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 Dairy farming, 
 
 3 1924 003 027 814 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
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 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003027814 
 
Interior of N. C. College and Station Dairy Barn, Designed by the Author. 
 
 Twin Concrete Silos on "Michels' Stock Farm." 
 
Dairy Farming 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN MICHELS, B. S.. A., M. S. 
 
 Professor of Dairying and Animal Husbandry in the Milwaukee 
 
 County (Wis.) School of Agriculture and 
 
 Domestic Economy 
 
 Author of "Creamery Butter-Making," "Market Dairying and 
 Milk Products" 
 
 FIFTH EDITION, REVISED 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 WAUWATOSA, WISCONSIN 
 
 Published by the Author 
 
 1913 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 s 
 
COPYRIGHT, BY 
 
 JOHN MICHELS 
 
 1907 and 1911 
 
PREFACE TO TfflRD EDITION. 
 
 In the preparation of this worl<, the endeavor has been 
 to arrange in a concise and systematic form the essential 
 facts relating to the science and practice of dairy farm- 
 ing. It embodies the Author's twenty years' experience, 
 both as a practical dairyman and as a student and teacher 
 of dairy husbandry. Technical terms have been avoided 
 as far as possible, in order that the book may not only 
 meet the needs of the class-room, but also serve as a 
 convenient and useful handbook for farmers not versed 
 in the sciences. 
 
 In preparing the third edition of Dairy Farming, a 
 thorough revision has been made of the entire book and 
 about one hundred pages of new matter added. The addi- 
 tion of the large amount of important new matter should 
 materially increase the usefulness of the book. 
 
 The general adoption of the book as a text and refer- 
 ence book in American Dairy Schools and the warm re- 
 ception that has been generally accorded it, naturally has 
 been a source of much satisfaction to the author and has 
 prompted him more than ever to leave nothing undone 
 in the present revision to make the book worthy of the 
 confidence in which it is 'being held. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. THE DAIRY HERD. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Chapter ,' I. Dairy Farming a Profitable Business. . . 7 
 
 Chapter II. Evolution of the Dairy Cow 9 
 
 Chapter III. Selection of Dairy Cows 11 
 
 Chapter IV. Selection of Dairy Sires 17 
 
 Chapter V. Building Up a Dairy Herd 20 
 
 Ciiapter VI. Breeds of Dairy Cattle 25 
 
 Chapter VII. Feeding the Dairy Cow 33 
 
 Chapter VIII. Silos and Silage 52 
 
 Chapter IX. Method of Keeping Herd Records 60 
 
 Chapter X. Milking , 68 
 
 Chapter XI. Herd Management 73 
 
 Chapter XII. Rearing the Dairy Calf 82 
 
 Chapter XIII. Dairy Barn 86 
 
 Chapter XIV. Handling Farm Manure loi 
 
 Chapter XV. Power on the Farm 106 
 
 Chapter XVI. Diseases and Ailments of Dairy Cattle.. no 
 
 PART II. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. 
 
 Chapter XVII. Milk 123 
 
 Chapter XVIII. The Babcock Test . . .' 13S 
 
 Chapter XIX. Bacteria and Milk Fermentations 146 
 
 Chapter XX. Sanitary Milk Production r. . ISS 
 
 Chapter XXI. Farm Butter-Making 165 
 
 Chapter XXII. Farm Cheese-Making 187 
 
 Chapter XXIII. Starters . , 193 
 
 Chapter XXIV. Soft and Fancy Cheese-Making 199 
 
 Chapter XXV. Cooling and Aeration of Milk and 
 
 Cream 205 
 
 Chapter XXVI. How to Secure a Good Market 213 
 
 Chapter XXVII. Marketing Milk and Creim 217 
 
 Chapter XXVIII. Ice Cream Making 228 
 
 5 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page. 
 
 Chapter XXIX. Skimmilk-Buttermilk 233 
 
 Chapter XXX. Certified Milk 236 
 
 Chapter XXXI. Relative Market Value of Milk and Its 
 
 Products 239 
 
 PART III. SUPPI,EMENT. 
 
 Chapter XXXII. Valuing Dairy Stock 244 
 
 Chapter XXXIII. Legumes (Alfalfa and Clovers) 253 
 
 Chapter ^ XXXIV. The Dairy House 256 
 
 Chapter XXXV. Washing and Sterilizing Milk Vessels. .263 
 
 Chapter XXXVI. Keeping Accounts 269 
 
 Chapter XXXVII. Water and Ice Supply 274 
 
 Chapter XXXVIII. Dairy By-Products 280 
 
 Chapter XXXIX. Machine Milking 282 
 
 Chapter XI,. Pasteurization of Milk and Cream 284 
 
 Chapter XI<I. Calculating Dividends 287 
 
 Appendix 291 
 
 Index 297 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE DAIRY HERD. 
 
 CHAPTER I. _ 
 
 DAIRY FARMING A PROFITABLE BUSINESS. 
 
 That dairy farming is a profitable business is fully at- 
 tested by its unprecedented growth during the past 
 decade and a half. No other branch of agriculture has 
 ever witnessed such rapid development in a similar period 
 of time. Its growth has not been confined to any par- 
 ticular section or sections of the country, but has been 
 noticeable in all sections. 
 
 The profits that have prompted this rapid and general 
 expansion of the dairy business have been derived from 
 two sources: (i) direct profits realized from the sale of 
 milk, cream, butter and cheese; (2) indirect profits ac- 
 cruing from an increased fertility of the land and the con- 
 sequent increased productiveness of the same. 
 
 Direct Profits. It is pretty well conceded that in gen- 
 eral dairy cows yield greater returns for feed consumed 
 than either swine, sheep or beef animals. A good cow 
 will yield not less than 300 pounds of butter a year, which, 
 at 25 cents per pound, is worth $75. Adding to this the 
 value of 6,000 pounds of skim milk at 20 cents per 100, 
 
 7 
 
8 DAIRl ■ ING 
 
 and $io as the valu , we have a total income 
 
 of $97 a year. Subt, m this $50 as the average 
 
 cost of the feed, we 47 remaining to pay for the 
 
 labor and interest on in\,. .nents. 
 
 Where good milk and cream markets are available the 
 income from the sale of milk and cream may be actually 
 double that from butter at 25 cents per pound. More- 
 over, with cows of a higher productive capacity than that 
 here considered, the profits would be more than propor- 
 tionally increased. 
 
 Indirect Profits. The marvelous growth of the dairy 
 industry has in part been necessitated by the need of con- 
 serving and increasing the fertility of lands that have 
 been cultivated without due regard to maintaining soil 
 fertility. The selling of raw products from the farm, 
 such as hay and grains, has been a constant source of soil 
 impoverishment. This method of robbing the soil of its 
 natural plant food has made farming in many of the New 
 England and Southern States well nigh impossible with- 
 out the aid of commercial fertilizers. In some of these 
 states as much as $7,000,000 is expended annually for 
 these fertilizing materials. 
 
 By feeding the raw materials of the farm to dairy cows, 
 we are not only manufacturing high priced products as 
 compared with the value of the raw material, but we are 
 retaining upon the farm that valuable by-product, the 
 manure, which contains about 75% of the fertilizing con- 
 stituents originally present in the feed. Where only but- 
 ter is sold, practically all of the fertilizing ingredients of 
 the feed are recovered, since butter contains scarcely any 
 fertilizing material. Even where cream is sold about 
 95% of the fertilizing value of the feed is retained upon 
 the farm. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 EVOI<UTION OF THE DAIRY COW. 
 
 The dairy cow is one of the most useful as well as one 
 of the most profitable of all our domestic animals. Her 
 products not only supply an indispensable want in the 
 human dietary, but they are also the source of m,uch profit 
 to her owner. 
 
 Comparing the modern cow with her primitive ances- 
 tors a most interesting and instructive evolution in her 
 milk giving function is noted. In the wild or primitive 
 state her milk production was confined to a short period 
 following parturition and was barely sufficient for the 
 support of the calf. In her present form the amount of 
 rnilk necessary for the support of the calf constitutes but 
 a small part of her total possible production and its secre- 
 tion is almost incessant. 
 
 Like the race horse, the dairy cow has been bred and 
 handled for a specific purpose for a number of centuries. 
 Continued specialization has resulted not only in an 
 enormous increase of milk and butterfat production, but 
 as a result of such increased production there has been 
 created a specific conformation known as the dairy type. 
 
 At no period in the development of the dairy cow have 
 such great strides been made as in the past half a cen- 
 tury. Indeed, the period of general and systematic im- 
 provement in the common stock may be said to date from 
 the invention of the Babcock test. Fifteen years ago the 
 average butter production was approximately 125 pounds 
 
 9 
 
10 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 per cow. To-day the average production appoximates 
 175 pounds per cow. 
 
 There are hundreds of herds scattered over the 
 country that average 300 pounds of butter per cow and 
 many herds exceed even the 400 pound mark. Scores 
 of individual cows could be mentioned that have reached 
 the 600 and 700 pound mark, and the world's champion 
 cow holds the phenomenal record of an even 1,000 pounds 
 of butter in one year. 
 
 Among the factors that haye been instrumental in 
 bringing about the remarkable evolution in the milk pro- 
 ducing function of the cow, the following are the most 
 important: (i) selection, or breeding only from the 
 best milkers; (2) liberal and judicious feeding; (3) 
 proper milking ; (4) suitable environment, including con- 
 ditions as to housing and sanitation ; ( 5 ) good care and 
 management. These factors will always continue the 
 most important in the improvement of our modern herds, 
 and will be discussed in the chapters which follow. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 SELECTION OF COWS. 
 
 Success in dairying depends in a large measure upon 
 one's ability to select the right animals in starting and 
 building up the herd. UnleSs adapted by nature for 
 dairy purposes, cows will' remain unprofitable in spite of 
 the best feed and management. The first lesson the 
 dairyman has to learn, therefore, is to know how to dis- 
 criminate between good cows and poor cows. The 
 cardinal points to consider in the selection of a cow are : 
 (i) butter fat production; (2) type; (3) purity of breed- 
 ing; (4) pedigree; and (5) health. 
 
 BUTTERFAT PRODUCTION. 
 
 The best guide in the selection of cows is the actual 
 butterfat record as determined by a pair of scales and a 
 Babcock tester. It is not enough to simply know the 
 quantity of milk yielded by a cow; one must also know 
 its fat content, for it is this that measures the value of 
 milk for commercial uses as well as for butter and cheese 
 production. 
 
 The method of determining the butterfat production 
 of cows is treated in detail in chapter IX. 
 
 CONFORMATION OR TYPE. 
 
 All dairy experts recognize a definite type as associated 
 with economical milk production. The judge in the 
 show ring bases his judgment entirely upon type or con- 
 
 11 
 
12 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 formation. While there still may be differences of opin- 
 ion among breeders as to minor points, these are really 
 of little consequence. The points that go to make up 
 the ideal type will be treated under six heads: (i) dairy 
 temperament; (2) feeding capacity; (3) constitution; 
 (4) milk organs; (5) quality; and (6) pelvic region. 
 
 it// 
 
 Fig. 1. — PoiDts of a Dairy Cow. 
 
 1. Muzzle. 2. Forehead. 3. Neck. 4. Withers. 6. Back. 6. Loins. 
 
 7. Hip. 8. Pelvic arch. 9. Rump. 10. Pin bone>> 1 1 . Shoulder. 12. Chest. 
 
 13. Heart Girth. 14. Side. 15. BeUy. 16. Flank. 17. Milk well. 18. Milk 
 
 vein. 19. Fore udder. 20: Udder. 21. Teats. 22. Hind udder. 23. Thigh. 
 
 Dairy Temperament. This^is indicated by a rather 
 spare, angulair form; large, bright, expressive eyes, far 
 apart and placid ; a rather long, clean face slightly dished ; 
 forehead wide and rather long; wide juncture of head 
 and neck; a large, straight, prominent backbone with 
 well defined spinal processes; ribs and vertebrae wide 
 apart ; sharp withers ; spare, incurving thighs ; and a high 
 arching flank : all of which indicates strong nerve develop- 
 ment, or power to do work. 
 
 Feeding Capacity. This is indicated by a long, broad, 
 deep, capacious barrel, showing well sprung ribs diverging 
 toward the rear ; a broad muzzle ; and a strong jaw. 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 13 
 
 Constitution. This is indicated by large, bright, clear 
 eyes ; large, open nostrils ; wide, deep chest ; strong navel 
 development; strong abdominal walls; absence of ex- 
 treme refinement; and a soft, pliable skin with plenty of 
 secretion : all of which indicates strength and vitality. 
 
 A heavy milker is one of the hardest worked of all 
 animals, and unless possessed of a strong constitution, 
 she can never do her maximum work and an early break- 
 down may be expected. 
 
 Milk Organs. These include a large, evenly quartered, 
 elastic udder, running well forward and well up behind; 
 large, tortuous milk veins running well forward and 
 branched ; numerous, large, capacious milk wells ; and 
 medium sized teats, squarely placed, and far apart. 
 
 Large, fleshy udders are undesirable, as they possess a 
 relatively small milk elaborating capacity, and are more 
 subject to disorders than moderately large, elastic udders. 
 
 The milk veins, which carry the blood away from the 
 udder, .are deserving of careful attention. When the ori- 
 fices (milk wells) through which they enter the body are 
 large, the size of the milk veins may be taken as a fair 
 indication of the amount of blood they carry. 
 
 A large flow of blood away from the udder presup- 
 poses a large flow into it, and since milk is secreted from 
 the blood, the quantity which flows through the veins 
 must be some indication of milk producing capacity. 
 
 Quality. This is indicated by a soft, oily, pliable skin, 
 of medium thickness ; short, soft silky hair ; yellow secre- 
 tion in the ears; fine textured bone; rather small and 
 refined ears and horns ; yellowish wax at the base of the 
 horns; and a general absence of coarseness in any part. 
 
 Pelvic Region. This should be large to afford room 
 for the calf, especially during its delivery. A good pelvic 
 
14 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 region is indicated by a high, long, broad rump, broad 
 hips and loins, and good width between the pin bones. 
 
 Additional observations on type should be directed 
 to the following: Shoulder, free from flesh and rather 
 sharp at the withers ; tail, long and refined ; hocks, clean, 
 well apart, and pointing straight backward, giving roomi- 
 ness for the udder; front legs, straight and well apart, 
 with toes pointing directly forward. 
 
 The escutcheon, which refers to the rear portion of the 
 animal where the hair turns up, was the subject of con- 
 siderable study by a Frenchman named Quenon, who 
 regarded the size and shape of it as the chief indication 
 of merit in dairy cows. At the present time, however, 
 very little importance is attached to this point. 
 
 PURITY OF BREEDING. 
 
 Selection is based upon the law that "like produces 
 like." According to this law the characters of the par- 
 ents are transmitted to the offspring with a greater or 
 less degree of certainty. The purer the breeding of the 
 parents the greater the certainty of such transmission. 
 Thus, for example, one can figure with much certainty 
 that the progeny of pure-bred parents of the same breed 
 will resemble its parents in all. essential characteristics. 
 On the other hand, there is no certainty whatever that the 
 off-spring of parents of promiscuous breeding will resem- 
 ble its parents, either in important or unimportant particu- 
 lars. It may be like them or it may be totally unlike them. 
 
 It is the long period of breeding along one line without 
 admixture of foreign blood that gives the pure-bred 
 animal the superior power of transmitting its qualities to 
 its offspring, a power which is known as prepotency. In 
 the building up of a dairy herd it is of the highest im- 
 
THB DAIRY HERD IS 
 
 portance to have animals which transmit their quaUties 
 to their offspring with a high, degree of certainty, and it 
 is for this reason that pure-bred animals are so much pre- 
 ferred to those of promiscuous breeding. 
 
 PEDIGREB. 
 
 A pedigree is a recorded statement of the ancestry of 
 an animal. It is furnished in many cases simply as a 
 guarantee of purity of breeding. Its real value, however, 
 is determined by the merit of the animals which it repre- 
 sents. A 300 pound butter cow with an unbroken list of 
 noted dairy performers back of her is much to be pre- 
 ferred to a 300 pound cow among whose ancestors some 
 inferior individuals are found, and especially if the infer- 
 ior individuals are near ancestors. 
 
 While, generally, pedigreed animals are much to be 
 preferred to those of promiscuous breeding, it by no 
 means follows that all pedigreed animals are desirable. 
 Far from it. There probably are now-a-days as many poor 
 pedigreed dairy animals as good ones. "Scrubs" are 
 found among pedigreed cows just as they are found 
 among common or native cows, though of course far 
 less frequently. 
 
 The reason of the existence of inferior individuals 
 among pure-bred dairy animals is found in the fact that 
 eligibility to registration in most cases is not based upon 
 production or individual excellence, but upon purity of 
 breeding. This fact has made it possible for many 
 animals to enter the herd register which, by nature, were 
 fit only for the shambles. In the purchase of pure-bred 
 stock, therefore, no judicious selection can be made from 
 a mere list of names of individuals, no matter how long 
 this list is or how "high sounding" the names it contains 
 
16 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 may be. One must know the production and individual 
 excellence of the animals represented in the pedigree. 
 The greatest stress should be laid upon the near or 
 immediate ancestry of the animal under consideration. 
 
 Fortunately there is what is known as an advanced 
 registry, or register of merit, the basis of admission to 
 which, in addition to pure breeding, is the merit of the 
 individuals as dairy performers. It is much to be hoped 
 that this method of registration will soon replace entirely 
 the common method whose sole requisite for registration 
 is purity of breeding. 
 
 HEAIvTH OF ANIMAIjS. 
 
 The prevalence of tuberculosis, contagious abortion, 
 and other diseases, makes it imperative to make the matter 
 of health an important consideration in the selection of 
 dairy animals. Indeed diseased animals, no matter how 
 valuable in other respects, should be rigidly excluded from 
 the herd. 
 
 It is the height of folly to select dairy animals without 
 making rigid inquiry as to their freedom from tuber- 
 culosis and contagious abortion. Yet there are many who 
 do not even inquire about these and other diseases, much 
 less make investigation such, for example, as a tuber- 
 culin test. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SELECTION OF DAJRY SIRES. 
 
 The importance of the dairy sire is recognized in the 
 expression, "The bull is half the herd." Usually, how- 
 ever, the bull is more than half the herd, either for good 
 or bad." In the case of common or grade cows, for 
 example, the pure-bred bull may count for three-quarters 
 or more of the herd, by reason of his greater prepotency. 
 To so great an extent does the bull determine the improve- 
 ment or deterioration of the herd as to call for the utmost 
 caution in his selection, which should be based upon the 
 following: (i) purity of breeding; (2) pedigree; (3) 
 t)'pe; (4) prepotency; and (5) health. 
 
 Purity of Breeding. Under no circumstances should 
 anything but pure-bred sires be used. The value of purity 
 of breeding has already, been discussed under the selection 
 of the dairy cow. It should be understood, however, 
 that purity of breeding is of greater consequence in bulls 
 than in cows, for the reason that improvement in the herd 
 is usually expected to be brought about through the dairy 
 sire. 
 
 Pedigree. In the case of a dairy bull, especially a 
 young bull, his chief value is determined by the perform- 
 ance of his ancestry. The points of greatest importance 
 to consider in his pedigree are the following : ( i ) the 
 merit of his mother and his sire's mother; (2) the merit 
 of the daughters of his sire and grand sire; (3) the 
 value of the daughters of his dam and his grand-dam; 
 
 17 
 
18 DAIRY P ARMING 
 
 (4) the value of his sisters, if he has any; and (5) the 
 value of his own progeny, if he has any. 
 
 The further back consecutively good records can be 
 traced the more valuable the animal. It should always 
 be remembered, however, that near ancestors count for 
 a great deal more than those more remotely related. 
 
 Type. The external qualities of a good sire are indi- 
 cated by a masculine head and neck; bright, prominent 
 eyes, far apart; a strong, sinewy jaw; broad muzzle; 
 wide open nostrils; deep, broad chest; deep, capacious 
 barrel; soft, loose, oily hide, of medium thickness; clean 
 bone; large rudimentary teats, squarely placed and far 
 apart; and a general spareness of flesh, especially in the 
 region of the shoulders, thighs, and hips. Indeed, from 
 the shoulders backward, the dairy bull should have the 
 same general outline as that possessed by the dairy cow. 
 He should have a strong, resolute appearance and an 
 active style, showing that abundance of vigor so neces- 
 sary in a good breeder. 
 
 Prepotency. It has already been stated that this term 
 signifies the power which an animal possesses of trans- 
 mitting its own qualities to its offspring. The possession 
 of this power is of the highest importance in a dairy bull, 
 for it matters little how good a pedigree or how fine an 
 individuality he may have, if he lacks in the power of 
 transmission he is a failure. Prepotency in an animal 
 increases with the purity and closeness of breeding, and 
 is indicated to some extent by a strong, resolute, vigorous 
 appearance, reflecting a strong constitution and an 
 abundance of nerve development. 
 
 The full extent, however, to which a sire is prepotent 
 can be determined with certainty only from his offspring. 
 
THE, DAIRY HERD 19 
 
 It is for this reason that a middle-aged bull is so much 
 more desirable than a young, untried bull. 
 
 A bull with descendants is always the safest animal 
 for the purchaser to buy. Nothing can speak more for a 
 bull than the satisfactory performance of his offspring. 
 
 Health. Everything that has been said with reference 
 to health in the selection of cows (p. i6) applies with 
 equal force to dairy sires. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 BUILDING UP A DAIRY HERD. 
 
 I. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED. 
 II. STARTING THE HEED. 
 III. BREEDING UP THE HERD. 
 
 I. PRINCIPI<i;S INVOLVED. 
 
 Underlying Law. The success in building up a dairy 
 herd depends to a great extent upon one's abiUty to select 
 individuals with reference to the points considered in the 
 preceding two chapters; that is, the ability to make a 
 judicious selection of both males and females. To em- 
 phasize more fully the importance of rigid selection it 
 should be remembered that all selection is based upon 
 the law that "like produces like," or that the offspring 
 will be like the parents. The essence of this law is that 
 good milkers will produce good milkers and poor milkers 
 will produce poor milkers. 
 
 The uniformity with which this law operates is depend- 
 ent upon three things : ( i ) purity of breeding ; (2) close- 
 ness of blood relationship; and (3) similarity of parents. 
 
 Purity of Breeding. The purer the breeding the 
 greater the certainty with which animals will transmit 
 their own characteristics to their offspring. See p. 14. 
 
 Closeness of Blood Relationship. The characters of 
 parents of the same strain will reappear in the progeny 
 with greater regularity than those of parents of different 
 strains in the .same breed. This fact is recognized in 
 in-and-in breeding, which is an attempt to secure and 
 
 20 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 21 
 
 speedily fix desirable characters by close breeding. In- 
 and-in breeding can be practiced with success, however, 
 only in the hands of skilled breeders. 
 
 In the case of crossing one breed upon another as, for 
 example, a Holstein-Friesian upon a Jersey, it is often 
 mistakenly supposed that the progeny of such a cross 
 partakes equally of the characters of both parents. This 
 may occur in some instances, but more often the offspring 
 will resemble-either one parent or the other, or neither. 
 But even where the offspring does partake- equally of the 
 characters of both parents, such a cross is undesirable 
 because the offspring is not capable of transmitting its 
 characteristics with any degree of certainty. In the hands 
 of the average dairyman transmission in crossing is uncer- 
 tain and unsatisfactory, and for this reason crossing 
 should not be attempted. 
 
 When a cow of nondescript or promiscuous breeding is 
 bred to a pure-bred sire, the progeny will largely partake 
 of the characters of the sire, by reason of his greater 
 prepotency. With what degree of regularity and to what 
 extent this occurs depends upon the degree of prepotency. 
 The offspring of a highly prepotent sire and a common or 
 native cow will take on nearly all the essential character- 
 istics of the sire. In such a case it is plainly seen that the 
 sire counts for a great deal more than half the herd. 
 
 In the case of grade cows the influence of the pure- 
 bred bull becomes less the closer the grade approaches 
 •purity of blood. But only in the case where the cows are 
 pure-bred, or more strictly of equal prepotency with the 
 bull, can it be said that the bull is only half the herd. 
 
 Similarity of Parents. In mating animals it should 
 always be remembered that the greater the similarity of all 
 their characteristics the greater the certainty of trans- 
 
22 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 mission. Where animals of great extremes of size, con- 
 formation, function, disposition, or nervous organization, 
 are mated, somewhat the same results may be looked for 
 that are obtained in crossing animals of different breeds. 
 Mating animals of highly dissimilar characteristics is 
 spoken of as violent mating and should be avoided. 
 Where there is much similarity in the parents there is 
 usually a satisfactory transmission of qualities and the 
 mating is often referred to as good "nicking." 
 
 II. STARTING THE HERD. 
 
 Grade Cows and Pure=bred Sires. With the average 
 farmer, the cheapest and most satisfactory way of start- 
 ing a dairy herd is to select as foundation stock good 
 grade cows and a pure-bred bull of one of the strictly 
 dairy breeds. The grading up will be most rapid when 
 the predominant blood in the grades corresponds with the 
 blood of the sire. 
 
 A foundation of this kind, of course, does not produce 
 stock that can be registered, but by continuing the use of 
 good, pure-bred bulls of the same blood, stock is soon 
 obtained which, so far as milk and butter production is 
 concerned, very closely approaches in value that of pure 
 breeding. 
 
 Pure=Bred Cows and Sires. To start with a pure- 
 bred herd is practically beyond the means of the ma- 
 jority of farmers. Furthermore, there is an objection 
 to placing well-cared-for, pure-bred cows under aver- 
 age conditions as to feed, care, and management, be- 
 cause under any such change the attainment of satis- 
 factory results would be practically impossible. Where 
 there is a gradual infusion of pure blood, as in the 
 case of grading up a herd with pure-bred sires the 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 23 
 
 new blood ' is gradually accustomed to the change of 
 environment and the herdsman is given the necessary 
 time to change his methods to meet the requirements of 
 pure-bred cattle. 
 
 Where the dairyman understands the management 
 of pure-bred stock and has the means with which to 
 purchase the right kind, a pure-bred herd may be started 
 to good advantage. 
 
 One of the chief dangers in starting with a pure- 
 bred herd is the lack of funds. to procure the right sort 
 of animals. Instead of purchasing a pure-bred bull and 
 a number of pure-bred cows of common merit, it is better 
 policy to buy relatively cheap, grade cows, and to add the 
 money thus saved to that originally set aside for the bull. 
 This extra money is likely to be the means of securing a 
 bull of outstanding merit. 
 
 III. BREEDING UP THE HERD. 
 
 Importance of Sire. Whether the cows be grades or 
 pure-breds, it is of the highest importance in building up 
 a dairy herd to secure a pure-bred bull of outstanding 
 dairy merit. Unless the bull is descended from good milk- 
 ers it is folly to expect him to produce good milkers, no 
 matter how fine or ideal he may be as an individual. 
 
 It is, furthermore, of importance to remember that a 
 herd, cannot be successfully built up unless the bulls that 
 are successively used belong to the same breed. If the 
 grading up is begun with a Jersey bull the process must 
 be continued uninterruptedly by the use of Jersey blood. 
 
 In the selection of a herd bull the paints discussed in 
 the preceding chapter should be carefully considered. 
 
 Selecting the Best Calves. With a first-class bull at 
 the head of the herd, rapid improvement is effected by 
 
34 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 selecting and retaining calves from only the best milkers, 
 at the same time culling out those cows whose records 
 have not been satisfactory. This vvork cannot be done to 
 best advantage unless records are kept of the quantity 
 and quality of milk from each cow for a whole lactation 
 period, as discussed in chapter IX. 
 
 Buying Cows. Where all of the cows in the founda- 
 tion stock are grades, none of the calves, of course, can 
 be registered. It is desirable, therefore, to add to the 
 herd from time to time, as means permit, some good 
 pure-bred cows of the same blood as the bulls that have 
 been used. This has the advantage of enabling the owner 
 to dispose of his calves to better advantage. 
 
 The purchase of cows, however, is always attended with 
 the danger of introducing contagious diseases into the 
 herd, especially tuberculosis and contagious abortion. 
 For this reason the purchasing of cows should be carried 
 on in a limited way only. It is, of course, always in order 
 to buy cows when the object is to add to the herd pure- 
 bred individuals of exceptional dairy merit. But the 
 practice of buying cows should never be carried to the 
 point of making it the principal means of replenishing the 
 herd, especially since the latter can be accomplished 
 much more satisfactorily by raising the calves JErom the 
 best cows. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 breeds of dairy catti^e. 
 
 jbrsey cattle. 
 
 The native home of this breed is the Island of Jersey, 
 
 situated off the coast of France, and comprising 28,717 
 
26 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 acres. Tlic climate is very mild and healthful, and the 
 soil is very productive. Here the Jersey cattle have been 
 bred pure for a number of centuries. 
 
 
 
 Characteristics. The color of Jerseys is usuallv some 
 shade of fawn. Cream, dun and yellow are common, and 
 these are frequently mixed with white. In form Jerseys 
 
THE DAIRY HURD 
 
 27 
 
 are spare, possessing a ratlier large barrel, a refined head 
 and neck, and fine, clean-cut limbs. In size they are small 
 to medium, the average weight of cows being probably 
 somewhat less than 900 pounds. The c^uantity of milk 
 produced by Jerseys is, as a rule, not very large, but the 
 milk is very rich, making them excellent butter producers. 
 The color of the milk and butter is a pleasing, rich yellow. 
 
 GUERNSEY CATTLE. 
 
 The native home of this breed is the Island of Guern- 
 sey, situated near the Island of Jersey, and, like it, is one 
 
 
 
 -'■'"""' ■ ■ 
 
 -' '• ',. '» . , 
 
 A 
 
 ^^._ 
 
 ^ 
 
 . 
 
 ^^Hjk 
 
 ^K^K^^Skx - cdPIn 
 
 
 HA 
 
 m 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 iii^'j-jf : :''r- 
 
 1 
 
 
 "J' 
 
 WW 
 
 \:A!i,.i^m^^ 
 
 r^ll 
 
 L.^^M 
 
 wfwwm*'-'M-. .. 
 
 ^Kf . 
 
 ■ :-^:^'v;v-:-'?^:-^'y;.'-.: ; ■ Ji^^^rv: 'i''- 
 
 Fig. 4.— Typical Guernsey Bull. Benjamin. 
 
 of the group of islands known as the Channel Islands. In 
 size the Island of Guernsey ranks next to that of Jersey. 
 Its climate is very mild and healthful and the soil is pro- 
 
28 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 ductivc. Guernsey cattle have been bred pure for a long 
 period of time. 
 
 Characteristics. Guernsey cattle are larger, stronger 
 in frame and constitution, and in general more rugged 
 than Jerseys. A noted characteristic of this breed is the 
 very rich, yellow color of the milk and skin. Their pre- 
 dominant color is a reddish fawn, with more or less white 
 
 Fig. 5. — Typical Guernsey Cow. Dolly Dimple. 
 
 markings. Colors bordering on a yellowish or brownish 
 fawn with white markings, are also common. The 
 cows average probably somewhat more than i,ooo pounds 
 in weight. They average a fairly large yield of milk, 
 which is practically as rich as that produced by Jerseys. 
 Guernseys are also noted for their quiet, gentle disposi- 
 tion. 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 
 
 29 
 
 HOLSTEIN-FEIESIAN CATTlE. 
 
 The native home of this breed is Holland, where it 
 has existed for many centuries. The low, level, rich lands 
 reclaimed from the sea, furnish an abundance of grazing 
 
30 
 
 DAIRY f.lRMlNG 
 
 and have given rise to a large breed of cattle. The winters 
 of Holland are rather cold but not severe. 
 
 Characteristics. The Holstein-Friesian cattle are 
 white and black in color, have large, strong frames, and 
 
 easily stand at the head in size and quantity of milk 
 yielded. The average weight of the cows approxi- 
 mates 1,300 pounds. While noted for their phenomenal 
 milk yields, the milk averages rather low in per cent of 
 
THli DAIRY HERD 
 
 31 
 
 butterfat, being lower than that of any other dairy breed. 
 The udders and milk veins in this breed are conspicuously 
 large. The shoulders are rather prominent and the hind 
 quarters as a rule, are rather thick and straight. 
 
 AYRSHIRE CATHE. 
 
 The native home of this breed is Ayr county, Scot- 
 land, from which place the breed derives its name. The 
 
 pastures are good, but the climate is rather severe and 
 rough, giving this breed a high degree of hardiness. 
 
32 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Characteristics. The Ayrshire cattle are a rather 
 hardy, rugged breed, of medium size, the average weight 
 being about i,ooo pounds. They have a deep capacious 
 barrel, and the hind quarters are inclined to be fleshy. 
 In color they may be red, white, or brown, or a mixture of 
 these, each color being well defined. The cows give a 
 good yield of milk containing an average per cent of 
 butterfat. Their udders possess a high state of perfection. 
 
 60 
 
 S 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FEEDING THE DAIRY COW. 
 
 I. PRINCIPLES OF PEfiDING. 
 II. PRACTICe OF FEFDING. 
 III. FEEDING TABLES. 
 
 I. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 
 
 No phase of the dairy industry has received so much 
 attention in recent years as that relating to the principles 
 and practice of feeding. We have come to learn that 
 certain underlying principles must be observed if any- 
 thing like a full measure of success is to be achieved. 
 The first lesson of the student in stock feeding concerns 
 itself with the following particulars regarding feeds : ( i ) 
 composition; (2) digestibility; (3) succulence and pal- 
 atability; (4) proportion of nitrogenous and non-nitro- 
 genous nutrients; (5) proportion of roughage* and con- 
 centratesf ; and (6) fertilizing constituents. 
 
 Composition. A knowledge of the composition of 
 feeds is necessary for two reasons: First, to enable the 
 feeder to determine the relative value of the feeds at. his 
 disposal; and secondly, to assist in determining what 
 quantity of feed is necessary to supply the required 
 amount of nutrients. 
 
 In studying the composition of feeds we must first of 
 all familiarize ourselves with three important groups of 
 
 *Roughage Includes the coarser and less nutritious feeds, such as hay, 
 straw, corn fodder, corn silage, etc. 
 
 fConcentrates include the more nutritious feeds, such as corn, wheat bran, 
 cotton seed meal, etc. 
 
 33 
 
34 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 nutrients found in all feed stuffs; namely, protein, car- 
 bohydrates and ether extract. 
 
 Protein is the nitrogenous part of feeds and is by far 
 the most valuable of the different groups of nutrients. 
 Its characteristic element is nitrogen. The white of egg . 
 is almost pure protein. Cottonseed meal and linseed 
 meal are very rich in protein, and so are leguminous hays, 
 such as clover, alfalfa and cowpea hay. 
 
 Carbohydrates contain no nitrogen but are made up 
 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, containing the latter 
 two elements in the proportion to form water. Sugar and 
 starch are almost pure carbohydrates. Crude fiber is 
 another carbohydrate, which constitutes the woody, fibrous 
 part of plants. 
 
 Ether extract is the part of feeds extracted by means 
 of ether, and consists largely of fats or oils. This group 
 of nutrients bears a close similarity to carbohydrates, 
 both in composition and in function ; but owing to its 
 higher carbon content, its fuel value is 2.25 times that of 
 carbohydrates. Cotton seed and flax seed are very rich 
 in ether extract. 
 
 Dry matter, as the term signifies, is the feed minus its 
 water. 
 
 The variation in nutrients in different feeds is illus- 
 trated in the following table: 
 
 TABLE I. Showing variation in nutrients in different 
 feeds. 
 
 
 Dry 
 matter in 
 100 pounds. 
 
 Total nutrients In 100 pounds. 
 
 Feed. 
 
 Protein. 
 Lbs. 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 Lbs. 
 
 Ether 
 
 extract. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 88.1 
 91.8 
 89.4 
 20.9 
 59.5 
 84.7 
 
 15.4 
 42.3 
 10.3 
 1.7 
 3.8 
 12.8 
 
 62.9 
 29.2 
 72.6 
 17.0 
 52.2 
 62.9 
 
 4.0 
 
 Cottonseed meal 
 
 .13.1 
 
 Corn 
 
 6.0 
 
 Com silage 
 
 0.8 
 
 Corn stover 
 
 1 1 
 
 Clover hay ( red ) 
 
 3.3 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 
 
 35 
 
 The table shows that feeds differ very widely in the 
 amount of nutrients they contain, especially in protein, 
 the most valuable portion of feeds. 
 
 Digestibility. While the total nutrients give some 
 idea as to the relative value of different feeds, it is of far 
 greater importance to know the total digestible nutrients 
 as determined by actual digestion experiments with 
 animals. That feeds differ widely in degree of digest- 
 ibility is shown in the following table which contains the 
 same list of feeds given in Table I. 
 
 TABIyE II. Showing variation in the digestibility of 
 different feeds. 
 
 
 Dry 
 matter In 
 100 pounds. 
 
 Total digestible nutrients in 
 100 pounds. 
 
 Feed. 
 
 Protein. 
 Lbs. 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Ether 
 extract. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 88.1 
 91.8 
 89.1 
 20.9 
 59.5 
 84.7 
 
 12.2 
 37 2 
 
 7.9 
 0.9 
 1.7 
 6.8 
 
 39.2 
 16.9 
 '66.7 
 11.3 
 32.4 
 35.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 Cottonseed meal 
 
 12.2 
 
 Corn 
 
 4.3 
 
 Corn silage 
 
 0.7 
 
 Corn stover 
 
 Clover hay ( red ) 
 
 0.7 
 1.7 
 
 Comparing this table with Table I, we note that the 
 digestibility of the protein, for example, in corn stover, 
 clover hay and cottonseed meal is 44%, 55% and 
 88% respectively. These figures suffice to show the need 
 of knowing, not so much the total nutrients, as the total 
 digestible nutrients in feed stuffs. 
 
 Succulence and Palatability. The amount of digest- 
 ible nutrients does not always measure the feedipg value 
 
36 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 of feed stuffs. Palatability must also be considered. 
 Moreover, experience has amply demonstrated that for 
 best results in milk production, a certain amount of suc- 
 culent feed must be fed as a part of the ration. Corn 
 silage, which is so highly prized by dairymen, probably 
 owes its high rank as a dairy feed nearly as much to its 
 succulence and palatability as to the nutrients which it 
 contains. 
 
 Proportion of Nitrogenous to Non=Nitrogenous 
 Nutrients. In the production of milk, only the protein 
 or nitrogenous part of the feed can be utilized for the 
 production of the protein or nitrogenous part of the milk. 
 The non-nitrogenous constituents of the milk are largely, 
 if not entirely, produced from the non-nitrogenous con- 
 stituents of the feed, namely, the carbohydrates and ether 
 extract. 
 
 From this it must be obvious that the best results in 
 feeding can be obtained only from a proper balancing of 
 the nutrients fed. Moreover, since the different nutrients 
 are largely to be converted into milk, it is evident also 
 that the quantity which can be advantageously fed must 
 be gauged by the quantity and quality of milk produced. 
 Hence feeders have come to adopt what is known as 
 balanced rations or feeding standards. 
 
 Feeding Standards. These refer to the amount of 
 digestible nutrients required per 1,000 pounds of live 
 weight in twenty-four hours. They recognize that the 
 nutrients fed must be in proportion to the quantity and 
 quality of milk yielded. This is shown by the Wolff- 
 Lehman standards presented in the following table: 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 37 
 
 TABLE III. Showing Wolff-Ivehman feeding stand- 
 ards. 
 
 
 Daily milk 
 
 yield. 
 Average 
 quality. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Dry 
 matter. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Digestible nutrients per 1,000 
 pounds live weight. 
 
 Ration. 
 
 Protein. 
 Lbs. 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Ether 
 extract. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 No.l 
 
 11.0 
 16.6 
 22.0 
 27.5 
 
 25 
 27 
 29 
 32 
 
 1.6 
 2.0 
 2.5 
 3.3 
 
 10.0 
 11.0 
 13.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 No.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 No. 3 
 
 0.5 
 
 No. 4 
 
 0.8 
 
 
 
 The standard that has generally been used as a guide 
 by feeders is that for ration No. 3. Researches during 
 recent years have shown, however, that the Wolff-Leh- 
 man standard calls for too much protein. These re- 
 searches make it quite clear that the amount of protein 
 required for 22 pounds of average quality milk is 
 nearer two pounds than two and a half pounds, and until 
 the matter is definitely settled, it may be well to adopt 
 two and one-fourth pounds of protein as the standard 
 for the milk yield referred to. 
 
 Feeding Standards as Guides. Standards for bal- 
 anced rations should always be used with considerable 
 flexibility. They should be looked upon only as guides 
 and as such are exceedingly useful. Every practical 
 feeder knows that the influence of individuality counts for 
 much in the feeding of dairy cattle. A ration that may be 
 satisfactory for one cow may not be suited to another. 
 
 We have also to consider the source of the nutrients. 
 It is known that the digestible nutrients in coarse feeds 
 yield smaller returns, pound for pound, than those in 
 
38 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 grains. Then again the matter of proportioning the 
 quantity of nutrients to the weight of the animal can at 
 best give only approximate results. The actual milk and 
 butterfat production must always remain the principal 
 factor in determining the quantity of nutrients required 
 by the dairy cow. 
 
 Calculating Rations. By a ration is meant the amount 
 of feed required by an animal in twenty-four hours. 
 The method of compounding rations consists in selecting 
 from the feeds at our disposal such quantities as will con- 
 tain the amount of nutrients called for by the standard. 
 To illustrate, let us make up a ration for a cow yielding 
 daily 22 pounds of milk of average quality, using the 
 Wolff-Lyehman standard (p. 37). The feeds at our dis- 
 posal are wheat bran, cottonseed rneal, corn meal, corn 
 silage, corn stover and clover hay. 
 
 By a number of trial calculations we find that the 
 required nutrients are obtained by selecting 9 lbs. of 
 wheat bran, 4 lbs. of corn, i lb. of cottonseed meal, 5 lbs. 
 of corn stover, 5 lbs. of clover hay and 30 lbs. of corn 
 silage. The calculation is made from Table II (p. 35) in 
 the manner shown below : 
 
 Amt. in 
 
 100 lbs. 
 
 Protein in 9 lbs. bran = 12.2 x .09 = 1.098 lbs. 
 
 Protein in 1 lb. cotton seed meal = 37.2 x .01 = 0.372 lbs. 
 
 Protein in 4 lbs. corn = 7.9 x .04 = 0.316 lbs. 
 
 Protein in 30 lbs. corn silage = 0.9 x .30 = 0.270 lbs. 
 
 Protein in 5 lbs. corn stover = 1.7 x .05 = 0.085 lbs. 
 
 Protein in 5 lbs., clover hay = 6.8 x .05 = 0.340 lbs. 
 
 Total protein = 2.481 lbs. 
 Standard = 2.50 lbs. 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 39 
 
 Amt. in 
 
 100 lbs. 
 
 Carbohydrates in 9 lbs. bran = 39.3 x .09 = 3.538 lbs. 
 
 Carbohydrates in 1 lb. c. s. meal = 16.9 x .01 = 0.169 lbs. 
 
 Carbohydrates in 4 lbs. corn = 66.7 x .04 = 2.668 lbs. 
 
 Carbohydrates in 30 lbs. corn silage = 11.3 x .30 = 3.390 lbs. 
 
 Carbohydrates in 5 lbs. corn stover = 33.4 x .05 = 1.630 lbs. 
 
 Carbohydrates in 5 lbs. clover hay = 35.8 x .05 = 1.790 lbs. 
 
 Total carbohydrates =13.165 !bs. 
 
 Standard =13.00 lbs. 
 
 Amt. in 
 
 100 lbs. 
 
 Ether extract in 9 lbs. bran = 3.7 x .09 = 0.343 lbs. 
 
 Ether extract in 1 lb. c. s. meal = 13.3 x .01 = 0.133 lbs. 
 
 Ether extract in 4 lbs. corn = 4.3 x .04 = 0.173 lbs. 
 
 Ether extract in 30 lbs. corn silage = 0.7 x .30 = 0.310 lbs. 
 
 Ether extract in 5 lbs. corn stover = 0.7 x .05 = 0.035 lbs. 
 
 Ether extract in 5 lbs. clover hay = 1.7 x .05 = 0.085 lbs. 
 
 Total ether extract = 0.867 lbs. 
 Standard = 0.50 lbs. 
 
 To make the above calculation perfectly plain it should 
 be noted that the table on page 35 says that 100 lbs. of 
 bran contain 12.2 lbs. of protein. If 100 lbs. contain 12.2 
 lbs., 9 lbs. of bran will contain nine hundredths of 12.2 
 lbs. or .09 X 12.2, which equals 1.098 lbs. of protein. The 
 method is the same in the remaining computations. 
 
 Nutritive Ratio. In speaking of rations, the terms 
 "wide" ration and "narrow" ration are frequently used. 
 The terms refer to the proportion of nitrogenous to non- 
 nitrogenous matter in the ration. This proportion is 
 spoken of as the nutritive ratio, which is obtained by 
 dividing the digestible carbohydrates plus 2.25 (heat 
 equivalent of carbohydrates) times the digestible ether 
 
40 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 extract, by the digestible protein. In the ration calculated 
 above the nutritive ratio equals 13.17 + (2.25 X -87) -f- 
 2.48^6.1 ; that is the nutritive ratio in this case is 1:6.1. 
 
 When the amount of nitrogenous matter is small as 
 compared with the non-nitrogenous matter, the ration is 
 said to be "wide." When the reverse is true, the ration 
 is said to be "narrow." 
 
 Proportion of Roughage and Concentrates. Accord- 
 ing to our feeding standard, a cow yielding 22 pounds of 
 milk requires a ration containing 16 pounds of digestible 
 nutrients and a total of 29 pounds of dry matter (digest- 
 ible and indigestible). This amount of dry matter means 
 that the ration must have a fairly definite bulk. Where 
 the ration contains a great deal of rich concentrates in 
 proportion to roughage, it is apt to lack in bulk. On the 
 other hand a ration containing a large proportion of corn 
 stover, oat straw and similar roughage, is likely to make 
 the ration so bulky as to make it impossible for a heavy 
 producer to consume enough of it to obtain the required 
 nutrients. 
 
 In the ration calculated on page 38 the proportion of 
 roughage and concentrates is about right. Under average 
 conditions a cow yielding 22 pounds of milk should have 
 a ration composed of about two-thirds roughage and one- 
 third concentrates. For greater yields it is best, as a 
 rule, to increase only the concentrates to meet the require- 
 ments of the additional flow of milk, thus making the pro- 
 portion of concentrates to roughage greater the larger 
 the yield of milk. 
 
 Fertilizing Constituents of Feed. These are nitro- 
 gen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Feeds rich in these 
 constituents will produce manure correspondingly rich 
 in them. In the selection of feeds, therefore, some atten- 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 
 
 41 
 
 tion should be given to their manurial value, especially 
 since feeds differ so widely in this respect. 
 
 An illustration of the extent to which feeds differ in 
 their fertilizing or manurial constituents is given in the 
 following table, which shows the amount of nitrogen, 
 phosphoric acid and potash contained in corn and cotton 
 seed meal. The table also shows the value of these con- 
 stituents, which was obtained by rating the nitrogen at 
 15 cents per pound, and the phosphoric acid and potash 
 at 4j4 cents per pound. 
 
 TABLE IV. Showing fertilizing constituents in 
 corn and cottonseed meal. 
 
 
 Fertilizing constituents in one ton. 
 
 Feed. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 Lbs. 
 
 Phos- 
 phoric 
 
 acid. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Potash. 
 Lbs. 
 
 Total 
 value. 
 
 Corn 
 
 36.4 
 135.8 
 
 14.0 
 57.6 
 
 8.0 
 17.4 
 
 $6.45 
 
 Cotton seed meal 
 
 23.75 
 
 
 
 The table shows that the fertilizing value of a ton of 
 cottonseed meal exceeds that of a ton of corn by $17.30, 
 an amount that certainly must appeal to the man who is 
 dairying on a business basis. 
 
 II. PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 
 
 Frequency of Feeding. The main part of the ration 
 should be supplie;d in two feeds ; one in the morning and 
 the other in the late afternoon. It is desirable to feed 
 some dry roughage at noon, especially when the roughage 
 in the morning and evening consists of silage. The cow, 
 
42 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 on account of her large store room, the paunch, is ca- 
 pable of storing up a large quantity of feed and, therefore, 
 does not require as many feeds as some other farm 
 animals. 
 
 Order of Feeding Concentrates and Roughage. As 
 a rule it is best to feed the xoncentrates just previous to 
 milking and the roughage immediately thereafter. The 
 grain helps to attract the cows to their stalls, and, by feed- 
 ing the roughage after milking, we avoid tainting the milk 
 with undesirable odors when the roughage contains these. 
 When corn silage, for example, is fed immediately before 
 milking, its odor is always perceptible in the milk. When 
 fed after milking, the odor is never detected. It is 
 believed also that feeding the concentrates by themselves 
 will result in a more thorough mixing of saliva with 
 them and thus increase their digestibility. Furthermore, 
 a great deal of dust can be avoided by feeding the rough- 
 age after milking, particularly when the roughage con- 
 sists of hay or dry fodder. 
 
 A prevailing opinion that heavy concentrates will form 
 _an injurious, pasty mass in the cow's stomach does not 
 seem to be well founded. When the concentrates are fed 
 directly before milking and the roughage directly after, 
 there will be sufficient mixing in the paunch before the 
 contents pass into the stomach proper. The author for 
 several years, has successfully followed the practice of 
 feeding concentrates and roughage separately when the 
 former consisted of as much as five pounds of cotton- 
 seed meal per day. 
 
 Feeding Before and After Calving. Toward the 
 close of the lactation period, the grain ration should be 
 gradually reduced, either because of the reduced flow of 
 milk, or on account of the desirability of drying up the 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 43 
 
 cow so that she may have a month's rest before calving. 
 It should be remembered, however, that even while the 
 cow goes dry she still requires nutritious feed to properly 
 nourish the foetus within her. The requirements as to 
 feed at this time call for plenty of succulent roughage, 
 and some grain which is rich in ash and protein, at the 
 same time laxative in character. 
 
 If the cow is feeding on good pasture the grain may 
 be entirely withheld a month previous to calving. Indeed, 
 if pasture is luxurious, it is desirable to restrict the time 
 during which she is allowed to graze lest she overfeed 
 and invite milk fever. When no pasture is available, a 
 ration consisting of corn silage, good hay and about four 
 pounds of grain will answer very satisfactorily. A desir- 
 able grain ration is made up of linseed meal, wheat bran 
 and ground oats, using these feeds in the proportion of 
 about one pound of linseed meal and one and a half 
 pounds each of bran and oats. This ration not only sup- 
 plies the proper nutrients for the development of the 
 foetus, but owing to its laxativeness, keeps the cow in 
 the Jaest physical condition. 
 
 A few days before and after calving the grain is pref- 
 erably supplied in the form of a warm mash. Warm 
 water should also be freely supplied at this time. Three 
 to six days after calving the grain should be gradually 
 increased until the maximum amount consistent with 
 economical -production has been supplied. 
 
 If the cow has been properly nurtured previous to 
 calving, she will have stored up a considerable amount- of 
 reserve material which she draws on immediately after 
 calving, thus making a heavy grain ration at this time 
 not only not desirable but entirely unnecessary. 
 
 Feeding Silage. The cheapest and^most satisfactory 
 
44 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 roughage that can be produced upon most farms, is corn 
 silage. Its succulence and palatability make it an ideal 
 feed for milk production. This feed should be available 
 upon the farm the larger portion of the year. In winter 
 it takes the place of summer pasturage; during the late 
 summer and fall it is needed to supplement the shortage 
 of pasturage which usually occurs about this time. 
 
 An average cow in full flow of milk will consume 40 
 pounds of silage- daily to good advantage. This amount 
 of silage combined with 8 or 10 pounds of dry fodder or 
 hay makes a good combination of roughage for a dairy 
 cow. 
 
 Feeding Grain. It should be remembered that silage 
 contains a large amount of water, and where this feed 
 constitutes the main part of the roughage of the ration, 
 a considerable amount of grain must be fed to supply the 
 required nutrients of a heavy milk producer. The 
 amount of concentrates to be fed is, of course, largely 
 dependent upon the amount of milk and butterfat pro- 
 duced by the cow. 
 
 Water. An abundance of pure water is a prime neces- 
 sity with a dairy cow. This is to be expected from the 
 fact that milk is largely composed of water. Where cows 
 have no access to flowing water, they should be watered 
 regularly morning and night; and during hot weather a 
 third watering at noon is desirable. The fact that milk is 
 composed so largely of water should emphasize the im- 
 portance of supplying only pure water. We may reason- 
 ably expect the same bad effect on the health of the cow 
 and the flavor of the milk from stale, impure water which 
 is noticeable from the feeding of stale, odoriferous feeds. 
 
 Salt. Cows should have daily access to all the salt they 
 
THH DAIRY HERD 45 
 
 care to lick. Either common granular salt or rock salt 
 will answer the purpose satisfactorily. 
 
 Feeding According to Flow. In the economical pro- 
 duction of milk, it is absolutely essential to feed cows 
 according to their productive capacity. Just what this 
 productive capacity is can be determined only by keeping 
 a careful account of the feed consumed and the milk and 
 butterfat yielded by each cow individually. Such a 
 record will soon show to what extent cows will profitably 
 respond to the feed given them. 
 
 Importance of Feeding a Full Ration. According to 
 the German feeding standard, a- cow weighing i,ooo 
 pounds requires for body maintenance 0.7 pound of 
 digestible protein, 8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates 
 and 0.1 pound of digestible ether extract. This shows 
 that about half the nutrients called for in a ration for an 
 average milker are used to sustain the body so that it 
 will neither gain nor lose in weight ; the other half being 
 used to form milk. Returns for feed can, therefore, be 
 expected only from about 50% of the total nutrients 
 required by the cow. This means that a cow on a full 
 ration will yield practically twice as much milk as she 
 would on three-fourths of a ration. Yet there are thou- 
 sands of dairymen who fail to supply the last quarter 
 of a ration and thus bring ruin upon themselves and 
 their business. 
 
 III. TABI,E GIVING COMPOSITION 0^ FEEDS. 
 
 At the beginning, it was stated that a knowledge of the 
 composition of feeds was necessary for two reasons: 
 First, to enable the feeder to determine the relative value 
 of the feeds at his disposal ; and second, to assist in deter- 
 mining what quantity of feed is necessary to supply the 
 
46 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 required nutrients. To afford the feeder as wide a choice 
 as possible, a long table of feeds is herewith presented, 
 showing not only the digestible, organic nutrients, but 
 also the fertilizing constituents. This table is taken from 
 Henry's "Feeds and Feeding," by permission of the 
 author. 
 
 TABLE V. Average digestible nutrients and fertiliz- 
 ing constituents in American feeding stuffs. 
 
 Name of teed. 
 
 Concentrates, 
 
 Corn, all analyses ' 
 
 Dent corn 
 
 Flint corn 
 
 Sweet corn 
 
 Corn cob 
 
 Corn and cob meal .... 
 
 Corn bran 
 
 Gluten meal 
 
 Germ meal 
 
 Starch refuse 
 
 Grano-gluten 
 
 Hominy chops 
 
 Glucose meal 
 
 Sugar meal 
 
 Gluten feed 
 
 a§ 
 n 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 89.1 
 89.4 
 88.7 
 91.2 
 89.3 
 84.9 
 90.9 
 
 Digestible 
 
 nutrients in 100 
 
 pounds. 
 
 2 
 
 LbS' 
 
 91.8 25.8 
 
 89.6 
 91 
 
 94.3|26 
 7 
 
 91.9130 
 98.218. 
 92.2 20.4 
 
 5'" 
 
 D 
 Lbs, 
 
 66.7 
 66.7 
 .2 
 63.7 
 52.5 
 60.0 
 69.8 
 43.3 
 61.2 
 58.4 
 38.8 
 55.2 
 35.8 
 51.7 
 48.4 
 
 M 
 V SB 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 4.3 
 4.3 
 4.3 
 7.0 
 0.3 
 2.9 
 4 
 
 11.0 
 6.2 
 6.5 
 
 12.4 
 6.8 
 4.5 
 
 18.7 
 
 Fertilizing 
 
 conbtltuents in 
 
 1,000 pounds. 
 
 iz; 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 18.2 
 16.5 
 16.8 
 18 6 
 5.0 
 14.1 
 16.8 
 50.8 
 26.5 
 22.4 
 49.8 
 16.3 
 57.7 
 36.3 
 88.4 
 
 •s 
 
 o 
 So 
 
 Of 
 Lbs. 
 
 7.0 
 
 .6 
 
 6.7 
 
 12.1 
 
 3.3 
 
 8.0 
 7.0 
 6.1 
 9.8 
 
 i'.i 
 
 4.1 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 4.0 
 
 6.0 
 4.7 
 6.8 
 6.5 
 5.0 
 5.2 
 1.6 
 4.9 
 
 0.3 
 0.3 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 47 
 
 Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-C<?«. 
 
 Name of feed. 
 
 II 
 
 Q 
 Lbs 
 
 Digestible 
 
 nutrients in 100 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Lbs 
 
 ° S 
 
 o 
 
 Lbs. Lbs 
 
 O C3 
 
 a is 
 
 1^ 
 
 Fertilizing 
 
 constituents in 
 
 1,000 pounds. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs 
 
 Wheat 
 
 High-grade flour 
 
 Low-grade flour 
 
 Dark feeding flour 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 Wheat bran, spring wheat 
 Wheat bran, wmter wheat. 
 
 Wheat shorts 
 
 Wheat middlings 
 
 Wheat screenings 
 
 Rye 
 
 Rye bran 
 
 Rye shorts •. . . 
 
 Barley 
 
 Malt sprouts 
 
 Brewers' grains, wet 
 
 Brewers grains, dried 
 
 Oats 
 
 Oat meal 
 
 Oat feed or shorts 
 
 Oat dust 
 
 Oat hulls 
 
 Rice 
 
 Rice hulls.'. 
 
 Rice bran 
 
 Rice polish 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Buckwheat hulls 
 
 Buckwheat bran 
 
 Buckwheat shorts 
 
 Buckwheat middlings 
 
 5 
 
 87.6 
 87.6 
 90.3 
 88.1 
 .5 
 87.7 
 2 
 
 87.9 
 88.4 
 
 .4 
 
 88.4 
 90.7 
 
 .1 
 
 89.8 
 24.3 
 91.8 
 
 89.0 
 92.1 
 92.3 
 93.5 
 90.6 
 
 87.6 
 91 
 
 90.8 
 90.0 
 
 87.4 
 86.8 
 89.5 
 88.9 
 87.3 
 
 10.2 
 
 8.9 
 
 8.2 
 
 13.5 
 
 12.2 
 
 12.9 
 
 12.3 
 
 12.2 
 
 12.8 
 
 9.8 
 
 9.9 
 11.5 
 11.9 
 
 8.7 
 18.6 
 
 3 
 15.7 
 
 9.2 
 
 11.5 
 
 12.6 
 
 8.9 
 
 1.3 
 
 4.8 
 1.6 
 5.3 
 9.0 
 
 7.7 
 
 2.1 
 
 7.4 
 
 21.1 
 
 22.0 
 
 .2 
 62.4 
 62.7 
 61.3 
 39.2 
 40.1 
 37.1 
 50.0 
 53.0 
 51.0 
 
 67.6 
 50.3 
 45.1 
 
 65.6 
 
 37.1 
 
 9.3 
 
 36.3 
 
 47.3 
 52.1 
 46.9 
 38.4 
 40.1 
 
 72.2 
 44.5 
 45.1 
 56.4 
 
 49.2 
 27.9 
 30.4 
 33.5 
 33.4 
 
 1.7 
 0.9 
 0.9 
 2 
 2.7 
 3.4 
 2.6 
 3.8 
 8.4 
 2.2 
 
 1.1 
 2.0 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 1.7 
 1.4 
 5.1 
 
 4.2 
 5.9 
 2.8 
 5.1 
 0.6 
 
 0.3 
 0.6 
 7.3 
 6.5 
 
 1.8 
 0.6 
 1.9 
 5.5 
 5.4 
 
 28.6 
 18.9 
 28.9 
 31.8 
 26.7 
 
 7 
 
 2.2 
 
 5.6 
 
 21.4 
 
 28.9 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 3.5 
 
 10.9 
 
 16.1 
 
 28.2 
 26.3 
 24.4 
 
 17.6 
 23.2 
 18.4 
 
 15.1 
 
 35.5 
 
 8.9 
 
 36.2 
 
 20.6 
 23.5 
 17.2 
 21.6 
 5.2 
 
 10.8 
 5.8 
 7 1 
 
 19.7 
 
 14.4 
 
 4.9 
 
 86.4 
 
 13.5 
 •9.5 
 11.7 
 
 8.2 
 22.8 
 12.6 
 
 7.9 
 14.3 
 
 8.1 
 10.3 
 
 8.2 
 
 5.9 
 6.3 
 
 8.4 
 
 5.4 
 
 14.0 
 
 8.1 
 
 4.8 
 
 16.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 6.2 
 
 9.1 
 
 "2'.4 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.9 
 
 26.7 
 
 4.4 
 
 0.7 
 
 17.8 
 
 5.8 
 
 5!2 
 
 0.9 
 1.4 
 2.4 
 7.1 
 
 2.1 
 
 5.2 
 
 12.8 
 
 42.8 
 
 21.9 
 
 11.4 
 
48 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-0«. 
 
 Name of feed. 
 
 Co 
 Q 
 
 Lbs 
 
 Digestible 
 
 nutrients in 100 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Hi 
 Lbs. 
 
 n a 
 
 ^£ 
 OS'S 
 
 o 
 Lbs. 
 
 0) J 
 0) 03 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Fertilizing 
 
 constituents in 
 
 1,000 pounds. 
 
 Iz; 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Sorghum seed. 
 
 Broom-corn seed 
 
 Kaffir corn 
 
 Millet 
 
 Flax seed 
 
 Linseed meal, old process. 
 Linseed meal, new process 
 
 Cotton seed 
 
 Cotton-seed meal 
 
 Cotton-seed hulls 
 
 Cocoanut meal 
 
 Palm-nut meal 
 
 Sunflower seed 
 
 Sunflower-seed cakes 
 
 Peanut meal 
 
 Rape-seed meal 
 
 Peas 
 
 Soja ( soy) bean 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Horse bean 
 
 Roughage. 
 Fodder corn. 
 
 Fodder corn, green 
 
 Fodder corn, field-cured . . 
 Corn stover, field-cured. . . 
 
 Fresh grass. 
 
 Pasture grasses (mixed). 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 
 
 Timothy, different stages . 
 Orchard grass, in bloom . . 
 
 Redtop, in bloom 
 
 Oat fodder 
 
 87.2 
 85 
 84.8 
 86.0 
 
 90. g 
 
 90 
 
 89.9 
 
 89 
 
 91.8 
 
 88.9 
 
 89.7 
 
 89.6 
 
 92.5 
 
 91.8 
 
 89.3 
 
 7.0 
 7.4 
 7.8 
 8.9 
 
 20.6 
 29.3 
 28.2 
 12.5 
 37.2 
 0.3 
 15.6 
 16.0 
 12.1 
 31.2 
 42.9 
 
 52.1 
 48.3 
 57.1 
 45.0 
 
 90.0 25.2 
 
 .5 
 89.2 
 85.2 
 85.7 
 
 20.7 
 
 57 
 
 59.5 
 
 20. 
 
 34. 
 
 38.41 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 37.8 
 
 16.8 
 29.6 
 18.3 
 22.4 
 
 51.8 
 22.3 
 54.2 
 49.3 
 
 3.1 
 2.9 
 2.7 
 3.2 
 
 29.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 2.8 
 
 17.3 
 
 12.2 
 
 1.7 
 
 10.5 
 
 9.0 
 
 29.0 
 
 12.8 
 
 6 9 
 
 7.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 14.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.0 
 2.5 
 1.7 
 
 2.5 
 3.0 
 1.2 
 1.5 
 2.1 
 2.6 
 
 11.6 
 34.6 
 32.4 
 
 10.2 
 19.8 
 19.1 
 11.4 
 21.2 
 18.9 
 
 0.4 
 1.2 
 0.7 
 
 0.5 
 0.8 
 0.6 
 '0.5 
 0.6 
 1.0 
 
 14.8 
 16.3 
 
 8.1 
 
 4.2 
 
 20.4 
 
 36.1 
 54.3 
 57.8 
 31.3 
 67.9 
 6.9 
 32.8 
 26.9 
 22 
 55.5 
 75.6 
 49.6 
 
 30.8 
 53 
 33.3 
 40 
 
 4.1 
 17.6 
 10.4 
 
 9.1 
 
 8.5 
 
 13.9 
 16.6 
 18.3 
 12.7 
 28.8 
 2.6 
 16.0 
 11 
 12.2 
 21.5 
 13.1 
 20.0 
 
 8.2 
 18.7 
 
 3.6 
 
 10.3' 
 
 13.7 
 
 13.9 
 
 11.7 
 
 8.7 
 
 10.2 
 
 24.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 5.6 
 
 11.7 
 
 15.0 
 
 13.0 
 
 9 9 
 19.0 
 
 4.8 
 4.3 
 
 4.9 
 
 12.0 
 
 1.5 
 5.4 
 
 2.9 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.6 
 1.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 12.9 
 
 3.3 
 
 8.9 
 
 14.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 7.6 
 7.6 
 
 3.8 
 
THE DAIRY HBRD 
 
 49 
 
 Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-Cow. 
 
 Name of teed. 
 
 Rye fodder '. 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 Meadow fescue, in bloom.. . 
 
 Hungarian grass 
 
 Green barley 
 
 Peas and oats 
 
 Peas and barley 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Orchard grass 
 
 Redtop 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 
 
 Hungarian grass 
 
 Mixed grasses 
 
 Rowen ( mixed) 
 
 Meadow fescue.^ 
 
 Soja-bean hay 
 
 Oat hay 
 
 Marsh or swamp hay 
 
 Marsh or swamp hay . . 
 
 White daisy 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Rye 
 
 Oat 
 
 Barley 
 
 Wheat chaff 
 
 Oat chaff 
 
 Fresh legumes. 
 
 Red clover, different stages 
 
 Alsike, bloom' 
 
 Crimson clover 
 
 Alfalfa : 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Soja bean 
 
 o 
 
 Lbs 
 
 23.4 
 20.6 
 30.1 
 28.9 
 21.0 
 16.0 
 16.0 
 
 90.1 
 91.1 
 78.8 
 92.3 
 87.1 
 83.4 
 80.0 
 88 
 91.1 
 .4 
 92.1 
 85.0 
 
 90.4 
 92.9 
 90 
 
 85 
 85 
 85 
 
 29. 
 
 25 
 
 19. 
 
 28. 
 
 16. 
 
 24. 
 
 Digestible 
 
 nutrients in 100 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 0.4 
 0.6 
 1.2 
 0.7 
 0.3 
 1.5 
 
 2 
 
 2.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.2 
 
 OS 
 
 la's 
 o 
 
 Lbs. Lbs. 
 
 14.1 
 12.2 
 16.8 
 16.0 
 10.2 
 7.1 
 7.2 
 
 43.4 
 42.3 
 46.9 
 37.3 
 51.7 
 40.9 
 40.1 
 43.3 
 38.7 
 46.4 
 29.9 
 44.7 
 40.7 
 
 ■3 
 40.6 
 38.6 
 41.2 
 23.3 
 33.0 
 
 14.8 
 13.1 
 
 9.1 
 12.7 
 
 8.7 
 11.0 
 
 
 0.4 
 0.4 
 0.4 
 0.4 
 0.4 
 0.2 
 0.2 
 
 1.4 
 1.4 
 1.0 
 2.0 
 1.3 
 1.2 
 1.5 
 1.7 
 1.5 
 1.5 
 0.9 
 0.7 
 1.2 
 
 0.4 
 0.4 
 0.8 
 0.6 
 0.5 
 0.7 
 
 0.7 
 0.6 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 0.2 
 0.6 
 
 Fertilizing 
 
 constituents in 
 
 1,000 pounds. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 3.3 
 
 2.3 
 
 3.9 
 
 12.6 
 13.1 
 11.5 
 11.9 
 12.0 
 14.1 
 16.1 
 9.9 
 23.2 
 
 5.9 
 4.6 
 6.2 
 13.1 
 7.9 
 
 5.8 
 
 4.4 
 4.3 
 7.2 
 2.7 
 2.9 
 
 So 
 
 Pk 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1.5 
 9 
 
 1.6 
 
 5.3 
 4.1 
 3.6 
 4.0 
 3.5 
 2.7 
 4.3 
 4.0 
 6.7 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.8 
 2.0 
 3.0 
 7.0 
 
 1.3 
 1.1 
 1.3 
 1.3 
 1.0 
 1.5 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 7.3 
 2.8 
 
 6.5 
 
 9.0 
 18.8 
 10.2 
 15.7 
 13.0 
 15.5 
 14.9 
 21.0 
 10.8 
 
 5.1 
 
 7.9 
 12.4 
 20.9 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.6 
 2.0 
 4.9 
 5.6 
 3.1 
 5.3 
 
so 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-C(7«. 
 
 Name of teed. 
 
 ^1 
 S§ 
 
 &P. 
 
 a 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Digestible 
 
 nutrients in 100 
 
 pounda 
 
 libs. 
 
 o 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs 
 
 Fertilizing 
 
 constituents in 
 
 1,000 pounds. 
 
 15 
 Lbs. 
 
 I* 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Legume hay and straw. 
 
 Red clover, medium 
 
 Red clover, mammoth 
 
 Alsike clover 
 
 White clover 
 
 Crimson clover 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Soja-bean straw 
 
 Pea-vine straw 
 
 Silage. 
 
 Corn 
 
 Clover 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Grass 
 
 Cowpea vine 
 
 Soja bean 
 
 Barn-yard millet and soja bean 
 Corn and soja bean ■. . . . 
 
 Roots and tubers. 
 
 Potato 
 
 Beet, common 
 
 Beet, sugar 
 
 Beet, mangel 
 
 Flat turnip. .' 
 
 Ruta-baga 
 
 Carrot 
 
 Parsnip 
 
 Artichoke 
 
 84.7 
 78.8 
 90.3 
 90.3 
 90.4 
 91.6 
 8 
 89.9 
 86.4 
 
 20.9 
 28.0 
 23.9 
 27.5 
 32.0 
 20.7 
 25.8 
 21.0 
 24.0 
 
 21.1 
 13.0 
 13.5 
 9.1 
 9.5 
 11.4 
 11.4 
 11.7 
 20.0 
 
 6.8 
 
 5.7 
 
 8.4 
 
 11.5 
 
 10.5 
 
 11.0 
 
 10.8 
 
 2 
 
 4.3 
 
 35.8 
 32.0 
 42.5 
 42.2 
 34.9 
 39.6 
 38.6 
 40.0 
 32.3 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 3.0 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 11.3 
 
 13.5 
 
 14.9 
 
 8.5 
 
 13.4 
 
 8.6 
 
 8.7 
 
 9.2 
 
 13.0 
 
 
 0.9 
 1.2 
 1.1 
 1.1 
 1.0 
 1.0 
 0.8 
 1.6 
 2.0 
 
 16.3 
 8.8 
 
 10.2 
 5.4 
 7.2 
 8.1 
 7.8 
 
 11.2 
 
 16.8 
 
 1.7 
 1 9 
 1.5 
 1.5 
 1.2 
 1.2 
 1.1 
 1.0 
 0.8 
 
 0.7 
 1.0 
 0.2 
 1.9 
 1.6 
 0.9 
 1.3 
 0.7 
 0.7 
 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.2 
 0.2 
 0.2 
 0.2 
 0.2 
 
 20.7 
 22.3 
 23.4 
 27.5 
 20.5 
 21.9 
 19.5 
 17.5 
 14.3 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.2 
 2.4 
 2.2 
 1.9 
 1.8 
 1.9 
 1.5 
 1.8 
 2.6 
 
 3.8 
 5.5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5.2 
 
 4.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 1.1 
 
 22.0 
 12.2 
 22.3 
 18.1 
 13.1 
 16.8 
 14.7 
 13.2 
 10.2 
 
 3.7 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.9 
 1.0 
 0.9 
 1.0 
 1.2 
 0.9 
 2.0 
 1.4 
 
 4.6 
 4.4 
 4.8 
 3.8 
 3.9 
 4.9 
 5.1 
 4.4 
 4.7 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 51 
 
 Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. — Con. 
 
 Name of teed. 
 
 8 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Spurry 
 
 Sugar-beet leaves 
 
 Pumpkin, field 
 
 Pumpkin, garden 
 
 Prickly comf rey 
 
 Rape 
 
 Acorns, fresh 
 
 Dried blood 
 
 Meat scrap. : 
 
 Dried fish 
 
 Beet pulp 
 
 Beet molasses 
 
 Cow's milk 
 
 Cow's milk, colostrum . . 
 Skim milk, gravity ...... 
 
 Skim milk, centrifugal. . 
 
 Buttermilk '. . 
 
 Whey 
 
 a 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Digestible 
 
 nutrients In 100 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Lbs, 
 
 15.3 
 20.0 
 12.0 
 9.1 
 19.2 
 11.6 
 14.0 
 44.7 
 
 91.5 
 89.3 
 89.2 
 10.2 
 79.2 
 
 12.8 
 25.4 
 9.6 
 9.4 
 9.9 
 6.6 
 
 1.8 
 1.5 
 1.7 
 1.0 
 1.4 
 1.4 
 1.5 
 2.1 
 
 52.3 
 
 66.2 
 
 44.1 
 
 0.6 
 
 9.1 
 
 3.6 
 
 17.6 
 
 3.1 
 
 2.9 
 3.9 
 0.8 
 
 ■S t* 
 o 
 
 LbS. Lbs. 
 
 8.2 
 9.8 
 4.6 
 5.8 
 8.3 
 4.6 
 8.1 
 34.4 
 
 .0 
 
 .3 
 
 .0 
 
 7.3 
 
 59.5 
 
 4 
 
 2.7 
 
 4 
 
 5.2 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.7 
 
 u o 
 
 0.4 
 0.3 
 0.2 
 0.3 
 0.8 
 0.2 
 0.2 
 1.7 
 
 2.5 
 13.7 
 10.3 
 
 "!6 
 
 3.7 
 3.6 
 0.8 
 0.3 
 1.1 
 0.3 
 
 Fertilizing 
 
 constituents in 
 
 1,000 pounds 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 3.8 
 
 3 
 
 4.1 
 
 1.1 
 4.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 135.0 
 113.9 
 
 77.5 
 1.4 
 
 14.6 
 
 5.3 
 28.2 
 5.6 
 5.6 
 4 
 1.5 
 
 o 
 
 ft . 
 aa 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1.1 
 2.5 
 1.5 
 
 1.6 
 1.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 13.5 
 
 7.0 
 
 120.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.9 
 6.6 
 2.0 
 2.0 
 1.7 
 1.4 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 4.3 
 5.9 
 6.2 
 
 0.9 
 7.5 
 3.6 
 
 7.7 
 1.0 
 2.0 
 0.4 
 .56.3 
 
 1.8 
 1.1 
 1.9 
 1.9 
 1.6 
 1.8 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 SILOS AND SILAGE. 
 
 A silo is an air-tight receptacle for preserving green 
 feeds in a succulent condition. Feed thus preserved is 
 known as silage. Clover, cow-peas and other forage 
 crops have been successfully made into silage, but expe- 
 rience has shown that the cheapest and most satisfactory 
 silage is made from corn cut in the denting or glazing 
 stage. 
 
 Silage is now universally recognized as one of the 
 cheapest and most indispensable feeds in economical milk 
 production. With the studious dairyman, it is no longer 
 a question of, "Can I afford to build a silo," but, "Can I 
 afford to be without one?" 
 
 Advantages of Silage. The advantages of feeding 
 silage may be briefly stated as follows : 
 
 1. It furnishes the cheapest roughage available upon 
 the farm. 
 
 2. It furriishes roughage, which, in degree of suc- 
 culence and palatability, more nearly approaches green 
 pasturage than anything else to be had upon the farm. 
 
 3. Owing to its kinship to grass in succulence and 
 palatability, it can readily be substituted for the latter 
 during periods of drought and during late summer and 
 fall when pasturage is nearly always inadequate. 
 
 4. It has made winter dairying a feasible and profit- 
 able business, because the silage readily takes the place 
 of summer pasturage. 
 
 5. It furnishes a uniform feed and makes uniformly 
 
 52 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 53 
 
 good feeding a possibility the year round. 
 
 6. It permits the storage of a large amount of feed in 
 a comparatively small space. 
 
 7. Where the silo adjoins the barn it makes feeding 
 easy. 
 
 8. It permits housing the corn crop regardless of the 
 condition of the weather. 
 
 9. There is practically no waste in feeding. 
 
 10. It yields the largest amount of feed possible from 
 the corn plant. 
 
 Size of Silo. The size of the silo is determined by 
 the number of cattle to be fed. In general, a cow will 
 consume about 40 pounds of silage daily; and, if fed 
 silage 180 days in the year, she will consume a total of 
 7,200 pounds. At this rate 20 head of cattle would con- 
 sume 72 tons. But it should be remembered that it re- 
 quires a silo of not less than 80 tons' capacity to hold 
 72 tons of well made silage. A cylindrical silo of this 
 capacity will measure about 14 feet in diameter and 28 
 feet in height. (See appendix.) 
 
 A good rule to follow in determining the size of a silo 
 is to estimate the amount of silage that is to be fed dur- 
 ing the year and assume a weight of 40 pounds for every 
 cubic foot of silage. 
 
 Silos should not be. built too large. Where 150 to 200 
 tons of silage are required, it is far better to put this 
 amount of silage into two silos than into one. The height 
 of the silo should be limited to thirty feet. Too much 
 power is required in elevating the silage higher than 
 this arid those who have climbed high silos will be able to 
 testify to the fact that it is not an agreeable task. 
 
 Where a silo is built with a reasonable capacity, it is 
 
54 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 also more restricted in diameter which permits a deeper 
 layer of silage to be removed daily. This has the ad- 
 vantage of keeping the silage fresher in summer and re- 
 ducing the amount of freezing in winter. Where only one 
 silo is used, silage is frequently carried over from one 
 year to another tintil the bottom part may be three to 
 eight years old before it is finally fed. 
 
 Location of Silo; For convenience of feeding, the 
 silo should be as near the manger as possible. It is 
 preferably joined to the barn at one end by means of a 
 chute, so that one can step into the silo without leaving 
 the barn. Where the silo is thus located, it is necessary 
 to prevent the escape of silage odors at milking time, 
 by providing doors for closing up the chute leading to 
 the silo. 
 
 Silos should be located to give them as much protection 
 from cold as possible. This is especially necessary with 
 concrete silos. 
 
 The location of silos with regard to keeping the silage 
 from freezing has been given too little consideration by 
 silo builders. 
 
 Construction of Silo. Silos should be round, having 
 the appearance of a cylinder whose height is about twice 
 its diameter. They may be built of wood, stone, brick, 
 concrete, or a combination of two or more of these. As a 
 rule, the choice is determined by the relative cost and 
 availability of the materials mentioned. 
 
 In building a silo four things must be kept in mind. 
 First, It mt.\st be air-tight. Second, it must have sufificient 
 strength and rigidity to enable it to withstand the pres- 
 sure of the silage without yielding. Third, it must have 
 a smooth inside surface to permit the silage to settle 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 55 
 
 readily. And, fourth, it must be deep so that the weight 
 of the silage will give compactness sufficient to expel the 
 air which is held between the particles of silage. 
 
 It is desirable that the total depth of the silo be at 
 least 30 feet. Where the ground is dry, five or six feet 
 of this depth may be underground. When 30 feet is 
 selected as the fixed depth, the silo can be made of the 
 desired capacity by selecting the proper diameter, which 
 may vary from 12 to 24 feet. 
 
 CONCRETE SILOS. 
 
 Concrete has all the qualities sought in the construction 
 of an ideal silo when handled in the proper manner. There 
 are various forms of concrete silos built at the present 
 time. Some are built of hollow blocks, some with a 
 single solid wall, and others with a double wall and an air 
 space between. The single solid wall has proven popular 
 where the silo can be so located as to give it good pro- 
 tection from the cold of the winter. 
 
 The following is a description of two single solid walled 
 silos built on "Michels' Stock Farm." (See Fig. 9J4.) 
 
 The silos are each fourteen feet, ten inches in diameter 
 (inside) and thirty feet high. The walls up to within 
 three feet of the doors are six inches thick; from this 
 point they gradually increase in thickness to eight inches 
 at the doors. The doors are of the continuous kind, 
 extending from top to bottom. The break in the silo 
 caused by the continuous door is strengthened by running 
 three-quarter inch iron rods horizontally across the open- 
 ing at intervals of twenty-four inches. The ends of these 
 rods are embedded in the concrete wall a distance of four 
 inches and fastened to them are the ends of No. 5 rein- 
 
56 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 forcing wire. A reinforcing wire is laid every foot. The 
 roof is made of lumber and covered with prepared roof- 
 ing paper. It took three men six days to put up the silo 
 wall including the concrete bottom. 
 
 Cost of One Silo; The itemized cost of each silo is 
 as follows: 
 
 Labor, digging foundation $16.00 
 
 Labor, putting up the concrete wall .... 65.00 
 Thirty-nine barrels cement at $1.20 a 
 
 barrel 46.80 
 
 One and one-half rolls No. 5 wire at 
 
 $1.65 a roll 2.47 
 
 Twenty loads gravel (distance hauled 
 
 300 yards) at 40 cents a load 8.00 
 
 Roof 35-00 
 
 Binding irons run horizontally across 
 
 door openings 2.75 
 
 Total cost of silo, without doors $176.02 
 
 The labor in putting up the concrete work was per- 
 formed by silo builders who were paid by the day and 
 they furnished their own molds and concrete mixer. The 
 latter was run with a one and one-half horsepower gaso- 
 line engine. No account was taken of the cost of the 
 gasoline which, however, was small. Flowing water was 
 run right up to the silo. 
 
 Doors. On the inside, right at the edges of the con- 
 tinuous opening for the doors, a depression, two inches 
 deep and two inches wide, is made to receive the doors. 
 This depression is made by putting a 2x2-inch stud in the 
 mold. The doors consist of pieces of planks twelve inches 
 wide. To prevent entrance of air where the planks join, 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 
 
 57 
 
 I. 
 
58 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 a layer of heavy building paper is placed between the 
 silage and the doors when filling the silo. 
 
 Advantages of Twin Silos. Two silos, if built to- 
 gether at one side of the barn, have an advantage also in 
 dispensing with the building of a chute, as shown in the 
 accompanying illustration. Both silos when placed as 
 shown here can be filled with a single setting of the 
 machiner^- 
 
 Ground Flan of Silos. 
 
 The chute acts as an exit for the foul air from the barn. 
 The door which connects the barn and chute is tight-fit- 
 ting and slides up and down so that it can run to within 
 a foot of the floor; or, if desired, can be closed entirely. 
 Using the chute as an exit for the barn air will help to 
 keep the silage from freezing because of the comparative 
 warmth of this air. Sufficient light is provided in the 
 silos and chute by putting a window horizontally over 
 part of the top of the chute. 
 
 " Where two silos are used one can certainly be emptied 
 every year so that silage in no case needs to be kept 
 longer than eighteen to twenty months. Two silos are 
 desirable also for best results in feeding silage during the 
 summer or early fall, as well as during the winter. 
 
 CONCRETE-LINED SILO. 
 Fig. lo shows a vertical section through such a silo. 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 
 
 59 
 
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 <:pqoPWfeOKi-, 
 
 r;^ij^j0'j:v^^is;?;');!.^y\f;?t>^ 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
59a 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 The 2 by 4 studdir^g are set 12 inches apart on a cir- 
 cular foundation, and the yi inch sheeting is nailed on 
 horizontally as shown in the illustration. The inside, 
 including the floor, is cemented, using two parts of sand 
 to one of cement. 
 
 Ventilation of the wall is necessary to preserve the silo. 
 This is secured by leaving a small open space at the top 
 on the inside between the lining and the plate, and boring 
 holes near the sill through the outside sheeting, covering 
 them with wire gauze to keep rats and mice out. 
 
 Any roof that -sheds water is suitable for a silo, as the 
 top need not and should not be tight. In fact, it is well 
 to have a small opening in the roof to provide ventilation. 
 
 For convenience the door of the silo should be con- 
 tinuous, extending from top to bottom. . Short pieces of 
 matched planks are commonly used for a continuous door. 
 These are put in one by one as the filling of the silo pro- 
 gresses; the ends being, however, first covered with a 
 paste of clayey mud to assist in rendering the door air- 
 tight. Heavy building paper tacked on the inside of the 
 door will also help to exclude the air. The break or 
 weakness in the silo wall caused by the continuous door is 
 overcome by running iron rods horizontally across the 
 door at short intervals, fastening the ends to the studding 
 on either side of the door. 
 
 Cutting the Corn. Corn for the silo should not be cut 
 until nearly mature. This is desirable for several rea- 
 sons. First, and most important, is the fact that corn at 
 maturity contains about five times as much dry matter as 
 it does at the tasseling stage. This rapid increase in 
 nutrients from the tasseling stage on is forcibly shown 
 by the following figures obtained at the New York 
 (Geneva) experiment station: 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 595 
 
 Table VI — Showing nutrients in corn plant at different stages 
 of growth. 
 
 Dry matter. 
 
 Stage of growth. per acre 
 
 (tons) 
 
 Fully tasseled 0.8 
 
 Fully silked 1.5 
 
 Kernels watery to full milk 2.3 
 
 Kernels glazing 3.6 
 
 Ripe 4.0 
 
 This table teaches an important lesson, and should dis- 
 courage farmers from cutting young, immature corn, 
 either for silage or soiling purposes. 
 
 Postponing the cutting until the corn has reached the 
 denting or glazing stage also makes silage of better qual- 
 ity. At this stage the plant is less watery and the sugar 
 has been largely converted into starch, thus preventing 
 excessive fermentation and the formation of an undue 
 amount of acid in the silage. 
 
 Filling the Silo. When the corn reaches the right 
 stage of maturity, it should be cut at once and hauled 
 from the field to the silo, where the entire plant, ears and 
 all, is run through an ensilage cutter or shredder, cutting 
 it into pieces from J^ to i inch long. The ensilage cut- 
 ters are provided with carriers which carry the silage to 
 any height desired in the silo. 
 
 Where silos are rapidly filled, not less than two men 
 should remain constantly in the silo, leveling and dis- 
 tributing the silage. This is necessary to insure uniform 
 silage and an even settling. The silage should also be 
 tramped, especially along the edge of the silo where, ow- 
 ing' to the friction of the wall^ it will not settle as readily 
 as elsewhere. 
 
 In case of rapid filling it is best also to leave the silage 
 
59c 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 to settle a day or two and then refill. After such settling 
 there will be room for considerably more silage. 
 
 Covering for Silage. The floor and walls of the silo 
 are air tight by construction, and where the silage has 
 been thoroughly packed, none should spoil at these places. 
 At the top, however, where the silage is exposed to the 
 air and where it is less solidly packed some of it will 
 naturally spoil. To reduce this loss of silage to a mini-, 
 mum, some cheap material that will pack well, such as 
 old, wet hay, for example, should be placed on top of the 
 silage immediately after filling, and this should be fol- 
 lowed by a thorough wetting so as to hasten the settling 
 and matting process. Usually a dozen barrels of water 
 may be run over the top of the silage to good advantage. 
 
 ^/LAGer TRUCK 
 
 Depth of Silage that Must Daily Be Removed from 
 Top. Owing to the constant contact of the air with the 
 top layer of silage, it is necessary to remove a horizontal 
 layer of silage to a depth of not less than ij4 inches daily 
 to prevent any from spoiling. If this fact is kept in mind 
 when building a silo, its diameter can be made such as to 
 make possible the feeding of a layer of this depth daily. 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 59d 
 
 Cost of Silos and Machinery. The cost of silos 
 varies with the cost of materials and the method of con- 
 struction. An 8o-ton silo of the Gurler type can be built 
 for about $150. Other silos of the same capacity, but 
 made of different materials may cost double this amount. 
 
 A moderate sized ensilage cutter that would answer for 
 an 80-ton silo would also cost about $150. 
 
 Where some form of power must be purchased a gaso- 
 line engine is recommended because of the many other 
 uses it may serve on a dairy farm. (See Chap. XV.) 
 
 A moderate sized ensilage cutter when not too heavily 
 fed can be operated satisfactorily with an eight horse 
 power gasoline engine. The cost of such an engine is 
 about $250. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 METHOD OF KEEPING RECORDS OF INDIVIDl/AL COWS. 
 
 Necessity of Keeping Records. Through the efforts 
 of experiment stations, private individuals, and Hoard's 
 Dairyman in particular, tests have been made of hundreds 
 of herds throughout the country, only to find that in 
 practically all of them some cows are kept at an actual 
 loss to their owners. The failure on the part of the 
 owners to detect the unprofitable cows may be traced 
 to three causes : ( i ) it may be theT result of reckoning 
 with the herd as a whole, rather than the individual 
 members composing it; (2) it may be the result of ignor- 
 ing the quality of the milk; or (3) it may be due to 
 attempts to estimate the value of the individual members 
 by guessing at the flow of milk for a week or two wheii 
 the cows are doing their best. 
 
 The lack of business method in reckoning with the 
 herd as a whole, rather than with the individuals com- 
 posing it, is too apparent to need further explanation. 
 The same may be said with reference to the practice 
 of ignoring the quality of the milk. Where the owner 
 guesses the annual yield from the quantity of milk pro- 
 duced for a week or two dui-ing the lactation period, 
 he is likely to err in three important respects: (i) 
 guessing in itself is bound to lead more, or less frequently 
 to grossly erroneous estimates; (2) yearly estimates based 
 upon a few weeks' production ignore the fact that some 
 cows yield milk eleven or twelve months of the year, 
 
 60 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 61 
 
 while others produce only seven or eight months; and 
 (3) estimates of this kind fail to consider that some 
 cows that yield heavily for a short time and then drop 
 off to a medium flow, may be exceeded in total pro- 
 duction by others that never yield heavily at any period, 
 but whose flow is quite steady from beginning to end 
 of the lactation period. 
 
 It is evident from what has been 
 said that there is but one method by 
 which we can tell with certainty the 
 value of the individual cows in a 
 herd, and that method consists in 
 weighing and testing the milk and 
 keeping a record of the feed con- 
 sumed for the entire period of lacta- 
 tion. 
 
 Daily Record of Milk. Keep- 
 ing a daily record of the weight of 
 the milk of each cow is a very sim- 
 ple and inexpensive task. All that 
 is necessary is to have some form of 
 scales and a ruled sheet of paper 
 upon which to record the weights of 
 milk morning and night. Fig. 11 
 shows a cheap and convenient scales 
 which weigh from one-tenth pound 
 to 30 pounds. A convenient milk 
 record sheet is shown below. 
 
 The daily weighing of the milk' 
 from each cow is valuable also in 
 serving as a check upon the work of 
 the milkers. A rapid shrinking in the milk is easily 
 detected on the milk sheet and may be entirely due to 
 
 Vlg. 11.— Milk Scales. 
 Weigh 0.1 to 30 pounds. 
 
62 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Milk Record for Month 
 
 of- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 190 
 
 
 
 
 Name of Cow. 
 
 Date. 
 
 0) 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
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 Lbs. 
 
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 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 
 
 63 
 
 careless milking. Great daily fluctuations in the yield 
 of milk are also in most cases the result of indifferent 
 and inefficient milkers. 
 
 Collecting Samples of Milk for Testing. The milk 
 from each cow should be tested about once a month dur- 
 ing the whole period of lactation. A satisfactory way of 
 doing this is to collect what is known as a composite 
 sample, which consists in securing about one-half ounce 
 of milk from each of six consecutive milkings and placing 
 this in a half pint composite sample jar (Fig. 12) con- 
 
 Fig. 12— 
 
 Composite 
 Sample Jar. 
 
 Fig. 13.— Test Bottle Rack. 
 
 taining a small amount of preservative. A test of this 
 composite sample will represent the average per cent 
 of butterfat for the period during which the sample 
 was taken and will serve with sufficient accuracy as the 
 average test for the entire month. 
 
 Each composite sample jar should be carefully labeled 
 by placing the name or number of the cow upon it. A 
 convenient rack for these jars is shown in Fig. 13. 
 
64 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Sampling and Samplers. Immediately after milking 
 the milk is poured from one pail into another several 
 times and then sampled at once. The sampling may be 
 done by either of two methods : ( i ) by means of a one- 
 half or one ounce dipper sKown in Fig. 14; or (2) by 
 means of a narrow tube shown in Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 14.- 
 Dipper Samp- 
 ler. 
 
 Fig. 15.- 
 Thief Samp- 
 ler. 
 
 The dipper furnishes the simplest and easiest means 
 of sampling milk. Where the milk is thoroughly rhixed 
 and where the quantity is practically the same morning 
 and night, this method of sampling is accurate. 
 
 With the tube method the sample is always propor- 
 tionate to the quantity of milk and it will draw a reo- 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 65 
 
 resentative sample even when the milk has stood undis- 
 turbed a few minutes. This method of sampling should 
 be employed, therefore, where there is much variation in 
 the quantity of night's and morning's milk, or where 
 the milk is not apt to be thoroughly mixed before samp- 
 ling. 
 
 Preservatives. Milk can not be satisfactorily tested 
 after it has soured, owing to the difficulty of securing 
 an accurate sample. This makes it necessary to place a 
 small amount of preservative in the composite sample 
 jar before the sampling is begun. 
 
 The. best preservatives for this purpose are corrosive 
 sublimate, formalin and bichromate of potash. All of 
 these are poisons and care must be taken to place them 
 where children and others unfamiliar with their poisonous 
 properties, can not have access to them. For conve- 
 nience, the bichromate of potash and corrosive sublimate 
 have been put up in tablet form, each tablet containing 
 enough preservative to keep a pint of milk sweet from 
 one to two weeks. The bichromate* of potash can be 
 procured from all druggists, and a quantity not to exceed 
 the size of a pea should be added to each pint composite 
 jar. A larger quantity is liable to interfere with the 
 testing. 
 
 Testing With the Babcock Tesit. The method of 
 operating the Babcock test is explained in detail in chap- 
 ter XVIII. 
 
 Calculating Butterfat and Butter Yield. The 
 monthly butterfat yield of each cow is determined by 
 multiplying the total pounds of milk for the month by 
 the per cent of butterfat it contains. For example, if 
 cow No. I produced 850 lbs. of milk testing 4.2% fat, the 
 
66 DAIRY FARMING' 
 
 total fat in this milk would equal 850X4-2, or 35.70 
 pounds. 
 
 Since butter contains salt, water, casein and only about 
 83% butterfat, it is to be expected that the yield of 
 butter will exceed that of butterfat, provided the losses 
 in skimming and churning are normal. The general 
 rule in estimating the butter yield is to increase the but- 
 terfat by one-sixth. Thus the estimated butter yield 
 of the 35.70 pounds of fat given above would equal 35.70 
 Xi 1-6 or 41.65 pounds. The difference between the 
 butterfat and the actual butter yield is known as the 
 "overrun." 
 
 Estimating the Cost of Feed. The final test of the 
 value of a cow is the economy of production. In addition, 
 therefore, to knowing the butterfat yield, we must also 
 know the cost of the feed she consumed in producing it. 
 Obviously a daily weighing of the feed, especially as 
 concerns roughage, is not practical upon most dairy farms. 
 If the feed which each cow receives is weighed about 
 twice a month an approximate estimate of the feed 
 consumed can be obtained by considering the weighed 
 amount of feed as the average daily consumption for the 
 month. To illustrate, let us suppose that cow No. X is 
 doing full work on a ration consisting of 8 pounds of 
 wheat bran, 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal, 40 pounds 
 of corn silage and 8 pounds of corn stover. By carefully 
 observing the volume of the weighed amounts of each 
 feed, approximate quantities may be measured for two 
 weeks, after which a day's feed is again weighed and the 
 measuring continued for the remainder of the month. 
 In this way an approximate estimate of the quantity of 
 feed consumed for the month can be obtained with a small 
 amount of labor. By multiplying the total quantities 
 of the different feeds fed during the month, by their 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 67 
 
 respective values per ton, we obtain an approximate cost 
 of the feed fed each cow during that period. 
 
 Yearly Record of Milk, Butterfat and Feed. At the 
 
 end of each month a record of each cow's milk, butterfat 
 test, and butterfat production, as well as an estimate 
 of the cost of feed, should be entered upon a yearly 
 record sheet like that shown below. 
 
 
 HERD RECORD FOR YEAR 
 
 190 . 
 
 
 
 NAME OF COW 
 
 NAME OF COW 
 
 Month 
 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 r 
 
 So 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 u 
 o 
 
 U 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 V o 
 
 So 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 MILKING. 
 
 Importance of the Milking Process. The profits 
 from a dairy herd are far more largely dependent upon 
 the conditions under which the milk is drawn than dairy- 
 men are commonly led to believe. For example, hundreds 
 of instances could be mentioned where milk drawn under 
 cleanly conditions has been sold for one hundred per 
 cent more than that drawn under uncleanly conditions. 
 But milking from the standpoint of cleanliness is 
 discussed in the chapter on sanitary milk pro- 
 duction and will, therefore, not be considered here. 
 The conditions that will be treated in the following 
 pages are those which have a' direct bearing upon the 
 yield of milk and butterfat, and which are no less import- 
 ant in determining the profits from the herd than are those 
 concerning cleanliness. 
 
 Milk Function Controlled by Nervous System. The 
 various factors bearing upon the secretion of milk are 
 readily understood when it is remembered that the pro- 
 duction of milk is closely associated with the nervous 
 organization of the cow. Whatever reacts upon her nerv- 
 ous system will react in like degree upon the secretion 
 of milk. 
 
 Value of Kind and Gentle Treatment. It is owing 
 to her high nerve development that a cow is so very 
 sensitive to excitement, boisterousness, unkindness, rough 
 treatment and other allied abuses which always react 
 
 68 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 69 
 
 so unfavorably upon the production of milk and butterfat. 
 Especially disastrous are the efifects of abuses admin- 
 istered just previous to or during milking. Yet how fre- 
 quently are dogs allowed to chase the cows to the stable, 
 and how often are attendants seen with clubs which they 
 use as aids in getting the cows into their proper places ! 
 In addition, the language and boisterousness that accom- 
 panies all this leaves no doubt that the animals are 
 treated as offending brutes, instead of willing, sensitive 
 mothers who are scarcely any less sensitive to harsh 
 words than, are human mothers. Make pets out of your 
 cows by kind treatment, for kindness is never without 
 compensation, no matter how, when or where applied. 
 
 Elaboration of Milk During Milking, If, in addi- 
 tion to what has been said, it will be remembered that 
 the larger portion of the milk is secreted during the 
 process of milking, the importance of giving a cow the 
 very best care and treatment at this time will be fully 
 apparent. Furthermore, the fact that most of the milk 
 is formed during milking, materially assists in explaining 
 why different milkers secure such varying quantities of 
 milk and butterfat from the same cow. 
 
 Effect of Change of Milkers, From what has been 
 said it is easily seen that frequent changes of milkers are 
 certain to react unfavorably upon the milk and butterfat 
 production. A cow that has become thoroughly accus- 
 tomed to a certain milker will feel restless and uneasy 
 with a new milker, which is nowhere more plainly indi- 
 cated than on the milk sheet. A change of milkers, 
 furthermore, always means a change in the manner of 
 milking, and, therefore, a change in the stimulation of 
 the udder. Since the stimulation of the udder by the 
 milker is the cause of nJlk secretion, it is evident that 
 
70 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 a change in the method of stimulation will result in 
 a reduction of milk and butterfat production. The wise 
 dairyman will therefore avoid changing milkers as far 
 as possible, and will insist that the same milker always 
 milk the same cows. 
 
 Fast Versus Slow Milking, The larger yields are 
 secured from fast milking. This may possibly be ex- 
 plained upon the basis of udder stimulation. The fast 
 milker will stimulate the udder to a greater degree than 
 the slow milker, and the extra stimulus thus given evi- 
 dently favors the secretion in the milk glands, as indicated 
 by the actual increased production. 
 
 Importance of Withdrawing All the Milk. One 
 of the most important factors in milking is securing all 
 the milk at each milking; that is, milking a cow dry. 
 Whatever milk is left in the udder from one milking 
 to another is not only lost to the milker, but actually 
 acts as a check upon further secretion, so that the 
 habitual practice of not milking cows "clean" or "dry" 
 results in a gradual shrinking of the milk flow and an 
 early "drying up" of the cow. Furthermore, the loss 
 of the strippings means the loss of the very best milk. 
 The first milk drawn from a cow usually contains less 
 than 1% fat, while the strippings may contain as much 
 as 14%. 
 
 Regularity of Milking and Feeding. The man who 
 is looking for satisfactory returns from his dairy must 
 make regularity a watchword. Cows must be milked reg- 
 ularly at a fixed time morning and night. Milking 
 half an hour sooner or later than the fixed time interferes 
 much more seriously with the milk yield than is com- 
 monly supposed. Not only does irregularity of milking 
 reduce the yield of milk and butterfat, but irregularity in 
 
THB DAIRY EBRD 71 
 
 feeding leads to the same result. If, for example, cows 
 that have been accustomed to receive their concentrates 
 before milking, should receive them at times after milk- 
 ing, a reduction in the yield would be at once noticed. 
 This is just what might be expected. Withholding the 
 concentrates occasionally, will make the cows restless and 
 discontented, which will sufficiently jar their nervous sys- 
 tem to cause a perceptible drop in the milk flow. Sudden 
 changes 6f feeds will act in a similar manner. 
 
 Time Between Milkings. The periods between milk- 
 ings should be as nearly equal as possible. For example, 
 if cows are being milked at six o'clock in the morning, 
 they are also preferably milked at six o'clock at night. 
 The more uniform the periods between milkings, the more 
 uniform the secretion of milk, and consequently the 
 greater the production. The time between milkings also 
 influences the richness of the milk. If the two milking 
 periods are not equal, it will be found that the milk of the 
 shorter period will be the richer. 
 
 Frequency of Milking. As a rule nothing is gained 
 by milking a cow three times instead of twice daily. In 
 the case of exceptionally heavy milkers whose udders 
 become unduly distended, there is, however, a distinct 
 advantage in milking three times daily. The fact that 
 - milk from the shorter intervals between milkings has 
 been found richer than that from the longer intervals, 
 has driven some to the practice of milking average pro- 
 ducers three times a day, with the hope of permanently 
 increasing the test. While under such circumstances the 
 test may be raised somewhat, the raise is only a temporary 
 one. 
 
 The Value of a Good Milker. From what has already 
 been said, it is evident that the milker plays an important 
 
72 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 part in the milk and butterfat production of cows. The 
 following data secured by H. B. Gurler from his own 
 herd fully illustrate the importance of a good milker. As 
 a result of two winters' tests, Mr. Gurler found that 
 the cows milked by the poorest milker had fallen off 9.5 
 pounds per head in three months, while the shrinkage 
 of the cows milked by the best milker during the same 
 period was only 1.88 pounds per head, a difference at 
 the end of three months of 7.62 pounds of milk per cow 
 daily in favor of the best milker. This fully explains 
 why some milkers are cheap at $40 per month, while 
 others are really expensive at less than half this amount. 
 
 The Milk Scales and Babcock Tester as a Teacher 
 of Correct Milking. The strongest searchlight used for 
 the discovery of leaks in the dairy herd consists of a pair 
 of scales and a Babcock tester. These will not only tell 
 which cows are profitable and which are not, but, if 
 rightly employed, will also tell which milkers are paying 
 for their salaries and which are not. Milkers should be 
 paid according to the quality of their work, and not, as is 
 commonly the case, according to the number- of hours' 
 service. 
 
 Milking Machines. Whether the milking machine 
 may be considered an unqualified success can not be posi- 
 tively stated at the present time. More time and tests are 
 needed to warrant a positive statement. It may be stated, 
 however, that many of our foremost dairymen have 
 endorsed the milking machine as a successful milker, 
 and this, too, after apparently thorough tests extending 
 over periods of many months. Experiment stations also 
 report favorable results from machine milking. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 HERD MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Winter Dairying. Producing the bulk of milk during 
 the winter has four distinct advantages: (i) prices for 
 butter and cheese are higher at this time of the year; 
 (2) cows will milk longer when calving in the fall than 
 in the spring; (3) labor is more plentiful at this time 
 of the year; and (4) it is possible to feed cows cheaper 
 during the winter than summer. 
 
 1. As a rule prices for butter are from 50 to 75 per 
 cent higher in winter than in summer. Prices for cheese 
 •average about 50 per cent higher in winter. Indeed 
 prices for milk in general are higher in winter than sum- 
 mer. It is evident that from the standpoint of higher 
 prices alone, it is the part of wisdom to produce the 
 bulk of the milk during the winter. 
 
 2. When cows calve in the spring, they usually 
 have pasturage enough for a ,good flow of milk until 
 about August. At this time pastures as a rule get short 
 and cows rapidly fall off in milk. By the time stable 
 feeding begins they have dropped off so much that they 
 can not be brought back to a fair; flow of milk even on 
 good feed. The result is a reduced yield of milk and an 
 early "drying up" of the cows. 
 
 When cows calve in the fall the expectation is to pro- 
 duce the main flow of milk during the v/inter and conse- 
 quently the cows are well supplied with feed until they 
 are turned out on good pasturage in the spring. In this 
 
 73 
 
74 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 way the cdws maintain a good flow of milk until the best 
 period of grazing is over. The inevitable result is an 
 extension of the period of lactation and a greater total 
 production of milk. An increased production is also 
 favored by the fact that cows yield the greater share 
 of their milk during a time when they are least troubled 
 with flies and excessive heat. 
 
 3. It is an important advantage to be able to do most 
 of the milking when other farm duties demand least 
 attention. By having the cows calve in the fall, most of 
 the milking is done during the winter. 
 
 4. An acre of land planted to corn ordinarily yields 
 as much feed as two or three acres in pasturage. When 
 the cows calve in the fall there is bound to be more silage 
 produced than when the cows calve in the spring, and 
 in so far as this is true, the cost of feed is lessened. In 
 the case of high priced land, the saving effected by 
 reducing the acreage one-half or two-thirds by feeding 
 a great deal of silage in place of pasturage must be evi- 
 dent. 
 
 Feeding the Bull. During the early life of the bull 
 when he is reasonably tractable, there is no better place 
 for him than a strongly enclosed pasture. This will sup- 
 ply him with the right kind of feed, give him plenty of 
 fresh air and sunshine, and afford him needful exercise. 
 When stall-fed, he is preferably supplied with nitrogenous 
 roughage, such as good clean clover hay. When the 
 roughage consists of corn stover or oat straw, the bull 
 should be given a fair allowance of wheat bran, oats or 
 similar concentrates.. It is always desirable to supply a 
 stall-fed bull a moderate amount of succulent roughage, 
 such as roots and silage. 
 
 Management of Bull. A bull should never be allowed 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 75 
 
 to run with the herd, but is preferably kept where he is in 
 sight of the cows. He should have a ring placed in his 
 nose when ten or twelve months old. As a rule it is 
 best not to tie him by the ring, but to give him the free- 
 dom of a box stall. He should be given enough exercise 
 to keep him tractable and in good breeding condition. By 
 all means have him dehorned. 
 
 Never trifle with a bull. He should be treated gently 
 yet firmly. He must know he has a master. It is im- 
 portant to teach him early to be led with a stafif fastened 
 to the ring in his nose. 
 
 
 
 EUE¥/fTEi> W^i-H. 
 
 III 
 
 TRCAO 
 
 powcn 
 
 e'nw 
 
 <■ 
 
 A 
 
 \ 
 
 1 BOX 
 
 •STALL 
 ) lO'XIZ' 
 
 PEN. 
 c'xte' 
 
 
 
 
 III 
 
 B 
 
 Bull Pen 
 
 SOX so' 
 
 Breeding Pen ]9te,t,te 
 
 nailed uiialh 
 
 Big. 16.— Bull Pens. 
 
76 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 It is a great misfortune to have so many valuable 
 bulls disposed of at the first signs of unruliness. When 
 a bull has proven his value as a breeder by his own 
 offspring, he should be, and can be, retained even though 
 his disposition becomes threatening, by quartering him as 
 shown in Fig. i6. 
 
 B represents a pen which the author has successfully 
 used a number of years. It consists of an enclosure with 
 stable and breeding pen as shown in the preceding illus- 
 tration (B). The bull run is fifty feet square, including 
 the stable, and is enclosed by a solid board fence six and 
 one-half feet high. The cow is bred in this pen by tying 
 her to the front end and then letting in the bull by open- 
 ing the stable door. The latter closes the pen when 
 opened as shown in the cut. 
 
 While a bull can be managed in a pen such as is here 
 described without coming in contact with him, it is best 
 to lead him out occasionally with a stick snapped into the 
 ring of his nose. 
 
 A represents a yard or pen essentially as recommended 
 by the Illinois Station. At one end of the yard is located 
 a box stall in which the bull is fed and sheltered. The 
 other end is divided into two compartments, one con- 
 taining a tread power, the other serving as a breeding 
 pen. The gate H .may be turned to the right or to the 
 left, closing either of the two compartments as may be 
 desired. 
 
 The tread power furnishes the means of exercising 
 the bull. When he is wanted on the tread power, a 
 rope is attached to his ring while he is at the manger and 
 the attendant, who walks over the elevated narrow walk, 
 leads him onto the power and shuts the gate be- 
 hind him. While the bull is taking his exercise the 
 attendant cleans and prepares his stall. When the bull 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 77 
 
 is wanted in the breeding pen he is similarly led along 
 the other side of the yard. Water and feed can be 
 supplied from the outside. 
 
 It is evident that a yard of this kind guarantees abso- 
 lute safety, provides good exercise for the bull, which 
 at the same time furnishes the power to pump water, 
 separate the milk, and do other useful things. 
 
 An important matter in the management of a bull 
 is to prevent excessive service. A bull should be over 
 one year old before he is allowed to serve and the services 
 the first season should be limited to lo or 15, depending 
 upon the strength and vigor of the bull. The second 
 season he may serve 25 cows. And while some bulls 
 have apparently successfully served as many as 40 or 
 more cows in a season, it will be found good policy, 
 as a rule, to restrict the number of services as much as 
 possible, especially if the usefulness of the bull is to be 
 preserved for a long time. 
 
 Breeding Rack. When heifers or small cows are bred 
 to heavy bulls, a breeding rack should be used. This 
 may be constructed as follows: Place tv/o posts in the 
 ground 3^ feet high and about lyi feet apart. In a line 
 parallel with these posts and 8 or 9 feet away, place two 
 more posts i^ feet high and 20 to 22 inches apart. 
 Connect the short and long posts with 2x12 inch planks, 
 leaving a* space of 18 inches wide between the planks at 
 the higher end, and 20 to 22 inches wide at the lower end, 
 which serves as the entrance. This space will fit most 
 cows, but it is desirable to have the planks adjustable so 
 that the space between may be increased or decreased 
 according to the size of the cows. The arrangement as 
 described permits the bull's • front feet to rest on the 
 planks during service. The planks should be provided 
 
78 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 with cleats and must be strongly supported at the middle. 
 An adjustable stanchion is used to hold the cow in posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Age to Breed Heifers. Heifers should be bred to 
 drop their calves when about two years old. In cases 
 where there is a particular lack of development in growth 
 and general vigor, it would doubtless be a distinct 
 advantage to have heifers drop their calves at 26, 28 or 
 even 30 months of age. 
 
 Early breeding has the effect of stunting the growth 
 of the animal, and thus making maximum development 
 impossible. The heifer that is bred at one year of age 
 is obliged to turn a portion of the feed that is naturally 
 intended for her own development to that of the foetus. 
 After the calf is dropped a still larger portion of the feed 
 intended for her own development is utilized for the 
 production of milk. 
 
 While the stunting effect from early breeding has its 
 drawback, there is also danger in delaying the breeding 
 too long. It is doubtless correctly maintained that early 
 breeding has the advantage of early stimulating the milk 
 giving function of the animal, and that heifers that drop 
 their calves at, say three years old, are apt to develop a 
 beefy tendency at the expense of the dairy tendency. 
 
 It is evident that this matter calls for a great deal of 
 judgment. If a heifer leans toward the beefy tendency, 
 doubtless it is policy to breed her rather young. If, 
 on the other hand, there is a complete absence of a beefy 
 tendency and an indication of a slow development and 
 delicacy, no one would question the wisdom of breeding 
 such an animal relatively late. 
 
 Record Date of Service- and Calving. This is import- 
 ant for three reasons: (i) it enables one to confine cows 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 79 
 
 in box stalls about a week before calving; (2) it enables 
 one to tell the exact length of time cows have carried 
 their calves, and therefore makes possible the detection 
 of premature births and abortions; (3) one knows the 
 exact length of the lactation period of each cow.' 
 
 1. Where the date of service is not known, it fre- 
 quently happens that cows are obliged to calve in their 
 stalls or stanchions. Such unfortunate occurrences should 
 be prevented by confining cows in roomy box stalls not 
 less than a week before they are due to calve. 
 
 2. In case the date of service is not known, it is 
 perfectly possible for cows to drop living abortions which 
 the owner may mistake for mature calves. Where the 
 abortion is of a contagious nature the danger of mistakes 
 of this kind is too evident to need further explanation. 
 
 3. Most dairymen appreciate the value of persistent 
 milkers, yet comparatively few are able to tell, even 
 approximately, the length of the lactation period of the 
 different, cows in the herd. The only certain way of 
 knowing how long each cow produces milk after calving 
 is to record the date of calving. 
 
 "Drying Off" Cows. As a rule it is desirable to 
 have cows "go dry" at least a month before calving. 
 This has the effect of increasing the supply of nutrients 
 for the development of the foetus, as well as enabling 
 the cow to store up some reserve energy which will put 
 her in better physical condition for the act of parturition 
 and the period immediately following. 
 
 Where it is desirable to hasten the "drying off," the 
 following method will be of value. Start drying off by 
 not milking the cow clean. This will quickly reduce 
 the flow to a point where it is safe to skip every other 
 milking. After a few. days, or perhaps a week, the 
 
80 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 milk will be sufficiently reduced to warrant milking only 
 every other day. A very short, time after this, as a 
 rule, it will be found safe to stop milking entirely. 
 
 In case of very persistent milkers, it is better to milk 
 them close up to, if not up to, calving, rather than 
 force the "drying off" process too much. 
 
 Dehorning. The advantage of dehorning is now pretty 
 generally recognized. The absence of horns makes cows 
 more quiet and docile, and saves them many tortures 
 that are ordinarily inflicted when the horns are retained. 
 
 The horns may be removed either by sawing them 
 off or by cutting them off with an instrument known as 
 a clipper. The simplest and most humane method of 
 removing horns, however, is the use of caustic potash 
 soon after the calf is born. The Author has dehorned 
 a great man;j^^ calves by this method which is briefly 
 described as follows : 
 
 When the calf is 24 to 36 hours old, clip the hair 
 from the invisible horns or buttons and rub them with a 
 stick of caustic potash. The potash should be kept in an 
 air-tight bottle until ready for use. As soon as removed 
 from the bottle, the upper part of the stick should be 
 wrapped -with a piece of paper to prevent its burning 
 the hand. After a few minutes' exposure to the air 
 the stick becomes moist. As soon as this becomes notice- 
 able, rub the exposed end of the stick over each button 
 for a minute or two, or until the spot begins to look 
 reddish or sore. If the calf is examined twelve hours 
 later, a scab will be found where the potash was applied, 
 showing that the potash has gradually eaten its way 
 into the button and thus destroyed it. Care should be 
 exercised not to allow the potash to touch any part "but 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 81 
 
 the miniature horn, as a drop on the flesh would cause 
 unnecessary pain. 
 
 Cleanliness, Regularity and Kind Treatment. The 
 
 subject of cleanliness is fully discussed in the chapter 
 on Sanitary Milk Production. The importance of regu- 
 larity and kind treatment are fully considered in the 
 chapter on Milking. 
 
 Warm Housing. On account of their general spare- 
 ness of flesh, cows have little protection for their vital 
 organs and are, therefore peculiarly susceptible to cold. 
 For this reason, warm housing during the winter season 
 is a matter of the highest importance. It matters little 
 how good a dairy machine a cow may be or how well 
 she may be fed, the returns from her will be unsatis- 
 factory if she is compelled to shiver in her stable the 
 larger portion of the winter and is possibly even denied 
 the protection of a stable during the cold drizzling rains 
 which usually precede and follow the severe cold of the 
 winter. 
 
 Cows in Heat. Cows, while in heat, should be kept 
 separate^from the rest of the herd to avoid the usual 
 disturbances incident to keeping them with the herd. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 REARING THE DAIRY CALF. 
 
 Prenatal Development. The making of a strong, vig- 
 orous, healthy calf begins before it is born. Unless the 
 pregnant mother is furnished with a sufficient amount 
 of good, wholesome feed, rich in ash and protein, the 
 foetus must necessarily suffer retarded development. Not 
 only should the pregnant cow be supplied with the proper 
 nutrients for the development of bone and muscle in 
 the foetus, but the ration-should be such as will keep her 
 in the best physical condition, which requires some suc- 
 culent roughage and grain rather laxative' in character. 
 (See page 42.) 
 
 Time the Cow Should Suckle the Calf. As a rule 
 it is best to remove the calf from its mother before it 
 is three days old. The early removal of the calf has 
 several important advantages : ( i ) it prevents to a great 
 extent the excitement attendant on separating an older 
 calf from its mother; (2) it renders it easier to teach the 
 calf to drink from a bucket; (3) it permits regularity 
 of milking from the start; and (4) it makes possible 
 at the outset to milk the cow "clean" at each milking. 
 Calves never feed regularly, nor do they suck heavy 
 milkers dry at any time. The result is a continual 
 residue of milk in the udder which acts as a check to 
 the secretion of this substance and leads to an early 
 shrinkage in the milk yield. 
 
 In cases of caked and inflamed udders it is best, how- 
 ever, to allow the calf to suckle the cow longer than 
 
 82 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 83 
 
 the time stated, since this has a tendency to hasten the 
 disappearance of such trouble. 
 
 Feeding the Young Calf. The first milk drawn after 
 calving has purging properties which nature has provided 
 for the purging of the calf. It is important, therefore, 
 that the calf receive this milk which is known as colos- 
 trum. 
 
 As soon as removed from the cow, the calf should be 
 taught to drink from a clean bucket. It should be aided 
 in this for a day or two by holding the tip of a finger 
 in its mouth. The milk should be fed as near body 
 temperature as possible. During the first two weeks 
 the calf shQuld be fed not less than three times a day, 
 receiving eight to ten pounds of milk daily the first week, 
 and ten to twelve pounds the second week. After the 
 second week skim milk may be gradually substituted 
 for whole milk, bringing the calf to a full skim milk 
 
 Fig. 17.— Calf stanchions. 
 
84 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 feed at the end of four weeks. Beginning with the 
 substitution of skim milk, the calf should be fed a hand- 
 ful of ground oats, corn meal, or linseed meal after each 
 milk feed. At the age of one month, when feeding 
 wholly on skim milk, one-half pound of grain may be fed 
 daily to good advantage, and access should be given to 
 good clean hay. The feed should be gradually increased 
 with the growing needs of the animal. 
 
 Calf Stanchions. The feeding of milk to calves 
 becomes a comparatively easy task when the calves are 
 confined in cheap, rigid stanchions like those shown in 
 Fig. 17. When so confined one person can feed half a 
 dozen or more calves at the same time, and can do this 
 with less labor than is ordinarily required to feed one calf. 
 It is well, however, not to keep the calves in the stanch- 
 ions too long at any one time, because of the rigid con- 
 finement. Calves that have formed the "sucking" habit 
 may be confined to advantage in these stanchions during 
 the night, especially when no small separate pens are 
 available. 
 
 Importance of Correct Feeding. A young calf has a 
 delicate stomach, which is peculiarly liable to be upset by 
 the injudicious feeding of milk and skim-milk. In this 
 respect it differs little from the very young child. The 
 effect that usually follows the injudicious feeding of milk 
 is a case of scours. This trouble can be obviated in a 
 large measure by strictly observing the following precau- 
 tions : First, never feed calves cold milk, but have it as 
 near blood heat as possible ; second, feed milk as fresh as 
 possible and under no circumstances feed it when sour; 
 third, feed milk only from vessels that have been thor- 
 oughly cleaned and scalded; and fourth, carefully avoid 
 over-feeding. Scours or diarrhea is one of the common- 
 
THE DAIRY HBRD 85 
 
 est ailments of calves and one that leaves a great stunting 
 effect upon their development. 
 
 While great importance attaches to the correct feeding 
 of the calf in its early life, an ample allowance of feed 
 of the right kind should be supplied at all times. Fatten- 
 ing feeds should always be avoided. 
 
 General Care of the Calf. Calves should be given 
 all the outdoor exercise, fresh air and sunshine possible. 
 During cold and rainy weather they should be confined 
 in clean, dry stables with plenty of bedding. All the 
 comfort possible should be provided for calves at all 
 times. It is important also to see that they are not too 
 much annoyed by flies during the summer. When 
 changed from dry feed to pasture the change should be 
 made gradually, or trouble from scouring is likely to be 
 encountered. Plenty of good, pure water should, be pro- 
 vided. The skim-milk feeding may be continued with, 
 profit for at least six months. When no pasture is avail- 
 able, it is desirable to feed a liberal amount of good, 
 nitrogenous hay and only a small amount of gfain. This 
 will furnish the necessary nutriments for growth, at the 
 same time the large amount of roughage tends to de- 
 velop a large paunch in the young animal. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 DAIRY BARN. 
 
 A Place Where Human Food is Prepared. In build- 
 ing a dairy barn it should be remembered that one is pro- 
 viding a place where human food is to be produced. San- 
 itary features should, therefore, have first consideration. 
 Among the most important of these are abundance of 
 light, ample ventilation and general regard to cleanli- 
 ness. 
 
 Contrary to general belief, a sanitary barn is not nec- 
 essarily an expensive barn. Indeed where everything is 
 considered, a sanitary barn is certain to prove actually 
 cheaper in the long run than one in which sanitation is 
 made an entirely secondary matter. 
 
 General Plan of Barn. This is illustrated in Fig. i8. 
 For a full description of the barn, of which this floor plan 
 is a part, see page 87. This barn was designed and built 
 by the author for the Milwaukee County (Wis.) School 
 of Agriculture. The plan shows a milk, two feed and 
 storage rooms, calf pens, box stalls and forty cow stalls, 
 with two silos joined to the northeast corner. 
 
 There is an eight-foot drive through the middle of the 
 barn, which makes it possible to haul the manure out of 
 the barn with a manure spreader. This arrangement 
 will save a great deal of labor in handling the manure 
 and has several other advantages over the common plan 
 of having the feeding alley in the middle of the barn. 
 
 86 
 
THH DAIRY HERD 
 
 87 
 
88 DAIRY P ARMING 
 
 In the first place it is more sanitary. Where the 
 two rows of cows face each other the foul breath 
 from each must necessarily pass from one side to 
 the other, thus causing the cows to breathe more or 
 less impure air. When the cows face out the exhaled 
 air is more equally distributed through the barn and in 
 so far reduces the amount of impurities in it immediately 
 in front of the cows. Another advantage in facing cows 
 out is the fact that the head is placed nearest the wall 
 where the temperature is lowest, leaving the portion of 
 the animal that must be most protected from the cold in 
 the warmer part of the stable. 
 
 The silos are placed where most convenient for feeding 
 and . where they have reasonable protection from cold. 
 Fresh air inlets are built in the wall of the barn and 
 the air outlets are placed where they do not occupy valu- 
 able space but where their efficiency is not materially 
 interfered with. 
 
 Founda'tion and Floor. The barn should rest upon a 
 substantial foundation constructed of stone or concrete. 
 On the outside of the foundation and a little below it 
 should be placed tile drains to prevent any water from 
 working its way under the foundation. 
 
 For sanitary reasons, only concrete floors should be 
 permitted in a dairy barn. While the original cost may 
 be somewhat high, in the long run they are cheapest. 
 Aside from being easily cleaned, they also make possible 
 the saving of all the liquid manure, an important item to 
 consider in the management of a dairy. To prevent the 
 dampness commonly associated with a concrete floor it 
 should be constructed on a cobble stone and cinder foun- 
 dation underlaid with drain tile. The finish of the floor 
 should be rather rough to prevent cows slipping on it. 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 89 
 
 The feeding alleys, that is, the part of the floor be- 
 tween the mangers and the walls, should be about three 
 inches higher than the platforms on which the cows 
 stand. Moreover they should -slope slightly toward the 
 mangers. The platforms and driveway should also slope 
 very slightly toward the gutters. 
 
 Light. Sunlight, because of its disinfectant action, is 
 of prime importance in making a stable sanitary. There 
 should be not less than four square feet of window space 
 per cow. 
 
 Walls. Cheap and reasonably air-tight walls are se- 
 cured by nailing matched lumber over good building 
 paper on both the inside and outside of the studding, 
 except the lower inside six feet. From the floor to a 
 height of six feet, nail cheap one-inch lumber over build- 
 ing paper and put lath and concrete on this as a finish. 
 This makes the lower portion of the wall readily clean- 
 able as it should be. The portion of the wall above the 
 concrete, as well as the entire ceiling, should be fre- 
 quently whitewashed. 
 
 Concrete walls have proven very satisfactory and are 
 rapidly growing in popularity. 
 
 Ceiling. This should be boarded on the inside with 
 matched lumber. The outside, or hay floor above, may 
 be built of common, cheap lumber. When, however, no 
 hay is stored above, the ceiling should have a dead air 
 space, which is secured by using matched lumber and 
 paper, both inside and outside, and filling the space be- 
 tween with dry straw. 
 
 Stalls and Ties. These should be arranged ana con- 
 structed with the following points in view: (i) keep- 
 ing the cows clean; (2) giving them as much comfort 
 as possible; (3) preventing cows from stepping on each 
 
90 
 
 DAIRY P ARMING 
 
 Fig. 19.— Iron Stall. 
 
 Other's teats ; (4) giving tlie milker comfort during milk- 
 i'lg; (5) having a minimum amount of surface for lodg- 
 ment of dust; and (6) saving of time in tying. 
 
 Fig. 20.— Iron stall. 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 91 
 
 To keep cows clean the stall must be of such length as 
 to place the hind feet near the edge of the gutter. In 
 order to have comfort, cows should not be confined in 
 rigid stanchions, nor should the stalls be too narrow. 
 The stepping of cows on their neighbors' teats can be 
 prevented only by using some form of partition between 
 
 Fig. 21.-Half StaU. 
 
 them. To provide a reasonable amount of comfort for 
 the milker the stalls must have ample width and the end 
 posts of the partitions should be set about one foot from 
 the edge of the gutter. Solid wood partitions or closely 
 meshed wire and iron partitions, afford too much sur- 
 face for lodgment of dust. Moreover, solid wood par- 
 titions obstruct a free circulation of air. The simpler 
 the partition the more desirable. 
 
 Stalls and ties like those shown in Figs. 19 and 20 
 answer all the requirements in a satisfactory manner. 
 
92 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 The stall shown in Fig. 21 is used by many 
 with much satisfaction, but is somewhat open to the 
 objection of having too much surface for lodgment of 
 dust. 
 
 Fig. 22.— A Cheap and Satisfactory Cow Stall and Manger. 
 
 Rigid stanchions mean rigid confinement and should 
 therefore never be used. Various forms of swinging 
 stanchions, like those shown in the figures, are used 
 with much satisfaction. Movable halter ties, like that 
 shown in Fig. 23, are used in many leading dairy barns. 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 93 
 
 The rope or chain is so fastened as to prevent forward 
 or backward movements by the cows but permits free 
 movement up and down. 
 
 Fig. 23.— Movable Halter Tie. 
 
 Stalls like those shown in Kigs. 19 and 20 have the 
 advantage of being adjustable. The stanchion is movable, 
 thus permitting the stall to be shortened or lengthened, 
 according to the size of the cow. Furthermore, the swing 
 stanchions, in dispensing with the front end, reduce the 
 amount of stall surface, which is particularly noticeable 
 in the stalls shown in Figs. 19, 20 and 22. 
 
 In a cold climate, it is desirable to cover the concrete 
 floor on which -the cows stand with a movable wood plat- 
 form. This may be the means of preventing udder 
 
94 DAIRY P ARMING 
 
 troubles and is certain to increase the comfort of cows 
 during the cold season. 
 
 Size of Stalls. An average-sized cow requires a stall 
 3J4 feet wide and 4^2 feet long. In nearly all herds, 
 however, there are some cows larger and some smaller 
 than the average. It is important, therefore, that one 
 row of stalls be made to taper somewhat from one end 
 to the other. For example, the stalls at one end may 
 have dimensions 3'x3'io", which would nicely accommo- 
 date two-year-old Jersey heifers. From this end the 
 dimensions may be gradually increased until they reach 
 4'x4'io" at the opposite end. The latter dimensions 
 would accommodate large Holstein-Friesian cows. 
 
 Mangers. These should be constructed with four 
 points in view: (i) they should be easily cleanable; 
 
 (2) they should be provided with movable partitions so 
 as to prevent cows from stealing feed from each other; 
 
 (3) they should be large enough to prevent cows from 
 scattering their feed over the barn floor; and (4) the top 
 should be below the cows' noses so as not to interfere 
 too much with the circulation of the air in front of the 
 cows. 
 
 All of the above features are embodied in the manger 
 illustrated in Fig. 22. This manger the Author has had 
 placed in the college dairy barn and has found it highh 
 satisfactory in all respects. The aim was to secure a 
 thoroughly efficient manger with as small an outlay of 
 capital as possible. Its construction is as follows: The 
 lower three inches are built into the concrete floor. The 
 superstructure, which is 20 inches high, 18 inches wide 
 at the floor and 36 inches wide at the top, is built of 
 %-inch matched lumber, except the partitions which are 
 built of ij^-inch lumber. Both sides of the lumber are 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 95 
 
 planed. The partitions fit snugly into the 3-inch con- 
 crete depression, and the entire manger is built in mova- 
 ble sections, each 21 feet long. The sections are held in 
 place by means of a small hook at each end, which is 
 fastened to the stanchion supports. 
 
 cow STABLE 
 l_ roUL /{IR OUTLETS 
 
 Fig. 24. Fig. 25. 
 
 King system of ventilation. Figure 25 shows two methods of carrying OHt air. 
 
 The three-inch concrete depression makes it possible 
 to water the cows in their stalls. When it is desired to 
 clean the manger, the hooks are unfastened and the sec- 
 tions turned over, thus leaving the entire manger clear 
 for cleaning. 
 
 Gutters. These should be about 15 inches wide and 
 four inches deep. A greater depth is liable to injure the 
 cows when they happen to slip into the gutter. More- 
 over any extra depth means just so much more lifting 
 
96 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 in removing the manure. Gutters should be perfectly- 
 tight to prevent loss of liquid manure. 
 
 Ventilation. The best method of stable ventilation 
 is that devised by F. H. King. The essential features 
 of this method are the admission of the fresh air near 
 the ceiling, and the withdrawal of the impure air from 
 near the floor, as illustrated in Figs. 24 and 25. The 
 object of admitting the cold, fresh air near the ceiling 
 is to warm it before reaching the cows, by contact with 
 the warm air at the ceiling. By having the main air 
 exits near the floor, less heat will be lost than would be 
 the case if the exits were placed at the ceiling; besides 
 it is argued that a considerable amount of the impurities 
 of the air are found at the floor to -which the cows' breath 
 is constantly directed. Recent experiments seem to in- 
 dicate, however, that at least so far as carbonic acid gas 
 is concerned, most of this gas is found at the ceiling. 
 
 Whether most of the impurities are. found at the ceil- 
 ing or at the floor, it seems advisable to reinforce the 
 exits at the floor, by placing a ventilator opening pro- 
 vided with a register at the middle of the ceiling so 
 that some air may be withdrawn from this point. Dur- 
 ing very cold weather it may be desirable to reduce this 
 exit to a minimum by closing the register, but during 
 warm weather, or when it is desired to lower the barn 
 temperature, it should be opened entirely. By having 
 one large opening at the middle of the ceiling, there is 
 less likelihood of removing any fresh, incoming air than 
 would be the case if numerous smaller exits were placed 
 near the wall and opening into the same shaft that takes 
 up the floor air, an arrangement not infrequently recom- 
 mended and used. 
 
 The number and location of inlets and outlets (except 
 
THH DAIRY HBRD 97 
 
 .' 
 the outlet at the ceiling) are shown in Fig. i8. Numer- 
 ous small inlets have the advantage of causing a better 
 .distribution of the. cold, incoming air than could be se- 
 cured by fewer, but larger openings. 
 
 -On the other hand, the outlets should be few and com- 
 paratively large, which will aid in creating -draft. 
 
 The fresh air intakes consist of air-tight shafts with 
 cross-sectional areas of about 50 square inches. The 
 shafts are built right in the wall, and open near the 
 floor on the outside and near the ceiling on the inside. 
 It is absolutely necessary to have the outside openings 
 at least several feet below the inside openings, otherwise 
 the warm inside air would rush out instead of the cold, 
 outside air going ifl. 
 
 The main air outlets may be placed where they are 
 least troublesome. In the barn plans herewith presented, 
 they are placed in the box stalls and communicate with 
 the main barn floor by means of registers in the wall. 
 
 The size of these registers is that of the cross-sectional 
 area of the shafts. 
 
 To secure effective work with the King system of 
 ventilation three things are essential: (i) to have the 
 ventilating shafts air-tight; (2) to have the outlet shafts 
 extend to the highest point of the barn; and (3) to have 
 the barn as nearly air-tight as possible. 
 
 Hay Loft. With a perfectly tight ceiling and with 
 the hay chute in the feed room, there is no objection 
 whatever to having a loft above the stable for the stor- 
 age of roughage. Indeed such a loft has two distinct 
 advantages: it helps to keep the stable vvarm and re- 
 duces the labor in feeding. 
 
 Doors. Two doors should be provided at either end 
 cf the barn, as shown in Fig. 18. The outside doors 
 
98 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 may be of the roller type, but on the inside it is desir- 
 able to have swing doors. The latter fit tighter and thus 
 aid in making the barn warmer during the winter. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 BOX 
 STALL 
 
 fe.e.di;Vg alley 
 
 NCER IZi a. 
 
 CpVr 3TAL1S 3M».» /t-A. 
 
 ALLEV 
 
 CAL.VES 
 
 CE./4TRAL DRIVEWAYS' 
 
 NUAlHSER IZJfe 
 
 C ^'W £ T. M.L, 3 C A <^/i 
 
 FEEDING ALLEY 
 
 CALVES 
 
 HOR JES 
 
 HO !3£ 
 
 ALL.EY 3' 
 
 Combination Barn. (From Hoard's Dairyman.) 
 
 A "Switch" Board; This is an invention of Math. 
 Michels on whose farm it has proven an absolute protec- 
 tion to the milker against the cow's switch (tail) during 
 fly season. It consists of an inch board, 8 inches wide 
 and 4 feet long suspended from a wire. The latter runs 
 close behind the cows and is fastened about 6J^ feet 
 above the floor. The board slides on the wire and is 
 pushed right opposite the milker. 
 
 Any farmer can fix up a board of this kind at a trifling 
 expense and positively protect himself from any annoy- 
 ance from the cow's switch during milking. 
 
 A Cheap Home Made StalL Stanchion supports are 
 made by running two 2x6-inch planks along both the bot- 
 tom and top of the stanchion and supporting the whole 
 structure by placing 2x6-inch planks upright, in front of 
 each partition. The lower end of these upright planks is 
 
TUB DAIRY HERD 
 
 99 
 
 embedded in the concrete floor while the upper end is 
 fastened to the ceiHng. 
 
 Fig. 26.— A Cheap Home-made Stall. 
 
 Partitions are made of 1^4 -inch gas pipes cut into 
 proper lengths and then bent. One end of the pipe is 
 double threaded and fastened to the upright planks by 
 means of locknuts. The other end is embedded in the 
 concrete floor. See Fig. 26. 
 
100 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 A Good Milk Stool. 
 
 Showing Board Platform Fastened to 2X4's Embedded in the Concrete. 
 
 Cross-Section of Bam Floor. 
 
THH DAIRY HERD 
 
 100a 
 
 DESCRIPTION Olf MODEL DAIRY BARN. 
 
 The plans here presented are for a barn to be used 
 exclusively for dairy purposes. The first story or cow 
 stable is built of concrete one foot thick, heavily rein- 
 
 ^i fPSf : r>^ 
 
 :^^^m^^m^^^ 
 
 Cross-section. 
 
 forced and provided with 48 windows. These windows 
 have each 9 panes 9x12 inches which afford ample light 
 required for all purposes. The windows are hinged at 
 the bottom, thus permitting them to swing in at the top. 
 
100b 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 a a 
 
 oiS 
 
 O u 
 
 ^ o 
 
 CO o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 lOOc 
 
 The second story has a hay storage capacity of 240 
 tons, and is of the plank frame, gambrel-roof style, which 
 is almost entirely used nowadays in barn construction. 
 
 The inside dimensions of this barn are 36x122 feet. 
 The cows face out and there is an eigjit-foot space 
 through the center of the barn which will permit re- 
 
 2"x/2] z'xe 
 
 ^ 
 
 FfTI 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
 ■68- 
 
 lex; 
 
 End Elevation. 
 
 moving the manure from the barn with the manure 
 spreader. 
 
 At the south end of the barn there are" three rooms,, 
 two small ones and one large one. One small room is 
 used for temporary storage of milk and for keeping milk 
 records and composite sample bottles. It also contains 
 racks for pails and cans. This room is 8x12 feet and 
 occupies the southeast corner of the barn. Adjoining this 
 
lOOd DAIRY FARMING 
 
 room is one 10x12 feet, in which there is a hay chute and 
 a 2x2 feet ventilator exit which communicates with the 
 main barn by means of a register. This room is also 
 used for storage of barn tools, salt, etc. 
 
 Opposite these, two rooms is one 12x18 feet provided 
 with two feed spouts which convey the feed from two 
 large storage bins overhead. This room also contains a 
 hay chute and a 2x2 feet ventilator exit. This room may 
 be used as a storage for various barn supplies. 
 
 There are forty cow stalls with platforms ranging in 
 length from 4 feet 4 inches to 4 feet 10 inches. This will 
 accommodate both large and small cows. The platform on 
 one side of the barn has a length of 4 feet 4 inches at 
 one end and 4 feet 10 inches on the other, while the plat- 
 form on the opposite side has a uniform length' of 4 feet 
 6 inches. For Holstein-Friesian cows the platforms 
 should be three to four inches longer. The stalls are all 
 three and one-half feet wide. At the north end of the 
 barn there are two large box stalls and also two calf 
 pens provided with stanchions. These stalls and pens 
 are constructed of galvanized iron pipe held together at 
 the top by means of 4x4's. 
 
 There is drainage from the mangers, the feeding alleys 
 and the gutters. The main drains consist of 4-inch sewer 
 tile and are connected with bell traps placed in the middle 
 of the feeding alleys, mangers and gutters. These bell 
 traps are provided with both perforated and solid covers. 
 The perforated ones are used only when washing the 
 barn and when emptying surplus water from the mangers 
 after watering the cows. The illustration shows the water 
 connected to one end of the concrete manger, and the 
 cows are watered in thei manger during the winter. 
 
 The manger is three feet wide across the top, two feet 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 lOOe 
 
 deep and provided with movable iron partitions, which 
 can readily be thrown out when it is desired to clean the 
 manger. There is a ledge at the top of the manger which 
 projects in about three inches, and this is a very valuable 
 adjunct to the manger because it will prevent cows 
 scooping their feed out. 
 
 A feature which III— 11 | | 11 11 1 1 [ I Imhi — |hT^^Qj 
 should be especially 
 noted in this barn is 
 the perfectly smooth 
 walls as shown in 
 the illustration. The 
 window frames fit 
 flush with the con- 
 crete walls, thus 
 preventing lodgment 
 of dust. It will also 
 be noticed that the 
 barn is provided 
 with electric lights 
 and a complete sys- 
 tem of feed and lit- 
 ter carriers. S*"*' Elevation. 
 
 The King system of ventilation is in use in this barn. 
 There are i6 inlets consisting of 5-inch sewer tile, 8 on 
 each side of the barn. The air is carried out by three 
 ventilating shafts, each two feet square. One of these 
 ventilating shafts is a continuation of the silage chute, 
 the construction of which will readily be understood from 
 the following: 
 
 The two concrete silos shown in the illustration are 
 joined to the northeast corner of the barn. The reason 
 for placing these silos at this point is to prevent their 
 
lOOf 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 obscuring any light, and to make possible a drive through 
 the center of the barn. By joining the silos we save the 
 expense of a silage chute, because the junction of the 
 silos with the barn forms a chute which, as has been 
 stated, is also used as a ventilating exit. The warm air 
 passing through this chute will prevent silage freezing 
 
 view Showing Construction of Box Stalls and Calf Pens. 
 
 in the silo in the winter. The silage chute is also used 
 as a hay chute. While the northeast corner appears to 
 be rather an exposed situation for silos, it should be 
 borne in mind that one of the silos is entirely on the east 
 side and is protected on the north and northwest by the 
 other silo. We use the protected silo for winter feeding 
 and the other for summer feeding. 
 
THE DAIRY HERD IQQg 
 
 It should be added that there is a perfectly air-tight 
 ceiling in this barn, which is a necessity where the clean- 
 est milk is to be produced. From a sanitary aspect the 
 barn compares favorably with any in the country, and 
 from the standpoint of cheapness, convenience and per- 
 manency the barn affords many features which are 
 worthy of emulation by farmers. 
 
 A brief statement is herewith appended showing the 
 cost of the barn and the two silos. This statement in- 
 cludes everything but the hauling of the gravel. 
 
 COST OF DAIRY BARN AND SILOS. 
 
 Carpenter work, including work on 
 
 silos $730.00 
 
 Concrete work, cow stable and silos 703.00 
 
 Labor digging foundation 25.00 
 
 Lumber, excepting doors and win- 
 dows 1,702.00 
 
 Cement, 437 bbls. at $1.25 546.00 
 
 Windows (50) and doors 136.00 
 
 Stalls for 40 cows, carriers including 
 feed, manure, and hay carriers, 
 
 and all tracks 430.00 
 
 Two box stalls and two calf pens, 
 
 made of gas pipe 90.00 
 
 Plumbing and gasoline 215.00 
 
 Painting of barn, two coats 140.00 
 
 Cost of plastering small rooms 52.00 
 
 Electric wiring 42.00 
 
 Eaves Troughs 24.00 
 
 Miscellaneous 50.00 
 
 — ■ $4,885.00 
 
lOOh DAIRY FARMING 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 From the standpoint of comfort, safety, convenience 
 and sanitation, electricity furnishes the best light that can 
 be obtained for farm uses. The cost, too, is very reason- 
 able considering the advantages gained. Hundreds of 
 dairy farms are now producing their own electric light 
 
 Note Smooth Walls and Manger. 
 
 and the rapidly increasing popularity of this system of 
 illumination fully attests its value for farm purposes. 
 
 Undoubtedly one thing that has stimulated the use of 
 electric light on dairy farms is the fact that most of 
 these farms are equipped with gasoline engines and the 
 further fact that the electricity may be produced and 
 stored at the same time that the gasoline engine is separat- 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 lOOi 
 
 ing milk, pumping water and doing other farm work. 
 Then, too, the large amount of stable work on dairy 
 farms makes electric light especially desirable on such 
 farms. No matter how conveniently a stable may be 
 arranged otherwise, it is an uncomfortable place to work 
 in when poorly lighted. Again the element of safety 
 
 View Showing Interior Construction. 
 
 from fire which electricity assures, cannot well be ignored. 
 Furthermore, of all lights, electricity is the only one 
 that does not consume oxygen. This is a matter of no 
 small importance, especially in dwellings where large 
 quantities of oxygen are taken out of the air during long 
 winter evenings when kerosene, gasoline or acetylene 
 are burned. As to the matter of convenience little need 
 
lOOj 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 be said here as most people are familiar with the great 
 advantages offered by electricity in this respect. 
 
 Apparatus Required, An electric lighting equipment 
 consists of a generator or dynamo, some motive power 
 such as a gasoline engine, a storage battery and a switch- 
 board. The generator or dynamo produces the electric 
 current and requires as a rule from two to three horse 
 power to operate it. The storage battery stores the elec- 
 tricity for future use, thus making it possible to obtain 
 electric light when the dynamo is not running. The 
 switchboard controls the electric current and shows the 
 voltage of the storage battery and the rate at which 
 electricity is being supplied to, and taken away from, the 
 battery. 
 
 When purchasing a gasoline engine for farm use, it is 
 wise to consider the possible future use of electric light 
 so that enough power may be had to generate electricity 
 when a plant is finally installed. 
 
 It is desirable to place the dynamo, battery and switch- 
 board reasonably close together and a clean, dry place 
 must be selected for them. The storage battery must be 
 placed where there is no danger from frost. A storage 
 battery will prove more efficient at 65 to 70° F. than at 
 lower temperatures. 
 
 Wiring the Buildings. A barn may be wired at any 
 time for electric light, but a house should be wired at 
 the time it is built so that the wires may be concealed. 
 Many also prefer to conceal the wires in the barn. Those 
 who are going to build dwellings in the near future 
 should not fail to consider the possibility of using electric 
 light so that the wires may be properly installed. "It is 
 important, too, to get the right sized wire. The size of 
 the wire is determined by the voltage (electric pressure) 
 
THE DAIRY EBRD IQOk 
 
 and the distance the electric current is to be carried. 
 Farm Hghting plants are usually of the low voltage type, 
 36 volts being common, though higher voltage may often 
 be carried to advantage, especially when the current is 
 to be carried a long distance. The lower the voltage and 
 the longer the distance the current is to be carried, the 
 heavier the wires required. 
 
 Selecting an Outfit. There are many different kinds 
 of electrical equipments to be had for farm lighting and 
 careful study of them should be made before purchasing 
 an outfit. Usually all the electricity for lighting purposes 
 is stored in the battery at the time the gasoline engine is 
 doing the regular farm work, such as separating milk, 
 pumping water, etc., and the size of the dynamo should 
 be such that the battery may be sufificiently charged while 
 this work is being done. Too much emphasis cannot be 
 laid upon the importance of getting an outfit of ample 
 capacity. A fifty-light plant is none too large for an 
 average dairy farm, and the dynamo and battery should 
 be large enough to keep up tha supply of electricity with 
 two or three hours daily charging of the batteries. 
 
 In purchasing an outfit, get a guarantee on the whole 
 plant, and especially on the lasting quality of the battery 
 and on the time required daily to keep the batteries 
 charged. 
 
 Operation of Platit. It should be remembered that 
 the dynamo produces the electric current, which, for con- 
 venience, is stored in the storage battery. Without a 
 storage battery it would be necessary to run the dynamo 
 whenever light is required and this would obviously be 
 undesirable. The dynamo should be run and electricity 
 stored at the time the gasoline engine is doing other 
 farm work. This reduces the expense of power and time 
 
1001 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 to minimum. Indeed under these conditions the plant 
 will require very little attention. 
 
 Complete specifications and directions for operating an 
 electric plant are furnished by the manufacturer with 
 each plant. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 . HANDI<ING IfARM MANURE. 
 
 Value of Manure Per Cowi The value of the 
 manure from a cow depends primarily upon the char- 
 acter of the feed suppHed her. Feeds rich in fertiHzing 
 constituents will produce manure correspondingly rich 
 in them. On an average 75% of the fertilizing con- 
 stituents in feeds are recovered in the manure. The 
 Cornell station finds that the value of the manure from 
 cows averaging 1000 pounds live weight, is $29.27 per 
 cow per year. This may be regarded as a very fair 
 average. 
 
 Relative Value of Liquid and Solid Manure. The 
 urine, as a rule, is much richer in fertilizing constituents 
 than the dung. It contains more than half the nitrogen 
 and nearly all of the potash voided by the animal. Prac- 
 tically all of the phosphoric acid, however, is found in 
 the solid excreta. The fact that the larger portion of 
 the fertilizing constituents is found in the urine, empha- 
 sizes the importance of carefully saving all this portion 
 of the voidings. 
 
 How to Save the Urine. To save all of the liquid 
 manure, it is necessary, in the first place, to have water- 
 tight gutters and floors. Nothing is better in this respect 
 than concrete. 
 
 The next requirement is a sufficient amount of clean, 
 porous bedding to absorb all of the liquid. Straw, 
 especially if cut up somewhat, makes excellent bedding 
 
 101 
 
102 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 material. It is clean and holds a great deal of moisture. 
 Planer shavings also answer the purpose satisfactorily. 
 
 In addition to this it is desirable to use some powdered 
 absorbents like ground phosphate rock and gypsum. 
 These materials not only absorb moisture but also absorb 
 ammonia as it is liberated from the manure, thus saving 
 valuable volatile manurial constituents and at the same 
 time purifying the air of the barn. 
 
 Sources of Loss of Manurial Constituents. Losses 
 of manurial constituents may be considered under two 
 heads: (i) those occasioned by leaching, and (2) those 
 caused by bacterial action or fermentation processes. " 
 Where no precaution against leaching and fermentation 
 are taken, more than half the value of the manure is 
 easily lost. 
 
 Loss Through Leatching. Experiments have shown 
 that manure as ordinarily placed in a pile will lose about 
 50% of its value when left exposed to the weather for a 
 period of six months. Every rain washes a certain per- 
 centage of the soluble manurial constituents away from 
 the pile. That heavy losses occur in this way is evident 
 from the dark liquor which runs away from a manure 
 heap that has been exposed to the rain. Frequently for 
 convenience of handling, the manure is piled close to the 
 barn and directly under the eaves, where the amount 
 of water that pours over it becomes very considerable 
 
 Losses from leaching can be entirely avoided by placing 
 the manure in a shallow concrete pit provided with a roof. 
 Even the concrete floor may be done away with if the 
 ground is clayey, closely packed and so sloped that no 
 water from without can drain into the pit. No farmer 
 can afford to be without a covered storage for manure. 
 
THE DAIRY HERD 103 
 
 Losses Through Fermentation. Manure is a medium 
 exceedingly rich in bacterial* life. Many species of bac- 
 teria are at work decomposing the organic matter, break- 
 ing up higher compounds into lower compounds and 
 accomplishing what is ordinarily designated the rotting 
 of the manure. In the fermentation or rotting process 
 ■ the nitrogen compounds are broken up into ammonia, 
 which readily escapes from the manure pile. Evidence 
 of such escape is found in the ammoniacal odors that 
 emanate from loosely packed manure, such, for example, 
 as that procured from horses. 
 
 This ammoniacal fermentation can be largely reduced 
 by packing the manure tight so as to exclude the air 
 as much as possible. Most of the bacteria concerned in 
 the liberation of ammonia must have air for their devel- 
 opment, and hence their action is reduced in proportion 
 as the air is excluded from the manure heap. 
 
 On the other hand, some species of bacteria con- 
 cerned in the liberation of nitrogen, namely, the denit- 
 rifying bacteria, require no air for their growth and 
 development. Yet the loss from this class of bacteria 
 is relatively so small that, while the exclusion of air 
 favors their development, every effort should be made to 
 keep the manure heap as air-tight as possible, so as to 
 minimize the loss from the air-loving bacteria. 
 
 Ammonia or Nitrogen "Fixers." While the loss of 
 ammonia from the manure heap can be materially reduced 
 by tight packing, more or less of it is bound to be formed 
 under the best packing possible. To prevent the escape 
 of this ammonia it is necessary to add to the manure 
 sbmething which will "fix" or hold the ammonia. Mate- 
 rials used for this purpose are known as nitrogen or am- 
 
 * For deflnltion of bacteria, see page 146. 
 
104 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 monia fixers. Ground phosphate rock and gypsum are 
 excellent materials to use for this purpose. These ma- 
 terials should be added to the gutter in the barn, since 
 they not only act as ammonia fixers, but are also excellent 
 absorbents. On the whole the ground phosphate rock 
 is preferable to the gypsum. The latter is sulphate of 
 lime, and is commonly known as land plaster. Dry earth 
 containing a great deal of humus is also valuable as 
 an absorbent and ammonia fixer. 
 
 Hauling Manure Directly Upon the Land^ If the 
 manure can be hauled upon ground where there is no 
 danger of its being washed away, the most economical 
 plan is to spread it upon the land as quickly as it is 
 formed. Under such conditions there will be practically 
 no loss from leaching and fermentation, and, moreover, 
 what is of no little importance, the manure is handled 
 with the least amount of labor. As a rule it is safest 
 to spread the manure upon some growing crop. 
 
 Manure Carriers. A convenient and labor-saving 
 piece of apparatus upon a dairy farm is an elevated 
 manure carrier like that shown on page 90. The con- 
 venience afforded by a carrier is especially great during 
 the winter, when much manure must be removed from 
 the barn. 
 
 Manure Spreaders, No dairy farmer can afford to 
 be without a manure spreader. It quickly pays for itself 
 in the saving of labor and has the additional advantage of 
 insuring an even distribution of manure on the field. 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 105 
 
 o 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 POWER ON THE FARM. 
 
 The use of some fortn of power upon farms has fre- 
 quently been recommended in the past, but never before 
 has its use been more urgent than at the present time. 
 The increasing scarcity of labor, the rapid increase of 
 hand separators and silos, and the general convenience 
 it affords, have made power an actual necessity upon 
 progressive dairy farms. 
 
 The kind of power needed upon a dairy farm depends 
 upon certain conditions. If a tread power is used for 
 exercising the bull, this will serve satisfactorily for sep- 
 arating milk, pumping water, arid doing other light work. 
 Where a milk house is used and butter is made upon the 
 farm a small steam engine may be made to do any light 
 work economically. But the use of either the tread power 
 or the small steam engine fails to provide the necessary 
 power for cutting corn for the silo, sawing wood, grind- 
 ing feed, or doing other heavy work. 
 
 Every modern dairy farm must have a silo, and it is 
 at silo filling time that we usually experience the great- 
 est need for some form of power. With none of our own 
 we are obliged to hire or borrow, a practice which often 
 compels us to wait till the corn is past its prime. More- 
 over it is frequently impossible to hire power, no matter 
 how much we may wish to do so. Where good silage is 
 desired it should be made at the proper time, and this 
 can be done with certainty only when we own the power. 
 
 Where power for the heavier work can not be con- 
 
 106 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 
 
 107 
 
 veniently hired or borrowed, it is believed that the best 
 solution for the farm power problem is the gasoline en- 
 gine. Such an engine can be used for a great variety of 
 purposes and practically every day of the year. 
 
 Besides running the ensilage cutter, cream separator 
 and possibly a milking machine, the engine may be used 
 to pump water, to run the washing machine, corn sheller, 
 grindstone, saw, churn and grist mill. When placed as 
 
 6RI6r MILL 
 
 if{W 
 
 ENGINE 
 
 SEPAR^TO/i 
 
 COUNTCR SHAFT' 
 
 d 
 
 GRIND CO/fAl 
 
 STO/\l£ ■SHEU.CR 
 
 vnasH nACHiNe 
 
 Big. 28.— Possible Uses of Gasoline Engine. 
 
 shown in Fig. 28 several of these machines may be run 
 at the same time. 
 
 Many dairy farmers have felt justified in going to the 
 expense of purchasing gasoline power solely for running 
 the cream separator. For this purpose a two-horse power 
 engine suffices; but it would be greater economy to in- 
 crease the original outlay somewhat and sec.ure an eight- 
 horse power engine, one that could be used for the heavier 
 
108 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 work of cutting ensilage and corn stover, as well as run- 
 ning a saw and grist mill. 
 
 This is an age of machinery, and we believe the time 
 is not far distant when the farmer will make use of 
 power whenever this can be made to take the place of 
 hired labor. Power will not only afford greater con- 
 venience but will curtail the running expenses of the 
 farm. 
 
 If, for example, we assume that one hour is required 
 daily in running the separator, and another in pump- 
 ing water for stock, the total time consumed in 
 this work in one year would be 730 hours, or 73 days of 
 ID hours each. At $1 a day, the cost of separating and 
 pumping would amount to $73 a year. With a gasoline 
 engine running the pump and separator at the same 
 time, this work could be done in 365 hours. Allowing 
 6c per hour for gasoline arid oil, which is a high esti- 
 mate, the cost of doing the above work with an engine 
 would be $21.90, or less than one-third of what it can 
 be done for with hired labor. This saving is equivalent 
 to about 25 per cent on the investment of the engine, if 
 used for no other purpose than separating milk and 
 pumping water. 
 
 At silo filling time the engine should be mounted on 
 a suitable base near the silo, where it is expected to re- 
 main only during the filling of the silo. The remainder 
 of the year it may be placed as indicated in the above 
 illustration. 
 
 There are plenty of simple and smooth-running gaso- 
 line engines upon the. market, and in purchasing care 
 should be taken to get one in which these two qualities 
 are most conspicuous. 
 
 A possible objection to the use of gasoline engines for 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 109 
 
 dairy purposes is the trouble from gas odor where there 
 is any tendency to laxness in the care of machinery. 
 Where precautions are taken against leakage of gas or 
 gasoline, and where the exhaust is properly conducted 
 away, there should be no trouble from gas odors. 
 
 The fuel cost of running a gasoline engine may be 
 stated as follows: When gasoline is worth loc per 
 gallon, gasoline power will cost ic per brake horse 
 power per hour. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 DISEASES AND AILMENTS Olf DAIRY CATTLE. 
 
 Prevention. The old adage, "An ounce of preven- 
 tion is worth a pound of cure," is as true to-day as 
 ever. The common ailments with which cattle are 
 afflicted can be largely prevented by correct feeding, 
 comfortable and sanitary housing, gentle treatment, and 
 by using every precaution possible against infection from 
 contagious diseases. 
 
 Digestive disorders are the result of injudicious feed- 
 ing, and these may be the forerunner of a retinue of 
 various other disorders. Exposure to severe cold and 
 cold rains, and confinement in foul and unventilated 
 stables are predisposing causes to various diseases. Many 
 ailments are caused, either directly or indirectly, by al- 
 lowing cows to lie on cold concrete floors, by chasing 
 with dogs and by compelling them to walk and stand on 
 slippery, highly inclined floors. 
 
 Great aid has Taeen rendered in the prevention of dis- 
 eases through the rapid development of medical science 
 in pointing out the nature and causes of the various dis- 
 eases with which cattle are afflicted. Every dairyman 
 should have an intelligent understanding of the role 
 which bacteria (for definition of bacteria see p. 146) 
 play in the dissemination of diseases which could be 
 largely avoided by proper quarantine and methods of 
 disinfection. 
 
 Quarantine and Disinfection. By quarantining is 
 meant the separation of the diseased from the undiseased 
 
 110 
 
THB DAIRY HERD HI 
 
 animals. If an animal is known to be affected with some 
 transmissible disease, its prompt removal will usually 
 spare the rest of the animals in the herd from the dis- 
 ease, especially if such removal is accompanied by proper 
 methods of disinfection. The latter refers to the destruc- 
 tion of the causal agents of the disease by the use of 
 germicides or disinfectants, substances which have the 
 power of killing bacteria and allied organisms. 
 
 Disinfectants. The following is a list of well-known 
 disinfectants : 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 7' 
 8 
 
 Boiling water applied for 20 minutes. 
 A 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. 
 A 2 per cent solution of zenolium. 
 A 2 per cent solution of chloro-naptholeum. 
 A 5 per cent solution of copper sulfate. 
 A solution of 1-2000 of mercuric chloride. 
 A 2 per cent solution of creolin. 
 A i-iooo solution of chlorid of zinc 
 
 Purgatives. A purgative is a substance used to in- 
 duce action of the bowels. Amqng the common purga- 
 tives the following may be mentioned: i to 2 pints of 
 raw linseed oil; a mixture of i pound of Epsom salts 
 and I to 2 ounces of ginger dissolved in 2 pints of warm 
 water; i potind of Glauber salts dissolved in water; or 
 I pint of castor oil. 
 
 As a rule the best thing to do at the first signs of ill,- 
 ness, such as loss of appetite, failure to chew the cud, 
 dull eyes, dry muzzle, parched skin, rough coat, etc., 
 is to administer a good purgative. This alone is fre- 
 quently sufficient to relieve the trouble. 
 
112 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 MILK FEVER. 
 
 Causes. Overfeeding, lack of exercise, impure air, 
 constipation, and drinking cold water are common causes 
 of milk fever. Withdrawing all the milk from the udder 
 during the first 24 hours after calving is claimed to be 
 conducive to the disease. Furthermore, heavy milkers 
 are far more subject to the disease than medium or small 
 milkers. 
 
 Symptoms. Restlessness followed by a weakening of 
 the muscles, causing the animal finally to stagger and 
 fall. The cow usually lies on her breast bone with her 
 head completely drawn around to one side. The udder 
 becomes soft and empty, pulse weak and rapid, the tem- 
 perature falls below normal, and the animal may become 
 completely unconscious. 
 
 Treatment. Fortunately there is available now a very 
 simple, sure, and inexpensive treatment for milk fever. 
 The treatment consists itt filling the udder with sterile 
 air by means of a syringe which draws the air through 
 a tube containing absorbent cotton. Such a syringe can 
 be obtained at very small cost from the manufacturers 
 who advertise extensively through the dairy press, and 
 every dairyman should possess one so as to be prepared 
 to meet emergencies promptly. 
 
 Before injecting the air, the hands, teats, udder, and 
 the tube that is to be inserted into the teats, should be 
 carefully disinfected. This done, each quarter of the 
 udder is thoroughly inflated with air, kneading and rub- 
 bing the udder as much as possible during the process 
 to secure a thorough and rapid diffusion of the air. As 
 soon as each quarter is filled, a wide band is tied around 
 the top of the teat to prevent leakage of air. These 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 113 
 
 bands should not be drawn any tighter than necessary 
 and may be removed soon after the cow gets on her feet. 
 Repeat the treatment if necessary. 
 
 The treatment above described usually brings relief 
 within a few hours. In a number of emergencies cows- 
 have been successfully treated by pumping unfiltered air 
 into the udder with a bicycle pump ; but this is liable to 
 result in serious infection of the udder and should be 
 practiced only in an emergency. 
 
 The injection of a gallon of warm, soapy water into 
 the rectum is also desirable. Never administer drenches 
 when the animal is partially unconscious. 
 
 ABORTION. 
 
 By abortion is meant the premature birth of the calf. 
 Two forms of this ailment are common: (i) con- 
 tagious abortion caused by bacteria; and (2) accidental 
 abortion caused by a serious nervous shock. The latter 
 may result from external or internal injuries, drinking 
 cold or stagnant water, bad nutrition, exposure to in- 
 clement weather, impure atmosphere, and various con- 
 stitutional diseases. Whenever abortions occur appar- 
 ently without cause, they should be treated as contagious. 
 
 Contagious Abortion. This is a very menacing dis- 
 ease among dairy cattle. It is caused by bacteria which 
 find their way into the reproductive organs. The disease 
 can be successfully combatted only by rigid methods of 
 disinfection and prompt quarantining of the aborting 
 animals. The dead offspring, afterbirth, and stable litter 
 should at once be burned, or buried and covered with 
 quick lime. The stalls and walls should be washed with 
 a I -1000 solution of corrosive sublimate, while the floor 
 may be disinfected with a liberal amount of quick lime. 
 
114 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 The vagina and uterus should be thoroughly disinfected 
 daily with chlorid of zinc, creolin, or corrosive sublimate 
 solution of proper strength until the cow ceases discharg- 
 ing. The same antiseptic treatment should be applied 
 frequently to the external genitals and adjacent region 
 of uninfected cows. If the afterbirth is retained longer 
 than 24 hours it should be removed by hand. 
 
 Cows that have aborted should not be bred until they 
 have ceased discharging, and it is important to keep them 
 from the rest of the herd until they have dropped a full- 
 grown calf. 
 
 A prolific means of spreading the infection of this dis- 
 ease is the bull. A bull that has served infected cows 
 will infect other cows he serves unless his penis and 
 sheath have been thoroughly disinfected. One to two 
 quarts of 2 per cent coal tar disinfectant worked up into 
 the sheath will answer the purpose satisfactorily. 
 
 GARGET. 
 
 Causes. Injuries of the udder, overfeeding, exposure 
 to severe cold, overcrowdings of the udder by skipping a 
 milking, and germ infection. 
 
 Symptoms. Watery, stringy milk, frequently contain- 
 ing blood; swelling and hardening of one, two, or all 
 quarters of the udder, which has a more or less reddish, 
 inflamed appearance; and the formation of pus in the 
 more advanced stages. 
 
 Treatment. Give ij4 pounds of Epsom salts and i 
 ounce of ginger, dissolved in a quart of tepid water. Sup- 
 port the udder by means of a wide bandage tied at the 
 top line of the animal, and pack a layer of bran between 
 the bandage and the diseased portion of the udder. Heat 
 the bran by pouring hot water over it. The hot water 
 
THB DAIRY EBRD 115 
 
 treatment should be repeated at short intervals and should 
 be followed by thorough rubbing of the udder with lard 
 or raw linseed oil, a treatment which may be continued 
 to advantage for 20 minutes. The rubbing materially 
 relieves the swelling and stimulates the secretion of milk. 
 It is important also to milk the diseased quarter or quar- 
 ters clean at short intervals. The air treatment for milk 
 fever has also been recommended for garget. 
 
 NON-INFECTIOUS "calf SCOURS." 
 
 Causes. Feeding cold, dirty, old, or too much, milk; 
 drinking cold or impure water; irregularities in feeding; 
 feeding from unscalded buckets ; and confinement in dark, 
 cold, or filthy stalls. 
 
 Treatment. Reduce the amount of milk; feed the 
 milk fresh and at body temperature; feed not less than 
 three times a day, and use only clean, sterilized milk 
 buckets. Give only pure water at body temperature, and 
 add formalin to the milk in the proportion of one part 
 formalin to 4,000 parts of milk imtil the diarrhea or 
 '"scours" is checked. The scouring is usually due to the 
 action of fermentative or putrefactive bacteria which are 
 killed or checked by the action of the formalin. 
 
 INFECTIOUS "calf scours." 
 
 This disease is commonly known as white scours and 
 is caused by bacteria. It affects calves usually from a 
 few hours to a few days old, and is very fatal.. The dis- 
 charges are usually of a rather light color and have an 
 offensive odor. Medicine is of little avail. The disease 
 must therefore be combatted by methods of prevention. 
 Washing the vagina of the cow with disinfectant solu- 
 tion shortly before calving, disinfecting the navel of the 
 
116 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 new-born calf at short intervals for a few days, and plac- 
 ing the calf in a disinfected stall, are good measures of 
 prevention. 
 
 INDIGESTION. 
 
 Causes. Overfeeding; feeding too much coarse, indi- 
 gestible feed ; sudden changes of feed ; stale, moldy, frosted 
 or decomposing feeds; irregularities of feeding; and lack 
 of exercise. 
 
 Symptoms. Loss of appetite, suspended rumination, 
 dull, sickly appearance, and usually constipation. 
 
 Treatment. Feed light ration containing laxative and 
 green feeds, such as linseed meal, pasture, roots, silage, 
 etc. Supply plenty of water and give i to ij4 pounds 
 of Epsom salts and i ounce ginger, or i to 2 pints of 
 raw linseed oil, according to the degree of constipation. 
 
 RETENTION Olf AFTERBIRTH. 
 
 If the afterbirth does not come away within 48 hours 
 it should be removed by hand. Carefully disinfect the 
 hand and arm, grease the same and insert into the womb, 
 where the afterbirth must be carefully loosened from the 
 button-like projections to which it is attached. As soon 
 as removed, flush out the vagina and womb with warm 
 disinfectant solution. 
 
 When cows are provided with laxative feed and warm 
 water shortly before and after calving, the afterbirth will 
 almost always drop away in due time. If the bowels are 
 not perfectly loose at calving time, administer a purga- 
 tive. 
 
 The retention of the afterbirth for a longer period than 
 48 hours will cause it gradually to decompose and slough 
 off, causing a foul discharge from the vagina and seri- 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 117 
 
 ously impairing the health of the animal. Blood poison- 
 ing may also result from the prolonged retention of the 
 afterbirth. 
 
 INVERSION 0? THE WOMB. 
 
 Severe straining after calving may cause the further 
 portion of the womb to protrude through the opening 
 leading into it, thus causing an inversion of the organ. 
 In this inverted condition a portion or all of it may pass 
 out of the vagina. As soon as this is noticed, wash and 
 disinfect the protruded portion and push it back into its 
 normal position. This done, apply a truss or pessary to 
 hold the womb in position until the straining or expul- 
 sive movements cease. 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 Cause. This disease is caused by a specific organism 
 known as the tubercle bacillus. The germs are commonly 
 inhaled, though they may also be taken into the body 
 through the food. Unsanitary stabling, lack of nourish- 
 ment, and inherent constitutional weakness, are greatly 
 responsible for the prevalence of this disease. 
 
 Symptoms. A short cough, enlargement of the lymph 
 glands at the throat, emaciation, and a general unthrifty 
 appearance. In its early stages it is difficult, however, to 
 detect the disease except by the tuberculin test. 
 
 The Tuberculin Test. The usefulness of this test as 
 a diagnostic agent rests upon the fact that when a sub- 
 stance called "tuberculin" is injected under the skin of 
 an animal, the injection is followed by a rise of tempera- 
 ture in infected animals, while in those unaffected the 
 temperature remains the same. It must be added, how- 
 ever, that in the last stages of the disease, tuberculin fails 
 
118 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 as a diagnostic agent, but this is of little consequence 
 since the disease is readily recognized in these stages by 
 a physical examination. 
 
 Method of Making the Tuberculin Test. In making 
 this test the following particulars must be observed: 
 
 1. Secure the necessary tuberculin from the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 2. Secure a clinical thermometer, a sharp, hollow 
 needle, and a graduated, hypodermic syringe from deal- 
 ers in veterinary instruments. 
 
 3. Make the test during the cooler season of the year. 
 
 4. Do not test cows shortly before or after calving. 
 
 5. Do not test cows that are in heat, or suffering from 
 garget or other diseases. 
 
 6. Do not allow cows to drink very cold water. 
 
 7. Keep the animals in a normal condition as to feed, 
 confinement, etc., during the test. 
 
 8. Do not test animals which show a temperature as 
 high as 103" F. 
 
 Proceed with the test as follows : First ascertain the . 
 •normal temperature of the cows by holding a clinical 
 thermometer in the rectum for about five minutes. Three 
 observations are necessary: One at 6 a. m., another at 
 noon, and the last at 6 p. m. At 10 p. m., the same day, 
 inject under the skin at the neck or shoulder, 2 cubic 
 centimeters of tuberculin for animals of about 1,000 
 pounds live weight and proportionally more for heavier 
 cows. At 6 o'clock the next morning take the tempera- 
 ture again as before, but at intervals of two hours until 
 five or six readings ' have been taken. If the maximum 
 temperature after the injection is two or more degrees 
 higher than it was before the injection of the tuberculin, 
 the animal is considered tuberculous. If the rise of tern- 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 119 
 
 perature is one and a half degrees, the case may be con- 
 sidered suspicious. 
 
 The needle and place of injection should be disinfected, 
 and care should be exercised not to excite the cows dur- 
 ing any period of the test. Do not retest for tuberculosis 
 within 60 days. As a rule every cow in the herd should 
 be tested once a year for tuberculosis. 
 
 BARRENNESS. 
 
 Causes. Lack of exercise, improper feeding, in-and- 
 in breeding, closing of the mouth of the womb, and an 
 acid condition of the vagina. 
 
 Treatment. If over fat reduce the amount of feed and 
 give plenty of exercise. If the mouth of the womb is 
 closed, open by inserting the forefinger or by applying 
 solid extract of Belladonna to the part. An acid con- 
 dition of the vagina may be overcome by thorough syring- 
 ing with 2 per cent solution of bicarbonate of soda a 
 few hours previous to service. A treatment much recom- 
 mended lately is known as the yeast treatment and is 
 used as follows : Dissolve an ordinary compressed yeast 
 cake in a cup of warm water and allow to ferment. Add 
 this to a quart of warm water and use to wash out the 
 vagina some hours before service. The vagina should 
 be washed out with soapy water just previous to the 
 injection of the yeast solution. 
 
 BI,0AT OR HOVEN. 
 
 Causes. Overeating, suddenly turning cows on rich, 
 green feed, like clover pasture, and fermentation of the 
 feed. There is as a rule a great deal of gas produced, 
 causing a great distention <of the left side. 
 
 Treatment. Immediately place a gag in the mouth. 
 
120 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 and in mild cases, give an ounce of spirits of turpentine 
 and one-half pint of raw linseed oil. . Keep the animal 
 moving and pour cold water on the loins. When relief 
 comes, administer a purgative. 
 
 In severe cases tap the left side (paunch) with a 
 slender knife or a trocar. Tap at a point equidistant 
 from the point of the hip, the last . rib, and the spinal 
 column. 
 
 TEAT TROUBLES. 
 
 Hard Milkers. Hard milking is caused by too small 
 an opening in the teat. Enlarge the opening by using a 
 teat bistoury when the cow is in full flow of milk. 
 
 Sore or Chapped Teats. Due to exposure to cold, 
 wet weather and rough handling. Treat with lard or 
 vaseline. 
 
 Warts. May be removed by applying lunar caustic. 
 
 Closed or Obstructed Teats. Caused by injury or 
 clotted milk. Keep open by inserting a milk tube. • 
 
 Leaky Teats. Prevent unusual distention by milking 
 three or four times daily. If this is not sufficient, a fairly 
 tight fitting bandage, like the finger of a glove, may be 
 placed around the teat. 
 
 STRINGY OR ROPEY MILK. 
 
 This is due to certain species of bacteria which find 
 their way into the udder through the teats. These bac- 
 teria are associated with filth and the trouble must be 
 overcome by keeping cows away from filthy places. 
 This trouble should not be confused with garget. 
 
 BLOODY MILK. 
 
 This is usually due to an injury to the udder. Bathe 
 the udder with hot water and apply lard. 
 
THB DAIRY HERD 121 
 
 SELF-SUCKING COWS. 
 Prevent by putting a halter on the cow with a strong, 
 stiff piece of leather running over the nose. Fill this 
 strip of leather with sharp nails. 
 
 WCE.^ 
 
 Two per cent coal tar disinfectants are usually used 
 for killing lice. The Oklahoma station recommends a 
 "kerosene emulsion," which is made by using yi pound 
 hard soap, 2 gallons of a cheap grade of kerosene and 
 I gallon of water. Cut up the soap and dissolve in hot 
 water; then add the kerosene and thoroughly mix. Be- 
 fore applying to the animals dilute this mixture with 
 7 gallons of water. Apply by means of a sponge, brush, 
 or spray pump. 
 
 WARBLES OR GRUBS. 
 
 These are found just below the skin in the backs of 
 cattle and constitute the larval form of the ox bot-fly 
 or heel-fly. As they develop they cause swellings in 
 the back and are thus easily recognized. Wherever there 
 is a swelling there is also an opening in the skin through 
 which the grubs may be easily squeezed and killed. They 
 may also be destroyed by the application of kerosene. 
 
PART II. 
 
 MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 MILK. 
 
 Milk, in a broad sense, may be defined as the normal 
 secretion of the mammary glands of animals that suckle 
 their young. It is the only food found in Nature con- 
 taining all the elements necessary to sustain life. More- 
 over it contains these elements in the proper propor- 
 tions and in easily digestible and assimilable form. 
 
 Microscopic appearance of milk showing relative size of fat globules and 
 bacteria. — Russell's Dairy Bacteriology. 
 
 Physical Properties. Milk is a whitish opaque fluid 
 possessing a sweetish taste and a faint odor suggestive 
 of cows' breath. It has an amphioteric reaction, that is, 
 
 123 
 
134 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 it is both acid aijd alkaline. This double reaction is due 
 largely to acid and alkaline salts and possibly to small 
 quantities of organic acids. 
 
 Milk has an average normal specific gravity of 1.032, 
 with extremes rarely exceeding 1.029 ^''^^ ^-^SS- After 
 standing a few moments it loses its homogenous character. 
 Evidence of this we have in the "rising of the cream." 
 This is due to the fact that milk is not a perfect solution 
 but an emulsion. All of the fat, the larger portion of the 
 casein, and part of the ash are in suspension. 
 
 In consistency milk is slightly rriore viscous than water, 
 the viscosity increasing with the decrease in temperature. 
 It is also exceedingly sensitive to odors, possessing great 
 absorption properties. This teaches the necessity of plac- 
 ing milk in clean pure surroundings. 
 
 Chemical Composition. The composition of milk is 
 very complex and variable, as will be seen from the ,fol- 
 lowing figures: 
 
 Average Composition of Normal Milk. A com- 
 pilation of figures from various American Ex- 
 periment Stations. 
 
 Water 87. il* 
 
 Butter fat 3.9^ 
 
 Casein 2.9^ 
 
 Albumen Si< 
 
 Sugar , 4.9^ 
 
 Ash 7% 
 
 Fibrinj Trace. 
 
 Galactase Trace. 
 
 ico.oi 
 
 The great variations in the composition of milk are 
 shown by the figures from Koenig, given below : 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 125 
 
 Maximum. Minimum. 
 
 Water 90.69 80.32 
 
 Fat 6.47 1.67 
 
 Casein 4.23 1.79 
 
 Albumen 1.44 .25 
 
 Sugar 6.03 2. II 
 
 Ash 1. 21 .35 
 
 These figures represent quite accurately the maximum 
 and minimum composition of milk except that the maxi- 
 mum for fat is too low. The author has known cows 
 to yield milk testing 7.6% fat, and records show tests 
 even higher than this. 
 
 BUTTER FAT. 
 
 This is the most valuable as well as the most variable 
 constituent of milk. It constitutes about 83% of butter 
 and is an indispensable constituent of the many kinds of 
 whole milk cheese now found upon the market. It also 
 measures the commercial value of milk and cream, and 
 is used as an index of the value of milk for butter and 
 cheese production. 
 
 Physical Properties. Butter fat is suspended in milk 
 in the form of extremely small globules numbering about 
 1 00,000,000- per drop of milk. These globules vary con- 
 siderably in size in any given sample, .some being five 
 times as large as others. The size of the globules is 
 affected mostly by the period of lactation. As a rule the 
 size decreases and the number increases with the advance 
 of the period. In strippers' milk the globules are some- 
 times so small as to render an efficient separation of the 
 cream and the churning of same impossible. 
 
 The size of the fat globules also varies with different 
 breeds. In the Jersey breed the diameter of the globule 
 
126 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 is one eight-thousandth of an inch, in the Holstein one 
 twelve-thousandth, while the average for all breeds is 
 about one ten-thousandth. 
 
 Night's milk usually has smaller globules than morn- 
 ing's. The size of the globules also decreases with the 
 age of the cow. 
 
 The density or specific gravity of butter fat at ioo° F. 
 is .91 and is quite constant. Its melting point varies 
 between wide limits, the average being 92° F. 
 
 Composition of Butter Fat. According to Richmond, 
 butter fat has the following composition : 
 
 Butyrin 3.85 1 
 
 Caproin 3.60 I Soluble or volatile. 
 
 Caprylin 55 \ 
 
 Caprin 1 .90 
 
 Laurin 7.40 
 
 Myristin 20.20 
 
 Palmitin 25.70 
 
 Stearin 1 . 80 
 
 Olein, etc 3Soo 
 
 Insoluble or 
 non-volatile. 
 
 This shows butter fat to be composed of no less than 
 nine distinct fats, which are formed by the union of 
 glycerine with the corresponding fatty acids. Thus, buty- 
 rin is a compound of glycerine and butyric acid ; palmitin, 
 a compound of glycerine and palmitic acid, etc. The 
 most important of these acids are palmitic, oleic, and 
 butyric. 
 
 Palmitic acid is insoluble, melts at 144° F., and forms 
 (with stearic acid) the basis of hard fats. 
 
 Oleic acid is insoluble, melts at 57° F., and forms the 
 basis of soft fats. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 127 
 
 Butyric acid is soluble and is a liquid which solidifies 
 at — 2° F. and melts again at 28° F. 
 
 Insoluble Fats. A study of these fats is essential in 
 elucidating the variability of the churning temperature 
 of cream. As a rule this is largely determined by the 
 relative amounts of hard and soft fats present in butter 
 fat. Other conditions the same, the harder the fat the 
 higher the churning temperature. Scarcely any tw(5 milks 
 contain exactly the same relative amounts of hard and 
 soft fats, and it is for this reason that the churning tem- 
 perature is such a variable one. 
 
 The relative amounts of hard and soft fats are influ- 
 enced by: 
 
 1. Breeds. 
 
 2. Feeds. 
 
 3. Period of lactation. 
 
 4. Individuality of cows. 
 
 The butter fat of Jerseys is harder than that of Hol- 
 steins and, therefore, requires a relatively high churning 
 temperature, the difference being about six degrees. 
 
 Feeds have an important influence upon the character 
 of the butter fat. Cotton seed meal and bran, for example, 
 materially increase the percentage of hard fats. Gluten 
 feeds and linseed meal, on the other hand, produce a soft 
 butter fat. 
 
 With the advance of the period of lactation the per- 
 centage of hard fat increases. This chemical change, to- 
 gether with the physical change which butter fat under- 
 goes, makes churning difficult in the late period of lac- 
 tation. 
 
 The individuality of the cow also to a great extent 
 influences the character of the butter fat. It is inherent 
 
128 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 in some cows to produce a soft butter fat, in others to 
 produce a hard butter fat, even in cows of the same breed. 
 
 Soluble Fats. The soluble or volatile fats, of which 
 butyrin is the most important, give milk and sweet cream 
 butter their characteristic flavors. Butyrin is found only 
 in butter fat and distinguishes this from all vegetable 
 and other animal fats. 
 
 The percentage of soluble fats decreases with the period 
 of lactation, also with the feeding of dry feeds and those- 
 rich in protein. 'Succulent feeds and those rich in carbo- 
 hydrates, according to experiments made in Holland and 
 elsewhere, increase the percentage of soluble fats. This 
 may partly account for the superiority of the flavor of 
 June butter. 
 
 It may be proper, also, to discuss under volatile or 
 soluble fats those abnormal flavors that are imparted to 
 milk, cream, and butter by weeds like garlic and wild 
 onions, and by various feeds such as beet tops, rape, par- 
 tially spoiled silage, etc. These flavors are undoubtedly 
 due to abnormal volatile fats. 
 
 Cows should never be fed strong flavored feeds shortly 
 before milking. When this is done the odors are sure 
 to be transmitted to the milk and the products therefrom. 
 When, however, feeds of this kind are fed shortly after 
 milking no bad effects will be noticed at the next milking. 
 
 Albumenoids. These are nitrogenous compounds 
 which give milk its high dietetic value. Casein, albumen, 
 globulin, and nuclein form the albumenoids of milk, the 
 casein and albumen being by far the most important. 
 
 Casein. This is a white colloidal substance, possessing 
 neither taste nor smell. It is the most important tissue- 
 forming constituent of milk and forms the basis of an 
 almost endless variety of cheese. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 129 
 
 The larger portion of the casein is suspended in milk 
 in an extremely finely divided amorphus condition. It is 
 intimately associated with the insoluble calcium phosphate 
 of milk and possibly held in chemical combination with 
 this. Its study presents many difficulties, which leaves its 
 exact composition still undetermined. 
 
 Casein is easily precipitated by means of rennet extract 
 and dilute acids, but the resulting precipitates are not 
 identically the same. It is not coagulated by heat. 
 
 Albumen. In composition albumen very closely re- 
 sembles casein, differing from this only in not containing 
 sulphur. It is soluble and unaffected by rennet, which 
 causes most of it to pass into the whey in the manufacture 
 of cheese. It is coagulated at a temperature of 170° F. 
 It is in their behavior toward heat and rennet that casein 
 and albumen radically differ. 
 
 Milk Sugar. This sugar, commonly called lactose, has 
 the same chemical composition as cane sugar, differing 
 from it chiefly in possessing only a faint sweetish taste. 
 It readily changes into lactic acid when acted upon by 
 the lactic acid bacteria. This causes the ordinary phenom- 
 enon of milk souring. The maximum amount of acid in 
 milk rarely exceeds .9%, the germs usually being checked 
 or killed before this amount is formed. There is there- 
 fore always a large portion of the sugar left in sour milk. 
 All of the milk sugar is in solution. 
 
 Ash. Most of the ash of milk exists in solution. It 
 is composed of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric 
 acid, chlorine, and iron, the soluble lime being the most 
 important constituent. It is upon this that the action of 
 rennet extract is dependent. For when milk is heated 
 to high temperatures the soluble lime is rendered insoluble 
 and rennet will no longer curdle milk. It seems also that 
 
130 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 the viscosity of milk and cream is largely due to soluble 
 lime salts. Cream heated to high temperatures loses its 
 viscosity to such an extent that it can not be made to 
 "whip." Treatment with soluble lime restores its orig- 
 inal viscosity. The ash is the least variable constituent 
 of milk. 
 
 Colostrum Milk. This is the first milk drawn after 
 parturition. It is characterized by its peculiar odor, yel- 
 low color, broken down cells, and high content of albu- 
 men which gives it its viscous, slimy appearance and 
 causes it to coagulate on application of heat. 
 
 According to Eugling the average composition of colos- 
 trum milk is as follows : 
 
 Water 71.69!^ 
 
 Fat 3.37 
 
 Casein 4.83 
 
 Albumen '. .. 15.85 
 
 Sugar 2.48 
 
 Ash i.78 
 
 The secretion of colostrum milk is of very short dura- 
 tion. Usually within four or five days after calving it 
 assumes all the properties of normal milk. In some cases, 
 however, it does not become normal till the sixth or even 
 the tenth day, depending largely upon the condition of 
 the animal. 
 
 A good criterion in the detection of colostrum milk is 
 its peculiar color, odor, and slimy appearance. The dis- 
 appearance of these characteristics determines its fitness 
 for butter production. 
 
 Milk Secretion, Just how all of the different con- 
 stituents of milk are secreted is not yet definitely 
 understood. But it is known that the secretion takes 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 131 
 
 place in the udder of the cow, and principally during the 
 process of milking. Further, the entire process of milk 
 elaboration seems to be under the control of the nervous 
 system of the cow. This accounts for the changes in flow 
 and richness of milk whenever cows are subjected to 
 abnormal' treatment. It is well known that a change of 
 milkers, the use of rough language, or the abuse of cows 
 with dogs and milk stools, seriously affects the production 
 of milk and butter fat. It is therefore of the greatest 
 practical importance to milk producers to treat cows 
 as gently as possible, especially during the process of 
 milking. 
 
 How Secreted. The source from which the milk con- 
 stituents are elaborated is the blood. It must not be sup- 
 posed, however, that all the different constituents already 
 exist in the blood in the form in which we find them in 
 milk, for the blood is practically free from fat, casein, 
 and milk- sugar. These substances must then be formed in 
 the cells of the udder from material supplied them by the 
 blood. Thus there are in the udder cells that have the 
 power of secreting fat in a manner similar to that by 
 which the gastric juice is secreted in the stomach. Simi- 
 larly, the formation of lactose is the result of the action 
 of another set of cells whose function is to produce lac- 
 tose. It is believed that the casein is formed from the 
 albumen through the activity of certain other cells. The 
 water, albumen, and soluble ash probably pass directly 
 from the blood into the milk ducts by the process known 
 as osmosis. 
 
 Variations in the Quality of Milk. Milk from dif- 
 ferent sources may vary considerably in composition, 
 particularly in the percentage of butter fat. Even the 
 
132 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 milk from the same cow may vary a great deal in compo- 
 sition. The causes of these variations may be assigned 
 to two sets of conditions : I. — Those natural to the cow. 
 11. — Those of an artificial nature. 
 
 I. QUA1,ITY OP MILK AS AFMICTED BY NATURAI< CONDI- 
 TIONS. 
 
 I. The composition of the milk of all cows undergoes 
 a change with the advance of the period of lactation. 
 During the first five months the composition remains prac- 
 tically the same. After this, however, the milk becomes 
 gradually richer until the cow "dries up." The following 
 figures from Van Slyke illustrate' this change: 
 
 Month of Per cent of fat 
 lactation. in milk. 
 
 1 4-54 
 
 2 4 
 
 3 4 
 
 4 4 
 
 5 4 
 
 6 4 
 
 7 4 
 
 8 4 
 
 9 4 
 
 10 5 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 39 
 38 
 S3 
 56 
 66 
 79 
 
 00 
 
 It will be noticed from these figures that the milk 
 actually decreases somewhat in richness during the first 
 three months of the period. But just before the cow dries 
 up, it may test as high as 8%. 
 
 2. The quality of milk also differs with different 
 breeds. Yet breed differences are less marked than those 
 of the individual cows of any particular breed. 
 
 Some breeds produce rich milk, others -relatively poor 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 133 
 
 milk. The following data obtained at the New Jersey 
 Experiment Statiori illustrates these differences: 
 
 Breed. 
 
 Total 
 Solids. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Milk 
 Sugar. 
 
 Proteids. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 ^yshire 
 
 Guernsey 
 
 Holstein 
 
 Tersev 
 
 Per cent. 
 12.70 
 14.48 
 12.12 
 14.34 
 
 Per cent. 
 3.68 
 5.02 
 3.51 
 4.78 
 
 Per cent. 
 4.84 
 4.80 
 4.69 
 4.85 
 
 Per cent. 
 3.48 
 3.92 
 8.28 
 3.96 
 
 Per cent. 
 .69 
 .75 
 .64 
 .75 
 
 
 
 3. Extremes in the composition of milk are usually 
 to be ascribed to the individuality or "make up" of the 
 cow. It is inherent in some cows to produce rich milk, 
 in others to produce poor milk. In other words, Nature 
 has made every cow to produce milk of a given richness, 
 which can not be perceptibly changed except by careful 
 selection and breeding for a number of generations. 
 
 II. QUAWTY OF MUK AS AFFECTED BY ARTIFICIAL CON- 
 DITIONS. 
 
 1. When cows are only partially milked they yield 
 poorer milk than when milked clean. This is largely 
 explained by the fact that the first drawn milk is always 
 poorer in fat than that drawn last. Fore milk may test 
 as low as .8%, while the strippings sometimes test as 
 high as 14%. . 
 
 2. Fast milking increases both the quality and the 
 quantity of the milk. It is for this reiason that fast milkers 
 are so much preferred to slow ones. 
 
134 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 3. The richness of milk is also influenced by the length 
 of time that elapses between the milkings. In general, 
 the shorter the time between the milkings the richer the 
 milk. This, no doubt, in a large measure accounts for 
 the differences we often find in the richness of morning's 
 and night's milk. Sometimes the morning's milk is the 
 richer, at other times the evening's, depending largely 
 upon the time of day the cows are milked. Milk can not, 
 however, be permanently enriched by milking three times 
 in stead of twice a day. 
 
 4. Unusual excitement of any kind reduces the quality 
 of milk. The person who abuses cows by dogs, milk 
 stools, or boisterousness, pays dearly for it in a reduction 
 of both the quality and the quantity of milk produced. 
 
 5. Starvation also seriously affects both the quality 
 and the quantity of milk. It has been repeatedly shown, in 
 this country and in Europe, that under-feeding to any 
 great extent results in the production of milk poor in fat. 
 
 6. Sudden changes of feed may. slightly affect' the 
 richness of milk, but only temporarily. 
 
 So long as cows are fed a full ration, it is not possible 
 to change the richness of milk permanently, no matter 
 what the character of feed composing the ration. 
 
 7. Irregularities of feeding and milking, exposure to 
 heat, cold, rain, and flies, tend to reduce both the quantity 
 and the quality of milk produced. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE BABCOCK TEST. 
 
 This is a cheap and simple device for determining the 
 percentage of fat in milk, cream, skim-milk, buttermilk, 
 whey, and cheese. It was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M. 
 Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
 tion, and ranks among the leading agricultural inventions 
 of modern times. The chief uses of the Babcock test may 
 be mentioned as follows : 
 
 1. It has made possible the payment for milk accord- 
 ing to its quality. 
 
 2. It has enabled butter and cheese makers to detect 
 undue losses in the process of manufacture. 
 
 3. It has made possible the grading up of dairy herds 
 by locating the poor cows. 
 
 4. It has, in a large measure, done away with the prac- 
 tice of watering and skimming milk. 
 
 Principle of the Babcock Test. The separation of 
 the butter fat from milk with the Babcock test is made 
 possible : 
 
 1. By the difiference between the specific gravity of 
 butter fat and milk serum. 
 
 2. By the centrifugal force generated in the tester. 
 
 3. By burning the solids not fat with a strong acid. 
 Sample for a Test. Whatever the sample to be tested, 
 
 always eighteen grams are used for a test. In testing 
 cream and cheese', the sample is weighed. For testing 
 milk, skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey, weighing requires 
 
 135 
 
136 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 too much time. Indeed, with these substances weighing 
 is not necessary as sufficiently accurate samples are ob- 
 
 Fig. 29- Two styles of Babcock testers. 
 
 tained by measuring which is the method universally em- 
 ployed. In making a Babcock test it is of the greatest 
 importance to secure a uniform sample of the substance 
 to be tested. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 137 
 
 Apparatus. This consists essentially of the following 
 parts : A, Babcock tester ; B, milk bottle ; C, cream bottle ; 
 D, skim-milk bottle ; E, pipette or milk measure ; F, acid 
 measures ; G, cream scales ; H, mixing cans ; I, dividers. 
 
 A. Babcock Tester. This machine, shown in Fig. 29, 
 consists of a revolving wheel placed in a horizontal posi- 
 tion and provided with swinging pockets for the bottles. 
 This wheel is rotated by means of a worm wheel (lower 
 machine) at the top of the tester. When the tester stops 
 the pockets hang down allowing the bottles to stand up. 
 As the wheel begins rotating the pockets move out causing 
 the bottles to assume a horizontal position. The wheel is 
 enclosed in a cast iron frame provided with a cover. 
 
 B. Milk Bottle. This has a neck graduated to ten 
 large divisions, each of which reads one per cent. Each 
 large division is subdivided into five smaller ones, 
 making each subdivision read .2%. The contents of the 
 neck from the zero mark to the 10% mark is equivalent to 
 two cubic centimeters. Since the Babcock test does not 
 give the percentage of fat by volume but by weight, the 
 10% scale on the neck of the bottle will, therefore, hold 
 1.8 grams of fat. In other words, if the scale were filled 
 with water it would hold two grams ; but fat being only 
 .9 as heavy, 2 cubic centimeters of it would weigh nine- 
 tenths of two grams or 1.8 grams. This is exactly 10% 
 of 18 grams, the weight of the sample used for testing. 
 A milk bottle is shown in Fig. 30. 
 
 C. Cream Bottles. These are graduated from 30% to 
 55%. A 30% bottle is shown in Fig. 31. Since cream 
 usually tests more than 30%, the sample must be divided 
 when the 30% bottles are used. 
 
138 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Fig.30.-Mllk 
 bottle. 
 
 Fig. 31.— Cream 
 bottle. 
 
 -A 
 
 '>**7ii\ 
 
 Fig. 32 — Skim-milk 
 bottle. 
 
 D. Skim-milk Bottle. This bottle, shown in Fig. 32, 
 is provided with a double neck, a large one to admit the 
 milk, and a smaller graduated neck for fat reading. The 
 entire scale reads one-half per cent. Being divided into 
 ten subdivisions each subdivision reads .05%. The same 
 bottle is also used for testing buttermilk. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 139 
 
 m 
 
 Flg.33.— Pi- 
 pette. 
 
 ^t33EB3^ 
 
 Fig.34.— 
 
 Fig.35.^ 
 
 Acid meas- 
 
 Acid meas- 
 
 ure. 
 
 ure. 
 
 E. Pipette. This holds 17.6 c.c, as shown 
 in Fig. 33. Since about .1 c.c. of milk will 
 adhere to the inside of the pipette it is ex- 
 pected to deliver only 17.5 c.c, which is equiva- 
 lent to 18 grams of normal milk. 
 
 F. Acid Measures. In making a Babcock 
 test equal quantities, by volume, of acid and 
 milk are used. The acid measure, shown in 
 
 Fig. 34, holds 17.5 c.c. of acid, the amount needed for one 
 test. The one shown in Fig. 35 is divided into six divisions, 
 each of which holds 17.5 c.c. or one charge of acid. Where 
 
140 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 many tests are made a graduate of this kind saves time 
 in filling, but should be made to hold twenty-five charges. 
 
 H. A cream scales commonly used is illustrated in 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 Acid. The acid used in. the test is commercial sui- 
 
 ng. 38.— cream scales. 
 
 phuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82 
 to 1.83. When the specific gravity of the 
 acid falls below 1.82 the milk solids are not 
 properly burned and particles of curd may 
 appear in the fat. On the other hand, an 
 acid with a specific gravity above 1.83 has 
 a tendency to blacken or char the fat. 
 
 The sulphuric acid, besides burning the 
 solids not fat, facilitates the separation of 
 the fat by raising the specific gravity of the 
 medium in which it floats. 
 
 Sulphuric acid must be kept in glass bot- 
 tles provided with glass stoppers. Exposure 
 to the air materially weakens it. 
 
 Making a Babcock Test. The different steps are 
 indicated as follows : 
 
 1. Thoroughly mix the sample. 
 
 2. Immediately after mixing insert the pipette into 
 the milk and suck until the milk has gone above the mark 
 on the pipette, then quickly place the fore finger over the 
 
 Fig.S?.- Show- 
 ing manner of 
 emptying pi- 
 pette. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 141 
 
 top and allow the milk to run down to the mark by slowly 
 relieving the pressure of the finger. 
 
 3. Empty the milk into the bottle in the manner shown 
 in Fig. 37. 
 
 4. Add the acid in the same manner in which the milk 
 was emptied into the bottle. 
 
 5. Mix the acid with the milk by giving the bottle a 
 slow rotary motion. 
 
 6. Allow mixture to stand a few minutes. 
 
 7. Shake or mix again and then place the bottle in 
 the tester. 
 
 8. Run tester four minutes at the 
 proper speed. 
 
 9. Add moderately hot water until 
 contents come to the neck of the 
 bottle. 
 
 10. Whirl one minute. 
 
 11. Add moderately hot water un- 
 til contents of the bottle reach' about 
 the 8% mark. 
 
 12. Whirl one minute. 
 
 13. Read test. 
 
 How to Read the Test. At the top 
 
 of the fat column is usually quite a 
 pronounced meniscus as shown in Fig. 
 38. A less pronounced one is found 
 at the bottom of the column. The fat 
 should be read from the extremes of 
 the fat column, i to 3, not from 2 to 4, 
 when its temperature is about 140° F. 
 Too high a temperature gives too high 
 
 ^- 
 
 ZZ— 8 
 
 Fig. 38.— Fat column 
 showing meniscuses. 
 
142 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 a reading, because of the expanded condition of the fat, 
 while too low a temperature gives an uncertain reading. 
 Precautions in Making a Test. i. Be sure you have 
 a fair sample. 
 
 2. The temperatiire of the milk should be about 60 
 or 70 degrees. 
 
 3. Always mix twice after acid has been added. 
 
 4. Be sure your tester runs at the right speed. 
 
 5. Use nothing but plean, soft water in filling the 
 bottles. 
 
 6. Be sure the tester does not jar. 
 
 7. 'Be sure the acid is of the right strength. 
 
 8. Mix as soon as acid is added to milk. 
 
 9. Do not allow the bottles to become cold before 
 reading the test. 
 
 ID. Read the test twice to insure a correct reading. 
 
 The water added to the test bottles after they have been 
 whirled should be clean and 'pure. Water containing 
 much lime seriously affects the test. Such water may 
 be used, however, when first treated with a few drops of 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 As stated before, skim-milk, buttermilk, and cream are 
 tested in the same way as milk, with the exception that 
 the cream sample is weighed, not measured. 
 
 Testing Cream. Accurate tests of cream cannot be 
 secured by measuring the sample into the bottle as is 
 done in the case of milk. The reason for this is that 
 the weight of cream varies with its richness. The richer 
 the cream the less it weighs per unit volume. This is illus- 
 trated in the following table by Farrington and WoU: 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 143 
 
 Weight of fresh separator cream delivered by a 17.6 c. c. 
 
 pipette. 
 
 Per cent, of fat 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 Weight of cream 
 
 in cream. 
 
 (weighed) . 
 
 in grams. 
 
 10 
 
 1.023 
 
 17.9 
 
 IS 
 
 I.0I2 
 
 17.7 
 
 20 
 
 1.008 
 
 17-3 
 
 25 
 
 1.002 
 
 17.2 
 
 30 
 
 .996 
 
 17.0 
 
 35 
 
 .980 
 
 16.4 
 
 40 
 
 .966 
 
 16.3 
 
 45 
 
 ■950 
 
 16.2 
 
 50 
 
 •947 
 
 1 5-8 
 
 With cream testing below 30% the full 18 grams may 
 be added to one bottle and tested in the usual way. Where 
 the cream tests above 30% better results are obtained by 
 using only half the full sample of cream (9 grams) 
 and adding to this 9 grams of water. To this mixture 
 the full amount of acid is added. Obviously in this case 
 the test must be multiplied by 2 to get the correct reading. 
 
 General Pointers.- Black fat is caused by 
 
 1. Too strong acid. 
 
 2. Too much acid! 
 
 3. Too high a temperature of the acid or the milk. 
 
 4. Not mixing soon enough. 
 
 5. Dropping the acid through the milk. 
 
 Foam on top of fat is caused by hard water, and can 
 be prevented by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid to 
 the water. 
 
 Unclean or cloudy fat is caused by 
 
 1. Insufficient mixing. 
 
 2. Too low speed of tester. 
 
 3. Too low temperature. 
 
 4. Too- weak acid. 
 
 Curd particles in fat are caused by 
 I. Too weak acid. 
 
144 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 2. Not enough acid. 
 
 3. Too low temperature. 
 
 Cleaning Test Bottles. "As soon as the test is read, 
 the bottles are emptied by shaking them up and down so 
 as to remove the white sediment. Next wash them in 
 hot water containing some alkali, and finally rinse them 
 with hot water. Occasionally the bottles should be rinsed 
 with a special cleaning solution, which is made by dis- 
 solving about one ounce of potassium bichromate in one 
 pint of sulphuric acid. A small brush should also oc- 
 casionally be run up and down the neck of the bottle. 
 
 Making and Reading Cream Tests. The different 
 steps in testing cream are essentially the same as in test- 
 ing milk. However, as already stated, the cream must 
 be weighed and tested in a special bottle. Furthermore, 
 special precautions must be used in reading the test. 
 
 It is well known that reading the extremes of the fat 
 column gives too high a reading. This error is due to 
 the meniscus at the top of the fat column, the size of 
 which varies with the width of the neck. Farringfton 
 and WoU recommend reading from the lowest extremity 
 of the fat column to the bottom of the upper meniscus. 
 This is the method commonly employed in reading tests. 
 Eckles and Wayman recommend removing the meniscus 
 by adding a small quantity of amyl alcohol (colored red) 
 to the top of the fat column. Farrington suggests add- 
 ing a few drops of fat-saturated alcohol to the top of 
 the fat as a means of removing the meniscus. Ordinary 
 alcohol has a solvent action on butter fat, hence the 
 necessity of using fat-saturated alcohol. 
 
 Hunziker* after a thorough investigation of the sub- 
 
 *Bulletin 146, Indiana Experiment Station. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 145 
 
 ject, has found "glymol" best suited for the removal of 
 the meniscus. Glymol is known commercially as white 
 mineral oil and is used for typewriters, sewing machines, 
 etc. It will give satisfactory results without the addition 
 of coloring matter. It may be colored, however, by plac- 
 ing a small cheese cloth bag containing "alkanet root" 
 in a bottle of glymol for a day or two. One ounce of 
 alkanet root will color one quart of glymol. 
 
 A few drops of the glymol are sufficient, and should 
 be carefully added to the top of the fat column before 
 reading the test. 
 
 To get accurate readings the bottles should be read 
 while the temperature of the fat is between 135° and 140° 
 F. The bottles should be taken from the tester and placed 
 in a water bath having a temperature of 140° F. and 
 kept there several minutes, or long enough' to cool the 
 fat to 140° F. The water in the vessel should extend 
 to the extreme top of the fat in the bottles, or preferably 
 a little above. Accurate readings cannot be obtained by 
 reading the bottles directly from the tester; the first 
 bottles removed have, too high a temperature while those 
 removed last have too low a temperature. Where hand 
 testers are used, the bottles are usually too cold for sat- 
 isfactory reading and, therefore, must be heated to the 
 proper temperature. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS. 
 
 A thorough knowledge of bacteria and their action 
 forms the basis of success in butter making. Indeed the 
 man who is lacking such knowledge is making butter 
 in the dark; his is chance work. Much attention will 
 therefore be given to the study of these organisms in 
 this work. 
 
 I. BACTERIA. 
 
 The term bacteria is applied to the smallest of living 
 plants, which can be seen only under the highest powers 
 of the miscroscope. Each bacterium is made up of a 
 single cell. These plants are so small that it would 
 require 30,000 of them laid side by side to measure an 
 inch. Their presence is almost universal, being found 
 in the air, water, and soil; in cold, hot, and temperate 
 climates; and in living and dead as well as inorganic 
 matter. 
 
 Bacteria grow with marvelous rapidity. A single bac- 
 terium is capable of reproducing itself a million times 
 in twenty-four hours. They reproduce either by a simple 
 division of the mother cell, thus producing two new cells, 
 or by spore formation in which case the contents of the 
 mother cell are formed into a round mass called a spore. 
 These spores have the power of withstanding unfavorable 
 conditions to a remarkable extent, some being able to 
 endure a temperature of 212° F. for several hours. 
 
 Most bacteria require for best growth a moist, warm, 
 and nutritious medium such as is furnished by milk, in 
 
 146 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 147 
 
 -which an exceedingly varied and active life is possible. 
 In nature and in many of the arts and industries, 
 bacteria are of the greatest utility, if not indispensable. 
 They play a most important part in the disintegration of 
 vegetable and animal matter, resolving compounds into 
 their elemental constituents in which form they can again 
 be built up and used as plant food. In the art of butter 
 and cheese making bacteria are indispensable. The to^ 
 bacco, tanning, and a host of other industries cannot 
 flourish without them. 
 
 II. MII<K FERMENTATIONS. 
 
 Definition. In defining fermentation processes, Conn 
 says that, "In general, they are progressive chemical 
 changes taking place under the influence of certain 
 organic substances which are present in very small 
 quantity in the fermenting mass." 
 
 With few exceptions, milk fermentations are the result 
 of the growth and multiplication of various classes of 
 bacteria. The souring of milk illustrates a typical fer- 
 mentation, which is caused by the action of lactic acid 
 bacteria upon the milk sugar breaking it up into lactic 
 acid. Here the chemical change is conversion of sugar 
 into lactic acid. 
 
 The most common fermentations of milk are the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 ^ f Lactic. 
 
 Normal ■{ Curdling and Digesting. 
 
 [ Butyric. 
 
 Bitter. 
 
 Slimy or Ropy. 
 Abnormal... -| Gassy. 
 Toxic. 
 Chromogenic. 
 
 Milk Fermentations - 
 
148 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 NORMAI, FERMENTATIONS. 
 
 We speak of normal fermentations because milk always^ 
 contains certain classes of bacteria even when drawn and 
 kept under cleanly conditions. These fermentations will 
 be discussed in the following pages. 
 
 I. IvACTIC FERMENTATION. 
 
 This is the most common and by far the most important 
 fermentation of milk. Indeed it is indispensable in the 
 manufacture of butter of the highest quality. The germ 
 causing this fermentation is called Lactici Acidi. It is 
 non-spore bearing and has its optimum growth tempera- 
 ture between 90° and 98° F. At 40° its growth ceases. 
 Exposed to a temperature of 140° for fifteen minutes 
 it is killed. 
 
 The souring of milk and cream, as already mentioned, 
 is due to the action of the lactic acid bacteria upon the 
 milk sugar changing it into lactic acid. Acid is therefore 
 always produced at the expense of milk sugar. But the 
 sugar is never all converted into acid because the pro- 
 duction of acid is limited. When the acidity reaches 
 about .9% the lactic acid bacteria are either checked or 
 killed and the production of acid ceases. Owing to the 
 universal presence of these bacteria it is almost impossible 
 to secure milk free from them. 
 
 Under cleanly conditions the lactic acid type of bacteria 
 always predominates in milk. When, however, milk is 
 drawn under uncleanly conditions the lactic organisms 
 may be outnumbered by other species of bacteria which 
 give rise to the numerous taints often met with in milk. 
 
 Contradictory as it may seem, the lactic acid bacteria 
 are alike friend and foe to the butter maker. Creamery 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 149 
 
 patrons are expected to have milk as free as possible 
 from these germs so that it may arrive at the creamery 
 in a sweet condition. They are therefore expected to 
 thoroughly cool and care for it, not alone to suppress 
 the action of the lactic acid bacteria but also that of the 
 abnormal species that might have gained access to the 
 milk. 
 
 While the acid bacteria are objectionable in milk, in 
 cream made into butter they are indispensable. The 
 highly desirable aroma in butter is the result of the 
 growth of these organisms in the process of cream 
 ripening. There are a number of different species of 
 bacteria that have the 'power of producing lactic acid. 
 
 2. CURDIvING AND DIGESTING FERMENTATION. 
 
 In point of numbers this class of bacteria ranks perhaps 
 next to the lactic acid type. Indeed it is very difificult to 
 obtain milk that does not contain them. It is not often, 
 however, that their presence is noticeable owing to their 
 inability to thrive in an acid medium. 
 
 According to bacteriologists most of these bacteria 
 secrete two enzymes, one of which has the power of 
 curdling milk, the other of digesting it. The former 
 has the power of rennet, the latter of trypsin. "As a 
 rule," says Russell, "any organism that possesses the 
 digestive power, first causes a coagulation of the casein 
 in a manner comparable to rennet." 
 
 It is only occasionally when the lactic acid organisms 
 are in a great minority, or when for some reason their 
 action has been suppressed, that this class of bacteria 
 manfests itself by curdling milk while sweet. The curd 
 thus formed differs from that produced by lactic acid in 
 being soft and slimy. 
 
ISO DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Most of the curdling and digesting bacteria are spore 
 bearing and can thus withstand unfavorable conditions 
 better than the lactic acid bacteria. For this reason milk 
 that has been heated sufficiently to kill the lactic acid 
 bacteria, will often undergo the undesirable changes 
 attributable to the digesting and curdling organisms. 
 
 3. BUTYRIC :^ERMENTATION. 
 
 It was mentioned that many bacteria have the power 
 of producing lactic acid but that the true lactic acid fer- 
 mentation is probably caused by a single species. So it 
 is with the butyric acid bacteria. While a number of 
 different organisms are known to produce this acid, Conn 
 is of the opinion that the common butyric fermentation 
 of milk and cream is due to a single species belonging 
 to the anaerobic type. 
 
 The butyric acid produced by these organisms is the 
 chief cause of rancid flavors in cream and butter. These 
 bacteria are widely distributed in nature, being particu- 
 larly abundant in filth. They are almost universally 
 present in milk, from which they are hard to eradicate 
 on account of their resistant spores. It is on account 
 of these spores and their ability to grow in the absence 
 of oxygen that the butyric fermentation is often found 
 in ordinary sterilized milk from which the air has been 
 excluded. 
 
 The influence of the butyric acid bacteria is felt mainly 
 in butter and in overripened cream. The latter frequently 
 possesses a rancid odor which must be charged to these 
 bacteria, especially since it is known that overripened 
 cream possesses conditions favorable for their develop- 
 ment. Overripening should, therefore, be carefully 
 guarded against. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 151 
 
 The butyric fermentation is rarely noticeable during 
 the early stage of cream ripening and its subsequent 
 development in a highly acid cream is explained by 
 Russell as being "probably due, not so much to the pres- 
 ence of lactic acid, as to the absence of dissolved oxygen, 
 which at this stage has been used up by the lactic acid 
 organisms." 
 
 Butter that is apparently good in quality when freshly 
 made, will usually turn rancid when kept at ordinary 
 temperatures a short time. The quickness with which 
 this change comes is dependent largely upon the amount 
 of acid present in cream at the time of churning. Butter 
 made from cream in which the maximum amount of acid 
 consistent with good flavor has been developed, usually 
 possesses poor keeping quality. This seems to indi- 
 cate that at least part of the rancidity that develops in 
 butter after it is made is due to the butyric acid bacteria, 
 while light and air, doubtless, also contribute much to 
 this end. 
 
 ABNORMAL FERMENTATIONS. 
 
 No trouble needs to be anticipated from these fermenta- 
 tions so long as cleanliness prevails in the dairy. The 
 bacteria that belong to this class are usually associated 
 with filth, and dairies that become infested with them 
 show a lack of cleanliness in the care and handling of the 
 milk. Since milk is frequently infected with one or 
 another of these abnormal fermentations a brief discus- 
 sion will be given of the most important. 
 
 I. BITTER FERMENTATION. 
 
 Bitter milk and cream are quite common and there are 
 several ways in which this bitterness is imparted : it may 
 
152 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 be due to strippers' milk and to certain classes of feeds 
 and weeds, but most frequently to bacteria. This class 
 of bacteria has not yet been studied very thoroughly but 
 we know a great deal about it in a practical way. In 
 milk and cream in which the action of the lactic acid 
 germs has been suppressed by low temperatures, bitter- 
 ness due to the development of the bitter fermentation is 
 almost certain to be noticeable. When the temperature 
 is such as to cause a rapid development of the lactic 
 fermentation, the bitter fermeritation is rarely, if ever, 
 present. It is quite evident from this that the bitter 
 organisms are capable of growing at much lower tem- 
 peratures than the lactic and that so long as the latter 
 are rapidly growing the bitter fermentation is held in 
 check. 
 
 This teaches us that it is not safe to ripen cream below 
 60° F. The author has found that cream quickly ripened 
 and then held at a temperature of 45^ for twenty-four 
 hours would show no tendency toward bitterness, while 
 the same cream held sweet at 45° for twenty- four hours 
 and then ripened would develop a bitter flavor. This 
 indicates that the lactic acid is unfavorable to the develop- 
 ment of the bitter fermentation. 
 
 The bitter germs produce spores capable of resisting 
 the boiling temperature. This accounts for the bitter 
 taste that often develops in boiled milk. 
 
 2. SI<IMY OR ROPY FERMENTATION. 
 
 This is not a common fermentation and rarely 
 causes trouble where cleanliness is practiced in the dairy. 
 The bacteria that produce it are usually found in impure 
 water, dust, and dung. These germs are antagonistic to 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 153 
 
 the lactic organisms and for this reason milk infected 
 with them sours with great difficulty. 
 
 The action of this class of bacteria is to increase the 
 viscosity of milk, which in mild cases simply assumes a 
 slimy appearance. In extreme cases, however, the milk 
 develops into a ropy consistency, permitting it to be 
 strung out in threa<ls several feet long. 
 
 Slimy or ropy milk cannot be creamed and is therefore 
 worthless in the manufacture of butter. Such milk should 
 not be confused with gargety milk which is stringy when 
 drawn from the cow. The bacteria belonging to this class 
 are easily destroyed as they do not form spores, 
 
 3. GASSY FERMENTATION. 
 
 This is an exceedingly troublesome fermentation in 
 cheese making and is also the cause of much poor flavored 
 butter. The gas germs are very abundant during the 
 warm summer months but are scarcely noticeable in 
 winter. Like the bitter germs, they are antagonistic to 
 the lactic acid bacteria and do not grow during the rapid 
 development of the latter. They are found most abun- 
 dantly in the barn, particularly in dung. 
 
 4. TOXIC FERMENTATIONS. 
 
 Toxic or poisonous products are occasionally developed 
 in milk as a result of bacterial activity. They are most 
 commonly found in milk that has been kept for some 
 time at low temperature. 
 
 5. CHROMOGENIC FERMENTATIONS. 
 
 Bacteria belonging to this class have the power of 
 imparting to milk various colors. The most common of 
 
1S4 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 these is blue. It is, however, not often met with in dairy 
 practice since the color usually does not appear until the 
 milk is several days old. The specific organism that 
 causes blue milk has been known for more than half a 
 century and is called cyanogenous. Another color that 
 rarely turns up in dairy practice is produced by a germ 
 known as prodigiosis, causing milk to turn red. Other 
 colors are produced such as yellow, green, and black, but 
 these are of very rare occurrence. 
 
 oof"o^6:°?;\ .^&£:l 
 
 Microscopic appearance of pure and impure milk. A, Pure milk ; B, after 
 standing in a wash room for a few hours in a dirty dish, showing, besides 
 the fat globules, many forms of bacteria. — Moore. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 SANITARY MIIvK PRODUCTION. 
 
 Sanitary Milk Defined. Sanitary milk is milk from 
 healthy cows, produced and handled under conditions in 
 which contamination from filth, bad odors, and bacteria, 
 is reduced to a minimum. 
 
 Importance of Sanitary Milk. The production of 
 clean milk is one of the most important subjects that con- 
 fronts the American dairyman at the present time. Fur- 
 ther improvement in the quality of butter and cheese must 
 largely be sought in the use of cleaner milk. With the 
 better appreciation by the public of the great nutritive 
 value of milk, there opens an unlimited market for it for 
 consumption in the raw form. Already we find that milk 
 produced under the best sanitary conditions sells for prac- 
 tically double that obtained under ordinary, more or less, 
 slip-shod conditions. So great is the clamor for cleaner 
 milk that any extra efforts expended in producing it are 
 certain to be richly compensated. 
 
 ' The Necessary Conditions for the production of sani- 
 tary milk are as follows: (i) Healthy cows; (2) sani- 
 tary barn; (3) clean barn yard; (4) clean cows; (5) 
 clean milkers; (6) clean milk vessels; (7) clean, whole- 
 some feed; (8) pure water; (9) clean strainers; (10) 
 dust- free stable air; (11) clean bedding; (12) milking 
 with dry hands; (13) thorough cooling of milk after 
 milking; (14) sanitary milk room. 
 
 Healthy Cows. The health of the cow is of prime im- 
 portance in the production of sanitary milk. All milk 
 
 155 
 
156 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 from cows affected with contagious diseases should be 
 rigidly excluded from the dairy. Aside from the general 
 unfitness of such milk there is danger of the disease pro- 
 ducing organisms getting into the milk. It has been 
 found, for example, that cows whose udders are affected 
 with tuberculosis, yield milk containing these organisms. 
 The prevalence of this disease among cows at present 
 makes it imperative to determine definitely whether or 
 not cows are affected with the disease, by the application 
 of the tuberculin test. 
 
 Any feverish condition of the cow tends to impart a 
 feverish odor to the milk, which should therefore not be 
 used. Especially important is it that milk from diseased 
 udders, no matter what the character of the disease, be 
 discarded. 
 
 Sanitary Barn. Light, ventilation, and ease of clean- 
 ing are essential to a sanitary dairy barn. The disinfect- 
 ant action of an abundance of sunlight, secured by pro- 
 viding a large number of windows, is of the highest im- 
 portance. 
 
 Of equal importance is a clean, pure atmosphere, secur- 
 ed by a continuous ventilating system. The fact that 
 odors of any description are absorbed by milk with great 
 avidity, sufficiently emphasises the great need of pure air. 
 
 To permit of easy cleaning, the barn floors and gutters 
 should be built of concrete. They should be scrubbed 
 daily, and care >shouId"be taken to keep the walls and 
 ceiling free from dust and cobwebs. The feed boxes must 
 also be cleaned after each feed. 
 
 The stalls should be of the simplest construction, to 
 afford as little chance for lodgement of dust as possible. 
 Furthermore, they should so fit the cows as to cause the 
 latter to stand with their hind feet on the edge of the gut- 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 157 
 
 ter, a matter of the highest importance in keeping cows 
 clean. 
 
 The walls and ceiling should be as smooth as possible. 
 Moreover, they should be frequently disinfected by means 
 of a coat of whitewash. The latter gives the barn a 
 striking sanitary appearance. 
 
 Clean Barn Yard. A clean, well drained barn yard is 
 an essential factor in the production of sanitary milk. 
 Where cows are obliged to wade in mire and filth, it is 
 easy to foretell what the quality of the milk will be. To 
 secure a good barn yard it must be covered with gravel 
 or cinders, and should slope away from the barn. If the 
 manure is not taken directly from the stable to the fields, 
 it should be placed where the cows cannot have access 
 to it. 
 
 Clean Cows. Where the barn and barn-yard are sani- 
 tary, cows may be expected to be reasonably clean. Yet 
 cows that are apparently clean, may still be the means of 
 infecting milk to no small degree. When we consider 
 that every dust particle and every hair that drops into 
 the milk may add hundreds, thousands, or even millions 
 of bacteria to it, we realize the importance of taking every 
 precaution to guard against contamination from this 
 source. 
 
 To keep cows as free as possible from loose hair and 
 dust particles they should be carded and brushed regu- 
 larly once a day. This should be done after milking to 
 ' avoid dust. Five to ten minutes before the cow is milked 
 her udder and flanks should be gently washed with clean, 
 tepid water, by using a clean sponge or cloth. This will 
 allow sufficient time for any adhering drops of water to 
 drip off, at the same time it will keep the udder and flanks 
 sufficiently moist to prevent dislodgment of dust particles 
 
158 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 and hairs at milking time. This practically means that 
 the milker must always have one or two cows washed 
 ahead. He should be careful to wash his hands in clean 
 water after each washing. 
 
 Under ordinary conditions the cow is the greatest 
 source of milk contamination. The rubbing of the milker 
 against her and the shaking of the udder will dislodge 
 numerous dust particles and hairs unless the foregoing 
 instructions are rigidly followed. 
 
 Attention should also be given to the cow's switch, 
 which shoiild be kept scrupulously clean. The usual 
 switching during milking is no small matter in the con- 
 tamination of milk when the switch is not clean. 
 
 Clean Milkers. Clothes which have been worn in the 
 fields are not suitable for milking purposes. Every milker 
 should be provided with a clean, white milking suit, con- 
 sisting of cap, jacket and trousers. Such clothes can be 
 bought ready made for one dollar; and, if frequently 
 laundered, will materially aid in securing clean milk. 
 
 Fig. 42. Unflushed seam. Fig. 43. Flushed seam. 
 
 Milkers should also wash and dry their hands before 
 milking, and, above all, should keep them dry during 
 milking. 
 
 Clean Vessels. All utensils used in the handling of 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 159 
 
 milk should be made of good tin, with as few seams as 
 possible. Wherever seams occur, they should be flushed 
 with solder. Unflushed seams are difficult to clean, and, 
 as a rule, afford good breeding places for bacteria. Fig. 
 42 illustrates the character of the unflushed seam ; Fig. 43 
 shows a flushed seam, which fully illustrates its value. 
 
 Fig. 44 illustrates a modern sanitary milk pail. The 
 value of a partially closed pail is evident from the re- 
 duced opening, which serves to keep out many of the 
 micro-organisms that otherwise drop into the pail during 
 
 Fig. 44. Sanitary Milk Pail. 
 
 milking. While such a pail is somewhat more difficult 
 to clean than the ordinary open pail, it is believed that 
 the reduced contamination during milking far outweighs 
 this disadvantage. 
 
 All utensils used in the handling of milk should be as 
 nearly sterile as possible. A very desirable method of 
 cleaning them is as follows: 
 
 First, rinse with warm or cold water. Second, scrub 
 
160 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 with moderately hot water containing some sal soda. 
 The washing should be done with brushes rather than 
 cloth because the bristles enter into any crevices present 
 which the cloth cannot possibly reach. Furthermore, it 
 is very difficult to keep the cloth clean. Third, scald 
 thoroughly with steam or hot water, after rinsing out the 
 water in which the sal soda was used. After scalding, 
 the utensils should be inverted on the shelves without 
 wiping and allowed to remain in this place until ready 
 to use. This will leave the vessels in a practically sterile 
 condition. Fourth, if it is possible to turn the inside of 
 the vessels to the sun, in a place where there is no dust, 
 then it is desirable to expose the utensils during the day 
 to the strong germicidal action of the direct sun's rays. 
 
 Clean, Wholesome Feed. Highly fermented and 
 aromated feeds, like sour brewers grains and leeks should 
 be rigidly withheld from dairy cows when anything like 
 good flavored milk is sought. So readily does milk 
 absorb the odors of feeds through the system of the ani- 
 mal, that even good corn silage, when fed just previous 
 to milking, will leave its odor in the milk. When fed 
 after milking, however, no objection whatever can be 
 raised against corn silage because not a trace of its odors 
 is then found in the milk. Aromatic feeds of any kind 
 should always be fed after milking. 
 
 Pure Water. Since feeds are known to transmit their 
 odors to the milk through the cow, it is reasonable to ex- 
 pect water to do the same. Cows should, therefore, never 
 be permitted to drink anything but pure, clean-flavored 
 water. The need of pure water is further evident from 
 the fact that it enters so largely into the composition of 
 milk. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 161 
 
 The water of ponds and stagnant streams is especially 
 dangerous. Not only is such water injurious to the health 
 of cows, but in wading into it, they become contaminated 
 with numerous undesirable bacteria, some of which may 
 later find their way into the milk. 
 
 Strainers and Straining. Milk should be drawn so 
 clean as to make it almost unnecessary to strain it. This 
 operation is frequently done under the delusion that so 
 long as it removes all visible ■ dirt the milk has been 
 entirely purified. The real harm, however, that comes 
 from hairs and dust particles dropping into the milk is 
 not so much in the hairs and dust particles themselves 
 as in the millions of bacteria which they carry with them. 
 These bacteria are so small that no method of straining 
 will remove them. Straining can not even remove all 
 of the dirt, because some of it will go in solution. 
 
 A good strainer consists of two thicknesses of cheese 
 cloth with a layer of absorbent cotton between. The 
 strainer is to be placed on the can or vat into which the 
 milk is to be strained and not on the milk pail. While 
 a strainer like the above placed upon the milk pail, reduces 
 the bacterial content slightly in the hands of careful milk- 
 ers, it is believed that the slight advantage gained would 
 be more than ofif-set by greater carelessness in milking; 
 especially might this be true with ignorant milkers who 
 are apt to think that the strainer will make up for any 
 carelessness on their part. A cheese cloth strainer on 
 the milk pail is worse than useless with any kind of 
 milker. 
 
 New sterilized cotton must be used at each milking 
 and the cloths must be thoroughly washed and sterilized. 
 Like the cotton, it is best to use the cloth but once, 
 
 Dust=Free Air.- Great precaution should be taken not 
 
162 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 to create any dust in the stable about milking time, for 
 this is certain to find its way into the milk. Cows should, 
 therefore, never be bedded or receive any dusty feed just 
 before or during milking. 
 
 Dry roughage, such as hay and corn fodder, always 
 contains a considerable amount of dust, and when fed 
 before or during milking may so charge the air with dust 
 as to make clean milk an impossibility. 
 
 Moistening the floor and walls with clean water pre- 
 vious to milking materially minimizes the danger of get- 
 ting dust into the milk. A mistake not infrequently made 
 eveij in the better class of dairies is to card and brush the 
 cows just before milking. While this results in cleaner 
 cows, the advantage thus gained is far more than off- 
 set by the dirtier air, which, as will be shown later, 
 materially increases the germ content of the milk. The 
 carding and brushing should be done at least thirty min- 
 utes before the milking commences. 
 
 Clean Bedding. Clean shavings and clean cut straw 
 should preferably be used for bedding. Cows stepping 
 and lying on dirty bedding will soil themselves and create 
 a dusty barn air. 
 
 Milking With Dry Hands; A prolific source of 
 milk contamination is the milking with wet hands. Where 
 the milker wets his hands with milk, some of it is bound 
 to drip into the pail, carrying with it thousands or mil- 
 lions of bacteria, depending upon the degree of cleanliness 
 of the milker's hands and the cow's udder. There is no 
 excuse for the filthy practice of .wet milking, since it 
 is just as easy to milk with dry hands. 
 
 Fore=Milk. Where the purest milk is sought, it is de- 
 sirable to reject the -first stream or two from each teat, 
 as this contains many thousands of bacteria. The reason 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 163 
 
 for this rich development of germs is found in the favor- 
 able conditions provided by the milk in the milk-ducts of 
 the teats, to which the bacteria find ready access. 
 
 Flies. Flies not only constitute a prolific but also a 
 dangerous source of milk contamination. These pests 
 visit places of the worst description and their presence 
 in a dairy suggests a disregard for cleanliness. Of 414 
 flies examined by the 'Bacteriologist of the Connecticut 
 Station, the average number of bacteria carried per fly 
 was one and a quarter millions. Flies should be rigidly 
 excluded from all places where they are apt to come in 
 contact with the milk. 
 
 Experimental Data. To show to what extent the 
 bacterial content of milk may be reduced by adopting 
 the precautions suggested in the foregoing pages, a few 
 experimental data are herewith presented. 
 
 In Bulletin No. 42 of the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment 
 Station, Stocking reports the following : 
 
 1. When the cows were milked before feeding the 
 number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,233 > when milked im- 
 mediately after feeding, the number of bacteria was 3,656, 
 or three times as many. 
 
 2. When the udder and flanks of the cows were wiped 
 with a damp cloth, the number of bacteria per c. c. was 
 716; when not wiped the number was 7,058, or ten times 
 as great. 
 
 3. When the cows were not brushed just before milk- 
 ing the number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,207; when 
 brushed just before milking, the number was 2,286, or 
 nearly twice as great. 
 
 4. When students who had studied the production of 
 clean milk did the milking, the number of bacteria per 
 c. c. was 914; when the milking was done by regular 
 
164 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 unskilled milkers the number of bacteria was 2,846, or 
 three times as great. 
 
 Wiping- or washing udders before milking not only 
 very materially reduces the bacterial content of the milk, 
 but also lessens the amount of dirt to a very great extent. 
 Frazer has shown that "the average weight of dirt which 
 falls from muddy udders during milking is ninety times 
 as great as that which falls from the same udder after 
 washing, and when the udder is slightly soiled it is 
 eighteen times as great." 
 
 Fig, 4.5— Clean Milking. (From Da. Div., U. S. Dept. of A.) 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 FARM BUTTER-MAKING. 
 
 CREAMING. 
 
 Cause. Creaming is due to the diiference in the speci- 
 fic gravity of the fat and the milk serum. The fat being 
 light and insoluble rises, carrying with it some of the 
 other constituents of the milk. The result is a layer of 
 cream at the surface. 
 
 Processes of Creaming. The processes by which milk 
 is creamed may be divided into two general classes : ( i ) 
 That in which milk is placed in shallow pans or long 
 narrow cans and allowed to set for about twenty-four 
 hours, a process known as natural or gravity creaming; 
 (2) that in which gravity is aided by subjecting the milk 
 to centrifugal force, a process known as centrifugal 
 creaming. The centrifugal force has the effect of increas- 
 ing the force of gravity many thousands of times, thus 
 causing an almost instantaneous creaming. This force, 
 is generated in the cream separator. 
 
 Shallow=P'an Method. The best results with this 
 method are secured by straining the milk directly after 
 milking into tin pans about twelve inches in diameter 
 and two to four inches deep. It is then allowed to remain 
 undisturbed at room temperature (60° to 65° F.) for 
 twenty-four to thirty-six hours, after which the cream is 
 removed either with a nearly flat, perforated skimmer, or 
 by allowing it to glide over the edge of the pan after it 
 has been carefully loosened along, the sides. The aver- 
 age loss of fat in the skim milk by this method is 0.7%. 
 
 165 
 
166 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Deep=Cold=Setting Method. The best results with 
 this method are secured by using a can Hke the Cooley 
 illustrated in Fig. 47. This can is provided with a cover 
 which allows it to be submerged in 
 water. It also has a spout at the 
 bottom by which the skim milk is 
 gently removed, thus preventing the 
 partial mixing of cream and skim 
 milk incident to skimming with a 
 conical dipper. 
 
 The milk is put into the cans di- 
 rectly after milking and cooled to 
 as low a temperature as possible. 
 To secure the best results with this 
 method the water should be iced. 
 Where this is done the skim milk 
 will show only about 0.2% fat. It 
 it desirable to allow the milk to set 
 twenty-four hours before skimming, though usually the 
 creaming is quite complete at the end of twelve or fifteen 
 hours. 
 
 Dilution or Aquatic Separators. One of the most 
 unsatisfactory methods of creaming is the addition of 
 water to the milk. The creaming by this method is done 
 in variously constructed tin cans, which the manufacturers 
 usually sell under the name of dilution or aquatic sepa- 
 rators. Those uninformed about the genuine centrifugal 
 separators are often lead to believe that they are buying 
 real separators at a low cost when they are investing five, 
 ten or fifteen dollars in one of these tin cans, which are 
 no more entitled to the term separator than are the com- 
 mon shallow pans. The average loss of fat with this 
 system of creaming is about ij^%. 
 
 Fig. 47.- Cooley Can. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 167 
 
 Centrifugal Method (Hand Separator). Dairies hav- 
 ing four or more cows should cream their milk by the cen- 
 trifugal method, the hand separator. The saving of but- 
 ter fat with this method soon pays for the cost of a sep- 
 arator. Moreover it has the additional advantages over 
 the gravity methods of creaming in providing fresh, sweet 
 skim milk for feeding purposes, and yielding cream of 
 any desired richness. 
 
 Efficiency of Creaming With a Separator. Under 
 favorable conditions a separator should not leave more 
 than .05% fat in the skim milk by the Babcock test 
 There are a number of conditions that affect the efficiency 
 of skimmmg and these must be duly considered in making 
 a separator test. The following are some of these con- 
 ditions : 
 
 A. Speed of bowl. 
 
 B. Steadiness of motion. 
 
 C. Temperature of milk. 
 
 D. Manner of heating milk. 
 
 E. Amount of milk skimmed per hout- 
 
 F. Acidity of milk. 
 
 G. Viscosity of milk. 
 H. Richness of cream. 
 
 I. Stage of lactation. (Stripper's milk.) 
 
 A. The greater the speed the more efficient the cream- 
 ing, other conditions the same. It is important to see that 
 the separator runs at full speed during the separating 
 process. 
 
 B. A separator should run as smoothly as a top. The 
 slightest trembling will increase the loss of fat in the 
 skim milk. ' Trembling of bowl may be caused by any of 
 the following conditions: (i) loose bearings, (2) 'sepa- 
 
168 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 rator out of plumb, (3) dirty oil or dirty bearings, (4) 
 unstable foundation, or (5) unbalanced bowl. 
 
 C. The best skimming is not possible with any sepa- 
 rator when the temperature falls below 60° F. A tem- 
 perature of 85° to 98° F. is the most satisfactory for 
 ordinary skimming. Under some conditions the cleanest 
 skimming is obtained at temperatures above 100° F. The 
 reason milk separates better at the higher temperatures is 
 that the viscosity is reduced. 
 
 D. Sudden heating tends to increase the loss of fat 
 in skim-milk. The reason for this is that the fat heats 
 more slowly than the milk serum, which diminishes the 
 difference between their densities. When, for example, 
 milk is suddenly heated from near the freezing tempera- 
 ture to 85" F. by applying live steam, the loss of fat in 
 the skim-milk may be four times as great as it is under 
 favorable conditions. 
 
 E. Unduly crowding a separator increases the loss 
 of fat in the skim-milk. On the other hand, a- marked 
 underfeeding is apt to lead to the same result. 
 
 F. The higher the acidity of milk the poorer the 
 creaming. With sour milk the loss of fat in the skim- 
 milk becomes very great. 
 
 G. Sometimes large numbers of undesirable (slimy) 
 bacteria find entrance into milk and materially increase 
 its viscosity. This results in very unsatisfactory creaming. 
 Low temperatures also increase the viscosity of milk 
 which accounts for the poor skimming at these tempera- 
 tures. 
 
 H. Most of the standard makes of separators will do 
 satisfactory work when delivering cream of a richness of 
 50%. A richer cream is liable to result in a richer skim- 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 169 
 
 milk. The reason for this is that in rich cream the skim- 
 milk is taken close to the cream line where the skim-milk 
 is richest. 
 
 I. Owing to the very small size of the fat globules in 
 stripper's milk, such milk is more difficult to cream than 
 that produced in the early period of lactation. 
 
 Regulating Richness of Cream. The richness of 
 cream is regulated by means of a cream screw in the sepa- 
 rator bowl. When a rich cream is desired the screw is 
 turned toward the center of the bowl, and for a thin cream 
 it is turned away from the center. 
 
 Advantages of Rich Cream. To separate a rich 
 cream at the farm results in mutual benefit to pro- 
 ducer and manufacturer. The main advantages are as fol- 
 lows: (i) Less bulk to handle; (2) less cream to cool; 
 (3) less transportation charges; (4) more skim-milk for 
 the farmer; (5) better keeping quality; (6) allows more 
 starter to be added; (7) gives better results in churn- 
 ing, and (8) makes pasteurization easier, especially with 
 sour cream. 
 
 Best Time to Separate Milk. The best results with 
 a separator are obtained by running the milk through 
 the machine immediately after milking. 
 
 Saving of Butter Fat with a Separator. That the 
 owner of four good cows can afford to invest $50.00 in a 
 small cream separator is shown by the following: Four 
 good cows will yield not less than 24,000 pounds of 
 milk a year. By the common shallow pan method of 
 creaming, the loss of butter fat will average 0.7 pound 
 for every 100 pounds of milk. With the centrifugal sepa- 
 rator the loss of fat will not average over 0.05 pound, 
 hence there will be effected a saving of 0.65 pound of 
 
170 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 butter fat in each loo pounds of milk by the use of the 
 separator. At this rate, the total saving of butter fat an- 
 nually on the 24,000 pounds of milk will be 156 pounds. 
 Since each pound of butter fat will yield approximately 
 I 1-6 pounds of butter, 183 pounds of butter will be saved 
 by the process, which, at 25 cents per pound, amounts to 
 $4S-75- This saving in butter fat alone will almost pay 
 for the separator in one year. 
 
 Fastening a Separator. To secure steady motion, 
 the separator must be fastened to a solid foundation.. 
 There is nothing better in this respect than a concrete 
 floor, with which every dairy should be provided. 
 
 One of the best methods of fastening separators to con- 
 crete floors is the use of expansion bolts. 
 
 These consist of lag screws with tapering points pro- 
 vided with malleable shields, having threads on their in- 
 ner sides to fit the threads of the lag screws and pro- 
 jections on their outer sides to catch and hold in holes 
 made in the concrete. The shields expand as the lag 
 screw is screwed in. 
 
 CREAM RIPENING. 
 
 Cream ripening is a process of fermentation in which 
 the lactic acid organisms play the chief role. In every-day 
 language, cream ripening means the souring of the cream. 
 So important is this process that the success or failure of 
 the butter maker is largely determined by his ability 
 to exercise the proper control over it. In common practice 
 the time consumed in the ripening of cream varies from 
 twelve to twenty-four hours. 
 
 Object. The ripening of cream has for its prime ob- 
 ject the development of flavor and aroma in butter, two 
 qualities usually expressed by the word flavor: In addi- 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 171 
 
 tion to this, cream ripening has several minor purposes, 
 namely: (i) renders cream more easily churnable; (2) 
 obviates difficulties from frothing or foaming in churn- 
 ^^S' (3) permits a higher churning temperature; (4) 
 increases the keeping quality of butter. 
 
 Flavor, This, so far as known at the present time, 
 is the result of the development of the lactic fermentation. 
 If other fermentations aid in the production of this im- 
 portant quality of butter, they must be looked upon as 
 secondary. In practice the degree or intensity of flavor 
 is easily controlled by governing the formation of lactic 
 acid. That is, the flavor develops gradually with the in- 
 crease in the acidity of the cream. Sweet cream butter, 
 for example, is almost entirely devoid of flavor, while 
 cream with an average richness possesses the maximum 
 amount of good flavor possible when the acidity has 
 reached .6%. 
 
 Churnability. Practical experience shows that sour 
 cream is more easily churnable than sweet crearn. This 
 is explained by the fact that the development of acid in 
 cream tends to diminish its viscosity. The concussion pro- 
 duced in churning causes the little microscopic fat glob- 
 ules to flow together and coalesce, ultimately forming the 
 small granules of butter visible in the churn. A high 
 viscosity impedes the movement of these globules. It is 
 evident, therefore, that anything that reduces the viscosity 
 of cream, will facilitate the churning. 
 
 As a rule, too, the greater the churnability of cream the 
 smaller the loss of fat in the buttermilk. 
 
 Frothing. Experience shows that ripened cream is 
 less subject to frothing or foaming than unripened. This 
 is probably due to the reduced viscosity of ripened cream 
 and the consequent greater churnability of same. 
 
172 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Temperature. Sour cream can be churned at higher 
 temperatures than sweet cream with less loss of fat in 
 the buttermilk. This is of great practical importance 
 since it is difficult to get low enough temperatures for the 
 successful churning of sweet cream. 
 
 Keeping Quality. It has been found that butter with 
 the best keeping quality is obtained from well ripened 
 cream. It is true, however, that butter made from cream 
 that has been ripened a little too far will possess very 
 poor keeping quality. An acidity of .5% should be placed 
 as the limit when good keeping quality is desired. 
 
 CONTROL Gif THE RIPENING PROCESS. 
 
 We have learned that the highly desirable flavor and 
 aroma of butter are produced by the development of the 
 lactic fermentation. In the following discussion we shall 
 take up the means of controlling this fermentation and 
 treat of the more mechanical side of cream ripening. This 
 will include: (i) the ripening temperature; (2) time 
 in ripening; (3) agitation of cream during ripening. 
 
 Ripening Temperature. Since the lactic acid bac- 
 teria develop best at a temperature of 90° to 98° F. 
 it would seem desirable to ripen cream at these tem- 
 peratures. But this is not practicable because of the 
 unfavorable effect of high temperatures on the body 
 of the cream and the butter. Good butter can be pro- 
 duced, however, under a wide range of ripening tem- 
 peratures. The limits may be placed at 60° and 80°. 
 Temperatures below 60" are too unfavorable for the 
 development of the lactic acid bacteria. Any check 
 upon the growth of these germs increases the chances 
 for the development of other kinds of bacteria. But 
 it may be added that when cream has reached an 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 173 
 
 acidity of .4% or more, the ripening may be finished at a 
 "temperature between 55° and 60° with good results. In 
 general practice a temperature between 60° and 70° gives 
 the best results. This means that the main portion of the 
 ripening is done at this temperature. The ripening is 
 always finislied at temperatures lower than this. 
 
 Time in Ripening. As a rule quick ripening- gives 
 better results than slow. The reason for this is evident. 
 Quick ripening means a rapid development of the lactic 
 fermentation and, therefore, a relatively slow develop- 
 ment of other fermentations. Practical experience shows, 
 us that the growth of the undesirable germs is slow in 
 proportion as that of the lactic is rapid. For instance, 
 when we attempt to ripen cream at 55" F., a tempera- 
 ture unfavorable for the growth of the lactic acid bac- 
 teria, a more or less bitter flavor is always the result. 
 This is so because the bitter germs develop better at low 
 temperatures than the lactic acid bacteria. 
 
 Stirring Cream. It is very essential in cream ripen- 
 ing to agitate the cream frequently to insure uniform 
 ripening. When, cream remains undisturbed for some 
 time the fat rises in the same way that it does in milk, 
 though in a less marked degree. The result is that the 
 upper layers are richer than the lower and will sour less 
 rapidly, since the action of the lactic acid germs is 
 greater in thin than in rich cream. 
 
 This uneven ripening leads to a poor bodied cream. 
 Instead of being smooth and glossy, it will appear coarse 
 and curdy when poured from a dipper. The importance 
 of stirring frequently during ripening should therefore- 
 not be underestimated. 
 
 The Use of Sour Milk (Starter), Cream produced 
 under cleanly conditions ordinarily contains many kinds 
 
174 DAIRY P ARMING 
 
 of bacteria — good, bad, and indifferent — and to insure a 
 large predominance of the lactic acid type in the ripening 
 process, it is necessary to reinforce the bacteria of this 
 type already existing in the cream by adding large quan- 
 tities of them in a pure form, that is, unmixed with un- 
 desirable species. Clean flavored sour milk or skim milk 
 at the point of curdling is practically a pure culture of 
 lactic acid organisms, and the addition of about lo pounds 
 of such inilk to every loo pounds of cream will result 
 in a better and more uniform quality of butter. 
 
 Amount of Acid to Develop. Cream of average ricn- 
 ness should have an acidity of from 0.5 to 0.6 per cent, 
 when churned. A rich cream requires less acid than a 
 thin cream. 
 
 Sweet and Sour Cream, In small dairies, where only 
 a few churnings are made weekly, care should be taken 
 never to mix sweet and sour cream just before churning. 
 This always results in a heavy loss of fat in the butter- 
 milk on account of the difference in the churnability of 
 sweet and sour cream. 
 
 ACID TEST FOR CREAM. 
 
 Butter makers do not find it safe to rely upon their 
 noses in determining the ripeness of cream for churning. 
 They use in daily practice tests by which it is possible to 
 determine the actual amount of acid present. The method 
 of using these" tests is based upon the simplest form of 
 titration, which consists in neutralizing an acid with an 
 alkali in the presence of an indicator which determines 
 when the point of neutrality has been reached. 
 
 In the tests for acidity of cream the alkali used is 
 sodium hydroxide. This is made up of a definite strength 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 175 
 
 so that the amount of acid can be calculated from the 
 amount of alkali used. 
 
 Farrington's Alkaline Tablet Test. In this test the 
 alkali is used in a dry tablet form in which it is easily 
 handled. Each tablet contains enough alkali to neutralize 
 .034 gram of lactic acid. 
 
 Apparatus Used for the Test. This is shown in Fig. 
 48, and consist^ of a porcelain cup, one 17.6 c.c. pipette, 
 and a 100 c.c. rubber-stoppered, graduated glass cylinder. 
 
 CrL-IIVDEfS. 
 
 Fig. 48. Farrington Acid Test Apparatus. 
 
 Making the Solution. The solution is made in the 
 graduated cylinder by dissolving 5 tablets in enough water 
 to- make 97 c.c. solution. When the tablets are dissolved, 
 which takes from six to twelve hours, the solution should 
 be well shaken and is then ready for use. The solution 
 of the tablets may be hastened by placing the graduate in 
 a reclining position, as shown in the cut. 
 
176 DAIRY P ARMING 
 
 Making the Test. With the pipette add 17.6 c.c. of 
 cream to the cup, then with the same pipette add an equal 
 amount of water. Now slowly add of the tablet solution, 
 rotating the cup after each addition. As soon as a per- 
 manent pink color appears, the graduate is read and the 
 number of c.c. solution used will indicate the number of 
 hundredths of one per cent of acid in the cream. Thus, 
 if it required 50 c.c. of the tablet solution to neutralize the 
 cream then the amount of acid would be .50%. From 
 this it will be seen that with the Farrington test no calcu- 
 lation of any kind is necessary. 
 
 CHURNING. 
 
 Theory. Under the physical properties of butter fat 
 it was mentioned that this fat existed in milk in the form 
 of extremely minute globules, numbering about 100,000,- 
 000 per drop of milk. In rich cream this number is in- 
 creased at least a dozen times owing to the concentration 
 of the fat globules during the separation of the milk. 
 
 So long as milk and cream remain undisturbed, the fat 
 remains in this finely divided state without any tendency 
 whatever to flow together. This tendency of the globules 
 to remain separate was formerly ascribed to the supposed 
 presence of a membrane around each globule. Later re- 
 searches, however, have proven the falsity of this theory 
 and we know now that this condition of the fat is due 
 to the surface tension of the globules and to the dense 
 layer of casein that surrounds them. 
 
 Any disturbance great enough to cause the globules to 
 break through this caseous layer and overcome their sur- 
 face tension will cause them to unite or coalesce, a process 
 which we call churning. In the churning of cream this 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 177 
 
 process of coalescing continues until the fat globules have 
 united into masses visible in the churn as butter granules. 
 
 CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE CHURNING. 
 
 There are a number of conditions that have an impor- 
 tant bearing upon the process of churning. These may 
 be enumerated as follows : 
 
 1. Temperature. 
 
 2. Character of butter fat. 
 
 3. Acidity of cream. 
 
 4. Richness of cream. 
 
 5. Amount of cream in churn. 
 
 6. Speed of churn. 
 
 7. Abnormal fermentations. 
 
 I. Temperature. To have -the miscroscopic globules 
 unite in churning they must have a certain degree of soft- 
 ness or fluidity, which is greater the higher the tempera- 
 ture. Hence the higher the temperature, within certain 
 limits, the quicker the churning. To secure the best re- 
 sults the temperature must be such as to churn the cream 
 in from thirty to forty-five minutes. This is brought 
 about in different creams at quite different temperatures. 
 
 The temperature at which cream must be churned is 
 determined primarily by the character of the butter fat 
 and partly also by the acidity and richness of the cream. 
 Most cream is jchurned between 55 and 60 degrees Fahr. 
 
 Rule for Churning Temperature. A good rule to fol- 
 low with regard to temperature is this : When the cream 
 enters the churn with a richness of 30 per cent and an 
 acidity of .5 to -6 per cent, the temperature should be 
 such that the cream will churn in from thirty to forty- 
 five minutes. This will insure an exhaustive churning 
 and leave the butter in a condition in which it can be 
 
178 DAIRY f ARMING 
 
 handled without injuring its texture. Moreover, the but- 
 termilk can then be easily removed, so that when a plug 
 is taken with a trier the day after it is churned the brine 
 on it will be perfectly clear. 
 
 3. Character of Butter Fat. The fat globules in 
 cream from diflferent sources and at different times have 
 the proper fluidity to unite at quite different temperatures. 
 This is so because of the differences in the relative amount 
 of "soft" and "hard" fats of which butter fat is composed. 
 When the hard fats largely predominate the butter fat 
 will, of course, have a high melting point. Such fat may 
 be quite hard at a temperature of 60°, while a butter fat 
 of a low melting point would be comparatively soft at 
 this temperature. For a study of the conditions that 
 influence the hardness of butter fat the reader is referred 
 to the discussion of the "insoluble fats" treated in the 
 chapter on milk. 
 
 3. Acidity of Cream. This has a marked influence on 
 the churning process. Sour or ripened cream churns with 
 much greater ease than sweet cream because the acid 
 renders it less viscous. The ease with which the fat 
 globules travel in cream becomes greater the less the 
 viscosity. Ripe cream will therefore always churn more 
 quickly than sweet cream. Ripe cream also permits of a 
 higher churning temperature than sweet, which is of great 
 practical importance where it is difficult to secure low 
 churning temperatures. 
 
 4. Richness of Cream. It may naturally be inferred 
 that the closer the fat globules are together the more 
 quickly they will unite with the same amount of concus- 
 sion. In rich cream the globules are very close together, 
 which renders it more easily churnable than thin cream. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 179 
 
 The former can therefore be churned in the same length 
 of time at a lower temperature than the latter. 
 
 The ideal richness is about 30%. A cream much richer 
 than this will stick to the sides of the churn, which re- 
 duces the amount of concussion. The addition of water 
 to the churn will overcome this stickiness and cause the 
 butter to come in a reasonable length of time. It is bet- 
 ter, however, to avoid an excessive richness when a ex- 
 haustive churning is to be expected. 
 
 5. Amount of Cream in Churn. The best and quick- 
 est churning is secured when the churn is 
 one-third full. With more or less cream 
 than this, the amount of concussion is re- 
 duced and the length of time in churning 
 correspondingly increased. 
 
 6. Speed of Churn. The speed of the 
 churn should be such as to produce the great- 
 est possible agitation or concussion of the 
 cream. Too high or too low a speed reduces 
 the amount of concussion. The proper speed 
 for each particular churn must be determined 
 by experiment. 
 
 7. Abnormal Fermentations. The slimy 
 or ropy fermentation sometimes causes trouble 
 in churning by rendering the cream exces- 
 sively viscous. Cream from single herds may 
 become so viscous as to render churning im- 
 possible. 
 
 Dairy Thermometer. One of the essen- 
 tials in making good butter is a thermometer 
 *Dairy' like that shown in Fig. 49. It is necessary to 
 
 eter. watch the temperature of the cream dur- 
 
 ing ripening, and to secure uniform and exhaustive 
 
180 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 churnings the temperature of the cream must always be 
 definitely known before it enters the churn. 
 
 CHURNING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Churns. Of the numerous styles of churns upon the 
 market there is none better than the barrel churn. For 
 large dairymen, however, who have 50 or more cows, a 
 combined churn and butter worker is recommended. Such 
 churns, or course, require some form of power to run 
 them, and no large dairy is expected to be without power. 
 
 Preparing the Churn. 
 Before adding the cream, 
 the churn shouldbe scalded 
 with hot water and then 
 thoroughly rinsed with 
 cold water. This will 
 "freshen" the churn and 
 fill the pores of the wood 
 with water so that the 
 cream and butter will not 
 stick. 
 
 Straining Cream. All 
 cream should be carefully 
 strained into the churn. 
 This removes the possibil- 
 ity of white specks in but- 
 ter which usually consist of curd or dried particles of 
 cream. 
 
 Adding the Color. The amount of color to be added 
 depends upon the kind of cream, the season of the year 
 and the market demands. 
 
 Jersey or Guernsey cream requires much less color 
 than Holstein because it contains more natural color. 
 
 Fig. 50.— Barrel Churn. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 181 
 
 During the summer when the cows are feeding on 
 pastures the amount of color needed may be less than 
 half that required in the winter when the cows are feed- 
 ing on dry feed. 
 
 Different markets demand different shades of color. 
 The butter must therefore be colored to suit the market 
 to which it is shipped. 
 
 In the winter time about one ounce of color is required 
 per one hundred pounds of butter. During the summer 
 less than one-half ounce is usually sufficient. 
 
 In case the color is not added to the cream (through an 
 oversight) it may be added to the butter at the time of 
 working by thoroughly mixing it with the salt. When the 
 colored salt has been evenly distributed through the butter 
 the color will also be uniform throughout. 
 
 Gas in Churn. During the hrst five minutes of churn- 
 ing the vent of the churn should be opened occasionally 
 to relieve the pressure developed -inside. This pressure 
 according to Babcock, "is chiefly due to the air within 
 becoming saturated with moisture and not to gas set free 
 from the cream." 
 
 Size of Granules. Butter should be churned until the 
 granules are about half the size of a pea. When larger 
 than this it is more difficult to remove the buttermilk and 
 distribute the salt. When smaller, some of the fine grains 
 are liable to pass out with the buttermilk, and the per- 
 centage of water in the butter is reduced. When the 
 granules have reached the right size, cold water may be 
 added to the churn to cause the butter to float better: Salt 
 will answer the same purpose. The churn is now given 
 two or three revolutions and the buttermilk drawn dflf. 
 
 Washing Butter. One washing in which as much 
 wat°r is used as there was cream is usually sufficient. 
 
182 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 When butter churns very soft two washings may be ad- 
 vantageous. Too much washing is dangerous, however, 
 as it removes the dehcate flavor of the butter. 
 
 Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance 
 of using clean, pure water for washing. Experiments 
 have shown that unpure water seriously affects the flavor 
 of butter. When the water is not perfectly pure it should 
 be filtered or pasteurized. 
 
 Salting. It is needless to say that nothing but the best 
 grades of salt should be used in butter. This means sail 
 readily soluble in water and free from impurities. If there 
 is much foreign matter in salt, it will leave a turbid ap- 
 pearance and a slight sediment when dissolved in a tumb- 
 ler of clear water. 
 
 Object of Salting. Salt adds flavor to butter and ma- 
 terially increases its keeping quality. Very high salting, 
 however, has a tendency to detract from the fine, delicate 
 aroma of butter while at the same time it tends to cover 
 up slight defects in the flavor. As a rule a butter maker 
 will find it to his advantage to be able to salt his butter 
 rather high. 
 
 Rate of Salt. The rate at which butter should be 
 salted, other conditions the same, is dependent upon mar- 
 ket demands. The butter maker must cater to the mar- 
 kets with regard to the amount of salt to use as he does 
 with regard to color. 
 
 The rate of salt used does not necessarily determine 
 the amount contained in butter. For instance it is per- 
 fectly possible under certain conditions to get a higher 
 percentage of salt in butter by salting at the rate of one 
 ounce per pound than is possible under other conditions 
 by salting at the rate of one and a half ounces. This 
 means that under some conditions of salting more salt is 
 lost than under others. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 183 
 
 The amount of salt retained in butter is dependent 
 upon : 
 
 1. Amount of drainage before salting. 
 
 2. Fineness of butter granules. 
 
 3. Amount of butter in churn. 
 
 1. When the butter is salted before the wash water 
 has had time to drain away, any extra amount of water 
 remaining will wash out an extra amount of salt. It is 
 good practice, however, to use a little extra salt and 
 drain less before adding it as the salt will dissolve better 
 under these conditions. 
 
 2. Small butter granules require more salt than large 
 ones. The reason for this may be stated as follows : The 
 surface of every butter granule is covered with a thin 
 film of water, and since the total surface of a pound of 
 small granules is greater than that of a pound of larger 
 ones, the amount of water retained on them is greater. 
 Small granules have therefore the same effect as insuffi- 
 cient drainage, namely, washing out more salt. 
 
 3. Relatively less salt will stick to the churn in large 
 churnings than in small, consequently less vvill be lost. 
 
 Standaird Rate. The average amount of salt used in 
 butter is one ounce per pound. 
 
 WORKING BUTTER. 
 
 Object. The chief object in working butter is to evenly 
 incorporate the salt. It also assists in expelling any sur- 
 plus moisture. 
 
 How to Work Butter. Where only a small amount 
 of butter is made, the butter may be worked with a ladle 
 in the churn. For larger amounts it is desirable, however, 
 to have' a separate worker like that shown in Fig. 56. 
 
184 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 "^^ 
 
 Fig. 61. Butter worker. 
 
 Butter is worked enough when the salt has been evenly 
 distributed. Just when this point has been reached can 
 not always be told from the appearance of the butter 
 immediately after working. But after four or six hours' 
 
 standing the appear- 
 ance of white streaks 
 or mottles indicates 
 that the butter has 
 not been sufficiently 
 worked. The rule to 
 follow is to work tlit 
 butter just enough to 
 prevent the appearance 
 of mottles. To avoid 
 mottles it is best to 
 work butter twice. The 
 Fig. 52. -Butter Printer. first time, it is worked 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 18S 
 
 just enough to fairly incorporate the salt. It is then 
 allowed to stand six or eight hours, after which white 
 streaks are usually noticeable on cutting the butter with 
 a string. The second working should cease as soon as 
 these streaks or mottles have been removed. 
 
 Difficult Churning. The causes of trouble i.i churn- 
 ing may be enumerated as follows: (i) thin cream, (2) 
 low temperature, (3) sweet cream, (4) high viscosity of 
 cream, (5) churn too full, (6) too high or too low speed 
 of churn, (7) colostrum milk, (8) advanced period of 
 lactation, and (9) abnormally rich cream. 
 
 Foaming. This is usually due to churning a thin 
 cream at too low a terriperature, or to a high viscosity of 
 the cream. When caused by these conditions foaming 
 can usually be overcome by adding warm water to the 
 churn. Foaming may also be caused by having the churn 
 too full, in which case the cream should be divided and 
 two churnings made instead of one. 
 
 Cleaning Churns. After the butter has been removed, 
 the churn should be washed, first with moderately hot 
 water, next with boiling hot water containing a little 
 alkali, and finally with hot water. If the final rinsing is 
 done with cold water the churn dries too slowly, which 
 is apt to give it a musty smell. This daily washing should 
 be supplemented occasionally with a washing with lime 
 water. 
 
 Nothing is equal to the cleansing action of well pre- 
 pared lime water and its frequent use will prevent the 
 peculiar churn odor that is bound to develop in churns 
 not so treated. 
 
 The outside of tVie churn should be thoroughly cleaned 
 with moderately hot water containing a small amount of 
 alkali. 
 
186 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 MARKETING BUTTER. 
 
 For fancy trade, one-pound prints wrapped in parch- 
 ment paper are the most popular. These prints are 
 made with a small hand printer (Fig. 54) which should 
 have the dairyman's monogram cut into it. The im- 
 print of the monogram in the butter will serve as a 
 guarantee of its genuineness. It is also desirable to 
 
 Fig. 53.— Print Butter Box. 
 
 have some neat lettering on the parchment wrapper, such, 
 for example, as Fancy Dairy Butter, Cold Spring Dairy 
 Butter, Golden Jersey Butter, etc. Prints must be kept 
 cold to preserve their attractive rectangular appearance. 
 The best prices for butter are realized by selling it 
 direct to the consumer. With dairymen who retail milk 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 186a 
 
 and cream, this method' of marketing not only yields the 
 best prices, but is also the most convenient, because the 
 butter can be disposed of at the same time as the milk 
 and cream. 
 
 A covered box like that showa in Fig. 55 is best 
 adapted for carrying print butter to market. Ice may be 
 packed in the box with the butter during warm weather. 
 
 With the small butter producer the greatest trouble is 
 finding a suitable market for his product. It is custom- 
 ary with most of these producers to sell their butter to 
 the country grocer, who, as a rule, makes little discrimi- 
 nation in the quality of the butter, the good and the poor 
 selling for practically the same price. No producer of 
 good butter can afford to market his butter in the coun- 
 try stores. Those who have made farm butter-making a 
 success have invariably catered to private trade, or have 
 sold their butter to well-known butter dealers. A great 
 deal of butter could be sold in villages, towns, and cities 
 at 25 and 30 cents a pound which would bring only 12 
 or 15 cents in the country stores. Seek, therefore, pri- 
 vate customers who are willing to pay for a good product, 
 and if these are not within easy reach by road, try to 
 reach them by rail. 
 
 Composition of Butter. According to analysis re- 
 ported by various experiment stations, American butter 
 has the following average composition: 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Water 13 
 
 Fat 83 
 
 Proteids i 
 
 Salt 3 
 
186b 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Fig. 54.— Butter Ladles. 
 
 Fig. 55.— Butter Carton for 
 Wrapping One-pound 
 Butter Prints. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 FARM CHtESEMAKING. 
 
 Apparatus and Materials Needed. For dairies from 
 lo to 75 cows, the following list is recommended : Steam 
 heating cheese vat; boiler; i% inch press screws; cheese 
 hoops; horizontal and perpendicular cheese knives; one 
 gallon dipper; curd scoop; whisk broom; loo cubic 
 centimeter graduate ; acid test ; dairy thermometer ; rennet 
 extract ; cheese color ; cheese salt ; bandages ; press cloths ; 
 cheese cloth circles, and a small scales. 
 
 Ripening the Milk. Place the night's and morning's 
 milk in the cheese vat and heat to a temperature of 86° F. 
 Next determine the acidity of the milk with the Far- 
 rington test described on page 175. (Other tests may be 
 used.) If less than 0.18% acid is found, the milk should 
 be held to develop more acid. If very sweet it is desirable 
 to add one or two poupds of good flavored, sour milk 
 (starter, see p. 173) per 100 pounds. A good starter will 
 not only hasten the ripening but will improve the flavor 
 of the cheese. 
 
 Adding Qolor and Rennet Extract. As soon as the 
 milk shows an acidity of 0.18% to 0.2% add color at the 
 rate of one ounce (30 c. c.) per 1,000 pounds of milk and 
 thoroughly mix. The amount of color to be used depends 
 upon the season of the year, the market demands and the 
 kind of milk. After the color is thoroughly incorporated, 
 add rennet extract (curdling agent) at the rate of about 
 four ounces (120 c. c.) per 1,000 pounds of milk. The 
 rennet extract should be diluted with water to the extent 
 
 187 
 
188 
 
 UAIKY FARMING 
 
 of four or five times its own volume before adding it to 
 the milk. After the rennet extract has been thoroughly 
 stirred in, the milk should be allowed to stand undis- 
 
 turbed until sufficiently curdled to cut. The tempera- 
 ture at the time of adding the rennet should be 86° to 
 90° F. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 189 
 
 The amount of rennet extract to be used is determined 
 by the quickness with which the cheese is to ripen. If a 
 quick ripening cheese is wanted, add 6 ounces per i,ooo 
 pounds of milk. If a slow ripening cheese is desired, add 
 3 ounces for i,ooo pounds. 
 
 Cheese color and rennet extract are usually placed 
 upon the market in liquid form. They are, however, also 
 procurable in dry, tablet form in which they are pre- 
 ferred for making cheese on a small scale. 
 
 Cutting the Curd. To determine when the curd is 
 ready to cut, insert the forefinger, slightly break the curd 
 with the thumb, and move the finger in the direction of 
 the break and parallel to, and half an inch below^ the 
 surface. If the whey in the break is clear, the curd is 
 ready to cut; if milky, the curdling has not progressed 
 far enough. The cutting is done as follows: First cut 
 the curd in horizontal layers with the horizontal knife; 
 next cut lengthwise and crosswise, alternately, with the 
 perpendicular knife until the curd cubes are about three- 
 eighths of an inch on a side. 
 
 Warming and Stirring the Curd. Immediately after 
 cutting, stir the curd very gently, yet enough to prevent 
 the particles from matting together. Run the palm of 
 the hand along the sides and bottom of the vat to remove 
 any adhering curd. After lo minutes stirring, gradually 
 apply heat and bring the temperature to ioo° F. in about 
 30 minutes. After this temperature has been reached, 
 the curd may be stirred at intervals of 10 minutes until 
 ready to remove the whey. It is important to keep the 
 temperature as close to 100° F. as possible. 
 
 Drawing Off the 'Nyhey. When a bunch of curd is 
 pressed between the two hands and on relieving the pres- 
 sure the particles fall apart readily, the curd is ready for 
 
190 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 the removal of the whey. When this firmness is reached, 
 the whey should show about 0.17% acid. When the milk 
 is set at the proper ripeness, the degree of firmness and 
 amount of acid indicated above are reached in about two 
 and one-half hours after adding the rennet extract. 
 
 Remove the whey through a faucet or by means of a 
 siphon. Place a perforated wooden rack about two 
 inches high at one end of the vat and cover it with a 
 piece of muslin or cheese cloth. Scoop the curd upon 
 the rack and stir. The rack has the advantage of drain- 
 ing the curd quickly and also permits the use of hot 
 water under the curd to assist in keeping the temperature 
 at 98° F., a temperature which should be maintained up 
 to within 10 or 15 minutes of salting. 
 
 If a rather moist, open textured cheese is desired, stir 
 30 minutes after the removal of the whey and salt. In 
 case a firm, close-textured cheese is wanted, the curd 
 must be stirred at frequent intervals for a period of about 
 two hours before salting, so as to allow more acid to 
 develop. A firm cheese is especially desirable during 
 warm weather because of its superior keeping quality. 
 
 When the milk is not of uniformly good quality, and 
 when an especially close-textured and uniform cheese is 
 desired, the curd should be allowed to mat upon the racks. 
 This is accomplished as follows: As soon as removed 
 from the whey the curd is stirred a few minutes, spread 
 about six inches deep upon the rack, and then allowed 
 to mat 15 minutes, after which it is cut into strips about 
 8 by 12 inches and then turned. After another 15 min- 
 utes, turn again and pile the strips two layers deep; 15 
 minutes later turn again and pile three layers deep. 
 Usually after one and a half to two hours matting the 
 curd tears like chicken breast, which indicates that it is 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 191 
 
 ready to cut into little strips the size of a .finger. This 
 done, the curd is stirred about 30 minutes and then 
 salted. 
 
 Salting. If a fast-curing cheese is desired, salt at 
 the rate of 2^4 pounds of salt per 100 pounds of curd. 
 When a slow-ripening cheese is desired salt at the rate of 
 3^ pounds. Use only the best grade of salt, and have 
 the curd at a temperature of about 90° F. at the time of 
 salting. 
 
 Molding and Pressing. Twenty to thirty minutes 
 after salting, the curd is ready for the hoops (molds) 
 which are prepared as follows : Place a piece of muslin 
 in the bottom of the hoop and on top of this a cheese 
 cloth circle somewhat less in diameter than the hoop. 
 Now place the bandage on the bandager so that when 
 the latter is in position the bandage will lap slightly over 
 the cheese cloth circle in the bottom of the hoop. Next 
 put in the" curd. This done, cover with a piece of muslin 
 and put on the cover (follower). Apply pressure very 
 gradually at the start and do not apply full pressure 
 (about 20 lbs. to the square inch) until after 20 to 30 
 minutes' pressing. Shortly after full pressure has been 
 applied, remove the follower, the muslin cloth, and 
 bandager. Turn the projecting bandage over onto the 
 cheese. Next place a cloth circle over the top, replace 
 the muslin and bandager, and then apply full pressure 
 for about 12 hours, when the cheese is taken out of the 
 hoop, any folds or irregularities in the bandage are 
 straightened out, the cheese is washed off with hot 
 water, and put back into the hoop inverted. Press about 
 ten hours longer and remove the cheese from the hoop 
 and put it into a suitable place for curing. Leave the 
 cheese cloth circles on the cheese. 
 
192 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Ripening or Curing. After leaving the press the 
 cheese should be placed in a cool, damp room with ample 
 ventilation. Keep the temperature as near 60° F. as pos- 
 sible. The curing or ripening process, which consists of 
 the transformation of insoluble into soluble casein, re- 
 quires from two to eight months, according to the amount 
 of rennet extract and salt used, amount of moisture in 
 the cheese, and the temperature at which it is ripened. 
 The higher the temperature and moisture, the quicker 
 the cheese will ripen. During the first three weeks the 
 cheese should be turned and rubbed daily, and if any 
 portion of it is not covered with cheese ' cloth, grease 
 should be applied to prevent cracking. If the curing 
 room is dry, the cheese should be covered with a thin 
 layer of paraffine about a week, after it is made, to pre- 
 vent 'excessive loss of moisture. 
 
 Composition. Cured cheddar cheese has the follow- 
 ing average composition : Water, 34% ; fat, 36.5% ; pro- 
 teids, 26% ; and ash, 3.5%. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 STARTERS. 
 
 Definition ; Starter is the general term applied to 
 cultures of lactic acid organisms, whether they have been 
 selected artificially in a laboratory, or at dairies by pick- 
 ing out milk that seems to contain these organisms to 
 the exclusion of others. A good starter may be defined 
 as a clean flavored batch of sour milk or sour skim-milk. 
 
 The word starter derives its name from the fact that 
 a starter is used to "start" or assist the development of 
 the lactic fermentation in cream ripening. 
 
 Object of Starters. Cream and milk ordinarily con- 
 tain many kinds of bacteria — good, bad, and indifferent 
 — and to insure the predominance of the lactic acid type 
 in the ripening process it is necessary to reinforce the 
 bacteria of this type already existing in the cream or 
 milk by adding large quantities of them in a pure form, 
 that is, unmixed with undesirable species. 
 
 The bacterial or plant life of cream may be aptly com- 
 pared with the plant life of a garden. In both we find 
 plants of a desirable and, undesirable character. The 
 weeds of the garden correspond to the bad fermentations 
 of cream. If the weeds get the start of the cultivated 
 vegetables, the growth of the latter will be checked or 
 suppressed. So with the bacterial fermentations of 
 cream. When the lactic acid bacteria predominate, other 
 fermentations will be checked or crowded out. The 
 
 193 
 
194 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 use of a liberal amount of starter nearly always insures 
 a majority of good bacteria and the larger this majority 
 the better the product. 
 
 NATURAL STARTERS. 
 
 Natural starters are those obtained by allowing milk 
 or skim-milk to sour in the ordinary way. If the milk 
 or skim-milk is produced and handled under cleanly con- 
 ditions, it will have a fairly good flavor when soured to 
 the point of thickening. But it is difficult, even under 
 cleanly condition, to get uniformly good flavored sour 
 milk or skim-milk by allowing it to sour in the usual 
 way and for this reason the following method of pre- 
 paring natural starters should be given preference. 
 
 Selected Natural Starters^ The most satisfactory 
 natural starters are selected and prepared in the follow- 
 ing manner: Secure, say, one quart of milk from each 
 of half a dozen healthy cows not far advanced in lacta- 
 tion, and fed on good feed. Before drawing the milk, 
 brush the flanks and udders of the cows and then moisten 
 them with water, or preferably, coat thinly with vaseline 
 to prevent dislodgment of dust. Then, after rejecting the 
 first few streams, draw the milk into sterilized quart 
 jars provided with narrow necks. Now allow the milk 
 to sour, uncovered, in a clean, pure atmosphere at a 
 temperature between 65° and 90° F. When loppered 
 pour off the top and introduce the sample with the best 
 flavor into about forty pounds of sterilized skim-milk 
 and sour at a temperature of about 70° F. 
 
 A starter thus selected can be propagated for a month 
 or more by daily inoculating newly sterilized or pasteur- 
 ized milk with a small amount of the old or mother 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 195 
 
 starter. Usually three or four pounds of the mother 
 starter added to one hundred pounds of pasteurized skim- 
 milk will sour it in twenty-four hours at a temperature 
 of 65° F. Under certain conditions of weather this 
 amount may possibly have to be modified a little, for it 
 is well known that on hot sultry days milk will sour 
 more quickly at a given temperature than on cooler days. 
 The best rule to follow is to use enoiigh of the mother 
 starter to sour the milk in twenty-four hours at a tem- 
 perature of 65° F. 
 
 In the heating process all of the active bacteria in the 
 skim-milk have been destroyed, thus leaving a clean field 
 for the development of the lactic acid bacteria added to 
 it from the bottle. 
 
 From what has been said it will be seen that the 
 method of using the lactic acid bacteria is similar to 
 the use of yeast germs in bread making. The original 
 germs obtained in the way above described, or from the 
 manufacturer, may be propagated for weeks by daily 
 transferring a small amount of the thickened skim-milk 
 to newly pasteurized skim-milk. 
 
 COMMERCIAL STARTERS. 
 
 Commercial starters usually consist of a single species 
 of lactic acid organisms. These starters are prepared in 
 laboratories where the utmost precautions are taken to 
 keep them free from undesirable germs. The methods 
 by which the good bacteria are separated from the bad 
 are quite complicated and of too little practical value to 
 permit a discussion of them here. Suffice it to say that 
 such separation is possible only with the skilled bac- 
 teriologist. 
 
196 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Preparation. Most of the commercial cultures are 
 sent out in one-ounce bottles which are hermetically 
 sealed. The method of making starters from them is 
 the same for all whether they are obtained in the liquid 
 or in the dry form. 
 
 In making the first batch of commercial starter, the 
 entire contents of the bottle is put into a quart of skim- 
 milk, sterilized by keeping it at a temperature of 200° 
 F. for two hours, and then cooling to 80° which tem- 
 perature should be maintained until the starter has thick- 
 ened. A new starter is now prepared by introducing the 
 quart of starter into about forty pounds of skim-milk, 
 pasteurized by keeping it at a temperature of 170° to 185° 
 for thirty minutes and then cooling to 65° F. All sub- 
 sequent starters are prepared in the same way except 
 that the amount of mother starter for inoculation must 
 be reduced a little for a few days because the germs 
 become more vigorous after they have propagated several 
 days. 
 
 The first and second starters prepared from a new 
 culture seldom have the good flavor produced in sub- 
 sequent starters. The cause of this in all probability 
 is the inactive condition of the germs and the peculiar 
 flavor of the medium in which they are sent out. 
 
 RENEWAL 0:P STARTERS. 
 
 Under average farm conditions it is policy to 
 renew the starter at least once a month by purchasing 
 a new bottle of culture. It will be found that after the 
 starter has been propagated for two or three weeks bad 
 germs will begin to manifest themselves as a result of 
 imperfect pasteurization, contamination from the air, or 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 197 
 
 from overripening, so that its original good flavor may 
 be seriously impaired at the end of one month's use/ It 
 is only where the utmost precautions are taken in pas- 
 teurizing the milk and ripening the starter, that it is 
 possible to propagate a starter for many weeks and still 
 maintain a good flavor. 
 
 POINTERS ON STARTERS. 
 
 1. Starters give best results when added to cream 
 or milk immediately after they have thickened. 
 
 2. An overripe starter produces somewhat the same 
 effect in butter as overripened cream. Curdy flavors are 
 usually the result of such starters. 
 
 3. To prevent overripening, starter cans or starter 
 vats must be used in which the temperature can be kept 
 under perfect control. 
 
 4. Skim-milk furnishes the best medium for starters, 
 since this has undergone the cleansing action of the 
 separator and is free from fat, which hampers the growth 
 of lactic acid bacteria. 
 
 5. Agitate and uncover the milk while heating to in- 
 sure a uniform temperature and to permit undesifable 
 odors to escape. 
 
 6. Always dip the thermometer in hot water before 
 inserting it into pasteurized milk. The pasteurizing pro- 
 cess becomes a delusion when dirty thermometers are 
 used for observing temperatures. 
 
 7. Always use a sterilized can for making a new 
 starter. 
 
 8. Keep the starter can loosely covered after the milk 
 has been heated to prevent germs from the air getting 
 into it. 
 
198 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 9. Stir the starter occasionally the first five hours after 
 inoculation to insure uniform ripening. 
 
 10. Never disturb the starter after it has begun thick- 
 ening until ready to use. 
 
 11. When a new bottle of commercial culture is used, 
 the first two starters from it should not be used in cream 
 as the flavor is usually inferior on account of the slow 
 growth of the bacteria and the undesirable flavor imparted 
 by the medium in which the cultures are sent out. A 
 commercial starter is usually at its best after it has been 
 propagated a week. 
 
 12. Always sterilize the neck of a new bottle of culture 
 before emptying the contents into sterilized skim-milk. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 SOfTAND FANCY CHEESE MAKING. 
 
 There is a rapidly growing demand everywhere for the 
 soft varieties of cheese such as cottage, Neufchatel and 
 cream, and the manufacture of this class of cheese 
 is becoming a very remunerative branch of dairying. 
 The soft varieties of cheese are deservedly becoming pop- 
 ular because of their wholesomeness and palatability. 
 
 COTTAGE CHEESE MAKING. 
 
 Cottage cheese, which is made from skim-milk, may 
 be manufactured in either of two ways, namely, with 
 or without rennet extract. The cheese resulting from 
 the use of rennet extract is finer grained though some- 
 what more acid than that obtained without rennet. 
 
 Rennet Method.- When rennet extract is used, the 
 night's separator skim-milk is held at a temperature of 
 about 65 degrees F. until the following morning when 
 it should show about 0.2 per cent acid. The temperature 
 is then raised to 75 degrees F., and rennet extract 
 added to the skim-milk at the rate of one-twentieth of an 
 ounce (about one-half teaspoonful) per hundred pounds 
 of milk. To insure an even distribution of the rennet, 
 it should be diluted with a cup of water before mixing 
 it with the milk. As soon as the rennet has been thor- 
 oughly mixed with the milk, the latter should be allowed 
 
 199 
 
200 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 to stand quietly at a temperature of about 70 to 75 de- 
 grees F. for 24 hours, when a firm curd will have formed. 
 The curd is now carefully dumped into a cotton bag or 
 strainer and allowed to drain until all free moisture 
 has escaped. Salt is next added at the rate of one and 
 one-half ounces per ten pounds of cheese. The palat- 
 ability of the cheese is much improved by adding a small 
 amount of rich cream to it. 
 
 Fairly good results may be obtained by omitting the 
 rennet. 
 
 Starter Method. This method yields the highest 
 quality of cheese when fine flavored starter is used. Put 
 the skim-milk into a vat and sour it with a good starter 
 at a temperature of between 90 and 95 degrees F. The 
 more starter used, up to 25 per cent, the better the qual- 
 ity of the cheese. Thoroughly mix the starter with the 
 skim-milk and allow to remain imdisturbed until firmly 
 curdled. When this stage is reached, cut the curd, the 
 same as in cheddar cheese making, and at once begin 
 stirring by hand. Raise the temperature to 104 degrees 
 F., keeping the curd constantly stirred during the heat- 
 ing process. After this the curd should be stirred occa- 
 sionally for about 40 minutes, when the whey may be 
 drained off. 
 
 The draining is best accomplished in a tin strainer 
 covered with a piece of cheesecloth. The curd must be 
 hand-stirred as soon as it has been dumped into the 
 strainer, but the stirring should be done very gently at 
 the start to prevent loss by mashing the curd particles. 
 Continue the stirring until the curd is firm enough to pre- 
 vent the particles sticking together, which usually re- 
 quires about five minutes. As soon as the curd has been 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 201 
 
 stirred dry enough it is wrapped in the cloth strainer 
 and squeezed with the hands until most of the free whey 
 has been removed, that is, until it is dry enough to per- 
 njit granulating it to fine particles by rubbing with the 
 hands. 
 
 When the curd has been squeezed dry enough and 
 thoroughly granulated by rubbing and stirring with the 
 hands, it should be salted at the rate of about one and 
 one-half ounces of salt per ten pounds of curd. After 
 salting the curd is soaked with skim-milk or milk; or 
 where a high quality of cheese is desired a thin cream 
 should be used. 
 
 Packing Cottage Cheese. The same packages will 
 answer for cheese made by either of the two methods. 
 Fdr simplicity and cheapness there is no better method of 
 packing than the following: With an ordinary butter 
 printer, print the cheese in one-pound blocks and then cut 
 the blocks in two. This will make packages weighing one- 
 half pound each. The half-pound blocks are wrapped 
 in thin parchment or oiled paper in a manner similar 
 to wrapping one-pound butter prints. The sheets of 
 parchment or oiled paper for this purpose should be six 
 inches wide by ten and one-half inches long. Any dealer 
 in dairy supplies can furnish this paper at a very small 
 cost. If the cheese is to be sold in one pound packages, 
 the wrapping paper should be eight and one-half inches 
 wide by ten and one-half inches long. Cottage cheese 
 m^ay also be packed in water-proof packages such as are 
 used for carrying ice cream, oysters, etc. The fiber but- 
 ter boxes, made of pasteboard and lined with parchment 
 paper, will also be found satisfactory for this purpose. 
 Both of the above styles of package should be lined with 
 
202 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 parchment paper before putting the cheese into them. 
 
 Some use wide-mouthed, single service milk bottles for 
 packing cottage cheese. 
 
 Marketing. When much cheese is made, it should 
 be marketed at fancy grocery stores and meat markets. 
 If made on farms that operate daily milk routes in the 
 city, much cheese can be sold on these routes to con- 
 sumers direct, thus saving the middleman's profits. The 
 average retail price of the cheese is ten cents per pound. 
 
 The yield of cottage cheese, when made according to 
 the methods herein described will approximate 15 pounds 
 of cheese per 100 pounds of skim-milk. 
 
 MAKING NEUIfCHATBL CHEESE. 
 
 There are two methods by which American Neufchatel 
 cheese may be made, namely, with and without the use 
 of starter. The method of making the cheese without 
 starter, is as follows : Place the night's milk preferably in 
 shotgun cans and cool to a temperature as near 70 de- 
 grees F. as possible. Next add at the rate of about one 
 teaspoonful of rennet extract for each hundred pounds of 
 whole milk. The rennet should first be diluted in a cup 
 of water and then thoroughly mixed with the milk. If 
 the temperature of the milk is kept at 70 degrees F. it 
 will be thoroughly curdled in from 15 to 20 hours, when 
 it should be perceptibly sour to the taste. The actual 
 amount of acidity at this stage should be about 0.3 per 
 cent. The curd is now poured onto a strainer rack cov- 
 ered with a cotton strainer cloth, or it may be poured 
 or dipped into cotton bags, to drain. After the curd has 
 drained an hour, light pressure should be applied to it 
 which may be gradually increased to hasten the draining. 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 203 
 
 As a rule, it is desirable to have the draining com- 
 pleted in about three hours, the temperature during this 
 process being maintained at about 70 degrees F. Apply- 
 ing moderate pressure will hasten the draining and is 
 recommended for best results. As soon as the curd has 
 sufficiently drained, salt is added at the rate of one ounce 
 to every five or six pounds of cheese. The cheese should 
 be thoroughly kneaded wit^ the hands to distribute the 
 salt evenly and to give it a smooth consistency. It is 
 now molded into cylindrical packages, i%x2% inches, 
 weighing one-fourth of a pound. These cylindrical 
 masses of cheese are first wrapped in thin parchment or 
 oiled paper and then wrapped in tin foil. These pack- 
 ages usually retail at five cents each. 
 
 Starter Method. When starter is used a better flav- 
 ored and more uniform cheese is possible. The starter 
 may consist of well thickened whole milk allowed to 
 sour in a natural way, but whole milk soured with pure 
 culture of lactic acid bacteria is preferable. Where pure ■ 
 cultures are used the whole milk intended for starter 
 should be pasteurized before inoculating it with the cul- 
 ture. 
 
 When starter is used the cheese is made as follows: 
 Add at the rate of one pound of starter to four pounds 
 of fresh whole milk. The mixture should have a tem- 
 perature of about 80 degrees F. Next add at the rate 
 of one-half tablespoonful of rennet extract per hundred 
 pounds of milk, mixing the rennet with the milk as 
 previously explained. When thoroughly curdled, which 
 usually requires about one hour, the curd is ready to 
 drain. The rest of the process is carried out the same as 
 when no starter is used. 
 
204 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Neufchatel cheese yields from i8 to 20 pounds per 
 100 pounds of milk. 
 
 CREAM CHEESE. 
 
 Cream cheese is made from milk containing' about ten 
 per cent butter fat; that is, milk reinforced with cream. 
 Like Neufchatel cheese, this cheese may be made with 
 and without starter, and the processes are the same as 
 with Neufchatel cheese, except that it will be found ad- 
 vantageous to have the temperature from three to five 
 degrees higher. Much butter fat is saved when making 
 cream cheese by the starter method. Cream cheese is 
 molded in rectangular forms, Ij4x2j4x2% inches, hold- 
 ing about one-quarter of a pound. These packages us- 
 ually retail at ten cents each. 
 
 CLUB CHEESE. 
 
 Another kind of cheese that is very much relished and 
 that can be made by anyone, is known as "club" or 
 "potted" cheese. The method of making this cheese is 
 as follows : Grind up with an ordinary meat grinder five 
 pounds of old, well-ripened cheddar cheese of good fla- 
 vor, and mix this with one pound of good butter. The 
 mixing is easily accomplished with a bread mixer. The 
 mixing should be continued until the cheese has a uni- 
 form consistency, free from lumps. Running the mix- 
 ture through the grinder a second' time and working it 
 with the hands will assist in reducing the lumps. This 
 cheese can be packed in small tin-top jelly tumblers, cov- 
 ering the top of the cheese with parchment paper. This 
 makes an exceedingly palatable cheese which retails, as 
 a rule, at forty cents a pound. The cheese may also be 
 packed in the same manner as Neufchatel. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 COpUNG AND AERATION OF MILK AND CREAM. 
 
 Importance of Low Temperature. Milk always con- 
 tains bacteria no matter how cleanly the conditions under 
 which it is drawn. At ordinary temperatures these bac- 
 teria increase with marvelous rapidity; at low tempera- 
 tures their growth practically ceases. The effect of tem- 
 perature on bacterial development is graphically shown 
 in Fig. 57. 
 
 
 Fig. 67. — Relation of temperature to bacterial growth. 
 a represents a single bacterium; *, its progeny in twenty-four hours in 
 milk kept at 60° F.; c, its progeny in twenty-four hours in milk kept at 70° F. 
 (Bui. 26, Storrs, Conn.) 
 
 At a temperature of 50" F. the bacteria multiplied five 
 times; at 70° F. they multiplied seven hundred and fifty 
 times. 
 
 Roughly speaking, at 98° F. bacteria multiply one hun- 
 
 205 
 
206 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 dred times faster than at 70° F. At 32° F. bacterial de- 
 velopment practically ceases. 
 
 Milk or cream may be kept sweet a long time at 40° 
 to 45° F. because the lactic acid bacteria practically stop 
 growing at these temperatures. But there are other 
 classes of bacteria that can grow at these tempefatui-es, 
 as evidenced by the production of undesirable flavors. 
 Such flavors usually become noticeable after thirty-six 
 hours. Where milk and cream are to be kept in the best 
 possible condition, it is necessary to reduce the tempera- 
 ture to within a few degrees of freezing. 
 
 Lack of thorough cooling necessitates two deliveries of 
 milk per day, and, what is still worse, requires many 
 dairymen to milk their cows shortly after midnight and 
 shortly after midday, a drudgery which casts a damper 
 upon the whole milk business. Lack of cooling also means 
 financial loss through souring of milk and leads to many 
 dissatisfied customers. 
 
 Prompt Cooling. Milk should be cooled as quickly 
 as possible after it is drawn. Indeed, the milk should be 
 taken directly from the cow to the cooling room and 
 promptly cooled.. To do this conveniently it is necessary 
 to have the cooling room located as near the barn as is 
 consistent with freedom from barn odors. 
 
 Too often the milk is allowed to remain in the barn 
 until all the cows have been milked, and this may require 
 from two to three hours, depending upon the number 
 of cows milked by each milker. A few hours delay in 
 cooling reduces the keeping quality of milk to a far greater 
 extent than is commonly supposed. 
 
 Importance Of Aeration. Milk not only con- 
 
 tains bacteria immediately after it is drawn, but it 
 also contains gases, chief among which, perhaps, is car- 
 
COOLING AND AERATION 207 
 
 bonic acid gas. These gases should be removed as. quickly 
 as possible after milking by exposing the milk in thin 
 sheets to the atmosphere. Fortunately the construction 
 of modern coolers is such as to make it possible to do 
 the cooling and aerating in one operation. • 
 
 Formerly it was customary for dairymen to aerate 
 their milk before cooling. Such practice is known to give 
 somewhat better aeration than is possible where the cool- 
 ing and aerating are performed in the same operation; 
 yet the difference is so slight that consumers cannot detect 
 it. The practice of aerating first and cooling afterward 
 is therefore being abandoned. 
 
 Coolers. All modern coolers permit cooling with ice 
 water. Without this a sufficiently low tenjperature can- 
 not be obtained to stop practically all bacterial growth. 
 To meet the requirements of dairies of different sizes, sev- 
 eral styles of coolers are herewith described and illus- 
 trated. 
 
 Corrugated Cooler. This style of cooler, is shown in. 
 Fig. 58, which also shows a desirable method of fastening 
 it. It is especially adapted to dairies having from fifteen 
 to thirty cows. The cooler consists of two parts : An 
 upper section which is used to cool milk and cream with 
 uniced water, and a lower section through which ice water 
 is circulated. 
 
 A storage tank for well water may be placed above 
 the ceiling. From this the water is admitted to the upper 
 section through the valve which is used to regulate 
 the flow. As shown by the arrows the water enters the 
 section at the bottom and discharges at the top. The 
 waste water may be conducted to the feed water tank of 
 the boiler, to a watering trough, or other places where 
 it may be useful, 
 
208 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 ffi. 
 
 Milk Reservoir 
 
 ^CEU-INO 
 
 fO^- 
 
 Well Water 
 
 IceWateji 
 
 Cooled SccTloH 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 68 — Showing Corrugated Cooler and Method of Support. 
 
 By means of the pump at the left, the ice water is 
 forced back into the small tank at the right, which con- 
 tains finely crushed ice. 
 
COOLING AND AERATION 209 
 
 Cone=Shaped Cooler. For dairies having fewer than 
 fifteen cows a cheap cooler like that shown in Fig. 59 
 may be' used to advantage. The water enters the bottom 
 of the cooler and discharges at the top, while the milk 
 flows in a thin sheet over the outside. Ice may he placed 
 
 inside the cooler, if desired. 
 The can at the top is the 
 milk • receiver, which has 
 bmall openings at, the bot- 
 tom near the outside, 
 through which the milk 
 discharges in fine streams, 
 directly upon the cone be- 
 low. 
 
 Cooling Without Spe= 
 cial Coolers. ' When no 
 7-% special coolers are at hand 
 milk and cream should be 
 Fig.59.-cone Shaped Cooler. cooled in Small caus by 
 placing them in a tank or an oil barrel cut in two. Cold 
 water is pumped into the tank or barrel in such a way 
 that the cold water drops into the bottom of the tank, 
 thus forcing out the warm surface water. 
 
 Water should be pumped into the tank at frequent in- 
 tervals until the milk or cream has nearly reached the 
 temperature of the water. The time of cooling is ma- 
 terially shortened by frequent stirring, which is a very 
 essential part in cooling milk and cream in cans. 
 
 Where milk is placed in large cans and stirred littlie, 
 farmers lose in having the test lowered by hard par- 
 ticles of cream forming at the top. Where milk is 
 properly cooled, hard flakes of cream or churned cream 
 will not be found on top of the milk. 
 
210 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Precautions in Cooling. While cooling milk or cream, 
 the room should be kept damp, especially the floor. 
 This will keep down any dust that may be in the room 
 and thus keep it from getting into the milk. Draughts 
 should be avoided during cooling for the same rea- 
 son. In this connection it is well to remember that 
 the real harm is not so much in the dust particles them- 
 selves as in the many bacteria which usually adhere to 
 them. 
 
 Where coolers are left exposed to the air of the room 
 after they have been cleaned and sterilized, they should 
 be rinsed off with boiling water just before using. 
 
 It is important also to use a reliable thermometer. 
 Ordinary cheap thermometers often read two to six de- 
 grees too high or too low. A standard thermometer 
 should be on hand, by which the cheaper ones may be 
 standardized. 
 
 Never Use Ice in Milk or Cream. Adding ice di- 
 rectly to milk and cream is a pernicious, though not un- 
 common, practice. The best of natural ice contains dirt 
 and bacteria. Even ice made by mechanical means from 
 distilled water ofteri contains considerable quantities of 
 impurities. Ice also is an adulterant just as much as 
 water. In case of cream cooled with ice the body is un- 
 satisfactory, even if the cream contains the required 
 amount of fat. 
 
 COLD STORAGE. 
 
 Cold storage of some kind is indispensable to a well 
 equipped dairy. Many, however, lack this essential, 
 either bcause they do not appreciate its importance, or 
 
COOLING AND AERATION 
 
 211 
 
 because of the rather high price of commercial refrig- 
 erators. 
 
 The construction of this box, shown in Fig. 60, con- 
 
 HINGE^ 
 
 Fig. 60.— Cross-Section of Cheap Ice Box. 
 
 sists essentially of two boxes separated by one-inch strips 
 placed at intervals of about one foot. Double thickness 
 of building paper is placed on both sides of the strips 
 
212 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 and tacked to the boxes. A one-inch strip, two inches 
 wide, covers the upper space between the one-inch strips, 
 thus making a dead^air space between the two boxes. 
 The construction of the cover is the same as that of the 
 bottom, with the exception that there is a flange at the 
 front and sides of the cover. The sides, bottom and 
 cover of the refrigerator are built of three-quarter-inch 
 tongued and grooved lumber, five and a half inches 
 wide. The ends are constructed of one and one-eighth 
 inch tongued and grooved flooring three and a half 
 inches wide. The inside of the ice box is lined with 
 galvanized iron. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 HOW TO SECURE A GOOD MARKET-. 
 
 Quality. As a rule it is easy enough to secure some 
 kind of a market, but to secure the best frequently re- 
 quires considerable effort. To get fancy prices requires 
 first of all that the product be of superior quality. This 
 is particularly true of milk. The extensive agitation in 
 recent years for clean, pure milk has had the effect of' 
 putting a high premium upon such milk. The public is 
 becoming aware of the dangers which lurk in dirty, un- 
 sanitary milk and is willing to pay a good price for milk 
 whose wholesomeness is unquestioned. 
 
 Value of Advertising. To obtain big prices it is not 
 enough to have products of superior quality, but what- 
 ever particular merits they have must be forcibly brought 
 to the attention of consumers. In other words, a certain 
 amount of advertising is necessary. 
 
 It is good policy to furnish prospective customers a 
 few free samples and to distribute leaflets describing the 
 conditions under which the products are produced and 
 handled. If the milk is produced in clean, ventilated, 
 whitewashed stables, and from cows which are regularly 
 tested for tuberculosis; if the milk is handled by clean, 
 healthy attendants and is thoroughly cooled and aerated 
 immediately after milking ; and if, in addition, all this 
 is certified to by a competent inspector, an increase in 
 prices and patronage is certain to follow when such facts 
 - are placed before the public. 
 
 213 
 
214 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 The majority of city consumers have little conception 
 of the conditions under which average milk is produced. 
 For this reason the man who is producing clean milk will 
 find it highly profitable' to place in contrast vivid pictures 
 of the conditions that yield average milk and those that 
 yield sanitary milk. 
 
 Investigate Outside Markets. Often outside mark- 
 ets offer better prices for milk and cream than does the 
 home market. This is especially true of cream. This 
 product permits of long distance shipping and many out- 
 side markets may be glad to get it at fancy prices when 
 the home market may be entirely overstocked. 
 
 Dairymen must not expect the market to come to them, 
 however ; they must seek the market. A visit or corre- 
 spondence with managers of cafes/ hotels, restaurants, 
 drug stores and ice cream manufactories in different 
 cities, is frequently the means of securing more business 
 and better prices. 
 
 Where one is just starting in the dairy business or 
 trying new markets, it is good policy, as a rule, not to 
 ask very high prices at the start. First demonstrate the 
 merits of your products. If these are of a high order 
 consumers will gradually respond to demands for in- 
 creased prices rather than lose the products. Too high 
 prices at the start are likely to discourage prospective 
 buyers, and thus deprive you of an opportunity to prove 
 the value of your goods. 
 
 Uniformity; One of the essentials in building up a 
 good market is uniformity of product. Where this is 
 lacking, improvements in other directions will be of little 
 avail. On the other hand, products which are uniformly 
 the same, week after week, and month after month, are 
 
TO- SECURE A GOOD MARKET 215 
 
 likely to command good prices even when of only medium 
 quality. 
 
 Punctuality. Another essential in building up a good 
 market is punctuality. If your customer expects his milk 
 at 7:30, do not deliver it at 7:40; deliver early rather 
 than late. If you are shipping cream or milk you cannot 
 afford to miss your train — even a single time. It gen- 
 erally means greater disappointment at the other end of 
 the line than one would anticipate. 
 
 Try to Please. Always put yourself in an attitude 
 to please. If criticisms come concerning your products, 
 you cannot afford to resent them. Usually there is reason 
 for the criticism. Try to discover the trouble and remedy 
 it. 
 
 Delivery Outfit. Cleanliness and neatness must char- 
 acterize the dairy business throughout. Milk wagons, 
 cans, bottles, drivers, etc., must present a clean appear- 
 ance. Where they do not, it is usually an easy matter 
 to surmise the condition of milk. 
 
 Use a Trade Mark,- The name or monogram of the 
 dairy, placed upon the products and delivery wagons, 
 guarantees genuineness' and will materially assist in se- 
 curing a better and more extended market. It is one 
 of the best ways of advertising a superior product. 
 
 Secure Your Market Early. If it is intended to sell 
 cream for manufacture into ice cream, it is important 
 to get a market early in the spring. It is difficult to find 
 one in the flush of the ice cream season, because ice cream 
 dealers, as a rule, contract considerably in advance of 
 the time they need, the cream. If it is intended to supply 
 winter resorts, apply for the market early in the fall. 
 What has been said here with reference to cream applies 
 also to milk. 
 
216 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Secure Reliable Customers; Whefe milk and.creara 
 are shipped some distance, it is important to determine 
 beforehand the reliability of the buyer. As a rule it 
 is good policy not to make more than three shipments 
 before the first has been paid for. It is well, even where 
 milk and cream are sold locally, to investigate the stand- 
 ings of customers before their accounts have run up very 
 high. 
 
 Selling Direct to Consumers. No argument is need- 
 ed to show the advantage of selling dairy products direct 
 to consumers wherever this is possible. It means the 
 elimination of the middleman whose profits are saved to 
 the dairyman. 
 
 Letterhead Stationery.' It is not only businesslike 
 to use stationery with a suitable letterhead, but it also 
 serves to advertise the business. The following is sub- 
 mitted as a suitable form of letterhead: 
 
 Springdale Sanitary Dairy. 
 
 J. C. Boone, Prop. 
 
 Dealer in 
 
 Pure, Bottled, Jersey Milk and Cream 
 
 from Tuberculin Tested Cows. 
 Reidsville, N. H 190. . 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 MARKETING MIIvK AND CREAM 
 RETAILING. 
 
 Dip Method. The old method of hauling milk to the 
 city in five, eight or ten gallon cans and removing each 
 patron's allowance by means of a dipper or faucet, has 
 been found so objectionable that the practice has been 
 largely abandoned. The principal objections to this 
 method are: (i) The admission of 
 dust and bacteria to the milk while 
 measuring it; (2) the use of unsteri- 
 lized milk vessels by consumers; (3) 
 exposure of the vessels to dust while 
 on the steps of the consumer ; (4) the 
 use of unclean vessels by milkmen in 
 measuring each customer's share; (5) 
 lack of uniformity in the milk, espe-, 
 cially if removed from the cans by 
 means of a faucet, in which case the 
 first drawn milk is likely to be lowest 
 in fat content; and (6) the possi- 
 bility of . drivers tampering with the 
 milk. 
 
 . The Use of Bottles. Milk and cream intended for re- 
 tail trade should be put into pint or quart bottles, like 
 that shown in Fig. 61. The advantages of this method 
 are apparent frpm the fact that the milk is bot- 
 tled immediately after cooling and that it may be 
 
 Fig. 61. -Milk Bottle. 
 
 217 
 
218 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 ktpt in the same bottle until it is to be consumed. 
 Whenever milk is changed from one vessel to another 
 there is always more or less contamination from dust and 
 bacteria. 
 
 Bottling. For dairies having from ten to twenty 
 cows, a can or vat provided with a sanitary faucet will 
 do satisfactory work in filling bottles. A pouring can 
 with a slightly curved spout may also be used for this 
 purpose. 
 
 Fig. fi2. —Filling Bottles with Machine. (From Da. Div., U. S. Dcpt. of A.) 
 
 For large dairies a bottle filler like that shown in Fig. 
 62 will be found advantageous. This machine fills six 
 bottles at the same time. Larger or smaller fillers may be 
 had if desired. In selecting a bottle filler secure one of 
 simplest construction and preferably without rufiber at- 
 tachments. This is important for sanitary reasons. 
 
 Whatever method of filling is used, it is important to 
 keep the milk- well stirred while filling, so as to insure 
 uniform quality in all the bottles. 
 
RETAILING MILK AND CREAM 
 
 219 
 
 Immediately after filling, the bottles should be capped 
 with paraffined caps made for this purpose. Fig. 
 63 illustrates a cap provided with a little handle which 
 facilitates its removal 
 and leaves it intact. 
 
 During bottling the 
 room should be kept 
 damp to keep the air 
 free from dust and 
 bacteria. No air cur- 
 rent should be al-^ 
 lowed to sweep in 
 from the outside. 
 Only clean laundered 
 white suits should be 
 worn by those in 
 charge of the cooling 
 and bottling. 
 
 Milk Bottle Delivery Cases. On delivery wagons 
 the bottles are carried in cases holding twelve or more 
 
 Fig. 63. Bottle Cap with Handle. 
 
 Fig. 64.— Galvanized Iron Milk.Bottle Case. 
 
 bottles each. These cases are made of galvanized iron 
 or wood, or of both, and have light removable partitions 
 inside, separating the bottles to keep them from breaking. 
 Galvanized iron cases, like that shown in Fig. 64, are 
 
220 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 the most sanitary and also permit putting crushed ice 
 around the bottles. 
 
 Fig. 65 shows a galvanized iron milk bottle ca.se, 
 enclosed by a box made of one-inch boards and pro- 
 vided with a tight fitting cover. Cases of this kind should 
 be used in warm weather' to keep the milk cool during 
 
 Fig. 65.— Insulated Galvanized Iron Milk BotUe 
 Case. 
 
 delivery. On especially warm days, crushed ice should 
 be used around the bottles. This style of case is also 
 recommended where bottles are shipped. 
 
 A great deal of milk- is spoiled while in transit to the 
 consumer. The last milk delivered on the route may 
 be on the road five or six hours before it finally 
 reaches its destination. If carried in open, uniced cases, ' 
 on warm days, an exposure of such duration may easily 
 shorten the keeping quality of the milk by eight or more 
 hours. 
 
 A matter of prime importance in delivering milk in 
 bottles is to have them thoroughly sterilized before using. 
 Unless this is done milk will not keep long and, what is 
 worse, is likely to disseminate disease along the route. 
 
RETAILING MILK AND CREAM 221 
 
 This danger is due to the bottles' passing from one home 
 to another and eventually reaching a home in which there 
 is some cantagious disease. Ir. such cases there is always 
 a probability that the bottles may become infected with 
 the disease germs. . ■ ■ 
 
 Frequency of Delivering Milk; When milk is cooled 
 to 45° F. or below immediately after milking and is 
 held at this temperature until it reaches the consumer, one 
 delivery a day is "sufficient. If it is desirable, however, 
 to make two deliveries a day, these should be made inde- 
 pendent of the milking; that is, the night's milk should 
 be delivered in the morning and the morning's milk in 
 the afternoon. 
 
 In some sections, especially in the south, milk is sold 
 with little or no cooling whatever. Hence, the practice 
 of delivering the morning's milk before breakfast, and 
 the night's milk before supper. This practice requires 
 the first milking to be done shortly after midnight and 
 the second milking shortly after midday, a drudgery 
 wholly unnecessary and easily obviated by thoroughly 
 cooling the milk. 
 
 Delivery Wagons. These should be clean, covered, 
 well painted, and provided with good springs. The name 
 of the dairy should be printed on each side. A neat and at- 
 tractive delivery wagon is essential in building up a good 
 trade. 
 
 STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM. 
 
 This is a process by which milk and cream are brought 
 to a definite percentage of fat. Cream producers are 
 called upon to furnish cream of a definite richness, and 
 different grades may be demanded by different buyers. 
 The simplest way to meet such demands is to have the 
 separator deliver cream somewhat richer than the rich- 
 est grade called for and. to reduce this to the required 
 richness by adding skim-milk. 
 
222 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Reducing Cream with Skim=milk. When a definite 
 quantity of standardized cream is called for, determine 
 first the amount of original cream (cream as it leaves the 
 separator) required according to the following rule: 
 
 Rule : Multiply the number of pounds of standardized 
 cream called for by its test and divide the product by the 
 test of the original cream. 
 
 The difference between the amounts of original and 
 standardized cream represents the amount of skim-milk 
 required. 
 
 Problem : How many pounds each of 45 % cream and 
 skim-milk (zero test) are required to make 60 pounds of 
 18% cream? 
 
 Applying the above rule we get, 
 
 (60 X 18) -H 45 = 24= No. lbs. of original cream. 
 
 60 — 24 ^ 36 = No. lbs. of skim-milk. 
 
 Milk may be standardized in the same way. • 
 
 Mixing Two Milks or Two Creams, or Milk and 
 Cream, of Different Richness. In the preceding two 
 formulas the test of the skim-milk was considered zero. 
 When milks or creams of different tests are mixed the 
 calculation becomes more difficult. Pearson, however, 
 has devised a method by which calculations of this kind 
 are very much simplified. This method is as follows: 
 
 Draw a rectangle with two diagonals, as shown below. 
 At the left hand corners place the tests of the milks or 
 creams to be mixed. In the center place the richness 
 
STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM 
 
 223 
 
 desired. At the right hand corners place the differences 
 between the two numbers in line with these corners. 
 The number at the upper right hand corner represents 
 the number of pounds of milk or cream to use with the 
 richness indicated in the upper left hand corner. Like- 
 wise the number at the lower right hand corner repre- 
 sents the number of pounds of milk or cream to use, with 
 the richness indicated in the lower left hand corner. 
 
 Example: How many pounds each of 30% cream 
 and 3.5% milk required to make 25% cream? 
 
 30% r\ii ~z^^ 2'-^ L.B5. 
 
 33%\^^— — ^ ^LB5. 
 
 21.5, the difference between 3.5 and 25, is the number 
 of pounds of 30% cream needed; and 5, the difference 
 between 25 and 30, is the number of pounds of 3.5% 
 milk needed. 
 
 From the ratio of milk and cream thus found, any 
 definite quantity is easily made up. If, for example, 300 
 pounds of 25% cream is desired, the number of pounds 
 each of 30% cream and 3.5% milk is determined as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 21.5 + 5 = 26.5 
 
 ■21.5 
 
 -X 300^243.4, the number of pounds 
 
 of 30% cream. 
 
 26.5 
 
 5 
 26.5 
 
 X 300 = 56.6, the number of pounds 
 
 of 3.5% milk. 
 
224 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM. 
 
 The essential things in shipping milk land cream are 
 cleanliness and low temperature.- It is possible to keep 
 milk and cream in good condition for twa or three days, 
 if produced and handled under cleanly conditions and 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Milk Can. 
 
 Fig. 67.— Felt Jacket on Can. 
 
 cooled directly after milking to 40° F. or below. This 
 low temperature must be maintained when long keeping 
 quality is desired. Every dairy should be provided with 
 a good ice box or refrigerator, into which milk aijd cream 
 
SHIPPING MILK AND CRBAM 
 
 225 
 
 may be placed immediately after cooling and in which 
 they may be kept until ready for shipment 
 
 Shipping in Cans. Various insulated cans are now 
 upon the market and a number of these have been tested 
 by the author. The tests showed that these cans possess 
 about the same insulating effect as the felt jackets that 
 are commonly 
 wrapped around ordi- 
 nary milk cans. Since 
 the latter, as a rule, 
 are more durable and 
 more easily handled, 
 they will be found 
 more satisfactory 
 when wrapped with a 
 felt jacket than the so- 
 called insulated ship- 
 ping cans. 
 
 When milk and 
 cream are cooled close 
 to freezing and placed 
 in ordinary milk cans 
 wrapped in felt jack- 
 ets, they may be safe- 
 ly shipped to any 
 point that may be 
 rfeached within 
 24 hours even 
 i n warm weather. 
 If the temperature, of the milk and cream at the time of 
 shipment is 50° P. or higher, then, long distance ship- 
 ment is best accomplished by the use of an ordinary can 
 placed inside of a covered ice cream shipping tub con- 
 taining ice. Such a tub has practically the same in- 
 
 Fig. 68.— Screw Top Can. 
 
226 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 sulating effect as a felt jacket, but is rather heavy and 
 cumbersome and should not be used except in cases where 
 it is necessary to pack ice around the cream or milk. The 
 best results from the ice are secured by packing it in 
 large lumps around the neck of the can. 
 
 Shipping in Bottles. Where milk and cream are 
 shipped in bottles, the latter should be placed in insulated 
 delivery cases (Fig. 65) and surrounded with crushed 
 ice. The cases should have the owner's address on them 
 and must be kept locked while in transit. 
 
 Mode of Shipping.' The usual way of shipping milk 
 and cream is by express. In the main dairy sections bag- 
 gage rates are available. These rates are lower than ex- 
 press rates and can be obtained nearly everywhere by 
 special arrangement with the railroad companies. 
 
 Shipping rates should always be obtained in advance 
 of shipment and the charges should be prepaid. A con- 
 siderable saving is certain to be effected by rigidly ad- 
 hering to this practice. Insist upon getting the lowest 
 rates possible. 
 
 Pointers on Shipping. Have the name and address 
 of your dairy permanently marked in brass upon every 
 can and cover; also have it sewed or stitched on the felt 
 jackets. This is necessary to insure the return of your 
 own goods. The name and address will be put upon the 
 cans and covers by the dealer from whom they are pur- 
 chased, if so requested; or, in case unmarked cans are 
 already on the premises, the brass plates with the name 
 and address may be purchased from dairy supply firms 
 and placed upon the cans and covers by a local tinner. 
 
 Even when labeled as indicated above, cans will oc- 
 casionally get lost. Empty cans are usually returned free 
 of charge and, for this reason, express receipts are com- 
 
SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM 227 
 
 monly not taken for them. This is a mistake. If the 
 purchaser of your products will take a receipt for the 
 empty cans, the express company becomes responsible for 
 them in the event they are lost. Without the receipt it 
 is next to impossible to claim damages for lost goods. 
 
 The empty cans should be washed before they are re- 
 turned. This should be done for sanitary reasons as well 
 as for the protection of the cans, which are short-lived 
 unless washed and dried immediately after use; 
 
 Another matter of importance in shipping is to have 
 the cans full to prevent churning. 
 
 .—Lead Seal and Seal Press. 
 
 It is necessary also to have the cans sealed to prevent 
 tampering with the contents. The sealing is easily accom- 
 plished by means of lead seals and a seal press (Fig. 69)1 
 
 In delivering the cream or milk at the station the de- 
 livery man should see to it that the cans are put in as 
 cool a place as possible. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 ICE CREAM MAKING. 
 
 Kind of Cream. Select the best flavored sweet cream 
 containing about 20% butter fat. To secure the best 
 bodied ice cream and the proper swell, cream should be 
 kept as near the freezing point as possible for twenty- 
 four hours previous to freezing. 
 
 Freezing Process. With, an initial temperature of 
 about 35° F., thc'time required to freeze ice cream should 
 average about twelve minutes, and to get the best con- 
 sistency the temperature at the close of the freezing 
 process should be approximately 28° F. 
 
 Too quick freezing causes the water to separate from 
 the cream, which results in a granular ice cream. Freez- 
 ing too slowly reduces the overrun and tends to make the 
 ice cream smeary. 
 
 To reduce the temperature of a mass of cream below 
 the freezing point, requires a freezing mixture of a low 
 temperature. Such a mixture is secured by mixing salt 
 and crushed ice in the proportion of one of salt to about 
 six to twelve of ice. The purpose of the salt is to lower 
 the freezing point of the melting ice and to hasten the 
 melting. 
 
 To melt one pound of ice at 32° F. into water at the 
 same temperature requires 142 heat units. Rapidly melt- 
 ing ice, therefore, absorbs a large quantity of heat which 
 
 228 
 
ICE CREAM MAKING 229 
 
 in the freezing of cream is largely extracted from the 
 cream. 
 
 The temperature of the ice cream mixture when start- 
 ing the freezer should be as near freezing as possible to 
 prevent churning the cream. The tendency to churn is 
 also lessened by revolving the freezer slowly the first few 
 minutes in freezing. 
 
 In packing the freezing mixture around the cream 
 container, fill the freezer about half full of finely crushed 
 ice and finish the filling "by using salt and ice in the 
 proportion of about one to three. As the ice mixture 
 works down during the freezing process, continue adding 
 more salt and ice as needed. 
 
 If the freezer is started while the cream is still warm 
 (about 60° F.), the speed, of the freezer must be kept 
 down until a temperature of about 35° F. is reached. 
 After this the speed is increased to 150 to 200 revolutions 
 per minute until the cream is frozen. This speed insures 
 the proper incorporation of air and the desirable smooth- 
 ness of the finished product. 
 
 The freezer should be stopped before the cream be- 
 comes too thick, else it will lose some of the air that has 
 been incorporated as well as show a tendency to coarse- 
 ness in texture. Yield and quality therefore demand that 
 the freezer be stopped while the cream is still a trifle soft. 
 
 Vanilla Ice Cream. To make three gallons of finished 
 ice cream, requires about two gallons of cream to which 
 should be added about three pounds of sugar, or one 
 and one-half pounds to the gallon. The sugar should be 
 well mixed with the cream and allowed to dissolve before 
 starting the freezer. Next add at the rate of about two- 
 thirds ounce of vanilla extract and freeze. 
 
230 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Chocolate Ice Cream. This can be made by adding 
 chocolate flavor to finished vanilla ice cream. 
 
 Where a regular batch of chocolate ice cream is made, 
 the chocolate is added before starting to freeze. 
 
 Lemon Ice Cream. In making lemon flavored ice 
 cream, use the best paper-wrapped lemons, free from afiy 
 signs of decay. Wash the lemons lightly in cold water 
 and grate off the outer, yellowish portion of the rind, 
 being careful not to grate off any of the white portion 
 which is very bitter. Mix the grated rind with sugar, 
 using one ounce of sugar for each lemon rind. Next cut 
 the lemons in two and squeeze out the juice, removing 
 any seeds that may have dropped in from the squeezer. 
 Mix the juice with the sugared rind and add orange juice 
 to the mixture, using one orange to every three or four 
 lemons. Allow the mixture to stand for about one hour, 
 stirring it occasionally, and then strain. Use at the rate 
 of one-half pint per gallon of cream. The flavor is added 
 to the cream when nearly frozen to prevent curdling it. 
 Use two pounds of sugar per gallon of cream. 
 
 Walnut Ice Cream. Use two gallons of cream, three 
 pounds of sugar, one and one-third ounces vaijilla ex- 
 tract and one and one-third pounds of ground walnut 
 meats. Freeze the same as vanilla ice cream. 
 
 Other Nut Ice Creams. Chestnut, filbert, hazelnut, 
 pecan, peanut and almond ice creams may be prepared 
 essentially as walnut ice cream. 
 
 Strawberry Ice Cream. Use two gallons of cream, 
 three pounds of sugar and two-thirds quart of crushed 
 strawberries. The fruit should be added to the cream 
 after it is partially frozen so as not to curdle the cream 
 or to have the fruit settle to the bottom. 
 
ICB CREAM MAKING 231 
 
 Other Fruit Ice Creams. Cherry, raspberry, pine- 
 apple, peach, apricot, currant, grape and cranberry ice 
 creams are made the same as strawberry, except that the 
 amount of sugar is varied according to the acidity of 
 the fruit. 
 
 Packing Ice Cream. Remove the ice cream from the 
 freezer while still in rather soft condition and put the 
 same in packing cans which have been thoroughly chilled 
 by having the ice and salt packed around them about ten 
 minutes before receiving the ice creain. Most of the 
 salt should be put near the top, the same as in freezing. 
 The ice cream should be held in the packing cans at a 
 temperature below 20° F. 
 
 Remove the brine and repack often enough to prevent 
 melting. In the melting process the water separates and 
 forms undesirable crystals when the cream is refrozen. 
 Always repack with a new freezing mixture just before 
 the ice cream leaves the dairy. 
 
 The Overrun or Swell. This refers to the excess of 
 ice cream over cream. Anything that tends to incorporate 
 and hold air in cream conduces to a large overrun. Thus 
 excessive beating of the cream during freezing mixes a 
 great deal of air with it, and hence, increases the over- 
 run. A high viscosity of the cream holds the air incor- 
 porated during freezing. Fresh separator cream has a 
 low viscosity, that is, does not whip well, hence will not 
 swell up so much in freezing as cream that has been kept 
 cold for twenty-four hours. Pasteurized cream also has 
 a low viscosity, but this will improve by keeping the 
 cream at a low temperature a number of hours before 
 freezing. 
 
 An overrun of from 50' to 60 per cent is large enough. 
 
232 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Overruns approximating 80 to 90 per cent -are obtained 
 at the expense of quality. 
 
 Marketing Ice Cream. Hardly any attempt has yet 
 been made by cream producers living within driving dis- 
 tance of cities to convert their cream into ice cream 
 and sell this product direct to consumers. This is some- 
 what surprising, since the largest, profits in the cream 
 business have hitherto been made by what may be called 
 the middleman, the city ice cream manufacturer. 
 
 It is a vital matter with producers to reach consumers 
 direct wherever this is possible, and thus save the mid- 
 dleman's profits. With those who retail milk and cream, 
 the marketing of ice cream would entail no extra expense. 
 
 The essential thing in building up a good ice cream 
 trade is to make the best product possible. The market 
 is glutted with cheap, inferior ice cream, and the call 
 now is for a high grade product. Fortunately the public 
 is beginning to realize that there is positive danger in 
 eating ice cream made from old, stale milk or cream, and 
 the public also seems to begin to understand that the 
 bulk of ice cream is made with so-called thickeners, like 
 gelatine, corn starch, tapioca, arrow root, and others. 
 Many so-called ice creams contain no cream whatever. 
 The highest quality of ice cream contains nothing but 
 good, pure cream, sugar and flavoring. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 MAKING AND MARKETING SKIMMILK-BUTTERMILK. 
 
 Souring the Skini=niilk. As soon as the skim-milk 
 leaves the separator, whole milk is added at the rate of 
 one gallon to twenty gallons of skim-milk. This gives the 
 mixture a fat content, which approximates that of ordinary 
 buttermilk. A large quantity of pure culture of lactic 
 acid bacteria (starter, see p. ig.'^) is next added and the 
 temperature brought to 70° F. Enough starter is added to 
 curdle the skim-milk in about six hours at the temperature 
 mentioned. This requires about one pound of culture for 
 every three pounds of skim-milk. When a temperature 
 above 70" F. is employed, there is a tendency for whey 
 to separate after the skim-milk has curdled. 
 
 Churning. When thoroughly curdled, the skim-milk 
 is placed in a churn and churned for about thirty minutes 
 in the same way that cream is churned in making butter. 
 The churning process thoroughly breaks up the curd clots, 
 resulting in a smooth, thick liquid which cannot be dis- 
 tinguished from ordinary good buttermilk. 
 
 Cooling; Immediately after the buttermilk leaves the 
 churn, the temperature should be reduced below 50° F. 
 to prevent further development of acid and the separa- 
 tion of the whey. .Ordinary milk and cream coolers with 
 enlarged holes in the distributing receptacle will answer 
 very satisfactorily. 
 
 Straining. As soon as cooled, the buttermilk should 
 233 
 
234 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 be run through a strainer consisting of one thicl<ness of 
 cheese cjoth to remove any unbroken curd clots. 
 
 Bottling. After it is strained the buttermilk is bottled 
 or put in tin cans holding from one to five gallons, after 
 which it is placed in the refrigerator where it is held until 
 ready for delivery. 
 
 Marketing Skini=milk Buttermilk. In trying to sell 
 skimmilk-buttermilk it is necessary in the first place, to ex- 
 plain that this product, when made as herein described, is 
 almost identical with the highest grade of natural butter- 
 milk, both in composition and physical properties, and, 
 therefore, in palatability and wholesomeness. Indeed, it 
 is not thought possible under average conditions to secure 
 natural buttermilk of as uniform a quality or as fine a 
 flavor as can be obtained from skim-milk. When these 
 facts are explained to dealers and consumers, any preju- 
 dices which might exist against this so-called artificial 
 product are certain to vanish. 
 
 The dealers in buttermilk should be furnished with 
 attractive signs, calling attention to th'e fact that the 
 product is for sale by them. Buttermilk is not found at 
 all soda fountains, and unless conspicuous signs are 
 posted at these places, the public may not call for it. 
 
 Buttermilk may readily be sold to drug stores, restau- 
 rants, hotels and boarding houses at from ten to thirty 
 cents per gallon, averaging about twelve cents per gallon. 
 
 As with cottage cheese, the most satisfactory way of 
 disposing of buttermilk is to sell it direct to the milk 
 and cream customers along the dairy route. 
 
 Where buttermilk is intended to be used as a beverage, 
 it is important to keep its temperature below 50° F. until 
 it is consumed. 
 
 Food Value of Buttermilk. When used as a bever- 
 
SKIMMILK-BUTTBRMILK 235 
 
 age, buttermilk is usually appreciated only for its palata- 
 bility. Aside from this, however, it has a high dietetic, 
 as well as high medicinal, value. In certain diseases, 
 especially those affecting the alimentary tract, buttermilk 
 is considered indispensable. Its nutritive value is high, 
 two quarts being approximately equal to one pound of 
 good beefsteak. 
 
 Buttermilk From Pasteurized Skim^milk. The best 
 buttermilk is obtained by adding the starter to pasteurized 
 skim-milk. Under such conditions the entire skim-milk 
 becomes virtually a starter or pure culture of lactic acid 
 bacteria. This not only means a better flavor but also 
 insures freedom from pathogenic organisms. Pasteuriza- 
 tion also lessens the tendency for 'the whey to separate. 
 
CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 CERTIFIED MILK. 
 
 Definition. Certified milk is milk produced under 
 conditions imposed by medical milk commissions, which 
 usuall)' employ a veterinarian, a bacteriologist and a 
 chemist to look after the production of the milk. It must 
 
 Fig. 70. —Sanitary Dairy Barn. (Da. Div., U. S. Dcpt. of A.) 
 
 be free from disease germs and preservatives, must have 
 a known chemical composition, and must be so produced 
 and handled as to insure a minimum numoer of bacteria. 
 
 236 
 
CERTIFIED MILK 
 
 237 
 
 If the producer has complied with all the requirements 
 he is furnished a certificate by the commission, which 
 permits him to use the "certified" label on his products. 
 
 The term "certified milk" is registered in the United 
 States patent office and its use is legally permitted only 
 on milk approved by medical milk commissions. 
 
 Uses. Certified milk is now largely used for infants 
 and invalids. There is, however, also a rapidly increasing 
 
 Fig. 71. —Truman Sanitary Milk Pail. (Storrs, Conn. Station.) 
 
 use made of this milk by the better informed people who 
 realize the unsanitary condition of average market milk. 
 Certified milk is the means of saving the lives of thou- 
 sands of infants and its increasing use offers splendid 
 opportunities for dairymen who are in a position to 
 meet the requirements laid aown by medical commissions. 
 Production and Handling. The general conditions 
 called for in the production of "certified" milk are essen- 
 tially the same as those stated in the chapter on "sanitary 
 mijk production." 
 
238 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 The cows, milkers and premises are regularly inspected, 
 and the milk is regularly subjected to chemical and bac- 
 teriological tests. The number of bacteria permitted by 
 different commissions varies from 10,000 to 30,000 per 
 cubic centimeter of milk ; and the fat content ranges from 
 about 3.5 to 4.5 per cent. 
 
 The milk bottles are sealed preferably with metallic 
 caps bearing the date of bottling and the name of the 
 commission. Delivery should be made within twenty- 
 four hours after the milk is drawn and its temperature 
 during this time should not exceed 45° F. 
 
 In the dairy house arrangements must be such as to 
 reduce contamination to a minimum. A receiving can 
 placed in an ante-room is used by the milkers to empty 
 their pails, and from this the milk is conducted into the 
 milk room. A sterilizer with doors at both ends is pre- 
 ferably placed between the milk room and the wash room, 
 so as to enable the milkers to g?t their pails without enter- 
 ing the milk room and, at the same time, to allow the 
 sterilized bottles to be removed without entering the wash 
 room. 
 
 Profits. Obviously it costs more to produce certified 
 than ayerage market milk, but the additional cost is less, 
 as a rule, than the increased price realized. Certified 
 dairies that have failed to make money have almost in- 
 variably invested more money in buildings and equipment 
 than was actually necessary. It has been shown that this 
 class of milk may be successfully produced in quite ordi- 
 nary buildings and with moderately cheap equipment. 
 What is of greatest importance is extreme cleanliness, 
 which is achieved mainly through intelligent care and 
 management of every detail of the work from start to 
 finish. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 RELATIVE MARKET VALUE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. 
 
 Many milk producers are so .situated as to make it pos- 
 sible for them to sell either milk, cream, butter, cheese 
 or ice cream. To those so situated the question naturally 
 arises, what method of disposal will yield the largest re- 
 turns? This, of course, will depend to a great extent 
 upon the relative market prices of these products. 
 
 To show how dairymen may determine for themselves 
 in what form they can realize most for their milk, a 
 simple method of calculation is here presented, in which, 
 for purposes of illustration, the following prices have 
 been adopted : Milk, seven cents per quart ; 30% cream, 
 one dollar per gallon ; butter, twenty-five cents per pound ; 
 cheese, thirteen cents per pound; and ice cream, made 
 from 15% cream, one dollar per gallon. Using these as 
 average prices for a given locality, determine the relative 
 returns from one hundred pounds of milk containing 4^ 
 (4 lbs.) butterfat, (i) when retailed as milk, (2) when 
 sold as cream, (3) when sold as butter, (4) when sold 
 as cheese, and (5) when sold as ice cream. 
 
 I; Value of Milk. Since milk weighs 2.15 pounds per 
 quart, 100 pounds of 4% milk are equal to 46.5 quarts, 
 which, at 7 cents per quart, are worth $3.25. 
 
 2. Value of Cream. One hundred pounds of 4% milk 
 will make 13.33 pounds of 30% cream, as determined by 
 the following rule: 
 
 239 
 
240 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Rule: To find the number of pounds of cream that 
 can be obtained from a given amount of milk, multiplj' 
 the milk by its test and divide the product by the test 
 of the cream. Thus the amount of 30% cream from 
 100 pounds of milk testing 4% equals 
 
 100 X 4 J 
 
 =13-33 pounds. 
 
 30 
 
 Since a gallon of 30%* cream weighs practically the 
 same as a gallon of vi^ater (8.35 lbs.), the 13.33 pounds 
 of cream are equal to 1.6 gallons which, at $1.00 per gal- 
 lon, are worth $1.60. Allowing one-half cent per pound 
 for skim-milk, we have 43 cents as the value of the 86 
 pounds of skim-milk, which gives a total value of $2.03 
 for the 100 pounds of 4% milk. 
 
 2. Value of Butter. One hundred pounds of 4% milk 
 will yield 4 2-3 pounds of butter, because where up-to- 
 date methods of creaming and churning are followed 
 every pound of butterfat will make i 1-6 pounds of 
 butter. Four and two-thirds pounds of butter at 25 cents 
 per pound are worth $1.17. Valuing buttermilk at the 
 same price as skim-milk (one-half cent per pound) 48 
 cents should be added to the $1.17 as the value of the 
 skim-milk and buttermilk, making a total value of $1.65 
 for the 100 pounds of 4% milk. 
 
 4. Value of Cheese. Since one pound of butterfat yields 
 approximately 2.6 pounds of cured cheddar cheese, 100 
 pounds of 4% milk will make 4 X 2.6, or 10.4 pounds of 
 cheese, which, at 13 cents per pound, are worth $1.35. 
 Allowing 10 cents as the value of the whey frofn the 100 
 pounds of 4% milk, we get a total value of $1.45. 
 
VALUE OP MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 241 
 
 S. Value of Ice Cream. Since a gallon of 15% cream 
 weighs 8.4s pounds, 100 pounds of 4% milk will make 
 3.15 gallons of 15% cream (see formula for calculating 
 cream, p. 240) or, allowing an overrun of 33 1-3%, 4.2 
 gallons of ice cream. At $1.00 per gallon this is worth 
 $4.20. To this must be added the value of 73 pounds of 
 skim-milk which, at one-half cent per pound, are worth 
 37 cents, making a total value of $4.57 for the 100 pounds 
 of milk made into ice cream. 
 
 Summary. The preceding calculations show that 100 
 pounds of 4% milk are worth 
 
 $1.45 when sold as cheese, 
 1.65 when sold as butler, 
 2.03 when sold 'as cream, 
 3.2s when retailed as milk, 
 4.57 when sold as ice cream. 
 
 It is to be remembered that the above figures show the 
 relative gross returns at the prices given. The net re- 
 turns will vary greatly, depending largely upon the near- 
 ness '-.o market and the quantity of milk handled ; also to 
 some extent upon the use to which the skim-milk is put. 
 If fed to pigs and calves the value of skim-milk is less 
 than one-half cent per pound ; if made into buttermilk or 
 cottage cheese its value may range from one to two 
 cents per pound. 
 
 Table of Values. The following table of values has 
 been prepared for handy reference.. The price of milk is 
 used as a basis, and the table shows at what prices cream 
 and butter must be sold to give the same returns as milk : 
 
242 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 Fat in Milk 
 
 When Milk 
 sells at 
 
 20* Cream 
 must sell at 
 
 30% Cream 
 must sell at 
 
 Butter 
 must sell at 
 
 3.6 
 
 5c per quart 
 6c " " 
 8c " 
 10c " •' 
 
 25c per quart 
 31c " 
 42c " 
 53c " " 
 
 36c per quart 
 43c " " 
 69c " '■ 
 75c " " 
 
 50c per pound 
 60c " 
 84c " " 
 
 81.06 " 
 
 4.0 
 
 5c per quart 
 6c " " 
 8c " " 
 10c " 
 
 22c per quart 
 27c " " 
 37c •■ " 
 46c " ■' 
 
 31c per quart 
 38c " " 
 50c " ■■ 
 66c " 
 
 44c per pound 
 54c " 
 73c " " 
 93c " 
 
 4.5 
 
 5e per quart 
 6c " " 
 8c " 
 10c " " 
 
 20c per quart 
 24c " " 
 32c " 
 41c " 
 
 28c per quart 
 
 34c " 
 
 46c " 
 
 59c " " 
 
 39c per pound 
 47c " " 
 65c " " 
 82c " 
 
 6.0 
 
 5c per quart 
 6c " " 
 8c •■ 
 10c '• 
 
 18c per quart 
 21c " 
 29c " " 
 37c " " 
 
 25c per quart 
 30c " " 
 42c " 
 53c ■' 
 
 35c per pound 
 43c " 
 59c " 
 75c " " 
 
 In calculating the above values, skim-milk and butter- 
 milk have been rated at 30 cents per 100 pounds. The 
 weight allowed per quart is as follows : Milk, 2.15 pounds ; 
 20% cream, 2.1 pounds; and 30% cream, 2.0. pounds. 
 The cost of handling and retailing these products, as well 
 as the cost of making the butter, has not been considered. 
 
 From the table it will be seen that when 3.5% milk sells 
 at 5 cents per quart, 20% cream must sell at 25 cents per 
 quart, 30% cream at 36 cents per quart, and butter at 50 
 cents per pound, to yield equivalent returns. Similarly, 
 when 5% milk sells at 5 cents per quart, 20% cream must 
 sell at 18 cents per quart, 30% cream at 25 cents per 
 quart, and butter at 35 cents per pound. 
 
 The table emphasizes the importance of selling milk on 
 the basis of its fat content. 
 
PART III. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT 
 
CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF DAIRY STOCK. 
 
 Valuing Cows. 
 
 To put dairying on a business basis requires that a 
 record be kept of each cow individually. This is im- 
 portant not only to determine which cows are paying for 
 their keep, but also to demonstrate to owners that high 
 producer^, as a rule, are valued too low in comparison 
 with poor producers. Every cow must be valued ac- 
 cording to the net returns obtained from her; that is, 
 every item of expense must be deducted from the total 
 receipts in order to know whether a cow has been kept 
 at a profit or a loss. In the following paragraphs data 
 are presented to show the method of determining the net 
 profits as well as to give some idea of the relative value 
 of cows of different productive capacities. The figures 
 presented are based upon pure bred herds containing 
 thirty cows and one bull each. Furthermore, it is assumed 
 that all concentrated feeds are purchased at market prices 
 and that all roughage is raised on the farm and charged 
 at actual cost of production. To furnish the necessary 
 roughage and pasture, one and one-half acres of land are 
 allotted to each cow, one-half of which is devoted to pas- 
 ture and the other half to hay and forage production. 
 Eight years has been allowed as the period of usefulness 
 of a cow. 
 
 244 
 
VALUING DAIRY STOCK 
 
 245 
 
 Three cows have been selected whose annual butter fat 
 production is 200, 300 and 400 pounds respectively. The 
 receipts, expenditures and net profits from the three dif- 
 ferent producers, Cow I, Cow II and Cow III, are shown 
 as follows: 
 
 Cow 
 
 Cow 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 $40.00 
 
 $100.00 
 
 54.00 
 
 81.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 8.00 
 
 14.00 
 
 21.60 
 
 20,00 
 
 22.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 $94.00 
 
 $136.10 
 
 $40 . 00 
 
 $50.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 5-00 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 5-00 
 
 1. 00 
 
 1. 00 
 
 2.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 4. §2 
 
 12.12 
 
 .70 
 
 1. 00 
 
 1.60 
 
 4.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.50 
 
 $82,42 
 
 $105.62 
 
 $11.58 
 
 $30.48 
 
 Cow 
 III. 
 
 Annual butter fat production (lbs.) . . 
 Market value placed upon cow. 
 
 Annual Receipts — 
 
 Value of butter fat at 27c per lb 
 
 Value of calf 
 
 Value of skim-milk at 30c per 100 lbs. 
 
 Value of manure 
 
 One-eighth final value of cow for beef 
 
 Totals 
 
 Annual Expenditures — 
 
 Feed 
 
 Labor, feeding and milking 
 
 Interest on barn, silo, milk house and 
 equipment valued at $100 at 5% 
 
 Insurance and depreciation of build- 
 ings and equipment at 5% 
 
 Medical attention • 
 
 Interest on value of cow at 5% 
 
 Depreciation of cow at 125^% 
 
 Taxes on buildings and cow at YzJo. ■ 
 
 Risk at 4% 
 
 Service fee 
 
 Totals 
 
 Annual net profit 
 
 400 
 $200.00 
 
 108.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 28.80 
 
 25.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 $184.80 
 
 $60.00 
 20.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 5.00 
 1. 00 
 10.00 
 24.62 
 1.50 
 8.00 
 2.50 
 
 $137.62 
 
 $47.18 
 
 EXPIvANATION OF ABOVE FIGURES. 
 
 Price, of Butter Fat. Prevailing prices of butter and 
 cheese have been such as to yield farmers having their 
 
246 .DAIRY FARMING 
 
 milk made into these products, an average price for the 
 year of 27 cents per pound of butter fat. 
 
 Value of Calf. A calf from a cow producing only 200 
 pounds of butter fat a year must be valued at beef prices, 
 which amounts to about $3.00 at birth. When the produc- 
 tioM reaches 300 pounds of butter fat and up, the value 
 of the calf rapidly increases, as indicated in the tables. 
 The price placed upon the calves from the larger pro- 
 ducers it is believed, is a fair average market value. Their 
 actual value is considerably greater than this. 
 
 Value of Skim=Milk. For the purpose of this calcu- 
 lation, the amount of skim-milk credited to each cow is 
 based upon a 4% fat content of the milk and represents 
 the total milk minus the butter fat it contains. While rat- 
 ing the value of skim-milk at 30 cents per 100 pounds 
 may be considered too high by some, it must be remem- 
 bered that skim-milk has a fertilizing value which alone 
 amounts to at least 10 cents per 100 pounds, and fully 
 three-fourths of this is recovered in the manure. For 
 poultry, young calves, and young pigs, the combined feed- 
 ing and fertilizing value of skim-milk is higher than 30 
 cents, especially when fed in a small quantity. 
 
 Value of Manure; The manure from cows considered 
 in the preceding table is valued according to its content 
 of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, which according 
 to their present commercial ratings are worth 19, 5, and 
 5 cents per pound respectively. The fertilizing ingredi- 
 ents vary with the kind and amount of feed supplied, and 
 this again varies according to the productive capacity of 
 cows and, to some extent, the section of the country in 
 which the cows are fed. Largely because of these condi- 
 
VALUING DAIRY STOCK 247 
 
 tions, the values here obtained are intended to be used 
 as general averages only. 
 
 In fixing the value of the manure from cows of diflferent 
 productive capacities, $15 is allowed as the value of the 
 manure from the feed required for maintenance and for 
 the developmeilt of the foetus. In this connection it 
 should be remembered that the one and one-half acres of 
 land allotted per cow are intended to supply all of the 
 roughage needed, and this should contain nutrients suffi- 
 cient for maintenance requirements. On one-half of this 
 land there is grown, say, one ton of red clover hay and 
 three tons of corn silage, which contain fertilizing ingre- 
 dients to the value of $13.62. If one-half of this amount 
 is allowed as the value of the fertilizing ingredients con- 
 tained in the pasture from the other half of the land, the 
 total value of the fertilizing constituents contained in the 
 feed required for maintenance is $20.00. Some of the fer- 
 tilizing constituents enter into the foetus, but it is safe 
 to say that three- fourths of them, or $15 worth, pass into 
 the manure. This maintenance feed, and its value as a 
 fertilizer, is quite constant for cows of different pro- 
 ductive capacities. Additional manurial value is, therefore, 
 obtained from the amount of concentrated feeds supplied 
 for milk production. According to European and Ameri- 
 can figures, this amount is approximately 800 pounds for 
 each 2,500 pounds of 4% milk, or for each lOQ pounds of 
 butter fat, produced. 
 
 The manurial value of each pound of the common con- 
 centrates varies from three-eighths cent for corn to about 
 one and one-fourth cents for cottonseed meal and linseed 
 meal, with intervening values of three-fourths cent for 
 wheat bran, dried brewers grains and gluten feed, and 
 
248 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 about one cent for gluten meal. From these values it is 
 safe to assume an average of five-eighths cent per pound 
 which gives the 800 pounds of concentrates a manurial 
 value of $5.00. Since milk has a manurial value of about 
 10 cents per 100 pounds, the manurial value of the 2,500 
 pounds of milk is $2.50, which leaves $2.50 as the value 
 of manurial constituents that actually enter into the 
 manure for each 2,500 pounds of milk, or each 100 
 pounds of butter fat, produced. For each 100 pounds of 
 butter fat produced, therefore, $2.50 is added to $15 
 which is the estimated value of the manure from feed 
 required for maintenance. 
 
 The value of the manure from cows of different pro- 
 ductive capacities, as obtained in the above calculation, is 
 based upon the assumption that all of the manure is saved. 
 Unfortunately, however, many dairymen allow one-half or 
 more of it to go to waste, but such carelessness on the 
 part of dairymen should not be charged against the cow. 
 
 While the value of the manure has been based solely 
 upon its content of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, 
 manure has values outside of these ingredients. Its me- 
 chanical effect upon the soil through the humus it sup- 
 plies, as well as the beneficial effects of the hosts of 
 bacteria it contains, should not be underrated. 
 
 Value of Cow for Beef. The final value of a cow to 
 the butcher may be placed at $24. Since the cow may be 
 milked on an average eight years, one-eighth of the $24, 
 or $3, should be credited to her annual receipts. 
 
 Cost of Feed. On arriving at the cost of feed, it is 
 to be remembered that one and one-half acres of land is 
 allotted to each cow. This land, valued at $80 per acre, 
 will undoubtedly furnish enough pasture and other rough 
 
VALUING DAIRY STOCK 249 
 
 feeds to meet the usual maintenance requirements. In 
 determining the cost of the forage grown on this land, 
 $6.60 is charged as the interest and taxes on the value of 
 the land, $3.40 as the cost of fencing, and $10 as the cost 
 of the labor and seed required to raise the roughage on 
 three-fourths acre of land. This makes a total of $20, 
 the cost of maintenance. 
 
 As stated above, approximately 800 pounds of grain or 
 its equivalent, is required to produce 2,500 pounds of 
 milk testing 4 per cent butter fat. This grain has an 
 average market value of about $10. To the $20, the cost 
 of maintenance, must therefore be added $10 for each 
 2,500 pounds of milk, or for each 100 pounds of butter 
 fat, produced. 
 
 Net Profits; The market value placed upon the cows 
 is assumed to be the average price that one is obliged to 
 pay v^fhen purchasing them. Where the cows are valued 
 according to the actual, cost of raising them, the net profits 
 would be considerably higher than those shown in the 
 preceding table, especially from the higher producei;s, as 
 witness the following table in which the "net profits when 
 the cow is raised," are based upon the cost of the cow 
 as determined under "valuing calves," page 250. 
 
 Annual Butter Pat Production Pounds 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 Net Profit when Cow is Bought 
 
 $11.58 
 11.58 
 
 $30.48 
 42.38 
 
 $47-i8 
 77.98 
 
 (From Table, Page 245) 
 Net Profit when Cow is Raised 
 
 The higher net profits from cows raised upon the farm 
 are due to their lower cost to the dairymen, reducing the 
 following expenses based upon the cost of the cow ; risk, 
 taxes, interest and depreciation. 
 
250 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 VALUING CAIvVES. 
 
 As a rule, calves from high-class cows are sold at prices 
 considerably below their actual value. This is so because 
 few dairymen appreciate the full value of calves from 
 high producers. Not until such calves have grown into 
 young cows is it possible to realize anywhere near their 
 full market value, and hence the wisdom of selling young 
 milch cows instead of calves. 
 
 In the receipts from cows of different productive 
 capacities shown on page 245, the values assigned to the 
 calves from the higher producers are low as compared 
 with the market price of cows of similar productive 
 capacities. This is best shown by first calculating the 
 approximate cost of raising calves from cows of differ- 
 ent productive capacities, up to the time of dropping their 
 first calf, namely, two years old, as follows: 
 
 Value of calf at birth 
 
 Interest at 5% 
 
 Risk at 4% 
 
 Interest, taxes, insurance and de 
 
 preciation of barn 
 
 Cost of feed 
 
 Cost of labor 
 
 Registration fee 
 
 Service fee 
 
 Taxes on calf 
 
 Medical attention 
 
 Total cost 
 
 Value of manure 
 
 Net cost at two years old 
 
 From 200- 
 pound Cow. 
 
 $3.00 
 
 From 300- 
 pound Cow. 
 
 $8.00 
 
 From 400- 
 poundCow. 
 
 $20.00 
 
 $0.30 
 .24 
 
 1.50 
 
 40.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 .20 
 
 .20 
 
 $0.80 
 .64 
 
 1.50 
 
 40.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 .20 
 
 .20 
 
 ?2.00 
 1.60 
 
 1.50 
 
 40.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 .20 
 
 .20 
 
 $56.^94 
 20.00 
 
 $57.84 
 20.00 
 
 $60.00 
 20.00 
 
 $36-94 
 
 S.^7-84 
 
 $40.00 
 
VALUING DAIRY STOCK 
 
 251 
 
 This table shows that the cost of raising an ordinary 
 two-year-old heifer may be taken on an average to be 
 $37 and that this cost is not materially increased for high- 
 class heifers. 
 
 The following table shows that the market value as- 
 signed to calves from the higher producing cows is low 
 in comparison with the market value of the cows them- 
 selves : 
 
 
 Offspring from 
 
 
 2oo-lb. 
 cow. 
 
 300-lb. 
 cow. 
 
 400-lb. 
 cow. 
 
 Market value of calf at birth 
 
 Cost of raising calf up to two years 
 old 
 
 $3.00 
 36-94 
 
 $8.00 
 
 37-84 
 
 $20.00 
 $40.00 
 
 
 Total cost of two-year-old heifer. . , . 
 Market value two-year-old heifer . . . 
 
 $39-94 
 40.00 
 
 $45.84 
 
 100.00 
 
 $60.00 
 200.00 
 
 Increased net profit from selling 
 heifer instead of calf 
 
 , $0.06 
 
 $54.16 
 
 $140.00 
 
 
 The table .shows that it is unquestionably more profit- 
 able to keep heifer calves until two years old than to sell 
 them as calves. 
 
 VALUING BULI^S. 
 
 In estimating the relative value of bulls capable of pro- 
 ducing cows yielding annually 200, 300 and 400 pounds 
 of butter fat respectively, it is assumed that each bull will 
 produce fifteen heifer calves and fifteen bull calves an- 
 nually. The relative value of the heifers from the differ- 
 ent bulls, is based upon the relative net profits obtained 
 from the cows as determined under "Valuing Cows," 
 page 244. The bull calves from the different bulls are 
 
252 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 given values corresponding to those given the calves in 
 the calculation just referred to. 
 
 Since cows producing only 200 pounds of butter fat a 
 year are maintained at only a small profit, bulls capable 
 of producing such cows will not be considered here. By 
 referring to the figures showing the net profits from cows 
 of difiFerent productive capacities it will be found that cows 
 yielding 400 pounds of butter fat a year will produce an- 
 nually $16.70 mpre net profit than those yielding 300 
 pounds of butter fat. The immediate increased value of 
 the fifteen heifer calves from the 400-pound bull will, 
 therefore, amount to $16.70X15, or $250.50. 
 
 Since these heifers will produce for a period of eight 
 years, the real annual increased value represented by the 
 fifteen heifer calves from the better bull will amount to 
 $250.50X8 or $2,000.00. Adding to this $180 as the in- 
 creased value of the fifteen bull calves, we have a total 
 of $2,184 which represents the total annual increased value 
 of the offspring from the 400-pound bull over that of the 
 300-pound one. Allowing six years as the period of use- 
 fulness of bulls, we get a grand total of $13,104 in favor 
 of the 400-pound bull during his six-year period of use- 
 fulness. 
 
 If we value the 300-pound bull at forty dollars and the 
 400-pound bull at $150, it will be necessary to deduct from 
 the above the difference in the interest, taxes, risk and 
 depreciation of the two bulls. These items, if figured the 
 same as for cows, will amount to $172.68 for six years, 
 leaving a net profit of $13,031.32 in favor of the 400- 
 pound bull during his period of usefulness. 
 
 If we value heifer calves according to the net profits 
 obtained from cows when the latter are raised upon the 
 farm, the differences found above will be considerably 
 greater. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 LEGUMES (alealfa and clovers). 
 
 One of the greatest factors in successful dairying at 
 the present time is the growing of an ample supply of 
 leguminous crops, such as alfalfa and clovers. There are 
 several reasons for this: (i) legumes improve the soil 
 by adding to its store of nitrogen; (2) legumes are rich 
 ■in protein and can, therefore, ' take the place, to a great 
 extent, of high priced commercial feeds rich in protein. 
 
 The bacteria that live upon the roots of alfalfa and 
 clovers have the power of taking the nitrogen from the 
 air and putting it into the soil in a form in which it be- 
 comes available for plant growth. Nitrogen when pur- 
 chased in the form of commercial fertilizers, has a value 
 of about twenty cents per pound. The dairyman who 
 grows a sufficient quantity of clover and alfalfa gets the 
 nitrogen absolutely free and in sufficient quantity not only 
 to maintain the supply of nitrogen already in the soil, 
 but by feeding the clover and alfalfa to stock the nitrogen 
 content of the soil can be materially increased. 
 
 With the increasing cost of commercial feeds rich in 
 protein, it manifestly is a matter of economy for the dairy 
 farmer to raise crops upon his farm which can take the 
 place of expensive commercial feeds. There is no home 
 grown feed which can take the place of grain or concen- 
 trated commercial feeds to so great an extent as alfalfa. 
 This will be readily understood when it is known that 
 
 253 
 
254 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 practical feeding trials have shown that good alfalfa hay 
 has, pound for pound, the same value for milk produc- 
 tion as wheat bran. It is generally known that red clover 
 and other kinds of clover are rich in protein, but alfalfa 
 is still richer in protein. 
 
 Where conditions are favorable for growing alfalfa, 
 there is perhaps no general farm crop that yields so great 
 returns from an acre of land as alfalfa, especially when 
 considering its favorable effect upon the soil. In favored 
 localities alfalfa can be cut four times during each sea- 
 son, yielding from four to five tons per acre. 
 
 The roots of alfalfa penetrate the soil to great depths 
 and for this reason, when once established, alfalfa will 
 flourish during dry seasons when ordinary crops fail. 
 Moreover, the deep root system of alfalfa enables it to 
 obtain plant food from such soil depths as are entirely 
 beyond the reach of ordinary farm plants. 
 
 Alfalfa is a plant highly relished by all classes of live 
 stock, though it cannot be as successfully grazed, perhaps, 
 as red clover, at least not until it has passed through the 
 second season; but, unlike red clover, alfalfa will con- 
 tinue to yield good crops of hay many years without re- 
 planting. It is well to remember that alfalfa, does not 
 thrive everywhere. It requires a well drained soil rich 
 in lime and containing the right kind of bacteria. In 
 limestone regions where sweet clover flourishes, alfalfa 
 probably grows at its best. This plant is so valuable to 
 dairymen that none can afford not to try to grow it. 
 
 LEGUME HAY AND CORN SILAGE. 
 
 Where a liberal allowance of rich legume hay is fed 
 in conjunction with corn silage, little grain or concen- 
 
LEGUMES 255 
 
 trates is required, except for heavy producers. Silage 
 helps to balance the legume ration and supplies the suc- 
 culence which the legume hay lacks. The two feeds, 
 therefore, nicely supplement each other, not only so far 
 as succulence is concerned, but also with respect to pro- 
 tein and carbohydrates. 
 
 For economical milk production it may be stated with- 
 out fear of contradiction that there is no combination of 
 winter feeds equal to legume hay and corn silage, sup- 
 plemented with grain or concentrates according the yield 
 of milk. It is economy also to feed silage and legume 
 hay during periods when pastures are short. Especially 
 important is it to have silage for summer feeding, a 
 matter which is recognized now-a-days by leading dairy- 
 men everywhere. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 THE DAIRY HOUSB. 
 
 Location. In selecting a site for a dairy house, con- 
 venience and sanitation should be given first considera- 
 tion. A well drained spot, free from rubbish and bad 
 odors, and within reasonable distance from the barn 
 should be selected. An abundance of good, pure water 
 must be available. 
 
 Floor Plans Designed by the Author. Dairymen who 
 sell milk and cream occasionally have a surplus of these 
 products on their hands, which is usually, made into butter. 
 Floor plans for dairy houses must therefore provide for 
 small buttermaking outfits in addition to all the necessary 
 apparatus for the handling of milk and cream. 
 
 The floor plan shown in Fig. 72 is designed to meet 
 the needs of small dairymen. Figs. 73 and 76 illustrate 
 plans which will answer the needs of dairymen having 
 from twenty to fifty cows. The first two plans provide 
 for retail milk; the last provides for farm buttermaking. 
 There is no question that refrigerating machinery can be 
 employed very advantageously in a great percentage of 
 the larger dairies. 
 
 Details of Construction. The foundation for the 
 walls may be constructed of stone, brick or concrete. It 
 should rest upon firm, solid ground below the frost line, 
 and the top must be at least one foot above ground. 
 
 In building the walls, place the studs two feet apart 
 
 256 
 
DAIRY HOUSE 
 
 257 
 
 Extreme length, i6 feet. 
 Extreme width, 12 feet. 
 
 Ice. Box 
 
 Drain 
 
 PRINTIN& 
 
 DOTTUIN© 
 
 Table 
 
 Fig. 72 — Ploor Plan of Dairy House for Retail Milk. 
 
 and tack building paper on both sides. Weather 
 board the outside and finish the inside as follows: 
 Board up preferably with tongued and grooved 
 lumber, and cover the boards with two thicknesses of 
 
258 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Fig. 73.— Floor Plan of Dairy House for Retail Milk Trade, Suitable for Fifty I 
 Cows. 18'z24'. 
 
 roofing paper. Next put on furring strips, one foot apart, 
 and to these fasten wire lathing. If the lathing is pro- 
 vided with one-inch steel ribs the furring strips are not 
 
DAIRY HOUSE 
 
 259 
 
 needed. Next apply one and one-half inches of cement 
 plaster consisting of one part cement, three parts clean, 
 coarse sand, and one part slacked lime paste. Press the 
 
 Fig. 74.— Milk House for Cream Patrons. 
 
 concrete partly through the wire lathing. Finish with one 
 part cement and one part sand and trowel off as smoothly 
 as possible. This construction provides one three-fourths 
 inch and one four-inch dead air spaces. 
 
260 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Fig. 76.— Floor Plan of Dairy House for Farm Buttctmaking. 
 
DAIRY HOUSE 
 
 261 
 
 ■ Construct a four-inch concrete floor upon a well tamped 
 foundation consisting of gravel, cobble stones and cinders. 
 
 TEST TABLE 
 
 WATER 
 TANK 
 
 MILK 
 COOLER 
 
 Fig. 75.— Milk House Whole Milk Patrons. 
 
 These materials afford good drainage and thus prevent the 
 cold and dampness usually associated with concrete floors. 
 In preparing the concrete for the floor use one part 
 
262 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 cement, two parts clean, coarse sand and four parts 
 gravel or crushed stone. Finish with one part cement and 
 two parts sand. 
 
 All parts of the floor should slope toward the drain in 
 the center. Round out the corners and edges of the floor 
 with concrete to make them more easily cleanable. 
 
 The ceiling should be about twelve feet high and built 
 of the best ceiling lumber. Keep the ceiling well painted. 
 
 Enough windows must be provided to afford ample 
 light and to admit sunshine to all parts of the building. 
 
 Provide ventilation in the milk and wash rooms by 
 running tight ventilating shafts from the ceiling through 
 the top of the roof. 
 
 Sewerage.- Effective sewerage must be provided at 
 the time the floor is laid. A bell trap should be placed 
 in the center of each room and carefully connected with 
 the sewer. Conduct the sewage far enough away to 
 keep its odors a safe distance from the dairy house. 
 
 Screening. Where proper sanitation is expected it is 
 absolutely necessary to guard against flies, and this can 
 easily be done by screening all doors and windows. Flies 
 are a prolific source of milk contamination and must 
 therefore be rigidly excluded from the dairy. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 WASHING AND STERILIZING MILK VESSELS. 
 
 Wa^h Sinks. A matter of importance in washing 
 milk vessels is to have the right kind of sinks, three of 
 which are needed for the most satisfactory work: One 
 
 Fig. 77.— Wash Sinks. 
 
 for rinsing before washing, one for washing and one for 
 final rinsing. 
 
 For convenience the wash sink should be thirty-six 
 
 263 
 
264 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 inches long, twelve inches deep, and sixteen inches wide. 
 The bottom should be round and two feet from the floor. 
 When closer to the floor than this too much stooping is 
 required. 
 
 Fig. 79.— Milk Bottle Brush. 
 Fig. 78.— A Good Cleaning Brush. 
 
 Galvanized iron furnishes one of the most suitable ma- 
 terials for the construction of wash sinks. They should 
 be provided with steam (or hot water) and cold water 
 pipes as shown in Fig. '^y. 
 
 Method of Washing. All vessels should be thor- 
 oughly rinsed in 
 warm water to re- 
 move small residues 
 of milk and cream. 
 The rinsing is fol- 
 lowed by washing 
 with moderately hot 
 water to which a 
 handful of some 
 cleaning powder has 
 been added. The 
 washing should be 
 done with brushes 
 rather than cloths be- 
 cause the bristles en- 
 ter into crevices which 
 a cloth could not possibly reach. Finally rinse the vessels 
 in clean water. 
 
 A bottle washer, like that shown in Fig. 8o, saves much 
 
 Fig. 80.— Bottle Washer. 
 
WASHING AND STERILIZING 
 
 265 
 
 labor and does very efficient work. The motive power 
 may be either steam or water. 
 
 Sterilizing. Vessels that have been washed in the man- 
 ner d.escribed above may look perfectly clean, but may 
 still be far from being free from bacteria. These can be 
 destroyed only by exposing the vessels to the boiling 
 temperature for some time. 
 
 Fig. 81»— Cheap Arrangement for Securing Hot Water. 
 
 The' simplest method of sterilizing is to place the vessels 
 in boiling water for five minutes. This method com- 
 mends itself especially to small dairymen who have no 
 steam. 
 
 Where no steam is available, the best means of pro- 
 curing hot water is the apparatus shown in Fig. 8i. 
 
 The hot water tank is that commonly used in residences 
 for heating water for the bath tub and can be obtained 
 
266 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Fig. 82.— Sterilizing- Truck and Front of Brick Sterilizer. 
 
 from plumbers for about $7.00. Any stove in which 
 iron coils can be heated will answer as a heater. 
 
 The best method of sterilizing is to place the vessels 
 
WASHING AND STERILIZING 
 
 267 
 
 in a steam chamber of sufficient strength to withstand a 
 pressure of ten or more pounds to the square inch. These 
 sterilizers are usually constructed of concrete or brick and 
 
 Fig. 83. —Cross-Section of Concrete Sterilizer. 
 
 are provided with a heavy iron door which is large enough 
 
 to admit a truck bearing the pails, cans, bottles, etc. Other 
 
 sterilizers of this type are constructed of galvanized iron. 
 
 The principal drawback to some of these sterilizers is 
 
268 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 their high cost, which renders their use by small dairy 
 men almost prohibitive. 
 
 Cheap Sterilizers. A cross section through a cheap 
 concrete sterilizer is shown in Fig. 83. It is essentiall_y 
 a rectangular concrete tank with a wooden cover which 
 is lined with zinc. The sides and bottom are five inches 
 thick and are built of concrete, which is made up of one 
 part cement, two parts sand, and two parts coarse gravel. 
 A thin coat, consisting of one part cement and two parts 
 sand, is used as an inside finish. 
 
 Fig. 84 shows a common galvanized iron sterilizer 
 which answers the purpose for small dairymen. 
 
 Fig. 84.— A Cheap Sterilizer. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 . KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Various methods are followed in keeping accounts with 
 patrons, but nearly all of them involve the use of tickets, 
 route book, and some form of ledger. The method here 
 described is recommended because of its simplicity. 
 
 Tickets. Most customers prefer to settle their milk 
 and cream accounts daily. This they do by purchasing a 
 quantity^of tickets from the milkman and handing them 
 out every time milk or cream is purchased. 
 
 The tickets should be used but once. Where they are 
 repeatedly used they become dirty and a real source of 
 danger. Passing from one household to another , they 
 are likely to become contaminated with disease germs 
 and thus become the means of disseminating disease. 
 
 The coupon ticket presented on the next page is one of 
 the most satisfactdry in use at the present time. The 
 portion of the ticket above the perforations is retained by 
 the milkman. If the ticket is paid for at the time of pur- 
 chase, this must be indicated on the .stub retained by the 
 dairyman as well as on the customer's ticket. 
 
 Coupon tickets are also used for cream and buttermilk. 
 Tickets for different products should have different 
 colors. 
 
 Tickets are not absolutely necessary ; indeed, many cus- 
 tomers prefer to do without them. Where no tickets are 
 
 269 
 
270 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 To TICKETS $1.00. MILK. Qy./.O^ 
 
 MILK. 
 
 Mr...C^.«....^?^*t*???r— 
 
 To SPRING VALLEY DAIRY, Dr. 
 
 J. L. JONES. Prop., Middlaton, N. Y. 
 T0T.CKETSS,.00. ^, C^^ 
 
 Received Payment. ^^S y:/. : 
 
 D..e .j|G^e^.- .^^. mB 
 
 >-: SPRING VAI.LEY DAIRY. o j ^ SPRING VAiJlEY DAIRY. ^ 
 
 \ ONE Of. MILK 2 ^ ONE QT. MILK 2 
 
 o MIDDLE10N. N. Y. ^jo MIDOLET^N. N. Y. ^ 
 
 SPRING VaIIlEY DAIRY. o { ^^ SPRING VAiILeY DAIRY. 
 t_ S ? ^ • 
 
 ^ ^ONE OT- MILK 3 :; ONE OT- MILK 2 
 
 o MIDOLETpN. N. Y. * ( o MIDDLETDN, N. Y. ^^ 
 
 ^ SPRING VA|.LEY DAIRY. o ( ^ SPRING VAU.EY DAIRY. o 
 
 = ONE of. MILK 2 j ! ONE QT. MILK 2 
 
 o MIODLETON. NY. ^ ( o MIDDLETiDN, N. Y. ^ 
 
 SPRING VALLEY DAIRY. S f HJ SPRING VALLEY DAIRV. o 
 
 i VALLE 
 
 ONE Of. MILK 2 ! i ONE QT- MILK 2 
 
 MIDDLE^ON. N. Y. ^|^ MIDDLETON, N. Y. ' 
 
 (ley dairy. o I K SPRING VAiIeY DAIRY. o 
 
 MILK 2 ! ONE OT- MILK 2 
 
 MIDDLEJoN. N. Y. ^\° MIDOLEIftN. N. Y. p 
 Coupon Ticket, 
 
 vaIle 
 OT. 
 
KBBPING ACCOUNTS 
 
 271 
 
 used, an account is rendered at the end of the month 
 similar to that rendered by the grocer. 
 
 Route Bool;: i It is evident, that if customers were 
 always supplied with tickets and regularly paid for each 
 delivery of milk or cream, no further record would 
 be necessary. But customers will run out of tickets oc- 
 casionally as well as forget to regularly hand them out, 
 hence it is necessary for drivers to carry with them a 
 record or route book in which each transaction is recorded 
 at the time it is made. A form suitable for this purpose 
 is shown below. 
 
 /ZcCo/nta^*^, ^- ^ 
 
 /Ctyyt^d-a-^^^fC?. ^ 
 
 Form of Route Book. 
 
 The route book consists of loose leaves, upon which 
 the names of customers are arranged alphabetically. The 
 leaves are renewed each month, the old one being placed 
 on file for future reference. The letters b. m. stand for 
 buttermilk. 
 
 Ledger; As a rule all accounts are settled monthly. 
 The ledger form shown below serves satisfactorily as a 
 permanent monthly record. 
 
 On the debit side are recorded the sales and the total 
 value of the tickets purchased. On the credit side are 
 
272 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 recorded all the receipts for the same period. The balance 
 represents the difference between the debits and credits. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 J^^^^ ^yyCcfyi 
 
 Cr. 
 
 ; 
 
 DATE 
 
 isoa 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 TICKETS. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 DATE 
 
 1908 
 
 si 
 I 
 
 TICKR8. 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 |! 
 
 \ 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 % 
 
 Jan 1-81 
 
 f.oo 
 
 3o 
 
 w 
 
 JO 
 
 510 
 
 Jam 1-81 
 
 lo.6ii 
 
 ss 
 
 10 
 
 i 
 
 ¥» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bal. Jan %\ 
 
 a<w 
 
 d- 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 V 
 
 Bal Fcb. 1 
 
 Z.oo 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 P»B 1-29 
 
 
 -*>-^ 
 
 
 -o 
 
 
 
 Form of Ledger. 
 
 Monthly Statement. At the end of each month a 
 statement should be rendered to customers showing their 
 indebtedness. A form like that herewith shown answers 
 the purpose satisfactorily. 
 
 SPRIXHDALE SANITARV DAIBY, 
 
 I. r. noONB. ProprlMnr 
 
 yu. 
 
 
 jafucv/ 
 
 BEIDtlVILl.E, N. H.* 
 
 ToSPRINGIXALE SANITARY DAIRY, db. 
 
 J C. BOONE, Proprietor 
 
 
 ^ £U£a>^<s^ p^iA./ 
 
 s. 
 
 so 
 
 
 — 
 
 fjki-si 
 
 H-O grM-*l^i., >n»J^ (? g' 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 II "j^vUJX iSajul.^,^9 3^ 
 
 X 
 
 Xo 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 S" f~^*'CCL. '^^M^r'y*'i£^ e S~ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 g 
 
 /A- 
 
 /I 
 
 ^y. e.4ML 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 <X) 
 
 
 Ko. y w/n-*vteZi.'w«je^ Mt&Uj f 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 /JT 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monthly statement. 
 
KBBPING ACCOUNTS 
 
 273 
 
 Order Book for Supplies. For convenience as well 
 as' for permanent record, all orders should be made in 
 duplicate in a "book specially made for the purpose. The 
 leaves in the order book are alternately marked "original" 
 and "duplicate," the duplicate being made at the same 
 time as the original by using carbon paper between the 
 two. A suitable form of order blank is shown below. 
 
 Original 
 
 Order- No. 
 To ... 
 
 Springdale Sanitary Dairy. 
 J. C. Boone, Prop. 
 Reidville, N. H 190. 
 
 Dear Sir : Please deliver by the following : 
 
 Invoice and ship to 
 
 Springdale Sanitary Dairy, 
 
 J. C. Boone, Prop., Reidville, N. H. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 WATER AND ICE SUPPLY. 
 WATER. SUPPLY 
 
 Importance of Pure Water. A great deal of disease 
 in farm homes is directly traceable to infected water. 
 Typhoid fever especially is so frequently caused by pol- 
 luted well water that physicians at once look to this as 
 the probable cause wherever this disease is found to ex- 
 ist. 
 
 Where wells infected with disease germs happen to ex- 
 ist on dairy farms that supply milk to neighboring cities, 
 disease is not limited to the dairyman's own family, but 
 may be spread along the entire milk route. Many typhoid 
 fever epidemics have been positively traced to milk which 
 has become infected through water containing the disease 
 germs. Nowhere is pure water so important, therefore, 
 as upon dairy farms. 
 
 The disease germs usually find their way into the milk 
 through milk vessels which have been washed with in- 
 fected water. The use of such water for washing cows' 
 udders previous to milking may also be the means of in- 
 fecting the milk supply. 
 
 Location of Well. The most satisfactory location for 
 the well is at the dairy house where the coldest water is 
 required and where it will be most convenient. Here the 
 water for both the dairy, the home, and the stock can be 
 pumped with the dairy engine. Further, the well, like 
 
 274 
 
WATER AND ICE SUPPLY 275 
 
 the dairy house, should stand on slightly elevated ground 
 so as to insure drainage away from it. 
 
 Construction of Well. In a properly constructed 
 well, no water should enter it except near the bottom. 
 This compels the water to pass through a thickness of 
 earth sufficient to purify it where the wells are of a 
 reasonable depth. 
 
 Where there is no rock or hard clay and where the 
 
 Fig. 85. —Soil strata. (From Harringrton's "Practical Hygiene.") 
 
 water can be had at a reasonable depth, the driven well, 
 commonly knov/n as the Abyssinian tube well, is the 
 cheapest and one of the safest. This well is made by 
 driving into the ground a water-tight iron tube, the lower 
 end of which is pointed and perforated. 
 
 In case rocks and. hard clay must be penetrated, or gi-eat 
 depth must be reached to secure water, the bored or 
 drilled well, piped from top to bottom with water-tight 
 iron pipes, will be found most satisfactory. 
 
276 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Water from the upper pervious stratum should be 
 avoided wherever possible, even with wells of the kind 
 just described. Especially is this necessary where the 
 wells are shallow. The purest water is obtained by sink- 
 ing the well through an impervious stratum, like that 
 shown in Fig. 85. 
 
 The most dangerous well is the common dug well with 
 pervious walls and so located as to permit seepage into 
 it from outhouses, barnyards and cesspools. Wells of 
 this type are altogether too common on dairy farms. 
 
 Fig. 86. -Sources of Well Water Cont."imiiialion. (From Bui. 143 Kan. 
 Exp. Sta.) 
 
 All wells, whatever their construction, must be provided 
 with water-tight metallic or concrete covers to prevent 
 the entrance of impurities into the shaft. 
 
 ICE suppi^y. 
 Necessity of Ice. Where there is no equipment for 
 
WATER AND ICE SUPPLY 277 
 
 mechanical refrigeration, ice is indispensible in furnish- 
 ing the best quality of milk and cream. A low enough 
 temperature cannot be secured with water alone, 'neither 
 can the cooling he accomplished as quickly as is desirable 
 for best results. Furthermore, a satisfactory cold storage 
 cannot be had without the use of ice. 
 
 Cooling Power of Ice. A great deal of cooling can 
 be done with a comparatively small amount of ice. This 
 is due to the latent or "hidden" cold in ice. Thus to 
 convert one pound of ice at 32° F. into water at the same 
 temperature requires 142 units of heat, or, in other words, 
 enough cold is given out to reduce the temperature of 
 142 pounds of water one degree Fahr. 
 
 Construction of Ice House. To keep ice satisfactorily 
 three things are necessary, (i) good drainage at the bot- 
 tom, (2) good insulation, and (3) abundant ventilation 
 at the top. 
 
 Good drainage and insulation at the bottom can be se- 
 sured by laying an eight-inch foundation of stones and 
 gravel and on top of this six inches of cinders, the whole 
 being underlaid with drain tile. One foot of sawdust 
 should be packed upon the cinders and the ice laid directly 
 upon the sawdust. 
 
 Satisfactory walls are secured by using matched boards 
 on the outside of the studs and common rough boards 
 on the inside, leaving the space between the studs empty. 
 The ice should be separated from the walls by one foot of 
 sawdust. 
 
 Where no solid foundation walls are provided, earth 
 must be banked around the ice house to prevent the en- 
 trance of air along the base. 
 
 The space between the sawdust covering on top of the 
 ice and the roof should be left clear. Openings in the 
 
278 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 gable ends as well as one or two ventilating shafts pro- 
 jecting through the roof should be provided to insure a 
 free circulation of air under the roof. This will not only 
 remove the hot air which naturally gathers beneath the 
 roof, but will aid in drying the sawdust. 
 
 The ice must be packed solidly, using no sawdust 
 except at the sides and bottom of the ice house and on 
 top of the ice when the iiUing is completed. At least one 
 foot of sawdust must be packed on top of the ice. 
 
 Size of Ice House. The size of the ice house will 
 depend, of course, upon the amount of ice to be used. 
 For a herd of 25 cows, in the North, an ice house 10 
 feet square by 14 feet high will usually answer. These 
 dimensions provide storage for 22 tons of ice, allowing 
 one-foot space all around the ice for sawdust. In the 
 South about 50% more ice is required than in the North. 
 
 In calculating the amount of storage space needed for 
 ice, it is necessary to know that one cubic foot of ice at 32^^ 
 F. weighs 57.5 pounds. 
 
 As a matter of convenience in filling and emptying the 
 ice house, doors should be provided in sections from the 
 sill to the gable at one end of the building. 
 
 General Uses of Ice. Aside from the use of ice in 
 cooling milk and cream, it can be employed to good ad- 
 vantage in several other ways. Its value in the house- 
 hold, in preserving meats, vegetables, and fruits cannot 
 be overestimated. And what is so refreshing as' cold 
 drinks and frozen desserts during the summer months ! 
 Ice is also frequently necessary in case of sickness. 
 
 Cost of Making Ice. . Where ice can be obtained with- 
 in a reasonable distance, the cost of cutting, hauling, and 
 packing should not exceed $1.50 per ton. 
 
 Source of Ice. Always select the cleanest ice available. 
 
WATER AND ICE SUPPLY 279 
 
 Where the source of ice is at too great a distance from 
 the dairy, an artificial pond should be made upon ground 
 with a reasonably impervious subsoil and with a natural 
 concave formation. If such a piece of ground is flooded 
 with water during the coldest weather, an ample supply 
 of ice will be available in a very short time. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS. 
 COMPOSITION OF BY-PRODUCTS. 
 
 
 Water. 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Far. 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Milk Suear. 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Casein and 
 Albumen, 
 Per Cent 
 
 Ash. 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Skim-milk 
 
 90.50 
 
 90-39 
 93.10 
 
 O.IO 
 0.50 
 U.30 
 
 4-95 
 4.06 
 
 3-57 
 3.60 
 0.80 
 
 0.78 
 
 0-7S 
 0.65 
 
 Buttermilk 
 
 Whey 
 
 
 Skim^Milk as a Feed. This is a question in which 
 dairymen should take greater interest because, as a 
 rule, the feeding value of skim-milk is underestimated. 
 Feeding trials show that five pounds of skim-milk are 
 equal to about one pound of grain (corn, barley, oats). 
 They also show that on an average four pounds of grain 
 will produce one pound of gain with young pigs, while 
 five pounds will produce the same gain with pigs from 
 six to twelve months old. On this basis twenty pounds 
 of skim-milk are required to produce one pound of gain 
 with young pigs and twenty-five pounds with older pigs. 
 With pork at eight cents a pound, one hundred pounds of 
 skim-milk will produce 40 cents worth of pork with young 
 pigs and 32 cents worth with older ones. 
 
 The amount of skim-milk required to produce a pound 
 of veal is shown by feeding trials to range on an average 
 from fifteen to twenty pounds. Taking the latter figure 
 
 280 
 
DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS 281 
 
 and valuing veal at 7 cents a pound, skim-milk is worth 
 35 cents per 100 pounds for veal production. 
 
 The highest returns from the feeding of skim-milk 
 are secured when fed to poultry. Careful experimental 
 tests show that as high as 75 cents per 100 pounds may 
 be realized for skim-milk when fed to poultry 
 
 Skim=niilk as a Fertilizer. Many who are selling 
 the skim-milk off the farm do not sufficiently appreciate 
 the fertilizing value of this material. At the lowest esti- 
 mate skim-milk has a fertilizing . value of ten cents per 
 hundred pounds. 
 
 Buttermillc as a Feed; Buttermilk has essentially 
 the same composition as skim-milk. It contains a little 
 more fat, but less sugar, part of which has been changed 
 into lactic acid. For pig feeding, except iii the case 
 of very young pigs, it has practically the same feeding 
 value as skim-milk, as shown by numerous feeding ex- 
 periments. It is also a good poultry feed. It can not be 
 recommended, however, for calf feeding, though it has 
 been used with fair success in some instances. 
 
 Whey as a Feed. Whey when properly cared for has 
 practically one-half the feeding value of skim-milk. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 MACHINE MILKING. 
 
 Recent results secured by experiment stations and nu- 
 merous large dairymen indicate that the milking machine 
 may become an important factor in future dairying. The 
 testimonials from these sources show that machines milk 
 quite as satisfactorily as average hand milkers ; and since 
 one attendant can milk four to six cows at the same time, 
 there is a material saving in labor, besides making labor 
 more agreeable. Many, however, have pronounced ma- 
 chine milking unsatisfactory. 
 
 Principle of Operation. Milking by machine is ac- 
 complished by suction similar to that produced by a suck- 
 ing calf. The suction 
 is intermittent and is 
 created by producing 
 a partial vacuum in a 
 system of pipes to 
 which the milking 
 machines are attached 
 during milking. 
 
 Apparatus. The 
 necessary apparatus 
 for machine milking 
 consists of a milker, 
 which includes a tin 
 
 pail, teat cups, etc. ; a vacuum pump ; some form of 
 power ; a vacuum reservoir ; two vacuum gauges ; a safety 
 
 282 
 
 Fig, 87. — Milkiug Machine in operation. 
 
MILKING MACHINES 283 
 
 valve; and about 150 feet of gas pipes. Each machine 
 milks two cows. 
 
 Cost of Apparatus. The following may be considered 
 an approximate estimate of the cost of a milking outfit 
 for about 30 cows: Two milkers, $180; vacuum pump, 
 $50; vacuum reservoir, including two vacuum gauges 
 and a safety valve, $35 ; a two horse power gasoline 
 engine, $85; and pipes and piping, $50; The cost of 
 pipes depends largely upon the distance of the power 
 from the barn. It is not necessary to have the power in 
 the barn or even near it. (See Chapter on Farm Power.) 
 
 Operating Machine. When ready to begin milking 
 start the vacuum pump and place a milker between two 
 cows and open valve on main vacuum pipe. Bend over 
 teat cups and attach one by one to one cow and then 
 proceed to do the same with the other. Similarly attach 
 one or two more milkers, so as to keep four to six cows 
 milking at the same time. A short glass tube at the ma- 
 chine shows when the milking is completed. 
 
 The mouthpieces on the teat cups must be of a size 
 to correspond with the size of the teats. They must be 
 neither too small nor too large. It is important, also, 
 that the piping system be kept air tight and free from 
 moisture. 
 
 Details concerning the installation and operation of 
 the machines may be had for the asking by writing to 
 the manufacturers. 
 
CHAPTER XL. 
 
 PASTEURIZATION OF MIIvK AND CREAM. 
 
 The process known as pasteurization derives its name 
 from the eminent French scientist Pasteur. It consists 
 in heating and cooling milk and cream in a manner which 
 will destroy the bulk of bacteria in them, but which will 
 leave their chemical and physical properties unchanged 
 as far as possible. 
 
 Advantages of Pasteurization. The advantages to 
 be derived from pasteurization vary with the conditions 
 under which the milk is produced and the efficiency with 
 which the work is conducted. If the milk comes from 
 dairies where disease and uncleanliness prevail, pasteur- 
 ization will prolong the keeping quality of the milk and 
 also materially lessen the danger from disease germs. 
 If, on the other hand, healthfulness and cleanliness re- 
 ceive the exacting attention which prevails on certified 
 dairy farms, nothing can be gained by subjecting milk 
 to the pasteurizating process. 
 
 Disadvantages of Pasteurization. The principal dis- 
 advantages are as follows: (i) the cost of pasteurizing 
 apparatus; (2) the cost of pasteurizing; (3) the tendency 
 to promote uncleanliness on the part of the producer ; (4) 
 the tendency to reduce the cream line on the milk; 
 (5) lessening of the whipping property of the cream; 
 and (6) the tendency to .impart a "cooked" flavor to the 
 milk and cream. 
 
 Methods of Pasteurization. Two general methods 
 
 284 
 
PASTEURIZATION 285 
 
 are now in vogue : ( i ) the discontinuoiis method by which 
 every particle of milk and cream is heated from ten to 
 thirty minutes according as the temperature is high or 
 low; (2) the continuous method by which milk and cream 
 < are permitted to pass in a constant stream through the 
 pasteurizer and are subjected on an average less than 
 one minute to the pasteurizmg temperature. 
 
 • In general the most efficient pasteurization is obtained 
 with the discontinuous method. 
 
 Pasteurizing, Temperatures. Obviously where milk 
 is heated only a minute or less, a higher temp'erature 
 must be employed than where it is heated for a much 
 . longer period of time. With the continuous method 
 the temperature varies from 160° to 180° F. With 
 the discontinuous method the temperature varies 
 from 140° to 155° F. Exposing milk or cream to 
 a temperature of 145° F. for twenty minutes results 
 in very satisfactory pasteurization. The temperature and 
 time of exposure should always be such as to insure the 
 destruction of the tubercle bacillus, which is one of the 
 most resistant of the disease bacteria most commonly 
 found in milk.. 
 
 Quick Cooling. In pasteurizing the heating must be 
 quickly followed by thorough cooling. This is an ex- 
 tremely important part of the pasteurizing process. It is 
 desirable that the temperature be reduced at once to 45" 
 F. -or below. 
 
 Viscogin. Thorough pasteurization reduces the vis- 
 cosity or whipping property of cream. To restore the 
 original viscosity a solution of sucrate of lime is added, 
 which is known as viscogin. This solution is made by 
 adding an excess of slaked lime to three parts of sugar 
 dissolved in five parts of water. The mixture is al- 
 
286 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 lowed to stand twenty-four hours, after which the clear 
 liquid at the top is poured from the sediment and pre- 
 served in a stoppered' bottle. 
 
 Add one part viscogin to about 150 parts of cream. 
 Never add so much as to render the cream alkaline. 
 
 While viscogin is entirely harmless, it is nevertheless 
 an adulterant and cream treated with it must be so 
 labeled. 
 
 Inefficient Pasteurization.- Milk that has been un- 
 derheated is more dangerous than • that which- has not 
 been heated at all. The reason for this is that inadequate 
 heat in pasteurizing may destroy the lactic acid bacteria 
 (which are easily killed) and by so doing actually better 
 the conditions for the growth of the more- resistant and 
 obnoxious kinds. Lactic acid organisms are antagonistic 
 to other classes of bacteria and are therefore a real safe- 
 guard to milk. This makes it plain that unless milk is 
 pasteurized at a tempterature which will destroy the 
 pathogenic and non-acid bacteria as, well as the acid bac- 
 teria, it is far better not to heat it at all. 
 
 Pasteurization should be condemned where its only ob- 
 ject is to keep milk sweet. Its real object should be to 
 destroy all actively growing bacteria and especially all 
 disease-producing organisms such as the tubercle bacillus 
 which is among the most resistant. 
 
 Pasteurizing in the Home. If milk must be pas- 
 teurized to render it safe, there is no better place to-do 
 this than in the home where it is to be consumed. The 
 pasteurizing is very easily and satisfactorily accomplished 
 by the use of a small double milk or rice boiler which 
 can be procured fqr about one dollar from hardware deal- 
 ers everywljere. It is essential to stir the milk while 
 heating and to use a reliable thermometer. 
 
CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 CALCULATING DIVIDENDS. 
 
 Milk and cream yield butter in proportion to their 
 butter fat content. That is the reason why practically 
 all milk and cream made into butter are now bought by 
 the "Babcock test," that is, on the "butter fat basis." In 
 discussing the method . of paying for milk and cream, 
 therefore, only the "butter fat basis" will be considered. 
 
 The periodical payments made for milk and cream at 
 creameries are known as creamery dividends. These pay- 
 ments or dividends are sometimes made daily, as in the 
 case of some gathered cream plants; more often, how- 
 ever, they are made weekly, semi-monthly and even 
 monthly. 
 
 The different steps in the calculation of dividends at 
 creameries are as follows: 
 
 First, find the total pounds of butter fat received from 
 all the patrons. This is done by finding the total amount 
 of butter fat furnished by each patron separately and 
 adding together the totals so found. In finding each 
 patron's total butter fat, every delivery of cream is mul- 
 tiplied by its test and the results of the different deliv- 
 eries added together. 
 
 Second, find the net money from the sale of butter by 
 multiplying each sale of butter by its price and deducting 
 from the amount thus found the cost of making the butter. 
 
 Third, find the price per pound of butter fat by divid- 
 
 287 
 
288 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 ing the total net money by the total pounds of butter fat 
 .delivered by all the patrons. 
 
 Fourth, find each patron's share of the money by mul- 
 tiplying the total pounds of butter fat delivered by him 
 by the price per pound of butter fat. 
 
 To make the above steps perfectly clear, let us cal- 
 culate a weekly dividend at a creamery where only cream 
 is received and where A, B and C are the patrons: 
 
 Illustrating the First Step. The total butter fat de- 
 livered by A, B and C is as follows : 
 
 Pounds Pounds of 
 
 of cream. Test, butter fat. 
 
 r May 2 : 42 X 35.4 = 14.87 
 
 A. J May 4 50 X 30.1 = 15.05 
 
 J May 6 48 X 30.5 = 14.64 
 
 *- May 7 20 X 36.6 = 7.32 
 
 Total 51-88 
 
 May 2 23 X 40.5 = 9.32 
 
 B_ J May 4 29 X 30.0 = 8.00 
 
 May 6 25 X 36.4 = 9.10 
 
 May 7 13 X 35. o = 4-55 
 
 { 
 
 Total 30.97 
 
 {May 2 
 May 4 
 May 6 
 May 7 
 
 May 2 \ 64 X 33.0 = 21.12 
 
 C_ ^ May 4 69 X 31. 1 = 21.46 
 
 6 58 X 37-5 = 21.75 
 
 30 X 34.4 = 10.32 
 
 Total 74-65 
 
 The total butter fat delivered by A, B and C equals 51.88 -J- 
 30.97 -H 74.63 equals 157-48 pounds. 
 
 Illustrating the Second Step. The net money is 
 found as follows : 
 
CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 289 
 
 Pounds of Price per 
 
 butter sold, pound. Amount. 
 
 Maya 86 X 26^c = $22.79 
 
 May 7 ' 103 X 26c = 26.78 
 
 Total lbs. butter 189 Total money $49.57 
 
 At 3j4 cents a pound for making, the cost of manu- 
 facture will be 3J^ X 189, or $6.62. Deducting this 
 amount from the total money, there remains $42.95, 
 which is the total net money due the patrons. 
 
 Illustrating the Third Step. The price per pound of 
 butter fat is obtained by dividing the total net money 
 found in step two by the total pounds of butter fat found 
 in step one. Thus: $42.95-=- 157.48 = 27.27 cents = 
 price per pound of butter fat. 
 
 Illustrating the Fourth Step. Find the money due 
 each patron. by multiplying the butter fat furnished by 
 him as determined in step one by the price per pound 
 of butter fat as determined in step three. Thus : 
 
 51.88 X $.2727 = $14.15 = A's money. 
 30.97 X .2727 = 8.44 = B's money. 
 74.65 X .2727 = 20.36 = C's money. 
 
 ACTUAL OVERRUN. 
 
 In a well conducted creamery the total pounds of but- 
 ter made is always greater than the total pounds of 
 butter fat received; the diffierence is called the overrun. 
 Thus, if during a certain time a creamery makes 2,400 
 pounds of butter from 2,000 pounds of butter fat, the 
 overrun equals 2,400 less 2,000, or 400 pounds. The 
 per cent of overrun is found by dividing the number of 
 
290 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 pounds of overrun by the total pounds of butter fat re- 
 ceived and multiplying the quotient by lOO. Putting this 
 in the form of a formula, we have : 
 
 I- 
 
 Per cent ) pounds of overrun 
 
 Overrun ^= ^ ^°° 
 
 total pounds of butter fat 
 Where 2,000 pounds of butter fat will make 2,400 
 pounds of butter, the overrun will therefore equal: 
 
 400 „ 
 
 X 100, or 20%. 
 
 2000 
 
 A mistake not uncommonly made in calculating the 
 per cent overrun is to divide the pounds of overrun by 
 the total pounds of butter, instead of the total pounds of 
 butter fat. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Period of Gestation. This refers to the time which 
 elapses between conception and calving. The average 
 period of gestation of a cow is 283 days. 
 
 Frequency of Heat. As a rule non-pregnant cows 
 will come in heat every 21 days. The period of heat lasts 
 from 2 to 3 days. 
 
 Metric System of Weights and Measures. This 
 system was devised by the French people and has very 
 extensive application wherever accuracy in weights and 
 measures is desired. Some of its equivalents in ordinary 
 weights and measures are given in the following table : 
 
 Ordinary weights and measures. 
 
 Equivalents in me'tric system. 
 
 1 ounce f av ') . . 
 
 28 35 grams. 
 9464 liter. 
 
 1 quart 
 
 1 gallon 
 
 3 7854 liters 
 
 1 fluid ounce 
 
 89 57 cubic centimeters (c.c.) 
 4536 kilogram. 
 C4.8 milligrams. -. 
 
 1 pound (ay.) 
 
 1 grain 
 
 llnch 
 
 1 foot 
 
 
 
 
 addresse;s of dairy cattle breeders' associations. 
 
 Breed. 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 Postofflce. 
 
 Jersey. 
 
 J. J. Hemingway 
 
 Wm. H. Caldwell 
 
 F.L. HougMon...... ... 
 
 C M. Winslow ... 
 
 8 W. 17th st New York 
 
 Guernsey 
 
 N. Y. 
 Peterboro N H 
 
 Holstein-Friesian 
 
 Ayrshire . . 
 
 Rrattleborn, Vt. 
 Brandi n Vt 
 
 
 
 
 291 
 
292 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Rations According to Yield of Milk. The Connec- 
 ticut (Storrs) standard rations for varying yields of milk 
 are shown in the following table: 
 
 TABLE — FEEDING STANDARDS. 
 
 
 Live 
 •weight, 
 pounds. 
 
 Daily, per 1,000 pounds of live •weight. 
 
 When giving 
 daily. 
 
 Total 
 dry mat- 
 
 Digestible nutrients, pounds. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nutritive 
 
 
 
 ter, 
 pounds. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 ratio. 
 
 10-20 lbs. milk. 
 
 700-950 
 
 20 22 
 
 2.0 
 
 10-12 
 
 0.3-0 5 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 20-25 " 
 
 700-950 
 
 21-23 
 
 2 3 
 
 10-12 
 
 0.4 0.6 
 
 1:5.3 
 
 a-30 " 
 
 700-950 
 
 21-23 
 
 2.6 
 
 10 12 
 
 0.4-0.6 
 
 1:4.7 
 
 30 35 " 
 
 700-950 
 
 22-24 
 
 2.9 
 
 11-13 
 
 0.5-0.7 
 
 1:4.8 
 
 35-40 " 
 
 700-950 
 
 22 24 
 
 32 
 
 11-13 
 
 0.5-0.7 
 
 1:4.8 
 
 10-20 " 
 
 950-1100 
 
 22-24 
 
 2.3 
 
 12-14 
 
 0.4-0 6 
 
 1:6.1 
 
 20-25 " 
 
 950-1100 
 
 22 25 
 
 2.6 
 
 12-14 
 
 0.5-0.7 
 
 1:5.5 
 
 25-30 " 
 
 960-1100 
 
 23-25 
 
 2.9 
 
 12-14 
 
 0.50.7 
 
 1:5.0 
 
 30-35 " 
 
 950-1100 
 
 24 26 
 
 3 2 
 
 13 15 
 
 0.6-0.8 
 
 1:4.9 
 
 35-40 " 
 
 950-1100 
 
 24-26 
 
 3.5 
 
 13-15 
 
 0.6-0.8 
 
 1:4.4 
 
 Scale of Points for Judging Butter, Butter is 
 judged commercially on the basis of 45 points for flavor, 
 25 for texture, 15 for color, 10 for salt, and 5 for package, 
 total 100. 
 
 Scale of Points for Judging Cheese. Cheese, as a 
 rule, is judged commercially on the basis of 45 points for 
 flavor, 30 for texture, 10 for salt, 10 for color, and 5 for 
 appearance, total 100. 
 
 Milk Solids. The solids of milk include everything 
 but the water. If a sample of milk be kept at the boiling 
 temperature until all the water is evaporated, the dry, 
 solid residue that remains constitutes the solids of milk. 
 It is convenient to divide the solids into two classes, one 
 including all the fat, the other all the solids which are not 
 fat. In referring, therefore, to the different solids of 
 milk, we speak of the "fat" and the "solids-not-fat" 
 which, together, constitute the "total solids." 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 293 
 
 Relationship of Fat and Solids=not=Fat. In normal 
 milk a fairly definite relationship exists between the fat 
 and the solids-not-fat. For example, milk rich in fat is 
 likewise rich in solids-not-fat. On the other hand, milk 
 poor in fat is also poor in solids-not-fat. Hence the jus- 
 tice of paying for milk, delivered to cheese factories, on 
 the butterfat basis. See table on page 133. 
 
 Composition of C.ream. Cream contains all the con- 
 stituents found in milk, though not in the same proportion. 
 The fat may vary from 8% to 68%. As the cream grows 
 richer in fat it becomes poorer in solids-not-fat. Rich- 
 mond reports the following analysis of a thick cream : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Water 39.37 
 
 Fat 56.09 
 
 Sugar 2.29 
 
 Proteids 1.57 
 
 Ash 38 
 
 Capacity of Cylindrical Siloes. The approximate 
 capacity of cylindrical siloes for well-matured corn silage 
 is shown in the following table: 
 
 TABIvE — CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL SILOES, TONS.* 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inside diameter of silo, feet. 
 
 
 
 
 Depth Q|_silo, leet. 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 51 
 55 
 59 
 62 
 66 
 70 
 74 
 78 
 83 
 88 
 93 
 96 
 101 
 
 15 
 
 59 
 
 63 
 
 67 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 81 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 105 
 
 110 
 
 115 
 
 16 
 
 67 
 
 72 
 
 77 
 
 82 
 
 87 
 
 90 
 
 97 
 
 103 
 
 108 
 
 114 
 
 119 
 
 125 
 
 131 
 
 18 
 
 85 
 91 
 97 
 103 
 
 no 
 
 116 
 123 
 130 
 137 
 144 
 151 
 158 
 166 
 
 20 
 
 / 
 
 105 
 
 112 
 
 120 
 
 128 
 
 135 
 
 143 
 
 152 
 
 1611 
 
 169 
 
 178 
 
 187 
 
 195 
 
 205 
 
 21 
 
 115 
 123 
 132 
 141 
 149 
 158 
 168 
 177 
 186 
 196 
 206 
 215 
 226 
 
 22 
 
 127 
 135 
 U!, 
 154 
 164 
 173 
 184 
 194 
 204 
 815 
 236 
 336 
 348 
 
 33 
 
 138 
 148 
 158 
 169 
 179 
 190 
 201 
 212 
 233 
 235 
 247 
 258 
 271 
 
 24 
 
 151 
 161 
 172 
 184 
 195 
 306 
 319 
 231 
 343 
 265 
 269 
 282 
 295 
 
 25 
 
 163 
 175 
 187 
 199 
 212 
 234 
 237 
 251 
 264 
 278 
 393 
 305 
 330 
 
 36 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 28 
 30 
 32 
 31 
 36 
 38 
 40 
 42 
 45 
 47 
 49 
 51 
 
 38 
 40 
 43 
 46 
 49 
 53 
 55 
 58 
 61 
 64 
 68 
 70 
 73 
 
 177 
 189 
 
 as 
 
 9m 
 
 23 
 
 216 
 
 24 
 
 229 
 
 25 
 
 243 
 
 26 
 
 ?S7 
 
 27 
 
 271 
 
 28 
 
 285 
 
 29 
 
 300 
 
 30 
 
 315 
 
 31.., 
 
 330 
 
 32 
 
 34« 
 
 
 
 ♦From Modern Silage Methods. 
 
294 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 Pasteurization of Milk. Where no ice is available, 
 the keeping quality of milk may be materially prolonged 
 by a process of heating and cooling known as pasteuriza- 
 tion. This process consists in exposing milk to a tem- 
 perature of about 150 degrees F. for thirty minutes, after 
 which it is immediately cooled to the lowest temperature 
 possible with water. This treatment destroys practically 
 all of the bacteria in milk and thus not only materially in- 
 creases its keeping quality, but also renders it free from 
 harmful or disease-producing bacteria. 
 
 Definition of Technical Terms. A list of technical 
 
 terms not specially defined in the text is presented be- 
 low : 
 
 Albumenoids. — Substances rich in albumen, like the 
 white of an egg, which is nearly pure albumen. 
 
 Anaerobic. — Living without free oxygen. 
 
 Centrieugai, Force. — That force by which a body mov- 
 ing in a curve tends to fly off from the axis of motion. 
 
 Chemicai, Composition. — This refers to the elements or 
 substances of which a body is composed. 
 
 Colloidal. — Resembling glue or jelly. 
 
 Concussion. — The act of shaking or agitating. 
 
 Cubic Centimeter (c. c.).-^See metric system p. 203. 
 
 Emulsion. — A mixture of oil (fat) and water contain- 
 ing sugar or some mucilaginous substance. 
 
 Enzymes. — Unorganized ferments, or ferments that do 
 not possess life. 
 
 Fibrin. — A substance which at ordinary temperatures 
 forms a fine network through milk which impedes 
 the rising of the fat globules. 
 
 Foremilk. — The first few streams of milk drawn from 
 each teat. 
 
APPENDIX 295 
 
 Gai^actase;. — An unorganized ferment in mills which di- 
 gests casein. 
 Mammary Gland. — The organ which secrets milk. 
 Meniscus. — A body curved like a first quarter moon. 
 Mii.K Serum. — Milk free from fat. Thus, skim-milk is 
 
 nearly pure milk serum. 
 Neutral. — Possessing neither acid nor alkaline prop- 
 erties. 
 Non-conductor. — A material which does not conduct 
 
 heat or cold, or only so with great difficulty. 
 Osmosis. — The tendency in fluids to diffuse or pass 
 
 through membranes. 
 Rennet Extract. — The curdling and digesting principle 
 
 of calf stomach. 
 Secretion. — The act of separating or producing from the 
 
 blood by the vital economy. 
 Specific Gravity. — The weight of one body as compared 
 
 with an equal volume of some other body taken as 
 
 a standard. 
 Spore. — The resting or non-vegetative stage of certain 
 
 "kinds of bacteria. 
 Sterilization. — The process of destroying all germ life 
 
 by the application of heat near 212° F. 
 Strippers' Milk. — The milk from cows far advanced in 
 
 the period of lactation. 
 Strippings. — The last few streams of milk drawn from 
 
 each teat. 
 Suspension. — The state of being held mechanically in a 
 
 liquid, like butter fat in milk. 
 Tuberculin. — A sterile glycerine extract of the growth 
 
 products of the tubercule bacillus. 
 Vacuum. — Space devoid of air. 
 Vegetative Bacteria. — Those bacteria that are in an 
 
 actively growing condition. 
 
Those Who KNOW Buy 
 
 DE LAVAL SEPARATORS 
 
 Creamerymen — ^Because they are experts in the handling of cream 
 and know by long experience that the De Laval skims cleanest and 
 wears longest. That is why 98/S of the World's creameries use the 
 De Laval exclusively. 
 
 Experienced Dairymen — ^The De Laval is the universal favorite 
 among big dairymen. They know that no other separator will give 
 them such satisfactory service. 
 
 Old De Laval Users — Whenever a man who has used an old 
 model De Laval decides to purchase a later style machine he invari- 
 ably buys another De Laval. 
 
 Men Who Investigate — If anyone takes the time to investigate the 
 merits of the various cream separators, either by finding out from other 
 users what kind of service their machines have given or by testing other 
 machines out against the De Laval, the chances are a hundred to one 
 that his choice will be the De Laval. More De Laval machines are 
 in use than any other make. There is a reason. The De Laval agent 
 in your locality will be glad to tell you why. 
 
 SEND FOR OUR LARGE ILLUSTRATED CATALOG 
 
 The DeLaval Separator Company 
 
 New York Chicago San Francisco 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Abortion 113 
 
 Acid, measures 139 
 
 Acid, test • 174 
 
 Afterbirtli, retention of 116 
 
 Ailments of cattle 110 
 
 Air of stable 161 
 
 Albumen of milk 129 
 
 Alfalfa 253 
 
 Ammonia iixars ^ 103 
 
 Appendix 287 
 
 Ash of milk 129 
 
 Ayrshire cattle 31 
 
 characteristics of 32 
 
 Babcock test 135 
 
 apparatus for 137 
 
 method of making 140 
 
 method of reading. ....... 141 
 
 pointers on making 142 
 
 principle of 135 
 
 sample for 135 
 
 Babcock testers 136 
 
 Bacteria, discussion of 146 
 
 Barn, dairy 86 
 
 Earn yard, clean 157 
 
 Barrenness 119 
 
 Bedding for cows 162 
 
 Bitter fermentation 151 
 
 Bloat 119 
 
 Bloody milk 120 
 
 Breeding, purity of 14 
 
 Breeding rack 77 
 
 Building up herd 20 
 
 Bull, selection of 17 
 
 ' feeding of 74 
 
 management of 74 
 
 pedigree of 17 
 
 pen 75 
 
 Page 
 
 Bull, prepotency of 18 
 
 type of 18 
 
 valuing of 251 
 
 Butter boxes 199 
 
 cartons . . .' 186 
 
 composition of 186 
 
 marketing of 186 
 
 salting of 182 
 
 working of 183 
 
 Buttermilk, feeding value 281 
 
 Buttermilk, skimmilk 233 
 
 Butterfat 125 
 
 composition of 126 
 
 method of estimating 60 
 
 physical properties of 125 
 
 production 11 
 
 testing for 135 
 
 Buttermaking 165 
 
 Butter prints 184 
 
 Butter, working of 183 
 
 Butyric fermentation 150 
 
 Calf, care of 85 
 
 prenatal development of. . . . 82 
 
 rearing 82 
 
 scours 1J5 
 
 stanchions 83 
 
 Calves, feeding of 83 
 
 selection of 23 
 
 valuing of 250 
 
 weaning of 82 
 
 Carbohydrates 34 
 
 Cattle, breeds of dairy 25 
 
 Certified milk 236 
 
 Cheese, amount of color in 187 
 
 amount of rennet in 187 
 
 composition of 192 
 
 curing 192 
 
 297 
 
298 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Cheesemaking, Cheddar 187 
 
 club , 204 
 
 cottage 199 
 
 cream 204 
 
 Neufchatel. 202 
 
 soft and fancy 100 
 
 Chromogenic fermentations .. . .153 
 
 Churning 180 
 
 Clover 253 
 
 Club cheese 204 
 
 Cold storage 205 
 
 Colostrum milk 130 
 
 Composite sample jar 63 
 
 Conformation of cows 11 
 
 of bulls 18 
 
 Cooley can 166 
 
 Corn for silage 52 
 
 when to cut 56 
 
 Cottage cheese 199 
 
 Cow, dairy, points of 12 
 
 Cows stalls and ties 89 
 
 Cows, buying 24 
 
 clean 157 
 
 drying off 79 
 
 evolution of 9 
 
 feeding of 33 
 
 gestation period of 287 
 
 health of 16 
 
 management of 73 
 
 milk organs of 13 
 
 points of 12 
 
 selection of 12 
 
 type of 11 
 
 valuing 244 
 
 Cream bottle '. 195 
 
 Cream, churnability of 171 
 
 churning, temp, of 172 
 
 composition of 289 
 
 cooling 205 
 
 frothing of 171 
 
 marketing of 217 
 
 pasteurizing of 284 
 
 reading test of 144 
 
 ripening 170 
 
 scales 140 
 
 separators 167 
 
 shipping 224 
 
 Page 
 
 Cream, standardizing of 222 
 
 stirring 173 
 
 testing 142 
 
 Creaming, centrifugal 165 
 
 deep, cold 166 
 
 dilution, method of 166 
 
 efficiency of 167 
 
 gravity 165 
 
 methods of 165 
 
 shallow pan 165 
 
 Curdling fermentation 149 
 
 Dairy barn 86 
 
 cross-section of 100 
 
 ground plan for 87 
 
 method of constructing 88 
 
 ventilation of 96 
 
 Dairy by-products 280 
 
 Dairy calf, rearing of 82 
 
 Dairy cattle associations 287 
 
 Dairy herd, building up of 20 
 
 starting of 22 
 
 Dairy houses 256 
 
 Dairy rations 37, 288 
 
 Dairy temperament 12 
 
 Dairy type 11 
 
 Dairying, direct profits in 7 
 
 indirect profits in 8 
 
 winter 73 
 
 Dehorning 80 
 
 Diseases of cattle 110 
 
 Disinfectants Ill 
 
 Dry matter, definition of 34 
 
 Escutcheon 14 
 
 Ether extract 34 
 
 Farm buttermaking 165 
 
 Farrington acid test 175 
 
 apparatus for 175 
 
 method of making J76 
 
 Fats insoluble :(.27 
 
 soluble ^28 
 
 Feed, estimating cost of 66 
 
 Feeding calves 83 
 
 Feeding cows . . : 33 
 
 according to ilow 45 
 
INDEX 
 
 299 
 
 Page 
 Feeding cows before and after 
 
 calving 42 
 
 frequency of 41 
 
 practice of 41 
 
 principles of 33 
 
 Feeding silage 43 
 
 Feeding standards 36 
 
 Feeding tables 46 
 
 Feeds, composition of 33 
 
 digestibility of 35 
 
 palatability of 35 
 
 succulence of 35 
 
 Foaming of cream 185 
 
 Garget 114 
 
 Gasoline engine 107 
 
 Gassy fermentation 152 
 
 Gestation, period of 287 
 
 Glassware for Babcock test 186 
 
 Grubs .' 121 
 
 Guernsey cattle 27 
 
 characteristics of- 28 
 
 Gutters for barn 95 
 
 Hand separators 167 
 
 Hay loft 97 
 
 Health of cows 16 
 
 Heat, frequency of 287 
 
 Heifers, age to breed 78 
 
 Herd management 73 
 
 Herd records 60 
 
 Holstein-Friesian cattle 29 
 
 characteristics of 30 
 
 Hoven 119 
 
 Ice cream making 228 
 
 Ice house 277 
 
 Ice supply 276 
 
 Indigestion 116 
 
 Inversion of womb 117 
 
 Jersey cattle 25 
 
 characteristics of 26 
 
 Judging butter 288 
 
 Judging cheese 288 
 
 King ventilator 
 
 95 
 
 Page 
 
 Lactic fermentation 148 
 
 Legumes 253 
 
 Lice, treatment for 121 
 
 Mangers 94 
 
 Manure 101 
 
 carrier 104 
 
 fermentation of 103 
 
 leaching of 102 
 
 losses in 102 
 
 Marketing milk and cream 217 
 
 Markets 213 
 
 Metric system 287 
 
 Milk and its products 239 
 
 relative value of 239 
 
 Milk, colostrum 130 
 
 bottle 195 
 
 certified 236 
 
 cooling ; 205 
 
 creaming of 165 
 
 fever 112 
 
 fermentations 146 
 
 houses 256 
 
 keeping account of 269 
 
 marketing of 217 
 
 organs 13 
 
 pail, sanitary 159 
 
 pasteurization of 284 
 
 physical properties of 123 
 
 quality of 132 
 
 record sheet 62 
 
 records 60 
 
 room, sanitary 164 
 
 sanitary 155 
 
 scales 61 
 
 secretion 130 
 
 shipping 224 
 
 standardizing 222 
 
 straining of .' 160 
 
 Milk sugar 129 
 
 testing 135 
 
 vessels 158 
 
 wells 12 
 
 Milkers, value of good 71 
 
 effect of change of 69 
 
 clean 158 
 
300 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pape 
 
 Milking 08 
 
 clean 70 
 
 fast vs. slow 70 
 
 frequency of 71 
 
 machines 282 
 
 treatment of cow during — 68 
 with dry hands 158 
 
 Neufchatel cheese making 202 
 
 Nutritive ratio 39 
 
 Palatability of feeds 35 
 
 Pasteurization 284 
 
 Pedigree 15 
 
 Pelvic region 13 
 
 Power on farm 106 
 
 possibilities for 107 
 
 Prepotency defined 18 
 
 Principle of Babcock test 135 
 
 Principles of feeding , — . 33 
 
 Protein, definition of 34 
 
 Purgatives .111 
 
 Purity of breeding 14 
 
 Quality of milk, variations in.. 132 
 Quarantining 110 
 
 Ratio, ^ nutritive 39 
 
 Ration, definition of 38 
 
 Rations, method of calculating.. 38 
 
 standard 37 
 
 Ropy fermentation 152 
 
 Salt for stock 44 
 
 Salting butter 182 
 
 Samplers, milk 64 
 
 Sampling milk 64 
 
 Sanitary milk ....>,., 155 
 
 Scales, milk 61 
 
 Secretion of milk 130 
 
 Selection of cows 11 
 
 Selection of sires 17 
 
 Self -sucking cows 121 
 
 Page 
 
 Shallow pan creaming 165 
 
 Skimmilk-buttermilk 233 
 
 Skimmilk, feeding value of 280 
 
 Silos 52 
 
 advantages of twin 57 
 
 capacity of 289 
 
 concrete 55 
 
 concrete lined .... 1 58 
 
 construction of 54 
 
 cutting corn for 59a 
 
 filling of 59b 
 
 location of 54 
 
 Michels' twin 57 
 
 size of * 53 
 
 Slimy fermentation 152 
 
 Stalls 89 
 
 Stalls, size of 94 
 
 Standardizing milk and cream.. 222 
 
 formulas for 222 
 
 Starters 193 
 
 Sterilizing vessels 263 
 
 Sterilizers 266, 267, 268 
 
 Stringy milk 120 
 
 Teat troubles 120 
 
 Technical terms, definition of. ..290 
 
 Thermometer, dairy 179 
 
 Test bottles 138 
 
 Testing 135 
 
 Toxic fermentation 153 
 
 Tuberculin test 117 
 
 Tuberculosis 117 
 
 Urine, saving of 101 
 
 Ventilation of barn 96 
 
 Ventilation, King system 95 
 
 Warbles 121 
 
 Washing vessels 263 
 
 Water for stock 44 
 
 Water heater 265 
 
 Water supply 274 
 
More Certain of a 
 
 Sanitary Dairy 
 
 If any Milk Inspector or Dairy Authority was put in your 
 place and had your milk utensils to clean he would insist 
 upon using 
 
 ■ ' 'dairyman's -^ 
 
 Not because "Wyandotte" costs less but because he 
 knows with "Wyandotte" he is more certain of having san- 
 itary utensils. This he has found true through actual ex- 
 perience or by scientific tests. 
 
 As you probably know the biggest barrier to sanitary 
 utensils is the small bacteria germ. This is what Inspectors 
 look for in scientific tests and when Wyandotte Dairyman's 
 Cleaner and Cleanser has cleaned a utensil so few bacteria 
 are ever found that it is positive proof of its thorough cleaning. 
 
 Furthermore "Wyandotte" is sanitary in itself. You won't see any 
 soapy suds, or smell any odors where it is used. It is much different from 
 soap compounds as it is wholly free from grease and fat. Nor does it con- 
 tain any chemical which will injure the hands, the utensils or the milk. And 
 Indian In Circle together with these desirable qualities you will find 
 Wyandotte Dairyman's Cleaner and Cleanser pre- 
 ferable to use because it costs so little; so little that 
 no Dairyman can afford to be without it. 
 
 Your dealer guarantees every sack of "WY- 
 ANDOTTE" to be exactly as claimed. Ask him 
 for a five-pound package or for larger quantities 
 write your supply house. 
 In Every Packase 
 
 The J. B. Ford Company 
 
 Sole Manufacturers 
 
 Wyandotte, Mich., U. S. A. 
 
 This Cleaner has been awarded the highest prlz.e wherever exhibited