustomed to labor. As a> person advances in years, 
 the vitality diminishes, and in extreme old age, the earthy 
 
 Ilriw can the earthy matter of the bones be showTi ? The animal? 
 C9. What is the appearance of the bones in tlieir early formative stage ? 
 When does true ossification commence ? 70. How are most of the bones 
 formed f 71. TVliat is said of the various changes of the bones aftur 
 OBfiiflcation i 
 
ANATOMA OF THE BONES. 
 
 31 
 
 substance predominates; consequently, the bones arc ex- 
 tremely brittle. 
 
 72. The fibrous membrane that invests the bones is called 
 per-i-os'te-um ; that which covers the cartilages is called 
 per-i-chon'dri-um. When this membrane invests the skull, 
 It is called per-i-cra'ni-um. ' 
 
 Kg. 6. 
 
 Pig. 6. A section of the linee-joint. Tlie lower part of tlie femur, (thigh-bono,, 
 and upper part of the tibia, (leg-bone,) are seen ossified at 1, 1. The , cartilaginous 
 extremities of the two bones are seen at d, d. The points of ossification of the 
 extremities, are seen at 9, 2. The patella, or knee-pan, is seen at c 3, A point, 
 or centre of ossification. 
 
 73. The PERIOSTEUM is a firm membrane imniediately in- 
 vesting the bones, except where they are tipped with cartilage, 
 and the crowns of the teeth, which are protected by enamel. 
 This membrane has minute nerves, and when healthy, pos- 
 
 72. What is the membrane called that invests the bones ? That covers 
 the cartilage ? That invests the skull ? Explain fig. 6. 73. Describe the 
 periosteum 
 
82. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 sesses but little sensibility. It is the nutrient membrane of 
 the bone, endowing its exterior with vitality; it also gives 
 insertion to the- teijdons and connecting ligaments of die 
 joints. - ' 
 
 74. There are two hundred and eight* bones in the human 
 body, beside the teeth. These, for convenience, are divided 
 into four parts : 1st. The bones of the Head. 2d. The bones 
 of the Trunk. 3d. The bones of the Upper Extremities. 
 4th. The bones of the Lower Extremities. 
 
 75. The bones of the head are divided into those of the 
 Skull, Ear, and Face. 
 
 76. The SKULL is composed of eight bones. They are 
 formed of two plates, or tablets of bony matter, united by a 
 porous portion of bone. The external tablet is fibrous and 
 tough ; the internal plate is dense and hard, and is called 
 the vit're-ous, or glassy table. These tough, hard plates 
 are adapted to resist the penetration of sharp instruments, 
 while the different degrees of density possessed by the two 
 tablets, and the intervening spongy bone, serve to diminish 
 the vibrations that would occur in falls or blows. 
 
 77. The skull is convex externally, and at the base much 
 thicker than at the top or sides. The most important" part of 
 the brain is placed here, completely out of the way of injury, 
 unless of a very serious nature. The base of the cranium, 
 or skull, has many projections, depressions, and apertures ; 
 the latter affording passages for the nerves and blood- 
 vessels. 
 
 • Some anatomistB reckon more than this number, others leas, foi 
 the reason that, at different perioda of life, the number of pieces of 
 which one bone is formed, varies. Example. The breast-bone, in 
 infancy, has eight pieces ; in youth, three ; in old age, but one. 
 
 7i. How many bones in the human body ? How are they divided ? 
 75 — 81 . Gioe the anatomy of the bones of the head. 7S. How are the bones 
 of the head divided ? 76. Describe the bones of the skull. 77. What 
 is the form of the skull ? What does the base of the skull present! 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 33 
 
 78. The bones of the cranium are united by ragged 
 edges, called sut'ures. The edges of each bone interlock 
 with each other, producing a union, styled, in carpentry, dove- 
 tailing. They interrupt, in a measure, the vibrations pro- 
 duced by external blows, and also prevent fractures from 
 extending as far as they otherwise would, in one continued 
 bone.. From infancy to the twelfth year, the sutures are 
 imperfect; but, from that time to thirty-five or forty, they are 
 distinctly marked ; in old age, they are nearly obliterated. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 7 1, 1, Tlie coronal suture at the front and upper part of the skull, or cr;i.- 
 nium. 2, The sagittal suture on the top of the skull. 3, 3, The lainbdoidal suture 
 at the back part of the cranium. 
 
 79. We find as great a diversity in the form and texture 
 of the skull-bone, as in the expression of the face. The head 
 of the New Hollander is small ; that of the African is com- 
 pressed ; while the Caucasian is distinguished for the beautiful 
 oval form of the head. The Greek skulls, in texture, are 
 close and fine, while the Swiss are softer and more open. 
 
 78. How are the bones of the skull united? "What are the usps of the 
 sutures? Mention the appearance of the sutures at diiferent ages. What 
 does fig. 7 represent ? 79. What is said respecting the form and texture 
 of the skull in different nations ? 
 
34 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 
 
 80. In each- EAR are four very small bones. They aid in 
 hearing. 
 
 81. In the face are fourteen bones, some of which serve 
 for the attachment of powerful muscles, which are more or 
 less called into action in masticating food ; others retain in 
 place the soft parts of the face. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 5 
 I 
 
 1 V.^^v^. 
 
 <ir<¥&\ 
 
 Fig 8. 1, The frontal, or bone of the forehead* 2. The parietal boue. 3, The 
 temporal bone. 4, The zygomatic process of the temporal boue. 5, The malai 
 (cheek) bone. 6, The superior maxillary bone, (upper jaw.) 7, The vomer, that 
 separates the cavities of the nose. 8, The inferior maxillary bone, (It-wer jaw.) 
 9, The cavity for the eye. 
 
 82. The TRUNK has fifty-four bones — twenty-four Ribs ; 
 twenty-four bones in the Spi'nal Col'umn, (back-bone ;) four 
 in the Pel'vis ; the Sler'num, (breast-bone ;) and the Os hy- 
 oid'es, (the bone at the base of the tongue.) They are so 
 arranged as to form, with the soft parts attached to tliem, two 
 cavitips, called the Tho'rax (chesty and Ab-do'men. 
 
 80. How many bones in the ear ? 81. How many bones in the face ? 
 What is their use ? Explain fig. 8. 82 — 94. G-ive the anatomy of the bones 
 of t/ie trunk. 82. How many bones in the trunk ? Name them. What 
 do they form by their arrangement 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 35 
 
 83. The THORAX is formed by the sternum, in front; the 
 ribs, at the sides ; and the twelve dorsal bones of the spinal 
 column, posteriorly. The natural form of the chest is a cone, 
 with its apex above ; but fashion, in many instances, has near- 
 ly inverted this order. This cavity contains the lungs, heart, 
 and large blood-vessels. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Fig 9 1, The first bone of the sternum, (breast-bone.^ S. The second bone of the 
 eternum. 3, The cartilage of the sternum. 4, The first dorsal vertebra, (a bone of 
 the- spinal column.) 5, The last dorsal vertebra. 6, The first rib. 7, Ita head. 
 8, Its nect 9, Its tubercle. 10, The seventh, or last true rib 11, The cartilage 
 of the third rib. 12, The floating ribs. 
 
 84. The STERNUM is composed of eight pieces in the child. 
 These unite and form but three parts in the adult. In youth, 
 the two uppei portions are converted into bone, while the 
 lower portion remains cartilaginous and flexible until extreme 
 old age, when it is often converted into bone. 
 
 85. The KIBS are connected with the spinal column, and in- 
 crease m length as far as the seventh. From this they succes- 
 
 83. Describe the thorax. Explain, fig. 9. 84. Describe the sternum 
 85. Describe the ribs. 
 
36 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 sively become shorter. The direction of the ribs from above, 
 downward, is oblique, and their curve diminishes from the first 
 to the twelfth. The external surface of each rib is convex ; the 
 internal, concave. The inferior, or lower ribs, are, however, 
 very flat. 
 
 86. The seven upper ribs are united to the sternum, 
 through the medium of cartilages, and are called the true ribs. 
 The cartilages of the next three are united with each other, 
 and are not attached to the sternum ; these are called /aZse 
 ribs. The lowest two are caReA floating ribs, as they are not 
 connected either with the sternum or the other ribs. 
 
 87. The SPINAL COLUMN is composed of twenty-four pieces 
 of hope. Each piece is called a.wrt'e-bra. On examining 
 one of the bones, we find seven projections, called processes , 
 four of these, that are employed in binding the bones together, 
 are called articulating processes ; two of the remaining are 
 called the transverse ; and the other, the spinous. The last 
 three give attachment to the muscles of the back. 
 
 88. The l£|,rge part of the vertebra, called the body, is 
 round and spongy in its texture, like the extremity of the 
 round bones. The processes are of a more dense character. 
 The projections are so arranged that a tube, or canal, is formed 
 immediately behind the bodies of the vertebrae, in which ia 
 placed the me-dul'ld spi-nalis, (spinal cord,) , sometimes 
 called the pith of the back-bone. 
 
 89. Between these joints, or vertebrse, is a peculiar and 
 highly elastic substance, which much facilitates the bending 
 movements of the back. This compressible cushion of car- 
 1ih)ge also serves the important purpose of diffusing and 
 diminishing the shock m walking, running, or leaping, and 
 tends to protect the delicate texture of the brain. 
 
 86. How are the ribs united to the sternum ? 87. Describe the spinal 
 column. 88. Give the structure of the vertebra.. Where is the spinal 
 cord placed f 89. What is placed between each vertebra ? What is 
 its use ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 
 
 37 
 
 90. Another provision for the protection of the brain, 
 which bears convincing proof of the wisdom and beneficence 
 of the Creator, is the antero-posterior, or forward and back- 
 ward curve of the spinal column. Were it a straight column, 
 standing perpendicularly, the slightest jar, in walking, would 
 cause it to recoil with a sudden jerk ; because, the weight 
 bearing equally, the spine would neither yield to the one side 
 nor the other. But, shaped as it is, we find it yielding in iho 
 direction of the curves, and thus the force of the shock is 
 diffused. 
 
 Fig. 10. Fig. U. 
 
 Fig. 10. A vertebra of the neck. 1, The body of the vertebra, a, The spinal 
 canal. 4, The spinous process, cleft at its extremity. 5, The transverse procesii. 
 7, Tile inferior articulating process, 8, The superior articulating process. 
 
 Fig. 11, 1, The cartilaginous substance that connects the bodies of the vertebra*. 
 •2, The body of the vertebra. 3, The spinous process. 4, 4, The transverse pro- 
 cesses. 5, 5, The articulating processes. 6, 6, A portion of the bony bridge that 
 assists in forming the spinal canal, (7.) 
 
 Observation. A good idea of the structure of the vertebrae 
 may be obtained by examining the spinal column of a 
 domestic animal, as the dog, cat, or pig. 
 
 91. The PELVIS is composed of four bones; the two in- 
 nom-i-na'ta, (nameless bones,) the sa'cruni and the coc'cyx. 
 
 92. The iNNOMiNATUM, in the child, consists of three pieces. 
 
 90. WTiat is said of the curves of the spinal column ? What ia 
 represented by fig. 10 ? By fig. 11? How can the structure of the vertebrsB 
 be seen ? 91. Of how many bones is the pelvis composed ? 92. What is 
 said of the innominatum in the child ? 
 4 
 
38 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 These, in the adult, become united, and constitute but one 
 
 bone. In the sides of these bones is a deep socket, or 
 
 depression, like a cup, called the ac-e-tab'u-lum, in which the 
 
 round head of the thigh-bone is placed. 
 
 93. The SACRTTM, so called because the ancients offered it 
 
 in sacrifices, is a wedge-shaped bone, that is placed between 
 
 the innominata, and to which it is bound by ligaments. Upon 
 
 its upper surface it connects with the lower vertebra. At its 
 
 inferior, or lower angle, it is united to the coccyx. It is 
 
 concave upon its anterior, and convex upon its posterior 
 
 surface. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig. 12. 1, 1, The innominata, (nameless bones.) 2, Tlie sacniro. 3, The coccyx. 
 4, 4, The acetabulum, a, o. The pubic portion of the innominata. d. The areh of 
 the pubes; e, The junction of the sacrum and lower lumbar vertebra. 
 
 94. Tfce COCCYX, in infants, consists of several pieces, 
 which, in youth, become united and form one bone. This is 
 the terminal extremity of the spinal column. 
 
 In the adult ? Describe the acetabulum. 93. Describe the sacnmi. 
 Enplaiu fig. 12. 94. Describe the coccyx. 
 
ANATOMY or THE BONES. 39 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE BONES, CONTINUED. 
 
 95. The bones of the upper and lower limbs are enlarged 
 at each extremity, and have projections, or processes. To 
 these, the tendons of muscles and ligaments are attached, 
 which connect one bone with another. The shaft of these 
 bones is cylindrical and hollow, and in structure, their exterior 
 surface is hard and compact, while the interior portion is 
 of a reticulated character. The enlarged extremities of the 
 round bones are more porous than the main shaft. -- 
 
 96. The UPPER extremities contain sixty-four bones — ■ 
 the Scap'u-la, (shoulder-blade ;) the Clavti-cle, (collar-bone ;) 
 the Hu'mer-us, (first bone of the arm ;) the Vl'na and Ra'di- 
 us, (bones of the fore-arm ;) the Car'pus, (wrist ;) the Met-a- 
 car'pus, (palm of the hand ;) and the Pha-lan'ges, (fingers 
 and thumb.) t 
 
 97. The CLAVICLE is attached, at one extremity, to the 
 sternum ; at the other, it is united to the scapula. It is shaped 
 like the Italic f. Its use is to keep the arms from sliding 
 toward the breast. 
 
 98; The scapula is situated upon the upper and back part 
 of the chest. It is flat, thin, and of a triangular form. This 
 bone lies upon and is retained in its position by muscles. By 
 their contractions it may be moved in different directions. 
 
 99. The HUMERUS is cylindrical, and is joined at the elbow 
 with the ulna of the fore-arm ; at the scapular extremity, it is 
 
 95 — 104. Give the anatomy of t?te banes of the upper extremities. 95. Give 
 the structure of the bones of the extremities. 96. How many bones in 
 the upper extremities? Name them. 97. Give the attachments of the 
 clavicle. What is its use ? 98. Describe the scapula. How is it re- 
 tained in its position? 99. Describe the humerus. 
 
40 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 lorlgod in the glenoid cavity, where it is surrounded by a 
 membranous bag, called the capsular ligament. 
 
 Fig. 13. rig. 14. 
 
 -% k 
 
 Pig. 13. 1, The shaft of the humerus. 9, The large, round head that is placed in 
 the glen:>id cavity. 3, 4, Processes, to which muscles are attached. 5, A process, 
 called the extcrual elbow. 6, A process, called the internal elbow, 7, The artica* 
 lating surface upon which the ulna rolls. 
 
 Fig. 14. 1, The body of the ulna. 2, The shaft of the radius. 3, The upper 
 articulation of the radius and ulna. 4, Articulating cavity, in which the lower 
 extremity of the humerus is placed. 5, Upper extremity of the ulna, called the 
 olecranon process, which forms the point of the elbow. 6, Space between the radius 
 and ulna, filled by the intervening ligament. 7, Styloid process of the ulna. 8, Sur- 
 face of the radius and the ulna, where they articulate with the bones of the wrisu 
 0, Styloid process of the radius. 
 
 100. The ULNA articulates with the humerus at the elbow, 
 and forms a perfect hinge-joint. This bone is situated on the 
 inner side of the fore-arm. 
 
 What is represented by fig. 13? By fig. Uf 100. Describe the ulna. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 
 
 4] 
 
 101. The RADIUS articulates with the bones of the carpus, 
 and forms the wrist-joint. This bone is situated on the out- 
 side of the fore-arm, (the side on which the thumb is placed.) 
 The ulna and radius, at their extremities, articulate with each 
 other, by which union the hand is made to rotate, permitting 
 its complicated and varied movements. 
 
 102. The CARPUS is c&mposed of eight bones, ranged in 
 two rows, and so firmly bound together, as to peimit only S 
 small amount of movement. 
 
 Pig. 15. 
 
 Pig. 16. 
 
 Fig. 15. u, The alna. R, The radius, ti, The scaphoid bone. L, The seuillunor 
 bone, c, The cuneiform bone. P, The pisifonn bone. These four form the first row of 
 carpal bones. T, T, The trapezium and trapezoid bones. M, Tie os magnum, u, The 
 unciform bone. These four form the second row of carpal bones. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, The 
 metacarpal bones of the thumb and fingers. 
 
 Pig. 16. 10, 10, 10, The metacarpal bones of the hand. 11, 11, First range of fin- 
 ger-bones. 12, 12, Second range of finger-bones. 13, 13, Third range of finger-bones 
 14, 15, Bones of the thumb. 
 
 103. The METACARPUS is composed of five bones, upon four 
 of which the first range of the finger-bones is placed ; and 
 
 101. The radius. 102. How many bones in the carpus ? How are they 
 ranged ? 103 Describe the metacarpus. 
 4» 
 
42 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 upon the other, the first bone of the thumb. The five meta- 
 carpal bones articulate with the second range of carpal bones. 
 
 104. The PHALANGES of the fingers have three ranges 
 of bones, while the thumb has but two. 
 
 Oiservation. The wonderful adaptation of the hand to all 
 the mechanical offices of life, is one cause of man's superior- 
 ity over the rest of creation. TMs arises from the size and 
 strength of the thumbs, and the different lengths of the fingers. 
 
 105. The LOWER extremities contain sixty bones — the 
 Fe'mur, (thigh-bone ;) the Pa-tel'la, (knee-pan ;) the Tib'i-a, 
 (shin-bone ;) the Fii'u-la, (small bone of the leg ;) the Tar'sus, 
 (instep ;) the Met-a-tar'sus, (middle of the foot ;) and the Plia- 
 lan'ges, (toes.) 
 
 106. The FEMUR is the longest bone in the syaterh. It 
 supports the weight of the head, trunk, and upper extremities. 
 The large, round head of this bone is placed in the acetabu- 
 lum. This articulation is a perfect specimen of the ball mid 
 socket joint. 
 
 107. The PATELLA is a small bone connected with the tibia 
 by a strong ligament. The tendon of the ex-tens'or muscles 
 of the leg is attached to its upper edge. This bone is placed 
 on the anterior part of the lower extremity of the femur, and 
 acts like a pulley, in the extension of the' limb. 
 
 108. The TIBIA. is the largest bone of the leg. It is of a 
 triangular shape, and enlarged at each extremity. 
 
 109. The FIBULA is a smaller bone tlian the tibia, but of sim- 
 ilar shape. It is firmly bound to the tibia, at each extremity. 
 
 110. The TARSUS is formed of seven irregular bones, which 
 are so firmly bound together as to permit but little movement. 
 
 104. How many ranges of bones have the phalanges ? 105 — 112. Giee 
 the anatomy of the bones of the lower &iiicmities. 105. How many bones 
 in the lower extremities ? Name them. 106. Describe the femui. 
 107. Describe the patella. What is its function f 108. AVhat is tho 
 largest bone of the leg called ? Wliat is its form ? 109. What is said 
 of the fibula? 110. Describe the tarsus. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 
 Fig- 17- fig. 18. 
 
 43 
 
 Fig 17. 1, Tlie shaft of the femur, (thigh-bone.) a, A projection, calied the 
 trochantar minor,' to which are attached some strong muscles. 4, The trochantar 
 major, to which the large muscles of the hip are attached. 3, The head of the fe- 
 mur. 5, The external projection of the femur, called the external condyle. 6, Tho 
 Internal projection, called the internal condyle. 7, The surface of the lower extrrm 
 ity of the femur, that articulates with the tibia, and upon which the patella slides. 
 
 Pig. 18. 1, The tibia. 5, The fibula. 8, The space between the two, filled with 
 the inter-osseous ligament. 6, Tlie junction of the tibia and fibula at their upper 
 extremity. 2, The external malleolar process, called the external ankle. 3, The 
 Internal malleolar process, called the internal ankle. 4, The surface of the lower 
 exiremity of the tibia, that unites with one of the tarsal bones to form the ankle-joint 
 7, The upper extremity of the tibia, upon which the lower extiemity of the femur 
 rests. 
 
 Explain fig. 17. Kxplain fig. 18. 
 
44 
 
 ANATOMif, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 111. The METATARSAL bones are five in number. They 
 articulate at one extremity with one range of tarsal bones ; at 
 the other extremity, with the first range of the toe-bones. 
 
 rig. 19. 
 
 Fig. 19. A representation of the upper surface of the bones of the foot. 1, The 
 surface of the astraguhis, where it unites with the tibia. 2, Tlie body of tlie astrag- 
 nlus. 3, The calcis, (heel-bone.) 4, The scaphoid bone. S, 8, 7, The cuneiform 
 bones. 8, The culjoid. 9, 9, 9, The metatarsal bones. 10, The first bone of the great 
 toe. 11, The second bone. 12, 13, 14, Three ranges of bones, forming the small 
 toos. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Fig. 20. A side view of the bones of the foot, showing its arched form. The areh 
 rests upon the heel behind, and the ball of the toes in front. 1, The ower |lart of the 
 tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Bones of the tarsus. 6, The metatarsal bone. 7, 8, The bones of 
 the great toe. These bones are so united as to secure a great degree of elasticity, or 
 spring. 
 
 Olservation. The tarsal and metatarsal bones are united 
 so as to give the foot an arched form, convex above, and con- 
 Ill. Describe the metatarsal bones. Explain fig, 19. What is repre- 
 sented by fig. 20 ? What is said of the arrangement of the bones of the 
 foot? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 
 
 45 
 
 C8V0 below. This structure conduces to the elasticity of the 
 step, and the weight of the body is transmitted to the ground 
 by the spring of the arch, in a manner which prevents injury 
 to the numerous organs. 
 
 112. The PHALANGES (fig. 19) are composed of fourteen 
 bones ; each of the small toes has three ranges of bones, 
 while the great toe has but two. 
 
 1 13. The Joiif TS form an interesting part of the body. In 
 their construction^ every thing shows the regard that has been 
 paid to the security and the facility of motion of the parts thus 
 connected together. They are composed of the extremities 
 of two or more bones, Car'ti-lages, (gristles,) Syn-o'vi-al 
 membrane, and Lig'a-ments. 
 
 ) 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 ^ 
 
 k 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 IV' '.F' 
 
 Fig. 31 The relative position of the bones, cartilages, and synovial membrane. 
 1, 1, The extremities of two bones that concur to form a joint. 2, 2, The carti- 
 tages that cover the end of the bones. 3, 3, 3, 3, The synovial membrane which 
 covers the cartilage of both bones, and is then doubled back ftom one to the other; 
 It is represented by the dotted liu^s. 
 
 Fig, ^. A vertical section of the knee-joint. 1, The femur. 3, The patella. 
 5, The .tibia. S, 4, The ligaments of the patella. 6, The cartilage of the tibiH. 
 12, The cartilage of the femur. * * * *, The synovial membrane. 
 
 114. Cartilage is a smooth, solid, elastic substance, of a 
 pearly whiteness, softer than bone. It forms upon the articu- 
 
 112. Describe the phalanges. 113—118. Give the anatomy of the joints, 
 113. "What is said of the joints? Of what are the joints composed? 
 What is illustrated by fig. 21? By fig. 22? 114. Define cartilage. 
 
46 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 lar surfaces of the bones a thin incrustation, not more than 
 the sixteenth of an inch in thickness. Upon convex surfaces 
 it is the thickest in the centre, and thin toward the circum- 
 ference ; while upon concave surfaces, an opposite arrange- 
 ment is presented. 
 
 115. The SYNOVIAL membrane is a thin, membranous 
 layer, which covers the cartilages, and is thence bent back, 
 or reflected upon the inner surfaces of the 'ligaments which 
 surround and enter into the composition of the joints. Thus 
 membrane forms a closed sac, like the membrane that lines 
 an egg-shell 
 
 Fig. 23. Fig. 24. 
 
 Fig. S3. The anterior ligaments of the knee-joint. 1, The tendon of the muscle 
 that extends the leg. 2, The patella. 3, The anterior ligament of the patella, near 
 Us insertion. 4, 4, The synovial membrane. 5, The internal lateral ligament 
 6, The long external lateral ligamenL 7, The anterior and superior ligament that 
 unites the libula to the tibia. 
 
 Fig. 34. 2, 3, The ligaments that extend ftrom the clavicle (1) to the scapula (4.) 
 The ligaments 5, 6, extend from the scapula to the first bone of Uie arm. 
 
 116. Beside the synovial membrane, there are numerous 
 smaller sacs, called bur'sce mu-co'sce. These are often asso- 
 ciated with the articulation. In structure, they are analogous 
 to synovial membranes, and secrete a similar fluid. 
 
 115. Describe the synovial membrane. 116. Describe the burste mucosae. 
 What is representcil by fl<f , 23 ? By fig. 24 ? 
 
ANATOMY, OF THE BONES. 47 
 
 117. The LIGAMENTS are composed of numerous straight 
 fibres, collected together, and arranged into short bands of 
 various breadths, or so interwoven as to form a broad layer, 
 which completely surrounds the articular extremities of the 
 bones, and constitutes a capsular ligament. These connect- 
 ing bands are white, glistening, and inelastic. Most of the 
 ligaments are found exterior to the synovial membrane. 
 
 118, The bones, cartilages, ligaments, and synovial mem- 
 brane are insensible when in health ; yet they are supplied 
 with orga"nic nerves, as well as with arteries, veins, and 
 lymphatics. 
 
 Oiservaiion. The joints of the domestic animals are similar 
 in their construction to those of man. To illustrate this part 
 of the body, a fresh joint of the calf or sheep may be used. 
 After divesting the joints of the skin, the satin-like bands, or 
 ligaments, will be seen passing from one bone to the other, 
 under which may be observed the membranous bag, called the 
 capsular ligament. This is very smooth, as it is lined with 
 the soft synovial membrane, beneath which will be seen the 
 cartilage, that may be cut with a knife, and under this the 
 rough extremity of the ends of the bones. 
 
 117. Of what are ligaments composed ? What is the appearance of 
 these bands ? Where are they found ? 118. With what vessels are the 
 cartilages and ligaments supplied ? How can the structure of the joints 
 be explained ? 
 
48 ANATOMir. PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES. 
 
 119. The bones are the framework of the system. By 
 their solidity and form, they not only retain every part of the 
 fabric in its proper shape, but afford a firm surface for the 
 attachment of the muscles and ligaments. By means -of the 
 bones, the human frame presents to the eye a wondefful 
 piece of mechanism, uniting the most finished symmetr)^of 
 form with freedom of motion, and also giving security to 
 many important organs. 
 
 120. To give a clear idea of the relative uses of the bones 
 and muscles, we will quote the comparison of another, though, 
 as in other comparisons, there are points of difference. The 
 "bones are to the body what the masts and spars are to the 
 ship, — they give support and the power of resistance. The 
 muscles are to the bones what the ropes are to the masts and 
 spars. The bones are the levers of the system ; by the 
 action of the muscles their relative positions are changed. As 
 the masts and spars of a vessel must be sufficiently firm to 
 sustain the action of the ropes, so the bones must possess the 
 same quality to sustain tlie action of the muscles in the 
 human body." ^ 
 
 121. Some of the bones are designed exclusively for the 
 protection of the organs which they enclose. Of this number 
 are those that form the skull, tlie sockets of tlie eye, and the 
 cavity of the nose. Others, in addition to the protection tliey 
 give to important organs, are useful in movements of certain 
 
 119—128. Give tlie^hijsiolugy of tlie boms. 119. How may tho bonos be 
 oonsidorod? 120. Tofvhat may the bonos be oompared? 121. Give the 
 different oQicos of the bonos. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES. 49 
 
 kinds. Of this class are the bones of the spinal column, and 
 ribs. Others are subservient to motion. Of this class are the 
 upper and lower extremities. 
 
 122. The bones are subject to growth and decay ; to re- 
 moval of old, useless matter, and the deposit of new particles, 
 as in other tissues. This has been tested by the following 
 experiment. Some of the inferior animals were fed with food 
 that contained madder. In a few days, some of the animals 
 were killed, and their bones exhibited an unusually reddish 
 appearance. The remainder of the animals were, for a few 
 weeks, fed on food that contained no coloring principle. 
 When they were killed, their bones exhibited the usual colo^ 
 of such animals. The coloring matter, which had been de- 
 posited, had been removed by the action of the lymphatics. 
 
 123. The extremities of the bones that concur in forming 
 a joint, correspond by having their respective configurations 
 reciprocal. They are, in general, the one convex, and the 
 other concave. In texture they are porous, and consequent- 
 ly more elastic than if more compact. These are covered 
 with a cushion of cartilage. The elastic character of these 
 parts acts as so many springs, in diminishing the jar which 
 important organs of the system would otherwise receive. . 
 
 124. The synovial membrane secretes a viscous fluid, 
 which is called syn-o'vi-a. This lubricating fluid of the joints 
 enables the surfaces of the bones and tendons to move smooth- 
 ly upon each . other, thus diminishing the friction consequent 
 on their action. 
 
 Observations. 1st. In this secretion is manifested the skill 
 and omnipotence of the Great Architect ; for no machine of 
 human invention supplies to itself, by its own operations, the 
 necessary lubricating fluid. But, in the animal frame, it is 
 
 122. What is said of the change in bones ? How was it proved that 
 tliere was a constant change in the osseous fabric ? 123. What is said of 
 the extremities of the bones that form a joint ? 124. What is synovia ? Ita 
 use ? What is said of this lubricating fluid f 
 5 
 
50 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 su})plied in proper quantities, and applied in the proper place, 
 and at the proper time. 
 
 2d. In some cases of injur}' and disease, the synovial fluid 
 is secreted in large quantities, and distends the sac of the 
 joint. This affection is called dropsy of the joint, and occurs 
 most frequently in that of the knee. 
 
 125. The function of the ligaments is to connect and bind 
 together the bones of the system. By them the small bones 
 of the wrist and foot, as well as the large bones, are as se- 
 curely fastened as if retained by clasps of steel. Some of 
 them are situated within the joints, like a central cord, or 
 flvot, (3, fig. 26.) Some surround it like a hood, and con- 
 tain the lubricating synovial fluid, (8, 9, fig. 25,) and some in 
 the form of bands at the side, (5, 6, fig. 23.) 
 
 Fig. 2S. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Fig. 35. 8, 9, The ligaments thnt extend IVom the hip-bone (6) to the femur, (5.) 
 Fig. 36. 3, The socket of the hip-Joint 5, The head of the femur, which is lodged 
 in the socket. 3, The ligament within the sockot 
 
 126. By the ligaments the lower jaw is bound to the tempo- 
 ral bones, and the head to the nock. They extend the whole 
 
 What is the effect when the synoyiat fluid is secreted in large quanti- 
 ties i 125. "What is the function of the ligaments ? 126. Mention how the 
 bones of the system arc connected. 
 
PIiySIOLOGY OF THE BONES. 
 
 61 
 
 length of the spinal column, in powerful bands, on the outer 
 surface, between the spinal bones, and from one spinous process 
 to another. They bind the ribs to the vertebras, to the trans- 
 verse process behind, and to the sternum in front ; and this 
 to the clavicle ; and this to the first rib and scapula ; and this 
 last to the humerus. 
 
 127. They also bind the two bones of the fore-arm at the 
 elbow-joint ; and these to the wrist ; and these to each other 
 and to those of the hand ; and these last to each other and 
 to those of the fingers and thumb. In the same manner, they 
 bind the bones of the pelvis together ; and these to the femur ; 
 and this to the two bones of the leg and patella ; and so on, to 
 the ankle, foot, and toes, as in the upper extremities. 
 
 Pig. 27. 1, A front view of the lateral ligaments of the finger-joints. 2, A view 
 of tlie anterior ligaments (a, 4,) of the finger-joints. 3, A aide view of the lateral 
 ligaments of the finger-joints. 
 
 128. The different joints vary in range of movement, and 
 in complexity of structure. Some permit motions in all di- 
 rections, as the shoulder ; some move in two directions, per- 
 mitting only flexion and extension of the part, as the elbow ; 
 while others have no movement, as the bones of the head in 
 the adult. 
 
 Explain fig. 27. 128. Describe the variety of movements iu the different 
 joints. 
 
52 
 
 ANATOMY, PUySIOLOGT, AND HYGIENE. 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Fig. 28. 1, 1, Tho Bpiiml column. 2, The Bkull. 3, The lowpr jaw. 4, The stormim. 
 B, The ribs. 6, 6, The cartilages of tho ribs. 7, Tho claviclo. 8, The humerus. 9, The 
 shoulder-joint. 10, The rudius. 11, The ulna. 12, The elbow-jonit. 13, The wrist 
 14, Tho hand. 15, Tho baunch-bono. 16, Tho sacrum. 17, Tho bip-joint. 18, The 
 thigh-bone. 19, Tho jiatolla. 20, Tlic Itiu'o-joint. 21, Tho fibula. 22, The tibia. 23, 
 Tho ankle-joint. 24, The foot. 26, 20, Tlio ligaments of tho cliiviclo, stermim, and 
 ribs. 27,. 28, 20, Tlio ligaments of tho shoulder, elbow, and wri^t. SO, The largo 
 artery of the arm. 31, Tho Itgaraoiits of I ho hiji-ioint. 32, The largo blood-vossots of 
 tho thigh. 83, Tho artory of tho log. 34, 3u, 30, Tho ligumouts of the patella, kuoo, 
 and ankle. 
 
 Note. Lot tho pupil, in form of topics, roviow tho anatomy and physiology of the 
 . bones from llg. 2S, ur from auatomical outliuo plates No. 1 and 2. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BONE?. 53 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HYGIENE OP THE BONES. 
 
 129. The hones increase in size and strength by use, while 
 they are weakened by inaction. Exercise favors the deposi- 
 tion of both animal and earthy matter, by increasing the 
 circulation and nutrition in this texture. For this reason, the 
 bones of the laborer are dense and strong, while those who 
 neglect exercise, or are unaccustomed to manual employment, 
 are deficient in size, and have not a due proportion of earthy 
 matter to give them the solidity and strength of the laboring 
 man. 
 
 Observation. The tendons of the muscles are attached 
 near the extremities of the bones. Exercise of the muscles 
 increases the action of the vessels of that part to which the 
 tendons are attached, and thus increases the nutrition and size 
 of this portion of the bone. Hence the joints of an indus- 
 trious mechanic or farmer are larger than those of an indi- 
 vidual who has not pursued manual vocations. 
 
 130. The gelatinous bones of the child are not so well 
 adapted for labor and severe exercise as those of an adult, 
 1st. They are liable to become distorted. 2d. They are con- 
 solidated by the deposition of earthy material before they are 
 fully and properly developed. If a young animal, as the 
 colt, be put to severe, continued labor, the deposition of earthy 
 
 129 — 148. Give the hygiene of the bones. 129. What effect has exercise 
 upon the bones ? What effect has inaction .' Why are the joints of the 
 industrious farmer and mechanic larger than those of a person unac- 
 customed to manual employment ? 130. GiTe the first reason why the 
 bones of the child are not adapted to severe exercise. The second 
 reason. 
 
 5* 
 
54 iNATOJHY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 matter is hastened, and the bones are consolidated before 
 they attain full growth. Such colts make small and inferior 
 animals. Similar results follow, if a youth is compelled to 
 toil unduly before maturity of growth is attained. On the 
 other hand, moderate and regular labor favors a healthy 
 development and consolidation of the bones. 
 
 131. Tlie kind and amount of labor should be adapted to the 
 age, health, and development of the bones. Neither the flexi- 
 ble bones of the child nor the brittle bones of the aged man 
 are adapted, by their organization, to long-continued, and hard 
 labor. Those of the one bend too easily, while those of the 
 other fracture too readily. In middle age, the proportions of 
 animal and earthy matter are, usually, such as to give the 
 proper degree of flexibility, firmness, and strength for labor, 
 with little liability to injury. 
 
 132. Tlie imperfectly developed bones of the young child 
 will not bear long-continued exertions or positions without 
 injury. Hence the requisitions of the rigid disciplinarian of 
 schools, are unwise when he compels his pupils to remain in 
 one position for a long time. He may have a " quiet school ; " 
 but, not unfrequently, by 'such discipline, the constitution is 
 impaired, and permanent injury is done to the pupils. 
 
 133. The lower extremities, in early life, contain but a small 
 proportion of earthy matter ; they bend when the weight of 
 the body is thrown upon them for a long time. Hence, the 
 assiduous attempts to induce children to stand or walk, either 
 naturally or artificially, when very young, are ill advised, 
 and often productive of serious and permanent evil. The 
 " bandy" or bow legs are thus produced. 
 
 What effect has moderate, regular labor upon the growing youth ? 
 131. What remark respecting the kind and amount of labor ? At what age 
 arc the bones best fitted for labor f 132. What elFoct has long-continued 
 exertions or positions on the bones of a child ? Wliat is said of the requi- 
 sitions of some teachers, who have the famed " quiet schools " ? 133. Why 
 should not the child be induced to stand or walk, either naturally or aitifi- 
 cially, at too early an age ? 
 
HYGIENK OF THE BONES. 
 
 65 
 
 134. TJie benches or chairs for children in a school-room 
 should he of such a height as to permit thefett to rest on the floor. 
 If the bench is so high as not to permit the feet to rest upon 
 the floor, the weight of the limbs below the knee may cause 
 the flexible bone of the thigh to become curved. The child 
 thus seated, is inclined to lean forward, contracting an injuri- 
 ous and ungraceful habit. Again, when' the feet are not sup- 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Fi". 30. 
 
 Fig. 29. The position assumed when the seat is of proper height, and the feel 
 supported. 
 
 Fig. 30. The position a chiid naturally assumes when the seat is so high that tlie 
 feet are not supported. 
 
 ported, the child soon becomes exhausted, restless, and unfit 
 for study. In the construction of a school-room, the benches 
 should be of different heights, so as to be adapted to the dif- 
 ferent pupils, and they should also have appropriate backs. 
 
 334. What is said of the benches or chairs of a school-room ? What is 
 represented by fig. 29 ? By fig. 30 ? What is the effect when the tower 
 limbs are not supported? 
 
56 
 
 ANATOMY, niYSIOLOGy, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 135. Compression of the chest should he avoided. In chil- 
 dren, and also in adults, the ribs are very flexible, and a small 
 amount of pressure will increase their curvature, particularly at 
 the lower part of the chest, and thus lessen the size of this 
 cavity. The lower ribs are united to the breast-bone, by long, 
 yielding cartilages, and compression may not only contract 
 tlie chest, but an unseemly and painful ridge may be pro- 
 duced, by the bending of the cartilages, on one or both sides 
 of the sternum. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Kg. 32. 
 
 Fig. 31. A natural and well-proportioned chest 
 Fig. 32. A chest fashionably deformed 
 
 136. Again, the cartilages on one side may be bent out- 
 ward, while those on the opposite side are bent inward, thus 
 forming a depression parallel with the sternum. In some in- 
 stances, the anterior extremity of the lower ribs on each side 
 
 135, Why should compression of the chest be avoided ? What ia rpnr.^. 
 sen ted by % .31 ? By fig. 32 ? '^ 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 57 
 
 are brought nearly or quite together. In these instances, the 
 movable extremities of the ribs are drawn down toward the 
 haunch-bones, while the space between the ribs is lessened. 
 All this may be effected by tight or " snug " clothing. There- 
 fore the apparel of a child should be loose, and supported 
 over the shoulders, to avoid the before-mentioned evils. The 
 same may be said of the clothing for adults. 
 
 137. The erect position in sitting and standing sTiould he 
 assiduously observed. The spinal column, in its natural po- 
 sition, curves from front to back, but not from side to side. 
 The admirable arrangement of the bones, alternating with car- 
 tilages, permits a great variety of motions and positions ; and 
 when the spine is inclined to either side, the elasticity of its 
 cartilages tends to restore it to its natural poshion. For this 
 reason we may incline the spinal column in any direction for 
 a short time, without danger of permanent curvature, if, af- 
 terward, the erect position is assumed.* 
 
 138. But if a stooping position, or a lateral curved posture, 
 is continued for a long time, the spinal column does not easily 
 recover its proper position, for the compressed edges of the 
 cartilages lose their power of reaction, and finally one side of 
 the cartilage becomes thinned, while the other is thickened , 
 and these weTlge-shaped cartilages produce a permanent cur- 
 vature of the spinal column. In a similar way, the student, 
 seamstress, artisan, and mechanic acquire a stooping position, 
 and become round shouldered, by inclining forward to bring 
 their books or work nearer the eyes. 
 
 139. Pupils, while writing, drawing, and sometimes while 
 
 Compare 1, 1, Fig. 28, With. 2, 2, 2, Pig. 48. 
 
 136 May simply " snug " clothing compress the cartilages ? How should 
 the apparel of a child be worn ? 137. In what direction does tlie spinal 
 column, in its natural position, curve ? What restores it to its natural 
 position when curved laterally ? 138. What is the effect if a lateral curved 
 position of the spina, column is continued for a long time ? 139. When 
 one shoulder is elevated for a long time, what is the effect upon the 
 spinal column ? 
 
58 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Studying, frequently incline the spinal column to one side, iu 
 order to accommodate themselves to the desks at which they 
 are seated. Often, these are higher than the elbow as it hangs 
 from the shoulder while at rest. This attitude elevates one 
 shoulder while it depresses the other ; consequently, the upper 
 
 »■ 
 
 rig. 33. 
 
 Pig. 33. The table is of proper height, the position ia cunect, and the spinal column, 
 1, 1, is straight, while the shoulders are o( equal heighL 
 
 part of the spinal column is inclined toward the elevated 
 shoulder, and the lower part is curved ifi the opposite direc- 
 tion, giving the form of the letter S to the supporting column 
 of the body. 
 
 What does fig. 33 re]iresont ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 
 
 59 
 
 Experiment. Let a pupil be placed at a desk or table with 
 one elbow raised, as is frequently seen while writing, or at 
 study, and observe the condition of the shoulder and spinal 
 column in this position. Place another pupil at a table no 
 higher ttian the elbow when it hangs by the side while sitting, 
 and observe the appearance of the shoulders and spinal column. 
 By a comparison of the two attitudes, the preceding remarks 
 will be comprehended and appreciated. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 Fig. 34. The table is too high, apd the position is oblique and improper. The 
 right shoulder is seen higher than the left, while the spinal column, 1, 1, exhibits 
 three curves. 
 
 140, One shoulder may be elevated, and no injurious results 
 
 What experiment is mentioned > What does fig. 34 represent ? 140. How 
 call one shoulder be elevated and no injurious results follow ? 
 
60 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 follow, provided care is taken not to keep it in the raised posi- 
 tion too long, or if the opposite shoulder is elevated for the 
 same period of time. The right shoulder projects more fre- 
 quently than the left. This arises from the greater use of the 
 right hand with the shoulder elevated, and not unfrequently 
 the oblique positions assumed in performing the daily voca- 
 tions of life. With proper care, and by calling into action 
 the left shoulder, this deformity can be prevented. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 Fig. 35. A representation of a deformed trunk. 
 
 141. The loss of symmetry and diminution of height from 
 deformed spines are minor considterations, compared with tlie 
 distortions that the chest experiences, thereby impairing res- 
 piration ajid inducing diseases of the heart and lungs. The 
 
 Why does the right shoulder project more frequently than the left ? How 
 can this deformity be prevented? 141. What is said of deformed spinal 
 
 culumus ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 61 
 
 invasion of the functions of these two important organs lessfens 
 the vitality of the vi^hole system, and causes general ill health. 
 Again, the curvature of the spinal column is frequently at- 
 tended by irritation and disease of the spinal cord. 
 
 142. Eminent physicians, both in this country and France, 
 state that not more than one female in ten, who has been fash- 
 ionably educated, is free from deformities of the shoulder Or 
 spinal column. Teachers, as well as mothers, should notice 
 the positions of the child m performing the tasks allotted to 
 it, whether studying or pursuing any employment. The fee- 
 bler the organization of the child, the more frequently should 
 there be a change of position. 
 
 143. When a slight projection of the shoulder, with a cur- 
 vature of the spine, exists, it can be improved by walking with 
 a book, or something heavier, upon the head ; to balance which, 
 the spinal column must be nearly erect. Those people thai 
 carry burdens upon their heads seldom have crooked spines. 
 
 Ohservation. Persons from the North, in travelling through 
 the Southern States, are surprised to see the heavy burdens 
 that the porters carry on their heads. It is not unusual to see 
 them walking at a rapid pace, with one or two trunks, weigh- 
 ing fifty or eighty pounds each, upon their heads. Occasion- 
 ally, we meet an itinerant toy-man, with his tray of fragile 
 merchandise upon his head, walking with as much apparent 
 security, as though his toys, or images, were in his hands. 
 This is the easiest method of carrying burdens, because the 
 position of the head and spinal column is erect. 
 
 144. If the animal and earthy matter of the hones is not 
 deposited in proper proportions, they are deficient in strength. 
 If the gelatin predominates, the bones are weak, and be- 
 
 \i% What statement by eminent physicians respecting deformities of the 
 spine ? "What caution to teachers and mothers ? 143. Why should we 
 stand and sit erect ? How may slight deformities of the spine be pre- 
 rented ? What is frequently noticed in travelling South ? 144. AVhat is 
 the efi'eot upon the bones when the gelatin preponderates ? 
 
 6 I 
 
62 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 come distorted. When nutrition is defective in the cylindri- 
 cal bones, the heads are generally enlarged, and the shafts 
 crooked ; if in the spinal column, it may be curved ; or in the 
 cranium, it may be enlarged. This disease is familiarly known 
 by the name of rickets. It is most common among those who 
 have poor and insufficient food, live in dark, damp rooms, and 
 breathe a vitiated air. The prevention and remedies for this 
 disease are cleanliness, regular exercise, pure air, and nutri- 
 tious food. 
 
 145. When a bone is broken, some days elapse before the 
 substance that reunites it is thrown out from the blood. In 
 young persons, it may be secreted during the second or third 
 week, and in individuals advanced in life, usually during the 
 third and fourth week. When the bone is uniting, during the 
 second, third, or fourth week, the attention of a surgeon is 
 more needed than during the first week. At this time, the 
 ends of the bone should be placed together with accuracy, 
 which requires the careful application of proper dressing. 
 After the bones have united, it will take some weeks to 
 consolidate the uniting material and render the " callus," or 
 union, firm. During this time, the limb should be used with 
 care. 
 
 Observation. When a bone is fractured, a surgeon is imme- 
 diately called, and the bone is " set." While the limb remains 
 swelled and painful, the surgeon is required to attend and 
 keep the dressings (bandages and splints) on. When the 
 swelling has abated, and the pain subsided, frequently the 
 patient intimates to the surgeon that his services can be 
 dispensed with, as the " limb is doing well." This is the most 
 important period, as the bone is uniting, and, unless the ends 
 ore nicely adjusted, the dressing properly applied, the person 
 
 What is one cause of rickets ? Wliat are the prevention and remedies 
 for this disease ? 145. Does the time vai-y when the reuniting substance 
 of the bone is secreted from the blood! When ia the surgeon's core most 
 needed f Why ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 63 
 
 will find, on recovery, a shortened and crooked limb. Tlie 
 surgeon is then censured, when he is not blamable. 
 
 146. It IS seldom that a bone is displaced without injury 
 to the connecting ligaments and membranes. When these 
 connecting bands are lacerated, pain, swelling, and other 
 symptoms indicating inflammation succeed, which should be 
 removed by proper treatment, directed by a surgical adviser. 
 
 147. In sprains, but few, if any, of the fibres of the con- 
 necting ligaments are lacerated ; but they are unduly strained 
 and twisted, which occasions acute pain at the time of the 
 injury. This is followed by inflammation and weakness of the 
 joints. The treatment of these injuries is similar to that of a 
 dislocated bone after its reduction. The most important item 
 in the treatment during the few first days, is rest. 
 
 148. In persons of scrofulous constitutions, and those in 
 whom the system is enfeebled by disease, white swellings and 
 other chronic diseases of the joints frequently succeed sprains. 
 Such persons cannot be too assiduous in adopting a proper and 
 early treatment of injured joints. 
 
 146. What parts are injured in the displacement of "a bone ? 147. What 
 causes the acute pain in sprains ? What is a good remedy for this kind 
 of injury f 148, What caution to persons of scrofulous constitutions? 
 
G4 ANATOMy, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER VIH. 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 149. All the great motions of the body are caused by the 
 movement of some of the bones which form the framework 
 of the system ; but these, -independently of themselves, have 
 not the power of motion, and only change their position 
 through the action of other organs attached to them, which, by 
 contracting, draw the bones after them. In some of the slight 
 movements, as the winking of the eye, no bones are displaced. 
 These moving, contracting organs are the Mus'cles, (lean 
 meat.) 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 150. The MUSCLES, by their size and number, constitute the 
 great bulk of the body, upon which they bestow form and 
 symmetry. In the limbs, they are situated around the bones, 
 which they invest and defend, while they form, to some of the 
 joints, their principal protection. In the trunk, they are spread 
 out to enclose cavities, and constitute a defensive wall, capa- 
 ble of yielding to internal pressure, and reassuming its origi- 
 nal state. 
 
 151. In structure, a muscle is composed of fas-dc'u-li 
 (bundles of fibres) of variable size. These are enclosed in a 
 cellular membranous investment, or sheath. Every bundle is 
 composed of a number of small fibres, and each fibre con- 
 sists of a number of filaments, each of which is enclosed in 
 
 149. How are all the motions of the body produced ? AVliat are these 
 motor organs called? 150 — 160. Giro the anatomy of the muscles 
 150. 'WTiat is said of the muscles ? 151. Give their structure. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 65 
 
 a delicate sheath. Toward the extremity of the organ the 
 muscular fibre ceases, and the cellular structure becomes 
 aggregated, and so modified as to constitute ten'dons, (cords,) 
 by which the muscle is tied to the surface of the bone. The 
 union is so firm, that, under extreme violence, the bone will 
 sooner break than permit the .tendon to separate from its 
 attachment. In some situations, there is an expansion of the 
 tendon, in the manner of a membrane, called Ap-o-neu-ro'sis, 
 or Fasfd-a. 
 
 Observation. The pupil can examine a piece of boiled 
 beef, or the leg of a fowl, and see the structure of the 
 fibres and tendons of a muscle. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 I 
 
 ; 
 
 VBW 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 Pig. 36. 1, A representation of the direction and arrangement of the fibres in a 
 fusiform, or spindle-shaped muscle. S, In a radiated muscle. 3, In a penniform 
 muscle. 4, In a bipenniform muscle. £, t. The tendons of a muscle. 
 
 152. Muscles present various modifications in the arrange- 
 ment of their fibres, as relates to their tendinous structure. 
 Sometimes they are completely longitudinal, and terminate, at 
 each extremity, in a tendon, the entire muscle being spindle- 
 shaped. In other situations, they are disposed like the rays of 
 
 How are tendons or cords formed ? "What is the expansion of a tendon 
 called ? How can the structure of muscles and their fibres be shown ! 
 What docs fig. 36 represent ? 152. Give the different airangenfents of 
 muscular fibre?. 
 
66 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 a fan, converging to a tendinous point, and constituting a 
 ra'di-ale muscle. Again they are pen'ni-form, converging, 
 like the plumes of a pen, to one side of a tendon, which runs 
 the whole length of the muscle ; or they are hi-pen'ni-form, 
 converging to both sides of the tendon. 
 
 153. In the description of a muscle, its attachments are 
 expressed by the terms "origin" and "insertion." The 
 term origin is generally applied to the more fixed or central 
 attachment, or to the point toward which motion is directed ; 
 while insertion is assigned to the more movable point, or to 
 that most distant from the centre. The middle, fleshy portion 
 is called the " belly," or " swell." The color of a muscle 
 is red, which is characteristic of flesh ; and each fibre is 
 supplied with arteries, veins, lymphatics, and both sensitive 
 and motor nervous filaments. 
 
 154. The FASCIA is of various extent and thickness, dis- 
 tributed through the difierent regions of the body, for the pur- 
 pose of investing and protecting the softer and more delicate 
 organs. An instance is seen in the membrane which en- 
 velopes a leg of beef, and which is observed on the edges of 
 the slices when it is cut for broiling. When freshly exposed, 
 it is brilliant in appearance, tough, and inelastic. In the limbs 
 it forms distinct sheaths to all the muscles. 
 
 155. This tendinous membrane assists the muscles in their 
 action, by keeping up a tonic piessure on their surface. It 
 aids materially in the circulation of the fluids, in opposition 
 to the laws of gravity. In tlie palm of the hand and sole of 
 the foot, it is a powerful protection to tlie structures that enter 
 into the formation of these parts. In all parts of the system, 
 the separate muscles are not only invested by fascia, but they 
 
 163. What is meant by the origin of a muscle ? The insertion ? The 
 swell ? What is the color of muscles ? With what is each muscular fibre 
 Bupplied ? 154. What is said of fascia f What is its appearance when 
 freshly exposed f 156. What effect has it on the muscles? Give other 
 nses of the fascia. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 67 
 
 are arranged in layers, one over another. Tlie slieath of eacli 
 muscle is loosely connected with another, by the cellular 
 membrane. 
 
 156. The interstices between the different muscles are 
 filled With adipose matter, or fat. This is sometimes called 
 the packing of the system. To the presence of this tissue, 
 youth are indebted for the roundness and beauty of their 
 limbs. 
 
 Fig. 37, 
 
 Fig. 37. A transverse section of the neck. The. separate muscles, as they aie 
 arranged in layers, with their iuvtisting fuscite, are beautifully represented. As 
 Che system is symmetrical, figures are placed only on one side. In the trunk the 
 muscles are arranged in layers, surrounded by fascisB, as in the neck. The same 
 is true of the muscles of the upper and lower limbs 
 
 IS, The trachea, (windpipe.) 13, The oesophagus, (gullet) 14, The carotid artery und 
 Jugular vein. S8, One ijf the bones of the npinal column. ' The figures that are placed 
 in the white spaces represent some of the fasciie ; the other figures indicate muscles. 
 
 157. The muscles may be arranged, in conformity with the 
 general division of the body^ into four parts : 1st. Those of 
 the Head and Neck, 2d. Those of the TrntnL 3d. Those 
 of the Upper Extremities. 4th. Those of the Lower Ex- 
 tremities, 
 
 156. Give a reason why the limbs of youth are rounder than those of the 
 aged. Describe fig. 37. 
 
68 ANATOMY, PHySIOLOGY, AND HYQIESE. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 „„ Ml 
 
 FJg. 38. The superficial layer of muscles on the face and neck. 1, 1, The occipito* 
 frontalis muscle. 3, The orbicularis palpebrarum. 6, The legator labii superioris. 
 7, The levator anguli oris. 8, The zygomaticua minor. 9, The Kygomattcos majoi; 
 10, Tlie masseter. 11, The depressor labii superioris. 13, The orbicularis one. 
 15, The depressor anguli oris. 16, The depressor labii Inferioris. 18, The E:terno- 
 hyoideus. 19, The platysma-myodes. SO, The superior belly of the omo-hyoideus. 
 SI, The sterno-cleido masloidcus. 93, The scalenus medius. S3, The inferior belly 
 of the omo~hyoideus. 34, Tlie trapezius.* 
 
 Practieal Ea^laiiaticn. The muscle 1, 1, elevates the eyebrows. The muscle 9 
 closes the eye. The mu^le 6 elevates the upper lip. The muscles 7, 8, 9, elevate 
 the angle of the mouth. The muscle 10 brings the teeth together when eating. The 
 muscle n depresses the upper lip. Tlie muscle 13 closes »he mouth. The muscle 
 15 depresaes the angle of the mouth. The muscle 16 draws down the lower Up. 
 The muEcles 18, X9 20, 23, depress the lower jaw and larynx and elevate the sternum. 
 The muscle 21, when both sides contract, draws the head forward, or elevates the 
 sternum ; when only ono contracts, the face is turned one side toward the opposite 
 ehoulder. The muscles 18, 19, 20, SI, 23, 33, 24, aid in respiration. 
 
 * In the platoa illustwiting tlie muscular B^toni, the names of such muscles are 
 given as arc referred to In the piiragi-aph " Priulii>al Kxplanation." Those names need 
 not bo committed to memory. If a pupil wishes to ncquiro a kuowlodge of the gen- 
 oral attachment of the muscles roprosontod in the plates, ho can do bo by compai'iug 
 the muscular plate with that of the skoletou, (fig. 26.) 
 
ANATOMY, OF THE MUSCLES. 69 
 
 Ohervation. When we are sick, and cannot take food, 
 the body is sustained by absorption of the fat. The removal 
 of it into the blood causes the sunken cheek, hollow eye, and 
 prominent appearance of the bones after a severe illness. 
 
 158. The number of muscles in the human body is more 
 than five hundred; in general, they form about the skeleton 
 two layers, and are distinguished into superficial and'deep- 
 sealed muscles. Some of the muscles are voluntary in their 
 motions, or act under the government of the will, as those 
 which move the fingers, limbs, and trunk ; while others are 
 involuntary, or act under the impression of their proper stimu- 
 lants, without the control of the individual, as the heart. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The abdominal muscles are expiratory, 
 and the chief agents for expelling the residuum from the rec- 
 tum, the bile from the gall bladder, the contents of the stomach 
 and bowels when vomiting, and the mucus and irritating sub- 
 stances from the bronchial tubes, trachea, and nasal passages 
 by coughing and sneezing. To produce these effects they all 
 act together; Their violent and continued action sometimes 
 produces hernia, and, when spasmodic, may occasion ruptures 
 of the different organs. 
 
 2d. The contraction and relaxation of the abdominal mus- 
 cles and diaphragm stimulate the stomach, liver, and intestines 
 to a healthy action, and are subservient to the digestive powers. 
 If the contractility of their muscular fibres is destroyed or 
 impaired, the tone of the digestive apparatus will be diminished, 
 as in indigestion and costiveness. This is frequently attended 
 by a displacement of those organs, as they generally gravitate 
 towards the lower portion of the abdominal cavity, when the 
 sustaining muscles lose their tone and become relaxed. 
 
 What causes'the hollow eye and sunken cheek after a severe sickness ? 
 158. How many muscles in the human system ? Into how many layers are 
 they arranged f What is a voluntary muscle ? Give examples. What is 
 an involuntary muscle ? Mention examples. Give observation 1st, respect- 
 ing the use of the abdominal muscles ? Observation 2d. 
 
70 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 Fig 39 A front view of the muscles of the trunk. On the left side the superficial 
 layer is sesn; on the riglit, the deep layer. 1, The pectoralis major utusclo. 2, The 
 deltoid muscle. 6, The pectoralis minor muscle. 9, The coracoid process of the 
 scapula. 11, The external intercostal muscle. 12, The external oblique muscle 
 13, Its aponeurosis. 16, The rectus muscle of the right side. 16, The internal 
 oblique muscle. 
 
 Practical Explanation. The muscle 1 draws the arm by the side, and across the 
 chest, and likewise draws the scapula forward. The muscle 2 elevates the arm. The 
 muscle 6 elevates the ribs when the scapula Is fixed, or draws the scapula for^vard 
 and downward when the ribs are fixed. The muscles 12, 16, 18, bend the body for- 
 ward or elevate the hips when the muscles of both sides act. They likewise depress 
 the ribs in expiration. When the muscles on only one side act, the body is twisted to 
 (he same side. 
 
 Explain fig. 39. Give the function of some of the most prominent 
 muscles, from this figure. 
 
ANATOMY OS TUE MUSCLES. 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 71 
 
 rig. 40. A lateral view of the muscles of the trunk. 3, The upper part of the 
 external oblique muscle. 4, Two of the external intercostal inuscle3. 5, Two of the 
 internal intercostals. 6, The transversalis muscle. 7, Its posterior aponeurosis. 
 8, Its anterior aponeurosis. 11, Tlie right rectus muscle 13, The crest of the 
 Ilium, or haunch-bone. - 
 
 Practical Explanation. The rectus muscle, 11, bends the thorax upon the abdomen 
 when the lower extremity of the muscle is the fixed point ; but when the upper ex- 
 tremity is the fixed point, the eifect is to bring forward and raise the pelvis and lower 
 extremities. They likewise depress the ribs in respiration. The transverse muscie, 
 6,7, 8, lessens the cavity of the abdomen, and presses the intestines, stomach, and 
 liver upward, against the dianhragm, in expiration. ^ 
 
 3d. The region of the back, in consequence of its extent, Is 
 common to the neck, the upper extremities, and the abdomen. 
 The muscles of which it is composed are numerous, and are 
 arranged in six layers. 
 
 What is represented by fig. 40 ? Give the function of some of the mus- 
 cles represented by this figure ? 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOOY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Fig. 41. Tlie first, second, and part of the third layer of muscles of tlie back. 
 The first layer Is shown on the right, and the second on the left side. I, The tra- 
 pezius muscle. 9, The spinous processes of the vertebrffi. 3, The acromion process 
 and spine of the scapula. 4, The latissimus dorsi muscle. 5, The deltoid muscle. 
 7, The external oblique muscle. 8, The gluteus medius muscle. 9, The gluteus 
 maximus muscle. .11, 13, The rhomboldeus major and minor muscles. IS, The 
 vertebral aponeurosis. 16, The serratus posticus inferior muscle. 22, The serratus 
 magnus muscle. 93, The internal oblique muscle. . 
 
 Practical ET^UnuUion. The muscles I, U, 12, draw the scapula back toward the spine. 
 Tile muscles U, 12, draw the scapula upward toward the head, and slightly back- 
 ward. The muscle 4 draws the arm by tlie side, and backward. The muscle 5 
 elevates the arm. The muscles 8, 9, extend the thigh on the body. The muscle 1 
 draws the head back and elevates the chin. The muscle 16 depresses the riba in 
 expiration. The muscle S3 elevates the ribs in inspiration. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 73 
 
 159. The diaphragm, or midrifF, is the muscular division 
 between the thorax and the abdomen. It is penetrated by the 
 CESophagus on its way to the stomach, by the aorta conveymg 
 blood toward the lower extremity, and by the ascending vena 
 cava, or vein, on its way to the heart. 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 /J 
 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 42. A representation of tlie under, or abdominal side of , the diaphragm 
 1, 9, 3, 4, The portion which is attached to the margin of tlie ribs. 8, 10, Tlie two 
 fleshy pillars of the diaphragm, which are attached to the third and fourtli lumbar 
 yertebrs. 9, The spinal column. 11, The opening for the passage of the aorta. 
 12, The opening for the oesophagus. 13, The opening for the ascending vena cava, 
 or vein. 
 
 Olservation. The diaphragm may be compared to an in- 
 verted basin, its bottom being turned upward into the thorax, 
 while its edge corresponds with the outline of the edges of the 
 lower ribs and sternum. Its concavity is directed toward the 
 abdomen, and thus, this cavity is very much enlarged at the 
 expense of that of the chest, which is diminished to an equal 
 extent. 
 
 159. Describe the diaphragm. What vessels penetra-te this muscular 
 Ecptum ? 
 
 7 
 
74 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 160. " The motions of the fingers do not merely result from 
 the action of the large muscles which lie on the fore-arm, 
 these being concerned more especially in the stronger actions 
 of the hands. The finer and more delicate movements of 
 the fingers are performed by small muscles situated m the 
 palm and between the bones of the hand, and by which the 
 fingers are expanded and moved in all directions with wonder- 
 ful rapidity." 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 Fig. 43. A front view of tho sliporflciivl Inyor of musclos of tho fo^o^u•m. 6, The 
 floxor curpi rodialis miiBclo. 0, Tho pulmoris longus mnaclo. 7, One of tho fasci- 
 
 160. Whoro iiro tho musolos situated that cffoot tho larger movements of tho 
 hand? That perform tho delicate movements of the fingers ? Give the use 
 of some of tho muscles roprosentod by fig. 43. Xhoso represented by fig. 44. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 75 
 
 culi of the flexor subliniis digitorum muscle, (the rest of the muscle is spen beneath 
 the tendons of the palmaris longus.) 8, The flexor carpi ulnaria muscle. 9, The 
 palmar fascia. 11, The abductor pnllicia muscle. 12, One portion of the flexor 
 brevis pollicia muscle. 13, The supinator longua muscle. 14, The extensor ossia 
 melacarpi, and extensor primi intcrnodii pollicis muscles, curving around the lower 
 border of the fore-arm. 15, The anterior portion of the annular ligament, which 
 binds the tendons in their places. 
 
 Practical Explanation. The muscles 5, G, 8, bend the wrist on the bones of tli^ fore- 
 arm. The muscle 7 bends the second range of finger-bones on the first. The mus- 
 cle 11 draws the thumb from the fingers. The muscle 12 flexes the thumb. The 
 muscle 13 turns Che palm of the hand upward. The muscles 8, 13, 14, move the 
 hand laterally. 
 
 Fig. 44. A back view of the superficial layer of muscles of the fore-arm. 5, The 
 extensor carpi radialis ^ngior muscle. 6, The extensor carpi radialis brevior 
 muscle. 7, The tendons of insertion of these two musclea. 8,^The extensor com- 
 munis digitorum muscle. 9, The extensor minimi digiti muscle. 10, The extensor 
 tarpi ulnaris muscle. 13, The extensor ossis metacarpi and extensor primi inter- 
 nudii musclea, lying together. 14, The extensor secundi internodii muscle j its 
 tendon is seen crossing the two tendons of the extensor carpi radialis longior and 
 brevior muscles. 15, The posterior annular ligament. The tendons of the common 
 extensor muscle of the fingers are seen on the back of the hand, and their mode of 
 distribution on the back of the fingers. 
 
 Practieal Explanation. The muscles 5, 6,10, extend the wrist on the fore-arm. The 
 muscle 8 extends the fingers. The muscle 9 extends the little finger. The muscles 
 
 13 extend the metacarpal bone of the thumb, and its first phalanx. The muscle 
 
 14 extends the last bone of the thumb. Tho musclea 10, 13, 14, move the hand 
 laterally 
 
76 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 161. The muscles exercise great influence upon the sya- 
 tem. It is by their contraction that we are enablcl to pursue 
 ditlerent employments. By their action the farmer cultivates 
 his fields, the mechanic wields his tools, the sportsrnan pursues 
 his game, the orator gives utterance to his thoughts, the lady 
 sweeps the keys of the piano, and the young are whirled in 
 the mazy dance. As the muscles bear so intimate a relation 
 to the pleasures and employments of man, a knowledge of 
 the laws by which their action is governed, and the conditions 
 upon which their health depends, should be possessed by all. 
 
 162. The peculiar characteristic of muscular fibres is 
 contractility, or the power of shortening their substance on 
 the application of stimuli, and again relaxing when the stim- 
 ulus is withdrawn. This is illustrated in the most common 
 movements of life. Call into action the muscles that elevate 
 the arm, by the influence of the will, or mind, (the common 
 stimulus of the muscles,) and the hand and arm are raised ; 
 withdraw this influence by a simple effort of the will, and the 
 muscles, before rigid and tense, become relaxed and yielding. 
 
 163. The contractile effect of the muscles, in producing the 
 varied movements of the system, miy be seen in the bending 
 of the elbow. The tendon of one extremity of the muscle is 
 Bttachp(^to the shoulder-bone, which acts as a fixed point ; the 
 tendon of the other extremity is attached to one of the bones 
 
 161 — 172. Give tht physiology of the rmiiclea. 161. What are some of the 
 influences exerted by the muscles on the system? 162. What i/peculiiu 
 to muscular fibres f How is this illustrated ? 1G3. Explain how the move- 
 ments of the .system arc efl'cotcd by the oontiaction of the muscles. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. 77 
 
 of the fore-arm. When the swell of the muscle contracts, or 
 shortens, its two extremities approach nearer each other, and 
 by the approximation of the terminal extremities of the mus- 
 cle, the joint at the elbow bends. On this principle, all the 
 joints of the system are moved. This is illustrated by fig. 45. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 2 
 
 Fig. 45. A representation of tlje manner in which all of the joints of the body are 
 moved. 1, The bone of the arm above the elbow. 9, One of the bones below the 
 elbow, 3, The muscle that bends the elbow. This muscle is united, by a tendon, to 
 the bone below the elbow, (4 ;) at the other extremity, to the bone above the elbow, 
 (5.) 6, The muscle that extends the elbow. 7, It* attachment to the point of the 
 elbow. 8, A weight in the hand to be raised. The central part of the muscl<i 
 3 contracts, and its two ends are brought nearer together. The bones below the 
 elbow are brought to the lines shown by 9, 10, 11. The weight is raised in the 
 direction of the curved line. When the muscle 6 contracts, th^ muscle 3 relaxes 
 and the fore-arm is extended. 
 
 Experiments. 1st. Clasp the arm midway between the 
 shoulder and elbow, with the thumb and fingers of the 
 opposite hand. When the arm is bent, the inside muscle 
 will become hard and prominent, and its tendon at the elbow 
 rigid, while the muscle on the opposite side will become 
 flaccid. Extend the arm at the elbow, and the outside muscle 
 will swell and become firm, while the inside muscle and its 
 tendon at the elbow will be relaxed. 
 
 Explain fig. 45. Gi^e experiment 1st 
 7 * 
 
78 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 2d Clasp llie fore-arm about three inches below the 
 elbow, then open and shut the fingers rapidly, and (he swell- 
 ing and relaxation of the muscles on the opposite sides of the 
 arms, alternating with each other, will be felt, corresponding 
 with the movement of the fingers. While the fingers are 
 bending, the inside muscles swell, and the outside ones be- 
 come flaccid ; and, while the fingers are extending, the inside 
 muscles relax, and the outside ones swell. The alternate 
 swelling and relaxation of antagonist muscles may be felt in 
 the different movements of the limbs. 
 
 164. Each fibre of the several muscles receives from the 
 brain, through the nervous filament appropriated to it, a cer- 
 tain influence, called nervous fluid, or stimulus. It is this that 
 induces contraction, while the suspension of this stimulus 
 causes relaxation of the fibres. By this arrangement, the 
 action of the muscular system, both as regards duration and 
 power, is, to a limited extent, ander the control of the mind. 
 The more perfect the control, the better the education of the 
 muscular system ; as is seen in the graceful, effective, and 
 well-educated movements of musicians, dancers, skaters, &c. 
 
 165. The length of time which a muscle may remain con- 
 tracted, varies. The duration of the contraction of the volun- 
 tary muscles, in some measure, is in an inverse ratio to its 
 force. If a muscle has contracted with violence, as when 
 great effort is made to raise a heavy weight, relaxation will 
 follow sooner than when the contraction has been less power- 
 ful, as in raising light bodies. 
 
 166. The velocity of the muscular contraction depends on 
 the will. Many of the voluntary muscles in man contract 
 with great rapidity, so that he is enabled to utter distinctly 
 
 Give experiment 2d. 164. "With what is each muscular fibre supplied } 
 What effect has this stimulus on the muscles } 165. How long does a vol- 
 untary muscle remain contracted ? 166. Ou what is the velocity of mus- 
 cular contraction dependent ? How many letters may be pronounced in a 
 minute ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. 79 
 
 fifteen hundred letters in a minute; the pronunciation of each 
 letter requiring both relaxation and contraction of tlie same 
 muscle, thus making three thousand actions m one minute. 
 But the contraction of the muscles of some of the inferior 
 animals surpasses in rapidity those of man. The race-horse, 
 it is said, has run a mile in a minute ; and many birds of prey 
 will probably pass not less than a thousand miles daily. 
 
 167. The functions of the involuntary muscles are neces- 
 sary to the digestion of food, the absorption and circulation of 
 tlie nutritive fluids. They could not be trusted with safety to 
 the control of the will, lest the passions or the indiscretions of 
 the person should continually avert those operations so neces- 
 sary to health, and even to life. The Divine Builder of this 
 complicated machine has wisely ordered that the muscles 
 upon which these motions depend, shall act under the impres- 
 sion of their proper stimulants, without the control of the 
 individual. 
 
 168. Again, there are certain operations which could not 
 be safely intrusted to the absolute government of the voluntary 
 muscles, or entirely removed from their control. Thus life 
 can be supported only a few minutes without breathing ; but 
 it would be impossible to perform the daily vocations of life 
 if we were compelled to breathe at all times, or at perfectly 
 regular intervals. / 
 
 169. It has been observed that, among men of the same 
 size, a wide difference exists in their strength and activity 
 — qualities which depend upon the size and number of the 
 nerves, the size and activity of the brain, and the education, 
 or training of the muscles. Men having large nerves leading 
 
 How many contractions and relaxations of the same muscle ? What is 
 said of the rapidity of muscular contractions in other animals ? 167. When 
 are the involuntary muscles called into action ? Why would it not have 
 been safe to trust these important operations to the exclusive control of the 
 will? 168. Give an instance where feome of the muscles act under the 
 government of the will, conjoined with those that are involuntary. 169. On 
 what does the difference in muscular activity and strength depend ? 
 
80 ANATOMy, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 to the muscles, with the brain active, and muscles well trained, 
 will perform feats of strength and agility, that other men, of 
 the same size, cannot effect. Kope-dancers, harlequins, and 
 other performers of feats, are persons thus constituted. 
 
 170. Persons with sma-ll muscles, and largely developed 
 nervous systems, will sometimes exhibit very great muscular 
 power for a time; but it will not be of long continuance, 
 unless the brain is functionally diseased, as in hysteria, 
 delirium of fever, insanity, &c. Men of large muscles and 
 small nerves can never perform feats of great strength ; but 
 they have the power of endurance, and are better capacitated 
 for continued labor. Thus we cannot judge of the ability of 
 [lersons to make exertions and continue them, by their stature 
 alone. Strength, and the power of endurance, are the result 
 of a combination of well-developed muscles, large nerves, 
 and a full-sized, healthy, and active brain. 
 
 Observation. The muscles of fishes are large, and the 
 nerves distributed to them, comparatively small. The mus- 
 cles of birds are small, but their fibres are very compact. 
 The nerves appropriated to the muscles thai are called into 
 action in flying, are large as well as numerous. 
 
 171. The contractile portion of a muscle is, in general, at 
 a distance from the part to be moved. Thus the principal 
 muscles that move the fingers are situated upon the forearm, 
 
 -and when the limb is nearly or quite extended, the angle 
 formed by the part to be moved and the contractile muscles 
 is small. Again, the attachment of the muscles to the part 
 to be moved is near the joint that forms the fulcrum, (fig. 45.) 
 By these arrangements there is a loss of power ; but we are 
 compensated for this disadvantage by increased celerity of 
 movement, beauty of form, and adaptation of the limbs to the 
 varied pursuits of man. 
 
 170. What is said of those persons who havo smiill uuisolos and largely 
 devGlopod nei-TOUS systems? Of those who have largo muscles and small 
 nerves? Upon what do strength and tho power of endurance depend? 
 171. Why is there a loss of power in tho aolion of tho muscles? 
 
Pni-SlOIiOGT OF THE MUSCLES. 81 
 
 Illustration. The muscle that bends the elbow acts at 
 Jisadvantage, and this is greatest when the arm is nearly or 
 quite extended, as the angle of action is then least. This 
 disadvantage is further increased by the attachment of the 
 motive muscles near. the joint. 
 
 172. The number of muscles which are called into action 
 in the movements of the different joints, varies. The hinge- 
 joints, as the elbow, have two sets of muscles — one to bend 
 the joint, the other to extend it. The ball and socket joints, 
 as the shoulder, are not limited to mere flexion and extension 
 No joint in the system has the range of movement that is 
 possessed by that of the shoulder. By the action of the 
 muscles attached to the arm, it is not only carried upward and 
 forward, but forSvard and backward. Hence the arm may be 
 moved at any angle, by a combined action of its muscles. 
 
 Olservation. " Could we behold properly the muscular 
 fibres in operation, nothing, as a mere mechanical exhibition, 
 can be conceived more superb than the intricate and combined 
 actions that must take place during our most common move- 
 ments. Look at a person running or leaping, or watch the 
 motions of the eye.- How rapid, how delicate, how compli- 
 cated, and yet how accurate, are the motions required ! 
 Think of the endurance of such a muscle as the heart, that 
 can contract, with a force equal to sixty pounds, seventy-five 
 times every minute, for eighty years together, without being 
 weary." 
 
 Note. It would be ~ profitable exercise for pupils to press their 
 fingers upon prominent muscles, and, at the same time, vigorously 
 contract them, not only to learn their situations, but their use ; as 
 the one that bends the arm, 14, fig. 46. 
 
 How is this illustrated? 172. Do all joints require the same number of 
 muscles, when called into action ? How many are called into action in the 
 ranvement of the elbow ? What is their office ? What is said of the 
 movement of the ball and socket joint? 
 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYOIENE. 
 FiK. in. 
 
 
PIiy-TOLOGY OF TKE MUSCLES. 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 83 
 
84 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Fig. 46. An anterior view of the miiaclea of the body. 1, The frontnl awtll of 
 the opcipito-frontalis. 2, The orbicularis palpebiarura. 3, The levator labiisiiperinria. 
 4, The zygt»niaticus major. 5, The zyguinaticus minur. 6, The masseter. 7, Tho 
 orbicularis oris. 8, The depressor labii inforioris. 9. Theplatysma myodea. 10, The 
 deltoid. 11, Tlie pectoralis major. 12, The latissimus dorsi. 14, The biceps llexof 
 cubiti. 15, The triceps extensor Cubiti. 16, The supinator radii longus. 18, The 
 flexor carpi radiiilis longior. 19, The flexor communis digitorum. 20, The ar.nular 
 ligament. 21, The palmar fascia. ^, The obliqiius externus abdnminig. 26, The 
 psoas mngnus. 27, The adductor longus. 28, The sartorius. 29, The rectus 
 fenioris. 30, INie vastus externus. 31, The vastus intemus. 32, The tendon patella. 
 33, The gastrocnemiua. 34, The tibialis anticus. .36, The tendons of the extensoi 
 digitorum communis. 
 
 Fig. 47. A posterior view of the muscles of the body. 3, The complexus. 4, The 
 splenius. 5, The masseter. 6, The sterno-cleido mastoideus. 7, The trapezius. 
 8, The deltoid. 10, The triceps extensor. 13, Tlie tendinous portion of the triceps. 
 14, The anterior edge of the triceps. 15, The supinator radii longus. 17, The 
 extensor communis digitorum. IB, The extensor ossis metacarpi poliicia. 19, Tlie 
 tendons q( the extensor communis digitjarum. 20, The olecranon process of tlie ulna 
 and insertion of the triceps. 21, The extensor carpi uJnaris. 22, The extensor com- 
 munis digitorum. 24, The latissimus dorsi. 25, Its tendinous origin. S6, The 
 obliquus externus. 27, The gluteus medius. 28, The gluteus magnus. 29, The 
 biceps flexor cruris. 30, The semi-tendinosus. -31,32, The gastrocnemius. 33, Tho 
 tendo Achillis. 
 
 Practical Explanation. The muscle I, flg. 46, by its contraction, raises the eyebrows 
 The muscle 9, fig. 46, closes the eyelids. The muscle 3, fig 46, elevates the upper lip 
 The muscles 4, 5, fig. 46, elevate the angles of the mouth. The muscles 6, fig. 46, 
 and 5, fig. 47, bring the teeth together. The muscle 7, fig. 46, closes the mouth. The 
 muscle 6, fig. 46, depresses the lower lip. The muscles 9, fig. 46, and 6, fig. 47, bend 
 the neck forward. The muscles 3, 4, fig. 47, elevate the head and chin. The muscle 
 29, fig. 46, bends the body forward, and draws the ribs downward. The muscle 11, 
 fig. 4G, brings the shoulder forward. The muscle 7, fig. 47, draws the shoulder 
 back. The muscles 10, fig. 46, and 8, fig. 47, elevate the arm. The muscles II, 
 fig. 46, and 94, fig. 47, bring the arm to the side. The muscle H, fig. 46, benda 
 the arm at the elbow. The muscle 10, fig. 47, extends the arm nt the elbow. The 
 muscles 16, 18, fig. 46, bend the wrist and fingere. The muscle 19 bends the fingers. 
 The muscles 18, 21,23, fig. 47, extend the wrist. The muscle 23, fig. 47, extends the 
 fingers. The muscles 26, 27, 28, fig. 46, bend the lower limbs on the body, at the hip 
 The muscle 28, fig. 46, draws one leg o^er the other, (the position of a tailor when 
 sewing.) The muscles 27, 98, Jig. 47, extend the lower limbs on the body, at the hip 
 The muscles 29,30, 31, fig. 46, extend the leg at the knee. The muscles 29, 30, fig. 47, 
 bend Iho log at the knee. The muscles 34, 36, fig. 46, bend the foot at the ankle, and 
 extend the toes. The muscles 31, 32, 33, fig. 47, extend the foot at the ajikle. 
 
 JVote. Let the anatomy and physiology of the muscular system be reviewed, in 
 form of topics, from figB 40, 47 or ftom the anatomical outline plates No^ 3 and 4 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 85 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 HYGIENE OF -TI^E MUSCLES. 
 
 173. Tlie muscles should he used, in order that the size and 
 strength of these organs may he adequate to the demand made 
 upon them. It is a law of the system that the action iiiid 
 power of an organ are commensurate, to a certain extent, with 
 the demand made upon it ; and it is a law of the muscular 
 system that, whenever a muscle is called into frequent use, its 
 fibres increase in thickness within certain limits, and become 
 capable of acting with greater force ; while, on the contrary, 
 the muscle that is little used decreases in size and power. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. The blacksmith uses and rests the mus- 
 cles of his arm when striking upon the anvil. They not only 
 increase in size, but become very firm and hard. 
 
 2d. The student uses the muscles of the arm but little, in 
 holding his books and pen ; they not only become small, 
 but soft. 
 
 3d. Let the student leave his books, and wield an iron 
 sledge, and the muscles of his arm will increase in size and 
 firmness. On the other hand, let the blacksmith assume the 
 student's vocation, and the muscles of his arm will become 
 soft and less firm. 
 
 174. When the muscles are. called itito action, the flow of 
 blood in the arteries and veins is increased. The increased 
 flow of blood in the arteries and veins, causes a more rapid 
 deposition of the particles of matter of which the muscles are 
 
 173 — 211. Give the hygiene of the mmcles. 173. What is necessary that 
 muscles may attain size and strength ? Give a law of the muscular system. 
 Show this by practical illustrations. 174. Why do muscles increase in size 
 when exercised ? 
 
 8 
 
86 ' ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. ' 
 
 composed If the exercise is adequate to the power of the 
 system, the deposit of new material will exceed in quantity 
 the particles of matter removed, and both the size and energy 
 of the muscles are increased. But there is a limit to the 
 muscles becoming strong by labor. Sooner or later, man will 
 attain his growth or power^ yet by judicious exercise, care, 
 and discreet management, the greatest power of the muscles 
 may be preserved until advanced age. 
 
 175. The muscles are lessened in size and diminished in 
 power when Ike exercise is continued so as to produce a feel- 
 ing of exhaustion. The loss of material, in this instance, will 
 exceed the deposition of the atoms of matter. This is seen 
 in the attenuated frames of over-tasked domestic animals, as 
 the horse. The same truth is illustrated by the laborious 
 agriculturist, who, in consequence of too severe toil whQe 
 gathering the products of the field, frequently diminishes his 
 weight several pounds in a few weeks. Exercise, either for 
 pleasure or profit, may fatigue, yet it should never be pro- 
 tracted to languor or exhaustion, if the individual desires " a 
 green old age." 
 
 176. The same amount of exercise will not conduce to the 
 health of all individuals. If riding or walking one mile 
 causes slight fatigue, this may be beneficial ; while, by trav- 
 elling two miles, the exhaustion may be highly injurious. 
 Exercise and labor should be adapted to the sti-engtli of par- 
 ticular individuals. How little soever the strength, that must 
 be the measure of exertion. Any other rule would be fatal 
 to the hopes of invigorating t^je system, eitlier by exercise 
 or labor. 
 
 Is there a limit to the muscles becoming powerful by action ? How may 
 the strength of muscles be kept until advanced age ? 175. What is thi 
 effect when exercise is continued uatil there is a feeling of exhaustion ? 
 Give a practical illustration. What rule is n;entioned in regard to exer- 
 cise ? 176. Can all persons take the same airount of exercise ? What 
 rule is given as to the amount of exercise ? 
 
HYGIENE OP THE MUSCLES. 87 
 
 177. Uelaxation must follow contraction, or, in other words, 
 rest mvst follow exercise. The necessity of relaxation, wlien 
 a muscle has been called into action, is seen in the example 
 of a hoy extending his arm with a book in his hand, as a 
 penalty. The boy can keep the arm extended but a short 
 time, make what effort he may. It is also seen in the rest- 
 lessness and feverish excitement that are evinced by per- 
 sons gazing on troops during days of review. The same is 
 noted in shopping. Such employments call into action the 
 muscles that support the spinal column in an erect position, 
 and the languor or uneasiness is muscular pain. The long- 
 continued tension of a musple enfeebles its action, and event- 
 ually destroys its contractility. 
 
 178. In school, the small children, after sitting a short 
 time, become restless. If their position be changed, their im- 
 perfectly developed muscles will acquire tone, and will again 
 support the spinal column erect without pain. The necessity 
 for frequent recesses in school, is founded on the organic law 
 of muscular action alternating with rest. The younger and 
 feebler pupils are, the greater the necessity for frequent 
 recesses. We would not have the teacher think that one half 
 of the time should be spent in recesses ; or the mother, that 
 her daughter is going to school to play. But we do maintain 
 
 - that recesses should be given, and that they should be short 
 and frequent, especially for small and feeble scholars. 
 
 179. Exhaustion is the inevitable result of continued mus- 
 cular contraction. For example, let a lady ply the needle 
 quickly for some hours, and the muscles of the back and 
 right arm will become exhausted, which will be indicated by 
 a sense of weariness in these parts. A change of employ- 
 1 
 
 177. "What is said of the contraction and relaxation of the muscles ? Give 
 examples of the necessity of relaxing the muscles. 178. "Wliy should not 
 small children be confined in one position for a long time ? "What esils 
 result from this pra-ctice ? AThat class of pupils should have recesses most 
 frequently. 179 What effect has continued ituscular contraction i 
 
88 . ANATOMY, PHYSIOroGY, AND HYGIENE 
 
 ment and position calls into action a different set of muscles, 
 and the exhausted organs are relieved. 
 
 180. Much more labor will he accomplished ly taking time 
 In relax the exhausted muscles., or by so changing the employ- 
 ment as to bring into action a new set of muscles ;- the wood- 
 man thus relieves himself, by sawing and splitting alternately. 
 This principle applies to the labor of he horse and ox ; and 
 it is also applicable to all kinds of employment. With the 
 invalid convalescing from fever, relapses result from inatten- 
 tion to these laws. When a patient is recovering from sick- 
 ness, his physician should take care that his exercise be 
 proper, neither too much, too little, nor too long continued. 
 
 181. The muscles of growing youths will not endure so 
 much exercise or labor as those of matvire men. In youth a 
 portion of the vital, or nervous energy of the system, is 
 expended upon the growth of the organs of the body, while 
 in the individual who has attained his growth, this expendi- 
 ture is not demanded; consequently severe labor or exercise 
 should not be imposed on growing children. 
 
 Observation. In the campaigns of Napoleon Bonaparte, 
 his army was frequently recruited by mere boys. He com- 
 plained to the French government, because he was not supplied 
 with men of mature years, as the youths could not endure the 
 exertion of his forced marches. 
 
 182. The muscles should be gradually called into action. 
 These organs in action require more blood and nervous fluid 
 than when at rest. As the circulation of these fluids can only 
 be increased in a gradual manner, it follows, that, when the 
 muscular system has been in a state of rest, it should not sud- 
 denly he called into vigorous action. On arising from a bed, 
 lounge, or chair, the first movements of the limbs should be 
 slow, and then gradually increased. 
 
 Obser,vation. If a man has a certain amount of work to 
 
 180. How can tho greatest amount of labor bo scoured with the least ex- 
 haustion to the muscles ? 181. Why should not severe labor be imposed on 
 growing children? 182. How should tho muscles be called into actiou ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THI' MUSCLES. 89 
 
 perform in nine hours, and his muscles have been in a slate 
 of rest, he will do it with less fatigue by performing half the 
 amount of the labor in five hours, and the remainder in four 
 hours. The same principle should be regarded in driving 
 horses and other beasts of burden. 
 
 183. The muscles should he rested gradually, when they 
 have been vigorously used. If a person has been making great 
 muscular exertion in cutting wood, or any other employment, 
 instead of sitting down to rest, he should continue muscular 
 action, for a short time, by some moderate labor or amusement. 
 
 184. If the system has leen heated hy muscular action, and 
 the skill is covered with perspiration, avoid sitting down " to 
 cool " in a cu]:rent of air ; rather, put on more clothing, 
 and continue to exercise moderately. In instances when 
 severe action of the muscles has. been endured, bathing and 
 rubbing the skin of the limbs and joints that have been used, 
 are of much importance. The laboring agriculturist and 
 mdustrious mechanic, by reducing to practice this suggestion, 
 would thus prevent soreness of the muscles, and stiffness of 
 the joints. 
 
 185. The muscles should he abundantly supplied with pure 
 blood. This state of the circulating fluid requires a healthy 
 condition of the digestive apparatus, and that the skin should 
 be kept warm by proper clothing, clean by bathing, and be 
 acted upon by pure air and good light ; the movements 
 of the rits and diaphragm should be unrestricted, and the 
 lungs should have ample volume and be supplied with pure 
 air. In all instances, muscular power is greatest when the 
 preceding conditions exist, as the muscles are then stimulated 
 by pure blood ; consequently, it is of practical importance to 
 
 183. How should the muscles be rested when they have been vigorously 
 used ? 184. What precaution is given when the skin is covered with per- 
 spiration ? How may soreness of the muscles, consequent upon severe 
 action, be prevented? 186. Should the muscles be supplied with pure 
 blood? When is muscular power the greatest? 
 S* 
 
90 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the mechanic, the farmer, the man of leisure, and not less so 
 to the ladies, to observe these conditions, whatever vocation of 
 life they pursue. 
 
 186. The muscles should le used in pure air. The purer 
 the air we breathe, the more stimulating the blood supplied to 
 the muscles, and the longer they can be used in labor, walk- 
 ing, or sitting, without fatigue and injury ; hence the benefit 
 derived in thoroughly ventilating all inhabited rooms. For the 
 same reason, if the air of the sick-room is pure, the patient 
 will sit up longer than when the air is impure. 
 
 Observation. It is a common remark that sick persons will 
 sit up longer when riding in a carriage, than in an easy chair 
 in the room where they have lain sick. In the one instance, 
 they breathe pure air ; in the other, usually, a confined, im- 
 pure air. 
 
 187. The muscles should he exercised in the light. Light, 
 particularly that of the sun, exercises as great an influence 
 on man and the inferior animals as it does on plants. Both 
 require the stimulus of this agent. Shops occupied by me- 
 chanics, kitchens, and sitting-rooms, should be well lighted, 
 and situated on the sunny side of the house. Cellar kitchens 
 and underground shops should be avoided. For similar 
 reasons, students should take their exercise during the day, 
 rather thiin in the evening, and, as much as possible, laborers 
 should avoid night toil. 
 
 Illustrations. Plants that grow in the shade, as under 
 trees, or in a dark cellar, are of lighter color and feebler 
 than those that are exposed to the light of the sun. Persons 
 that dwell in dark rooms are paler and less vigorous than 
 those who Inhabit apartments well lighted, and exposed to the 
 rays of the sun. 
 
 186. Why should the muscles be used in pure air ? Give a common 
 observation. 187. Wliat ofFeot has light on the muscular system ? What 
 should the laborer avoid ? Why should not students take their daily exer- 
 cise in the evening ? How is the influence cf solar light illustrated ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 91 
 
 188. Exercise should he regular and frequent. The sys- 
 tem needs this means of invigoration as regularly as it does 
 new supplies of food. It is no more correct that we devote 
 several days to a proper action of the muscles, and then 
 spend one day inactively, than it is to take a proper amount 
 of food for several days, and then withdraw this supply for 
 a day. The industrious mechanic and the studious minister 
 suffer as surely from undue confinement as the improvident 
 and indolent. The evil consequences of neglect of exercise 
 are gradual, and steal slowly upon an individual. But sooner 
 or later they are manifested in muscular weakness, dyspepsia, 
 and nervous irritability. 
 
 Observation. The custom among farmers of enduring 
 severe and undue toiL for several successive days, and then 
 spending one or two days in idleness to rest, is injudicious. 
 It would be far better to do less in a day, and continue the 
 labor through the period devoted to idleness, and then no rest 
 will be demanded. 
 
 189. Every part of the muscular system should have its 
 appropriate share of exercise. Some employments call into 
 exercise the muscles of the upper limbs, as shoe-making ; 
 others, the muscles of the lower limbs ; while some, the mus- 
 cles of both upper and lower limbs, with those of the trunk, 
 as farming. In some kinds of exercise, the lower limbs are 
 mainly used, as in walking ; in others, the upper limbs ; and 
 again, the muscles of the trunk, together with those of the 
 upper and lower limbs, as in archery, quoits, playing ball. 
 Those trades and kinds of exercise are most salutary, in 
 which all the muscles have their due proportion of action, 
 
 188. How should exercise be taken ? What is said respecting irregular 
 exercise ? Are the consequences of neglected exercise immediately appa- 
 rent ? 'What practical observation is given } 189. Should every muscle 
 have its due amount of exercise ? Mention some employments that only 
 call into action the muscles of the upper limbs. Those of the lower limbs. 
 Those of the trunk and limbs. Mention, in the different pastimes, what 
 muscles are called into action. 
 
92 ANATOMY, PHYSIOIiOGY, AND HYGIUNE. 
 
 as this tends to develop and strengthen them equally. Thus 
 labor upon the farm and domestic employment are superior 
 as vocations, and archery, quoits, and dancing, if the air is 
 pure, among the pastimes. For sedentary persons, that kind 
 of exercise is best which calls into action the greatest number 
 of muscles. 
 
 190. The proper time for labor or exercise should be ob- 
 served. This is modified by many circumstances. As a 
 general rule, the morning, when the air is pure and the ground 
 dry, is better than the evening ; for then, the powers of the 
 body are greatest. Severe exercise and labor should be 
 avoided immediately before or after eating a full meal, for 
 the energies of the system are then required to perform the 
 digestive function. For similar reasons, it is not an appro- 
 priate time for energetic muscular action immediately before 
 or after severe mental toil, as the powers of the system are 
 then concentrated upon the brain.* 
 
 191. The muscles require sleep to restore their expended 
 energies. Among the arrangements of creative wisdom, no 
 one harmonizes with the wants of the system more than the 
 alternation of day and night. The natural inclination of man 
 to sleep, is in the stilly hour of night, when all nature reposes, 
 and to be in action during the light of day. An inversion of 
 this law of rest causes greater exhaustion of the system than 
 
 * It appears to be a fact, that no two important organs can be 
 called into intense action at the same time, without injury to both, 
 as well as to the general system. Thi^ arises from the circumstance 
 that an organ, when in functional action, attracts fluids (sanguineous 
 and nervous) from other organs of the system. Except in a few 
 instances of high health in youth, the power of tlie system is not 
 adequate to supply more than one organ in action witli the appro- 
 priate fluids at the same time. 
 
 What kinds of exercise are best ? 190. What rule is given respecting 
 (he time for exercise? 191. Wliy do the m\isclea require sleep? What is 
 the effect of an inversion of the law of rest ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 93 
 
 the same amount of exertion during daylight. This is illus- 
 trated by the wearied and exhausted condition of watchers, 
 night-police, and other individuals who spend a part of the 
 night in some active business of life. 
 
 192. The muscles should not be compressed. Compression 
 prevents the blood from passing to the muscles with freedom ; 
 consequently, they are not supplied with material to renovate 
 and promote their growth. Again, pressure stimulates the 
 lymphatics to action ; and by the increased activity of these 
 vessels the muscles are attenuated. In the case of a man with 
 a fractured limb, the muscles are not only enfeebled by inac- 
 tion, but diminished in size by compression from the dressing. 
 Limbs enfeebled in this way will not recover their^size, tone, 
 and strength, until the bandages are removed, and a proper 
 amount of exercise taken. 
 
 193. The pressure of tight dresses, under the name of a 
 " snug fit," enfeebles the muscles of the back, and is a com- 
 mon cause of projecting shoulders and curvature of the spinal 
 column. Thus every appendage to the dress of ladies which 
 prevents free motion of the muscles of the chest and spinal 
 column, weakens the muscles thus restrained, and not only 
 prevents the proper expansion of the lungs, but, by weakening 
 the muscles which sustain the spine, induces curvature and 
 disease. Whalebone, wood, steel, and every other unyielding 
 substance, should "he banished from the toilet, as enemies of 
 the human race. 
 
 194. The mind exerts a great influence upon thdone and 
 contractile energy of the muscular system. A person acting 
 under a healthy mental stimulus will make exertion with less 
 fatigue than he would without this incentive. For this reason, 
 a sportsman will pursue his game miles without fatigue, while 
 
 192. "Why should not the muscles be compressed ? 193. What is the 
 effect of tight clothing upon the muscles ? 194. What is said of the influ- 
 ence of the mind upon muscular activity ? Give an illustration of mental 
 Btimulus cooperating with muscular activity in the case of a sportsman. 
 
94 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 his attendant, not having any mental stimulus, will become 
 weary. Again, if the sportsman spends some hours in 
 pursuit of his favorite game without success, a feeling of 
 languor creeps over him ; but while he is thus fatigued and 
 dispirited, let him catch a glimpse of the game, — his wearied 
 feelings are immediately dissipated, and he presses on with 
 renewed energy and recruited strength. 
 
 195. This principle was well illustrated in the retreat from 
 Russia of the defeated and dispirited French army. When no 
 enemy was near, they had hardly strength sufficient t6 carry 
 their arms ; but no sooner did they hear the report of the 
 Kussian guns, than new life seemed to pervade them, and they 
 wielded their weapons powerfully until the foe was repulsed ; 
 then there was a relapse to weakness, and prostration followed. 
 It is thus with the invalid when riding for his health ; — relate 
 an anecdote, or excite this mental stimulus by agreeable con- 
 versation, and much benefit will accrue from the ride to the 
 debilitated person. So it is in the daily vocations of hfe ; if 
 the mind have some incentive, the tiresomeness of labor will 
 be greatly diminished. Let an air of cheerfulness ever per- 
 vade our every employment, and, like music, " it sweetens 
 toil." 
 
 196. Facts illustrative of the inutility of calling the muscles 
 into action, without the cooperation of the mind, are seen in 
 the spiritless aspect of many of our boarding school proces- 
 sions, when a walk is taken merely for exercise, without 
 having in view any attainable object. But present to the 
 mind a botanical or geological excursion, and the saunter 
 will be exchanged for the elastic step, the inanimate appear^ 
 ance for the bright eye and glowing cheek. The difference 
 
 195. Give an illustration of mental stimulus ooBporating with muscular 
 activity in tho onso of tho" dispirited Fronoli army in thoir retreat from 
 Kussia. How can a union of mental impulse and muscular action be bene- 
 ficial to an invalid? Does this same principle apply to those who labor? 
 196. Give an instance of the dilForent offoots produced by the absence and 
 presence of the mental stimulus. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 95 
 
 is, simply, that, in the former case, the muscles are obliged to 
 work without that full nervous impulse so essential to their 
 en^getic action ; and that, in the latter, the nervous influence 
 is in full and harmonious operation. ~ 
 
 197. It must not, however, be supposed that a walk sim- 
 ply for the sake of exercise can never be beneficial. Every 
 one, unless prevented by disease, should consider it a duty to 
 take exercise every day in the open air ; if possible, let it be 
 had in combination with harmonious mental exhilaration ,• if 
 not, let a walk, in an erect position, be made so brisk as to 
 produce rapid respiration and circulation of the blood, and in 
 a dress that shall not interfere with free motions of the arms 
 and free expansion of the chest. 
 
 Observation. The advantages of combining harmoilious 
 
 mental excitement, with muscular activity, is thus given by 
 
 Dr, Armstrong : — 
 
 " In whate'er you sweat, 
 Inchdge your taste. Some love the manly toils, 
 The tennis some, and some the graceful dance ; 
 Others, more hardy, range the purple heath 
 Or naked stubble, where, from field to field, y 
 
 The sounding covies urge their lab'ring flight, 
 Eager amid the rising cloud to pour 
 The gun's unerring thunder ; and there arc 
 Whom still the mead of the green archer charm. 
 He chooses best whose labor entertains 
 His vacant fancy moat ; the toil you hate 
 Fatigues you soon, and scarce improves your limhs." 
 
 197. May not » walk, simply as an exercise, be beneficial? What is 
 preferred ? 
 
96 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYaiENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 HYGIENE OE THE MUSCLES, CONTINUED. 
 
 198. Tlie erect attitude lessens the exhaustion of the muscles, 
 A. person whose position is erect will stand longer, walk further, 
 and perform more labor, than an individual whose position is 
 stooping, but equal in all other respects. The manly port in 
 an erect attitude, depends chiefly upon the action of the mns-, 
 cles of the back ; and it follows that the fewer the muscles in 
 a state of tension, the less the draught upon the nervous sys- 
 tem, and the less its exhaustion. Another advantage which 
 attends the erect position is, the trunk and head are balanced 
 upon the bones and cartilages of the spinal column. If the 
 body slightly incline forward, the muscles attached to the 
 posterior side of the spine, by a gentle contraction, will bring 
 it to the perpendicular, and even incline it backward. This 
 is immediately removed by a slight contraction of the muscles 
 upon the anterior side of the spinal column. 
 
 199. In the erect position, there is a constant slight oscil- 
 lation of the body backward and forward, like the movement 
 of a pendulum ; while, in the stooping posture, the miiscles 
 on the posterior side of the spinal column are kept in a state 
 of continued tension and contraction, to prevent the body from 
 falling forward. This enfeebles the muscles of the back, and 
 exhausts the nervous energy, while the erect position favors 
 their development and power, because there is an alternate 
 contraction and relaxation of the muscles. Again, in the 
 stooping position, the lower limbs are curved at the knee. In 
 
 198. Why will a person who stands erect walk further, and perform more 
 labor, than if he assumed the stooping posture 1 199. Why are the muscles 
 of the back so soon o-vhauslod in the stooping position ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 9T 
 
 this attitude, there is a constant tension of tlie muscles of the 
 lower extremities, which produces muscular exhaustion. 
 
 Fig. 48 
 
 Fig. 48. 1, A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet to the upper extremity 
 of the spinal column, where the head rests. 2, 2, 2, The spinal column, with its three 
 natural curves. Here the head and body are balanced upon the spinal column and 
 joints of the lower extremities, so that the muscles are not kept in a state of tension. 
 This erect position of the body and head is always accompanied with straight lower 
 limbs. 
 
 Fig. 49. I, A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet. S, Represents tht* 
 unnatural curved spinal column, and its relative position to the perpendicular, (L) 
 The lower limbs are purred at the knee, and the body is stooping forward. While 
 standing in this position, the muscles of the lower limbs and back are in continued 
 tension, which exhausts and weakens them. 
 
 What is represeuted by figs. 48 ana 49 ? 
 9 
 
98 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 200. When it is necessary to call into action a part of the 
 muscles of the system in tbs performance of any duty, as 
 those of the lower limbs in walking, if the muscles of other 
 parts are in a state of inaction, the influence of the nervous 
 system can be determined in iin undivided manner upon those 
 parts of the lower limbs in action ; hence they will not so soon 
 become wearied or exhausted, as when this influence is divided 
 between a greater number of muscles. ' In performing any 
 labor, as in speaking, reading, singing, mowing, sewing, &c., 
 there will be less exhaustion, and the elTort can be longer 
 maintained in the erect position of the body and head, than in 
 a stooping attitude. 
 
 Experiment. Hold in each hand a pail of water or equal 
 weights, in a stooping posture, as long as it can be done 
 without much suifering and injury. Again, when the mus- 
 cular pain has ceased, hold the same pails of water, for the 
 same length of time, in an erect posture, and note the differ- 
 ence in the fatigue of the muscles. 
 
 201. If the stooping posture is acquired in youth, we are 
 quite certain of seeing the deformed shoulders in old age. 
 Hence the importance of duly exercising the muscles of the 
 back, for when they are properly developed, the child can and 
 will stand erect. In this attitude, the shoulders will be thrown 
 back, and the chest will become broad and full. 
 
 202. Pupils, while standing during recitations, often inad- 
 vertently assume the attitude represented by fig. 49, and it is 
 the duty of teachers to correct this position when assumed. 
 When a child or adult has contracted a habit of stooping, and 
 has become round-shouldered, it can be measurably, and gen- 
 erally, wholly, remedied by moderate and repeated efforts to 
 bring the shoulders back, and the spinal column in an erect 
 
 200. What Buggestion when it is necessary to call into action a part of 
 the muscular system? Give the experiment that illnstrntes this principle. 
 201. Why should a child be taught to stand erect? 202; How can round 
 ehouldors acquired by habit bo remedied ? 
 
HYaiENK OF TUB MUSCLES. 99 
 
 position. This deformity can and should be remedied in our 
 schools. It may take months to accomplish the desired end, 
 yet it can be done as well under the direction of the kind in- 
 structor, as under the stern military drill-sergeant, who never 
 fails to correct this deformity among his raw recruits. 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 Fig. 50. A proper position in sitting. 
 
 203. Tlie child should he taught to sit erect when employed 
 in study or work. This attitude favors a healthy aciion of the 
 various organs of the system, and cronduces to beauty and 
 symmetry of form. Scholars are more or less inclined to lean 
 forward and place the elbow on the table or desk, for support ; 
 
 203. Why should the erect attitude be assumed in sitting ? 
 
TOO 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 and this is often done when their 'seats are provided with 
 backs. Where there is a predisposition to curvature of the 
 spine, no position is more unfavorable or more productive of 
 deformities than this ; for it is usually continued in one direc- 
 tion, and the apparent deformity it induces is a projection of 
 the shoulders. If the girl is so feeble that she cannot sit 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 Fig. SI. An Improper poBitlon in sitting. 
 
 erect, as represented by fig. 50, let her staad or recline on a 
 couch ; either is preferable to the position represented by fig. 
 61. In furnishing school-rooms, care should be taken that 
 the desks are not so low as to compel the pupils to lean 
 forward in e.\amining their books. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 10] 
 
 204. The muscles, when exhausted, cannot endure continued 
 dff'ort. When the energies of the muscular system have been 
 expended by severe and long-continued exercise, or the brain 
 and nervous system prostrated by protracted mental effort, the 
 muscles are unfitted to maintain the body erect in standing or 
 sitting for a long time, as the nervous system, in its exhausted 
 state, cannot supply a sufficient amount of its peculiar influ- 
 ence to maintain the supporting muscles of the body and head 
 in a state of contraction. Hence, a child or adult, when much 
 fatigued, should not be compelled to stand or sit erect in one 
 posture, but should be permitted to vary the position fre- 
 quently, as this rests and recruits both the muscular and the 
 nervous system. 
 
 205. A slight relaxation of the muscles tends to prevent 
 their exhaustion. In walking, dancing, and most of the 
 mechanical employments, there will be less fatigue, and the 
 movements will be more graceful, when the muscles are 
 slightly relaxed. When riding in cars or coaches, the system 
 does not suffer so severely from the jar if there is a slight 
 relaxation of the muscles, as when they are in a state of rigid 
 contraction. 
 
 Experiments. Attempt to bow with the muscles of the 
 limbs and trunk rigid, and there will be a stiff bending of the 
 body only at the hip-joint. On the other hand, attempt to bow 
 with the muscles moderately relaxed ; the ankle, the knee, 
 and the hip-joint will slightly bend, accompanied with an easy 
 and graceful curve of the body. 
 
 206. The muscles when relaxed, together with the yielding 
 character of the cartilage, and the porous structure of the ends 
 of the bones that form a joint, diffuse or deaden the force of 
 
 204. When are the muscles unfitted to maintain the system erect either 
 in standing or sitting ? 'What is necessary when this condition of the 
 system exists ? 205. Why should the muscular system be slightly relaxed 
 in walking, Ac. ? Give illustratiTe experiments. 206. What is the reason 
 that we do not feel the jar in falling from a moderate height? 
 
102 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 jars, or shocks, in stepping suddenly down stairs, or in fall- 
 ing from moderate heights. Hence, in jumping or falling 
 from a carriage, or 'any height, the shock to the organs of 
 the system may be obviated in the three following ways : 
 1st. Let the muscles be relaxed, not rigid. 2d. Let the 
 limbs be bent at the ankle, knee, and hips ; the head should 
 be thrown slightly forward, with the trunk a little stooping. 
 3J. Fall upon the toes, not the heel. 
 
 Experiments. Stand with the trunk and lower limbs firm, 
 and the muscles rigid ; then jump a few inches perpendic- 
 ularly to the .floor, and fall upon the heels. Again, slightly 
 bend the limbs, jump a few inches, and fall upon the toes, and 
 the difference in the force of the shock, to the brain and other 
 organs, will be readily noticed. 
 
 207. The muscles require to he educated, or 1. aitied. The 
 power of giving different intonations in reading, speaking, sing- 
 ing, the varied and rapid executions in penmanship, and all 
 mechanical or agricultural employments, depend, in a measure, 
 upon the education of the muscles. In the first effort of mus- 
 cular education, the contractions of the muscular fibres are 
 irregular and feeble, as may be seen when the child begins to 
 walk, or in the first efforts of penmanship. 
 
 208. Repetition of muscular acti-on is necessary. To render 
 the action of the muscles complete and effective, they must 
 be called into action repeatedly and at proper intervals. This 
 education must be continued until not only each muscle, but 
 every fibre of the muscle, is fully under the control of 'the 
 will. In this way persons become skilful in every employ- 
 ment. In training the muscles for effective action, it is ver\' 
 important that correct movements be adopted at the com- 
 
 How is this shown by experiment ? 207. Upon what do the different 
 intonations of sound or mechanical emploj-ments depend } "Why are the 
 first efforts in educating the muscles indifferent or irregular ? 208. Why 
 ia repetition of muscular action neeesBiu-y ? Why is it important that 
 CfuToct movements be adopted in the first efforts of muscular education i 
 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 103 
 
 mencement. If this is neglected, the motions will be con- 
 strained and improper, while power and skill will be lost. 
 
 lUustralion. If a boy, while learning to mow, is allowed 
 to swing his scythe in a stooping position, twisting his body at 
 every sweep of the scythe, he will never become an easy, 
 efficient mower. Proper instruction is as necessary in many 
 of the agricultural branches as in the varied mechanical 
 employments. 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 Fig. 53. An improper, but not an unusual position, when writing, 
 Fig. 53. A proper position, when writing. 
 
 209. Good penmanship requires properly trained museles. 
 To a deficient analysis of the movements of the arm, hand, 
 and fingers, on the part of teachers and pupils in penman- 
 ship, together with an improper position in sitting, is to be 
 
 How is this illustrated? 209 Why have so many pupils faUed in 
 acquiring good penmanship ? 
 
104 ANATOMY, Pin'SIOI.OGV, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 ascribed the great want of success in acquiring this art. The 
 pen should be held loosely, and when the proper position is 
 attained, the scholar should make an effort to imitate some 
 definite copy as nearly as possible. The movements of the 
 fingers, hand, and arm, necessary to accomplish this, should 
 be made with ease and rapidity, striving, at each eflTort, to 
 imitate the copy more nearly. 
 
 210. When the arm, hand, and fingers are rigid, the large 
 muscles, that bend and extend these parts, are called into toT 
 intense action. This requires of the small muscles, tha; pro- 
 duce the lateral mo^ ements, which are essential to rapidity in 
 writing, an effort wl.ich they cannot make, or can with diffi- 
 culty accomplish. 
 
 Experiment. Vigorously extend the fingers by a violent 
 and rigid contraction of the muscles upon the lower part of 
 the arm, and the lateral movement which is seen in their sep- 
 aration cannot be made. But gently extend the fingers, and 
 their oblique movements are made with freedom. 
 
 211. An individual who is acquainted with the laws of" 
 health, whose muscles are well trained, will perfbrm a certain 
 amount of labor with less fatigue and waste to the system, 
 than one who is ignorant of the principles of hygiene, and 
 whose muscles are imperfectly trained. Hence the laboring 
 poor have a deep interest in acquiring a knowledge of prac- 
 tical physiology, as well as skill in their trade or vocation. It 
 is emphatically true to those who earn their bread by the 
 " sweat of their brow," that " knowledge is power." 
 
 210. What ia said of the lateral and oblique movements of the arm, 
 h<uid, and fingers in writing } How is this shown by experiment ? 211. Why 
 is the study of physiology and hygiene of utility to the laborer ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE TEETH. 105 
 
 CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 THE TEETH. 
 
 212. The teeth, in composition, nutrition, and growth, are 
 different from other bones of the body. They vary in number 
 at different periods of life, and, unlike other bones, they are 
 exposed to the immediate action of atmospheric air and foreign 
 substances. The bones of the system, generally, when frac- 
 tured, unite ; but there is never a permanent union of a tooth 
 when broken. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE TEETH. 
 
 213. The TEETH are attached to the upper and lower jaw- 
 bone, by means of bony sockets, called al've-o-lar processes. 
 These give great solidity to the attachment of the teeth, and 
 frequently render their extraction difficult. The gums, by 
 their fibrous, fleshy structure, serve to fix the teeth more 
 firmly in the jaw. 
 
 Observation. When a permanent tooth is extracted, these 
 bony processes are gradually absorbed, so that in advanced 
 age there remains only the jaw-bone covered by the lining 
 membrane of the gum. This accounts for the narrow jaw 
 and falling in of the lips in old age. Frequently, a piece of 
 .the alveolar process comes out with the tooth when extracted, 
 and the dentist has then the credit of " breaking the jaw." 
 
 212. What is said of the teeth? In what respect do they differ from 
 other bone.'! of the body? 213 — 218. Give the anatomy of the teeth. 213. 
 What confines the teeth in the jaw-bone ? What becomes of the socket 
 when a tooth is removed? What effect has this absorption upon the jaw 
 and lips ? 
 
10(5 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND UYGIENB. 
 
 No great injury results from the removal of the process in this 
 manner. 
 
 2U. The teeth are formed in the interior of the jaws, and 
 within denl'al cap'sules, (membranous pouches,) which are 
 enclosed within the substance of the bone, and present in 
 their interior a fleshy bud, or granule, from the surface of 
 which exudes the ivory, or the bony part of the tooth. In 
 proportion as the tooth is formed, it rises in the socket, which 
 is developed simultaneously with the tooth, and passes through 
 the gum, and shows itself without. , 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 Pig. .M. 1, The body of the lower jaw. 2, Ramus, or branch of the jaw, to which 
 the muscles that move it are attactied. 3, 3, Tlie processes which unite the lower 
 Jaw with the head, t, The middle and lateral incisor tooth of one side, b, The 
 bicuspid teeth, a, The cuspids, or eye teeth, m. The three molar teeth. A, Bbowa 
 the relation of the permanent to the temporary teeth. 
 
 215. The first set, which appears in infancy, is called 
 tem'po-ra-ry, or milk teeth. They are twenty in number ; ten 
 in each jaw. Between six and fourteen years of age, the tem- 
 porary teeth are removed, and the second set appears, called 
 yer'ma-nenl teeili. They number thirty-two, sixteen in each 
 jaw. 
 
 214. Where and how are the teeth formed ? Explain fig. 64. 215. What 
 are the first set called ? How many in each jaw? The seooud set ? How 
 many in number ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE TEETH. 
 
 107 
 
 216. The four front teeth in each jaw are called in-ci'sors, 
 (cutting-teeth ;) the next tooth in each side, the cui/pid, (eye- 
 tooth;) the next two, hi-cus'pids, (small grinders;) the next 
 two, mo'lars, (grinders.) The last one on each side of the 
 jaw is called a wisdom tooth, because it does not appear until 
 a person is about twenty years old. The incisors, cuspids, 
 and bicuspids, have each but one root. The molars of the 
 upper jaw have three roots, while those of the lower jaw have 
 but two. ■' 
 
 Pig. 5.5. 
 
 Fig. 55. The-permanent teelh of the upper and -lower jaw. ci, 6, The tncisors 
 «, The cuspids, d, «, The bicuspids. /, g, The molars, (duubie teeth.) A, The wis- 
 dom teeth 
 
 Observation. The shape of the teeth in different species of 
 animals is adapted to the kind of food on which they subsist. 
 Those animals that feed exclusively on flesh, as the lion, have 
 the cuspids, or canine teeth, largely developed, and the molars 
 have sharp cutting points. Those animals that feed on grass 
 and grain, as the horse and the sheep, have their molar teeth 
 more rounded and flat on the crown. The human teeth are 
 
 216. Give the names of the permanent teeth. What teeth have but one 
 root, or "fang"? How many roots have the molars of th« upper jaw? 
 Of tho lower jaw? What is said of the shape of the teeth in different 
 sjiecies of animals? 
 
lOst 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 adapted lo feed on fruits, grain, or flesh, as they are less 
 pointed than those of the cat, and more pointed than those of 
 the sheep. 
 
 21'7. The teeth are composed principally of two substances 
 — the i'vo-ry and the en-am'el. The internal part of the tooth, 
 or the ivory, is harder and more enduring than bone, and forms 
 the body of the tooth. The enamel is remarkable for its hard- 
 ness, and varies somewhat in color with thg age, temperament, 
 habits, and manner of living of diilcrent individuals. When 
 any part of the enamel is destroyed, it is never regenerated. 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 Fig. 56. A side view of the body and enamel of a front touth. 
 
 Fig, 57 A side view of a molar tooth. 1, Tlie enamel. S, Tbe body of the tooth. 
 3, The cavity in the crown of the tooth that contains tlie pulp. 4, A nerve that 
 spreads in the pulp of the tooth. 5, An artery that ramifies in Uie pulp of the tooth. 
 
 218. Each tooth is divided into two parts, namely, crown 
 and root. The crown is that part which protrudes from the 
 jaw-bone and gum, and is covered by the highly polished 
 enamel. The root, or " fang," is placed in the sockets of the 
 jaw, and consists of bony matter. Through this bony sub- 
 stance several small vessels pass, to aid in the growth and 
 
 217. Give the structure of the teeth. What is said of the enamel ? 
 218. Into how many parts arc the teeth divided ? Describe the crown. The 
 root. What vessels pass through the bony matter f WTiat it theiv use ? 
 
piiYSiOLoaY or the teeth. 109 
 
 also in the removal of the tooth. There are, beside these 
 vessels, small white cords passing to each tooth, called nerves. 
 (See fig. 57.) When these nerves are diseased, we have the 
 toothache. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE TEETH. 
 
 219. The use of the teeth is twofold. 1st. By the action 
 of the incisors the food is divided, while the molars grind or 
 break down the more solid portions of it. By these processes, 
 the food is prepared to pass more easily and rapidly into the 
 stomach. 
 
 220. In the mastication of food there are two movements 
 of .the lower jaw — the action by which the teeth are brought 
 together, and tlie lateral motion. In the former, the food is 
 cut or divided, the jaws acting like shears. This movement 
 is produced by the action of two large muscles situated on 
 each side of the head and face. 
 
 Observation. The muscles attached to the lower jaw are of , 
 great strength ; by their action alone, some persons are ena- 
 bled to bite the hardest substances. By putting the fingers 
 upon the s^de of the head above and in front of the ears, and 
 upon the face above the angle of the jaw, while njasticating 
 food, the alternate swelling and relaxation of these muscles 
 will be clearly felt. 
 
 221. The lateral, or grinding movement of the teeth, is pro- 
 duced by the action of a strong muscle that is attached to the 
 low;er jaw on the inside. 
 
 Observation. Those animals that live solely on flesh, have 
 only the cutting, or shear-like movement of the jaws. Those 
 
 219 — ^222. Give the physiology of the teeth. 219. Give one of the functions 
 of the teeth. 220. How many movements of the lower jaw in masticating 
 food ? What effect has the first movement upon the food ? How pro- 
 duced ? "What is the character of the masticating muscles ? 221. How is 
 the grinding motion of the teeth produced ? What is said of the move- 
 ments of the teeth in different animals ? 
 10 
 
110 ANATOMY, rHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 that use vegetables for food, have the grinding motion ; while 
 man has both the cutting and grinding movement. 
 
 222. 2d. The teeth aid us in articulating with distinctness 
 certain letters and words. An individual who has lost his 
 front teeth cannot enunciate distinctly certain letters called 
 dental. Again, as the alveolar processes are removed by- 
 absorption soon after- the removal of the teeth, the lips and 
 cheeks do not retain their former full position, thus marring, in 
 no slight degree, the symmetry of the lower part of the face. 
 Consequently, those simple observances that tend to the 
 preservation of the teeth are of great practical interest to all 
 persons. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE TEETH. 
 
 223. To preserve the teeth, they must he kept clean. After 
 eating food, they should be cleansed with a brush and virater, 
 or rubbed with a piece of soft flannel, to prevent the tartar 
 collecting, and to remove the pieces of food that may have 
 lodged between them. Toothpicks may be useful in remov- 
 ing any particles inaccessible to the brush. They may be 
 made of bone, ivory, or the common goose-quill^ Metallic 
 toothpicks should not be used, as they injure the enamel. 
 
 224. TAe mouth should he cleansed with pure tepid water at 
 night, as well as in the morning ; after which the teeth should 
 be brushed upward and downward, both on the posterior and 
 anterior surfaces. It may be beneficial to use refined soap, 
 once or twice every week, to remove any corroding substance 
 that may exist around the teeth ; care bemg token to thor- 
 oughly rinse the mouth after its use. 
 
 225. Food or drink should not he taken into the mouth 
 when very hot or very cold. Sudden changes of temperature 
 will crack the enamel, and finally produce decayed teeth. 
 
 222. What is another uso of the teeth ? 223—232. ffipe the hygiene of 
 the teeth. 223. How can the teeth be preserved? By what mojins? 224. 
 How often should they be cleansed ? 225. What is said of very hot or cold 
 drinks ?• 
 
HYGIENE OF THE TEETH. Ill 
 
 Olxervation. On this account, smoking is pernicious, be- 
 cause the teeth are subjected to an alternate inhalation of both 
 cold and warm air. 
 
 226. The temporary teeth should he removed as soon as 
 they become loose. If a permanent tooth makes it appear- 
 ance before the first is rerpoved, or has become loose, the 
 milk tooth, although not loose, should' be removed without 
 
 ■delay. This is necessary that the second set of teeth may 
 present a regular and beautiful appearance. 
 
 227. In general, when the permanent teeth are irregular, 
 one or more should ie removed. If the teeth are crowded and 
 irregular, in consequence of the jaw being narrow and short, 
 or. when they press so hard upon each other as to injure Uie 
 enamel, remove one or more to prevent their looking unsight- 
 ly, and in a few months the remainmg teeth, with a little care, 
 will fill the spaces. 
 
 Observation. When it is necessary to remove a tooth, apply 
 to some skilful operator. It requires as much skill and knowl- 
 edge to extract teeth well, as it does to amputate a limb ; yet 
 some persons, who possess strong arms, will obtain a pair of 
 forceps, or a tooth-key, and hang out the sign of ." surgeon- 
 dentist," although ignorant of the principles that should guide 
 them. 
 
 228. It is not always necessary to have teeth extracted when 
 they ache. The nerve, or the investing membrane of the 
 root, may be diseased, and the tooth still be sound. In such 
 instances, the tooth should not be extracted, but the diseased 
 condition may be remedied by proper medication. There are 
 many sound teeth, that become painful, as already mentioned, 
 which are unnecessarily removed. 
 
 Why is smoking injurious to the teeth ? 226. What remark respeuting 
 the temporary teeth ? 227. What remarks respecting the permanent 
 teeth ? Do those persons that extract teeth require skill as well as knowl- 
 edge ? 228. Why should not teeth be extracted at all timss when they 
 are painfal ? 
 
112 ANATOMV, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Illustration. Dr. H. M., of Belfast, Me., related to me that 
 an individual in that vicinity had his teeth, (all of them 
 sound,) on one side of the lower jaw, extracted by an igno- 
 ramus' of a " tooth-puller," and this without any relief from 
 pain. The disease was tic douloureux, which was relieved 
 by Dr. M. 
 
 229. The preservation of the teeth requires that they he 
 frequently examined. When a part of the enamel is removed, 
 and a small portion of the body of the tooth has become cari- 
 ous, in many instances such teeth may be preserved from 
 further decay by having them filled or " plugged " \vith gold 
 foil. All amalgams, pastes, and cheap patent articles for 
 filling, should be avoided, if you would preserve botli the teeth 
 and the general health. 
 
 230. The practice of- cracking nuts with the teeth, or of 
 lifting heavy bodies, and the constant habit of biting thread, 
 should be avoided, as they finally destroy the enamel. 
 
 231. All acidulated drinks and mineral waters, that " set 
 the teeth on edge," are injurious. All tooth-powders and 
 washes that contain any article that is acid, corrosive, or grind- 
 ing, should be banished from the toilet. Tobacco isjiot a pre- 
 servative of the teeth. It contains " grit," which wears away 
 the enamel ; beside, when chewed, it debilitates the vessels of 
 the gums, turns the teeth yellow, and renders the breath and 
 the appearance of the mouth disagreeable. 
 
 232. Healthy persons have generally sound teeth, while 
 feeble persons have decayed teeth. For this reason, we should 
 try to learn and practise the few simple rules that promote 
 health. 
 
 Give an illustration of the removal of sound teeth, 229. How may 
 decaying teeth be preserved ? "What should be avoided in the filling of 
 teeth r 230. What practices should also be avoided ? 231. "Wlat is said 
 of acidulated drinks ? What effect has the chewing of tobacco upon the 
 teeth ? 232. What is one reason for presei-ving health 1 
 
a;;at35iy of the digestivk oeqans. 113 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 233. From the earliest existence of the human system fo 
 the last ray of life, change is impressed upon it by the Giver 
 of this curious fabric. New atoms of matter are deposited, 
 while the old and now useless particles are constantly 
 removed. The material necessary to sustain the growth 
 of the body in early life, and also to repair the waste that 
 is unceasing to animal existence, is the food we eat. 
 
 234. Food, animal or vegetable, -contains most of the ele- 
 ments of the different tissues of the system, yet it must un- 
 dergo certain essential alterations before it can become a part 
 of the body. The first change is effected by the action of 
 the Digestive Organs. 
 
 •AJVTATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 
 
 235. The digestive organs are the Mouth, Teeth,* Sal'i- 
 va-ry Glands, Phar'ynx, CE-soph'a-gus, (gullet,) Siomlach, 
 In-tes'tines, (bowels,) Lac'te-als, (milk, or chyle vessels,) 
 Tho-radic Duct, Liv'er, and the Pan'cre-as, (sweetbread.) 
 
 236. The mouth is an irregular cavity, which contains the 
 .nstruments of mastication and the organs of taste. It is 
 
 • See Chapter XH. 
 
 233. What is impressed upon the human system from its earliest exist- 
 ence ? What maintains this change ? 234. Has animal or vegetable food 
 any resemblance to the different tissues of which it finally forms a part ? 
 By what organs is the first change in the food effected? 235 — 258. Give 
 the anatomy of the digestive organs. 235. Name them. 236. Describe the 
 mouth. 
 
 10* 
 
114 
 
 ANATOMY, THYSIOLOGY, ANI> HYGIENE. 
 
 bounded in front by the lips ; on each side by the internal 
 surface of the cheeks ; above, by the hard palate (roof of the 
 mouth) and teeth of the upper jaw ; below, by the tongue and 
 teeth of the lower jaw ; behind, it is continuous with the 
 pharynx, but is separated from it by a kind of movable 
 curtain, called the soft palate. This may be elevated or 
 depressed, so as to close the passage or leave it free. 
 
 237. The salivary glands are six in number; three on 
 each side of the jaw. They are called the pa-rot'id, the 
 sub-max'il-la-ry, and the sub-lin'gual. 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 Fig. 58. A view of the salivary glands in their proper situations. 1, The parotiil 
 gland. 2, Its duct. 3, The submaxillary gland. 4, Its duct. 5, The sublingual 
 gliind, brought to view liy the removal of a section of Uie lower jaw. 
 
 238. The parotid gland, the largest, is situated in front 
 of the external ear, and behind the angle of the jaw. A duct 
 (Stono's) from this gland opens into the mouth, opposite the 
 second molar tooth of the upper jaw. 
 
 237, How many glands about tho mouth? Give their names. What 
 does fig. 58 roprosent ? 238. Describe tho parotid rland. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 115 
 
 239. The submaxillary gland is situated within the lower 
 jaw, anterior to its angle. Its excretory duct (Wharton's) 
 opens into the mouth by the side of the frcetnum lin'gucs, 
 (bridle of the tongue.) 
 
 240. The sublingual gland is elongated and flattened, 
 and situated beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of 
 the mouth, on each side of the froenum linguae. It has seven 
 or eight small ducts, which open into the mouth by the side 
 of the bridle of the tongue. 
 
 Observation. In the "mumps," the parotid gland ia 
 diseased. The swelling under the tongue called the " frog" 
 is a disease of the sublingual gland. 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 Fig. 59. A side view of the face, gsgoplmgus, and trachea. 1, The trachea (wind- 
 pipe.) 9, The larynx. 3, Tne cesophagus. 4, 4, 4, The muscles of the upper portion 
 of the oesophagus, forming the pharynx. 5, The muscle of the cheek. 6, The jnua- 
 cle that surrounds tlie mouth. 7, The muscle that forms the floor of the mouth. 
 
 241. The piiakynx is a membranous sac, situated upon the 
 
 239. The submaxillary. 240. The sublingual. What observation respect- 
 ing these glands ? What does fig. 59 represent ? 
 
116 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HTGIENE. 
 
 upper portion of the spinal column. It extends from the base 
 of the skull to the top of the tra'che-a, (windpipe,) and is 
 continuous with the oesophagus. From the pharynx are four 
 passages ; one opens upward and forward to the nose, the 
 second leads forward to the mouth, the third downward to the 
 trachea and lungs, the fourth downward and backward to tlie 
 stomach. 
 
 242. The cesofhagus is a large membranous tube that 
 extends behind the trachea, the heart, and lungs, pierces 
 the diaphragm, and terminates in the stomach. It is com- 
 posed of two membranes — an internal, or mucous, and a 
 muscular coat. The latter is composed of two sets of fibres ; 
 one extends lengthwise, the other is arranged in circulai 
 bands. 
 
 243. The stomach is situated in the left side of the abdo- 
 men, immediately below and in contact with the diaphragm. 
 It has two openings; one connected with the oesophagus, 
 called the car'di-ac orifice ; the other connected with the 
 upper portion of the small intestine, called the py-lor'ic 
 orifice. It is composed of three coats, or membranes. The 
 exterior, or serous coat is very tough and strong, and con- 
 fines the stomach in its proper situation. The middle, or 
 muscular coat is composed of two layers of muscular fibres, 
 one set of which is arranged longitudinally, the other circu- 
 larly, The interior coat is called the mucous, and is arranged 
 in ru'gm, (folds.) The stomach is provided with a multitude 
 of small glands, inj^hich is secreted the gastric fluid. 
 
 Illustration. Tn?Three coats of the stomach anatomically 
 resemble tripe, which is a preparation of the largest stomach of 
 the cow or ox. The outer coat is smooth and highly polished. 
 The middle coat is composed of minute threads, which are 
 
 241. Describe the pharynx and the passages leading from it. 242. Give 
 the structure of the oesophagus. 243. Where is the stomach situated? 
 How many coats has it? Describe them. What article prepared for 
 food docs the stomach resemble? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 in 
 
 arranged in two layers. The fibres of these layers cross each 
 other. The inner coat is soft, and presents many folds, usually 
 called " the honey-comb." 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 Pig. 60. The inner surface of the stomacli and duodenum. 1, Tfte lower portlnn 
 of tlie cesopliagus. 9, The opening through which the food is passed into the stomacli. 
 8, The Btomach. 9, The opening through wliich the food passes out of ^he stomach 
 Into the duodenum, or upper portion of the small intestine. 10, 11,14, Tlio duodenum. 
 IS, 13, Ducts through which the hile and pancreatic fluid pass into it. a,,h, c. The 
 three coats of the stomach. 
 
 244. The intestines, or alimentary canal, are divided into 
 two parts — the svmH and large. The small intestine is about 
 twenty-five feet in length, and is divided into three portions, 
 namely, the Du-o-de'num, the Je-ju'num, and the He-urn. 
 The large intestine is about five feet in ]eiJ|gth, and is divided 
 into three parts, namely, the Coe'cum, the Co'lon, and the 
 Red tun, (Appendix D.) 
 
 245. The duodenum .is somewhat larger than the rest of 
 the small intestine, and has received its name from being in 
 
 244. Explain fig. 60. What i^ the length of the small intestine, and 
 how is it divided ? What is the length of the large intestine ? Give its 
 divisions. 245. Describe the duodenum. 
 
118 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANE HYGIENE. 
 
 length about the breadth of twelve fingers. It commences at 
 the pylorus, and ascends obliquely backward to the under 
 surface of the liver. It then descends perpendicularly in 
 front of the right kidney, and passes transversely across the 
 lower portion of the spinal column, behind the colon, and 
 terminates in the jejunum. The ducts from the liver and 
 pancreas open into the perpendicular portion, about six inches 
 from the stomach. 
 
 ■ 246. The jejunum is continuous with the duodenum. It 
 is thicker than the rest of the small intestine, and has a 
 pinkish tinge. 
 
 247. The ileum is smaller, and thinner in texture, and 
 somewhat paler, than the jejunum. There is no mark to dis- 
 tinguish the termination of the one or the commencement of 
 the other. The ileum terminates near the right haunch-bone, 
 by a valvular opening into the colon at an obtuse angle. 
 This arrangement prevents the passing of substances from the 
 colon into the ileum. The jejunum and ileum are sur- 
 rounded above and at the sides by the colon. 
 
 248. The small intestine, like the stomach, has three coats. 
 The inper, or mucous coat is thrown into folds, or valves. In 
 consequence of this valvular arrangement, the mucous mem- 
 brane is more extensive than the other tissues, and gives a 
 greater extent of surface with which the aliment comes in 
 contact. There are imbedded under this membrane an 
 immense number of minute glands, and it has a great number, 
 of piles, like those upon velvet. For this reason, this mem- 
 brane is sometimes called the vil'lous coat. 
 
 249. The ccecum is the blind pouch, or cul-de-sac, at the 
 commencement of the large intestine. Attached to its ex- 
 tremity is the ap-pend'ix verm-i-form'is, (a long, worm- 
 
 What important ducts open into it ? 246. Describe the jejunum. 
 247. The ileum. 248. What is said of the coats of the intestines ? Why 
 is the mucous membrane sometimes called the villous coat ? 249. Describe 
 the ooDcum. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 119 
 
 shaped tube.) It is from one to six inches in length, and of 
 the size of a goose-quill. 
 
 250. The colon is divided into three parts — the ascending, 
 transverse, and descending. The ascending colon passes 
 upward from the right haunch-bone to the under surface of 
 the liver. It then bends inward, and crosses the upper part 
 of the abdomen, below the liver and stomach, to the left side, 
 under the name of the transverse colon. At the left side, it 
 turns, and descends to the left haunch-bone, and is called the 
 descending colon. Here it makes a peculiar curve upon itself, 
 which is called the sigmoid Jlex'ure. 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 Pig. 61. 1,1, The duodenum, 2, S, The small intestine. 3, The Junction of the 
 BDiaJlintestine with the colon. 4, The appendis vermiforinls. 5, The ccEcuni. 6, The 
 ascending colon. 7, The transverse colon. 8, The descending colon. 9, The sig- 
 moid flexufe ot the colon. 10, The rectum. 
 
 250 Describe the course of the divisions of the colon. Explain, fig. 61. 
 
120 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 251. The KECTUM is the termination of the large intestine. 
 The large intestine has three coats, like the stomach and 
 small intestine. The longitudinal fibres of the muscular coat 
 are collected into three bands. These bands are nearly one 
 half shorter than the intestine, and give it a sacculated 
 appearance, which is characteristic of the coecum and colon. 
 
 252. The lacteals are minute vessels, which commence 
 in the villi, upon the mucous surface of the small intestine. 
 From the intestine they pass between the membranes of the 
 mes'en-ter-y to small glands, which they enter. The first 
 range of glands collects many small vessels, and transmits a 
 few larger branches to a second range of glands ; and, final- 
 ly, after passing through several successive ranges of these 
 glandular bodies, the lacteals, diminished in number and in- 
 creased in size, proceed to the enlarged portion of the thoracic 
 duct, into which they open. They are most numerous in the 
 upper portion of the small intestine. 
 
 253. The thoracic duct commences in the abdomen, by 
 a ponsiderable dilatation, which is situated in front of the lower 
 portion of the spinal column. From this point, it "passes 
 through the diaphragm, and ascends to the lower part of the 
 neck. In its ascent, it lies anterior to the spine, and by the 
 side of the aorta and oesophagus. At thS. lower part of the 
 neck, it makes a sudden turn downward and forward, and 
 terminates by opening into a large vein which passes to the 
 heart. The thoracic duct is equal in diameter to a goose- 
 quill, and, at its termination, is provided with a pair of semi- 
 lunar valves, which prevent the admission of venous blood 
 into its cylinder. 
 
 251. What is said of the arrangement of the fibres of the muscular coat 
 of the large intestine f 252. What are the lacteals ? Give their course 
 from the mucous coat of the intestine to the thoracic duct. 253. Describe 
 the oourse of the thoracic luot. How is the venous blood prevented from 
 passing into this duct } 
 
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 121 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 Fig. 63. A portion of the small Intestine, lacteal vessels, mesenteric glands, and 
 thoracic duct. 1, The intestine, a, 3, 4, Mesenteric glands, through which the 
 iacteals pass to the thoracic duct. 5, 6, The thoracic duct. 7, The point in the neck 
 where it turns down to enter' the vein at 8. 9, 10, The aorta. 11, IS, Vessels of the 
 neck. 13, 14, 15, The large veins that convey the blood and chyle to the heart 
 17, 17, The spinal column. 18, The diaphragm, (midriif.) 
 
 Observation. The mesenteric glands, which are situated 
 between two layers of serous membrane (mesentery) that 
 connects the small intestine with the spinal column, occasion- 
 ally become diseased in childhood, and prevent the chyle 
 
 Explain fig. 62. What is said respecting the mesenteric glands ? 
 11 
 
]22 
 
 ANATOMY, PHySIOI.OGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 from passing to the thoracic duct. Children thus affected have 
 a voracious appetite, and at the same time are becoming more 
 and more emaciated. The disease is called mesenteric con- 
 sumption. 
 
 254. The liver, a gland appended to the alimentary canal, 
 is the largest organ in the system, and weighs about four 
 pounds. It is situated in the right side, below the diaphragm, 
 and is composed of several lobes. Its upper surface is con- 
 vex ; its under, concave. This organ is retained in its place 
 by several ligaments. It performs the double office of sepa- 
 rating impurities from the venous blood, and of secreting a 
 fluid (bile) necessary to chylification. On the under surface 
 of the liver is a membranous sac, called the gall-cyst^ which 
 is generally considered as a reservoir for the bile. 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 Jig. 63. The under surface of the liver. 1, The right lobe. 9, Tlie leU. 3, A, 
 Smaller lobes, }0, The gall-bladder, or cyst, lodged in its depression. 17, The notch 
 on the posterior border, for the spinal column. 
 
 Observation. A good idea of the liver and intestines can 
 be obtained by examining these parts of a pig. In this animal, 
 the sacs, or pouches, of the large intestine are well defined. 
 
 255. The pancreas is a long, flattened gland, analogous to 
 
 264. Deecribe the liyei. 286. What is said of the pancreas? 
 
ANATOMY OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 123 
 
 the salivary glands. It is about six inches in length, weighs 
 three or four ounces, and is situated transversely across the 
 posterior wall of the abdomen, behind the stomach. A duct 
 from this organ opens into the duodenum. 
 
 256. The spleen, (milt,) so called because the ancients 
 supposed it to be the seat of melancholy, is an oblong, flat- 
 tened organ, situated in the left side, in contact with the dia- 
 phragm, stomach, and the pancreas. It is of a dark, bluish 
 color, and is abundantly supplied with blood, but has no duct 
 which serves as an outlet for any secretion. . Its use is not 
 well determined. 
 
 Rg. 64. 
 
 Fig. 64. The pancreas with its duct, through which the imacreatic secretlou pasBca 
 into the duodenum. 
 
 257. The omentum (caul) consists of four layers of the 
 serous membrane, which descends from the stomach and 
 transverse colon. A quantity of adipose matter is deposited 
 around its vessels, which ramify through its structure. Its 
 function is twofold in the animal economy. 1st. It protects 
 the intestines from cold. 2d. It facilitates the movements 
 of the intestines upon each other during their vermicular, or 
 worm-like action. 
 
 258. Every part of the digestive apparatus is supplied with 
 arteries, veins, lymphatics, and nervous filaments, from the 
 ganglionic system of nerves. 
 
 2S6. Why is the spleen so called ? What is peculiar to this orgao ? 
 257. Of what is the omentum composed ? What is its use ? 258. With 
 what is every part of the digestive apparatus supplied ? 
 
124 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYttlBNE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 259. Substances received into the stomach as food, must 
 necessarily undergo many changes before they are fitted to 
 form part of the* animal body. The solid portions are re- 
 duced to a fluid state, and those parts that will nourish the 
 body are separated from the waste material. 
 
 260. The first prepara-tion of food for admission into the 
 system, consists in its proper mastication. The lips in front, 
 the cheeks upon the side, the soft palate, by closing down 
 upon the base of the tongue, retain the food in the mouth, 
 while it is subjected to the process of mas-ti-ca'tion, (chew- 
 ing.) The tongue rolls the mass around, and keeps it between 
 the teeth, while they divide the food to a fineness suitable for 
 the stomach. 
 
 261. While the food is in process of mastication, there is 
 incorporated with it a considerable amount of sa-li'va, (spittle.) 
 This fluid is furnished by the salivary glands, situated in the 
 vicinity of the mouth. The saliva moistens and softens the 
 food, so that, when carried into the pharynx, it is passed, with 
 ease, through, the oesophagus into the stomaoh. 
 
 262. When the food has been properly masticated, (and in 
 rapid eaters when it is not,) the soft palate is raised from the 
 base of the tongue backward, so as to close the posterior open- 
 ing through the nostrils. By a movement of the muscles of 
 the tongue, cheeks, and floor of the mouth, simultaneous with 
 
 ■2P9 — 272. Give the physiology of the digesHvt organs. 259. "Whatisnecps- 
 Bary before food can nourish the body ? 260. Describe how mastication is 
 perlormcd. 261. Of what use is the saliva in the process of mastication 1 
 202. How is the food pressed into the pharynx F 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. J25 
 
 that of the soft palate, the food is pressed into the upper part 
 of the pharynx. 
 
 263. When in the pharynx, the food and drink are pre- 
 vented from passing into the trachea by a simple valve-like 
 arrangement, called the ep-i-glot'tis. The ordinary position 
 of this little organ is perpendicular, so as not to obstruct the 
 passage of air into the lungs ; but in the act of swallowing, 
 It is brought directly over the opening of the trachea, called 
 the glot'tis. The food, being forced backward, passes rapidly 
 over the epiglottis into the oesophagus, wher»the circular band 
 of muscular fibres above, contracts and forces the food to the 
 next lower band. Each band relaxes and contracts succes- 
 sively, and thus presses the alimentary ball downward and 
 onward to the stomach.* 
 
 Ohservation. If air is inhaled when the food or drink is 
 passing over the glottis, some portions of it may be carried 
 into the larynx or trachea. This produces violent spasmodic 
 coughing, and most generally occurs when an attempt is made 
 to speak while masticating food ; therefore, never talk when 
 the mouth .contains food. 
 
 264. When the food reaches the stomach, the gastric glands 
 are excited to action, and they secrete a powerful solvent, 
 called gastric juice. The presence of food in the stomach also 
 increases a contractile action of the muscular coat, by which 
 the position of the food is changed from one part of this cavity 
 to another. Thus the aliment is brought in contact with the 
 mucous membrane, and each portion of it becomes saturated 
 with gastric juice, by which it is softened, or dissolved into 
 
 * The process of deglutition may be comprehended by analyzing the 
 operation of swallowing food or. saliva. 
 
 26S. When the food is in the pharynx, how is it prevented from passing 
 into the trachea, or windpipe ? Describe how it is passed into the stomach. 
 Give the observation. 264. Describe how the food in the stomach is con- 
 verted into chyme. 
 
 11* 
 
126 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 a pulpj- homogeneous mass, of a creamy consistence, called 
 Chyme. The food is not all converted into chyme at the same 
 time ; but as fast as it is changed, it passes through the pyloric 
 orifice into the duodenum. 
 
 Plservation. The gastric juice has the property of coagu- 
 lating liquid albuminous matter when mixed with it. It is 
 this property of rennet, which is an infusion of the fourth 
 stomach of the calf, by which milk is coagulated, or formed 
 into " curd." 
 
 265. The chyme is conveyed through the pyloric orifice of 
 the stomach into the duodenum. The chyme not only excites 
 an action in the duodenum, but also in the liver and pancreas. 
 Mucus IS then secreted by the duodenum, bile by the liver, 
 and pancreatic fluid by the pancreas. The bile and pancre- 
 atic fluid are conveyed into the duodenum, and mixed with 
 the chyme. By the action of these different fluids, the chyme 
 is converted into a fluid of a whitish color, called Chyle, and 
 into residuum. 
 
 Observation. The bile has no agency in the change 
 through which the food passes in the stomach. In a healthy 
 condition of this organ, no bile is found in it. The common 
 belief, that the stomach has a redundancy of this secretion, is 
 erroneous. If bile is ejected in vomiting, it merely shows, 
 not only that the action of the stomach is inverted, but also 
 that of the.,duodenum. A powerful emetic will, in this way, 
 generally bring this fluid from the most healthy stomach. A. 
 knowledge of this fact might save many a stomach from the 
 evils of emetics, administered on false impressions of their 
 necessity, and continued from the corroboration of these by 
 the appearance of bile, till derangement, and perhaps perma- 
 nent disease, are the consequences. 
 
 266. The chyle and residual matter are moved over the 
 
 What peculiar property has giistrio juioo ? 265. Whore and how ia 
 chyme converted Into chyle ? What is said in regard to the bile ? 266. What 
 booumos of the chyle? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 127 
 
 mucous surface of the small intestine, by the action of its 
 muscular coat. As the chyle is carried along the tract of the 
 intestine, it comes in contact with the villi, where the lacteal 
 vessels commence. These imbibe, or take up, the chyle, and 
 transfer it through the mesenteric glands into the thoracic dupt, 
 through which it is conveyed into a large vein at the lower 
 part of the neck. In this vein the chyle is mixed witli the 
 venous fluid. The residual matter is conveyed into the large 
 intestine, through which it is carried and excreted from the 
 system. (Appendix E.) • 
 
 267. In the process of digestion, the food is subjected to 
 five different changes. 1st. The chewing and admixture of 
 the saliva with the food ; this process is called mastication. 
 
 268. 2d. The change through which the food passes in 
 the stomach by its muscular contraction, and the secretion 
 from the gastric glands ; this is called chymijication. 
 
 269. 3d. The conversion of the homogeneous chyme, by 
 the agency of the bile and pancreatic secretions, into a fluid 
 of milk-like appearance ; this is chylijication. 
 
 270. 4th. The absorption of the chyle by the lacteals, 
 and its transfer through them and the thoracic duct, into the 
 subclavian vein at the lower part of the neck.* 
 
 271. 5th. The separation and excretion of the residuum. 
 
 272. Perfection of the second process of digestion requires 
 thorough and slow mastication. The formation of proper 
 chyle demands appropriate mastication and chymifl^ation ; 
 while a healthy action of the lacteals requires that all the 
 anterior stages of the <iigestive process be as perfect as 
 possible. (Appendix F.) 
 
 * The chyle is changed by the lacteals and mesenteric glands, but 
 the natiore of this change is not, as yet, well defined or understood. 
 
 Of the residuum ? 267. Eecapitulate the five changes in the digestivs 
 process. 
 
 mte. Let the pupil review the anatomy and physiology of the digeatlve organs, 
 Irom flgs. 02 and 63, or from anatomical outline plate No. 5. 
 
12S 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEKB. 
 Fig. QS, 
 
 Fig. 66. An ideal view of the organs of digestion, opeued nearly the whole length. 
 1, The upper Jaw. 2, The lower jaw. S, The tonjfuo. 4, The roof of the mouth. 
 6, The cesophaguB. 6, The trachea. 7, The piurotid gland, 8, The snhlingual gland. 
 9, The stomach. 10, 10, The liver. 11, The gall-cyst. 12, The duct that conveys the 
 bile to the duodenum, (13, 13.) 14, The pancreas. 15, 16, 15, 16, The small iQteatine. 
 16, The opening of the small intestine into the large intestine. 17, 18, 19, 20, The 
 large Intestine. 21, The spleen. 22, The upper part of the spinal column. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 129 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 273. It is a law of the system, that each organ is excited 
 to healthy and efficient action, when influenced by its appro- 
 priate stimulus. Accordingly, nutrient food, that is adapted 
 to the wants of the system, imparts a healthy stimulation to 
 the salivary glands during the process of mastication. The 
 food that is well masticated, and has blended with it a proper 
 amount of saliva, will induce a healthy action in the stomach. 
 Well-prepared chyme is the natural stimulus of the duodenum, 
 liver, and pancreas ; pure chyle is the appropriate excitant of 
 the lacteal vessels. 
 
 274. The perfection of the digestive process, as well as 
 the health of the general system, requires the observance of 
 certain conditions. These will be considered under four 
 heads : — 1st. The Quantity of food that should be taken. 
 2d. Its Quality. 3d. The Manner in which it should be 
 taken. 4th. The Condition of the system when food is 
 taken. 
 
 275. The quantity of food necessary for the system, 
 varies. Age, occupation, temperament, temperature, habits 
 amount of clothing, health and disease are among the circum- 
 stances which produce the variation. 
 
 276. The child and youth require food to promote the 
 
 273 — 330. Give the hygiene of the digestive organs. 273. Give a law 
 of the system. What is th^ appropriate stimulus of the salivary glande 
 during mastication ? Of the stomach ? Of the duodenum ? Of the 
 lacteal vessels ? 274. What does the perfection of the digestive organa 
 require ? 275. What exert an influence on the quantity of food necessary 
 for the system ? 
 
i.'.iO ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 growth of the different parts of the lody. The more rapid 
 the growth of the child, the greater the demand for food. 
 This accounts for the keen appetite and vigorous digestion in 
 childhood. When the youth has attained his full growth, this 
 necessity for nutriment ceases ; after this period of life, if the 
 same amount of food is taken, and there is no increase of 
 laBor or exertion, the digestive apparatus will become diseased, 
 and the vigor of the whole system diminished. 
 
 Observation. When the body has become emaciated from 
 want of nutriment, either from famine or disease, there is an 
 increased demand for .food. This may be gratified with 
 impunity until the individual has regained the usual size, but 
 repletion should be avoided. 
 
 277. Food is required to repair the waste, or loss of sub- 
 stance that attends action. In every department of nature, 
 waste, or loss of substance, attends and follows action. When 
 an individual increases his exercise, — changes from light to se- 
 vere labor, — or the inactive and sedentary undertake journeys 
 for pleasure, the fluids of the system circulate with increased 
 energy. The old and exhausted particles of matter are more 
 rapidly removed through the action of the vessels of the skin, 
 lungs, kidneys, and other organs, and their places are filled 
 with new atoms, deposited by the small blood-vessels. 
 
 278. As the chyle supplies the blood with the newly vital- 
 ized particles of matter, there is, consequently, an increased 
 demand for food. This want of the system induces, in 
 general, a sensation of hunger or appetite, which may be 
 regarded as an indication of the general state of the body. 
 The sympathy that exists throughout the system accords to 
 
 276. At what age is tho appetite keen and the digestion Tigorous ? Why ? 
 What is said in regard to the quantity of food when the youth has attained 
 his growth ? What exception, as given in the observation ? 277. Give 
 another demand for food. What effect has increased exercise upon the 
 system ? 278 How are the new particles of matter supplied ' What does 
 this induce ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 131 
 
 the Stomach the power of making known this state to the 
 nervous system, and, if the functions of this faithful monitor 
 have not been impaired by disease, abuse, or habit, the call ia 
 imperious, and should be regarded. 
 
 279. When exercise or labor is lessened, the quantity of 
 food should be diminished. When a person who has been 
 accustomed to active exercise, or even hard manual labo», 
 suddenly changes to an employment that demands less activity, 
 the waste attendant on action will be diminished in a cor- 
 responding degree ; hence the quantity of food should be 
 lessened in nearly the same proportion as the amount of 
 exercise is diminished. If this principle be disregarded, the 
 tone of the digestive organs will be impaired, and the health 
 of the system enfeebled. 
 
 280. This remark is applicable to those students who have 
 left laborious employments to attend school. Although the 
 health is firm, and the appetite keen from habit, yet every 
 pupil should practise some self-denial, and not eat ag much as 
 the appetite craves, the first week of the session. After some 
 days, the real wants of the system will generally be manifested 
 by a corresponding sensation of hunger. 
 
 Observation. It is a common observation that in academies 
 and colleges, the older students from the country, who have 
 been accustomed to hard manual labor, sufier more frequently 
 from defective digestion and impaired health than the_ younger 
 and feebler students from the larger towns and cities. 
 
 281. Food is essential in maintaining a proper temper- 
 ature of the system. The heat of the system, at least in part, 
 is produced in the minute vessels of the several organs, by the 
 union of oxygen with carbon and hydrogen, which the food 
 and drink contain. The amount of heat generated, is great- 
 
 279. Why should the quantity of food be diminished when the exercise 
 ia lessened ? What effect if this principle be disregarded ? 280. To what 
 class is this remark applicable ? What is often observed among students 
 in academies and'colltges ? 281. State another demand for food. What is 
 one source of heat in the body ? 
 
132 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 est when it is most rapidly removed from the system, which 
 occurs in cold weather. This is the cause of the system 
 requiring more food in Avinter than summer. 
 
 Observation. Persons that do not have food sufficient for 
 the natural wants of the system, require more clothing than 
 those who are well fed. 
 
 . 282. The last-mentioned principle plainly indicates the 
 propriety and necessity 6f lessening the quantity of food as 
 the warm season approaches. Were this practised, the tone 
 of the stomach and the vigor of the system would continue 
 unimpaired, the " season complaints " would be avoided, and 
 the " strengthening bitters " would not be sought to create 
 an appetite. 
 
 Observation. Stable-keepers and herdsmen are aware of 
 the fact, that as the warm season commences, then animals 
 require less food. Instinct teaches these animals more tfuly, 
 in this particular, than man allows reason to guide him. 
 
 283. The quantity of food should have reference to the 
 present condition of the digestive organs. If they are weak- 
 ened or diseased, so that but a small quantity of food can be 
 properly digested or changed, that amount only should be 
 taken. Food does not invigorate the system, except it is 
 changed, as has been described in previous p&ragraplis. 
 
 Observation. When taking care of a sick child, the anxiety 
 of the mother and the sufferings of the child may induce her 
 to give food when it would be highly injurious. The attend- 
 ing physician is the only proper person to direct what quantity 
 should be given. 
 
 284. The quantity of fpod is modified, in some degree, by 
 
 Why do we eat more in the winter than in the summer ? What piarti- 
 cal observation is given ? 282. Why should the quantity of food be 
 lessened as warm weather commences ? What would be avoided if this 
 principle were obeyed f 283. Why should the present condition of the 
 digestive organs be regarded in reference to the quantity of food } Mention 
 an instance in which it would be injudioious to give foo^' 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 133 
 
 habit. A healthy person, whose exercise is in pure air, may 
 be accustomed to take more food than is necessary. The 
 useless excess is removed from the system by the waste out, 
 lets, as the skin, lungs, liver, kidneys, &c. In such cases, 
 if food is not taken in the usual quantity, there will be a feel- 
 ing of emptiness, if not of hunger, from the want of the usual 
 distention of the stomach. This condition of the digestive 
 organs may be the result of disease, but it is more frequently 
 produced by inordinate daily indulgence in eating, amounting 
 almost to gluttony. 
 
 285. Large quantities of food oppress the stomach, and 
 cause general languor of the whole body. This is produced 
 by the extra demands made on the system for an increased 
 supply of blood and nervous fluid to enable the stomach to 
 free itself of its burden. Thus, when we intend to make any 
 extraordinary effort,. mental or physical, at least for one meal, 
 we should eat less food than usual, rather than a greater 
 quantity. 
 
 286. No more food should he eaten than is barely suf- 
 ficient to satisfy the appetite. Nor should appetite be con- 
 founded with taste. The one is a natural desire for food to 
 supply the wants of the system ; the other is an artificial 
 desire merely to gratify the palate. 
 
 287. Although many things may aid us in determining the 
 quantity of food proper for an individual, yet there is no 
 certain guide in all cases. It is maintained by some, that the 
 sensation of hunger or appetite is always an indication of the 
 want of food, while the absence of this peculiar sensation is 
 regarded as conclusive evidence that aliment is not demanded. 
 
 284. Show the effect of habit upon the quantity of food that is eaten. 
 What is said in regard to inordinate eating ? 285. "V^hat is the effect of 
 eating large quantities of food ? What suggestion when an extraordinary 
 effort, either mental or physical, is to bo made ? 286. How much food 
 should generally be eaten ? 287. What is the assertion of some pei'sons 
 relative to the quantity of food necessary for the system? 
 
134 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 This assertion is not correct, as an appetite may be created 
 for food by condiments and 'gormandizing, wliich is as arti- 
 ficial and as morbid as that which craves tobacco or ardent 
 spirits. On the other hand, a structural or functional disease 
 of the brain may prevent that organ from taking cognizance 
 of the sensations of the stomach, when the system actually 
 requires nourishment. Observation shows, that disease, habit, 
 till; state of the mind, and other circumstances, exert an 
 influence on the appetite. 
 
 Observation. Dr. Beaumont noticed, in the experiments 
 upon Alexis St. Martin, that after a certain amount of food 
 was converted into chyme, the gastric juice ceased to ooze 
 from the coats of the stomach. Consequently, it has been 
 inferred by some writers on physiology, that the glands wTiich 
 supply the gastric fluid, by a species of instinctive intelligence, 
 would only secrete enough fluid to convert into chyme the 
 aliment needed to supply the real wants of the system. What 
 are the reasons for this inference ? There is no evidence that 
 the gastric glands possess instinctive intelligence, and can 
 there be a reason^ adduced, why they may not be stimulated 
 to extra functional action as well as other organs, and why 
 they may not also be influenced by habit ? 
 
 288. While all agree that the remote or predisposing 
 cause of hunger is, usually, a demand of the system for 
 nutrient material, the proximate or immediate cause of the 
 sensation of hunger is not clearly understood. Some phys- 
 iologists suppose that it is produced by an engorged condition 
 of the glands of the stomach which supply the gastric juice ; 
 while others maintain that it depends on a peculiar condi- 
 tion of the nervous system. 
 
 289. The quality of the food best adapted to the wants of 
 the system is modified by many circumstancesT There are 
 
 What does obsoryation show ? 288. What is said of tho causes of 
 hunger? 288. Why is not tho sauio kind of food adapted to diffevent 
 indiviiluals? 
 
HYGIENE or THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 135 
 
 any varieties of food, and these are much modified by tlie 
 fi^erent methods of preparation. The same kind of food is 
 It equally well adapted to dififerent individuals, or to the 
 me individual in all conditions, as vocation, health, expo- 
 re, habits of life, season, climate, &c., influence the conditiou 
 the system. 
 
 290. All articles of food may be considered in two r^la- 
 )ns : 1st, As nutritive. 2d, As digestible. Substances are 
 itritious in proportion to their capacity to yield the elements 
 
 chyle, of which carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen 
 e the most essential ; they are digestible in proportion to 
 e facility with which they are acted upon by the gastric 
 lice. These properties should not be confounded in the 
 ,rious articles used for food. 
 
 291. As a " living body has no power of forming elements, 
 r of converting one elementary substance into another, it 
 lerefore follows that the elements of which the body of an 
 limal is composed must be in the food." (Chap. Ill;) Of 
 le essential constituents of the human body, carbon, hydro- 
 3n, o.xygen, and nitrogen are the most important, because 
 ley compose the principal part of the animal body ; while 
 le other elements are found in very small proportions, and 
 any of them only in a few organs of the system. (Appen- 
 xG.) 
 
 Observation. Nitrogen renders food more stimulating, par- 
 lularly if combined with a large quantity of carbon, as beef, 
 hose articles that contain the greatest amount of the con- 
 Ituent elements of the system are most nutritious. As milk 
 id eggs contain all the essential elements of the human sys- 
 m, so they are adapted to almost universal use, and are 
 ghly nutritious. 
 
 292. The following table, by Pereira, in, his treatiso on 
 
 !90. In what proportion are substances nutritious? Digestible? Why 
 IS beef stimulate the system ? What is said of milk and eggs? 
 
136 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYtllENE. 
 
 Food ond Diet, may aid the student in approximating to 
 correct conclusions of the quantity of nutriment in different 
 icinds of food, and its adaptation to the wants of the system. 
 
 TABLE, . 
 
 SHOWING THE AVERAGE atTANTITY OP DET, OB SOLID MATTEE, CABBON, 
 NITROGEN, AND MOISTURE, IN DIFFERENT ARTICLES OF DIET. 
 
 One hundred Parts. 
 
 Dry 
 
 Matter. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Water 
 
 Arrowroot, 
 
 Beans, 
 
 Beef, fresh, 
 
 Bread, rye, 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Carrot 
 
 Cherries, 
 
 Chickens, 
 
 Codfish 
 
 Cucumbers, 
 
 Eggs, whites, . . . 
 
 , yolk, . . . . . 
 
 Lard, hog's, 
 
 Milk, cow's, 
 
 Oats, 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 Olive-oil, 
 
 Oysters 
 
 Peaches, 
 
 Pears, 
 
 Peas, 
 
 Plums, greengage. 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Bye 
 
 Suet, mutton,. , . . 
 Starch, potato, . . . 
 
 , wheat 
 
 Sugar, maple, . . , . 
 
 , refined, . . . 
 
 , brown, . . . 
 
 Turnips, 
 
 Veal, roasted, . . . 
 Wheat 
 
 81.8 
 8d.89 
 25 
 67.79 
 
 100 
 7.7 
 12.4 
 25.15 
 22.7 
 20 
 2.86 
 20 
 46.23 
 
 100 
 12.98 
 79.2 
 93.4 
 
 100 
 12.6 
 19.76 
 16.12 
 84 
 
 28.90 
 24.1 
 83.4 
 
 100 
 82 
 85.2 
 
 7.6 
 
 36.4 
 
 38.24 
 
 12.957 
 
 30.674 
 
 65.6 
 
 79.098 
 40.154 
 77.66' 
 
 35.743 
 
 16.604 
 38.530 
 78.996 
 36.44 
 37.5 
 42.1 
 42.6 
 40.88 
 3,2175 
 62.52 
 39.415 
 
 3.752 
 
 0.28 
 0.30 
 
 1.742 
 
 0.3615 
 1.417 
 
 0.1275 
 14.70 
 1.966 
 
 18.2 
 14.11 
 75 
 32.21 
 
 92.3 
 
 87.6 
 
 74.85 
 
 77.3 
 
 80 
 
 97.14 
 
 80 
 
 53.77 
 
 87.02 
 
 20.8 
 
 6.6 
 
 87.4' 
 
 80.24 
 
 83.88 
 
 16 
 
 71.10 
 
 76.9 
 
 16.6 
 
 18" 
 14.g 
 
 92.6 
 '14.6 
 
 Note. Let the pupil mention those articles of fond that are most nutri- 
 tioufl, from a review of this table, and the last four paragraphs. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 137 
 
 293. Those articles that do not contain the essmtial ele- 
 ments of the system should not he used as exclusive articles 
 of diet. This principle has been, and may be illustrated by 
 experiment. Feed a dog with pure sugar, or olive-oil, (arti- 
 cles that contain no nitrogen,) for several weeks, and the evil 
 effects of non-nitrogenous nutriment will be manifested. At 
 first, the dog will take his food with avidity, and seem to 
 thrive upon it ; soon this desire for food will diminish, his 
 body emaciate, his eye become ulcerated, and in a few weeks 
 he will die ; but mix bran or sawdust with the sugar or oil, 
 and the health and vigor of the animal will be maintained for 
 months. A similar phenomenon wjll be manifested, if grain 
 only be given to a horse, without hay, straw, or material of 
 like character. (Appendix H.) 
 
 294. Some articles of food contain the elements of chyle 
 in great abundance, yet afford but little nutriment, because 
 they are difficult of digestion ; while other articles contain but 
 a small quantity of these elements, and afford more nourish- 
 ment, because they are more easily affected by the digestive 
 process. 
 
 295. The following table exhibits the general results of 
 experiments made on Alexis St. Martin, by Dr. Beaumont, 
 when he endeavored to ascertain the time required for the 
 digestion of different articles of food.* The stomach of St. 
 Martin was ruptured by the bursting of a gun. When he 
 recovered from the effects of the accident under the surgical 
 care of Dr. Beaumont, the stomach became adherent to the 
 
 * The time required for tlie digestion of the different articles of food 
 might vary in other persons ; and would probably vary in the same indi- 
 vidual at different periods, as the employment, health, season, &e., exert » 
 modifying influence. 
 
 293. How has the effect of non-nitrogenous nutriment been illustrated ? 
 294. Why do some articles of food that contain the elements of chyle afford 
 but little nutriment ? Why do articles that contain a small quantity of these 
 elements afford more nourishment ? 295. How was the time required for 
 digesting different articles /of food ascertained? 
 
 12* 
 
138 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 TABLE, 
 
 SHOWING THE MEAK TIME OP DIOESTIOJI OF THE DIITEaETIT 
 
 ARTICLES OF DIET. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 A-Pples, sour, hard, . . 
 
 , mellow, 
 
 '■ — , Bweet, do., 
 
 Bass, striped, fresh. 
 
 Beans, pod, 
 
 Beef, fresh, lean, rare, 
 
 ■ , dry, 
 
 steak 
 
 —^^, with salt only, 
 
 I , with mustard, 
 
 , fresh, lean, . . 
 
 , old, hard, salted. 
 
 Beets, 
 
 Bread, wheat, fresh, . 
 
 , com, .... 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cabbage head, . . . 
 , with vinegar, 
 
 t 
 
 Cake, sponge 
 
 Carrot, orange, . . . 
 
 Catfish 
 
 Cheese, old, strong. 
 Chicken, full-grown, 
 Codfish, cured, dry, . 
 Corn, green, & beans, 
 
 bread, 
 
 cake, 
 
 Custard 
 
 Dumpling, apple, . . 
 Ducks, domesticated, 
 , wild 
 
 Eggs, fresh, .... 
 
 Flounder, fresh, . . 
 Fowl, domestic, . . 
 
 Goose, 
 
 Lamb, fresh, . . . . 
 Liver, beers, fresh, 
 
 Prepara- 
 tiQn. 
 
 Raw, 
 
 Raw, 
 
 Raw, 
 
 Broiled, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 Broiled, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Fried, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Baked, 
 
 Baked, 
 
 Melted, 
 
 Raw, 
 
 Raw, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Baked, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Fried, 
 
 Raw, 
 
 Fricas*d, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Baked, 
 
 Baked, 
 
 Baked, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 Boiled 
 
 hard. 
 Boiled 
 
 soft, 
 Fried, 
 Raw, 
 Fried, 
 Boiled, 
 Roasted, 
 Roasted, 
 Broiled, 
 Broiled, 
 
 Time 
 
 h. m. 
 2 50 
 2 
 
 1 30 
 3 
 
 2 30 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 i 
 i 
 3 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 IS 
 45 
 30 
 3 15 
 3 30 
 2 30 
 2 
 i 30 
 
 2 30 
 
 3 15 
 3 30 
 3 30 
 
 2 45 
 2 
 
 3 4.5 
 
 3 15 
 3 
 
 2 45 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 30 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 30 
 2 
 
 Meat hashed with 
 
 vegetables, . . . 
 
 Milk, 
 
 Mutton, ixesh, . 
 
 Oysters, fresh. 
 
 Parsnips, . . 
 Pig, sucking, . . . 
 Pigs' feet, soused. 
 Pork, fat and lean, 
 , recently salted. 
 
 steak, . . . 
 
 Potatoes, Irish, 
 
 Rice, 
 
 Sago 
 
 Salmon, salted, . 
 
 Sausage, fresh, . 
 
 Soup, oeof, vegeta- ) 
 
 bles, and bread, ) 
 
 , chicken, .... 
 
 , mutton 
 
 , oyster 
 
 Suet, beef, fresh, . . 
 
 , mutton, 
 
 Tapioca, 
 
 Tnpe, soused, .... 
 Trout, salmon, fresh, 
 
 Turkey, domesti- 
 cated 
 
 , wild, . 
 
 Turnips, flat, . . 
 Veal, fresh, . . . 
 
 Venison steak, . 
 
 Prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 Time 
 
 Warm'd, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Raw, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 Broiled, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Raw, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 Stewed, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Fried, 
 
 Broiled, 
 
 Raw, 
 
 Broiled, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Baked, 
 
 BoUed, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Broiled, 
 
 Bailed, 
 
 Boiled, 
 Boiled, 
 Boiled, 
 Boiled, 
 Boiled, 
 Boiled, 
 Boiled, 
 Boiled, 
 Fried, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Roasted, 
 
 Boiled, 
 
 Broiled, 
 
 Fried, 
 
 Broiled, 
 
 h.m. 
 
 2 15 
 
 3 15 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2,55 
 3 15 
 
 3 30 
 2 30 
 
 2 30 
 1 
 
 5 15 
 
 4 30 
 4 15 
 
 3 15 
 3 
 
 3 15 
 3 30 
 
 2 30 
 1 
 
 1 45 
 4 
 
 3 20 
 
 3 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 30 
 6 30 
 
 4 30 
 2 
 
 1 
 1 30 
 
 1 30 
 
 2 30 
 
 2 25 
 
 2 18 
 
 3 30 
 4 
 
 4 30 
 1 36 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 139 
 
 side, with an external aperture. Nature liad formed a kind 
 of valve, which closed the aperture from the interior, and thus 
 prevented the contents of the stomach from escaping ; but 
 on pushing it aside, the process of digestion could be seen. 
 Through this opening, the appearance of the coats of the stom- 
 ach and food, at different stages of digestion, were examined. 
 
 296. In view of this table, the question may be suggested, 
 Is that article of food most appropriate to the system which is 
 most easily and speedily digested .' To this it may be replied, 
 that the stomach is subject to the same law as the muscles 
 and other organs ; exercise, within certain limits, strengthens 
 it. If, therefore, we always eat those articles most easily 
 digested, the digestive powers will be weakened ; if over- 
 worked, they will be exhausted. Hence the kind and amount 
 of food should be adapted to the maintenance of the digestive 
 powers, and to their gradual invigoration when debilitated. 
 
 Observation. Food that is most easily digested is not al- 
 ways most appropriate to a person convalescing from disease. 
 If the substance passes rapidly through the digestive process, 
 it may induce a recurrence of the disease. Thus the simple 
 preparations which are not stimulating, as water-gruel, are 
 better for a sick person than the more digestible beef and fish. 
 
 297. The question is not well settled, whether animal or 
 vegetable food is best adapted to nourish man. There are 
 nations, particularly in the torrid zone, that subsist exclusively 
 on vegetables, while those of the frigid zone feed on fish or 
 animal food. In the temperate zone, among civilized nations, 
 a mixed diet is almost universal. When we consider the 
 organization of the human systena, the form and arrangement 
 of the teeth, the structure of the stomach and intestines, we 
 are led to conclude that both animal and vegetable food is 
 requisite, and that a mixed diet is most conducive to strength, 
 health, and long life. 
 
 295. How is the question answered, whether that article is most appro- 
 priate to the system which is most easily digested ? Give observation. 
 297. What is said of the adaptation of animal and vegetable food to man ? 
 
140 ANATOMV, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 298. The food should he adapted to the distendble charac- 
 ter of the stomach and alimentary canal. The former will be 
 full, if it contain only a gill ; it may be so distended as to 
 contain a quart. The same is true of the intestines. If the 
 food is concentrated, or contains the quantity of nutriment 
 which the system requires, in small bulk, the stomach and 
 intestines will need the stimulation of distention and friction 
 which is consequent upon the introduction and transit of the 
 innutritious material into and through the alimentary canal. 
 If the food is deficient in innutritious matter, the tendency 
 is, to produce an inactive and diseased condition of the diges- 
 tive organs. For this reason, nutrient food should have blend- 
 ed with it innutritious material. Unbolted wheat bread is 
 more healthy than hot flour cakes ; ripe fruits and vegetables 
 than rich pies, or jellies. 
 
 Observation. 1st. The observance of this rule is of more 
 importance to students, sedentary mechanics, and those indi- 
 viduals whose digestive apparatus has been enfeebled, than to 
 those of active habits and firm health. 
 
 2d. The circumstance that different articles of food contain 
 different proportions of waste, or innutritious matter, may be 
 made practically subservient in the following way : If, at any 
 particular season of the year, there is a tendency to a diarrhoea, 
 an article that contains a small proportion of waste should be 
 selected for food ; but, if there is a tendency to an inactive 
 or costive condition of the intestinal canal, such kinds of food 
 should be used as contain the greatest proportion of waste, as 
 such articles are most stimulating to the digestive organs, and, 
 consequently, most laxative. 
 
 299. In the selection of food, the infiuence of season and 
 climate should he considered. Food of a highly stimulating 
 character may be used almost with impunity during the cold 
 
 298. What is said of the distensible oharaoter of the stomach and alimen- 
 tary oanal ? What is tlie effect of eating highly eoncentrated food? Why 
 is the unbolted wheat bread more healthy than flour oakes ? Qive obser- 
 vation 1st. Observation 2d. 299. What kind of food is adapted to ooW 
 weatlier? To warm weatlier ? 
 
HYGIENK. OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 141 
 
 atier of a cold climate ; but in the warm season, and in a 
 irm climate, it would-be very deleterious. Animal food, 
 ing more stimulating than vegetable, can be eaten in the 
 ater ; but vegetable food should be used more freely in the 
 :iDg and summer. 
 
 300. The influence of food on the system is modified hy 
 ! age of the individual. The organs of a child are more 
 isitive and excitable than those of a person advanced in 
 ars. Therefore a vegetable diet would be most appropriate 
 ■ a child, while stimulating animal food might be conducive 
 the health of a person advanced in life. 
 Observation. When the digestive organs are highly 
 pressible or diseased, it is very important to adopt a 
 tritious, unstimulating, vegetable diet, as soon as the warm 
 i.son commences. 
 
 JOl. Habit is another strong modifying influence. If a 
 rson has been accustomed to an animal or vegetable diet, 
 i there is a sudden change from one to the other, a diseased 
 idition of the system, particularly of the digestive apparatus, 
 lally follows. When it is necessary to change our manner 
 living, it should be done gradually.* 
 502. Some temperaments require more stimulating food 
 n others. As a general rule, those persons whose sensa- 
 is are comparatively obtuse, and movements slow, will be 
 lefited by animal food ; while those individuals whose 
 istitutions are highly impressible, and whose movements 
 
 quick and hurried, require a nutritious and un^timulat- 
 
 vegetable diet. 
 
 The system is gradually developed, and all changes of food, 
 arel, labor, exercise, or position, skould be gradual. Even a cbange 
 a a bad to a good habit, on this principle, sbould be gradual. 
 
 0. What, kinds of food are appropriate to old age ? Why ? What 
 8 to childhood ? Why ? 301. What is the effect when there is a 6ud- 
 change from a regetable to an animal diet ? How should all changes 
 le system be made? 302. Do different temperaments require different 
 
142 ANATOMY, rnYSIOLOQY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS, CONTINUED, 
 
 303. The manner in which food should be taken is of much 
 practical importance ; upon it the health of the digestive organs 
 measurably depends. But few circumstances modify the 
 proper manner of taking food, or should exercise any con- 
 trolling influence. 
 
 304. Food should be taken at regular periods. The inter- 
 val between meals should be regulated by the character of the 
 food, the age, health, exercise, and habits of the individual. 
 The digestive process is more energetic and rapid in the 
 young, active, and vigorous, than in the aged, indolent, and 
 feeble ; consequently, food should be taken more frequently 
 by the former than by the latter class. 
 
 305. In some young and vigorous persons, food may be 
 digested in one hour ; in other persons, it may require four 
 hours or more. The average time, however, to digest an ordi- 
 nary meal, will be from two to four hours. In all instances, 
 the stomach will require from one to three hours to recruit 
 its exhausted powers after the labor of digesting a meal, 
 before it will again enter upon the vigorous performance of 
 its duties. 
 
 306. Food should not he taken .too frequently. If food is 
 taken before the stomach has regained its tone and energy by 
 repose, the secretion of the gastric juice, and the contraction 
 
 303. Why is it important that we regord the manner of taking our food ? 
 304. How should the intervals between meals be regulated? 806. What is 
 the average time required to digest an ordinary meal ? 306. Why should 
 not food be taken too frequently ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 143 
 
 of the muscular fibres, will be imperfect. Again, if food is 
 taken before the digestion of the preceding meal has been 
 com])leted, the effects will be still worse, because the food 
 partially digested^ becomes mixed with that last taken. Tliere-, 
 fore the interval between each meal should be long enough 
 for the whole quantity to be digested, and the time of repose 
 should be sufficient to recruit the exhausted organs. The 
 feebler the person and the more debilitated the stomach, the 
 more important to observe the above directions. 
 
 Observation. In the feeding of infants, as well as in 
 supplying food tp older children, the preceding suggestions 
 should always be regarded. The person who has been con- 
 fined by an exhausting sickness, should most scrupulously 
 regard this rule, if he wishes to regain his strength and flesh 
 with rapidity. As the rapidity of the digestive process is less 
 in students and individuals who are engaged in sedentary 
 employments, than in stirring agriculturists, the former class 
 are more liable to take food too frequently than the latter, 
 while its observance is of greater importance to the sedentary 
 artisan than to the lively lad and active farmer. 
 
 307. Food should be well masticated. All solid aliments 
 should be reduced to a state of comparative fineness by the 
 teeth before it is swallowed; the gastric fluid of the stomacli, 
 will then blend with it more readily, and act more vigorously 
 in reducing it to chyme. The practice of swallowing solid 
 food slightly masticated, or "bolting" it down, tends to 
 derange the digestive process and impair the nutrition of the 
 system. 
 
 308. Mastication should be moderate, not rapid. In mas- 
 ticating food, the salivary glands. are excited to action, and 
 some time must elapse before they can secrete saliva in suffi- 
 
 What persons would he benefited by observing the preceding re- 
 marks ? 307. Why should food be well masticated ? What is the effect 
 of "bolting down" food? 308. How should mastication be performed? 
 Why? 
 
144 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 cient quantities to moisten it. If the aliment is not supplied 
 with saliva, digestion is retarded ; besides, in rapid eating, 
 more food is generally consumed than the system demands, 
 or can be easily digested. Laborers, as well as men of leisure, 
 should have ample time for taking their meals. Imperfect 
 mastication is a prevailing cause of indigestion. 
 
 309. Food should he masticated and swallowed without 
 drink. As the salivary glands supply fluid to moisten the dry 
 food, the use of tea, coffee, vi^ater, or any other fluid, is not 
 demanded by nature's laws while taking a meal. One objec- 
 tion to " washing down " the food with drink is, the aliment 
 is moistened, not with the saliva, but with the drink. This 
 tends to induce disease, not only in the salivary organs, by 
 leaving them in a state of comparative inactivity, but in 
 the stomach, by the deficiency of the salivary stimulus. 
 Another is, large quantities of fluids, used as drinks, give 
 undue distention to the stomach, and lessen the energy of the 
 gastric juice by its dilution, thus retarding digestion. Again, 
 drinks taken into the stomach must be removed by absorption 
 before the digestion of other articles is commenced. 
 
 Observation. Were it customary not to place drinks on the 
 table until the solid food is eaten, the evil arising from drink- 
 ing too much at meals would be obviated. The horse is never 
 known to leave his provender, nor the ox his blade of grass, to 
 wash it down ; but many persons, from habit ratlier than thirst, 
 drink largely during meats. 
 
 310. The peculiar sensation in the mouth and fauces, called 
 thirst, may not always arise from tlie demand for fluids to 
 increase the serum (water) of the blood, as in the desire for 
 drink attendant on free perspiration, for then, pure water or 
 some diluent drink is absolutely necessary ; but it may be the 
 
 Why should all persons have ample time for eating ? 309. Why are 
 drinks not necessary while masticating food? Give the objections to 
 "washing down" food. What observation relative to drink? 310. Does 
 the sensation of thirst always arise from a real want of the system ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 145 
 
 result of fever, or local disease of the parts connected with 
 the throat. In many instances, thirst may be allayed by chew- 
 ing some hard substance, as a dry cracker. This excites a 
 secretion from the salivary glands, which removes the disa- 
 greeable sensation. In thirst, attendant on a heated condition 
 of the system, this practice affords relief, and is safe ; while 
 the practice of drinking large quantities of cold fluids, is 
 unsafe, and should never be indulged. 
 
 311. Food or drink should not he taken when very hoi. 
 When food or drink is taken hot, the vessels of the mucous 
 membrane of the gums, mouth, and stomach are unduly stim- 
 ulated for a short time ; and this is followed by reaction, 
 attended by a loss of tone, and debility of these parts. This 
 practice is a fruitful cause of spongy gums, decayed teeth, 
 sore mouth, and indigestion. 
 
 312. Food or drink should not he taken very cold. If 
 a considerable quantity of very cold food or liquid be taken 
 immediately into the stomach, the health will be endangered, 
 and the tone of the system will be impaired, from the sudden 
 abstraction of heat from the coats of the stomach, and 
 from surrounding organs, to -impart warmth to the cold food 
 or drink. This arrests the digestive process, and the food is 
 retained in the stomach too long, and causes oppression and 
 irritation. Consequently, food and drink that are moderately 
 heated are best adapted to the natural condition of the diges- 
 tive apparatus. 
 
 Ohservatiou- Food of an injurious quality, or taken in- an 
 improper manner, affects the inferior animals as well as man. 
 The teeth of cows that are closely penned in cities, and are 
 fed on distillery slops, or the unhealthy slops and remnants 
 of kitchens, decay and fall out in about two years. Can the 
 milk of such' diseased animals be healthy — the proper nour- 
 ishment for children ? 
 
 dive instances when it does and when it does not. 311. Why should not 
 food or drink be taken hot? 312. Why should they not be taken cold? 
 Show some of the effects of improper food upon the inferior animals. 
 
146 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 313. The CONDITION of the system should be regarded wien 
 food is taken. This is necessary, as the present and ulterior 
 condition of the digestive apparatus is strongly influenced by 
 the state of the other organs of the system. 
 
 314 Food should not he taken immediately after severs 
 exertion, either of the iody or mind. For all' organs in 
 action require and receive more blood and nervous fluid, than 
 when at rest. This is true of the brain, muscles, and vo- 
 cal organs, when they have been actively exercised. The 
 increased amount of fluid, both sanguineous and nervous, 
 supplied to any organ during extra functional action, is ab- 
 stracted from other parts of the system. This enfeebles and 
 prostrates the parts that supply the blood and nervous fluid to 
 the active organ. Again, when any organ has been in vigor- 
 ous action for a few hours, some time will elapse before the 
 increased action of the arteries and nerves abates, and a due 
 supply of fluids is transmitted toother organs, or an equilibrium 
 of action in the system is reestablished. 
 
 315. Thus food should not be taken immediately after 
 severe mental labor, protracted speaking, continued singing, 
 or laborious manual toil ; as the digestive organs will be in a 
 state of comparative debility, and consequently unfit to digest 
 food. From thirty to sixty minutes should elapse, after the 
 cessation of severe employment, before food is taken. This 
 time may be spent in cheerful amusement or social conversa- 
 iion. 
 
 Observation. The practice of students and accountants 
 
 ^oing immediately from severe mental labor to their meals, 
 
 B a pernicious one, and a fruitful cause of indigestion and 
 
 mental debility. The custom of farmers and mechanics 
 
 ■. ■ 
 
 313. Should the condition of the system be regarded in taking food? 
 114. When should food not bo tnken ? Why? What is the result when 
 i,n organ has been in vigorous notion? 3t5. After the cessation of severe 
 ;oil, how much timo should ox|)iro before eating? What is one cause of 
 ndigestion among students and aooountanls ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 147 
 
 hurrying from their toil to the dinner-table, does much to 
 cause dyspepsia and debility among these classes in com- 
 munity. 
 
 316. Severe mental or manual toil should not be entered 
 upon immediately after eating. As there is an increased 
 amount of blood and nervous fluid supplied to the stomach 
 and alimentary canal during the digestion of food, a deficiency 
 exists in other organs. This is evinced by a slight paleness 
 of the skin, and a disinclination to active thought and exercise. 
 Under such circumstances, if either the mind, vocal organs, 
 or muscles are called into energetic action, there will be an 
 abstraction of the necessary amount of blood and ner- 
 vous fluid from the stomach, and the process of digestion 
 will be arrested. This will not only cause disease of the 
 digestive organs, but chyle will not be formed, to nourish the 
 system. 
 
 Illustration. An English gentleman fed two dogs upon 
 similar articles of food. He permitted one to remain quiet in 
 a dark room ; the other he sent in pursuit of game. At the 
 expiration of one hour, he had both killed. The stomach of 
 the dog that had remained quiet was nearly empty. The 
 food had been properly changed and carried forward into the 
 alimentary canal. In the stomach of the dog that had used 
 his muscles in chasing game, the aliment remained nearly 
 unaltered. 
 
 317. The same principle may be applied to the action of 
 the organs of man. If his mind or muscles act intensely 
 soon after eating, the stomach will not be sufficiently stimu- 
 lated by blood and nervous fluid to change the food in a 
 suitable period. The Spanish practice of having a " siesta," 
 or sleep after dinner, is far better than the custom of the 
 
 316. Why should n Dt severe manual or mental exertion be made imme- 
 diately after eating ? State the illustration. 317. May this principle be 
 applied to the action of the human stomach f 'What is said of the Spanish 
 custom of resting after dinner? 
 
148 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon race, who hurry from their meals to the field, 
 shop, or study, in order to save time, which, in too many 
 instances, is lost by a sense of oppression and suffering which 
 soon follows. 
 
 318. In some instances of good health, the infringement of 
 this organic law may seem to pass with impunity, but Nature, 
 though lenient, sooner or later asserts her claims. The prac- 
 tice of the Spaniard may be improved by indulging, for an 
 hour before resuming toil, in moderate e.xercise of the muscu- 
 lar system, conjoined with agreeable conversation and a 
 hearty laugh, as this facilitates digestion, and tends to " shake 
 the cobwebs from the brain." 
 
 Observation. No judicious teamster drives his animals as 
 soon as they have swallowed their food, but gives them a 
 period for repose, so that their food may be digested, and 
 their systems invigorated. In this way, he secures the greatest 
 amount of labor from his team. 
 
 319. The mind exerts an influence upon the digestive pro- 
 cess. This is clearly exhibited, when an individual receives 
 intelligence of the loss of a friend or of property. He 
 may at the time be sitting before a plentiful board, with a 
 keen appetite ; but the unexpected news destroys it, because 
 the excited brain withholds its stimulus. This shows the pro- 
 priety of avoiding absorbing topics of thought at meals, as 
 labored discussions and matters of business ; but substitute 
 cheerful and light conversation, enlivening wit, humor, the 
 social intercourse of family and friends ; these keep the brain 
 in action, but not in toil. Under such circumstances, the 
 blood and nervous fluid flow freely, the work of digestion is 
 readily commenced, and easily carried on. 
 
 320. Indigestion arising from a prostration of the nervous 
 system, should he treated with great care. The food should 
 
 Of the Anglo-Saxon raoo? 318. How can the Spanish oustom be im- 
 proved? 319. How is tho influence of the mind on the digestive process 
 exhibited? What does it show the necessity of avoiding? 320. How 
 should indigestion arising from nervous prostration bo treated ? 
 
HTOIENE OP THJi DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 149 
 
 be simple, nutritious, moderate in quantity, and taken at regu- 
 lar periods. Large quantities of stimulating food, frequently- 
 taken, serve to increase the nervous prostration. Those 
 afflicted should exercise in the open air, and engage in social 
 conversation, that the brain may be excited to a natural or 
 healthy action, in order that it may impart to the digestive 
 organs the necessary stimulation. 
 
 321. Persons sliould abstain from eating, at least three 
 Jiours before retiring for sleep. It is no unusual occurrence, 
 for those persons vi^ho have eaten heartily imriiediately before 
 retiring to sleep, to have unpleasant dreams, or to be aroused 
 from their unquiet slumber by colic pains. In such in- 
 stances, the brain becomes partially dormant, and does not 
 impart to the digestive organs the requisite amount of nervous 
 influence. The nervous stimulus being deficient, the unchanged 
 food remains in the stomach, causing irritation of this organ 
 
 Illustration. A healthy farmer, who was in the habit of 
 eating one fourth of a mince pie immediately before going to 
 bed, became annoyed with unpleasant dreams, and, among the 
 varied images of his fancy, he saw that of his deceased father. 
 Becoming alarmed, he consulted a physician, who, after a 
 patient hearing of the case, gravely advised him to eat half of 
 a mince pie, assuring him that he would then see his grand- 
 father. 
 
 322. When the general system and digestive organs are 
 enfeebled, mild, unstimulating food, in small quantities, should 
 be given. In the instance of a shipwrecked and famished 
 mariner, or a patient recovering from disease, but a small 
 quantity of nourishment should be given at a time. The reason 
 for this, is, that when the stomach is weakened from want 
 of nourishment, it is as unfitted for a long period of action in 
 
 321. What 13 the eSFeot of eating immediately before retiring for sleep ? 
 How is this illustrated in the case of a healthy farmer? 322. How should 
 the food be given when both the digestive organs and general system are 
 debilitated? Give the reason. 
 
 13* 
 
l5b ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 digesting food, as the muscles are, under like circumstances, 
 for walking. Consequently, knowledge and prudence should 
 direct the administration of food under these circumstances. 
 The popular adage, that " food never does harm when there 
 is a desire for it," is untrue, and, if practically adopted, may 
 be injurious and destructive to life. 
 
 Ohservation. Liquids are rapidly removed from the stom- 
 ach by absorption. Hence, in cases of great prostration, 
 when it is desirable to introduce nutriment into the system, 
 without delay, the animal and vegetable broths are a desirable 
 and convenient form of supplying aliment. 
 
 323. The condition of the skin exercises an important in- 
 fluence on the digestive apparatus. Let free perspiration be 
 checked, either from uncleanliness or from chills, and it will 
 diminish the functional action of the stomach and its asso- 
 ciated organs. This is one of the fruitful causes of the 
 " liver and stomach complaints " among the half-clothed and 
 filthy population of the crowded cities and villages of our 
 country. Attention to clothing and bathing would likewise 
 prevent many of the diseases of the alimentary canal, called 
 " season complaints," particularly among children. 
 
 324. Restricting the movements of the ribs and diaphragm 
 impairs digestion. At each full inspiration, the ribs are 
 elevated, and the central portion of the diaphragm is depressed, 
 from one to two inches. This depression is accompanied by a 
 relaxation of the anterior abdominal walls. At each act of 
 expiration; the relaxed abdominal muscles contract, the ribs 
 arc depressed, the diaphragm relaxes, and its central parts 
 ascend. These movements of the midriff cause tlie elevation 
 and depression of the stomach, liver, and other abdominal 
 organs, which is a natural stimulus of these parts. 
 
 In cases of groat prostration, what is rocommomlod ? 323. How is 
 the influence that tho skin oxoroises on the digostive organs illustrated ? 
 32<1. What offoct on the digestive process has the restriction of the ribs and 
 diaphragm ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 151 
 
 325. It is noted of individuals who restrain the free move- 
 ments of the abdominal muscles by tight dresses, that the tone 
 and vigor of the digestive organs are diminished. The 
 restricted waist will not admit of a full and deep inspiration ; 
 and so essential is this to health, that abuse in this respect 
 soon enfeebles and destroys the functions of the system. 
 
 326. Pure air is necessary to give a keen appetite and 
 vigorous digestion. The digestive organs not only need the 
 stimulus of blood, but they absolutely need the influence of 
 pure blood, which cannot exist in the system, except when we 
 breathe a pure air. From this we learn why those persons 
 who sleep in small, ill ventilated rooms, have little or no 
 appetite in the morning, and why the mouth and throat are so 
 dry and disagreeable. The effect of impure blood, in dimin- 
 ishing the desire for food, and enfeebling the digestive organs, 
 is well illustrated by the following incidents. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. Dr. Reid, in his work on " Ventilation 
 of Eooms," relates that an innkeeper in London, when he 
 provided a public dinner, always spread his tables in an 
 under-ground room, with low walls, where the air was con- 
 fined and impure. He assigned as a reason for so doing, that 
 his guests consumed only one third as much food and wine, 
 as if the tables were laid in the open air. 
 
 2d. A manufacturer stated before a committee of the 
 British Parliament, that he had removed an arrangement for 
 ventilating' his mill, because he noticed that his men ate much 
 more after his mill was ventilated, than previous to admitting 
 fresh air into the rooms, and that he could not afford to have 
 them breathe pure air. 
 
 Ohservaiion. Many of the cases of indigestion among 
 clergymen, seamstresses, school 'teachers, sedentary me- 
 
 325. What is observed of those individuals that restrict the movements 
 of the abdominal muscles ? 326. "Why is pure air necessary to vigorous 
 digestion ? Give illustration 1st. Illustration 2d. What is one cause of 
 indigestion among the sedentary class in the community? 
 
152 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 chanics, and factory operatives, are produced by breathing 
 the impure air of the rooms they occupy. These cases can 
 be prevented, as well as cured, by proper attention to 
 ventilation. 
 
 327. The position of a person, in standing or sitting, 
 exerts an influence upon the digestive organs. If a person 
 lean, or stoop forward, the distance between the pelvic bones 
 and the diaphragm is diminished. This prevents the de- 
 pression of the diaphragm, while the stomach, liver, pancreas, 
 and other abdominal organs, suffer compression, which induces 
 many severe diseases of these organs. As healthy and well- 
 developed muscles keep the spinal column in an erect position 
 which conduces to the health of the organs of digestion, the 
 child should be taught to avoid all positions hut tlie erect, while 
 studying or walking. This position, combined with unre- 
 stricted waists, ■ will do much to remove the now prevalent 
 disease, dyspepsia. 
 
 328. Whatever kind of aliment is taken, it is separated 
 into nutriment and residuum; the former of which is con- 
 veyed, through the medium of the circulation, to all organs 
 of the system, and the latter, if not expelled, accumulates, 
 causing headache and dizziness, with a general uneasiness; 
 and, if allowed to continue, it lays the foundation of a long 
 period of suffering and disease. For the preservation of 
 health, it is necessary that there should be a daily evacuation 
 of the residual matter. 
 
 Observation. In chronic diseases of the digestive organs, 
 very frequently, there is an inactive, or costive condition of 
 the alimentary canal. This may be removed in many cases 
 and relieved in all instances, by friction over tlie abdominal 
 organs, and by making an effort at some stated period each 
 day, (evening is best,) to evacuate the residuum. In acute 
 
 327. Why does the position of a person affect digestion? 328. Into 
 ^hat are different kinds of aliment separated i 
 
HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE OEQANS. 153 
 
 diseases, as fever, regard should be given to regularity in re- 
 lieving the intestines of residuum. Attention to this sugges- 
 tion will in many instances obviate the necessity of cathartic 
 medicine. 
 
 329. We would add, for the benefit of those afflicted with 
 iiemorrhoids, or piles, that the best time for evacuating the 
 intestinal canal would be immediately before retiring for the 
 night. During the night, while recumbent, the protniding 
 parts return to their proper place, and the surrounding organs 
 acquire increased tone to retain them. The same observance 
 will do much to prevent such prostrating diseases.* 
 
 330. To recapitulate : digestion is most perfect when the 
 action of the cutaneous vessels is energetic ; the brain and 
 vocal organs moderately stimulate by animated conversa- 
 tion ; the blood well purified ; the muscular system duly 
 exercised ; the food of an appropriate quality, taken in proper 
 quantities, at regular periods, and also properly masticated. 
 
 * The urinary organs, as well as the intestinal canaj,. should be 
 frequently and regularly evacuated. Some most distressing and 
 frequently incurable complaints are caused by false customs and 
 false delicacy in this particular. Teachers should be particularly 
 careful, and regard this suggestion in reference to young pupils. 
 
 330. Give the summary when digestion is most perfect. 
 
154 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE CIKCXJLATOEY ORGANS. 
 
 331. The ultimate object of the food and drink introduced 
 into the body, is to furnish material to promote the growth 
 and repair the waste of the organs of the system. The for- 
 mation of chyle (the nutrient portion of the food) has been 
 traced through the digestive process, and its transfer into the 
 vein at the lower part of the neck, from which it is conveyed 
 to the heart ; and, finally, in the lungs it assimilates to the 
 character of blood. 
 
 332. The blood, after standing a short time, when drawn 
 from its vessels, separates into se'rum, (a watery fluid,) and 
 co-ag'u-lum, (clot.) This fluid is distributed to every part of 
 the system- There is no part so minute that it does not 
 receive blood. The organs by which this distribution is 
 eifFectcd are so connected that there is properly neither begin- 
 ning nor end ; but as it respects their functions, they are con- 
 nected in a complete circle. From this circumstance, they 
 are called the Circulatory Organs. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATOR'S ORGANS. 
 
 333. The ciRCirLATORY organs are the Heart, Ar'te-ries 
 Veins, and Cap'il-la-ries. 
 
 334. The heart is placed obliquely, in the left cavity of 
 the chest, between the right and left lung. Its general form 
 
 331. What is the ultimate object of the food ? 332. Of what is the blood 
 composed ? What ia said of the distribution of the blood ? 333. Name 
 the circulatory organs. 334 — 351. Give the anatomy of the circulatory 
 organa. 334. Describe the heart. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 155 
 
 is that of an inverted cone, the base of which is directed 
 upward and backward, toward the right shoulder, while its 
 apex points forward to the left side, about three inches from 
 the sternum to the space between the fifth and sixth ribs. Its 
 under side rests upon the tendinous portion of the diaphragm. 
 The heart is surrounded by a sac, called the per-i-car'di-um, 
 (heart-case.) The interior surface of this membrane secretes 
 a watery fluid, that lubricates the exterior of the heart, and 
 obviates friction between it and the pericardium. 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 8ca ILL? 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 66. A front view of the heart. 1, The right nnricle of the heart. 2, The 
 lift auricle. 3, The right ventricle. 4, Tlie left ventricle. 5, 6, T, 8, 9, 10, The 
 vessels* through whlili the blood passes to and from the heart. 
 
 Fig. 67. A back view of the hearL 1, 'i'he right auricle 2, The left auricle. 
 3, Tlie right ventricle. 4, The left, ventricle. 5, 6, 7, The vessels that carry the 
 blood to and from the heart. 9, 10, 11, The nutrient vessels of the heart. 
 
 Observation. In health, there is usually about a tea-spoon- 
 ful of fluid in the pericardium. When these parts are dis- 
 eased, it may be thrown out more abundantly, and sometimes 
 a — ! 
 
 * All vessels that carry blood to the heart, are called veins. All 
 vessels that carry blood from the heart, are called arteries. 
 
 With what is it surrounded? Wliat is its use? How much fluid does 
 this membrane contain when healthy? 
 
Ifjtt ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 amounts, to several ounces, producing a disease called dropsy 
 of the heart. But all the unpleasant sensations in the region 
 of the heart are not caused by an increased amount of fluid in 
 the pericardium, as this disease is not of frequent occurrence. 
 335. The heart is composed of muscular fibres, that 
 traverse it in different directions, some longitudinally, but 
 most of them in a spiral direction. The human heart is a 
 double organ, or it has two sides, called the right and the left. 
 The compartments of the two sides are separated by a mus- 
 cular sep'ium, or partition. Again, each side of the heart is 
 divided into two parts, called the Au'ri-cle (deaf ear) and the 
 Ven'tri-cle. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 .16. 
 
 Fig. 68. A section of tile heart, showing its cavities and valves. 3, Th» right 
 auricle. 4, The opening between the right auricle and right ventricle. 5, The riglil 
 ventricle. 6, The tricu|pid valves. 7, The pulmonary artery. 9, The semilunal 
 valves of the pulmonary artery. 10, The septum between the riaht and left ventricle 
 12, The left auricle. 13, The opening between tlie left auricle and left ventricle 
 14, The left ventricle. 15, The mitral valves. 16, The aorta. 17, The seinilunni 
 valves of the aorta. 
 
 336. The aitkicles differ in muscularity from the ventri- 
 cles. Their walls are thinner, and of a bluish color. These 
 cavities are a kind of reservoir, dpsisned to contain the blood 
 arriving by the veins. 
 
 337. The Ventricles not only have their walls thicker 
 than the auricles, but they differ in their internal structure. 
 
 335. Of what is tho heart composed ? Give its divisions ? 336. Describe 
 the auriolis. 337. Describe tho ventricles. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 157 
 
 From the interior of these cavities arise fleshy columns, called 
 co-lum'nm car'ne-m. The walls of the left ventricle are thicker 
 and stronger than those of the right. 
 
 338. The cavities in the right side of the heart are triangu- 
 lar in shape ; those of the left, oval. Each cavity will con- 
 tain about two ounces of blood. Between the auricle and 
 ventricle in the right side of the heart, there are three folds, 
 or doublings, of thin, triangular membrane, called the tri-cus'- 
 pid valves. Between the auricle and ventricle in the left side, 
 there are two valves, called the mi'tral. There are seen pass- 
 ing from the floating edge of these valves to the columnce 
 carneiB, small white cords, called chor'dce ten'di-nce, which 
 prevent the floating edge of the valve from being carried into 
 the auricle. 
 
 339. The right ventricle of the heart gives rise to the Pul'- 
 jino-na-ry artery ; the left ventricle, to a large artery called 
 
 the A-ort'a. At the commencement of each of these arteries 
 there are three folds of membrane, and from their shape, they 
 are called sem-i-lu'nar valves. 
 
 340. The heart is supplied with arteries and veins, which ^ 
 ramify between its muscular fibres, through which its nutrient 
 blood passes. It has, likewise, a few lymphatics, and many 
 small nervous filaments from the sympathetic system of nerves. 
 This organ, in its natural state, exhibits but slight indications 
 of sensibility, and although nearly destitute of the sensation of 
 touch, it is yet, however, instantly affected by every painful 
 bodily excitement, or strong mental emotions. 
 
 Observation. To obtain a clear idea of the heart and its 
 valves, it is recommended to examine this part of an ox or 
 
 338. How do the cavities in the heart differ? What is found between 
 the auricle and Tentriole in the right side of the heart ? How many valves 
 in the left side, and their names ? Where are the tendinous cords, and 
 what is their use? 339. What vessels proceed from the ventricles ? %Vhat 
 is said of their valves ? 340. With what is the heart supplied ^ What is 
 said of its sensibility ? How can an idea of the structure of the heart be 
 obtained ? 
 
 14 
 
158 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 calf. In order that each ventricle be opened without mutilat-> 
 ing the fleshy columns, tendinous coids, and valves, cut on 
 each side of the septum parallel to it. This may be easily 
 found between the ventricles, as tliey differ in thickness. 
 
 341. The ARTERIES are the cylindrical tubes that convey 
 the blood from the heart to every part of the system. They 
 are dense in structure, and preserve, for the most part, the 
 cylindrical form, when emptied of their blood, which is theii 
 condition after death. 
 
 342. The arteries are composed of three coats. The 
 external, or cellular coat, is firm and strong.; the middle, or 
 fibrous coat, is composed of yellowish fibres. This coat is 
 elastic, fragile, and thicker than the external coat. Its elas- 
 ticity enables the vessel to accommodate itself to the quantity 
 of blood it may contain. The internal coat is a thin, serous 
 membrane, which lines the interior of the artery, and gives 
 it the smooth polish which that surface presents. It is con- 
 tinuous with the lining membrane of the heart. 
 
 343. Communications between arteries are free and nu- 
 merous. They incretise in frequency with diminution in 
 the size of the branches, so that through the medium of the 
 minute ramifications, tlie entire body may be considered as 
 one circle of inosculation. The arteries, in their distribution 
 through the body, are enclosed in a loose, cellular investment, 
 called a sheath, which separates them from the surrounduig 
 tissues. 
 
 344. The pulbionary artery commences in front of the 
 origin of the aorta. It ascends obliquely to the under surface 
 of the arch of the aorta, where it divides into two branches, 
 one of which passes to the right, the other to the left lung. 
 'J'hese divide and subdivide in the structure of the lungs, and 
 terminate in the capillary vessels, which form a net-work 
 
 341. Wh^t arc artorios-P 342. Give thoir struotuio. 343. What is said 
 
 of the communioatious botwoon the artorica? In their distribution, how 
 
 are they eoparatod from the surrounding tissues ? 344. Describe the pul- 
 monary artery. 
 
ANATOMY OF TUE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 159 
 
 ound the air-cells, and become continuous with the minute 
 anches of the pulmonary veins. This a'rtery conveys the 
 ipure blood to the lungs, and, with its corresponding veins, 
 tablishes the lesser, or pulmonic circulation. 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 Pig. 69. t. The trachea. *, The heart, a, The aorta, p. The pulmonary artery. 
 The branch of the pulinonary artery that divides in the left lung. 2. The branch 
 it divides in the right lung. 
 
 The divisions of this artery continue to divide and subdivide, until they become 
 larger than hairs in size. These minute vessels pass over the air-cells, represented 
 small dark points around the margin of the lungs. 
 
 345. The aorta proceeds from the left ventricle of the 
 iart, and contains the pure, or nutrient blood. This trunk 
 ves oflf branches, which divide and subdivide to their ulti- 
 ate ramifications, constituting the great arterial tree which 
 rvades, by its minute subdivisions, every part of the animal 
 ime. This great artery and its divisions, with their return- 
 ^ veins, constitute the greater, or systemic circulation. 
 
 JVhat does this artery and its corresponding veins establish ? Explain 
 . 69. 345. Describe the aorta. What do this artery and Its correspond- 
 ! veins constitute ? 
 
160 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOar, AND UYGIENE. 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 Fig. 70. The aorta and its bmnrlies. 1, The cj^mmoncement of the aorta. 
 B, Till' arch oftlie aorta. 3, The carotid artery. -4, The temporal artery. 5, The 
 eubclavian artery. 6, The axillary artery. 7, The brachial artery. 8, The radial 
 artery. 9, The ulnar arteryi 10, The iliac artery. 11, The femoral iirlery 12, The 
 tibial artery. 13. The peroneal artery. 
 
 346. The VEINS are the vessels which return the blood to 
 the auricles of the heart after it has been circulated by the 
 
 Whiit doo3 fig. 70 roprosei\t? .S46. What arc tho veins? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE CIRCirLATGRY ORGANS. 161 
 
 arteries through the various tissues of the body. They aro 
 thinner and more delicate in structure than the arteries, so 
 that when emptied of their blood, they become flattened and 
 collapsed. The veins commence by minute radicles in the 
 capillaries, which are every where distributed through the 
 textures of the body, and coalesce to constitute larger and 
 larger branches, till they terminate in the large trunks which 
 convey the dark-colored blood directly to the heart. In diam- 
 eter they are much larger than the arteries, and, lilce those 
 vessels, their combined area would constitute an imaginary 
 cone, the apex of which is placed at the heart, and the base 
 at the surface of the body. 
 
 347. The communications between the veins are more 
 frequent than between the arteries, and take place between 
 the larger as well as among the smaller vessels. The office of 
 these inosculations is very apparent, as tending to obviate the 
 obstructions to which the veins are peculiarly liable, from the 
 thinness of their coats, and from inability to overcome great 
 impediments by the force of their current. These tubes, as 
 well as the arteries, are supplied with nutrient vessels, and it 
 is to be presumed that nervous filaments from the sympathetic 
 nerves are distributed to their coats. 
 
 348. The external, or cellular coat of the veins, is dense 
 and firm, resembling the cellulaT tunic of the arteries. The 
 middle coat is fibrous, like that of the arteries, but extremely 
 thin. The internal coat is serous,' and also similar to that of 
 the arteries. It is continuous with the lining membrane of the 
 heart at one extremity, and with the lining membrane of the 
 capillaries at the other. 
 
 349. At certain intervals, the internal coat forms folds, or 
 
 Where do they commence ? 347. What is said of their communica- 
 tions ? What is the apparent design of the inosculations of the veins ? 
 What vessels are distributed to the coats of the veins ? 348. Give the 
 structure of the coats of the veins. 349. How are the valves in the 
 veiiis formed ? 
 
 14* 
 
162 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOSY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 duplicates, which constitute valves. They are generally com- 
 posed of two semilunar folds, one on each side of the vessel. 
 The free extremity of the valvular folds is concave, and 
 directed forward, so that while the current of blood sets toward 
 the heart, they present no impediment to its free passage ; but 
 let the current become retrograde, and it is impeded by their 
 distention. The valves are most numerous in the veins of the 
 extremities, particularly the deeper veins situated between the 
 muscles ; but in some of the larger trunks, and also in some 
 of the smaller veins, no valves exist. 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 ^il?«««W 
 
 Kia. 71. A vein laid open to slww tlio valvoB. I, Tile uank of the vein. B. S. lis 
 valves. 3, An opening of a branch into the ninin trunk. 
 
 What is their uso ? Wliore are they the most uumerous ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE CIRCCLATORY ORGANS. 
 
 163 
 
 350. The capillaries constitute a microscopic net work, 
 and are so distributed through every part of the body as to 
 render it impossible to introduce the smallest needle beneath 
 the skin, without wounding several of these fine vessels. 
 They are remarkable for the uniformity of diameter, and for 
 the constant divisions and communications which take place 
 between them. 
 
 351. The capillaries inosculate, on the one hand, with the 
 terminal extremity of the arteries, and on the other, with the 
 commencement of the veins. They establish the communi- 
 cation between the termination of the arteries and the begin- 
 ning of the veins. The important operations of secretion 
 and the conversion of the nutrient materials of the blood into 
 ,bone, muscle, &c., are performed in these vessels. 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 Fig. 72. An ideal view of a portion of the pulmonic circulation. 1, 1, A branch of 
 the artery that carries the impure blood to the lungs. 3, 3, Capillary vessels. 2, 2, A 
 vein through which red blood is returned to the left side of tha heart. 
 
 Fig. 73. An ideal view of a portion of the systemic circulation. 1, 1, A branch 
 of the aorta. This terminates in the capillaries, (3, 3.) 2, 2, A vein through which 
 the impure blood is carried to the right side of the heart. 
 
 3.50. What do the capillaries constitute ? For what are they remark 
 able ? 351. "What relation do they bear to the arteries and veins ? What 
 important operations are performed in these vessels ? "What is represented 
 byCg. 72? By fig. 73? 
 
164 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OP THE CmCULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 353. The walls of all the cavities of the heart are com- 
 posed of muscular fibres, which are endowed with the 
 property of contracting and relaxing, like the muscles of the 
 extremities. The contraction and relaxation of the mus- 
 cular tissue of the heart, produce a diminution and en- 
 largement of both auricular and ventricular cavities. The 
 right and left auricles contract simultaneously. When these 
 contract, the right and left ventricles dilate. The dilatation of 
 the ventricles is termed the di-as'to-le of the heart ; their con- 
 traction, its sys'to-le. 
 
 353. The ventricles contract quicker and more' forcibly 
 than the auricles, and they are three times longer in dilating 
 than contracting. The walls of the right ventricle, being 
 thinner than the left, are more distensible, and thus this cavity 
 will contain a greater amount of blood. This arrangement 
 adapts it to the venous system, which is more capacious than 
 the arterial. The thicker and more powerful walls of the 
 left ventricle adapt it to expel the blood to a greater distance. 
 
 354. The valves in the heart permit the blood to flow from 
 the auricles to the ventricles, but prevent its reflowing. The 
 valves at the commencement of the aorta and pulmonary 
 
 352 — 366. Give the physiology of the circtila-lory orgatis. 352. What do 
 the contraction and relaxation of the muscular walls of the heart 
 produce ? How do the auricles and yentricles contract and dilate ? 
 353. What is said of the oontiaction and dilatation of the ventricles in 
 the heart ? How is the right ventricle adapted to its function ) How 
 the left ? 354. Wliat is the use of the valves in the heart ? Those of 
 the aorta and pulmonary artery ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIECULATOEr ORGANS. 
 
 165 
 
 •tery, permit the blood to flow from tlie ventricles into these 
 jssels, but prevent its returning. 
 
 355. The function of the different parts of the heart, 
 ill be given, by aid of fig. 74. The blood passes from the 
 ght auricle (3) into the right ventricle, (5,) and the tricuspid 
 lives (6) prevent its reflux ; from the right ventricle the 
 ood is forced into the pulmonary artery, (7,) through which 
 passes to the lungs. The semilunar valves (9) prevent 
 is circulating fluid returning to the ventricle. The blood, 
 lile passing over the air-cells in the lungs, in the minute' 
 dsions of the pulmonary artery, is changed from a bluish 
 lor to a bright red. It is then returned to the left auricle 
 the heart by the pulmonary veins, (11, 11.) 
 
 Fig. 74, 
 8 
 I 
 
 ig 74. 1, The descending vena cava, (vein.) S, The ascending vena cava, (vein.) 
 'he right .auricle. 4, The opening between the right auricle and the right venlri 
 5, The right ventricle. 6, The tricuspid valves. 7, The pulmonaiy artery 
 , The branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to the right and left lung 
 The semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery. 30, The septum between' the two 
 tricles of the heart. 11, 11, The pulmonary veins. 12, The left auricle. ^ 13, The 
 ling between the left auricle and ventricle. 14, The left ventricle. 15, The 
 ■al valves. 16, 16, The aorta. 17, The semilunar valves of the aorta. 
 
 ^5. Besdribe the course of the blood from the right auricle ie the heart 
 
166 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Observation. If the blood is not charged in the lunjrs, it 
 will not flow to the pulmonary veins. This phenomenon is 
 seen in instances of death from drowning, strangling, carbonic 
 acid, &c. The same is true, but in a less degree, of indi- 
 viduals whose apparel is tight, as well as of those who breathe 
 impure air, or have diseased lungs. 
 
 356. The left auricle, (12,) by its contraction, forces the 
 blood into the left ventricle, ( 14.) The mitral valves (15) pre- 
 vent its reflowing. From the left ventricle the blood is forced 
 into the aorta, (16,) through which, and its subdivisions, it is 
 distributed to every part of the system. The semilunar valves 
 (17) prevent its returning. 
 
 Observation. The parts of the circulatory organs most 
 liable to disease are the valves of the heart, particularly the 
 mitral. When these membranous folds become ossified or 
 ruptured, the blood regurgitates, and causes great distress ui 
 breathing. The operations of the system are thus disturbed, 
 as the movements of the steam engine would be if its valves 
 were injured, or did not play freely. 
 
 357. The difTerence between the functions of the pulmo- 
 nary artery and aorta is, tlie former communicates with the 
 right ventricle of the heart, and disti-ibutes only impure blood 
 to the lungs ; the other connects with the left ventricle of the 
 heart, and distributes pure blood to the whole body, the lungs 
 not excepted. At the extremity of the divisions of the aorta, 
 as well as the pulmonary artery, are found capillary vessels. 
 This curious net-work of vessels connects with the minute 
 veins of the body,- which return the blood to tlie heart. 
 
 Observation. The function of the veins of the systemic 
 
 What is the effect when the blood is not changed in the lungs ? 
 856. D'escribe the circulation of the blood from the left auricle to the 
 general system. What part of the circulatory organs is most liable to 
 disease ? Wha* is the effect when the Talves are diseased ? 357. Give the 
 difference in the functions of the pulmonary artery and aorta. Show the 
 relation between the functions of the arteries and veins both of the pul- 
 monic and systemic circulation. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIECB'tATOEr OEOANS. 167 
 
 circulation is similar to the office of the arteries in the lungs, 
 and that the veins of the pulmonic circulation transmit to the 
 heart the pure, or nutrient blood, and thus supply the arteries 
 of the general system with assimilating fluid. 
 
 358. The veins that receive the blood from all parts of the 
 body, follow nearly the same course as the arteries. The 
 myriads of these small vessels beneath the skin, and others 
 that accompany the arteries, at last unite a ad form two large 
 trunks, called ve'na ca'va as-cend'ens, and descend' ens. 
 
 Oiservation. A peculiarity is presented in the veins which 
 come from the stomach, spleen, pancreas, and intestines. 
 After forming a large trunk, they enter the liver, and ramify 
 like the arteries, and in this organ they again unite into a 
 trunk, and enter the ascending vein, or cava, near the heart. 
 This is called the portal circulation. 
 
 359. The ventricles of the heart contract, or the " pulse " 
 heats, about seventy-five times every minute, in adults ; in 
 infants, more than a hundred times every minute ; in old 
 persons, less than seventy-five times every minute. The 
 energy of the contraction of this organ varies in difierent 
 mdividuals of the same age. It is likewise modified by the 
 health and tone of the system. It is difficult to estimate the 
 muscular power of the heart ; but, comparing it with other 
 muscles, and judging from, the force with which blood is 
 ejected from a severed artery, it must be very great. 
 
 Observation. The phenomenon known under the name of 
 pulse, is the motion caused by the pressure of the blood 
 against the coats of the arteries at each contraction of the 
 ventricles. 
 
 360. The following experiment will demonstrate that the 
 blood flows from the heart. Apply the fingers upon the artery 
 
 358. "What is the course of the reins? What peculiarity is observable in 
 the veins of the liver? 359. How often does the heart contractj or the 
 pulse beat, in adults ? In infants ? In old persons ? What is said of the 
 energy of its contraction in different persons ? How is the pulse produced ? 
 360. Demonstrate by experiment that the blood flows from the heart. 
 
168 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 at the wrist, at two different points, about two inches apart ; 
 if tlie pressure be moderately made, the " pulse " will be fell 
 nt both points. Let the point nearest the heart be pressed 
 firmly, and there will be no pulsation at the lower point ; but 
 make strong pressure upon the lower point only, and the pul- 
 sation will continue at the upper point, proving that the blood 
 flows from the heart, in the arteries, to different parts of the 
 system. 
 
 361. There are several influences, either separately or 
 combined, that propel the blood from the heart through the 
 arteries, among which may be named, — 1st. The contraction 
 of the muscular walls of the heart. 2d. The contractile and 
 elastic middle coat of the arteries aids the heart in impelling 
 the blood to the minute vessels of the system. 3d. The 
 peculiar action of the minute capillary vessels is considered, 
 by some physiologists, as a motive power in the arterial circu- 
 lation. 4th. The pressure of the muscles upon the arteries, 
 when in a state of contraction, is a powerful agent, particu- 
 larly when they are in active exercise. 
 
 362. The following experiments will demonstrate that the 
 blood from every part of the system flows to the heart by the 
 agency of the veins. 1st. Press firmly on one of the veins 
 upon the back of the hand, carrying the pressure toward the 
 fingers ; for a moment, the vein will disappear. On remov- 
 ing the pressure of the finger, it will reappear, from the blood 
 rushing in from below. 
 
 2d. If a tape be tied around the arm above the elbow, the 
 veins below will become larger and more prominent, and also 
 a greater number will be brought in view, while the veins 
 above the tape are less distended. At this time, apply the fin- 
 ger at the wrist, and the pulsation of the arteries still continues, 
 showing that the blood is constantly flowing from the heart 
 
 361. State the influences that propel the blood from the heart. 862. De- 
 monstrate by the first experiment that the blood flows to the heart. By the 
 second experiment. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIECULATORY ORGANS. 169 
 
 through the arteries, into the veins ; and the increased size of 
 tlie veins shows that the pressure of the tape prevents ita 
 flowing back to the heart. 
 
 363. The influences that return the blood to the heart through 
 the veins, are not so easily understood as those that act on the 
 blood in the arteries. Some physiologists have imputed an 
 active propulsive power to the capillary vessels in carrying 
 the blood through the veins. This is not easily explained, 
 and perhaps it is as difficult lo understand. An influence 
 upon which others have dwelt, is the suction power of the 
 heart in active dilatation, acting as a vis afrorde (power in 
 front) in drawing blood to it. 
 
 364. Another influence that aids the venous circulation is 
 attributed to the propulsive power of the heart. It is not 
 easy to comprehend how this power of the heart can be 
 extended through the capillary vessels to the blood in the 
 veins. Again, an important agency has been found, by some 
 physiologists, in the inspiratory movements, which are sup- 
 posed to draw the blood of tlie veins into the chest, in order 
 to supply the vacuum which is created there by the elevation 
 of the ribs and the descent of the diaphragm. 
 
 365. One of the most powerful causes which influence the 
 venous circulation, is the frequpnfly-recurring action of the 
 muscles upon the venous trunks. When the muscles are 
 contracted, they compress that portion of the veins which lie 
 beneath the swell, and thus force the blood from one valve to 
 the other, toward -the heart. When they are relaxed, the 
 veins refill, and are compressed by the recurring action of 
 the muscles. 
 
 Observation. The physician, in opening a vein, relies on 
 the energetic contractions and sudden I'elaxations of .the 
 
 363. What is said of the influences that return the blood to the heart ? 
 What is said of the propulsive power of the capillaries ? Of the suction 
 power of the heart ? 364. Give another influence. State another agency. 
 365. What is one of the most powerful causes wliioh influence venous 
 circulation ? Give practical observation. 
 IS 
 
170 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENK. 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 Fig 75. An Ideal view of the circulation in the lungs and system. From the right 
 ventricle of the heart, (3,) the dark, impure blood is forced into the puhnonary 
 artery, (3,) and its branchea (4, 5) carry the blood to the left and right lung. Id 
 the capillary vessels (6, 6) of the lungs, the blood becomes pure, or of a red color, 
 and is returned to the left auricle of the heart, (9,) by the veins, (7, 8.) From the 
 left auricle the pure blood passes into the lelt ventricle, (10.) By a forcible contrac- 
 tion of the left ventricle of the heart, the blood Is thrown into the aorta, (II.J ItH 
 branchea (13, 13, 13) carry Uie pure blood to every organ or part of the body. The 
 divisions and subdivisions of tlie aorta terminate in capillary vessels, represented by 
 14, 14. In these hair-like vessels the blood becomes dark colored, and is returned 
 to the right auricle of the heart (I) by the vena cava descendeng, (15,) and vena 
 cava ascendens, (16.) The tricuspid valves (17) prevent the reflow of the blood from 
 the right ventricle to the right auricle. The semilunar valves (18) prevent the blood 
 passing Ctom the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle. The mitral ralves (19) pre- 
 vent the reflow of htood from the left ventricle to the left auricle. The semilunar 
 valves (30) prevent t)ie roflow of blood tmm the aorta to the left ventricle. 
 
rnYSIOLOGY OF THE CIECULATOKY ORGANS. 171 
 
 muscles, when he directs the patient to clasp the head of a 
 cane, or the arm of a chair ; these alternate motions of the 
 muscles cause an increased flow of blood to the veins of the 
 ligated arm. 
 
 366.' The muscles exercise an agency in maintaining the 
 venous circulation at a point above what the heart could per- 
 form. As the pulsations are diminished by rest, so they are 
 accelerated by exercise, and very much quickened by violent 
 effort. There can he little doubt that the increased rapid- 
 ity of the return of blood through the veins, is, of itself, a 
 sufficient cause for the accelerated movements of the heart, 
 dufing active exercise. 
 
 Observation. The quantity of blood in different individuals 
 varies. From twenty-five to thirty-five pounds may be consid- 
 ered an average estimate in a healthy adult of medium size. 
 The time in which the blood courses .through the body and 
 returns to the heart, is different in different individuals. Many 
 writers on physiology unconditionally limit the period to three 
 minutes. It is undeniable that the size and health of a per- 
 son, the condition of the heart, lungs, and brain, the quantity 
 of the circulating fluid, the amount and character of the 
 inspired air, and the amount of muscular action, exert a mod- 
 ifying influence. The time probably varies from three to 
 eight minutes. 
 
 366. What causes the accelerated movements of the heart during active 
 exercise ? 
 
 Note. Let the pupil review the anatomy and physiology of the circula- 
 tory organs from fig. 75, or from anatomical outline plates, No. 6 and 7. 
 
172 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 367. If any part of the system is deprived of blood, its 
 vitality will cease ; but, if the blood is lessened in quantity to 
 a limited extent, only the vigor and health of the part will be 
 impaired. The following conditions, if observed, will favor 
 the free and regular supply of blood to all portions of the 
 system. 
 
 368. Tlie clothing should he loosely worn. Compression 
 of any kind impedes the passage of blood through the vessels 
 of the compressed portion. Hence, no article of apparel 
 should be worn so as to prevent a free flow of blood through 
 every organ of the body. 
 
 369. The blood which passes to and from the brain, flows 
 through the vessels of the neck. If the dressing of tliis part 
 of the body is close, the circulation will be impeded, and the 
 functions of the brain will be impaired. This remark is par- 
 ticularly important to scholars, public speakers, and individu- 
 als predisposed to apoplexy, and other diseases of the brain. 
 
 370. As many of the large veins lie immediately beneath 
 the skin, through which the blood is returned from the lower 
 extremities, if the ligatures used to retain tlie hose, or any 
 other article of apparel, in proper positiow, be tight and 
 inelastic, the passage of blood through these vessels will be 
 
 367—386. Give the hxjgiem of the circuMory organs. 367. "WTint effect 
 will be produced on the body if it is deprived of blood ? If the blood is 
 only lessened in quantity ? 368. Why should the clothing be worn loose ? 
 369. What is said of dressing the neck f To what persons is this remark 
 applicable ? 370. How are enlarged veins frequently produced ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 173 
 
 obslructed, producing, by their distention, the varicose, or 
 enlarged veins. Hence elastic bands should always be used 
 for these purposes. 
 
 371. An equal temperature of all parts of the system pro- 
 motes health. A chill on one portion of the body diminishes 
 the size of its circulating vessels, and the blood which 
 should distend and stimulate the chilled part, will accumulate 
 in other organs. The deficiency of blood in the chilled portion 
 induces weakness, while the superabundance of sanguineous 
 fluid may cause disease in another part of the system. 
 
 372. The skin should he kept not only of an equal, hut at its 
 natural temperature. If the skin is not kept warm by adequate 
 clothing, so that chills shall not produce a contraction of the 
 blood-vessels and a consequent paleness, the blood will recede 
 from the surface of the body, and accumulate in the internal 
 organs. Cleanliness of the skin is likewise necessary, for the 
 reason, that this condition favors the free action of the cutane- 
 ous vessels. 
 
 Observation. When intending to ride in a cold day, wash 
 the face, hands, and feet, in cold water, and rub them smartly 
 with a coarse towel. This is far better to keep the extrem- 
 ities warm, than to take spirits into the stomach. 
 
 373. Exercise promotes the circulation of the hlood. As 
 the action of the muscles is one of the important agents which 
 propel the blood through the arteries and veins, daily and 
 regular exercise of the muscular system is required to sustain 
 a vigorous circulation in the extremities and skin, and also to 
 maintain a healthy condition of the system. The best stimu- 
 lants to improve the sluggish circulation of an indolent patient, 
 whose skin is pale and whose extremities are cold, are the 
 
 371. Why should the temperature -of the body be equal ? 372. Why 
 should the skin be kept at its natara.1, as well as at an equal temperature ? 
 What practical observation -v^hen intending to ride in a cold day ? 373. Why 
 does exercise promote health? What are good stimulants for sluggish 
 circulation in the indolent ? 
 
 15 
 
174 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 union of vigorous muscular exercise with agreeable mental 
 action, and the systematic application to the skin of cold 
 water, attended with friction. 
 
 Illustration. The coach-driver and teamster throw their 
 arms around their bodies to warm them when cold. 'The 
 jnuscles that are called into action in swinging the arms, force 
 a greater quantity of blood into the chilled parts, and, conse- 
 quently, more heat is produced. 
 
 374. When a number of muscles are called into energetic 
 action, a greater quantity of blood will be propelled to the 
 lungs and heart in a given time, thf<n when the muscles are 
 in a state of comparative inaction. It is no uncommon occur- 
 rence, that before there is a proper expansion of the respira- 
 tory organs to correspond with the frequency aiid energy of 
 the movements of the muscles, there is an accumulation of 
 blood in the lungs, attended by a painful sensation of fulness 
 and oppression in the chest, with violent and irregular action 
 of the heart. This condition of the organs of the chest, called 
 congestion, may be followed by cough, inflammation of the 
 lungs, asthma, and a structural disease of the heart. 
 
 375. To avoid these sensations and results, when we feel 
 necessitated to walk or run a considerable distance in a short 
 time, commence the movements in a moderate manner, 
 increasing the speed as the respiratory movements become 
 more frequent and their expansion more extensive, so that a 
 sufficient amount of air may be received into tlie lungs to 
 purify the increased quantity of blood forced into them. The 
 same principles should be observed when commencing labor, 
 and in driving horses and other animals. 
 
 Observation. When a large number of muscles are called 
 in!o action after repose, as when we rise fiom a recumbent or 
 
 Mention tho illustration. 374. What is tho effoot when a number of 
 muscles are oallod into oncrgetio notion? What effect has this aooumu- 
 lation of blood in tho lungs ? 376. IIow can such disagreeable sonsiitious 
 bo avoided? Moation a pruotioal observation. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE CIECULATORY ORGANS. 175 
 
 sitting posture, tlie blood is impelled to the heart with a very 
 strong impetus. If that organ should be diseased, it may 
 arrive there in larger quantities than can be disposed of, and 
 death may be the result. Hence the necessity of avoiding all 
 sudden and violent movements, on the part of those who have 
 either a functional or structural disease of the heart. 
 
 376. The mind exercises no inconsiderable influence upon 
 the circulatory organs. When an individual is stimulated by 
 hope, or excited by anger, the heart beats more forcibly, and 
 the arteries act more energetically, than when a person is 
 influenced by fear, despair, or sorrow. Consequently, the 
 system is more fully, nourished, and capable of greater exer- 
 tion, when the former condition obtains, than when the latter 
 exists. 
 
 377. The quality and quantity of tlie blood modify the 
 action of the heart and blood-vessels. If this fluid is 
 abundant and pure, the circulatory vessels act with more 
 energy than when it is deficient in quantity or defective in 
 quality. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. In an athletic man, whose heart beats 
 forcibly, and whose pulse is strong, if a considerable quantity 
 of blood is drawn from a vein, as in bleeding, the heart will 
 beat feebly, and the pulse will become weak. 
 
 2d. When the blood is made impure by inhaling vitiated air, 
 the action of the heart and arteries is diminished, which pro- 
 duces an effect similar to that which takes place when blood 
 is drawn from a vein. 
 
 378. Hemorrhage from divided arteries should be imme- 
 diately arrested. When large blood-vessels are wounded or 
 cut, the flow of blood must be immediately stopped, or the 
 person soon faints, and the heart ceases its action. If it is a 
 
 376. State some of the effects that the mind has on circulation. 377. 
 What effect have the quantity and quality of blood upon the circulatory 
 organs? Give illustration 1st. Illustration 2d. 37S. What is necessary 
 when large blood-vessols are wounded or out? 
 
176 
 
 ANATOMY, niYSlOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 large artery that is wounded, the blood will be thrown out in 
 jets, or jerks, every time the pulse beats. The flow of blood 
 can be stopped unt-il a surgeon arrives, either by compressing 
 the vessel between the wound and the heart, or by compress- 
 ing the end of the divided artery in the wound. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 ■ Fig. 77. 
 
 Fig. 76. The track of tho large artery of the arm. I, The collar-bone. 9, The 
 axillary artery 10, The brachial artery. 
 
 Fig. 77. B, The maTinor of compressing the artery near the collar-bone. A, The 
 manner of compreBsing the large artery of the arm, with the fingers. C, The manner 
 of compressing the divided extremity of an artery in the wound, with a finger. 
 
 379. After making compression with the fingers, as de- 
 scribed and illustrated, take a piece of cloth or handkerchief, 
 twist it cornerwise, and tie a hard knot midway between the 
 
 What is shown by fig. 76 ? By fig. 77 ? 379. What ia to be done after 
 oumprossing the wound, as before doaoribed i 
 
HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 177 
 
 trwo ends. This knot should be placed over the artery, be- 
 tween the wound and the heart, and the ends ca/ried around 
 the limb and loosely tied. A stick, five or six inches long, 
 should be placed under the handkerchief, which should be 
 twisted until the knot has made sufficient compression on the 
 artery to allow the removal of the fingers without a return 
 of bleeding. Continue the compression until a surgeon can 
 be called. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 Fig. 78. A, B, The track of the large artery of the arm. The figure exhibit!! the 
 method of applying the Icnotted handlcerchief to make cuiiipreiitiion on tliis artery. 
 
 Fig. 79. A, C, The track of the large artery of the thigh. B, The method of 
 applying the knotted handkerchief to compress this arteiy. In practice, the twist- 
 ing stick B should he placed opposite the knot over the artery A. C. 
 
 380. When an artery of the arm is cut, elevating the 
 wounded Kmb above the head will tend to arrest the flow of 
 blood. In a wound of a lower limb, raise the foot, so that it 
 shall be higher than the hip, until the bleeding ceases. 
 
 Illustration. On one occasion, the distinguished Dr. Na- 
 than Smith was called to a person who had divided one of 
 
 What is shown by fig. 78 and 79 ? 380. What suggestion relative to the 
 position of a limb when bleeding ? Relate a simple operation by Dr. Na- 
 than Smith. 
 
178 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the large arteries below the knee. After trying in vain to 
 find the bleeding vessel, so as to secure it, he caused the foot 
 to be elevated higher than the hip. At the first instant the 
 blood was -forced from the wound about twelve inches ; in 
 a minute, it was diminished to three or four; and, in a 
 short time, the bleeding ceased. This Dr. S. called his 
 " great " operation ; and it was truly great in simplicity 
 and science. 
 
 381. The practical utility of every person knowing the 
 proper means of arresting hemorrhage from severed arteries, 
 is illustrated by the following incidents. In 1848, in the town 
 of N.,Mass., a mechanic divided the femoral artery; although 
 several adult persons were present, he died in a few minutes 
 from loss of blood, because those persons were ignorant of the 
 method of compressing severed arteries until a surgeon could 
 be obtained. 
 
 382. In 1846, a simifar accident occurred in the suburbs 
 of Philadelphia. While the blood was flowing copiously, a 
 lad, who had received instruction on the treatment of such 
 accidents at the Philadelphia High School, rushed through 
 the crowd that surrounded the apparently dying man, 
 placed his finger upon the divided vessel, and continued 
 the compression until the bleeding artery was secured by a 
 surgeon. 
 
 383. In " flesh wounds," when no large blood-vessel is 
 divided, wash the part with cold water, and, when bleeding 
 has ceased, draw the incision together, and retain it with 
 narrow strips of adhesive plaster. These should be put on 
 smoothly, and a sufficient number applied to cover the wound. 
 In most instances of domestic practice, the strips of adhesive 
 plaster are too wide. They should not exceed in width one 
 
 881. Relate the first incident showing the utility of every person know- 
 ing the proper method of arresting the flow of blood from divided arte- 
 ries. 382. The second incident. 383. How should " flesh wounds " he 
 dressed ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE CIECULATORY ORGANS. 
 
 179 
 
 fourth of an inch. Then apply a loBse bandage, and avoid 
 all " healing salves," ointments, and washes. In removing 
 the dressing from a wound, both ends of the strips of plaster 
 should be raised and drawn toward the incision. The lia- 
 bility of the wound re-opening is thus diminished. 
 
 Observation. The union of the divided parts is effected by 
 the action of the divided blood-vessels, and not by salves and 
 ointments. The only object of the dressing is to keep the 
 parts togei.her, and protect the wound from air and impurities. 
 Nature, in all cases of injuries, performs her own cure. Such 
 simple wounds do not generally require a second dressing, 
 and should not be opened until the incisions are healed^ 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 Fig. 80. The manner In Which strips of adliesive plaster are applied to wounds. 
 
 384. In wounds made by pointed instruments, as a nail, or 
 in lacerated wounds, as those made by forcing a blunt instru- 
 ment, as a hook, into the soft parts, there will be no direct 
 and immediate union. In these cases, apply a soothing poul- 
 tice, as one made of linseed meal, and also keep the limb 
 still. It is judicious to consult a physician immediately, in 
 punctured or lacerated wounds, because they often uiduce 
 the most dangerous diseases. * 
 
 385. Wounds caused by the bite of rabid aniiihals or ven- 
 omous serpents, should be immediately cleansed with pure 
 
 What should be avoided ? How should the strips of plaster be removed 
 from a wound? Hoi^|he union of the divided parts effected ? 384. How 
 should punctured anSnaoerated woujids be dressed ? 385. What is the 
 treatment of wounds caused by the bite of rabid animals ? 
 
180 ANATOMY, PHYSICLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 water. In many instances, the application of suction, either 
 with " cupping glasses," or the mouth, will prevent the intro- 
 duction of the poisonous matter into the system by absorption, 
 When this is effected, cover the wound with a soothing 
 poultice, as one made of slippery elm hark. 
 
 Observation. Although animal poisons, when introduced 
 into the circulating fluid through the broken surface of the 
 skin, frequently cause death, yet they can be taken into the 
 mouth and stomach with impunity, if the mucous membrane 
 which lines these parts is not broken. 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 Fig. 81. a, a, Representation of woundg on the back part of the arm and fore-arm. 
 6, 6, Wounds on the anterior part of the arm and fore-arm. By bending the elbow 
 and wrist, the incisions at a, a, are opened, while those at 6, 6, are closed. Were the 
 arm extended at the elbow and wrist, the wounds at a, a, would be closed, and those 
 at bj bj would be opened. 
 
 386. The proper position of the limbs favors the union of 
 wounds. If the incision be upon the anterior part of the leg, 
 between the knee and ankle, extending the knee and bending 
 the ankle will aid its closing. If it be upon the back part of 
 the leg, by extending the foot and bending the knee, the 
 gaping of the incision will be diminished. When wounds 
 occur upon the trunk or upper extremities, let the position of 
 the person be regarded. 
 
 886. Does the proper poaition of the limbs favor the union of wounds i 
 
ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 181 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 ABSORPTION. 
 
 387. Absorption is the process by which the materials of 
 nutrition are removed from the alimentary canal, to be con- 
 veyed into the circulatory vessels. It is likewise the process 
 by which the particles of matter that have become injurious, 
 or useless, are removed from the mass of fluids and solids 
 of which the body is composed. These renovating and 
 removing processes are performed by two sets of yessels. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 
 
 388. The vessels that act exclusively for the growth and 
 renovation of the system, are found only in the alimentary 
 canal. They are called lacteals. The vessels whose sole 
 function is to remove particles of matter already deposited, 
 are called Lym-phat'ics. The radicals, or commencement of 
 the veins, in many, and it may be in all parts of the body, 
 perform the office of absorption. 
 
 Observation. This fact accounts for the capacity of the 
 venous system exceeding the arterial. Had the veins no other 
 function to perform, beside returning the blood that had been 
 distributed by the arteries, it would be reasonable to suppose 
 that this system would be less than the arterial, but the reverse 
 is known to be true. 
 
 389. The lymphatic vessels, in structure, resemble the 
 
 387. Define absorption. 388 — 391. Give the anatomy of the lymphatic 
 vessels. 388. What are those vessels called that act exclusWely for the 
 growth and renovatiq^^bthe body ?" Those whose office is to remove the 
 atoms already depositear^ 'What other vessels perform the office of ab- 
 sorption ? Give observation. 389. Describe the lymphatics. 
 
 16 
 
182 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 lacteals. They exist in great numbers in the skin and mucous 
 membranes, particularly those of the lungs. Though no 
 lymphatics have been traced to the brain, it is presumed that 
 they exist there, as this part of the body is not exempt from 
 the composition and decomposition, which are perpetual in 
 the body. These vessels are extremely minute at their origin, 
 so that in many parts of the system they cannot be detected 
 witliout the aid of a microscope. 
 
 ' Fig. 82. Pig. 83. Fig. 84. 
 
 Fig. 83. A single lymphatic vessel, much magnified. 
 
 Fig. 83. The valves of a lymphatic trunk. 
 
 Fig. 84. 1, A lymphatic gland with several vessels passing through it 
 
 390. The lymphatic vessels, like the veins, diminish in 
 number as they increase in size, while pursuing their course 
 toward the large veins near the heart, into which they pour 
 their contents. The walls of these vessels have two coats, 
 of which the external one is cellular, and is capable of con- 
 siderable distention. The internal coat igJplded so as to form 
 
 What ia represented by fig. 82 ? By fig, 83? Byflg. 84? 390. In what 
 respect do these vessels resemble the veins of the system ? Give the 
 structure of their ooata. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSEtS. 183 
 
 valves, like those in the veins. Their walls are so thin, that 
 these folds give them the appearance of being knotted. 
 
 391. At certain points, the lymphatic vessels pass through 
 distinct, soft bodies, peculiar to themselves, which are called 
 lymphatic glands, which are to these vessels what the mesen- 
 teric glands are to the lacteals. The lymphatic glands vary 
 in form and in size. They are extremely vascular, and 
 appear to consist of a collection of minute vessels. These 
 glands are found in different parts of the body, but are most 
 numerous in the groins, axilla, or arm-pits, neck, and cavities 
 of the chest and abdomen. 
 
 Observation. From exposure to cold, these glands are 
 frequently enlarged and inflamed. They are known under 
 the name of " kernels." They are often diseased, particu- 
 larly in scrofula, or " king's evil." 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 
 
 392. Though the lacteals and lymphatics resemble each • 
 other in their structure and termination, yet they differ as to 
 the nature of the fluids which they convey, as well as the 
 nature of their functions. The lacteals open into the small 
 intestine, and possess the power of rejecting all substances in 
 the passing aliment, but the chyle. The lymphatics, on the 
 contrary, not only imbibe all the various constituents rof the 
 body, both flijid and solid, but they sometimes absorb foreign 
 and extraneous substances, when presented to their mouths, 
 as in vaccination 
 
 893. The varieties of absorption are, the In-ter-sti'tial, 
 Bec-re-men-ti'tial, Er-cre-men-ti'tial, Cvrta'ne-ous, Res-pi'ra- 
 to-ry, Ve'nous, and the Lac'te-al. 
 
 391. Describe the lyi^ipitic glands. What obserration is giyen in regard 
 to these glands ? 39^Bt03. Give the physiology of the lymphatic ves- 
 sels. 392. Explain the difference between the lacteals and lymphatics. 
 303. Name the varieties of absorption. 
 
184 ANATOMY, FHySIOLOGV, AND HYSIENE. 
 
 394. Interstitial absorption is that change which is con- 
 stantly going on in the animal economy among the particles 
 of matter of which every texture is composed. The ordinary 
 functions of the body, in health, require incessant action of the 
 lymphatics; the circulatory system, with its myriads of small 
 vessels, is constantly depositing new atoms of matter, which 
 become vitalized, and perform a course of actions, then die, 
 or become useless. These old atoms are removed by the 
 absorbent system. Thus, wherever thisre is a minute artery 
 to deposit a living particle of matter, there is a lymphatic 
 vessel, or venous radicle, to remove it as soon as it shall have 
 finished its particular office. 
 
 395. The action of the lymphatic vessels counterbalances 
 those of nutrition, and thus the form and size of every part 
 of the body is preserved. When their action exceeds that of 
 the nutrient vessels, the body emaciates ; when it is deficient, 
 plethora is the result. In youth, they are less active than the 
 nutrient vessels, and the limbs are plump ; but in later periods 
 of life, we find these actions reversed, and the body diminishes 
 in size. It is not unfrequent that wens, and other tumors of 
 considerable size, disappear, and even the entire bone of a 
 limb has been removed from the same general cause. The 
 effused fluids of bruises are also removed by absorption. 
 
 Observations. 1st. When little or no food is taken into tlie 
 stomach, life is supported by the lymphatic vessels and veins 
 imbibing the fat and reconveying it into the blood-vessels. It is 
 the removal of this secretion which causes the emaciation of 
 the face and extremities of a person recovering from a fever. 
 In consumption, the extreme attenuation of the limbs is caused 
 by the absorption, not onlj of the fat, but also of the muscles 
 and more solid parts of the system. 
 
 394. What is interstitial aosorption ? How are the new atoms of matter 
 deposited ? How removed ? 396. What vessels^dp the lymphatics coun- 
 terbalance in action ? What is the result whel^Weir action exceeds that 
 of the nutrient vessels? When it ia less? MeiHion some Instances of 
 active absorption. What causes the emaciated limbs of a person recovering 
 from fever ? The extreme attenuation in consumpNon ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 185 
 
 2d. Animals which livp in a half torpid state during the 
 winter, derive their nourishment from the same source. In 
 other words, we may say the starving animal lives for a 
 time upon itself, eati'ng up, hy internal absorption, such 
 parts of the body as can be spared under urgent necessity, 
 to feed those organs and continue those functions that are 
 absolutely essential to life. 
 
 396. Receementitial absorption is the removal of those 
 fluids from the system, which are secreted upon surfaces that 
 have no external outlet. These fluids are various, as the fat, 
 the marrow, the synovia of joints, serous fluids, and the humors 
 of the eye. Were it not for this variety of absorption, dropsy 
 would generally exist in the cavities of the brain, chest, and 
 abdomen, from the continued action of the secretory vessels. 
 
 397. ExcKEMENTiTiAL absorption relates to the fluids which 
 have been excreted, such as the bile, pancreatic fluid, saliva, 
 milk, and other secretions. 
 
 398. CuTANEOtrs absorption relates to the skin. "Here the 
 lymphatic vessels extend only to the cuticle, which they do 
 not permeate. There has been much diversity of opinion on 
 the question of cutaneous absorption ; some maintaining that 
 this membrane absorbs, while others deny it. Many experi- 
 ments have proved that the skin may absorb sufficient nutri- 
 ment to support life for a time, by immersing the patient in a 
 bath of milk or broth. It has been found that the hand, im- 
 mersed to the wrist in warm water, will absorb from ninety 
 to one hundred grains of fluid in the space of an hour. 
 
 399. Thirst may be quenched by applying moist clothes to 
 the skin, o/ by-bathing. It is no uncommon occurrence, dur- 
 ing a passage from one continent to the other, for the saliva 
 
 396. What is recrementitial absorption? 397. Define exorementitial 
 absorption. 398. To what does cutaneous absorption relate? Is there a 
 diversity of opinion respecting this variety of absorption ? What do well 
 attested experiments shbw? 399. What remark in reference to quenching 
 thirst? What agency conveys medicinal substances and ointments into 
 the system when rubbed on the skin ? 
 
 16* 
 
186 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 to become bitter by the absorption of sea water. Medicinal 
 substances, such as mercury, morphine, and Spanish flies, are 
 frequently introduced into the system through the skin. 
 
 400. Respiratory absorption has reference to the lungs. 
 The mucous membrane of these organs is abundantly sup- 
 plied with lymphatic vessels. By their action, substances 
 finely pulverized, or in the form of gas, are readily imbibed 
 when inhaled into the lungs, such eis metallic vapors, odorifer- 
 ous particles, tobacco smoke, and other effluvia. In this way, 
 contagious diseases are frequently contracted. 
 
 Illustration. In inhaling sulphuric ether, or letheon, it is 
 introduced into the vessels of the lungs in the form of vapor, 
 and through them it is rapidly conveyed to the brain, and thus 
 influences the nervous system. 
 
 401. Venous absorption is the function which the veins 
 perform in absorbing from the alimentary canal liquids of 
 various kinds that have been taken into the stomach and are 
 not converted into chyle. In other parts of the body, they 
 also perform the common ofiice of lymphatics. 
 
 402. Lacteal, or digestive absorption has reference to the 
 absorption of chyle only, which is destined for the nutrition 
 of the body. 
 
 403. Absorption is not only very abundant, but generally 
 very rapid, and all these varieties are maintained through life, 
 except when suspended by disease. 
 
 400. What is said of respiratory absorption ? How is letheon introduced 
 into the system ? 401. Define venous absorption. 402. What is lacteal 
 absorption i 403. What is said of absorption ) 
 
 Fig. 85. A representation of the lymphatic vessels and glands. I, 2, 8, 4, 5, 6, The 
 lymphatic vessels and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic glands. 8, The 
 commencement of the thoracic duct. 9, The lymphatics of the kidney. 10, Of the 
 stomach. 11, Of the liver. 12, 12, Of the lungs. 13, 14, 15, The lymphatics and 
 glands of the aim. 16, 17, 18, Of the face and neck. 1^ 20, Large veins 21, The 
 ' thoracic duct. 2G, The lymphatics of tile heart. 
 
 * 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSEI5. 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 1S7 
 
1P8 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 
 
 404. By the action of the lymphatics, substances of an 
 injurious, as well as of a beneficial, character may be con- 
 veyed into the system. These vessels, under certain condi- 
 tions, are more active in their office than at other periods ; 
 and it is of practical utility to know what influences their 
 action. 
 
 405. The function of these vessels is increased hy moisture, 
 and lessened hy an active state of the lacteals. Observation 
 shows that the ill-fed, and those persons that live in marshy 
 districts, contract contagious diseases more readily than those 
 individuals who are well fed, and breathe a dry and pure air. 
 
 406. Tlie air of the sick-room should he dry. If due 
 attention is not given to ventilation, the clothing of the nurse 
 and patient, together with the air of the room, will be moist- 
 ened by the exhalations from the skin and lungs. This 
 exhalation may contain a poison of greater or less power, 
 according i to its quantity and degree of concentration, and 
 may be absorbed and reconveyed into the system, causing 
 inflammatory diseases, and not unfrequently death. 
 
 Ohservations. 1st. When we are attending a sick person, 
 a current of air that has passed over the patient should be 
 avoided. We may approach with safety very near a person who 
 has an infectious disease, provided care is taken to keep on the 
 side from which the currents of air are admitted into the room. 
 
 2d. When we have been visiting or attending on a sick 
 person, it is judicious to change the apparel worn in the 
 sick-room, and also give the skin a thorough bathing. The 
 outside garments, also, should be aired, as poisonous matter 
 may have penetrated the meshes of the clothing. 
 
 404 — 413. Give the hygiene of the lymphatic vessels. 404. What is said 
 respecting the action of the lymphatic vessels ? ^OS. What influences the 
 function of these vessels ? What does observation show ? 406. Why 
 should the air of the sick-room be dry ? What suggestion when we have 
 been visiting or attending on the sick i 
 
HYGIENE OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 189 
 
 407. Tlie stomach should le supplied with food of a nutrient 
 and digestible character, in proper quantities, and at stated 
 periods. -The- chyle formed from the food stimulates the lac- 
 teals to activity, which activity is attended with an inactive 
 state of the lymphatics of the skin and lungs. Thus due 
 attention should be given to the food of the attendants on the 
 sick, and the members of the family. Before visiting a sick 
 person it is judicious to take a moderate amount of nutritious 
 food. 
 
 Oiservation. Many individuals, to prevent contracting dis- 
 ease that may be communicated from one person to another, 
 use tobacco, either chewed or smoked ; and sometimes alcohol, 
 with decoctions of bitter herbs. These substances do not 
 diminish, but tend to increase, the activity of the lymphatics. 
 Thus they make use of the means by which the poisonous 
 matter formed in the system of the diseased person, may bo 
 more readily conveyed into their own. 
 
 408. The skin and clothing, as well as the ied-linen, should 
 be frequently cleansed. This will remove the poisonous matter 
 that may be deposited upon the skin and garments, which, if 
 suffered to remain, might be conveyed into the system by 
 the action of the lymphatics. This points also to a frequent 
 change of the wearing apparel, as well as the coverings of 
 the bed. In visiting the unhealthy districts of the South and 
 West, the liability of contracting disease is much lessened by 
 taking a supply of food at prpper periods, keeping the skin and 
 clothing in a clean state, the room well ventilated, and avoid- 
 ing the damp chills of evening. 
 
 409. Absorption by the skin is most vigorous when the 
 cuticle is removed by vesication, or blistering. Then exter- 
 
 407. Why should the stomach be supplied with food oi a nutrient and 
 digestible character? What is said of the use of alcohol, or tobacco, in 
 preventing the introduction of the poisonous matter of contagious diseases ? 
 408. Why should the clothing and bed-linen be frequently washed ? What 
 Buggestion to persons in visiting the unhealthy districts of the South and 
 West ? 409. When is cutaneous absorption most vigorous ? Why ? 
 
190 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 nal applications are brought into immediate contact with the 
 orifices of ithe lymphatics of the skin, and by them lapidly 
 imbibed and circulated through the system. Thus arsenic 
 applied -to the cutaneous vessels, and strong solutions of opium 
 to extensive burns, have been absorbed in Quantities sufficient 
 to poison the patient. 
 
 410. WJien the cuticle is only punctured or abraded, 
 poisonous matter may he introduced into the system. The 
 highly respected Dr. W., of Boston, lost his life by poisonous 
 matter from the body of a patient subjected to a post mortem 
 examination. He had removed from his finger, previous to 
 the examination, a " hang-nail," and the poison from the 
 dead body was brought in contact with the denuded part, and 
 through the agency of the lymphatics it was conveyed into the 
 system. 
 
 411. Puncture any :part of the cuticle with the finest 
 instrument that has upon its point the smallest conceivable 
 quantity of the vaccine virus, or small-pox matter, and it will 
 be brought into contact with the lymphatic vessels, and 
 through their agency conveyed into the system. The result 
 is, that persons thus operated upon have the small-pox, or 
 the vadcine disease. 
 
 412. When we expose ourselves to £iny poisonous vapors, 
 or handle diseased animals or sick persons, safety and health 
 require that the cuticle be not broken or otherwise injured. In 
 many instances, the poisonous animal matter upon hides has 
 been introduced into the systems of tannere, through small 
 ulcers upon their fingers or hands. From these sores there 
 would be seen small red lines extending up tlie arm. These 
 swelled tracts indicate an inflammation of tlie large lymphatic 
 
 410. Do the same results follow, if the cuticle is only punctured ? Belate 
 an instance of death by the absorption of poisonous matter. 411. Bj 
 what means is the Taccine matter introduced into the system? 
 412. What caution is necessary when we expose ourselves to poisonous 
 vapors ? 
 
nVGIENE OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 191 
 
 trunks, that have been irritated and diseased by the passage of 
 poisonous matter through them into the system. 
 
 Ohservation. A distressing illustration of the absorption of 
 deleterious substances from the surface of a sore, is seen in 
 the favorite experiments of that class of " quacks," who style 
 themselves " cancer doctors." With them, every trifling and 
 temporary enlargement, or tumor, is a cancer. Their gen- 
 eral remedy is arsenic ; and happy is the unfortunate suf- 
 ferer who escapes destruction in their hands, for too frequent- 
 ly their speedy cure is death. 
 
 413. In case of an accidental wound, it is best imme- 
 diately to bathe the part thoroughly in pure water, and to 
 avoid all irritating applications. In some instances, it would 
 be well to apply lunar caustic immediately. When handling 
 or shrouding dead bodies, or removing the skin from animals 
 that have died of disease, it would be well to lubricate the 
 hands with olive-oil or lard. This affords protection to the 
 minute portions of the skin, from which the cuticle may 
 be removed. In all cases where there is an ulcer or sore, the 
 part should be covered with something impervious to fluids, 
 as court-plaster, before exposing the system to any animal, 
 vegetable, or mineral poison. 
 
 413. What direction is given when the cuticle is broken ? What sug- 
 gestion is given when shrouding dead bodies } 
 
192 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENB. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 SECKETION. 
 
 414 In the human body are found many fluids and solids 
 of dissimilar appearance and character. These are produced 
 by the action of organs, some of which are of simple struc- 
 ture, while others are very complicated in their arrangement. 
 These organs are called Se-cre'to-ry. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 
 
 415. The SECRETORY ORGANS are the Ex-ha'lants, Fol'li- 
 cles, and the Glands. 
 
 416. The EXHAL ANTS were supposed to be terminations of 
 arteries or capillaries. The external exhalants terminate on 
 the skin and mucous membranes ; the internal in the cellular 
 and medullary tissues. (Appendix I.) 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 Fig. 86. A socrotory follicle. Au artery is Been, wliich Bupplies the material for its 
 secretion. Follicles are also supplied with veins and organic nerves. 
 
 417. The FOLLICLES are small bags, or sacs, situated in the 
 true skin and mucous membrane. The pores seen on the skin 
 are the outlets of these bodies. 
 
 414. How aro tho fluida and solids of the body produced r 415 — 419. 
 Give the anatomy of the Bccrctory organs, 415. Name the secretory organs. 
 416. Desoribe the oxhalants. What ia roproaentod by fig. 86 ? 417, Define 
 follicles. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 193 
 
 418. The GLANDS are soft, fleshy organs, and as various in 
 their structure, as the secretions which it is their function to 
 produce. Each gland is composed of many small lobules 
 united in a compact and distinct mass, that communicates by 
 a small duct with the principal outlet, or duct of the organ. " 
 Every gland is supplied with arteries, veins, lymphatics, and 
 nerves. These, with the ducts, are arranged in a peculiar 
 manner, and connected by cellular membrane. 
 
 419. There are two classes of glands, one for the modi- 
 fication of the fluids which pass through them, as the mesenteric 
 and lymphatic glands ; and the other for the secretion of fluids 
 which are either useful in the animal economy, or require to 
 be rejected from the body. 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 Pig 87. 1, 1, A secretory gland. 9, 2, ftlinute ducts tliat are spread tbrougb the 
 gTunds. These coalesce tofonn the main duct, 3. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SECRETORY ORGAIfS. 
 
 420. Secretion is one of the most obscure and mys- 
 terious functions of the animal economy. " It is that process 
 by which various substances are separated from the blood, 
 either with or without experiencing any change during their 
 
 418. Give the structure of the glands. 419. How are the glands arranged ? 
 420 431. Give the physiology of the secretory organs. 420. What is secre- 
 tion? '' 
 17 
 
194 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 separation." Not only is the process by which substancea are 
 Bcpiirated from the blood, called secretion, but the same term 
 is also applied to substances thus separated. Thus physiolo- 
 gists say, that by the process of secretion, bile is formed by 
 the liver ; and also, that bile is the secretion of this organ. 
 
 421. The secreted fluids do not exist in that form in the 
 blood, but most of the elements of which they are made do 
 exist in this fluid, and the " vessels by which it is accomplished 
 may well be called the architects and chemists of the system ; 
 for out of the same material — the blood — they construct a 
 variety of wonderful fabrics and chemical compounds. We 
 see the same wonderful power possessed, also, by vegetables ; 
 for out of the same materials the olive prepares its oil, the 
 cocoa-nut its milk, the cane its sugar, the poppy its narcotic, 
 the oak its green pulpy leaves, and its dense woody fibre. 
 All are composed of the same few, simple elements, arranged 
 in different order and proportions." 
 
 422. " In ,like manner we find the vessels, in animated 
 bodies, capable of forming all the various textures and sub- 
 stances which compose the frame ; the cellular tissue, the 
 membranes, the ligaments, the cartilages, the bones, the mar- 
 row, the muscles with their tendons, the lubricating fluid of 
 the joints, the pulp of the brain, the transparent jelly of the 
 eye ; in short, all the textures of the various organs of which 
 the body is composed, consist of similar ultimate elements, 
 and are manufactured from the blood." 
 
 423. Of the agents that produce or direct the different 
 secretions, we have no very accurate knowledge. Some have 
 supposed this function to be mechanical, others a chemical 
 process, but experiments prove that it is dependent on nervous 
 influence. If the nerves are divided which are distributed to 
 
 421. What is said respecting secreted substances i Do vegetables possess 
 the property of secretion? 422. From what are the various textures 
 (brmed ? 423. Have we accurate knowledge of the agents that produce 
 eccret\on ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SECEETOEY OEGANS. 195 
 
 any organ, the process of secretion is suspended. It is no 
 uncommon occurrence, that the nature of milk will be so 
 changed from the influence of anger in the mother, as to cause 
 vomiting, colic, and even convulsions, in the infant that swal- 
 lows it. Unexpected intelligence' either of a pleasant or 
 unpleasant character, by its influence on the nervous system, 
 will frequently destroy the appetite. Sorgetimes mental agita- 
 tion, as fear, will cause a cold sweat to pervade the surface 
 of the body. 
 
 424. Secretions are constantly maintained, during life, from 
 the serous membrane, by the action of the internal exhalants. 
 The fluid which is exhaled bears some resemblance to the 
 serum of the blood. Its use is to furnish the organs, which 
 are surrounded by this membrane, with a proper degree of 
 moisture, and thus enables them to move easily on each other, 
 as those within the chest and abdomen. 
 
 425. The cellular tissue exhales a serous fluid, and when 
 it becomes excessive in quantity, general dropsy is produced. 
 Fat is another secretion, which is thrown out, in a fluid state, 
 from the cellular membrane. It is deposited in little cells, 
 and exists in the greatest abundance between the skin and the 
 muscles. Its use Seems to be, to form a cushion around the 
 body for its protection ; to furnish nutriment for the system 
 when food cannot be taken ; to supply the carbon and hydro- 
 gen necessary to sustain the generation of heat, when these 
 articles of combustion are not otherwise furnished. The 
 med'ul-la-ry substance, (marrow,) in the cavities of the long 
 bones, is very much like fat. 
 
 Observation. During sickness, if there is not emaciation 
 or absorption of this secretion, it is considered an unfavorable 
 symptom, because it indicates a want of power in the absorb- 
 ing system, which is among the last to be aifected. 
 
 How is it proved that secretion depends on nervous influence ? 424. What 
 is said of the secretions from the serous membrane ? 425. From what tissue 
 is a serous fluid exhaled ? What is the effect when this fluid becomes 
 excessiTe in quantity ? What is fat ? Its use ? What is marrow i 
 
196 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 426 The mucous secretion is a transpaient, viscid fluid, 
 which is secreted by those membranes that line the cavities 
 of the body, which have an external communication, as the 
 trachea and alimentary canal. This secretion serves to pro- 
 tect these parts from the influence of the air, and concurs, by 
 means of its peculiar properties, in the performance of their 
 functions. i 
 
 427. There are two external secretions, namely, one from 
 the skin, called perspiration, and the other from the lungs. 
 The cutaneous exhalation, or transpiration* exists in two 
 forms, called sensible perspiration (sweat) and insensible per- 
 spiration. The pulmonary exhalation is the most important 
 and universal, and closely resembles that of the skin. 
 
 428. The follicles are found only in the skin and mucous 
 membrane. They secrete an oily, unctuous substance, which 
 mixes with the transpiration, and lubricates the skin. At the 
 root of each hair there is a minute follicle, which secretes the 
 fluid that oils the hair. The wax in the passage of the ear Ls 
 secreted from these bodies. 
 
 429. All the blood distributed to the different glands is 
 similar in composition and character ; but the fluids secreted 
 by them, vary in appearance in a remarkable degree. The 
 office of the glands appears to be principally to form different 
 secretions. Thus the salivary glands secrete the insipid 
 saliva; the lachrymal glands, the saline tears; the liver, the 
 yellow, ropy bile ; and the kidneys, the acrid urine. 
 
 430. Some secretions are evidently produced only in par- 
 
 * Franspiraiion is a term often used generioally, to signify the pas- 
 sage of fluids or gases through membranes, internally or externally ; 
 but perspiration is a specific term, signifying transpiration on to the 
 external surface. 
 
 426. What Is said relative to the mucous secretion ? 427. Name the 
 external aeoretions. 428. Give the offloo of the follicles. 429. What ap- 
 pears to be the principal office of the glands? 430. Mention a secretion 
 produced in a particular emergency. 
 
HYGIENE OF THB SECRETOKY ORGANS. 197 
 
 ticular emergencies, as is seen in the increased secretion of 
 bony matter when a limb is broken. 
 
 431. When any substance which is not demanded for 
 nutrition, or does not give nourishment to the system, is 
 imbibed by the lymphatic vessels, and conveyed into the blood, 
 it is eliminated in the secretions. 
 
 Illustration. A few years since, a poor inebriate was 
 carried to a London hospital in a state of intoxication. He 
 lived but a few hours. On examining ,his bram, nearly half a 
 gill of fluid, strongly impregnated with gin, was found in the 
 cavities of this organ. This was secreted from the vessels of 
 the brain. ■" 
 
 HYGIENE OP THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 
 
 432. Unless the secretions are regularly maintained, disease 
 will be the ultimate result. Let the secretions from the skin 
 be suppressed, and fever or some internal inflammation will 
 follow. If the bile is impeded, digestion will be impaired. 
 If any other secretion is suppressed, it will cause a derange- 
 ment of the various internal organs. 
 
 Observation. Ardent spirits derange the secretions, and 
 change the structure of the brain. This is one reason why 
 inebriates do not generally live to advanced age. 
 
 433. The quantity of blood influences the character of the 
 secretions. If it is lessened to any great extent, the secretions 
 will be lessened as well as changed in character. 
 
 lUmtration. When a person has lost a considerable 
 quantity of blood, there is a sensation of thirst in the fauces, 
 attended with a cold, pale, dry skin. When reaction comes 
 
 431. What becomes of those substances imbibed by the lymphatics that 
 do not give nourishment to the body. 432 — 457. Give the hygiene of the 
 eecreton organs. 432. What effect on the system when the secretions are 
 not regularly maintained ? 433. Does the quantity of blood influence the 
 secretions? Give an illustration. 
 
 17* 
 
198 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 IT 
 
 on, the perspiration is cold, attended with nausea, and some- 
 times vomiting. 
 
 434. The secretory organs require the stimulus of pure 
 blood. If this fluid is vitiated, the action of the secretory 
 organs will be more or less modified. Either the quantity 
 will be affected or the quality will be altered. 
 
 Observation. The impurity of the blood arising from the 
 inhalation of the vitiated air of sleeping rooms, diminishes 
 and changes the character of the secretions of the mouth and 
 stomach. This accounts for the thirst, coated tongue, and 
 disagreeable taste of the mouth when impure air is breathed 
 during sleep: The disease it induces, is indigestion or dys- 
 pepsia. 
 
 435. The amount of action modifies tlie condition of t?ie 
 secretory organs. When a secretoiy organ is excessively 
 stimulated, its vigor and energy are reduced. The subse- 
 quent debility may be so great as to suppress or destroy ils 
 functional power. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. In those sections of the country where 
 flax is spun on a " foot-wheel," it is not unfrequent that the 
 spinners moisten the thread with'the secretions of the mouth. 
 This seems to operate economically for a time, but debility of 
 the salivary organs soon follows, which incapacitates them 
 from supplying saliva sufficient to moisten the food, producing 
 in a short time disease of the digestive organs. 
 
 2d. The habit of continual spitting, which attends the 
 chewing of tobacco and gums, and other substances, between 
 meals, induces debility, not only of the salivary glands, but 
 of the system generally. 
 
 436. One secretory organ may do the office of another. 
 This increased action of a secretory organ may be sustained 
 
 434. "WTiat is the effect of impure blood on the secretory organs ? 
 435. What results froni stimulating excessively a sgoretory organ ? How 
 is this illustrated ? 436. "Wliat is the effoot when one secretory organ per- 
 forms the office of another 7 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SECKETORY ORGANS. 199 
 
 for a limiteJ time without permanent injury, but, if long con- 
 tinued, a diseased action of the organ will follow. Of mor- 
 bid secretions we have examples in the ossification of the 
 valves of the heart, cancerous and other tumors. 
 
 Observation. In the evenings of the warm season, a chill 
 upon the impressible skin, that suppresses the perspiration, is 
 frequently followed by a diarrhoea, dysentery, or cholera 
 morbus. These can be prevented by avoiding the chill. An 
 efficient means of relief, is immediately to restore the skin to 
 its proper action. 
 
 437. TTie secretions are much influenced hy tJie mind. How , 
 this is effected, it is difficult to explain ; but many facts corrob- 
 orate it. Every' one has felt an increased action of the tear- 
 glands from distressing feelings. Cheerfulness of disposition 
 and serenity of the passions are peculiarly favorable to the 
 proper performance of the secretory function. From this we 
 may learn how important it is to avoid such things as distract, 
 agitate, or harass us. 
 
 Observation. In fevers and other diseases, when the skin, 
 mouth, and throat are dry from a suppression of the secretions, 
 let the mind of the patient be changed from despondency to 
 hope, and the skin and the membrane that lines the mouth and 
 throat will exhibit a more moist condition, together with a 
 general improvement of the vital organs of the system. 
 Consequently, all just encouragement of the restoration to 
 health should be given to a sick person. 
 
 Give examples of morbid secretions. What is one cause of dysentery 
 and cholera morbus ? How can these affections be relieved ? 437. Show 
 the influence of the mind on the secretions. Mention instances of its 
 influence. 
 
200 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER :JCXII. 
 
 NUTRITION. 
 
 438. Nutrition is the vital act by which the different 
 parts of the body renew the materials of which they are 
 composed. Digestion, circulation, absorption, and respi- 
 ration, are but separate links in the chain of nutrition, 
 which would be destroyed by the absence of any one of 
 them. 
 
 439. The nutritive process is also a kind of secretion, by 
 which particles of matter are separated from the blood and 
 conveyed with wonderful accuracy to the appropriate tex- 
 tures. The function of the nutrient vessels antagonizes those 
 of absorption : while one system is constructing, with beautiful 
 precision, the animal frame, the other is diligently employed 
 in pulling down this complicated structure. 
 
 440. This ever-changing state of the body is shown by 
 giving animals colored matter, mixed with their food, which 
 in a short time tinges their bones with the same color as 
 the matter introduced. Let it be withdrawn, and in a few 
 days the bones will assume their former color — evidently 
 from the effects of absorption. The changeful state of the 
 body is further shown by the losses to which it is subjected ; 
 by the necessity of aliment ; by the emaciation which follows 
 abstinence from food. 
 
 438 — 464. What remarJce respecting mUritton f 438. What is nutrition ? 
 439. What is said of the nutritive process ? The function of the nutrient 
 vessels? 440. Give a proof of the ever-ohanging state of the body. Give 
 other instances illustrative of the changeful state of the body. 
 
NUTRITION. 201 
 
 441. Eveiy part of the body is subject to this continual 
 change of material, yet it is effected with such- regularity, 
 that the size, shape, and appearance, of every organ is pre- 
 served ; and after an interval of a few yeare, there may not 
 remain a particle of matter which existed in the system at a 
 former period. Notwithstanding this entire change, the per- 
 sonal identity is never lost. 
 
 442. Many calculations have been made to determine in 
 what longth of time the whole body is renewed. Some have 
 supposed that it is accomplished in four years ; others hav e 
 fixed the period at seven years; but the time of the change is 
 not definite, as was supposed by a genuine son of the Emerald 
 Isle, who had been in America seven years and three months, 
 and consequently maintained that he was ^native American. 
 
 Observation. India ink, when introduced into the skin, is 
 not removed ; hence some assert that this tissue is an excep- 
 tion to the alternate deposition and removal of its atoms. 
 The ink remains because its particles are too large to be 
 absorbed, and when in the skin it is insoluble. 
 
 443. "'Those animals which are most complicated in their 
 structure, and are distinguished by the greatest variety of 
 vital manifestations, are subject to the most rapid changes of 
 matter. Such animals require more frequent and more 
 abundant supplies of food; and, in proportion as they are 
 exposed to the greater number of external impressions, ■vt'iU 
 be the rapidity of this change of matter." 
 
 444. " Animals may be situated so that they lose nothing 
 by secretion ; consequently, they will require no nutriment. 
 Frogs have been taken from fissures in solid lime rock, which 
 
 441. Why is the personal identity never lost in the change of materials, 
 which is unceasing in the system ? 442. Give the opinion of physiologists 
 respecting the time required for the renewal of the whole body. What 
 exception to the changing state of the different textures? 44.3. What 
 animals are subject to the most rapid changes of material? 444. May 
 animals he situated so that they require no nutriment? What is rel.ated of 
 frogs? 
 
202 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 were imbedded many feet below the surface of the earth, and, 
 on being exposed to the air, exhibited signs of life." 
 
 445. The renovation of the bone, muscle, ligament, ten- 
 don, cartilage, fat, nerve., hair, &c., is not perfected merely 
 by the general circulation of the fluid which is expelled from 
 the left side of the heart, but through the agency of a system 
 of minute vessels, which, under ordinary circumstances, can- 
 not be seen by the eye, even when aided by the microscope ; 
 still, minute as they are, the function of these agents is neces- 
 sary to the continuance of life. They are the smallest capil- 
 lary vessels. 
 
 446. " As the blood goes the round of the circulation, the 
 nutrient capillary vessels select and secrete those parts which 
 are similar to the nature of the structure, and the other por- 
 tions pass on ; so that every tissue imbibes and converts to its 
 own use the very principles which it requires for its growth ; 
 or, in other words, as the vital current appf'oaches each organ, 
 the particles appropriate to it feel its attractive force, — obey 
 it, — quit the stream, — mingle with the substance of its 
 tissue, — and are changed into its own true and proper 
 nature." .^ 
 
 447. Thus, if a bone is broken, a muscle or a nerve 
 wounded, and, if the system is in a pjoper state of health, 
 the vital economy immediately sets about healing the rupture. 
 The blood, which flows from the wounded vessels, coagulates 
 in the incision, for the double purpose of stanching the wound, 
 and of forming a matrix for the regeneration of the parts. 
 Very soon, minute vessels shoot out from the living parts into 
 the coagulum of the blood, and immediately commence their 
 operations, and deposit bony matter, where it is required 
 to unite fractured bones, and nervous substance to heal tlie 
 wounded nerve, &c. 
 
 445. Show how tho ronovation of the bones, muscles, <Sto., is perfected. 
 446. Whut is said of tho offloo of tho mitiient capillary vessels ? 447. When 
 a bone is fractured, by what pmoess is it healed ? 
 
NUTRITION. 203 
 
 448. But the vital economy seems not to possess the power 
 of reproducing the muscles and true skin, and therefore, 
 when these parts are wounded, the rupture is repaired by a 
 gelatinous substance, which gradually becomes hard, and 
 sometimes assumes something of a fibrous appearance. It so 
 perfectly unites the divided muscle, however, as to restore its 
 functional power. When the cuticle is removed, it is repro- 
 duced and no scar remains ; but, when the true skin is de- 
 stroyed, a scar is formed. 
 
 449. It is not uncommon that the nutrient arteries have 
 their action so much increased in some parts, as to produce 
 preternatural growth. Sometimes the vessels whose function 
 it is to deposit fat, are increased in action, and wens of no 
 inferior size are formed. Again, there may be a deposition 
 of substances unlike any known to exist in the body. Occa- 
 sionally, these nutrient arteries of a part take on a new action, 
 and not only deposit their ordinary substance, but others, 
 which they have not heretofore secreted, but which are formed 
 by vessels of other parts of the body. It is in this way that 
 we account for the bony matter deposited in the valves of tlie 
 heart and brain, also the chalky deposits around the finger- 
 joints. 
 
 450. In infancy and childhood, the function of nutrition is 
 very active ; a large amount of food is taken, to supply the 
 place of what is lost by the action of the absorbents, and also 
 to contribute to the growth of the body. In middle age, nutri- 
 tion and absorption are more equal ; but in old age, the ab- 
 sorbents are more active than the nutrient vessels. The size, 
 consequently, diminishes, the parts become weaker, the bones 
 more brittle, the body bends forward, and every function 
 exhibits marks of decay and dissolution. ^ 
 
 451. A striking instance of active absorption in middle 
 
 448. What occurs when a muscle is divided ? 449. State some of the 
 results of an increased action of the nutrient arteries. 450. When is nu- 
 trition most activB ? How in middle age ? How in old age ? 451. Relate 
 a striking instance of active absorption in middle ago. 
 
204 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEM!. 
 
 age was exhibited in the person of Calvin Edson, of Ver- 
 mont, who was exhibited in the large towns of New England, 
 as the " living skeleton." In early manhood he was athletic, 
 and weighed one hundred and sixty pounds ; but the exces- 
 sive action of the absorbents over the nutrient vessels, re- 
 duced his weight, in the interval of eighteen years, to sixty 
 pounds. 
 
 452. Instances, on the other hand, have occurred, of the 
 action of the nutrient vessels exceeding, in an extreme de- 
 gree, those of absorption ; as in the person of a colored girl, 
 thirteen years of age, who was exhibited in New York in the 
 summer of 1840. She was of the height of misses at that 
 age, but weighed five hundred pounds. Several cases are on 
 record of persons weighing eight hundred pounds. 
 
 453. As already mentioned, the blood is the nutritive fluid 
 of animals. When this fluid is coagulated, a thick, jelly-like 
 mass floats in the serum, called coagulum. This coagulated 
 mass is composed of fibrin and red globulated matter. 
 The color of the red globules is owing to the presence of 
 iron, though some physiologists think it depends on an animal 
 substance of a gelatinous character. 
 
 Observation. That ^portion of the serum which remains 
 fluid after coagulation by heat has taken place, is called 
 se-ros'i-ty. It is more abundant in the blood of old, than in 
 that of young animals ; and it forms the " red gravy " in 
 roasted meats. 
 
 454. The blood is not necessarily red. It may be white, 
 as in most fish. There is no animal in which the blood is 
 equally red in all parts of the body. The ligaments, tendons, 
 and other white tissues in man are supplied but sparingly 
 with red blood. The fluid that supplies these tissues is 
 whitish. 
 
 452. Of excessive nutrition m early life. 463, Describe the parts that enter 
 into the composition of the blood. What part of the blood forms the red gravy 
 in roasted meats ? 454. Is the blood necessarily red 7 Of what color is tlie 
 blood of the fish J What part of the human system has white biood ? 
 
HYGIENE OF NUTRITION. 205 
 
 HYGIENE OF NUTRITION. 
 
 455 Healthy nutritionrequires pure blood. If the nutrient 
 arteries of the bones are supplied with impure blood, they 
 will become soft and brittle, their vitality will be impaired, and 
 disease will be the ultimate result. The five hundred mus- 
 cles receive another portion of the blood. These organs are 
 attached to, and act upon the bones. Upon the health and 
 contractile energy of the muscles depends the ability to labor. 
 Give these organs of motion impure blood, which is an 
 unhealthy stimulus, and they will become enfeebled, the step 
 will lose its elasticity, the movement of the arm will be 
 inefficient, and every muscle will be incapacitated to perform 
 its usual amount of labor. 
 
 456. When the stomach, liver, and other organs sub- 
 servient to the digestion of food, are supplied with impure 
 blood, the digestive process is impaired, causing faintness and 
 loss of appetite, also a deranged state of the intestines, and, 
 in general, all the symptoms of dyspepsia. 
 
 457. The delicate structure of the lungs, in which the 
 blood is or should be purified, needs the requisite amount of 
 pure blood to give them vigor and health. When the blood is 
 hot of this character, the lungs themselves lose their tone, and, 
 even if permitted to expand freely, have not power fully to 
 change the impure quality of this circulating fluid. 
 
 458. The health and beauty of the skin require that the 
 blood should be well pu*ified ; but, if the arterips of the skin 
 receive vitiated blood, pimples and blotches appear, and the 
 individual suffers from " humors." Drinks, made of various 
 
 455 — 462. Give the hygiene of nutrition. 455. What is the effect of 
 Impure blood upon the bones ? On the muscles ? 456. On the digestive 
 organs ? 457. On the lungs ? 458. Wliat is the effect if the vessels of the 
 skin are supplied with vitiated blood ? 
 
 18 
 
206 ANATOMY, PHrSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 kinds of herbs, as well as pills and powders, are taken for 
 this affection. These will never have the desired effect, 
 while the causes of impure blood exist. 
 
 459. If the nutrient arteries convey impure material to the 
 brain, the nervous and bilious headache, confusion of ideas, 
 loss of memory, impaired intellect, dimness of vision, and 
 dulness of hearing, will be experienced ; and in process of 
 time, the brain becomes disorganized, and the brittle thread 
 of life is broken. 
 
 Oiservations. 1st. An exertion of any orgail beyond iis 
 powers, induces weakness that will disturb the nutrition of the 
 part that is called into action ; and it recovers its energy 
 more slowly in proportion to the excess of the exertion. The 
 function of the organ may be totally and permanently de- 
 stroyed, if the exertion is extremely violent. We sometimes 
 see palsy produced in a muscle simply by the effort to raise 
 too great a weight. The sight is impaired, and total blind- 
 ness may be produced, by exposure to light too strong or too 
 constant. The mind may be deranged, or idiocy may follow 
 the excess of study or the over-tasking of the brain. 
 
 2d. When the function of an organ is permanently impaired 
 or destroyed by over-exertion, the nutrition of the part is 
 rendered insufficient, or is entirely arrested ; and then the 
 absorbent's remove it wholly or partially, as they do every 
 thing that is no longer useful. Thus, in palsied patients, a 
 few years after the attack, we often find scarce any trace of 
 the palsied muscles remaining ; they are reduced almost to 
 simple cellular tissue. The condition of the calf of the leg, 
 in a person having a club-foot, is a familiar proof of this. 
 
 460. The blood may be made impure, by the chyle being 
 deficient in quantity or defective in quality. This state of 
 
 459. How does impure blood affoct the brain ? What is the effect when 
 any organ is exerted beyond its powers ? What is the effcot when an organ 
 is permanently impaired ?' 460. How may the blood become impure? 
 
HYGIENE OF NUTRITION. , 207 
 
 the chyle may be produced by the food behig improper in 
 quantity or quality, or by its being talcen in an improper 
 manner, at an improper time, and when the system is not 
 prepared for it. The remedy for impure blood produced in 
 any of these ways is to correct the injudicious method of 
 using food. (See Chapters XV. and XVI.) 
 
 461. The blood may also ie rendered impure, hy not sup- 
 plying it with oxygen in the lungs, and by the carbon not 
 being eliminated from the system through this channel. The 
 remedy for " impurities of the blood," produced in this man- 
 ner, would be, to carefully reduce to practice the directions in 
 the chapters on the hygiene of the respiratory organs, rela- 
 tive to the free movements of the ribs aftd diaphragm, and 
 the proper ventilation of rooms. 
 
 462. A retention of the waste products of the skin produces 
 impure blood. When the vessels of the skin, by which the 
 waste, useless material is eliminated from the system, have 
 become inactive by improper and inadequate clothing, or by 
 a want of cleanliness, the dead, injurious atoms of matter 
 are retained in the circulatory vessels. The only suc- 
 cessful method of purifying the blood and restoring health 
 when this condition exists, is to observe the directions given 
 relative to clothing and bathing. (See Chapters XXXIII. 
 and XXXIV.) 
 
 Observation. If the blood has become " impure," or 
 " loaded with humors," (an idea generally prevalent,) it is 
 not and cannot be " purified " by taking patent pills, powders, 
 drops, &c. But, on the contrary, by observing the suggestions 
 in the preceding paragraphs, the blood can be freed of its 
 impurities, and, what is of greater importance, such " injurious 
 humors " will be prevented. 
 
 461. Mentioa another means by which the blood may be made impiire. 
 How remedied ? 462. What is the effect of want of cleanliness upon the 
 blood ? What is said respecting " humors " in the blood ? 
 
208 ANATOMY, PHYBIOLOGT, AND HYQIENE. 
 
 Pig. 88. 
 
 Pig. 88. A Irom view of the organs within the ctiest and abdomen. 1, 1, 1, 1, The 
 niusrlos of the chest. 2, 2, 2, 2, The ribs. 3, 3, 3, The upper, middle, and lower 
 lobes of tlie right lung. 4, 4, The lobes of the left lung. 5, The right ventricle of 
 the heart. 6, The left ventricle. 7, Tlie right auricle of tlie heart. 8, The left auri- 
 cle. 9, The pulmonary artery. 10, The aorto. 11, The vena cava descendena 
 12, The trachea. 13, The cesophagus. 14, 14, 14, 14, The pleura. 15, 15, 15, The 
 diaphrnjra. 16, IG, The right and left lobe of the liver. 17, The gall-cyst. 18, The 
 stomach. 26, The spleen. 19, 19, The duodenum. 20, The ascending colon. 
 21, The transverse colon. 26, The descending colon. 22, 22, 22, 22, The small intes- 
 tine. 23, 28, The abdominal walls turned down. 24, The thoracic duct, opening into 
 the left subclavian vein, (27.) 
 
ANATOMY OF THE KESPIRATOKY OKGANS. 209 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 THE RESPIRATOEY ORGANS. 
 
 463. The nutrient portion of the food is poured into the 
 left subclavian vein, (24, 27, fig. 88,) at the lower part of the 
 neck, and is carried to the right cavities of the heart. The 
 fluid in these cavities consists of the chyle 'incorporated with 
 the impure blood. Neither of these two elements is fitted to 
 promote the growth or repair the waste of the body. They 
 must be subjected to a process, by which the first can be 
 converted into blood, and the second freed of its carbonic 
 acid gas and water. This is effected by the Respiratory 
 Organs, 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE EBSPIRATORT ORGANS. 
 
 464. The respiratory organs are the Lungs, (lights,) 
 the Tra'che-a, (windpipe,) the Bronch'i-a, (subdivisions of the 
 trachea,) and the Air- Ves'i-eles, (air-cells at the extremities of 
 the bronchia.) The Di'a-phragm, (midriff,) Ribs, and several 
 Mtiscles, also aid in the respiratory process. 
 
 465. The lungs are conical organs, one on each side of 
 the chest, embracing the heart, (fig. 88,) and separated from 
 each other by a membranous partition. The color of the 
 lungs is a pinkish gray, mottled, and variously marked with 
 black. Each lung is divided into lobes, by a long and deep 
 
 463. What fluids are couTeyed into the right ca-rities of the heart ? 
 What is necessary before they can be adapted to the wants of the body ? 
 By what organs are these changes effected ? 464 — 474. Give the anatomy 
 of the respiratory organs. 464. Name the respiratory organs. What organs 
 also aid in the respiratory process? 465. Describe the lungs. 
 
 18* 
 
210 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 fissure, which extends from the posterior surface of the upper 
 part of the organ, downward and forward, nearly to the 
 anterior angle of the base. In the right lung, the upper lobe 
 IS subdivided by a second fissure. This lung is larger and 
 shorter than the left. It has three lobes, while the left hus 
 only two. 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 
 Fig. 89, A buck view of the honrt and lungs. The posterior walls of the cheat nre 
 removed. 1, S, 3, The upper, middle, and lower lobes of the riRlit lung, 8, 9, 10, The 
 two lobes of the loft lung. 6, 13, The diiiphr.i;in. 7, 7, 14, 14, The pleura that lines 
 the ribs. 4, 11, The pleura that lines the medlastine. 5, 12, 12, The portion of the 
 pleura that covers the diaphragm. 15, The trachea, 16, The laiyn.t. 19, 19, The 
 right and left bronchia. 90, The heart. 39, The lower part of the spinal column. 
 
 Explain fig. 89. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 211 
 
 466. Each lung is enclosed, and its structure maintained, 
 f a serous membrane, called the pleura^ which invests it as 
 .r as the root, and is thence reflected upon the walls of the 
 lest. The lungs, however, are on the outside of the pleura, 
 1 the same way is the head is on the outside of a cap doubled 
 pon itself. The reflected pleuree in the middle of the thorax 
 irm a partition, which divides the chest into two cavities, 
 bis partition is called the me-di-as-ti'num. 
 
 i' ' '- -A ' / ' Y 
 
 
 ^. 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
 rig. 90. The heart and lungg removed from the cheat, and the lungs freed from 
 other attachments. 1, The right auricle of th^ heart. 9, The superior vena 
 
 'a. 3, The inferior vena cava, 4, The right ventricle. 5, The pulmonary artery 
 
 ring from it. a, a, The pulmonary artery, (right and left,) entering the lungs. 
 
 >, Bronchia, or air-tubes, entering the lungs, v, v. Pulmonary veins, issuing from 
 lungs. 6, The left auricle. 7, The left ventricle. 8, The aorta. 9, The upper 
 
 e of the lefl: lung. 10, Its lower lobe. 11, The upper lobe of the light lung 
 
 The middle lobe. 13, The lower lobe. 
 
 Observation. When this membrane that covers the lungg, 
 
 :66. By what are the lungs enclosed? What is the relative position of 
 lungs and pleura? What is said of the reflected pleurae ? Explain fig. 
 What part of the lungs is affected in pleurisy ? 
 
212 ANATOM-y, FinSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 and also lines the chest, is inflamed, the disease is called 
 " pleurisy." 
 
 467. The lungs are composed of the ramifications of tlie 
 bronchial tubes, which terminate in the bronchial cells, {air- 
 cells,) lymphatics, and the divisions of the pulmonary artery 
 and veins. All of these are connected by cellular tissue, 
 which constitutes the pa-ren! chy-ma. Each lung is retained 
 in its place by its root, which is formed by the pulmonary 
 arteries, pulmonary veins, and bronchial tubes, together with 
 the bronchial vessels and pulmonary ner\'es. 
 
 468. The trachea extends from the larynx, of which it is a 
 continuation, to the third dorsal vertebra, where it divides into 
 two parts, called bronchia. It lies antenor to the spinal col- 
 umn, from which it is separated by the oesophagus. 
 
 469. The bronchia proceed from the bifurcation, or di- 
 vision of the trachea, to their corresponding lungs. Upon 
 entering the lungs, they divide into two branches, and each 
 branch divides and subdivides, and ultimately terminates in 
 small sacs, or cells, of various sizes, from the twentieth to 
 the hundredth of an inch in diameter. So numerous are these 
 bronchial or air-cells, that the aggregate extent of their lining 
 membrane in man has been computed to exceed a surface of 
 20,000 square inches, and Munro states that it is thirty times 
 the surface of the human body. 
 
 Illustration. The trachea may be compared to the trunk of 
 a tree ; the bronchia, to two large branches ; the subdivisions 
 of the bronchia, to the branchlets and twigs ; the air-cells, to 
 the buds seen on the twigs in the spring. 
 
 470. The air-vesicles and small bronchial tubes compose 
 
 467. Of what are the lungs composed? How retained in place? 
 468. Where is the trachea situated ? 469. Describe the bronchia. What 
 is the aggregate extent of the lining membrane of the air-cells ? To what 
 may the trachea and its branches be compared ? 470. What is said of 
 the air-cells and bronchial tubes ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE KESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
 
 213 
 
 largest portions of the lungs. These, when once inflated, 
 ttain air, under all circumstances, which renders their spe- 
 c gravity much less than water ; hence the vulgar term, 
 'tis, for these organs. The trachea and bronchial tubes 
 
 lined by mucous membrane. The structure of this mem- 
 ne is such, that it will bear the presence of pure air without 
 riment, but not of other substances. 
 
 ;. 91. A representation of the larynx, trachea, bronchia, and air-cells. 1, 1, 1, 
 lutllne of the right lung. 2, 2, 2, An outline of the left lung. 3, The larynx, 
 le trachea 5, The right bronchial tube. 6, The left bronchial tube. 7, 7, 7, 
 8, The BubdlTisions of the right and left bronchial tubes: 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air- 
 
 'hat membrane lines the trachea and its branches ? What is peculiar in 
 trncture ? What does fig. 91 represent ? 
 
214 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Ohservallon. The structure of the trachea and lungs may 
 be illustrated, by taking these parts of a calf or sheep and 
 inflating the air-vesicles by forcing air into the windpipe with 
 a pipe or quill. The internal structure may then be seen 
 by opening the different parts. 
 
 471. The lungs, like other portions of the system, are sup- 
 plied with nutrient arteries and nerves. The nervous filaments 
 that are distributed to these organs are in part from the tenth 
 pair, (par vagum,) that originates in the brain, and in part from 
 the sympathetic nerve. The muscles that elevate the ribs and 
 the diaphragm receive nervous fibres from a separate system, 
 which is called the respiratory. 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 Fig. 93. 1, A bronchial tube. 9, 3. 2^ Air-vesic1e9. Buth the tube and vesicles 
 are much magnified. 3, A bronchial tube and vesicles laid open. 
 
 Olsenation. When the mucous membrane of a few of the 
 larger branches of the windpipe is slightly inflamed, it is called 
 a " cold ;" when the inflammation is greater, and extends to the 
 lesser air- tubes, it is called hronch-i'tis. When the air-cells 
 and parenchyma become inflamed, it is called inflammation 
 of the lungs. Coughing is a violent expulsory effort by which 
 air is suddenly forced through the l^ronchia and trachea to 
 remove offending matter. 
 
 How may the structure of the trachea and its branches be illustrated f 
 471. Are the lungs supplied with nutrient arteries ? Where are the respir- 
 atory nerves distributed ? From what source do those organs derive their 
 nervous fllamonts? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATOKY ORGANS. 
 
 215 
 
 472. The ribs are joined to the spinal colunnn at their 
 posterior extremity ; and in front, they terminate in cartilages, 
 which unite them to the sternum. They incline downward, 
 from the spinal column to the breast-bone, and form resist- 
 ing walls that assist in producing the partial vacuum necessary 
 for inspiration. 
 
 "Fig. 93. Fig. 94. 
 
 Fig 93. A section of the chest wlien the lungs are inflated. 1, The diaphragm 
 2, The muscular walla of the abdomen. 
 
 Fig. 94. A section of the chest when the lungs are contracted. 1, The diaphragm^ 
 in common expiration. 2, 2, The muscular walls of the abdomen. 3, The position 
 of the diaphragm in forced expiration. 
 
 These engravings show the diaphragm to be more convex, and the walls of the 
 abdomen more flattened, when the lungs are collapsed, than wllen they are inflated. 
 
 473. The diaphragm is a flexible circular partition, that 
 separates the respiratory from the digestive organs, and the 
 chest from the abdomen. Its margin is attached to the spinal 
 column, tlie sternum, and cartilages of the lower ribs. The 
 lungs rest upon its upper surface, while the liver and stomach 
 
 472. Describe the ribs. Explain figs. 93 and 94. 473. Describe the dia- 
 phragm. 
 
816 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOSY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 are placed below it, (fig. 88.) In a state of repose, its upper 
 surface forms an arch, the convexity of which is toward the 
 chest. In forced expiration, its upper point reaches as high 
 as the fourth rib. In an ordinary inspiration, it is depressed 
 as low as the seventh rib, which increases the capacity of the 
 chest. 
 
 474. The respiratory muscles are, in general, attached 
 at one extremity to the parts about the shoulders, head, and 
 uppei portion of the spinal column. From these, they run 
 downward and forward, and are attached, at the opposite 
 extremity, to the sternum, clavicle, and upper rib. Other 
 muscles are attached at one extremity to a rib above, and by 
 the opposite extremity to a rib below. These fill the spaces 
 between the ribs, and, from their situation, are called in-ter- 
 cost'al muscles. 
 
 Observation. 1st. There are several actions of common 
 occurrence, that are intimately connected with respiration ; 
 such as hiccough, sneezing, &c. Hiccough is an involuntary 
 contraction of the muscles of respiration, particularly the dia- 
 phragm. 
 
 2d. Sneezing is a violent, involuntary contraction of the 
 respiratory muscles, as in hiccough. When an acrid stimu- 
 lant, as snuff, is applied to the mucous membrane of the nose, 
 an irritation is produced which is accompanied by. a violent 
 expulsion of air from the lungs. This is owing to the con- 
 nection between the nasal and respiratory nerves. 
 
 What is its form when not In action ? 474. "Where do the respiratory 
 muscles make their attachment ? What name is given to those muscles 
 that fill the places between the ribs ? What is hiccough ? What is 
 sneezing ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 217 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE KESPIRATOEY ORGANS. 
 
 475. Respiration, or breathing, is that process by which air 
 is taken into the lungs and expelled from them. The object of 
 respiration is, 1st. To supply the system with oxygen, which is 
 essential to the generation of animal heat ; 2d. To convert the 
 chyle into blood. This is done by the oxygen of the inspired 
 air ; 3d. To relieve the organs of the body of the principal 
 elements (carbon and hydrogen) that compose the old and 
 useless particles of matter. The organs of the system, as 
 already mentioned, are principally composed of carbon^ hy- 
 drogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. 
 
 476. By the action of the lymphatics and capillary veins, 
 the old and worn-out particles are conveyed into the veins of 
 the systemic circulation. The hydrogen, in form of watery 
 vapor, is easily discharged in the perspiration and other secre- 
 tions. The nitrogen and oxygen are, or may be, separated 
 from the blood, through the agency of several different organs ,• 
 but carbon does not escape so readily. It is probable that a 
 part of the surplus carbon of the venous blood is secreted by 
 the liver ; but a far greater amount passes to the lungs, and 
 these may be considered as special organs designed to sepa- 
 rate this element from the venous blood. 
 
 477. An ordinary inspiration may be accomplished by the 
 action of the diaphragm, and a slight elevation of the ribs. In 
 
 475—494. Oive the x>h.ysiology of the respiratory organs. 475. What ia 
 respiration? What is the principal object in breathing? 476. How are 
 the useless atoms of matter conveyed into the veins of the systemic circu- 
 lation? . How may the principal elementary substances be separated from 
 the blood ? 477. How may an ordinary inspiration be accomplished ? 
 
 19 
 
218 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYiilENE. 
 
 full inspiration, the diaphragm is not only more depressed, 
 but the ribs are evidently elevated. To produce this effect on 
 the ribs, two sets of muscles are called into action. Those 
 which are attached to the upper rib, sternum, and cavicle, 
 contract and elevate the lower and free extremities of the ribs. 
 This enlarges the cavity of the chest between the spinal 
 column and the sternum. But the lateral diameter, in conse- 
 quence, is only slightly increased, because the central portion 
 of the ribs sinks lower than their posterior extremities, or 
 their ci^rtilaginous attachment to the sternum. 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 3 2 
 
 Fig. 95. 6, Four of the vertebriE, to which are attached three ribs, (7, 7, 7,) with 
 their intercostal muscles, (8, 8.) Tliese ribs, in their natural position, have thoir 
 anterior cartilaginous extremity at 4, while the posterior eitremity is atladied to the 
 vertebra:, (6,) wliich are neither elevated nor depressed in respiration. 1, I, and 
 2, 2, parallel lines, within which the ribs lie in their natural position. If Uie anterior 
 extremity of the ribs 1? elevated fVom 4 to 5, they will not lie within tlie line a, 9, but 
 will reach the line 3, 3. If two bands extend from 1, 1, to 3, S, tbey will eSectually 
 prevent the elevation of the ribs f>om 4 to 5, as the lineS, 3, cannot be moved to 3, 3. 
 
 478. The central portion of the ribs is raised by the actiod 
 of intercostal muscles. The first, or upper rib, has but little 
 movement ; the second has more motion than the first, while 
 
 What effect has a full inspiration on the ribs and diaphragm ? How is 
 the chest enlarged between the spinal column and sternum ? What is said 
 of the lateral diameter of the chest ? Explain fig. 9S. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OP THE RESPIEATORT ORGANS 219 
 
 the third has still more than the second. The second rib is 
 elevated by the contraction of the muscles between it and the 
 first. The third rib is raised by the action of two sets of 
 muscles ; one lies between the first and second ribs, the other 
 between the second and third. 1 he motion of each succeed- 
 ing rib is increased, because it is not only acted upon by the 
 muscles that move the ribs above, but by an additional inter- 
 costal ; so that the movement of the twelfth rib is very free, 
 as it is elevated by the contraction of eleven muscles. 
 
 479. The tenth rib is raised eight times as much as the 
 second rib, and the lateral diameter of the lower portion of the 
 chest is increased in a corresponding degree.. At the same 
 time, the muscular margin of the diaphragm contracts, which 
 depresses its central portion ; and in this way, the chest is 
 enlarged forward, laterally, and downward, simultaneously 
 with the relaxation of the walls of the abdomen. 
 
 480. The lungs follow the variations of capacity in the 
 chest, expanding their air-cells when the latter is enlarged, 
 and contracting when the chest is diminished. Thus, when 
 the chest is expanded, the lungs follow, and consequently a 
 vacuum is produced in their air-cells. The air then rushes 
 through the mouth and nose into the trachea and its branches, 
 and fills the vacuum as fast as it is made. This mechanical 
 process constitutes inspiration. 
 
 481. After the expansion of the chest, the muscles that 
 elevated the ribs relax, together with the diaphragm. The 
 elasticity of the cartilages of the ribs depresses them, 
 and the cavity of the chest is diminished, attended by the 
 expulsion of a portion of the air from the lungs. At the 
 same time, the muscles that form the front walls of the 
 
 478. Describe the action of the intercostal muscles upon the ribs. 
 
 479. How does the elevation of th« tenth rib compare with the second? 
 What efTeet has this elevation upon the lateral diameter of the chest,? 
 
 480. Describe the process of inspiration. 481. Describe the process by 
 which the air is forced out of the lungs. 
 
220 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 abdominal cavity, contract, and press the alimentary canal, 
 stomach, and liver, upward against the diaphragm; this, being 
 relaxed, yields to the pressure, rises upward, and presses 
 upon the lungs, which retreat before it, and another portion 
 of air is expelled from these organs. This process is called 
 expiration. 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 Pfg, 95. A front riew of the cheat and abdomen in respiration. 1, 1, The position 
 of the walls of the chest in inspiration. 9, S. % The position of the diaphragm in 
 inspiration. 3, 3, The position of ^Iie wails of the chest in expiration. 4, 4, 4, The 
 position of the diaphragm in expiration. 5, 5, The position of the walls of the abdo- 
 men in inspiration. 6, 6, The position of the abdominal walls in expiration 
 
 482. Thus it is obvious that the enlargement of the chest, 
 or inspiration, is produced in two ways : 1st. By the depres- 
 sion of the convex portion of the diaphragm ; 2d. By the 
 elevation of the ribs. On the contrary, the contraction of the 
 
 Explain fig. 9S. 482. In how man; ways may the chest be enlarged, and 
 tiow ii> it accomplished ? How is the contraction of the chest effected ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIKATORY OKBANS. 
 
 221 
 
 chest, or expiration, is produced by the depression of the riba, 
 and elevation of the central part of the diaphragm. These 
 movements are successive during life, and constitute res- 
 piration. 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 Fig. 97. A side view of the chest and abdomen in respiration. 1, The cavity of 
 the chest. % The cavity of the abdomen. 3, The line of direction for the diaphragm 
 when relaxed in expiration. 4, The line of direction for the diaphragm when con- 
 tracted in inspiration. 5, 6, The positi^iuif the front walls of the chest and abdo- 
 men in inspiration. 7, 8, The position of the front walls of the abdomen and chest 
 in expiration. 
 
 . Experiment. Place the ear upon tlie chest of a person, 
 and a murmuring sound will be heard, somewhat like the soft 
 sighings of the wind through forest-trees. This sound is 
 
 Explain fig. 97. How Daay the murmur of respiration be heard ? 
 
 19* 
 
822 ANATOMY, PHTSIOLOGV, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 caused by the air rushing in and out of the lungs, and is 
 peculiarly distinct in the child. 
 
 483. It is not easy to decide how much air is taken into 
 the lungs at each inspiration. The quantity, however, must 
 vary in different individuals, from the difference in the condi- 
 tion and expansion of the lungs, together with the size of the 
 chest. From numerous experiments, the quantity, at an 
 ordinary inspiration, of a common-sized man, is fixed at forty" 
 cubic inches. It has been estimated that one hundred and 
 seventy cubic inches can be thrown out of the lungs by a for- 
 cible expiration, and that there remain in the lungs two hun- 
 dred and twenty cubic inches ; so that these organs, in their 
 quiescent state, may be considered as containing about three 
 hundred and ninety cubic inches of air, or more than a gallon. 
 
 484. Respiration is more frequent in females and children 
 than in adult men. In diseases, particularly tliose of the 
 lungs, it is more increased in frequency than the action of the 
 heart. In health, the smallest number of mspirations in a 
 minute by an adult, is not less than fourteen, and they rarely 
 exceed twenty-five. Eighteen may be considered an average 
 number. The quantity of oxygen taken into the lungs at 
 each inspiration is about eight cubic inches, one half of which 
 disappears in every act of respiration. 
 
 Observation. Under different circumstances, however, the 
 consumption of oxygen varies. It is greater when the tem- 
 perature is low, than when it is high ; and during digestion, 
 the consumption has been found one half greater than when 
 the stomach was empty. 
 
 483. Can it be ascertainfid with accuracy how much air is taken into the 
 lungs at each inspiration ? Why not ? What is the probable quantity 
 that an ordinary sized man inspires ? How much can be thrown out of 
 the langs at a forcible expiration, and how much remains in the lungs ' 
 From these calculations, how much may they contain in their quiescent 
 state ! 484. In whom is respiration most frequent ? How in disease ? 
 How in health? How many may be considered an average number? 
 When is the consumption of oxygen the greatest i 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF TUB RESPIRATORY ORQANS. 223 
 
 485. Dr. Southwood Smith has lately performed a series 
 of very interesting experiments, from which he deduces the 
 following general results : " 1st. The volume of air ordinarily 
 present in the lungs is about twelve pints. 2d. The volume 
 of air received by the lungs at an ordinary inspiration is one 
 pint. 3d. The volume of air expelled from the lungs at an 
 ordinary expiration, is a little less than one pint. 4th. Of the 
 volume of air received by the lungs at one inspiration, only 
 one fourth part is decomposed at one action of the heart. 
 5th. The quantity of blood that flows to the lungs, to be acted 
 upon by the air at one action of the heart, is two ounces, and 
 this is acted on in less than one second of time. 6th. The 
 quantity of blood in the whole body of the human adult, is 
 twenty-five pounds avoirdupois, or twenty pints. 7th. In the 
 mutual action that takes place between the air and blood, 
 every twenty-four hours, the air loses thirty-seven ounces 
 of oxygen, and the blood fourteen ounces of carbon." 
 
 486. Apparently, atmospheric air is a simple element. 
 But chemical analysis shows its composition to be oxygen and 
 nitrogen, in the proportion of fwenty-one parts of the former, 
 and about seventy-nine of the latter. In addition, there is a 
 small amount of vapor of water and cabonic acid. The pros- 
 suie of this invisible, ekistic fluid upon the body of an ordinary 
 sized adult, is estimated to equal thirty-five thousand pounds. 
 
 487. The principal substance of a vitiated character in the 
 dark-colored blood is carbonic acid. And since there is no 
 chemical aflSnity between the oxygen and nitrogen of the 
 air, the former readily unites with some of the elements of 
 the blood. Hence, whenever blood is presented to the 
 
 485. State the Ist, 2d, 3A, and 4th deductions from the experiments of Di. 
 Southwood Smith. The 5th, 6th, and 7th. 486. Of what is atmospheric air 
 composed ? What is the weight of air upon a common si^ed man 7 487. What 
 is the principal substance of a vitiated character in the darlt-colored olood ? 
 What is said of the chemical affinity between oxygen nnd nitrogen I 
 
224 ANATOMY, PhVblOLOGY, AND HVGIENB. 
 
 air in the lungs, the oxygen leaves the nitrogen, and becomes 
 mixpd with the circulating fluid. (Appendix J.) 
 
 488. Again, carbonic acid and water have a stronger 
 affinity for atmospheric air than for the other elements of the 
 blood. Consequently, when they are brought into contact 
 with the air in the lungs, the carbonic acid and water leave 
 the other constituents of the blood, and unite with the air. In 
 this way the bluish, or impure blood is relieved of- its impu- 
 rities, and becomes the red, or pure blood, which contains the 
 principles so essential to life. (Appendix K.) 
 
 489. The formation of carbonic acid and water, eliminated 
 from the system through the lungs and skin, is explained by 
 the following theory: In the lungs and upon the skin the 
 oxygen separates from the nitrogen and unites with the blood 
 in the capillary vessels of these organs. The oxygen is con- 
 veyed with the blood to the capillary arteries and veins of the 
 diflerent tissues of the system. In these membranes there is 
 a chemical union of the oxygen with the carbon and hydrogen 
 rontained in the blood and waste atoms of the system. This 
 combustion, or union of oxygen- with carbon and hydrogen, is 
 attended with the disengagement of heat, auid Jie formation 
 of carbonic acid and water. (Appendix L.) 
 
 490. The following experiment will illustrate the passage 
 of fluids through membranes, and the different affinity of 
 gases for each other. Put a mixture of water and alcohol 
 into a phial and leave it uncorked. Both tlie water and 
 alcohol have a greater affinity for air than for each other. 
 Alcohol has a greater affinity for the air, and will be diffused 
 through it more readily than the water, when tliere is no 
 intervening obstacle. But tie a piece of bladder over the 
 mouth of the phial, and let it stand a few days, — the water 
 
 488. What is formed when oxygen unites with carbon or hydrogen 1 
 489. Give the theory Cor the formation of carbonic acid and watery vapor 
 thrown out of the system. 490. Illustrate the passage of fluids through 
 membranes, and the different affinities of gases. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIKATOEY OKSANS. 225 
 
 will leave the alcohol, and pass through the membrane. By 
 ihe aid of this experiment, we shall endeavor to explain the 
 interchange of fluids in the lungs. 
 
 491. The walls of the air-vesicles, and coats of the blood- 
 vessels, are similar, in their mechanical arrangement, to the 
 membranous bladder in the before described experiment. 
 As the oxygen of the air has greater affinity for blood than for 
 nitrogen,- so it permeates the membranes that intervene be- 
 tween the air and blood more readily than the nitrogen. 
 As the carbonic acid and water have a greater affinity for 
 air than for the other elements of the blood, so they will also 
 pass through the walls of the blood-vessels and air-cells more 
 readily than the other elements of the dark-colored blood. 
 
 Fig, 
 
 Pig. 98. I, A bronchia) "ibe divided into tliree brandies. 2, a, 2, Air-cells. 
 b. Branches of the pulmonary artery, that spread over the air-cells. Through the 
 pulmonary; artery the dark, impure blood is carried, to the air-cells of the lungs. 
 4, Branches' of the pulmonary vein, that commence at the minute terminations of the 
 pulmonary artery. Through the pulmonary vein the red blood is returned to the heart. 
 
 492. As the impure blood is passing in the minute vessels 
 over the air-cells, the oxygen passes through the thin coats of 
 the air-cells and blood-vessels, and unites with the blood. At 
 the same time, the carbonic acid and water leave the blood, 
 and pass through the coats of the blood-vessels and air-cells, 
 and mix with the air in the cells. These are thrown out of the 
 system every time we breathe. This interchange of products 
 produces the change in the color of the blood. 
 
 Explain fig. 9S. 492. How and where is the blood changed? 
 
226 
 
 ANATOMy, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Experiment. Fill a bladder with dark blood drawn from 
 any animal. Tie the bladder closely, and suspend it in the 
 air. In a few hours, the blood next the membrane will have 
 become of a bright red color. This is owing to the oxygen 
 from the air passing through the bladder, and unitmg with 
 the blood, while the carbonic acid has escaped through the 
 
 membrane. 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 >3. 
 
 Fig. 99. An ideal view of the pulmonary circulation. 1, 1, The right Inng. 
 e, a, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, The right bronchial tube. S, The left 
 bronchial tiibtt. 6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells. 7, The right auricle. 8, The right veutride. 
 9, The tricu.spid valves. 10, The pulmonary artery. 11, The branch to the right 
 lung. 12, Ttie branch to the left lung. 13, The right pulmonary vein. 14, The 
 left pulmonary vein. 15. The left auricle. IG, The left ventricle. 17, The 
 Eoltral valves. 
 
 493. The presence of carbonic acid and watery vapor in 
 the expired air, can be proved by the following experiments : 
 
 nivo the experiment showing that oxygon changes the dark-colored 
 bloorl to ft bright rod color. What is represented by fig. 99 ? 493. How can 
 the pro.'ence of carbonic ncirt in Ihe lungs he proved? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 227 
 
 1st. Breathe into lime-water, and in a few minutes it will 
 become of a milk-white color. This is owing to the carbonic 
 acid of the breath uniting with the lime, forming the car- 
 bonate of lime. 2d. Breathe upon a cold, dry mirror for a 
 few minutes, and it will be covered with moisture. This is 
 condensed vapor from the lungs. In warm weather, this 
 watery vapor is invisible in the expired air, but in a cold, dry 
 morning in winter, the successive jets of vapor issuing from 
 the mouth and nose are sufficiently obvious. 
 
 494. From the lungs are eliminated other impurities be- 
 side carbonic acid, the perceptible quality of which is various 
 in different persons. The offensive breath of many persons 
 may be caused by decayed teeth, or the particles of food that 
 may be retained between them, but it often proceeds from the 
 secretion, in the lungs, of certain substances which previously 
 existed in the system. 
 
 Illustration. When spirituous liquors are taken into the 
 stomach, they are absorbed by the veins and mixed with the 
 dark-colored blood, in which they are carried fe the lungs to 
 be expelled from the body. This will explain the fact, which 
 is familiar to most persons, that the odor of different sub- 
 stances is perceptible in the breath, or expired air, long after 
 the mouth is free from these substances. 
 
 How the watery vapor ? 494. Are there other excretions from the lungs ? 
 Give the illustration. 
 
 Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory organs be 
 reviewed from iigs. 96, 97, and 99, or from anatomical outline plates Nos. 
 5 and 7- 
 
228 ANATOMY, I'lIYSIOLOGY, ANU HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
 
 495. For man to enjoy the highest degree of health, it 
 is necessary that the impure " venous " blood be properly 
 changed. As this is effected in the lungs by the action of the 
 air, it follows that this element, when breathed, should bo 
 ])ure, or contain twenty-one per cent, of oxygen to about 
 seventy-nine per cent, of nitrogen. 
 
 496. The volume of air expelled from the lungs is some- 
 what less than that which is inspired. The amount of loss 
 varies under different circumstances. An eightieth part of 
 the volume taken into the lungs, or half a cubic inch, may be 
 considered an average estimate. 
 
 497. The quality and purity of the air is affected hy every 
 respiration. 1st. The quantity of oxygen is diminished. 
 '2d. ThB amount of carbonic acid is increased. 3d. A certain 
 proportion of watery vapor is ejected from the lungs in the 
 expired air. Of the twenty-one parts of oxygen in the 
 inspired air, only eighteen parts are expired, while the car- 
 bonic acid and watery vapor are increased about four per 
 cent. The quantity of nitrogen is nearly the same in the 
 expired as in the inspired air. 
 
 Obseruation. It is now fully ascertained that while the 
 chemical composition of the blood is essentially changed, ita 
 
 495—^46. Give the hygiene of the respiratory oiyatis. 495. "Wliat is 
 necessary that man enjoy the highest degree of health ? 496. How docs 
 the volume of expired air compare with that which was inspired ? Does 
 Ihis loss vary, and what is an average estimate f 497. How is the purity 
 of the air affected by respiration ? How is the inhaled oxygen afTected ? 
 What effect on the carbonic acid and watery vapor ? On the nitrogen ? 
 What is said respeoting the weight of the blood ? 
 
HYGIEIiE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. ^29 
 
 weigbt remains the same, as the carbon and hydrogen dis- 
 charged are equal to the united weight (Jf the oxygen and 
 nijrog6n absorbed. 
 
 498. If one fourth part of the volume of air received by 
 the lungs at one inspiration is decomposed at one " beat " 
 of the heart, it might be supposed that if the expired air be 
 again received into the lungs, one half of the oxygen would 
 be consumed, and, in a similar ratio, if re-breajhed four times, 
 all the oxygen would be consumed. But it does not follow, if 
 the air is thus re-breathed, that the same changes will be 
 effected in the lungs. For air that has been inspired does 
 not part with its remaining oxygen, as freely as when it con- 
 tains the proper amount of this life-giving element, and thus 
 the changes in the impure blood are not so completely effected. 
 
 Illustration. In the process of dyeing, each successive 
 article immersed in the dye weakens it ; but it does not 
 follow that the dye each time is affected in the same degree, 
 or that the coloring matter by repeated immersions can be 
 wholly extracted. The same principle applies to the exchange 
 of oxygen and carbonic acid gas in the lungs. 
 
 499. If the inspired air is free from moisture and carhonie 
 acid, these substances contained in the Hood will he more 
 readily imparted to it. When the air is loaded with vapor, they 
 are removed more slowly ; but if it is saturated with moisture, 
 no vapor will escape from the blood through the agency of the 
 lungs. This may be illustrated by the following experiment : 
 Take two and a half pounds of water, add to it half a pound of 
 common salt, (chloride of sodium,) and it will readily mix 
 with the water ; and to this solution add the same quantity of 
 salt, and it will be dissolved more slowly. Again, add more 
 salt', and it will remain undissolved, as the water has become 
 saturated by the pound before dissolved. 
 
 498. Does air that is re-breathed freely impart its oxygen? Why? 
 499 What is the effect on the blood when the air is free from vapor and 
 carbonic aeid? When loaded with vapor? When saturated ? How is this 
 illffetratcd ? 
 
 20 
 
230 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 500. The principle in this experiment is analogous to that 
 of the union between carbonic gas and atmospheric air. 
 Allen and Pepy showed by experiment, that air which had 
 been once breathed, contained eight and a half per cent, of 
 carbonic acid. They likewise showed, that no continuance of 
 the respiration of the same air could make it take up more 
 than ten per cent. This is the point of saturation. 
 
 Experiment. Sink a glass jar that has a stop-cock, or one 
 with a glass stopper, into a pail of water, until the air is expelled 
 from the jar. Fill the lungs with air, and retain it in the 
 chest a short time, and then bre^athe into the jar, and instantly 
 close the stop-cock. Close the opening of the jar that is under 
 the water with a piece of paper laid on a plate of sufficient 
 size to cover the opening, invert the jar, and sink into it a 
 lighted candle. The flame will be extinguished as quickly 
 as if put in water.* Remove the carbonic acid by inverting 
 the jar, and place a lighted candle in it, and the flame will be 
 as clear as when out of the jar. 
 
 Ohservations. 1st. It is familiarly known that a taper will 
 not burn where carbonic acid exists in any considerable 
 quantity, or when there is a marked deficiency of oxygen. 
 From this originated the judicious practice of sinking a lighted 
 candle into a well or pit before descending into it. If the 
 flame is extinguished, respiration cannot there be maintained, 
 and life would be sacrificed should a person venture in, until 
 the noxious air is removed. 
 
 2d. It is the action of carbonic acid upon the respiratoiy 
 
 * Ab a subslitute for a jar with a stop-oock, take a piece of lead 
 pipe bent in the form of a siphon, and insert it in the mouth of a 
 reversed jar. This experiment is ns conclusive whether the air is 
 inlialed once only or breathed many times. 
 
 600. What did the experiments of Allen and Pepy show? How can the 
 presence of carbonic gas in the expired air be demonstrated ? State 
 observation Int. Ohservntion 2d. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 231 
 
 organs that gives rise to a phenomenon frequently seen in 
 mines and caves. A man may enter these subterranean 
 rooms, and feel no inconvenience in breathing; but the dog 
 that follows him, falls apparently dead, and soon dies if not 
 speedily removed to pure air. This arises from the fact that 
 this gas is heavier than air, and sinks to the bottom of the 
 room or cave. 
 
 3d. While it is true that carbonic acid possesses properties 
 that render it unfit to be breathed, it is, notwithstanding, 
 productive of very agreeable effects, when conveyed into 
 the stomach. It forms the sparkling property of mineral 
 waters, and fills the bubbles that rise when beer or cider is 
 fermenting. 
 
 501. Pure atmospheric air is best adapted to a healthy 
 action of the system. As the air cannot be maintained pure 
 under all circumstances, the question may be asked, To what 
 degree may the air be vitiated and still sustain life .' and 
 what is the smallest quantity of pure air a person needs each 
 minute to maintain good health ? Birnan says, that air which 
 contains more than three and a half per cent, of carbonic 
 acid is unfit for respiration, and, as air once respired contains 
 eight and a half per cent, of carbonic acid, it clearly shows 
 that it is not fitted to be breathed again. 
 
 502. No physiologist pretends that less than seven cubic 
 feet of air are adequate for a man ,to breathe each minute, 
 while Dr. Reid 'allows ten feet. The necessity of fifteen or 
 twenty times the amount of air actually taken into the lungs, 
 arises from the circumstance, that the expired air mixes 
 with and vitiates the surrounding element that has not been 
 inhaled. 
 
 503. The quantity of air which different persons actually 
 
 CbserTation 3d. 501. What questions may be asked respecting the 
 inspired air ? Give the remark of Birnan. 602. How many cubic feet of 
 air are adequate for a man to breathe each minute? How much does Dr. 
 Reid allow ? 503. Mention some reasons why different persons do not require 
 the Siime amount of air. 
 
232 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 need, varies. The demand is modified by the size, age, 
 habits, and condition of the body. A person of great size 
 who . has a large quantity of blood, requires more air than a 
 small man with a less amount of circulating fluid. Individuals 
 whose labor is active, require more air than sedentary or idle 
 persons, because the waste of the system is greater. On the 
 same principle, the gormandizer needs more of this element 
 than the person of abstemious habits. So does the growing 
 lad require more air than an adult of the same weight, for 
 the reason that he consumes more food than a person of 
 mature years. Habit also exerts a controlling influence. A 
 ' man who works in the open air suffers more when placed in 
 a small, unventilated room, than one who is accustomed to 
 breathe the confined air of workshops. 
 
 504. Air, in which lamps will not hum with hrilliancy, is 
 unfitted for respiration. In crowded _rooms, which are not 
 ventilated, the air is vitiated, not only by the abstraction of 
 oxygen and the deposition of carbonic acid, but by the excre- 
 tions from the skin and lungs of the audience. The lamps, 
 under such circumstances, emit but a feeble light. Let tlie 
 oxygen gas be more and more expended, and the lamps will 
 burn more and more feebly, until they are extinguished. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. The effects of breathing tlie same air 
 again and again, are well illustrated by an incident that 
 occurred in one of our Jialls of learning. A large audience 
 had assembled in an ill-ventilated room, to lis!en to a lecture ; 
 soon the lamps burned so dimly that the speaker and audience 
 were nearly enveloped in darkness. The oppression, diz- 
 ziness, and faintness experienced by many of the audience, 
 induced them to leave, and in a few minutes after, the lamps 
 were observed to rekin lie, owing to the exchange of pure air 
 on opening the door. 
 
 How is it with the laborer ? With the gormandizer f AVith the person 
 that works in the open air ? 504. What effect has impure air on a burning 
 lamp ? GiTO the illustration of the effects of impure air on lighted lamps. 
 
HYOIENE 01 THE RESPIUATORY ORGANS. 233 
 
 2d. In the "Black Hole of Calcutta," one hundred and 
 forty-six Englishmen were shut up "in a room eighteen feet 
 square, with only two small windows on the same side to admit 
 air. On opening this dungeon, ten hours after their imprison- 
 ment, only twenty-three were alive. The others had died 
 from breathing impure air. 
 
 505. Air that has become impure from the abstraction of 
 oxygen, an excess of carbonic acid, or the excretions from the 
 lungs and skin, has a deleterious effect on the body. When 
 this element is vitiated from the preceding causes, it prevents 
 the proper arterialization, or change in the blood. For this 
 reEison, pure air should be admitted freely and constantly into 
 work-shops and dwelling-houses, and the vitiated air permitted 
 to escape. This is of greater importance than the warming 
 of these apartments. We can compensate for the deficiency 
 of a stove, by an extra garment or an increased quantity of 
 food ; but neither garment, exercise, nor food will compensate 
 for pure air. 
 
 506. School-rooms should be ventilated. If they are not, 
 the pupils will be restless, and complain of languor and head- 
 ache. These unpleasant sensations are caused by a want of 
 pure air, to give an adequate supply of oxygen to the lungs. 
 When pupils breathe for a series of years such vitiated air, 
 their life is undoubtedly shortened, by giving rise to consump- 
 tion and other fatal diseases. 
 
 Illustration. A school-room thirty feet square and eight 
 feet high, contains 7200 cubic feet of air. This room will 
 seat sixty pupils, and, allowing ten cubic feet of air to each 
 pupil per minute, all the air in the room will be vitiated in 
 twelve minutes. 
 
 Observation. In all school-rooms where there is not ade- 
 
 Of the effects of breathing impure air. 505. In preserving healtn, what 
 is of greater importance than warming the room f 506. Why should a 
 school-ioom be ventilated ? Give the illustration. 
 
 20* 
 
23-i ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 quale ventilation, it is advisable to have a recess of five or 
 ten minutes each hour. During this time, let the pupils 
 breathe fresh air, and open the doors and windows, so that the 
 air of the room shall be completely changed. 
 
 507. Churches, concert halls, and all rooms designed for 
 a collection of individuals, should be amply ventilated. While 
 the architect and workmen are assiduous in giving these public 
 rooms architectural beauty and splendor, by adorning the 
 ceiling with Gothic tracery, rearing richly carved columns, 
 and providing carefully for the warming of the room, it too 
 frequently happens that no direct provision is made for the 
 change of that element which gives us beauty, strength, 
 and life. 
 
 Illustration. A hall sixty feet by forty, and fifteen feet 
 high, contains 36,000 cubic feet of air. A hall of this size 
 will seat four hundred persons; by allowing ten cubic feet of 
 air to each person per minute, the air of the room will be 
 rendered unfit for respiration in nine minutes. 
 
 508. Railroad cars, cabins of steam and canal-boats, omni^ ^ 
 buses, and stage-coaches, require ample ventilation. In the 
 construction of these public conveyances, too frequently, the 
 only apparent design is, \o seat the greatest number of persons, 
 regardless of the quantity and character of the air to maintain 
 health and even life. The character of the air is only realized 
 when, from the fresh, pure air, we enter a crowded cabin of 
 a boat or a closed coach ; then the vitiated air from animal 
 excretions and noxious gases is offensive, and frequently pro- 
 duces sickness. 
 
 509. The influence of habit is strikingly expressed by 
 Birnan, in the " Art of Warming and Ventilating Rooms : " 
 " Not the least remarkable example of the power of habit is 
 
 What suggestion when a school-room is not ventilated ? 507, What is 
 said in regard to ventilating churches, concert halls, &c. ? State the 
 illustration. 508. What remarks relative to public conveyances ? 509. State 
 the influence of habit by Birnan. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 285 
 
 its reconciling us to practices which, but for its influence, 
 would be considered noxious and disgusting. We instihclively 
 shun approach to the dirty, the scjualid, and the diseased, and 
 use no garment that may have been worn by another. We 
 open sewers for matters that offend the sight or the smell, and 
 contaminate the air. We carefully remove impurities from 
 what we eat and drink, filter turbid water, and fastidiously 
 avoid drinking from a cup that may have been pressed to the 
 lips of a friend. On the other hand, we resort to places of 
 assembly, and draw into our mouths air loaded with effluvia 
 from the lungs, skin, and clothing of every iadividual in the 
 promiscuous crowd — exhalations offensive, to a certain extent, 
 from the most healthy individuals ; but when arising from a 
 living mass of skin and lungs, in all stages of evaporation, 
 disease, and putridity, — prevented by the walls and ceiling 
 from escaping, — they are, when thus concentrated, in the 
 highest degree deleterious and loathsome." 
 
 510. The sleeping-room should he so ventilated that the air 
 in the morning will he as pure as when retiring to rest in the 
 evening. Ventilation of the room would prevent morning 
 headaches, the want of appetite, and languor — so common 
 among the feeble. The impure air of sleeping-rooms proba- 
 bly causes more deaths than intemperance. Look around the 
 country, and those who are most exposed, who live in huts 
 but little superior to the sheds that shelter the farmer's flocks, 
 are found to be the most healthy and robust. Headaches, liver 
 complaints, coughs, and a multitude of nervous affections, are 
 almost unknown to them ; not so with those who spend their 
 days and nights in rooms in which the sashes of the windows 
 are calked, or perchance doubled, to prevent the keen but 
 healthy air of winter from, entering their apartments. Disease 
 and suffering are their constant companions. 
 
 610. What is said of the ventilation of sleeping-rooms ? What would 
 adequate ventilation prevent ? Give a common observation. 
 
236 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 Illustration. By many, sleeping apartments twelve feet 
 sqiiare tind seven feet high, are considered spacious for two 
 persons, and good accomntodations for four to lodge in. An 
 apartnient of this size contains 1008 cubic feet of air. Al- 
 lowing ten cubic feet to each person per minute, two occupants 
 would vitiate the air of the room in fifty minutes, and four in 
 twenty-five minutes. When lodging-rooms are not ventilated, 
 we would strongly recommend early rising. 
 
 511. The sick-room, particularly, should he so arranged 
 that the impure air may escape, and pure air he constantly ad- 
 milted into the room. It is no unusual practice in some com- 
 munities, when a child or an adult is sick of an acute disease, 
 to prevent the ingress of pure air, simply from the apprehen- 
 sion of the attendants, that the patient will contract a cold. 
 Again, the prevalent custom of several individuals sitting in 
 the sick-room, particularly when they remain there for several 
 hours, tends to vitiate the air, and, consequently, to increase 
 the suffering and danger of the sick person. In fevers or 
 inflammatory diseases of any kind, let the patient breathe 
 pure air ; for the purer the blood, the greater the power of the 
 system to remove disease, and the less the liability to con- 
 tract colds. 
 
 Olservation. Among children, convulsions, or " fits," usu- 
 ally occur when they are sleeping. In many instances, these 
 are produced by the impure air which is breathed. To pre- 
 vent these alarming and distressing convulsions, the sleeping- 
 room should be ventilated, and there should be no curtains 
 around the bed, or coverings over the face, as they produce 
 an effect similar to that experienced when sleeping in a small, 
 unventilated room. To relieve a child when convulsed, carry 
 it into the open air. 
 
 512. While occupying a room, we are insensihle of the 
 
 AVlat is said of the size of sloeping-rooms 7 511. What is said of the 
 siok-rootu ? Mention some provailing customs in reference to these rooms. 
 What is said of convulsions among children ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE EESPIKATORY OUGANS. 237 
 
 idual vitiation of the air. This is the resuh of the dimin- 
 3d sensibility of the nervous system, and gradual adaptation 
 the organs to blood of a less stimulating character. This 
 idition is well illustrated in the hibernating animals. We 
 
 insensible of the impure air of unventilated sleeping- rooms, 
 il we leave them for a walk or ride. If they have been 
 sed, we are made sensible of the character of the air as 
 n as we reenter them, for the system has regained its usual 
 sibility while inhaling a purer atmosphere. 
 313. In the construction of every inhabited room, there 
 mid he adequate means of ventilation, as well as warming. 
 
 room is well ventilated, unless as much pure air is brought 
 3 it as the occupants vitiate at every respiration. This can 
 effected by making an aperture in the ceiling of the room, 
 by constructing a ventilating flue in the chimney. This 
 luld be in contact with the flues for the escape of smoke, 
 ; separated from them by a thin brick partition. The hot 
 
 in the smoke flues will warm the separating brick partition, 
 1 consequently rarefy the air in the ventilating flue. Com- 
 nication from every room in a house should be had to such 
 3s. The draught of air can be regulated by well-adjusted 
 ;isters, which in large rooms should be placed near the floor 
 well as near the ceiling. 
 
 )14. While provision is made for the escape of rarefied 
 pure air, we should also provide means by which pure air 
 y be constantly admitted into the room, as the crevices of 
 
 doors and windows are not always su$cient ; and, if they 
 mid be adequate, air can be introduced in a more conven- 
 t, economical, and appropriate manner. There should be 
 aperture opposite the ventilating flue, at or near the floor, 
 connect with the outer walls of the building or external air. 
 
 12. Why are we insensible to the gradual vitiation of the air of an «n- 
 tilated room ? 613. What is very important in the building of every 
 abited room ? How can a room be well ventilated f 514. What is said- 
 itive to a communication with the external air ? 
 
238 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 But if pure heated air is introduced into the room, it obviates 
 the necessity of the introduction of the external air.* . 
 
 515. In warming rooms, the hot air furnaces, or box and 
 air-tight stoves converted into hot air furnaces, should be 
 used in preference to the ordinary stoves. The air thus intro- 
 duced into the room is pure as well as warm. In the adapta- 
 tion of furnaces to dwelling-houses, &c., it is necessary that 
 the air should pass over an ample surface of iron moderately 
 heated ; as a red heat abstracts the oxygen from the contigu- 
 ous air, and thus renders it unfit to be respired.t 
 
 Observation. Domestic animals need a supply of pure air 
 as well as man. The cows of cities, that breathe a vitiated 
 air, have, very generally, tubercles. Sheep that are shut in 
 a confined air, die of a disease called the " rot," which is of 
 a turberculous character. Interest and humanity require that 
 the buildings fgr animals be properly ventilated. 
 
 • Mr. Frederick Emerson, of Boston, has devised a simple and 
 effective apparatus for removing vitiated air from a room. It is suc- 
 cessfully used upon all the public school-houses of Boston. It is now 
 being generally applied to the school-houses and other public build- 
 ings, as well as private dwellings, of New England. 
 
 t Dr. Wyman's valuable work on " Ventilation," and the work of 
 Henry Barnard.Eaq., on "School-house architecture," can be advanta- 
 geously consulted, as they give the practical methods of ventilating 
 and warming shops, school-rooms, dwelling-houses, public halls, &o. 
 
 615. How should rooms be warmed ? What is necessary in the adapta- 
 tion of furnaces to dwelling-houses ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 239 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 HYGIENE OP THE UESPIEATORY OE.OANS, CONTINUED. 
 
 516. The change that is effected in the hlood while passing 
 through the lungs, not only depends upon the purity of the 
 air, but the amount inspired. The quantity varies according 
 to the size of the chest, and the movement of the ribs and 
 diaphragm. 
 
 517. The size of the chest and lungs can be reduced by 
 moderate and continued pressure. This is most easily done 
 in infancy, when the cartilages and ribs are very pliant ; yet 
 it can be effected at more advanced periods of life, even after 
 the chest is fully developed. For want of knowledge of the 
 pliant character of the cartilages and ribs in infants, too many 
 mothers, unintentionally, contract their chests, and thus sow 
 the seeds of disease by the close dressing of their offspring. 
 
 518. If slight but steady pressure be continued from day 
 to day and from week to week, the ribs will continue to yield 
 more and more, and after the expiration of a few months, 
 the chest will become diminished in size. This will be 
 effected without any suffering of a marked character, but 
 the general health and strength will be impaired. It is not 
 the violent and epheriieral pressure, but the moderate and 
 protracted, that produces the miscalled, " genteel," con- 
 tracted chests. 
 
 519. The style of dress which at the present day is almost 
 universal, is a prolific cause of this deformity. These bane- 
 
 516. What varies the amount of air received into the lungs ? 617. How- 
 can the size of the chest be diminished ? When is this most easily effected ? 
 618. How are the miscalled "genteel," contracted chests usually produced? 
 519. What is said of the style of the dress at the present day ? 
 
240 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 ful fashions are copied from the periodicals, so widely cir- 
 culated, containing a "fashion plate of the latest fasWions, 
 from Paris." In every instance, the contracted, deformed, 
 and, as it is called, lady-like waist, is portrayed in all its 
 fascinating loveliness. These periodicals are found on almost 
 every centre-table, and exercise an influence almost omnip- 
 otent. If the plates which corrupt the morals are excluded 
 by civil legislation, with the same propriety ought not those to 
 be suppressed that have a tendency so adverse to health ' 
 
 I'ig. 100. 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 Fig. 100. A correct outline of the Venus de Medici, the («ni ideal of female 
 eymmetry. 
 
 Fig. 101. An outline of a well-corseted^ modem beauty. 
 
 One has nn artificial, insect waist ; the otlier, a natural waist. One baa sloping 
 slioulders, wtiile the shoulders of the other are comparatively elevated, square, and 
 angular. The proportion of the corseted female below the waist, is also a departure 
 from the symmetry of nature. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The Chinese, by compressing the foet 
 of female children, prevent their growth; so that the foot of a 
 
 What does flg. 100 represent? Fig. 101 ? Give observation 1st. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 241 
 
 Chinese belle is not larger than the foot of an American girl 
 of five years. 
 
 2d. The American women compress their chests, to prevent 
 their growth ; so that the chest of an American belle is not 
 larger than the chest of a Chinese girl of five years. Which 
 country, in this respect, exhibits the greater intelligence .' 
 
 3d. The chest can be deformed by making the linings of 
 the waists of the dresses tight, as well as by corsets. Tight 
 vests, upon the same principle, are also injurious. 
 
 520. In children, who have never worn close garments, 
 the circumference of the chest is generally about equal to that 
 of the body at the hips ; and similar proportions would exist 
 through life, if there were no improper pressure of the 
 clothing. This is true of the laboring women of the Emerald 
 Isle, and other countries of Europe, and in the Indian female, 
 whose blanket allows the free expansion of the chest. The 
 symmetrical statues of ancient sculptors bear little resem 
 blance to the " beau ideal " of American notions of elegant 
 form. This perverted taste is in opposition to the laws of 
 •nature. The design of the human chest is not simply to 
 connect the upper and lower portions of the body, like some 
 insects, but to form a case for the protection of the vital 
 organs. 
 
 521. Individuals may have small chests from birth. This, 
 to the particular individual, is natural ; yet it is adverse to the 
 great and general law of Nature relative to the size of the 
 human chest. Like produces like, is a general law of the 
 animal and vegetable kingdoms. No fact is better estab- 
 lished, than that which proves the hereditary transmission 
 
 Observation 2d. Obaervation 3d. fi20. What is the size of the chest of 
 a child that has always worn loose clothing ? What is said of the size ot 
 the laboring women of Ireland, and the Indian female? How is it in 
 ancient statues ? What is the design of the chest ? fi21 . What is a gen- 
 eral law of both the animal and vegetable kingdoms ? What fact in this 
 connection is well established ? 
 
 21 
 
2'12 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 from parents to children of a constitutional liability to disease ; 
 and the same may be said in regard to their conformations. 
 If the mother has a small, taper waist, either hereditary or 
 acquired, this form may be impressed on her offspring ; — thus 
 illustrating the truthfulness of scripture, " that the sins of the 
 parents shall be visited upon the children unto the third and 
 fourth generation." 
 
 522. The quantity of air inhaled is modified by the capa- 
 city of the respiratory organs. The necessity of voluminous 
 lungs may be elucidated by the following experiment : Sup- 
 pose a gill of alcohol, mixed with a gill of water, be put into 
 a vessel having a square foot of surface, and over the vessel 
 a membrane be tied, and that the water will evaporate in 
 twenty-four hours. If the surface had been only six inches 
 square, only one fourth of the water woald have evaporated 
 through the membrane in the given time. If the surface had 
 been extended to two square feet, the water would have evap- 
 orated in twelve hours. 
 
 523. Apply this principle to the lungs : suppose there are 
 two hundred feet of carbonic acid to be carried out of the 
 system every twenty-four hours. This gas, in that time,, will 
 pass through a vesicular membrane of two thousand square 
 feet. If the lungs were diminished in size, so that there would 
 be only one thousand square feet of vesicular membrane, the 
 amount of carbonic acid would not, and could not, be eliminated 
 from the system. Under such circumstances, the blood would 
 not be purified. 
 
 524. Again ; suppose the two thousand square feet of 
 membrane would transmit two hundred cubic feet of oxygen 
 into the system every twenty-four hours. If it should be 
 diminished one half, this amount of oxygen would not pass 
 into the blood. From the above illustrations we may learn 
 
 What does this hereditary transmission prove? 522. How is the 
 necessity of voluminous lungs illustrated ? 623 How is this priiK:iple 
 applied to the interchange of products in the lungs ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE EESPIEATOHY ORGANS. 243 
 
 the importance of well-developed chests and voluminous 
 lungs ; for, by increasing the size of the lungs, the oxygen is 
 more abundantly supplied to the blood, and this fluid is more 
 perfectly deprived of its carbon and hydrogen. 
 
 525. The chest is not only most expanded at its lower 
 part, but the portion of the lungs that occupies this space of 
 the thoracic cavity contains the greater part of the air-cells ; 
 and, from the lower two thirds of the lungs the greatest 
 amount of carbonic acid is abstracted from the blood, and 
 the greatest amount of oxygen gas is conveyed into the cir- 
 culating fluid. Hence, contracting the lower ribs is far more 
 injurious to the health than diminishing the size of the upper 
 part of the chest. 
 
 526. The question is often .asked. Can the size of the chest 
 and the volume of the lungs be increased, when they have 
 been injudiciously compressed, or have inherited this un- 
 natural form ? The answer is in the affirmative. The means 
 for attaining this end are, a judicious exercise of the lungs, 
 by walking in the open air, reading aloud, singing, sitting erect, 
 and fully inflating the lungs at each act of inspiration. If the 
 exercise be properly managed and persevered m, it will 
 expand the chest, and give tone and health to the important 
 organs contained in it. But, if the exercise be ill-timed or 
 carried to excess, the beneficial results sought will probably 
 not be attained. 
 
 Observation. Scholars, and persons who sit much of the 
 time, should frequently, during the day, breathe full and 
 deep, so that the smallest air-cells may be fully filled with 
 air. While, exercising the lungs, the shoulders should be 
 thrown back and the head held erect. 
 
 527. The movement _of the ribs and diaphragm is modified 
 hy the dress. When the lungs are properly filled with air, 
 
 625. Why is it more injurious to contract the 1 ower part of the chest than 
 the upper ? 526. How can the size of the chest be increased when it is 
 contracted? Give the observation. 527. How is the movement of the 
 ribs and diaphragm modified ? 
 
241 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the chest is enlarged in every direction. If any article of 
 apparel is worn so tight as to prevent the full expansion of 
 tlie chest and abdomen, the lungs, in consequence, do not 
 receive air sufficient to purify the blood. The effect of firm, 
 unyielding clothing, when worn tight, in preventing a due 
 supply of air to the lungs, may be shown by the following 
 illustration. 
 
 Illustration. If the diameter of a circle is three feet, the 
 circumference will be nine feet. If the diameter is extended 
 to four feet, the circumference will be increased to twelve 
 feet. Should a tight band be thrown around a circle of nine 
 feet, its diameter cannot be increased, for the circumference 
 cannot be enlarged. 
 
 528. Any inelastic band, drawn closely around the lower 
 part of the chest, or the abdomen, below the ribs, operates 
 like the band in the preceding illustration, in restricting the 
 movement of the ribs. When any article of dress encircles 
 either the chest or abdomen, so as to prevent an increase of 
 its circumference, it has an injudicious tendency, as it pre- 
 vents the introduction of air in sufficient quantities to purify 
 the blood. The question is not. How much restriction 
 of the respiratory movements can be endured, and life con- 
 tinue ? but. Does any part of the apparel restrict the move- 
 ments ? If it does, it is a violation of the organic laws ; and 
 though Nature is profuse in her expenditures, yet sooner or 
 later, she sums up her account. 
 
 529. In determining whether the appsirel is worn too tight, 
 mflate the lungs, and, if no pressure is felt, no injurious effects 
 need be apprehended from this cause. In testing the tight- 
 ness of the dress, some persons will contract to the utmost 
 the Bibdominal muscles, and thus diminish the size of the 
 
 How is the effect of unyielding olotbing, when worn tight, illustrated? 
 628. What effect has an inelastic band upon the lower part of the chest? 
 What question is asked ? 529. How can we determine whether the apparel 
 is worn too tight ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 245 
 
 chest, by depressing the ribs ; wlien this is done, the in- 
 dividual exclaims, " How loose my dress is ! " This practice 
 is both deceptive and ludicrous. A good test is, to put the 
 hand on the chest below the arm ; if there is no movement of 
 the ribs during respiration, the apparel is too tight. The only 
 reliable test, however, is a full inflation of the lungs. 
 
 Oiservation. Many individuals do not realize the small 
 amount of force that will prevent the enlargement of the 
 chest. This can be demonstrated by drawing a piece of tape 
 tightly around the lower part of the chest of a vigorous adult, 
 and confining it with the thumb and finger. Then endeavor 
 fully to inflate the lungs, and the movement of the ribs will 
 be much restricted. 
 
 530. The position in standing and sitting influences the 
 movement of the riis and diaphragm. When the shoulders 
 are thrown back, and when a person stands or sits erect, the 
 diaphragm and ribs have more freedom of motion, and the 
 abdominal muscles act more efficiently ; thus the lungs have 
 broader range of movement than when the shoulders incline 
 forward, and the body is stooping. 
 
 531. Habit exercises an influence upon the range of the 
 respiratory movements. A person who has been habituated to 
 dress loosely, and whose inspirations are full and free, suffers 
 more from the tightness of a vest or waistband, than one, the 
 range of movements of whose chest has long been subjected 
 to tight lacing. 
 
 532. Tlie condition of the brain exercises a great influence 
 upon respiration. If the brain is diseased, or the mind 
 depressed by grief, tormented by anxiety, or absorbed by 
 abstract thought, the contractile energy of the diaphragm and 
 
 GiTe another test. How can the amount of pressure necessary to pre- 
 vent the enlargement of the chest be demonstrated ? 530. Show the 
 effect of position on the movements of the ribs and diaphragm. 531. Show 
 the effect of habit on the respiratory movements. 532. State the influence 
 of the mind upon respiration.. 
 
 21 
 
246 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYOIENE. 
 
 muscles that elevate the ribs, is much diminished, and the 
 lungs are not so fully inflated, as when the mind is influenced 
 by joy or other exhilarating emotions. The depressing pas- 
 sions likewise lessen the frequency of respiration. By the 
 influence of these causes, the blood is but partially purified, 
 and the whole system becomes enfeebled. Here we may 
 see the admirable harmony between the different parts of 
 the body, and the adaptation of all the functions to each 
 other. 
 
 533. As the quantity of air inhaled at each unimpeded 
 inspiration in lungs of ample size, is about forty cubic inches, 
 it follows, if the movement of the ribs and diaphragm is 
 restricted by an enfeebled action of the respiratory muscles, 
 or by any other means, the blood will not be perfectly purified. 
 In the experiment, (§ 522, 523,) suppose forty cubic inches of 
 air must pass ove.r the membrane twenty times, every minute, 
 and that this is the amount required to remove the vapor 
 which arises from the membrane ; if only half of this amount 
 of air be supplied each minute, only one half as much water 
 will be removed from the alcohol through the membrane in 
 twenty-four hours ; consequently, the alcohol would be impure 
 from the water not bo'ing entirely removed. 
 
 534. Restrain the elevation of the ribs and depression of 
 the diaphragm, so that the quantity of air conveyed into the 
 lungs will be reduced to twenty cubic inches, when forty are 
 needed, and the results will be as follows : Only one half of 
 the carbonic acid will be eliminated from the system, and the 
 blood will receive but one half as much oxygen as it requires. 
 This fluid will then be imperfectly oxydated, and partially 
 freed of its impurities. Tfte impure blood will be returned 
 to ilie left side of the heart, and the whole system will suffer 
 from an infringement of organic laws. 
 
 533. Illustrate the efifeot upon tho blood wbon the respiratory musoles are 
 enfoobled in their action. 534. Show how the blood is imperfectly purified 
 by restricting the movements of the ribs and diaphragm. 
 
HTGIKNE OF THE RESrmATORY ORGANS. 247 
 
 635. Scrofula, or consumption., frequently succeeds a de- 
 pressed state of the nervous system. Tliese diseases arise 
 from the deposition of tuberculous matter in different parts of 
 the body. Those individuals who have met with reverses of 
 fortune, in which character and property were lost, afford pain- 
 ful examples. Hvmdreds yearly die from the effect of depressed 
 spirits, caused by disappointed hopes, or disappointed ambi- 
 tion. • 
 
 Illustration. A striking instance of the effects of mental 
 depression is related by Laennec. In a female religious 
 establishment in France; great austerities were practised; the 
 mind was absorbed in contemplating the terrible truths of 
 religion, and in mortifying the flesh. The whole establish- 
 ment, in the space of ten years, was several times depopu- 
 lated — with the exception of the persons employed at the 
 gate, in the kitchen, and garden — with that fatal disease, 
 consumption. This institution did not long continue, but waa 
 suppressed by order of the French government. 
 
 536. T7ie purity of the blood is influenced by the condition 
 of the lungs. When the bronchial tubes and air-cells have 
 become partially impervious to air, from pressure upon the 
 lungs, from fluids in the chest, from tumors, or from the con- 
 solidation of the cells and tubes from disease, — as inflam- 
 mation, or the deposition of yellow, cheesy matter, called 
 tubercles, — the blood will not be purified, even if the air is 
 pure, the lungs voluminous, and the respiratory movements 
 unrestricted, as the air cannot permeate the air-cells. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The twenty-three who escaped imme- 
 diate death in the Black Hole of Calcutta were soon attacked 
 with inflammation of the lungs, by which these organs were 
 
 535. Mention some of the effects of mental depression upon the body. 
 What is related by Laennec? 536. Does the condition of the lungs influ- 
 ence the purity of the blood ? Mention some of the conditions that will 
 impede the oxydation of blood in the lungs. What occurred to those per- 
 sons who escaped death in the_BIaoli Hole of Calcutta? 
 
248 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 consolidated, and thus prevented the permeation of air into 
 their cells. This disease of the lungs was caused by breath- 
 ing vitiated air. 
 
 2d. One of the precursory symptoms of consumption is the 
 feeble murmur of respiration in the upper part of the lungs. 
 This condition of these organs is produced by, or frequently 
 follows, mental depression, the breathing of impure air, the 
 stooping position in standing or sitting, and the restriction of 
 the movements of the ribs and diaphragm. 
 
 3d. Persons asphyxiated by carbonic acid, water, stran- 
 gling, or any noxious air, after resuscitation, are usually affected 
 with coughs and other diseases of the lungs. 
 
 537. Colds and coughs are generally induced by a chill, 
 that produces a contraction of the blood-vessels of the skin ; 
 and the waste material, which should be carried from the 
 body by the agency of the vessels of this membrane, is 
 retained in the system, and a great portion of it is returned to 
 tlie mucous membrane of the lungs. For such is the harmony 
 established by the Creator, that if the function of any portion 
 of the body is deranged, those organs whose offices are similar 
 take on an increased action. 
 
 538. The waste material, that should have passed through 
 the many outlets of the skin, creates an unusual fulness of 
 the minute vessels that nourish the mucous membrane of the 
 bronchia ; this induces an irritation of these vessels, which 
 increases the flow of blood to the nufrient arteries of the lungs. 
 There is, also, a thickening of tlie lining membrane of tlie 
 lungs, caused by the repletion of the bronchial vessels of the 
 mucous membrane ; this impedes the passage of air through 
 the small bronchial tubes, and consequently the air-vesicles 
 
 What is one of the preouraory symptoms of consumption ? How is this 
 condition frequently produood ? What diseases usually follow asphyxia by 
 oarbonio aoid, water, strangling, Ao. ? 537. How are oolds generally in- 
 duced ? 638. What effeot has a oommon oold upon the mucous membrane 
 of the lungs? 
 
UYaiENB or THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 249 
 
 cannot impart a sufficient quantity of oxygen to purify the 
 blood, and this fluid, imperfectly purified, does not pass with 
 facility through the lungs. An additional obstacle to the free 
 passage of air into the lungs, is the accumulation of blood in 
 the pulmonary vessels. 
 
 539. As colds and coughs are very generally treated by the 
 " matrons " of the community, or by the patient, the following 
 suggestions may aid in directing a proper treatment : To 
 effect a speedy cure, it is necessary to diminish the amount of 
 fluid in the vessels of the lungs. This can be effected in two 
 ways : 1st. By diminishing the quantity of blood in the sys- 
 tem ; 2d. By diverting it from the lungs to the skin. The 
 first condition can be easily and safely affected, hy abstaining 
 from food, and drinking no more than a gill of fluid in twenty- 
 four hours. As there is a continuous waste from the skin 
 and other organs of the system, the quantity of blood by this 
 procedure will be diminished, and the lungs relieved of the 
 accumulated fluid. 
 
 540. The second condition can be accomplished by resort- 
 ing to the warm or vapor bath. These and the common 
 sweats will invite the blood from the lungs to the skin. By 
 keeping up the action of the skin for a few hours, the lungs 
 will be relieved. In some instances, emetics and cathartics 
 are necessary ; mucilages, as gum arable or slippery-elm 
 bark, would be good. After the system is relieved, the skin 
 is more impressible to cold, and consequently requires care- 
 ful protection by clothing. In good constitutions, the first 
 method is preferable, and generally sufficient without any 
 medicine or " sweating." 
 
 541. The method of resuscitating persons apparently 
 drowned. In the first instance, it is necessary to press the 
 chest, suddenly and forcibly, downward and backward, and 
 
 539. Give the first method for the treatment of cold. 540. The second 
 method. 541, 542. How should persons apparently drowned be treated } 
 
250 ANATOMY, PHVSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 instantly discontinue the pressure. Repeat this without inter- 
 mission, until a pair of bellows can be procured. When the 
 bellows are obtained, introduce the nozzle well upon the base 
 of the tongue, and surround the mouth and nose with a towei 
 or handkerchief, to close them. Let another person press 
 upon the projecting part of the neck, called "Adam's apple," 
 while air is introduced into the lungs through the bellows. 
 Then press upon the chest, to force the air from the lungs, to 
 imitate natural breathing. 
 
 542. Continue the use of the bellows, and forcing the air 
 out of the chest, for an hour at least, unless signs of natural 
 breathing come on. Wrap the body in warm, dry blankets, 
 and place it near the fire, to preserve the natural warmth, as 
 well as to impart artificial heat. Every thing, however, is 
 secondary to filling the lungs with air. Avoid all friction 
 until breathing is restored. Send immediately for medical aid. 
 
 543. The means of resuscitating persons asphyxiated front 
 electricity, Sfc. In apparent death from electricity, (light- 
 ning,) the person is frequently asphyxiated from pa-ral'y-sis 
 (palsy) of the respiratory muscles. To recover such persons, 
 resort to artificial respiration. In cases of apparent death 
 from hanging or strangling, the knot should be untied or cut 
 immediately ; then use artificial respiration, or breathing, as 
 directed in apparent death from drowning. 
 
 Observation. It is an impression, in many sections of the 
 country, that the law will not allow the removal of the cord 
 from the neck of a body found suspended, unless the coroner 
 be present. It is therefore proper to say, that no such delay 
 is necessary, and that no time should be lost in attempting 
 to resuscitate the strangled person. 
 
 544. The method of resuscitating persons apparently dead 
 from inhaling carbonic acid gas. When life is apparently 
 
 643. What treatment should be adopted in asphyxia from electricity ? 
 From hanging ? 644. What should be the treatment in asphyxia from 
 inhaling carbonic acid B;as ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 251 
 
 extinct from breathing carbonic acid gas, the person should 
 be carried into the open air. The head and shoulders should 
 be slightly elevated ; the face and chest should be sponged or 
 sprinkled with cold water, or cold vinegar and water, while the 
 limbs are wrapped in dry, warm blankets. In this, as in 
 asphyxia from other causes, immediately resort to artificial 
 respiration. 
 
 Observations. 1st. Many persons have died from breathing 
 carbonic acid that was formed by burning charcoal in an open 
 pan or portable furnace, for the purpose of warming their 
 sleeping- rooms. This is not only produced by burning char- 
 coal, but is evolved from the live coals of a wood fire ; and 
 being heavier than air, it settles on the floor of the room ; and, 
 if there is no open door or chimney-draught, it will accumu- 
 late, and, rising above the head of an individual, will cause 
 asphyxia or death. 
 
 2d. In resuscitating persons apparently dead from causes 
 already mentioned, if a pair of bellows cannot be procured 
 immediately, let their lungs be inflated by air expelled from 
 the lungs of some person present. To have the expired air 
 as pure as possible, the person should quickly inflate his 
 lungs, and instantly expel the air into those of the asphyxiated 
 person. Place the patient in pure air, admit attendants 
 only into the apartment, and send for a physician vdthnut 
 delay. 
 
 What sad results frequently follow the burning of charcoal in a close 
 room ? What suggestion in resuscitating asphyxiated persons ? 
 
252 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 ANIMAL HEAT. 
 
 545. The true sources of animal heat, or calorification, are 
 still imperfectly known. No hypothesis hsis, as yet, received 
 the concurrent assent of physiologists. We see certain phe- 
 nomena, but the ultimate causes are hidden from our view. 
 Its regular production, to a certain degree, is essential both 
 to animal and vegetable life. 
 
 ■ 546. There is a tendency between bodies of different tem- 
 perature to an equilibrium of heat. Thus, if we touch or 
 approach a hot body, the heat, or caloric passes from that 
 body to our organs of feeling, and gives the sensation of heat. 
 On the contrary, when we touch a cold body, the heat passes 
 from the hand to that body, and causes a sensation of cold. 
 
 547. The greater number of animals appear cold when 
 we touch them ; and, indeed, the temperature of their bodies 
 is not much above that of the atmosphere, and chEinges with 
 it. In man, and other animals that approach him in their 
 organization, it is otherwise. They have the faculty of pro- 
 ducing a sufficient quantity of caloric to maintain their tem- 
 peratures nearly at the same degree, under all atmospheric 
 changes, and keep themselves warm. 
 
 548. Those animals whose proper heat is not very per- 
 ceivable, are called coZd-blooded ; as most species of fishes, 
 toads, snakes, turtles, and reptiles generally. Those animals 
 
 645 — S70. WfuU is said respecting animal heat f 645. Are the true sources 
 of animal heat known? What do we see? 646. What is the tendency 
 between bodies of different temperatures ? Give an explanation. 647. What 
 is said of the temperature of animals ? 648. What is meant by oold-blooded 
 luiimMls ? By warm-blooded animals ? 
 
ANIMAL HEAT. 253 
 
 which produce sufficient heat independently of the atmosphere 
 surrounding them, are called warm-h\ooded ; as man, birds, 
 quadrupeds?, &c. 
 
 549. The temperature of man is about 98°, (Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer,) and that of some other animals is higher ; the 
 temperature of birds, for example, is about 110°. It is ob- 
 vious, that in most parts of the globe, the heat of the atmos- 
 phere is, even in summer, less than that of the human body. 
 In our latitude, the mercury rarely attains 98°, and sometimes 
 it descends to several degrees below zero. 
 
 550. Captain Parry, with his ship's company, in his. voyage 
 of discovery to the arctic regions, wintered in a climate where 
 the mercury was at 40°, and sometimes at 55° below zero. 
 Captain Back found it 70° below zera These were 72° and 
 102° below the freezing point, or about 200° beiow that of 
 their own bodies, and still they were able to resist this low 
 temperature, and escape being " frost-bitten." 
 
 551. Captain Lyon, who accompanied Captain Parry in his 
 second -voyage to the northern regions, found the tempera- 
 ture of an arctic fox to be 106°, while that of the atmosphere 
 was 32° below zero ; making a difference between the tem- 
 perature of the fox and that of the atmosphere, of 138°. Cap- 
 tain Scoresby found the temperature of a whale, in the Arctic 
 Ocean, to be 104°, or nearly "as high as that of other animals 
 of the same kind in the region of the equator, while the tem- 
 perature of the ice was as low as 32°, and the water was 
 nearly as cold. These facts show what a strong counteract- 
 ing energy ihere is in animals against the effects of cold. 
 
 552. On the other hand, it has been ascertained by numer- 
 ous and well-conducted experiments, that the human body can 
 
 649. Whatia the temperature of the human body? Of birds ? How 
 does the heat of the atmosphere in summer, in our latitude, compare \citb 
 that of the human system ? 650. What is related of Captain Parry ? Of 
 Captain Back ? 651. Of Captain Lyon ? Of Captain Scoresby ? What do 
 these facts show ? 652. What has been ascertained on the other hand i 
 
 22 
 
254 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 be exposed, even for a length of time, to a very high tem- 
 perature, witliout essentially elevating that of the body. Chan- 
 trey, the sculptor, often entered the furnace, heated for drying 
 his moulds, when the temperature indicated by the thermom- 
 eter was 330°. Chaubert, the Fire-King, is said to have 
 entered ovens when heated to 600°. In 1774, Sir Charles 
 Blagden entered a room in which the mercury rose to 260°. 
 lie remained eight minutes without suffering. 
 
 553. In order to render it certain that there was no fallacy, 
 says Sir Charles Blagden, " in the degree of heat shown by 
 the thermometer, but that the air breathed was capable of 
 producing all tlie well-known effects of such a heat on inan- 
 imate matter, I put some eggs and beefsteak upon a tin frame 
 placed near the thermometer, and farther distant from the 
 cockle than from the, wall of the room. In about twenty min- 
 utes the eggs were taken out, roasted quite hard ; and in forty- 
 seven minutes, the steak 'was not only dressed, but almost 
 dry." 
 
 554. If a thermometer be placed under the tongue of a 
 healthy person, in all climates and seasons the temperature 
 will be found nearly the same. Sir Charles Blagden, " while 
 in the heated room, breathed on a thermometer, and the 
 mercury sank several degrees ; and when he expired forcibly, 
 the air felt cool as it passed through the nostrils, though it was 
 scorching hot when it entered them in inspiration." 
 
 Observation. Did not the human body possess within itself 
 the power of generating and removing heat, so as to maintain 
 nearly an equality of temperature, the most fatal consequences 
 would ensue. In northern latitudes, especially, in severe 
 weather of winter, the blood would be converted into a solid 
 
 What is related of Chantroy? Of Chaubort? Of Sir Charles Blagden? 
 663. Give Sir Charles's own statement. 554. What is said of the tem- 
 perature of the human tongue ? Mention tho experiment by Sir Charles 
 Blagden. What would be the effeot if the human system did not maintain 
 an equality of temperature? 
 
ANIMAL HEAT. 255 
 
 mass ; and on the other hand, the fatty secretion, when sub- 
 jeoted to equatorial heat, would become fluid, and life would 
 be' extinguished. 
 
 555. To enable man, and other warm-blooded animals, to 
 maintain this equilibrium of temperature under such extremes 
 of heat and cold, naturally suggests two inquiries : 1st. By 
 what organs is animal heat generated .? 2d. By what means 
 is its uniformity maintained .' 
 
 556. The ancients had no well-arranged theory qn the sub- 
 ject of animal heat. They believed that the chief object of 
 respiration was to coot the blood, and that the heart was the 
 great furnace where all the heat was generated. At a later 
 period, Mayow, from his discoveries respecting respiration, 
 asserted that the object of respiration was to produce heat, 
 and denied that the blood was cooled in the lungs. 
 
 557. When it was discovered that, both in combustion and 
 respiration, carbonic acid was produced and oxygen absorbed, 
 it led Dr. Black to conclude that breathing was a kind of 
 combustion by which all the heat of the body was produced. 
 This theory was objected to, because, if all the heat was gen- 
 erated in the lungs, like those parts of a stove in contact 
 with the fuel, they would be at a higher temperature than those 
 parts at a distance, which was known not to exist. 
 
 558. The next theory, and one which received the sanction 
 of the scientific men of Europe, was proposed by Dr. Craw- 
 ford. He agreed with Dr. Black that heat not only was 
 generated in the lungs, but that thcarterial blood had a greater 
 capacity for heat than the venous, and that this increase of 
 capacity takes place, in the lungs. At the moment heat is 
 generated, a portion of it, under the name of latent heat, is 
 absorbed and conveyed to the different parts of the body, 
 
 555. What inquiries are naturally suggested ? 656. What was the theo- 
 ry of the ancients ? What did Mayow assert at a later period ? 657. What 
 was the theory of Dr. Black ? The objection f 558. What was the theory 
 of Pr Crawford r 
 
256 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE 
 
 Wherever arterial blood is converted into venous, this latent 
 heat is given out. But, unfortunately for this theory, Dr. Davy 
 proved the capacity of both, for heat, to be nearly the same. 
 
 559. No one can doubt that respiration and animal heat 
 are closely connected. Those animals whose respiratory 
 apparatus is the most extended, have the highest temperature. 
 An example is seen in birds, whose organs of respiration 
 extend over a large part of the body, and their temperature 
 is 12° above man ; while the respiratory apparatus of cold- 
 blooded animals, as some kinds of fish, is imperfect, and only 
 a small quantity of blood is subjected, at any time, to the 
 effects of-respiration. 
 
 560. To understand the process by which heat is generated 
 in the human system and in animals, it will be necessary to 
 state : 1st. That the apparent heat of a body, as perceived 
 by the touch, or as indicated by a thermometer, is not the 
 measurement of heat contained in the body, or its capacity 
 for heat. 
 
 Illustration. If we mix one pound of wa^er, at the tempera- 
 ture of 60°, with another pound at 91°, the resulting tempera- 
 ture will be exactly the medium, or 75^°. But, if we mix a 
 pound of water at 60° with a pound of quicksilver at 91°, the 
 resulting temperature will be only 61°, because the capacity 
 of water for heat is so much greater than that of quicksilver, 
 that the heat which raised the quicksilver 31° will raise the 
 water only 1°. 
 
 561. 2d. When the density and the arrangement of the 
 atoms of a body are changed, its capacity to hold heat in a 
 latent state is altered. If it will retain more, heat will be 
 absorbed from contiguous and surrounding substances ; but, 
 
 The objection ? 659. In what do all the physiologists of the present day 
 concur ? How is it proved that respiration and animal heat are closely con- 
 nected ? 660. What is said of the apparent heat of bodies ? How is this 
 illustrated ? 661. What is the effect when the density and the arrange- 
 ment of the atoms of a body are changed ? 
 
ANIMAL UEAT. 287 
 
 if its capacity for caloric is lessened, heat will be set free and 
 given out to surrounding bodies. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. ice and salt, (muriate of soda,) when 
 mixed, are converted into a fluid. In this state they will hold 
 more heat than when solid. The heat necessary to produce 
 this change is drawn from the surrounding medium, which is 
 made proportionally colder by the loss of caloric imparted to 
 the ice and salt. It is by this chemical process that " ice- 
 cream " is made. 
 
 2d. On the other hand, mix water and sulphuric acid, (oil 
 of vitriol,) of the temperature of 60°, and the mixture will 
 become quite warm, and will freely impart its heat to sur- 
 rounding and contiguous objects. 
 
 562. The same principle is exhibited, when oxygen 
 unites with an inflammable body, as in the burning of wood, 
 coal, oil, &c. In combustion, the oxygen of the atmosphere 
 unites with carbon and hydrogen, and carbonic acid and 
 water are produced This process, according to all the known 
 laws of caloric, is attended with heat. The quantity of heat 
 disengaged in combustion is always in proportion to the 
 amount of carbon and hydrogen consumed ; thus a piece of 
 wood weighing one pound, in burning slowly, would give out 
 the same quantity of heat as a pound of shavings of the 
 same wood, in burning rapidly. Upon these principles, the 
 production of animal heat may be understood. 
 
 563. The food contains carbon and hydrogen. These 
 exist in the chyle. The old and waste atoms of the body 
 lilfewise contain the same elements. In the lungs the oxygen 
 and nitrogen of the inspired air are separated. It is now 
 supposed that the oxygen enters the capillary vessels of the 
 
 Give thelst illustration. The 2d. 662. What changes take place when 
 oxygen unites with an inflammable body ? To what is the quantity of heat 
 proportionate in combustion? Give an example. 663. How are carbon 
 and hydrogen supplied to the system ? How the oxygen ? Where does 
 the oxygen mingle with the blood ? 
 
 22* 
 
258 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYUIENE. 
 
 lungs, and mingles with the blood, with which it is carried to 
 the heart and thence to the nutrient capillary vessels of every 
 part of the system. 
 
 564. In the capillary vessels, the oxygen of the arterial 
 blood unites with the carbon and hj drogen which the refuse 
 materials contain, and carbonic acid and water are formed. 
 The combustion of carbon and hydrogen in the capillaries of 
 every part of the system, (the lungs not excepted,) is attended 
 with a disengagement of heat, and the carbonic acid and 
 water are returned to the lungs in the dark-colored blood, 
 and evolved from the system. 
 
 565: Sir Benjamin Brodie and some others have main- 
 tained, that the heat of the system is generated exclusively 
 by the influence of the brain and nerves. This theory is dis- 
 carded by most physiologists ; yet it is true that the nervous 
 system exercises a great influence over the action of the 
 capillary vessels in the process of nutrition, secretion, and 
 absorption. When these operations are most active, the 
 change among the particles of matter of which the body is 
 composed, is then greatest, and the generation of heat is 
 increased in a corresponding degree. 
 
 566. The necessity of pure, red blood in the production of 
 animal heat, is shown when the vessels that carry blood to a 
 limb are ligated, or tied ; the part immediately becomes 
 colder. The necessity of nervous influence is seen in the 
 diminished temperature of a paralytic limb. 
 
 567. Our next inquiry is, By what means is the uniformity 
 of temperature in the body maintained ? As there is a con- 
 stant generation of heat iu the system, there would be an 
 undue accumulation, — so much so as to cause disagreeable 
 
 564. "Where does it unite with the carbon and liydrogen contained in the 
 body, and how is heat genoriitod ? 665. Wliat was tiie theory of Sir Ben- 
 jamin Brodie? Is this theory in general disoiirdod? What is true of this 
 theory ? 666. How is the neoessil y of puro, red blood and nervous action 
 shown in the production of animal heat? 
 
ANIMAL HEAT. 259 
 
 sensations, — if there were no means by which it could be 
 evolved from the body, or its production lessened. 
 
 568. It has been ascertained that the principal means by 
 which the system is kepi at a uniform temperature, is the 
 immense evaporation from the skin and lungs. These mem- 
 branes, in an ordinary state, are constantly giving out water, 
 which is converted into vapor, and carried off by the surround- 
 ing air. The quantity of heat abstracted from the system to 
 effect this, depends on the rapidity of the change of air, its 
 temperature, and the amount of water it contains in a state 
 of vapor. The quantity removed is greatest when the air 
 is warm and dry, and the change, or current, rapid. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The first discovery of the use of free 
 evaporation of the perspiration from the skin in reducing the 
 heat of the body, and the analogy subsisting between this 
 process and that of the evaporation of water from a rough 
 porous surface, so constantly resorted to in warm countries, 
 as an efficacious means of reducing the temperature of the air 
 in rooms, and of wine and other drinks, much below that of 
 the surrounding atmosphere, was made by Franklin. 
 
 2d. In all ages and climes, it has been observed that the in- 
 creased temperature of the skin and system in fevers, is abated 
 as soon as free perspiration is restored. In damp, close weath- 
 er, as during the sultry days of August, although the tempera- 
 ture is lower, we feel a disagreeable sensation of heat, becau.se 
 the saturation of the air with moisture lessens evaporation, and 
 thus prevents the escape of heat through the lungs and skin. 
 
 3d. It is on the principle of the evaporation of fluids, that 
 warm vinegar and water, applied to the burning, aching head, 
 cools it, and imparts to it a comfortable feeling. The same 
 
 508. What are the principal means by which a uniform temperature of the 
 body is maintained ? On what does tlie quantity of heat abstracted from 
 the system depend? What discovery relative to, animal heat is due to 
 Franklin ? What is said of free perspiration in fevers ? What occasions 
 the disagreeable sensation of heat in damp, close weather ? 
 
260 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 results follow if warm liquids are applied to the skin in the 
 hot stage of fever ; and this evaporation can be increased by 
 constant fanning. 
 
 4th. It is frequently noticed, in very warm weather, that 
 dogs and other domestic animals are seen with their tongues 
 out of their mouths, and covered with frothy secretions. This 
 Is merely another mode of reducing animal heat, as the 
 skin of such animals does not perspire eis much as that of 
 man. 
 
 569. Under some circumstances, a portion of the heat of 
 the system is removed by radiation. When cold air comes in 
 contact with the skin and mucous membrane of the lungs, 
 heat is removed from the body, as from a stove, to restore an 
 equilibrium of temperature. The removal of heat from the 
 body is greatest wh6n we are in a current of cold air, or 
 when a brisk, cold wind is blowing upon us. 
 
 570. As the primary object of the different processes of 
 nutrition is to supply animal heat, so the action of the dif- 
 ferent nutritive organs is modified by the demands of the 
 system for heat. When heat is rapidly removed from the 
 body, the functional activity of the organs of nutrition is 
 increased. When the system is warmed by foreign influence, 
 the activity of the nutritive organs is diminished. This leads 
 to the natural, and, we may add, instinctive change in the 
 quality and quantity of food at different seasons of the year. 
 
 669. M''hen is heat radiated from the body ? 'When is it greatest I 
 570. What is the primary object of the different processes of nutrition? 
 Wlien is the activity of the nutritive organs increased ? When diminished I 
 To what does this lead? 
 
HYGIENE OP ANIMAL HEAT. 261 
 
 CHAPTEE XXYIII. 
 
 HYGIENE OF ANIMAL HEAT. 
 
 571. The amount of heat generated in man and inferior 
 animals depends upon the quantity and quality of the food, 
 age, exercise, the amount and character of the respired air, 
 condition of the brain, skin, and general system. 
 
 572. Animal heat is modified hy the proportion of digest' 
 ihle carbon which the food contains, and hy the quantity con- 
 sumed. As the kind of fuel that contains the greatest amount 
 of combustible material evolves the most caloric when burned, 
 so those articles of food that contain the greatest quantity of 
 carbon produce the most heat when converted into blood. 
 The inhabitants of the frigid zones, and individuals in 
 temperate climates during the cold season, consume with 
 impunity stimulating animal food, that contains a large 
 proportion of carbon, while the inhabitants of the tropica! 
 regions, and persons in temperate climates during the warm 
 season, are more healthy with a less stimulating or vegetable 
 diet. 
 
 Observation. When we ride or labor in cold weather, an 
 adequate amount of nutritious food will sustain the warmth of 
 the system better than intoxicating drinks. 
 
 573. Age is another influence that modifies the generation 
 of animal heat. The vital forces of the child being feeble, 
 less heat is generated in its system than in that of an adult. 
 
 571_685. Give the hygiene of animal heat. 571. State some of the influ- 
 ences that modify the generation of animal heat. 672- What element of 
 the food influences the generation of heat? When and where can animal 
 food be eaten with impunity ? GiTe the practical obserratioo. 
 
262 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIJENE. 
 
 The experiments of Dr. Milne Eti wards show that the power 
 of producing heal in warm-blooded animals, is at its minimum 
 at birth, and increases successively to adult age ; and that 
 young children part with their heat more readily than adults, 
 and, instead of being warmer, are generally a degree or two 
 colder. After adult age, as the vital powers decline, the 
 generation of heat is diminished, as the energies of the sys- 
 tem are lessened. Hence the young child, and the debili- 
 tated aged person, need more clothing than the vigorous 
 individual of middle age. 
 
 574. Exercise is an influence that modijies the generation 
 of animal heat. As carbon and hydrogen enter into the com- 
 position of the organs of the body, whatever increases the 
 flow of blood in the system, increases also liie deposition of 
 new material, and the removal of the waste particles. This 
 change among the particles of matter is attended with an 
 elevation of temperature, from the union of oxygen with the 
 carbon and hydrogen of the waste atoms. For this reason, a 
 person in action is warmer than in a quiescent state. Conse- 
 quently, the amount of clothing should be increased, when 
 exercise or labor is diminished or suspended. 
 
 575. On the other hand, whatever impedes tlie circula- 
 tion and the interchange of the atoms of matter, diminishes 
 animal heat. Common observation shows, that the extremities 
 are not as warm when tight gloves or boots are worn as 
 when they are loose. One reason is, the circulation of blood 
 is impeded, which is attended with less frequent change of the 
 particles of matter. 
 
 576. The quantity of air which is inhaled mcdifes the heat 
 of the system. In the generation of heat in a stove, air, 
 or oxygen, is as essential as the wood or coal. It is equally 
 
 What do the cxporimonts of Dr. Milne Edwards show? 674. Why does 
 exercise influence animal heati" 575. What is the effeot when the oiroula- 
 tion of blood is impeded ? Give examples. 676. Why do those persons 
 that have broad ohests and voluminous lungs suffer less from oold than the 
 narrow-ohested with small lungs? 
 
HYGIENE OF ANIMAL HEAT, 263 
 
 SO in the production of animal heat. The oxygen of the 
 inspired air should be in proportion to the carbon and hydro- 
 gen to be consumed. This requires voluminous lungs, 
 together with free movements of the ribs and diaphragm. 
 A person whose chest is small, and whose apparel is worn 
 tight over the ribs, suffers more from the cold, and complains 
 more frequently of chilliness and cold extremities, than the 
 broad-chested and loosely dressed. 
 
 Observation. Fishes that breathe by means of gills, as the 
 cod, pike, &c., depend solely on the small quantity of oxygen 
 that is contained in the air mixed with the water. Their 
 temperature is not much greater than the medium in which 
 they live. , Whales, dolphins, &c., breathe by means of lungs ; 
 and the inhalation of atmospheric air makes theii- temperature 
 about 100°, independent of the heat of the element in which 
 they live. 
 
 577. The quality of respired air influences the generation 
 of animal heat. In vestries, and other public rooms, when 
 crowded with an audience, where the ventilation is inadequate, 
 the lamps will emit but a faint light, because the oxygen is 
 soon expended, and there is not enough of the vivifying prin- 
 ciple to unite with .the oil and disengage light. In the human 
 body, when the respired air has lost some of its life-giving 
 properties, the combustion that takes place in different parts 
 of the system is not so complete as when it contains a proper 
 proportion of oxygen ; and hence less heat is disengaged. 
 For this reason, those persons that breathe impure air, eitlier 
 in the daytime or night, require more clothing, than those 
 that work and sleep in well- ventilated rooms. 
 
 578. The condition of the brain and nervous system affects 
 
 What is said of those fishes that breathe by means of gills? Of those 
 that breathe by means of lungs ? 577. Why do lamps give but a faint 
 light in crowded, un ventilated rooms? What effect on animal heat has 
 tmpure air ? S78. Mention the eifects of some of the mental emotions on 
 animal heat. 
 
264 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 the generation of animal heat. If the brain is diseased, or 
 the mind is absorbed in thought, depressed by sorrow, or 
 aroused from fear, the breathing becomes slow and scarcely 
 perceptible, and a chilliness pervades the body, particularly 
 the extremities ; while, on the contrary, if the mind and ner- 
 vous system are excited by joyous and agreeable emotions, 
 the circulation of blood is quicker, and the system more pow- 
 erfully resists external cold. During sleep, when the brain 
 is partially inactive, less heat is generated than when awake. 
 Observation. The preceding remark explains why an indi- 
 vidual who sleeps in the same clothing that was adequate to 
 prevent chills while awake, contracts a cold, unless he throws 
 over him an additional covering. 
 
 579. The state of the skin exercises much influence in the 
 generation of heat. If the functions of this membrane are 
 not interrupted, more heat will be generated than when it is 
 pallid and inactive. The action of the capillaries is most 
 energetic when the skin is clean ; on this account, before 
 taking a walk or a ride, in cold weather, remove all impurities 
 from the skin, by thorough ablution and vigorous friction. 
 
 580. The amount and kind of clothing modify the tern- 
 perature of the system. Those persons that are well clothed 
 have greater power to resist cold than the thinly apparelled, 
 because both the evaporation and the radiation from the skin 
 are impeded, and less heat, in consequence, is abstracted from 
 the body. If the articles of apparel possess tlie property of 
 retaining air in their meshes, as flannel, the removal of heal 
 is not as rapid as when linen is worn. 
 
 Observation. In winter, although more heat is generated in 
 the system than in summer, yet we require more clothing. 
 
 What does the preceding remark explain ? 679. What suggestion 
 respecting the condition of the skin before taking a walk or ride in a cold 
 day? Why? 680. Do th« amount and kind of clothing affect animal 
 heat ? What is said of well-clothed persona ? When does the system 
 generate the most heat i 
 
HYGIENE OF ANIMaL HEAT. 265 
 
 and also those articles that are poor conductors of heat, because 
 caloric is more rapidly' extracted in clear, cold weather, than 
 in a warm day. 
 
 581. The health and constitution influence the generatimi 
 of heat. When the health is firm, and the constitution vigor- 
 ous, less clothing is needed, for the change among the par- 
 ticles of matter is more rapid, and more heat is generated, 
 than when the opposite condition obtains. Persoiis of a fee- 
 ble constitution, particularly, if any of the vital organs * are 
 diseased, need more clothing and require rooms of a warmer 
 temperature, than individuals who are free from disease and 
 have a vigorous constitution. 
 
 Observation. Persons who are infirm, and whose vital 
 powers are feeble, in general, accustom themselves to an 
 undue amount of clothing and warm rooms. A more judi- 
 cious practice would be, to exercise more and use a moderate 
 amount of clothing, together with a more nutritious diet. 
 
 582. The surplus heat should be removed equally from all 
 parts of the system. The rapid evaporation of fluids, as in 
 free perspiration, or from radiation, as in a cold atmosphere, 
 IS attended with a removal of heat from the system. This 
 modifies the action of the circulatory vessels. Consequently, 
 if heat is suddenly and rapidly abstracted from one "part of 
 the system, the equilibrium of the circulation is destroyed, 
 which will produce disease. 
 
 Observation. Currents of a'r that impinge upon small 
 portions of the body, as from small apertures, or from a 
 
 • The brain, Ivings, heart, and digestive organs, are called vital organs. 
 
 Why do we, then, require more clothing in winter than in summer ? 
 B81. Why do persons of firm health and vigorous constitution need less 
 clothing than those who are feeble 3 What is a general practice among 
 inflnn persons ? What would be more judicious? 582. WJiy slioiild the 
 surplus heat be removed equally from all parts of tlie eystcm i Wlu>l is 
 saul respecting currents of air from email apertures? 
 
 23 
 
266 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AMD HYGIENE. 
 
 window slightly raised, should be avoided. They are ruorfi 
 dangerous thf.n to expose the whole person to a brisk wind, 
 because the current of air removes the heat from the part 
 exposed, which disturbs the circulation of blood and causes 
 disease, usually in the form of " colds." For the same 
 reeison, it is not judicious to stand in an open door, or the 
 opening of a street. 
 
 583. The system suffers less when the change of tempera' 
 tnre is gradual. The change in the production of heat, as 
 well as in the evaporation of fluids from the system, is gradual 
 when jiot influenced by foreign causes. This gradual change 
 is known under the name acclimation. By this means the 
 body is enabled to endure tropical heat and polar cold. 
 Owing to this gradual adaptation of the system to different 
 temperatures, we can bear a greater degree of heat in the 
 summer between the tropics, than in the winter under the 
 polar circles. On the other hand, we can endure a greater 
 degree of cold in winter and in the arctic region, than in 
 the summer and in equatorial countries. 
 
 584. The sensation of heat which would be oppressive in 
 a mild, warm day of January, would only be grateful in July, 
 and a degree of cold which could scarcely be endured in 
 August, would not be uncomfortable in December. The 
 changes of season in our latitude pr&vent the disagreeable and 
 perhaps fatal consequence that would follow, if no spring or 
 autumn intervened between the severity of winter's cold and 
 the intensity of summer's heat. During the transition periods, 
 the constitution is gradually changed, and adapted to bear the 
 extremes of temperature without suflering. The amount of 
 
 fi83. In what manner sliould change of temperature take place, to be 
 udapted to the body ? How is the body enabled to endure tropical he.it 
 and polar cold ? State some of the effects of the gradual adaptation of the 
 eyslem to dilFerent temperatures. 684. What is said relative to a waim day 
 in winter f To a cold day in summer ? What is said of the charges ol 
 Beosona in our latitude? What elTeot on the oonstitution during spring and 
 autumn ? What change in the amount of heat generated ? 
 
HYSIENE OF ANIMAL HEAT. 261 
 
 heat generated in the nutrient capillary vessels, is likewise 
 diminished or increased as the temperature of the season 
 becomes greater or less. 
 
 585. But, on the contrary, we cannot suddenly pass from 
 one extreme of temperature to the other with impunity. Let 
 an inhabitant of Quebec suddenly arrive in Cuba in February, 
 and he would suffer from languor and exhaustion ; after be- 
 coming acclimated to this tropical climate, let him suddenly 
 return to Quebec in January, and the severity of the weatlier 
 would be almost insupportable. 
 
 Observations. 1st. Experience shows that heated rooms, as 
 well as tropical climates, lessen the generation of heat in the 
 body, and likewise the power of resisting cold. It would be 
 idle for the merchant from his warehouse, or the mechanic 
 from his heated shop, to attempt to sit on the box with a 
 coachman, with the same amount of clothing as his compan- 
 ion, who is daily exposed to the inclemency of the weather. 
 
 2d. " It is the power of endurance of cold at one period, 
 and the absence of its necessity at another, that enables ani- 
 irals, in their wild and unprotected state, to bear the vicissi- 
 tudes of the seasons with so little preparation in clothing, and 
 so little real inconvenience." 
 
 585. What effect on the system has a sudden transition from a cold to a 
 warm oUraate? What does experience show? Why do wild animals bear 
 the vicissitudes of the seasons with so little preparation in clothing ? 
 
2(38 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOcr, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 THE VOICE. 
 
 586. The beautiful mechanisiti of the vocal instrument, 
 wliich produces every variety of sound, from a harsh, unme- 
 lodious tone, to a soft, sweet, flute-like sound, has, as yet, been 
 imperfectly imitated by art. It has been compared, by many 
 physiologists, to a wind, reed, and stringed instrument. This 
 inimitable, yet simple instrument, is the Lar'ynx. 
 
 587. Incidentally, the different parts of the respiratory 
 organs, as well as the larynx, are subservient to speaking and 
 singing. The tongue, nasal passages, muscles of the fauces 
 and face, are agents which aid in the intonation of the voice. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 588. The larynx is a kind of cartilaginous tube, which, 
 taken as a whole, has the general form of a hollow, reversed 
 cone, with its base upward toward the tongue, in the shape of 
 an expanded triangle. It opens into the pharynx, at its 
 superior extremity, and communicates, by its inferior opening, 
 with the trachea. It is formed by the union of five cartilages, 
 namely, the Thy'roid, the Cri'coid, the two A-ryt-e'noid, and 
 the Ep-i-glot'tis. These are bound together by ligaments, 
 and moved by muscles. 
 
 686. What is said of the structure of the vocal instrument ? With what 
 instrument have physiologists compared it ? What is the vocal instrument 
 called 7 687. What organs are called into action in speaking beside the 
 larj'nx? 688 — 596. Give the anatomy of the vocal orffana. 688. Describe 
 the larynx Name the cartilages that form the larynx. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 269 
 
 589. The thykoid cartilage is the largest of the five, 
 and forms the prominence in the front of the neck, called 
 Po'mum A-da'mi, (Adam's apple.) It is composed of two 
 parts, and is connected with the bone of the tongue above, 
 and with the cricoid cartilage below. 
 
 590. The cricoid cartilage takes its name from its resem- 
 blanfee to a ring. It is situated below the thyroid cartilage ; 
 it is narrow in front, broader at the sides, and still broader 
 behind, where it is connected with the thyroid cartilage. 
 Below, it connects with the first ring of the trachea. 
 
 Fig. 102. Fig. 103. 
 
 Fig 102. A side view of the cartilages of the laiynx. • The front side of the luj- 
 roi^artilage. 1, The os hyoides, (bone at the bass of the tongue.) 2, The lisS' 
 ment that connects tlie hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage. 3, 4, 5, The thyroid car- 
 tilage. 6, The cricoid cartilage. 7, The trachea. 
 
 Fig 103. A posteriur view of the cartilages and ligaments of the larynx. 1, The 
 posterior face of the epiglottis. 3, 3, The os hyoides. 4, 4, The lateral lig;unent3 
 which connect the os hyoides and thyroid cartilage. 5, 5, The posterior face of the 
 thyroid cartilage. 6, 6, The arytenoid cartilages. 7, The cricoid cartilage. 8, 8, 
 The junction of the cricoid and the arytenoid cartilages. 12. The first ring of the 
 trachea. 
 
 689. Describe the thyroid cartilage. 590. From what does the cricoid 
 cartilage derive its name? Where is it situated? Explain fig. liJ2. 
 I'ig. 103. 
 
 23 
 
270 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOSY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 591. The ARYTENOID CARTILAGES are small triangular 
 bodies placed upon the back part of the cricoid cartilage. 
 They are connected with the thyroid cartilages, by four 
 ligaments, called Vo'cal Cords. 
 
 592. The epiglottis is fibro-cartilaginous, and is placed 
 behind the base of the tongue. In shape it resembles a leaf 
 of parsley. 
 
 593. The vocal cords, or ligaments, are formed of elastic 
 and parallel fibres, enclosed in a fold of mucous membrane. 
 They are about two lines in width, and pass from the anterior 
 anf^le of the thyroid cartilage, to the two arytenoid cartilages. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 FiR. 104. An ideal, lateral section of the laiynx. 1, 1, The upper voca) conla. 
 %, !2, The lower vocal cords 3, 3, The glottis. 4, 4, The ventricles of the larynx. 
 
 Fig, IDS. A vertical section of the larynx. S, The os hyoides. 4, The apex of 
 Ujo epiRlottis. 7, The superior vocal ligament. 9, The ventricle of the larynx. 
 10. Tlie lower vocal ligament. II, The arytenoid cartilage. 13,13, The cricoid 
 cartilage. 14, The trachea. IB, The oesophagus. 
 
 U)\. Describe the arytenoid cartilages. 692. What is said of the epi- 
 glottis ? 693. Give the structure of the vocal cords. Where is the ventri- 
 cle of the larynx ? Whore is the glottis situated ? What is represented 
 by fig. 104 ; Explain llg. 106. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 2^1 
 
 The one is called the superior, and the other the inferior vocal 
 ligament. The cavity, or depression between the superior 
 and inferior ligament, is called the ventricle of the larynx. 
 The aperture, or opening between these ligaments, is called 
 the glottis, or chink of the glottis. It is about three fourths 
 of an inch in length, and one fourth of an inch in width, the 
 opening being widest at the posterior part. This opening is 
 enlarged and contracted by thfe agency of the muscles appro- 
 priated to the larynx. 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 
 / '/\' "V 
 
 w 
 
 VJ 1-/ 
 
 Fig. 106. A view of the larynx from above, ghnwing the vocal ligaments. 1, The 
 anterior edge of the larynx. 4, The posterior face of the thyroid cartilage. 5, 5, The 
 arytenoid cartilages. 6, 6, The vocal Itgamenta. 7, Their origin, vrithin the angle 
 of the tliyroid cartilage. 9, Their termination, at tlie base of tlie arytenoid cartilages 
 S 10, The glottia. 
 
 594. The larynx is connected by muscles with the sternum, 
 oesophagus, base of the skull, hyoid bone, lower jaw, and 
 tongue. This organ is supplied with a large number of blood- 
 Vessels, and it likewise receives nerves from the sympathetic 
 system, and two large nerves from the tenth pair. The num- 
 ber and size of the nervous filaments distributed to the 
 mucous membrane of the larynx, render it more sensitive 
 than any other portion of the respiratory organs. 
 « 
 
 How is the glottis enlarged or contracted ? Explain fig. 106. 594. By 
 what means and to what organs is the larynx connected ? Why is tha 
 larjnx more sensitive than other parts of the respiratory organs ? 
 
27'i ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 595. The larynx is much more developed and prominent 
 ill man than in woman. In the former, the anterior angle of 
 the thyroid cartilage is acute, while in the latter it is roiinded, 
 and the central slope of the superior border of the same carti- 
 lage is less deep, and the epiglottis smaller and less prominent, 
 llian in man. 
 
 596. The difference in the formation of the larynx in 
 infancy is less striking'; but at a later period, it is more 
 developed in the male than in the female. It is very remark- 
 able that this increase is not progressive, like that of other 
 organs, but, on the contrary, develops itself at once at the 
 poriod of puberty. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 597. In the formation of the voice, each part already 
 described performs an important office.' The cricoid and 
 thyroid cartilages give form and stability to the larynx ; the 
 arytenoid cartilages, by their movement, vary the width of the 
 glottis. The epiglottis is flexible and eleistic. When it is 
 erect, the chink of the glottis is open, as in inspiration ; when 
 depressed, as in swallowing food and drink, it covers and 
 closes this aperture. It prevents the introduction of articles 
 of food into the trachea, and probably modifies sound as it 
 issues from the glottis. 
 
 598. The muscles of the neck elevate and depress the 
 larynx; the muscles of the larynx increase or diminish the 
 width of the glottis; at the same time, the vocal cords are 
 
 595. What diffoienoo between the formation of the larynx of the female 
 anil that of the male ? 596. Does this difference exist in childhood ? Is 
 its development progressive i 697—600. Give the physiology of the vocal 
 orijiaHd. 607. WIKch cartilages give stability and form to the larynx? 
 Which vary the width of the glottis ? What is the function of the epi- 
 glottis ? 698. What effect have the muscles of the neck upon the larynx ? 
 The use of the muscles of the larynx } 
 
PHYSIOLOGlf OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. Zl.i 
 
 rekxed or tiglitened, while the muscles of the face open and 
 close the mouth. 
 
 599. The elasticity of the ribs and the contraction of the 
 abdominal muscles diminish the cavity of the chest, and the 
 air, in consequence, is pressed from the air-cells into the 
 bronchial tubes and trachea. It then rushes by the vocal 
 cords, and causes a peculiar vibration, which produces sound. 
 
 Ohseroatiotis. 1st. Experiments have satisfactorily shown 
 ihat the vocal cords are the principal agents in the formation of 
 the voice. The tongue, which many have supposed to be tlie 
 most important organ in speaking, is not essential to sound. 
 In several instances it has been removed, and the persons 
 thus mutilated could speak with fluency. 
 
 2d. When the vocal cords are ulcerated, or inflamed, how- 
 ever slightly, as in sore throat produced by a cold, the voice 
 will be changed. The loss of speech among public speakers 
 is generally produced by a relaxation of the vocal ligaments. 
 Hence, bronchitis is a misnomer for this affection. 
 
 600. Sound is varied by the velocity of the expelled cur- 
 rent of air, and the tension of the vocal ligament* The size 
 of the larynx, the volume and health of the lu^'^s, the condi- 
 tion of the fauces and nasal passages, the elevation and 
 depression of the chin, the development and freedom of 
 action of the muscles which are attached to the larynx, the 
 opening of the mouth, the state of the mind, and general 
 health of the system, influence the modulations of sound. 
 
 What effect has the combined action of these muscles- ? 599. How ia 
 sound produced ? What have experiments shown ? What effect has dis- 
 ease of the vocal ligaments upon the voice ? 600. How is sound varied ? 
 Mention other conditions that contribute to the modulation of sound. 
 
274 ANATOMY, PHVSIOLOGV, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 601. The voice can he changed and modified by habit. 
 Sailors, smiths, and others, who are engaged in noisy occupa- 
 tions, exert their vocal organs more strongly than those of 
 more quiet pursuits. This not only affects the structure of 
 the vocal organs, but varies the intonation of the voice. 
 
 602. The voice is strong in proportion to the development 
 of the larynx, and the capacity of the chest. Singing and 
 reading aloud improve and strengthen the vocal organs, and 
 give a healthy expansion to the chest. The enunciation of 
 the elementary sounds of the English language, aids in devel- 
 oping the vocal organs, as well as preventing disease of the 
 throat and l*igs. This exercise also conduces to the acqui- 
 sition of musical sounds. 
 
 603. Tlie altitude affects the modulation of the voice. 
 When an individual stands erect, the movements of the whole 
 respiratory apparatus are most free and effective. The 
 larynx is brought forward by the erect position of the head 
 and the elevation of the chin. The muscles of the aiytenoid 
 cartilages are then brought to a proper relation for action, by 
 which a tension of the vocal cords is produced, that favors 
 clear and harmonious enunciation. 
 
 Experiment. Read with the head bowed forward and the 
 chin depressed ; then read with the head erect and the chin 
 elevated, apd the difference in the movement of the vocal 
 
 601 — 616. Qive the hygieno iif the vocal ort/nnt. 602. How may the voica 
 be sti-engthoned ? 603. What effeot has the eroct attitude upon the mndu- 
 ];iMnnfl ftf the voice? Oivo the pviteriment. 
 
HYCilENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 275 
 
 organs, together with the difference in the voice, will be 
 manifest. 
 
 Fig. 107. Tig. 108. 
 
 Fig. 107. All improper position ; but one not unfrequenuy seen m some of our 
 common scUools, and in some of our public speakers. 
 
 Fig. 1D8. The proper position for reading, speaking, and flinging. 
 
 604. If an individual or class read or sing when shting, 
 let the position represented by fig. 109 be adopted, and not 
 the one represented by fig. 110 ; for the erect position in 
 sitting conduces to the free and effective action of the res- 
 piratory and vocal organs, and is as important as the erect 
 attitude in standing. 
 
 604. What position should be adopted when a. person reads or sings 
 v.'li*'n sitting ? Why ? 4 
 
276 
 
 ANATOMY, PliyslOLOGY AND HYOIEHE. 
 
 G05. The muscles of the neck should not he compressed. If 
 the muscles of the iieck and larynx are compressed by a high 
 cravat, or other close dressing, not only will the free and 
 energetic movements of these parts be impeded, but the tones 
 will be feeble and ineffective. Therefore the dress of the 
 neck, particularly of public speakers and singers, should be 
 loose and thin. For a warm dress upon the neck, when the 
 vocal organs are in action, will induce too great a flow of blood 
 to these parts, which will be attended by subsequent debility. 
 
 Fig. 109. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The loss of voice, (Iar->/n-(/i'tis,') which 
 IS prevalent among public speakers, may be ascribed in part 
 to the injudicious dressing of the neck, and improper position 
 in stjinding. 
 
 fi06. How should public speakers dress their necl^s ? Why ? What is a 
 cdin'Mon ntiusG of the loss of voice ? 
 
HYGIENK OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 277 
 
 ■2d. When individuals have been addressing an audience iu 
 a warm room, or engaged in singing, they should avoid all 
 impressions of a cold atmosphere, unless adequately pro- 
 tected by an extra garment. 
 
 Fig, 110. 
 
 606. The condiijon of the air modifies speaking and sink- 
 ing. As pure air is more elastic and resonant than impure, 
 and as easy, melodious speaking or singing requires atmos- 
 pheric elasticity, so school-rooms and singing-halls should be 
 well ventilated, if we would be entertained with soft intona- 
 tions in reading, or sonorous singing. 
 
 Observation. The imperfect ventilation of churches and 
 vestries is another cause of laryngitis among clergymen. 
 
 Give 2d observation. 606. Why does easy and melodious speaking re- 
 quire pure air? What .is another cause of larvngitis annnng clergymen? 
 
 24 
 
'21S ANATOMY, PHySIOLOGY, AND HVCilENE. 
 
 This affection is almost unknown among those who speak in 
 very open rooms, where stoves are not used. 
 
 607. The condition of the nasal passages and throat 
 modifies the voice. The enunciation of words is rendered 
 more or less distinct, in proportion as the jaws are separated 
 ill speaking, and the fauces and neisal passages are free from 
 obstruction. For these reasons, the scholar should be taught 
 to open the mouth adequately when reading, speaking, or 
 singing, that the sounds formed in the larynx and modified in 
 the fauces may have an unobstructed egress. 
 
 Observations. 1st. If the fauces are obstructed by enlarged 
 tonsils, (a condition by no means uncommon in children,) 
 they should be removed by a surgical operation, which is not 
 only effective, but safe, and attended with little suffering. 
 The tonsils are situated on each side of the bsise of the 
 tongue, and, when enlarged, they obstruct the passage through 
 which the air passes to and from the lungs, and the respiration 
 is not only laborious, but distressing. 
 
 2d. When the nasal passages are obstructed, there is a 
 peculiar sound of the voice, which is called " talking through 
 the nose." This phenomenon arises, not from the expired 
 air passing through the nose, but from its not being able to 
 pass through the nasal passages. 
 
 608. The state of the mind and health exerts an influence 
 upon the vocal organs. " The organs of tlig voice, in common 
 with all other parts of the bodily frame, require the vigor and 
 pliancy of muscle, and the elasticity and animation of mind, 
 which result from good health, in order to perform their 
 appropriate functions with energy and effect. But tliese indis- 
 pensable conditions to the e.xercise of vocal organs, are, in 
 the case of most learners, very imperfectly supplied." 
 
 007. Does the condition of the throat and nasal passages modify the voice i 
 Name the influences that produce cleav enunciation of words. 'What is tlit 
 efl'eot when the nasal passages are obstructed ? 008. How are the vocal 
 orgin« influenced ? , What do they require ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 279 
 
 609. " A sedentary mode of life, the want of invigorating 
 exercise, close and long-continued application of mind, and, 
 perhaps, an impaired state of health, or a feeble constitution, 
 prevent, in many instances, the free and forcible use of those 
 muscles on which voice is dependent, tience arises the 
 necessity of students of elocution practising physical exercises 
 adapted to promote general muscular vigor, as a means of 
 attaining energy in speaking; the power of any class of 
 muscles being dependent on the vigor of the whole sys- 
 tem." 
 
 610. " Gymnastic and calisthenic exercises are invaluable 
 aids to the culture and development of the voice, and should 
 be sedulously practised when opportunity renders them acces- 
 sible. But even a slight degree of physical exercise, in any 
 form adapted to the expansion of the chest and to the freedom 
 and force of the circulation, will serve to impart energy and 
 glow to the muscular apparatus of voice, and clearness to its 
 sound." 
 
 611. "There Is, therefore, a great advantage in always 
 practising some preliminary muscular actions, as an imme- 
 diate preparation for vocal exercises. The art of cultivating 
 the voice, however, has, in at^dition to the various forms of 
 corporeal exercise, practised for the general purpose of pro- 
 moting health, its own specific prescription for securing the 
 vigor of the vocal organs, and modes of exercise adapted to 
 the training of each class of organs separately." 
 
 612. The results of such practice are of indefinite extent. 
 They are limited only by the energy and perseverance of the 
 student, excepting perhaps in some instances of imperfect 
 organization. A few weeks of diligent cultivation are usually 
 sufficient to produce such an effect on the vocal organs, that 
 
 609. 'Why are students of elocution in general necessitated to practise 
 physical exercise? 610. What are invaluable aids in the culture of the 
 voice ? 611. What is said of the art of cultivating the voice ? 612. Are 
 the results of such practices limited ? What exception ? 
 
280 AMATOMY, PIIYSIOLOar, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 persons who commence practice with a feeble and ineffective 
 utterance, attain, in that short period, the full command of 
 clear, forcible, and varied tone. 
 
 613. Repetition is essential to. distinct articulation oj 
 words. In teaching a child to articulate a letter or word, in 
 the first instance, make an effort to induce a proper state of 
 the vocal organs by which the particular sound is produced. 
 Repeat the letter or word again and again, until all the parts 
 of the vocal apparatus harmonize in their movements to pro- 
 duce the given sound. This repetition is as necessary in 
 learning to read as in singing. 
 
 Observations. 1st. There is nothing gained by trying to 
 teach a child to pronounce the letters of the alphabet, before 
 the vocal organs are so developed that distinct utterance can 
 be given to the proper sounds. 
 
 2d. The drawling method of talking to young children, as 
 well as using words that are not found in any written language, 
 (called child's talk,) is decidedly wrong. A child will pro- 
 nounce and understand the application of a correct word eis 
 quickly as an incorrect one. 
 
 614. No part of the vocal organs is wanting, with those 
 individuals that stammer, or vilur have an impediment mi their 
 speech. Some parts may be more developed than others, but 
 they generally are but imperfectly under the control of the 
 will, and assume an irregular and rapid movement, while other 
 parts, the motions of which are essential, remain compara- 
 tively inactive. This can be seen by comparing the move- 
 ments of the lips, tongue, and larynx, while attempting to 
 speak, in a person who stammers, with tlie movements of the 
 corresponding parts, while speaking, in an individual who has 
 no such impediment. 
 
 613. Is repetition esaontial to distinct nrtioulntion ? What method is 
 suggested in teaching a child to articulate letters or words ? Give obser- 
 viition 1st. Observation 2d. 614. Are the vocal organs wanting in stam- 
 merers? Why the defect in their nrtipulntion of words? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 281 
 
 615. Surgical operations and medical treatment are not 
 highly advantageous in a majority of these cases. In the 
 young and middle aged, this defect can be remedied hy patient 
 and judicious training. At first, only those letters and words 
 should be spoken that can be articulated with distinctness. 
 Let there be repetition, until the words can be spoken at any 
 time with readiness. Then take for a lesson other words, 
 more difficult to articulate ; and pursue a similar process of 
 training and repetition, until every part of the vocal organs 
 can be called into a ready and harmonious action in giving 
 utterance to any word in common use. 
 
 616. The method of removing foreign bodies from the 
 throat. It is not necessary to ascertain which passage the 
 foreign body is in, for the immediate treatment ought in either 
 case to be the same. 3ome person should place one hand on 
 the front of the chest of the sufferer, and, with the other, give 
 two or three smart blows upon the back, allowing a few 
 seconds to intervene between them. This treatment will gen- 
 erally be successful, and cause the substance to be violently 
 thrown from the throat. 
 
 Ohservation. If the foreign body passes into the larynx, 
 violent spasmodic coughing immediately silcceeds, which con- 
 tinues until it is removed or life is extinct. Such cases de- 
 mand the prompt opening of the trachea below the larynx by 
 a skilful surgeon. 
 
 615. How can stammering be remedied? 616. What is the method of 
 removing foreign bodies from the throat ? 
 
 24* 
 
283 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEIIB. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 THE SKIN. 
 
 617. TnE skin is a membrane which envelops the muscles 
 and other parts of the system. In youth, and in females par- 
 ticularly, it is smooth, soft, and elastic. In middle age, and 
 in males, it is firm and rough to the touch. In old age, in 
 persons who are emaciated, and about the flexions of the joints, 
 it is thrown into folds. The interior of the body, like the 
 exterior, is covered by a skin, which, from the constantly 
 moistened state of its surface, is called the mucous mem- 
 brane. At the various orifices of the body, the exterior skin 
 is continuous with the internal. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE SKIN. 
 
 618. The SKIN, to the naked eye, appears composed of one 
 membrane. But examination has shown that it consists of 
 two layers of membrane, namely, the Cu'ti-cle, (scarf-skin,) 
 and the Cu'tis Ve'ra, (true skin.) These layers are widely 
 different from each other in structure, and perform very dif- 
 ferent ofiices in the animal economy. 
 
 619. The CUTICLE (sometimes called tlie ep-i'derm'is) is 
 the external layer of the skin. This membrane is thin and 
 
 617. What is the skin ? Mention its different appearances in its differ- 
 ent conditions in the human frame. Is the interior of the body, as well 
 «s the exterior, covered by a skin ? What is the interior membrane called ? 
 Why has it received this name f 618—636. Give the atmtomy of the skin. 
 618. What is said of the skin ? Wliat is said relative to these layers 
 of membrane? 619. Dosoribo the cuticle. What name is sometimes 
 applied to the cuticle ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE SKIN. 283 
 
 semi-transparent, and resembles a thin shaving of soft, clear 
 horn, and bears the same relation to other parts of the skin 
 thai the rough bark of a tree does to the liber, or living bark. 
 The cuticle has no perceptible nerves or blood-vessels ; con- 
 sequently, if it is cut or abraded, no pain wili be felt, and no 
 fluid will ooze from it. 
 
 Experiment. Pass a pin through the portion of the cuti- 
 cle that skirts the nails, or remove a thin shaving from the 
 palm of the hand, and no painful sensation will be expe- 
 rienced unless the pin or knife penetrates deeper than the 
 cuticle. 
 
 620. This membrane varies in thickness on different parts 
 of the body, — from the thin, delicate skin upon the internal 
 flexions of the joints, to the thickened covering of the soles 
 of the feet. The greater thickness of the cuticle of the 
 palms of the hands and soles of the feet, is manifestly the 
 intentional work of the Creator ; for it is perceptible in 
 infants, even at birth, before exercise can have had any influ- 
 ence. 
 
 « 
 
 621. The CUTIS teka (sometimes called the co'ri-on) is 
 composed of minute fibres, which are collected into small 
 bundles or strands^ These are interwoven with each other 
 so as to constitute a firm, strong, and flexible web. In the 
 superficial part of the true skin, the web is so close as to have 
 the appearance of felt-cloth ; but more deeply, the pores 
 become progressively larger, and, upon the lower surface, 
 have a diameter of about a line, or one twelfth of an inch. 
 This gives the under surface the appearance of a coarse web. 
 The strands of the under surface of the true skin are con- 
 nected with the fibrous web, in which the sub-cutaneous fat 
 of the bqdy is deposited ; while the upper surface gives 
 
 Give the experiment 620. What is said of the thicliness of the cuticle 
 in difi'erent parts of the body ? 621. Describe the cutis vera. By what 
 name is it sometimes called ? What is the appearance of the upper sur- 
 face of the cutis vera ? Of the under surface ? 
 
284 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 support to the sensitive, or papillary layer, which is bedded 
 upon it. 
 
 Observation. When the skins of animals are immersed in 
 a strong solution of oak or hemlock bark, a chemical union 
 takes place between the gelatin, of which the true skin is 
 mosJly composed, and the tannin of the bark. By this process 
 leather is formed, and its peculiar markings are owing to the 
 papillary layer. 
 
 Fig. Ill, 
 
 Ftg. 111. An ideal representation of the papiUs. 1, 1, The cutia vera. 3, S, Tbs 
 papillary layer. 3, 3, The arteries of the papilla 4, 4, The veina nf the papilla. 
 5, 5, The nerves of the papiUiB. 
 
 622. The sensitive layer of the skin is thin, soft, uneven, 
 pinkish in hue, and composed of blood-vessels, which confer 
 its various tints of red ; and of nerves, which give it the facul- 
 ty of sensation. The unevenness of this layer is produced 
 by small, elongated, conical prominences, called Pa-pil'lce. 
 
 623. Each papilla is composed of a minute artery, vein, 
 and nerve. Some of the prominences are arranged in concen- 
 
 How is leather formed? 622. What is the appearance of the aensitire 
 layer? Whut causes the unevenness of this layer? Explain fig. 111. 
 C23. Describe the papilloe. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE SKIN. 2S5 
 
 trie ovals, as may be seen on the ends of the fingers ; others 
 are more or less parallel, and pursue a serpentine course ; 
 some suddenly diverge, and again reunite, as may be seen in 
 &e palm of the hand. Papillae are found in every part of the 
 skin. Consequently, their number is very great. 
 
 624. The cutis vera contains not only Arteries, Veins, and 
 Nerves but Lymphatics, Oil- Glands and Tubes, and Perspi- 
 ratory Glands and Tubes. 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 Fig 112. The arteries and veins of a section of the skin. A, A, Arterial brancliea 
 B B, Capillary, or hair-like vessels, in which the large branches terminate. C, The 
 venous trunk, collecting the blond from the capillaries. 
 
 625. The arteries and veins of the skin are very numer- 
 ous. The larger branches of the arteries pass through the 
 open meshes of the true skin, and are subdivided into a 
 myriad of minute capillary vessels, which form a beautiful 
 net-work on the upper surface of the true skin. This vascu- 
 lar net sends a branch to each of the papillae, which opens 
 into and terminates in a minute vein. The capillary veins are 
 
 C24. What vessels are found in the cutis vera? Explain fig. 112. 
 025. What is said of the cutaneous arteries ? Of the cutaneous veins ? 
 
286 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 as numerous as the arteries which tliey accompany. Tliey 
 unite and form larger trunks, as small springs from the hill- 
 side coalesce to form rivulets. 
 
 626. The nerves that are spread over every part of the 
 sensitive layer of the true skin, proceed from the spinal cord. 
 As a proof of the great number of nervous filaments in the 
 skin, no part of this tissue can be punctured with a fine 
 needle without transfixing a nerve, and inducing pain. In 
 some parts of the system, however, the nerves are more 
 abundant than in others ; where the sense of feeling is most 
 acute, we find the greatest number of nerves, and those of the 
 largest size. Those parts that are most exposed to injury are 
 most sensitive. 
 
 Examples. 1st. The conjunctiva, or skin of the &ye, is 
 pained by the presence of a particle of dust, because it 
 would render vision imperfect. 
 
 2d. The lungs, also, would be injured by the smallest par- 
 ticle of matter ; they are therefore protected by the exquisite 
 sensitiveness of the lining membrane of the trachea, so that 
 a particle of food or dust is ejected by a convulsive cough 
 before it reaches the lungs. 
 
 627. The nerves are more numerous in the upper than 
 lower extremities ; in greater numbers upon the palm than 
 the back of the hand. They are, likewise, more abundant 
 and larger at the extremities of the fingers, and in the hps, 
 than in any other part of the skin. 
 
 Observation. The proboscis of the elephant, the extremities 
 of the tails of certain species of monkeys, and the tentacula 
 of some kinds of fish, receive a more abundant supply of sen- 
 sitive nerves than other parts of their systems. 
 
 626. Whore do the nerves of the sisin proceed from ? Are they numer- 
 ous in this mciubi-nno? IIow is it jirovoJ ? What is said of those ports 
 most exposed to injury? Give example 1st. Example 2d. 627. Mention 
 the difference in the distribution of the nerves in various parts of the body. 
 Is this difference found in the lower order of animalt? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE SKIN. 
 
 287 
 
 628. In the small papillae, the nerve forms a single loop, 
 while in papillse of larger size, and endowed with a power 
 of more exalted sensation, the nerve is bent several time? 
 upon itself previous to completing the loop. These little 
 loops spring from a net-work of nerves, imbedded in the 
 upper porous layer of the true skin, at the base of the papil- 
 Ieb. This net-work of nerves receives its influence through 
 nerves which take their winding course through the fat dis- 
 tended openings of the deeper layers of the true skin. 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
 Fig. 113. 1, 1, The cuticle. 2, a, Tile colored layer of the cuticle. S, 3, The 
 papillary layer, exhibiting the nerves as they form loops. 4, 4, Tlie net-»vo(k of 
 nerves. 5, 5, The true skin. 6, 6, 6, Three nerves that divide to form the net- 
 _work (4, 4.) 7, 7, 7, The furrows between tlie papilla. 8, 8, 8, Three papillaa 
 magnified liny diameters. 
 
 629. The lymphatics are found in great numbers in the 
 true skin, and they are so minute that they cannot be seen with 
 the naked eye ; but when these hair-like vessels are injected 
 w'.th quicksilver, (a work of great difficulty,) the surface injected 
 
 628. How are the nerves of the small papillae arranged? How in the 
 large papillae ? What does fig. 113 represent? 629. What is said of the 
 cutaneous lymphatics ? How is their existence proved ? 
 
28R ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 resembles a sheet of silver. In this 'vay their existence can 
 be imperfectly demonstrated. They are a part of the vascu- 
 lar net-work situated upon the upper surface of the true skin. 
 Each papilla is supplied with a lymphatic filament, the mouth 
 of which opens beneath, and lies m contact with the under 
 surface of the cuticle. This net- work of vessels communi- 
 cates through the open meshes of the true skin with larger 
 lymphatic trunks, that open into the venous svstem. 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 Fig. 114. A plexus of lymphatic vessels in the skin, considerably magntfled from 
 an injected preparation. 
 
 630. The oil-glands are small bodies imbedded in the 
 true skin. They connect with the surface of the skin by small 
 tubes, which traverse the cuticle. In some parts, these glands 
 are wanting ; in others, where their office is most needful, 
 they are abundant, as on the face and nose, the head, the 
 ears, &c. In some parts, these tubes are spiral ; in others, 
 straight. These glands offer every shade of complexity, from 
 the simple, straight tube, to a tube divided into numberless 
 
 — r- 
 
 Of what aro thoy a part? 630. Dosoribo the oil-glands? With what do 
 thoy connect? Do they exist in every part of tho body? Of what form 
 uro their tubes? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE SKIN. 
 
 289 
 
 ramifications, and constituting a little rounded tree-like mass, , 
 about the size of a millet seed. 
 
 631. In a few situations, these small glands are worthy of 
 particular notice, as in the eyelids, where they possess great 
 elegance of distribution and form, and open by minute pores 
 along the lids ; in the ear-passages, where they produce that 
 amber-colored substaitee, known as the ce-ru'men, (wax of the 
 ears,) and in the scalp, where they resemble small clusters of 
 grapes, and open in pairs into the sheath of the hair, supply- 
 ing it with a pomatum of Nature's own preparing. The oil- 
 tubes are sometimes called the se-ha'ceous Jbl'li-cles. 
 
 Fig. US. 
 
 Fig. 115. 1, An oil-tube and gland from the scalp. A, The gland. B, The tube 
 slightly twisted. 
 
 2. An oil-tube and gland from the skin of the nose. The gland (A) is double, and 
 communicates with the main tube (B) by means of two smaller tnbes. 
 
 S. Another oil-tube and gland from the nose. A, The gland. B, The tube filled 
 v^th the peeuUar animalculaB of the cdly substances. Their heads are directed 
 inward. 
 
 4. A small hair from the scalp, with its oil-glands. The glands (A) form a cluster 
 around the shaft of the hair-tube, (C.) These ducts open into the sheath of the 
 hair, (B.) All the figures, from 1 to 4, are magnified thirty-eight diameters. 
 
 631. What is said of these tubes in the eyelids ? 
 scalp ? What are these glands sometimes called ? 
 
 25 
 
 In the ear? In the 
 
S90 ANATOMr, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEWE. 
 
 Observation. Among the inhabitants of cities, and espe- 
 cially in persons who have a torpid state of the skin, the con- 
 tents of the oil-tubes become too dense and dry to escape iu 
 the usual manner. Thus it collects, distends the tube, and 
 remains until removed by art. When this impacted matter 
 reaches the surface, dust and smoke mix with it, then it is 
 recognized by small, round, dark spots.* These are seen on 
 the forehead, nose, and other parts of the face. When this 
 matter is pressed out, the tube gives it a cylindrical form. 
 The parts around the distended tubes sometimes inflame. This 
 constitutes the disease called, " ac'ne punc-ta'ta." 
 
 632. The perspieatory apparatus consists of minute 
 cylindrical tubes, which pass inward through the cuticle, and 
 terminate in the deeper meshes of the cutis vera. In their 
 course, each little tube forms a beautiful spiral coil ; and, on 
 arriving at its destination, coils upon itself in such a way 
 as to constitute an oval-shaped, or globular ball, called the 
 perspiratory gland. 
 
 633. The opening of the perspiratory tube on the surface 
 of the cuticle, namely, " the pores," is also deserving of atten- 
 tion. ■ In consequence of its extremity being a section of a 
 spirally-twisted tube, the aperture is oblique in direction, and 
 possesses all the advantages of a valvular opening, preventing 
 the ingress of foreign injurious substances to the interior of the 
 tube and gland. 
 
 634. " To arrive at something like an estimate of the value 
 of the perspiratory system, in relation to the rest of the organ- 
 ism, I counted the perspiratory pores on the palm of the hand, 
 and found 3528 in a square inch. Now each of these pores 
 being the aperture of a little tube about a quarter of an inch 
 
 What is said of the retention of the unctions mutter in the oil-tubes ? 
 632. Of what does the perspiratory apparatus consist? 633. What is 
 peculiar in the opening of the perspiratory tubes on the surface of the cuti- 
 cle ? 634. How many perspiratory pores did Dr. Wilson count upon a square 
 Inch of skin on the palm of the hand? 
 
ANATOMY OF\THE SKIN. 
 
 291 
 
 Fly 116. A perspiratory gland from the palm of tbe hand, magnified forty dlam^ 
 tere. 1, I, A twisted tube composing the gland. 2, 2, The two exeretory ducta 
 from the gland. These unite to form one spiral tube, that perforates the cuticle, (3,) 
 and opens obliquely on its surface at 4. The gland is imbedded in cells filled witli 
 fat, which are seen at 5, 5. 
 
 What does fig. 116 represent? 
 
292 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 long, it follows, that in a square inch of skin on the palm 
 of the hand there exists a length of tube equal to 882 inches, 
 or 73^ feet. Surely such an amount of drainage as seventy- 
 three feet in every square inch of skin — assuming this to be 
 the average for the whole body — is something wonderful ; 
 and the thought naturally intrudes itself. What if this drainage 
 be obstructed ? 
 
 635. " Could we need a stronger argument for enforcing 
 the necessity of attention to the skin .' On the pulps of the 
 fingers, where the ridges of the sensitive layer of the true 
 skin are somewhat finer than in the palm of the hand, the 
 number of pores on a square inch a little exceeded that of the 
 palm ; and on the heels, where the ridges are coarser, the 
 number of pores on the square inch was 2268, and the 
 length of the tube 567 inches, 47J feet. 
 
 636. " To obtain an estimate of the length of tube of the 
 perspiratory system of the whole surface of the body, I think 
 that 2800 might be taken as a fair average of the number of 
 pores in the square inch ; and consequently, 700, the number 
 of inches in length. Now, the number of square inches of 
 surface- in a man of ordinary height and bulk is 2500 ; the 
 number of pores, therefore, 7,000,000 ; and the number of 
 inches of perspiratory tube is 1,750,000 ; that is, 145,833 /ce<, 
 or 48,611 yards, or nearly twenty-eight miles P'' — Wilson. 
 
 QWe other oomputations in this paragraph. 635. What is said of the 
 number of these pores on the pulp of the fingers ? On the heels? 636. 
 What is an average number of pores and length of tube of the whole sur- 
 face of the body ? Give the summary of the number of pores, and number 
 of inches of perspiratory tube. 
 
PHYSIOLOBY OF THE SKIN. 293 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY or THE SKIN. 
 
 637. The skin invests the whole of the external surface of 
 the body, following all its prominences and curves, and gives 
 protection to all the organs it encloses, while each of its sev- 
 eral parts has a distinct use. 
 
 638. The cuticle is insensible, and serves as a sheath of 
 protection to the highly sensitive skin {cutis vera) situated 
 beneath it. The latter feels ; but the former blunts the im- 
 pression which occasions feeling. In some situations, the 
 cuticle is so dense and thick, as wholly to exclude ordinary 
 impressions. Of this we see an example in the ends of the 
 fingers, where the hard and dense nail is the cuticle modified 
 for the purpose referred to. Were the nervous tissue of the 
 true skin not thus protected, every sensation would be so acute 
 as to be unpleasant, and contact with external bodies Would 
 cause pain. 
 
 639. The cuticle, also, prevents disease, by impeding the 
 evaporation of the fluids of the true skin, and the absorption of 
 the poisonous vapors, which necessarily attend various employ- 
 ments. It, however, affords protection to the system only 
 when unbroken, and then, to the greatest degree, when 
 covered with a proper amount of oily secretion from the oil- 
 glands. 
 
 640. The cuticle is, originally, a transparent fluid, exuded 
 
 637 — 656. Give the physiology of the skin. 637. What is said of the 
 skin? 638. Give a function of the cuticle. Does it vary in thickness on 
 ilifferent parts of the body ? Give examples. 639. Mention another uae 
 of the cuticle. 640. What is the cuticle originally ? 
 25 * 
 
294 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 by the blood-vessRls, and distributed as a thin layer on the sur- 
 face of the true skin. While successive layers are formed on 
 the exterior of the true skin, the external cuticular layers are 
 converted into dry, flattened scales, by the evaporation of their 
 fluid contents. The thickness of the cuticle is formed mainly 
 from these scales. 
 
 641. The cuticle is, therefore, undergoing a constant pro- 
 cess of formation and growth at its under part, to compensate 
 for the wear that is taking place continually on its surface. A 
 proper thickness of the cuticle is in this manner preserved ; 
 the faculty of sensation and that of touch are properly regu- 
 lated ; the places of the little scales, which are continually 
 falling off under the united influence of friction and ablu- 
 tion, are supplied ; and an action necessary, not merely to 
 the health of the skin, but to that of the entire body, is 
 established. 
 
 642. Whenever the cuticle is exposed to moderate and 
 repeated friction, it becomes thicker and tougher, as may be 
 seen in the cuticle of the lady's finger that plies the needle, 
 and in the hard or callous appearance of the hands of farmers, 
 masons, and other mechanics. This enables them to handle 
 the utensils and materials used in their vocations without pain 
 or inconvenience. 
 
 Observatioiis. 1st. When the joints of the feet are sub- 
 jected to moderate and continued prtesure or friction, fre- 
 quently one or more of the papillse enlarge. This is 
 accompanied with a thickening of the layers of the cuticle, 
 which is termed a " callosity," or " corn." These thickened 
 layers of the cuticle are broad at the top and narrow at the 
 bottom, and the enlarged mass is conical, with the point 
 
 Ildwls the thickness of the cuticle mainly formed ? 641. Describe the 
 olinngcs of this membrane. Show tlip necessity of this constant growth. 
 ti4li. How dues mnderiUo and repeated friction affect the cuticle ? Give 
 exsniples. What is the benefit derived from having the cuticle thus 
 changed i What is the result if the joints of the feet are subjected to 
 moderate and continued pressure } What la the form of a " com" } 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN. 895 
 
 innermost. When pressed upon by a tight shoe, these sensitive 
 papillae cause pain. 
 
 2d. To remove these painful excrescences, take a thick 
 piece of soft leather, somewhat larger than the corn ; in the 
 centre punch a hole of the size of the summit of the com, 
 spread the leather with adhesive plaster, and apply it around 
 the corn. The hole in the leather may be filled with a •paste 
 made of soda and soap, on going to bed. In the morning, 
 remove it, and wash with warm water. Repeat this for 
 several successive nights, and the corn will be removed. The 
 only precaution is, not to repeat the application so as to 
 cause pain. 
 
 643. Let a person unaccustomed to manual labor, trundle 
 the hand-cart, or row a boat, for several successive hours, and 
 the cuticle upon the palms of the hands, instead of becom- 
 ing thicker by use, is frequently separated from the subjacent 
 tissues, by an effusion of serum, (water,) thrown out by the 
 vessels of the true skin. Had the friction been moderate, 
 and applied at regular intervals, instead of blisters being 
 formed upon the inside of the hands, material would have 
 been thrown out to form new layers upon the lower surface 
 of the cuticle. 
 
 644. The cuticle is interesting to us in another point of 
 view, as being the seat of the color of the skin. The differ- 
 ence of color between the blonde and the brunette, the Euro- 
 pean and the African, lies in the cuticle ; — in the deeper, and 
 softer, and newly-formed layers of that structure. In the 
 whitest skin, the cells of the cuticle always contain more or 
 less of a peculiar pigment, incorporated with the elementary 
 granules which enter into their composition. In the white 
 
 How can they be removed ? What precaution is given ? 643. Explain 
 why those persons unaccustomed to labor, blister their hands in rowing a 
 boat or performing ordinary manual employment for several successive 
 hours. 644. In what other point of view is the cuticle interesting ? In 
 what part of it do we find the coloring matter > 
 
296 ANATOMY, PHYSIOXOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 races, the pigmentary tint is extremely slight, and less in 
 winter than in the summer season. In the darker races, on 
 the contrary, it is deep and strongly marked. 
 
 645. The various tints of color exhibited by mankind, are, 
 therefore, referable to the amount of coloring principle con- 
 tained within the elementary granules of the cuticle, and 
 their, consequent depth of hue. In the negro, the granules 
 are more or less black ; in the European of the south, they 
 are amber-colored ; and in the inhabitants of the north, they 
 are pale and almost colorless. 
 
 646. Color of the skin has relation to energy in its action ;« 
 thus, in the equatorial region, where light and heat are most 
 powerful, the skin is stimulated by these agents to vigorous 
 action, and color is very deep ; while in the temperate regions, 
 where light and heat are not so intense, the lungs, liver, and 
 kidneys relieve the skin of part of its duties. The colored 
 layer of the cuticle has been called the rdte mu-co'sum, 
 (mucous coat of the skin,) and described as a distinct layer 
 by many physiologists. 
 
 Observation. " The various coloring of the inner layer of 
 the cuticle gives to some animals their varied hues ; the ser- 
 pent, the frog, the lizard, and some fishes have a splendor of 
 hue almost equal to polished metal. The gold-fish and the 
 dolphin owe their difference of color and the brilliancy of 
 their hues to the color of this layer of the skin." 
 
 647. The nerves of the skin are the organs of the sense 
 of touch and feeling. Through them we receive many im- 
 pressions that enhance our pleasures, as the grateful sensa- 
 tions imparted by the cooling breeze in a warm day. In 
 
 In what season of the year is the coloring matter less in the white race ? 
 645. To what ia the color of the skin referable } 646. Why have the races 
 of the torrid zone darker complexions than those of the temperate or frigid 
 zones i What Is this colored layer called by many physiologists i To 
 what is the different hues in animals owing i 647. Of what use are the 
 nerves of thc^skin ) 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN. 297 
 
 consequence of their sensitiveness, we are individually pro- 
 tected, by being admonished of the proximity of destructive 
 agents. 
 
 Illustration. A man who had been afflicted some years 
 with a severe disease of a portion of ihe brain and spinal 
 cord, was deprived of feeling in the lower extremities. He 
 was directed by his attending physician to use a warm foot- 
 bath. Intending to follow the directions given him, he 
 immersed his feet in boiling water, which he supposed of a 
 proper temperature. While his feet were immersed in the 
 water, he experienced no sensation of an unpleasant nature. 
 On withdrawing them, he was astonished to find the cuticle 
 separated from the other tissues, by the effusion of serum, 
 and thus producing a blister over the whole surface. 
 
 648. Portions of the skin would suffer every day, were it 
 not for the sentinel-like care exercised by the nerves, by 
 which all impressions are transmitted to the brain. As the 
 skin is continually exposed to the influence of destructive 
 agents, it is important that the nerves, provided for its pro- 
 tection, should be kept in a healthy state. 
 
 649. A large proportion of the waste of the body passes 
 through the outlets of the skin ; some portions in the form 
 of oil, others in the form of water and carbonic acid. 
 
 650. The oil-glands secrete an oil, partly free and diffused, 
 and partly mixed with albumen. When the cells are fully 
 formed, that is, fully distended, they yield their contents, 
 and the fluid matter they contain is set free, and passes along 
 the tubes to the surface ; this fluid matter constitutes the oily 
 element of the economy of the skin. 
 
 651. The uses of the unctuous product of the oil-glands 
 are twofold : 1st. The protection ; 2d. The removal of waste 
 
 Give the illustration. 648. "Why ia it necessary that the cutaneous nerves 
 be kept in a healthy state ? 649. Through what membrane does a large 
 proportion of the waste material of the system pass ? 650. "What is the 
 function of the oil-glands ? 651. "What are the uses of the oily product of 
 those glands ? 
 
298 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 mailer from the system. In the exercise of these offices the 
 oily substance is diffused over those parts of the skin which 
 are naturally exposed to vicissitudes of temperature and 
 moisture, — as the nose, face, and head; — to the injurious 
 attrition of contiguous surfaces, — as the flexures of joints ; — 
 or the contact of acrid fluids, — as in the excoriations to which 
 infants are liable. 
 
 652. The oil of the unctuous substance is the principal 
 agent in effecting these purposes : 1st. It prevents the evap- 
 oration or congelation of the water of the cuticle, which 
 would cause it to become parched and peel off, thus leaving 
 the sensitive skin exposed. 2d. It affords a soft medium to 
 the contact of moving substances. 3d. It repels moisture and 
 fluids. 4th. The action of these glands removes the waste 
 atoms and purifies the blood. 
 
 653. In considering the purpose of the oily matter of the 
 skin, there are two situations in which it deserves especial 
 remark. 1st. Along the edges of the eyelids, where it is 
 poured out in considerable quantity. Here, it is the means 
 of confining the tears and moisture of the eyes within the 
 lids, defending the skin from the irritation of that fluid, and 
 preventing the adhesion of the lids, which is liable to occur 
 upon slight inflammation. 2d. In the ears, where the unctuous 
 wax not only preserves the membrane of the drum and the 
 passage of the ear moist, but also, by its bitterness, prevents 
 the intrusion of small insects. 
 
 654. The use of the perspiratoiy glands is to separate from 
 the blood that portion of the waste matter which is carried 
 off through the skin in the form of vapor. Sanctorius, a 
 celebrated medical writer, daily, for thirty years, weighed 
 
 652, What prevent^ the evaporation of the water of the cuticle ? Give 
 its 2d use. Its 3d. Its 4th. 653, What is said in reference to the dis- 
 tribution of the oily matter along the edges of the eyelids } In the ears ? 
 654. Of what use arc the perspiratory glands? How long did Sanctorius 
 daily weigh his food, to ascertain the amount of secretion that passed 
 through the t^ltiu '/ 
 
. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN. 299 
 
 himself, his food, and excretions. He estimated that five of 
 every eight pounds of food and drink passed from the system 
 through the many outlets upon the skin. Many place the 
 estimate much lower. All physiologists agree that from 
 twenty to forty ounces of matter pass off from the skin of an 
 adult every twenty-four hours. 
 
 655. The average amount of perspiration is about thirty 
 ounces ; and it passes off in such minute portions, and mixes 
 so rapidly with the surrounding air, that it is not perceived. 
 For this reason, it is called inserisible perspiration. When 
 this excretion is increased, it forms into drops, and is called 
 sensi&Ze perspiration. The following experiments prove the 
 existence of this excretion from the skin. 
 
 Experiments. 1st. Take a cold bell-glass, or any glass 
 vessel large enough to admit the hand, and introduce it per- 
 fectly dry ; at the same time close the mouth by winding a 
 napkin about the wrist ; in a short time, the insensible per- 
 spiration from the hand, will be seen deposited on the inside 
 of the glass. At first, the deposit is in the form of mist ; but, 
 if the experiment be continued a sufficient time, it will collect 
 in drops. 
 
 2d. Hold the apparently dry hand near a looking-glass, and 
 the invisible vapor will soon be condensed, and cover the glass 
 with a slight dew. 
 
 656. It is important that this excretion be maintained with 
 steadiness and regularity. When the action of the perspira- 
 tory glands is suppressed, all the vessels of the different 
 organs will suffer materially, and become diseased, by the 
 redundant waste matter that should be carried from the system. 
 If a person is vigorous, the action of the organs, whose 
 
 What were his conclusions ? 655. What is the average amount of per- 
 spiration every twenty- four hours? What is insensible perspiration? 
 What is sensible perspiration ? How can the existence of the excretion of 
 the skin be shown ? Give the 2d e.xperiment. 656. Why is it important 
 that thc.«o excretions be maintained regularly? 
 
300 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 fungtions are similar to those of the skin, as channels for 
 tlie exit of waste matter, will be increased, and thus relieve 
 the diseased state of the body. But the over-taxing of these 
 organs, to relieve the system, often produces a diseased action 
 in themselves. 
 
 o^^^2^^^. 
 
 ^-t^i^-^^ 
 
 Fig. 117. 1, 1, Tbe lines, or ridges of the cuticle, cut perpendicularly. 9, 3, 9, 9, fi 
 Tlie furrowa, or wrinkles of the same. 3, The cuticle. 4, 4, 4, The colored layer of the 
 cuticle. 5, 5, The cutis vera. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, The papillfB. 7, 7, Small furrows between 
 the papillfB. 8, 8, 8, 8, The deeper furrown between each couple of the papille. 9, 9, 
 Cells filled with fat. 10, 10, 10, The adipose layer, with numerous fat vesicles. 11, 
 11, 11, Cellular fibres of the adipose tissue. 13, Two hairs. 13, A perspiratory gland, 
 with its spiral duct. 14, Another perspiratory gland, with a duct leas spiral. 15, 15, 
 Oil-gianda with ducts opening into the sheath of the hair, (19.) 
 
 NoU. — Let the pupil review the anatomy and phj^iology of the skin ironi 
 fig. 117 or from anatomical outline plate No. 9 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 301 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 
 
 657. The sensibility of the skin, and the activity of the 
 oil and perspiratory glands, are modified by the condition 
 of the cuticle, the temperature of the skin and body, the 
 purity and warmth of the air, and the character" of the light 
 to which the body is exposed. Thus, to maintain a healthy 
 action of eveiy.part of this membrane, attention should be 
 given to Clothing, Bathing, Light, and Air. 
 
 658. Clothing, in itself, does not bestow heat, but is 
 chiefly useful in preventing the escape of heat from the body, 
 and in defending it from the temperature of the atmosphere. 
 In selecting and applying clothing to our persons, the follow- 
 ing suggestions should be observed. 
 
 659. The material for clothing sliould he a had conductor 
 of heat ; that is, it should have little tendency to conduct or 
 remove heat from the body. This depends mainly on the 
 property possessed by the material in retaining atmospheric 
 air in its meshes. 
 
 660. The material for clothing should not possess the 
 property of ahsorling and retaining moisture. Dampness, 
 or moisture, renders apparel a good conductor of heat; beside, 
 if the perspired fluid, and the saline material it holds in solu- 
 tion, are readily absorbed by the clothing, they become 
 
 657 — 716- Give the hygiene of the skin. 657. What influences modif; 
 the action of the oil and perspiratory glands ? To what must atten- 
 tion be given to maintain a healthy action of the skin ? 658. What is 
 said in regard to the clothing ? 659. Mention a property that the material 
 for clothing should possess. 660. What property in the selection of cloth- 
 ing should we avoid ? Why ? 
 
 26 
 
302 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 sources of irritation to the skin with which the apparel comes 
 in contact. 
 
 661. Furs contain a greater amount of air in their meshes, 
 than any otlier article, and they absorb no moisture ; conse- 
 quently , as an article of dress, they are best adapted to those 
 who are exposed to great vicissitudes of heat and cold. 
 
 662. Woollen cloth retains more air in its meshes than 
 any other article except furs and eider down, and it absorbs 
 but very little moisture. These properties, together with its 
 comparative cheapness, render it a good article of apparel for 
 all classes of persons. The only objection to its general use 
 is, the disturbance of the electricity of the system, and the 
 irritation to delicate skins from the roughness of its fibres. 
 
 Observation. Flannels are not only beneficial, during the 
 cold season, in preventing colds and rheumatism, but they are 
 of great utility in the warm season, in shielding the system 
 from the chills at evening, that induce disease of the alimen- 
 tary canal. Tlieir general use among children and delicate 
 females, would be a preventive of the "season complaints" 
 prevalent in the months of August and September. 
 
 663. Cotton contains less air in its meshes than woollen, 
 but much more than linen. In texture, it is smoother than 
 wool, and less liable to irritate the skin. This fabric absorbs 
 moisture in a small degree. In all respects, it is well adapted 
 for garments worn next the skin. When woollen flannels 
 irritate the skin, they may be lined with cotton. 
 
 664. Silk is not as good a conductor of heat as cotton, nor 
 does it absorb moisture to any considerable degree ; its texture 
 is smooth, and does not irritate tlie skin ; consequently, when 
 I ho garment of this fabric has sufficient body or thickness, it 
 
 661. Give the properties of far. As an artiole of dress, to whom are they 
 best adapted ? 662. Give the properties of woollen oloth. Is this a good 
 artiole for clothing? What objection ? What are the advantages of wear- 
 ing flannels 7 66S. What are the qualities of ootton .as an artiole of dress t 
 6U. Of silk ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 303 
 
 is a good article for clothing. The greatest objection to its 
 use, is the disturbance of the electricity of the system, and 
 its high price. 
 
 665. Linen is not only a good conductor of heat, and 
 consequently a poor article of apparel, but it likewise absorbs 
 the fluids carried from the system by the agency of the oil 
 and perspiratory glands. When garments are made of this 
 material, the body is not surrounded by a layer of air, but by 
 one of moisture. This still further increases its power to 
 conduct heat from the system, rendering it a very objectiona- 
 ble article of apparel, even in warm weather and in hot 
 climates, where the dress is usually thin. 
 
 666. Clothing differs in its power of radiating heat. 
 This is influenced by the color ; those articles that radiate 
 heat freely also absorb it readily. A black surface is a good 
 radiator, while a white surface is not, because it reflects the 
 calorific rays. It is obvious that those colors which render 
 the transmission of external heat difficult, must impede the 
 transmission of caloric from the body. Thus it is manifest, 
 that light-colored apparel is best adapted for every season and 
 every climate. 
 
 Observation. Coach-drivers are practically aware, that in 
 cold weather, light-colored over-coats are warmest, except 
 when they are exposed to the direct rays of the sun, or when 
 seated before a warm fire. On the other hand, when the 
 temperature is elevated, light-colored apparel is coolest, be- 
 cause the sun's rays are then reflected. 
 
 667. The clothing should he of a porous character. The 
 skin is not only an important agent in separating fiom the 
 blood those impurities that otherwise would oppress the system 
 and occasion death, but it exercises great influence upon the 
 system, by receiving oxygen through its tissues, and giving 
 
 665. What is said of linen as an article of apparel? 666. Why is light- 
 colored apparel best adapted for every season ? What is said of the ap- 
 parel of coach-drivers ? 667. Why should we wear jiorous clothing? 
 
304 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 back carbonic acid in return. Consequently, the apparel 
 should be made of a material that will permit free trans- 
 piration from the skin, and likewise convey the excreted fluids 
 from the surface. ..- 
 
 668. The necessity for this is illustrated in wearing India 
 rubber over-shoes. If they are worn over boots ten or twelve 
 hours, not only the hose, but the boots will be moist from 
 retained perspiration, and the residual matter left in contact 
 with the skin may be reconveyed into the system by absorp- 
 tion, causing headache and other diseases. Cotton and wool- 
 len fabrics are not only bad conductors of heat, but are also 
 porous ; for these reasons, they are well adapted to transmit 
 the excretions of the skin. 
 
 669. The clothing should he not only porous, hut fitted 
 loosely. The garments should retain a layer of air between 
 them and the body. Every one is practically aware that a 
 loose dress is much warmer than one which fits closely ; that a 
 loose glove is warmer than a tight one ; and that a loose boot 
 or shoe affords greater warmth than one of smaller dimen- 
 sions. The explanation is obvious ; the loose dress encloses 
 a thin layer of air, which the tight dress is incapable of 
 doing ; and what is required, is, that the dress should be 
 closed at the upper part, to prevent the dispersion of the 
 warm air, by the ventilating current which would be estab- 
 lished from below. 
 
 Observation. As the purpose of additional garments is to 
 maintain a series of strata of warm air within our clothing, we" 
 should, in going from a warm room into the cold air, put on 
 our defensive coverings some little time previous, in order 
 that the layers of air which we carry with us may be suffi- 
 ciently warmed by the heat of the room, and not borrowed 
 from the body on exposure to the cold. 
 
 66S. How is fho nooossity of poroua clothing illustrated? 669. Why 
 uhuatd wo wear loose gnrments? What is the use of additional garments 
 when going from a warm to a cold air? What should they be put on ? 
 
HYGIENE or THE SKIN. 305 
 
 670. IVie clothing should be suited to the temperature of the 
 atmosphere and the condition of the individual. The invari- 
 able rule should be, to wear enough to maintain an equal and 
 healthy action of the skin. Care should be taken, however, 
 that the action of the cutaneous vessels is not inordinately 
 increased, as this would, debilitate, not only the skin, but the 
 internal organs of the system, as the stomach and lungs. 
 
 671. No rule as to the quantity of clothing can be given, 
 as the demand will vary with different individuals. The fol- 
 lowing are among the most prominent causes of this variation : 
 Those persons who have large, active brains, full chests, well 
 developed lungs, breathe an adequate amount of pure air, and 
 take sufficient food to supply the wants of the system, require 
 
 -less clothing than those of an opposite character, because 
 more heat is generated in the system. 
 
 672. The child and the aged person require more clothing 
 than the vigorous adult. Should we judge from observation, 
 the inference would be, that children require less clothing 
 than adults. This is an error, for the temperature in infancy 
 is not only lower than in manhood, but the power of creating 
 heat is feebler. The same remarks are applicable to those 
 persons who have outlived the energies of adult life. 
 
 Observation. The system of " hardening " children, by an 
 inadequate supply of clothing, and keeping them uncomfort- 
 ably cold throughout the whole day, is inhuman, as well as 
 unprofitable. It operates upon the child somewhat like the 
 long-continued chill upon a certain portion of the farmer's 
 herd, that are kept shivering under the thatched shed, retard- 
 ing thfe growth of their systems, which require more food to 
 satisfy the keen cravings of hunger than when they are com- 
 
 670. What should be the invariable rule in reference to the amount of 
 clothing that should be worn ? What precaution should be observed ? 
 671. What are some of the causes of the vaJ-iation of the demand for 
 clothing ? 673. Why do the child and aged person require more clothing 
 than the vigorous adult ? What is said of the system of hardening 
 children ? 
 
 26* 
 
306 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 fortably sheltered. To make the boy robust and active, he 
 must have nutritious food at stated houre, and free exercise in 
 the open air, and his system must be guarded from chills by a 
 due amount of apparel, 
 
 673. More clothing is needed when a vital organ is dis- 
 eased. It may be observed that in, consumption, dyspepsia, 
 and even in headache, the skin is pale and the extremities 
 cold, because less heat is generated. Thus persons affected 
 with these complaints, when exposed to cold air, need more 
 clothing than those individuals whose organs are not diseased, 
 and the functions of which are properly performed. 
 
 674. More clothing is required in the evening, than 
 during the day. In the evening we have less vital energy, 
 and therefore less heat is generated in the system, than in the 
 early part of the day; beside, the atmosphere is damp, the 
 skin has become moist from free perspiration, and heat, in 
 consequence, is rapidly removed from the system. For this 
 reason, when returning from crowded eissemblies, we should 
 be provided with an extra garment. 
 
 Observations. 1st. If there is a chill upon the system after 
 having arrived home, warmth should be restored as speedily 
 as possible. This can be done by friction witli warm flannels, 
 and by using the warm or vapor bath. By this procedure, 
 the pernicious effects of the chill will be prevented before any 
 disease is fixed upon the system. Is it not the duty of the 
 parent and the guardian to learn these facts, and to see tliat 
 they are not only learned, but reduced to practice ? 
 
 2d. The farmer and industrious mechanic would be freed 
 from many a rheumatic pain, if, while resting from" their 
 labors at evening, or taking the ordinary meal after hard toil, 
 they would put on an extra garment. The coat might not 
 
 673. Why do dyspeptic nnd consumptive persons require more clothing 
 than those who have healthy vital organs? 674. Wliy do we need more 
 clothing in the evening thiin during the day ? How can the pernicious 
 effects of a chill be prevented 1 Qivo the 2d observation. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 307 
 
 SO agreeable for the first few minutes, but it would 
 Tiatoly conduce to health and longevity. 
 75. The person of active habits requires less clothing than 
 of sedentary employments. Exercise increases the circu- 
 )n of the blood, which 'is always attended by the disen- 
 ement of a greater quantity of heat ; consequently, an 
 •ease of warmth is felt throughout the system. We like- 
 3 need more clothing while- riding, than when we are 
 king ; because the exercise of the former is less than that 
 the latter. The same is true when resting in the field or 
 p, after laborious exercise. 
 
 Ihservalion. We need a greater amount of clothing while 
 !ep, than during the day ; as not only the action of the 
 y, but that of the brain, during sleep, is suspended. 
 
 176. hess clothing is required when the cutaneous surface 
 dean. A film of impurities obstructs the perspiratory 
 ts, and diminishes the action of their glands ; conse- 
 ntly, less 'heat is generated. For this reason, the hands 
 'eet when clean are less liable to become chilled or frozen. 
 
 177. The sensitiveness of the skin to the injluence of cold, 
 inch modified by habit. A person who has been habituated 
 he temperature of a warm room, or warm climate, suffers 
 re when exposed to cold, than an individual who has been 
 ustomed to colder air. Thus a person who labors or 
 lies in a warm room, should wear more clothing when 
 osed to the air, while walking or riding, than an individual 
 ) labors in a cooler atmosphere. Not only is the sensi- 
 ty of the skin increased by a warm atmosphere, but the 
 vity"-of the digestive, respiratory, and nervous systems, in 
 lerating heat, is much diminished. This is an additional 
 son why an increased amount of clothing is demanded 
 
 lb. Why does the person of active habits require less clothing than one 
 edentary employments? 676. Why do we need less clothing when 
 skin is clean ? 677. Show the effect of habit on the sensitiveness of 
 skin. 
 
308 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 during exposure to cold air. In all cases where practicable, 
 the heat of the system should be maintained by exercise, in 
 preference to the use of fur or flannel. 
 
 678. Those parts of the skin usually covered, uniformly 
 need that protection. The power of generating heat is 
 diminished, and the impressibility to cold is increased, on those 
 portions of the skin usually clothed. If a person wears the 
 dress high and close about the neck, he suffers from exposure 
 to a cold atmosphere if a dress is worn that is not as high or 
 more open. As a general rule, it is preferable that those 
 parts of the system, as the larynx, be exposed that are not 
 uniformly protected by clothing. 
 
 679. The clothing should be kept clean. No article of 
 apparel is entirely free from absorption ; even wool and cotton 
 possess it in a small degree. They take up a portion of the 
 transpired fluids which contain saline and animal matter, and 
 thus the fibres of the garments become covered with the 
 cutaneous excretions. We are practically aware of the reten- 
 tion of these secretions from the soiled appearance of those 
 garments worn next the skin, which are so covered as to pre- 
 clude the particles of dust from lodging upon them. 
 
 680. The porosity of the clothing is lessened when soiled, 
 and its power of conducting heat from the system in conse- 
 quence, is increased. The residual matter with which the 
 clothing is coated is brought in contact with the skin, which 
 causes irritation, and not unfrequently re-absorption of the 
 elements, thrown off" from the S3rstem through this avenue. 
 Hence warmth, cleanliness, and health require that the 
 clothing, particularly the garments worn next to the skin, 
 should be frequently and thoroughly washed. This should 
 not be forgotten in regard to ch dren, for their blood circu- 
 
 678. Why do those parts of the skin usually clothed need protection? 
 679. Why should the apparel bo kept olean f 680. What effect has un- 
 oleanliness upon the porosity of clothing? What is said in reference to 
 the clothing of children ? 
 
HYOIENB OF THE SKIN. 309 
 
 !8 with greater rapidity than that of adults, and a propor- 
 lably greater amount of waste matter is thrown off from 
 ir systems. 
 
 )81. The under-garments worn during the day should not 
 worn at night, or the reverse. When under-garments are 
 rn several successive days or nights, they should not be put 
 Irawers, or hung up in a close closet, as soon as taken from 
 body, but should be exposed to a current of air. 
 582. Occupied beds should be thoroughly aired in the 
 rning. The excretions from the skin are most abundant 
 ing the hours of sleep ; and if the sheets and blankets, 
 ether with the bed, are not aired every morning, by being 
 arranged that both surfaces may be exposed to the air, the 
 terials- eliminated from the skin will be retained in the 
 shes of the bed-clothing, and may be conveyed into the 
 tem of the next occupant, by absorption. Oftentimes 
 3ases of a disagreeable nature are contracted in this way. 
 is fact should be instilled into every inother's and daugh- 
 s mind. 
 
 Observation. Bed-linen should not be put on a bed when 
 i not sufficiently dried, or contains moisture from the excre- 
 is of the skin, rior should beds or bedding be slept in, that 
 e remained in a damp room that has not been occupied for 
 ay weeks, unless: the dampness is removed from the bed- 
 in by a warming-pan, or in some other way. 
 183. Changes of dress, from thick to thin, should always 
 nade in the morning. At this time the vital powers are 
 ally in full play. Many a young lady has laid the founda? 
 1 of a fatal disease, by disregarding this rule, in exchan- 
 g the thick dress, with woollen stockings, for the flimsy 
 
 ss and hose of silk or cotton, which are considered suitable 
 
 ■ » 
 
 >1. Should the gannents worn during the day be worn at night ? 
 What is said respecting the cleanliness of beds and bedding ? 
 J should not bed-linen that is damp be slept in ? 683. When should 
 ige of dress from thick to thin be made ? Why ? 
 
310 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLO&Y, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 for the ball-room or party. Sudden changes in wearing- 
 apparel, as well as in food and general habits, are attended 
 with hazard ; and this is proportionate to the weakness or 
 exhaustion of the system when the change is made. 
 
 684. W/ien the clothing has become wet, it is best to change 
 it immediately. The skin should then be rubbed with a dry 
 crash towel, until reaction, indicated by redness, is produced. 
 If the garments are not changed, the person should exercise 
 moderately, so that sufficient heat may continue to be gener- 
 ated in the system to dry the clothing and skin without a chUl. 
 Sitting in a cool shade, or current of air, should, by all means, 
 be avoided ; as colds are not contracted by free and excessive 
 exercise, but by injudicious management after such exercise. 
 
 Observation. When an individual has been thrown into a 
 profuse perspiration by violent exercise, though the skin and 
 clothing may become wet, he feels no inconvenience from the 
 dampness, as long • as he continues that amount of exercise ; 
 for the reason that tlie circulation of the blood being increased, 
 heat is generated in sufficient quantity to replace the amount 
 abstracted from the system in evaporating the free perspira- 
 tion ; but as soon as the exercise is discontinued, the increased 
 circulation subsides, and with it the extra' amount of gener- 
 ated heat. This accounts for the chill we experience, when 
 the damp clothing is permitted to dry on the body, after the 
 cessation of exercise, 
 
 684. What suggestion when the clothing has become wet? What should 
 be done if the garments are not changed? What causes the chill that is 
 experienced when damp clothing is permitted to dry on the body ? 
 
HYOMNIS Off TUE ?KIN. 311 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE SKIN, CONTINUED. 
 
 685. Bathing, its necessity and expediency, is obvious 
 from the structure and the functions of the skin. The cuticle 
 is cast off in minute, powdery scales, many of which are 
 retained upon the surface by the pressure of clothihg. These 
 mingle with the oily and saline products of the skin, and form 
 a thin "crust. This crust, on account of its adhesiveness, 
 collects particles of dust and soot from the atmosphere, and 
 particles of foreign matter from our dress ; so that in the 
 course of the day the whole body becomes coated vifith im- 
 purities. If this coating remains, becomes thick and estab- 
 lished upon the skin, it will produce the following effects : — 
 
 686. 1st. The pores will he obstructed, consequently trans- 
 piration impeded, and the injluence of the skin as an excre- 
 tory entirely prevented. When the pores are obstructed, and 
 transpiration is checked, the elements of the transpired fluids^ 
 will necessarily be retained in the system ; and, as they are 
 injurious and poisonous if retained, they must be removed by 
 those organs whose functions in the animal economy are sim- 
 ilar, as the lungs, kidneys, liver, intestines, &c. 
 
 687. When these organs are called upon to perforin their 
 ofRces, and in addition that of another, the healthy equilibrium 
 is destroyed, and the oppressed organ, will suffer from exhaus- 
 tion, and become the prey of disease. Thus, obviously, habits 
 of uncleanliness are a cause of consumption and other seri- 
 
 685. Show the necessity for bathing. 686. What effect upon the body 
 if the pores of the sliin are obstructed ? 687. What is the effect when an 
 organ not only performs its own specific function, but that of another? 
 
312 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 ous diseases of the vital organs. Again, obstruction of the 
 pores will prevent respiration through the skin, thus depriving 
 the blood of one source of its oxygen, and one outlet of its 
 carbonic acid, which will diminish the temperature of the 
 system, and the same results follow as when the clothing is 
 inadequate. 
 
 688. 2d. The retained perspirable matter will irritate the 
 skin, loth mechanically and chemically ; and this membrane 
 will be kept damp and cold, from attraction and detention of 
 moisture ; and foreigrl material, as before adverted to, once 
 removed from the system, may be reconveyed into it by ab- 
 sorption. As a consequence, cutaneous eruptions and diseases 
 will be produced, and the. re-absorption of matter once sepa- 
 rated from the system, will be the exciting cause of other 
 injurious disorders. 
 
 689. 3d. A film of foreign substance on the skin will 
 inevitably become the seat of detention of miasmata and 
 infectious vapors. These will remain until absorbed, and 
 engender the diseases of which they are the peculiar cause. 
 This is one reason why filthy persons contract infectious 
 diseases more frequently than individuals of cleanly habits. 
 
 6D0. Bathing is useful to promote cleanliness. In this 
 capacity, it enables us to remove the coating of impurities 
 from the exterior of our persons. It effects this purpose by 
 dissolving saline matters, and holding in temporary suspen- 
 sion those substances which are insoluble. 
 
 691. The cuticle is composed of a substance resembling 
 the dried white of egg, or, in a word, albumen. This is solu- 
 ble in alkalies, and these are the agents which are commonly 
 employed for purifying the skin. Soap is a compound of the 
 alkali soda with oil, tlie former being in excess. When used 
 
 888. How are cutaneous eruptions frequently produced? 689. How 
 are infectious vapors transmitted to the system ? 690, How does bath- 
 ing promote cleanliness ? 691. Why is it necessary to use soap in 
 bathing? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 313 
 
 • washing, the excess of alkali combining with the oily fluid, 
 th which the skin is naturally bedewed, removes it, in the 
 •m of an emulsion, and with it a portion of any adhering 
 itter. Another portion of the alkali softens and dissolves 
 ! superficial layer of the cuticle ; and when this is removed, 
 ! cuticle is free from impurities. 
 
 692. Every washing of the skin with soap removes tho 
 1 face of the cuticle, and leaves a new one ; and were 
 i process repeated to excess, the latter would become so 
 n as to render the body sensible to impressions too slight 
 be felt through its ordinary thickness. On the other hand, 
 len the cuticle and its accumulated impurities, are rarely 
 iturbed, the sensitiveness of the skin is impaired. The 
 aper inference to be drawn from the preceding remarks, is 
 favor of the moderate use of soap to cleanse the skin. 
 Observation. If any unpleasant sensations are felt after the 
 3 of soap, they may be immediately removed by washing the 
 rface with water slightly acidulated with lemon-juice or 
 legar, which neutralizes the alkali that may remain on 
 s skin. This is effective treatment for " chapped hands." 
 
 693. Bathing may he partial or general, and- the water 
 ',d may be cold, temperate, tepid, warm, or hot. A person 
 ly apply it to his system with a sponge, it may be poured 
 on him, or he may immerse himself in it. The simplest 
 )de of bathing is to apply water to a small extent of sur- 
 ;e, ^y means of a wet sponge, arid after being wiped dry, 
 ain cover with the dress. In this way the whole body may 
 speedily subjected to the influence of water, and to no less 
 eful friction. The water used may be warm or cold. . This 
 scies of bathing may be praeticed by any invalid, and 
 
 i92. Why should only a moderate amount of soap be used in bathing ? 
 unpleasant sensations are felt from too free use of soap, how can they 
 counteracted ? 693. Give the different forms of bathing. What is the 
 iplest mode' of batiiing ? Can this mode be adopted by invalids with 
 ety? 
 
 27 -' • 
 
314 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENB. 
 
 always with benefit, if the bathing is succeeded by a glow of 
 warmth over the surface ; and this is the test by which the 
 benefit of all forms of bathing is to be estimated 
 
 694. When the heat of the system is adequate, the bather 
 may stand or sit in a shallow tub, while he receives the water 
 from a sponge squeezed over the shoulders or against the 
 body. In this form of bathing, the person is more exposed to 
 the cold air, and on this account it is less suitable for very 
 feeble individuals than the first-mentioned method. In the 
 early use of this form of the sponge-bath, the bather should 
 content himself with a single affusion from the sponge ; the 
 body should be quickly wiped with a soft towel, and friction 
 applied with a crash towel or a brush. 
 
 695. The third kind of bathing is that of the shower-bath, 
 which provides a greater amount of affusion than the former, 
 combined with a greater shock to the nervous system. The 
 concussion of the skin by the fall of water, particularly dis- 
 tinguishes this from the previous modes of bathing. The 
 degree of concussion is modified by the size of the openings 
 through which the water issues, and the height of the reser- 
 voir. The shower-bath admits of modification, adapting it to 
 the most delicate as well as the robust. The extent of fall, 
 the size of the apertures, the quantity and temperature of the 
 water, may be regulated at pleasure. 
 
 Ohservation. In using the shower-bath, it would be judi- 
 cious to commence with warm or tepid water, for which, by a 
 gradual process, cold water may be substituted. In this" way 
 the system may be inured to cold water. After bathing, the 
 skin Bbould be wiped dry and rubbed briskly. 
 
 696. The fourth form of bathing is that in which, the body, 
 or a portion of it, is immersed in water. The temperature 
 
 What ia the test by which to estimote the benefit of oil modes of bath- 
 ing ? 694. Give another inolhod of sponge-bathing. 695. What is said 
 of the Bhowei-bath ? What caution is given .' 696. Giva the fourth form 
 of bathing. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 815 
 
 the water in this form of bathing may be modified accord- 
 to the sensations and purposes of the bather. This form 
 bathing is designated according to the heat of the water, 
 len the temperature is below 75°, it is termed a cold bath ; 
 en from 75° to '85°, a temperate bath ; from 85° to 95°, a 
 id bath; from 95° to 98°, a warm bath; from 98° to 105°, 
 lot bath. In using this form of bathing, the skin should 
 wiped perfectly dry, and briskly rubbed. 
 Observation. The length of time a person may remain in 
 ;old bath with benefit varies from two to ten minutes ; 
 ile a person may remain in a temperate, tepid, or warm 
 h, from ten to thirty minutes, or until special indications 
 : exhibited. 
 
 397. In the vapor-bath, the vapor is not only applied to the 
 erior of the system, but it is inhaled and brought in con- 
 t with every part of the interior of the lungs. The bather 
 seated upon a chair, and the vapor gradually turned on 
 lund him, until the proper temperature (90° to 110°) is 
 lined. The bath may be continued from ten to thirty 
 (lutes. After leaving the bath, attention should be given to 
 skin, as in other forms of bathing. 
 
 598. In order to increase and promote reaction of the skin, 
 •ious measures and processes are used, some of which 
 : practised in, and others after, quitting the bath.* Of tho 
 mer, the rubbing and brushing the skin are the most com- 
 n and important. The brisk and efficient friction of the 
 n with a coarse towel and flesh-brush, after quitting the 
 h, should never be omitted. This short catalogue embraces 
 the appliances requisite for the purpose. 
 399. BatMng promotes health hy 4ts immediate and remote 
 
 That degree of temperature of water is termed a ooM bath ? A tem- 
 a,te? A tepid? A warm? A hot bath? State the length of time 
 t a person should remain in the different baths? 697. What is said of 
 vapor bath? 698. Mention the different methods for promoting reac- 
 1 of the skin ? 
 
316 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 physiological effects on the system. When the body is moist- 
 ened with a sponge wet with cold water, or when an affusion 
 by the sponge or shower-bath is used, the skin instantly 
 shrinks, and the whole of its tissue contracts. This con- 
 traction diminishes the capacity of the cutaneous system of 
 blood-vessels, and a portion of the blood circulating through 
 them is suddenly thrown upon the more internal parts of the 
 body. The nervous system, among others, participates in it, 
 and is stimulated by the afflux, and communicates its stimulus 
 to the whole system. This causes a more energetic eiction of 
 the heart and blood-vessels, and a consequent rush of blood 
 back to the skin. This is the state termed reaction, the first 
 object and purpose of every form of bathing. 
 
 700. This condition of the skin is known by the redness 
 of the surface, the glow, comfort, and warmth which follow 
 the bath. The bather should direct all his care to insure 
 this effect. By it the internal organs are relieved, respiration 
 is lightened, the heart is made to beat calm and free, the mind 
 is clear and strong, the tone of the muscular system is in- 
 creased, the appetite is sharpened, and the whole system feels 
 invigorated. This is the end and aim of the bather, and to 
 this all his training tends. The error is, to expect the result 
 without the preparation. 
 
 701. In order to promote reaction, and to be efficient in 
 preserving health, bathmg should be regular, should be com- 
 menced by degrees, and increased by a process of training, 
 and should not be permitted to intrude upon hours devoted to 
 some important function, as digestion. It must not precede 
 or follow too closely a meal, or severe mental or muscular 
 exercise, as reaction is less certain and vigorous when im- 
 
 699. What is the effect upon the skin when cold water is applied? 
 ^Vhati8 the first object and purpose of every form of bathing? 700. How 
 is this condition of the skin known f Mention the salutary effects that this 
 condition has on the body. 701. How should bathing be performed, in 
 order to be efficient in preserving health ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. S] 7 
 
 portant interaal organs are employed, than when they are ai 
 rest. When the vital powers are greatest, and the system 
 most free from exhaustion, bathing is most beneficial ; hence 
 the morning is preferable to the evening, and the middle of 
 the forenoon to the middle of the afternoon, for this healthful 
 and agreeable duty ; as the vital action of the system is most 
 energetic in the early part of the day. 
 
 702. In regard to the frequency of bathing, the face and 
 neck, from their necessary exposure to the atmosphere, and 
 the impiM'ities which the latter contains, should receive at 
 least two washings in twenty-four hours, one of which should 
 be with soap ; the feet, from the confined nature of the cover- 
 ings which are worn over them, require at least one ; the 
 armpits, from the detention, as well as from the peculiar 
 properties of the secretions, at least one ; and the hands and 
 arms, as many as seem proper. The whole person should be 
 bathed at least every second day, but the most perfect health 
 of every part of the body would be maintained, if the excre- 
 tions from the skin were removed daily. 
 
 703. In diseases of the skin and internal organs, bathing 
 is a remedial measure of great power. It should never be 
 neglected or omitted. It is not only pleasant and safe, but is 
 really more effective than any medicine administered inter- 
 nally. This, like other curative means, should be applied by 
 the direction and under the eye of the medical adviser, that 
 it may be adapted to the condition of the patient. 
 
 704. " From the first hour of man's existence to his latest 
 breath, in health and in sickness, rich or poor, water is always 
 requisite. Baths were dedicated by the ancients to the divini- 
 ties of medicine, strength, and wisdom, namely, jEsculapius, 
 Hercules, and Minerva, to whom might properly be added the 
 goddess of health, Hygeia. The use of water has been 
 
 When should bathing be performed ? 702. How often should we bathe i 
 70.". What is sail of bathing in disease ? Who should direct the kind of 
 bitk proper in different diseases ? 704 Were baths dedicated by tho 
 ancients i „~ , 
 
318 ANATOMV, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 enforced as a religious observance, and water has been adopted 
 as one of the symbols of Christianity." 
 
 705. The air is an agent of importance in the functions of 
 the skin. It impaftf to this membrane oxygen, and receives 
 from it carbonic acid. It likewise removes from it a large 
 portion of the perspiration and the more fluid portions of the 
 oily secretion. In order that the air may accomplish these 
 ends, it is necessary that it come in contact with the body. 
 This is one of the many reasons why we should wear loose 
 and porous clothing. • 
 
 706. Again, the air should be pure, and free from redun- 
 dant moisture. In the warm mornitigs of July and August, 
 the air is loaded with moisture and impurities, and the perepi- 
 rable matter is not removed from the system as it is when the 
 air is, pure and dry. This is the cause of the general lassitude 
 that is experienced during such mornings. As soon as the 
 fog is dispelled, these unpleasant sensations are removed. To 
 sustain the functions of the skin in a healthy state, the parlor, 
 kitchen, sleeping-room, school-house, and work-shop, should 
 be well ventilated. The blood of the system will be purer, 
 and its color of a brighter scarlet, if the skin is surrounded 
 by fresh and pure air, than when it is foul or moist. 
 
 707. The LIGHT permeating the skin, not only exercises a 
 salutary influence upon this membrane, but upon the blood, 
 and, through this fluid, upon the whole system. For this 
 reason, the kitchen and the sitting-room, which are the apart- 
 ments most used by ladies, should be selected from the most 
 pleasant and well-lighted rooms in the house. On the other 
 hand, dark rooms and damp cellar-kitchens should be avoided, 
 as exercising an injurious influence upon both body and mind. 
 
 708. The dark, damp rooms, so much used in cities and 
 
 "0.5. Give the reasons why pure air should be supplied to the skin. 
 706. Whai is the cause of the general lassitude in a damp, warm morn- 
 ing ? 707 Show tne salutary effects of light on the skin. 708. What ie 
 one cause of disease and sulfering in large villages i 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 3U 
 
 large villages, by indigent families and domestics, are fruitfu 
 causes of disease, as well as of vice, poverty, and suffering 
 Common observation shows that solar light also exercises mucl 
 influence upon the vigor and color of vegetables. Plant! 
 that are kept in well-lighted rooms, have darker and more 
 brilliant colors than those that grow in darkened apartments 
 
 709. Burns and scalds are terms applied to those condi 
 tions of the skin which are produced by the application ol 
 an undue amount of heat, which changes the action of it 
 vessels. 
 
 710. A small degree of heat will irritate the nerves, am 
 cause an increased action of the blood-vessels. This ii 
 attended with severe smarting pain, and will be followed b] 
 the deposition of serum under the cuticle, unless application! 
 are made immediately, to prevent vesication, or blistering 
 To prevent or suppress this state of arterial action, wet some 
 folds of cotton or woollen cloth with cold water, and applj 
 them to the parts scalded ; continue to apply cold water, so a: 
 to steadily maintain the low temperature of the applications 
 as long as the smarting pain is experienced. The steadi 
 application of cold dressing also tends to prevent an increase! 
 action of the blood-vessels, and will suppress it, if it alreadi 
 exist 
 
 711. When blisters are formed, the cuticle is separate! 
 from the other tissues of the skin by the effusion of serum 
 [n all cases, if this layer of the skin is not remo\»d, a smal 
 opening should be made in the raised cuticle, by whicl 
 the serum deposited may be removed. Under such circum 
 stances, never remove the cuticle, as it makes the best possi 
 ble covering for the blood-vessels and nerves of the true skin 
 The cold water dressing, recommended in the precedinj 
 
 709. To what condition of tlie sT?in are the terms burns and scalds applied 
 710. What is the effect when only a small degree of heat is applied to th 
 skin B How can vesication be prevented ? 711. What should be the treal 
 ment when blisters are formed ? 
 
330 
 
 ANATOMV, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 paragraph, may then be applied as long as the smarting sensa- 
 tion continues. After the pain has subsided, the blistered part 
 may be covered by a patch of cotton or linen cloth, upon 
 which an ointment, made of lard and bees-wax, has been 
 spread. 
 
 712. If the cuticle has been removed, there will be much 
 suffering, because the nerves are unduly stimulated by the 
 air. The cuticle is the sheath or covering of the vessels 
 and nerves of the skin, and when it is removed, a substitute 
 should be applied. This substitute should be soothing, and 
 cover the denuded surface. Linseed-meal or ground slippery- 
 elm bark poultice, fresh cream, or lard and bees-wax, spread 
 upon linen or cotton cloth, would make a good dressing. 
 AVhen dressings are applied, they should not be removed until 
 they become dry and irritating. 
 
 713. If there is much suffering, administer to an adult from 
 twenty-five to sixty drops of laudanum, according to the 
 severity of the pain. If the patient is a child, from fifteen 
 drops to a tea-spoonful of paregoric may be administered. 
 When there is much prostration, some hot peppermint tea or 
 other stimulant may be found necessary to bring on reaction. 
 
 714. The hands, feet, ears, die., are subject, in cold lati- 
 tudes, to be frozen, or frost-bitten. This may occur when the 
 patient, at the moment, is not aware of it. The part affected 
 at first assumes a dull red color, which gradually gives place 
 to a pale, waxy appearance, and becomes quite insensible. 
 The first thing to be done in such cases, is to reestablish cir- 
 culation. This should be effected very gradually. If a large 
 quantity of blood is thrown suddenly into the chilled and 
 debilitated vessels of the frozen part, inflammation may be 
 produced that will destroy the vitality of the limb. 
 
 712. What should bo the treatment if the cuticle has been removed i 
 How often should the dressing of burns be removed ? 713. What may be 
 necessary when there is much suffering f 714. What is the appearance of 
 limbs while freezing f How should the circulation be at first reestablished ? 
 What should be avoided i 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN. 321 
 
 715. The circulation and sensibility may be restored by 
 t)bing the frozen limb, with snow, or, when this is not to be 
 tained, cold water ; but snow is always to be preferred, 
 le fire should be avoided ; and it would be better for the- 
 tient to be kept in a cold room, for a time, where there is 
 
 fire, or where the temperature is moderate. 
 
 716. When a person is found benumbed with cold, and 
 Tiost or quite insensible, he should be taken into a cold room, 
 3 clothing removed, and friction commenced and continued 
 r some time, with snow. When warmth begins to be 
 stored, the individual should be rubbed with dry flannel, and 
 3 friction continued until reaction takes place. 
 
 Observation. When the toes and heels have been repeat- 
 ily chilled, there may be produced a disease called chil- 
 lins. This affection is attended with tenderness of the parts, 
 :companied with a peculiar and troublesome itching. The 
 evention of this disease is in wearing warm hose and thick 
 oes of ample size. Bathing the feet morning and evening 
 
 also a prevention of this disagreeable affection. When 
 lilblains exist, apply cold water, warm camphorated spirits, 
 
 turpentine linament. 
 
 715. How may the circulation and sensibility be restored ? 716. AVTiat 
 latment should be adopted when a person is benumbed with cold ? What 
 ■atment should be adopted when warmth begins to be restored f What 
 said of chilblains ? 
 
222 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYOIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN. 
 
 717. The hairs are appendages of the skin, and, like 
 the cuticle, they are a product of secretion. They have no 
 blood-vessels or nerves, and, consequently, no vitality. The 
 hairs take their origin from the cellular membrane, in the 
 form of bulbs. Each hair is enclosed beneath the surface 
 by a vascular secretory follicle, which regulates its form dur- 
 ing growth. In texture, it is dense, and homogeneous toward 
 the circumference, and porous and cellular in the centre, like 
 the pith of a plant. Every hair has on its surface pointed 
 barbs, arranged in a spiral manner, and directed toward the 
 root of the hair ; so that, if a hair be rolled between the fin- 
 gers, it moves only in one direction. 
 
 Tig. 118. 
 
 Fig 118. The hair follicle (1) Is represented ns imbedded In the ceUnlar membrane, 
 (9,) which is Bitunted beneath the skin. 3, », Tl.c menibranou. sac, which has a 
 narrow neck, opening externally by a contracted oriflce, through which the halt (1) 
 pnsspi. . It. Internal surface is smooth, and not adherent to tbe hair, but separated from 
 It by a reddish fluid. From the bottom of the sac (5) the pulp of the hair arises, and 
 passes through the akin at 6. 
 
 717—723. Describe the appendages of the skin. 717. Why have not haira 
 vitality? Where do they tako their nrigin? Give their Btnictiire. What 
 Is rcpreaoiitofl by flg. 118 ? 
 
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN. 323 
 
 718. The color of the hair varies in different individuals, 
 i is generally supposed to depend on the fluids contained 
 
 the pith. There are two causes which act in changing 
 ! hair gray. The first is, defective secretion of the color- 
 ; fluid. The second is, the canals, which~ convey the fluid 
 o the hair, become obliterated. In the first instance, the 
 ir will remain ; in the second, it dies, and drops out ; the 
 tide of the scalp grows over the canal, which is soon oblit- 
 ited, and the head becomes bald. 
 
 Oiservation. It is related that the hair of Marie Antoinette, 
 leen of Prance, and others, from excessive mental agita- 
 n, changed ' from black to gray in a single night. This is 
 t strictly true ; the secretion rffay be arrested, but that 
 eady deposited in the pith will require days or weeks to be 
 noved. 
 
 719. Upon the upper part of the head, the oil-tubes open 
 the hair-sacs ; consequently, the secretion of the oil- 
 mds is spread over the surface of the hair, and not upon 
 ', cuticle. This is the cause of the dry, white, branny 
 des, called " scurf," or " dandruff," upon the head. This 
 natural, and cannot be prevented. When scurf exists, the 
 ly necessary application to remove it, is the frequent use 
 the hair-brush, and washing with pure water. 
 Oiservation. The secretion of the oil-glands may become 
 pacted around the hairs as they issue from the skin, and 
 IS prevent their outward movement in growing. The 
 3ssure of the matter deposited at their bulbs will then cause 
 hing. The comb and the brush may be used to remove the 
 pacted matter, and relieve the disagreeable sensation. 
 
 720. The oil is most abundant near the roots of the hair. 
 
 18. Upon what does the color of the hair depend ? What are the causes 
 ihe hair becoming gray f What is the cause of the hair dropping out ? 
 lat is related of Marie Antoinette? 719. How is "dandruff" on the 
 Ip produced ? What is the only necessary application to remove it ? 
 rp observation. 720. Where is the oil of the hair most abundant ? 
 
824 
 
 ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY, AMD HYUiENE. 
 
 A free use of the brush spreads it along the hairs, and gives 
 them a smooth, glossy appearance. Soap should rarely be 
 used in washing the head, as it will remove the oU which is 
 essential to the health and appearance of the hair. 
 
 721. The uses of the hair vary in different regions of the 
 body. Upon the head, it aids in shielding the brain from 
 injury by blows, and it likewise serves to protect this part 
 of the system from heat and cold, thus maintaining equal 
 temperature of the cerebral organ. About the flections of the 
 joints, as in the axilla, (armpit,) they prevent irritation of the 
 skin from friction ; in the passages to the ears and nostrils, they 
 present an obstacle to the ingress of insects and foreign bodies ; 
 while in the eyebrows and eyelids, they serve to protect the 
 organ of vision. 
 
 Kg. 119. 
 
 Fig. 119. A fsection of the end of the finger and nail. 4, Section of the last bono 
 at the finger. 5, Fat, forming the cushion at the end of the finger. S, The nail 
 1) 1, The cuticle continued under and around the root of the noil, at 3, 3, 3. 
 
 722. The nails are hard, elastic, flexible, semi-transparent 
 scales, and present the appearance of a layer of horn. The 
 nail is divided into the root, the body, and the Jrpe portion. 
 The root is that part which is c^overed on both surfaces ; the 
 body is that portion which has one surface free ; the free por- 
 tion projects beyond the end of the finger. 
 
 723. The nail is formed of several laminse, or plates, that 
 are fitted the one to the other ; the deepest is that which is 
 last formed. The nails, as well as the hoofs of animals and 
 
 How can it bo spread along the hairs t Why should soap not be used in 
 washing the hair ? 721. Of what use is the hair upon the head ? About 
 the flexions of the Joints ? In the nasal and ear passages ? Upon the eye- 
 brows and eyelids? 722. Describe the nails ? 723. How are they formed f 
 
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN. 325 
 
 ! cuticle, are products of secretion. They receive no blood- 
 isels or nerves. If the cuticle be removed in severe scalds, 
 ly will separate vf ith it, as the hoofs of animals are removed 
 the agency of hot vi^ater. The nails increase in length 
 i thickness, by the deposition of albumen upon their under 
 •face, and at their roots, in a manner similar to the growth 
 the cuticle, of which they constitute a part. 
 Ohservations. 1st. The nail upon its under surface is fash- 
 led into thin vertical plates, which are received between the 
 ds of the sensitive skin. In this manner, the two kinds of 
 ninse reciprocally embrace each other, and the firmness of 
 mection of the nail is maintained. If we look on the sur- 
 e of the nail, we see an indication of this structure in the 
 jrnate red and white lines which are "there observed. The 
 mer of these correspond with the sensitive laminae ; the lat- 
 with the horny plates. The ribbed appearance of the nail 
 iue to the same circumstance. These sensitive laminae are 
 )vided with an unusual number of capillary vessels for the 
 mation of the nail, and hence they give a red tint to the 
 rtion under which they lie. 
 
 M. Near the root of the nail there is a part that is not 
 linated, and it is less abundantly supplied with blood-vessels. 
 is portion consequently looks pale compared with the lam- 
 ted portion, and from its half-moon shape is technically 
 med lunula. 'Beyond the lunula, the root of the nail is 
 Dedded in the fold of the sensitive skin, and has the same 
 ition to that structure that* any single one of the thin horny 
 tes of its under surface has to its corresponding pair of sen- 
 ve laminae. 
 
 724. The nails, from their position, are continually receiv- 
 ; knocks, which produce a momentary disturbance of their 
 1 formation, followed by a white spot. The care of the 
 lis should be strictly limited to the knife or scissors, to 
 
 live observation 1st. Observation 2d. 724. How should the nails be 
 ited to prevent irregularities and disease ? 
 
 28 
 
326 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 their free border, and an ivory presser, to prevent adhesion 
 of the free margin of the scarf-skin to the surface of the 
 nail. Tiiis edge of the cuticle should never be pared, the 
 surface of the nail never scraped, nor the nails cleaned with 
 any instrument whatever, except the nail-brush, aided by 
 water and soap. An observance of these suggestions, will 
 prevent irregularities and disorders of the nails. 
 
 Observations. 1st. When we wear a shoe that is too short 
 for the foot, the edge of the nail is brought against the leather. 
 This interrupts the forward growth of the nail, and it spreads 
 out on the sides, and becomes unusually thick. It then presses 
 upon the soft parts, and is said to " grow into the flesh." The 
 prevention is, to wear shoes of ample size. 
 
 2d. Instances are by no means unfrequent in which the 
 power of production of the nail at the root becomes entirely 
 destroyed, and it then grows in thickness only. When this 
 affection occurs, it is often remarkable what a mass the nail 
 presents. Instances are on record, where the nail is regularly 
 shed ; and, whenever the old nail falls off, a new one is found 
 beneath it, perfectly formed. Sometimes the growth in length 
 is not entirely checked, although growth in thickness is in- 
 duced ; the nail then presents a peculiar appearance. 
 
 What causes the edge of the nail "to grow into the flesh" of the toe? 
 How prevented ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 327 
 
 CHAPTBE XXXYI. 
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 725. In the preceding chapters we have seen how various 
 and complex are many of the motions necessary to maintain 
 the life of an animal whose organization is superior to all 
 others. We have noted the wonderful mechanism of the 
 mupcular system, in producing the varied movements of the 
 hody, the different processes by which the food is converted 
 into chyle and mixed with the blood, and the circulation of 
 this fluid to every organ and tissue of the system, that each 
 may select from it the very principles which it requires for 
 its growth. 
 
 726. Lymphatic absorption commences as soon as nutri- 
 tion is completed, and conveys the useless, worn-out particles 
 of different tissues back into the circulating fluid ; while the 
 respiratory organs and secretory glands perform the work 
 of preparing the waste products to be eliminated from the 
 body. Each of these processes effects a single object, and is 
 performed in a regular manner. 
 
 727. " They must succeed each other in proper order in 
 propelling every particle to' its proper destination, or life 
 would be sacrificed almost at the moment of its commence- 
 ment. There is, therefore, a mutual dependence of all portions 
 of the machinery of organic life upon each other, and a neces- 
 sity for some medium of communication from one organ to 
 another, by which they may convey mutual information of 
 
 725. What has been noted In the preceding chapters ? 726. Show the 
 manner in which the several processes are performed. 727. How must 
 they succeed each other ? 
 
328 
 
 ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 their several conditions, if we may be permitted to employ a 
 tigurative expression. Were there no such medium, how 
 would the stomach notify the heart that additional exertion on 
 its part is required, because the stomach is busy in digesting 
 food .? 
 
 728. " When we are exerting the muscular system for a 
 long time in some laborious employment, how else are our 
 members to inform the stomach that they are too much occu- 
 pied with their duties to spare the blood necessary in diges- 
 tion ; that it is requisite that the appetite should decline ; and 
 that digestion should cease for the time, even if the stomach 
 should be oppressed with its contents .' When we are think- 
 ing, how else are the blood-vessels to be told that an unusual 
 supply of their contents is wanting in the head ? or when the 
 whole frame is weary with exertion, how, without some regular 
 line of intelligence between all the organs, is the brain to be 
 instructed that circumstances require that it should go to 
 sleep ? To supply the necessary medium of communica- 
 tion. Providence has furnished all the animals that possess 
 distinct organs, with a peculiar apparatus called the Nervous 
 System." 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 729. The nervous system consists of the Cer'e-bro-spi'nal 
 Cen'tre, and of numerous rounded and flattened white cords, 
 called nerves, which are connected at one extremity with the 
 cerebro-spinal centre, and at the other, distributed to all the 
 textures of the body. The sympathetic nerve is an exception 
 to this description ; for, instead of one, it has many small 
 centres, which are called gan'gli-a, and which communicate 
 very freely with the cerebro-spinal centre, and with its 
 
 728. What ia the medium of nommunioation from one organ to another? 
 729 — 764. Oive the anatomy of the brain and cranial nervea. 729. Of what 
 docs the nervous system consist? What constitutes an exception to this? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NEHVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 329 
 
 730. The oEREBRO-sPtNAL CENTRE coDsists of two portions : 
 The brain, and the spinal cord. For conyenience of de- 
 scription, tlie nervous system may be divided into the Brain, 
 Cranial Nerves, Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and the Sym- 
 •pathetic Nerve. 
 
 731. The term brain designates those parts of the nervous 
 system, exclusive of the nerves themselves, which are con- 
 tained within the cranium, or skull-bones ; they are the Cer'e- 
 hrum, Cer-e-hel'lum, and Me-dul'la Ol-lon-ga'ta. These are 
 invested and protected by the membranes of the brain, which 
 ate called the Bu'ra Ma!ter, A-rach'noid, and Piia Ma'ter. 
 
 Kg. 120. 
 
 Pig. 120. 1, 1, The scalp turned down. 2, 2, 2, The cut edge of the bones of the 
 BkuU. 3, The external strong membrane of the brain (dura mater), suspended by a 
 hook. 4, The left hemisphere of the brain, showing its convolutions. 
 
 ISO. Of what does the eerebro-spinal centre consist ? How is the nervous 
 system divided ? 1S1. What does the term brain designate ? Xame them. 
 How are they protected ? Describe fig. 120. 
 
 28* 
 
SP,0 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 152. The CEnEBTiTJM is divided into two hemispheres, by a 
 cleft, or fissure. Into this cleft dips a portion of the dura 
 mater, called the /aZa; cer'e-W, from its resembling a sickle. 
 The apparent design of this membrane is to relieve the one 
 side fft)m the pressure of the other, when the head is reclin- 
 ing to either side. Upon the superior surface of the cere- 
 brum are seen undulating windings, called con-vo-lu'tions. 
 Upon its inferior, oi- lower surface, each hemisphere admits 
 of a division into three' lobes — the anterior, middle,"~and 
 posterior. (Fig. 122, 123.) 
 
 Fig. 121. 
 
 Pig. 121. A BocUon of the Bknll-bonae and oerobrnm. 1, 1, The sknll. 2, 2, The 
 dura mater, a, 8, The olnorltlous portion of the cerebrum. 4, 4, The medullary 
 portion. The dark points indicate the position of divided blood-vessels. 6, 6, The 
 lateral ventricles. 
 
 732. How is the oerobrum divided ? What is the use of the falx cerebri? 
 What is soon upon the superior surface of the brain? Its inferior? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM. 381 
 
 733. When the upper part of the hemispheres is removed 
 horizontally with a sharp knife, a centre of white substance ia 
 brocight to view. This is surrounded by a border of gray, 
 which follows the depressions of the convolutions, and pre- 
 sents a zigzag outline. The divided surface will be seen 
 studded with numerous small red points, which are produced 
 by the escape of blood from the division of the minute arte- 
 ries and veins. The gray border is called the cortical, or cin- 
 eritious portion, while the white central portion is called the 
 medullary. The two hemispheres are connected by a dense 
 layer of transverse fibres, called cor'pus cal-lo'sum. 
 
 734. In the interior of the brain there are several cavities, 
 two of which are of considerable size, and are called the 
 lateral ventricles. They extend from the anterior to the pos- 
 terior part of the brain, and wind their way into other parts of 
 the cerebral organ. 
 
 Observation. In the disease called " dropsy of the brain," 
 (hydrocephalus internus,) the serum, or water, is usually de- 
 posited in these- ventricles. This is effused from the many 
 small blood-vessels of the membrane in these cavities. 
 
 735. The brain is of a pulpy character, quite soft in 
 infancy and childhood ; but it gradually becomes more and 
 more consistent, and in middle age it assumes the form of 
 determinate structure and arrangement. It is more abun- 
 dantly supplied with blood than any organ of the system. 
 No lymphatics have bee* detected, but it is to be presumed 
 that they exist in this organ. 
 
 736. The cerebellum is about seven times smaller than 
 the cerebrum. Like that organ, it is composed of white and 
 
 733 Desciibe the appearance of the hrain when a horizontal section has 
 been made. What is the gray border often called ? What connects the 
 hemispheres ? 734. Describe the ventricles of the brain. In the disease 
 called "dropsy of the brain," where is the water deposited? 735. Wbat 
 is the character of the brain in childhood ? In adults ? 736. How does 
 the cerebellum compare in size with the cerebrum ? 
 
332 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYOIHNB. 
 
 gray matter, but the gray constitutes the larger portion. Ila 
 surface is formed of parallel plates separated by fissures. 
 The white matter is so arranged, that when cut vertically, the 
 appearance of the trunk and branches of a tree {ar'bor vi'ta) 
 is presented. It is situated under the posterior lobe of the 
 cerebrum, from which it is separated by a process of the dura 
 mater, called the ten-to'ri-um. 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
 Fig. 193. The undei surfiice, or base, of the brain and origin of the cranial nerves. 
 1, 1, The anterior lobes of the cerebrum, a, a, The middle lobes. 3, 3, The posle. 
 rior lobes, almost concealed by the cerebellum. 4 i. The cerebellum. 7, 7, The 
 longitudinal fissure that divides the lirain into two hemispheres. 8, The first pair 
 of nerves. 9. 9, The second pair of nerves, 10, The decussation, or crossing, of its 
 fibres. 13, 13, The third pair of nerves. 14, The pons varolii. IS, IS, The fourth 
 pair of nerves. 16, 16, The fitih pair of nerves. 17, The sixth pair of nerves. 
 IR, 18, The seventh and eighth pair of nerves. 19, The medulla oblongata, with the 
 crossing of some of its fibres exhibited. 30, The ninth pairof nervea 31, The tenth 
 pair of nerves. 39, The eleventli pair of nerves. S3, The twelfth pair of nerves. 
 
 Describe this portioix of the brain. Explain fig. 122. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 333 
 
 737. The medulla oblongata, or that portion of the 
 
 spinal cord which is within the skull, consists of three pairs 
 
 of bodies, {cor'pus py-ram'i'da'le, res-ti-for'me, and ol-i'va're,) 
 
 united in a single bulb. 
 
 Pig. 123. 
 
 Fig. 1S3. The base of the skull and the openings through which the cranial nerveB 
 ]>Bsa. 1, 1, The first pair of nerves. 3; S, The cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, 
 through which this nerve passes. 3, 3, The second pair of nerves. 4, 4, The optio 
 foramen In the sphenoid bone; through which passes the second pair of nerves. 
 5, 5, The sphenoidal fissure. 6, 6, The third pair of nerves. 7, 7, The fifth pair of 
 nerves 8,8, The ophthalmic branch of the fifth nerve. The third, the ophthalmic 
 branch of the fifth and the sixth nerve pass from the brain through the sphenoidal 
 Assure to the eye: 9, 9, The superior maxillary branch of the fifth nerve. 10, 10, The 
 foramen rotundum, (round opening,) through which the nerve 9, 9, passes to the upper 
 JaW. 11, 11, The Inferior maxillary branch of the fifth pair. 12, 12, The foraraeu 
 ovale, (oval opening,) through which the nerve 11, 11, passes to the lower jaw 
 13, 13, The sixth pair of nerves. 14, 14, The seventh and eighth pair of nerves, 
 15, 15, The opening in the temporal bone, through which the seventh and eighth 
 nerves pass to the face and ear. 16, 16, The ninth pair of nerves. 17, The tenth 
 pair of nerves. 18, 18, The eleventh pair of nerves. 19, 19, The foramen lacerum 
 (rough opening.) The ninth, tenth, and eleventh nerver pass from the brain through 
 this opening. 20, The spinal cord. 21, The foramer. spinalis, through which the 
 spinal eord passes. 22,22, The position of the anterior lube of the brain. 23,23, The 
 middle I8l)e. 24, 24, The posterior lobe. 25, 25, A section of the skull-bones. 
 
 737. Describe the medulla oblongata. Explain fig. 123. 
 
334 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 738. The duka matek is a firm, fibrous membrane, which 
 is exposed on the removal of a section of the skull-bones. 
 This lines the interior of the skull and spinal column, and 
 likewise sends processes inward, for the support and protec- 
 tion of the different parts of the brain. It also sends pro- 
 cesses externally, which form the sheaths for the nerves, as 
 they quit the skull and spinal column. The dura mater is 
 supplied with arteries and nerves. 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 •' - J- **••-. '^ f 
 
 Fig. 124. A vertical section of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata, 
 Bhowlng the relation of the cranial nerves at their origin. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The 
 cerebellum, with its arbor vitce represented. S, The medulla oblongata. 4, The spinal 
 cord. 6, The corpus cullosum. 0, The fli'st pair of m.-rves. 7, The second pair. 
 8, The eye. 9, The third pair of nerves. 10, The fourth pair. 11, The fifth pair. 
 12, The sixth pair. 13, The soventli pair. 14, The eighth pair. 15, The ninth pair. 
 16, The tenth pair. 19, The eleventh pair. 18, llio twelfth pair. 20, Spinal nerves. 
 21, The tentorium. 
 
 738. Describo the dura mator. What is its use? Explain fig. 124. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 335 
 
 739. The arachnoid, so called from its extreme tenuity, is 
 the serous membrane of the brain and spinal cord, and is, like 
 other serous membranes, a closed sac. It envelops these 
 organs, and is reflected upon the inner surface of the dura 
 mater, giving to that membrane its serous investment. 
 
 740. The pia mater is a vascular membrane, composed 
 of innumerable vessels, held together by cellular membrane. 
 It invests the whole surface of the brain, and dips into its 
 convolutions. The pia mater is the nutrient membrane of the 
 brain, and receives its blood from the carotid and vertebral 
 arteries. Its nerves are minute branches of the sympathetic, 
 which accompany the branches of the arteries. 
 
 741. The cranial nerves, that connect with the brain, are 
 arranged in twelve pairs. They are called : 1st. The 01- 
 facl'o-ry. 2d. The Op'tic. 3d. The Mo-to'res Oc-u-lo'rum. 
 4th. The Pa-thet'i-cus. 5th. The Tri-fa'cial. 6th. The 
 Ah-du-cen'tes. 7th. The Por'ti-o Du'ra. 8th. The Por'ti-o 
 Mol lis. 9th. The Glos'so-pha-ryn'gi-al. 10th. The Pneu- 
 mo-gas'tric. 11th. The Spi'nal Ac'ces-so-ry. 12th. The 
 Ily'po-glos'sal. 
 
 742. The olfactory nerve (first pair) passes from the 
 cavity of the skull through many small openings in a plale of 
 the eth'moid bone. (This plate is called crib'ri-form, from 
 its resemblance to a sieve.) This nerve ramifies upon the 
 membrane that lines the nasal passages. It is the softest 
 nerve of the body. 
 
 743. The optic nerve (second pair) passes from the inte- 
 rior of the cranium, through an opening in the base of the 
 skull, {fo-ra!men op'ti-cum,) to the cavity for the eye. It 
 pierces the coats of the eye, and expands m the retina. 
 
 744. The motores oculorum (third pair) pass from the 
 
 739. Describe the arachnoid membrane. 740. What is said respecting 
 the pia mater ? 741. How many pairs of cranial nerres ? Name them. 
 742. Describe the olfactory nerve. 743. The optic nerve. 744. Describe the 
 motores oculorum. 
 
336 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 brain, through an opening of the sphe'noid bone, {sphe-nold'&l 
 Jis'sure,) to the muscles of the eye. 
 
 745. The patheticus (fourth pair) passes from the brain, 
 through the sphenoidal fissure, to the superior oblique rriuscle 
 of the eye. 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 
 
 Fig. ISSr The distribution of the third, fourth, and sixth pairs of nerves, to the 
 musdes of the eye. 1, The ball of the eye and rectus externus muscle. Q, The uiv 
 per jaiv. 3, The third pair, distributed to all the muscles of the eye, except the 
 superior oblique, and external rectus. 4, The fourth pair passes to the superior 
 oblique muscle. 6, The sixth pair, is distributed to the external rectus muscle. 
 
 746. The trifacial nerve (fifth pair) is analogous to the 
 spinal nerves in its origin by two roots, from the anterioi: 
 and posterior columns of the spinal cord. It has a ganglion, 
 like the spinal nerves upon its posterior root. For these 
 reasons, it ranges with the spinal nerves, and is considered 
 the cranial spinal nerve. This nerve divides into three 
 branches : — The oph-thal'mic, superior mas/il-la-ry, and in- 
 ferior max'il-la-ry. 
 
 Jib. The pathetious. What does fig. 125 represent ? 746. What ia the 
 . trifacial nerve sometimes called ? Why is it classed with the cranial spinal 
 nerves? 01vo the names of its branches. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 337 
 
 747. The ophthalmic nerve passes from the cranial cavitv 
 tlirough the sphenoidal fissure. It sends branches to the fore- 
 head, eye, and nose. The superior maxillary nerve passes 
 through an opening in the. base of the skull, [foramen ro-tun'- 
 dum,) and sends branches to the eye, the teeth of the upper 
 law, and the muscles of the face. The inferior maxillary nerve 
 escapes from the cranial cavity through an opening called 
 foramen o-va'le. It sends branches to the muscles of the 
 lower jaw, the ear, the tongue, and the teeth of the lower jaw. 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 Fig. 126. T e distribution of the fifth pair of nerves 1, The orbit for the eye. 
 i. The upper jaw. 3, The tongue. 4. The lower jaw. 5, The fifth pair of nerves. 
 6. The first branch of this nerve, that passes to the eye. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, H, 
 Divisions of this hranch. 7, The second branch of the fifth pair of nerves is dis- 
 tributed to the teeth of the upper jaw. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Divisions of tbia 
 branch. 8, The third branch of the fifth pair, that passes to the tongue and teeth ot 
 the lower jaw. 23, The division of tills branch that passes to the tongue, called the 
 giist'a-to-ry. 24. The division that Is distributed to the teeth of the lower jaw. 
 
 747. Where do the filaments of the ophthalmic branch ramify? The 
 superior maxillary ? The inferior maxillary ? E-tplain fig. 126. 
 29 
 
33S ANATOMY, PIiySIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 748. The abduoentes (sixth pair) passes through the open- 
 ing by which the carotid artery enters the cranial cavity. 
 It is the smallest of the cerebral nerves, and is appropriated 
 to the external straight muscle of the eye. 
 
 749. The PORTio mollis (seventh pair) enters the hard 
 portion of the iem'po-ral bone at the internal auditory open- 
 ing, and is distributed upon the internal ear. (Fig. 147, 148.) 
 
 Pig. 127. 
 
 / 
 
 rig, 127. A representation of the distribution of the eighth pair of iie/ves with 
 Bome branches of tlie fifth. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, Are branches of the eijlith puii. Thej 
 are distributed over llie face in a radiated manner, which constitutes the pes aa- 
 eerinus, (foot of a goose.) The nerves 4, 6, 8, are branches of the fifth pair. 10, 
 11. 19, 13, 14, 15, 16, Aro branches of nerves ftom Uie upper port of the spinal cord, 
 (cervical.) 
 
 750. The facial nerve (eighth pair) passes from the skull 
 through an opening situated below the ear, {mas'toid ford- 
 men.) It is distributed over the face, supplying the muscles 
 with nervous filaments. 
 
 748. What is said of the abduoentes, or Bi.\th pair of nerves? 749. Of 
 the portio mollis? Explain fig. 127. 760. Of the facial nerve? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 339 
 
 I 751. The GLOsso-PHARYNGEAj, NERVE (ninth pair) passes 
 from the brain, through an opening with the jugular vein, {fo- 
 ramen lac'e-rum.) It is distributed to the mucous membrane 
 of the tongue and throat, and also to the mucous glands of 
 the mouth. 
 
 752. The pneumogastric nerve (tenth pair) escapes from 
 the brain through the foramen lacerum. It sends branches 
 to the larynx, pharynx, ossophagus, lungs, spleen, pancreas, 
 liver, stomach, and intestines. (Fig. 132.) 
 
 753. The spinal accessory nerve (eleventh pair) has its 
 origin in the respiratory tract of the spinal cord. It connects 
 with the ninth and tenth pairs of nerves, and is distributed to 
 the muscles about the neck. 
 
 754. The hypo-glossal nerve (twelfth pair) passes from 
 the brain, through a small opening, (con' dy -hid foramen.) It 
 ramifies upon the muscles of the tongue, and is its motor 
 nerve. 
 
 Observation. The cranial nerves, with the exception of the 
 olfactory, optic, and auditory, connect "with each other by 
 means of filaments. They also send connecting nervous fila- 
 ments to the upper spinal nerves, (cervical,) and the sympa- 
 thetic nerve. 
 
 751, Describe the gloBSO-pharyngeal nerve. 752. ThtTpnoumogastrio 
 nerve. 758. The spinal accessory nerve. 754. The hypo-glossal nerve. ' 
 
3<10 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 AJMATOjry or the nervous system, continued. 
 
 755. The spinal column contains the spinal cord, the roots 
 of the spinal nerves, and the membranes of the cord. 
 
 756. The spinal coed extends from the medulla oblongata 
 to the second lumbar vertebra, where it terminates in a round- 
 ed point. It presents a difference of diameter in different 
 parts of its extent, and exhibits three enlargements. The 
 uppermost of these is the medulla oblongata. There is no 
 distinct demarkation between this enlargement and the spinal 
 cord. The next corresponds with the origin of the nerves 
 distributed to the upper extremities ; the third enlargement 
 is situated near the termination of the cord, and corresponds 
 with the attachment of the nerves which are mtended for the 
 supply of the lower extremities. 
 
 757. An anterior and posterior fissure divides the spinal 
 cord into two lateral cords. These are united by a thin layer 
 of white substance. The lateral cords are each divided by 
 furrows into three distinct sets"of fibres, or columns ; namely, 
 the anterior, lateral, and posterior columns. The anterior 
 are the motor columns ; the posterior are the columns of sen- 
 sation ; the lateral columns are divided in their function be- 
 tween motion and sensation. They contain the fasciculus 
 described, by Sir Charles Bell, as the respiratory tract. 
 
 765 — 767. Give the anatomy of the spinal cord, spinal nerves, and the sym- 
 pathetic} nerve. 7fl5. What does the spinal column contain ? 756. Give the 
 extent of the spinal cord. How many enlargements has this cord ? What 
 Is said of each enlargement? 757. Into how many parts is the spinal 
 cord divided ? Give the function of these columns. 
 
ANATOMY 01 THE NEEVOTTS SYSTEM. 
 
 541 
 
 768. The spinal nerves, that connect with the spinal 
 cord, are arranged in thirty-one pairs, each arising hy two 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 Pig. 129. 
 
 Pig. 128. A section of the brain and spinal column. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The 
 cerebellum. 3, The medulla oblongata. 4, 4, The spinal cord in its canal. 
 
 Pig. 129. Anterior view of the brain and spinal cord 1, 1, The two hemispheres 
 of the cerebrum. 3, 3, The cerebfllum. 4, The olfactory nerve. 5, The optic 
 nerve. 7, The third pair of nerves. 8, The pons varolii. 9, The fourtn pair of 
 nerves. 10, The lower portion of the medulla oblongata. 11, 11, Tlie spinal cord. 
 19, 12, Spinal nerves. 13, 13, The brachial plexus. 14, 14, Tlie lumbar and sacral 
 plexus. 
 
 758. How many pairs of nerves issue from the spinal cord ? E.Kplain ftg. 
 128 Fig. 129. 
 
 29* 
 
342 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 roots ; an anterior, or motor root, and a posterior, or sensitive 
 root. Each nerve, when minutely examined, is found to con- 
 sist of an aggregate of very delicate filaments, enclosed in a 
 common cellular envelope. 
 
 759. The anterior roots arise from a narrow white line 
 upon the anterior columns of the spinal cord. The posterior 
 roots arise from a narrow gray band formed by the internal 
 gray substance of the cord. They are larger, and the fila- 
 ments of origin more numerous than those of the anterior 
 roots. A ganglion "is found upon each of the posterior roots 
 in the openings between the bones of the spinal column through 
 which the nerve passes. 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
 •1 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 130. A section of the spinal cord, surrounded by its sheath. B, A spinal 
 nerve, fnrmed by tlie union of the motor root (C) and the sensitive root (D.) At D. 
 tiio ganglion upon this root is seen. 
 
 760. After the formation of the ganglion, the two roots 
 unite, and constitute a spinal nerve, which passes through the 
 opening between the veriebrffi on the sides of the spinal 
 column. The nerves divide and subdivide, until their minute 
 filiimenis ramify on the tissues of the ditferent organs. 
 
 7oO. Give the origin of tho anterior roots. Of the posterior roots. In 
 wlmt respect do the posterior roots difler from the anterior ? 760. When ^ 
 do tho two roots unite, and where do they pass } 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 348 
 
 761 The spinal nerves are divided into — 
 
 Cervical, 8 pairs, 
 
 Dorsal, 12 " 
 
 Lumbar, 5 " 
 
 Sacral, 6 " 
 
 762. The four lower cervical and upper dorsal pass into 
 each other, and then separate to reunite. This is called the 
 brach'i-al phx'us. From this plexus six nerves proceed, 
 which ramify upon the muscles and skin of the upper ex- 
 tremities. I 
 
 763. The last dorsal and the five lumbar nerves form a 
 plexus called the lumbar, similar to that of the cervical. Six 
 nerves pass from this plexus, which ramify upon the muscles 
 and skin of the lower extremities. 
 
 764. The last lumbar and the four upper sacral unite to 
 form the sacral plexus. From this plexus five nerves pro- 
 ceed, that are distributed to the muscles and skin of the hip 
 and lower extremities. 
 
 7G5. The sympathetic nerve* consists of a series of 
 Gan'gli-a, or knots, extending each side of the spinal column, 
 forming a chain its whole length. It communicates with both 
 the cranial and spinal nerves. With the exception of the 
 neck, there is a ganglion for each intervertebral space. These 
 ganglia are composed of a mixture of cineritious and medul- 
 lary matter, and are supposed to be productive of peculiar 
 nervous power. 
 
 • The structure of this nerve is veiy complicated, and diiferent 
 physiologists ascribe to it various functions. The character of its dis- 
 eases are not ■well understood. 
 
 7G1. Give the division of the spinal nerves. 762. Wliat nerves consti- 
 tute the brachial plexus ? How many nerves pass from this plexus ? 
 763. How many r erves from the lumbar plexus, and where do they ram- 
 ify ? 764. How is the sacral plexus formed ? 765. Of what does the 
 sympathetia^nerve consit t ? How is the sympathetic nerve distributed ? 
 WLat exception? Of what are the ganglia composed? 
 
34-1. ANATOMr, I-HVSIOLOGY, AND HYGIE^K. 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 i* .?fisir*] 
 
 
 
 
 I, 
 
 a- ,' 
 
 
 
 
 >. 
 
 
 
 i -• „ — v» ^ - ■ . 
 
ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 315 
 
 766. The ganglia may be considered as distinct centres, 
 giving off branches in four directions ; namely, the superior, 
 or ascending, to communicate with the ganglion above ; the 
 inferior, or descending, to communicate with the ganglion 
 below ; the external, to communicate with the spinal nerves ; 
 and the internal, to communicate with the sympathetic fila- 
 ments. It is generally admitted that the nerves that pass from 
 the ganglia are larger than those that entered them ; as if 
 they imparted to the nerve some additional power. 
 
 767. The branches of distribution accompany the arteries 
 which supply the different organs, and form communications 
 around them, which are called plexuses, and take the name 
 of the artery with which they are associated. Thus we have 
 the mesenteric plexus, hepatic plexus, splenic plexus, &c. All 
 the internal organs of the head, neck, and trunk, are supplied 
 with branches from the sympathetic, and some of them exclu- 
 sively ; for this reason, it is considered a nerve of organic life. 
 
 Fig. 131. A beautiful representation of tlie sympatlietic ganglia and their connec-. 
 lion witli other nerves. It is from the grand engraving uf Mnnec, reduced in size 
 A, A, A, The semilunar ganglion and solar plexus, situated below the diaphragm 
 and behind the stomach. This ganglion is situated in the region (pit of the stom- 
 ach) where a blow gives severe suffering. D, D, D, The thoracic ganglia, ten or 
 eleven in number. E, E, The external and internal branches of the thoracic gan- 
 glia. G, H, The right and left coronary plexus, situated upon the heart. 1", *N, Q, 
 The inferior, middle, and superior cervical ganglia. 1, The rpnal plexus of nerves 
 that surrounds the kidneys. 3, The lumbar ganglion. 3, Their internal branches. 
 4, Their external branches. 5, The aortic plexus of nerves that lies upon the aorta. 
 The other letters^ and (igures represent nerves that connect important organs and 
 nerves with' the sympatlietic ganglia. 
 
 What is the design of fig. 131 ? 766. How may the gariglia he eonsid- 
 erert ? 767 What is said of the branches if the sympathetic nerve? 
 
iilo ANATOMY, FHYSIOLOUY, AND HVGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 768. The brain is regarded by physiologists and philoso- 
 phers as the organ of the mind. Most writers consider it as 
 an aggregate of parts, each charged with specific functions, 
 and that these functions are the highest and most important 
 in the animal economy. To the large brain, or cerebral lobes, 
 they ascribe the seat of the faculties of thinking, memory, and 
 the will. In man, this lobe extends so far backward as to 
 cover the whole of the cerebellum. To the cerebellum, or 
 little brain, is ascribed tlie seat of the animal, or lower pro- 
 pensities. 
 
 769. " The constant relation between mental power and 
 development of brain, explains why capacities and dispositions 
 are so different. In infancy, for example, the intellectual 
 powers are feeble and inactive. This arises partly from the 
 inaptitude of a still imperfect brain ; but in proportion as the 
 latter advances toward its mature state, the mental faculties 
 also become vigorous and active." 
 
 770. We are able, in most instances, at least, to trace a 
 correspondence between the development of the cerebral lobes 
 and the amount of intelligence possessed by the person. The 
 weight of the brain in man to that of the whole body varies 
 
 76S — 772. Gire the physiology of the ticrrmis system. T'lS. How is the 
 l)rain rcgmdod by ph) siologists and philosophers } What do tliey ascribe 
 tu the rorebrum ? To the coiebellum ? 769. AVhat does the relation be- 
 tween mental powers and development of brain expUin ? 770. What is 
 eaid respecting the correspondence between the development of the brain 
 luid the amount of intelligence possessed by the person f What is said ol 
 llir weight of the bruin ? 
 
.ijjLn,ywuo BxaiJliM. 
 
 in diflferent individuals. The heaviest brain on record was 
 that of Cuvier, which weighed 4 pounds and 13^ ounces. 
 
 771. The brain likewise holds an important relation to all 
 the other organs of the system. To the muscular system it 
 imparts an influence which induces contraction of the fibres, 
 liy this relation they are brought under the control of the will. 
 To the skin, eye, and ear, it imparts an influence that gives 
 sensibility, or the power of feeling, seeing, hearing, &c. 
 
 772. Again, the involuntary functions of the different por- 
 lions of the system are more or less influenced by the brain. 
 If the action of this central organ of the nervous system is 
 destroyed, the functions of the digestive, respiratory, and cir- 
 culatory apparatuses will be much disturbed or entirely sup. 
 pressed. 
 
 773. The brain is the seat of sensation. It receives •the 
 impressions made on all parts of the body, through the mediimi 
 of the sensitive nerves. That the impressions of e.xteriiaJ 
 objects, made on these nenyes, be communicated to the brain, 
 where sensation is perceived, it is necessary that they be not 
 diseased or injured. 
 
 Observation. There is a plain distinction between sensa- 
 tions and impressions ; the latter are the changes produced 
 in the extremities of the nerve ; the former, the changes pro- 
 duced in the brain and communicated to the mmd. 
 
 774. What part of the brain receives the impressions or has 
 the most intiimate relation with the intellectual faculties is 
 unknown. Some portions, however, are of less importance 
 tlian others. " Large portions of the cortical, or outer part, are 
 frequently removed without affecting the functions of this 
 
 771. What is said of the relation of the brain to all of the organs'of the 
 body ? 772. Are the iiivoluntary functions of different parts of the system 
 influenced by *he brain? 773. Where is sensation perceived? By what 
 agency are the impressions of external objects conveyed to the brain i 
 What is the difference between sensations and impressions ? 774. Is it 
 known what part of the hrain has the most intimate relation with the intol- 
 lei-tiial fjicultios? 
 
84S ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOOY, AND HYGIEiJE. 
 
 organ. Pieces of the medullary, or central parts, have been 
 removed by injuries without impairing the intellect or destroy- 
 ing life. This organ, although it takes cognizance of every 
 sensation, is, of itself, but slightly sensible. It may be cut, or 
 parts may be removed without pain, and the individual, at 
 the same time, retain his consciousness. 
 
 775. The brain is the seat of the will. It superintends tlie 
 physical as well as the mental movements, and the medium of 
 communication from this organ to the muscles, or the parts to 
 be moved, is the motor nerves. If the brain is in a quies- 
 cent state, the muscles are at rest ; if, by an act of the will, 
 the brain sends a portion of nervous influence to a voluntary 
 muscle, it immediately contracts, and those parts to which the 
 muscle is attached move. There is no perceptible interval 
 bet*een the act of the will and the motion of the part. 
 
 776. Some physiologists assert, that the medulla oblongata 
 IS the point at which excitement to motion commences, and 
 sensation terminates ; and also, that it possesses the power of 
 originating motion in itself. 
 
 Observation. The medulla oblongata, unlike the brain, is 
 highly sensitive ; if slightly punctured, convulsions follow ; if 
 much injured, respiration, or breathing, immediately ceases. 
 
 777. It is remarkable that the nerves which arise from 
 the right side of the spinal cord communicate with the left 
 hemisphere of the cerebrum, and vice versa ; this results from 
 the crossing of the fibres in the medulla oblongata. It follows 
 from this, that if the right side of the brain receives an injury, 
 the parts of the opposite side of the body lose their sensibility 
 and motion. 
 
 Observations. 1st. If the cranial nerves which are connected 
 
 What portions have been removed without impairing the intellect? 
 What is remarkable of the brain ? 775. What is the Influence of the brain 
 upon the muscles ? 776. What do some physiologists assert of the medul- 
 la oblongata ? 777. What is remarkable oi the nerves ? Give the ls( 
 obBorvfttion relative to the rranial nerves. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS BYfaTEM. 849 
 
 by a single root are divided, only the sensation of the part 
 to which they are distributed is lost. Thus, if the optic nerve 
 is divided, the sense of visisn disappears, but the fflotions of 
 the eye are performed as readily as before. But, if the spinal 
 nerves are divided, both sensation and motion of the part to 
 which tJiey lead are destroyed. 
 
 2d*. When the spinal cord is divided or compressed, as in 
 fractures of the spinal column, all parts below the fracture are 
 paralyzed, though the nerves leading to these parts may be 
 uninjured. 
 
 3d. Again, one side of the body or one limb may become 
 insensible, and the power to move it, be perfectly retained ; or 
 the reverse of this may happen — the power of motion will 
 be lost while sensation remains. In the former instance, the 
 function of the posterior, or sensitive column of the spinal cord 
 on one side is destroyed ; in the latter, the anterior, or motor 
 column is affected. 
 
 4th. In some cases, both sensation and motion of one side 
 of the body or one limb are destroyed. In such instances, 
 both, the anterior and the posterior columns of one side of 
 the spinal cord are diseased. 
 
 778. Vigorous and controllable muscular contraction re- 
 quires a sound and well-developed brain, if this organ is 
 defective in these particulars, the movements will be ineffi- 
 cient, and may be irregular. The central organ of the ner- 
 vous system must, likewise, be in an active condhion, to induce 
 regular, steady, and controllable muscular movements. 
 
 Observations. 1st. Persons who have suffered from apo- 
 plexy and other severe diseases of the brain, have an involun- 
 tary trembling of the limbs, which results from a weakenei 
 state of the nervous system. 
 
 To the spinal nerves. What is said of the compression of the spina] 
 cord ? Give the 3d observation relative to the spinal nerves. The 4th 
 observation. 778. Upon what does vigorous controllable muscular con- 
 traetion depend ? What causes the inroluntavy tvemhling of the limbs in 
 persons who have suffered from apoplexy? 
 30 
 
350 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 2d. The tremor of the hand, that lessens the usefulness or 
 incapacitates the fine artist or skilful mechanic, in the prime 
 of life, from pursuing their vodhtions, may be, and is often, 
 induced by the influence of intoxicating drink, which debili- 
 tates and disorganizes the brain. 
 
 3d. The tottering step, trembling hand, and shaking head 
 of the aged invalid, are the results of diminished nervous 
 energy, so that steady muscular contraction, so essential to 
 regular movements, cannot be maintained. 
 
 779. No difference can be discovered in the structure of 
 the several kinds of nerves in any part of their course, and 
 the functions they are designed to perform can only be known 
 by ascertaining the place of their origin. The nerves may 
 be functionally divided into five groups. 
 
 780. 1st. Nerves of special sensation. These are the first, 
 second, eighth, and it may be one of the branches of the fifth 
 pair of cranial nerves. The function of these nerves is par- 
 ticularly described in the chapters upon the senses of smell, 
 vision, hearing, and taste. 
 
 781. 2d. Nerves of general sensation. These embrace the 
 fifth pair of cranial nerves, and the thirty-one pairs of spinal 
 nerves. In those parts that require sensation for their s;ifety 
 and the performance of their functions, there is an abundant 
 supply of sensitive nervous filaments. The nerves of sensa- 
 tion are mostly distributed upjn the skin. Few filaments 
 ramify upon the mucous membranes and muscles. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The painful sensations experienced in 
 the face, and in the teeth or jaws, (tic douloureu.x and tooth- 
 ache,) are induced by irritation and disease of a portion of 
 tlie filaments of the fifth pair of cranial nerves. 
 
 The tremor of the hand among some mechanics in the prime of life! 
 The tottaring step of the aged invalid ? 779. What is said relative to the 
 fllructure of the nerves ? How may they be divided f 780. Give the nerves 
 nf special sense. 781. Those of general sensation. Where iire the nerv**s 
 of sensation distributed ? What causes tie douloureu.v ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 351 
 
 2d. The unpleasant sensation sometimes experienced when 
 we hoar the grating of a file or saw, is produced by the con- 
 nection of the nerve that passes across the drum of the ear 
 with the fifth cranial nerve. 
 
 3d. When pressure is made on the trunk of a nerve, the 
 sensibility of the part where the nerve ramifies is modified. 
 This is illustrated, when pressure is made upon the large 
 nerve of the lower extremity (sciatic) in sitting upon a hard 
 bench. The foot is then said to be " asleep," 
 
 4th. When the trunk of a nerve is diseased or injured, the 
 pain is experienced in the outer extremity of the nerve. A 
 blow upon the elbow, which causes a peculiar sensation in the 
 little finger and one side of the ring finger, affords a familiar 
 illustration. This sensation is produced by injuring the ulnar 
 nerve, which is distributed to the little finger. 
 
 782. 3d. Nerves of motion. These are the third, sixth, 
 and twelfth pairs of cranial nerves, and the thirty-one pairs 
 of spinal nerves. These nerves are distributed to the fibres 
 of the five hundred muscles of the body. The functions of 
 the muscular are different from those of .the sensitive nerves. 
 The former are provided for the purpose of motion, and not 
 of feeling. Hence, muscles may be cut, and the pain will be 
 slight, compared with, the cutting of the skin. This may be 
 called muscular pain. Weariness is a sensation recognized 
 by one set of muscular nerves. 
 
 783. So uniformly is a separate instrument provided foi 
 every additional function, that there is strong reason to regard 
 the muscular nerves, although running in one sheath, as in 
 reality double, and performing distinct functions. Sir Charles 
 Bell, in his work on the Nervous System, endeavors to show, 
 
 How is the peculiar sensation accounted for wlien we hear the grating 
 of a file or saw ? What produces the sensation when the foot is said to 
 be " asleep ? " \vhat is the effect when the ulnar nerve is injured by a blow ? 
 782. Give the nerves of motion. What is said of the functions of tha 
 muscular nerves ? 783, What does Sir Charles BcU endeavor to show J 
 
352 ANATOMY, PHYSIOI.OSy, AND HYGIENE 
 
 that one set of nervous fibres conveys the mandate from the 
 brain to the muscle, and excites the contraction ; and that 
 another set conveys, from the muscle to the brain, a peculiar 
 sense of the state or degree of contraction of the muscle, by 
 which we are enabled to judge of the amount of stimulus 
 necessary to accomplish the end desired. This is obviously 
 an indispensable piece of information to the mind in regu- 
 lating the movements of the body. 
 
 784. 4th. Nerves of respiration. These are the fourth, 
 seventh, ninth, tenth, and eleventh pair of cranial nerves, 
 also the phrenic and the external respiratory nerve. All of 
 these nerves have their origin in a distinct tract or column, 
 called the lateral, in the upper part of the spinal cord. Hence 
 it is sometimes named the respiratory column. These nerves 
 are distributed to one of the muscles of the eye ; to the mus- 
 cles of the face ; to the tongue, pharynx, oBsophagus, stomach, 
 heart, lungs, diaphragm, and some of the muscles of the neck 
 and chest. 
 
 785. It is through the instrumentality of the accessory, 
 phrenic, and external respiratory nerves, (10, 11, 12, 13, fig. 
 132,) that the muscles employed in respiration are brought 
 
 Fig. isa The distribution of the respiratory nerves.^ a, Section of the brain and 
 medulla oblongata, b, The lateral columns of the spinal cord, e, c. The respiratory 
 tract of the spinal cord, rf, The tongue, e, Tlie larynx. /, The bronchia, g, The 
 ffisophagus. h, The stouiach. i, The diaphragm. 1, The pneumogastric nerve. 
 S, The superior laryngeal nerve. 3, The recurrent laryngeal nerve. (These two 
 ramify on the larynx.) 4, The pulmonary plexus of the tenth nerve. 5, The cardiac 
 plexus of the tenth nerve. These two plexuses supply the heart and lungs with ner- 
 vous filnmenU. 7, The origin of the fourth pair of nerves, that passes to the superior 
 oblique muscle of the eye. 8, The origin of llw l';irial nerve, that is spread out on the 
 side of the dice and nose. 9, The origin of the piossu-phnryngcal nerve, that passes 
 to the tongue and pharynx. 10, The origin of the spinal accessory nerve. 11, This 
 nerve peneiniting the slorno-mastoideus muscle. 12, The origin of the internal res- 
 piratory or phrenic nerve, that Is seen to ramiiy on the diaphragm. 13, The origin of 
 the external respiratory nerve, that rainitles on the pectoral and scaleni muscles. 
 
 781. Give the respiratory nerves. What is said in reference to the respiiJi- 
 tory nerves P 785. Tlirough.the agency of what nerves are the respiratory 
 muscles brought into action f Explain fig. 182. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY, OF THE NKRVODS SYSTEM. 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 35J 
 
354 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 into aclioti without the necessity of the interference of the 
 mind. Though to a certain extent they may be under the 
 influence of the will, yet it is only in a secondary degree. No 
 one can long suspend tlie movements of respiration ; * for in 
 a short time, instinctive feeling issues its irresistible mandate, 
 which neither requires the aid of erring wisdom, nor brooks 
 the capricious interference of the will. 
 
 786. The fourth, seventh, and tenth pairs of nerves, (7, 8, 
 9, fig. 132,) with the spinal accessory, phrenic, and external 
 respiratory, are not only connected with the function of respi- 
 ration, but contribute to the expression of the passions and 
 emotions of the mind. 
 
 787. The influence of this order of nerves in the expres- 
 sion of the passions, is strikingly depicted in Sir Charles Bell's 
 Treatise on the Nervous System. " In terror," he remarks, 
 " we can readily conceive why a man stands with his eyes 
 intently fixed on the object of his fears — the eyebrows ele- 
 vated, and the eyeballs largely uncovered ; or why, with 
 hesitating and bewildered steps, his eyes are rapidly and 
 wildly in search of something. In this way, we only perceive 
 the intense application of his mind to the objects of his appre- 
 hension, and its direct influence on the outward organs." 
 
 788. " But when we observe him further, there is a spasm 
 in his breast ; he cannot breathe freely ; the chest remains 
 elevated, and his respiration i» short and rapid. There is a 
 
 * Dr. Elliotson, and some other writers on physiology, have detajled 
 eases of death from voluntary suspension of respiration. But these 
 cases are not conclusive, as examinations were not made,- ao as to 
 determine positively, that death did not result from disease of the 
 heart, brain, or some other vital organ. 
 
 Can respiration be suspendnd for any considerable length of time? 
 780. What nerves contribute to the expression of the passions and emo- 
 tions of the mind ? 787, 788: What does Sir Charles IBell say of the influ- 
 ence of this order of nerves in'thc expression of the passions ? 
 
FHYSIOLO&Y OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 355 
 
 gasping and convulsive motion of his ]ips, a tremor on his 
 hollovf cheeks, a gasping and catching of his throat ; his 
 heart knocks at his ribs, while yet there is no force in the 
 circulation — the lips and cheeks being ashy pale." 
 
 789. " These nerves are the instruments of expression, 
 from the smile upon the infant's cheek, to the last agony of 
 life. It is when the strong man is subdued by this mysterious 
 influence of soul on body, and when the passions may be 
 truly said to tear the heart, that we have the most afflicting 
 picture of human frailty, and the most unequivocal proof 
 that it is the order of functions we have been considering, 
 that is thus affected. In the first struggle of the infant to 
 draw breath, in the man recovering from a state of suffoca- 
 tion, and in the agony of passion, when the breast labors from 
 the influence at the heart, the same system of parts is affected, 
 the same nerves, the same muscles, and the symptoms or 
 character have a strict resemblance." 
 
 790. The seventh pair of nerves not only communicates 
 the purposes of the will to the muscles of the face, but at the 
 same time it calls them into action, under the influence of 
 instinct and sympathy. On this subject a late writer remarks, 
 " How expressive is the face of man ! How clearly it an- 
 nounces the thoughts and sentiments of the mind ! How well 
 depicted are the passions on his countenance ! tumultuous 
 rage, abject fear, devoted love, envy, hatred, grief, and every 
 other emotion, in all their shades and diversities, are imprinted 
 there, in characters so clear that he that runs may read! 
 How difficult, nay, how impossible, is it to hide or falsify 
 the expressions which indicate the internal feelings ! Thus 
 conscious guilt shrinks from detection, innocence declares its 
 confidence, and hope anticipates with bright expectation." 
 
 Observation. The fifth pair of nerves (fig. 126) is dis- 
 
 789. Are. they also the instruments of expression, either of joy or grief? 
 790. What is said in reference to the seventh pair of nerves ? Where is 
 the fifth pair of nerves distributed ? 
 
358 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 tributed to the parts of the face on which the seventli pair 
 ramifies. The former serves for sensation, the latter for 
 motion. Thus, when the seventh pair of nerves is divided, 
 or its functions destroyed by disease, the side affected loses 
 all power of expression, though sensation remains unaffected. 
 On the contrary, if we divide the fifth pair, sensation is 
 entirely destroyed, while expression remains. 
 
 791. 5th. TAe sywipai/jeiic nerue. This nerve confers vitality 
 on all the important portions of the system. It exerts a con- 
 trolling influence over the involuntai-y functions of digestion, 
 absorption, secretion, circulation, and nutrition. Every por- 
 tion of the body is, to a certain extent, under its influence, as 
 filaments from this system of nerves accompany the blood- 
 vessels throughout their course. 
 
 792. An important use of the sympathetic nerve is to 
 form a communication of one part of the system with another, 
 so that one organ can take cognizance of the condition of 
 every other, and act accordingly. If, for example, disease 
 seizes the brain, the stomach, by its sympathetic connection. 
 Knows it ; and as nourishment would add to the disease, it 
 refuses to receive food, and perhaps throws off what has 
 already been taken. Loss of appetite in sickness is thus a 
 kind provision of nature, to prevent our taking food when it 
 would be injurious ; and following this intimation, we, as a 
 general rule, should abstain from food until the appetite returns. 
 
 Fig. 133. A back view of tlio brain and spinal cord. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The 
 cerebellum. 3, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the face. 5, The brachial plexus of 
 nerves. 6, 7, 8, 9, Nerves of the arm. 10, Nervrs that pass under the ribs. 11, The 
 lumbar plexus of nerves. 12, The sacral plexus of nerves. 13, 14, IS, 16, Nerves of 
 the lou'er limbs. 
 
 What is the function of this nerve } What is the effect if the seventh 
 pair is divided, or its function destroyed by disease ? 791. What is said of 
 the sympathetic nerve ? 792. What is the use of the sympathetic system ? 
 Explain fig. 133. 
 
 Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system be 
 reviewed from figs. 131, 132, 133, or from anatomical outline plate, No. 8. 
 
PHISIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 357 
 
358 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOal, AND HYGIENB. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 793. As the different organs of the system are dependent 
 on the brain and spinal cord for efficient functional action, 
 and as the mind and brain are closely associated during 
 life, the former acting in strict obedience to the laws which 
 regulate the latter, it becomes an object of primary impor- 
 tance in education, to discover what these laws are, that 
 we may escape the numerous evils consequent on their 
 violation. 
 
 794. For healthy and efficient action, the hrain shmdd he 
 primarily sound ; as this organ is subject to the same gen- 
 eral law:s as other parts of the body. If the brain of the 
 child is free from defects at birth, and acquires no improper 
 impressions in infancy, it will not easily become diseased In 
 after life. But, if the brain has inherited defects, or has ac- 
 quired a proneness to disease by mismanagement in early life, 
 it will more easily yield to influences that cause diseased 
 action. The hereditary tendency to disease is one of the 
 most powerful causes that produce nervous and mental affec- 
 tions. Consequently, children have a strong tendency to the 
 diseases from which the parents suffered. ' 
 
 795. When both parents have similar defects, or have 
 descended from tainted families, the children are usually more 
 deeply impressed with their imperfections than when only one 
 
 793 — 850. Give the hygiene of the nervma systetn. 793. Why is it im- 
 portant to know the laws which regulate the action of the hrain ? 
 794. What is necessary that the action of the brain be healthy and effi- 
 cient ? What follows if the brain of the child has inherited defects ( 
 796. What is the effect when both parents possess similar defects } 
 
HYGIENiS OF THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 359 
 
 possesses the defect, fliis is the reason of the frequency of 
 nervous disease and imbecility among the opulent, as inter- 
 marriages among near relations are more frequent with this 
 class than among the poor. 
 
 JDbservation. Among some of the reigning families of 
 Europe, particularly the Spanish, the folly of intermarriage 
 among themselves is strongly illustrated. The high and noble 
 talents that characterized their progenitor are not seen, but 
 there is now exhibited, among fheir descendants, imbecility 
 and the most revolting forms of nervous disease. 
 
 796. " Unhappily, it is not merely as a cause of disease, that 
 hereditary predisposition is to be dreaded. The obstacles 
 which it throws in the way of permanent recovery are even 
 more formidable, and can never be entirely removed. 
 Safety is to be found only in avoiding the perpetuation 
 of the mischief."" 
 
 797. " Therefore, if two persons, each naturally of excitable 
 and delicate nervous temperament, choose to unite for life, 
 they have themselves to blame for the concentrated influence 
 of similar tendencies in destroying the health of their off- 
 spring, and subjecting them to all the miseries of nervous 
 disease, madness, or melancholy." The command of God 
 not to marry within certain degrees of consanguinity, is in 
 accordance with the organic laws of the brain, and the 
 wisdom of the prohibition is confirmed by observation. 
 
 Observation. The inhabitants, females particularly, of the 
 sea-girt islands of America, are more affected with nervous 
 diseases, than those who reside upon the mainland. The 
 prevalence of these alffections is ascribed to the frequent 
 intermarriage of persons closely related by blood. 
 
 What is one cause of nervous disease among the higher classes ? What 
 Is true of some of the reigning families of Europe ? 796. Why is heiedi- 
 tary predisposition to be dreaded ? 797- Is the prohibition of God respect- 
 ing intermarriage ^^ accordance with the organic laws of the bralu ? 
 What is said of the inhabitants of the sea-girt islands of America ? 
 
360 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 798. The brain requires a due supply of pure blood. This 
 organ receives an unusually large supply of blood, in com- 
 parison with the rest of the body. . It is estimated that one 
 tenth of all the blood sent from the heart goes to this organ. 
 If the arterial blood be altogether withdrawn, or a person 
 breathes air that is filled with carbonic gas, the brain ceases 
 its proper action, and sensibility with consciousness becomes 
 extinct. 
 
 niuslrations. 1st. If a person lose a considerable quantity 
 of blood, dizziness and loss of consciousness follow. This 
 results from the brain not receiving a sufficient amount of 
 blood to sustain its functions. 
 
 2d. When an individual descends into a well or pit that con- 
 tains carbonic acid, the blood is not changed or purified in 
 the lungs, and loss of consciousness and death soon follow. 
 
 799. The slighter variations in the state of the blood have 
 equally sure, though less pstlpable effects. If its vitality is 
 impaired by breathing an atmosphere so much vitiated eis to 
 be insufficient to produce the proper degree of oxygenation, . 
 the blood then aifords an imperfect stimulus to the brain. As 
 a necessary consequence, languor and inactivity of the men- 
 tal and nervous functions ensue, and a tendency to headache, 
 fainting, or hysteria, makes its appearance. 
 
 Observations. 1st. Let a person remain, for a time, in a 
 crowded, ill-ventilated, hall or church, and headache or faint- 
 ness is generally produced. This is caused by tlie action of 
 impure blood upon the brain. 
 
 2d. If a school-teacher wishes to have his pupils, on tlie 
 day of examination, appear creditably, he will be careful to 
 have the room well ventilated. Ventilating churches might 
 
 708. Why does the brain require a due supply of pure blood ? "What is the 
 effect when a person loses a considerable quantity of blood ? What causes 
 the loss of consciousness when carbonic acid is breathed? 799. What 
 effects are produced by slight variations in the quality of the blood f From 
 the following observations, give some of the effects * impure blood ou 
 the brain. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 361 
 
 prevent the inattention and sleepiness that are observed 
 during the afternoon service. 
 
 3d. In many instances, the transmission of imperfectly 
 oxygenated blood to the brain, is an influential cause in the 
 production of nervous disease and delicacy of constitution. 
 The only efficient remedy for these conditions is a supply of 
 pure blood to the brain. 
 
 800. The brain should be called into action. This organ, 
 like the muscles, should be used, and then allowed to rest, or 
 cease from vigorous thought. When the brain is properly 
 called into action by moderate study, it increases in size and 
 strength ; while, on tne other hand, if it is not used, the 
 action of this organ is enfeebled, thereby diminishing the 
 function of all parts of the body. 
 
 801. The brain, being an organized part, is subject, so far 
 as regards exercise, to the same laws as the other organs of 
 the body. If it is doomed to inactivity, its size diminishes, its 
 health decays, and the mental operations and feelings, as a 
 necessary consequence, become dull, feeble, and slow. If it 
 is duly exercised after regular intervals of repose, the mind 
 acquires readiness and strength. Lastly, if it is overtasked, 
 either in the force or duration of its activity, its functions 
 become impaired, and irritability and disease take the place of 
 health and vigor. 
 
 802. The consequences of inadequate exercise will first be 
 explained. We have seen that by disuse the muscles become 
 emaciated, the bones soften, and the blood-vessels are oblit- 
 erated. The brain is no exception to this general rule. It is 
 impaired by permanent inactivity, and becomes less fit to 
 manifest the mental powers with readiness and energy. Nor 
 will this surprise any reflecting person, who considers that the 
 
 800. Why should the brain be called into action ? 801. What is the 
 effect if the brain is doomed to inactivity ? 802. Show the consequences of 
 disuse of the organs mentioned in preceding chapters. Does the same 
 principle apply to the brain ? 
 31 
 
36!i ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIEWB. 
 
 brain, as a part of the same animal system, is nourished by 
 ihe same blood and regulated by the same vital laws as the 
 muscles, bones, and arteries. 
 
 803. It is the weakening and depressing effect which is 
 induced by the absence of the stimulus necessary for the 
 healthy exercise of the brain, that renders solitary confine- 
 ment so severe a punishment, even to the most daring minds. 
 Keeping the above principle in view, we shall not be surprised 
 to find that non-exercise of the brain and nervous system, or, 
 in other words, inactivity of intellect and feeling, is a veiy 
 frequent predisposing cause of every form of nervous disease. 
 
 804. For demonstrative evidence of this position, we have 
 only to look at the numerous victims to be found among 
 females of the middle and higher ranks, who have no calls to 
 exertion in gaining the means of subsistence, and no objects 
 of interest on which to exercise their mental faculties, and 
 who, consequently, sink into a state of mental sloth and 
 nervousness, which not only deprives them of much enjoy- 
 ment, but subjects them to suflering, both of body and mind, 
 from the slightest causes. 
 
 805. But let the situation of such persons be changed; 
 bring them, for instance, from the listlessness of retirement 
 to the business and bustle of the city ; give them a variety of 
 imperative employments, and so place them in society as to 
 supply to their cerebral organs that extent of exercise which 
 gives health and vivacity of action, and in a few months the 
 change produced will be surprising. Health, animation, and 
 energy, will take the place of former insipidity and dulness. 
 
 806. An additional illustration, invoU ing an important prin- 
 ciple in the production of many distressing forms of disease 
 
 803. What renders solitary confinement so severe a punishment to the 
 most daring minds ? What is a predisposing cause of nervous disease t 
 Wi. In what classes do mental and nervous debility prevail ? 80d. How 
 can thif be counteracted ? 806. Give another illustration, showinir how 
 dlMHE* of the brain is induoed. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE NEKVOTTS SYSTEM. 368 
 
 will be found in the case of a man of mature age, and of 
 axjtive habits, who has devoted his life to the toils of business, 
 and whose hours of leisure have been few and short. Sup- 
 pose such a person to retire to the country in search of repose, 
 and to have no moral, religious, or philosophical pursuits to 
 occupy his attention and keep up the active exercise of his 
 brain ; this organ will lose its health, and the inevitable result 
 will be, weariness of life, despondency, or some other variety 
 of nervous disease. 
 
 807. One great evil attending the absence of some imper- 
 ative employment or object of interest, to exercise the mind 
 and brain, is the tendency which it generates to waste the 
 mental energies on every trifling occurrence which presents 
 itself, and to seek relief in the momentary excitement of any 
 sensation, however unworthy. The best remedy for these 
 evils is to. create occupation to interest the mind, and give 
 that wholesome exercise to the brain, which its constitution 
 requires. 
 
 808. Tlie evils arising from excessive or ill-timed exercise 
 of the brain, or any of its parts, are numerous. When we 
 use the eye too long, or in too bright a light, it becomes blood- 
 shot. The increased action of its vessels and nerves gives 
 rise to a sensation of fatigue and pain, requiring us to desist. 
 If we relieve the eye, the irritation gradually subsides and 
 the healthy state returns. But, if we continue to look intently, 
 or resume our employment before the eye has regained its 
 natural state by repose, the irritation at last becomes perma- 
 nent, and disease, followed by weakness of vision, or even 
 blindness, may ensue. 
 
 809. Phenomena precisely analogous occur, when, from 
 
 807. What is one great evil attending the absence of some imperative 
 employment to exercise the mind and brain ? What is the true remedy for 
 these evils ? 808. From what other cause do evils arise to the brain ? 
 Explain the evil of it by the excessive use of the eye. 809. What is the 
 only difference in the analogy of the phenomena of the eye and brain ? Has 
 the analogy been verified ? 
 
361 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 intense mental excitement, the brain is kept long in a state of 
 excessive activity. The only difference is, that we can always 
 see what happens in the eye, but rarely what takes place in 
 the brain ; occasionally, however, cases of fracture of the skull 
 occur, in which, part of the bone being removed, we can see 
 the quickened circulation in the vessels of the brain, as easily 
 as those of the eye. 
 
 810. Sir Astley Cooper had a young man brought to him, 
 who had lost a portion of his skull, just above the eyebrow. 
 " On examining the head," says Sir Astley, " I distinctly saw 
 that the pulsation of the brain was regular and slow ; but at 
 this time he was agitated by some opposition to his wishes, 
 and directly the blood was sent with increased force to the 
 brain, and the pulsation became frequent and violent." 
 
 811. Indeed, in many instances, the increased circulation 
 in the brain, attendant on mental excitement, reveals itself 
 when least expected, and leaves traces after death, which are 
 very perceptible. When tasked beyond its strength, the eye 
 becomes insensible to light, and no longer conveys any im- 
 pressions to the mind. In like manner, the biain, when much 
 exhausted, becomes incapable of thought, and consciousness 
 is almost lost in a feeling of utter confusion. 
 
 812. At any time of life, excessive and continued mental 
 exertion is hurtful ; but in infancy and early youth, when the 
 structure of the brain is still immature and delicate, perma- 
 nent mischief is more easily produced by injudicious treat- 
 ment than at any subsequent period. In this respect, the 
 analogy is as complete between the brain and the otlier parts 
 of the body, as that exemplified in the injurious effects of pre- 
 mature exercise of the bones and muscles. 
 
 813. Scrofulous and rickety children are the most usual 
 
 810. Relate the case detailed by Sir Astley Cooper. 8U. May the 
 IncreaBod functional action of the brain change its structure ? 812. At 
 what age particularly is excessive and continued mental exertion hurtful ? 
 813 Wliat is said uf scmfulous and rickety children ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 365 
 
 sufferers in this way. They are generally remarkable for 
 large heads, great precocity of understanding, and small, deli- 
 cate bodies. But in such instances, the great size of the brain, 
 and the acuteness of the mind, are the results of morbid 
 growth. Even with the best of management, the child passes 
 the first years of its life constantly on the brink of active 
 disease. 
 
 814. Instead, however, of trying to repress its menlul 
 activity, the fond parents, misled by the early promise of 
 genius, too often excite it still further, by unceasing culti\a- 
 tion, and the never-failing stimulus of praise. Finding its 
 progress for a time. equal to their warmest wishes, they look 
 forward with ecstasy to the day when its talents will break 
 forth and shed lustre on its name. 
 
 815. But in exact proportion as the picture becomes 
 brighter to their fancy, the probability of its being realized 
 becomes less; for the brain, worn out by premature exertion, 
 either becomes diseased, or loses its tone, leaving the mental 
 powers imbecile and depressed for the remainder of life. The 
 expected prodigy is thus easily outstripped in the social race 
 by many whose dull outset promised him an easy victory. 
 
 816. Taking for our guide the necessities of the constitu- 
 tion, it will be obvious that the modes of treatment commonly 
 resorted to ought to be reversed. Instead of straining to the 
 utmost the already irritable powers of the precocious child, 
 and leaving his dull competitor to ripen at leisure, a systematic 
 attempt ought to be made, from early infancy, to rouse to actfon 
 the languid faculties of the latter, while no pains ought to be 
 spared to moderate and give tone to the activity of the former. 
 
 817. Instead of this, however, the prematurely intelligent 
 child is sent to school and tasked with lessons at an unusually 
 
 814. How are such children usually managed ? 815. What is the cause 
 of their early promise and subsequent disappointment ? 816. What mode 
 of treatment should be adopted in educating precocious children ? 
 817. How should the dull or less active child be treated ? What is the 
 usual course ? 
 
 31* 
 
36fS ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 early age, while the healthy but more backward boy, who 
 requires to be stimulated, is kept at home in idleness, per- 
 haps for two or three years longer, merely on account of 
 his backwardness. A double error is here committed. The 
 consequences to the intelligent boy are, frequently, the per- 
 manent loss both of health and of his envied superiority of 
 intellect. 
 
 818. In youth, too, much mischief is done by the long 
 dally period of attendance at school, and the continued appli- 
 cation of the mind which the ordinary system of education 
 requires. The law of exercise — that long-sustained action 
 exhausts the vital powers of the organ — applies as well to 
 the brain as to the muscles. Hence the necessity of varying 
 the occupations of the young, and allowing frequent intervals 
 of exercise in the open air, instead of " enforcing the continued 
 confinement now so common." 
 
 Observation. It is no unusual occurrence, that on examina- 
 tion day, the best scholars appear indifferently. This may be 
 the result of nervous exhaustion, produced by extra mental 
 effort in preparing for the final examination. It b advisable 
 for such pupils to divert their minds from close study for a 
 few days previous to examination. During tliis time, the 
 student may indulge in physical recreation, social intercourse, 
 and a moderate amount of reading. 
 
 819. " In early and middle life, fever, an unusual degree 
 of cerebral disorder, is a common consequence of the exces- 
 sive and continued excitement of the brain. This unhappy 
 result is brought on by severe study, unremitted mental exer- 
 tion, anxiety, and watching. Nervous disease, from excessive 
 mental labor and high mental excitement, sometimes shows 
 itself in another form. 
 
 What are the consequences of the error ? 818. What error prevails in the 
 present system of education ? Why should youths be allowed fiequent 
 intervals to exercise in the open air ? Give observation. 819. What is a 
 frequent consequence of continued and excessive excitement of the brain 1 
 
820. " From the want of proper intervals of rest, the vascu- 
 lar excitement of the brain has not time to subside. A restless 
 irritability of temper and disposition comes on, attended with 
 sleeplessness and anxiety, for which no external cause can be 
 assigned. The symptoms gradually become aggravated, the 
 digestive functions give way, nutrition is impaired, and a 
 sense of wretchedness is constantly present, which often leads 
 to attempts at suicide." 
 
 Observations. 1st. Moderation in mental exertion is more 
 necessary in old age than in early or mature years. In youth 
 and manhood, the exhaustion of the brain from over-excite- 
 ment may be repaired, but no such result follows over-exer- 
 tion in the decline of life. " What is lost then, is lost forever." 
 At that period, the brain becomes excited, and is soon exhausted 
 when forced to protracted and vigorous thought. Sir Walter 
 Scott and President Harrison afford sad examples of prema- 
 ture death from overtasked brains at an advanced period of 
 their lives. 
 
 2d. If the mind is incessantly engaged in the contemplation 
 of the same object, there is danger from over-exertion of the 
 brain at any period of life, but more particularly in old age. 
 The more limited the sphere of mental action, the greater the 
 danger of the brain being over-exercised. Hence the fre- ■ 
 quency of nervous diseases in poets, mathematicians, and 
 musicians. 
 
 820. What often manifests itself from the want of proper intervals of 
 rest ? Why is moderation in mental action necessary in old age ? Whal 
 is the effect if the mind is incessantly engaged.in the contemplation of the 
 same object ? 
 
S6b ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, CONTiNUEl). 
 
 821. Having pointed out the evils arismg both from inade- 
 quate and from excessive mental exertion, it remains to direct 
 the attention to some of the rules which should guide us in 
 the exercise of the brain. 
 
 822. We should not enter upon continued mental exertion, 
 or arouse deep feeling, immediately before or after a full 
 meal. Such is the connection between the mind and body, 
 that even in a perfectly healthy person, unwelcome news, 
 sudden anxiety, or mental excitement, occurring soon after 
 eating, will impede digestion, and cause the stomach to loathe 
 the masticated food. 
 
 823. The worst forms of indigestion and nervous depres- 
 sion are those which arise from excessive mental application, 
 or depressed feeling, conjoined with unrestrained indulgence in 
 the pleasures of the table. In such circumstances, the stom- 
 ach and brain react upon and disturb each other, till all the 
 horrors of nervous disease make their unwelcome appearance, 
 and render life miserable. Too many literary men and 
 students know this from sad experience. 
 
 824. We should engage in intense study tn the early part 
 of the day. Nature has allotted the darkness of the night for 
 repose, and for restoration by sleep of the exhausted energies 
 of mind and body. In the early part of the evening, if study 
 or composition be ardently engaged in, the increased action 
 
 822. "Why should we not arouse deep feeling immediately before or after 
 eating a full meal ? 823. How are the worst forms of indigestion and ner- 
 Tous depression produced ? What class of men know this from sad ezperi- 
 tuce ? 824. What eYils arise from studious application at night ? 
 
UyclENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 369 
 
 of tlie brain, which always accompanies activity of mind, 
 requires a long time to subside. If the individual possesses a 
 nervous temperament, he will be sleepless for hours after he 
 has retired, or perhaps be tormented by unpleasant dreams. 
 
 825. It is, therefore, of great advantage to enter upon 
 intense mental application early in the day, and to devote 
 several of the hours which precede bedtime to entertaining 
 conversation, music, and lighter reading. The vascular excite- 
 ment previously induced in the brain by study, has then tiitie 
 to subside, and sound, refreshing sleep is much more cer- 
 tainly obtamed. This rule is of great consequence to those 
 who are obliged to undergo much mental labor. 
 
 Ohservalion. The idea of gathering wisdom by burning 
 the " midnight oil," is more poetical than profitable. The 
 best time to use the brain is during the day. 
 
 826. The close student and the growing child need more sleep 
 than the idler or the adult. As sleep is the natural repose of 
 all organs, it follows that the more the brain and other organs 
 of the system are employed, the more repose they require. 
 The organs of the child, beside sustaining their propei func- 
 tions, are busy in promoting its growth. This nutritive process 
 is attended with a certain degree of exhaustion. The impaired 
 health of children often results from a disregard of this prin- 
 ciple. But, on the other hand, an excess of sleep produces 
 feebleness, by preventing the proper exercise of the mind as 
 well as the body. 
 
 827. The length of time the brain may ie advantageously 
 used, is modified by many circumstances. The power of the 
 brain in different persons to endure action, is various. This 
 is modified by its primary character ; by development and 
 age; by habits of action; by the health of the cerebral organ 
 
 825. Why should we engage in intense study in the early part of the day ? 
 826. What persons require the most sleep ? Why ? 827. What is said 
 relative to the length of time that the brain can be advantageously used? 
 Give a condition that modifies the amount of mental labor. 
 
S70 ANATOMY, FHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 and. general system; by the moral feelings and other con- 
 ditions, 
 
 828. The primary physical organization of some indi- 
 viduals is sucli, that they are enabled to endure with impunity 
 an amount of mental labor that would disorder, if not de- 
 stroy functionally, the cerebral organ of others differently 
 constituted. Napoleon Bonaparte was of this number. There 
 can be no fixed period for mental labor, that may be adopted 
 as a rule for all persons whose systems are maturely developed. 
 Much less is there a proper definite period for study, that is 
 applicable to all children. 
 
 Observation. The practice of retaining pupils of all ages, 
 from five to twenty years, in the school-room the same period of 
 time, for the purpose of study, is not predicated upon any law 
 of physiology. An exercise of three hours, with one or two 
 recesses of ten minutes each, may profit the eldest class ; two 
 hours with a recess of ten niinutes, the middle class ; while 
 one hour, or one hour and a half, with one recess, would be as 
 long a period as the youngest pupils should be retained in the 
 study-room at one session. 
 
 829. A person who is accustomed to muscular exertion- 
 will endure a longer period of physical toil than one who is 
 not inured to it. So it is with mental labor. If the brain has 
 been habituated to mental action and profound study, it will 
 not be so soon fatigued as when not accustomed to such 
 exertions ; consequently, an amount of mental labor may be 
 performed with impunity at one time, that would exhaust and 
 cause serious disease of the cerebral organ at another. 
 
 Observation. Persons that commence a course of study 
 at a late period in lite, frequently evince their zeal at- the 
 
 828. Why can there be no fixed period for mentid labor f What is said 
 of the practice of retaining pupils of all ages the same period of time in 
 the school-room P 829. Show that the action of the brain is influenced by 
 habit, ae well as the muscular system. What suggestion to those persons 
 that commence a course of study at .i late period in life ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. iJ71 
 
 commencement by poring over their books twelve or more 
 hours each day. The progress of such students is soon 
 arrested by physical and mental depression. In such instances, 
 it would be more judicious to commence with only three or 
 four hours' vigorous application each day, and gradually pro- 
 tract the period of study five or more minutes every succes- 
 sive day, until the brain may be called into vigorous action six 
 or eight hours with impunity. 
 
 830. The amount of mental power is greatly influenced 
 by the general health. Such is the intimate connection of the 
 different parts of the system, particularly the digestive appara- 
 tus, with the cerebral organs, that except there be vigojf of 
 constitution, and freedom from disease, mental efforts will be 
 feeble and of little avail. 
 
 Observation. The prevalent opinion, that individuals who 
 are feeble or diseased may acquire a collegiate education, and 
 thus become useful to themselves and the community, is very 
 generally erroneous. Such persons should enter upon a daily 
 and systematic course of physical training,- and their labor 
 should be in the open air, in order that the system may be 
 invigorated and freed from disease. 
 
 831. The moral feelings exert a controlling influence over 
 the functions of the muscular, digestive, and respiratory 
 organs. They also exert an influence, perhaps, more pow- 
 erful upon the nervous system. While fear and anxiety 
 depress, hope and the enlivening emotio'ns, facilitate the func- 
 tional activity of the brain, and increase its power for mental 
 exertion. By a proper and systematic education of the 
 moral feelings, they are not only a source of happiness, and 
 productive of right conduct, but aid in the culture of the 
 
 830. Show that the amount of mental power is modified by the general 
 health. What is said of feeble per.sons acquiring a collegiate education ? 
 831. 1)0 the moral feelings exert a controlling influence over the principal 
 fubctions of the system ? What is the effect of a proper and systematic 
 cuitiive of the moral feelings ? 
 
372 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 intellect. Consequently, we should cultivate a feeling of hope- 
 ful trust in the future, and a firm reliance upon the laws which 
 the Creator has given us for our guidance. 
 
 832. Regularity is very important in exercising the moral 
 and intellectual powers. Periodicity, or a tendency to resume 
 the same mode of action at stated times, is peculiarly the 
 characteristic of the nervous system. If we repeat ajiy kind 
 of mental effort every day at the same hour, we at last find 
 ourselves entering upon it without premeditation when the 
 time approaches. In like manner, if we arrange our studies 
 in accordance with this law, and take up each in the same 
 order, a natural aptitude is soon produced, which renders 
 application more easy than by resuming the subjects as acci- 
 dent may direct. 
 
 Oiservation. When engaged in abstruse studies, it may be 
 found advantageous to pursue others that are less difficult. 
 The intense application of the brain, which is requisite in the 
 one instance, is relieved by directing the attention to a study 
 that requires less thought. By this change, there is mental 
 relaxation attended with invigoration of the cerebral organ. 
 Or, it may be explained by assuming, that the brain is com- 
 posed of an aggregate of distinct organs, each of which is 
 called into action in pursuing different studies. 
 
 833. Effective study is impossible if the powers of the 
 brain are depressed. When the cerebral organ has been 
 temporarily debilitated by protracted intellectual efforts, it is 
 Ineffectual to attempt any concentrated mental exercise. This 
 condition of the nervous system is indicated by confusion of 
 thought and inability to attain results that usually follow simi- 
 lar efforts. Mental rest in these cases is required. 
 
 Observation. Students frequently fail in solving mathe- 
 
 832. Why is regularity of great importance in exercising the moral and 
 intellectual powers i What suggestion when pursuing abstruse studies 1 
 How explained ? 833. When is effectiTe study impossible ? How is this 
 condition of the nervous system indicated ? 
 
HYGIE^E OF THK NERVOUS SYSTEM. S73 
 
 niatical problems when the mind is prostrated by continued 
 and excessive effort to obtain a solution. Not unfrequently 
 after a night's rest the problem is quickly solved, and the 
 pupil thinks he " dreamed it out." The true explanation is, 
 rest invigorated the exhausted brain, which fitted it for vigor- 
 ous ana successful thought. 
 
 834. The intellect should not be cultivated to the neglect 
 of the moral and physical powers. All the faculties require 
 for their development regular exercise, alternated with inter- 
 vals of rest. This is as necessary to the due development 
 of the moral feelings of a child as in physical training and 
 mental culture. Consequently, those schools are to be pre- 
 ferred in the education of youth, where the physical, intellec- 
 tual, and moral faculties receive each day a due share of 
 attention and culture. 
 
 835. The continuance of healthy and vigorous action in 
 the matured physical, mental, and moral powers, requires 
 frequent artd regular action, alternated with rest, as much as 
 in their development. Consequently, those who cultivate one 
 or two of those faculties, to the neglect of the others, exhibit 
 a marked deficiency of acuteness and vigor in those not 
 exercised. This defect reacts on the powers that are vigor- 
 ous, diminishing the energy and deteriorating all the other 
 faculties of man. 
 
 Observations. 1st. If the principles before mentioned are 
 true, the adult, as well as the child, should spend a part of 
 each day in some proper physical employment ; another por- 
 tion should be appropriated to intellectual pursuits ; while 
 another should be sedulously devoted to the cultivation of 
 the moral feelings. -. 
 
 2d. Disease of the corporeal system more frequently occurs 
 
 How is the " dreaming out " of problems explained ? 834. What is said 
 of the culture of the intellect? What schools are preferable in the edu- 
 cation of youth ? Why ? 835. What is the effect of cultivating only one 
 faculty of the mind ? Give observation 1st. Observation 2d. 
 
 32 
 
S74 ANATOsnr, physiology, and hygienk. 
 
 when only one set of faculties is used than when all are 
 equally employed. This is particularly true of nervous and 
 mental disease, which follows and is caused by either high 
 intellectual action, or intense moral emotions, without a due 
 amount of physical exercise. 
 
 836. The brain can exercise its full force upon only one 
 object at a time. If its energies are directed to two or more 
 operations, neither will receive that full power of exertion that 
 it would if only one object had engaged the mind. Although 
 the brain will direct several operations at the same time when 
 only slight mental effort is required, yet when one operation 
 becomes difficult, or demands special attention "of the mind, 
 the other will be suspended. This is illustrated in social 
 conversation while walking. Let it become necessary to con- 
 centrate the nervous power upon the motor organs, and the 
 conversation declines or ceases. 
 
 837. In acquiring an education, or in pursuing any profes- 
 sion or trade, none of those influences that promote the proper 
 functions of the body, and tend to increase physical ease, 
 should be neglected. For, if the brain is occupied with dis- 
 agreeable sensations, it cannot concentrate its power as effec- 
 tively in the various employments of man. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The situation, ventilation, light, and 
 warmth of a school-room, together with the arrangement of 
 the benches, do much to influence tlie concentration or dis- 
 traction of the operations of the mind. Let there be attached 
 to the school-house a spacious yard planted with trees ; let its 
 architecture be attractive ; let the windows be arranged with 
 regularity, and not with the elevation of a convict's cell, and 
 the benches, in every respect, be adapted to the different 
 scholars, so that the position of each may be comfortable, and 
 
 836. What is tho offoot if the bruin ooncentratos its energies on more 
 than one object at a time? How illustraled? 837. What should be re- 
 garded in pursuing any employment? Why? What is said in reference 
 to tha arrangement of sohool-rooois ? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 375 
 
 we mistake if there is not a greater improvement, in a given 
 time, in suoh a school, than where there is an apparent dis- 
 regard to tlie pleasure or comfort of the'scholars. 
 
 8d. Mechanics' shops should receive as much attention, 
 relative to their situation, light, warmth, &c., as school-rooms. 
 If these are duly observed, the nervous influence transmitted 
 from the brain to the muscles will be more stimulating, as well 
 as more abundant ; consequently, labor will be performed with 
 less exhaustion. 
 
 838. Repetition. is necessary to make a duraile impression 
 on the mind. " The necessity of judicious repetition in men- 
 tal and moral education, is, in fact, too little adverted to, 
 because the principle which renders it efficacious hag not been 
 understood. To induce facility of action in the organs of the 
 mind, practice is as essential as it is in the organs of motion. 
 
 839. " In physical education we are aware of the advantages 
 of repetition. We know that if practice in dancing, fencing, 
 skating, and riding, is persevered in for a length of time 
 sutRcient to give the muscles the requisite promptitude and 
 harmon)' of action, the power will be ever afterward retained, 
 although little called into use ; whereas, if the muscles have 
 not been duly trained, we may reiterate practice at different 
 intervals, without proportionate advancement. The same prin- 
 ciple applies equally to the moral and intellectual powers, 
 because these operate by means of material organs. 
 
 840. " According to this principle, it follows, that in learn- 
 ing a language or science, six successive months of applica- 
 tion will be more effectual in fixing it in the mind and mak- 
 ing it a part of its furniture, than double or treble the time, 
 if the lessons are interrupted by long intervals. Hence it is 
 a great error to begin and study, and then break off, to finish 
 
 Of mechanics' shops ? 838. Is repetition necessary to make a durable 
 impression on the mind .' Why ? 839. How is it with physitml educa- 
 tion ? 8*0. What follows, according to this principle ? 
 
376 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGy, AND HVGIENE. 
 
 at a later period. The fatigue is thus doubled, and the suc- 
 cess greatly diminished. 
 
 841. "The best way is to begin at the proper age, and to 
 persevere till the end is attained. This accustoms the mind 
 to sound exertion, and not to fits of attention. Hence the 
 evil arising from long vacations ; and also the evil of beginning 
 studies before the age at which they can be understood, as in 
 teaching children the abstract rules of grammar, to succeed 
 in which, implies in them a power of thinking, and an amount 
 of general knowledge, which they do not possess." 
 
 842. The skull is susceptible of fractures from slight 
 blows. This occurs most frequently when the blow is given 
 on the side of the head above and anterior to the ear. 
 Here the bone is very thin, and often quite brittle. For these 
 reasons, no instructor, or any person, should punish a child by 
 striking upon any portion of the head. 
 
 Observation. A few years since, a teacher in one of the 
 Middle States gave a pupil a slight blow upon the head. It 
 fractured the skull and ruptured a blood-vessel of the brain, 
 causing a loss of consciousness, and finally death. 
 
 843. Concussion of the brain may be produced by blows, or 
 by violently shaking a person. As the brain is of pulpy con- 
 sistence, the atoms of which it is composed, and the circula- 
 tion of blood in its minute vessels, may be disturbed by the 
 vibration from a blow on the exterior of the skull-bones. This 
 disturbance of the cerebral organ is attended with unpleasant 
 sensations, dizziness, loss of memory and consciousness. 
 These may be followed by headache and inflammation of the 
 brain. Concussion of the brain, and the results above men- 
 tioned, may be produced by the sudden motion attendant on 
 the violent shaking of a scholar. Consequently, a child should 
 
 841. What is the best way of leaining the sciences ? 842. Why should 
 not a child be struck upon any portion of the head f What observation 
 in this connection ? 843. How may concussion of the brain be produced ? 
 What is the effect of each upon the brain of the child ? 
 
HYQlliNE or THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 377 
 
 never be seized by the arm and shaken violently as a method 
 of chastisement. 
 
 Observation. Most persons have experienced a disagree- 
 able sensation and dizziness, caused by falling from a slight 
 elevation, or by jumping from a carriage. This is the result 
 of a moderate concussion of the brain, 
 
 844. In injuries of the brain, from blows and falls, the 
 symptoms are usually alarming, and all should possess some 
 information for such contingencies. In general, such acci- 
 dents are attended by insensibility ; the skin and extremities 
 are pale and cold, the pulse is very weak and feeble, and the 
 circulation is less vigorous ; the respiration, also, is less fre- 
 quent and full. 
 
 845. When these symptoms exist, the individual, in the 
 first instance, should be placed in pure air, and friction and 
 dry warmth should be applied to the pallid and cold skin. 
 This should be assiduously persevered in until heat and color 
 are restored to the skin and limbs, and due action of the heart 
 and arteries has been established. Mild stimulants may also 
 be used internally, with much advantage. The sympathizing 
 friends should not be permitted to stand about the patient, as 
 they vitiate the air. There should be no bleeding until the 
 skin and extremities become warm. Send for a surgeon with- 
 out delay. 
 
 Give an instance where moderate concussion of the hrain is produced. 
 844. What are the symptoms when the brain is injured from blows :ind 
 falls ? 845. What treatment should be adopted i 
 
 32* 
 
378 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOBY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 THE SENSE OF T.OtJCH. 
 
 846 Sensation is the perception of external objects by 
 means of the senses. There are five senses, namely, Touch, 
 Taste, Smell, Hearing, and Vision. 
 
 8 17. Touch is the sense by which the mind becomes ac- 
 quainted with some of the properties of bodies, and enables 
 us to determine whether their surfaces are smooth or rough, 
 their relative temperature, and, to a certain degree, their form 
 and weight. 
 
 848. Some physiologists make a distinction between the 
 sense of touch, and tact. Tact, or feeling, is more general, 
 extending over the whole surface of the skin and mucous 
 membranes, while touch exists chiefly in the fingers of man 
 and in the noses of certain quadrupeds. 
 
 849. " In the exercise of these functions, tact is considered 
 passive ; as, when any part of the system comes into contact 
 with another body, a sensation of its presence is given, with- 
 out the exercise of vohtion. On the contrary, touch is active, 
 and is exercised voluntarily, for the purpose of conveying to 
 the mind a knowledge of the qualities or properties of the 
 surfaces of bodies ; as wnen we feel of a piece of cloth to 
 ascertain its qualities, or a polished surface, to prove its 
 smoothness." 
 
 850. In man, the hand is admirably adapted to the exercise 
 
 816. Define sensation. How many senses have we ? 847 — 851. WViat is 
 mid of the sense of tomht 847. Define touch. 848. What is the difierencc 
 between touch and tact ? 849. In the exercise of these functions, which is 
 active, and which passive? 850. Why is the hand so admirably adapted 
 to the exercise of the sense of touch i 
 
HYGIENE OF THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 379 
 
 of touch. " The fineness of the skin, its great sensibility, the 
 species of cushion formed by the sub-cutaneous fat at the 
 extremities of the fingers, the length and flexibility of these 
 organs, and the capability of opposing the thumb to the fingers, 
 like a pair of forceps, are so many conditions essentially favor- 
 able to^the delicacy of this sense, and enable us to appreciate 
 with exactitude the qualities of the bodies we may feel." 
 
 851. The nerves that supply the sense of touch, proceed 
 from the anterior half of the spinal cord. Where this sense 
 is most acute and delicate, we find the greatest number of 
 sensitive nervous filaments, and those of the largest size. 
 
 Observation. In amputating limbs, and other surgical oper- 
 ations, the division of the skin causes more pain than all the 
 subsequent steps of the .operation, however protracted. The 
 muscles, cellular membrane, and fat have- but little sensibility ; 
 while the bones, tendons, and ligaments are insensible when 
 not diseased, and may be cut without causing pain. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 
 
 852 The sense of touch varies in difl^erent persons, and 
 also in individuals of different ages. Thus the sensibilities of 
 the child are more acute than those of the aged. Although 
 there is an original difl^erence of sensibility from organization, 
 still, the function of the nerves of sensation is modified by 
 certain influences. 
 
 853. The healthy or unhealthy, active or inactive state of 
 the brain, influences the action of the sensitive nerves. In 
 sound and- perfect sleep, the brain is inactive. In this state, 
 ordinary impressions made upon the skin are not observed by 
 the sleeping person. Thus the arm may be blistered while 
 
 851. From what do the nerves proceed that siipply this sense ? 852 — 
 864. Give the hygiene of the sense of toiieh. 852. Does this sense vary in 
 different persons ? 853. Mention a condition of the hrain that influences 
 the nerres of sensation. 
 
380 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 sleeping, when exposed to the warm rays of the sun, and the 
 individual will not be aware of it at the time. 
 
 854. If there is compression of the brain, as when the 
 skull-bones are depressed, or disease of this organ exists, as 
 in severe typhus fever, impressions made upon the nerves of 
 the skin will not be noticed. The same is true when the 
 mind is engaged in intense thought or study ; heat or cold may 
 be so intense as to disorganize the skin, and not to be noticed. 
 
 855. The varying health or condition of the brain usually 
 depresses or increases the sensitiveness of the skin. This is 
 seen in grief and fear, which diminish, while hope and joy 
 increase the impressibility of this tissue. It is not uncommon 
 to see the unfortunate insane endure exposure to heat and 
 cold with seeming impunity ; whereas it would induce almost 
 insupportable suffeting to the sane man. Diseeises of the 
 heart, stomach, and lungs, alter the condition of the brain, 
 and modify, to a greater or less degree, the sensitiveness of 
 the skin. 
 
 856. The state of the conducting nervous trunks injluences 
 the nerves of sensation. If a nervous trunk is compressed or 
 divided, the parts supplied by nervous filaments from this 
 branch, will be insensible to the impressions made ujiou them, 
 and consequently such impressions are not transmitted to the 
 brain. 
 
 Observation. When the inside of the arm or lower extrem- 
 ities rests upon a hard surface, the nerves may be compressed 
 so as to deprive the parts of sensibility. This condition is 
 called " numbness." 
 
 857. TJie quantity of blood supplied to the skin modifies 
 
 854. Mention other conditions that affect these nerves. 855. What is 
 the effect of the varying health or condition of the brain upon the sensi- 
 tiveness of the skin ? Give instances of this effect. 856. What is the 
 result if a nervous trunk is divided or compressed ? How may " numb- 
 ness " in the limbs be produced ? 857. Does the quantity of blood supplied 
 to the skin affect its sensibility ? 
 
HYGIENE rf)F THE SENSE OF TOTTCH. 381 
 
 its sensitiveness. If the quantity of blood is diminished, the 
 sensibility of the skin will be impaired. This is demonstrated 
 by noting the effects of dold upon the cutaneous tissue, the 
 application of which contracts the blood-vessels, and drives the 
 circulating fluid from this membrane, which is shown by the 
 paleness, as well as by the shrivelled appearance of the skin. 
 And, if this tissue is wounded while under the influence of 
 cold, but little pain will be felt, and this chilling influence may 
 be carried so far as not only to deprive the part of sensation, 
 but of vitality. 
 
 858. The influence of the blood upon the sensibility of the 
 skin, is further demonstrated by the pain experienced when 
 chilled extremities are suddenly exposed to heat. The nerves, 
 by the sudden dilatation of the contracted blood-vessels, are pul 
 in vivid and rapid motion, which causes the painful and tingling 
 sensation that we experience. In every part of the system, 
 sudden changes produce unpleasant sensations, and frequently 
 a diseased condition of the organs. 
 
 ' Observation. When ' the hands, or other portions of the 
 body, are frozen, or severely chilled, safety and comfort de- 
 mand that circulation be restored to the parts by moderate 
 exercise in a cool room. Not unfrequently, the vitality of the 
 limb is destroyed by immersing it in hot water or holding it 
 near the fire. 
 
 859. The quality of the blood also influences sensation. If 
 the brain and other parts of the nervous system receive impure 
 blood, their energy is depressed, and the sensibility of the skin 
 rendered more or less obtuse. 
 
 860. The condition of the cuticle modifies the impression 
 made upon the cutaneous nerves. 1st. When the cuticle has 
 
 How is it demonstrated ? 858. How is the influence of the Wood upon 
 the skin further demonstrated? How should circulation be restored to 
 limbs frozen or severely chilled ? What should be avoided ? 859. Show 
 how the quality of the blood influences sensation. 860. Give the 1st condi- 
 -lion of the cuticle that influences the impressions made on the cutaneous 
 nerves. 
 
382 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AN!) HYGIENE. 
 
 become thick and hard, like horn, as on the inside of the 
 mason's hand, it enables him. to ply his tools without' much 
 suffering, because the thickened cuticle diminishes the impres- 
 sions made upon the nerves. 
 
 861. 2d. When the cuticle is very thin and delicate, as on 
 the hand of the lady who is unaccustomed to manual labor. Let 
 her" pursue some manual employment for several, hours, and 
 the extreme tenuity, or thinness of the cuticle, will not protect 
 the nerves and parts below from becoming irritated and 
 inflamed. 
 
 862. 3d. When the cuticle is removed by blistering or 
 abrasion, the pain indicates that the naked nerves are too 
 powerfully stimulated by the contact of external bodies. 
 4lh. When the outicle is coated with impurities, blended with 
 the secretion from the oil-glands, the sensibiUty of the skin 
 is lessened. 
 
 863. The sensibility of the cutaneous nerves is modified by 
 being habituated to impressions. If, for example, an indi- 
 vidual should immerse his feet in moderately warm water, as 
 first it might induce a smarting sensation ; in a short time, the 
 nerves would not only become habituated to the warm water, 
 but its warmth might be considerably increased. The same 
 results follow, if an individual is exposed to a cold element. 
 The impressions at first are highly disagreeable ; but as soon 
 as the nerves become accustomed to the surrounding atmos- 
 phere, it may impart the most agreeable sensations. 
 
 Illustration. 1st. Let a person from the tropical regions go 
 to a colder climate, and the cool mornings of the latter will at 
 first affect him unpleasantly; but, after a few daysV exposure 
 to the cooler air, the sensation will be far from disagreeable. 
 
 2d. Let a person enter a room moderately heated ; grad- 
 ually increase the temperature, until it attains extreme sura- 
 
 861. The 2d condition. 862. The 3d and 4th condition. 863. Show how 
 habit influences the sensibiUty of the cutaneous nerves Giye illustration 
 Ist. Illustration 2d. 
 
HYGIEIiE or THE SENSE OF TOtTCH. 383 
 
 mer heat ; not only the cutaneous nerves, but the whole 
 system, become habituated to the high temperature. Fiom 
 these facts we learn that the sensations, are not always a correct 
 index of the real temperature. A well-adjusted thermometer 
 will indicate it with unerring certainty. 
 
 864. Touch is modified, in a Mgh degree, by education. 
 Thus the blind, whose " windows of the soul " are closed to 
 the beauties of the external world, cultivate this sense to such 
 a degree that they can distinguish objects with great accuracy. 
 And the rapidity with which they read books prepared for 
 their use, is a convincing proof of the niceness and extent to 
 which the cultivation of this sense can be carried. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. The cloth-dresser, by the aid of this 
 sense, distinguishes the quality, as well as the slightest differ- 
 ence of texture, in the different pieces of cloth. 
 
 2d. The miller, from a similar education, quickly detects the 
 
 quality of flour or meal, by permitting it to pass between his 
 
 fingers. The difference in the texture of cloths, or the quality 
 
 of the flour, would not be distinguished by an individual whose 
 
 tactile sense had not been trained to make nice comparisons. 
 
 I 
 
 864. Is this sense susceptible of improvement ? What persons cultivate 
 it to a high degree ? Give illustration 1st. Illustration 2d. 
 
S84 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 SENSE OF TASTE. 
 
 865. The chief organ of taste is the upper surface of the 
 tongue ; though the lips, the palate, the internal surface of 
 the cheeks, and the upper part of the oesophagus, participate 
 in this function. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF TASTE. 
 
 866. The tongue is a double organ, composed chiefly of . 
 muscular fibres, which run in almost every direction. The 
 two sides are so perfectly distinct, that sometimes, in paralysis, 
 one side is affected, while the function of the other remains 
 perfect. It possesses great versatility of motion, and can be 
 moulded into a great variety of shapes. In articulation, 
 mastication, and deglutition, the tongue is an auxiliary to 
 other organs. 
 
 867. This organ is abundantly supplied with blood-vessels, 
 having a large artery sent to each side of it. It is also very . 
 largely furnished with nerves ; it receives nervous filaments 
 from the fifth, ninth, and twelfth pairs of nerves. The branch 
 of the fifth, called the gustatory, is the nerve of taste and 
 
 865. What is the chief organ of taste } What other parts participate 
 in the function i 866 — 870. Give tha anatomy of the organs of taste. 
 866. Give the structure of the tongue. 867. Is this organ abundantly 
 supplied with blood ? From what source does the tongue derive its 
 nervoa f 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ORGAN OF TASTE. 
 
 385 
 
 sensibility ; * the twelfth, called the hypo-glossal, of voluntary 
 motion. By means of the ninth, called the glosso-pharyngeal, 
 the tongue is brought into association with the fauces, oesoph- 
 agus, and larynx. It is of obvious importance that these 
 parts should act in concert ; and this is effected by the distri- 
 bution of this nerve. 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 Fig. 134. A view of one ^ide of tlie necis, showing the nerves of the tongne. 
 I, A fragment of the temporal bone. 3, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 19, Mnaeles of the 
 tongue, fauces, and neclc. 5, The tongue. 13, The common carotid artery. 14, The 
 Jugular vein. IS, The external carotid. 16, The internal carotid. 17, The gustatory 
 branch of the fi^h pair of nerves. SO, The glosso-pharyngeai nerve. 21, The hypo- 
 glossal, or the muscular nerve of the tongue. 94, The pneumogastrie nerve. S5, The 
 facial nerve. 
 
 868. The surface of the tongue is thickly studded with 
 
 * Some physiologists impute the sense of taste to the ninth pair 
 of nerves ; others, to the twelfth pair ; •while others, again, contend 
 that taste is the result of a concurrent action of the fifth, ninth, and 
 twelfth pairs of nerves. 
 
 868. What is the appearance of the surface of the tongue } Explain 
 fig. 134 
 
 33 
 
S86 
 
 AWATOMV, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 fine papillae, or viVli, which give the organ a velvety appear- 
 ance. These papillse are of three varieties. The first is 
 situated near the base of the tongue. They belong to the 
 class of mucous follicles. They are larger than the others, 
 and are called len-tidu-lar, from being shaped like a lens. 
 These, together with the tonsils, (sometimes called the almonds 
 of the ears,) secrete mucus, to lubricate the food in the act 
 of deglutition. 
 
 869. The instruments of taste are the two other sets of 
 papillae. One set consists of small, oval-shaped bodies, which 
 are scattered over the whole surface of the tongue. They 
 give it a rough appearance, and are called the fl'i-form 
 papillsB. 
 
 870. The other set of papillae is called the jvn'gi-form. 
 They are larger than the former, and consist of small, 
 rounded heads, supported on short stalks, something in the 
 shape of mushrooms, from which they derive their name. 
 In the last two described sets of sensitive papillse, the gustatory 
 branch of the fifth pair of nerves ramifies. 
 
 Observation. By applying strong acids, as vinegar, to the 
 tongue, with a hai¥ pencil, these points will become curiously 
 lengthened. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF TASTB. 
 
 871. Taste is the sense which makes us acquainted with 
 the savor of substances. When fluids are taken into the 
 mouth, the papillse dilate and erect themselves, and the par- 
 ticular impression excited is transmitted to the brain through 
 
 How many varieties of papillae ? Describe the first variety. What 
 la the function ot the lenticular papillse ? 869. Describe the filiforai 
 papilla 870. The fungiform papillte ? What nerve ramifies in the tun- 
 giform papillse ? Ho'v can these papilla, or points, be seen ? 871—875 
 (Jjeo the phf/mology of tht organt of tasta. 871. Define taste. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE OEGANS OF TASTE. 887 
 
 filaments of the gustatory nerve. This sense is closely 
 connected with that of smell. The pleasures derived from 
 it are strictly sensual and corporeal, and contribute in no 
 way to the expansion of the mind, like those of hearing and 
 seeing. 
 
 872. If dry, solid food is taken, the tongue carries it to 
 the back side of the mouth, where it receives secretions from 
 the salivary glands ; the saliva, becoming impregnated wth 
 its flavor, flows over the sides of the tongue, and gives to the 
 papillae a perception of the savory juice ; this impression is 
 then communicated to the brain. 
 
 Ohservation. It is supposed that the salts which enter into 
 the composition of the saliva, are very efficient agents ii5 
 reducing substances to a proper state for making impressions 
 on the nerves of taste. The fact that metals impart a peculiar 
 taste, is owing to a galvanic shock, and not properly to what we 
 understMid by taste. 
 
 873. The primary use of taste is to guide animals in the 
 selection of food, and to warn them against the introduction 
 of noxious articles into the stomach. In all the inferior ani- 
 mals, we see that the original design of taste is still answered. 
 But in man, this sense heis been so abused and perverted, by 
 the introduction of stimulants and condiments, and the end- 
 less admixture of different articles of food, that the simple 
 action of this part seems to have been superseded almost 
 entirely by acquired taste. 
 
 874. In children, this sense is usually acute, and their 
 preference is for food of the mildest character. And it is 
 also true, that every person has some peculiarities of taste, 
 
 With what sense is this closely connected? What is said of this 
 sense ? 872. Give the process by which we taste substances. How can we 
 account for the taste of metals when applied to the tongue? 873. What 
 is the primary use of taste ? Where do we see it perrerted? 871 How 
 ts this sense in children ? What is true of every person iu reference to 
 taste? 
 
388 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOOV, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 or dislikes to particular articles of food. This may be either 
 constitutional or from the influence of association. 
 
 Observation. This sense has been made to vary more than 
 any other by the refinements of social life. Thus, the Indian's 
 like or dislike to particular kinds of food, generally extends 
 to every person of the same tribe ; but among civilized men, 
 no two individuals can be found alike in all their tastes. 
 
 875. This sense is modified by habit, and not unfrequently 
 those articles, which at first were disgusting, become highly 
 agreeable by persevering in the use of them. By cultiva- 
 tion, this sense may be made very acute. Those persons 
 whose business leads them to judge of the quality of an 
 article by their taste, can discriminate shades of flavor not 
 perceivable by ordinary persons. Epicures, and tasters of 
 wines and teas, afford examples. 
 
 Observation. Many persons impair their taste by bad 
 nabits, as chewing and smoking tobacco, and using stimu- 
 lating drinlcs, and pungent condiments with the food. These 
 indulgences lessen the sensibility of the nerve, and destroy 
 the natural relish for food. 
 
 What is true of the Indian ? 875. Is this sense modified by habit ? Give 
 instances. How is this sense sometimes impaired t 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF SJLELL. 389 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 SENSE OP SMELL. 
 
 876. This sense is located in the air-passages of the Nose. 
 To understand the function of smell, the structure of the nose 
 and nasal cavities, with the distribution of the olfactory nerves, 
 must be first examined. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE OBGANS OF SMELL. 
 
 8T7. The nose is composed of the Bones, Fi'hro-car'ti- 
 lages, and Mu'cous Mem'hrane, together with its integuments. 
 
 878. The bones of the nose are the nasal, and the nasal 
 processes of the upper jaw. 
 
 879. The fibrp-cartilages give form and stability to the 
 framework of the nose, providing at the same time, byJheir 
 elasticity, against injuries. They are five in number. 
 
 880. The mucous membrane, which lines the interior of 
 the nose, is continuous with the skin externally, and with the 
 lining membrane of the parts of the throat. The entrance of. 
 the nostrils is provided with numerous hairs, which serve as 
 guardians to the delicate membrane of the nose. 
 
 881. The NASAL FossiE, or nostrils, are two irregular, com- 
 pressed cavities, extending from the nose to the pharynx. 
 These cavities are bounded superiorly by the sphenoid and 
 
 876. Where is the sense of smell located ? 877 — 884. Give the anatomy 
 of the organs of smell. 877. Name the parts that enter into the structure 
 of the nose ? 878. What bones form the framework of the nose ? 
 879. What is the use of the cartilages? 880. What relation has the 
 mucous membrane with other membranes of the nose ? 881. Describe 
 the nasal cavities. 
 
 33* 
 
'3^0 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 ethmoid bones ; inferiorly, by the hard palate. In the middle 
 line they are separated from each other by a bony and fibro- 
 cartilaginous septum ; upon the outer wall of each fossa, in 
 the dried skull, are three projecting processes, termed spongy 
 bones. In the fresh fossa, these are covered by a mucous 
 membrane. 
 
 882. The space that intervenes between the superior and 
 middle spongy bone, is called the superior me-a'tus, or chan- 
 nel ; the space between the middle and inferior bone, is the 
 middle meatus ; and that between the inferior bone and the 
 floor of the fossa, is the inferior meatus. 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 Fig. 136. A vertical seclion of the middle part of the nilBal cavities. 7, The 
 middle epougy bones. 8, The superior part of the Dasal cavities. 10, The inferior 
 spongy bones. 11, The vomer. 12, The upper jaw. 13, The middle channel of tlie 
 nose. 14, The lower channel of the nose. 17, The palatine pi-oce^s of the upper jaw- 
 bone. 18, The roof of the mouth covered by mucous membrane. 19, A section of 
 this membrane. 
 
 883. The MEATUSES are passages that extend backward from 
 the nostrils, into which are several openings. They are lined by a 
 mucous membrane, called the pi-tuH-ta-ri/, or schneiderian, from 
 
 882. What terms are applied to the spaces between these processes? 
 What does fig. 135 represent ? 883, DeSne the meatuses. By what are 
 they lined? 
 
PHYSIOLOOY OF TUB ORGANS OF SMELL.. 
 
 891 
 
 Schneider, wlio first showed that the secretion of the nasal 
 fossae proceeded from the mucous membrane, and not from 
 the brain. 
 
 884. Upon the mucous meAibrane of the nasal passages^ 
 the olfactory nerve ramifies, and also a branch of the fifth 
 pair of nerves. This membrane is of considerable extent in 
 man ; and in those animals whose sense of smell is very 
 acute, it is still more extensive. 
 
 Fig. 136. A side view of the passage of tbe nostrils, and the distribution of the 
 Otfaciory nerve. 4, The olfactoiy nerve. 5, The fine and curious divisions of tlila 
 nerve on the membrane of the nose. 6, A branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF SMELL. 
 
 885. The sense of smell enables us to discern the odor or 
 scent of any thing. When substances are presented to the 
 nose, the air that is passing through the nostrils brings the 
 odoriferous particles of matter in contact with the filaments 
 of the olfactory nerves, that are spread upon the membrane 
 
 884. What tierves ramify upon this membrane ? What is represented by 
 6g. 136 ? 885—899. Give the physiology of the organs of smell. 885. How 
 does the mind become sensible of odorifprous particles i 
 
392 ANATOMIf, PnySIOLOGY, ANE HYGIENE. 
 
 that lines the air-passages, and the impression is then trans- 
 mitted to the brain. 
 
 886. This sense, with that of taste, aids man as well as the 
 inferior animals, in selecting proper food, and it also gives us 
 pleasure by the inhalation of agreeable odors. The sense of 
 smell, like that of taste and touch, may be improved by cul- 
 tivation. It likewise varies in different persons. 
 
 Observation. Sometimes this sense seems to possess a 
 morbid degree of acuteness in respect to odors, which is highly 
 inconvenient and even dangerous. With some individuals, the 
 smell of certain fruits, flowers, cheese, &c., produce nausea 
 and even convulsions. 
 
 887. In the inferior animals generally, the sense of smell 
 is more acute than in man. Thus the bloodhound will track 
 the hare over the ground for miles, guided only by the odor 
 that it leaves in its flight. He also traces the progress of 
 his master through thickly-crowded streets, distinguishing his 
 footsteps from those of a thousand others, and amidst the 
 odorous particles emanating from a thousand sourc^. 
 
 Observation. In some of the higher orders of the inferior 
 anirhals, there is an astonishing acuteness of smell in regard to 
 effluvia that come from living animals. To these animals, it 
 possesses an importance in them far beyond what it has in 
 man, by making them acquainted with the presence of their 
 enemies or their prey, when the eye and ear are incapable 
 of acting. It is related by travellers in Africa, that they were 
 always apprised of lions in their vicinity during the night, by 
 the moans and tremblings of their horses. 
 
 888. Smell is somewhat under the control of the will. That 
 
 886. What is the use of the sense of smell? Can this sense be im- 
 proved by cultivation ? What is said respecting this sense in some 
 individuals ? 887. What is said of this sense in the bloodhound i Men- 
 tion an instance of astonishing acuteness of smell in some of the higher 
 orders of animals. 888, Show that smell is somewhat under the control 
 of the will. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE OKGANS OF SMELL. 393 
 
 is, we have the power of receiving or rejecting odors that are 
 presented ; thus, if odors are agreeable, we inspire forcibly, to 
 enjoy them ; but, if they are offensive, our inspirations are 
 more cautious, or we close our nostrils. This sense is like- 
 wise modified by habit ; odors which, in the first instance, 
 were very offensive, may not only become endurable, but 
 even agreeable. 
 
 889. Acuteness of smell requires that the brain and nervo 
 of smell be healthy, and that the membrane that lines the nose 
 be thin and moist. Any influence that diminishes the sensi- 
 bility of the nerves, thickens the membrane, or renders it dry, 
 impairs this sense. 
 
 Observations. 1st. Snuff, when introduced into the nose, 
 not only diminishes the sensibility of the nervous filaments, 
 but thickens the lining membrane. This thickening of the 
 membrane obstructs the passage of air through the nostrils, 
 and thus obliges " snuff-takers " to open their mouths when 
 they breathe. 
 
 2d. The mucous membrane of the nasal passages is the 
 seat of chronic catarrh. This affection is difficult of removal, 
 as remedial agents cannot easily be introduced into the wind- 
 ings of these passages. Snuff and many other articles used 
 for catarrh, produce more disease than they remove. 
 
 889 On what does acuteness of smell depend ? What effect has snuff 
 when introduced into the nose ? What is said of chronic catanh ? 
 
S94 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER -XL IV. 
 
 SENSE OF VISION. 
 
 890. This sense contributes more to the enjoyment axid 
 happiness of man than any other of the senses. By it we 
 perceive the form, color, volume, and position of objects that 
 snrround us. The eye is the organ of sight, or vision, and its 
 mechanism is so wonderful, that it not only proves the exist- 
 ence of a great First Cause, but perhaps, more than other 
 organs, the design of the Greater to mingle pleasure with our 
 existence. ^ 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 
 
 891. The apparatus of vision consists of the Op'tie Nerve, 
 the Globe and Muscles of the eye, and its Protecting Organs. 
 
 892. The optic nerve arises by two roots from the cen- 
 tral portion of the base of the brain. The two nerves approach 
 each other, as they proceed forward, and some of the 
 fibres of each cross to the nerve of the opposite side. They 
 (hen diverge, and enter the globe of the eyes at their back 
 part, where they expand, and form a soft, whitish membrane. 
 
 893. The globe, or ball of the eye, is an optical instru- 
 ment of the most perfect construction. The sides of the globes 
 are composed of Coats, or membranes. . The interior of the 
 globe is filled with refracting Humors, or me'di-ums. 
 
 830. Which sense contributes most to the enjoyment of man ? What do 
 we perceive by this sense ? What is said of the mechanism of the eyg ? 
 891 — 916. Give the anatomy of the organs of vision. 891. Of what does the 
 apparatuscf vision consist? 892. Describe the optic nerve. 893. Besoribs 
 the globe of the eye. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ORQANS OF VISION. 
 
 395 
 
 894. The coats are three in number : 1st. The Scle- 
 rot'ic and Com'e-a. 2d. The Cho'roid, Iris, and Cil'ia-ry 
 processes. 3d. The Ret'i-na. 
 
 895 The humoes are also three in number: 1st. The 
 A'que-ous, or watery. 2d. The Crys'tal-line, (lens.) 3d. The 
 VU're-owa, or glassy. 
 
 Fig. 137; 
 
 Fig. 137. Tbe eeconil pair of nerves. 1, 1, Globe of tlie eye : tlie one nn the lell 
 ie perfect, but that on the right has the sclerotic and choroid coats removed, to show 
 the retina. S, The crossing of the optic nerve. S, The pons varolii. 6, The me- 
 dulla oblongata. 7, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, The origin of several pairs of cranial nerves 
 
 896. The sclkkotic coat is a dense, fibrous membrane, 
 and invests about four fifths of the globe of the eye. It gives 
 form to this organ, and serves for the attachment of the mus- 
 cles that move the eye in various directions. This coat, from 
 the brilliancy of its whiteness, is known by the name of " the 
 
 894. Name the coats of the eye. 895. Name the humprs of the eye. 
 Rxulain fig IST- 896. Describe the Hclerotic ooat. 
 
396 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 white of the eye." Anteriorly, the sclerotic coat presents a 
 bevelled edge, which receives the cornea in the same way that 
 a watch-glass is received by the groove in its case. 
 
 897. The coiinea is the- transparent projecting layer, that 
 forms the anterior fifth of the globe of the eye. In form, it 
 is circular, convexo-concave, and resembles a watch-glass. 
 It is received by its edge, which is sharp and thin, within the 
 bevelled border of the sclerotic, to which it is firmly attached. 
 The cornea is composed of several different layers; its 
 blood-vessels are so small that they exclude the red particles 
 altogether, and admit nothing but serum. 
 
 898. The choeoid coat is a vascular membrane, of a rich 
 chocolate-brown color upon its external surface, and of a deep 
 black color within. It is connected, externally, with the scle- 
 rotic, by an extremely fine cellular tissue, and by the passage 
 of nerves and vessels ; internally, it is in contact with the 
 retina. The choroid membrane is composed of three layers. 
 It secretes upon its internal surface a dark substance, called 
 pig-ment'um ni'grum, which is of great importance in the 
 function of vision. 
 
 899. The ikis is so called from its variety of color in dif- 
 ferent persons. It forms a partition between the anterior and 
 posterior chambers of the eye, and is pierced by a circular 
 opening, which is called the pu'pil. It is composed of two 
 layers. The radiating fibres of the anterior layer converge 
 from the circumference to the centre. Through the action of 
 these radiating fibres the pupil is dilated. The circular fibres 
 surround the pupil, and by their action produce contraction of 
 its area. The posterior layer is of a deep purple tint, and is 
 called u-ve'a, from its resemblance in color to a ripe grape. 
 
 How are this coat and tlie cornea united f 897. Describe the cornea. 
 898. '\^hat is the color of the external surface of the choroid coat ? Of 
 the internal? How is it connected externally ? How internally ? What 
 does this membrane secrete upon its internal surface ? 899. Describe the 
 iris. Of how many layers of fibres is the iris composed ? What is the 
 function of the radiating iibros ? Of the circular ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 
 
 397 
 
 900. The CILIARY processes consist of a number of trian- 
 gular folds, formed, apparently, by the plaiting of the internal 
 layer of the choroid coat. They are about sixty in number. 
 Their external border is continuous with the internal layer of 
 the choroid coat. The central border is free, and rests against 
 the circumference of the crystalline lens. These processes 
 are covered by a layer of the pigmentum nigrum. 
 
 Fig." 138. 
 
 Fig. 138. A view of the anterior segment of a transveree section of tlie globe oi 
 the eye, seen troja within I, The divided edge of the three coats — sclerotic, cbo- 
 raid, and retina. 9, The pupil. 3, The iris : the surface presented to view in this 
 section being the uvea. 4, The ciliary processes. 5, The scalloped anterior border 
 of the retina. 
 
 901. The RETINA is composed of three layers : The ex- 
 ternal ; middle, or nervous ; and internal, or vascular. The 
 external membrane is extremely thin, and is seen as a floccu- 
 lent film, when the eye is suspended in water. The nervous 
 membrane is the expansion of the optic nerve, and forms a 
 thin, semi-transparent, Wuish-white layer. The vascular 
 
 900. How are the ciliary processes formed ? What does fig. 138 exhibit ? 
 901. 01 how many layers is the retina composed f Describe the external 
 liyer. The nervous layer. 
 34 
 
896 
 
 ANATOMY, I'HYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 membrane consists of the ramifications of a minute artery and . 
 its accompanying vein. This vascular layer forms distinct 
 sheaths for the nervous papillaa vfhich constitute the inner 
 surface of the retina. 
 
 902. The aqueous humor is situated in the anterior and 
 posterior chambers of the eye. It is an albuminous fluid, 
 having an alkaline reaction. Its specific gravity is a very little 
 greater tlian distilled water. The anterior chamber is the 
 space intervening between the cornea, in front, and the iris 
 and pupil, behind. The posterior chamber is the narrow 
 space, less than half a line in depth, bounded by the posterior 
 surface of the iris and pupil, in front, and by the ciliary pro- 
 cesses and crystalline lens, behind. The two chambers are 
 lined by a thin layer, the secreting membrane of the aqueous 
 humor. 
 
 903. The crystalline humor, or lens, is situated imme- 
 diately behind the pupil, and is surrounded by the ciliary 
 processes. This humor is more convex on the posterior than 
 on the anterior surface, and, in different portions of the sur- 
 face of each, the convexity varies from their oval character. 
 It is imbedded in the anterior part of the vitreous humor, from 
 which it is separated by a thin membrane, and is invested by 
 a transparent elastic membrane, called the capsule of the lens. 
 The lens consists of concentric layers, disposed like the coata 
 of an onion. The external layer is soft, and each successive 
 one increases in firmness until the central layer forms a hard- 
 ened nucleus. These layers are best demonstrated by boiling, 
 or by immersion in alcohol, when they separate easily from 
 each other. 
 
 Ohservations. Ist. The lens in the eye of a fish is round, 
 
 The vascular layer. 902. Where is the aqueous humor situated ? What 
 part of the eye is called the anterior chamber ? The posterior chamber ? 
 With what are the chambers lined f 908. Where is the crj'stalline humur 
 situated ? With what is it surrounded ? Of what does the lens consist ? 
 How are these layers best demonstrated ? What is produced when the 
 lens, or its investing membrane, is changed in sftuoturc i 
 
ANATOMY OF THB ORGANS OF VISION. 
 
 399 
 
 lika a globe, and has the same appearance, when boiled, as the 
 lens of the human eye. 
 
 2d. When the crystalline lens, or its investing membrane, 
 is changed in structure, so as to prevent the rays of light pass- 
 ing to the retina, the afEyCtion is called a cataract. 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 Fig. 139. A section of the globe of the eye. 1, The sclerotic coat. 2, The coinco. 
 (This connects with the sclerotic coat by a bevelled edge.) 3, The choroid coat 
 6, 6, The iris. 7, The pupil. 8, The retina. 10, 11, 11, Chambers of the eye thai 
 contain the aqueous humor. 12, The crystalline lens. 13, The vitreous humor. 
 15, The optic nerve. 16, The central artery of the eye. 
 
 904. The VITREOUS httmor forms the principal bulk of the 
 globe of the eye. It is an albuminous fluid, resembling the 
 aqueous humor, but is mor^e dense, and differs from the aque- 
 ous in this important particular, that it has not the power 
 of re-producing itself. If by accident it is discharged, the eye 
 is irrecoverably lost ; while the aqueous humor may be let out, 
 and will be again restored. It is enclosed in a delicate mem- 
 brane, called the hy'a-loid, which sends processes into the 
 interior of the globe of the eye, forming the cells in which 
 the humor is retained. 
 
 904. Describe the vitreous humor. How-does this humor differ from the 
 aqueous ? What membrane encloses the vitreous humor ? 
 
400 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIESfE. 
 
 Observation. The structure of this organ can be seen by 
 first freezing the eye of a sheep or an ox ; it then can be cut 
 in various directions, and each part separately examined. 
 
 905. The muscles of the eye are six in number. They 
 are attached, at one extremity, to the bones of the orbit behind 
 the eye ; at the other extremity, they are inserted by broad, 
 thin tendons, near the junction of the cornea with the sclerotic 
 coat. The white, pearly appearance of the eye is caused by 
 these tendons. 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 Fig. 140. A view of ttie eye and its muscles, tt, ft, c, (i, e, Five of these muscintt, 
 /, Tile optic nerve. 6, The trochlea, or pulley over which one of the muscles passes 
 The bone Is seen above and below*the eye. 
 
 Observation. If the external muscle is too short, the eye 
 is turned out, producing the " wall eye." If the internal 
 
 906. How many muscles has the eye i Give their attachments. What 
 causes the pearly appearance of the eye f What does fig. 140 represent i 
 What is the effect if the external muscle is contracted i The internal 
 muscle } 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION, 401 
 
 muscle is contracted, the eye is turned inward toward the 
 nose It is then called a " cross eye." 
 
 906. The protecting organs are the Or'Mts, Eyebrows., 
 Eyelids, and Lach'ry-mal Apparatus. 
 
 907. The orbits are deep, bony sockets, in which the 
 globes of the eyes are situated. They have the form of a 
 cone, the base of which is open and directed forward. The 
 bottom of the orbits is pierced by a large hole, which gives 
 passage to the optic nerve. These cavities are lined with a 
 thick cushion of fat, in order that the eyes may move in all 
 directions, with perfect freedom and without friction. 
 
 908. The eyebrows are two projecting arches of integu- 
 ment, covered with short, thick hairs, which form the upper 
 boundary of the orbits. The eyebrows are so arranged that 
 they prevent the moisture that accumulates on the forehead, 
 in free perspiration, from flowing into the eye, and also shade 
 these organs from too vivid light. 
 
 909. The eyelids are two movable curtains placed in 
 front of the eye. They have a delicate skin on the outside, 
 muscular fibres beneath, and a narrow cartilage on their edges, 
 which tends to preserve the shape of the lid. Internally, they 
 are lined by a smooth membrane, which is reflected over the 
 front of the eye upon the sclerotica. This membrane is called 
 the con-junc-ti'va. It secretes the fluid that moistens and lubri- 
 cates the eye, and which causes the eyelids to open and shut 
 without friction. 
 
 Observation. When the portion of this membrane that 
 is reflected over the globe of the eye, is inflamed, there is 
 frequently a deposition of whitish material, called lymph. This 
 accounts for the films, opacities, and white spots seen upon 
 the eye after the inflammation has subsided. 
 
 906. Name the protecting organs of the eye. 907. Describe the orbits. 
 How are the movements of the eye facilitated ? 908. Describe the eye- 
 brows. What does this arrangement prevent ? 909. Describe the eyelids. 
 What is the use of the conjunctiva ? How are the white spots frequently 
 seen upon the eye accounted for ? 
 34 • 
 
402 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 910. There are found several small glands on the in- 
 • ternal surface of the cartilage, which have the appearance of 
 
 parallel strings of pearls. They open by minute apertures 
 upon the edges of the lids. The secretion from these glands 
 prevents the edges of the eyelids from being united during 
 sleep. 
 
 911. The edges of the eyelids are furnished with a triple 
 TOW of long, thick hairs, called eyelashes, which curve upward 
 from the upper lid, and downward from the lower, so that 
 they may not interlace with each other in the closure of the 
 eyelids. These appendages of the eye, by closing, not 
 only protect it from moisture, but from dust, particularly 
 during sleep. They likewise, by their movements in open- 
 ing and shutting, spread the lubricating fluid equally over 
 the eye. 
 
 912. The LACHKYMAL APPARATtrs, which secretes the tears, 
 consists of the Lachrymal Gland with its ducts. Lachrymal 
 Canals, and the Nasal Duct. 
 
 913. The LACHRYMAL GLAND IS situated at the upper and 
 outer angle of the orbit. It is about three quarters of an inch 
 in length, flattened and oval in shape, and occupies a depres- 
 sion in the orbital plate of the frontal bone. Ten or twelve 
 small ducts pass from this gland, and open upon the upper 
 eyelid, where they pour upon the conjunctiva the lachrymal 
 fluid, or tears. This secretion is maintained while we are 
 asleep, as well as wheij we are awake. The eye from this 
 cause is kept constantly moist. 
 
 914. The LACHRYMAL CANALS Commence at minute open- 
 ings upon the free borders of each eyelid, near the internal 
 
 910. What are found on the internal surface of the cartilage of the eye- 
 lids ? Where do they open, and what is their use ? 911. With what are the 
 edges of the eyelids furnished ? What are their uses ? 912. Of what does 
 the lachrymal apparatus consist? 913. Describe the lachrymal gland. 
 How many ducts pass from this gland, and what do they convey to the 
 eye ? Why is the eye constantly moist ? 914. Where do the lachrymal 
 canals commence ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 403 
 
 angle of the eye, by two small orifices, called punc'ta laeh-ry- 
 ma'H-a, (tear points.) Each of these points communicate 
 with the sac at the upper part of the nasal duct. 
 
 915. The NASAL duct is a short canal, about three quarters 
 of an inch in length, directed downward and backward to the 
 inferior channel of the nose, where it terminates by an ex- 
 panded orifice. 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 1 
 
 Fig. 141. 1, Tile lachrymal gland. S, Ducts leading from the lachrymal gland to 
 the upper eyelid. 3, 3, The puncta lachrymalia. 4, The nasal sac. 5, The termi- 
 nation of the nasal duct. 
 
 916. The fluid (tears) secreted by the lachrymal gland, is 
 conveyed to the eye by the small ducts before described, it 
 is then imbibed by the puncta lachrymalia, and carried by the 
 lachrymal canals into the lachrymal sac, from which it is 
 passed to the nasal cavities by the nasal ducts. 
 
 "What are they called ? With what do they communicate ? 915. De- 
 Bcribe the nasal duct. 916. How are the tears conTeyed from the lachrymal 
 gland to the nose ? 
 
401 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XLT. 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OP VISION. 
 
 917. To comprehend the theory of vision, it is not suffi- 
 cient to know the structure of the eye. We must be familiar 
 with some of the properties of a subtile fluid, which is con- 
 stantly emanating from all luminous bodies, called light. 
 
 918. It is the province of natural philosophy, rather than 
 physiology, to enter minutely upon the properties of light. 
 It may be observed, however, that, when light passes through 
 any medium of the same density, the rays are in straight 
 lines ; but, when it passes from one medium into another of 
 different density, it is refracted, or turned from a straight 
 course, unless it strikes the medium in a perpendicular 
 direction — then light passes through without a change of 
 direction. 
 
 919. When a ray of light meets with a body, it either 
 passes through it, or is reflected by it, or it may be absorbed. 
 Again, in proportion as the rays of light become distant from 
 the body from which they emanate, they diverge one from 
 the other. In accordance with the laws of optics, the raya 
 of light, in passing through an optical instrument like the eye, 
 must cross each other, and thus produce an inverted image 
 of the object from which the rays proceed. With the general 
 
 917 — 933. Give the physiology of the organs of vision. 917. "What is neces- 
 sary in order to understand the theory of vision ? 918. When light passes 
 through a medium of the same density, in what direction will be its rays ? 
 Of a different density ? What exception ? 919. Wlien light meets with 
 a body, what takes place ? What is said in reference to rays cf light in 
 passing through the eye ? 
 
PHYSIOLOSY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 405 
 
 view of the structure of the eye, we will now examine the 
 use of each part in the function of vision. 
 
 920. The sclerotic coat not only gives form to the body 
 of the eye, but protection to the interior and more d(;licate 
 parts. The choroid coat seems to be chiefly composed of a 
 tissue of nerves and minute blood-vessels ; the latter give 
 nourishment to the different parts of the eye. One of the 
 uses of this coat is, to absorb the rays of light immediately 
 after "they have passed through the retina. This is effected 
 by the black pigment that lines its inner surface. Were it 
 not for this provision, light would be too intense, and vision 
 indistinct. 
 
 Observation. In albinos, where there is an absence of the 
 black pigment, the rays of light traverse the iris, and even 
 the choroid coat, and so overwhelm the eye with light, that 
 their vision is quite imperfect, except in the dimness of 
 evening, or. at night. In the manufacture of optical instru- 
 ments, care is taken to color their interior black, for the same 
 object, namely, the absorption of scattered rays. 
 
 921. The iris, by means of its powers of expansion and 
 contraction, regulates the quantity of light admitted through 
 the pupil. If the iris is thin, and the rays of light pass 
 through its substance, they are immediately absorbed by the 
 uvea, and, if that layer be insufficient, they are taken up by 
 the black pigment of the choroid coat. 
 
 Observation. When we look toward the bottom of the eye, 
 the pupil appears like a black spot, instead of an opening. 
 This is caused by seeing the black pigment through the retina 
 and humors of the eye. 
 
 920. Wliat is the use of the sclerotic coat ? Of what is the choroid 
 coat chiefly composed i What is the use of this coat ? How is it effected } 
 What is said of albinos? What care is taken in the manufacture of 
 optical instruments ? 921. What is the use of the iris ? When we look 
 toward the bottom of the eye, why does the pupil look like a black spot, 
 instead of an opening } 
 
406 ANATOMVj PHYSIOLOOT, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 922. The cornea, and the aqueous, crystalline, and vitreous 
 humors, are transparent ; so that rays of light traverse these 
 parts of the eye, and fall upon the retina. Tho office of 
 these humors and the cornea is to refract the rays of light in 
 such proportion as to direct the image in the most favorable 
 manner upon the retina. 
 
 923. The office of the retina is to receive the impression 
 of the rays of light which leave an object at which we look, 
 and it is upon it that a small but very clear image of that 
 object is formed. The impression thus produced by the re- 
 flected light is transmitted by the optic nerve to the brain, 
 which receives the sensation. This constitutes vision. 
 
 924. The optic nerve has but one function, that of sight. 
 Sensibility is conferred on this organ by a large branch from 
 the fifth pair of nerves, which ramifies upon the different 
 parts of the eye and its appendages. These parts, however, 
 leceive some nervous filaments from the seventh pair. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The large number of sensitive ner- 
 vous filaments renders the visual organ very impressible to 
 bodies that cause irritation, as dust, or intense light This 
 compels us to use due care to shield the eye from the influ- 
 ence of eigents that would impair or destroy vision. 
 
 2d. Although particles of dust, when in contact with the 
 delicate parts of the eye, induce severe pain, yet these parts 
 may be cut in surgical operations, and the patient's sufferings 
 are not as great as when an incision is made in the skin to 
 remove a small tumor. 
 
 925. Different degrees of density, as already mentioned, 
 modify the refractory power of any transparent medium. It 
 is found, on examination, that the cornea, the vitreous, the 
 
 922. 'WTiat is the use of the cornea, aqueoua, crystalline, and vitreous 
 humoM? 923. What is the office of the retina? 924. What la the 
 function of the optic ucive ? How is sensibility conferred on this organ ? 
 GKvc the 1st observation in this connection. The 2d observation. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 
 
 407 
 
 ciystalline, and the aqueous humors, have each, severallyi, 
 various degrees of density ; and that the crystalline lens, at 
 its circumference, is less dense than at its centre. These 
 circumstances modify the direction of the refraction of th« 
 rays of light, in their passage from the cornea to the retina. 
 
 926. The refracting powers of the plane, convex, concave, 
 plano-convex, plano-concave, and concavo-convex lenses,* 
 are different. The cornea and aqueous humors are convexo- 
 concave, the vitreous humor is concavo-convex, while the 
 crystalline humor is a convexo-convex medium. (Fig. 139.) 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 Fig. 143. The fonns of the different lenseg. 1, A plane lens. 3, A globe lens. 
 3, A convexo-convex lens. 4, A plano-convex lens. ' 5, A concavo-concave lens. 
 6, A plano-concave lens. 7, Meniscus. 8, A concavo-convex lens. 
 
 927. The different degrees of convexity oi concavity also 
 modify the refracting character of transparent mediums. 
 The crystalline lens is of different degrees of convexity on 
 its two sides. The convex surfaces of the aqueous and 
 vitreous humors are segments of circles, of different diame- 
 ters from their concave surfaces. (Fig. 139.) All these 
 
 * The refracting character of differently-formed lenses is illustrated 
 in the works on Natural Philosophy, to which the pupil is referred. 
 
 925. Have the cornea and the humors of the eye different degiees of 
 density ? What is said of the crystalline lens ? What effect uas the 
 different density of the parts of the eye upon the light admitted to this 
 organ ? 926. What kind of lenses do the humors exhibit ? 927. What 
 modiiies the refracting powers of transparent mediums? How does lb ia 
 principle apply to Uie humors of the eye ? 
 
408 ANATOMY, PHyslOLOGT, AND HT&IENE, 
 
 circumstances still further influence the refracting charac- 
 ter of the visual organ. The achromatic arrangement of 
 the transparent refracting mediums of the eye, remedies 
 tfie aberration of refraction in the different portions of the 
 eye. 
 
 928. Again, the refracting power of lenses is modified by 
 their convexity or concavity. The more convex a lens is, 
 the shorter the distance from the refracting medium, where 
 the different refracted rays converge to a focus. To adapt 
 the eye to view objects at different distances, requires a 
 change in the refracting power of some of the transparent 
 mediums of the eye. 
 
 929. Both surfaces of the crystalline lens are oval, not 
 spherical, and the refraction of the rays of light is mainly 
 effected in this portion of the eye. Change the inclination 
 of this lens, so that difierent portions of its anterior surface 
 shall be directly behind the pupil, and its refrsicting power ia 
 increased or diminished, jis the surface presented is more or 
 less convex. 
 
 930. To view objects at a distance, a less convex lens is 
 needed than in examining articles very near the eye ; and 
 this organ, from its structure, has the power of adaptation to 
 different distances. It is supposed that the muscular sub- 
 stance of the ciliary body and processes changes, by its 
 contraction, the inclination of the crystalline lens. Without 
 this, or some other adapting power, a picture of objects 
 at different distances would not be formed upon the retina, 
 and the vision of every person would be defective, except 
 in reference to objects at certain definite distances from 
 the eye. 
 
 928. What modifies the refracting power of lensea ? What is necessary 
 to adapt the eye to view objects at different distances? 929. Where is the 
 refraction of the rays of light mainly effected? 930. When we view 
 objects at a distance, what kind of lens ia required i Has the eye the 
 power of adapting itself to different distances ? How is it effected i 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 409 
 
 Ohservation. It is well known that a separate image is 
 formed on each eye, and, if they are not in the same direc- 
 tion, the objects wQl appear double. This is proved by 
 pressing one eye, so that the rays of light cannot enter it in 
 the same direction as they do in the other ; consequently, the 
 vision is double. 
 
 931. By the action of the muscles of the eye, it is turned 
 in different directions, so that objects can be examined upon 
 each side, as well as in front, without turning the body. By 
 the slight or intense action of the straight muscles, the eye is 
 more or less compressed, and the form of the globe is 
 changed, together with the relative positions of the different 
 humors. This modification also adapts the eye to view ob- 
 jects at different distances. 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 lig. 143. 1, A pen, an inverted image of which ia painted on the retina of the 
 eye, at S. The image of all objects upon the expansion of the optic nerve, is inverted 
 by the crossing of the rays of light from objects as they traverse the pupil. 
 
 Observation. If the eye is fixed for a time on some object 
 which is distinguished with difficulty, .there is a painful sensa- 
 tion, similar to that experienced by other muscles of the body 
 when used too long. This is called " straining the eye." 
 
 932. When the refraction of the rays of light is too gre^t, 
 as in over-convexity of the cornea, or the crystalline lens, or 
 the vitreous humor, or all of them, the image is formed a 
 
 AVhat does fig. 143 represent? 931. Why can we see objects at the side 
 as well as In front of the eye, without turning the body f What is ttiu 
 effect when the eye is fixed on an object that is indistinctly seen ? 
 35 
 
410 ANATOMY, FHySIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 little in front of the retina. PersoQs thus affected cannot see 
 distinctly, except at a very short distance. This infirmity 
 is called near, or short-sightedness. This defect is in a great 
 measure obviated by the use of concave glasses, which scatter 
 the luminous rays, and thus counterbalance the too strong 
 refracting force of the eye. 
 
 933. When the different parts of the eye are not sufficient- 
 ly convex, the image is formed beyond the retina, and thus 
 only distant objects are distinctly seen. This defect is called 
 long-sightedness. The feebleness in the refracting power of 
 the eye may be caused by disease ; but usually it is a conse- 
 quence of old age, and is remedied by wearing spectacles 
 with convex glasses. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 
 
 934. The eye, like other organs of the body, should be 
 used, and then rested. If we look intently at an object for 
 a long time, the eye becomes wearied, and the power of 
 vision diminished. The observance of this rule is particular- 
 ly needful to those whose eyes are weak, and predisposed to 
 inflammation. On the contrary, if the eye is not called into 
 action, its functions are enfeebled. 
 
 935. Sudden transitions of light should be avoided. The 
 iris enlarges or contracts, as the light that, falls upon the eye 
 is faint or strong ; but the change is not instantaneous. 
 
 932. What is short-sightedness ? How is the defect remedied ? 933. What 
 is long-sightedness ? How is the defect remedied ? 934 — 942. Give the 
 hygiene of the (yrgans of vision. 934. Do the same principles apply to the 
 use of the eye as to other organs ? What is the effect if the eye is fixed 
 intently on an object for a long time f What results if the eye is not 
 called into action ? 935. Why should sudden transitions of light be 
 avoided ? 
 
 Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of the eye be reviewed from 
 tigs. 139 and 143, or from anatomical ontline plate No. 10. 
 
HTGIfiNE OF THB OEGAJJS OF VISION. 411 
 
 Hence the imperfect vision in passing from a strong to a dim 
 light, and the overwhelming sensation experienced on emerg. 
 ing from a dimly-lighted apartment to one brilliantlj' illu- 
 minated. A common cause of am-aur-o'sis, or paralysis of 
 the retina, is, using the eye for a long time in a very intense 
 light. 
 
 936. Long- continued oblique positions of the eye should le 
 avoided, when viewing objects. If the eye is turned obliquely 
 for a long time in viewing objects, it may produce an unnat- 
 ural contraction of the muscle called into action. This con- 
 traction of the muscle is termed stra-bis'mus, or cross-eye. 
 The practice of imitating the appearance of a person thus 
 affected, is injudicious, as the imitation, designed to be tem- 
 porary, may become permanent. 
 
 Observation. Tlie vision of a " cross-eye " is always 
 defective. In general, only one eye is called into action, in 
 viewing the object to which the mind is directed. This 
 defect can be remedied by a surgical operation, which also 
 corrects the position of the eye. 
 
 937. Children should be trained to use the eye upon objects 
 at different distances. This is necessary, in order that the 
 vision may be correct when objects at various distances are 
 viewed. Any action unnatural to the muscles, if frequently 
 repeated, may and will modify the character and action of 
 the parts- so operated upon. If a limb, as the arm, be kept 
 flexed for a long time, one set of muscles will be relaxed and 
 elongated, and another will be shortened, and its contractile 
 power will be increased. The same principle is true of 
 the eye. 
 
 What causes palsy of the retina ? 936. Why should we avoid oblique 
 positions of the eye in viewing objects ? What is said of the practice of 
 imitating persons thus affected ? What is said in reference to the vision 
 of a " cross-eye " ? 937. Why should children be trained to use the eye 
 upon objects at different distances ? What is the effect if an unnatural 
 action of the muscles is frciiuenlly repeated ? Docs the same principle 
 apply to the eye ? 
 
412 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 938. In viewing objects very near the eye, the ciliary 
 processes are called into action to produce a proper inclina/- 
 tion of the crystalline lens, so that the rays of light may be 
 properly refracted to form a perfect image on the retina. In 
 looking at objects at a great distance, the ciliary processes 
 are called into a different action, to produce a different in- 
 clination of the lens. Let either of these actions be repeated, 
 again and again, for weeks and months, and they will become 
 natural, and the acquired inclination will be permanent. 
 
 939. From the preceding principle, a person becomes 
 short or long sighted, as the objects to which the eye is usually 
 directed are near or remote. This is-one reason why scholars, 
 watchmakers, and artisans, who bring minute objects near the 
 eye to examine them, are short-sighted, and why hunters and 
 sailors, who are habituated to view objects at a distance, are 
 long-sighted. 
 
 Observation. In the management of children, whether in 
 the nursery or school-room, it is very important that theii 
 books, or articles upon which they may labor, should be held 
 at an appropriate distance from tlie eye. Were this attended 
 to by the parent or instructor, we should not see so many 
 persons with defective vision. 
 
 940. Cleanliness, as well as the health of the eye, require 
 that it be bathed every morning with pure water, either cold 
 or tepid, accompanied with as little rubbing or friction as 
 possible. In all instances, the secretion from the lachrymal 
 glands, that sometimes collects at the angle of the eye, should 
 be removed, as it contains saline matter. 
 
 941. When small particles, or dust, get upon the eye, they 
 produce much inconvenience, which is often increased by 
 
 938. What is th^ effect of repeatedly using the eye in one direction i 
 939. Why are artisans and scholars generally short-sighted ? Why are 
 sailors and hunters long-sighted i How can defective vision in a great 
 degree be prevented ? 94(1. What reasons are there for bathing the eye ? 
 941. How can dust and other small particles be removed from the eye? 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF VISION. 413 
 
 harsh attempts to remove them. The individual should be 
 placed before a strong light, the lids held open with one 
 hand, or by another person, and the particles removed with 
 the corner of a fine linen or silk handkerchief. 
 
 942. Sometimes the substance is concealed under the 
 upper eyelid, and it may then be exposed by turning back 
 the lid in the following manner : Take a knitting-needle, or 
 small, slender piece of. sticic, which is perfectly smooth, and 
 place it over the upper lid, in contact with, and just under 
 the edge of the orbit ; then, holding it firmly, seize the eye- 
 lashes with the fingers of the disengaged hand, and gently 
 turn the lid back over the stick or needle. The inner side 
 of the lid can llien be examined, aa^ any substance removed 
 that" may have been there concealed. Too many trials ought 
 not to be made, if unsuccessful, as much inflammation may 
 be induced ; but a surgeon should be consulted as soon aa 
 possible. 
 
 Observation. Eyestones ought never to be placed in the 
 eye, as they often cause more pain and irritation than the evD 
 which they are intended to remedy. 
 
 942. How removed from the upper eyelid ? Why should not e^eatonea 
 be used? 
 
 35* 
 
414 4NAT0MY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 THE SENSE OF HEAKING. 
 
 943. The sense of hearing is next in importance to that 
 of vision. Through this sense we are enabled to perceive 
 sounds, that not only subserve to our comfort and pleasure, 
 but are instrumental in promoting our intellectual enjoyments. 
 The organ of hearing, or the ear, is one of the most compli- 
 cated in the human body. 
 
 ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 
 
 944. The ear is composed of three parts : 1st. The Ex- 
 ternal Ear. 2d. The Tym'pan-um, or middle ear. 3d. The 
 La'by-rinth, or internal ear. 
 
 945. The external ear is composed of two parts : The 
 Pin'na, (pavilion of the ear,) and the Me-a'tus Aud-it-o'ri-na 
 Ex-ter'nvs, (auditory canal.) 
 
 946. The pinna is a cartilaginous plate which surrounds 
 the entrance of the auditory canal. It presents many ridges 
 and furrows, arising from the folds of the cartilage that 
 form it. 
 
 Observation. The pinna, in many animals, is movable ; 
 in those that pursue their prey, it is generally directed for- 
 waid ; in timid animals, as the hare and rabbit, it is directed 
 
 943. WTittt is said of the importance of hearing ? Is the ear complicated 
 in its structure ? 944 — 962. Give the anatomy of the organs of hearing. 
 044. Of how many parts is the ear composed f Name them. 945. Give the 
 parts of the external ear. 946. Describe the pinna. What is said in refer- 
 ence to the pinna of many animals ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF HEAEING. 415 
 
 backward. In man, this part is but slightly under the control 
 of the will. 
 
 947. The meatus additoritjs is a canal partly cartilagi- 
 nous, and partly bony, about an inch in length, which extends 
 inward from the pinna to the Mem'bra-na Tym'pan-i, (drum of 
 the ear.) It is narrower in the middle than at the extremities. 
 It is lined by an extremely thin pouch of cuticle, which, when 
 withdrawn, after maceration, preserves the form of the canal. 
 Some stiff, short hairs are also found in the interior of the 
 channel, which stretch across the tube, and prevent the ingress 
 of insects. Beneath the cuticle are a number of small folli- 
 cles, which secrete the wax of the ear. 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
 Fig 144. A representattou of the four bones of the ear. The smallest is highly 
 magnified. This bone is early matured^ and in the adult it becomes united with the 
 Incus. These bones are retained in their places and moved by three ligaments and four 
 muscles. 
 
 948. The membrana tympani is a thin, semi-transparent 
 membrane, of an oval shape. It is about three eighths of an 
 inch in diameter, and is inserted into a groove around the 
 circumference of the meatus, near its termination. This 
 membrane is placed obliquely across the area of that tube. 
 It is concave toward the meatus, and convex toward the 
 tympanum. 
 
 949. The tympanum consists of an irregular bony cavity, 
 situated within the temporal bone. It is bounded externally 
 by the membrana tympani ; internally by its inner wall ; and 
 in its circumference by the petrous portion of the temporal 
 
 947. What is the ;neatus auditorius ? What is found in this canal ? What 
 19 their use ? Where is the wax of the ear secreted. 948. Describe the 
 membrana tympani. 949. Where is the tympanum situated ? 
 
416 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 bone and mastoid cells. The tympanum contains four small 
 bones, called the os-sic'u-la au-di'ta. These are named sepa- 
 rately, the mal'le-us, in'cus, sta'pes, and or-Udu-lar. 
 
 950. There are ten openings in the middle ear ; five large 
 and five sniall. The larger openings are, the Me-a'tus Aud- 
 it-o'ri-us Ex-ter'nus, Fe-nes'tra 0-va'lis, (oval window,) Fe- 
 nes'tra Ro-tun'da, (round window,) Mas'toid Cells, and 
 Eu-sta'chi-an Tube. 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
 Fig. 145. A representation of the pinna, meatus, merobrana tympani, bones of tlie 
 ear, and semicircular canals, a, Tlie pinna, e, The meatus auditorius externus. 
 f , The membrana tympani. &, The tympanum. «, The bones of the ear. b. The 
 semicircular canals. /, The cochlea. A, The vestibule, i, The Eustachian tube. 
 d, The auditory nerve. , 
 
 951. The FENESTRA ovALis is the opening of communica- 
 tion between the tympanum and the vestibule. It is closed 
 by the foot of the stapes, or bone of the ear, and by the lining 
 membrane of both cavities. 
 
 952. The fenestra rotunda serves to establish a com- 
 
 What does this cavity contain i 950. How many openings in the tym- 
 panum ? Explain iig. 146. 951. Describe the fenestra ovalis. 952. The 
 fenestra totunda. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 
 
 4n 
 
 munication between the tympanum and the cochlea. It is 
 closed by a proper- membrane, as well as by the lining of both 
 cavities. 
 
 953. The mastoid cells are very numerous, and occupy 
 the whole of the interior of the mastoid process of the tem- 
 poral bone, and part of the petrous bone. They communicate, 
 by a large, irreg^ilar opening, with the upper and posterior 
 circumference of the tympanum. 
 
 
 Fig. 146. A view of the labyrinth laid open. This figure is highly magnified. 
 1, 1, The cochlea. S, 3, Two channels, that wind two and a half turns around a 
 central point, (5.) 7, The central portion of the labyrinth, (vestibule.) 8, The fora- 
 men rottindum. 9, The fenestra ovalis. II, 13, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, The semicircu- 
 lar canals. The cochlea and semicircular canals open into the vestibule. 
 
 954. The eustachian tube is a canal of communication, 
 extending obliquely between the pharynx and the anterior 
 circumference of the tympanum. In structure it is partly 
 
 953. Where are the mastoid cells ? Explain fig. 146. 954. Describe tho 
 Eustachian tube. 
 
418 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 fibro-cartilaginous and partly bony. It is broad and expanded 
 at its pharyngeal extremity, and narrow and compressed ai 
 the tympanum. 
 
 955. Tlie small openings of the middle ear are for the 
 entrance and exit of the chorda tympani, (a small nerve that 
 crosses the tympanum,) and for the exit of the muscles 
 that act upon the membrana tympani and bones of the ear. 
 
 956. The labyrinth consists of a membranous and a bony 
 portion. The bony labyrinth presents a series of cavities 
 which are channelled through the substance of the petrous 
 bone. It is situated between the cavity of the tympanum and 
 the Aud'it-o-ry Nerve. The labyrinth is divided into the 
 Ves'ti-bule, Sem-i-cir'cu-lar Canals, and Coch'le-a. 
 
 957. The vestibule is a small, three-cornered cavity, 
 situated immediately within the inner wall of the tympanum. 
 
 958. The semicikcular canals are three bony passages 
 which communicate with the vestibule, into which two of them 
 open at both extremities, and the third at one extremity. 
 
 959. The cochlea forms the anterior portion of the laby- 
 rinth. It consists'- of a \)ony and gradually tapering canal, 
 about one and a half inches in length, which makes two turns 
 and a half, spirally, around a central axis, called the tno-di'o-lus. 
 The modiolus is large near its base, where it corresponds 
 with the first turn of the cochlea, and diminishes in diameter 
 toward its extremity. 
 
 960. The interior of the canal of the coclilea is partially 
 divided into two passages, by means of a bony and membra- 
 nous plate. At the extremity of the modiolus, the two pas- 
 sages communicate with each other. At the other extremity, 
 one opens into the vestibule ; the other into tlie tympanum, by 
 
 955. What passes through the small openings of the middle ear? 
 956. Of what does the labyrinth consist ? Give the parts of the internal 
 ear. 957. Describe the vestibule. 958. What is said of the semicircular 
 canals ? 959. Why is the cochlea so called ? Of what does it consist ? 
 980. How is the interior of the canal of the cochlea divided ? Where do 
 they rommunioato with each other ? 
 
ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OP HEARING. 419 
 
 the foramen rotundum. The internal surface of the bony 
 labyrinth is lined by a fibro-serous membrane. 
 
 961. The membranous labyrinth is smaller in size, but a 
 perfect counterpart, with respect to form, of the bony,vestibule, 
 cochlea, and semicircular canals. Within this labyrinth are 
 two small, elongated sacs, which are filled with a fluid. 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 147. A view of the auditory nerve. 1, The Rpinal cord. 2, The mediUla 
 oblongata. 3, The lower part of the brain. 4, The auditory nerve. 5, A branch to 
 the semicircular canals. 6, A branch to the cochlea. 
 
 962. The auditory nerve enters the temporal bone upon 
 its internal surface, and divides into two branches, at the bot- 
 tom of the cavity of the internal ear. . These branches enter 
 the structure of the elongated sacs and membranous labyrinth, 
 radiating in all directions, and finally, they terminate upon 
 the inner surface of the membrane, in minute papillae, resem- 
 bling those of the retina. 
 
 By what is the internal labyrinth lined ? 961. Describe the membranous 
 labyrinth. What does flg. 147 represent ? 862. Where does the auditory 
 nerve enter and divide i Where .do the branches of the auditory nerve 
 enter and terminate i 
 
420 ANATO'VIT, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OP THE ORGANS OF HEABINa. 
 
 963. Hearing is that function by which we obtain a knowl- 
 edge of the vibratory motions of bodies, which constitute sounds. 
 The precise function of all the different parts of the ear is not 
 known. 
 
 964. The function of that part of the external ear which 
 projects from the head is to collect sounds and reflect them 
 into the meatus. 
 
 965. The membrana tympani serves to facilitate the trans- 
 mission of sounds, and also to moderate their intensity. It is 
 so arranged that it can be relaxed or tightened. 
 
 Observation. This membrane, when healthy, has no open- 
 ing ; and it must be apparent that the apprehension which is 
 often expressed, that insects will penetrate further, is ground- 
 less. The pain is owing to the extreme sensibility of the 
 membrana tympani. 
 
 9^6. The supposed office of the tympanum is to transmit 
 the vibrations made on the membrana tympani to the internal 
 ear. This is effected by the air which it contains, and by the 
 chain of small bones that are enclosed in this cavity. 
 
 967. The use of the Eustachian tube is to admit air into 
 the tympanum, which renders the pressure on both sides equal, 
 and thus its membrane is kept in a proper state of tension. 
 
 963 — 971. Give the physiology of the orffant of hearing. 963 What is 
 hearing F Are the precise functions of the different parts of the ear known ? 
 964. What is the fanction of the external ear ? 965. Of the inembrana 
 tympani? What observation in reference to this membrane? 966. What is 
 the supposed office of the middle ear? 967. What is the use of the Eu- 
 stachian tube ? 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 
 
 421 
 
 Observation. When near a cannon, or a field-piece, about 
 being discharged, by opening the mouth the impression upon 
 the auditory nerve will, be diminished, and the unpleasant sen- 
 sation lessened. This is the result of the air in the middle ear 
 escaping through the Eustuchian tube, when the vibrations of 
 the membrana tympani are violent. 
 
 Fig. 148. 
 
 Fig. 148. A view of all the parts of the ear. I, The tube that leads to the internal 
 ear. a, The membranatympanL 3/4,5, The bones of the ear. 7, The central part 
 of the labyrinth, (vestibule.) 8, 9, 10, The semicircular canals. 11, 19, The chan- 
 nels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory nerve. 14, The channel from the middle eai 
 to the throat, (Eustachian tube.) 
 
 968. But little is known of the functions of the internal 
 ear ; its parts are filled with a watery fluid, in which the fila- 
 ments of the auditory nerve terminate. 
 
 What observation in this connection ? 968. What Is the function of the 
 internal ear? 
 
 36 
 
422 ANATOM\, PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYGIENE. 
 
 969. Many of the parts just enumerated aid in hearing, but 
 are not absolutely essential to this sense. But if the vestibule 
 and auditory nerve are diseased or destroyed, no sound is then 
 perceived. If this sense is destroyed in early life, the person 
 also loses the power of articulating words. Hence a man 
 born deaf is always dumb. 
 
 970. The transmission of sound through the different parts 
 of the ear will now be explained by aid of fig. 148. The 
 vibrations of air are collected by the external ear, and con- 
 ducted through the tube (1) to the membrana tympani, (2.) 
 From the membrane vibrations pass along the chain of bones, 
 (3, 4, 5.) The bone 5 communicates with the internal ear, 
 (7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12.) From the internal eai 
 the impression is transmitted to the brain by the nerve, (13.) 
 
 971. The auditory nerve, like the optic, has but one func- 
 tion, that of special sensibility. The nerves which furnish 
 the ear with ordinary sensibility, proceed from the fifth pair. 
 
 HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 
 
 972. Hearing, like the other senses, is capable of very 
 great improvement. By cultivation, the blind, are enabled to 
 judge with ^reat accuracy the distance of bodies in motion, 
 and even the height of buildings. It is also capable of im- 
 provement when all the othfer senses are perfect. Thus the 
 Indian will distinguish sounds that are inaudible to the white 
 
 969. What parts of the ear are essential in order to hear sounds? 
 What follows loss of hearing? 971. What is the office of the auditory 
 nerve ? What nerves convey ordinary sensibility to the ear f 97^— 
 97S. Give the hygiene of the orgatis of hearing. 972. Is this sense capable 
 of improvement ? How does this sense aid the blind ? Is it also capable 
 of improvement when all the other senses ore perfect ? In whom ib this 
 illustrated ? 
 
 Note. Let the anatomy nnd physiology of the organs of hearing be 
 roviewefl; from fig. l^.S, or from nnatnminal r»ntline piflte No. 10. 
 
HYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 423 
 
 973. Acute hearing requires perfection in the structure and 
 functions of the different parts of the ear, and that portion of 
 the brain from which th^ auditory nerve proceeds. Deafness 
 is by no means unfrequent. We will now advert to some of 
 the common causes of imperfect hearing. 
 
 974. The structure or functional action of the brain may 
 be deranged by inflammation, by compression, or by debility, 
 and produce deafness. The first is seen during inflammatory 
 affections of the brain, and in fevers ; the second is seen in 
 accidental injuries of the head ; the third is seen in old age, 
 and after severe diseases of the head, and fevers. In these 
 cases, applications to, and operations upon, the ear do no good. 
 The only remedy is to remove, if possible, the diseased con- 
 dition of the brain. 
 
 975. Imperfect hearing may be produced by the destruction 
 of the membrana tympani, or removal of the bones of the 
 ear, or the parts within the labyrinth. In these instances, 
 medical treatment is of no avail, as the destroyed parts can- 
 not be restored. 
 
 976. Hearing may be rendered defective by a diminution of 
 the vibratory character of the membrane tympani. This may 
 result from a thickening of this membrane, or from an ac- 
 cumulation of wax upon its outer surface. The increased 
 thickness is usually the result of inflammation, either acuie 
 or chronic. The proper treatment is such as is efficient to 
 remove inflammatory action. 
 
 Observations. 1st. The introduction of heads of pins into 
 the ear is a frequent cause of chronic inflammation of the 
 membrana tympani. Hence this practice should never be 
 adopted, and if acquired, should be abandoned. 
 
 973. On what does acute hearing depend? 974. State effects on the 
 hearing in some conditions of the brain. How relieved? 975. Of the 
 effect 3n hearing when the bones of the ear or the labyrinth are destroyed ? 
 Is medical treatment of any avail ? 976. What conditions of the drum of 
 the ear may impair hearing ? How relieved ^ What is said nf the intio 
 duftioii of pins to cleanse the ear F 
 
424 - ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 2cl. The accumulations of viscid wax may be softened by 
 dropping some animal oil into the ear, and then removing it by 
 ejecting warm soap suds a few hours subsequent to the use of 
 the oil. This may be repeated for several successive days. 
 
 977. Hearing may be impaired by obstruction of the Eu- 
 stachian tube. The closure of this canal diminishes the vibra- 
 tory character of the air within the tympanum, in the same 
 manner as closing the opening in the side of a drum. For 
 the same reason, enlarged tonsils, inflammation and ulceration 
 of the fauces and nasal passages during and subsequent to an 
 attack of scarlet fever, and the inflammation attending the 
 " sore throat " in colds, are common causes of this obstruc- 
 tion. 
 
 978. The treatment of such cases of defective hearing, is 
 to have the tonsils, if enlarged, removed by a surgeon ; for 
 the inflammation and thickening of the parts remedial means 
 should be applied, directed by a skilful physician. The nos- 
 trums for the cure of deafness are generally of an oleaginous 
 character, and may be beneficial in cases of defective hearing 
 caused by an accumulation of wax upon the drum of the ear, 
 but in this respect they are no better than the ordinary animal 
 oils. 
 
 What is the remedy where there is an accumulation of wax ? 977. What 
 is the effect on hearing if the Eustachian tube is obstructed ? 978. What 
 is the treatment when deafness' is caused by inflammation or ulceration of 
 the fauces } What is said of the nostrums used for deafness ? 
 
ME4NS OF PKESERVING THE HEALTH. 425 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 MEANS OF PKESERVING THE HEAITH.* 
 
 979. Our bodies are constituted in harmony with certain 
 laws, and every person should learn these, in order to regu- 
 late his actions and the performance of his duties, so that 
 health may be unimpaired, and the power of enjoyment, 
 activity, and usefulness continue while life lasts. 
 
 980. It is a law of the bones and the muscles, that they 
 should either be used in some vocation, or called into action 
 
 ■ by some social play and active sport. 
 
 981. All admit that food is necessary to sustain life ; and 
 unless it be of a proper quality, taken in proper quantities, and 
 at proper times, the functions of the digestive organs will be 
 deranged, and disease produced. 
 
 982. Pure air is essential to the full enjoyment of health. 
 The impure air of unventilated rooms may be breathed, and 
 the effect be so gradual as not to arrest attention ; yet it is 
 a violation of the physical laws, and, sooner or later, we pay 
 the penalty in disease and suffering. 
 
 983. The body also requires sleep ; and if it is not taken 
 at the right time, or with regularity, we do not feel full refresh- 
 
 • It is advised, that a thorough review of the hygiene of the pre- 
 ceding chapters be given from the suggestions contained in this. 
 
 979 Why is it incumbent on every person to learn the laws of health ? 
 980. Give a law of the muscles. 981. In preserving the health, is it neces- 
 sary to give attention to the food which is eaten ? Why ? 982. What 
 beside food is essential to the full enjoyment of health ? What is said of 
 the impure air of unventilated rooms ? 983. Whafsnould Be observed in 
 regard to sleep ? 
 
 36 • 
 
436 ANATOMY, PHVSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 ment from "tired nature's sweet restorer." Let youth be 
 taught that " early to bed and early to rise " gives him health 
 and its attendant blessings. The brain, like other organs of 
 the body, should be called into action at proper times. 
 
 984. From the extent of the surface of the skin, and the 
 close sympathy that exists between it and those organs whose 
 office is, to remove the waste particles of matter from the 
 body, it therefore becomes very important in the preservation 
 of the health, that the functions of this membrane be properly 
 maintained. 
 
 985. The function of the circulatory and secretory organs, 
 together with the operations of absorption and nutrition, should 
 be steadily maintained, as vitality and the generation of ani- 
 mal heat are intimately connected with these processes. In 
 the proper performance of these functions, very much depends 
 on the observance of the laws of the muscular, digestive, 
 respiratory, dermoid, and nervous apparatuses. 
 
 REMOVAL OF DISEASE. 
 
 986. It is seldom that a physician is called in the first 
 stages of disease. At this important period, the treatment 
 adopted should be proper and judicious, or the sufferings of 
 the patient are increased, and life, to a greater or less degree, 
 is jeopardized. Hence the utility of knowing what should be 
 done, and what should not be done in order that the health 
 may be rapidly regained. 
 
 987. In all instances of acute disease, it is proper to rest, 
 not only the body, but the mind. To effect this, the patient 
 should cease from physical exertion, and also withdraw his 
 
 984. Why should the functions of the skin be properly maintained ? 
 985. Show the necessity of maintaining properly other functions of the 
 system. 986. What is important in the first stages of disease? 987. What 
 Is proper in all instances uf acute disease } How can it be effected } 
 
REMOVAL OP DISEASE 4^7 
 
 thoughts from study and business operations. This should be 
 done, even if the person is but slightly indisposed. 
 
 988. Select a room for a sick person that is exposed to as 
 little external noise as possible, as impressions made on the 
 organ of hearing greatly influence the nervous system. Like- 
 wise select a spacious, well-ventilated apartment, that has no 
 superfluous furniture. The practice of placing a sick person 
 in a small, ill-arranged sleeping-room, when a more spacious 
 room can be used, is poor economy, not to say unkind. 
 
 989. Care is necessary in regulating the light of a sick- 
 room. While a strong light would produce an increased 
 action of the vessels of the brain, a moderate light would be 
 an appropriate stimulus to this organ. It is seldom or never 
 necessary to exclude all light from the sick-chamber. 
 
 990. A sick person, whether a child or an adult, should not 
 be disturbed by visitors, even if their calls are short. The 
 excitement of meeting them is followed by a depression of the 
 nervous system. The more dangerous and apparently nearer 
 death the sick person is, the more rigorous should be the 
 observance of this suggestion. Nor should the sick-room be 
 opened to privileged classes ; for the excitement caused by a 
 visit from relations and the virtuous, will do as much injury to 
 the sick, as that produced by strangers and the vicious. 
 
 991. The custom of visiting and conversing with sick friends 
 during the intervals of daily labor, and particularly on Sunday, 
 is a great evil. No person will thus intrude herself in the sick- 
 chamber who cares more for the welfare of the suffering friend 
 than for the gratification of a sympathetic curiosity. Inquiries 
 can be made of the family respecting the sick, and compli- 
 mentary or necessary messages can be communicated through 
 the nurse. 
 
 988. What rooms should be selected for the sick ? "WTiy ? 989. What 
 is said in reference to the quantity of light admitted into a sick-room ? 
 991). What effect have calls on the sick ? 991. What is said of the custom 
 of calling and conversing with the sick during the intervals of daily labor ? 
 
428 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 niuslration. While attending a Miss B., of N. H., sick of 
 fever, I pronounced her better, withdrew medicine, directed a 
 simple, low diet, and the exclusion of all visitors. In the 
 evening I was sent for to attend her. There was a violent 
 relapse into the disease, which continued to increase in sever- 
 ity until the fourth day, when death terminated her sufferings. 
 I learned that, soon after I gave directions that no visitors 
 be admitted into her room, several particular friends were per- 
 mitted to enter the chamber and talk with the sick girl. Their 
 conversation produced a severe headache ; and, to use the 
 language of the patient, " it seemed as if their talk would 
 kilt me ; " and it did kill her. 
 
 992. No solid food should be taken in the first stages of 
 disease, even if the affection is slight. The thirst can be 
 allayed by drinking cold water, barley-water, and other prep- 
 arations of an unstimulating character. It is wrong to tempt 
 the appetite of.a person who is indisposed. The cessaticHi 
 of a desire for food, is the warning of nature, that the system 
 is in such a state that it cannot be digested. 
 
 993. When a patient is recovering from illness, the food 
 should be simple, and in quantities not so great as to oppress 
 the stomach. It should also be given with regularity. " Eat 
 little and often," with no regard to regularity, is a pernicious 
 practice. 
 
 994. When a physician attends a sick person, he should 
 have the special management of the food, particularly after 
 the medicine has been withdrawn and the patient is convales- 
 cent. The prevailing idea that every person may safely advise 
 relative to food, or that the appetite of the convalescing per- 
 
 Give an illustration. 992. What suggestion relative to food in the first 
 stages of disease ? How can the thirst he allayed } 993. When the 
 patient is convalescent,' how should the food be given ? What is said of 
 the practice of eating " little and often " ? 994. Who should have the 
 special management of food when medicine is withdrawn ? What idea 
 prevails in the community i 
 
REMOVAL OF DISEASE. » 429 
 
 son is a comp tent guide, is dangerous, and cannot be too 
 much censured. 
 
 Illustration. In 1832, 1 attended a Miss M., sick of fever. 
 After an illness of a few days, the fever abated, and I direct- 
 ed a simple, unstimulating diet. Business called me from 
 the town two days. During my absence, a sympathizing, 
 officious matron called ; found her weak, but improving ; and 
 told her she needed food to strengthen her ; and that " it 
 would now do her good." Accordingly, eggs and a piece of 
 beefsteak were prepared, and given to the convalescent girl. 
 She ate heartily, and the result was a relapse into a fever 
 more violent than the first attack. 
 
 995. It is very important in disease that tlie skin he kept 
 clean. A free action of the vessels of this part of the body 
 exerts a great influence in removing disease from the internal 
 organs, as well as keeping them in health. If the twenty or 
 thirty ounces of waste, hurtful matter, that passes through the 
 " pores " of the skin in twenty-four hours, are not removed by 
 frequent bathing and dry rubbing, it deranges the action of 
 the vessels that separate this waste matter from the blood, and 
 thus increases the disease of the internal organs. 
 
 Illustration. Mrs. M. R., of N., Meiss., was afflicted with 
 disease of the lungs and cough. This was accompanied with 
 a dry, inactive condition of the skin. As medicine had no 
 salutary effect in relieving her cough, she was induced by the 
 advice of the clergyman of the parish to enter upon a system- 
 atic course of bathing twice every day. Soon the skin became 
 soft, . its proper functions were restored, the disease of the 
 lungs yielded, and the cough disappeared. 
 
 996, Every sick person should breathe pure air. The 
 purer the blood that courses through the body, the greater the 
 
 Give an illustration of the evil effects attending snch an idea. 995. Does 
 the skin exert a great influence in removing disease from the internal 
 organs, as well as in keeping them in health ? Give an illustration 
 996. Why should every sick person, particularly, breathe pure aii ? 
 
430 AlATOMY, PHYS10L08Y, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 energy of the system to remove disease. The confined, vitiated 
 air of the sick-chamber not unfrequently prolongs disease; 
 and in many instances the affection is not only aggravated, but 
 even rendered fatal, by its injurious influences. 
 
 Illustrations. 1st. In 1833, I was called, in consultation 
 with another physician, to Mr. H., who was much debilitated, 
 and delirious. For several successive days he had not slept. 
 His room was kept very warm and close, for fear he would 
 " take Cold." The only change that I made in the treatment, 
 was to open the door and window, at a distance from the bed. 
 In a short time, the delirium ceased, and he fell into a quiet 
 ■slumber. From this time he rapidly recovered, and the de- 
 lirium was probably the result of breathing impure air. 
 
 2d. Formerly, every precaution was used to prevent per- 
 sons sick of the small-pox from breathing fresh air. When 
 Mrs. Ramsay had this disease in Charleston, S. C.,her friends, 
 supposing that life was extinct, caused her body to be removed 
 from the house to an open shed. The pure air revived the 
 vital spark. The result probably would have been different, had 
 she been kept a few hours longer in the vitiated air. 
 
 997. The influence of habit should not be disregarded in 
 the removal of disease. If food or drink is to be administered, 
 however small in quantity or simple its quality, it should be 
 given at or about the time when the ordinary meals were 
 taken in health. 
 
 998. Again, the usual time when the patient was in the 
 habit of retiring for sleep should be observed, and all prepa- 
 ration necessary for the sick-room during the night should be 
 made previous to this hour. Efforts should also be made to 
 evacuate the waste matter of the digestive and urinary organs 
 at the period which habit has formed in health. This is not 
 
 Are not disenscs prolonged, and even rendered fatiil^ from breathing the 
 iiiipuro, vitiated air of the siokchnuiber ? Give illustration ^^t. Give 
 illustration 2d. 997. Whnt is said respecting the influenie of habit in 
 rouiovins di,iea?o ? 
 
hemovAl of disease. 431 
 
 only a remedial agent in disease, but often precludes the 
 necessity of laxative or drastic cathartics. 
 
 999. Medicine is sometimes necessary to assist the natu- 
 ral powers of the system to remove disease ; but it is only 
 an assistant. While emetics are occasionally useful in remov- 
 ing food and other articles from the stomach that would cause 
 disease if suffered to remain, and cathartics are valuable, in 
 some instances, to relieve the alimentary canal of irritating 
 residuum, yet the frequent administration of either will cause 
 serious disease. 
 
 1000. Although medicine is useful in some instances, yet, 
 in a great proportion of the cases of disease, including fevers 
 and inflammations of all kinds, attention to the laws of health 
 will tend to relieve the system from disease, more certainly 
 and speedily, and with less danger, than when medicines are 
 administered. 
 
 1001. Thomas Jefferson, in writing to Dr. Wistar, of Phil- 
 adelphia, said, " I would have th^ physician learn the limit 
 of his art." I would say. Have the matrons, and those who 
 are continually advising " herb teas," and other " cure-alls," 
 for any complaint, labelled with some popular name, learn 
 the limits of their duty, namely, attention to the laws of 
 health. The rule of every family, and each individual, should 
 be, to touch not, taste not of medicine of any kind, except 
 when directed by a well-educated and honest physician, (sud- 
 den disease from accidents excepted.) 
 
 999. What is said of the use of medicine ? 1000. Of its use in fevers 
 and many other cases of disease ? 1001. What remark by Thomas Jeffer- 
 son to Dr. Wistar ! What should matrons learn ? What should be the 
 rule of every person in regard to tailing medicine ? What exception I 
 
432 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES. 
 
 1002. The nurse requires knowledge and practice to 
 enable her to discharge aright her duty to the patient, as 
 much as the physician and surgeon do to perform what is 
 incumbent on them. Woman, from her constitution and 
 habits, is the natural nurse of the sick ; and, in general, no 
 small portion of her time is spent in ministering at the 
 couch of disease and suffering. 
 
 1003. As the young and vigorous, as well as the aged and 
 the infirm, are liable to be laid upon the bed of sickness, by an 
 epidemic, or imprudent exposure, or by some accident, it is 
 therefore necessary that the girl, as well as the matron, may 
 know how she can render services in an. efficient and proper 
 manner. No girl should consider her education complete 
 who is not acquainted with the principles of the duties of a 
 general nurse and a temporary watcher. 
 
 1004. It is to be regretted, that while we have medical 
 schools and colleges to educate physicians, there is no institu- 
 tion to educate nurses in their equally responsible station. In 
 the absence of such institutions, the defect can be remedied, 
 to some extent, by teaching every girl hygiene, or the laws of 
 health. To make such knowledge more available and com- 
 plete, attention is invited to the following suggestions relative 
 to the practical duties of a nurse. 
 
 1002, Does the nurse require knowledge and practice in her employment, 
 as well IIS the physician ? Who is tho natural nurse of the sick ? 1003. 
 What, then, is incumbent on every girl? 1004. Should there be schools to 
 educate nurses, as well as physicians and surgeons ? 
 
DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES 433 
 
 1005. Bathing. The nurse, before commencing to bathe 
 the patient, should provide herself with water, two towels, a 
 sponge, a piece of soft flannel, and a sheet. The temperature 
 of the room should also be observed. 
 
 1006. When the patient is feeble, use tepid or warm 
 water. Cold water should only be used when the system has 
 vigor enough to produce reaction upon the skin. This is 
 shown by the increased redness of the skin, and a feeling of 
 warmth and comfott, after a proper amount of friction. 
 Before using the sponge to bathe, a sheet, or fold of cloth, 
 should be spread smoothly over the bed, and under the patient, 
 to prevent the bed-linen on which the patient lies from becom- 
 ing damp or wet. 
 
 1007. Apply the wet sponge to one part of the body at h 
 time ; as the arm, for instance. By doing so, the liability of 
 contracting chills is diminished. Take a dry, soft towel, wipe 
 the bathed part, and follow this by vigorous rubbing with a 
 crash towel, or, what is better, a mitten made of this material ; 
 then use briskly a piece of soft flannel, to remove all moisture 
 that may exist on the skin, and particularly between the fingers 
 and the flections of the joints. In this manner bathe the entiie 
 body. 
 
 1008. The sick should be thoroughly bathed, at least twice 
 in twenty-four hours. Particular attention should be given 
 to the parts between the fingers and toes, arid about the 
 flections of the joints, as the accumulation of the excretions is 
 most abundant on these parts. In bathing, these poitions of 
 the system are very generally neglected. The best time for 
 bathing, is when the patient feels most vigorous, and freest 
 from exhaustion. The practice of daubing the face and 
 hands with a towel dipped in hot rum, camphor, and vinegar, 
 
 1005. Wliat should a nurse provide herself with, before bathing a patient ? 
 1006. When should cold water be used ? 1007- How should the bathing 
 thei be performed, so that the patient may not contract a cold ? 1008. How 
 often should a sick person be bathed ? What is said of daubing the face 
 ajxA hands merely with a wet cloth ? 
 
 37 
 
434 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 does not remove the impurities, but causes the skin soon to 
 feel dry, hard, and uncomfortable. 
 
 1009. Food. It is the duty of every woman to know how 
 to make the simple preparations adapted to a low diet, in the 
 most wholesome and the most palatable way. Water-gruel,* 
 which is the simplest of all preparations, is frequently so ill- 
 made as to cause the patient to loathe it. Always prepare the 
 food for the sick, in the neatest and most careful manner. 
 
 1010. When the physician enjoins abstinence from food, 
 the nurse should strictly obey the injunction. She should be 
 as particular to know the physician's directions about diet, as 
 in knowing how and when to give the prescribed medicines, 
 and obey them as implicitly. 
 
 1011. When a patient is convalescent, the desire for food 
 is generally strong, and it often requires firmness and patience, 
 together with great care, on the part of the nurse, that the 
 food is prepared suitably, and given at proper times. The 
 physician should direct how frequently it should be taken. 
 
 1012. Pure Air. It is the duty of the nurse to see that 
 not only the room is well ventilated in the morning, but that 
 fresh air is constantly admitted during the day. Great care 
 must be taken, however, that the patient does not feel the 
 current. 
 
 1013. Bed-linen, as well as that of the body, should be aired 
 every day, and oftener changed in sickness than in health. 
 All clothing, when changed, should be well dried, and warmed 
 by a fire previous to its being put on the patient or the bed. 
 
 * Directions for making the simple preparations for the siok are 
 found in almost every cook-book. 
 
 1000. Should every woman know how to maJie the simple ii'ro{)arations 
 adapted to a low diet? 1010. Should the nurse striotly obey the injunc- 
 tions of the physioian relativo to food? 1011. What period of a person's 
 illness requires the most oare in regard to the food? 1012. Give another 
 duty of the nurse. 1013. What directions respecting the bed-linen or^ho 
 patient? What is necoRsary when there is a change of clothing ? 
 
DIRECTIONS FOE NtTESEr. 435 
 
 1014. Temi'erature. The warmth of the chamber should 
 be carefully watched by the nurse. The feelings of the 
 patient or nurse are not to be relied on as an index of the 
 temperature of the room. There should be a well-adjusted 
 thermometer in every sick-room. This should be frequently 
 consulted by the nurse. 
 
 1015. The temperature of the sick-chamber should be 
 moderate. If it is so cold as to cause a chill, the disease will 
 be aggravated. If, on the other hand, it is too warm, the 
 patient is enfeebled and- rendered more susceptible to cold on 
 leaving the sick-chamber. The Latin msixim, " In medio 
 tutissimus ibis" (in medium there is most safety,) should be 
 regarded in the rooms of the sick. 
 
 1016. Quiet. The room of the patient should be kept free 
 from noise. The community should be guided by this rule, 
 that no more persons remain in the room of the sick, than the 
 welfare of the patient demands. It is the duty of the physi- 
 cian to direct when visitors can be admitted or excluded from 
 the sick-room, and the nurse should see that these directions 
 are enforced. 
 
 1017. The movements of the attendants should be gentle and 
 noiseless. Shutting doors violently, creaking hinges, and all 
 unnecessary noise, should be avoided. Most persons refrain 
 from loud talking in the sick chamber, but are not equally 
 careful to abstain from whispering, which is often more trying 
 than a common tone. 
 
 1018. It is the duty of the nurse to ascertain the habits 
 of the patient as respects the period for eating and sleep, 
 when in health, that she may prepare the food and arrange 
 the sick-room in accordance with the practice of the patient. 
 
 1014. Why should there be a well-adjusted thermometer in every sick- 
 chamber ? 1016. What is said of the temperature of the sick-chamber ? 
 ini6. Why should the sick-room be kept quiet? 1017. What is said of 
 toiee in the sick-chambcc ? Of whispering ? 1018. Should the habits of 
 tbp potient be regarded in reference to the period for eating and sleep ? 
 
436 ANATOMy, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 If ihe person who is sick is ignorant of the necessity of the 
 removal of the waste products from the system, the nurse 
 should invite attention to these functions at such periods as 
 are in accordance with the previous habits of the patient. 
 
 1019. The deportment and remarks of the nurse to the 
 patient should be tranquil and encouraging. The illness of a 
 friend, or persons who have recently died, should not be alluded 
 to in the sick-room. No doubts or fears of the patient's 
 recovery, either by a look or by a word, should be communi- 
 cated by the nurse in the chamber of the sick. When such 
 information is necessary to be communicated, it is the duty of 
 the physician to impart it to the sick person. 
 
 1020. The nurse should not confine herself to the sick- 
 room more than six hours at a time. She should eat her food 
 regularly, sleep at regular periods, and take exercise daily in 
 the open air. To do this, let her quietly leave the room when 
 the patient is sleeping. A watcher, or temporary nurse, may 
 supply her place. There is but little danger of contracting 
 disease, if the nurse attends to the simple laws of health, and 
 remains not more than six hours at a time in the sick-room. 
 
 riRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS. 
 
 1021. These necessary assistants, like the nurse, should 
 have knowledge and practice. They should ever be cheerful, 
 kind, firm, and attentive in the presence of the patient. 
 
 1022. A simple, nutritious supper should be eaten before 
 entering the sick-room; and it is well, during the night, to 
 take some plain food. 
 
 1019. What should be the deportment of the nurse toward the patient } 
 Should doubts and fears of the patient's recovery be communicated in the 
 sick-room ? When necessary to impart such intelligence, on whom does it 
 depend ? 1020. How long should a nurse remain in the sick-chamber at a 
 time ? 1021. What qualifications are necessary in a watcher ? 1022. What 
 directions in regard to the food of the watcher f 
 
DIRECIIONS FOE WATCHERS. 437 
 
 1023. When watching in cold weather, a person should be 
 warmly dressed, and furnished with an extra garment, as a 
 cloak or shawl, because the system becomes exhausted toward 
 morning, and less heat is generated in the body. 
 
 1024. Light-colored clothing should be worn by those who 
 have care of the sick, in preference to dark-colored apparel ; 
 particularly if the disease is of a contagious character. Ex- 
 periments have shown, that black and other dark colors will 
 absorb more readily the subtile effluvia that emanate fiom 
 sick persons, than white or light colors. 
 
 1025. Whatever may be wanted during the night, should 
 be brought into the sick-chamber, or the adjoining room, be- 
 fore the family retires for sleep, in order that the slumbers of 
 the patient be not disturbed by haste, or searching for needed 
 articles. 
 
 1026. The same general directions should be observed by 
 watchers, as are given to the nurse ; nor should the watcher 
 deem it necessary to make herself accepta.ble to the patient 
 by exhausting conversation. 
 
 1027. It can hardly be expected that the farmer, who has 
 been laboring hard in the field, or the mechanic, who has 
 toiled during the day, is qualified to render all those little 
 attentions that a sick person requires. Hence, would it not 
 be more benevolent and economical to employ and pay watch- 
 ers, who are qualified by knowledge and training, to perform 
 this duty, in a faithful manner, while the kindness and sympa- 
 thy of friends may be practically manifested by assisting to 
 defray the expenses of these qualified and useful assistants i 
 
 1023. When watching in cold weather, what precaution is necessary ? 
 1024. What is said relative to the color of the clothing worn in the 
 sick-room ? 1025. What suggestions to watchers relative to the arrange- 
 ment of the sick-chamber ? 1026. What should watchers ohserve ? 
 1027. What is said of employing those persons to watch who labor hard 
 during the day ? 
 
 37* 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 POISONS' AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 
 
 ? 
 
 1028. FoiEONiNO, either from accident or design, is of snch frequency 
 and danger, that it is of the greatest importance that every person should 
 know the proper mode of procedure in such cases, in order to render imme- 
 diate assistance when within his power 
 
 1029. Poisons are divided into two classes — mineral (which include the 
 acids) and vegetable, 
 
 1030. The first thing, usually, to be done, when it is ascertained that a 
 poison has been swallowed, is to evacuate the stomach, unless vomiting 
 takes place spontaneously. Emetics of the sulphate of zinc, (white vitriol,) 
 or ipecacuanha, (ipecac,) or ground mustard seed, should be given. 
 
 1031. When vomiting has commenced, it should be aided by large and 
 frequent draughts of the following drinks : flaxseed tea, gum-water, slip- 
 pery-elm tea, barley water, sugar and water, or any thing of a mucilaginous 
 or diluent character. 
 
 MINERAL POISONS. 
 
 1032. Ammonia. — The ieater of ammonia, if taken in an over-dose, and 
 in an undiluted state, acts as a violent corrosive poison. 
 
 1033. The best and most effectual antidote is vinegar. It should be 
 administered in water, without delay. It neutralizes the ammonia, and 
 renders it inactive. Emetics should not be given. 
 
 1034. Antimoitt. — The vriTie of antimony and tartar emetic, if taken In 
 over-doses, cause distressing vomiting. In addition to the diluent, muci- 
 laginous drinks, give a tea-spoonful of the sirup of poppies, paregcric, or 
 
 10S8. Is it uaeful to know the antidotes or remedies for poison ? 1039. Into how 
 many classes are poisons divided ? ' 1030. What is the first thing to be done when it is 
 aecerlained that poison has been swallowed ? 1031. What should be taken after 
 the vomiting has commenced? 1033. What effect has an over-dose if ammonia.* 
 1033. The antidote ? Should an emetic be given for this poison ? 1034. What efl'eet 
 hns an orei-dose of the wine of antimony or tartar emetic i* 
 
440 APPENDIX. 
 
 twenty drops of laudanum, every twenty minutes, until five or six doses 
 have been taken, or the vomiting ceases. 
 
 1035. The antidotes are mttgalla and oak bark, which may be adminis- 
 tered in infusion, or by steeping in water. 
 
 1036. Arsenic. — "When this has been taken, administer an emetic of 
 ipecac, speedily, in mucilaginous teas, and use the stomach-pump as soon 
 as possible. 
 
 1037. The antidote is the hydirated peroxide of iron. It should be kept 
 constantly on hand at the apothecaries' shops. It may be given in any 
 quantity, without injurious results. 
 
 1038. Copper. — The most common cause of poisoning from this metal, 
 is through the careless use of cooking uten«ls made of it, on which the 
 acetate ofqxgper (verdigris) has been allowed to form. When this has been 
 taken, immediately induce vomiting, give mucilaginous drinks, or the 
 white of eggs, diffused in water. 
 
 . 1U39. The antidote is the carbmucle of soda, which should be administered 
 without delay. 
 
 1040. Lead. — The acetate (sugar) of lead is the preparation of this metal, 
 which is liable to be taken accidentally, in poisonous doses. Induce imme- 
 diate vomiting, by emetics and diluent drinks. 
 
 1011. The antidote is diluted sulphuric acid. When this aeid is not to 
 be obtained, either the sulphate of magnesia, (epsom salts,) or the sulphate 
 of soda, (glauber's salts,) will answer every purpose. 
 
 1042. Mercitry. — The preparation of this mineral by which poisoning 
 is commonly produced, is corrosive sublimate. The mode of treatment to 
 be pursued when this poison has been swallowed, is as follows : The whites 
 of a dozen eggs should be beaten in two quarts of cold water, and a tumbler- 
 full given every two minutes, to induce vomiting. When the whites of 
 eggtf are not to be obtained, soap and water should be mixed with wheat 
 flour, and given in copious draughts, and the stomach-pump introduced as 
 soon as possible. Emetics or irritating substances should not be given. 
 
 1043. Nitre — Saltpetre. — This, in over-doses, produces violent poison- 
 ous symptoms. Vomiting should be immediately induced by large doses 
 
 1035. What IB tho ontidoto? 1036. What should iminediRtely be done whon aisenie 
 is swallowed? 1037. What is Ihe antidote .^ Can any quantity of this preparation of 
 Iron be givun without injurious results ? 1038. What should be given when verdigris 
 has boon taken into the stomach F t039. What is (ho antidote*.^ 10-10. What should 
 in)modia.tely be given whea sugar or lead is taken.* 1041. What is the antidolo.' 
 104^. Give the treatment wh.en corrosive sulilimato has bcon swallowed. 1043. What 
 efl'ect has an ovor-doso of saltpetre ? What treatment should ue adopted f 
 
APPENDIX. 441 
 
 of nmoUaginous, diluent drinks ; but emetics Trhich irritate the stomach, 
 should not be given. 
 
 1044. Zinc. — Poisoning is sometimes caused by the m^hate of zinc, 
 (white yitriol.) When this takes place, vomiting should be induced, and 
 aided by large draughts of mucilaginous and diluent drinks. Use the 
 stomach-pump as soon as possible. 
 
 1045. The antidote is the carbonate, or super-carbonate ofaoda. 
 
 1046. NiTBio, (aqua fortis,) MtrwATio, (marine acid,) or sttlphttbio 
 (oil of vitriol,) ACIDS, may be taken by accident, and produce poisonous 
 effects. 
 
 1047. The antidote is calcined magnesia, which should be freely admin- 
 istered, to neutralize the acid and induce vomiting. When magnesia can- 
 not be obtained, the carbonate of potash (saleeratus) may be given. Chalk. 
 powdered and given in solution, or strong soap suds, will answer a good 
 purpose, when the other articles are not at hand. It is of very great im- 
 portance that something be given speedily, to neutralize the acid. One of 
 the substances before mentioned should be taken freely, in diluent and 
 mucilaginous drinks, as gum-water, milk, flaxseed, or slippery-elm tea. 
 Emetics ought to be avoided. 
 
 1048. Oxalic Acid. — This acid resembles the sulphate of magnesia, 
 (epsom salts,) which renders it liable to be taken, by mistake, in poisonous 
 doses. Many accidents have occurred from this circumstance. They can 
 ^asily be distinguished by tasting a small quantity. Epsom salts, when 
 applied to the tongue, have a very bitter taste, while oxalic acid is in- 
 tensely sour. 
 
 1049. The antidote is magnesia, between which and the acid a chemical 
 action takes place, producing the oxalate of magnesia, which is inert. 
 When magnesia is not at hand, fhallc, lime, or carbonate of potash, (saleera- 
 tus,) will answer as a substitute. Give the antidote in some of the muci- 
 laginous drinks before mentioned. No time should be lost in introducing 
 the stomach-pump as soon as a surgeon can be obtained. 
 
 1050. Let. — The ley obtained by the leaching of ashes may be taken 
 by a child accidentally. The antidote is vinegar, or oil of any kind. The 
 vinegar neutralizes the alkali by uniting with it, forming the acetate of 
 potash. The oil unites with the alkali, and forms soap, which is less caus- 
 tic than the ley. Give, at the same time, large draughts of mucilaginous 
 drinks, as flaxseed tea, &c. 
 
 1044. What is the antidote for white vitriol .' 1047. What is the antidote for aqua 
 fortia and oil of vitriol.' Should emetica be avoided-' 1048. How can oxalic acid be 
 distinguished from epaom salts .' 1049. What is the antidote for an over-doae of OK- 
 alic acid? Whon magnesia cannot be obtained, what will answer as a suhscitiitti 
 1050 What is the antidote when ley is swallowed? 
 
442 APPENDIX. 
 
 VEGBTABLB POISONS. 
 
 1061. The vegetable poisons are quite as numerous, and many of tbem 
 equally as virulent, as any in the mineral kingdom. We shall describe the 
 most common, and which, therefore, are most liable to be taken. 
 
 1052. Opitjm. — This is the article most frequently resorted to by those 
 wishing to commit suicide, and, being used as a common medicine, is easily 
 obtained. From this cause, also, mistakes are very liable to be made, and' 
 accidents result from it. Two of its preparations, laudanum and paregoriCf 
 are frequently mistaken for each other ; the former being given when the 
 latter is intended. 
 
 1053. Morphia, in solution, or morphine, as it is more commonly called 
 by the public, is a preparation of the drug under consideration, with which 
 many cases of poisoning are produced. It is the active narcotic principle 
 of the opium ; and one grain is equal to six of this drug in its usual form. 
 
 1054. "When an over-dose of opium, or any of its preparations, has been 
 swallowed, the stomach should be evacuated as speedily as possible. Tc 
 eRect tills, a tcaspount'ul of ground mustard seed, or as much tartar emeuc a& 
 can be held on a five cent piece, or as much ipeeacitanha as can be held on a 
 twenty-five cent piece, should be mixed in a tumbler of warm water, and 
 one hair given at once, and the remainder in twenty minutes, if the iirslhaa 
 not, in the mean time, operated. In' the interval, copious draughts of warm 
 water, or warm sugar and water, should he drank. 
 
 1055. The use of the stomach-pump, in these cases, is of the greatest 
 importance, and should be resorted to without delay. After most of the 
 poison has been evacuated from the stomach, a strong infusion of coffee 
 ought to be given ; or some one of the vegetable acids, such as vinegar 
 or lemon-Juice, should be administered. 
 
 1056. The patient should be kept in motion, and salutary effects will 
 often be produced by dashing a bucket of cold water on the head. Arii- 
 Jieial respiration ought to be established, and kept up for some time. If 
 the extremities are cold, apply warmth and friction to them. After the 
 poison has been evacuated from the stomach, stimulants, as warm wine and 
 water, or warm brandy and water, should be given, to keep up and sustain 
 vital action. 
 
 1067. Stramonium — Thorn -Apple. — This is one of the most active 
 narcotic poisons, and, when taken in over-doses, has, in numerous instances, 
 caused death. 
 
 1051. Aro vogetublo poiaous a» Humorous and as virulent in tlioir eflfocts fts mineral ? 
 1062. What Is said of opium and its propnnitlons f 1054, 1066, 1066. What treatment 
 should be adopted when an over-doso of opium or any of its preparatious is taken ? 
 1067. What Is Baid of stramonium f 
 
APPENDIX. 443 
 
 10/58 Eyosoiamus — Henbane. — This article, whkh is used as a medi- 
 cine, if taken in improper doses, acts as <& virulent irritating and nar- 
 cotic poison. 
 
 1059. Tile treatment for the two above-mentioned articles is similar to 
 that of poisoning from over-doses of opium. 
 
 1060. CoNiUM — Hemlock. — Hemlock, improperly called, by many, dcuta, 
 when taken in an over-dose, acts as a narcotic poison. It was by this 
 narcotic that the Athenians used to destroy the lives of individuals con- 
 -demned to death by their laws. Socrates is said to have been put to death 
 by this poison. When swallowed in over-doses, the treatment is similar 
 to that of opium, stramonium, and henbane, when over-doses are taken. 
 
 1061. Belladonna — Deadly NightsJiade. — Camphor. Aconite — 
 Monkshood, Wolfsbane. Bryonia — Bryony. Digitalis — Foxglove. 
 Dulcamara — Bittersweet. Gamboge. Lobelia — Indian Tobacco. 
 Sanouinaria — Bhodroot. Oil of Savin. Spigelia — Pinkroot. 
 Strychnine — Nux vomica. Tobacco. — All of these, when taken in 
 over-doses, are poisons of greater or less activity. The treatment of 
 poisoning, by the use of any of these articles, is similar to that pursued 
 in over-doses of opium. (See Opium, page 441.) 
 
 1062. In all cases of poisoning, call a physician as soon as possible. 
 
 1058. Of henbane? 1059. Whal ahoulil be the treatment when an over-dose of 
 stiamoniaiu oi henbane is taken? 1060. What name is sometimes improperly given to 
 contum, or hemlock ? How was this narcotic poison used by the Athenians ? How are 
 the elFects of an over-dose counteracted ? 1061. What is the treatment when an ovor- 
 doiie of deadly nightshade, monkshood, foxglove, bittersweet, gamboge, lobelia, blooJroot, 
 tobacco, &c., is taken? 1062. Should a physician be called in all cases when poison 
 Is swallowed '' 
 
444 APPENDI^. 
 
 llie essential parts of every secretory apparatus are a simple membriuie. 
 apparently textureless, named the fvimary, or bcuenient meinbrane, certain 
 ct^lls and blood-vessels. The serous and mucous membrane are exampJes. 
 
 B. 
 
 The division and description of the different membranes and tissues are 
 not well defined and settled by anatomical writers. This is not a material 
 defect, as a clear description of the different parts of the system can be 
 given by adopting the arrangement of almost any writer. 
 
 G. 
 
 Fat is one of the non-nitrogenous suDstances. It forms the essenlini 
 part of the adipose tissue. Chemical analysis shows that all fatty sub- 
 stances are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are lighter 
 than water, generally fluid at the natural temperature of the body, and burn 
 with a bright flame, forming water and carbonic acid, 
 
 Caseine is abundantly found in milk. Wbef dried, it constitutes cheese. 
 Alcohol, acids, and the stomach of any of the mammalia coagulate it ; and 
 it is also soluble in water. It is found in the blood, bile, saliv^ and the 
 lens of the eye. 
 
 Choitdrine is a variety of gelatin. It is obtained from cartilage. It 
 IS soluble in warm water, but solidifies on cooling. 
 
 Lactic acid is common to all the solids and fluids of the system- It is 
 found united with potash, soda, lime, or magnesia. 
 
 D. 
 
 The word duodenum is derived from the Latin, signifying " twelve,'' since 
 the intestine, of which this is the name, is usually about twelve fingers' breadth 
 in length. The Jejunum is also from the Latin Jejunus, empty, since it is 
 usually fwnd in that condition after death, as the food seems to pass rapidly 
 through this part of the intestine. The term iteum is from the Greek, signi- 
 fying " to twist/' since it always appears in a contorted cc ndition. The name 
 ececum is derived from the fact of its being a blind or short sack, perforated 
 by the extremiiv of the ileum. The name of the next division of the intes- 
 tine — colon — IS from the Greek, " to prohibit," as the contents of the ali- 
 mentary canal pass slowly through this portion. The rectum is named from 
 Ijie straight direction that it assumes in the latter part of its course 
 
APPENDIX. 445 
 
 E. 
 
 The food is forced through the aKmentary canal by contractions of its 
 tniiscular coat, produced by the nervous filaments of the sympathetic sys- 
 tem, not being at all dependent on the cerebro-spinal centre. This is called 
 Ine peristaltic, or vermicular motion. The great length o' intestine in as 
 animals, and especially in the herbivorous ones, is owing to the necessity of 
 exposing the food to a large number of the lacteals, that the nourishment may 
 all be taken from it. 
 
 F. 
 
 The different processes through which the food passes before assimilation 
 are of considerable interest. The mastication and mixture of the saliva 
 with the food are purely of a mechanical nature. When any solid or fluid 
 substance is placed upon the tongue, or in contact with the inner surface of 
 the cheeks, by an involuntary act, the salivary glands are stimulated to 
 activity, and commence pouring the saliva into the mouth through the sali- 
 vary ducts. As soon as mastication commences, the contraction of the 
 masseter and other muscles employed in mastication stimulates the salivary 
 glands to increased action, and a still greater quantity of saliva is secreted 
 and forced upon the food, which is constantly being ground to a finer con- 
 dition, until it is sufficiently reduced for deglutition. 
 
 Whether the salivary fluid acts any other part than simply that of a de- 
 mulcent to assist the gastric juice in still further dissolving the food, is yet a 
 matter of some doubt, although it is found that no other liquid will equally 
 well subserve the process of digestion and promote health. 
 
 After the food is in the condition ready to be swallowed, by an apparently 
 involuntary motion, it is placed upon the back of the tongue, which carries 
 it backwards to the top of the pharynx, where the constrictions of the 
 pharynx, aided by the muscles of the tongue and floor of the mouth, with a 
 sudden and 'violent movement thrust it beyond the epiglottis, in order to 
 allow the least necessary time to the closure of the glottis, afler which, by 
 the compression of the oesophagus, it is forced into the stomach. 
 
 Here it is that the true business of digestion commences. For as soon aa 
 any substance except water enters the stomach, this organ, with involuntary 
 tnovemehts, that seem almost like instinct, commences the secretion of the 
 gastric juice, and by long-continued contractions of its muscular coat, suc- 
 ceeds in effecting a most perfect mixture of the food with this juice, by which 
 the contents of the stomach are reduced to the softest pulp. 
 
 The gastric juice, in its pure state, is a colorless, transparent fluid ; "ino- 
 dorous, a little saltish, and perceptibly acid. It possesses the property of 
 coagulating albumen, and separating the whey of milk from its ourd, and 
 afterwards completely dissolving the curd. Its taste, when applied to the 
 38 
 
146 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 tongne, is similar to that of mucila^nous water, slightly acidulated with 
 muriatic acid." 'I'he organs of its secretion are an immense number of 
 lubes or glands, of a diameter varying from one five hundredth to one three 
 liuudredth of an inch, situated in the mucous coat of the stomach, and receiv- 
 nig tlieir blood from the gastric arteries. A chemical analysis shows it to 
 consist of water, mucilage, and the several free acids — muriatic, acetic, 
 lactic, and butyric, together with a peculiar organic matter called pepsin, 
 winch acts after the manner of ferments between the temperature of SO'' 
 and 104° F. 
 
 The true process of digestion is probably owing to the action of pepsin 
 and the acids, especially if the presence of the chloro-hydric or muriatic be 
 admitted ; since we know, by experiments out of the body, that chlorine, one 
 of its elements, is a powerful solvent of all organic substances. 
 
 The antiseptic properties of the gastric juice, as discovered by experi- 
 ments made on Alexis St. JUartin, doubtless have much influence on digestion, 
 although their true uses are probably not yet known. 
 
 As soon as the food is reduced to a state of fluidity, the pyloric orifice 
 of the stomach is unclosed; and it is thrust onwards through the ahmentary 
 canal, receiving in the duodenum the secretions of the liver and pancreas^ 
 after which it yields to the lacteeils its nutrient portion, and the residuum is 
 expelled from the oody. 
 
 There have been many hypotheses iit regard to the nature of the digestive 
 process. Some have supposed that digestion is a mere mechanical process 
 produced by the motion of the walls of the stomach ; while. others, in later 
 times, have considered it as under the influence of a spirit separate from the 
 individual, who took up his residence in the stomach and regulated the whole 
 afiair ; while others still would make it out to be a chemical operation, and 
 thus constitute the stomach a sort of laboratory. But to all these ridicu- 
 lous hypotheses Sir John Hunter has applied the following playful lan- 
 giidge : " Some will have it that the stomach is a mill 3 others that it is a 
 fermenting vat ; and others that it is a stewpan ; but in my view 01 the 
 ■natter, it is neither a mill, a fermenting vat, nor a stewpan, but u stomach, 
 a itomach ! " 
 
 At the present day this process is regarded as a complex, and not a simple 
 operation. It seems to be a process in which the mechanical, cnemical, and 
 vital agencies must all act in harmony and order ; for if one af these be 
 withdrawn, the function cannot be sustained for any considerable length of. 
 time J and of the chemical and mechanical parts of the process, since the 
 former is much more important, and, as a matter of course, the vital powers 
 are indispensable, therefore digestion may be considered as a chemical 
 operation, directly dependent on the laws of vitality, or of hfe ; since the 
 proper consistency of the food depends, in a great measure, upon the char- 
 acter of the solvents, while the secretion of these fluids, their proper amount. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 447 
 
 logelher wilh the peculiar instinct — as it almost seems to be — necessarv 
 to direct the stomach in its many functions, are exclusively and entirely Je 
 prudent on the laws and conditions of life. 
 
 G. 
 
 As food is necessary to supply the waste and promote the growth of tiie 
 body^ it follows that that will be the best adapted to the system which con- 
 tains the same chemical elements of which the body is composed ; viz., 
 oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. These elements are found in 
 greater or less quantity in all animal food, and in many vegetable products. 
 Hence, that article of food which contains all these elements in a proper 
 proportion will tend much more to the growth and strength of the body than 
 those kinds which are deficient in one or more of them. Much experience 
 on this point, and scientific research, seem to shuw that a reasonable amount 
 of animal food in health tends to give greater strength of muscle, and a 
 more general sense of fulness, than in ordinary cases a vegetable diet is able 
 to do, owing to the presence of nitrogen in animal tissues. Yet there are 
 ex&mples of the healthiest and strongest men, who live years without a 
 morsel of animal food ; and the fact can only be accounted for, by supposing 
 that the system has the power to make the most economical use of the little 
 nitrogen offered to it in the food 3 or else that it has by some means the 
 power to abstract it from the atmosphere, and transform it to the living ani- 
 mal substance. 
 
 H. 
 
 The proximate principles, which are the most important in nourishing the 
 body, are albumen and fibrin. These constitute the greater part of all the 
 softer animal tissues, and are also found in certain classes of vegetables, such 
 as peas, beans, lentils, and mauy seeds. Hence, in many cases, a vegetable 
 diet, especially if embracing any of these artiojes, would be sufficient to 
 sustain life, even if no animal food should be eaten. But no animal can 
 exist for a long time if permitted only to eat substances destitute of nitrogen, 
 as in the case of a dog fed entirely on sugar, which lived but thirty days. 
 And owing -to this fact, Baron Liebig proposes to call substances used for 
 food containing nitrogen, " elements of nutrition," and those containing an ex- 
 eoss of carbon, " elements of respiration ; " since, according to his view, the 
 food is necessary to support the growth of the body by replacing the effete 
 and worn-out particles with new matter, and also to keep up the supply of 
 fuel, in order to promote a sufficient degree of heat in the system. Accord- 
 ingly under the first division would be included all lean meats and (regetables 
 such as peas, &c. ; while the fat of anmials, vegetable oils, sugars, tubers 
 '■A3 me potato,) and all other substances containing starch, would be included 
 ondrr the latter division. 
 
448 
 
 4PPIND1X. 
 
 1. 
 
 This definition of cxhalants is from the theory of Hallei and others II 
 is now believed that the fluids exude through the thin coats of the blood- 
 vesse's. This process is called exotmose, and is the exhalation of old 
 physiolcgists, 
 
 J. 
 
 It is a well-established fact, in animal and vegetable physiology, that mem- 
 branes possess the property of allowing fluids and gases to pass through 
 tbem in either direction, and also to permit two fluids to pass in opposite 
 directions at the same time. This property is designated endotmoit when a 
 fluid passes from without a body inward ; and exotmott when the reverse 
 takes place. The first is called imhihiiion. One of the most strikmg instances 
 of this, in the human system, is shown in the lungs, where carbonic acid and 
 water pass out through the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes and 
 air-cells ; and the oxygen of the air enters the blood through the same mem- 
 brane. By this process of imbibition, the oxygenation of the blood is much 
 more readily and faithfully accomplished ; inasmuch, as by the immense 
 number of bronchial tubes and air-cells a larger quantity of blood is ex- 
 posed to a greater portion of air, than if the blood were directly laid open 
 to the atmosphere in a mass, or the air were immediately transmitted 
 through it. 
 
 Since the function of respiration is to free the system of superfluous 
 carbon and hydrogen, by union with the oxygen of the air, it follows that 
 the greater the amount of the products to be expelled, the larger the quan- 
 tity of oxygen will be required to efiect this purpose, as we find to be the 
 case with those who consume large quantities of food. 
 
 The quantity of oxygen daily consumed through the lungs by an adult 
 is about Z%.b oz., and the carbon in the food 13.9 oz. But in order to con- 
 vert this whole amount of carbon into carbonic acid, which passes off through 
 the lungs and skin, 37 oz. of oxygen are required ; the remaining 4.5 oz. 
 being absorbed by the skin. If the supply of food remain the same, while 
 the amount of oxygen in the inspired air is diminished, the superfluous car- 
 bon will induce disease in the system, as is the case of those persons who 
 are limited in their supply of air of a proper quality or quantity, and, con- 
 sequently, have l«ss appetite for food than those who are abundantly sup- 
 plied with air of the proper standard of health ; and in children, who pro- 
 portionally consume more food than adults, and who are more active, thereby 
 causing a more rapid circulation of blood, and, cmisequrntly, the remo\al 
 of more superfluous particles of mailer. 
 
 In children we notice the need of air, by their disposition to be much in the 
 open air, and often inspiring more deeply than is common in older persons 
 
APPENDIX. 44y 
 
 Also, if the carbon of the food does not have a requisite supply of oxygen 
 Irom the air, or other sources, the body becomes emaciated, although nourish- 
 lug food may be used. And on the other band, if there be a diminished sup- 
 ply of food, but an ^abundance of atmospheri? air, leanness and emaciation are 
 sure to follow ; owing to the fact that if the oxygen has no waste carbon 
 from the body to unite with, it combines with the fat, and some other soft 
 portions of the body, which the Author of nature seems to have provided 
 for this very purpose j as is seen in the case pf hibernating ajiimals, who 
 enter their places of winter abode sleek and fat, but crawl out in the spring 
 not merely deprived of their fatty matter, but also with great diminution of 
 all the softer parts, which have given up their share of carbon to supply 
 animal heat. One important cause of emaciation in febrile diseases is tlie 
 greater rapidity of the pulse and respiration, which consume more carbon 
 than is afforded by the scanty supply of food that is taken, although profiise 
 perspiration, which almost always occurs in some stages of fevers, greatly 
 diminishes the full state of the body. 
 
 K. 
 
 The theory of Barbn Liebi^ concerning the change which the blood 
 experience^ m color, in its passage through the lungs, meets with the appro- 
 bation of many physiologists, although there are some important difficulties 
 in the way of fully receiving i^ A chemical analysis of the bloorl shows it 
 to be composed of albumen and fibrin, together with some otner substances, 
 m small proportions, and always perceptible tiaces of iron. He attributes 
 the change in color to the iron, as this substance enters into combination 
 with carbon and oxygen. For, as the blood passes through the trunks of 
 the larger vessels and capillaries, it receives the carbon from the tissues 
 which are continually transformed, and taking up the oxygen from the arte- 
 rialized blood, forms carbonic acid, which unites with the iron, forming proto- 
 carbonate of iron. This being of a gray color, he supposes it to be that 
 which, with the other impurities of the blood, gives the venous blood the dark 
 blue color. Then, as the blood comes in contact with the oxygen, as it is 
 returned and exposed to this element in the lungs, the carbonic acid leaves 
 the iron, which has a stronger affinity for oxygen than for carbonic acid, and 
 forms the scarlet red peroxide of iron, that gives the characteristic color to 
 the arterial blood. After this, as the blood is sent out through the smaller 
 arteries and capillaries, it again gathers carbon and other impurities from 
 the system, and becomes the dark, venous blood, thus completing the whole 
 change of color in the circulation. 
 
 38* 
 
450 APPENDIX. 
 
 As a.ready mentioned, different articles of food have been di\'ided into 
 • the azotized and non^azotized, or those which contain nitrogen as one of their 
 constituents, and those which are nearly destitute of it. Of these, accord- 
 ing to Liebig, the azotized portions are simply to supply the waste that is 
 continually going on in the body, and promote its growth in the early stages 
 of existence, or, in other words, the nutrient portion ; while the sugar, starch. 
 lie., are mainly of use in the respiratory organs. The correctness of this 
 view may be understood from the fact, that the inhabitants in the colder 
 regions of the earth consume a much larger quantity of oil and fat than 
 the residents of hotter climates ; and also those dwelling in the temperate 
 zones can eat with greater impunity a larger quantity of fat meats in the 
 winter than in the summer, there being then so much more demand for ani- 
 mal heat than in the summer. 
 
 M. 
 
 The suggestion of using the 'bellows in asphyxia^ is from the directions 
 of that distinguished and veteran surgeon, Valentine Mott, of New York 
 city. The directions in the first part of the paragraph are the most prac- 
 tical, and best adapted to the wants of the community. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 Ab- duc'tor. [Ij. ahduco, to lead away.] 
 A muscle which moves certain parts, 
 by separating them from the axis of the 
 body. 
 Ab-do'men. [L. abdo, to liide.] That 
 part of the body which lies between 
 the thorax and the bottom of the 
 ptjlvis. 
 
 Ak-dom'in-is. Pertaining to the al> 
 dotnen. 
 
 A-CE-TAB'u-LUM. [L. acetum, vinegar.] 
 The socket for the head of the thigh- 
 lione j an ancient vessel for holding 
 vinegar. 
 
 A-cE^Tic. [L. acetUTTij vinegar.] Relat- 
 ing to acetic acid. This is always com- 
 posed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, 
 in the same proportion. 
 
 \-chil'lis. A term applied to the ten- 
 don of two large muscles of the leg. 
 
 A-CRO'MI-ON. fGr. aKpo^j akros, highest, 
 and <ofios, omos, shoulder.] A process 
 of the scapula that joins to the clavicle. 
 
 Ad-duc'tor. [L. adduco, to lead to.] 
 A muscle which draws one part of the 
 body toward another. 
 
 Ali-BU-GlN'E-A. [L. albus^ white.] A 
 term applied to white textures. 
 
 Ali-BU'MEN. [L. alhiLs, white.] An ani- 
 mal substance of the same nature as the 
 white of an egg. 
 
 A-Lu'MiK-tM. [L.] The name given 
 to tlie metallic base of alumina. 
 
 Al've-O-laR. [li- alveolus^ a socket.] 
 Pertaining to the sockets of the teeth. 
 
 Am-mo'm-a. An alkali. It is composed 
 of three equivalents of hydrogen and 
 one of nitrogen. 
 
 A-HAS'TO-MOSE. [Gf. aia, una, through, 
 
 and trrofia^ stoma, mouth.] The com- 
 munication of arteries and veins with 
 each other. 
 
 An-a-tom'i-cal. Relating to the parts 
 of the body, when dissected or sep- 
 arated. 
 
 A-nat'o-my. [Greek ava, otio, through, 
 and Toi^r], tamS, a cutting.] The ae- 
 scription of the structure of animals. 
 The word anatomy properly signifies 
 dissection. 
 
 ATf'&U-LI. [L. angubis, a corner.] A 
 term applied to certain muscles on ac- 
 count of their form. 
 
 AH-1-MAi.'cu-i.iE. fL. animalciUaj a 
 little animal.] Animals that are only 
 perceptible by means of a microscope. 
 
 An'nu-lar, [L. amiuliLSy a ring.] Hav- 
 ing the form of a ring. 
 
 An>ti'cus. [L.] a term applied to cer- 
 tain muscles. 
 
 A-ort'a. [Gr. aopTijy aortS ; from arjp, 
 aSr, air, and rrjoEro, tSreo, to keep.l 
 The great artery that arises from the 
 left ventricle of the heart. 
 
 Ap-o-neu-ro'sis. [Gr. otto, apo, from, 
 and vevpovj neuron^ a nerve.] The 
 membranous expansions of muscles 
 and tendons. The ancients called 
 every white tendon neuron, a. nerve. 
 
 Ap-pa-ra'tus. [L. apparoy to prepare,] 
 An assemblage of organs designed to 
 produce certain results. 
 
 Ap-pend'ix. [L., an addition.] Some- 
 thing appended or added. 
 
 A'QUE-ous. [L. aqua, water.] Par- 
 taking of the nature of water. 
 
 A-bacb'KOID. [Gr. apaxvn-, arachnB., a 
 spider and ciSag, eidos, form.] Re? 
 
452 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 sembling a spider's web- A thin mem- 
 brane that coven the brain. 
 
 Aa'BOR. [L.] A tree. JJrborvittB. The 
 tree of life. A term applied to a part 
 of the cerebellum. 
 
 AR'TE-ry. [Gi". aripf aSr, air, find D/pfu, 
 tSreo^ to keep ; because the ancieuta 
 thought that the arteries contained only 
 air.] A tube tJirough which blood 
 flows ftom the heart. 
 
 A-RYI-E'NOID. [Gr. apvTaiva,arvXaina, 
 a ewer, and £i6os, ^doa, form.] The 
 name of a cartilage of Uie larynx. 
 
 A9-cEND'EXS. [L.] Ascending; ris- 
 ing. 
 
 As-PH YX'l-A. [Gr. a, q, Qot, and atpv^ts, 
 spkyxia, pulse.] Originally, want of 
 pulse ; now used for suspended respira- 
 tion, or apparent death. 
 
 Aa-T&Ae'A-LUS. [Gr.] The name of 
 a bone of the foot. One of the tarsal 
 bones. 
 
 AuD-i'TiON. [L. mdw, to hear.] Hear- 
 ing. 
 
 AUD-iT-o'Ri-US. [L.] Pertaining to the 
 organ of hearing. 
 
 Au'RI-CLE. [L. auricula, the external 
 ear ; from auru, the ear.] A cavity of 
 the heart. 
 
 Au-Kic'u-LAR. [L. aurieiila.] Pertain- 
 ing to the auricle. 
 
 Ax-ii^'LA. [L.] The armpit. 
 
 Ax'n*-LA-RY. Belonging or relating to 
 the armpit. 
 
 A-20TE'. [Gr. a, a, not, and ^otn, xos, 
 life.] Nitrogen. One nf the constit- 
 uent elements of the Btmosphere, So 
 named because it will not sustain life. 
 
 Bbn-ZO'IO. Benzoic acid. A peculiar 
 
 vegetable acid, obrained from bensoin 
 
 and some other bals»ma. 
 Bi'cEPS. [L. bis, twice, and caput, a 
 
 head.] A name applied to muscles with 
 
 two beads at one extremity. 
 Bi-cus'PLDs. [Ij. bi3 and ctupia, a point] 
 
 Teeth that have two points upon their 
 
 crown 
 Bile. [L. mis.] A yellrw, viscid fluid 
 
 cpcreted by the liver. 
 
 Bl-FEN'NI-FORM. [L. bis and penna, u 
 feather.] Bipenviform muscle. Having 
 fibres on each side of a common 
 tendon. 
 
 BRACH'l-AZi. [L. braehium.] Beknging 
 to the arm. 
 
 Bre'vib. [L.] Brans^ short; breoior 
 shorter. 
 
 Bronch i-a, 'M, [L.] A division erf 
 the trachea that passes to the lungs. 
 
 Broncb*i-ax<. Relating to the bronchia. 
 
 Bronch-i Tis. [I4.] An inflammauon 
 of the bronchia. 
 
 Buc-ci-na'tor. [h. biucmvm, a tram- 
 pet.] The name of u muscle of tho 
 cheefc, so named because used in blow- 
 ing wind instruments. 
 
 BuR'SiB Mu-CO'sA. [L. buraa, a purse, 
 and mucosa, viscous.] Small sacs. 
 containing a viscid fluid, situated about 
 the joints, under tendons. 
 
 Cm cum. [li.] Blind ; the name given 
 to the commencement of the colon. 
 
 Calx, Gal'cis. [L.J The heel-bone. 
 
 CAXi'ci-yjjt. [L.] The metallic basis 
 of lime. 
 
 Cap'IL-LA-RT. [L. capiUuSf » hair.] 
 Resembling a hair; smaU. 
 
 Cap'su-x.ar. Pertaining to a capsule. 
 
 Cap'sule. [L. eapsula, a little chesLJ 
 A membranous bag, enclosing a part 
 
 Ca'put. [L.] The head. Caput eoS. 
 The head of the colon. 
 
 Car'bon. [L. carbo, a coal.] Pure char- 
 coal. An elementary combustible sub- 
 stance. 
 
 Car-bon'ic. Pertaining to carbon. 
 
 Car'di-ac. [Qr. xapSta, kardia, hearty 
 Relating to the heart, or upper orifice 
 of the stomach. 
 
 Car'ne-a,-*. [L. cori, camw, flesh.) 
 Fleshy. 
 
 Ca-ROT'id. [Gr. Kapost karoa, lethargy.] 
 The great arteries of the neck that con- 
 vey blood to the heart. The ancients 
 supposod drowsinras Co be seated Id 
 these arteries. 
 
 Car'PAL. [L. carpua, the wriatj Re- 
 lating to the wribU 
 
ULOSSARY. 
 
 453 
 
 Cak'pus, -I. [L.J The wrist. 
 Gar'ti-laoe. [Im. earttlagd.] Gristle. 
 A smooth, elastic sub-jtance, softer than 
 bone. 
 CAR-Ti-LAa'iN-ovs. Pertaining to car- 
 tilage. 
 Cau-ca'sian. One of tbe racea of 
 
 men. 
 Ca'va. [Ij.] Hollow, f^ena cava. A 
 name given to the two great veins of 
 the body. 
 Gel'lu-lar. [L. cellulaf a little cell.] 
 
 Composed of cells. 
 CeRt-e-bel'lum. [L.] The hinder and 
 lower part of the brain, or the little 
 brain. 
 Cer'e-BRAJL. Pertaining to the brain. 
 Cer'e-brum. [L.] The front and large 
 part of the brain. The term is some- 
 times applied to the whole contents of 
 the cranium. 
 Cer'e-bro-Spi'nal. Relating to the 
 
 brain and spine. 
 Cer'vix. [L.] The neck. 
 Cer'vi-cal. Relating to the neck- 
 Chest. [Sax.] The thorax ; the trunk 
 of the body from the neck to the 
 abdomen. 
 CHiiO'RiNE. [Gr. xXwp-'iff, ehlordsj green.] 
 
 Chlorine gas, so named from its color. 
 Ohor'UA,-^. [L.] a cord. An assem- 
 blage of fibres. 
 Cho'roid. [Gr. x°P'-''^^ choriim.'] A 
 term applied to several parts Of the 
 body that resemble the skin. 
 CuvLE. [Gr. x^^off* chvlos, juice.] A 
 nutritive fluid, of a whitish appearance, 
 which is extracted from food by the 
 action of the digestive organs. 
 Chyl-i-FI-ca'tion. \ehyU and L./acw, 
 to make.] The process by which chyle 
 is formed. 
 Chyme. (_Gr xt)m»«i chwmas, juice.] A 
 kind of grayish pulp formed from tbe 
 food in the stomach. 
 Chym-i-fi-ca'tion. [chyme and L. 
 /ano, to muke.] The process by which 
 chyme is fonned. 
 Ciii'iA-RY. [L. dlia^ eyelashes.] Be- 
 longing to the fcyelids. 
 
 38 
 
 Ciw-E-Ri'Tious. [I.. ctTiis, ashes.] Hav- 
 ing the color of ai^hes. 
 
 CLav'1-ci.e. [L. clavicula, from rfauw, a 
 key.] The collar-bone j so called from 
 its resemblance in shape to an ancient 
 key. 
 
 CliEl'DO. A term applied to some mus- 
 cles that are attached to the clavicle. 
 
 Co-AG'u-LUM. [L.] A coagulated mass, 
 a clot of blood. 
 
 Coc'cYX. [Gr.] An assemblage of 
 bones joined to the sacrum 
 
 COCH'LE-A. [Gr. KtnO^ta, kocldo, to twist ; 
 or L. cocA2ea,a screw.] A cavity of the 
 ear resembling in form a snail shell. 
 
 Co'LOK. [jGr.J A portion of the laigs 
 intestine. 
 
 Co-LUM'NA, -M. [L.] A column or 
 pillar. 
 
 CoM-MU^Nis. [Ii] A name applied tu 
 certain muscles. 
 
 COM-PliEx'iJs. [L. complector, to em- 
 brace.] The name of a muscle that 
 embraces many attachments. 
 
 COM-PREss'OR. [L. con, together, and 
 premo, pressus^ to press.] A term ap- 
 plied to some muscles, that compress 
 the parts to which they are attached. 
 
 Con'dyle. [Gr. kovSvXos, kondulos, a 
 knuckle, a protuberance.] A promi- 
 nence on the end of a bone. 
 
 CoN-JUNC-Ti'VA. [L. am, together, and 
 jungOj to join.] The membrane that 
 covers the anterior part of the globe 
 of the eye. 
 
 Cop'FER. A metal of a pale, red color 
 tinged with yellow. 
 
 COR-A'COID. [Gr. Kopa^f Jiorax, a crow, 
 and eiSog, etdos, form.] A process 
 of the scapula shaped like the beak 
 of a crow. 
 
 Co'Ri-ON. [G». xopiovs chorion, skin.) 
 The true skin. 
 
 CORN'E-A. [L. comu, a horn.] The 
 transparent membrane in the fore part 
 of the eye. 
 
 Cos'TA. [L< costa, a coast, side, or rib.J 
 
 A rib. 
 CRiB'Ri-EORai. |L. tTT^T-mn, a sieve, and 
 forma, form.] A plate of the ethmoid 
 
454 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 bone, through which the olfactory nerve 
 
 passes in the nose. 
 Cni'coiD [Gr. KpiKos, ftrt&oa, a ring, 
 
 and Ei6oif etdos, form.] A name given 
 
 tea cartilage of the larynx, from its form. 
 Crys'TaL-hne. [L. crystallmus, con- 
 
 aieting of crystal.] CrygtaUine lens. 
 
 One of the humors of the eye. It ia 
 
 convex, white^ firm, aiid transparent 
 Cu'Bi-Tus, -I. [L. cubitua^ the elbow.] 
 
 One of the bones of the forearm, also 
 
 called the ultia. 
 Cu'boid. [Gr. Kv/3osj kuhos, a cube, and 
 
 Bidosj eSfioa, form.] Having nearly the 
 
 form of a cube. 
 Cu-NE'i-FORM. [L. euneusy a wedge.] 
 
 The name of bones in the wrist and foot. 
 Cus'piD. [L. cuspisj a. point.] Having 
 
 one point. 
 Cu-TA'NE-ous. [L. eutia, akin.] Be- 
 longing to the skin. 
 Gu'Ti-cLE. [L. cutis.] The external 
 
 layer of the skin. 
 Od'tis Ve'ra. [L.cutw, and vera, true.] 
 
 The internal layer of the skin; the true 
 
 akin 
 
 Del'toid. [6r. SeXra, deUa^ the Greek 
 
 letter A, and n6oi, eidos, form.] The 
 
 name of a muscle, that resembles in 
 
 form the Greek letter A. 
 Dens. [L.] A tonth. 
 Dent'al. [L. deoBj tooth.] Pertaining 
 
 to the teeth. 
 De-fress'or. [L.] The name of a 
 
 muscle that draws down the part to 
 
 which it ia attached. 
 Perm'oid. [Gr. Sepiia, derma^ the skin, 
 
 and si6oi, etdoSf form.] Resembling 
 
 skin. 
 De-scend'ens. [L. dt and warufo, to 
 
 climb.] Descending, Ailling. 
 Dl'A-PfiRAOM. [Gr. (Jin^pay/YO, dia- 
 
 phragma, a partition.] The midriflTi a 
 
 muscle depurating the cheat fVom the 
 
 abdomen. 
 Dl-A«-RIIffi'A. [Or. fh-u}pr.(at dmrrfieoy 
 
 to flow through.] A morbidly (Voquent 
 
 evacuation of the tnleRtirtea. 
 Dl-AS'TO LE. [Or. (JioffrU/u, diastello. 
 
 to put asunder.] The dilatation of the 
 heart and arteries when the blood 
 enters them. 
 
 Di~&es'tion. [L. diffeatio.] The pro- 
 cess of dissolving food in the stomach, 
 and preparing it for circulation and 
 nourishmenL 
 
 Dio-i-TO'RUM. [L. diffitvs, a finger.J 
 A term applied to certain muscles oi the 
 extremities. 
 
 DOR'SAL, [L. dorsum^ the back.] Per- 
 taining to the back. 
 
 Du-O-DE'HUM. [L. duodenus, of twelve 
 fingers' breadth.] The first portion of 
 the small intestine. 
 
 Du'RA Ma'ter. [L. dwnu, hard, and 
 mater, mofJier.] The outermost mem- 
 brane of the brain. 
 
 Dys'en-teb^V. [Gr. 6vs, dUs^ bad, and 
 evTcpittt enteria, iytestinea.] A dis- 
 charge of blood and mucus from the 
 intestines attended with tenesmus. 
 
 Dvs-PEP'si-A. [Gr. dvs, dfisj liad, and 
 iriirToif p^to, to digest.] Indigestion, 
 or difficulty of digestion. 
 
 En-am'el. [Fr.] The smooth, hard 
 
 substance which covers the crown or 
 
 visible part of a tooth. 
 Ep-i-d£rh'i& [Gr. £irt, qn, upon, and 
 
 iepfta, derma, the akin.] The scarTi 
 
 skin i the cuticle. 
 Ep-i-GLOT'Tis, [Gr. ciTiy epij upon, and 
 
 yXutTra, fflStta, the tongue.] Cue of 
 
 the cartilages of the glottis. 
 £u-STA'ciii'AN Tube. A channel from 
 
 the fauces to the middle ear, named 
 
 fVom Eustachius, who first described it. 
 Ex'cRE-MENT. [L. czcer^to, to separate.] 
 
 Matter excreted and ejected j alvioe 
 
 diachargea. 
 Ex-cttE-MEN-Tl'TiAL. Pertaining to 
 
 excremenL 
 £x'cRE-TO-RY. A little duct or vensel, 
 
 destined to receive secreted fluidsi and 
 
 to excrete or dischnrge tliem j also, a 
 
 socretory vessel. 
 Ex-HA'LANT. [I . cxhaUt, to aond forth 
 
 vapor.] Having the quality of exhaling 
 
 or evaporating. 
 
GLOSSARY, 
 
 455 
 
 Ex-TENS'OR. [L.] A name applied to 
 B muscle that serves to extend any part 
 of the body ; opposed to Flexor. 
 
 Fa'ciaIi. [L. faeieSf face.] Pertaining 
 to the face. 
 
 Falx. [L. /ate, u scythe.] A process 
 of the dura mater shaped like a 
 scythe. 
 
 Fas'ci-a. [L. fasda^ a band.] A ten- 
 dinous expansion or aponeurosis. 
 
 Fas-cic'u-lus,-li. [L./asew, a bundle.] 
 A little bundle. 
 
 Faux, -CES. [L.] The top of the tliroat. 
 
 Fem'o-ral. Pertaining to the femur. 
 
 Fem'o-ris. a term applied to muscles 
 that are attached to the femur. 
 
 Fe'mur. [L.] The thigh-bone. 
 
 Fe-nes'tra, -UM. [L. fenestraj a win- 
 dow.] A term applied to some open- 
 ing into the internal ear. 
 
 Fx'BRE. [L. Jibra.] An organic fila- 
 ment, or thread, which enters into the 
 composition of every animal and vege- 
 table texture. 
 
 Fi'brin. A peculiar organic substance 
 found in animals and vegetables j it is 
 u solid substance, tough, elastic, and 
 composed of thready fibres. 
 
 Fi^BROus. Composed or consisting of 
 fibres. 
 
 Fi'bro-Car'ti-lage. An organic tis- 
 sue, partaking of the nature of fibrous 
 tissue and that of cartilage. 
 
 f iB'u-LA. [L., a clasp.] The outer and 
 lesser bone of the leg. 
 
 FiB'u-LAR. Belonging to the fibula. 
 
 Fil'a-ment. [L. JUamenta, threads.] 
 Ik fine thread, of which flesh, nerves, 
 skin, &c., are composed. 
 
 Flec'tion. [li. Jtectio.'] Theactof bend- 
 ing- 
 
 FOL'lil-CLE. [L. falUcxduSy a small 
 bag.] A gland; a little bag in animal 
 boditis. 
 
 FORE'ARM. The part of the upper 
 extremity between the elbow and 
 hand. 
 
 Fos'SA. [L., a ditch,] A cavity in a 
 bnne, with a large aporture. 
 
 FRjE'NUM. [L., a bridle.] Fritnum Iwr 
 
 guiB. The bridle of the tongue. 
 FuNc'TiON. [L frnigor, to perform.] 
 
 The action of an organ or system of 
 
 organs. 
 FUN'&I-FORM. [It. fungus and fomuu) 
 
 Having terminations like the head of a 
 
 fungus, or a mushroom. 
 
 Gan'&li-ON, -A. [Gr.] An enlarge- 
 ment in the course of a nerve. 
 
 Gas'TRIC. [Gr. yaaTTip, gostSr, the 
 stomach.] Belonging to the stomach. 
 
 GAS-TR0C-NE'MI-U3. [Gr. yaarnpf gas- 
 ter, the stomach, and Ki/nnri, knlmS^ tho 
 leg.] The name of large muscles of 
 the leg. 
 
 Gel'a-tin. [L. gelo, to congeal.] A 
 concrete animal substance, transparent 
 and soluble in water. 
 
 Gle'noid. [Gr. y'Xttrri, glSnl^ a cavity.] 
 A term appl led to some articulate cav- 
 ities of bones. 
 
 Glos'sa. [Gr.] The tongue. Names 
 compounded with this word ar» ap- 
 plied to muscles of the tongue. 
 
 Glos'so-Pha-ryn'gi-ai. Relatmg to 
 the tongue and pharynx. 
 
 Glot'tis. [Gr.] The narrow opening 
 at the upper part of the larynx. 
 
 GliU'TE-us. [Gr.] A name given to 
 muscles of the hip. 
 
 Hem'OR-RHAGE. [Gr. dt/ia,Aaima, blood, 
 and prjyvvco, rSgnuo, to burst.] A dis- 
 charge of blood from an artery or vein. 
 
 Hu'MER-us. [L.] The bone of the arm. 
 
 Hy'a-loid. [Gr.] A transparent mem- 
 brane of the eye. ^ 
 
 Hy'dro-&en. [Gr. Wwp, water, and 
 ycvvaoij to generate.] A gas which con- 
 stitutes, one of the elements of water. 
 
 Hy'sI-ene. [Gr. iyiciuovj hagietnon, 
 health. I The part of medicine which 
 treats of the preservation of health. 
 
 Hy'oid. [Gr. u and siijjs, eSrfos, shape.] 
 A bone of the tongue resembling the 
 Greek letter upsilon in shape. 
 
 Hy-oiD'E-us. Pertaining to the hyoid 
 bone. 
 
456 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 HY'PO-flLOs'SAL. Under the tongue. 
 The name of a nerve cf the tongue. 
 
 IL'E-UM. [Gr. si\(Oj eilS, to wind.] A 
 
 portion of the small intestines. 
 Il'i-ac. [From the above.] The flank ; 
 
 pertaining to the small intestine. 
 iL'i-UM. The haunch-bone. 
 IN-CI'SOR. [L. incido, to cut.] A front 
 
 tooth that cuts or divides. 
 Iic'dex. [L. indicot to show.] The fore- 
 finger ; the pointing finger. 
 In-nom-i-na'ta. [L. in, not, and nomen, 
 name.] Farts which have no proper 
 name. 
 In-Os'cu-LATE. [L. in and oscuUauSf 
 f^om oseulorf to kiss.] To unite, as 
 two vessels at their extremities. 
 IN'IER. [L.] Between. 
 In-ter-cost'al. [L. inteTf between, 
 
 and cosUij a rib.] Between the ribs. 
 In-TER-ko'di-i. [L. inter, between, and 
 nodusj knot.] A term applied to some 
 muscles of the forearm. 
 Ih-ter-sti'tial. [L. inter, between, 
 and sto, to stand.] Pertaining to or con- 
 taining interstices. 
 In-tes'tihes. [h. intits, within.] The 
 canal that extends from the stoniach to 
 the anus. 
 I'Ris. [L., the rainbow.] The colored 
 circle that surrounds the pupil of the 
 eye. 
 I'vo-RY. A hard, solid, fine-grained 
 substance of a fine white color ; tlie 
 tusk of an elephant. 
 
 Jb^u'num. [L., empty.] A portion of 
 
 the small intestine. 
 Ju'au-LAR. [L. jvgvJ.umt the neck.] 
 
 Relating to the throat. The great veins 
 
 of the neck. 
 
 La'bi-um, La'bi-i. [UJ The Ilpg. 
 Lab'v-rinth. [Gr.] The internal 
 ear, so named from Its many w^nO- 
 
 veasel or tube of animal bodies for con- 
 veying chyle from the intestine to the 
 thoracic duct 
 Lam'i-na, -je. [L.] A plate, or thin 
 
 coat lying over another. 
 Lar'ynx. [Gr. Xapvy^j UirUTix.] The 
 
 upper part of the windpipe. 
 Lar-yh-qi'tib. Inflammation of the 
 
 larynx. 
 La-tis'smhus, -mi. [L., superlative of 
 hUuSf broad.] A term applied to some 
 muscles. 
 Le-va'tor. [L. levoy to raise.] A name 
 applied lo a muscle that raises some 
 part. 
 Lig'a-ihent. [L. ligoy to bind.] A 
 strong, compact substance serving to 
 bind one bone to another. 
 LiN'E-A, 'M. [L.] A line. 
 LiN'GUA, -M. [L,] A tongue. 
 Liv'er. The name of one of the ab- 
 dominal organs, the largest gland in the 
 system. It is situated below the 
 diaphragm, and secretes the bile. 
 Lobe. A round projecting part of an 
 
 organ. 
 Lon'sus, Lon'gi-or. [L., long, longer.] 
 
 A term applied to several muscles. 
 Lum'bar. [L. lumbus, the loins.] Per. 
 
 taining to the loins. 
 Lymph. [L. lympha, water.] A color- 
 less fluid in animal bodies, and con- 
 tained in vessels called lymphatics. 
 Lym-phat'ic. a vessel of animal 
 liodiea that contains or conveys lymph. 
 
 Mag-ne'si-um. The metallic base of 
 magnesia. 
 
 Maq'nds, -NA, -num. [L., great.] , A 
 term applied to certain muscles. 
 
 Ma'JOR. [L., greater.] Greater in ex- 
 tent or quantity. 
 
 Man'ga-nese. a metal of a whitijb 
 gray color. 
 
 Mar'ROW. [Sax.] A soft, oleaginous 
 substance, contained in the cavities of 
 
OLOSSARr. 
 
 457 
 
 fflA9'TI-CATE, MaS-TT-CA'TION. IL. 
 ■mastico.] To chew ; tbe act of chew- 
 ing. 
 
 Mas'TOID. [Gr. uatrrof, mastoat breast, 
 and siSos, etdos^ form.] The name of 
 a process of the temporal bone behind 
 tbe ear. 
 
 EJas-TOId'e-US. a name applied to 
 muscles that are attached to the mas- 
 toid process. 
 
 Max-il'la. JL.] The jaw-bone: 
 
 Max'iIj-LA-RT. Pertaining to the jaw. 
 
 Max'i-mus, -um. [L., superlative of 
 maffTius, great.] A term applied to sev- 
 eral muscles. 
 
 Me-a'tu3. [L. meo, to go.] A passage 
 or channel. 
 
 Me-di-as-ti'num. a membrane that 
 separates the chest into two parte. 
 
 Me'di-uM, -a. [L.] The space or sub- 
 stance through which a body passes 
 to any point. 
 
 Med'UL-IiA-RT. [L., nudvUaj marrow.] 
 Pertaining to marrow. 
 
 Me-dul'la OB-IiON-GA'TA. Com- 
 
 mencement of the spinal cord. 
 
 Me-dul'la Spi-na'lis. The spinal 
 cord. 
 
 IVEEM'BRA'irA. A membrane; a thin, 
 white, flexible skin formed by fibres 
 interwoven like net-work- 
 MEM' BR A-N017S. Relating to a, mem- 
 brane. 
 
 Mes'eh-teRt-t. [Gr. iisoosi maes, the 
 middle, and svrepoVf enteroitj the intes- 
 tine.] The membrane in the middle 
 of the intestines, t^ which they are 
 attached to the spine. 
 
 Mes-en-ter'ic. Pertaining to the mes- 
 entery. 
 
 ftlET-A-CAR'PAli. Eclating to the meta- 
 carpus. 
 
 MET-a-CAR'PUS. [Gr. uETa^ meta^ after, 
 and KaprroSf karpoa, wrist] The part 
 of the hand between the wrist and 
 fingeni 
 
 Met-a-tar'sal Relating to the meta- 
 tarens. 
 
 MET-A-TAR'SUS. [Gr /(£ra, meto, after, 
 and rapaos tarsoB, the tarsus.] The 
 
 39 
 
 Instep. A term applied to seven botiea 
 
 of the foot 
 MiD'RIFF. [Sax. miff, and krife^ the 
 
 belly.] See Diaphragu. 
 MiN'i-MUS, -I. [L.] The smallest. A 
 
 term applied to several muscles. 
 Mi'NOR. [L.] Less, smaller. A term 
 
 applied to eeveral muscles. 
 Mi'TRAL. [L mitraj a mitre.] The 
 
 name of the valves in the left side of 
 
 the heart. 
 MO-DI'0-LUS. [L. modtw, a measure.] 
 
 A cone in the cochlea around which 
 
 the membranes wind. 
 Mo'LAR. [L. moZa, a mill.] The name 
 
 of some of the large teeth. 
 MOL'LIS. [L.] Soft. 
 MO'TOR, -ES. [L. moteoj to move.] 4 
 
 mover. A term applied to certain 
 
 nerves. 
 Mu'cous. Pertaining to mucus. 
 Mu'cus. A viscid fluid secreted by tbe 
 
 mucous membrane, which it serves to 
 
 moisten and defend. 
 Mus'cLE. A bundle of fibres enclosed 
 
 in a sheath. 
 AIus'cu-iiAR. Relating to a muscle 
 My-o'ses. a term applied to certain 
 
 muscles of the neck. 
 
 Na'sal. Relating to the nose. 
 
 Na'sus. [L., the nose.] The nostrils 
 
 Nerte. An organ of sensation and mo- 
 tion in animals. 
 
 Nerv'OUS. Relating to the nerves. 
 
 Neu-RI-lem'a. [Gr. vevpov, neuron^ a 
 nerve, and Xefif^aj lemoj a sheath.] 
 The sheath or covering of a nerve. 
 
 Ni'eRUM. [L.] Black. 
 
 Ni'TRO-&EH. That element of the aie 
 which IB called azote. 
 
 Nu-TRi'TiOPr. The art or process of 
 promoting the growth, or repairing the 
 waste of the system. 
 
 OC-ciP-i-TA'Lis. Pertaining to theback 
 
 part of the head. 
 Oc'ci-PUT. [L. oh and caput, the bead 1 
 
 The hinder part of the head. 
 Oc-u-LO'RUM. Of the eyes. 
 
458 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Oc'u-I.US, -I, [L.] The eye. 
 
 CE-soph'a-gds. [Gr. oiw, oi6j to carry, 
 and 0ayu, -phago^ to eat.] I'he name 
 of the passage throtjgh which the food 
 passes from the mouth to the stomach. 
 
 0-LEC'RA-NOW. [Gr. biXtvE, Qlene^ the 
 cubit, and Kpavov^ kranojif the head.] 
 The elbow ; the head of the ulna. 
 
 Ol-fact'o-ky. [L. aleo, to smell, and 
 facio, to make.] Pertaining to smell- 
 ing. 
 
 O-ittEN'TUM. [L.] The caul. 
 
 O'MO. [Gr. oyfiost 5vios, the shoulder.] 
 Names compounded of this word are 
 applied to muscles attached to the 
 shoulder. 
 
 Oph-THAL'MIC. [Gr. o^QaXfiosy oph^ 
 tkalmos, the eye.] Belonging to the eye. 
 
 Of-fo'nens. That which acts in oppo- 
 sition to^omething. The name of two 
 muscles of the hand. 
 
 Op'TI-CUS, Op'TIC. [Gr. orrro/iai, op- 
 tomaiy to see.] Relating to the eye. 
 
 Or-bic'u-lar. [L. orbUj a circle.] 
 Circular. 
 
 Or-bic-u-la'ris. a name applied to 
 several muscles. 
 
 Ob'oan. a part of the system destined 
 to exercise some particular function. 
 
 Or'I-gin. Commencement ; source. 
 
 Oa. [L.] A bone; the mouth of any 
 thing. 
 
 O'RJS. [L. ost oria.] Of the mouth. 
 
 03 Hy-oid'es. [Gr. See ^ Hyoid.] 
 The name of the bone at the base of 
 the tongue. 
 
 Os'MA-zome. [Gr. offixTj, oamSj smell, 
 and ^(Oftog, i5moa^ broth.] A principle 
 obtained from animal fibre which gives 
 the peculiar taste to broth. 
 
 Os'sa. [L., plural of os, bone.] Bones. 
 
 Os'3E-ous. Pertaining to bones. 
 
 Os-si-fi-ca'tion. The formation of 
 hnnes in animals. 
 
 Os'si-FY. [L, ossat bones, and fiteio, to 
 make.] To convert into bone. 
 
 Os^fiis. Of a bone. 
 
 0-va'le. [L.] The shape of an egg. 
 
 Ox-AT/io. Pertaining to sorrel. Oxalic 
 aoid in the acid of sorrel. £t Is com- 
 
 posed of two equivalents of carbon 
 and three of oxygen.' 
 Ox'y-g-en. a permanently elastic fluid, 
 invisible and inodorous. One of the 
 cogjponents of atmospheric air. 
 
 Pa-LA'tum. [L.] The palate ; the roof 
 
 of the mouth. 
 Pal-pe-bra'bitm. [L. palpebral the 
 
 eyelid.] Of the eyelids. 
 Pal'mar. [L. palnuij the paLm.] Be- 
 longing to the hand. 
 Pal-ivla'ris. a term applied to some 
 muscles attached to the palm of the 
 hand. 
 Fan'cre-as. [Gr. irav, pan, all, and 
 Kpeas, kreaSf flesh.] The name of one 
 of the digestive organs. 
 Fan-cbe-at'ic. Belonging to the pan- 
 creas. 
 Fa-pil'i*a, -m. [L.] Small conie&I 
 
 prominences. 
 Pa-ral'y-si3. Abolition of function, 
 whether of intellect, sensation, or mo- 
 tion. 
 Pa-ren'chY-ma. [Gr. n-apeyxro), pa- 
 Tengckedj to pour through.] The sub- 
 stance contained between the blood- 
 vessels of an organ. 
 Fa-ROT'id. [Gr. Trapa, para, near, and 
 bJTOSj dtosy the gen. of ovs, ous, the 
 ear.] The name of tlie largest salivary 
 gland. 
 Pa-tel'la, ~M. [L.J The knee-pan. 
 PA-THET'l-CUa,-CI. [Gr. irados, patiMS, 
 passion.] The name of the fourth pair 
 of nerves. 
 Pec'tus. [L.] The chest. 
 Pec'to-ral. Pertaining to the chest. 
 Pec-to-ra'LIS. Belonging to the chest 
 Pe'DIS. [L., gen. of pesj the foot.] Of 
 
 the foot. 
 PEL'i-TONas. A term applied to masses 
 
 of Ihu 
 Fel'li-cle. [L., dim. of pelliSf the 
 
 akin.] A thin skin or film. 
 Pei^'vic. Relating to the pelvis. 
 PEL'via. [L.] Th© basin formed by 
 the large bones at the lower part of the 
 abdomen. 
 
GLOSSARY* 
 
 459 
 
 rEN'Kl*PORM. [L. peniia a feather.l 
 Haring the form of a feather, or quill. 
 
 Per-i-car'di-um. [Gr ff£(3(,peri,around, 
 and KopSiaj kardia^ the heart.] A mem- 
 brane that encloses the lieart. 
 
 Per-I-chon'dri-um. [Gr. irepi, peri, 
 around, and x("'^pcfjCAonJro5,cartilage.] 
 A membrane that invests cartilage. 
 
 Per-i-cra'ni-um. [Gr. Tr^pi, and Kpa- 
 vtov-t kraniojiy the crunium.] A mem- 
 brane that invests the slcull. 
 
 Per'ma-nent. Durable; lasting. 
 
 P£r-i-stal'tic. [Gr. Trcpio-reXAw, peri- 
 steUo, to involve.] A movement like 
 the crawling of a worm. 
 
 Per-spi-ra'tion. [L.;?er, through, and 
 spiro, to breathe.] The excretion from 
 the skin. 
 
 Pual'anx, -ges. fGr. ipaXay^, pluUanXj 
 an army.] Three rows of small bones 
 forming the fingers or toes. 
 
 Pha-lan'&i-aIj. Belonging to the fin- 
 gers or toes. 
 
 PHA-RYN'CrE-AL. Relating to the pha- 
 rynx. 
 
 Phar'ynx. [Gr. tpapvy^^ pharunx.] The 
 upper part of the oesophagus. 
 
 Phos'puor-us. [Gr. 0wff, phdSj the 
 light, and 0£pcj, pher5, to bear.] A com- 
 bustible substance, of a yellowish col- 
 or, semi-transparent, resembling wax. 
 
 Phren'ic. [Gr. ^pjjv, pAren,the mind.] 
 Belonging to the diaphragm. 
 
 PnYS-i-oli'o-GY. [Gr. (pvcisj phusis, 
 nature, and Xoyos, logos., a discourse.] 
 The science of the functions of the 
 organs of animals and plants. 
 
 Px'A Ma'ter. [L., good mother.] The 
 name of one of the membranes of the 
 brain. 
 
 Pig-men'tum. [L.] Paint i a prepa- 
 ration of colors. 
 
 PJN'NA. [L., a wing.] A part of the ex- 
 ternal ear. 
 
 Pi.A-TYs'MA. [Gr.7rXarvff,pZo£fis, broad.] 
 A muscle of the neck. 
 
 Pleu'RA, -M. [Gr. TrAfWpa, pleura, the 
 side.] A thin membrane that covctb 
 the inside of the thorax, and also forms 
 tlie exterior coal of the lungs. 
 
 Pleu'ral Relating to the pleura. 
 
 Plex'us. [L. plecto, to weave together*] 
 Any unioa of nerves, vessels, or fibres, 
 in the form of net-work. 
 
 PneU-M0-GA3'TRIC. [Gr. TTven^ttdVjpici*- 
 m3n, the lungs, and yacrTjp, gasfer, the 
 stomach.] Belonging to both the stom- 
 ach and lungs. 
 
 Pol'IjI-013. [L.] a term applied to 
 muscles attached to the fin^^ers and toes, 
 
 POHS. - [L.] a bridge. Pons varolii, 
 A part of the brain formed by the union 
 of the crura cerebri and cer^belli. 
 
 Pop-LiT-E'Al.. [L. poplesj the ham.] 
 Pertaining to the ham or knee-joint. A 
 name given to various parts. 
 
 Pos'Tl-cus, [L.] Behind ; posterior, 
 A term applied to certain muscles. 
 
 Por'ti-o Du'ra. [L., hard portion.] 
 The facial nerve j 8th pair. 
 
 Por'ti-o Moii'Lis. [L., soft portion.] 
 The auditory nerve ; 7th pair. 
 
 Po-tas'si-um. [L.] The metallic basis 
 of pure potash. 
 
 Pro-bos'cis. [Gr. irpo, pro, before, and 
 /SoaKOi. baskO, to feed.] The snout or 
 trunk of an elephant or other animal. 
 
 Proc'ess. A prominence or projection, 
 
 Pro-na'tor. [L. pronus, turned down- 
 ward.] The muscle of the forearm 
 that moves the palm of ttie band down- 
 ward. 
 
 Pso'as. [Gr t//oai, psoaij the loins.] 
 Tlie name of two muscles of the leg. 
 
 PUL-MON'IC, -\ 
 
 PUL'MO-WA-RY, C [L.jm2nu), the lungs] 
 Pul-mo-na'lis. j 
 
 Belonging or relating to the lungs. 
 Pu'Plli. A little aperture in the centre 
 
 of the iris, through which the rays of 
 
 light pass to the retina. 
 Py-lor'ic. Pertaining to the pylorus. 
 Py-LO'ros. [Gr. TTuXwpoff, pulGroSj a 
 
 gale keeper.] The lower orifice of the 
 
 stomach, with which the duodenum 
 
 connects. 
 
 Ra'di-us. [L,, a ray, a spoke of a 
 wheel.] The name of one of the 
 bones of the forearm. 
 
460 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Ra-dt-a'lis Radial j belonging to the 
 radius. 
 
 Ra'di-ate. Having lines or fibres that 
 diverge from a point, 
 
 RA'Mua. [L.] A branch. A term ap- 
 plied to the projections of bones. 
 
 Rec-re-men-ti'tial. [L. re, again, 
 and cemoj to secrete.] Consisting of 
 superfluous matter separated from that 
 which is valuable. 
 
 Rec'tum. The third and last portion of 
 the intestines 
 
 Rec'tus, -I, IL.] Straight j erect. A 
 term applied to several muscles. 
 
 Re-sid'u-al. Pertaining to waste matter. 
 
 Re-sid'u-UM. [L.] Waste matter. The 
 
 Res-pi-ra'tion. [L. re, again, and 
 'apirOf to breathe.] The act of breathing. 
 Inspiring air into the lungs and expel- 
 ling it again. 
 
 Re-spi'ra-to-ry. Pertaining to respi- 
 ration ; serving for respiration. 
 
 Ret'i-na. [L., rete, a net.] The essen- 
 tial organ of sight. One of the coats 
 of the eye, formed by the expansion of 
 the optic nerve. 
 
 Ro-tun'dum, -a. [L.] Round ; circular. 
 
 Ru'oa, -JE. [L.] a wrinkle j a fold. 
 
 Sac'CU-LUS. [L., dim. of soeciu, a bag.] 
 A little sac 
 
 Sa'cral. Pertaining to the sacrum. 
 
 Sa'crum. [L., sacred.] The bone which 
 forms the posterior part of the pelvis, 
 and is a continuation of the spinal 
 column. 
 
 Sa-li'va. [L.] The fluid which is 
 secreted by the salivary glands, whicli 
 moistens the food and mouth. 
 
 Sal'i-va-ry. That which belongs to 
 the saliva. 
 
 8an'ouin-e-ous. [L. sanffuiSi the blood.] 
 Bloody ; aboundhig with bloooi ; ple- 
 thoric. 
 
 Sar-to'ri-us. [Tj. sartor, a tailor.] A 
 term applied to a muscle of the thigh 
 
 Sca'la,-^. [L., a ladder.] Cavities of 
 the cochlea. 
 
 SCA-LE'NUS. [Gr. oKaXijvoi, akalSnoa, 
 
 unequal.] A term applied to some 
 muscles of the neck. 
 SCAPH'oiD. [Gr. ff/capr, skapM, a little 
 boat.] The name applied to one of the 
 wrist-bones. 
 ScAP'u-LA. [L.] The shoulder-blade. 
 SCAP'U-LAE. Relating to the scapula. 
 Scarf-Skin. The outer, thin integu- 
 ment of the body ; the cuticle. 
 Sci-AT'ic. [Gr., pertaining to the loins.] 
 The name of the large nerve of the 
 loins and leg. 
 SCLE-ROT'IC. [Gr. aK\ripos, bMStos, 
 
 hard.] A membrane of the eye. 
 Se-ba'ceous. [L., sebum, tallow.] Per- 
 taining to fat; unctuous matter. 
 Se-cre'tIoit. The Eict of secerning ; 
 the act of producing from the blood 
 substances different from the blood it- 
 self,- as bile, saliva The matter se- 
 creted, as mucus, bile, &.C. 
 Se-cre'to-RY. Performing the office 
 
 of secretion. 
 SE-cuN'Dua. Second. A term applied 
 
 to certain muscles, 
 Sem-i-cir'cu-lar. Having the form of 
 a half circle. The name of a part of 
 the ear. 
 Sem-i-ten-di-no'sus. [L «efni, half, 
 and tendo, a tendon.] The name of 
 a muscle. 
 Sef'tdm. [L.] a membrane that dfc< 
 
 vides two cavities from each other. 
 Se'rous. Thin; watery. Pertaining to 
 
 serum. 
 Se'rum. [L.] The thin, transparent 
 
 part of blood. 
 SER-RA'TUS. [L. serro, to saw.] A term 
 applied to some muscles of the trunk. 
 Sl&'MOiD [Gr.] Resembling the Greek 
 
 f , Sigma. 
 Si-Li'ci-UM. A term applied to one 
 
 of the earths. 
 Si'nus, [L., a bay.] A cavity, the in- 
 terior of which is more expanded than 
 the entrance. 
 SitEL'H-TON. [Gr. (tkeWm, skella, to 
 dry.] The aggregate of the hard ports 
 of the body ; the bones. 
 SO'Di'UM. The metallic base of soda. 
 
GLOSSARY. 
 
 461 
 
 SpHINc'TEE. [Gr. <r<p,tyybij sphingo, to 
 restrict.] A muscle that contracts or 
 shuts an orifice. 
 
 Spi'nal Cord. A prolongatian of the 
 train. 
 
 gpi-NA'Lls. Relating to the spine. 
 
 Spine. A thorn. The vertebral col- 
 umn ; back-bone. 
 
 Spi'nous. Belonging to the spinal col- 
 umn. 
 
 Spleen. The milt. It is situated in 
 the abdomen, and attached to the 
 stomach. 
 
 Bplen'ic. Relating to the spleen. 
 
 Sple'ni-us. The name of a muscle of 
 the neck. 
 
 Sta'PES. The name of one of the 
 small bones of the ear. 
 
 Ster'nvu. The breast-bone. The bone 
 that forma the front of the chest from 
 the neck ^o the stomach. 
 
 Stom'acu. The principal organ of the 
 digestive apparatus. 
 
 Stra'tum. [L. sternoj to stew.] A 
 bed ; a layer. 
 
 Sty'loid. [L. stylmy a pencil.] An 
 epithet applied to processes that resem- 
 ble a style, a pen. 
 
 SUB-cLA'vi-AN. [L. aub, under, and cZo- 
 vis, a key.] Situated under the clavicle. 
 
 BuB-Li'Mis. High in place. 
 
 SUB-iiiif'GUAL. [L. sid/t under, and 
 lingua^ the tongue.] Situated under 
 the tongue. 
 
 SuB-MAX'iii-LA-RY. [L. siift. Under, and 
 maxillay the jaw-bone.] Located un- 
 der the jaw. 
 
 Sll'phur. a simple, mineral substance, 
 of a yellow color, brittle, insoluble in 
 water, but fusible by heat. 
 
 Su-PE-Ri-0'RI3. A term applied to cer- 
 
 . tain muscles. 
 
 Bu-pi-na'tor. [L.] a muscle that 
 turns the palm of the hand upward. 
 
 SUT'URE. [L.stto,tosew.] The seam or 
 joint that unites the bones of the skull* 
 
 StS-O'vi-A. [Gr. aw, sUtit with, and 
 Qiovj don, an egg.] The fluid secreted 
 mto thecavities of joints for the pur- 
 pose of lubricating them. 
 
 Syn-o'vi-al. Pertaining to synovia. 
 
 Sys'tem. An assemtilage of organs, 
 composed of the same tissues, and 
 intended for the same functions. 
 
 Sys-TEM'IC. Belonging to the general 
 system. 
 
 Sys'to-le. [Gr. CTWoreAXw, aHatelld^ to 
 contract.] The contraction of the f^eart 
 and arteries for expelling the blood and 
 carrying ou the circulation. 
 
 Tar'sal. Relating to the tarsus. 
 
 Tar'sus. [L.j The posterior part of the 
 foot. 
 
 Ten'don. [Gr. TEivoi, teino, to stretch.] 
 A hard, insensible cord, or bundle of 
 fibres, by which a muscle is attached 
 to a bone. 
 
 Ten'di-na, -m. Pertaining to a tendon. 
 
 Tens'or. a muscle that extends a 
 part. 
 
 Ten-tac'u-LA, -je. [L. tento, to seize.] 
 A filiform process or organ on the bodies 
 of various animals. 
 
 Ten-TO'ri-um. [L. tendo, to stretch.] 
 A process of the dura mater which Hcs 
 between the cerebrum and cerebellum. 
 
 Te'res. [L. teres, round.] An epithet 
 given to many organs, the fibres of 
 which are collected in small bundles 
 
 Tho'rax. [Gr.] That part of the skel- 
 eton that composes the bones of the 
 chest. The cavity of the chest. 
 
 Tho-rac'ic. Relating to the chest. 
 
 Thy'roid. [Gr. 6vp£oij tkureosj a 
 shield.] Resembling a shield. A carti- 
 lage of the larynx. 
 
 Tib'i-a. [li., a flute.] The large bone 
 of the leg. 
 
 Tib-i-a'lis, Tib'i-al, Relating to the 
 tibia. 
 
 Tis'suE. The texture or organization 
 of parts. 
 
 TON'siL. [L.] A glandular body in the 
 throat or fauces. 
 
 Tra'ciie-a. [Gr. rpaxvSi trachus, rough.] 
 The windpipe. 
 
 Tra'che-al. Belonging to the trachea. 
 
 Trans-verse'.Trans-ver-sa'lis Ly- 
 ing in a cross direction. 
 
462 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Tra-pe'zi-us The nam© of a muBcle, 
 
 80 called from its form. 
 Tri'ceps. [L. (rM, three, and caputs 
 head.] Three. A name given to mus- 
 cles that have three attachments at one 
 extremity. 
 Tri-cus'pid. [L. tresj three, and wwpw, 
 point.] The triangnlar valves in the 
 riQln side of the heart. 
 Troch'LE-A. [Gr. rpoxctXifl) trocAoZw, 
 a pulley.] A pulley-like cartilage, over 
 which the tendon of a muscle of the 
 eye passes. 
 Troch-le-a'r[S. The name of a mus- 
 cle of the eye. 
 Trunk. The principal part of the body, 
 
 to which the limbs are articulated. 
 Tu'ber-cle. [L. tuber, a. bunch.] A 
 small push, swelling, or tumor, on ani- 
 mal bodies. 
 Tu-EER-05'i-TY. The State of being 
 
 knobbed or protuberant. 
 Tym'pah-um. [L.] The middle ear. 
 
 Ul'na. [L.] a bone of the forearm. 
 Ul'nar, Ul-na'ris. Relating to the 
 
 uliin. 
 U'Ric. [Gr. ovpovf otirorit urine.] An 
 
 acid contained in urine, and in gouty 
 
 concretions. 
 U-ve'a. [L. uva, a grape.] Resembling 
 
 grapes. A thin membrane of the eye. 
 U'vu-la. A soft body, suspended from 
 
 the palate, near the aperture of the 
 
 nostrils, over the glottis. 
 
 Vac'cine Vi'RUS. [L. vaeca, a cow, 
 
 vtT^iSy poison.] Pertaining to cows ; 
 
 derived from cowa. 
 Valve. Any membrane, or doubling 
 - of any membrane, which praventa fluids 
 
 from flowing back in the vessels and 
 
 canals of the animal body. 
 Val'vu-la, ~je, a valve. 
 
 Vas'cu-lae. [L vaseulunif a veseel,] 
 Pertaining to vessels; abounding in 
 vesf^els. 
 Vas'tus. [L.] Great, vast. Applied 
 
 to some large muscles. 
 Veins. Vessels that convey blood to 
 
 the heart. ' 
 Ve'nous. Pertaining to veins. 
 Ven'tri-cle. [h.venter, the stomach.] 
 
 A small cavity of the animal body. 
 Ven tric'u-lar. Relating to ventri- 
 cles. 
 Ver-mic'u-LAR. [L. vermiculus, a little 
 worm.] Resembling the motions of a 
 worm. 
 Verm-i-form'is. [L. vermiSf a worm, 
 and forma, form.] Having the form 
 and shape of a worm. 
 Vert'e-bra, JE. [L. vertOy to turn.] 
 
 A joint of the spinal column. 
 Vert'e-eral. Pertaining to the joints 
 
 of the spinal column. 
 Ves'i-cle. [L. vesica, a bladder.] A 
 little bladder, or a portion of the cuticle 
 separated from the cutis vera and fllled 
 with serum. 
 Ves'ti-eule. [L.] a porch of a house 
 
 A cavity belonging to the ear. 
 ViL'Ll. [L.] Fine, small fibres. 
 Vi'RUS. [L., poison.] Foul matter of 
 
 an ulcer; poison. 
 Vl'TAL. [L. viia, life.] Pertaining to 
 
 life. 
 VlT'RE-OUS. [L. vitrwn, glass.] Be- 
 longing to glMs. A humor of the eye. 
 Vo'LAR. [L. vola, the hollow of the 
 hand or foot.] Belonging to the palm 
 of the hand. 
 Vo'MER, [L., a ploughshare.] One of 
 the bones of the nose. 
 
 ZVG-o-MAT'i-cua. [Gr. ^vyoi, mgos, a 
 yoke.] A term applied to some mus- 
 cles of the tacC} trom their attachment 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A» rxam. 
 
 Abdomen, 34 
 
 absorption, 181 
 
 , Varieties of, 183 
 
 , Cutaneous 185 
 
 ACETABDLUM, 38 
 
 Acids, Acetic 38 
 
 , Benzoic, 28 
 
 , Muriatic 440 
 
 , Nitric, .....440 
 
 , Oxalic 28, 440 
 
 , Sulpliuric,. . . . * 440 
 
 AIR, Composition of the 223 
 
 , Influence of, on ttie Muscles, 90 
 
 , auality of the, 233,318 
 
 , Quantity inhaled, 233 
 
 , Quantity exhaled, 228 
 
 •~^, Impure Air, the Effects of, 232 
 
 AiB, Vesicles, 213 
 
 Albumen, 27 
 
 Animal Heat, 352 
 
 AOBTA, 159 
 
 , Valves of the, 157 
 
 APPARATUS, 18 
 
 Arteries, Structure of the 158 
 
 , Cutaneous, 285 
 
 , Pulmonary, 158 
 
 Attitude, Effects of, on Digestion,. 152 
 
 , Effects of, on the Voice, 274 
 
 , Effects of, in Respiration,345 
 
 Auricles of the Heart 156 
 
 Asphyxia, from Drowning 249 
 
 , from Electricity, 250 
 
 , from Hanging, 250 
 
 , from Carbonic Gas, 251 
 
 Azote, ^ 
 
 B. 
 
 Bathino, Necessity of, 311 
 
 , Methods ol 313 
 
 , Proper Time for, 316 
 
 ^ Influence of, on the Sys- 
 tem, 318 
 
 Frequency of, ..... • 317 
 
 beds 309 
 
 B.LE, 1^ 
 
 Blood, Composition of, im 
 
 PAGa 
 
 Blood, Color of, 204 
 
 , Quantity of, 171 
 
 .Change of, 225 
 
 , Impure, Effects of, 205 
 
 Bones, Anatomy of the, 29 
 
 , Physiology of the, 48 
 
 , Hygiene of the, 53 
 
 of the Head, 32 
 
 ofthe Trunk, 34 
 
 of the Upper Extremities,..., 39 
 
 of the Lower Extremities,. . . .42 
 
 , Composition of, .29 
 
 , Ossification of, 30 
 
 , Union of fractured, 62 
 
 , Influence of Position on the,. .55 
 
 Brain, 339 
 
 , Functions ofthe, 346 
 
 , Effects of Impure Blood on the, 360 
 
 — , Effects of inadequate Mental 
 
 Exertion, 361 
 
 , Effects of excessive Mental 
 
 Exertion, 363 
 
 , Directions for exercising the,. .368 
 
 , Membranes of the 334 
 
 , Injuries of the, 377 
 
 Bronchia, 213 
 
 Bronchitis, 214 
 
 Burns and Scalds 319 
 
 BURSiE Mucosa 46 
 
 C. 
 
 C^CUM, 118 
 
 capillaries 163 
 
 Carbon 26 
 
 Carbonic Gas, where formed, 224 
 
 . , Effects of, when 
 
 inhaled, 230 
 
 , Effects of, on Com- 
 bustion 330 
 
 . , Effects of, on Respi- 
 ration, 231 
 
 Carpus, 41 
 
 CARTILy.SE, 45 
 
 . of the Larynx, 2n<l 
 
 Caul, 12.1 
 
 Cellular Tissue IS 
 
 CEREBELLUM <iSl 
 
464 
 
 Cerebbum 330 
 
 CUEST, 35 
 
 . CompresBion of the 56 
 
 — — — , Influence of the Size of the,. .239 
 
 Chilblains, 331 
 
 culorihe, , 27 
 
 Chyle, 126 
 
 Uhymb 126 
 
 CIRCULATORY Orsans, Anatomy, .154 
 
 — Phyaiology of the.. 164 
 
 Hygiene of the 172 
 
 Clavicle, 39 
 
 Clothins, Kind of, 301 
 
 , Amount of, 305 
 
 , Cleanliness of, 308 
 
 Coccyx, 38 
 
 Colds, Treatment of, 348 
 
 COLOH, 119 
 
 Consumption, how frequently pro- 
 duced, 247 
 
 CORNS, Treatment of, 295 
 
 Cuticle, Structure of the, 282 
 
 , Useofthe, 293 
 
 Cutis Vera, Structure of the, '; 
 
 D. 
 
 Definitions, General, 13 
 
 Dl APHBASM, 73, 215 
 
 Digestive Organs, Anatomy of the,113 
 
 , PhysioTogy of the,. .124 
 
 , Hygiene of the, 129 
 
 , Influence of the 
 
 Mind on the, 148 
 
 , Influence of Pure 
 
 Air on the, 151 
 
 .— , Influence of Posi- 
 tion on the, 152 
 
 Drinks, how taken, 145 
 
 Drowned Persons, Treatment of ..249 
 Duodenum .117 
 
 E. 
 
 Ear, Bones of, 34, 415 
 
 Epiglottis 125, 370 
 
 exiial ants, 192 
 
 Exercise, liow It should be taken, ...91 
 
 , Influence of, on the Rones, 53 
 
 , Influence of, on Muscles,. .85 
 
 . , Influence of on the Cir- 
 culation, 173 
 
 Eye 394 
 
 JiiXP IRATION, how eflectod 220 
 
 K9 FAOB. 
 
 Face, Bones of the, M 
 
 Fascia, 66 
 
 Pat m, 105 
 
 Femur 42 
 
 Fibre, 18 
 
 Fibrin, iH 
 
 Fibula, 43 
 
 Filament, 18 
 
 Flannel, Use of, ^....302 
 
 Fluids, Use of, 17 
 
 Follicle 192 
 
 Food, Quantity of the, 12D 
 
 , Quality of the, .134 
 
 , Manner in which it is taken,. .142 
 
 , Condition of the system, 
 
 when taken, 146 
 
 Foot, Bones of the, 44 
 
 Frozen Limbs, Treatment of, 320 
 
 O. 
 
 Gastric Juice 125 
 
 Gelatin, 27 
 
 Glands 193 
 
 , Gastric, 116 
 
 -, Lachrymal, 402 
 
 ■, Lymphatic, 183 
 
 ■, Mesenteric, 121 
 
 -,0U 288 
 
 ., Perspiratory 290 
 
 ., Salivary 114 
 
 GLOTTIS, Z?! 
 
 H. 
 
 Hair 3SSi 
 
 Heart 154 
 
 , Auricles of the, 156 
 
 , Ventricles of the 156 
 
 HEAT, Animal, 252 
 
 , Hygiene of, 261 
 
 IlEARiNO, Anatomy of the Organs of, 414 
 
 , Physiology of the Organs 
 
 of, 420 
 
 , Hygiene of the Organs of,. 429 
 
 Humerus, 3' 
 
 Hemorrhaoe, Means of aiTestlng,..17S 
 Hydrooen , 90 
 
 Ileum, 118 
 
 Intestines, 117 
 
 Innominatum, S7 
 
INDEX. 
 
 465 
 
 FAOU. 
 
 INBPIEATION, how eflfected, 219 
 
 IKOM, 25 
 
 J. 
 
 Jejunum, 118 
 
 Joints, Structure of the,- 45 
 
 L.. 
 
 Lactbals 120, 181 
 
 Lahusje, 17 
 
 Laeynx, 268 
 
 labxnoiti3 276 
 
 LlOAMENTS SB, 47 
 
 , Use of, 50 
 
 , Capsular, 40 
 
 LiSHT, Influence on the Skin, 318 
 
 Li«E, as 
 
 LiVEE 123 
 
 lAlSBS 209 
 
 MMPH 30 
 
 Lymphatics, Anatomy of the, 181 
 
 , Physiology of the 183 
 
 -^ , Hygiene of the, 188 
 
 , Cutaneous 287 
 
 Magnesia, S5 
 
 Marrow, Uses of, 24 
 
 Mediastinum, - 211 
 
 Medulla Oblonsata 333 
 
 Me mbrane, 19 
 
 , Adipose, 20 
 
 , Celliilai 19 
 
 , Dermoid, 22, 282 
 
 , — ^ , Mucous, ._.... 21 
 
 , Muscular, 24 
 
 , Serous 21 
 
 Mesentery 130 
 
 Metacarpus 41 
 
 Mouth, Structure of, 113 
 
 Mucus, 28 
 
 Muscles, Anatomy of, 64 
 
 , , Physiology of, 76 
 
 , Hygiene of, 85 
 
 , Compression of, 93, 276 
 
 J Exhaustion of, 87, 101 
 
 Effects of Pure Blood on,. .89 
 
 , Effects of Pure Air on the,. 90 
 
 J Effects of I ight on the, 90 
 
 , [nfluence 01 the Mind on,. .93 
 
 , [nfluence of Position on,.. 96 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Muscles, Jtatercostal,. 216 
 
 , Bespiratnry, 816 
 
 Nails 324 
 
 Nerves, Cranial 335, 350 
 
 ., Cutaneous, 286 
 
 , Respiratory, 340, 3S 
 
 , Spinal 341,351 
 
 , Sympathetic, 343, 356 
 
 Nervous System, Anatomy of, 327 
 
 , Physiology of,..34C 
 
 • • — , Hygiene of, 358 
 
 Nitrogen, 26 
 
 Nose, Structure, 389 
 
 Nurses, Directions for 433 
 
 Nutrition, 200 
 
 , Hygiene of, 206 
 
 o. 
 
 CESOPHAGUS, 116 
 
 Oil-Glands, Structure of the 288 
 
 , Use of the, 397 
 
 Omentum, 123 
 
 Organ, 18 
 
 Organic and Inorganic Bodies, 
 
 Difference between, 14 
 
 Orifice, Cardiac 116 
 
 , Pyloric 116 
 
 osmazome 28 
 
 Oxygen, 26 
 
 , Quantity at each Inspira- 
 tion, 22s 
 
 P. 
 
 Papilla, 284 
 
 Pancreas 132 
 
 Parotid Gland, 114 
 
 Patella, 49 
 
 FERICARDIUm, 15o 
 
 PERICHON DHIUM 31 
 
 Pe ricranium, 31 
 
 Periosteum, 31 
 
 Pelvis, Bones of the, 37 
 
 Perspirator-y Apparatus, 29fl 
 
 Use of,=. .298 
 
 Phalanges, 42, 45 
 
 Pharynx, 115 
 
 Phosphorus,. .T 2fl 
 
 Pleura, 21J 
 
 Poisons, and theii Antidotes, 439 
 
466 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 rAGE. 
 
 POTASM _ _ 25 
 
 PREEERVATION OF HEALTH, 425 
 
 R. 
 
 Radius, 41 
 
 Reading, Proper Position in 275 
 
 Rectum 130 
 
 Removai. of Disease, 426 
 
 Respiratory Organs, Anatomy of ,209 
 
 , Physiology j)f,... 217 
 
 , Hygiene of, 228 
 
 Retina, 397 
 
 Rib? 35 
 
 Rooms, Ventilation of, 233 
 
 , Warming of, 238 
 
 Sacsum, 38 
 
 Saliva, its Use, 124 
 
 SC A PULA, 39 
 
 Secretory Organs, Anatomy of,. 192 
 
 , Pliysiology of. 193 
 
 , Hygiene of,. . . 197 
 
 Senses, 378 
 
 Sicli-lloom, Ventilation of,. ...... . .236 
 
 Pitting, Proper Position in, 99 
 
 Ske leton, 29 
 
 Skin, Anatomy of the, 282 
 
 , Physiology of the, 293 
 
 , Hygiene ofthe, 301 
 
 Skull, t^tructure of, 32 
 
 Sleep, lyecesaity of, 92 
 
 Sleeping-Rooms, Ventilation of,. .235 
 Smell, Anatomy of the Organs o(,..389 
 
 , Physiology of the Organs o*", . . 391 
 
 Soda 25 
 
 Solids, Arrangement of, 17 
 
 BOUND, 273 
 
 Spinal Column, Structure of, 36 
 
 , Curvature of. . .57, 60 
 
 Cord 36. 340 
 
 Spleen, 1S3 
 
 Sprains, 63 
 
 Stammering, how improved 2fi1 
 
 Sternum, 35 
 
 Stom ACII, 116 
 
 BuiilingualOlahp, 115 
 
 Sujimaxillary Gland US 
 
 BuLFii iiR, 26 
 
 Siiti-res, ?a 
 
 PAQB 
 
 Synotial Mehrrane,.., 48 
 
 Synovia, .49 
 
 System, 18 
 
 Tarsus, 42 
 
 Taste, Anatomy of the Organs of, . .384 
 Physiology of the Organs of, . .380 
 
 Teeth, Anatomy of the, 105 
 
 , Physiology o( the, 109 
 
 , Hygiene of tlie 110 
 
 Tendons, 23, 66 
 
 Thoracic Duct, 120 
 
 Thorax, 35 
 
 Throat, Extraneous Bodies in, 281 
 
 Tibia, 42 
 
 Tissue, 18 
 
 , Adipose, 20 
 
 , Cartilaginous « 23 
 
 , Fibrous, 32 
 
 , Osseous, 23 
 
 , Nervous, 24 
 
 Touch, Sense of,.... 378 
 
 , Hygiene of the, 379 
 
 Trachea, 213 
 
 u. 
 
 Ulna, 40 
 
 Uvea, 396 
 
 T. 
 
 Valves of the Heart, 157 
 
 , Use of the, 104 
 
 ofthe Veins,- 102 
 
 VEINS, 160 
 
 , Cutaneous, 285 
 
 Ventilation 233 
 
 Ventricles, ofthe Heart, 156 
 
 Verte BRA, 36 
 
 Vision, Anatomy of the Organs of,. .394 
 
 . , Physiology of the Organs of,.. 404 
 
 , Hygiene of the Organs of,... 410 
 
 Vocal Organs, Anatomy of the,... 268 
 
 , Pliysiologj' of the,. .275 
 
 . , Hygiene of the 274 
 
 VOCAL Cords, S70 
 
 Watchers, Directions for, 43fi 
 
 Wounds, Treatment of, 178 
 
 Writing, Proper Position wheu,... 103 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 EEI TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 In using these plates, we would suggest, that the pupil carefully fixamino 
 the Illustrating cuts interspersed with the text, in connection with the 
 lesson to be recited. The similarity between these and the plates will 
 enable the pupil to recite, and the teacher to conduct his recitation, from 
 the latter. 
 
 Let a pupil show the situation of an organ, or part, on an anatomical 
 outline plate, and also give its structure ; while other members of the class 
 note all omissions and misstatements. Another pupil may give the use of 
 that organ, and if necessary, others may give an extended explanation 
 The third may explain the laws on which the health of the part depends, 
 while other members of the class supply what has been omitted. After 
 thus presenting the subject in the form of topics, questions may be pro- 
 posed promiscuously, from each paragraph, and where examples occur in 
 the text, let other analogous ones be given. 
 
 If the physiology and hygiene of a given subject have not been studied, 
 confine the recitation to those parts only on which the pupil is prepared. 
 When practicable, the three departments should be united; but this cau 
 only be done when the chapter on the hygiene has been learned, while 
 the physiology can be united with the anatomy, in all chapters upon 
 physiology. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 A FRONT VIKW OF THE SKELETON. 
 
 BcvneaoftheHead. 7, The sphenoid bone. 8 The frontal bone. 10, The^ 
 parietal bone. 11, The os unguis. 12, The superior maxillary bone, 
 ^upperjaw.) 13, The nasal bene. U, The ethmoid bone. 15, Themalai 
 bone, (cheek-bone.) 16, The vomer. 17, The inferior maxillary bone, 
 (the lower jaw.) a, Its body. 6, Its ramus, or branch. 18, The teeth. 
 
 bones qf the Trunk 1,1, The spinal column. 2, Thestemum 3,3, TL» 
 ribs. 4, The sacrum. 5, The innominatum. 
 
 Bunas of tht Upper Extremiiiea. 19, The clavicle, friollar bone ) 20, The 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES, 
 
 scapula, Cstoulder-blade.) 21, The humerus. 22, The uUia 23, Tha 
 radius. 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31,' The bones of the carpus, (wnst.) 
 
 32, 32, 32, The five bones of the metacarpus, (the palm of the hand.) 
 
 33, 33, 33, The first range of finger-bones. 34, 34, The second range of 
 finger-bones. 35, 35, 35, The third range of finger-bones. 
 
 Bmea of the Lower Extremities. 36, The femur, (thigh-bone.) 37, The 
 patella, (knee-pan.) 38, The tibia, (shin-bone.) 39, The fibula. 40, 40, 
 40, The bones of the tarsus, (instep.) 41, 41, The bones of the metatarsus, 
 (middle of the foot.) 42, 42, The bones of the toes. 
 
 Abticulahons. (Left side of the plate.) 
 
 Ligoanenta of the Trunk. 1, 1, The common spinal ligament. 2, 2, The 
 mtervertebral ligament, (cartilage between the Tertebrae.) 9, 10, 11, 12, Ar- 
 ticulations of the ribs with the spinal column. 13, 13, 14, 16, 16, Liga- 
 ments that connect the cartilages of the ribs with the sternum. 
 
 Ligaments of the Upper Extremities. 25, The ligament that connects 
 the clavicle and sternum. 27, The ligament that connects the upper rib 
 and clavicle. 28, 29, 30, Ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula. 
 31, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the shoulder-joint. 35, 36, 36, Ligaments of 
 the elbow-joint. 37, 38, 39, 40, Ligaments of the wrist. 41, 42, 43, 44, 
 Ligaments of the fingers. 
 
 Ligaments of the Lower Extremities. 49, 49, Ligaments of the hip-joint. 
 50, 50, Ligaments of the patella. 51, 62, 53, 64, 55, Ligaments of the 
 knee-joint. 56, A large bursa mucosa. 67, The ligainent of the tibia and 
 fibula. 68, 58, The interosseous ligament. 59, 59, Ligaments of the an- 
 ele-joint. 60, 61, 62, Ligaments of the metatarsus. 63, 64, Ligaments of 
 the toes. 
 
 A, The brachial artery. B. The brachial vein. C, The radial artery 
 D, The femoral artery. B, The femoral vein. F, Q, The anterior tibial 
 artery. , 
 
 PLATE n. 
 
 A BACK VIEW OF THE SKELETON. 
 
 Bones of the Bead. 5, The occipital bone. 6, The parietal bone. 7, The 
 temporal bone. 8, The frontal bone. 9, The sphenoid bone. 16, The 
 malar bone. 16, The nasal bone. 17, The superior maxillary bone, (upper 
 jaw.) 18, The inferior maxillary bone, (lower jaw.) 19, The teeth. 
 
 Boneeofthe Trunk. 1,1, The spinal column. 2, The sacrum. 3, Thn 
 ooccyx. 20, The inuominatum. 4, 4, The ribs. 
 
 Bones of t>w Upper Extremities. 21, The ciaviole, (collar-bone.) 32, The 
 scapula, (shoulder-blade.) 23, The humerus. 24. The ulna. 26, The 
 radius. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, The bones of the carpus, (wrist.) 
 83, 33, 33, The bones of the metacarpus, (palm of the hand.) 34 34 34. 
 The first range of finger-bones. 36, 36, The second range of finger-bones. 
 86, 36, 36, The third range of finger-bones. 
 
KEY TO ANAIOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 Bcms of the Lower Extremities. 37, The femur, (thigh-bone.; 88, The 
 patella, (knee-pan.) 39, The tibia, (shin-bone.) 40, The fibula. 41, 42, 
 ♦3, 44, 45, The bones of the tarsus, (instep.) 46, 46, The bones of the 
 metatarsus, (middle of the toot.) 47, 47, Bones of the toes. 
 
 Aktioulations. (Left side of the plate.) 
 LiguTnenis of the lYunk. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Ligaments of the 
 spinal column. 14, 14, 15, 15, Ligaments that connect the ribs and spinal 
 column. 11, 11, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, Ligaments that connect the sacrum 
 and innominatum. 
 
 Ligaments of the Uvr>er Extremities. 27, 28, Ligaments that connect the 
 clavicle and scapula 29, The capsular ligament of the shoulder-joint. 
 30, 30, Ligaments of the elbow. 31, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the carpus, 
 (wrist.) 
 
 Ligaments of the Lower Extremities. 9, Tendon of the gluteus muscle 
 35, The capsular ligament of the hip-joint. 36, 36, Ligaments of the knee- 
 toint. 37, The ligament that connects the tibia and fibula 38, The in- 
 ierosseous ligament. 39, 4U, Ligaments of the ankle-joint 
 
 PLATE m 
 A FKONT VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 Musrles of the Head and Neck. 7,- The sterno-mastoideus muscle 
 8, The stemo-hyoideus muscle. 9, The omo-hyoideus muscle. 10, The 
 trapezius muscle. _11, The orbicularis oculi muscle. 12, The frontal 
 muscle. 14, The orbicularis oris muscle. 15, The elevator muscle of the 
 nostrils. 16, The zygomatic muscle. 17, The depressor of the lower lip 
 18, The depressor anguli oris muscle. 19, The triangular muscle of the 
 nose. 20, 21, The aural muscles. 22, The masseter muscle. 
 
 Muscles of the Trunk. 2, 3, The external oblique muscles. 
 
 Muscles of the Upper Extremities. 1, The grand pectoral muscle. 
 3, 4, The serratus muscle. 23, The deltoid muscle. 24, The biceps 
 brachialis muscle. 25, The coraco-brachialis muscle. 26, The anterior 
 Drachial muscle. 27, The triceps brachialis muscle. 28, The long su- 
 pinator muscle. 29, The external radial muscle: 30, The pronator teres 
 muscle. 31, The anterior radial muscle. 32, The palmaris brevis muscle. 
 33 The anterior ulnar muscle. 35, The palmar muscle. 36, The abductor 
 muscle of the thumb. 37. The adductor muscle of the thumb. 38, 39. 
 Small flexor muscles of the thumb. 40, The abductor muscle of the little 
 finger. 41, 41, The lumbncales muscles. 61, 61, The bifurcation of the 
 tendons of the superficial flexor muscle, in the fingers. 
 
 Muscles of the Lower Extremities. 42, The fascia lata muscle. 43, The 
 SELTtorius muscle. 44, The rectus femoris muscle. 45, The vastus eztemug 
 muscle. 46, The vastus iniernus muscle. 47, The internal straight muscle 
 ifc The pectineus muscle. 49, The adductor muscle. 50, The psoas 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 miisole. 61, The tibialis anticus muscle. 62, The long extensor muscle 
 of the great toe. 63, The long extensor muscle of the toes. 64, The 
 anterior peroneal muscle. 65, The long lateral peroneal muscle. 66, 67, The 
 gastrocnemii muscles. 68, The long flexor muscle of the great toe 
 59, The short extensor muscles of the toes; 60, The abductor muscle of 
 the great toe. 
 
 The figures and letters on the left side of the plate, indicate the position 
 of important fascis, that coyer the muscles and enclose the tendons. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 A BACK VIBAV OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 Mtacles of the Head and Neck. 4, ITie stemo-mastoideus muscle. 
 6, The complexus muscle. 6, The mylo-hyoideus muscle. 7, 8, The oo- 
 oipito-fronta Us muscle. 9, The masseter muscle. 10,11,12, The anterior, 
 middle, and posterior aural muscles. 13, The temporal muscle. 
 
 Muscles 0/ the Tnmk. 1, 1, The trapezius muscle. 2, The latissimus dorsi 
 muscle. 3, The rhomboideus muscle. 4, The external oblique muscle. 
 
 Muscles of the Upper Extremities. 5, The deltoid muscle. 6, 7, The 
 infra-spinatus muscle. 9, The triceps extensor muscle. 10, The internal 
 brachial muscle. 11, The long supinator muscle. 12, The external radi^ 
 al muscle. 13, The second external radial muscle. 14, The anconeus 
 muscle. 16, 16, The extensor digitorum communis muscle. 17, The ex- 
 tensor carpi ulnaris muscle. 18, The flexor carpi ulnaris. 19, 20, The 
 extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis muscles. 21, An extensor muscle of the 
 thumb. 22, 28, Interossij muscles. 
 
 Muscles of the Lower Extremities. 29, The gluteus maximus muscle 
 30, The gluteus medius muscle. 31, The biceps flexor cruris muscle. 
 rS2, The semi-tendinosus muscle. 33, The semi-membranosis muscle 
 34, The gracilis muscle. 35, The adductor muscle. 36, The vastus ex- 
 ternus muscle. 37, The sartorius muscle. 38, 39, The gastrocnemii 
 muscles. 40, The long peroneal muscle. 41, The external peroneal mus- 
 cle. 42, The long flexor muscle cf the great toe. 43, The long extensor 
 muscle of the toes. 44, The short extensor muscle of the toes. 47, The 
 Bhortr flexor muscle of the toes. 
 
 The figures and letters on the left side of the plate, indicate the positioD 
 of membranous fasoite which enyelop the muscles and tendons. 
 
 PI-ATE V. 
 OEGANS OF THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN. 
 
 Fig. 1. Tfui Mouth and Neck. (A Side view.) 1, The upper lip. 2, The 
 lower lip. 3, The upper jaw. 4, The lower jaw. S, The tongue. 6, The 
 hard palate, froof of the mouth.) 7. The parotid gland. 8. The sub- 
 
KEY ro ANATOMICAL (ICTTLIKK PLATES. 
 
 lingual gland. T, The larynx. 10, The pharynx. 11, The msopliagua. 
 
 12, The upper portion of the spinal column. C, The spinal cord. 
 
 The Chest and its Organs. 9, 9, The trachea. K, The right auricle 
 of the heart. L, The left auricle. , 13, The left ventricle of the heart. 
 M, The right Tentricle. 15, The aorta. 16, The pulmonary artery. 
 17, The vena cava descendens. 18, The right subclavian vem. 19, The 
 left subclavian vein. 20, The right jugular vein. 21, The left jugular 
 vein. 22, The right carotid artery. 23, The left carotid artery. 24, 2-%, 
 26, The upper, middle, and lower lobes of the right lung. 27, 28, The 
 upper and lower lobes of the left lung. 29, 29, 29, The diaphragm. 
 P, P, P, P, The pleura, that lines the cavity of the chest. S, S, The clavi- 
 cles. 0,0, 0,0, The ribs. M, M, M, M, Muscles of the chest. 40, The 
 thoracic duct, opening into the left subclavian vein. 
 
 The Abdomm and its Organs. 30, The stomach. 31, 32, The right and 
 kft lobe of the liver. F, The fissure that separates the two lobes. 33, The 
 gall bladder. 34, 34, The duodenum. 35, The ascending colon. 36, The 
 transverse colon. 37, The descending colon. 38, 38, 38, 38, The small 
 intestine. 39, 39, The walls of the abdominal cavity turned down. 41, 
 The spleen. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Relation of the Lacteab and Tkoraeic Duet. 1, 1, A section 
 of the small intestine. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, Mesenteric glands, through 
 which the lacteals from the intestine pass. 3, Several lacteal vessele 
 entering the enlarged portion and commencement of the thoracic duct. 
 6, 6, 5, The thoracic duct. 6, The thoracic duct opening into the left sub- 
 clavian vein. 7, (See 40, Fig. I.) 8, The right subclavian vein. 9, The 
 vena cava descendens. 10, 11, 11, The aorta. 12, The carotid arteries 
 
 13, 13, The jugular veins. 14, The vena azagos. 15, 15, The spinal col- 
 nmn. 16, The diaphragm. 
 
 Fig. 3. The Relation of the Larynx, Trachea. Bronchia, and Air-cells. 
 
 1, 1, 1, An outline of the right lung. 2, 2, 2, An outline of the left lung 
 3, The larynx. 4, The trachea. 5, The right bronchia. 6, The left bron- 
 chia. 7, 7, 7, 7, Divisions of the right broncliia. 8, 8, 8, 8, Divisions of the 
 left bronchia. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air-cells. 
 
 Ing. i. An ideal View of a lateral and vertical Section of the Larynx. 
 1, 1, The superior vocal cords, (ligaments.) 2, 2, The inferior vocal cords. 
 3, 3, The glottis. 4, 4, The ventricles of the larynx. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 HEAKT, ARTERIES, AND VEINS 
 
 Fig. i. The Heart and la'qe Arteries. 1, The right auricle of the heart 
 
 2. The right ventricle of the heart. 3, The left auricle. 4, The left ven- 
 tricle. 5, The pulmonary artery. 6, The aorta. 7, 7, The descending 
 aorta. 8, The arteria innominata. 9, The left carotid artery. 10, Tlie Icfl 
 . ubolavai'n artery. 6«, The right subclavian artery. 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 Artenet of the Neck and Head 15, The right carotid arteiy. 16, The 
 left carotid artery. 17, The right temporal artery. 60, The right facial 
 artery. 64, The left temporal artery. 
 
 Arteriet of the Upper Extremitiea. 11, 11, The left brachial, artery. 
 12, The left radial artery. 13, 13, The right brachial artery. 14, The 
 tight radial artery. 61, The right ulnar artery. 
 
 Arteriea of the Lower ExtremUiet. 18, The left iliac artery. 19, The right 
 Iliac artery. 20, The left femoral artery. 21, The rignt femoral artery. 
 22, The peroneal artery. 23, The left anterior tibial artery. 24, The mus- 
 oular artery. 25, 25, The right and left arteria profunda. 26, The right 
 anterior tibial artery. 27, The right peroneal artery. 
 
 Ttie Veiru of the Neck and Head. 28, The vena cava descendens. 
 29, The left subclavian vein. 30, The right subclavian vein. 31, The 
 right jugular vein. 32, The left jugular vein. 53, The right temporal 
 rein. 65, The left temporal vein. 49, The right facial vein. 
 
 Veinaofthe Upper Extremities. 33, The left brachial vein. 34, The left 
 radial vein. 35, The right brachial vein. 36, The right radial vein 
 51, The right ulnar vein^i 
 
 Veins of the Lower Extremitiea. 37, The vena cava ascendens. 38, The 
 left iliac vein. 39, The right iliac vein. 40, The left femoral vein. 41, The 
 right femoral vein. 42, The left anterior tibial vem. 43, The left per- 
 oneal vein. 44, The right anterior tibial vein. 45, The right peroneal 
 vein. 46, 46, The profunda veins. 47, The muscular veins. 48, 48, 48, 
 48, 48, 48, Intercostal ajteries and veins. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Relation of the Cavities of the Heart to the large BlooA^testela 
 1 , The vena cava descendens. 2, The vena cava ascendens. 3, The right 
 auricle of the heart. 4, The opening between the right auricle and right 
 ventricle. 6, The right ventricle. 6, The tricuspid valves. 7, The pul- 
 monary artery. 8, 8, The branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to 
 the right and left lung. 9, The semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery. 
 10, The left pulmonary veins. 11, The right pulmonary veins. 12, The 
 left auricle. 13, The opening between the left auricle and left ventricle. 
 14, The left ventricle. 16, The mitral valves. 16, 16, The aorta. 17, The 
 f emilunar valves of the aorta. 18, The septum between the right and left 
 ventricle. 
 
 Fig. 3. An ideal View of the Heart, Arteries, and Veins. A, The right 
 auricle. B, The right ventricle. C, The tricuspid valves. D, The open- 
 ing between the right auricle and right ventricle. E 7he left auricle 
 F, The left ventricle. G, The mitral valves. H, The opening between 
 the left auricle and left ventricle. I, The septum between the right and 
 left ventricle. K, The pulmonary artery. L, The semilunar valves of the 
 pulmonary artery. M, M, The right pulmonary artery. N, N, The left 
 pulmonarv artery. 0, 0, O, 0, O, 0, The capillary vessels of the lunge. 
 P, F, P, The right pulmonary vein. Q, Q, The left pulmonary vem. 
 B, R, The aorta. S, The semilunar valves of the aorta. T, T, A branch 
 of the aorta to the upper extremities. U, XJ, U, U , A branch to the lower 
 extremilies. V, V, V, V, V, V, The capillary vessels at the extremity 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. 
 
 of the branches of the aorta. W, W, The descending vena cava. 
 X, X, X, The ascending vena cava. 
 
 In Figs. 1, 2, 3, the course of the blood through the circulatory vessels 
 is-indioated b; arrows. 
 
 PLATE Vn. 
 
 THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION. 
 
 Fig. 1. 1, The right aviricle of the heart. 2, The left auricle. 3, The 
 right ventricle of the heart. 4, The left ventricle. 6, The pulmonary 
 artery. 6, The branch of the pulmonary artery to the left lung. 7, The 
 branch of the pulmonary artery to the right lung. 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 
 Branches of the pulmonary artery in the right and left lung. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9; 9, 
 Air-cells. 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Small pulmonary veins in the right 
 and left lung. 11, The left pulmonary vein. 12, 12, The right pulmonary 
 vein. 
 
 Fig. 2. An ideal View of the Pulmonary Circulation. 1, 1, The right 
 lung. 2, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4,4, 4, 4,4, The right bronchia 
 6, 6, 5, 5, 6, The left bronchia. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells, with arteries and 
 veins passing around them. 7, The right auricle of the heart. 8, The 
 right ventricle of the heart. 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonary 
 artery. 11, H, 11, 11, The right pulmonary artery. 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, The 
 left pulmonary artery. 13, 13, 13, 13, The right pulmonary vein. 
 14, 14, 14, 14, The left pulmonary vein. 16, The left auricle. 16, The 
 left ventricle. 17, The mitral valves. 18, The septum between the right 
 and left veiitricles. 
 
 Fig. 3. An ideal View of the Capillaries. 1, 1, A branch of the pul- 
 monary artery. 2, 2, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 3, 3, Capillary 
 vessels between the artery and vein. 
 
 Fig. 4. An ideal View of the Relationt of the Bronchia, Air-celU, Pul- 
 monary Arteries, arid Veins. 1, A bronchial tube. 2, 2, 2, Air-cells. 
 3, A branch of the puhnouary artery. 4, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 
 
 PLATE Vin. 
 
 THE CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM, SPINAL CORD, AND 
 NERVES. 
 
 I The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 3, The spinal cord. 4, The 
 braohial plexus of nerves. 5, The lumbar plexus of nerves. 6, The sa- 
 cral plexus of nerves. 7, The facial nerve. 8, 17, The radial nerve. 
 9 9 16 The ulnar nerve. 10, The median nerve. G, The circumflex 
 nerve of the shoulder. 
 
 II 11, The great sciatic nerve. 12, The external popliteal, or peroneal 
 
KE'V TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATE6. 
 
 nerve. 13, 13, The posterior tibial nerve. 14, The extflrnal tibial nervti 
 15, The muscular branch of the external peroneal nerve. 18, The musca- 
 lar branch of the sciatic nerve. P, Q, The posterior tibial nerve. 
 
 The letters and other figures indicate minor nervous filaments dis- 
 tributed to the various muscles and the skin. 
 
 PLATE IX 
 
 THE SKIN. 
 
 Pig. 1. A perspiratory Tnbe and Gland. 1, 1, The contorted portion of 
 the tube that forms the gland. 2, 2, Two branches which unite to form 
 the main duct of the gland. 3, 3, The_per5piratory tube. 4, The cuticJe. 
 5, Its colored portion. 6, The cutis vera, (true skin.) 7, 7, Fat vesicles, 
 in which the gland is imbedded. 
 
 Fig. 2. A Papilla of the Skin. 1, 1, Two papillae, formed of an artery 
 vein, and nerve. 2, 2, 2, 2, Nerves forming a loop in the papillae. 3, 3, Ar- 
 teries of the papillae, 4, 4, Veins of the papillae. 5, 6, A net-work of 
 arteries, veins, and nerves. 6, 6, Nerves of the skin. 8, 8, Arteries of 
 the skin. 7> 7, Veins of the skin. 
 
 Fig. 3. A Hair, and its Oil-Glands. 1, 1, The hair. 2, 2, The sheath 
 of the hair. 3, Oil-glands that surround the bulb of the hair, the ducts of 
 nbich open into the sheath of the hair, (2, 2.) 
 
 Fig. 4. A Section of the Skin. 1, 1, The cuticle. 2, 2, Its colored por- 
 tion. 3, 3, The papillary layer. 4, 4, A net-work of arteries, veins, and 
 nerves, upon the upper surface of the cutis vera. 5, 6, 5, 5, The cutis 
 vera, (true skin.) 6,6,6, Hairs that originate in the cutis vera. 7, 7, 7, Oil- 
 glands, the ducts of which connect with the sheath of the hair. 8, 8, 8 8, 
 8, 8, 8, 8, Perspiratory glands and their ducts. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Nerves of the 
 skin 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Arteries of the skin. 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, Veins of 
 the skin. 12, 12, 12, 12, Papillae, or ridges of the skin. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 AN ANTERO-POSTERIOR SECTION OF THE EYE. 
 
 Fig. 1. 1, 1, The scleroUc coat. 2, 2, The cornea. 3, 3, The choroid 
 coat. 4, 4, The retina. 6, 6, The iris. 6, 6, The posterior chamber of 
 the eye that contains the aqueous humor. 7, 7, The anterior chamber. 
 B, 8, The pupil. 9, The erystalHne humor. 10, 10, The vitreous humor. 
 11, The optic nerve. 12, A representation of a pen. 13, An inverted 
 image of the pen (12) on the retina. 14, 14, A. canal surrounding the 
 orystallino humor Ifi, Ifi, The beveUed junction of the cornea and Bolo- 
 
KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES 
 
 roUo coats. A, a perpendicular ray of light from the pen. B, B, obliiiue 
 rays, that are re&acted in passing through the humors of the eye. 
 
 Fig. 2. A Viao of the External, Middle, and Internal Ear. 1, 1, The ex- 
 ternal ear. 2, The meatus auditorius externus, fthe tube that connects 
 with the middle ear.) 3, The membrana tympani, (drum of the ear.) 
 8, 8, The tympanum, (middle ear.) 4, The malleus 6, The incus. 
 6, The orbicularis. 7, The stapes, (stirrup-bone,) that connects with the 
 vestibule of the internal ear. 9, 9, (4, 5, 6, 7, The small bones of the mid- 
 dle ear,) 10, 11, 1.2, The semicircular canals. 13, 13, The cochlea. 
 14, The auditory nerve, Vi, The division of the auditory nerve to tho 
 semicircular canals 16, The division to the cochlea. 17, 17, The 
 Eustachian tube. 18, The chorda tympani nerve. 19, The seventh pair 
 (facial) nerve. 20, The styloid process of the temporal bone. 21, 21 
 21, 21, 21, The petrous or hard porticu of the temporal bone, in whirb 
 the parts of the middle and intemaj ear are sitimted. 
 
TEXT BOOKS 
 
 UPON 
 
 Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. 
 
 Becommended by the Hon. H. W. BD'WABSS, School Sup't, 111. 
 
 HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A1U) 
 HYGIENE. For District Schools. With 100 Engravings. 132 pages. 
 By Mrs. Eunice P. Cutter. Price 50 cts. 
 
 This work cbntains full directions for the aiudy and teaching of Anatomy, Physiology, 
 and Ilygieno. Thj.s is a new feature. Every teaeiier would profit by it. The plan of 
 the work can be gathered from the following facsimile of the table of contents : — 
 
 Preface, 6 
 
 Introduction, £ 
 
 3eneral Analysis,.... 10 
 
 Teeth, 13 
 
 CHAP. I. Salivary Glands, 19 
 
 Stomach, 22 
 
 DiaESTIYE ^ Small Intestine, 26 
 
 Lacteals, 30 
 
 Large Intestine 33 
 
 Synthetic Review,... 35 
 
 "STUDY ME.' 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 RESPIRATORY 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 CIRCULATORY ' 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 VOCAL SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 CEKEBBO-SPINAL ' 
 SYSTEM 
 
 f Thotai 36 
 
 j Lungs, 39 
 
 < Pulmonary Vessels,.. 43 
 
 j Air,. 45 
 
 I. Synthetic Review,.... « 
 
 f Heart, 50 
 
 i Pulmonic Circulation, 53 
 
 1 Systemic Circulation, 56 
 
 l^ Synthetic Review 68 
 
 ( Vocal organs, 61 
 
 5 Synthetic Review,.... 64 
 
 Brain, 67 
 
 Spin'l Cord & Pierves, 70 
 Synthetic Review,.... 72 
 
 Feeling, 73 
 
 Taste, 74 
 
 Smell, 75 
 
 Seeing, 76 
 
 Hearing, 80 
 
 Synthetic Review,... 84 
 
 Head, 86 
 
 Trunk, 89 
 
 Upper Extremities, . . 93 
 Lower Extremities,. . 97 
 
 Joints, 101 
 
 Composit'n of Bones, 105 
 . Synthetic Review,.... 108 
 
 Muscles, 110 
 
 Muscles, continued,.. 114 
 Synthetic Review, . 120 
 
 ntTAP TIT f Cuticle ...122 
 
 OHAr. m. Cutis Vera, 126 
 
 CUTANEOUS ^ Animal Heat, 129 
 
 QYSTEM. I Synthetic Review,... 130 
 
 {_ General Syn. Review. 132 
 
 CHAP. II 
 
 SENTIENT 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 OSSBOUI 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 MUS CUL AB 
 SYSTEM. 
 
I 
 
 CUTTER'S REVISED 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 1. Anatomy, PniTsioLocfY, and Hychene, for Colleges, Academies, High 
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