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 A syllabus of Roman history 
 
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A SYLLABUS OF ROMAN HISTORY 
 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK • BOSTON - CHICAGO • DALLAS 
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 TORONTO 
 
A SYLLABUS OF ROMAN HISTORY 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD 
 
 PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY; AUTHOR OF "DEVELOPMENT 
 
 OF THE ATHENIAN CONSTITUTION," " ROMAN ASSEMBLIES," "A HISTORY OF 
 
 GREECE," " A HISTORY OF THE ORIENT AND GREECE," " A HISTORY OF 
 
 ROME," "an ANCIENT HISTORY FOR BEGINNERS," "A HISTORY OF 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD," (wiTH L. =,. BOTSFORD) '* THE STORY 
 
 OF ROME," " A SOURCE-BOOK OF ANCIENT HISTORY," 
 
 (with E. G. SIHLER) "HELLENIC CIVILIZATION" 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY ""%/ 
 
 All rights reserved /,\ 
 
 
Copyright, 1915, 
 By THK MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 19x5. 
 
 
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 Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 
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PREFACE 
 
 This Syllabus, which has arisen from the needs of my own 
 classroom, is offered to the public in the hope that it may 
 prove useful to students of college and university grade in 
 other institutions. Its aim is not to convey information but 
 to present a scheme for the organization of the facts and ideas 
 essential to a good knowledge of Roman history, whether 
 obtained by lectures or by reading. The books recommended 
 fairly cover the topics ; so that, even without lectures, a stu- 
 dent with the Syllabus and a few shelves of books may make 
 himself substantially acquainted with the subject. For "brief 
 review " I have preferred to recommend my own text-books 
 because their plan and contents especially harmonize with 
 the present outline. The most crying need of students of all 
 grades is guidance in note-taking and in the preparation of 
 papers — that is, in the art of studying. An attempt is made 
 to meet this need in the directions given at the close of the 
 outline. The careful following of every item of advice there 
 offered will immeasurably heighten the prevalent standard of 
 intellectual neatness of both college and university students. 
 
 Any suggestions for the correction or improvement of the 
 Syllabus will be gratefully received. 
 
 GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD. 
 
 Mount Vernon, N. Y., 
 September 1, 1915. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 Am. Hist. Rev. = American Historical Review. 
 Am. Journ. Arch. = American Journal of Archaeology. 
 Botsford, Anc. W. = History of the Ancient World (Macmillan). 
 Greece = History of Greece (Macmillan). 
 Rome = History of Rome (Macmillan). 
 
 Rom. Assemb. = Roman Assemblies to the End of the Re- 
 public (Macmillan). 
 Source- Book = Source-Book of Ancient History (Macmillan). 
 Story of Rome = Story of Rome as Greeks and Romans tell 
 it (Macmillan). 
 Carter, Religious Life = Religious Life of Ancient Rome (Houghton 
 
 Mifflin). 
 CIL. = Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. 
 Class. Rev. = Classical Review. 
 Duruy, Rome = History of Rome and of the Roman People (Jewett, 
 
 Boston). 
 Eng. Hist. Rev. = English Historical Review. 
 (Eng.) Journ. Philol. = (English) Journal of Philology. 
 Fowler, Religious Experiences = Religious Experiences of the Roman 
 
 People (Macmillan). 
 Frank, Rom. Imp. = Roman Imperialism (Macmillan). 
 Gibbon, Decline = DecUne and Fall of the Roman Empire. 
 Hist. Zeitschr. = Historische Zeitschrift. 
 How and Leigh, Rome = History of Rome (Longmans). 
 Lanciani, Ruins and Excavations = Ruins and Excavations of Ancient 
 
 Rome (Houghton Mifflin). 
 Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt. = Geschichte des Altertums. 
 Modestov, Introduction = Introduction k I'histoire romaine. 
 Niese, Rom. Gesch. = Grundriss der romischen Geschichte (4th ed., 
 Munich, 1910). 
 
viii ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 Pelham, Outlines = Outlines of Roman History (Putnam). 
 
 Platner, Top. and Men. = Topography and Monuments of Ancient 
 Rome (AUyn and Bacon). 
 
 Pol. = Polybius. 
 
 Pol. Sci. Quart. = Political Science Quarterly. 
 
 P. W. = Paulys Real-Encyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissen- 
 schaft, revised by Wissowa ; later vols, by KroU and Witte. Ref- 
 erences are to the Erste Reihe. 
 
A SYLLABUS OF ROMAN HISTORY 
 
SYLLABUS OF ROMAN HISTORY 
 
 CHAPTER I ^*^' '^ 
 
 COUNTRY AND PEOPLE 
 
 I. Introductory; the Mediterranean basin; its unity; 
 the sphere of ancient history. Origin of Graeco-Oriental 
 civilization ; debt of Italy to Greece ; relative freshness arid 
 virility of the ItaUan people. 
 
 II. Peninsular character; situation and form; contrasts 
 with Greece. The Apennines, rivers, and harbors; 'facing 
 the West.' 
 
 III. Influence of the Alps and of the water barriers; 
 accessibihty and consequent immigrations; great racial 
 complexity ; obstacles to poHtical unity. 
 
 rV. The people continental and agricultural as opposed to 
 maritime, commercial, and industrial; great variety of soil 
 and chmate ; products. 
 
 V. The function of Rome ; political unification ; suprem- 
 acy in Mediterranean basin; effects of geography on con- 
 quests and administration; relation to East and West 
 respectively; modification and extension of Hellenic civili- 
 zation. 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Environment and People. — Botsford, Rome, ch. i ; Anc. 
 W., ch. xxviii; Story of Rome, 14-17; Source-Book , 326-32 ; 
 Duruy, Ro me,.(JsL.i ( good) ; Article 'Italy, ^^..iiiac^.jBnif. (nth 
 
2 SOURCES 
 
 ed.) ; Van Buren, A., 'The Geography of Italy,' in Class. Journ. 
 VIII (1912-13) 287-92, 327-40; Kiepert, H., Manual of Anc. 
 Geography, ch. ix (detailed). 
 
 Philippson, A., Das Mittelmeergebiet (2d. ed., Leipzig, 1907), 
 see 'ItaHen,' 'ItaJiener,' in Index; Nissen, H., Italische Landes- 
 kunde, 2 vols. (Berlin: Weidmann, 1883, 1902), country, people, 
 and cities in great detail. 
 
 II. Travel aito Laitoscape. — Baedeker, K., Northern Italy; 
 Central Italy and Rome; Southern Italy and Sicily (new eds. 
 ■ constantly, Scribner) ; The Macmillan Guide to Italy and Sicily; 
 Gissing, G., By the Ionian Sea (Scribner) ; Richardson, R. B., 
 Vacation Days in Greece, 173-207 (tour in Sicily) ; Paton, W. A., 
 Picturesque Sicily (Harper) ; Geike, A., Love of Nature among the 
 Romans, etc. (London: Murray, 1912). 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 SOURCES FOR EARLY ROMAN HISTORY 
 
 1. I. Now extant for the period before the opening of the 
 third century b.c. : Histories of Livy, Dionysius, and Dio- 
 dorus; Cicero, De Repuhlica; Plutarch, Lives, and occa- 
 sional references throughout Roman Hterature ; see also 
 ch. IX, Reading I. 
 
 2. No contemporary history; extant histories composed 
 SCO years or more after the close of the regal period, 509 
 
 B.C. 
 
 a. Untrustworthiness of Roman history prior to the Gallic 
 conflagration (390) ; Livy vi. i. 
 
 h. Falsifications of early history; Livy viii. 40. 4; cf. iv. 
 16. 3; xxii. 31. 8; Cicero, Brutus, 16. 62; see further Ihne, 
 W.J Early Rome, ch. ii ; History of Rome, I. chs. i-xii ; Pais, 
 E., Ancient Leg'enSsof Roman History, see Contents. 
 
 II. Use of writing in regal period and early Republic. 
 I. Obtained from Cumae, settled about 750 b.c. 
 
BEGINNINGS OF HISTORIOGRAPHY 3 
 
 2. Came to Etruscans perhaps 700; inscription in tomb 
 at Caere, about 650. 
 
 3. Latin inscription on Praenestine gold pin somewhat 
 later (Korte, in P. W. VI. 752) 1 Duenos inscription (Egbert, 
 Latin Inscriptions, 16, 346 f .) early but date less certain. 
 
 4. Mention of a treaty on oxhide (Dionys. iv. 58) ; treaty 
 
 on bronze pillar (iv. 2 6) . Treaty between Rome and Carthage C:;^-*5»5 
 (Pol. iu. 22, about 500?) ; later treaties. Forum inscription, 
 fifth or fourth century. Writing exceedingly rare before 
 400 ; afterward gradually increases. 
 
 5. The Fasti (collected, CIL. I. i, second ed.); wide 
 difference of opinion as to reUabiUty. 
 
 6. Laws ; the Twelve Tables ; Orations, from about 300. 
 
 7. Convivial songs, containing Uttle historical matter. 
 
 8. Family inscriptions, funeral laudations, etc.; full of 
 fictions and exaggerations. 
 
 III. Greek historiography relating to Rome. 
 
 1 . References to Iteily in Greek poets, as Hesiod, Stesichorus. 
 
 2. Interest of Cumsans and Syracusans in Rome : (a) 
 Antiochus, Sicilian and Italian A fairs; in a position to 
 know something of later regal period. (6) Timaeus. In- 
 creasing attention to Roman affairs. 
 
 rV. Roman historiography. 
 
 1. Pontifical aimals, development from the Fasti; after- 
 ward edited as Annales Maximi. 
 
 2. Fabius Pictor, about 200 B.C.; L. Cincius Alimentus; 
 material and method ; see further ch. X. § v. 6. g. 
 
 V. Archaeology and topography. 
 
 1. Great abundance of material gathered in the museums, 
 beginning with palaeolithic age. 
 
 2. Sites of ancient settlements; walls, houses, tombs, 
 etc. 
 
4 SOURCES 
 
 3. Topography as a source of history; e.g., invaluable 
 for the growth of Rome ; see ch. VI. 
 
 VI. Survivals of conditions, institutions, and ideas; the 
 Romans remarkably conservative. 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Source Collections. — Peter, H., Eistoricorum romanorum 
 reliquim, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1870, 1906), fragments of the annalists 
 and of the lost historians; Munro, D. C, Source-Book of Roman 
 History (Heath) ; Botsford, The Story of Rome as Greeks and 
 Romans tell It (Macmillan) ; Source^Bpok^ of Ancient History (Mac- 
 nullan). For other sources, see Reading at the close of the various 
 chapters. 
 
 II. Criticism. — Among the earhest attempts at criticism is 
 Beaufort, L. de, A Dissertation upon the Uncertainty of Roman 
 History during the First Five Hundred Years. From the French 
 (1740). Systematic criticism has its origin with Niebuhr, B. G., 
 Romische Geschichte, 3 vols, (beginning 181 1) ; Enghsh translation 
 (Philadelphia, 1844). More recent is Ihne, Early Rome, ch. ii ; 
 History of Rome, I. chs. i-xii ; P ais, "E.. Ancient Legends of Rom an 
 H^pr y, see Contents ; Storia Criiica di Roma, I (Rome, 1913) ; 
 Soltau, W., Die Anfange der romischen Geschichtschreibung (Leip- 
 zig, 1909) ; De Sanctis, G., Storia dei Romani (Torino, 1907), I. 
 ch. i, accepts more than Pais and Soltau. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE STONE, BRONZE, AND EARIY-IRON AGES 
 
 To about 800 B.C. 
 
 I. Palaeolithic age. 
 
 1. Remains chiefly in Liguria ; sparser elsewhere. 
 
 2. No houses, domestic animals, or pottery; rough tools 
 and arms of bone, horn, and unpolished stone ; cave-dweUers ; 
 clothing of skins. Peet, Stone and Bronze Ages, ch. i; 
 
STONE AND BRONZE AGES S 
 
 Modestov, Introduction, ch. i; Munro, R., PalcBolithic Man<^-)')^ I 
 and Terramara Settlements in Europe (London, 1912). 
 3. Artistic character ; shown chiefly by natives of France. 
 
 II. Neolithic age, to about 2500 B.C. 
 
 1. Great gap between I and II. Neoliths probably in- 
 vaders; 'Mediterranean race.' Sergi, G., Mediterranean 
 Race (London, 1901), ch. ix. 
 
 2. Polished stone implements; domestic animals and 
 crude pottery; cave-dwellings; cabins grouped in villages; 
 burial of dead with food, tools, and ornaments. 
 
 3. Greater advance in S. Italv and Sici ly; commerce 
 with ^gean region ; painted pottery. 
 
 4. Probable immigrations during the age; assimilation 
 of invaders and natives. Peet, Stone and Bronze Ages, 
 chs. ii-vii; Modestov, Introduction, chs. ii, iii. 
 
 m. Bronze age, about 2500-2000 b.c. 
 
 1. Use of copper extends from ' Egypt and Cyp rus to Kn- 
 r ope; the aeneolithic (stone and copper') age. 2 ^00-2000 b. c. 
 
 2. Copper brought to Italy by Indo-European immigrants 
 from Switzerland; stone industry now most highly de- 
 veloped ; settlements in L ombar dy ; l ake- villag es. 
 
 3. Indo-European immigrants from basin of Danube into 
 lower Po valley bring use of b ronze, about o.onci B.C. 
 
 a. L ake-dwelling s north of Po. 
 
 6. Te rremare south of P o : plan of Terramara ; cemeteries ; 
 incineration; skiUin^surteying, engineering; farmers; 
 grains~and vegetables; linens and woolens; pottery and 
 impleffimts^ 
 
 c. Native hut-dweUings ; gradual assimilation; aban- 
 donment of Terremare, about 1000 B.C. The Italici a 
 blend of the two peoples. 
 
 4. Migration of Italici — 
 
 (o) To Latium. (6) To Etruria and Umbria. (c) Their 
 
6 EARLY-IRON AGE 
 
 blending with natives produces the Latins and Umbrians. 
 Sabellians 'colonists' of Umbrians. 
 
 5. S. Italy and Sicily little touched by these movements ; 
 contact with Mycenaean area; noteworthy progress in 
 culture. 
 
 6. Decline of bronze civilization ; general impoverishment. 
 Modestov, Introduction, chs. iii, iv. 
 
 IV. Early-Iron Age, about 1000-800 B.C. ; called Vill- 
 anova after one of its chief sites. 
 
 ■ I. Beginnings inferior to bronze culture; geometric 
 style ; gradual improvement. 
 
 2. S. Italy and Sicily; introduction of iron culture from 
 ^geng, area. 
 
 READING 
 
 This subject is not represented in the general histories of Rome 
 accessible in English. For a brief treatment see Jones, H. S., 
 C ompanion to Roman History, 1-1 2. The best monograpli is 
 Peet, T. E., Stone and^ Bronze. Afps i^n- Italy and Si cily, see Con- 
 tents ; for questions of origin, race, and connections, chs. vii, xviii, 
 xix. See also Modestov, B. , Introduction A I'h istoir e romain e, 
 pt. I. For the early-iron age, see Peet, 'Early Iron Age in South 
 Italy,' in Papers of the British School at Rome, IV (1907), 283-96 ; 
 Montehus, O., Les debuts de I'dge dufer; Grenier, A., Bologne villa- 
 novienne etStrusque (Paris, 191 2), see Contents. 
 
 Montelius, Die alteren Kulturperioden im Orient und in Europa 
 (Stockholm, 1903), is a useful explanation of the elements of pre- 
 history. His Civilisation primitive en Italic depuis V introduction 
 des metaux, I, II. 1-5 (Stockholm, 1895-1910), is an exhaustive 
 presentation of the subject through illustrations of all the known 
 objects belonging to the age covered by the work. See further 
 De Sanctis, G., Storia dei Romani, I. chs. ii-v. Scala, R. von, 
 'Die Anfange geschichthchen Lebens in Itahen,' in Hist. Zeitschr. 
 CVIII (1912). 1-37, is suggestive. 
 
PHCENICIANS, GREEKS, AND ETRUSCANS 7 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE PHCENICIANS, GREEKS, AND ETRUSCANS 
 
 To about 500 B.C. 
 
 I. Phoenician colonization. 
 
 1. Decline of Minoan supremacy, about 1200 b.c. ; begin- 
 ning of Phoenician voyages to western Mediterranean ; trad- 
 ing posts. 
 
 2. Settlements in northern Africa; Iberia; Atlantic 
 coast ; western Sicily. 
 
 3. Carthage, founded about 800 B.C. 
 
 a. Trading post; favorable situation; becomes great 
 commercial city. 
 
 b. Naval power for defense against Greeks ; begins build- 
 ing maritime empire (650) ; Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica (600) ; 
 whole African coast west of Cyrene (before 500); 'closed- 
 door ' policy for her empire. 
 
 c. Government; two annual suffetes; council of nobles; 
 popular assembly. A commercial aristocracy. General- 
 ship an added office ; held by Mago (later sixth century) ; 
 creation of a great mercenary army. 
 
 II. Greek colonization. 
 
 1. Causes: over-population; desire for trade; political 
 unrest ; spirit of adventure. 
 
 2. Chalcidic colonies; the mother-city;, trade with 
 Campania (beginning 850). 
 
 a. Pithecussas. b. Cumae ; situation and soil ; activities ; 
 temple of Apollo a center of culture; influence on Rome. 
 c. Naples, Rhegium, Zancle (Messana), Himera. 
 
 3. Achaean colonies ; Sybaris and Croton ; fertility, wealth, 
 and refinement. Posidonia (partly Achaean) ; its temple to 
 Poseidon. 
 
8 GREEKS AND ETRUSCANS 
 
 4. Locrian colony : Locri; Zaleucus and the first European 
 law code. 
 
 5. Dorian colonies: Tarentum; situation, activities, and 
 culture ; Syracuse and Acragas in Sicily. 
 
 6. Commerce with the homeland and with the natives; 
 spread of Hellenic civiUzation; town-planning; useful and 
 fine arts and literature. 
 
 7. Myth-making; the wanderings of Greek heroes and 
 connections with native ItaUans; descent of native peoples 
 from Greeks or Trojans. 
 
 III. Etruscan colonization. 
 
 1. The Tyrseni (Tyrrheni), a people of western Asia Minor 
 and adjacent islands ; culture from Mycenteans, Asia Minor, 
 and Babylonia. 
 
 2. Migration to Italy, about 800; chiefs with retainers; 
 supremacy over natives; blending of races; prevalence of 
 Tyrsenian language and culture ; result the Etruscans. 
 
 3. Social classes : (a) aristocracy ; gens and lineage ; wealth ; 
 political methods, (b) Dependent masses, (c) Slaves. 
 
 4. Religion : (a) monopoly of the nobles ; sacred books, 
 divination, deities native and borrowed, (b) Temples, 
 (c) Tombs and burial customs; games. 
 
 5. House and furniture; dress and adornment; position 
 of women; social customs. 
 
 6. The city : founding, ritual, and plan ; fortifications — 
 various. kinds of masonry; drainage; extant remains. 
 
 7. Fine arts : architecture (cf. 4), painting, statuary, vases, 
 etc. 
 
 8. The army; phalanx from the Greeks; horsemen. 
 
 9. Leagues of cities. 
 
 10. Commercial and political relations with Carthage; 
 conflict with the Greeks, 540. 
 
 11. Transmission of civilization from Greece to Rome. 
 
LATINS 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Phcenician Colonization. — Mommsen, History of Rome, I. 
 177-9, 196-9; Smith, Rome and Carthage, ch . i; Meyer. E.. 
 G eschichte des Altertums^ II. 68c> 5 . ; De Sanctis, G., Storia del 
 Romam, I. 327 ff. ; Pync, J., 'Phoenicians and their Voyages,' 
 in National Quarterly 'Review, XXXII. 123-34; Duruv . Rome, 
 c fa. xjx ; Meltzer, O., Geschichte der Karthager, I. chs. i-iv. 
 
 II. Greek Colonization. — Botsford, Greece, 30-40 ; Anc. 
 W. 105-8 ; Hellenic Civilization, ch. iii ; Bury , History of Greece, c h. 
 ii- §§ 3-4; Holm, History of Greece, I. ch. x xi ; Abbott^flMtorjU)/ 
 
 Greece, I. 342-8 ; Mommsen, bk. I. ch. x. ^7 ^^uia <2^ cJt^ tK 
 
 "Eeloch, Griechische Geschichte, I (2d ed., 1912).' 229 £f. ; De 
 Sanctis, Storia dei Romani, I. ch. ix. 
 
 III. Etruscans. — Botsford, Anc. W., 319-22 ; Story of Rome, 
 18 f.; Carter , R digioiis L ife, ch. i ; Korteand Skutsch, 'Etrusker,' 
 in P. W. VI. 730-806 ; Modestov, B., L' Introduction dr Vhistoire 
 romaine, pt. n; Grenier, A., Bologne villanovienne et Strusque, see 
 Contents; Harmon, A. M., 'Paintings of the Grotto Campana,' 
 in Am. Journ. Arch. CVI (191 2). i-io. 
 
 CHAPTER V J^^ ^ |. . 30 
 
 SETTLEMENTS OE THE LATINS 
 
 I. The Latins a blend of Italic invaders with natives (c/. 
 ch. lH iii. 4. c). 
 
 II. Villages on hilltops, rudely fortified; cultivation of 
 surrounding valleys and plains; underground drainage. 
 De Sanctis, Storia dei Romani, I. 177; Platner,. Jg^OMd 
 Man., 13 f. 
 
 III. Growth of cities, as Alba Longa, Aricia, Rome, Gabii, 
 Tibur, Praeneste. 
 
 1. Organization of city in tribes and curiae. 
 
 2. Government: dictator, king, or other magistrate; 
 senate (council of elders) ; assembly of people. 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
lo LATINS 
 
 IV. Latin league ; survival of organization of Latin 
 populus. 
 
 1. Capital, Alba Longa ; afterward Rome. 
 
 2. Organization in 30 voting groups (curiae?), afterward 
 controlled by the cities. 
 
 3. Religion; Latin festival at Alba; Jupiter Latiaris. 
 
 4. Government : dictator or other magistrate ; council of 
 principes; assembly. 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Brief Review. — Botsford, Rome, 4-7 ; Anc. W., 317 f. ; 
 Story of Rome, 19-21; Source-Book, 329-31. 
 
 II. More Detailed. — Mommsen. History of Rome, bk. I. 
 ch. iii, theory of 'clan villages,' and fortified refuge (oppidum) 
 antiquated; Ashby, Th., 'Alba Longa,' in (Eng.) Journ. Philol. 
 XXVII (1901). 37-50; Modestov, Introduction, pt. I. ch. vi, 
 ethnology and early civilization; De Sanctis, I. 176-83; Rosen- 
 berg, A., Der Stoat der alten Italiker (Berlin, 1913), up to date. 
 
 A,'^ \ ^^ CHAPTER VI 
 
 GROWTH OF EARLY ROME 
 
 To 509 B.C. 
 
 I. Sparse evidence of habitation before the iron age, 1000 
 B.C. The village epoch: contemporaneous villages on the 
 hilltops ; pagus (canton) territory of village ; local govern- 
 ment under government of Latin populus. 
 
 II. The Palatine city. City develops from village under 
 favoring conditions. 
 
 1. Central location; defensibility ; bridge across Tiber; 
 Cermalus, Palatium, Velia, three quarters (montes). 
 
 2. Rehgious institutions localized : Caca, Cacus; Lupercal 
 (LupercaUa) ; Parilia or Palilia, shepherd's festival ; hut and 
 cherry tree of Romulus ; remains of temple (seventh or sixth 
 
SEPTIMONTIUM; 'FOUR REGIONS' ii 
 
 century ; Pinza, Monumenii antichi, XV. 787) ; ritual of 
 founding ; pomerium and mundus. 
 
 3. Original wall ; remains of later walls ; 3 gates; 'Roma 
 Quadrata.' 
 
 4. Political institutions : tribes and curiae (' curiae veteres') ; 
 fornicalia; king, senate, and assembly. 
 
 5. Social condition and occupations; shepherds and 
 farmers ; rude round hut (c/. hut urn) and cattle pen ; crude 
 furniture, implements, etc. ; cf. ch. lH iv. i. 
 
 III. Septimontium. Doubted by some scholars, as Car- 
 ter, in Am. Journ. Arch. XII (1908). 172-83; maintained 
 by Huelsen, Platner, and others. 
 
 1. Formed by annexing to Palatine the Esquiline (Oppius, 
 Fagutal, Cispius) and Sucusa (on CaeUan), making 7 ' montes.' 
 
 2. Festival of Septimontium. 
 
 3. Forum cemetery, ninth to sixth century; transition 
 from incineration to inhumation under Etruscan influence. 
 
 IV. 'City of the Four Regions,' beginning about 550 b.c. 
 
 1. Quirinal and Viminal hills annexed. Quirinal had long 
 iDeen settled; Capitolium Vetus; temple of Jupiter, Juno, 
 and Minerva ; remains of early temples. 
 
 2. Character of enlarged city : straggling villages on hill- 
 tops; marshes between; drainage; Cloaca Maxima and 
 Cloacina. 
 
 3. Forum; temple of Vesta and Atrium Vestae, Regia; 
 temple of Saturn and ^rarium; 'Tomb of Romulus' and 
 Lapis Niger'f^' • ''=^-"-^. 
 
 4. Shops and guilds ; Vicus Tuscus and Vicus lugarius. n _^ 
 
 5. Comitium ; Curia Hostilia, senaculum, V ulcan al, Carcer*^'^*-'^'^ 
 and appeal to assembly; temple of Janus. /-«-**■ «***-x. <sa.o-.^_ 
 
 6. Sororium Tigillum and the purification of the army. <i 
 
 7. Chapels of the Argei. 
 
 8. The four regions (city tribes) and the rural tribes ; the 
 
12 GROWTH OF ROME 
 
 census and the development of the five classes ; the phalanx 
 and the horsemen (Botsford, Roman Assemblies, 69-91) ; 
 the probable wall ; remains of later (fourth century) wall. — 
 The Capitoline Hill; arx and temple of Juno Moneta; 
 temple of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva ; of Jupiter Feretrius 
 and the spolia opLma; shrine of Terminus; auguraculum. 
 
 9. Expansion of territory. Original territory, indicated 
 in the ambarvalia, about 40 sq. mi. ; 500 B.C., 350 sq. mi. 
 
 V. Rome head of Latin league. 
 3 en.v,>*^ I. Temple of Diana on Aventine as center; treaty on 
 bronze pillar in temple. /ClfX^^ a( ^^*-*<— v<««»(^. 
 
 2. Treaties between Rome and individual states, as Gabii. 
 
 READING T, »flr»/,h,c^/ lyd- 
 
 I. Growth of the City. — Platner. S. b7 . Topography and 
 Monuments of Ancient Rome (2d ed., AUjna and Bacon, 1911), 
 
 ^ fS^'tS^ 32-57 ; Huelsen, Ch., Roman Forum , translated by Carter, J. B. 
 (Stechert, 1909), 1-8, 222-9 (Forum cemetery) ; Pais, E., Storia 
 critica di Roma, bk. III. ch. xiii; Pinza, G., ' Monumenti primitivi 
 di Roma e del Lazio antico,' in Monumenti antichi, XV (1905), a 
 detailed tentative construction from the material gathered to date 
 of publication. Carter, J. B., 'Roma Quadrata and the Septi- 
 montium,' in Am. Journ. Arch. XII (1908). 172-83, opposes the 
 traditional view that the imification proceeded from the Palatine. 
 
 II. Headship of Latin League. — Botsford, Rome, 36 f . ; 
 Reid, J. S., Municipalities of the Roman Empire, 40 ff. 
 
 ;j,«^<'^ V'"^^ CHAPTER VII 
 
 GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND SOCIETY OF EARLY ROME 
 
 1. King, prototype of repubUcan magistrate, holder of — 
 . :■■ I. Auspicium, right to communicate with the gods. 
 
 2. Imperium, power: military, civil (including judicial); 
 derived territorial meaning of imperium. 
 
GOVERNMENT ; RELIGION 13 
 
 II. Senate, council of elders, patres, the more powerful 
 men of community. Fvmctions : (i) advisory (consultum) ; 
 (2) filling interregnum. 
 
 III. Assembly, contio, concilium ; comitia curiata. 
 
 1. Election of king ; lex curiata de imperio. 
 
 2. Beginnings of legislation: (a) customary law ; (b) reso- 
 lutions of assembly proposed by magistrate. 
 
 Little activity during regal period. 
 
 IV. Army: (i) original organization in tribes and curiae; 
 (2) introduction of phalanx from Etruria; horse and foot. 
 
 V. Religion. 
 
 1. Principal gods and shrines; see ch. VI. Fowler, 
 Religims Experiences, lects. vi, vii. 
 
 2. Siirvivats"of"to1:efHiSm7*'taboo,''ana'^ magic. Fowler, 
 lects. ii, iii. 
 
 \3. !^aniily_worship. Fowler, lect. iv. 
 4.- Calendar ; ritual. Fowler, lects. v, viii, ix. 
 5. Pontiffs and. augurs. Fowler, lects. xii, xiii; Botsford, 
 Roman Assemblies, ch. v. 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Brief. — Botsford, Rome, 27-9, 32 ; Anc. W., 332-5 ; 
 Story of Rome, 33, 39-44 ; Source-Book, 7^^q^ii^9 : Miinro, Source- 
 Book, ch. ii. 
 
 II. More Detailed. — Carter , Religion of Numa, 1-103 ; 
 Religious T.ifp. rhs j^j • Fowler, see topics above; Wissowa, G., 
 Religion und Kultus der Romer (second ed., Munich, 1912), see 
 Contents. 
 
 VI. Society. 
 
 I. The gens, association of persons claiming descent from 
 common ancestor, real or fictitious. The richer are more 
 able to keep up relations of kinship and thus to form gentes ; 
 imitated by the poor. The Twelve Tables {cf. ch. VIII. v. 3) 
 
14 SOCIETY 
 
 recognize all citizens, patrician and plebeian, as members of 
 gentes. — Informal organization ; customs ; cemetery ; po- 
 litical influence. 
 
 2. Heads of powerful gentes become senators, patres. 
 
 3. Social classes. 
 
 a. Pa^^ans, originally members of senatorial families; 
 gradually form a practically closed caste. Monopolize the 
 oflSces and priesthoods ; become the governing class ; claim 
 close relationship with gods ; economic profit. 
 
 h. Plq^jgjis, the masses ; personally free ; vote in assem- 
 bUes; debarred from oflSices and priesthoods. 
 
 c. ClieBi.s, those plebeians who for protection have attached 
 themselves to individual patricians as patrons; hereditary 
 relation ; mutual rights and obhgations. 
 
 d. Slaves, few in early Rome. 
 
 4. Liberality in granting the citizenship (and patriciate) 
 to aliens ; forcing it upon some. 
 
 5. Dwelling: (a) primitive round hut; (6) later, the 
 atrium; alleged introduction from Asia Minor through 
 Etruria ; furniture, dress, and adornments. 
 
 1. Middle and lower class probably represented by 
 Forum cemetery (before 550). 
 
 2. King and nobles represented by the chamber tombs 
 of Etruria and one at Praeneste. 
 
 6. Occupations : shepherds and farmers ; artisans and 
 merchants; probably a few native importers from Etruria 
 and the Greeks; Etruscan tradesmen (Vicus Tuscus) and 
 probably Greek tradesmen in Rome. 
 
 READING 
 
 Botsfor d, Rome, 21-36; Anc. W., 328-32; R oman Assemblie s 
 (MacmUlan, 1909), oh. ii ; 'Some problems connected with the 
 Roman gens,' in Pol. Sci. Quart. XXXII (1907). 663-92 ; Frank, T., 
 Roman Imperialism, 5-7 ; Niese, Rom. Gesch. 39-42 ; Duruy, 
 
FOUNDING 0F|^EPUB£IC 15 
 
 Rome, \'h. v ; Oliver, E. H., Roman Economic Conditions (Toronto, 
 1907), 1-28, a useful work, though it exaggerates the amount of 
 industry and commerce of early Rome ; Pais, E., Storia critica di 
 Roma, bk. III. chs. xiv-xviii, very valuable. 
 
 «<^^'^c, 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE REPUBLIC FROM ITS FOUNDING TO THE END OF THE 
 DECEMVIRAL LEGISLATION 
 
 Conventional dates, 509-449 B.C. 
 
 I. Founding of Republic. The Fasti, enlarged by fictitious 
 names and reduplications, reach back to 509 ; the true date 
 doubtless later. 
 
 1. Probable reaction of the nobility (senate) against the 
 despotic rule of the Tarquins. 
 
 2. King becomes mere priest — rex sacrorum — appointed 
 by pontifex maximus ; title without power. 
 
 3. Two consuls with equal power take place of king; 
 elected annually by comitia centuriata; power limited 
 by right of appeal. 
 
 4. ^JjgJiatjjr (Latin institution), with absolute power, 
 occasional office ; master of horse. 
 
 5. Minor officials : quaestors ; duumviri perdueUioni iudi- 
 candae. 
 
 6. Senate gains by fall of kings; number normally 300. 
 
 7. Comitia centuriata, a new assembly. Composition, 
 organization, and fimctions; elective, legislative-, judicial. 
 
 8. Comitia curiata, gradually declines; confirmation of 
 elections ; of adrogations. 
 
 II. Foreign relations. Various events mentioned below 
 are either rejected outright by some mode^rn scholars or 
 placed at a later date. 
 
 I. First treaty with "Carthage (Pol. iii. 22), 509 B.C. 
 
l6 REPU]||.IC TO 449 , 
 
 Placed in 348 (Diod. xvi. 69) by Mommsen ; earli , / date 
 maintained by Ed. Meyer, Frank, Rom. Imp. 26, and others. 
 Recognizes Roman headship of Latium as far as Tarracina; 
 Carthaginian trade with Rome and Latium. 
 
 2. Revolt of Latins; mythical battle of Lake Regillus, 
 496 or 499 B.C. 
 
 3. Cassian treaty with Latins, 493 ; attempt to transfer 
 it to fourth century (Frank, Rom. Imp. 28, n. 23). Terms ; 
 Dionys. vi. 95. 
 
 4. Naval battle off Cumae, 474 ; decline of Etruscans. 
 
 5. Wars with Sabines, ^quians, and Volscians; unfor- 
 tunate for Rome and Latium. Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt. V. 
 133; Beloch, Der italische Bund, ch. ix; Botsford, Rome, 
 38-42 ; Anc. W., 253 f. ; Pelham, Oidlines, 68-71. 
 
 III. Political struggles. 
 
 1. Great democratic movement among Greeks (after 480). 
 Rome in close touch with Cumae, Naples, Syracuse ; borrow- 
 ing of cultural elements and probably of political methods. 
 Pais, y4wc. Ifal^, chs. xx, xxi . 
 
 2. Patrician oppression at Rome, political and economic; 
 ravaging of fields by enemy ; impoverishment of plebeians ; 
 famine and importation of grain from Sicily, used by patri- 
 cians for keeping plebeians dependent (Livy ii. 34 ; Dionys. 
 vii. I. 2; Plutarch, Coriolanus, 16); harsh law of debt. 
 
 3. Alleged secession of plebs; institution of plebeian trib- 
 unes (conventional date, 493) ; increase from 2 to 10 ; per- 
 sons sacred ; right to convoke plebs and pass resolutions. 
 
 4. Two plebeian aediles (493) ; care of plebeian archives in 
 temple of Ceres (Zonaras vii. 15 ; cf. Livy iii. 55. 13) ; assist- 
 ants of tribunes; acquire care of markets, streets, etc.; 
 police jurisdiction. 
 
 5. Comitia tributa; composition, organization, and 
 limited functions, 47-449. Botsford, Rom. Assemb. ch. xii. 
 
TWBIvVE TABLES 1 7 
 
 IV. Compilation of the Twelve Tables. 
 
 1. Alleged struggle for written laws, 463-52. 
 
 2. Election of decemviri legibus scribundis with full powers 
 of government and codification for 451 ; suspension of the 
 ordinary government ; renewal of board for 450 ; continues 
 into 449. 
 
 3. Existing laws are customary ; 'laws of the kings ; ' a few 
 statutes. 
 
 4. Embassy to the Greeks (Dionys. x. 54 ; cf. Tacitus, 
 Annals, ii. 27; Pliny, N. H. viii. 24. 4; Pais, Anc. Italy, 
 
 331 f-)- 
 
 5. Origins of Twelve Tables; customary law and Greek 
 law modified and supplemented by enactments of the decem- 
 virs. 
 
 6. Ratified by comitia centuriata, 449. 
 
 7. Highly probable that various so-caUed laws of Twelve 
 Tables belong to later date. 
 
 V. Life as reflected in Twelve Tables. 
 
 I. The family agnatic, kinship through males only; 
 adoption and emancipation of sons; marriage of daughters. 
 
 a. Religion, necessary to perpetuate. 
 
 b. Patria potestas, absolute and Ufelong. 
 
 c. Property under control of pater ; peculium and dowry ; 
 curator of imbecile or spendthrift father. 
 
 d. Inheritance, including debts and duty of maintaining 
 religion ; testament ; intestate succession. 
 
 e. Women; 
 
 1. Always dependent, on father, husband (in manu), 
 guardian. 
 
 2. Forms of marriage and their pecuharities ; coemptio, 
 usus, confarreatio. 
 
 3. Trial of offending wife ; ius osculi ; divorce ; emancipa- 
 tion without divorce. 
 
l8 REPUBLIC TO 449 
 
 4. Place of wife in household; uxor, matrona, mater- 
 famihas. 
 
 2. Agnati, near kin, through males only. 
 
 a. Degrees of kin ; determine rights and duties. 
 h. Inheritance and guardianship. 
 
 3. Gens, includes aU citizens. Failing agnati, the gentiles 
 inherit, appoint guardians, etc. 
 
 4. Social classes. 
 
 a. Prohibition of intermarriage between patres and 
 plebeians ; Livy iv. 4. 5 ; Cicero, Rep. ii. 36. 37. Patres 
 means patricians (Dionys. x. 60) ; or senators (Gains, in 
 Digest, L. 16. 238). 
 
 b. Distinction between landowner and proletarian; ad- 
 vantage of latter. 
 
 0. Distinction between citizen and aUen; advantage of 
 former. 
 
 d. Freedmen; right of inheritance and testament; in 
 failure of testament and heirs, patron inherits; better 
 treated than in later time. 
 
 e. Slaves, few ; Hberation facihtated. 
 /. Sanates and forcti, meaning obscure. 
 
 5. Property and business : (o) Res mancipi and nee man- 
 cipi. {b) Contracts, (c) Legis actiones. {d) Associations. 
 
 6. Torts and crimes. Finable and capital cases ; retaUation. 
 
 7. PubUc law. 
 
 a. Right of appeal in capital cases; laws affecting the 
 caput may be passed only by the comitiatus maximus 
 (comitia centuriata or curiata?). 
 
 b. Whatever the people vote last shall be law and valid. 
 
 8. Sacred law; regulation of funerals; sumptuary provi- 
 sions. 
 
 9. Roman character as reflected in these laws: narrow, 
 prosaic, without mercy or magnanimity; high sense of 
 justice ; remarkable degree of legal equality. ..■ ■ 
 
VALERIAN-HORATIAN LAWS 19 
 
 Text and interpretation of the Twelve Tables : Girard, P. F., 
 Textes de droit romain (3d ed., Paris, 1903), 9-23 ; Bruns, C. G., 
 Pontes iuris romam {jth ed., Tubingen, 1909), pt. I. 15-40 ; Clark, 
 E. C, History of Roman Private Law (Cambridge, 1906), I. 20-23 i 
 Walton, F. P., Historical Introduction to the Roman Law (2d ed., 
 London, 1912) ; De Sanctis, Storia dei Romani, II. 65-88. 
 
 VI. Valerian-Horatian laws, 449 b.c. 
 
 1. Restoration of the normal constitution with appropriate 
 guarantees. 
 
 2. A resolution of the comitia tributa, composed of ple- 
 beians and patricians (Dionys. xi. 45. 3), under tribunician 
 presidency, obtains,, with the senate's consent, the force of 
 law; lex and plebi scitum (plebiscite) distinguished. Bots- 
 
 ford, Roman Assemblies, 274-80. ^ (rt-«.--«-*j fiv^^ ^^ &- S >"3 
 
 The political struggle and constitutional development: Bots- 
 ford, Rome, 66-79 ; Anc. W., 339-45; Rom. Assemb. ch. xii f growt h 
 oi the tribimate ) ; Abbott, F. F., Roman Political InstituHj uis, 
 24-31 ; Pelham, OiMines, 45-59. ' « ^j^j^t.^..^ 
 
 ^^ CHAPTER IX 
 
 EXPANSION OF THE ROMAN SUPREMACY OVER ITALY 
 449-264 B.C. 
 
 I. Political condition of Italy about 450: multitude of 
 little warring states (city-states and cantonal states) ; for- 
 tified cities ; insecurity of life and property ; slow progress 
 of civilization; diversity of nationalities and languages, 
 and its consequences. 
 
 II. Steps in the unification of Italy. 
 
 1. Desperate condition of Latium and Rome under Vol- 
 scian and ^quian invasions {cf. ch. VIII. ii. 5). 
 
 2. Institution of censorship and reform of army (443) ; 
 five classes ; increased efficiency (Livy i. 43 ; Niese, Rom. 
 
20 EXPANSION OVER ITALY, 449-264 
 
 Gesch. 62 f. ; Botsford, Rom. Assenib. 66) ; military tribunes 
 with consular power ; two quaestorships instituted for army 
 (421). 
 
 3. Development of mercenary service in Carthage and 
 among Greeks; Rome institutes pay for military service 
 (406). 
 
 4. Battle of Mount Algidus, 431 ; Latium rewon by Rome, 
 431-06. 
 
 5. Conquest of Veil, 396; GalUc invasion, 390; new forti- 
 fications of Rome. 
 
 6. The Latin war ; dissolution of Latin league, 338. 
 
 7. The three Samnite wars, 343-1, 326-04, 298-90; war 
 with Tarentum, 281-72. 
 
 / III./' Rome's foreign poucy. 
 
 VI. tier theory that all her wars are defensive; the fetial 
 
 institution; real or assumed aggressions by other states. 
 
 2. Dense and increasing population; desire for land and 
 booty. 
 
 3. Aristocracy based in part on military success; desire 
 for individual or family glory. 
 
 (__/[.• Treatment of disaffection, treaty-breaking, and rebellion. 
 
 a. Desolation of fields, burning of towns ; enslavement of 
 population (c/. Livy vi. 31. 8; vii. 27). 
 
 b. Appropriation of one third, a half, two thirds, or aU the 
 land, (i) Amount not stated ; Livy i. 15 ; ii. 25, 45 ; 
 Dionys. ii. 16. (2) One half; Dio Cass. Frag. ^^ (Bois- 
 sevain, I. p. 138). (3) Two thirds; Livy ii. 41. All; Livy 
 ii. 27. 
 
 c. Punishment for violation of embassy (Livy vii. 19). 
 5. 1 Treatment of conquered. 
 
 a. Formula of surrender (Livy i. 38). 
 
 b. In earlier time, destruction of conquered city, removal 
 of inhabitants to Rome ; made citizens. 
 
^V ORGANIZATION OF SUPREMACY 21 
 
 ^^Bc. Later, perpetual treaty with isopolity (mutual rights of 
 ^^Rizenship) ; Gabii the first example (Dionys. iv. 58. 3 ; 
 ^^^Varro, L.L. v. 33) ; developing into — 
 d. The municipiutn (municipality). 
 Looser alliances. 
 
 Organization of the Roman supremacy over Italy — 
 loman-Italian league. 
 
 'The Romans : i. at Rome ; ii. in the municipia. 
 Municipia sine suffragio. Caere first known example; 
 faty for a hundred years' (Livy vii. 20. 8), original basis 
 
 this condition. 
 Fa. Status determined by a constitutive law (lex data). 
 6. Magistrates, senate, and assembly. 
 
 c. Local laws administered by local magistrates; Roman 
 Jaws by prsetor or his representative prefect. 
 
 d. Independent financial administration. 
 
 e. Religion under communal control. 
 /. Municipes (citizens of municipium) not in Roman 
 
 gbes; military service in their own detachments. 
 
 Generally private rights (commercium and connubium) 
 Rome, but not public rights (ius suffragi and ius 
 lorum). 
 
 Municipia with fuUest rights (optimo iure). 
 Municipes belong to tribes and have full public and 
 |vate rights at Rome. 
 
 Fewer local rights. Under jurisdiction of Roman 
 etor; financial administration under Roman censors; 
 ligion under the pontiffs, etc. 
 
 I3. Roman colonies. A colony, composed of 300 Roman 
 ilies, settled in midst of a conquered maritime tOAvn. 
 f'he latter has the civitas sine suilragio. 
 
 4. Prefectures. No local rights or Roman rights ; governed 
 absolutely by Roman prefect ; rare and temporary condition. 
 
22 EXPANSION OVER ITALY, 449-264 
 
 B. Allies. 
 
 1. Latins: a. Old Latin towns, as Tibur, Praeneste; 
 relations with Rome based on treaty. 
 
 b. Latin colonies: relations with Rome based on statute 
 of ' founding. Ceremony of founding ; centuriation and 
 distribution of lands. 
 
 c. In both cases especially close allies; easy access to 
 Roman citizenship. 
 
 2. ItaUans : communities bound to Rome by individual 
 treaties ; vary greatly in these relations ; two main classes : 
 equal and inferior. 
 
 3. All alUes free from tribute ; furnish military forces for 
 Rome's wars; enjoy own customs and self-government; 
 tendency to timocracy; interstate disputes arbitrated by 
 Roman senate. 
 
 4. Population, about 264 B.C. 
 
 a. Romans and Latin colonies, about 1,000,000. 
 
 b. Other Latins and Italians, nearly 2,000,000. 
 
 V. Constitutional development, 449-287 . 
 
 1. New magistracies and promagis trades. 
 
 a. Praetor, civil jurisdiction; imperium, may command 
 troops, 367. 
 
 h. Two curule aediles (added to two plebeian sediles) ; 
 care of streets, markets, games, etc. ; pohce jurisdiction, 367. 
 
 c. Curule magistrates : dictator and master of horse, 
 censor, consul, praetor, curule aedile. Curule chair. 
 
 d. Promagistrates : proconsul, propraetor, proquaestor; 
 theoretical prodictator; appointment by senate or by 
 resolution of assembly; sphere of action outside the City. 
 
 2. Opening of offices to plebeians. c%*y^j:-~ ..^ yu-j^^c^ _ 
 
 a. Consulship through Licinian-Sextian laws, 367 ; the 
 'new nobility.' 
 
 b. Other political offices, 367-300 B.C. 
 
CONSTITUTIONAL GROWTH 23 
 
 'c. Augurs and pontiffs increased to 9 each ; 4 augurs and 
 g pontiffs to be plebeian (Lex Ogulnia, 300). 
 
 3. Changes in assemblies; movement toward democracy. 
 
 a. From 447, tribal assembly under consul or dictator 
 (after 367 also under praetor) elects lower magistrates, as 
 quaestors, and enacts laws. 
 
 b. Exclusion of patricians from tribal assembly under 
 presidency of tribunes (lex PubliUa, 339). ' c^ 1^ ^^'t , v , i f * , '^ 
 
 c. Admission of landless to the tribes, 312; city tribes ^'i'^i*' 
 inferior to rural tribes, 304. "^^tt-t^ ce^c/*^^. "!)(&,■•- 
 
 d. Plebiscites vaUd without the consent of the senate 'i'*' * 
 (Hortensian law, 287). <»''-">''• 
 
 e. Field of comitial legislation expands, 358-287. 
 
 /. Government in form a democracy ; in fact a rule of the 
 nobility as newly constituted. > (3^ (tiuU' — '■^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 VI. Culture : (a) Religion and morals ; (6) education 
 and intelligence ; (c) social and public character ; {d) public 
 works (temples, roads, and aqueducts). <2^^^^*-<*> CX^'-^'-c^ 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Sources for the Period 509-264 b.c. — Cicero, Republic, 
 ii. 31 ff. ; Livy ii-xv (of books xi-xv we have but a brief epitome) ; 
 Dionys. v-xx (of the last ten books fragments only are left) ; 
 Polybius ii. 18-21 (Gallic invasion) ; VeUeius Paterculus i. 14 f. 
 (colonies); Diodorus xi. 53; xiv. loi f., 1 13-16; xvi; xx. 36; 
 Plutarch, Coriolanus; Camillus; Pyrrhus; Appian, Foreign Wars, 
 ii, iii; Floras i. 9-26; Eutropius i. 9-ii. 18; Justin xvii. iii- 
 xviii. 2; Pausanias i. 11 f . ; Botsford, Story of Rome, chs. iii, iv; 
 Source s -Book, chs. xxx-xxxii. 
 
 II. Briei' Review. — Botsford, Rome, chs. iii, iv; Anc. W., 
 chs. xxx-xxxii ; PeUiam, Outlines, 45-113 ; How and Leigh, Rome, 
 47-58, 65-77, 91-97, 131-149- 
 
 III. More Detailed or Special. — Mommsen, History of 
 Rome, bk. II. chs. vii-ix ; Frank. Roman I mterialisni. chs. iii-v : 
 Reid, Municipalities of the Roman EmpireTchs. iii. iv : Heitland^ 
 
24 EXPANSION BEtbND ITALY, 264-133,. 
 
 ^oman PffuhUr^ T hVa ITTTT ; PaJs. Anci ent Italj^y] 
 aan civiQiz 
 
 (Greek elements in Roman civiQization) ; Beloch, J., l)er iti. 
 Bund, chs. iv-x ; ' Die Bevolkerung Italiens im Altertum,' in . 
 Ill (1903). 471-90, for population in third century. 
 
 IV. Progress in Civilization. — Duruy, Rome, ch. xviii 
 Heit land, Rom fm Re public, bk. Ill, chs. xv ii i, xx. 
 
 (^JL^SUT CHAPTER X 
 
 EXPANSION OF THE ROMAN POWER OVER THE MEDITERRA- 
 
 ^ fr-G;, rvo---'^ 264-133 B.C. 
 
 1. External history: expansipn of the Roman power 
 outside Italy, to the conquest of Carthage, Macedon, and 
 Greece, and the fall of Numantia in Spain ; Rome becomes 
 the only great power in the Mediterranean world. Steps 
 
 , in the process : — 
 V I. First war with Carthage, 264-241 ; causes, general 
 
 character, and results ; acquisition of (a) Sicily, (6) Sardinia 
 and Corsica — two provinces, 227. Rome's foreign policy; 
 the Imperial Republic. Frank, Rom. Imp., ch. vi. 
 
 2. Extension of Roman supremacy to the foot of the Alps ; 
 province of Cisalpine Gaul, acquired, 222 ; organized not 
 later than 81 b.c. 
 
 3. War with Hannibal : (a) Causes and general character ; 
 a struggle of civilizations; 'federation put to the test.' 
 Frank, Rom. Imp., ch. vii. (6) Results: heavy indemnity; 
 
 '- • Car^^e a dependent ally ; acquisition of Spain — two 
 JLX-*'''*'''*p)rovinces, 197. 
 
 ■^ 4. Macedonian wars: {a) causes and general character; 
 
 'sentimental politics and reaction.' Frank, Rom. Imp., chs . 
 viii-xi. (&) Results : province of Macedonia, 146 ; settle- 
 ment of Greece, 146. 
 
CONQUESTS TO 133 25 
 
 5. Asiatic war, 192-189; Roman protectorate over Asia 
 Minor, 189. 
 
 6. Illyrian wars, ending 167 ; province of Illyricum, after 
 167. 
 
 7. Third war with Carthage, 149-146; province of Africa, 
 146. 
 
 8. Attains of Pergamum wills his kingdom to Rome, 133 ; 
 province of Asia,, 126. 
 
 9. Provincial system : (a) classes of states ; (6) governor 
 and his stafE ; (c) army ; (d) taxes — kinds and method of 
 collection; the taxpayers; (e) judicial administration; 
 (f) good and bad efiects on the provincials. 
 
 ' READING f^X^l:.:; V V= 
 
 T^' * 
 
 I. Sources. — P olvbius^ Histories ; Livy xvi-Iix (bks. xxi-xlv 
 entire, the rest in an epitome) ; Appian, Foreign Wars, v-xi ; Plu- 
 tarch, Fabius Maximus; Marcellus; Flamininus ; Mmilius; M. 
 Cato; Philopcsmen; Nepos, Hannibal; Florusii; Diodorus xxiii- 
 xxxii (brief fragments); Eutropius ii. i8-iv. 17; Justin xxviii- 
 xxxiv ; Botsford, Story of Rome, ch. v ; Source-Book, chs. sptxiii, 
 xxxiv . 
 
 II. Brief Review. — Botsford, Rome, chs. v-vi ; Anc. W., 
 chs. xxxiii-xxxv; Pelham, Outlines, 113-83. 
 
 m. Relations between Rome and Greece. — Colin, G., 
 Rome et la Grice de 200 d, 146 avant JSsus-Christ (Paris, 1905) ; 
 Frank, Rom. Imp. chs. viii-x. Ha-eeB-.^^t^_y 
 
 IV. Provinces and Municipia. — Abbott, Roman Political 
 Institutions, 88-91 ; Greenidge, Roman Public Life, ch. viii ; 
 Arnold, Rnmjin P rnmnr.iq{ Administration, chs. iii. vi; Raid, 
 MumctpatiMes of the Roman Empire, see Contents ; Rostowzew, 
 M., Geschichte des romischen Kolonates, 229-402. 
 
 II. Infernal history ; growth of plutocracy, 264-133 B.C. 
 
 I. Social classes: privileges and duties; a. Roman 
 
 citizens; new nobility, knights (equites), and commons; 
 
 n V 
 
26 EXPANSION BEYOND ITALY, 264-133 
 
 b. Latins; c. Italians; d. provincials; e. slaves; effects of 
 Roman expansion on these five classes respectively. 
 2. Government and administration. 
 
 a. Assemblies (comitia) ; changes introduced as a result 
 of expansion. 
 
 b. Magistrates and promagistrates : (i) rank, title, quali- 
 fications, number, method of appointment of each ; (2) func- 
 tions of each ; (3) relation to assemblies and senate ; (4) 
 career of honors; (5) how influenced by foreign conquests. 
 
 c. Senate : ■ changes introduced since the preceding period ; 
 gradation of senators ; controlled by a few wealthy famiUes 
 (plutocracy). 
 
 d. Laws and decrees; process of legislation: (i) how a 
 tribune carries a measure ; (2) how a consul or praetor carries 
 a measure ; (3) control by the nobility ; use of auspices ; 
 tribunician veto. 
 
 e. Standing courts — quaestiones perpetuae: (i) court for 
 trial of extortion (quaestio repetundarum) ; (2) for trial of 
 murder ; jury of senators presided over by praetor. 
 
 /. Balance of constitutional forces. Botsford, Story of 
 Rome, 130-3 ; Source-Book, 400 f. (from Polybius). 
 
 A bbott, Roman Politic a l Insti tu tions, ch. v; Botsford, Rom. 
 Assemb. ch. xv ana s ummary, P - .^^ijLt-: Mommsen. History of 
 Rome, bk. III. ch. xi ; Heitland, Roman Republi c, II. 189-221. 
 
 III. Condition of Mediterranean world which made 
 rapid conquest possible. 
 
 1. A great part of conquered area commercial and indus- 
 trial ; large class of serfs and slaves ; contrasts between very 
 rich and very poor ; high standard of living ; love of peace ; 
 at Carthage the financial question uppermost; Antiochus 
 the Seleucid overcome in a single battle, 190; Egypt con- 
 quered without war. 
 
 2. Decline in population of Greece (Pol. xxxvii. 9 ; Bots- 
 
CULTURE 27 
 
 ford, Source-Book, 389 f .) ; love of peace ; not morally degen- 
 erate. 
 3., Italy agricultural; populous; virile and warlike. 
 
 IV. Education at Rome. 
 
 1. Writing from sixth century; rare, no schools till third 
 century ; informal instruction among friends. 
 
 2. For business with foreigners Greek is necessary. 
 
 3. Surveying and engineering, for land distribution and 
 . construction of roads and aqueducts ; architecture (temple 
 
 and basiUca) ; elements from Etruria and Greece. 
 
 '4. Earliest schools taught by (o) Andronicus (Uved 284- 
 204), a Greek freedman, and (b) by Sp. CarviUus, also a 
 freedman, same period. Two grades of schools, (i) primary, 
 taught by Utterator, (2) grammar, taught by grammaticus. 
 5. School of jurisprudence, opened by Ti. Corucanius, 
 254 B.C. ; law, formerly monopolized by patricians, now 
 open to plebeians. 
 
 I. Condition of the Mediterranean World. — Duruy , 
 Rome, eh. xxvi ; Heitland, Roman Republic, II. 1-16 ; Ferguson, 
 Greek Imperialism, see Contents ; Holm, A., History of Greece, IV, 
 see Contents; Beloch, J., Griechische Geschichte, III. i, see Con- 
 tents. 
 
 II. Early Roman Education. — Monroe, P ., Source-Book 0} 
 the History of Education for the Greek and Roman Period, 327-70; 
 Text-Book in the History of Educatio n, 176-95 ; McCormick, P. J., 
 History of Education, 53 fi. ; Graves, F. P., History of Education 
 before the Middle Ages, 230 ff. 
 
 V. Hellenic culture at Rome. ^^'^-^ 
 
 I. Medicine, a. Pestilential environment; fevers; tem- 
 ple to Apollo, 432 ; salutaris et medicinalis {CIL. VI. 39) ; 
 Asclepius from Epidaurus, 293 ; temple on island in Tiber ; 
 incubation. Hamilton, M., Incubation, or the Cure of Dis- 
 ease in Pagan Temples and Christian Churches, 63 ff. 
 
28 EXPANSION BEYOND ITALY, 264-133 
 
 b. Greek physicians; progress of medicine and surgery; 
 anaesthetics; Archagathus at Rome, 219; operating room. 
 
 c. Prejudice of Rome against physicians ; clings to super- 
 stitions; Cato, De agricultura, 160 (Botsford, Source-Book, 
 408), example of magical cure. 
 
 2. Greek and Oriental gods. a. Cybele : introduction, 
 204 ; temple on Palatine ; emotional worship ; individuaUs- 
 tic. 
 
 h. Introduction of Greek gods ; identification with Roman 
 deities; anthropomorphism and myths; Hellenization of 
 Roman festivals. 
 
 c. The Bacchanalia and their suppression. 
 
 3. Greek science: progress in geography and astronomy; 
 applied sciences; limitations on ancient science. 
 
 4. Greek philosophy; various schools: Py thagoreanism ; 
 forged books of Numa; Academy, changes since Plato; 
 Lyceum; fate of Aristotle's works; Cynics and Stoics; 
 syncretism in philosophy; emphasis on ethics; Roman 
 attitude toward the respective schools; Panaetius and 
 Polybius at Rome. Schools of rhetoric; banishment of 
 rhetoricians. 
 
 5. Art. a. Change from Etruscan to Greek influence. 
 
 b. Art booty from Etruria, Tarentum, Syracuse, and 
 Greece. 
 
 c. Native artists and their works ; decline in respectability. 
 
 6. Literature, a. Primitive indigenous elements: in- 
 digitamenta; carmina; fescinnine verse; satura; fabula 
 Atellana. 
 
 b. Appius Claudius Cascus; written oratory, proverbs, 
 verse ; written calendar and rules of procedure. 
 
 c. L. Livius Andronicus ; translation of Odyssey; of Greek 
 plays ; parthenion ; collegium scribarum ac histrionum. 
 
 d. Cn. Nasvius ; independent spirit ; guti-patrician ; fabula 
 prsetexta; history of First Puijic War in Saturnian verse. 
 
LITERATURE; CHARACTER 29 
 
 e. Plautus; life and circumstances; comedies; relation 
 to the Greek originals ; sources for life of the period ; moral 
 and religious features. 
 
 1/. Ennius; life and education; Hellenic (S. Italian and 
 Sicilian) elements ; clientship of authors ; Ambracia; Annals; 
 Epicharmus; Sacred Inscription oi 'Eviheiaerus; Hedyphage- 
 tica. Duckett, E. S., Studies in Ennius (Bryn Mawr, 1915)'. 
 
 g. History: (i) Fabius Pictor ; Annals m. Greek; object, 
 material, and method; (2) L. Cincius Alimentus; (3) A. 
 Postumius Albinus; affectation of Greek culture. 
 
 h. Latin prose; M. Porcius Cato, Origines; oratory, 
 proverbs; De agricultura and the science of farming; re- 
 action against Hellenism. 
 
 VI. Elements of Roman character. 
 
 1. Essentially religious; fidelity to oath; religion an 
 instrument of government; use of auspices; funerals and 
 imagines, incitements to patriotism. Influence of Hellas 
 and the Orient: skepticism of the educated; superstition 
 of the masses. 
 
 2. Honesty; contrast with Greeks, in part superficial; 
 deterioration; corruption of senate by foreigners ; 'retainers 
 for favors to be granted.' 
 
 3. Avarice ; booty a motive for war ; severity in business 
 dealings ; generosity the exception. 
 
 4. Bravery ; subject to panics ; formidable amid dangers. 
 
 5. Patriotism ; self-sacrifice for country ; poUtics damages 
 conduct of war. 
 
 6. Cleanness of character ; sobriety. Eminent examples : 
 ^milius Paulus, the Scipios, the Gracchi. 
 
 7. Rise of great personalities; upsets republican balance. 
 
 VII. The beginning of decHne. 
 
 I. Abuses of provincial rule. 2. Dechne of Italy. 
 3. General deterioration of Rome. 
 
30 EXPANSION BEYOND ITALY, 264-133 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Sources. — The same as for topic I of this chapter ; also 
 Botsford, Story of Rome, ch. vi ; Sniar. i^.-Ennk^ ^h. ttx-k-v . 
 
 II. Brief Review. — Botsford, Rome, ch. vi; Anc. W., ch. 
 XXXV. Pelham, Outlines, 185-98 ; How and Leigh, Rome, 233 f., 
 287-326 ; Shuckburgh, History of Rome, chs. xxi, xxvi, xxxii. 
 
 III. More Extended. — Duruy, Rome, chs. xxxv, xxxvi ; 
 Greenidge. History of Rome, I. ch. i (excellent for condition of Rome 
 at close of period) ; Mommsen, History of Rome, bk. IV. ch. i. 
 
 IV. Greek Philosophy and Science, from Plato through 
 THE Hellenistic Age. — To understand what the Romans 
 derived from the Greeks it is necessary to know first of all what 
 the Greeks had to give. Marshall, J., Short History of Gree k 
 Philosoph y (Macmillan, 1893), chs. xiii-xxu; BakeweU, C. M., 
 Source Book in Ancient fnuosophy, 142-304; Gomperz, Th., Greek 
 Thinkers, beginning with II. bk. v; Hicks, R. D., Stoic and Epi- 
 curean (Scribner, 1910) ; Bevan, E., Stoics and Skeptics (Clarendon 
 Press, 1913). 
 
 Whibley. L., Co mp anion to Greek Studies, 205-7 (Hellenistic 
 science) ; Botsford and Sihler, Hellenic Civilization, ch. xviii; 
 Beloch, J., Griechische Geschichte, III. i. chs. xii, xiii; Gercke and 
 Norden, Einleitung in die Altertumswissenschaft, II. 310 ff., 397 £f. ; 
 Heiberg, J. E., Naturwissenschaften und Mathematik im Massischen 
 Altertum (Teubner, 1912), see Contents. 
 
 V. Hellenism at Rome. — Duff, J. W., Literary H i story of 
 Rome, 92-11 7 ; Duruy, Rome, ch. xxxv. This work and most others 
 over-emphasize the evils of Hellenic influence. Rome received 
 from Hellas the blessings, and with them necessarily the evils, 
 of civilization. If she preferred the evil to the good, the choice 
 was due to her own character. See also Arnold, Roman Stoicism, 
 consult Contents. The effects of Roman conquest on Hellas are 
 summarized by Mahaffy. Silver A(;e of the Greek World, ch. i. 
 
 VI. Roman Civilization, Native Elements. — Mommsen, 
 History of Rome, bk. HI. chs. xi (government and governed), xii 
 (land and capital), xiii (faith and manners) ; Duruy, Rome, ch. 
 xxii ; Heitland, Roman Republic, II. 221-55. 
 
THE GRACCHI 31 
 
 VII. Beginnings or Roman Literature. — Dufi, Literar y 
 Eistor-v of Rome, 6.^-01. 118-61;; Mackail. T. W.. Latin Literatur e. 
 1- 38 ; Teuffel and Schwabe, History of Roman Literature, I. 98- 
 184; Schanz, M., Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, I. i, see 
 Contents ; Duruy, Rome, ch. xxii. § 1 ; Mommsen, History 0/ 
 Rome, bk. III. ch. xiv. 
 
 VIII. Roman Art before 133 B.C. — Walters, H. B.. Art of 
 t he Romans. 1-20 : Lanciani, R., Ruins and Excavations, see chron- 
 ological list, pp. 612 f. ; Helbig, W., Filhrer durch die offentlicken 
 Sammlungen klassischer AltertUmer in Rom (3d ed., Leipzig, 1912), 
 see Ust, vol. II. 539 f. 
 
 ^^ CHAPTER XI 
 
 FROM PLUTOCRACY TO MILITARISM 
 
 133-79 B.C. 
 
 A. External history. 
 
 I. Numidian war; First Mithridatic war. 2. New prov- 
 inces: (i) Asia organized, 126 (cf. ch. X. I. 8); (2) Gallia 
 Narbonensis, 120; (3) Gallia Cisalpina, 81 (?). 
 
 B. Internal history. . ,./■■;, ^ 
 I. The Gracchi. L^L^dcc^^ j?.^^-/-^; - . ^ ' 
 
 1. New character of tie plebeian tribunate. In the hands 
 of reformers, who aim at political equality and economic 
 improvement of the poor, the tribunate becomes an instru- 
 ment of enormous power for the overthrow of the senate 
 and the establishment of a popular ministry responsible 
 only to the comitia tributa. 
 
 2. The Gracchi: family connections; relations with the 
 nobility; education; influence of their mother; of their 
 Greek tutors. 
 
 3. E conomic evils to be remedied; d epopulation of Italy 
 from war, det erioration of soil, growth of latifundia wor ked 
 
 by slaves ; impov erishment of ma sses ; serv ile w ar in Sicily, i >' 
 
32 FROM PLUTOCRACY TO MILITARISM 
 
 4. Tribunate of Ti. Gracchus, 133 ; the Roman agrarian 
 system; the agrarian law; opposition of the 'possessors'; 
 how carried; effects; deposition of a tribune; senatorial 
 violence and the beginning of revolution; other proposals 
 of Tiberius; attempted reelection; death and character. 
 
 5. Interval between 133 and 123; senatorial restoration; 
 democratic recovery; appUcation of baUot to legislation; 
 proposal to grant citizenship to aUies; reelection of tribune 
 made possible. 
 
 6. Tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123; earlier career and 
 character. 
 
 a. His laws and proposals. 
 
 1. Frumentarian ; precedents and principle; Greek ex- 
 amples; designed as temporary expedient. 
 
 2. Judiciary; favoritism and corruption of senatorial 
 juries ; substitution of knights for senators ; results. 
 
 3. Law of appeal (Lex Sempronia de provocatione) ; 
 prohibition of extraordinary courts ^and of the senatus 
 consultum ultimum (martial law) without an order from 
 the people. 
 
 4. Law for the benefit of soldiers. 
 
 5. Law for the taxation of Asia. 
 
 6. Colonization : in Italy ; in Africa. 
 
 7. Proposed extension of the citizenship. 
 h. Administrative activity. 
 
 1. Execution of his measures. 
 
 2. His personality a factor in the growth of Ceesarism. 
 
 c. Death; total achievements of the Gracchi; the sena- 
 torial restoration and the undoing of the Gracchan reforms ; 
 democratic recovery and platform; popular worship of the 
 Gracchi. 
 
 ni. Marius and his associates. 
 
 I. C. Marius: (a) Birth and early career. (i) In 
 
MARIUS; SULLA 33 
 
 Numidian war. (c) In war with Cimbri and Teutones. (d) 
 Military reforms; made necessary by failure of Gracchan 
 measures ; future political effects ; changed idea of coloniza- 
 tion, (e) Significance of his long tenure of the consulship. 
 
 2. Appuleius Saturninus and Servilius Glaucia: aims, 
 methods, and character ; their history written by an enemy. 
 
 3. The year 100 B.C.; the Appuleian law and its aims; 
 turbulent politics ; vacillation of Marius ; murder of Satur- 
 ninus and Glaucia ; senatorial restoration. 
 
 IV. Social war, go-88 B.C. 
 
 1. Oppression of the allies; proposals to grant citizen- 
 ship; tribunate of Livius Drusus, 91 ; his plebiscite; assas- 
 sination. 
 
 2. The war; general character; great destruction of life 
 and property ; unfavorable to Rome. 
 
 3. Grant of citizenship through (a) lex lulia, 90, (6) lex 
 Calpumia, 89, (c) lex Plautia Papiria, 89. Botsford, Rom. 
 Assemb. 401 f. ItaUans remain politically inferior. 
 
 4. Tribimate of Sulpicius. (a) Equalization of the Italians. 
 (6) Proposed transfer of command in Mithridatic war from 
 Sulla to Marius. (c) First miUtary interference in politics, 
 by Sulla, (d) Sulpicius outlawed and killed ; Marius flees 
 to Africa. 
 
 V. Democratic regime, 87-81 B.C. 
 
 1. Conflict between Octavius and Cinna ; fighting in Rome. 
 
 2. Return of Marius ; great proletarian uprising ; massacre 
 of aristocrats; seventh consulship of Marius; Sertorius in 
 Spain; last democratic opportunity in ancient history; 
 failure to grasp opportunity. 
 
 3. Civil war, 83-81 ; SuUa wins. 
 
 VI. Proscriptions and dictatorship of Sulla, 82-79 b.c. 
 I. His method of securing harmony; murder and con- 
 fiscation; extermination of enemies. 
 
 D 
 
34 FROM PLUTOCRACY TO MILITARISM 
 
 2. His legislation affecting the — 
 
 a. Magistrates and promagistrates ; the latter become too 
 powerful. 
 
 b. The assemblies; importance diminished; tribal as- 
 sembly under' tribunician presidency rendered impotent. 
 
 c. Senate; increase to 600; supremacy restored. 
 
 d. Courts: (i) extortion; (2) bribery in elections; (3) 
 misappropriation of pubUc funds and sacrilege ; (4) treason ; 
 (5) murder; (6) counterfeiting and forgery; (7) personal " 
 violence, defamation of character. Juries restored to 
 senators. 
 
 3|^Partisan legislation in favor of senate; strongly re- 
 acTOnary; some administrative laws praiseworthy. 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Sources. — Sallust, Jugurthine War; Livy (epitome) Iviii- 
 xc ; Appian, Foreign Wars, xii. 1-67 ; Civil Wars, i. 7-108 ; Plu- 
 tarch. Ti. Qracchusj C. Gracchus ; Marius; Sulla; Sertorius; 
 Lucullus; Crassus; Pompey ; Vellems "Paterculus ii. 2-28; 
 Floras ill. 14-21; Justin xxxvi. 4 £f. ; Eutropius iv. 26-v. 9; 
 Dio Cassius, Fragments, 83 ff. ; cf. Botsford, Story of Rome, ch. 
 vii ; So urce- Book, ch. xxxv i. 
 
 II. Brxef Review. — Botsford, Rome, ch. vii ; Ana. W., ch. 
 xxxvi; Pelham, Outlines, bk. IV. chs. i, iii; How and Leigh, 
 Rome, chs. xxxiii-xliv. 
 
 III. More Detailed or Special. — Greenidge, Hist ory of 
 Rome, I (entire ; the best detailed treatment) ; Mommsen, Rome, 
 bk. IV (entire) ; Beesly, Gracchi, Marius an d Sulla (Epoch series, 
 Scribner) ; Botsford, Rom. Assemb. ch. xvi ; I'owler, W. W., 'Notes 
 on Gaius Gracchus,' in Eng. Hist. Rev. XX (1905). 209-27, 417- 
 33; Kornemann, E., 'Zur Geschichte der Gracchenzeit,' in Klio, 
 Beiheft, I; Cardinah, G., 'Studi Graccani' (Rome, 1912) ; Thomp- 
 son, F. C, 'Agrarian Legislation of Sp. Thorius,' in Class Rev. 
 XXVII (1913). 23 f. ; Schwarze, K., Beitrage zur Geschichte 
 allromischer Agrarprobleme (dissertation, HaUe, 1912) ; Robinson, 
 
MILITARISM, 79-27 B.C. 35 
 
 F. W., Marius, Saturninus und Glaucia (Bonn: Marcus and 
 Weber); ¥rttmdia,'E.K., Historical Essays, 11: 'Lucius Cornelius 
 Sulla.' 
 
 <Ji^' CHAPTER XII . 
 
 MILITARISM IN CONTLICT WITH THE REPUBLIC 
 
 I. External history, 79-27 B.C. 
 
 1. Second and third war with Mithridates, 83-81, 74-63 ; 
 wars with the Helvetians and Gauls, 58-50 ; war with Par- 
 thia, 53 ; with the Dalmatians, 35-33 ; with Egj^t, 32-30 
 
 B.C. -^ 
 
 2. New provinces : (o) Bithynia, 74 ; (&) Cyrene and Crete, 
 74 ; . (c) Crete separated, 67 ; {d) Cilicia, 64 ; (e) Syria, 64 ; 
 ij) Gaul acquired, 50; (g) Lusitania, 27 (?). 
 
 II. Internal history. ^ 
 
 1. Failure_of^the SuU an co nstitution to produce competent 
 generals: (a) in Spanish rebeUion ; (b) in war with Spartacus ; 
 (c) unconstitutional appointment of Pompey. 
 
 2. Consulship of Pompey and Crassus, 70: {a) Restora- 
 tion of the tribimate. (i) Judicial reform. 
 
 3. Gabinian and Manilian laws, 67, 66 b.c. ; temporary 
 estabUshment of monarchy for part of empire ; precedent for 
 Augustan system. 
 
 4. Consulship of Cicero; conspiracy of Catiline, 63. 
 
 5. First Triumvirate: (a) composition, character, and 
 aims; ih) history. 
 
 6. Ctesar's consulship, 59 ; {a) agrarian reform ; (6) general 
 democratic policy; breaking down of auspices. 
 
 7. Cjesar's proconsulship, 58-50: (o) conquest of Gaul; 
 importance of ; (6) becomes a mihtary potentate ; (c) growing 
 enmity of senate and Pompey. Holmes, T. R., CcBsar's Con- 
 quest of Gaid (2d ed.. Clarendon Press, 1911); Ancient 
 
36 MILITARISM, 79-27 
 
 Britain and the Invasions of Julius Ceesar (Clarendon Press, 
 1907). 
 
 8. Civil War and Caesar's dictatorship, 49-44: (a) military 
 events ; (h) Csesar's powers and titles ; virtually a monarch ; 
 (c) his reforms and pubhc works ; {d) death and character. 
 - 9. The 'Liberators' and Mark Antony. 
 
 10. 'Struggle for the succession' to Caesar, 44-31 B.C. 
 
 a. Gains Octavius. 
 
 1. Family, early Ufe and character; personal appear- 
 ance; earliest known portrait. 
 
 2. His journey to Rome ; question of inheritance. 
 
 A. 3. His first military command ; its legal aspect; connec- 
 tions with the senate and with Antony, 44-43. 
 
 b. The Second Triumvirate, 43-28. 
 
 1. Composition, purpose, and legal standing. 
 
 2. Proscriptions; purpose and maimer of execution; 
 death of Cicero; character and place in history. 
 
 c. War with the Liberators ; battles of PhiUppi, 42 ; 
 results; character of Cassius and of Brutus. 
 
 d. Division of the empire by the triumvirs. 
 
 e. Career of Octavius from 42 to 36. 
 
 1. His marriages, (i) with Clodia, (2) with Scribonia, 
 (3) with Livia ; his daughter and stepsons. 
 
 2. He masters empire in West ; overthrows Sex. Pom- 
 peius ; deposes Lepidus. 
 
 3. Development of his agrarian policy ; improved condi- 
 tion of Italy ; from revolutionist to statesman ; Vergil and 
 Varro. 
 
 /. Dalmatian campaigns, 35-33 (c/. I. i) ; beginning of 
 movement to extend empire to Danube. Completion: 
 province of Raetia, 15 B.C. ; of Noricum, 16 b.c. ; of Pannonia, 
 10 A.D. ; of Mcesia, 6 a.d. 
 
 g. Conflict between Octavian and Antony, 32-31 b.c. 
 I. Aims of Antony and Cleopatra; their relations. 
 
OCTAVIAN; CULTURE 37 
 
 2. Hostile feeling of Italy toward these two persons. 
 
 3. Battle of Actium, 31; reason for Antony's failure; 
 significance of Octavian's victory. 
 
 II. Octavian sole triumvir, also consul by annual election, 
 31 to end of 28; question as to form of government, a. 
 annexation of Egypt as a prefectiure; peculiar position of 
 Octavian toward; confiscation of Cleopatra's property; 
 agrarian conditions ; taxes and taxpayers ; monopolies. 
 
 b. Beginning of imperial cult, 29 b.c. 
 
 1. Worship of Roma et Divus JuUus. 
 
 2. Worship of Roma et (Caesar Octavianus) Augustus; 
 arises in Bithynia and Asia ; extends to other provinces. 
 Augustus worshiped by provincials only. 
 
 c. Question as to government in 28 B.C. 
 
 1. Why Octavian wishes to retire. 
 
 2. Obstacles in way of monarchy or other personal 
 government. 
 
 3. Resolution to restore the Republic: (a) Revision of 
 senate list ; (b) Proclamation closing the triumvirate and 
 abolishing its acts. 
 
 III. Culture, 133-27 B.C. ; further transmission of Hellen- 
 ism to Rome. 
 
 1. Political and personal pamphlets; daily news; acta 
 senatus and acta diurna. 
 
 2. History and biography: Caesar, Sallust, Cornelius 
 Nepos. 
 
 3. Rhetoric and oratory: Cicero. Sihler, Cicero of Arpi- 
 num. 
 
 4. Encyclopaedic literature: Varro. 
 
 5. Philosophy, (a) Epicureanism : purely mechanistic 
 theory of the universe and the eUmination of super-nature ; 
 in ethics, pleasure the aim of life; Lucretius, {b) Eclec- 
 ticism as represented by Cicero : selection of elements from 
 
38 MILITARISM, 79-27 
 
 various systems; preference for the Academy; in ethics, 
 virtue the aim of life. 
 
 6. Jurisprudence; improvements in the law. Heitland, 
 Roman Republic, III. 473-8. 
 
 7. Lyric poetry : Catullus. 
 
 8. Art. a. Architecture: e.g., new Capitoline temple, 
 Tabularium, temple of Fortuna Virilis. Improved materials ; 
 kiln-dried brick, travertine, marble, granite. 
 
 b. Portrait sculpture; development from death masks 
 and from Etruscan models; incipient Greek influence. 
 
 9. Education, a. Elementary in private schools or 
 under private tutors; reading, writing, arithmetic; Greek 
 and Latin languages and Uteratures; the Twelve Tables. 
 
 b. Advanced, under private teaching in Rome or Greece ; 
 philosophy, including ethics, some science, poUtics, history, 
 etc. ; rhetoric, including oratory. 
 
 10. ReUgion and morals, (a) General tendency to skep- 
 ticism among the educated; auspices become farcical; 
 maintenance of state reUgion as a means of controlling the 
 masses, who retain ancient beUefs ; yet the eminent men are 
 generally superstitious in spite of skepticism. Many wor- 
 ships fall into disuse and most of the temples are in ruin; 
 introduction of Isis worship, (b) Moral disintegration of 
 the higher class ; increasing luxury and vice. 
 
 READING 
 
 I.\ Sources. — Sallust, Cati line; Histories (fragments) ; Cassar, 
 Commentaries on the Gallic War; on the Civil War; on the Alexan- 
 drine War (though the last two works have come down to us under 
 Caesar's name, they were probably written by Hirtius, one of his 
 o£Scers) ; Cicero, _ Letters; Orations; and various philosophic 
 works; Livy, epitome, "Ixxxix-cxxxiv; Velleius P'^t ^ifcu lus ii. 29- 
 89; Florus iii. 19 to iv. 12 ; Eutropius vi, vii. 1-7 ;"io Cassius, 
 xxxvi-li; Appian, Foreign Wars, xii. 64-121 ; CivU Wars, i. 107- 
 
2. .Jfr^,^^ Xn^ 1 ^^' 
 
 READING 39 
 
 ... J-"^ 
 
 21 ; u^v; Suetonius, /Wms Cajor; Augustus; Plutarch. CcBsar : 
 
 Cicero; Crassus; Cato ( the younger) ; Lucullus; Antony; Pom- 
 
 pey ; Sertorius; Brutus . 
 
 Botsford, Story of Rome, ch. viii; Source-Book, ch. xxxvii; 
 
 Munro, Source-Book, 124-42. 
 
 II. Brief Review. — Botsford, Rome, ch. viii ; Anc. W., 
 ch. xxxvii. 
 
 III. More Extended or Special. — Pelham, Outlines, bk. 
 
 IV. chs. ii, iii; bk. V. chs. i, ii; Niese, Rom. Gesch. 153-276; 
 Merivale, Roman Triumvirates (epoch) ; Mommsen. History of 
 Rome, bk. V ; Duruy, Rome, chs. xlviii-lxi; Heitland. Roma n 
 Republic, bks. VII, VIII j Long, G., Decline of the Roman Republic, 
 5 vols. ; Sihler, E. G., Annals of CcBsar; Cicero of Arpinum; 
 Strachan-Davidson. Cic^^o (Heroes) ; Fowler, Casar (Heroes ) ; 
 Boissier, Cicero and his Friends; Abbott, Roman Political Instit u- 
 tions ^ 107-26'; (constitution) : Botsford, Rom. Assemb. ch. xvii 
 (legislation). 
 
 IV. Economy. — Oliver, E. H., Roman Economic Conditions 
 (Toronto, 1907), 41 S. (from 264 to close of Republic) ; Hill, G. F., 
 Historical Roman Coins (London, 1909). 
 
 V. International Relations during the Republic. — 
 Phillipson, C, International Law and Custom of Greece and Rome 
 (Macnullan, 191 1), II, see Contents; Frank, Roman Imperialism,'' 
 Taubler, E., Imperium Romanum (Tetlbner, 1913), treaties and 
 treaty relations ; Sands, P. C, Client Princes of the Roman Em- 
 pire (Cambridge University Press, 1908) ; Cromer, Earl of, 
 Ancient and Modern Imperialism (Longmans, 19 10). 
 
 VI. Literature. — Duff, Literary History .of Rome, 269-431 ; 
 'MackaU, L atin Literature. ^0-88 : Teuffel and Schwabe. History 
 
 of Roman Literature, I. 243-402 ; Crutwell, History of Roman Liter- 
 ature, bk. II. pt. i ; Simcox, Latin Literature, I. pt. ii ; Santayana, 
 G., Three Philosophic Poets: 'Lucretius.' 
 
 VII. General Culture. — Mommsen, History of Rome, bk. 
 
 V. chs. xi, xii; Heitland, Ro man Republic, III. 4^1-78^ Duruv. 
 Rome, ch. Ixajg ^cohoition ot the provinces) ; Hahn, L., 'Zum 
 Sprachenkanfvim romischen Reich.' in Philologus, Supplement- 
 band, X. 675-715 ; Fowler, Roman Life in the Age of Cicer^; 
 
40 FOUNDING OF THE PRINCIPATE 
 
 Religious Experiences, chs. xv-xvii ; Roman Ideas of the Deity in 
 the Last Century before the Christian Era; Carter. Relif^ious Life. 
 37-62 ; Lanciani, Ruins and Excavations, see chronological list, pp. 
 
 r*-vn 
 
 ^ CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE FOTXNDING OF THE PRINCIPATE; THE JULIAN PRINCES 
 27 B.C. to 41 A.D. 
 
 I. The administration of Augustus, 27 b.c. 
 
 1. Plan of government of 27 B.C. : a. Restoration of the 
 Republic; Octavian's personal inclinations; sentiment 
 of the literary class, e.g., Livy ; sentiment of Italy. 
 
 b. Titles of honor granted Octavian or assumed by him. 
 
 1. Augustus — "the consecrated." 
 
 2. Imperator — inherited from Caesar ; used as a personal 
 name instead of Gaius ; does not confer, but merely sug- 
 gests military authority. A century and a half later it 
 begins to mean "emperor." 
 
 3. Princeps, "leading citizen," political "boss," title 
 assumed in compliance with popular wish ; consulted on 
 questions of policy, nomination of candidates, etc. 
 
 c. OflSces and powers. 
 
 1. Civil: (a) consul with a colleague, elected aimually; 
 (b) tribunician power, giving personal sanctity and certain 
 judicial authority. 
 
 2. In the provinces: consular authority over certain 
 provinces and (as consul with a colleague) supervision over 
 aU provincial governors. Sum of his power compared with 
 that of American president. 1 
 
 2. Changes in plan of government, 23 B.C. (a) Resigna- 
 tion of consulship. Tribunician power involving (i) certain 
 judicial authority, (2) limited right to call senate and to 
 
AUGUSTAN GOVERNMENT 41 
 
 propose one resolution to it. (b) In provinces : proconsular 
 authority involving direct government of certain provinces 
 and supervision (generally with a colleague) over all gover- 
 nors : right to retain proconsulship in the City. _ 
 
 3. Final settlement of 19 b.c. (a) Tribunician power y^c-cJ 
 (with colleague) for civU administration; reinforced by 
 special acts; becomes chief power in the state, (b) Pro- 
 consular power, as in 23 B.C., for the provinces. 
 
 4. The imperial cult, (a) Antecedents in Greece and at 
 Rome. (J) Grant of title 'Augustus' (c/. i). (c) Son of 
 Divus Julius, {d) Worshiped in Egypt as successor of 
 kings, (e) Worship of Roma et Augustus by provincials 
 (c/. ch. XII. ii. II. b). (/) Worship of Genius throughout 
 empire. Lares and Genius ; popular veneration, (g) Augus- 
 tales in municipia. ' ■ 
 
 5. Summary of position of Augustus : the senate has means 
 of checking him, and he strives to maintain the republic; 
 but his personal prestige, the veneration for him, and the 
 general tendency to servility combine to render him aU- 
 powerful in spite of himself. k*riAX**««.Y -^ ^^*-C»- 
 
 6. Conquest of Spain completed; organization and 
 Romanization. 
 
 7. Condition of Greece ; impoverishment and depopula- 
 tion; new province of Achaia; Augustan colonies; Greek 
 leadership in art and thought. 
 
 8. Asia Minor ; Greek commercial and industrial centers ; 
 Asia and Bith5niia and the worship of Augustus; Pontus, 
 Cappadocia, and Galatia — their poUtical, social and economic 
 condition. 
 
 9. Syria (including Sidon and Tyre) and Judaea ; aims and 
 character of Herod. 
 
 10. Parthia and the Armenian question (20 B.C.) ; foreign 
 policy of the empire as shaped by Augustus. 
 
 11. The northern frontier: (a) Gaul; importance of the 
 
42 FOUNDING OF THE PRINCIPATE 
 
 conquest ; the three new provinces and the two Germanies ; 
 the Cantons and their council at Lyons; altar to Roma et 
 Augustus at Lyons; amphitheater and games; literary 
 contests and RomanLzation. VitaUty of the people ; occupa- 
 tions and wealth; (b) conquest of the Alps; Rsetia (15) and 
 Noricum (16) ; Tiberius and Drusus; the building of roads; 
 
 (c) Pannonia, conquest and rebelUons ; organized 10 a.d. ; 
 
 (d) Moesia, 6 a.d. 
 
 12. The southern frontier: peculiar status of Egypt; 
 Carthage, Numidia, and Mavuretania; fertihty of soil and 
 density of population ; the desert tribes. 
 
 13. The army and fleet. Legionaries drawn from people 
 of Latin speech; empire to be governed by Latin nation- 
 ality. ■ Cv. ■ '' '" 
 
 14. Moral and reUgious reforms. -^ 
 
 a. The year 18 B.C. ; 
 
 1. Revision of the senate list ; reduction to 600 ; prop- 
 erty qualification and its pohtical effect on the masses. 
 
 2. Law for the enforcement of marriage. 
 
 3. Law for the prevention of unfaithfulness. 
 
 4. Law for the prevention of bribery in elections. Relar 
 tion of these laws to the Puritan movement; intention 
 of Augustus ; the enforcement. 
 
 irThe Ludi Saeculares, 17 b.c. ; significance ; Latin, 
 Etruscan, and Greek elements ; the part of Horace. 
 
 c. Increasing veneration for Augustus; worship of his 
 Genius; the Lares Compitales; d. the Augustales and the 
 Severi; e. the supreme pontificate, 12 B.C.; /. The revival 
 of obsolete colleges : the Fetiales and the Arval Brethren. 
 
 g. The building and repair of temples. 
 
 1. 82 temples repaired in 28 B.C. 
 
 2. New temple of Apollo on Palatine, marble; Greek 
 and Latin libraries attached ; relation of Augustus to 
 Apollo ; Sibylline books. 
 
ART AND LITERATURE 43 
 
 3. Old Temple of Vesta; atrium of Vesta ; the Six Ves- 
 tals ; new temple of Vesta on Palatine and its significance. 
 
 4. Temple of Divus Julius on Forum; peculiarity of 
 structure. 
 
 5- The JuHan Forum and the temple of Venus, built by 
 Julius Caesar. The new Forum of Augustus; its waU. 
 Temple of Mars the Avenger, Hall of Fame ; protector of 
 the Augustan peace ; family god of the Julian gens. 
 
 6. CapitoUne temple: history; restored by Augustus; 
 plan and appearance. 
 
 7. Temple of Cybele on Palatine. 
 
 8. Altar of the Augustan Peace: significance; decora- 
 tions in relief; (a) family of princeps; sacerdotal bodies 
 and senators; (6) allegorical scenes; (c) fruit and floral 
 ornamentation : artistic value. 
 
 15. Literature, (a) The Romans practical, with little 
 imagination; Hellenic influence continues from RepubUc. 
 (b) Inspirations from the Augustan age. (c) Rhetoricians, 
 philosophers and jurists (Antistius Labeo; Ateius Capito). 
 
 (d) Antiquities: M. Ve rrius Flacc us (Festus, I*aulus). 
 
 (e) Technical architecture ; Vitruvius. 
 
 (/) History: Livy; Pompeius Trogus (Justin), 
 (g) Poetry: Vergil; Horace; Ovid; Propertius and 
 Tibullus. 
 
 16. Attempted conquest of Germany. 
 
 17. Retirement of Tiberius; the dynastic anti-Puritan 
 movement; banishment of JuHa; death of Gains and 
 Lucius ; demoralization of the empire. 
 
 18. The last decennium, 4-14 a.d. ; the supremacy of Ti- 
 berius ; reinvigoration. (a) The mihtary fimd. (6) A new 
 marriage law (Lex Papia Poppsea). (c) Overthrow of Varus 
 and destruction of a Roman army ; difl&culty of recruiting ; 
 effect ^n foreign policy; conquest of Pannonia. {d) The 
 question as to the succession. 
 
44 founding of the principate 
 
 ^^^^''^reSing'''"^ ' 
 
 I. Sources for Augustus. — Augustus, Monumentum Ancy-^' 
 ranum or Res Gesice (Deeds), edited and translated by Fairley; 
 Suetonius, Augustus; Appian, Civil Wars, bks. III-V; Dio 
 Cassius, bks. XLV-LVT ; see also under Literature (Horace, Vergil, 
 Ovid, etc.) ; Velleius Paterculus ii. 88-123 ! Josephus, Antiquities 
 
 of the Jews, Nicolaus of Damascus, Histories, in Mtiller's Fragmenta/ 
 Historicorum Graecorum, III. 356 ff. ; Vita CtBsaris, ib. 427 fE. 
 
 II. Special Works. — Fi rj:h.. T. B.. Auf^ustus Cksar (Heroes) ; 
 Shuckburgh, E. S., Augustus (London, 1903) ; Gardthausen, V., 
 Augustus und seine Zeit, I.' 1-3, II (1891-1904) ; Pelham, H. F., 
 Essays (Oxford, 1911), 49 ff. ; Stobart, J. C, 'The Senate under 
 Augustus,' in Class. Quart. II (1908). 296-303 ; Abele, Th. A., 
 'Der Senat unter Augustus,' in Stvdien zur Geschichte und Kultur 
 des Altertums, 1. Heft 2 (1907) ; Ferguson, W. S., 'Legalized ab- 
 solutism en route from Greece to Rome,' in Am. Hist. Rev. XVIII 
 (1912). 29 fE. 
 
 III. Literature AND Art. — Mar]?^il ^ Latin Literature, g ^j^S ; 
 DufE, Literary History of Rome, 432-663 ; Teuffel and Schwabe, 
 History of Roman Literature, I. 403 fE. ; SeUar, Roman Poets of the 
 Augustan Age, 2 vols. ; Strong^ Roman Sculpture, chs. i. i] : Van 
 Buren, A., 'The Ara Pads Augustse,' in Journal of Roman Studies, 
 III (1913)- 
 
 IV. General for the Principate and Empire. — Valuable 
 works for the entire period, which, however, do not admit of a divi- 
 sion into epochs, are Hirschfeld, O., Die kaiserlichen Verwaitungs- 
 beamten (2d ed., BerUn, 1905) ; Riepl, W., Das Nachrichtenwesen 
 des Altertums (Teubner, 1913) ; Peter, H., Die geschichtliche Lit- 
 teratur uber die romische Kaiserzeit, 2 vols. (Teubner, 1897) ; Plat- 
 ner, S. B., Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome; Huelsen, 
 Ch., Roman Forum, translated by Carter (Rome, 1909) ; Walters, 
 H. B., Art of the Romans (Macmillan, 1911) ; Jones, Companion 
 to Roman History (Clarendon Press, 191 2). On the economic 
 condition and the administration of Egypt, Mitteis and Wilcken, 
 Grundzuge und Chrestomathie der Papyruskunde, 2 vols. (Teubner, 
 191 2), see Contents. 
 
TIBERIUS 45 
 
 n. The administration of Tiberius, 14-37 a.d. 
 
 1. Tribunician and proconsular powers; question as to 
 sincerity of Tiberius. 
 
 2. The mutiny and its significance. 
 
 3. Death of Germanicus ; trial of Piso ; Tiberius' charge 
 to the court. 
 
 4. Administration: praetorian guard; security of Italy; 
 senate and comitia ; foreign cults ; sumptuary laws, Tiberius' 
 attitude toward ; public works ; the provinces ; the right of 
 asylum. 
 
 5. Family affairs : Drusus and Nero, sons of Germanicus ; 
 his own son Drusus. 
 
 6. Alleged deterioration, 23-27. (a) Agrippina's con- 
 spiracy, (b) Retirement to Capri; Sejanus. (c) Fall of 
 the house of Germanicus. 
 
 7. Character : (o) as a statesman ; (b) as a man. 
 
 Chief Soitrces for Tibeeius 
 
 Velleius Paterculus ii. 123 to end; Tacitus. Annals, i-vi : Sue- 
 tonius, Tiberius, especially from 21 to end; Die Cassius Ivii, Iviii. 
 
 The administration and character of Tiberius may be 
 made a subject for the critical examination of the sources. 
 In this work apply rigidly the following principles of criticism. 
 Accept only what could be known to the pubUc or what was 
 evidently committed to documents: as public acts (which 
 every one could know), pubhc speeches, proclamations, 
 letters, etc. Eliminate interpretations made by the histo- 
 rians, including all generalizations (which often have no basis), 
 alleged thoughts, motives, and secret acts of Tiberius ; draw 
 your own conclusions as to motives and character; 'give 
 the accused the benefit of the doubt.' 
 
 These principles should be used in the study of all sources. 
 The necessity of such criticism, however, is diminished in 
 proportion to the proved reliability of*, source. 
 
46 FOUNDING OF THE PRINCIPATE 
 
 III. Administration of Gains (Caligula), 37-41. Highly 
 popular, he becomes a capricious tyrant; perhaps insane. 
 
 READING FOR THE PERIOD 
 
 I. Brief Review. — Botsford, Rome, ch. ix ; Anc. W. ch. 
 xxxviii ; Jones, Roman Empire, 2-56. 
 
 II. More Extended or Special. — Duruy, Rome, chs. kii- 
 Ixxiv; Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire, chs. 
 xxix-xlviii ; Bury, Student's Roman Empire, chs. i-xiv ; ScHUer, 
 H., Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit (Gotha, 1883), I. 139-314. 
 
 III. Provinces. — Arnolrl, Jiniti^M Pfpjr^ncial^ 4'i'mi*ii^i^0'ti'' *ii 
 £h. iii ; Studies of Roman Imperialism (Manchester, 1906) ; 
 
 _ Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire, see Index under Augus- 
 tus, Caligula, Tiberius. 
 
 IV. Art and Public Works. — Walters, Art of the R o mans, ch . 
 iii; Strong. . ^oman Sculpture, chs. i, ii ; Lanciani, Ruins and 
 Excavations, see list, p. 614 f. ; Platner, Top. and Mon., see Index 
 under various public works; in the same way consult Huelsen, 
 Roman Forum. 
 
 V. Religion. — Center, Religious Life, ch. iii; Fowler, Reli- 
 gious Experiences, lect. xix. 
 
 ■^■^-'tX'*^ CHAPTER XIV 
 
 CSUIL 
 
 FROM CLATJDIUS TO DOMITIAN ; THE TRANSITION FROM PRIN- 
 CIPATE TO MONAKCHY 
 
 41-96 A.D. 
 
 1. Personal character of the successive principes ; (a) rela- 
 tion to their administration, (6) to the age. 
 
 2. Growth of monarchy, (a) The princeps gains at the 
 expense of the senate, (i) Evolution of a civil service under 
 the princeps. - ,«-; —^ v 
 
 3. Administration of Italy and the provinces ; general policy 
 and the particular regulations of the successive principes. 
 
MUNICIPIA TO 96 A.D. 47 
 
 4. Extension of the Latin rights and of the citizenship by 
 the successive principes. 
 
 5. Municipia during the first century a.d. 
 
 a. Province, an aggregate of states (Greek and Oriental 
 city-states; cantonal states in less civilized West; gradual 
 change to city organization). 
 
 b. (i) Dependent states; (2) municipia (with Latin or 
 Roman rights) ; few exempt from tributum ; Roman and 
 Latin colonies in provinces. Hardy, Roman Laws and 
 Charters, pt. II. p. i ff. 
 
 c. Great variety of constitutions; contrast between East 
 and West; Salpensa and Malaca. Hardy, pt. II. p. 61 ff. 
 
 d. Government: (i) assembly of citizens; elections and 
 laws; (2) magistrates; property qualifications; oath of 
 office; payments, required and voluntary; functions; 
 grant of Roman citizenship to Latin ex-magistrates; (3) 
 council (curia, ordo) ; quaUfications, powers, and honors. 
 
 e. Intense political life; graffiti at Pompeii; political 
 campaigns. 
 
 /. Pubhc spirit ; gifts to state by magistrates and citizens ; 
 the Gamalas at Ostia; Holconii at Pompeii. Objects of 
 gifts ; festivals, shows, pubhc buildings, school endowments ; 
 exemption of city from tributum; rewards to givers. 
 
 g. SUght imperial interference; vitality of empire in its 
 towns. 
 
 Abbott, F . F., ' Municipal Politics in Pompeii,' in Class. Journ. 
 Ill (1907). 58-66; Com mon People of Ancient Rome, 170 ff- ; 
 Reid, J. S., Municipalities of the Roman Empire, see Contents; 
 Liebenam, W., Stadieverwaltung im romischen Kaiserreich, see 
 Contents. fi ■ . ^ ,_ ,', ' ; '. ■' 
 
 6. The frontier and diplomatic policy of the successive 
 principes; accessions to the empire; Britain and the Agri 
 Decumates. 
 
48 FROM PRINCIPATE TO MONARCHY 
 
 7. The changing relations between princeps and army; 
 revolution of 68-69; Domitian's militarism. 
 
 8. Literature, a. Decline after Augustus; lower intel- 
 lectual level ; avoidance of politics ; tendency, to artificial 
 rhetoric, to affectation and hjrpocrisy, to introspection and 
 psychological analysis; spiritual longings; morbidity. 
 
 b. Interest of Claudius in learning ; his Hellenistic spirit ; 
 Vespasian's endowment of advanced education and its 
 influence ; Domitian's policy. 
 
 c. Velleius Paterculus, Roman Histories; Q. Curtius, 
 Histories of Alexander the Great; Petronius and the character- 
 novel. ' ' ' : 
 
 d. Persius the satirist ; Silius Itahcus, Punica (epic) ; 
 Statins, Sihce. 
 
 e. Pliny the Elder ; diUgence and acquisitiveness ; Natural 
 History (encyclopaedia of arts and sciences) ; unscientific 
 method. 
 
 /. Rise of provincial culture ; Romanization of Spain. 
 
 1. Seneca the philosopher. 
 
 2. Quintihan, Training of the Orator. 
 
 3. Columella, De re rustica. 
 
 4. Lucan the poet. 5. Martial, Epigrams. 
 
 9. Art and public works ; Aqueducts completed by Claudius ; 
 the harbor at Ostia ; Nero's devotion to art and his rebuilding 
 of Rome; his 'Golden House'; works of the Flavians; 
 Vespasian's temple of Peace; temple of the Sacred City; 
 rebuilding of the Capitoline temple. Completion of the 
 Colosseum by Titus; pubhc baths; Domitian's palace; 
 temple of Minerva and hbrary. Gradual improvement of 
 portrait sculpture since Augustus ; reUefs ; arch of Titus. 
 
 10. Humanitarian legislation and administration : laws 
 of Claudius for protection of slaves; improvements under 
 Nero; restriction of gladiatorial shows; an example of 
 Nero's justice and mercy. 
 
CULTURE 49 
 
 II. Morals and religion: the 'moral revolution' under 
 Vespasian; Domitian's strict supervision; growing faith 
 in the supernatural; revival of paganism; Domitian's 
 reUgious pohcy; attitude of government toward Jews and 
 Christians under Claudius, Nero, Vespasian, and Domitian 
 respectively. 
 
 READING 
 
 I. SoiTRCES. — (i) for Claudius : Tacitus, Annals, xii ; Sue- 
 tonius, Claudius; Die Cassius Ix. (2) for Nero : Tacitus xiii-xvi ; 
 Suetonius, Nero; Dio Cassius bd-bdii ; Seneca, On the Clemency 
 of Nero. (3) for the Flavians : Tacitus, Histories (civil war of 
 68-69) ; Agricola; Suetonius, Vespasian; Titus; Domitian; 
 Dio Cassius Iv-lvii. (4) In general see also the literature men- 
 tioned in § 8 above, and Botsford, Story oj Rome, ch. x ; Source- 
 Book, ch. xxxix . 
 
 II. Brief Review. — Botsford, Rome, ch. x ; Anc. W., ch. 
 xxxix; Pelham, Outlines, 478-529; Jones, Roman Empire, 56- 
 148. 
 
 III. Moke Extended or Special. — Duruy, Rom^, chs. 
 Ixxiv-lxxviii ; Merivale, History of the Romans, chs. xhx-kii; 
 Bury, Student's Roman Empire, chs. xv-xxii ; Schiller, Geschichte 
 der rom. Kaiserzeit, I. 314-400, 497-538; Henderson, B. W., 
 Life and Principate of the Emptor Nero (Lippincott, 1903) ; 
 Huelsen, Ch., 'Burning of Rome under Nero,' in Am. Journ. Arch. 
 XIII (1909). 45-8 ; Freeman, Historical Essays, II ; 'The Flavian 
 Csesars.' 
 
 IV. Municipalities. — Abbott, 'Municipal Politics at Pom- 
 peii,' in Class. Journ. III. 58-66 ; Reid, J. S., Municipalities of the 
 Roman Empire, see Contents and Index ; Mau. Pompeii, its Life 
 and Art ; Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, I. 400-435. 
 
 V. Literature and Art. — Mackail, Latin Literature, 171- 
 204 ; Teuffel and Schwabe, History of Roman Literature, II. 33- 
 145; Cruttwell, History of Roman Literature, bk. III. chs. i-vi ; 
 Simcox, Latin Literature, II. pts. iv-vi. 
 
 Strong, Roman Sculpture, chs. iii-v and p. 361-7 ; Wace, 'Evolu- 
 
50 LIMITED MONARCHY 
 
 tion of Art in Roman Portraiture,' in Journal of the British and 
 American Archceological"Society, III (1905-06). 467-78; Lowrie, 
 W., Monuments of the Early Church (MacmiUan, 1906). 
 
 VI. General Culture. — Feggrg^^^ G.. Women of the Ccesars 
 (Century Co., 1911) ; Mahagy, Greek World under Roman Sw ay, 
 chs. i-xii ; Silver Age of the Greek World, chs. ix-xvii ; The Periplus 
 of the Erythraan Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a 
 Merchant of the First Century, translated and edited by W. H. 
 Schofi (Longmans, 1912). _ 
 
 >Oi ^ CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE 'GOOD emperors'; THE LIMITED MONARCHY 
 96-180 A.D. 
 
 1. Local origin, family, and personal character of the suc- 
 cessive principes; provincial origin of Trajan and others; 
 bearing of these conditions on administrative poUcies. 
 
 2. Government — a "union of Uberty with the principate" 
 (Tacitus) ; the princeps holding large powers, the senate 
 with independence recognized and with a real influence on 
 the administration. The title imperator comes to mean 
 "emperor" and the princeps is a Umited monarch. 
 
 3. Relation, generally friendly, between the five emperors 
 respectively and the senate. 
 
 4. The frontier and foreign policy; the conquests of 
 Trajan; Hadrian's reversion to peace; the line of buffer 
 states; fortifications; Marcus Aurelius; condition of the 
 frontier in 180. 
 
 5. The army: improvements by Hadrian; under M. 
 AureHus. 
 
 6. The administration of Italy and the provinces : Nerva's 
 Itahan policy; attempt to restore agriculture; division of 
 Italy into districts by Hadrian ; addition of provinces under 
 
MUNICIPIA 51 
 
 Trajan; Hadrian retains only Dacia; his travels and im- 
 provements. 
 
 7. Municipia during the second century a.d. 
 
 a. Municipium made a civil person, empowered to collect 
 gifts and legacies ; great impetus to generosity. t_f O-t-^'-i^'Cc 
 
 h. Ostia, type of second-century maritime town; excava- 
 tions; situation and form; temples, theater, warehouses, 
 baths, etc.; sculptures and mosaics; magnificent private 
 dweUing. 
 
 Paschetto, L., Ostia, Colonia Romana (Rome, 1912), 
 abundant illustrations. 
 
 c. Cities of Bithynia; PHny the Younger as governor; 
 correspondence with Trajan {Letters, bk. x) ; remedies of 
 abuses : long-standing debts to cities ; guarding of prisons ; 
 building of hot-baths, theater, gymnasium, aqueduct, canal ; 
 repair of sewer; cost of embassies; lending of municipal 
 moneys; slaves in army; labor of convicts; precautions 
 against fires. 
 
 d. Philanthropies : endowments for schools ; for rearing 
 children ; for supplying dowries to girls and a start in life to 
 boys; for the aged, sick, and cripples; free medical and 
 siu-gical service furnished by city. 
 
 e. Beginnings of imperial interference; prohibition of 
 borrowing ; of increasing taxes without consent of princeps ; 
 auditing of accounts; the curator rei publicse; the general 
 leveling tendency and the incipient decay of local political 
 life. 
 
 8. Collegia : early history (regal period and republic) ; 
 restricted by J. Caesar and Augustus; tradesimions ; socie- 
 ties of poor; of slaves; burial societies; for mutual aid; 
 disliked by Trajan. 
 
 Dictionaries of antiquities, s.v.; Abbott, F. F., C ommon 
 Pjeople of Anc ient Rome, 205 f t. ; Waltzmg, J. P., Etude his- 
 torique sur ies corporations professionelles chez les Remains, 
 
52 LIMITED MONARCHY 
 
 3 vols. (Louvain) ; Liebenam, W.., Zur Geschichte und Organi- 
 sation des romischen Vereinswesens (Leipzig, 1890). 
 
 9. Humanitarian legislation and administration, a. Ner- 
 va's endowment for pqor children; expanded under 
 Trajan and Hadrian; the Faustinianae ; the registration of 
 infants; the praetor tutelarius; emancipation of the son 
 from the father's power ; the children of condemned fathers. 
 
 b. Regulations regarding slaves: (i) by Trajan; (2) 
 great improvements introduced by Hadrian. 
 
 c. The emancipation of women. 
 
 10. Growth of the civil service : from Augustus to Clau- 
 dius; the Claudian employment of freedmen; the two 
 "prime ministers"; the great departments of the prince's 
 administration; gradual substitution of knights; reorgan- 
 ization by Hadrian : preliminary service ; the procxurator's 
 career; the prefect's career; the imperial council; the 
 official nobUity ; general effects of the system. 
 
 11. The growth of law : a. The edicts of the urban praetor 
 and of the provincial governors; Juhus Caesar's idea of 
 codification ; the work of Salvius Julianus — the perpetual 
 edict; its leveling tendency. 
 
 b. The responsa prudentium: under the repubUc; reg- 
 ulated by Augustus; Hadrian's rescript concerning them. 
 
 c. Cessation of comitial legislation : the senatus consulta ; 
 the constitutiones principis. 
 
 d. New principles of law: assumption of innocence; 
 reformatory punishment. 
 
 e. The institutes of Gaius. 
 
 12. Pagan morahty and religion: a. Worldliness based on 
 the great (apparent) prosperity; liberaUty of the rich; 
 general friendliness and the softening of character. 
 
 b. Protests against materiahsm by Lucian and the philos- 
 ophers; cynic missionaries; Epictetus; Apollonius; Dio 
 Chrysostom. 
 
INTELLIGENCE; RELIGION 53 
 
 c. Religious revival: multiplication of deities and or- 
 acles, syncretism and monotheism. 
 
 d. Culmination of stoicism ; Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Sources. — Die Cassius Ixviii-lxxi ; Historia Augusta by 
 various authors (Uves of the emperors beginning with Hadrian) ; 
 Pliny, Panegyric on Trajan; Letters (for social and intellectual hfe 
 and administration) ; Marcus AureUus, Meditations ; Eusebius, 
 Ecclesiastical History, i-v ; Botsford, Story 0/ Rome, ch. xi ; ^purce- 
 
 II. Brief Review. — Botsford, Rome, ch. xi ; Anc. W., ch. 
 xl; Pelham, Outlines, 529-41 ; Jones, Roman Empire, 149-228. 
 
 III. More Extended or Special. — Duruy, Rome, chs. 
 Ixxix-Ixxxvii ; Merivale, History of the Romans, chs. • Ixiii-lxviii ; 
 Bury, Student's Roman Empire, chs. xxiii-xxxi ; La Berge, C. de, 
 Essai sur le rSgne de Trajan (Paris, 1877) ; Gregorovius, F., The 
 Emperor Hadrian; Schuiz, O., Leben des Kaisers Hadrian (Teub- 
 ner, 1904) ; Bryant, E. E., Reign of Antoninus Pius; Lacour- 
 Gayet, G., Antonin le Pieux et son Temps (Paris, 1888) ; Myers, 
 Classical Essays: 'Marcus Aurelius Antoninus;' BusseU, F. W., 
 Marcus Aurelius and the Later Stoics (Scribner, igio) ; Schiller, 
 Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, I. 538-660. 
 
 IV. Provinces and Municdpia. — Arnold, Roman Provinci al 
 Administration, i';8-68 : Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roma n 
 Empire, chs. i-iii ( condition of the empire) ; Mommsen, Provinces 
 of the Roman Empire, see Index ; Boissier, Roman Africa; Gra- 
 ham, Roman Africa; Toutain, Les citis de la Tunisie; Bouchier, 
 E. S., Life and Letters in Roman Africa; Spain under the Roman 
 Empire; Peaks, M. B., 'Administration of Noricum and Rsetia,' 
 in Studies in Classical Philology, IV. 161-230; Finlay, History of 
 Greece, I. ch. i; Hardy, E. G., Studies in Roman History, ch. xiii: 
 'Provincial Concilia.' 
 
 V. Literatitre, Art, and General Culture. — Macka?, 
 iMtin Literature, bk. Ill : Teuffel and Schwabe, History of Roman 
 Literature, II. 145-251 ; Cruttwell, History of Roman Literature, 
 
54 LIMITED MONARCHY 
 
 bk. III. chs. vii-ix; Simcox, Latin Literature, II. pts. v-vii; 
 Butler, E. H., Post-Augustan Poetry (Clarendon Press, 1909) ; 
 Brock, M. D., Studies in Pronto (Cambridge University Press, 
 1911). 
 
 Carter, J. B., 'The So-CaUed Balustrades of Trajan,' in Am. 
 Journ. Arch. XIV (1910), 310-17 ; S trong. Roman SculMure^ i i;o - 
 296, 367-74 ; Lanciani, Ruins and Excavations, see chronological 
 "list, p. 616 f. ; Platner, Top. and Mon., see Index ; Mahaffy, 
 Greek World under Roman Sway, chs. xiii, xiv ; Duruy, Rome, chs. 
 Ixxxii-lxxxvii ; Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, I. 672- 
 700. 
 
 13. Christianity, from its origin to the reign of Decius. 
 
 i. Approaches of Classical paganism to Christianity. 
 Glover, Conflict of Religions in the Roman Empire, i ; Carter, 
 J. B., Religious Life of Ancient Rome, iii ; (for pagan influ- 
 ence on Christianity) Renan, E., Lectures on the Influe nce of 
 the Institutions, Thought,_and Culture of Rome on Chri sttanity 
 (fliBbert Lectures), especially ch. i; Lewis, A. H., Paganism 
 surviving in Christianity, especially chs. vii, ix; Hatch, E., 
 Influence of Greek Ideas an d Usage s upon the Christ ian Cimfch, 
 vi, x,"HC ~ 
 
 ii. Origin, growth, and expansion. 
 
 Carter, pp. 95-114; Glover, iv, v, ix; Newman, A. H., 
 Manual of Church History, i. 67-162; Fisher, Alzog, and 
 ScEaffTaTaboveT 
 
 iii. (i) Early organization. 
 
 Allen, A. V. G., Church Institutions, ch. iii (Presbyters, 
 Bishops, Deacons) ; Hatch, E., Organization of the Early 
 Christian Church, see "Contents. 
 
 '"'X2)~Tlie~eommunity : property; business relations with 
 outsiders and with the state ; catacombs at Rome ; cubicu- 
 lum, crypt, chapel ; inscriptions. Art : painting, sculpture, 
 symbolism. 
 
 Lowrie, W., Monuments of the Early _C hutch (Macmillan, 
 
CHRISTIANITY 55 
 
 1906); Marucchi, O., Christian Epigraphy (Cambridge 
 University Press). 
 
 iv. Beliefs and morals. 
 
 See especially the sources ; also Lecky, W. E. H ., History 
 of European Morals from Augustus ^Charlemagne, I. ch. 
 iii (Conversiofi oT tEe^Empire). ~ """" "" 
 
 V. Relation to the government; persecutions. 
 
 Addi s, W.' E., Christia nit y and the 'Rom an Gowrnment. _ 
 (London,, 1893), 1-79; Bury, J. B. Later Roman Empire, 
 I. chs. i, ii (general place of Christianity) ; Hardy, E. G., 
 Christianity and the Roman Governmen,t ; Ramsay, op. cit. 
 
 vi. (a) Sources: the Gospels; Acts of the Apostles ; Gwat- 
 kin. Selections from the Early Christian Writers, 1-164; 
 Eusebius, Church History, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 
 I. 81-248 ; Ayer, J. C, A Source Book for Ancient Church 
 History (Scribner, 1913), 1-138, and see Cbhtenfs.'^ """ 
 ' (Sy A few modern writers : Sohm,"*- Outlines of Church 
 History, i-43 ; Fisher, G. P., History of the Christian Church; 
 Ramsay, W. M., The Church in the Roman Empire before 
 170 A.D. ; Schaff, History of the Christian Church, ii, 13-386 
 (see Contents for topics) ; Plummer, The Church of the Early 
 Fathers (epoch) ; Alzog, J., Manual of Universal Church 
 History, i. 100-316 (see Contents). 
 
 14. A detailed study of Roman rehgion in the imperial 
 period. The following are a few of the more important books 
 on the subject. The topics may be made up by an examina- 
 tion of the Tables of Contents of the various books. 
 
 ^ Carter, J. B., Religious Life of Ancient Rome. 
 V. Glover, T. R., Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman 
 Empire. 
 
 I Cumont, Fr., Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism: Astrology 
 and Religion among the Greeks and Romans. 
 ^ ColvOle, W. J., Ancient Mysteries and Modern Revelations. 
 i^howerman. Grant, The Great Mother of the Gods. 
 
56 LIMITED MONARCHY 
 
 Laing, G. T., 'Roman Prayer and its Relation to Ethics,' Classi- 
 cal Philology, VI. i8o ff. 
 
 AUen, C, Roman Problems from and after Plutarch's Roman 
 • Questions. 
 
 Granger, Frank, The Worship of the Romans. 
 
 Moore, C. H., 'On some Aspects of Later Roman Syncretism,' 
 in Brit, and American Arch. Soc. at Rome, iii. 392 fi. 
 ___^ Cumont, Fr., The Mysteries of Mfthra, translated by Th. J. 
 McCormack. 
 
 Moore, C. H., 'Introduction of the Tauroboliimi into the Cult 
 of the Magna Mater,' Am. Journ. of Arch. IX. 51 ff. 
 
 Wissowa, G., Religion und Kultus der Rimer. 
 
 Anst, E., Religion der Romer. 
 ^__.^oissier, G., La religion romaine, 2 vols. La fin du paganisme. 
 
 Wolf, H., Religion der alien Romer. 
 
 Wendland, P., Die hellenistisch-romishe Kidtur in ihren Bezie- 
 hungen zu Jtcdentum und Christentum. 
 j___^^Arnold, E. V., Roman Stoicism. 
 
 Hamilton, M. , Incubation, or the Cure of Disease in Pagan Temples 
 and Christian Churches, 1906. 
 
 See also the larger histories of Rome ; articles in classical and 
 religious dictionaries and encyclopedias; subject catalogue of 
 libraries. 
 
 15. Social life under the Cassars (from Augustus to M. 
 Aurelius). 
 
 i. The Dwelling in Town and Country. — Tucker, 139- 
 179; Mau-Kelsey, 245-355 (Choose one or two houses as 
 examples); Pellison, 58-79; Johnston, 11 7-147; Fried- 
 lander, i. 185-202 ; Thomas, 182-208. 
 
 ii. Furniture (brief). — Tucker, 180-192; Johnston, 147- 
 157; Friedlander, I, 202-208. 
 
 iii. Middle and Lower Classes, including Slaves ; Occupa- 
 tions. Mau-Kelsey, 383-404 ; Tucker, 238-259 ; Dill, 100- 
 137; Davis, 194-247; Pellison, 80-135; Inge, 140-17 1 ; 
 Johnston, 87-116; 306-308. 
 
SOCIAL LIFE 57 
 
 w. The Nobles; a "Social Day." — Tucker, 193-237 
 (preferable) ; Pellison, 151-185 ; Inge, 190-205 ; Johnston, 
 158-173 (dress). 
 
 V. Women and Marriage. — Tucker, 289-313; Fried- 
 lander, I. 228-267; Davis, 288-313; Pellison, 37-57, 178- 
 182 ; Johnston, 49-66 ; 173-182 (dress). 
 
 vi. Children and Education. — Tucker, 314-337 ; Pelli- 
 son, 19-36; Inge, 173-17^; Thomas, 209-235; Johnston, 
 67-86 ; any history of Roman education. 
 
 vii. Intellectual Life; "Liberal Studies"; Rhetoric, Phi- 
 losophy, and Science. — Tucker, 288-415; Inge, 22-31, 93- 
 106; Johnston, 287-298 (correspondence, books, etc.). 
 
 viii. Travel. — Friedlander, I. 323, 395; Tucker, 16-29; 
 PeUison, 228-270; 'Johnston, 278-287; Davis, 95-105. 
 
 ix. The Professions : Law, Teaching, Medicine, Architec- 
 ture, etc. — Partly included in topics above ; also Fried- 
 lander, I. 156-185; II. 231-365; Pellison 136-150; Inge, 
 129-136; 140-143. 
 
 X. Morals. — Partly included in topics above ; also 
 Friedlander, in. 215-281; Inge, 33-74; Thomas, 253-275. 
 
 Especially useful for the various topics given above: Pliny, 
 Letters, i. 8, 9, 14 ; ii. 17, 18 ; iii. i, 4, 20 ; iv. 13, 19 ; v. 6, 7, 8, 16 ; 
 vi. 16, 18, 34; vii. 5, 17, 32 ; Petronius, Trimalchio's Dinner. 
 
 READING 
 
 \ 
 
 Friedlander, Roma n Life and Manners under the Earl y Empire, 
 3 v^. ; DiU, Rom an Society fro mKeUPJAMarcusAurelius: Davis, 
 Influence of Wealth in the Romari Empire; T ucker , Life injhe 
 RomamT World, of Nero and St. Paul; Mau, Pompeii, trans, by 
 'KiSsiy^j^Va^ Societ^Jn Rome under the CcBsar7J~Pel!iisgn, Roman 
 Life in Pliny^ Time; Thomas, Roman Life under % Ccesars; 
 J5SSst(m^'riv(Ue Life of the Romans; Pliny, Letters; Petronius, 
 Trimalchio's Dinner; Martial, Epigrams; Juvenal, Satires. 
 
58 GROWTH OF ABSOLUTISM 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 THE REVOLUTION FROM LIMITED MONARCHY TO ABSOLUTISM; 
 FROM COMMODUS TO CONSTANTINE 
 
 180-337 A.D. 
 
 I. A century of revolution ; from the accession of Commo- 
 dus to the accession of Diocletian, 180-284. 
 
 1. The government: weakness of Commodus; rise of the 
 pretorians ; sale of the imperial office to the highest bidder ; 
 civil war and the emergence of the nulitary commander; 
 Septimius Severus and CaracaUa; the edict of Caracalla 
 extending the Roman citizenship; senatorial reaction and 
 Alexander Severus; revolution and disintegration; enlist- 
 ment of barbarians and its political effects ; the so-called 
 Thirty T3Tants ; barbarian invasions ; the lUyrian emperors 
 and the restoration of the empire. 
 
 2. The development of law ; Papinian and Ulpian. 
 
 3. General cultural tendencies r widest reach of Romaniza- 
 tion in the provinces ; barbarization of the language ; spread 
 of mysticism and Orientalism over the empire; religious 
 syncretism; Julia Domna and her learned circle; Elagab- 
 alus and his cult of the Sun-God. 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Sources. — Dio Cassius bcxiii-lxxx (only to 229 and the 
 latter part in fragments) ; Historia Augusta; Herodian, History; . 
 Eusebius, Church History, bks. v-viii; Eutropius viii. is-x. 19; 
 Orosius vii. 16-24 ; Aurelius Victor, The Cmsars, chs. xvii-xxxviii ; 
 Lactantius, On the Manner in which the Persecutors died, chs. i-vi, 
 in Ante-Nicene Fathers; VII. 
 
 II. Brief Review. — Botsford, Rome, ch. xii ; Am. W., ch. 
 xli; Pelham, Outlines, S42-8; Jones, Roman Empire, 228-350; 
 Niese, Rom. Gesch. 340 ff. 
 
 S-^'V >y v^ 
 
DIOCLETIAN 59 
 
 III. More Detailed or Special. — Gibbon, Decline, chs. iv- 
 3di; Duruy, Rome, chs. Ixxxviii, xcviii; Butler, 0. F., 'Studies in 
 the Life of Heliogabalus,' in University of Michigan Studies, IV (ed. 
 by H. A. Sanders), 1-157; Hay, J . S., ^Ae_^»»azi»g Emperor 
 ^ Aiogah alus (Macmillan) ; Hopkins, 'N.jLife of Alexander Sevefus 
 (Cambridge University Press) ; Crees, J. H. E., Reign of the Em- 
 peror Prohus (London, igri); Freeman, Historical Essays, III: 
 'lUyrian Emperors'; Schulz, O. T., Der romische Kaiser Cara- 
 calla (Leipzig, 1909), an attempted defense. 
 
 IV. Literature, Art, and Culture. — Teuffel and Schwabe, 
 History of Roman Literature, II. 251-94; Lanciani, Ruins and 
 Excavations, see list, p. 617 f. ; Strong, Roman Sculpture, 297-323, 
 374-83 ; JJuruy, koine, chs. xc, xci, xcv; Sdu ller. Geschichte der 
 romischen Kaiserzeit, I. 885-936 ; Hahn, H., Rom und Romanismus 
 imgnechisck-romtschen Usten (Leipzig, 1906). 
 
 II. Diocletian and Constantine; reorganization of the 
 empire, 284-337. 
 
 1. Origin, accession and character of Diocletian; his rela- 
 tion to the revolution. 
 
 2. The August! and the Caesars ; titles and pomp of these 
 principes; the emperor Orientalized. 
 
 3. Senate ; members of the senatorial rank ; qualifications 
 and titles; the deliberative body of senators at Rome and 
 at Constantinople; functions as municipal council; few 
 imperial functions; the knights. 
 
 4. Provinces: increase in number; grades of governors. 
 
 5. The dioceses and their rulers. 
 
 6. Pretorian prefects ; prefectures. 
 
 7. Urban prefect; master of offices; quaestor; count of 
 the sacred bounty, etc. 
 
 8. Comites; consistorium. 
 
 9. Military officers: dukes and comites; separation of 
 the civil and military careers. 
 
 10. Palace officials; the officium; the agentes in rebus. 
 
 11. Orders of official nobility. 
 
6o DIOCLETIAN AND CONSTANTINE , ,^. 
 
 III. Christianity: persecutions from iJecius to Galerius; 
 increasing strength of Church ; edict of toleration ; Constan- 
 tine's early life and character ; his rise to power ; battle of 
 the Milvian Bridge; Constantine's reUgious experiment; 
 oflScial recognition; the sects and the Council of Nicaea; 
 the Nicene Creed ; the last struggles with paganism. 
 
 READING 
 
 I. Sources. — Orosius vii. 25-8 ; Eutropius ix. 20-x. 8 ; Lac- 
 tantius, On the Manner in which the Persecutors died, chs. vii-lii, 
 in Ante-Nicene Fathers, VII ; Eusebius, Church History, bks. ix, 
 x; Life of Constantine; Notitia Dignitatum; Botsford, Source- 
 Book, ch. xlii ; Ayer, J. C, Source Book for Ancient Church History, 
 218-320. 
 
 II. Brief Review. — Botsford, Rome, 278-86; Anc. W., xlii; 
 PeLham, Outlines, SS1-7 ; Jones, Roman Empire, ch. x. 
 
 III. More Detailed or Special. — Gibbon, Decline, chs. 
 xiii-xviii; Duruy, Rome, chs. xcix-civ; Bussell, F. W., Roman 
 Empire (Longmans, 1910), I. 88-124; Bury, J. B., Constitution 
 of the Later Roman Empire (Cambridge' University Press, 1910), 
 lecture, clear and reliable; Cosenza, M. E., Official Positions after 
 the Time of Constantine (Columbia University dissert. 1905) ; 
 Seeck, O., Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (2d. ed., 
 Berlin, 1897), I. 1-188; III (1909), on history of ancient religion 
 and Christianity. 
 
 Firth, J. B., Constantine (Heroes) ; Koch, H., Constantine der 
 Grosse und das Christentum (Munich, 1913) ; Humphrey, E. F., 
 Politics and Religion in the Days of Constantine (New York, 1912) ; 
 Huttman, M. A., Toleration under Constantine, etc. (New York, 
 1914) ; Coleman, C. B., Constantine the Great and Christianity 
 (New York, 1914). The last three works are Columbia doctorate 
 dissertations. 
 
 IV. Literature, Art, and Culture. — TeufEel and Schwabe, 
 History of Roman Literature, II. 294-347 ; most of the literature 
 of this period is religious ; Lanciani, Ruins and Excavations, see 
 chronological Kst, p. 618; Strong, Roman Sculpture, 323-46; 
 
MUNICIPIA; TRIBUTE 6i 
 
 Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, II. 438-75 ; Ward, 
 J., Roman Era in Britain (London, 191 1); Haverfield, F. J., 
 Romanization of Roman Britain (2d ed., Oxford, 1912). 
 
 CHAPTER XVn 
 
 THE DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND OF ANCIENT CIVI- 
 LIZATION 
 
 I. Municipal life. 
 
 1. Cantonal states converted into city-states; concen- 
 tration of life in the cities. 
 
 2. Effects of imperial centralization: transfer of service 
 and of patriotism from the municipia to Rome; Roman 
 paternalism ; the curators ; defensores plebis ; the Christian 
 bishop as a municipal magistrate; his weakness in dealing 
 with imperial officers. 
 
 II. Money and tribute. 
 
 1. The coinage before Nero; Nero's lowering of the 
 weight and the introduction of alloy; debasement from 
 Nero to Septimius Severus ; required by increasing scarcity 
 of metals ; shipments to the Orient ; extensive hoarding. 
 
 2. Distrust aroused by Caracalla's coinage; collapse 
 under Gallienus; loss of securities; return to barter. 
 
 3. Tributes: original land tax and poll tax; taxes in 
 kind: reforms of Caesar and Augustus; disappearance 
 of publicans and transfer of work of collection to the com- 
 munities ; the decemprimi ; effect of the monetary coUapse ; 
 monetary experimentation from Aurelian to Constantine 
 and its economic effects. 
 
 4. The new tributes : taxes in kind under the early empire ; 
 the indictio ; its vast extension in the third century and the 
 disuse of compensation; substitution of provisions for 
 money in the payment of soldiers; accession donations 
 
62 DECLINE 
 
 and jubilee donations; the annonae and the capita under 
 Diocletian; the land tax and the poll tax; the method of 
 collection; the collatio; the tax on senators; task work; 
 effect on the empire. 
 
 III. The social and occupation classes. 
 
 1. Earlier leveling tendencies. 
 
 2. Formation of the senatorial, equestrian, and plebeian 
 classes with their respective rights and duties. 
 
 3. Imperial encouragement to the formation of guilds, — 
 as the grain-merchants, bakers, cattle-dealers, pork-dealers, 
 etc. — for supplying the Roman populace with food ; mem- 
 bership made hereditary by law. 
 
 4. The decurionate; earlier respectability; increasing 
 burdens and diminishing honor ; avenues of escape gradually 
 closed. 
 
 5. Military and civil service gradually become hereditary 
 by choice ; continual recruiting necessary. 
 
 6. The German inquilini ; hereditarily attached to the soil 
 with the obligation of military service. 
 
 7. Development of the colonate. 
 
 a. Royal cultivators and workmen in oil monopoly in 
 Ptolemaic Egypt (Hel. Civ. nos. 186, 197) ; peasants of 
 Seleucid empire bought and sold with estates {Eel. Civ. nos. 
 175-8) ; forced labor for state. 
 
 b. Rome retains local customs ; severer than the Ptolemies 
 in fiscal exploitation of land and labor ; limitation of laborers 
 to their origo. 
 
 c. Extension of Oriental conditions over the empire ; free 
 tenants gradually sink into serfdom. 
 
 Zulueta, F. de, 'De patrociniis vicorum,' in Oxford Sttidies 
 in Social and Legal History, I (1909). pt. ii, English though 
 with a Latin title, important; Rostowzew, M., 'Geschichte 
 der Staatspacht in der romischen Kaiserzeit,' in Philologus, 
 
PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSES 63 
 
 Supplementband, IX (1902). 321-515; 'Studien zur Ge- 
 schichte der romischen Kolonates,' in Archiv fur Papyrus- 
 forschung, Beiheft I (1910). 
 
 8. The rural slaves elevated to the condition of serfs. 
 
 rv. Psychological causes of decline. 
 
 1. Introductory; historical place of the decline of the 
 Roman empire. Accoimt should here be taken of two great 
 cultural periods of history. First, the Oriental period — 
 Egyptian, Babylonian, Cretan; (a) creation of the essential 
 elements of civiUzation over and above those of the stone age, 
 culminating in Crete, circa 2200-1600 B.C. ; (6) general 
 causes of decUne : narrowness of area ; excessive centraliza- 
 tion ; exploitation of the masses for the benefit of the few ; 
 excessive conservatism, loss of ideals and of origiaaUty. 
 Second, the Graeco-Roman period, in which the essential 
 factor is Hellenism, circa 1000 B.C.-600 a.d. Relatively 
 rapid growth. Similar causes of decUne : — 
 
 2. Excessive centralization: the bureaucracy; taxation; 
 crystallization of society in caste-like classes ; serfdom of the 
 masses for the benefit of the few. 
 
 3. Prevalence of urban life ; tmsanitary conditions ; dimin- 
 ishing vitahty; artificiahty of life discourages intellectual 
 independence. 
 
 4. Decline in mentahty before Augustus.- 
 
 a. Introductory; the Greek city-state system a powerful 
 organization for stimulating mentahty (cf. the Italian cities 
 of the Renaissance) ; reaches its height in the fifth century 
 B.C. — architecture, sculpture, the drama (products of 
 imagination controlled by reason), pre-Socratic and Socratic 
 philosophy; beginnings of science. 
 
 b. Fourth century: decUne of the city-state and of the 
 creative intelligence ; growth of reason ; individuaUzation of 
 society ; declining ideals and the commerciaUzation of motives. 
 
64 DECLINE 
 
 . c. Third century; scientific discoveries and useful inventions. 
 d. Second and first centuries B.C.; continuation of the 
 scientific spirit in Polybius, but general tendency to decline, 
 due in part to — 
 
 1. Prevalence of slavery; contempt for labor; lack of 
 motive for invention of labor-saving machinery, or for 
 scientific instruments. 
 
 2. Absorption of interest in the great problems of 
 philosophy natural to an early stage of scientific thought, 
 hence neglect of details. 
 
 3. Limited object of Greek life : happiness in moderate 
 living, avoiding the accumulation of wealth for its own 
 sake ; restraint of public opinion ; hence lack of motive for 
 creation of money-making devices; prevalence of the 
 aesthetic over the scientific sense; domination of form 
 over matter; subordination of hterature (including his- 
 tory) to rhetoric, of philosophy to ethics; concentration 
 of the mind on problems of life, conduct, and religion; 
 the consequent growth of mysticism. 
 
 4. The riot of rationalism, destroying the foundations 
 of science as well as of religion. 
 
 5. The Roman conquest (see § 6. c-f below). 
 
 5. Decline of mentahty during the empire. 
 
 a. Lack of improvement in mihtary science, helping ac- 
 count for the success of the barbarians. 
 
 h. Lack of progress in agriculture, in the useful and fine 
 arts ; in science and literature ; disuse of labor-saving inven- 
 tions, such as the application of water-power. 
 
 The fundamental causes continued from the earlier period ; 
 a contributory cause is — 
 
 6. "The extermination of the best" (Seeck). 
 a. Lxixury not a powerful cause. 
 
 h. Extermination through factional strife: (i) in the 
 Greek states, (2) in Rome from the time of the Gracchi. 
 
 Ps. 0. i^uX <{j.O-<^ 
 
CONQUEST AND REPRESSION 65 
 
 c. Through conquests: (i) destruction of the best blood 
 of Italy ; (2) slaughter of the best inhabitants of the subjected 
 states. 
 
 d. Governmental repression in the provinces: the crush- 
 ing of national or racial spirit and of individual independence ; 
 prohibition of associations. 
 
 e. The brow-beating and cowing of the surviving populace 
 of Rome and the empire through factional strife, civil war, 
 proscriptions, conquest, and governmental repression, — 
 resulting in loss of courage, independence, and initiative. 
 
 /. The benevolent paternaUsm of the emperors, still 
 further discouraging initiative and rendering their subjects 
 still more helpless. 
 
 g. The tendency to celibacy among the best-endowed 
 pagans, Jews, and Christians — thus depriving the world 
 of the children who would have inherited their character. 
 
 h. Persecution destroys the braver Christians, leaving 
 the more cowardly to survive. 
 
 7. Diminishing knowledge ; the epitomizing of old books ; 
 gradual loss of old books ; the destruction of libraries ; the 
 consequent increase in the importance of opinion as opposed 
 to fact, of mystery and superstition. 
 
 8. Lack of national competition. 
 
 a. No danger to Rome from outside till disintegration 
 was far advanced ; no stimulus from war, diplomacy, or trade 
 — resulting in sluggishness. 
 
 b. Cultivation of the virtues of peace ; governmental pol- 
 icy of preserving the weakest members of society; decline 
 of the heroic, military virtues — consequent lowering of the 
 average worth of the race. 
 
 V. Slavery. 
 
 I. Working slaves and luxury slaves and their respective 
 origins. 
 
66 DECLINE 
 
 2. Marriage and emancipation of luxury slaves and their 
 results. 
 
 3. Degradation of labor ; want of liveliliood to the free. 
 
 4. Lack of a social substratum for recruiting the higher 
 classes. 
 
 5. Gradual disappearance of slaves. 
 
 VI. Depopulation — economic and psychological causes. 
 
 1. Of the Greek World: Macedon under Philip V; of all 
 Greece in the time of Polybius (xxxvii. 9) through the small- 
 ness of families; the cause is the high standard of Uving, 
 love of comfort and luxury ; exhaustion of the soil and of other 
 natural resources. , 
 
 2. Of Italy: (a) before the Gracchi; (b) in the time of 
 Augustus. Here an added cause is the monopohzation of 
 land (latifundia) by the senators and knights ; also the drain 
 of war and emigration to the provinces. 
 
 3. Of the empire in general: (a) under Hadrian and the 
 Antonines; (b) appalUng condition of Greece; (c) Sardinia 
 and Sicily ; (d) Spain in the third and fourth centuries ; (e) 
 Africa and Egypt exceptional. Under the hard economic 
 conditions the f amiUes become fewer and smaller ; the killing 
 of children and suicide become alarmingly prevalent. 
 
 4. The depopulation itself serves as a cause of pessimism 
 and inaction. 
 
 Vn. The primitive Germans. 
 
 Tacitus, Germania; Gibbon, Decline, ch. ix; Seeck, I. 
 191 ff. 
 
 1. Their inhospitable country and rigorous climate. 
 
 2. Economy: httle agriculture; wild vegetable products ; 
 fishing, hunting, and grazing; scarcity of metals; making 
 of ornaments and weapons, and weaving. 
 
 3. Intelligence and religion : little arithmetic, alphabet used 
 for magic ; gods, priests and priestesses ; human sacrifices. 
 
THE GERMANS 67 
 
 4. Society, state, and warfare: isolated families and 
 villages ; family customs and virtues ; the kin and the blood- 
 feud; the tribal state — want of local attachment and 
 patriotism; private warfare; predatory character of the 
 state; its fluidity; assembly of warriors; council of prin- 
 cipes; warleader. 
 
 VIII. Progress of the Germans in civihzation. 
 
 1. Due to (a) increase in population forcing them to 
 agriculture, (6) Roman influence, chiefly along the border. 
 
 2. Growth of peace, commerce, and industry; improved 
 clothing and arms. 
 
 3. Growth of intelHgence; the Gallic druids; tendency 
 to theocracy. 
 
 4. Growth of a judicial system; local judges elected by 
 the assembly. 
 
 5. Growth of kingship and tendency to centralization; 
 the king's limitations ; lack of primogeniture. 
 
 6. Growth of slavery and serfdom : few slaves primitively ; 
 increase due to agricultural progress; sources of supply; 
 the origin and status of serfs (laeti). 
 
 IX. Admission of the Germans to the empire in the first 
 three centiuries a.d. 
 
 1. Under Augustus and Nero; more extensive from the 
 time of M. Aurelius ; a fatal necessity. 
 
 2. Status of German colonists : the inquilini (laeti) ; 
 reciprocal assimilation, physical and cultural; temporary 
 arrest of the depopulation. 
 
 X. Invasions and Settlements of the barbarians: the 
 Goths, Sueves, Vandals, Burgundians, Franks, and Lom- 
 bards — their general movements and places of final settle- 
 ment. 
 
 Botsford, Rome, 297-325 ; Ancient World, 527-34, 544-6 ; 
 Robinson, Western Europe, ch. iii; Cambridge Medimval 
 
68 DECLINE 
 
 History, I (see Contents) ; Gibbon, Decline (see Contents) ; 
 Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, 8 vols. 
 
 XI. Roman society in the fourth and fifth centuries. 
 
 1. The pagan aristocracy. 
 
 Dillj_S ^i Roma'n S ocietvi n the Last Century of the Western 
 Empire, bk. I. ch. i. 
 
 2. The vitality of the later paganism. 
 
 a. The Oriental cults, especially Mithraism. 
 
 b. Neoplatonism : its origin, exponents, and character. 
 Bury, J. B., Later Roman Empire, I. ch. i. 
 
 Dill, bk. I. ch. iv. 
 
 Camb. Med. Hist. I. 88-94, 105-117, 568-580. 
 
 3. Manners and morals. 
 Bury I. 197-212. 
 
 a. Criticisms upon — , by (i) Ammianus MarceUinus (see 
 Gl oveT_, _Lifeand Letters in the Fourth C entury, ch. ii and the 
 History by AmmianHs)"; J2) by St. Jerome (works in Nicene 
 and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2d ser. vol. VI) ; (3) by Salvianus 
 (Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, I. pt. ii. 918-33). 
 
 Dill, bk. II. ch. i. 
 
 b. As represented by Symmachus. 
 DiU, bk. II. ch. ii. 
 
 Glover, ch. viii. 
 
 c. As represented by Ausonius. 
 Dill, bk. II. ch. iii. 
 
 Glover, ch. v. 
 
 d. As represented by St. Augustine. 
 Glover, ch. v. 
 
 St. Augustine, Confessions. 
 
 4t Education and culture. 
 
 Camb. Med. Hist. I. 542-50. 
 
 Dill, bk. V. Bury, I. 310-30. 
 
 Cole, R. R., Later Roman Education in Ausonitis. 
 
SOCIETY 69 
 
 XII. Relations between the Germans and the Romans 
 within the empire. 
 
 Camb. Med. Hist. I. chs. ix-xv (occasional treatment). 
 
 DiU, bk. IV. 
 
 Fustel de Coulanges, L'invasion germanique et la fin de 
 I'empire, 521 S. ; Brunner, H., Grundzuge der deutschen 
 Rechtsgeschichte, I. 
 
 1. Changes in the system of supporting the army; break- 
 ing down of taxation in kind; billeting of soldiers on the 
 inhabitants ; distribution of officers and military groups. 
 
 2. Obhgations and rights of landowners; governmental 
 supervision. 
 
 3. The "armies" of barbarians disposed of in like manner ; 
 legal relations with the inhabitants; social relations; the 
 picture drawn by Sidonius ; cases of depredation and violence 
 by the barbarians, of protection from enemies. 
 
 4. The estate of a Roman noble. 
 
 5. Condition of the Roman masses: they remain on a 
 level with the invaders; retain their Uberty and generally 
 their land. 
 
 6. Prevalence of the Latin language ; ultimate triumph of 
 Roman law. 
 
 7. Intermarriages: the blending of races; dominance of 
 the southern physical type. 
 
 XIII. Justinian. 
 
 Oman, Ch., The Dark Ages, chs. v, vi (sketch). 
 Bury, bk. IV. (in vols. I, II). 
 
 Holmes, W. ]., Age of Justinian and Theodora, 2 vols. 
 Gibbon, chs. xl-xliv. 
 
 1. Conquests and administration : social conditions. 
 
 2. The development of Roman law ; the codification ; the 
 Civil Law in modern Europe and America. 
 
70 g \ DECLINE 
 
 » 
 
 ', DECLINE, . / / 
 
 READING ON THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE 
 
 Botsford, Anc. W., oh. xliii (summary of causes) ; Source-Book 
 (some aspects) ; Westerma nn, W. L., 'Economic Basis of the 
 Decline of Ancient Culture,' m Am. Hist. Rev. XX (1915). 723- 
 43; J£^ja^->,-§2»^Sffi.,^fi£ie&jM..&..is^_Ce«to>-^ of the Western 
 Empire',"bks. Ill, IV; Rg M. Muni iMalities.M.fJhe. Roman Emi>ire, 
 ch. xiv; Liebenam, StMkverwaltung im romischen Kaiserreiche, 
 476 ff. ; HQ jlg^jjTj. I taly and her Inva ders, II. 545-634 ; Duruy, 
 Rome, ch. xc^^4 and vol. VIII. 364 fE. ; Mahaffy, Silver Age of 
 the Greek World, ch. i; Beloch, 'Der Verfall der antiken Kultur,' 
 in Hist. Zeitschr. LXXXIV (1900). 1-38 ; Seec k^., Ges chichte des 
 Unter gangs der antiken Welt, esp ecially X" 191-428 ; II. 3-336 
 (fiiost valuable treatment of subject); Hartmann, L. M., Der 
 Untergang der antiken Welt (2d ed., Leipzig, 1910) ; Rostowzew, 
 M., 'Studienzur Geschichte des romischen Kolonates,' mArchiv 
 fur Papyrusforschung, Beiheft I (Teubner, 1910), epoch-making 
 for the colonate; Stockle, A., 'Spatromische und byzantinische 
 Ziinfte,' in Klio, Beiheft IX; Weber, M., Romische A grar geschichte 
 (Stuttgart, 1891) ; ' Agrargeschichte,' in Handworterbuch der Staats- 
 wissenschaften. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF BOOKS 
 
 I. Note-taking. — One who wishes to acquire extensive 
 and accurate knowledge should learn to take systematic 
 notes. 
 
 Every student of history should go to books for informa- 
 tion on subjects definitely formulated by himself or by others, 
 e.g., the topics in this syllabus. He should learn to give 
 attention, and to take notes on, the matter only which relates 
 to the topic or topics under consideration. Education con- 
 sists largely in the ability to discriminate between what is 
 relevant and what is irrevelant to a given subject. 
 
 As the object of reading is the acquisition of knowledge, 
 it is useless to take note of matter already known or to repeat 
 
NOTE-TAKING 71 
 
 the same matter from various books. Very important, on 
 the other hand, is the difference of attitude of authors toward 
 the same fact or group of facts. 
 
 In taking notes from two or more books on the same topics, 
 the books should be subordinated to the topics — each topic 
 should appear but once and the material from the various 
 books should be collected under it. 
 
 The habit of giving definite references to the various works 
 read is valuable. In the course of reading a bibUography 
 should be compiled; in the case of sources the authors' 
 names and the titles of their works should be given in full, 
 with the edition or the translation used ; in the case of mod- 
 ern works, give the name and initials of author, the full title 
 of the work, the pubhsher, and the place and date of publi- 
 cation. 
 
 Ancient works should be cited by bk. and ch., as Amm. 
 (for Ammianus) vi. 3 or vi. 3-10; PUny, Letters, x. 35; or 
 in the case of poetry, the bk., the number or title of poem, 
 and the hnes, as Horace, Od. ii. 5-12 ; Vergil, Mneid, i. 1-35. 
 Modem works should be cited by the vol. and p. or pp. 
 
 II. The Preparation of Reports or Essays. — Leave 
 a margin not less than one inch in width beyond the fastening. 
 
 Divide into paragraphs as the subject requires; do not 
 exceed 150 words or thereabout to the paragraph. 
 
 Give topical heading of each paragraph in the margin. 
 Below the heading give references to at least two books used 
 in the preparation of the paragraph. For the form of the 
 references see I above. Make up a bibliography as explained 
 in I. In connection with the bibliography explain all 
 abbreviations. 
 
 Use at least two books, sources or modern works, for each 
 topic. The use of a single work encourages the making of 
 abstracts, a process which has but a shght educational value, 
 
72 REPORTS OR ESSAYS 
 
 whereas the reading of two or more works on the same sub- 
 ject stimulates the mind to the creation of something orig- 
 inal. Do not make the paper a succession or mosaic of 
 abstracts, but combine in your own mind the facts given by 
 the authors read, come to your own conclusions, and express 
 them in your own language. 
 
 Be careful of punctuation, speUing, and grammar. Write 
 as legibly as possible. Make the connection between suc- 
 cessive sentences natural and organic. See that each para- 
 graph is a complete statement of the topic under considera- 
 tion. 
 
 Choose only the material that has a meaning and an interest 
 for yourself. What you do not care for is not likely to in- 
 terest another. 
 
 It is presumed that a person with the authorities before 
 him will make his statements accurate. The paper will 
 be estimated on the basis of your choice of material and its 
 presentation according to the directions given above. Most 
 important of aU is the abiHty to look at facts from your own 
 point of view and to present them in your own language. 
 
 Printed in the United States of America. 
 
' I "HE following pages contain advertisements of 
 books by the same author. 
 
History of the Ancient World 
 
 For Secondary Schools 
 
 By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, Ph.D. 
 
 Professor of History in Columbia University 
 
 ni. Cloth 8to $1.50 In two books Each, ill., I2mo,9i.oo 
 
 For schools where the practical is not so vigorously crowding out 
 the cultural, we recommend Botsford's History of the Ancient World. 
 Professor Botsford has written eight texts on Ancient History for 
 secondary schools and they are uniformly characterized by a thor- 
 ough mastery of the sources. Indeed translations from the ancient 
 writers themselves are quoted wherever they are particularly effect- 
 ive, and young readers are introduced in a deUghtfuUy intimate way 
 to the " glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome." 
 
 The books are characterized further by a smooth, elegant style, 
 by a scholarly method of presentation, and by that simpUcity and 
 directness in presentation that marks the work of the master teacher- 
 
 The mechanical features also of these books never fail to draw 
 forth enthusiastic praise from teachers using them. Professor Bots- 
 ford's care in the selection of his illustrations and his persistency in 
 searching out unique photographs of real historical value are quite 
 unparalleled among the makers of high school texts. His maps are 
 scrupulously accurate and artistically perfect. In all respects the 
 tj^e page and general make-up of the books reflect the same careful 
 preparation that is evident in the text. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 
 
An Ancient History for Beginners 
 
 By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, Ph.D. 
 
 Professor of History, Columbia Uniuersitj) 
 
 Cloth i2mo $1.50 
 
 "The decided merit of Professor Botsford's books seems to be vitality, 
 thorough grasp of the subject, and charm of presentation." — A. F. Barnard, 
 Chicago Manual Training School, Chicago, 111. 
 
 *' My class have found it first of all interesting. Besides this, they have 
 gained a real appreciation of the ancient civilization about vyhich they have 
 studied. The work is broad and scholarly in its treatment, but at the same 
 time written in such a clear, simple manner that the pupils have studied it un- 
 derstandingly and with sympathy." — MiSS Mabel Chesley, High School, 
 Fulton, N.Y. 
 
 " In this book are preserved the excellent features which render the author's 
 histories of Greece and Rome so superior to other school histories." — MiSS 
 M. Edna Wakefield, High School, Haverhill, Mass. 
 
 " Botsford's Ancient History for Beginners was put into our Normal School, 
 Preparatory Course, as the basal text-book in ancient history just as soon as 
 it was issued. We like the book." — Miss Blanche E. Hazard, Rhode 
 Island Normal School, Providence, R.I. 
 
 " Botsford's Ancient History should have an extensive use. It is one of the 
 few books not too difficult for secondary schools." — PROF. T. F. MORAN, 
 Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. 
 
 " A close acquaintance with Botsford's Ancient History confirms me in my 
 first opinion of the book as the best elementary work on ancient history that 
 has yet appeared. I have recommended it for use in all Missouri schools 
 where free choice of text-books is allowed." — N. M. Trenholme, University 
 of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. 
 
 " I have carefully examined your Botsford's Ancient History and have given 
 it a thorough test in class work. It gives a clear, forcible, condensed narration 
 of ancient history and includes accounts of many of the'important discoveries 
 of recent years which have a direct bearing on Roman and Grecian history, 
 I heartily recommend it for use in any high school." — A. H. Winder, Asst. 
 Prin. of High School, Dayton, Ohio. 
 
 " After a careful examination of yo«r Ancient History I pronounce it one of 
 the finest on the market. Botsford is certainly a historian in every sense. We 
 shall put in the book as soon as opportunity offers. This is the best indorse- 
 ment I can give it." — J. F. Bergen, Superintendent of Schools, Mineral 
 Point, Wis. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 66 Fifth Avenue, New York 
 
 BOSTO* CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLARXA 
 
A History of Greece 
 
 For High Schools and Academies 
 
 By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, Ph.D. 
 
 Professor of History in Columbia Univefsity 
 
 8vo Half leather xili -\- 381 pages $1.10 
 
 Dr. Botsford's " History of Greece " has the conspicuous merits which 
 only a text-book can possess which is written by a master of the original 
 sources. The style is delightful. For simple, unpretentious narrative 
 and elegant English the book is a model. In my judgment, the work is 
 far superior to any other text-book for high school or academic use which 
 has yet appeared. Its value is enriched by the illustrations, as also by 
 the reference lists and the suggestive studies. It wfll greatly aid in the 
 new movement to encourage modem scientific method in the teaching of 
 history in the secondary schools of the country. It has been adopted 
 by Stanford as the basis of entrance requirements in Grecian history. 
 — Professor George Elliott Howaed, Stanford University, Cal. 
 
 A History of the Orient and Greece 
 
 8vo Half leather Ixv + 383 pages $1.20 
 
 This book consists of the History of Greece above referred to, together 
 with an Introductory Section of fifty pages on the Oriental Nations. 
 
 The Story of Rome 
 
 As the Gteefcs and Romans Tell It 
 
 i2mo Cloth z -f- 328 pages go cents 
 
 This volume furnishes pupils in Roman History interesting and in- 
 structive reading from the sources. It is largely narrative and biograph- 
 ical. The quotations form a continuous story and the difficulties have 
 been explained in notes and references. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 
 
A History of Rome 
 
 For High Schools and Academies 
 By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, PI1.D. 
 
 Professor of History in Columbia University 
 
 Half leather 8yo $1.10 
 
 " I consider it (Botsford's History of Rome) not only incomparably the 
 best text-book there is on Rome, but without a superior in the whole his- 
 torical field. And by the best, I mean something more than the most 
 scholarly. My little tribute, which it is a joy to pay, is to excellence in 
 structure, interpretation, and artistic presentation. A certain quality that, 
 for lack of a better name, I call atmosphere, pervades the whole book, and 
 the way it changes with the development of the subject from the bare, 
 meagre, narrow life on the Palatine Hill to the great complex cosmopoli- 
 tanism of the Empire, is, to me, something wonderful. 
 
 " The truth is that the difference between this ' Rome ' and other text- 
 books of the first rank is a matter rather of kind than of degree. In it the 
 author has embodied, in a most wonderful way, within the limits of a single 
 small volume, the life, the achievements, and the spirit of a great nation. 
 To do that is to produce a work of art, and that is undoubtedly what this 
 ' Rome ' really is. It must be a great joy to have written it. It certainly 
 is a joy to use it, and to watch its marked disciplinary and cultural influ- 
 ence on the young minds that study its pages thoughtfully." 
 
 — Miss Eva C. Durbin, Englewood High School, Chicago. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 64-66 fifth Avenue, New York 
 
The Roman Assemblies 
 
 From Their Origin to the End of the Republic 
 
 By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD 
 
 Cloth 8to 521 pages Bibliography Index $4.00 
 
 " The praiseworthy character of this work is all the more to be empha- 
 sized because even Mommsen in his Staatsrecht failed to establish a gen- 
 eral conception of the comitia consistent with the nature of the tribes and 
 curiae. . . Let us hope that the book may find many readers also in Ger- 
 many. Could that be, many antiquated theories, which even here continue 
 to find admirers and backers, would the more speedily be set aside, in fact 
 would soon completely vanish ! " — Soltau, in Wochenschrift fur klas- 
 sische PhUologie (translated). 
 
 " Professor Botsford has gone to work on a sound principle : he starts 
 unburdened and undeflected by any preconceived theory or point of view, 
 laboriously marshals the facts, and formulates the conclusions which the 
 facts seem to warrant. . . . The volume will be warmly welcomed as a schol- 
 arly and judicious sifting of conflicting opinions scattered through count- 
 less books, pamphlets, and articles.'' — fournal of Education (England). 
 
 " His discussion of the terms comitia and concilium is especially brilliant 
 and convincing. . . . To the necessity of going outside the narrow range 
 of his subject we owe two of the most interesting and valuable sections of 
 the book, those on the auspices and on the responsibility of magistrates for 
 their political actions. The reviewer does not know of any such adequate 
 treatment of these topics elsewhere. . . . The presentation in an uninter- 
 rupted form of the history of a single group of institutions has given us a 
 clearer historical view of certain things than we have ever had before. To 
 it we owe, for instance, a sketch of the development of modern theories 
 upon many points in Roman constitutional history. To it we are indebted 
 for an admirable history of comitial legislation." — Professor Frank 
 Frost Abbott, in American Historical Review, 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 64-66 Pifth Avenue, New York 
 
w?m^'^^-ii''^'- 
 
 v.m- 
 
 M