LSI .jjORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 1924 079 570 762 All books are subject to recall after two weeks Olin/Kroch Library DATE DUE " "^1^ LiMfUi "**<*»SKW. **I>^ 'dMhm, ■^ tittaH^UK^^^^ 'n^^' GAYLORD PRINTED IN U.SA Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924079570762 In compliance with current copyright law, Cornell University Library produced this replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1992 to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. 1997 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOMie',\ FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FU^D THE GIFT OF .:■■,,■ ' ' ' " Hettrg HI. ^age B:.^:%.<'..-B.']..L .i.^/^^^_ 9963 HAITI HER HISTORY AND HER DETRACTORS is HAITI her: history and her detractors By J. N. I^EGER Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Haiti in the United States 'FAC ET SPERA" New Yoric and Washington THE NEALE PUBLISHING COMPANY 1907 03 CONTENTS PART I HISTORY OF HAITI CHAPTER I Quisqueya or Haiti — Geographical position — The first inhabitants: their manners, religion and customs — Divisions of the territory. 19 CHAPTER II Christopher Columbus — ^His arrival in Haiti — Behavior of the Spaniards toward the aborigines — Their cupidity — War — Caonabo — Anacaona — ^The Spanish domination — Cacique Henry. 22 CHAPTER III The French freebooters and buccaneers — Their customs — Their set- tlement at La Tortue (Tortuga Island) — ^Little by little they invade Hispaoola, now known as Saint-Domingue — Continual wars with the Spaniards — Treaty recognizing the French occu- pation 31 CHAPTER IV The French part of Saint-Domingue — Its prosperity — Its different classes of inhabitants: their customs — ^The color prejudice — The colonists: their divisions; their jealousy of the Europeans — ^Their desire to be in command — ^Their contempt for the affranchis (freedmen) — their cruelty toward the slaves — ^The maroons.... 3S CHAPTER V Number of inhabitants of Saint-Domingue — Savannah — The French revolution — Efforts of the colonists to take advantage of it — The affranchis claim their rights — The first conflicts — ^Atroci- ties committed by the colonists — Vincent Og6 and Chavannes — Uprising of the slaves — The first Civil Commissioners — Decree of April 4, 1792 41 CHAPTER VI Arrival of the new Civil Commissioners, Sonthonax, Polvfirel and Ailaud — ^Application of the Decree of April 4, 1792 — ^The Inter- mediary Committee — ^Resistance of the colonists — Fighting at Port-au-Prince and Cap-Francais — ^The English land in Saint- Domingue — The Spaniards conquer a portion of the French ter- ritory — General freedom is granted to the slaves — ^The colored men arc in power 58 6 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors CHAPTER vn The English occupy Port-au-Prince — Polvfoel and Sonthonax try to cause disunion among the colored men — ^They leave Saint-Do- mingue — ^Toussaint Louverture deserts the Spanish cause and joins the French — Andr€ Rigaud expels the English from L€o- gane — The treaty of Bale — The English attack Ltogane — Tous- saint Louverture goes to the help of General Laveaux impris- oned at Cap-Francais by Villate — ^Arrival of the new Civil Com- mission — Sonthonax — ^Toussaint Louverture, Commander-in-Chief of the Army — ^HMouville — ^The English abandon Saint-Domingue — Hfidouville causes enmity between Toussaint Louverture and Rigaud — Civil war between Toussaint and Rigaud — ^Rigaud is de- feated and compelled to leave the island 68 CHAPTER VIII Administrative measures taken by Toussaint Louverture — Occupa- tion of the Spanish portion of the island — ^Meeting of the Central Assembly — Constitution of Saint-Domingue — ^Toussaint Louver- ture elected Governor-General — The French expedition — The "Crete-A-Pierrot" — Deportation of Rigaud — Surrender of Tous- saint Louverture — His arrest and deportation — His death at Fort de Joux 102 CHAPTER IX Reactionary measures — The natives unite under the leadership of Dessalines — ^The war of independence — Death of Leclere — Ro- chambeau — Atrocities committed by the French — Capois-la-Mort — Expulsion of the French 128 CHAPTER X Proclamation of independence — Saint-Domingue becomes Haiti — Dessalines, the first ruler of Haiti (January 1, 1804-October 17, 1806) — Intrigues of the English — Military organization of Haiti — Discontent provoked by Dessalines's administration — His death 152 CHAPTER XI Henri Christophe, Chief of the Provisional Government — Alexandre Potion — Convocation of a Constituent Assembly — Constitution of 1806 — Christophe marches against Port-au-Prince — He is elected President of Haiti (December 28, 1806) — Civil war — ^The Senate dismisses Christophe, who at Cap is elected President of the State of Haiti (February 17, 1807)— The Senate at Port-au- Prince elects Petion President of Haiti for four years (March 9, 1807) — Christophe assumes the title of King of Haiti (March, 1811) — French intrigues against the independence of Haiti — Petion and Simon Bolivar — Potion reelected President March 9, 1811, and March 9, 1815 — Elected President for life on Octo- ber 9, 1816; died on the 29th of March, 1818 160 Contents 7. CHAPTER XII Jean-Pierre Boyer, President of Haiti for life (March 30, 1818- March 13, 1843) — Pacification of "La Grand' Anse" — Death of Henri Christophe (October 8, 1820) — ^His kingdom made part of the Republic — The inhabitants of the Spanish portion of the island expel the Spaniards — They acknowledge the authority of the President of Haiti (January 19, 1822) — The Haitian flag floats over the whole island — Hostility of the Great Powers toward Haiti : the United States and Great Britain recognize the independence of Mexico, Colombia, etc., but refrain from recog- nizing the independence of Haiti — The Haitians abolish the preferential tariff hitherto granted to Great Britain — Haiti and France at odds over the question of the recognition of the Haitian independence — Preparations for war in Haiti — France strives to acquire a protectorate over Haiti — Promulgation of the Civil Code, the Code of Civil Procedure, the Penal Code, and of Code of Criminal Instruction — Charles X grants the Haiti- ans their independence — His ordinance and its effects — Loan in France and paper money, consequences of the ordinance — Nego- tiations with France for the conclusion of a treaty destined to destroy the bad eirects of the ordinance of Charles X. — Negotia- tions with the Pope — Treatj' of 1838 by which France recognizes Haitian independence — Treaties with Great Britain and France for the abolition of the slave-trade — The discontent provoked by the ordinance of Charles X affects President Boyer's popularity ^Reforms indispensable after the conclusion of the treaty of 1938 — The opposition takes advantage of Boyer's inaction — Charles Hfirard, surnamed Riviere, takes up arms at Praslin (January 27, 1643) — Boyer resigns (March 13, 1843) and sails on the English sloop-of-war Scylla 173 CHAPTER XIII The revolutionists of 1843 — Their reforms: the constitution of 1843 — Charles Hfirard ain€, surnamed Riviere (December 30, 1843- May 3, 1844) — Loss of the Spanish portion of the island — Claims of the peasants of the Southern Department — Jean-Jacques Acaau — The period of transition — Guerrier (May 3, 1844- April 15, 1845)— Pierrot (April 16, 1845-March 1, 1846)— Richg (March 1, 1846-February 27, 1847) 192 CHAPTER XrV Faustin Soulouque (March 1, 1847-January 15, 1859)— Campaigns against the Dominicans — The Empire — Intervention of France, Great Britain and the United States on behalf of the Domin- icans — ^Navassa — Gonaives in rebellion — Faustin Soulouque leaves Haiti 200 8 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors CHAPTER XV Fabre Geffrard (December 23, 1858-Maroh 13, 1867) — Concordat with the Vatican — ^Reforms made by Geffrard: diffusion of public instruction; law permitting marriage between foreigners and Haitians — ^Attempt to induce the colored people of the United States to go to Haiti — Geffrard tried to have the whole island neutralized — Annexation of the Dominican Republic by Spain — - Tne Rubalcava incident — Salnave takes up arms at Cap-Haitien — The Bulldog incident — Bombardment of Cap-Haitien by Brit- ish men-of-war — Mr. Seward, Secretary of State of the United States, at Port-au-Prince — Geffrard leaves Haiti 206 CHAPTER XVI Sylvain Salnave (June 14, 1867-December 19, 1869) — Constitution of 1867 — ^Abolition of the Presidency for life — Salnave becomes a dictator — Resistance of the country — Overthrow of Salnave; his trial and execution 212 CHAPTER XVII Nissage Sagct (Harch 19, 1870-May 14, 1874) — Redeeming the paper money — The Batseh incident — The Hornet incident — The Dominican incident — Tlie Haitians send a gold medal to Sena- tor Charles Sumner — At the expiration of his term of office Nissage Saget leaves Port-au-Prince for Saint-llarc 217 CHAPTER XVIII Michel Domingue (June 11, 1874-April 15, 1876) — The loan of 1875— Discontent caused by the death of Generals Brice and Monplaisir Pierre — Riot at Port-au-Prince — Overthrow of Do- mingue 223 CHAPTER XIX Boisrond Canal (July 17, 1876- July 17, 1879) — Misunderstand- ing with France caused by the Domingue loan — The Autran in- cident; difficulties with Spain about Cuba — The Maunder claim — The Lazare and Pelletier claims — Attitude of the Legislative Power — The President's resignation 227 CHAPTER XX Lysius Salomon (October 23, 1879-August 10, 1888) — Insur- rection at Miragoane — ^Misunderstanding with the Catholic clergy — Various foreign claims: Lazare, Pelletier, Maunder (continued) — ^The Domingue loan — Bank of Haiti — Financial scandal — Universal Postal Union — Telegraph — ^Agricultural ex- position — Reelection of Salomon — Discontent at Cap-Haitien — Salomon leaves Haiti 239 Contents 9 CHAPTER XXI Seide Thel#niaque — F. D. Legitime (December 16, 1888— August 22, 1889) — The incident of the steamship Haytian Republic — Legitime leaves Port-au-Prinee 243 CHAPTER XXII Florville Hyppolitc (October 9, lS89-JIarch 24, 1896) — The United States try to gain possession of ilole Saint-Xieolas — The United States and Samana Bay — Incident with France concerning Haitians registered at tlie French Legation — The Chicago Exposition — Telegraph — Telephone — Public works — Death of Hj'ppolite 245 CHAPTER XXIII T. Simoa-Sam (March 31, 189G-iIay 12, 1902)— Tiie Luders in- cident — The Xorthern Railroad — Railroad from Port-au-Prince to L'Etang — ilisimderstanding as to the duration of Sam's power — His resignation 249 CHAPTER XXIV Legislative elections — Affray at Cap-Haitien — A. Firmin at Gon- aives — The JIarkomania incident — The blowing up of the Crete- d-Pierrot by Killick — Xord Alexis elected President on the 21st of December, 1902— The "Consolidation" scandal 252 PART II CALUMNIES AXD THEIR REFUTATION CHAPTER I Limits of Haiti — Area — Mountains and rivers — Adjacent islands — Population — Government — Divisions of the territory into De- partments, arrondissements, communes, and rural sections — Fi- nancial organization; the national debt — Academic organiza- tion; public instruction — Judiciary organization — Religious or- ganization 257 CHAPTER II Climate of Haiti — Sanitary condition — ^The absence of poisonous insects — Fauna — Flora: fruit-trees; vegetables — Fertility of the land 272 10 Haiti: Her History a?id Her Detractors CHAPTER III Customs and manners of the people; their hospitality — ^Marriage and divorce — The Haitian woman — ^The Haitians are not lazy — They entertain no race prejudice — Advantages which foreigners enjoy; their safety — Naturalization — Eight to hold real es- tate 281 CHAPTER IV Commerce of Haiti — Her products of tlie present day compared with those at the time of the French domination — Haiti at the Saint Louis Exposition — The various industries — Timber and cabinet woods — ^ilines 292 CHAPTER V Origin of the calumnies against Haiti — Unsympathetic attitude of the foreign Powers toward her: Great Britain, Spain, France and the United States — Even Simon Bolivar forgot the help rendered him by Haiti^-Germany — Conditions in Haiti at the time of her independence — Differfnee between these conditions and those of the United States at the time when they severed their relations with Great Britain — Civil wars in Haiti as compared with those of Germany, Great Britain and France — Some of the causes of civil strife in Haiti 30O CHAPTER VI Corruption — Cannibalism — Voodooism — Papa-loi — Superstitions — False assertion that the Haitians are reverting to savagery. . . . 342 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Port-au-Prinee Frontispiece Union Club, Cap-Haitien 78 Slaughter-house, Port-au-Prince .... 96 Custom-house, Port-au-Prince 108 Cap-Haitien 112 Town of Milot, Where Christophe Built "Sans-Souei" 166 Euins of the Palace of "Sans-Souci" built by Henri Christophe 176 National Bank of Haiti, Port-au-Prince . . . 240 Central Market, Port-au-Prince 248 Northern Station, Port-au-Prince .... 252 Cathedral of Port-au-Prince 256 Departments of Exterior Relations, Public Instruction, etc., Port-au-Prince 262 Primary School of the Brothers of Christian Instruc- tion, Port-au-Prince 264 Seminaire College St. Martial, Port-au-Prince . . 266 Bishop's House, Cap-Haitien 270 FOREWORD Although at a comparatively short distance from the United States, Haiti is nevertheless very little known in this country, where in most cases books written in English by unscrupulous travelers or authors are their only source of information. In this manner errors and prejudices became rooted in the minds of many Ameri- cans, who believe that my fellow-countrjTnen are addicted to all kinds of gross superstitions and are re- verting to barbarism instead of progressing in civiliza- tion. This rather severe arraignment of my fellow- countrj-men is founded upon slanders which everybody rejDeats without taking the trouble of examining facts in order to ascertain the truth. One cannot pass judgment upon a nation at first sight. In order to form an impartial appreciation of a people one must be acquainted with its origin and cus- toms; it is necessary to make a study of the causes which have hindered or facilitated its evolution ; and to look carefully into the various phases of this evolution ; one must even be acquainted with the telluric and clima- tological conditions, which exert a certain influence over the successive changes of a country. A foreigner who spends but a few days in a country cannot be in a posi- tion to speak with the accuracy of thorough knowledge of the inhabitants of this country ; he is likely either to repeat all the gossip gathered from his new-made ac- 13 14 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors quaintances or to give rein to his imagination. Those who hasten to judge a nation whose history and tem- perament they have not taken the trouble to study are either guilty of bad faith or ignorance. My only aim in putting this book into English is to give to the Americans the means of forming an impar- tial opinion on Haiti for themselves. Consequently this work is divided in two parts. The first part is com- posed of the entire history of the island fi'om before its discovery by Christopher Columbus up to the elec- tion of General Nord Alexis to the Presidency; the many horrors of which Haiti was the scene have been mentioned as well as the vicissitudes of the fierce strug- gle that occurred when its inhabitants sought to con- quer their liberty and independence. The second part deals with the natural conditions of the country, its general organization, the customs and manners of the people, and tlieir continued efforts to better their condition. I have of course availed myself of the opportunity to refute the most current calumnies, of which Haiti has of late had a full share. In speaking of slavery and of the Haitian war of independence I could not avoid recalling some of the acts of cruelty conmaitted by the French. I hope that no one will think on that account that mj^ intention is to revive any ill feeling against France. The Haitians have great affection for that country, to which as a rule they entrust the instniction of their children. In the books, pamphlets, and newspaper articles concerning Haiti, it has been the custom to speak of Dessalines and of the soldiers of the Haitian war of independence as monsters devoid of any human feeling, whilst the authors generally remain silent about the crimes of Eochambeau and of the French colonists. Any one of unbiased opinion who reads the histoiy of Haiti will readily perceive that the reprisals of the Haitians had been occasioned by the inhuman treatment inflicted on them. The facts stated in this book will, I hojje, show the injustice of tlie charges brought against my fellow- countr^^nen, who have labored earnestly and at the cost Foreword 15 of much sacrifice of life to found a nation, whilst abolishing forever the iniquitous institution of slavery. The Haitians claim with pride the honor of having been the first ones to put an end to the barbarous system which, abasing human beings to the level of beasts, had made man the property of man. The wrath they have incurred and the ill-will they have met with have been occasioned in many instances solely by the grudge of the partisans of slavery and the spite of the French colo- nists or their descendants who had ceased to find in Saint-Domingue a source of wealth more or less hon- estly acquired. By mentioning in this book some facts observed in the United States mj^ intention is not to criticise or to make any comparisons. My only aim is, on one hand, to refute some unjust charges made against my coun- try, and on the other to show that Haiti has not the monopoly of superetitions and superstitious practices ^yhich exist ever;^Tvhere, in the United States as well as in Europe. However, if I have unwittingly given the least umbrage to the American people, I earnestly hope that a wrong motive will not be ascribed to my words; they may rest assured that, in remembrance of the kind hospitality they have shown me, I shall al- waj^s do my utmost to avoid hurting their feelings in the slightest degree. They are truth-lovers, therefore 1 can afford to speak to them in a frank and open manner. In saying what I think to be the truth I am of the opinion that I can benefit the United States as well as \ny country; for two nations need to know each other well in order to enjoy mutual respect and esteem. Through prejudice or lack of information the Ameri- cans neglect Haiti, where their capital and their energy might find profitable investment; and others take ad- vantage of their abstention. When they become better informed they will be in a position to have their share of the profits which their competitors alone are now harvesting. Cordial relations, free from ulterior de- sign and prejudice, cannot fail to give full confidence 16 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors to both nations; and this reciprocal confidence will be beneficial to all concerned. I would feel more than re- warded if my book could contribute toward establish- ing such a confidence by giving to the American people a fair idea of the Haitians ! It gives me great pleasure to express my profound gratitude to Miss Louise Bourke for having undertaken the revising of the English text of this work; I also heartily thank Mr. P. Thoby, who helped me in my search for documents; and the emploj^es of the State Department as well as those of the Library of Congress who so graciously placed at my disposal the books and manuscripts I desired to consult. J. N. Leger. Washington, DeceiPiber, 1906. HAITI HER HISTORY AND HER DETRACTORS PART I HISTOEY OF HAITI CHAPTEE I Quisquej'a or Haiti — 'Geographical i^ositioii — The First Inhabitants: their manners, religion and customs — Divisions of the territory. Between 17° 55' and 20° north latitude, and between 71° and 7/° west longitude from the meridian of Paris, lies the island which in the United States is often called "the mysterious Haiti." ^ Before the fifteenth century its inhabitants, number- ing about one million, used to be relatively happy : the Old World was unaware even of their existence. They were very tawny, rather small in stature, with long, black, and smooth hair. Simple in their manners, more indolent than active, they were contented with little ; moreover, their wants were not very great. The men and the girls wore no clothing; the women only had around their waists a cloth reaching to their knees.^ They supported themselves by fishing, hunting, and by raising corn and vegetables of an easy culture ; from their cotton they made nets, hammocks, etc. ; they took great pleasure in smoking the dried leaves of the tobacco plant. Polygamy was practiced. Through the coarse ceremonies of their religion can be traced the idea of the immortalitj' of the soul and the existence of a Supreme Being, whose mother, Mamona, ' Pronounce: A-e-t (o as in alone). ' According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, Haiti somewhat resem- bles a turtle, its eastern projection forming the head, and the two western peninsulas the hinder limbs of the animal. ' Placide Justin, Histoire d'Haiti. 19 20 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors was especially -worshipped. In the life to come the good would be rewarded; and in their Paradise they would meet once more their relatives, their friends, and principally many women.* They held sacred a cavern ° whence, according to their belief, the Sun and Moon escaped and went to shine in Heaven. Every year they celebrated in that grotto a kind of public feast; the "Cacique"* or one of the notables headed the procession of men and women marching to the place. The ceremony began with the offerings that the priests or "butios"^ presented to the gods or Zemes," whilst the women danced and sang the praises of the deities. Afterward prayers for the salvation and prosperity of the people were said. Then the "butios" distributed among the heads of the families pieces of cake, which thej'^ preserved with great care; these consecrated cakes, according to a belief the ves- tiges of which can be found even up to the present among some civilized nations, had the virtue of ward- ing off all dangers and diseases. Their gods were strangely typified; they took the form of toads, turtles, snakes, alligators, and of hid- eous human faces. The "butios" were at once sooth- sayers and doctors. By tradition and through per- sonal obserA'ation they knew the power of many plants ; the simples helped them to make cures ; and the art of healing increased their prestige. The aborigines called their island Quisqueya (big land) or Haiti (the hilly land). The authority was di- vided between five military chiefs or "caciques," each one independent of the others.' The weapons of the * Plaeide Justin, Histoire d'Haiti. p. 5. ' This cavern, called noivadars "Grotte a Jlinguet," is in the neigh- borhood of Cape-Haiti. ' Pronounce: Ka-siek (a as in alone). ' Pronounce: boo-ci-o. ' Pronounce: Zem-s. • The five "cacicats" or kingdoms were (a) Le Marien, under the command of Guaeanagarie, in the North ; its capital was in the neigh- borhood of Cape-Haiti; (6) Le Magna, called afterward "Vega Real," in the Northeast: the "cacique" was Guarionex; its capital stood where the Spaniards bnilt the to\vn of "Coneepeion de la Vega"; (c) Le The Aborigines 21 people consisted of clubs, arrows, and wooden spears the sharp ends of which were hardened by fire. Often they had to protect and defend themselves against the attacks of their insular neighbors, the Caribs (Ca- raibes), who were cannibals. The people enjoyed dancing to the beating of a drum. There were no public or private festivities without such dancing and singing. On the whole they were kind, po- lite, and merciful. Their good qualities caused their ruin.^° jVIaguana, in the Cibao, acknowledged the authority of Caonabo, who resided at San Juan de la Maguana; (d) Le Xaragua, commanded by Bohechio or Behechio, in the West and South, had as its capital Tagu- ana, known to-day as Lfogane; (e) Higuey, in the East, under the authority of Cotubana, who made his residence at Higuey. " Emile Nau, in his work Caciques d'Haiti, gives a good idea of the habits of the aborigines. CHAPTER II Christopher Columbus — Kis arrival in Haiti — Behavior of the Spaniards toward the aborigines — Their cupidity — War — Caonabo — Anacaona — The Spanish domination — Cacique Henry. Such -were the first inhabitants of Haiti when, on August 3, 1492, Columbus left Palos. After a journey too well known to be repeated here, his three caravels anchored on the 6th of December, 1492, in a pretty bay in the northern part of Haiti. In honor of the saint whose feast the Catholic Church was celebrating that day, the place was called St. Nicholas.^ The beauty of the scenery, the lovely panorama which Columbus beheld on arriving, the song of the nightingale, the fish, everything reminded him of the country whence he started out to the conquest of the New World. Therefore he gave the name of Hispanola^ to the island he had just discovered; and believing that he was in Asia, he called the inhabitants "Indians." On those unfortunate people the arrival of the Spaniards was about to bring endless calamities. And the island up to that time so peaceful and quiet was to have no more tranquillity ; the land was to be nothing else than an everlasting battlefield, where all kinds of horrors and atrocities would be perpetrated. Torrents of blood would irrigate its fertile soil and a whole race would disappear in order to satisfy the cupidity of the new- comers. On the 12th of December, in setting up the cross on the coast of Haiti, Columbus had no idea that ' The place is called to-day Mole Saint-Nicolas. Pronounce: Moll Sain Ni-co-la (a. as in alone 1. ' Little Spain. Pronounce: Iss-pa-yola (both a's as in alone). The Spaniards and the Aborigines 23 the symbol of redemption was to be the signal of a fierce struggle, of a struggle without mercy. In fact, after the first impulse of curiosity caused by the sight of the large sails, which, like huge birds' wings, were carrying the caravels to their shore, the natives, prompted by the warnings of instinct, fled and got under shelter in the depths of their forests. The looks of the white men foreboded no good. But the trusting and kind disposition of the aborigines pre- vailed over fear. They were quickly won over by the cajoleries and the gifts of the Spaniards. Their leader, Guacanagaric,' not only welcomed Columbus as a friend, but also became his ally ; he gi-anted the Admiral sufficient land for the building of a fortress. So a stronghold, called "The Nativity" in honor of that holy day, was erected with the help of the Indians not far from the place where the present town of Cap-Haitien * is situated. The aborigines themselves had thus forged the first, link of their own chains. Thirty-nine men garrisoned the fortress, and on tlie 4th of January, 1493, Columbus left for Spain. He had scarcely set sail when the Spaniards, forgetting the simplest rules of prudence, became most unrestrained in their manners and committed the worst excesses. Tak- ing no account of the generous hospitality and of the hearty welcome of Guacanagaric, they inflicted on his followers all kinds of ill treatment. They outraged women and girls, and despoiled the men of their goods. Eager for riches, and thinking only of acquiring gold, they seized the metal wherever they could lay their hands on it. They trampled oa the chastity and the cus- toms of the Indians. Finding no more booty in the "cacicat" of Marien, some of them decided to carry their depredations to the Maguana, where the auriferous mines of the Cibao were located. But Caonabo, the "cacique" of Maguana, was not like the passive Gua- canagaric. Descending from the fierce tribe of the ' Columbus landed in the northern part of the island, in the "cacieat" of Marien. ' Pronounce: Cap A-e-ci-en. 24 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Caribs, he determined to remain the sole master of his *'cacieat," which he had conquered by main force. Therefore he did not hesitate to cause the invaders to be arrested and put to death. And, having a vague presentiment of future perils, he determined to rid the island of the dangerous newcomers; in consequence he invaded the Marien. At the head of a numerous band of armed followers he rushed ujaon the fortress The Nativity, which he razed to the ground, after extermi- nating all the Spaniards. Henceforth it was to be war to the death. When, on the 27th of November, 1493, Columbus returned to the place where The Nativity was built, he could but deplore the disaster. From Spain he had brought with him imposing forces. He settled in the eastern part of what is known to-day as Monte Christi; and there was built the first town erected by the Span- iards in the West Indies. In honor of the Queen of Spain this town was called Isabella.' Among Columbus's new companions there were many adventurers whose sole thought was to acquire riches. They began searching for gold with a greed second only to their contempt for the feelings of the Indians. Besides, the latter had to work hard to supply their oppressors with cotton, tobacco, and gold dust. They were soon compelled to fetch from the bowels of the earth that gold which in their indolence they had been -content to pick up in the sands of the rivers. Their artless souls rose against such unjust oppression. They joined the party of Caonabo," who became the leader of the opposition to the tyranny of the foreigners. The natives fought gallantly. To get rid of his indomitable foe, Coliimbus had to resort to Alonzo Ojeda's perfidy. Under the pretext of making peace, they decoyed Cao- nabo into an ambush. As a gift from the chief of the Spaniards, Ojeda presented him with chains and hand- cuffs made of iron polished and glittering like silver. ' Pronounce: E-za-bell-e-a. ' Cacique of Maguana. The Spaniards Defeat the Aborigines 25 The unsuspecting Indian admired the irons, and mis- taking them for ornaments he allowed himself to be manacled. He was then easily carried to Columbus, who kept him prisoner in his own house. Caonabo was afterward sent to Spain.^ This treacherous act, instead of intimidating the Indi- ans, provoked a general uprising. Manicatoex, Cao- nabo 's brother, became their leader. Against the band of numerous warriors who threatened the town of Isabella, Columbus despatched a well-disciplined body of foot- soldiers, cavalrjTiien, gunners, and arbolisters ; twenty- five blood-hounds also were added to the army. In the struggle the natives fought desperately; but the fire- arms of the Spaniards prevailed over their spears and clubs. Their forces were annihilated. The cavalry harassed the fugitives, many of whom became the prey of the ferocious dogs. Xo quarter was granted, those onlj- could escape who were lucky enough to reach the shelter of the inaccessible mountains. This victory secured the Spanish domination. The Indians agreed to pay tribute to them. However, the tranquillity which followed these events did not last long; more terrible convulsions were in store for the unfortunate island. The exactions of the Spaniards became unbearable. Hoping to get rid of them by starvation, the Indians, gave up cultivating their lands; they deserted their homes, taking shelter in unsearchable forests in the mountains, where they lived on roots; they voluntarily endured hardships rather than submit to the treatment inflicted on them by the conquerors. The Haitian soil was soon to be soaked with Spanish blood. In the absence of Columbus, who left for Spain in 1496, his companions quarreled and civil war began. On all sides bloody scenes were enacted : the Spaniards ' Caonabo was sent to Spain in llarch, 1496. According to E. Robin (History of Haiti, p. 14) the ship foundered and the cacique was drov.ned. But Mr. J. B. Dorsainrille (Course of Haitian History, p. 44) savs that the Indian leader stan-ed himself to death during the vovage; for the ship arrived at Cadiz on the 11th of June, 1496. How- ever, Caonabo never reached Spain. 20 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors exterminating the Indians; the latter availing them- selves of the least opportunity to retaliate; and to crown the situation, the Spaniards killing each other. On his return to Hispanola, Columbus suppressed the dissensions among his followers by establishing, in behalf of Eoldan-Jimenes, the leader of the malcon- tents, what is known as the " repartimientos " system: he granted to Eoldan and to his followers a certain quantity of land and a sufficient number of Indians to cultivate it. In that manner slavery began to appear ; and Quisquej^a had a new horror to add to the list of the calamities with which its unhai^py inhabitants were already afflicted. In 1500 Bobadilla succeeded Columbus; and the "re- partimientos" system became worse. The "caciques" were compelled to supply every Spaniard with a certain number of Indians; these Indians were made to work under the guidance and in behalf of their masters, to whose heirs they were transferable. Naturally this caused the natives to be still more highly displeased. Moved by their complaints the court of Spain appointed Nicholas Ovando governor of the island ; he landed in Santo Domingo '' on the 15th of April, 1502.° The new governor had a good reputation, which he soon belied. It would seem that in reaching Hispanola the best-intentioned man laid aside his kind disposition to give way to his worst instincts. Thinking only of shipping as much gold as possible, in order to convince the King of Spain of the merit of his administration, Ovando was pitiless to the Indians. These unfortunate people, accustomed to the sunshine, were made to live in the depths of the earth ; and many of them died from starvation and exhaustion. From the Canary Islands Pierre d'Aten^a brought ' In 1496 Barthelemy built on the left bank of the Ozama a town which he called New Isabella and which became the headquarters of the administration. Destroyed in 1502 by a cyclone, the town was, in 1504, reconstructed, at the mouth of the same river, by Ovando, who called it Santo Domingo after Columbus's father. • According to Placide Justin, History of Haiti, p. 32, Ovando arrived in Santo Domingo on April 15, 1501. Anacaona and Ovando 27 the sugar-cane to Hispaiiola. This new culture increased the burden which was already so heavy for the natives. With a view to preventing any uprising on their part Ovando decided to destroy the last centres of organ- ization where they could gather their forces for a com- mon resistance. On his arrival two of the former "caci- cats" were still holding their own and recognized the authority of two aborigines. Anacaona," widow of the gallant Caonabo, governed the Xaragua, and the Higuey was ruled by Cotubanama. The prestige of the Queen of Xaragua was very great. She was a beautiful woman, possessing the art of lull- ing away the cares of her people by extemporizing for them the naive songs they were so fond of. Like her husband, Anacaona was to be a victim of the Spanish tyranny. Ovando took umbrage at the moral ascend- ency she possessed over the natives. Under the pretext of collecting the tribute due to the Court of Spain, he left for the Xaragua, escorted by 300 foot soldiei-s and 70 cavalrymen. In pursuance of instructions given by Anacaona, the people everywhere gave him the most friendly welcome. The Queen herself went to meet her illustrious visitor, in honor of whom many festivities took place. But all this confidence did not move the inexorable Spaniard. During one of the festivities, at a given signal agreed on beforehand, Ovando 's soldiers rushed upon the harmless Indians and began a wholesale slaughter. They set fire to the village, thus rendering the massacre still more horrible. Anacaona, now a prisoner, was dragged awaj- to Santo Domingo, where a mock court of justice, completing Ovando 's treachery, sentenced her to death. Neither her beauty nor her charms could excite the compassion of the conquerors, and she was hanged. Thereafter Ovando was ma.ster of the Xara- gua. (1504.) But the Higuey was still under the authority of the " Golden flower. Pronounce: An-na-ka-o-nfi. 28 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors stalwart Cotubanama. It was an easy matter to find a pretext for waging war on him. The last of the Haitian "caciques" defended his small State with great bravery. The struggle was a fierce one. The Spanish fury spared neither sex nor age. They massacred the natives indiscriminately. Vanquished at last, Cotuba- nama was taken as a prisoner to Santo Domingo where, like Anacaona, he was hanged. Through his defeat and death the Spaniards at last acquired the entire posses- sion of Hispanola. Ovando was victorious. The Spanish conquest had annihilated a whole race. Shipped to Europe and sold as slaves, heavily burdened with taxes, overworked, tormented, persecuted, the autochthons had rapidly dis- appeared. Many had resorted to suicide to escape from the ill treatment infUcted on them; others were de- voured by the ferocious dogs ; the greatest number had fallen in the bloody wars and bloody massacres. In 1507, searceh^ fifteen years after the arrival of the Spaniards, there remained, out of a population number- ing about 1,000,000, only 60,000 natives. Four years later, in 1511, these 60,000 were reduced to 14,000." The crueltj" and cupidity of the newcomers had de- populated the island. There was in consequence a great deficiency of laborers : the prosperity of Hispaiiola was in jeopardy. Ovando, always fruitful in expedients, conceived the idea of importing the inhabitants of the neighboring islands, pretending that it would be easier to convert them to Christianity. Deceived by the gross- est artifices, 40,000 of those unfortunate people were removed from their homes and became at Hispaiiola the prey of the Spanish avidity. The Spaniards soon introduced into the island a new element more resisting than the Indians and Caribs: a few blacks had been sold in the colony. Pleased with their work, the Spaniards held the Africans as indis- pensable. The slave-trade which ensued was the cause of the downfall of the colonists. Cargoes of human flesh abounded in Hispanola. Stunned by their brutal " Placide Justin, Hlstoirc d'Haiti, pp. 40-42. Cacique Henry 29 separation from their families, stupefied by the suffer- ings and the fatigues of a long journey, scattered on the various plantations, and unable to understand the language spoken around them, the new slaves were at first necessarily docile and obedient. But, little by little, through contact with the survivors of the last Indians, they began to be able to exchange ideas among them- selves. And the old grievances uniting with the new ones served to augment the hatred of the oppressors. In 1519 occurred the last uprising of what was left of the first inhabitants of the island. Saved almost miraculously from the massacre of Anacaona's follow- ers in 1504, Henri, a native of Bahoruco, was taken to Santo Domingo and brought up in a convent of Domini- can friars. Though he became a Christian, he was nevertheless a slave. Tired of all the ill treatment inflicted on him by his master, incensed by an attempt on his wife 's honor, and being unable to obtain justice, he fled in 1519; accompanied only by a few Indian slaves who swore to die rather than endure again the humiliation of their former condition, he took refuge in the mountains of Bahoruco. This new leader could read and write ; and like some of his companions he understood the use of firearms. They could therefore successfully hold their own. The Spanish pride received blow after blow. Henri's vic- tories encouraged all the Indians who could make their escape to flock to his camp. The black slaves were not long in following the ex- ample of their companions in misfortune. They rebelled on the very plantation of Diego Columbus, governor of the island. They set fire to all the farms they found on their way and killed every European they met. But, being without a leader and having only a slight knowl- edge of the country, they met with rapid defeat. Yet many of them were fortunate enough to reach the Ocao Mountains, where there lived already some men of their race, known as maroons, who had freed themselves from slavery. The Spaniards failed to subdue Henri either by force 30 Haiti: Her History u/iu Her Detractors or by deceit. He firmly established his authority in the Bahoruco, and his followers became the terror of the colonists. It was now his turn to inflict humiliations on the conquerors; which he did for more than fourteen years. The frequent defeats met by the Spaniards decided Charles V, then King of Spain and Emperor of Germany, to send a special agent to Hispanola: Barrio-Nuevo was intrusted with the mission of restor- ing peace. Bearing a letter from the Emperor to Don Henri, he had no trouble in persuading the "cacique" to lay down his arms. Acting by the advice of Lras Cases, who was called the "Protector of the Indians," Henri went to Santo Domingo. A solemn treaty of peace was made and ratified on both sides. Henri was allowed to reside in the callage of Boya. Exempt from paying tribute, he was to be called "cacique of Haiti" and to keep under his command the Indians who were permitted to follow him. These, numbering about 4,000, the last scions of the aboriginal race, settled at Boya. They had at last recovered their liberty. Henceforth they would be able to lead a quiet life. CHAPTER III The French freebooters and buccaneers — Tlieir customs — Their settle- ment at La Tortue (Tortuga Island) — Little by little they invade Hispauola, now known as S.'.int-Domingue — Continual wars with the Spaniards — Treaty recognizing the French occupation. The treaty signed in 1533 \rith the "cacique" Henri had at last put an end to the hostilities between the Indians and Spaniards. For a while there was no bloodshed. The relative tranquillity which ensued was not taken advantage of. Instead of thriving, the colony was on tJie wane. The incompetency or malversation of the various governors hastened the decline. The mines were 'emptied or deserted ; no care was given to agriculture. In consequence, through idleness, debauch- ery and poverty the colonists were in a piteous con- dition. Eveiwthing was falling to ruin. The town of Santo Domingo alone, where was centred the luxury of the administrators, remained prosperous and assumed the appearance of great splendor. But its magnificence was the cause of serious calamities. In 1586 the English admiral, Sir Francis Drake, charged by Queen Eliz- abeth to curb the Spanish arrogance, bombarded the town, took possession of it, and partly destroyed it by fire. After an occupation of a month he agreed to evac- uate it in consideration of a ransom of £ 7,000. The arrival of other Europeans in the West Indies was to become a source of continual worrj- to the Span- iards. From the beginning of the sixteenth century, attracted by the allurements of gain, the French had begun making incursions into the New World. Im- pressed by the various tales concerning the riches of Santo Domingo city, they little by little commenced the habit of calling the whole island Saint-Domingue. At first they had no idea of conquest. They were satisfied 31 32 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors with plundering. In concert with the English they lost no opportunity of injuring the Spanish trade. How- ever, successive defeats made them feel the necessity of having a rallying-point, at least a place where they could refit their ships. In 1625 a party of Frenchmen under the command of Enembuc, and of Englishmen under the leadership of Warner, took possession of St. Christopher Island. Private initiative began thus to deprive Spain of its possessions in the West Indies. The presence of these dangerous neighbors alarmed the Court at Madrid. In 1630 Admiral Frederic de Tolede expelled both the English and French from St. Christopher. Looking for a safer shelter, they settled at Tortuga Island (La Tortue), situated in the northern part of Hispaiiola or Saint-Domingue. Their new pos- session, eight leagues long and two leagues wide, be- came rapidly the rendezvous of the freebooters who swept the Spanish Main. In 1640 the French drove the English from this small island, thus remaining the sole masters. That was the starting point of their settle- ment in Saint-DomingTie. At that time the Spanish colony was in full decline. Owing to the necessity of preserving themselves from the depredations of their terrible foes, the Spaniards had almost deserted the coasts and were concentrated in the interior of the island. The Frenchmen availed themselves of the opportunity to take possession of the greatest part of the northern seashore. They had Port Margot," and soon founded Port-de-Paix.= These new inhabitants of Saint-Domingue were rough men of very coarse manners. They devoted their time to hunting wild oxen, the flesh of which they dried and smoked over a wood-fire called "boucan": ^ hence their name of buccaneers. But hard pushed by the Spaniards they turned their attention to piracy. Under the name ' Pronounce: Por Mar-go. Port Margot is situated in the depart- ment of the North, and in the arrondissement of Borgne. ' Pronounce: Por-doe-p6. Port-de-Paix is the chief town of the department of the Northwest. ' Pronounce: Bou-kan. The French Freebooters and Buccaneers 33 of freebooters they were the terror of the West Indies. They had neither wives nor families. They entered two bj'- two into a kind of partnership, all of whose goods were in common and to be inherited by the sur- vivor. In case of a disagreement, which seldom hap- pened however, blood alone could bring the quarrel to a close. Even in their dress they were wild looking. At their belts could always be seen a sabre, besides several knives and daggers. Any one of them possessing a good g-un and twenty-five hunting-dogs considered him- self a happy man. Many abandoned their family names and assumed pseudonyms, which remained to their descendants. Continually exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, their lives in constant jeopardy, they had as little fear of death as regard for the laws. They were fierce and desperate in their bravery ; they roamed the seas in their small crafts, and would board fear- lessly the largest Spanish ships. Nothing could resist the impetuosity of their attacks. The independence of their nature tolerated no restraint; and the authority of their leaders lasted only so long as fighting was going on. Improvident and careless, they would squander in a few days the valuable booty they acquired, their lives being thus continually spent either in the greatest lux- ury or in the utmost iDOverty. Want therefore excited their ardor and aroused their courage. D'Ogeron* undertook to discipline these unruly spirits and to interest them in the welfare of their new country. He thought that family ties alone could check their wild dispositions and bind them to their homes. So he requested that some women be sent from the mother country; at first but few arrived. Therefore, to prevent any quarrelling, they were awarded to the highest bidders ; the less destitute among the freeboot- ers were thus able to secure female companions. In this manner the first French families were instituted in Saint-Domingue. The freebooters were not to be trifled with; they * D'Ogeron was appointed governor of the island by the East Indies Company. 34 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors were terrible foes. The Spaniards made vain efforts to exterminate them. A new and relentless war began ; the island once more became a battlefield. The Eng- lish thought they had now a good opportunity to take possession of the country. A fleet sent by Cromwell threatened Santo Domingo in 1655. Fortunately for the French the expedition failed and the English pro- ceeded to Jamaica, which they seized, thus depriving Spain forever of that colony. The struggle at Saint- Domingue continued therefore between the French and the Spaniards only ; it was a stubborn and bloody con- test. The French not only held their own, but even managed to gain a surer footing. Emboldened by their success they now assumed the offensive; they desired the entire possession of the island. In their first campaign against Santiago they stormed the city, which they afterward abandoned upon receiving a ransom (1669). At the first opportunity the Spaniards i-etaliated. They invaded Petit-Goave, which they completely de- Stroj^ed. In 1691 they took possession of Cap-Fran- gais," which they set on fire and whose inhabitants they massacred. On leaving the ruined city they took with them a great number of women, children, and slaves. The French for a while were in a desperate state. Be- sides the Spaniards, the English also were threaten- ing their settlement. And the black slaves, whose hope of liberty was only slumbering, began to cause some anxiety. In 1678 Padrejean " had roused them to rebel- lion. In 1697, in the Quartier-Morin," 300 Africans took up arms again. Fortunately for the French the timely peace of Eis- wick put an <^nd to the hostilities. By the treaty signed in 1697 Louis XIV acquired a clear title to the posses- sion of the western part of the island, the limits of which were established from Cap-Rose in the north to La Beate in the south. ° Now named Cap-Haitien. ° Padrejcan was killed after inflicting heavy losses on the French. ' Situated in the Korthern '"departement" and in the arrondissement of Cap-Haitien. CHAPTEE IV The French part of Saint-Domingue — Its prosperity — Its different classes of inhabitants; their customs — ^The color prejudice — The colonists: their divisions; their jealousy of the Europeans — Their desire to be in command — Their contempt for the affranchis (freedmen) — Their cruelty tovrard the slaves — The maroons. By recognizing the French conquest the treaty of Riswick rid the colonists of Saint-Domingue of their anxieties arising from the vicinity of the Spaniards. The latter even became their allies, the war for the succession of the throne of Spain having just con- founded the interests of Louis XIV with those of the heir of Charles II. The eighteenth century began under the happiest auspices; quiet once established, Saint-Domingue was not long in astonishing the world by its prosperity. The ardent tropical heat, however, soon exhausted the %^gor of the hired Europeans known as "engages," whose position resembled that of serfs. The cultiva- tion of sugar-cane and of indigo required hardier con- stitutions. In consequence the Africans were in favor. Nobody hesitated to participate in the slave-trade. As many as 30,000 blacks were annually imported. In the beginning their position, pitiable as it seemed, was less hard to bear. The first colonists, unsociable and haughty, had however very simple tastes. Their wants up to that time were not numerous and were easily satisfied. In the colony there was a scarcity of white women, and those who had arrived about the beginning of the French occupancy could not be re- 35 36 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors garded as models of austere virtue. The fierce free- booters and their immediate successors did not consider the negresses as unworthy of their attentions. The unbounded devotion of the latter often moved the hearts of the terrible masters whose companions they had become. The children born of such a commerce were not entirely neglected by their fathers. There existed no color prejudice to com^jlicate the relations of the two races. Xo one had cause to feel shame or humil- iation. The appearance of the mulatto, in arousing feelings of fatherly love, ameliorated the condition of some of the slaves. Mothers and children were often freed owing to these sentiments. Unfortunately through the riches resulting from the fruitful soil of Saint- Domingue these ideas began to suffer a change. Sur- rounded by extravagant luxury, the wealthy colonists made it the fashion to look down upon the Africans and their descendants. And the new families, arrived from Europe, exaggerating this disdain, hardly considered as human beings those whose color was not white. Bar- riers arose; and the odious distinctions between men, wMch the Gospel was supposed to have done away with, were more than ever firmly established. At the time of its greatest splendor the inhabitants of Saint-Domingue were divided into three distinct classes: the whites, the "aiiranchis" or freedmen, and the slaves. To these classes officially admitted, may be added a fourth one— the maroons. Naturally the whites had arrogated all the privileges. They were the masters; their color sufficed to confer on them all the rights and advantages. However, inter- est and prosperity in time divided the predominant class, introducing four subdivisions : 1st, civil and mili- tary functionaries ; 2nd, the wealthy planters ; 3rd, mer- chants; 4th, mechanics, storekeepers and adventurers in quest of success. These groups were jealous of one another. And those who were neither functionaries nor wealthy planters were scornfully called ' ' petits blancs. ' ' The latter were envious of the social position of the former. Besides, the white natives of Europe consid- The Various Classes of Inhabitants 37 ered themselves far above the Creoles, i. e., those who were born in the colony. Notwithstanding tliese distinctions prompted by their unbearable vanity, all of them— the whites from Europe, Creoles, wealthy planters, and "petits blancs" —made common cause in the matter of taking advan- tage of the colonial regime which allowed them to trample upon the slaves, and to heap humiliations upon the "affranchis." However, the wealthy plant- ers, who formed the aristocracy of the island, could not disguise their displeasure at the despotic and military government of Saint-Domingue. The Governor-General ^ had usurjied supreme power. He interfered with everything, even in the administra- tion of justice, thus usurping the duties of a special agent or "intendant" who was there for that purpose. His word was supreme law. The wealthy planters thought that the surest way for their party to become the ruling power was by shaking off his authority. Hence a bitter rivalry, and an under- hand war began between them and the Governor-Gen- eral. ^^Tiile undermining the positiou of the agents ap- pointed by the King of France, the planters did nothing to gain the sympathy of the "petits blancs"; and their contempt for the "affranchis" was too great to allow them even to think of them as allies. The "affranchis" formed the intennediary" class be- tween the colonist and the slave, and consisted of the blacks and mulattoes who had been able to obtain or to buy their freedom. Through personal efforts and hard work they began to rise gradually from the low con- dition they had occupied from their birth. They ac- quired urban and rural property; they appreciated ' In speaking of the Governor the inhabitants of the colony were in the habit of calling him, by way of abbreviation, "G^n^ral" or "mon General" (my general). (Moreau de St. M€ry. ) Hence the custom of the country people in Haiti of calling any one occupying a position superior to theirs "€t6n€ral." Foreigners hearing this word applied indiscriminately to Haitians believed that every one held that military rank. 38 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors learning ; and their sons, sent to France at great sacri- fice to themselves, had often more success at school than the children of the colonists. The wealth and knowledge they acquired made the * * affranchis " feel they were the equals of the whites. Therefore they were highly indignant over the preroga- tives the latter had assumed at their expense. They claimed the exercise of the political rights granted them by the Black Code. Circumstances placed them face to face with the colonists, who sought to check their am- bition by humiliating them. Thus the liberal pro- fessions were closed to the "affranchis"; they were debarred from learning any kind of trade; they could not be silversmiths, for instance. In the army they could no longer become officers. At last they were even forbidden to go to France (1777) ; and were ordered to wear clothes of a material different from the whites. And yet those men upon whom the colonists heaped humiliation after humiliation were good soldiers. They were enlisted in both the militia and the horse-police (marechausee) ; and they all understood the use of fire- arms. It was into the hands of such men that the colonists committed their safety. As a means of putting a stop to the ever-increasing colonial pride and haughtiness, the women, mulattresses and blacks alike, resorted to their native charms. Wives or concubines, they availed themselves of whatever influence they possessed to secure the freedom of the men of their i*aee. Incensed by the preference shown to their colored sisters, the white women added the weight of their jealousy to the already existing causes of conflict. The slaves were in a pitiable plight. Not being con- sidered as human beings, they were entirely without rights that a white man was bound to respect. They were treated and sold like cattle, with which their mas- ters confounded them in the inventory of their estates. They were subjected to the most barbarous punishments. According to the Black Code all fugitives were pun- ishable by death; it was lawful to mutilate them by The Slaves and Maroons 39 chopping off their legs and their ears. The hounds were let loose on them, inflicting the greatest torture by their fierce attacks on the unfortunate creatures. Flogging was the mildest chastisement inflicted on the slaves. The honor of their wives, the chastity of their daughters were matters of the slightest consideration to their masters. Small wonder it was that the slave was beset with one fixed idea— to free himself of that odious yoke. Throughout his sufferings ho never despaired: liberty was the one hope of his existence. And when he could not buy his freedom he would secure it for himself by fleeing; at the first opportunity he would fly for safety into the densest forests and the most inaccessible gorges of the mount:iiv:s. When he was successful in effecting his escape he became what was called a maroon. Hence the maroons were slaves who, at the risk of their lives and after undergoing untold hardships, had eventually recovered their freedom. Being outlaws and liunted like wild animals they had continually to be on the lookout. Any place where they could find a safe shelter from their ]:mrsuers became their domain. Should (hey happen to be caught by their owners they knew beforehand that no merc^^ was to be expected and that the most inhuman punishments the colonial imagi- nation could invent would be theirs. Consequently, when attacked they fought with the fiercest desperation. Theirs was a perpetual struggle for existence. It was these men, without education or culture, who gathered from their confused ideas of human dignity the neces- saiy energy to wage war on the society which was oppressing them so brutally. The first to bid defiance to the colonial system, they showed the men of their race tliat hardships, sufferings, even death— all were preferable to such degrading servitude. They formed the vanguard of the future army of liberation.- Such were the four classes of men who inhabited - In 17S4. after an unsnceessful attempt to subdue by force the maroons in hiding in the Bahuruco Mountains, Governor-General Belle- eonibe acknowledged their independence. 40 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Saint-Domingue ; the clashing of whose conflicting as- piratiozis Tvas destined to hnrl them one against the other. After irrigating the Haitian soil with their sweat, "affranchis," slaves, and maroons firmly united, would lavish their blood on it in order to root out for- ever the shameful institution of slaverv. CHAPTER V Number of inhribitsnts of Saint-Doramgue — Savannah — Tlie French revolution — Efi'orts of the colonists to take advantage of it — The affranchis claim their rights — The first conflicts — Atrocities com- mitted b^- the eoloni'sts — ^'incent OgiS and Chavannes — Uprising of the slaves — The first Civil Conunissiouers — Decree of April 4, 1792. In 1789 there were at Saint-Domingue 520,000 inhab- itants, 40,000 of whom were white, 28,000 "affranchis," and 452,000 slaves/ The number of maroons was from two to three thousand. Whilst most of the Avhites led corrupt and dissolute lives, the "affranchis," through domestic virtues, were acquiring much wealth; thej' possessed a third of the real estate, and a fourth of the personal property of the colony.= Yet no regard was shown them. Despite the levelling and philanthropic philosophy which in Europe was moving the heart of the nobility, the colonists became daily more and more haughty and overbearing to the men of the black race ; they did all in their power to check the hoj^es which these new ideas began to raise in the souls of the sorely oppressed slaves. Through their influence and intrig-ues the colonists extorted from the weak hands of Louis XVI decisions of the most insulting nature against the "affranchis." The excess of humiliations heaped on them at last moved, even in France, the pity of generous hearts. ' These figures are given by iloreau dc Saint-lKry. According to B. Ardouin (Introduction to the Studies of Haitian History) the population of Snint-Domingue in 1789 numbered 40,000 "affranchis" and more than 600,000 slaves. Ducoeur-Joly, quoted by Placide Justin, p. 144, claims that the population consisted of 30,826 whites, 27,584 "affranchis," and 465,429 slaves. - B. Ardouin, Geography of Haiti, p. 4. 41 42 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors "La Societe des Amis des Noirs"" soon extended its mighty support to the lawful claims of those who hitherto were treated like pariahs. The "affranchis" became more and more conscious of their importance. In 1779, responding to the call of the Comte d'Estaing, 800 blacks and mulattoes * left their families and their homes, and went to fight side by side with the soldiers of George Yv'ashingtou. At the siege of Savannah the colored sons of Haiti fear- lessly shed their blood for the independence of the United States.' After fighting for the liberty of others was it possible that they would willingly tolerate slav- ery for their mothers, their brothers, and their sisters? Could they be content under the arbitrary rule of a system which had despoiled them of their rights ? But, blinded by their prejudice, the vrealtliy planters would not make the slightest concession in their favor. They founded in Paris the "Club Massiac,'' which be- came henceforth the centre of action of their coterie. Yet at that time the pretensions of the "aft'rauehis" were very moderate. What was it they were claiming? Simply the equality of political rights which was granted to them in 1685 by the Black Code. By yielding to their requests the colonists would have saved their property, and Saint-Domingue might per- haps have remained a part of the French territory. ' The Society of the Friends of the Blacks. * Among the volunteers from Saint-Domingue were Beauvais, Rigaud, Chavannes, Jourdain. Lambert, Christoplie, ilorng, Villate. Toureaux, CangS. Martial Besse, LeveilU, liars Belley, etc. (E. Robin, History of Haiti, p. 47.) ° "At the siege of Savannah." says Mr. T. G. Steward, quoted by Mr. Benito Srlvain at page 102 of his book (Du sort des Indigenes dans les colonies d'exploitation; Paris. 1901), "the colored militiamen from "Saint-Domingue, numbering SOO, saved the Franco-American army from "total di.saster by heroically covering its retreat, which was ver}' near "being cut off by Lieutenant-Colonel Maitland." However, some years later one of these militiamen, Martial Besse, then a French general, was not allowed to land at Charleston (South Carolina) without giving bail, on account of his color. The French con- sul had to interfere in order to secure proper respect for him. (Amer- ican Historical Association, 1905, Vol. II, p. 1020, Lettre de Lftombe, consul il Philadelphia, a Delacroix, Ministre des Relations Ext^rieures de France.) The Colonists and the " Affranchis" 4S Still tliey chose to run the greatest risks rather than share the administration of the island with men whom they considered their inferiors. From the convocation of the States General, the wealthy planters began to defy the colonial authority, thus giving the first example of insubordination. On their own responsibility they secretly appointed eighteen representatives whom they sent to France. On their arrival at Versailles they found the National Assembly already organized. This first act of insub- ordination was followed by others still more important. "When the news of the fall of the Bastille reached Saint- Domingue, the pretensions of the colonists knew no bounds. They elected municipalities and even an Assembh^ which, assuming the title of "General As- sembly of the French part of Saint-Domingue, " met at Saint-Marc and arrogated full powers. On the 28th of May, 1790, this Assembly adopted a decree which constituted almost a declaration of independ- ence. The attitude and encroachment of this body was naturally highly displeasing to the colonial govern- ment, which ordered its dissolution and resorted to force in order to compel its members to disperse." The whites took no pains to conceal from the "aftranchis" the discord existing among themselves. Excluded from all the assemblies elected at Saint- Domingue, the freedmen had never ceased to protest against the arbitrary deprivation of their political rights. Their representatives in France, among whom were Julien Raymond and Vincent Oge, were fighting hard to put an end to their humiliating position. Through the powerful assistance of the Society "des Amis des Xoirs," they were received, on the 22d of October, 1789, by the National Assembly. Later on the "affranchis" offered to France 6,000,000 francs and the fifth of their properties in guarantee of the national indebtedness. The Assembly was not long in taking up ' Many members of the Assembly took shelter on board the Leopard (Sth of August, 1790). 44 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors the slaveiy question. "V^Tiilst the matter was under dis- cussion, Charles de Lameth, one of the wealthy planters, spoke, on the 4th of December, in favor of the freedom of the blacks and claimed their right to become mem- bers of the colonial assemblies. The colonists decided that the time had come to check the audacity of the " atf ranchis, " and as usual they resorted to all kinds of atrocities. In the town of Cap- Frangais the mulatto Laoombe was hanged, his only crime having been that he dared to present a humble IDetition claiming the "Eights of man" (Les Droits de 1 'homme ) . At Petit-Goave, a highly respected old man, Fernand de Baudieres, a white, was beheaded. He was charged with having drawn up a petition asking, not for equalit}^ of rights in favor of the " aflf ranchis, " but onlj^ for a slight betterment of their condition. At Aquin,^ a mulatto, G. Labadie, seventy years old, simply suspected of having in his possession a copy of the petition, was attacked by night at his home by the whites. Severely wounded, this septuagenarian,* a man universally esteemed, was tied to the tail of a horse and dragged through the streets. At Plaisance, the mulatto Atrel, guilty of having accepted a claim upon a white man, was killed by a band of infuriated people. At Fonds-Parisien ° the whites set fire to the most important sugar refineries of the "affranchis" Des- mares, Poisson, E«naud.^° In time to come, the slaves who revolted, remembering this merciless destruction of property, in their turn reduced to ashes the rich plantations of the colonists. The French spared not even the children. At Petite- ' A town in the southern part of Haiti. ' Concerning Labadie, Brissot, in a letter to Barnave, says: "One '"'can say to the whites that there are in Saint-Domingue well informed "mulattoes who have never left the island. I can quote for instance Mr. "Labadie, an honorable old man, who owes his wealth to his work and "his intelligence. Astronomy, physics, ancient and modern history, were "all familiar to Mr. Labadie, at a time when not one of the wMtes in "the colony knew the A, B, C of these sciences." (B. Ardouin — Studies) on the History of Haiti, Vol. I, p. 198.) •/Situated in the Western "d^partement" of Haiti. *" B. Ardouin, Studies of Haitian History, Vol. I, p. 117. Vincent Oge and Chavanne 45 Riviere de I'Artibonite a party of 25 whites, after searching in vain for a mulatto, ended by killing Ms two children; in the same locality they murdered a father and his two sons.^^ A black freedman was, with- out the least provocation, put to death by a party of whites; whilst at Cap-FrauQais there took place a wholesale slaughter of the "affranchis" '- by the colo- nists. Such are the atrocities with wliich the wealthy planters started the French revolution in Saint-Do- mingue. By and by both * ' affranchis ' 'and slaves retali- ated by taking revenge of all the horrible crimes of which they had been the victims. Many foreign writers nnfriendly toward Haiti make mention only of the re- prisals; but they intentionally omit all allusion to the frequent revolting crimes which had caused them. By a decree of March 8, 1790, the National Assem- bly had, however, indicated the powers vested in the colonial assemblies of the French possessions. And, according to article 4 of the Instructions adopted on the 28th of the same month, all persons 25 years old, own- ing real estate or domiciled in the parish for two years and paying taxes, were authorized to take part in the election of those assemblies. The "affranchis" pos- sessed the full requirements, and therefore imagined that they would at last be able to exercise their political rights. Their illusions did not last long. The colonists of Saint-Domingue did not consider as persons men of the black race; they regarded them as tilings. In con- sequence they were not allowed to vote. Foreseeing the decision of the wealthy planters, Vin- cent Oge, one of the commissioners of the ' ' affranchis, ' ' decided to return to Saint-Domingue in order to demand the fair application of the Decree and the Instructions of March, 1790. He assumed the pseudonym of Pois- sac ; and in spite of all the hindrances jplaced in his way he succeeded in leaving France. He arrived at Cap- Frangais in the evening of October 16, 1790, and pro- ceeded forthwith to Dondon," his native place. As soon " B. Ardouin, Studies of Haitian History, p. 119. " Ibid., p. 120. " Situated in the Northern "d€partement" of Haiti. 46 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors as his arrival became known the colonists took the necessary steps to secure his arrest. From Dondon Oge went to Grande-Eiviere " to the house of Jean- Baptiste Chavanne." Of a practical mind, Chavanne was firmly convinced that nothing would be obtained from the whites by persuasion only. He therefore advised an immediate uprising of the slaves. Oge deemed this plan too radical. In consequence, on Octo- ber 21, he wrote to Count Peinier, then Governor of the island, saying that he had come to secure the applica- tion of the Decree of March, 1790, and that, in order to put an end to an unjust and absurd prejudice, he would, in case of need, repel force by force. As a result jof this step, and in spite of his threat, a price " was set upon his head, and 800 soldiers were despatched against him. Oge had only 250 followers. The first encounter was favorable to him. But new forces sent from Cap- Frangais defeated his small army. He succeeded, with Chavanne and a few companions, in reaching the Span- ish part of the island. The Governor, Don Joachim Garcia, had the cruelty to give them up to the govern- ment of Saint-Domingue. After a so-called trial, Oge and Chavanne, to whom even the assistance of a lawyer was denied, were sentenced "whilst alive to have their "arms, legs, thighs and spines broken; and afterward "to be placed on a wheel, their faces toward Heaven, "and there to stay as long as it would please God to "presei-\"e their lives; and when dead, their heads were "to be cut off and exposed on poles, Vincent Oge's on "the highway leading to Dondon, and Chavanne 's on "the road to La Grande Riviere, opposite the estate of "Poisson. " This barbarous sentence was executed in all its horror on February 25, 1791. The northern pro- vincial assembly gathered together in state to witness this inhuman punishment. Oge and Chavanne, hacked " Situated in the Korthem "d^partement" of Haiti. " Chavanne Tvas among those who fought at Savannah for the inde- pendence of the United States. " A reward of $4,000 was promised to any one who would capture Ogg. The Colonists Murder Mauduit 47 to death, bore their sufferings stoically. For many months following, their unfortunate companions were hunted and when caught were hanged. The method employed for quelling the insurrection was savage and merciless. But the revenge soon to be taken equalled in mercilessness the acts which provoked it. Before the end of 1791 the colonists were to begin to expiate their crimes. Remaining still haughty and full of pride they im- agined that the martyrdom of Oge and Chavanne would so intimidate the "affranchis" that they would not dare to renew the struggle. As a matter of fact, after Oge's defeat, the free blacks and mulattoes of the South, who, under tlie leadership of Andre Rigaud, had gath- ered on the plantation of Prou, willingly laid down their arms. But this proved to be only a truce. The colored inen wanted time in which to form and to mature their, plans. Oge's fate made it clear to them that by force alone they would conquer the power of exercising the political rights which they had vainly endeavored, to acquire peacefully. Tranquilized by their recent Adctory and the apparent submission of the "affranchis," the wealthy planters began to renew their intrigues against the colonial gov- ernment. Two battalions, sent from France with a view to helping to maintain order in Saint-Domingue, arrived at Port-au-Prince on March 2, 1791. The friends of the former Colonial Assembly of Saint-Marc, which had been severely arraigned by the National Assembly in a resolution adopted on October 12, 1790, won over the soldiers to their cause. The latter landed in Port-au-Prince in disobedience to the orders given them by the Governor-General, Mr. de Blanchelande. The city was in open rebellion. The prison was stormed. Andi-e "Rigaud, Pmchinat, and some other "affranchis" who were" then in jail were set free. Mr. de Blanche- lande left hastily for Cap-Fran§ais. The colonists mur- dered Colonel Mauduit, whose fidelity to the colonial government had displeased them; his body was muti- lated and his head, stuck on the end of a pole, was 48 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors carried through the streets of Port-au-Prince. They usurped the authority and organized a municipality which they called the Western Provincial Assembly. Whilst the whites were creating this disturbance of the peace at Saint-Domingue, the National Assembly, uneasy concerning the vengeance of the blacks which, would most likely follow the inhuman punishment of Oge and Cliavanne, agreed that the time had come for granting some concessions to the " affranchis. " There- fore on May 15, 1791, a decree was adopted stating that free-bom colored men would henceforth be eligible to the provincial assemblies. This news upon reaching Saint-Domingue at the end of June, 1791, provoked great excitement. The "affranchis," thinking once more that at last they had acquired the rights which they had been claiming with so much perseverance, showed the wildest enthusiasm; but the whites, whose indigna- tion knew no bounds, protested vigorously against this step ; they even went so far as to implore the protection of the English. And pretending that the decree of May 15 had not been officially notified to the G-overnor of the island, they hastened to elect a new Colonial Assembly with power to regulate the political condition of the ' ' affranchis. ' ' The blacks and mulattoes', regarding this action as a challenge, decided to resort to arms. Having gained wisdom from Oge's misfortune the "affranchis" this time did not trust to chance. On August 7, 1791, they held a meeting in the church of Mirebalais " and appointed a committee of forty members, of which Pierre Pinchinat '^ was elected pres- ident. Whilst this political council was striving to obtain from Mr. de Blanchelande the fair application of the decree of May 15, the colored men of Port- " Fifteen miles from Port-au-Prince. " Born on July 12, 1746, Pinchinat was brought up in France. Garan de Coulon says of him: "In his new position he showed, besides "his commendable patriotism, wisdom and knowledge, in contradiction "of the false impressions which the whites tried to make in France as to "the ignorance and incapacity of the colored men." (B. Ardouin, Studies on Haitian History, Vol. I, p. 179.) The Uprising of the Slaves 49 au-Prince, secretly assembled on the plantation of Louise Eabuteau," decided on their military organiza- tion (August 21). Beauvais ™ was appointed leader of the insurrection ; and it was resolved that the uprising should take place on the 26th of August. There were already symptoms of an alarmingly dan- gerous nature affecting the domination of the colonists; the slaves who, up to that time, had been seemingly obedient and resigned, began to show signs of their intention of shaking off tlie yoke. In June and July insurrections took place at Cul-de-Sac," at Vases," and at Mont-Eouis.=^ The whites had recourse to their usual methods: they tried to intimidate the rebels by inflicting horrible punishments on them. Men were quartered alive; and so great a number was hanged that it was tio-.^^etimes difficult to And enough execution- ers.-* At that time there appeared before the public a man who was to shape the destinies of his race and have a great influence on the future of Saini>Domingue. Tous- saint-Breda, better knov>-n under the name of Louver- ture, acting in connivance Avith the followers of the Governor of the island, prepared a general uprising of the slaves. Clever and perspicacious, he assumed at the outset a very modest part. He did not endeavor to obtain the command ; his friend Jean-Frangois was pro- claimed the leader; Biassou was nest in command; to Boukmann and Jeannot had been intrusted the mission of giving the signal of rebellion. This matter settled, there remained but to find a way of influencing all the slaves. These were told that the King of France and the National Assembly had granted them three holidays a week and had abolished flogging a? a means of pun- ishment; but that the colonists refused to obey the " Situated in the neighborhood of Port-au-Prinee. '" Beauvais was one of the militiamen who fought at Savannah. He was educated in France. =• North of Port-au-Prince. ^ In the arrondissement of Port-au-Prince. -' In the arrondissement of Saint-Marc. " Placide Justin, Historj- of Haiti, p. 205. 50 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors decree. The slaves, however, after ilieir many years of submission, were naturally cautious; they were afraid of being defeated. Boukmann boldly informed them that soldiers were coming from France to second their revendications. And in order to give them full con- fidence in themselves he performed an imposing cere- mony at "bois Caiman" on August 14, on the plantation of Lenormand de Mez}\ On their knees, Boukmann and the conspirators, in the presence of a priestess, took solemn oaths on the reeking entrails of a wild-boar, Boukmann swearing that he would lead the rebellion, and the others to follow and obey their chief. Eight days after this "oath of blood," on the night of October 22, the slaves of the Turpin plantation, headed by Boukmann, rose to a man and gave the signal of the struggle for liberty. The slaves of the neighbor- ing plantations hastened to respond to the call of their comrades. The grievances which had been accumu- lating for centuries found vent at last. In their turn the masters would be made to suffer the tortures which they had long taken pleasure in inflicting on the unfor- tunate blacks.^^ In their first paroxysm of anger and "-^ In a pamphlet printed in 1814 ("The Colonial System Disclosed" — "I-e systSme colonial dgvoile"). Baron de Vastey mentions the follow- ing inhuman punishments inflicted on the slaves by their masters: Pon- cet mutilated his slaves; he killed his own illegitimate daughter by pouring boiling wax in her ears (p. 48). Corbierre buried his slaves alive (p. 41). Chapuiset, incensed by the loss of one of his mules, caused the keeper to be put alive in the interior of the dead animal : man and beast were then buried (p. 45). At Grande-Eivi6re, Jouaneau nailed one of his slaves to the walls by the ears; the ears were then cut off with a razor and roasted, and the victim was compelled to eat them (p. 45). At Marmelade, De Cockburn, a Knight of Saint-Louis, buried his slaves up to the neck and used their heads as a game of ten pins (p. 46). At Ennery, Michau threw his slaves whilst alive into hot ovens. In the Artibonite, Desdunes burned more than forty-five blacks alive, men, women and children. Jarosay, in order to have only dumb servants, cut out their tongues. Baudry, honorary member of the Supe- rior Council of Port-au-Prince, at Bellevue flogged his confectioner to death for having been unsuccessful in the making of some preserves (p. 52 ) . Madame Dueoudrai gave from two to three hundred lashes to her slaves; and hot sealing-wax was aftenvard poured on their lacerated flesh (p. 54). Madame Charette put iron masks over her slaves' faces and left them to starve to death ( p. 55 ) . At Cavaillon, Lartigue caused his servant Joseph to be quartered alive (p. 57). Guilgaud, Naud, Boca- Jean Frangois and Boukmann 51 revenge the rebels spared neither persons nor things. Armed with pikes, axes, knives, spears,— torch in hand, —they destroyed and exterminated everything that came in their way. Fire and death marked their pass- age. Jeannot,^" self-appointed avenger of Oge and Cha- vanne, was merciless. In less than eight days 200 sugar refineries and 600 coffee plantations were reduced to ashes; the plain of the North was one immense ceme- tery. Jean-Frangois, who had assumed the title of general- issimo and grand-admiral of France, led his followers to the veiy entrance of Cap-Frangais. On November 14, however, they were defeated ; Boukmann was made prisoner and beheaded; his body wa.s then burnt and his head, stuck on the end of a pole, was exposed in the centre of the Place d'Armes of Cap-Frangais, with a sign bearing the words: "Head of Boukmann, chief of the rebels." The colonists gave no quarter. All the prisoners were at once put to death. Two wheels on which they were tied and their bones broken, and five gallows were kept constantly busy." Whilst these events were taking place in the North, on August 26, at the Diegue plantation,-" the " aff ranchis, " in pursuance of the plan adopted on the Rabuteau plan- lin, tied their slaves to trees and left them there to die from exposure (p. 59). ^ In order to put a stop to the terrible reprisals of Jeannot, Jean- Francois had him shot. But no white man was punished on account of the cruelties inflicted by the colonists on the blacks and mulattoes. " Rabau (Resume de I'histoire de Saint-Domingue, p. 77), quoted by- Mr. Benito Sylvain (loe. cit. p. 91), says: "Some planters burled the "blacks up to their shoulders, and with pincers forced them to open "their mouths and to swallow boiling syrup. Others had their prisoners "sawed between two boards. I stop ; my pen cannot describe such dread- "ful scenes." A black man, called Bartolo, who at the risk of his life had taken his master to Cap-Francais for safety, was sentenced to death for having participated in the uprising; his denunciator, Mangin, was the very colonist whose life he had saved. "The whites," says Colonel Malenfant, "considered every black man as an enemy, and increased in "that way the number of rebels; for they massacred indiscriminately all "the slaves they could lay their hands on, even those who were peaceful "and had not deserted their plantations." (Benito Sylvain, Du sort dea Indigenes, etc. (p. 92.) " Situated in the neighborhood of Port-au-Prince. 52 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors tation, took up arms and declared themselves in revolt, with Beauvais at their head. The first encounter took place at the Neret plantation. The whites were de- feated; they fled in disorder. From Port-au-Prince troops and artillery were then des^jatched. A bloody battle was fought on the Pernier plantation. The whites were again defeated, and fled, abandoning their guns, which fell into the hands of the ' ' affranchis. ' ' Beauvais then marched with his army to Trou-Caiman, which was fortified. These two defeats made it clear to the whites that on the battlefield at least the blacks and mulattoes were not their inferiors. Genuinely alarmed by the simul- taneous uprising of the slaves and the "affranchis," the wealthy planters thought that the time had come to sever their relations with France. They sought Eng- land's protection and sent to Jamaica for help. The English did not deem that things were ripe for action; in consequence they refused to intervene. Left to them- selves, the wealthy planters of Port-au-Prince, in fear of the devastation which had befallen the plain of the North, made up their minds to come to an agreement with the colored men. On October 23, a treaty of peace was signed at the Damiens plantation. By this concordat it was agi'eed that the "affranchis" would be admitted, on a footing of perfect equality with the whites, in all the assemblies, even in the Colonial Assembly; the sentence against Oge and his companions would be held in execration and the memoiy of these martyrs rehabil- itated: a solemn mass would be celebrated in all the churches of the Western " departement " for these vic- tims, and proper indemnity paid to their widows and children. ^^len, in pursuance of the treaty of Damiens, the army of colored men entered Port-au-Prince on Octo- ber 24, Beauvais, its general, and Caradeux, the most aggressive of the planters of Saint-Domingue and com- mander-in-chief of the militia of the Western "departe- ment," were to be seen marching along arm in arm. In the Artibonite the whites had also signed, on Sep- Beauvais and "A/franchis" Leave Port-anirPrvnce 53 tember 22, a concordat with the colored men of Saint- Marc who had taken up arms under the leadership of Savary. Everywhere the blacks and mulattoes were victori- ous. They believed that they had at last acquired their political rights. Whilst the "affranchis" were deluding themselves with the brightest hopes, their enemies in France did not remain Inactive. Their intrigues were carried on with such success that on September 24, 1791, the Con- stituent Assembly adopted a decree stating that ''all "laws concerning the position of persons without their "freedom, and the state of free colored men and blacks, "as well as the regulations for the execution of such ■"laws, would be passed by the now existing and the "future Colonial Assemblies. * * * " This untimely decree put an end to all the advantages which the "affranchis" had just secured by main force. Henceforth their fate depended on the Colonial Assem- bly, which was in session at Cap-Fran^ais since August 9 ; on that very assembly whose arrogance and hostility toward the black race were well-known facts. As soon as the colonists of Port au-Prince became aware of this decree they did not fail to find a pretext for refusing to ratify the treaty of Damiens. On the morning of November 21 a black man by the name of Scapin, a drummer in Beauvais 's army, had a quarrel with a white soldier ; for this he was flogged and after- ward hanged by the whites. Valme, a colored lieuten- ant, lost no time in avenging Scapin's death by killing a white artilleryman. This was sufficient cause to re- kindle the strife. Both sides took up arms again. After a bloody fight, Beauvais, at the head of his army, marched to La Croix-des-Bouquets. Port-au-Prince was on fire. The whites availed themselves of the oppor- tunity afforded by the disorder and confusion which ensued, to massacre all the "affranchis" of whatever age or sex which they met on their way. More than 2,000 mulattresses " were put to death. A white man =■ Placide Justin, History of Haiti, p. 219. 54 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors called Larousse killed Madame Beaulieu/" a colored woman who was in an advanced state of pregnancy ; lie opened her abdomen, tore out the child, and threw it into the fire. The blacks and mulattoes were in a great state of indignation over these atrocities. Their one desire was for vengeance. Andre Kigaud, who had left for the South, was not long in returning at the head of a strong army, which he marched as far as iNlartissant,'^ where . he encamped. On the other side, Beauvais besieged Port-au-Prince on the north and on the east. The water supply was cut off. The whole southern portion of the island was in arms. At Trou Coffin in the neighborhood of Leogane, a Spanish mulatto known as ' ' Eomaine-la-Prophetesse ' ' ^^ had gathered a large band of followers. He pretended that he had had frequent apparitions of the Blessed Virgin, and in this way he acquired a great amount of influence over his companions. In the North the slaves were still in arms, their over- tures for peace having been contemptuously rejected by the whites. Such was the situation of tlie colony when, on Novem- ber 28, 1791, the first Civil Commissioners, Mirbeck, Eoume, and Saint-Leger, arrived at Cap-Fran§ais. They bad been instructed to restore peace in Saint- Dominguc and to enforce the enactment of the Decree of September 24. They tried in vain to restore peace in the island. The arrogant Colonial Assembly of Cap- Frangais, to which the Decree of September 24 had given special powers, thwarted all their good inten- tions. The " affranchis ' ' knew onh' too well the futility of expecting any concessions on the part of the plant- ers ; they decided to support the Civil Commissioners, hoping that their assistance would secure for them the recognition of their political rights. On the arrival of Saint-Leger at Port-an-Prince (January, 17&2), the B. Ardouin, Studies of Haitian History, p. 282. In the neighborhood of Port-au-Prince, to the south. Romaine the soothsayer. The " AffrancMs" Defeat the Colonists 55 leaders of the colored axxay whicii was besieging the town immediately requested an interview with him. They showed the greatest deference to the agent of the metropolis. Complying with his request they allowed the city to be revictualed. And in order to entirely win him over, they agreed even to raise the siege: they accordingly returned to La Croix-des-Bouquets. The whites of Port-au-Prince, highly displeased with Saint-Leger on account of his good disposition toward the colored men, refused to assist him in the repression of the crimes which the followers of " Roumaine-la- Prophetesse" were committing in the plain of Leogane. The "affranchis" very cleverly profited by this oppor- tunity to make themselves useful : Beauvais and Pinchi- nat placed a body of 100 soldiers at the disposal of the Civil Commissioner. "Whilst Saint-Leger was at Leogane endeavoring to restore harmony and concord between the colored men and the whites, the planters of Port-au-Prince tried to surprise the army of the ' ' aff ranchis ' ' quartered at La Croix-des-Bouquets. Being warned in time of the ap- proach of the troops despatched against them, Beauvais and his companions retreated into the mountains of Grand-Bois and Pensez-y-Bien.^^ Incensed by the per- fidy of the whites, the "aff ranchis,'' who up to that time had been very moderate, resorted to radical meas- ures : they roused the slaves of the Cul-de-Sac plain to rebellion. Headed by Hyacinthe,''* an intelligent and gallant black, these slaves attacked the colonists at La- Croix-des-Bouquets, defeated them and pursued them as far as the neighborhood of Port-au-Prince, which was again besieged (April, 1792). In the South the struggle still continued between the "affranchis" and the whites ;«the latter, in order to rid themselves of their foes, called upon their slaves to arm themselves in order to render them assistance. " Placide Justin, History of Haiti, p. 234. " Hyacinthe believed that an ox-tail which he always carried in his hand had the power of preserving him from bullets; he was regarded as invulnerable. 56 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors In the North the slaves who had broken into rebellion tried in vain to make peace. Toussaint, who was not yet known by the name of Louverture, had given the first i^roof of his perspicacity. Sent to Cap-Prangais nnder a flag of truce he was not long in finding out that the Civil Commissioners possessed in reality no power, and that the Colonial Assembly was the supreme au- thority. Through his advice all parleys were put an end to. Exposed to the anger of the wealth}' planters, hin- dered by their limJted powers and foreseeing grave dangers for the colony, the Civil Commissioners decided to return to France. On April 1, 1792, Mirbeck left Cap-Frangais ; on the 3rd of the same month Saint- Leger sailed from Saint-Marc. Roume, however, re- mained in Saint-Domingue. Whilst the foregoing events were taking place in the island of Saint-Domingue, the Constituent Assembly in France had been replaced by the Legislative Assembly. The liberal and generous ideas of the ' ' Girondins ' ' were destined to have a decided influence on the future of the "affranchis." The latter won their first victory at the beginning of December. A decree adopted on the 7th of the same month forbade the use, against the colored men, of the soldiers sent out to the colony. Shortly after this the Legislative Assembly granted to the "affranchis" the equality of political rights for the possession of which so much blood had been shed in Saint Domingue. On March 28, 1792, a decree, ap- proved by the King on April 4, was enacted stating that henceforth free blacks and mulattoes were to have the same political rights as the white colonists; and that, in consequence, they were entitled to participate in the election of the assemblies, to which they were also eligible. Another decree, passed on the 15th and ap- proved on the 22d of June, vested special powers in the Civil Commissioners : instead of being dependent on the Colonial Assembly they were authorized to dis- solve that body as well as the other assemblies which Army of the " Affranchis" Occupy Port-au-Prince 57 were made use of by the colonists so as to undermine the authority of the agents of the mother country. The Decree of March 28 (better known as the Decree of April 4) was received at Saint-Domingue on May 28. Eoume, whose powers had been greatly increased, hastened to have it enrolled by the Colonial Assembly of Cap-PranQais. With the cooperation of Grovemor de Blanchelande he decided to subdue the colonists of Port-au-Prince. The "affranchis" gladly tendered their assistance. The colored men of Saint-Marc es- corted the Civil Commissioner to La Croix-des-Bouquets (June 20) . Soon after Beauvais aad Kigaud reoccupied Port-au-Prince (July 5). The slaves of La Croix-des- Bouquets, I'Arcahaye, and the Cul-de-Sac plain resumed their work. Freedom, however, was granted to 144 of them upon their agreeing to serve for five years in the gendarmery and to help in maintaining order on the plantations. Wliilst Roume was doing his utmost to restore peace at Port-au-Prince, Governor de Blanchelande had gone to Jeremie, accompanied by Andre Rigaud. The whites of La Cxrand 'Anse had flatly refused to accept the Decree of April 4. After defeating the colored men, many of the prisoners taken were put to death ; the rest were kept in chains on prison-ships in the harbor of Jeremie; among these were even old men, women, and children. The most that Blanchelande could obtain for them was that they be sent to Caio-Frangais. Satisfied with this relative success he left for Aux Cayes, where he failed in his campaign against the rebellious slaves intrenched at Platons. Disheartened by his defeat he went back to Cap-Frangais. Andre Rigaud succeeded in pacifying the rebellious slaves by freeing 700 of them. Success had at last crowded the efforts of the "af- franchis"; by force of anns, blacks and mulattoes had acquired the exercise of their political rights. In the West and in the South more than 1,000 slaves had obtained their freedom. The fii'st blow had been struck at the colonial system ! CHAPTER VI Arrival of the new Civil Commissioners, Sonthonax, Polv^rel and Ailaud — ^Application of the Decree of April 4, 1792 — The Intermediary Committee — Resistance of the colonists — Fighting at Port-au-Prince and Cap-Francais — The English land in Saint-Domingue — The Span- iards conquer a portion of the French territory — General freedom is granted to the slaves — The colored men are in power. Sonthonax, Polverel, and Ailaud, the new Civil Com- missioners appointed by France, arrived at Cap-Fran- qais on September 18, 1792. They were accompanied by 6,000 soldiers and by General d'Esparbes, the new Governor-General of the island. The "atfranchis," who had already gathered impos- ing forces, were well prepared to protect and defend by force of arms the rights granted to them by the Decree of April 4, 1792. Their cause was henceforth inseparable from that of the French Eerolution. Their, assistance was therefore pledged beforehand to the new agents of the mother country. The condition of the island at this time was not reas- suring. In the North the colonists were inflicting pun- ishments of the severest kind on the slaves taken prisoners, without succeeding in quelling the rebellion. In the West and in the South the whites and the "affranchis" were carefully watching each other: symptoms of unrest were rampant. Owing to the want of security resulting, agriculture was neglected and many colonists had left the country. The Civil Commissioners had hardly become settled when news of the momentous events of August 10 reached Saint-Domingue. The arrest and deposing of 58 The "Affranchis" Exercise Their Political Rights 59 Louis XVI fiimislied the colonists with a pretext for renewing the struggle. The Colonial Assembly tried to stir up the people with a view of getting rid of Sonthonax, Polverel, and Ailaud. These latter frus- trated the plan by taking energetic steps : by an order on October 12 they dissolved the Assembly of Cap- Frangais and all the other popular assemblies. In place of the Colonial Assembly they organized what was called the "Commission intermediaire " (Intennediary Committee), consisting of twelve members: sis whites and six colored men. Thus for the first time the repre- sentatives of the black race sat, in a political body, by the side of the arrogant colonists who formerly had had naught but contempt for them. Pinehinat, Jacques Bomo, Louis Boisrond, Francois Paymond, Castaing, and Latortue were the first "affranchis" officially ad- mitted to the honor of participating in the administra- tion of the colony. The colored men did not content themselves with belonging simply to the Intermediary Committee, they took a large ]Dart in the organization of the municipalities; they even held public offices. Civil and political equality was henceforth an accom- plished fact. But much blood was still to be shed; and the black race was to struggle heroically and success- fully to preserve forever an advantage for the winning of which so many lives had been sacrificed. The pride of the colonists suffered greatly ; it seemed impossible for them to accept such a situation. At Cap- Frangais they plotted a conspiracy, in which even the new Governor-General, d'Esparb^s, took part. The Civil Commissioners were able to prevent disturbances only by resorting to extraordinary measures. Assured of the devotedness of the colored men, they proceeded without hesitation to arrest General d'Esparbes and forty white officers, all of whom were taken on board and kept as prisoners in the harbor of Cap-Frangais. General Rochambeau became acting Governor-General. For a while the firm attitude of the Civil Commission- ers preserved peace. They thought that they could now safely look after the welfare of the various prov- €0 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors inees. Poiverel left for the West and Ailaud for the South. Sonthonax remained at Cap-Frangais with the Interraediaiy Committee. Instead of going to Aux Caves, Ailaud, alarmed by the existing state of things, abandoned his post and returned to France. Sontho- nax therefore went South in his place. In January, 1793, he had barely finished expelling from Platons the rebellious slaves of the plain of Cayes, when grave events compelled him to leave the South. Fighting had already taken place in the streets of Cap-Fran§ais (December 2, 1792) : a body of white soldiers had re- fused to acknowledge the authority of a colored officer appointed to command them; they mutinied. A few colonists and the sailors of the men-of-war hastened to side with the white soldiers. They attacked the bat- talion of colored men, who, after -a fierce defense, were compelled to yield to the superior forces of their oppo- nents; they withdrew to Haut-du-Cap, where they took possession of the artillery. On his arrival at Cap- Frangais, Sonthonax arrested and embarked the most important f actionists. The colored soldiers agreed then to return to Cap-Frangais ; they were welcomed with great honor: the Civil Commissioner, the acting Gov- ernor, the Intermediarj'^ Committee, and the municipal- ity all went to meet them. This reception irritated the colonists of Cap-Frangais, and more especially those of Port-au-Prince. The latter, in order to avenge what they considered as a humiliation put upon the white race, plotted the expulsion of the Civil Commissioners and the extermination of the colored men when the agents of France would be no longer in the island to protect them. For a while they forgot their own differences and united firmly against their common enemy. In their turn they succeeded in stirring up against the colored men the slaves of "Fond-Parisien" and of the Cul-de- Sac plain. The revolt broke out on January 23, 1793. Thirty-three plantations belonging to colored men were reduced to ashes. Emboldened by their success the wealthy planters of Port-au-Prince, headed by Auguste Bemwais Chief of the Militia 61 Borel, arrested General Lasalle, then acting Governor. Rochambean had been sent to Martinique. General Lasalle succeeded in making his escape; he went ta Saint-Marc, where Sonthonax had already arrived; Polverel soon joined them. The colored men hastened to render to the Civil Commissioners all the assistancfr in their power. A strong army marched against Port- au-Prince. After a hard and desperate struggle the town surrendered. Beauvais was appointed commander- in-chief of the militia of the West; and a body of regu- lar troops, ''the Legion of Equality," was organized, with the mu'tatto Antoine Chanlatte as its colonel. Their authority once more established in Port-au- Prince, Polverel and Sonthonax tried to subdue La Grand 'Anse. For this purpose they despatched a dele- gation accomx^amed by 1200 soldiers under the com- mand of Andre Eigaud. The colonists of that portion of Saint-Domingue had gradually rid themselves of the control of the agents appointed by France; they had elected an Administrative Council at Jeremie, which voted even taxes. They had armed their slaves and placed at their head a black man by the name of Jean Kina. Aided by them they had succeeded in expelling from their "departement" all the "affranehis," blacks and mulattoes. The a.rmy of the colonists was in- trenched at Desrivaux. Andre Eigaud attacked it on June 19, 179.3. He was completely defeated. After their victory the whites of La Grand 'Anse transformed their Administrative Council into a Council of Safety and Execution (Conseil de Surete et d 'Execution), which they vested with extraordinary powers. In the mean time, the .neatest excitement was prevail- ing once more at Cap-Fran§ais. The Governor of the island, General Galbaud, had espoused the interests of the colonists. Upon the arrival of Polverel and Son- thonax in that town, all the inhabitants were plotting against them. But having ^^^th them a battalion of colored men with Antoine Chanlatte in command, they felt that they were sufficiently powerful to order Gal- baud to immediately leave the island and sail for 62 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors France (Jure 13). The Governor raised a rebellion among the crew of the men-of-war ; and on June 20 he landed at Cap-Frangais at the head of 3,000 men. An- toine Chanlatte, gallantly supported by Jean-Baptiste Belley/ a free black, lost no time in going to the help of the Commissioners. A bloody struggle occurred in the streets of Cap-Frangais. in the end, however, Polverel and Sonthonax were compelled to abandon the town, which was left to the mercy of Galbaud's sailors. On the 21st of June the}' retreated to Camp-Breda. Their situation seemed hopeless. That very day they issued a decree promising full freedom to all the slaves who would take up arms for the cause of the French Republic, promising also that they would be considered the equals of the whites and would enjoy all the rights belonging to tlie French citizens. As soon as this decree became known to them, the followers of Pierrot, Macaya, and Goa, who were fighting on their own be- half, hastened to place themselves at the disposal of the representatives of the French Republic. With a firm determination to earn their freedom, these slaves fiercely attacked the forces o f Galbaud ; owing to their assistance Cap-Frangais was stormed on June 23. The sailors had sacked and partly destroyed the unfortunate town by fire. The ill-fated island of Saint-Domingue continued thus to be devastated by fire and sword. Instead of improving, the situation of the Civil Com- missioners daily grew worse. In February France was again at war with Great Britain; hostilities soon fol- lowed with Spain. The representatives of France and Spain at Saint-Domingue were both instructed by their respective governments to spare no pains, to resort even to the revolted slaves, in order to conquer the territory of the other party. The Governor of the Span- ish portion of the island was already carrying out these instructions. He hiad won over Jean-Frangois, Biasson, and Toussaint Louverture, whom he loaded with favors and honors. Jean-Frangois was appointed lieutenant- ' Jean-Baptiste Belley was later on elected member of the French National Convention. The English Occupy Jeremie 63 general of the forces of the King of Spain; Toussaint Louverture became major-general (marechal-de-camp). "For the first time black slaves were to be seen be- " decked with ribbons, crosses and other insignia of nobility. ' ' ^ Encouraged by the rewards granted to them, pleased with the equality of treatment existing between the white Spaniards and themselves, the blacks fought val- iantly. By their victories the French portion of Saint- Domingue was in jeopardy. After Galbaud's defeat, many of the white officers, indignant at the ever-increas- ing influence of the colored men, had begun to betray the cause of France. One after the other, Ouanaminthe, the important camp of La Tannerie, and the Lesec camp were turned over to the Spaniards. The victori- ous followers of Jean-FranQois, Baissou, and Toussaint Louverture had taken possession of almost the whole northern province. In the South, the colonists of the " Grand 'Anse," availing themselves of the defeat of Andre Eigaud, had again sought the protection of the English. As soon as peace with France was at an end, the representatives of these proud and haughty planters had hastened to submit to the English Government plans for the occu- pation of Saint-Domingue (February 25, 1793). On September 3, 1793, Venault de Charmilly, acting on behalf of the colonists, and Adam Williamson, repre- senting Great Britain, signed at St. lago de la Vega ' the agreement which was destined to put the country into the hands of France's enemies. And on Septem- ber 19 the English soldiers, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Whitelocke, landed at Jeremie ; cries of "Long live King George!" "Long live the Eng- lish ! ' ' were heard on all sides. There were thus French- men who, blinded by their hatred of the colored men, preferred to betray their country and to give up to its foes a portion of its territory, rather than submit to ' Life of Toussaint-Louverture by Dubroca, p. 9. ' Formerly the capital of Jamaica, and now called Spanish Town. 64 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors the necessity of admitting equality of political rights granted to the free blacks and mulattoes. On September 22 the English, without striking a blow, occupied also Mole Saint-Nicolas. They were soon in possession of L'Arcahaie, Leogane, Saint-Marc, and of the whole province of La Grand 'Anse. It looked as if France was about to lose possession of Saint-Domingue. In the Xorth the only important Ijlaces where the French authority was still acknowl- edged were Fort-Dauphin, Cai>Fran5ais, and Port-de- Paix, where General Laveaux, the acting Governor, resided. Yet the Civil Commissioners had not remained inactive whilst these events were taking place. In June they had tried without success to alienate Jean-Fran- gois,* Biassou, and Toussaint Louverture from the Spanish cause. In July Polverel left for the \Vest, where hostile manifestations against France were threatened. Won over by the Spaniards, tvi^o brothers named Guyambois, blacks who had gained their free- dom, were planning, first to place three_ chiefs at the head of the colony— .Jean Guyambois, Jean-Francois, and Biassou; secondly, to proclaim the freedom of all the slaves ; and third, to share the land among the for- mer slaves.^ A Frenchman, the Marquis d'Espinville, in connivance with the Spanish Governor, encouraged these schemes. Polverel frustrated the plot by arrest- ing the two Guyambois and the principal accomplices. However, great excitement prevailed among the slaves when news of this project became known. It was feared that they would be completely won over to the Spanish cause through the promise of freedom and of the par- tition of the land. Thus the concession made by the Decree of Juue 21, which granted freedom aloue to those slaves who would fight for the French Republic, * Jenn-Franoois remaiiied triie to Spain. In 1802 he was living at Cadiz irith the rank and salary of a lieutenant-general in the army of the King of Spain. "He had a large retinue," says Dubroca; "ten black "officers acted as his aides-de-camp."' (Life of Toussaint Louverture, note 2.) " These men, devoid of any intellectual culture, were laying down the principles of the future independence of Haiti. Liberal Measures in Behalf of the Slaves 65 lost a great deal of its importance. Therefore it be- came necessary to take more liberal measures. On August 21 Polverel ordered that all persons found guilty of specified crimes ■would forfeit their movable and landed property. And on August 27 he issued a decree stating first that the Africans or their descend- ants who would remain on or return to \h.e plantations considered vacant would become free and would enjoy all the rights exercised by the French citizens, provided they agreed to work on the said plantations ; secondly, that all the vacant plantations of the West would belong in common to those inhabitants of the province who had borne arms for the French and to the cultivators of those plantations ; thirdly, that (first) all the rebellious blacks who would reinstate or help to reinstate the Eepublic in the possession of the territory occupied by its enemies, all those who would swear allegiance to the Republic and fight for it, (secondly) all the Spaniards, all the revolted Africans, either maroons or independ- ent, ^'ho would facilitate the conquest of the Spanish portion of the island— all these would benefit by the partition that would be made of the vacant plantations ; and, fourthly, that all real estate belonging to the Spanish Government, to the nobles, to the friars and priests would be distributed among the warriors and cultivators. Polverel boldly asserted the principle of the dispos- session of the colonists in behalf of the slaves ; yet he abstained from saying the words so eagerly desired by them— general freedom. However, circumstances had made such a step unavoidable. In the North important events were occurring daily. On August 25 a white man, G. H. Vergniaud, seneschal at Cap-Frangais, had presented a petition to Sonthonax in which the full measure of justice was requested. The situation was vei-y critical; the assistance of the blacks was indis- pensable in order to check the progress of the Span- iards. Sonthonax hesitated no longer; he proclaimed general freedom. His decree of August 29 restored at last to human dignity thousands of men who for cen- 66 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors turies had bent beneath the shameful yoke of slavery. Article 12 of this decree ordered that a third of the products of everj^: plantation be divided among the cul- tivators. . Suiprised by the radical measures taken by Sontho- nax, Polverel "was at first uncertain as to what course he should pursue. But the impatience of the slaves, the growing dangers which threatened the colony, soon decided him to adopt his colleague's views. Thinking tliat an imposing ceremony should accom- pany such a step he ordered a general gathering ait the Place d'Annes " in Port-au-Prince of all the citizens, white and colored; and on September 21, 1793, the an- niversary of the establishment of the French Republic, he publicly declared, at the "autel de la Patrie," that slavery was abolished in all the communes of the West. In their enthusiasm many slave-owners signed their adherence to this great act of social reparation, on reg- isters previously prepared for that purpose. Two days after, the name of Port-au-Prince was changed to Port- Kepublicain,' "in order that the inhabitants be kept ** continually in mind of the obligations which the "French revolution imposed on them." On October 6, 1793, Polverel, then at Cayes, freed the slaves of the South. Thus the coalition of the wealthy planters of Saint-Domingue with the English and the Spaniards had the effect of hastening the abolition of the very institution of slavery which it was their inten- tion to preserve and maintain in the colony had their efforts been crowned with success. After two long years of struggle and of suffering the blacks eventually were delivered forever from this bar- barous and inliuman system. In Saint-Domingue men woiild no longer be the property of men. The revolu- tion was complete. It remained but for the logic of events to aecomjilish the rest. ' Known at the present day as Place Petion. ' In 1804 the town regained the name of Port-au-Prince, but became once again Port-R6publieain from 1S43 to 1845, since which year the capital of the Republic has retained the name of Port-au-Prince. The Colored Men are in Power 67 In the mean time, the Civil Commissioners were be- stowing the highest offices on colored men, the white officers having proved untrustworthy; after the execu- tion of Louis XVI they had not scrupled to give up their forces to the Spaniards. In Polverel's absence, Pinchinat was invested with all the civil powers in the West. Montbrun was commander-in-chief of the prov- ince; Antoine Chanlatte had the military posts under his authority; Beauvais was in command at Mirebalais and La Croix-des-Bouquets ; Greffin at Leogane ; Bru- nache at Petit-Groave ; Faubert at Baynet; Doyon at L'Anse-a-Veau, etc. Andre Eigaud was commander- in-chief of the South. At the end of 1793 the taking of possession of power by the colored men was an accom- plished fact. "And they were about to justify the trust which France had placed in them by bravely defending her territory against foreign invaders. CHAPTER Vn The English occupy Port-au-Prince — Polvfirel and Sonthonax try to cause disunion among the colored men — They leave Saint-Domingue — Toussaint Louverture deserts the Spanish cause and joins the French — Andrfi Rigaud expels the English from Lfiogane — ^The treaty of Bale — The English attack Lfiogane — ^Toussaint Louverture goes to the help of General Laveaux imprisoned at Cap-Francais by Villatc — Arrival of the new Civil Commission — Sonthonax — Toussaint Louver- ture, Commander-in-Chief of the Army — Hgdouville — The English abandon Saint-Domingue — ^HSdouville caases enmity between Tous- saint Louverture and Eigaud — Civil war between Toussaint and Pi.igaTid — Rigaud is defeated and compelled to leave the island. At the beginning of 1794 the English were in posses- sion of Arcahaie, Leogane, Mole-Saint-Nicolas, Jere- mie, and of the whole province of La Grand 'Anse. In the North the Spaniards occupied Gros-Morne, Plais- ance, Lacul, Limbe, Port-Margot, Borgne, Ten-e-Neuve, etc. On December 6, 1793, Toussaint Louverture, who was fighting for Spain, became master of Gonaives. General Laveanx, appointed acting Governor-General by Sonthonax, was at Port-de-Pais ; and the mulatto Villate held the highest military command at Cap- FranQais. On leaving the latter place for Poi-t-au- Prince, the Civil Commissioner transferred his powers to the mulatto Pere. Thus a Governor-General, a mili- tary commander and a civil delegate were all three in command at a time when circumstances called for unity of a. assuredly not the only reasons which '.de,terminfed Ms; decisibn ; the general freedom granted ;to the slaves, ; the political rights, which blacks and Triulattoes enjoyed under the French and which were "and the state he founded -n-ent down with him into his grave. I would "call him. Washington, but the great Virginian held slaves. This man "risked his; einpire rather than permit the slave-trade in the humblest "village of his dominions. You thinlc me a' fanatic, for you read Mstoiy, "not with your eyes but with your prejudices. But fifty years hence, "when Truth gets a hearing, the Muse of history will put Phocion for "the Greek,: Brutus for the Roman, Hampden for the English, LaFayette "for Fran ,,.; ■-,-.,,,■: . Therefo^^. .thfa :EIriglish,. who; seemed: to belieVe that ail means were fair in war, did hot hesitate to resort to corruption. They attempted, to win. over Rigaud to them bv offe'rihghim a T)rib6, 6f 3,000',000 francs.' : The " Placide JustinVHi'stbry of Haiti.'p. 274. ' '■'•-' 76 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors colored officer rejected with scorn this shameful pro- posal. A similar attempt at bribery was made on Laveaux, to whom only 50,000 francs were offered. Did the English consider the honor of a white less valuable than that of a colored man? The Governor of Saint- Domingue resented the aifront; in Ms indignation he challenged Colonel Whitelock, who had made the pro- posal," to a duel, to which the latter paid no heed. The English were guilty of a still graver offense. Having captured seventy soldiers of the Southern Legion, they sent them to Jamaica, where, by order of Adam Will- iamson, Governor of the Island, the captives were im- prisoned, chained by the neck ; and in spite of the fact that they were prisoners of war, they were publicly sold as slaves. Yet Eigaud and his officers were kind in their treatment of 400 sailors of the Sivitchoold that had been captured at Cayes." Following the advice of the French colonists, the English restored slavery and established the supremacy of the whites throughout the territory they occupied. Nevertheless, they had among their followers mulattoes and black leaders like Jean Kina and Hyacinthe. Being thus warned of the fate in store for them, should the English be successful, and tranquilized by the Decree of February 4, 1794, by which the National Convention confirmed the general freedom granted by Sonthonax and Polverel and abolished slavery in all the French colonies," the colored men began to plot on behalf of France. Their conspiracy was discovered at Saint Marc and L'Arcahaie, and they were mercilessly put to death. Elsewhere, however, their defection favored Toussaint's designs. In February, 1795, Major Brisbane, who was in com- mand at Saint-Marc, attacked the forces of Toussaint Louverture; the English officer was defeated and se- verely wounded. In his dealings with the prisoners • Placide Justin, History of Haiti, p. 274. " B. Ardouin, Studies of Haitian History, Vol. II, p. 446. " In spite of this decree of the Convention, slavery existed in the French colonies until it was definitely abolished in 1848. Louverture, Bigaud, etc., Appointed Brig. -Generals 77 made by him Toussaint acted with great caution. He would not shoot the French colonists and emigrants, but would send them to Laveaux, who had to take the responsibility of putting them to death. In this way he began to befriend the whites. Throughout all the time that war was being waged, Toussaint never allowed the cultivation of the land to be neglected. ^Vith money raised from the products of the soil he was able to buy arms and ammunition from the United States. Eigaud in the South, and Beauvais in the West, also encouraged agriculture; Cayes and Jacmel could in this way entertain an active commercial intercourse with the United States. The officers to whose care was intrusted the defense of Saint-Domingue had only their own resources upon which to rely. France was in so critical a condition that there was no probability of her sending any help to ,the colony, which was even without any news from the mother country. The English, on the other hand, received reinforcements in April, 1795. Considerably strengthened by the assistance of the Spaniards and the arrival of the new soldiers, they extended their authority to Mirebalais, Las Cahobas, and Banica. Be- fore long, however, they were destined to be deprived of the support of their allies. On July 22, 1795, the Treaty of Bale was signed and Spain gave up the whole Spanish portion of Saint-Domingue to France. At about the same time, on July 23, the National Convention adopted a decree stating that the army of Saint-Domingue had well deser^'^ed of the country, and appointing Laveaux major-general and ViUate, Tous- saint Louverture, Beauvais, and Bigaud brigadier-gen- erals. This good news was brought to Saint-Domingue by the sloop of war Venus, which anchored at Cap- Fran§ais the 14th of October, 1795. Laveaux, who up to that time had been residing at Port-de-Paix, returned to Cap-Fran§ais, which ViUate had so valiantly de- fended against the English and the Spaniards. Taking advantage of the Treaty of Bale, the Governor of Saint- 78 : Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors 'Domingtie demanded the restitution of the whole por- , tion of the French territory occupied' by the Span- iards; he insisted upon having Jean-FranQois sent otit of the country. 'On January 4, 1796, the black leader left Fort Dauphin for Havana. He died in Spain, where he had kept his rank of lieutenant-general . The English, however, thought that Jean-Frangois's followers might be useful to them. To win them over to their cause tliey had recourse to a black man named Titus, whom they supplied with money and arms. Obey- ing Laveaux's orders Villate attacked and stormed the camp organized by Titus. The latter was killed and his followers dispersed. -. ' . . :: In spite of the services rendered to Fi-ance by VUlate, Laveaux never trusted him. :From Port-de-Paix, where he resided, he used to watch every movement of the mil- itary commander of Cap-Frangais. As a matter of fact, Laveaux was 'displeased at his being kept in the background. As Governor of Saint- Domingue he had now but the native troops to rely on for maintaining his authority; and these he believed more devoted to the officers of their own color than to him. The European officers, the colonists, the royalists, the reactionists had no scruple at igoing over to the Spaniards and the English. It was not possible to intrust to them the mission of defending the colony. France had thus to resort to the colored men, who con- stituted the majority of the first freedmen ; they rose then to the foremost rank by mere force of circum- stances. Through their own fault the whites had lost their preeminence. Rigaud had all the power in the South, Beaiivais in the West, and Villate at Oap-Fran- gais. The two first fully acknowledged Laveaux 's au- thority; they never failed to keep Mm aware of their doings. Their devotion to France could not be ques- itionefd; they acted. bravely in defense of her territory against the English. Villate alone was at variance with the Governor r of . Saint-Domingue. Nevertheless, the lattfer deemed it fit "to hold all the rnulalttoes responsible for his quarrel with his subordinate at Cap-Fran§ais. Laveaux Imprisoned at Gap 79 Laveaiix pompously charged tkem with, plotting to make Saint-Domingue an independent State, in order to be alone in command ; he took umbrage at their grow- ing influence, of which France, however, was deriving the greatest benefit. Such was the frame of mind he was in when Toussaint Louverture deserted the Span- ish cause. Clever and perspicacious, Toussaint at once saw the way in which to turn the mistrust of Laveaux to his own advantage. The latter became a mere puppet in his hands. Beneath his affected mildness was hidden an energetic will ; his ambition knew no bounds. Every- thing must yield before him. Woe to those who dared to stand in his way. Conscious of his superiority over Laveaux, wbose narrow-mindedness he was not long in finding out, he projiosed to cany out his own interests, under the pretext of accomplishing the Governor 's de- signs. The Agents of France sought to cripple the power of the mulattoes who had given offense to them, thinking that once deprived of their natural allies the blacks easily could be taken back to the deserted plan- tations. Toussaint Louverture's intention was to help to re- duce the influence of the mulattoes, but in his own behalf and at the expense of those who thought to use liim as a tool which they would afterward throw aside. The black man was to prove more clever and a better tac- tician than the white. The time for action was nearing. The inhabitants of Cap-Frangais, displeased with the administration of the Governor, rebelled on March 20, 1796. Laveaux was arrested and imprisoned. The municipality of Cap-Frangais hastened to adopt a de- cree investing Villate with the Governorship. This officer, instead of doing his duty by repressing the riot, accepted the office conferred on him by the municipal- ity; thus becoming an accomplice in the attack made upon his official superior. The black Colonels Leveille and Pierre-Michel protested against such an action. The latter through the medium of Henri Christophe, then a eaptain, wrote to the municipality demanding -+; 80 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors the release of Laveaux. He gathered at Fort Belair the black officers Pierrot, Barthelemy, Flaville, etc. Toussaint Louverture intervened energetically on be- half of the Governor. He threatened to lead an attack on Cap-Frangais if Laveaux were not immediately set free. Such an attitude decided the municipality to re- consider its action. On ]\Iarch 22 Laveaux was set at liberty and Villate withdrew to La Martelliere camp. The Governor, however, did not consider himself in safety at Cap-Frangais; accordingly he went to Petite- Anse, where soon new riots occurred. On March 28 Toussaint came to his help. Two days later the blacks at Cap-Frangais took up arms ; they had been told that Laveaux intended to reestablish slavery. Toussaint Louverture restored order ; he became henceforth indis- pensable and was master of the situation. Entirely discredited, Laveaux was no longer able to maintain his authority except with the support of his former pro- tege: he appointed Toussaint Lieutenant-Governor. Toussaint was turning to his advantage the naistakes and passions of all. Whilst Villate was committing the fault of partici- pating in the arrest of the representative of France, Rigaud and his followers were valiantly defending the tricolor flag. Great Britain had sent heavy reinforcements to Saint- Domingue. In command of over 3,000 men, General Bowyer and Admiral Parker left Port-au-Prince on March 20, 1796 ; on the 21st the combined land and sea forces attacked Leogane. Alexandre Petion, who was at that time a major in the army, was in command of Fort Qa-Ira; he compelled the English fleet to with- draw. Eenaud Desruisseaux successfully repelled the two assaults made upon Leogane. The English hast- ened to return to Port-au-Prince when they heard that Beauvais, from Jacmel, and Rigaud, from Cayes, were moving with the greatest haste to aid in defending the town. In the mean time the Directory had been authorized, by an act adopted on January 24, 1796, to send five The Deportation of Vitiate 81 Agents to Saint-Domingae. Roume, Sontlionax," Ju- lien Eaymond, Giraud, and Leblanc were appointed. Roume was to reside at Santo Domingo. He arrived there on April 8, 1796 ; and his four colleagues landed at Cap-Frangais on May 12. The new Agents were accompanied by Major-General Rochambeau, in com- mand of the Spanish portion of the island, Major-Gen- eral Desfonmeaux, and Brigadier-Generals Martial Besse, A. Chanlatte, Bedot, and Lesuire. The day after their aiiival the Agents ordered Vil- late to appear before them. He therefore returned to Cap-Frangais, where he was given an enthusiastic welcome by the inhabitants. Displeased with this friendly attitude toward his opponent, Laveaux, at the head of a detachment, charged the crowd: 45 women were wound eel. Villate was at first sent back to his camp ; but after- vrard he was sentenced to be deported and outlawed. To avoid bloodshed he left on the frigate Meduse for France, where he wa« tried and acquitted. Yrhen Sonthonax left for France in 179-i he already bore feelings of enmity against the mulattoes; he came back to Saint-Domingue with the determination to exert eveiy means in his power to destroy their influence. He found it comparatively easy to carry out his plan; for Laveaux had the same design. There was in conse- quence nothing else to do but to continue the policy already adopted, and the object of which was to use the blacks against the mulattoes in order to restore to the whites the supremacy which they had lost; afterward the blacks would be dealt with. At the time when the peace of Bale made it possible to undertake an energetic campaign against the Eng- lish, the agents of France spent their time in sowing and fostering discord everywhere, instead of trying to unite all those who were willing to defend the cause of the mother country. Soon after appointing Toussaint Louverture major- ^ On his arrival in France Sonthonax was tried and acquitted of the charges brought against him. 82 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors general they sent a delegation of three members, Eey, Leborgne and Keverseau, to the South for the purpose of controlling the administration of that province ; they decided to cause the arrest of Pinchinat, who was uni- versally esteemed and whose influence was feared by Sonthonax. This delegation arrived at Cayes on June 23, 1796, increased by the addition of Desfoumeaux in the capacity of General Inspector of the troops of the South and the West. It was this same General Des- foumeaux whose intrigues had provoked an armed con- flict in Port-au-Prince on ]\farch 17, 1794. Having suf- fered defeat at the hands of the mulatto Montbrun, he was, like Sonthonax and Laveaux, unfriendly toward the colored men. Another of the delegates, Eey, having been implicated in an attempt to murder Andre Eigaud in 1793, had been compelled to flee from Cayes. And this was the man who had been sent there as the official superior of this general. In tliis manner Sonthonax and his colleagues plainly showed how slightly they minded wounding the feelings of Andre Eigaud, who, however, had been the one to drive away the English from Leogane and Tiburon, \\\\o had kept order and discipline in the whole Southern province, and whose devotion to France could not be questioned. Eigaud 'a crime consisted in the confidence reposed in him by both blacks and mulattoes, and, in consequence, his influence over them. They charged him with striving for the independence of Saint-Domingue and with keeping out the whites from public offices. Yet at Cayes on the arrival of the delegates two white Frenchmen occupied the position of Orderer (ordonnateur) and Controller of the Treasuiy, and they were so successful in their management of the finances that the Southern province was able to subsist on its own resources. On account of their devotion to Andre Eigaud, however, they were dismissed and replaced by mere tools of the Agents. The squandering of the people's money began. The order for the arrest of Pinchinat increased the discon- tent of the inhabitants. But he could not be found, for Unsuccessful Campaign Against the English 83 on July 17 lie had left Cayes, taking shelter in the Bara- deres Mountains. In order to establish their authority more firmly the Delegates were eager to win a few victories over the English. In consequence they instructed Rigaud to storm the fortified place of "Irois" and Desfoumeaux was ordered to attack the Davezac camp. On the 7th of August Eigaud assaulted Irois but failed in his at- tack; he retreated to Tiburon. On his side Desfour- neaux, who was accompanied by the Delegates, was equally unsuccessful in his attempt at storming the Eaimond camp ; he had to withdraw to the Perrin camp. This double defeat in thwarting the plans of the Dele- gates so irritated them that they were unable to con- ceal their disappointment. In their report ^^ they said that * ' they could maintain their authority only by fight- ing the English. A victory together with the kind treatment they intended to extend to the vanquished were to lead them from the South to the North. The colony would be saved and the Frenchmen would be once more its masters." The blacks and mulattoes were not then considered as Erenchmen. According to the Delegates the whites alone were capable of being the masters of Saint- Domingue. In case of success their intention therefore was to come to an understanding with the colonists of the Grand 'Anse, who were known to entertain the greatest hostility toward the members of the black race. The Agents of France who were at Cap-Pran- §ais had already issued an amnesty in favor of the emigrants and colonists who would join the French cause. After their defeat the delegates returned to Oayes (August 18, 1796) . They dismissed the ' ' Commandant of the Arrondissement," Augustin Eigaud, the brother of General Andre Eigaud, and replaced him by Beau- vais. Their idea in taking this step was that such an appointment could not fail to create bad feeling be- " B. Ardouin, Studies of Haitian History, Vol. Ill, p. 251. 84 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors tween Andre Eigaud and Beauvais, wlio were both brigadier-generals ; they expected that the latter would show much reluctaiiee in obeying the former's orders: consequently rivalry and conflict, they imagined, would surely ensue between the two mulatto generals. Their forces being thus weakened by division, General Des- f oumeaux would be justified in putting them aside and in assuming the command of the Southern province. The scheme failed owing to too great haste in bringing about the desired result. The Commandant of Arron- dissement of Saint-Louis, the mulatto Lefranc, seem- ing to stand in their way, the delegates decided to get rid of liim. He therefore was ordered to proceed to Caves where, on his arrival, Desfourneaux caused him to be arrested. Whilst being taken on board L'Afri- caine, he succeeded in making his escape and fled to the Fort La Tourterelle, where he fell in with the sol- diers of the regiment which had been formerly under his command. Andre Kigaud was at that time at Tiburon. In the fight which ensued Desfourneaux 's soldiers were defeated. In the plain of Cayes, on the night of August 28, Augustin Eigaud stirred up an insurrection among the blacks whom the emissaries of the delegates were provoking against the mulattoes. A few whites were murdered. Desfourneaux and Eey, alarmed by the popular movement, hurriedly left Cayes. Leborgne and Keverseau, who remained at their post, sent immediately for Andre Eigaud, whose assistance Lefranc and Augustin had also sought. On the arrival of the colored general (August 31) special powers were conferred on him by the delegates. For the purpose of restoring order they were obliged to have recourse to the veiy man whose influence they had sought to an- nihilate. Quiet speedily prevailed. And the measures taken by Eigaud were so efficacious that the captains of the American ships in the harbor of Cayes extended their thanks to him for the protection he offered them. After having adopted and pursued in a still worse degree the policy followed by Laveaux in setting the . Toussaint Sends Laveaux Off Saint Domingue 85 blacks against the mulattoes, Sontlionax and his col- leagues tried to cast upon Toussaint the responsibility of the discord which they had fomented. In their report to the Directory of the events which occurred in Saint-Donaingue they wrote the following: "Some "of the black generals remained faithful. They res- "cued General Laveaux by force. Two opposite fac- ' ' tions were the outcome of the disturbance : the blacks "and the mulattoes. General Toussaiat increased the "confusion and instigated the blacks to the severest "measures against the colored men. He provoked the "conflict and inspired hatred in the heart of both "parties."" Toussaint Louverture was nevertheless appointed commandant of the Western province. General Bochambeau, who stopped at Cap-Frangais on his way to Santo Domingo, did not approve of all the doings of the Agents ; the corruption of the officials was what' he censured most severely. He was sum- marily dismissed by Sonthonax and sent back to France. While all these intrigues were taking place, the pres- ence of the English seemed to have been entirely for- gotten. As a matter of fact they made no effort to avail themselves of the division existing among their op- ponents. On June 14, 1796, the Spaniards evacuated Fort Dauphin, which Laveaux occupied; its name was changed to Fort Liberte, which it still retains. Eochambeau having been deported, there remained but three major-generals in the colony : Laveaux, Com- mander-in-Chief ; Desfourneaux, and Toussaint Lou- verture. Should Laveaux also be sent off the island, Toussaint would in all probability succeed him, Des- fourneaux being already in disfavor. And if only the same could be done to Sonthonax, then would the black general have before him the possibility of attaining the position of highest authority. To obtain this result, " B. Ardouin, loc. cit., Vol. Ill, p. 274. 86 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Toussaint resorted to a clever device. For the election of the Deputies to the French Legislative Assembly the Agents had summoned to Cap-Frangais one electoral eoUege only. Up to that time each of the three prov- inces, North, South and West, had had its electoral assembly. By ordering the electoral college to meet at Cap-Francais the Agents thought that it would be a very simple matter to secure the election of men devoted to their party. But they were wrong in their calculations. From Gonaives, where he resided, Tous- saint Louverture was able, through the intennediary of Henri Christophe, a member of the electoral college, to rule the elections ; he managed to secure the election of Sonthonax and Laveaux, whose removal from Saint- Domingue was indispensable to the realization of his plans. With much delight at having been elected, La- veaux sailed for France on October 19, 1796. Sontho- nax, surprised and highly flattered by the honor con- ferred on him, saw at first in his election but a new token of the devotion of Toussaint Louverture and of the blacks in general. However, he did not seem to be anxious to leave Saint-Domingue, where he was exer- cising an absolute dictatorship. His colleague, Giraud, disgusted by all the intrigues which were going on in the island, returned to France. He was soon followed by Leblanc, who sailed on the frigate La Semillante, after having quarrelled with Sonthonax, whom he charged with having tried to poison him: which proves how small was the trust reposed in Sonthonax by his colleagues. The Agency of the Directory was then reduced to two members: Sonthonax and Julien Raymond, the latter but a negligible quantity. At the end of Novem- ber, 1796, the news reached Cap-Frangais that the rank of major-general conferred on Toussaint had been rati- fied. At the same time the Directory sent to the new major-general a sword and pistol of honor. Sonthonax, convinced that these demonstrations of his good will had entirely won over Toussaint Louver- ture, expected that the latter would be henceforth his Rupture Bettveen Sonthonax and Rigaud 87 tool. Eelying on his assistance he adopted, on Decem- ber 13, 1796, a decree ordering the trial of Andre Rigaud by the Directory and the Legislative Assembly. Without dismissing this general, the decree aimed at curtailing his authority. A. Chanlatte, Beauvais, and Martial Besse were respectively appointed command- ants of the arrondissements of Jacmel, Leogane, and Saint-Louis. All of these officers were mulattoes; therefore it was believed that they would become inter- ested in the downfall of Andre Rigaud, whilst the latter would distrust them: hence would arise fresh discord and the weakening of the power of this class of men. Sonthonax 's scheme was a clever one. The Agency declared besides that it would no longer correspond with Andre Rigaud. To the decree laying the whole Southern province under an interdict the municipality of Cayes responded by authorizing Rigaud to continue in office. And popular manifestations at Jacmel and Saint-Louis prevented Chanlatte and Martial Besse from entering upon their new duties. The rupture between Sonthonax and Rigaud was complete. It was no difficult matter for Toussaint Louverture to profit by the existing state of things. Being on bad terms with the mulattoes, Sonthonax depended now entirely on him. Toussaint had sided with Laveaux against Villate, because at that time the latter was in his way. But just now he desired to have the support or, at any rate, the neutrality of all classes in order to attain his goal. Therefore it was that though in opposition to Sonthonax 's wish he was favor- able in his reception of Rigaud 's overtures. The friendly relations which resulted between the black and mulatto generals caused grave apprehensions to Sontihonax. It was evident that his enemies were not Toussaint 's ; and it did not seem as though Rigaud was jealous of the black man who, by his rank of major- general, had become his official superior. In the opinion of the Agent of the Directory, the intimate union of those two men— both all-powerful, one in the South, the other in the North and the West— could only be 88 Haiti: Her History •and Her Detractors fraught with great danger for the authority of France. Consequently, no means were to be sjjared in order to divide them and to provoke bitter enmity against each other, which could only end in strife. For the time being, Toussaint, by gaining Eigaud's favor, isolated Sonthonax entirely. He also took the precaution of surrounding himself with officers on whose fidelity he could rely. J. J. Dessalines was in command at Saint Michel, Moise at Dondon, Clervaux at Gonaives, Henri Chris- tophe at Petite-Eiviere. Sonthonax did not even take the trouble of keeping on good terms with General Desfourneaux, whose sup- port, however, might prove useful to him. The latter had displeased him, therefore he decided to get rid of liim. To bring about this result he had recourse to Toussaint, who had the greatest interest in the removal of the only officer of equal rank with him. The black ^general arrived at Cap-Frangais on the 15th of May, 1797 ; at night Desfoumeaux was arrested and carried on board. Henceforth Toussaint was the only major- general residing in the colony. On the 3d of May Son- thonax appointed him Commander-in-Chief of the Army 'of Saint-Domingue. Yet Toussaint had not helped to annihilate Villate's influence in the North; neither had he succeeded in turning Laveaux out of Saint-Domingue, with the idea of becoming subordinate to Sonthonax. Invested with the highest military authority, his ambition was to suc- ceed Sonthonax as he had already succeeded Laveaux. Meanwhile, he felt the necessity of increasing his pres- tige; so he started on a campaign against the English. He was successful in expelling them from Verettes and Mirebalais, but he failed in his attack against Saint- Marc. . ■ In the South, Eigaud, true to France in spite of the decree adopted by Sonthonax, had also renewed hostili- ties against the English. He could not storm Les Irois, but he succeeded in destroying Dalmarie. The English tried once more to win him over to their cause. Writing Sonthonax Leaves Saint Domingue 89 to him through Lapointe, they endeavored to speculate upon his supposed jealousy of Toussaint Louverture on acDomingue. And in order to disclaim the appearance of all preten- sions to independence, he hastened to ask Eoume, who was at Santo Domingo, to come and reside in the French portion of the island. Meanwhile, he did not conceal his resentment at HedouviUe's letter to Eigaud. He quite naturally believed that the Commandant of the South- ern province was in full sympathy with the Agent of France. This started a. bitter exchange of letters between the two principal military authorities of the colony. Conceit and false pride played a large part in aggravating the disagreement between the two gen- erals. Eigaud enjoyed great prestige in the South. Eeleased by HedouviUe's order from all obedience to Toussaint, and thus rendered somewhat independent, there was a possibility of his becoming a dangerous rival. To main- tain his authority' it would be necessary for Toussaint completely to cripple the isower of the only man who could successfully resist him. Therefore he lost no time in beginning to discredit him. Such was the situation when, on January 12, 1799, Eoume arrived at Port-au-Prince. After concerting with Toussaint Louverture he called a meeting of Ei- gaud, Beauvais, and Laplume. At this meeting, which took place at Port-au-Prince, Eoume requested Eigaud to resign his position of Commander-in-Chief of the Southern province and to relinquish Petit-Goave and Grand-Goave to Laplmne, who was already in command of the Arrondissement of Leogane. By accepting such a proposal Eigaud 's authority would have been reduced to nothing practically. So he tendered a full resigna- tion of all his authority ; and having been elected Rigaud Tenders His Resignation 97 Deputy to the Legislative Assembly, lie asked Romne to allow him to go to France and take his seat in that body. The departure of Eigaud would have removed many difficulties; it would have satisfied Toussaint's am- bition for the time being ; all power would be his in the colony. All cause of conflict between the natives of Saint-Domingue would thus have disappeared. Know- ing as he did the misunderstanding which, since Hedou- ville's letter, existed between Toussaint and Eigaud, Eoume was in duty bound to accept the latter 's resigna- tion. However, he refused it. The policy of France aimed at that time to divide the blacks and the mulattoes in order to be able to restore the supremacy of the whites by subduing each of them individually. Eoume, who was cognizant of the ulterior designs of the Direc- tor}^, was determined to do his utmost to provoke and keep up the mistrust existing between the two parties. He persisted in refusing to accept the resignation which Eigaud again made to him, and he succeeded in deciding him not only to remain in Saint-Domingue but also caused a weakening of his authority by transferring the command of Grand-Goave and Petit-Goave to Laplume. This arrangement did not meet with Toussaint Louver- ture 's full approval, as it still left his rival with a great deal of influence, whereas it was his wish to get him out of the colony. To bring about this end, he determined to avail himself of the first opportunity to make a rup- ture inevitable. As the consequence of a riot which occurred at Corail, thirty of the malcontents, twenty- nine of whom were black and one white, were impris- oned in the jail of Jeremie ; they died from asphyxiation. Whilst this was taking place Rigaud was • at Petit- Goave, on his way to Cayes. Upon learning of this unfortunate occurrence Toussaint Louverture, then in Port-au-Prince (February 21, 1799), treated it as a matter of the greatest importance. The drummers went through the streets beating "La Generale"; the whole population was summoned to the cathedral. From the pulpit Toussaint denounced Eigaud as the enemy 98 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors of the blacks and afterward wrote him a most insulting letter. Roume purposely held aloof and allowed the quarrel to grow more bitter. Since February 25 he had left for Cap-Frangais ; but he continued to keep up a cordial correspondence with the Commandant of the Southern province. However, he suddenly issued a proclamation in which he denounced Eigaud as a man whose ambition was a menace to the established governmental author- ity. Nevertheless, Roume did not dismiss him, neither did he inflict on him any disciplinary measure. Instead of this he requested Toussaint Louverture to call the insubordinate to order, thus attaining his end in cre- ating a civil war. Eigaud found himself in a sad dilemma: he had to thoose between fighting or fleeing from Saint-Do- mingue. He accepted the former alternative — incited by his hasty temper, the recollection of his past services to France and the authority intrusted to him, which he considered his duty to exercise. Toussaint proceeded 'with his usual caution in prepaiing for the unavoidable struggle by taking such measures as to insure him suc- cess. He gave special thought to the supplies of his army, provisions being somewhat scarce. For this reason he entered into direct relations with John Adams, then the President of the United States, who appointed Edward Stevens Consul-General at Saint- Domingue. Toussaint 's negotiations with England and the United States resulted in a similar commercial arrangement with both countries, to which Roume gave his approval in April, 1799. The two powers pledged their assistance to the black General. In conseqtience General Maitland'^ advised his agents to give their == On board H. M. S. Camilla, of I'Arcahaie, General Maitland ad- dressed to Lieutenant-Colonel Grant, who had been recently appointed British Agent in the island of Saint-Domingue, a. letter of instructions from which I reproduce the following extract: "I do not apprehend "that there can be the smallest danger arriving to Jamaica if Toussaint "gains the superiority; and so long as this island ( Saint-Domingue 1 is "in its present state (that is, of actual warfare) it is equally clear that "it is perfectly safe. One great object therefore of your duty here will English and Americans Side with Louverture 99 tinreserved support to Toussaint and to do their utmost to prevent a reconciliation between the latter and Eigaud, whilst President Adams placed under an in- terdict all the southern ports of Saint-Domingue, and by a proclamation of June 26, 1799, prohibited their entrance to all American ships, thus depriving Eigaud of the means of getting provisions and war material." He even went so far as to place American men-of-war at the disposal of Toussaint, so much was he won over to the latter 's cause. The conflict brought about by the intrigues of the Agents of France broke out at last. At night on the 17th of June, 1799, Eigaud 's soldiers who were quar- tered at Pont-de-Miragoane attacked and stormed the "be to endeavor to keep it in one of these two situations as far as you "can, that is, to prevent any amicable arrangement taking place between "Eigaud and Toussaint, of which indeed I see no possible chance; and "should Toussaint gain the superiority you must exert yourself to the "utmost to hinder him from recei\"ing anything like an agent on the "part of the Directory. The present will be displaced long before your "arrival. ♦ ♦ ♦ You are to endeavor by every means in your power "to keep Toussaint in supreme authority in the island and to enter into "any fair views of his that may have this obvious tendency." ^. Letter of Toussaint Louverture to John Adams, President of the United States, dated Port-de-Paix, August 14, 1799. Extract: "Jlr. "Edward Stevens has communicated to me your letter concerning the "measures adopted in your proclamation. * * * Of all the coercive "means at my disposal I can make use only of those which this country "offers to me in order to repress the criminal audacity of the rebellious "Rigaud and of his followers; but other means more powerful are want- "ing. Without a navy, the pirates of the South, who infest our coasts, "plunder and murder Frenchmen and foreigners whom they meet on "their way. ♦ ♦ « With their barges they reinforce the rebellious "towns of the Xorth without my being able to go in pursuit of these "pirates. It is to put an end to their piracy that, whilst my land forces "will endeavor to crush them, I beg of you, full of confidence in your "fairness and your principles of justice, to let me have the assistance "of some men-of-war. By granting my request you will have the glory "to have helped, you and your nation, in repressing a rebellion odious "to all the governments of the world. It is of very little importance "that in your proclamation you have prohibited the ships of your nation "from going to the ports of Saint-Domingue, except to Cap-Frangais and "Port R^publicain: such a measure will be of no avail if you have not "some strong way to cause it to be respected. By granting my request "for a few men-of-war, you repress a rebellion which all the governments "have interest in repressing, while you secure the execution of the will "of your own Government." 100 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors fort of Petit-Goave. Bloodshed had started; men were about to kill their own brothers, and all to the greatest satisfaction of the colonists, who saw visions of recon- quering their former influence through this great sacri- fice of human life. Toussaint displayed his usual activ- ity. After repressing a rebellion at Mole Saint-Nicolas he centred his efforts against Jacmel, which was being besieged by General Dessalines, Commander-in-Chief of the forces in the South. The few ships used in the blockade of the town were inadequate to prevent the landing of supplies of provisions sent to the besieged town. Toussaint then claimed the promised assistance of President John Adams, as a result of which a brig and a frigate of the United States Navy cruised before Jacmel and chased away the small crafts which were endeavoring to revictual the town. The besieged people of Jacmel had been successively deserted by their leaders Beauvais "* and Birot ; how- ever, they kept up a valiant defense under the command of Petion, who at the eleventh hour had come to their help. Being unable any longer to resist the famine and the consequent diseases arising from it, they evacuated the town on March 10, 1800. The fall of Jacmel was the beginning of the overthrow of Eigaud. In spite of their great bravery his soldiers could not check the steady advance of Toussaint 's more powerful army. On July 28, 1800, Dessalines was at a distance of only three leagues from Cayes, the port of which was block- aded by two frigates and two schooners of the United States Na\'y. Eigaud 's cause was irretrievably lost. Plight was the only course open to him ; consequently, he left Cayes and sailed from Tiburon on July 29, 1800, on a Danish ship bound for Saint Thomas.^' " Beauvais, whom the "affranchis" of the Di5gue camp had appointed their leader, was unfit to hold the first rank. Always ready to obey the Agents of France, he was greatly disturbed by the proclamation of Roume branding him with the name of a rebel. In order to avoid the necessity of fighting Toussaint Louverture he fled from Jacmel, of which arrondissement he was commander. The ship on which he set sail for France sank and he was drowned. " From Saint Thomas, Rigaud went to Guadeloupe, whence he sailed Toussaint Gets Rid of Rigau^ 101 The 1st of August, 1800, Toussaint Louverture ar- rived at Cayes. According to his custom he went to the church, where, after the usual Te Deum had been chanted, he ascended the pulpit and proclaimed a full obKvion of all the happenings of the past. For some time to come S'aint-Domingue knew no other master. Toussaint had supreme command. He had meantime unfortunately lost the sympathy and devotion of many friends: a fact which he would have bitter cause to regret in the short space of two years after his glorious triumph. for France on October 2; on his way he was captured and made prisoner by the Americans, who were still lending their assistance to Toussaint. He was taken to Saint Christopher and there imprisoned. He did not succeed in reaching France until the following year on March 31, 1801. (B. Ardouin, Studies on Haitian History, Vol. IV, p. 201.) CHAPTER VIII Administrative measures taken by Toussaint Ixjuverture — Occupation of the Spanish portion of the island — ^Jkleeting of the Central Assem- bly — Constitution of Saint-Domingue — Toussaint Louverture elected Governor-General — The French expedition — The "Cr6te-a-Pierrot" — Deportation of Rigaud — Surrender of Toussaint Ix)uverturc — Hia arrest and deportation — ^His death at Fort de Joux. Confident of the success of his campaign against Eigaud, Toussaint Louverture had no longer any pur- pose to serve in treating Roume with deference. The Commander-in-Chief requested the dismissal of Gen- eral Kerv'erseau. then at Santo Domingo, which request the Agent refused to grant. Toussaint then called to mind that the Treaty of Bale had given the Spanish portion of the island to France; he demanded the au- thorization for taking possession of it. Roume 's new refusal increased his displeasure. From Port-au-Prince he summoned the Agent of the Directory to come and confer with him. The latter declined to leave Cap- Frangais; at the same time he ordered the expulsion of the English emissaries who were in the colony. On March 4, 1800, he wrote to Toussaint, instructing him to carry out his order. One of these EnglisTi emissaries, Mr. Wrigloworth, was at that time with Toussaint. The latter, oif ended by the tone of the Agent's letter, left for Gonaives. His nephew, Moise, and other mili- tary commanders began to stir up the country people. The rebels marched to Cap-Frangais, where they re- quested an interview with Roume and the municipality, threatening to invade the town should they fail to com- ply with their request. Roume went to meet them. The peasants demanded that half of the lands of the colo- nists being granted to them, they should be allowed 102 Toussaint in Supreme Command 103 to work in their own behalf ; and a decree authorizing the taking possession of the Spanish portion of the island. Upon the refusal of the representative of France to accede to these demands, he was unceremoni- ously locked up in a poultry-house. They sent for Tous- saint, who, however, showed no hurry in taking part in the matter. At last he arrived on April 27, 1800. Tak- ing advantage of Roume 's sad plight, he extorted from him the decree authorizing the occupation of the Spanish portion of Saint-Domingue. He intrusted this mission to General Age, who failed to carry it out; the strong opposition of the Spanish authorities and inhabitants compelled him to leave Santo Domingo. Until the right time should come for the realization of his plans, Toussaint was carrying on the legislation without paying the slightest heed to the representative of France. He made regulations concerning, 1st, the collection by the Treasury of the income yielded by lands the owners of which were absent; 2d, the postal ser^TLce; 3d, the administration of the Naw. He took strong measures with the view of preventing any dis- turbance of public order. He knew by personal experi- ence how. to stir np the people. It was by means of nocturnal dances and ceremonies, which the frightened colonists indiscriminately called "vaudoux" ; by means of these secret meetings it was that conspiracies were plotted. To influence the uncultured slaves, the leaders had to resort to the supernatural, even going so far as making them believe that they were invulnerable. "What is designated as "vaudoux" might be considered as a kind of politico-mystical association which the most enlightened among the blacks verj^ cleverly used to attain their ends. The resolutions adopted, the watch- words were scrupulously obeyed by the members of the sect. Toussaint was better aware than any one what an easy matter it was to disturb the peace through the practice of such an institution; for he was one of the instigators of the slaves' uprising and a witness of the ceremony at which Boukmann administered ' ' the oath of blood" on the entrails of a wild boar. In conse- 104 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors quence, on January 8, 1800, he issued a decree prohibit- ing, under severe penalty, all kinds of nocturnal dances and meetings, especially the dance designated as " vau- doux." The preambles of this decree show that Tous- saint considered "vaudoux" rather as a political sect. "Fully convinced," says he, "that the leaders of these "dances have hut one aim: the disturbance of the peace, "* * * wishing to put a stop to the innumerable "evils resulting from the practice of a doctrine which "creates disorder and idleness — I order the following: "All nocturnal dances and meetings are henceforth pro- "hibited. * * * "i The arrival in the colony of Major-Generals Mitchel, Eaymond, and Vincent, sent by Napoleon Bonaparte, then first Consul, did not put an end to the encroach- ments of Toussaint Louverture. In the Southern prov- inde he established four military arrondissements : Cayes, Tiburon, Jeremie, and L'Anse-a-Veau. He ap- pointed Dessalines major-general and invested him with the command of the Western and Southern -orovinces ; Moise was given the command of the North. By decrees he conferred correctional jurisdiction on the civil tribunals ; he organized courts martial. On Octo- ber 12, 1800, he adopted a regulation concerning agri- culture—the cultivators were subjected to a severe discipline; they were not allowed to leave the planta- tions to which they belonged, even should they be able to secure better wages elsewhere. He instituted a guard of honor in which former noblemen of the colony were enlisted. ' B. Ardouin, Studies on Haitian History, Vol. IV, p. 154. The colonists, from whom the slaves carefully concealed their plans, could never succeed in getting an accurate knowledge of what "vaudoux" was in reality. This secret association was the most powerful weapon of the defenseless hlacks. They were thus able not only to plot upris- ings, but also to warn each other of any dangers which threatened them. The secrecy observed by those who took part in "vaudoux" gave rise to many legends; and up to the present time foreigners of more or less good faith affirm that "vaudoux" is the religion of the majority of the Haytians. Those who would care to have full information on the matter may rend the interesting book of Mr. Hannibal Price, "Rehabilitation of the Black Race through the Republic of Haiti." Toussaint Relegates Roume to London 105 The wealthy planters of Saint-Domingne once more held office; they were appointed judges; they secured good positions in the administration. Therefore they were all one in sympathy with Toussaint Louverture. And when, on November 25, 1800, he made his tri- umphal entrance into CaiJ-Frangais these men who, some years ago in their pride, had shown such contempt for the blacks and the mulattoes were again at his feet. A white woman compared him to Bonaparte and placed on his head a crown of laurel leaves. Toussaint Lou- verture acknowledged the compliment by kissing her. At the municipality he was called "Hercules," "Alex- ander the Great, ' ' etc. None of these flatteries could make him forget that Roume had defied him bj' cancelling the decree author- izing the occupation of the Spanish portion of Saint- Domingue. The day after his arrival at Cap-Fran§ais, on November 26, he ordered that the representative of France be relegated to Dondon until he should be re- called. General Moise was commissioned to carry out this order. At this juncture Toussaint began to feel uneasy concerning Bonaparte's attitude. Consequently he preferred to keep Roume at Saint-Domingue rather than send him to France. And in order to prevent the first Consul from being informed of the events which were taking place in the colony, he decided that in future he alone should sign the passports of those who wished to go abroad. Any persons who left the island without his permission forfeited their properties. With a view of increasing his resources, Toussaint Louverture repealed by an act of December 12, 1800, the taxes on the plantations which were hitherto pay- able in natural products of the soil, and ordered that all commodities and merchandise exported from or imported into the colony be subjected to a duty of 20 per cent. A tax of 20 per cent was also levied on the renting value of all houses, on the value of all articles for home consumption. Custom-houses were thus established. However, at the request of the Consul-General of the 106 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors United States, Mr. Edward Stevens, whose assistance had been most valuable to him during the campaign against Eigand, Toussaint, on December 31, reduced the import duties to 10 per cent. The Decree of December 12 emphasized the attitude of independence of the Commander-in-Chief of the Anny of Saint-Domingue. All merchandise, without exception, had to pay the import tax; French goods were therefore to be treated as foreign products. With his usual perspicacity Toussaint foresaw that Bona- parte would not forgive his encroachments as easily as the Directory. A conflict was inevitable; for he was determined in his resolution not to acknowledge any authority superior to his in Saint-Domingue. Not wishing to leave any place which would act as a base of operations to the forces which would be sent against him, he persisted in his idea of occupying the Spanish portion of the island. On December 20, 1800, he gave notice to Don Joachim Gai-cia that General Moise had been empowered to execute the treaty of Bale by ta,king possession of that portion of the colony which had been transferred to France. Without awaiting an answer he despatched an army against the Spaniards. Whilst Moise invaded the former Spanish territory, by cross- ing the Massacre Eiver, Toussaint, on January 4, 1801, occupied San Juan de la Maguana. On January 14 he had reached the banks of the Nisas near to Bani, where a battle was fought in which the Spanish were defeated ; yet France and Spain were at peace. Further resist- ance on the part of the Spanish was useless. Toussaint had the satisfaction of seeing his former chief, Don Joachim Garcia, entirely at his mercy. The black Gen- eral was destined to humble all those who had thought of using him as a tool. On Janua,ry 21, 1801, a conven- tion was signed at Jayna for the surrender of Santo Domingo ; and on the 28th Toussaint made a triumphal entrance into the town, where the traditional Te Deum was sung in the church. Toussaint did his utmost to win over the sympathy of his new fellow-citizens. In order to increase the trade Toussaint Protector of the Whites 107 he reduced the import duties to 6 per cent ; he ordered the cultivation of sugar-cane, coffee, cotton, cocoa; he repaired and bettered the highways, which the Spanish had kept in very bad condition. The organization of the newly acquired territory did not prevent him from giving his attention to the general administration of the island. On January 9 he decreed stamp and registry dues ; on January 10 he established license taxes. On February 11 he instituted a company of gendarmerie for every one of the communes of the colony. This gendarmerie had the special mission of supervising the cultivators. Whilst imposing the severest discipline on the men of his race, Toussaint did his best to gain the sympathy of the colonists, thinking by so doing to lull France's suspicions. Therefore he facilitated the return to Saint- Domingue of the wealthy planters who had thought it best to leave the island ; all properties were restored to their former owners, and he bestowed his entire pro- tection on the whites. He firmly believed that by his kindness he had secured their gratitude. In this he was mistaken and his reasoning proved groundless. The colonists were simply taking advantage of the situation. They coaxed and flattered Toussaint Louverture, but in reality they felt humiliated to have to bow down before a black man, before one of those slaves whom they had been hitherto accustomed to regard as no better tham animals. So for the time being they endured the situ- ation until the right moment should arrive to make the change they desired ; and meanwhile they were highly pleased with a system so beneficial to them. And they thought that the time was fast approaching for_ the realization of their long-standing wish to be the legisla- tors of the colony. Toussaint knew that his rights were precarious; an order of the first Consul might at any moment deprive him of his exalted position. There- fore he felt the necessity of obtaining the support of the people with a view of justifying his usurpation of power. Both sides were then in full accord as to disregard- 108 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors ing France 's prerogatives. In consequence, by a procla- mation of February 5, 1801, Toussaint Louverture ordered the meeting at Port-Republicain (Port-au- Prince) of a Central Assembly consisting of ten mem- bers. After the elections had taken place he arrived in the toAvn, where he was accorded a most flattering welcome; the streets through which he passed were strewn with flowers ; bells were rang and cannon fired in his honor, lie conferred with the Deputies and afterward returned to d'ap-Frangais in order not to be charged with influ- encing the decisions of the Assembly.^ Whilst the body assembled on March 22, 1801, after electing Borgella as its chairman, was occupied in pre- paring the Constitution, Toussaint, with his usual activ- ity, continued, at Cap-Frangais, to legislate in the inter- est of the colony. By a Decree of May 8 he reduced to 6 per cent the duties on biscuits, flour, salt, provisions, and building timber; he adopted a uniform tariff for the custom-houses. By an act of May 9 he prohibited gambling ; civil or military ofl&cials found in a gambUng- house were to be dismissed and sentenced to one month's imprisonment; private citizens were liable to four months ' imprisonment with hard labor. The Constitution ^ intended to be observed in Saint- Domingue was adopted on the 9th of May, 1801. Tous- saint Louverture was appointed Governor-General for life, with the right to choose his successor. He was empowered to fill all vacancies in civil and military offices, and held chief command in the Army. The Gov- ernor was authorized to submit to the Assembly the drafts of laws pertaining to the colony. After Tous- saint 's death the term of office for the Governors was to be five years ; and in case of death or resignation of ' The Central Assembly consisted of Bernard Borgella and Lacour as members for the West; Etienne Viart and Julien Raymond for the South; Collet and Gaston Xog€r6 for the South; Juan Mancebo and Francisco Morillas for Enga.no; Carlos Koxas and Andre Munoz for Samana. • Louis-Joseph Janvier, The Constitutions of Haiti. The Constitution of 1801 109 a Governor, the General highest in rank was to exercise the power until the election of a new Governor. In this manner the Governor of Saint-Domingue no longer owed his authority to France, but to the people of the colony. The mother country had also lost the right of appointing to public offices and of enacting laws for this dependency of hers. After investing Tous- saint with all the prerogatives which could satisfy his ambition, the colonists bethought themselves of their interests. The cultivators were then prohibited from leaving their plantations ; and it was decided that labor- ers would be imported to restore and promote agricul- ture. However, slavery was abolished forever. Civil and criminal courts and a Supreme Court (Tri- bunal de Cassation) were organized; but courts martial were authorized to act in all eases of robbery, murder, incendiarism, conspiracies, etc. The Roman Catholic religion was proclaimed the religion of the State; and divorce was prohibited. To fill up the measure, the Assembly authorized the Governor to put the Constitution in execution without awaiting the approval of the French Government. Toussaint lost no time in complying with the will of the people of Saint-Domingue. On the Place d'Armes of Cap-Frangais the Constitution was proclaimed with great pomp on the 8th of July, 1801 ; it was afterward printed and made public in the whole colony. Tous- saint was at the topmost pinnacle of greatness. He sincerely believed that from that time forward he was the legal and legitimate chief of Saint-Domingue, France having only a nominal protectorate on the island. Some of his lieutenants, however, could not help fear- ing the probable consequences of so bold a step. Des- salines thought that Toussaint was too much under the influence of 1;he colonists, and that he was not cautious enough in his actions. But he observed great circum- spection in his criticism, not caring to get into disfavor with the new Governor-General. Moise, believing that the ties of blood and his oft-proven fidelity made him 110 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors safe against his uncle 's distrust and suspicion, was less guarded in his speech. He objected principally to the severity of the treatment to which the cultivators were subjected ; he tried to ameliorate their condition ; which attitude was displeasing to the colonists. The wealthy planters were of the opinion that the Governor's nephew was setting a bad example. Therefore they resolved to cause his downfall. Yet it was unnecessary for any one to try to provoke discontent among the laborers; of themselves they found out that there was but little betterment in their jjresent condition. Though they were told that they were no longer slaves, they had, however, to endure the tyranny of the military chiefs, who, like the former overseers, compelled them to work hard on the plantations of their former mas- ters. As a consequence of their discontent they thought of resorting to the method by which they had once be- fore thrown off the yoke of ser\-itude: they took up arms. Lamour Derance, at the head of the blacks from Bahoruco, succeeded in taking possession of Marigot. But he was soon compelled to evacuate the place and to take shelter in the mountains. In the Northern province, where Moise was in com- mand, there was also much discontent among the blacks. In the plain of Limbe many laborers revolted and, after murdering about 300 whites, marched on Cap-Frangais. The colonists, incensed at Moise 's leniency, charged him mth being an accomplice if not the leader of the rebels. He was in consequence arrested and sentenced by a court martial to be put to death. He was shot on November 29, 1801. Toussaint, whilst engaged in restoring peace and order in Saint-Domingue, was somewhat apprehensive as to the decision of Bonaparte concerning the Consti- tution he had adopted. This document he sent to the French Government through the intermediary of Colonel Vincent. There existed in the mind of the agent of the Governor of Saint-Domingue not the least doubt as to the way in which the first Consul would regard this matter. Bonaparte, victorious and master Quiet Reigns at Saint-Domingue 111 of France, saw nothing to prevent liis taking advantage of this opportunity to check Toussaint's ambition. _ In the mean time, the new Governor-General was organizing the colony. At his suggestion the Central Assembly enacted many useful laws. Toussaint achieved success where various Agents of France had known but failiire of their plans; under his energetic and vigorous government prosperity had reappeared in the island. Scrupulous to a degree as to the manage- ment of public funds, he insisted upon the strictest probity from all those into whose charge was committed the money of the colony. Agriculture was flourishing ; * justice was being administered by competent men. C^uiet reigned at last after all the agitations which since 1791 had been dyeing the soil of Saint-Doming'ae with blood. But this peace, so earnestly desired, was destined to be of short duration; fresh storms were gathering over the unfortunate island. Bonaparte, the arbitrarj^ ruler of France, could never permit the continuance of Toussaint 's encroachments ; lie was preparing to crush the black man who had dared to usurp France's prerogatives. To crown the Machia- vellian politics of the Directory, he was planning, not only the annihilation of the influence of the blacks, but also the restoration of slavery. The various Agents of France had done their utmost to instigate the blacks against the mulattoes. The latter were now to be used to subdue Toussaint and his followers, with the ulterior design, in case of success, of deporting them all. Stich at least was the advice given by General Ker- verseau. Peace with Great Britain was scarcely concluded when a formidable expedition was organized against Saint- * From ISOO to 1801 the products of the island were the following: refined sugar, 16,540 lbs.; bro\vn sugar, 18,518,572; coffee, 43,220,270; cotton, 2,480,340; indigo, 804; cocoa, 648,518; logwood, 6.768,634; mo- lasses, 99,419. In 1790, before the beginning of the troubles which ruined Saint-Domingue, the total products of the island were: refined sugar, 70,000,000 lbs.; brown sugar, 93,000,000; coffee, 68,000,000; cotton, 6,000,000; indigo, 1,000,000; cocoa, 150,000; molasses, 30,000. (B. Ardouin, Studies of Haitian History, Vol. IV, p. 400.) 112 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors DomingTie. On December , 14, 1801, five squadrons simultaneously left Brest, Lorient, Kochefort, Toulon, and Cadiz. Forty-five thousand of the best soldiers of France were embarked on forty ships, twenty-seven frigates and seventeen coi-vettes. Bonaparte appointed his brother-in-law, General Leclerc, chief of the expe- dition and Captain-General of Saint-Domingue. Thir- teen major-generals and twenty-seven brigadier-gen- erals were to assist the new Governor in destroying Toussaint's authority. Andre Eigaud and his compan- ions Petion, Leveille, Birot, etc., who, after their defeat in the South, had fled to France were sent back to Saint- Domingue with the invading army. In spite of the strength of these forces Bonaparte condescended to the use of stratagems in order to more easily get rid of the black general. Toussaint 's two sons, Placide ° and Isaac, were in France. With many messages of advice, to which were joined various warnings for their father, he ordered them to go to Saint-Domingue with their teacher, Coisnon. Appointed sub-lieutenants by the first Consul, Placide and Isaac were sent for the pur- pose of endeavoring to persuade their father to acknowl- edge France's authority. On January 29, 1802, the French fleet arrived at Samana Bay, whilst Toussaint Louverture was at Santo Domingo. General Kerverseau was despatched to the latter place, whilst Leclerc sailed for Cap-Frangais. General Uochambeau was instructed to occupy Fort Liberte; and General Boudet was to take possession of Port-au- Prince. On the 1st of February, 1802, Leclerc "s squadron arrived at Cap-Frangais, where Henri Christophe was in command. The latter went at once to Fort Picolet, and without any hesitation he opened fire on one of the vessels which was trying to enter the harbor. Neither the demands, the promises of favor made by an aide-de- ' Placide was Seraphin's son. When Toussaint married the mother, he adopted her child. Christoplie Sets Fire to Cap-Frangais 113 camp sent by Leclerc, nor the entreaties of the munici- pality, represented by Cesar Telemaque, a black man, who begged him to spare to Cap-Frangais the horrors of a battle, succeeded in moving Christophe, who remained firm in his resolution not to allow the landing of the French army before receiving instmctions from Tous- saint Louverture, his otScial superior. It was only on the 3d he consented to authorize a deputation to go and ask Leclerc for a sufficient delay to enable him to com- municate with Toussaint. On Leclerc 's refusal to grant the request, Christophe made his final preparations for the inevitable struggle; on the 4th he instructed the soldiers to compel the inhabitants to leave the toASTi. At that very moment Eochambeau was taking posses- sion of Fort Liberte, which was able to show but little resistance. .All the native soldiers who fell into the hands of the French General were put to death. The struggle began thus with an act of savageiy which could not fail to provoke reprisals. On the night of February 4 Christophe heard of what had occurred at Fort Liberte. He immediately gave orders to set fire to Cap-Frangais, which he was unable to defend against the superior forces of the French. Setting the example, he himself applied a torch to hia richly furnished house. Early in the morning of the 5th Christophe abandoned the town and withdrew to Haut-du-Cap. Leclerc was then able to land; he found the town in ashes. General Hardy, whose troops ha.d been disembarked at L ' Acul-du-Limbe, stormed, onhis way to Cap-Frangais, a fortification located at Riviere Saiee. Following Eochambeau 's example he put to death the unfortunate native soldiers taken prisoners, and who, in resisting, had but obeyed orders from their superiors. Decidedly, the French were bent on waging a war of extermination. General Boudet occupied Pori^au-Prince on Febru- ary 5. On that day Toussaint, who, on receiving the news of the arrival of the French fleet, had left Santo Domingo in great haste, arrived at Grand Boucan, whence he witnessed the burning of Cap-Frangais. He 114 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors was soon joined by Christophe, to whom lie gave in- structions. In proceeding to d'Hericourt he fell in with the troops under the command of General Hardy ; they fired at his escort. Toussaint's horse was wounded and he was compelled to make his escape on foot across the fields. There was great delight among the colonists at the arrival of the French army; even the jjriests, upon whom Toussaint had heaped favors, immediately aban- doned his cause. The black General saw then the mis- take he had made in counting upon the gratitude and the fidelity of the whites. After taking possession of the smoking iTiins of Cap- Frangais, Leclerc tried to win over Toussaint. With that end in view he sent Placide and Isaac, accompanied by their teacher Coisnon, to Ennery where Madame Louverture was li-^ing. Informed of the arrival of his sons, Toussaint hastened to go and see them ; they had been away six years. Nevertheless, he could allow him- self but two hours for the affectionate welcoming of the children from whom he had been so long parted. After receiving the letter addressed to him by Bona- parte he returned to Gonaives, and from there he wrote to Leclerc. Placide and Isaac brought him the answer of the Captain-General, who promised to appoint him his first assistant should he at once acknowledge his authority. Toussaint rejected this proposal and made up his mind to fight; however, he refrained from influ- encing his sons' decision; he left them absolutely free to act as they thought best. Placide, the adopted son, espoused his cause, whilst his own son, Isaac, declared that he would never take up arms against France. Threats and promises ha^'ing failed to produce any effect, Leclerc, on February 17,1802, outlawed Toussaint and Henri Christophe. The campaign was immediately opened. Imposing forces marched against Gonaives, with the expectation that there Toussaint would be sur- rounded and captured ; but he had had time to leave the town and withdraw to Ennery. On the 24th of Febru- ary the French occupied Gonaives, which had been The Fight at La Ravine-a-Couleuvres 115 burned to the ground by General Vernet upon his being forced to evacuate the town." The day before at La Ravine-a-Couleuvres Tous- saint had encountered Eochambeau 's army, which was trying to cut off his communications with the town. The fight was a fierce one. Picking up a gun the black General fought side by side with his soldiers. His example stimulated the courage of his guard and Eochambeau was repelled. After this success Toussaint started for Saint Marc; but the news was brought to him that this town had just been set on fire and evacuated by Dessalines. The latter, who had arrived too late to prevent Port-au- Prince from falling into the possession of the French, was doing his utmost to check their advance. On his side Maurepas was making a gallant stand at Port-de-Paix. Compelled to yield to the superior forces of the enemy he set fire to the town and retreated to the Fort des Trois-Pavillons. Encamped in this post he opposed a stubborn resistance to the troops of Gen- eral Hum.bert, whose various attacks were repelled. But at last Maurepas was compelled to surrender; and Leclerc maintained him in his capacity of Commandant of the arrondissement of Port-de-Paix. Toussaint, whose courage had been in no way dimin- ished by the reverses with which he had met nor by the defection of some of his officers,' established his head- quarters on the Couriotte plantation. He ordered Des- salines to assume the command of the fort of La Cret-e- a-Pierrot,' wliich he had previously provided with all means of defense. In the mean time, Magny with La- ' The chiefs of the native army were instructed to set fire to all places that they were unable to defend. The tactics adopted consisted of depriving the French of any shelter and of leaving them as much as possible exposed to the scorching heat of the Antilles. ' General Laplume, Commandant of the arrondissement of Cayes, had hastened to acknowledge the authority of Leclerc, and the whole Southern province had followed his example. • The fort of La Cr6te-a-Pierrot is located on the right bank of the Artibonite River and at the southwest of La Petite Riviftre. 116 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors martiniere® as his first assistant, occupied tke fort, which the French troops under the commiand of General Debelle tried to storm on the night of March 4, 1802. They were repelled and the French General was severely wounded. In order to avenge this defeat Leclerc, as- sisted by General Dugua, Boudet, and Pamphile de Laerois, inarched against the fort. But Dessalines had had time tO' arrive and to assume the command of La Crete-a-Pierrot. On the morning of March 11, 1802, an attack was made on the fortress by some of the best soldiers of France. Torch in hand, Dessalines threat- ened to blow up the powder rooms and to bury the whole garrison under the ruins of the fort should his officers and soldiers show the slightest hesitation in the per- formance of their duty. The fight was stubborn and desperate. The hitherto imdncible regiments of France were compelled to fall back before the courage and valor of their black opponents. Generals Boudet, Dugua, and Leclerc were wounded during the attack, which ended in the retreat of the French. The latter being unable to storm the stronghold, decided to^ lay siege to it. Before the investment could be completed Dessalines succeeded in leaving the fort under Magny 's command with the intention of mustering sufficient forces to go to the relief of the besieged. Surrounded on all sides, perpetually under fire, and suffering from the pangs of hunger and thirst, the native soldiers entertained no thought of surrendering; knowing the impossibility of longer keeping up the defense of the fort entrusted to them, they made up their minds to fight their way through the hostile army. At the dead of night on March 24 they abandoned La Crete-a- Pierrot, and, falling on the left of Eochambeau's divi- sion, they made their way by a bayonet charge through the lines of the besieging troops. "The retreat," says General Pamphile de Lacroix, "which the Commandant • LamartinJSre died at the end of the year 1802 -whilst fighting on behalf of France. Despatched to subdue a "band of rebels, he fell, in the mountains of I'Arcahaie, in the po-wer of one Jean Charles CourjoUes, who beheaded him. Deportation of Rigaud 111 "of La Crete-a-Pierrot dared to plan and execute was * 'a brilliant exploit. More than 12,000 men surrounded "the place; he escaped without losing half of his army; "leaving but the dead and the wounded." Whilst his valiant companions were keeping almost the whole French army in check, Toussaint Louverture did not remain inactive. He had retaken possession of Saint Michel, Saint Raphael, Dondon, and Mannelade. After pursuing a French regiment as far as Hinche he returned to the plain of Gonaives ; he was threaten- ing the rear of General Pamphile de Lacroix's division at the very moment when Magny and Lamartiniere were escaping from La Crete-a-Pierrot. The evacuation of this stronghold, together with the surrender of Maure- pas, aggravated greatly the position of Toussaint Lou- verture. He withdrew to Les Cahos, where Dessalines and his valiant officers shortlj^ joined him. As soon as Leclerc saw prospect of success he began to put into action the plans of the first Consul, who wished to crush Toussaint in order to restore the supremacy of the whites ; in consequence, not only the power of the blacks, but that of the mulattoes as well, would have to be annihilated. Among the latter was Andre Kigaud, who, by the prestige of his name, might profit by the downfall of his former victor ; it became therefore of the utmost necessity to remove him from the colony. On his arrival at Saint-Domingue the late Commandant of the Southern province had written to General Laplume, at that time Commandant of the arrondissement of Cayes, claiming his house, of which this General had taken possession. This correspondence became a pretext for Leclerc to decide upon Rigaud 's deportation. The Captain-General and Chief of the colony, Bonaparte's brother-in-law, might openly have taken this step ; but he preferred to have recourse to deceit. Being at Saint Marc he summoned to that place Toussaint 's former opponent, who he ordered to ac- company him into the Southern province. Without the " B. Ardouin, Studies of Haitian History, Vol. V, p. 111. 118 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors slightest feeling of distrust Rigaud went on board the Cornelie. This frigate made for Cap-Frangais, whilst La Guerriere, which Leclerc had boarded, sailed for Port-au-Prince. Upon the inquiry of Eigaud the Cona- mandant of the Cornelie notified him that he was a pris- oner and demanded, his sword. Replying to this only by a gesture of contempt, the former Commandant of the Southern province hurled into the sea the sword which had so faithfully defended Saint-Domingue against the English." The ill-advised measure of which Rigaud was the victim at once made clear to the eyes of the mulattoes the true aim of Leclerc 's expedition; this inexpedient action was in consequence destined to strengthen their union with the blacks, whose avowed leader, Toussaint Louverture, was, in his turn, about to fall a victim to the French reactionists. Meanwhile, Leclerc was enjoying good fortune in his undertaking. After some parleys cleverly managed he bx-ought about the surrender of Christophe. After this fresh blow Toussaint Louverture could resist no longer. The late Governor of Saint-Domingue was forced at last to acknowledge France's authority. On the 6th of May, 1802, he went to Cap-Frangais, where cannon were fired in his honor from the forts and the men-of- war. Leclerc gave him a most flattering welcome. At La Marmelade, on the 8th of May, Toussaint bid fare- well to his guard and withdrew to Descahaux, one of his plantations in the Commune of Ennery, where he devoted himself to agriculture. His downfall was the consequence of his attitude toward the men of his race. He had no longer the influence over them which he had formerly exercised. The blacks who he believed were devoted to him had been alienated by the severity he displayed against them to the benefit of the wealthy planters. The soldiers fought indeed very gallantly; but the people had not the enthusiasm which inspires " Disembarked at Brest on the 22d of May, 1802, Rigaud was relegated af Poitiers and Montpellier ; he was afterward arrested and locked up at Fort de Joux. Arrest of Toussaint Louverture 119 lieroic deeds. The fame of bis name could not make up for the sympathies he had lost. However, even as matters stood, Toussaint, though disarmed and defenseless, was stUl a cause of anxiety to Leclerc. On this account the Captain-General did his utmost to invite the great man whom he had van- quished to commit some act which would justify his arrest. French soldiers quartered at Ennery daily plundered his plantation. Ever cautious, Toussaint contented himself with making complaints about the depredations. But no notice was taien of his griev- ances ; in consequence, be left Descahaux and withdrew to Beaumont, where persecutions followed him. Tired of the espionage and petty annoyance to which he was subjected, Toussaint wrote to Leclerc that be would be compelled to take shelter on one of his "hattes" (ranches) of the Spanish portion of the island. For fear he should escape from the military posts which surrounded him, the Captain-G-eneral decided to hasten the execution of his plans. In consequence he ordered General Brunet, who was in command at Gonaives, to arrest Toussaint; at the same time be wrote to the latter as follows : " "Headquarters of Cap-Frangais, "Prairial 16tb year X of the Republic [5 June 1802]. "The Commander-in-Chief to General Toussaint. ' ' Since you persist, citizen General, in believing that "the great number of soldiers quartered at Ennery ' ' cause fear among the cultivators of that parish, I have "commissioned General Brunet to concert with you "aJ5 to the stationing of these soldiers, some beyond "Gonaives and others at Plaisance. You must warn "the cultivators that this measure once taken, I "will cause those who desert their plantations and take "to the mountains to be arrested and punished. As "soon as this order has been carried out, let me know "the result, because should peaceful means fail I will "have resort to military measures. "Leclebc." ^ The letters of Leclerc and Brunet to Toussaint can be found in Vol. V, pp. 174, 175 of B. Ardouin's Studies on Haitian History. 120 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Surpassing his chief's perfidy, General Brunei, on June 7, addressed the following letter to Toussaint : "Here is the time for you, citizen General, to make "known to the Commander-in-Chief .that those who are "trying to give him false ideas concerning your good "faith are vile slanderers, and that your only aim is to "restore order and quiet in the parish where you are "living. You must assist me in securing free communi- ' * cation on the highway leading to Cap-Frangais ; since "yesterday this highway has become unsafe, three per- "sons have been murdered between Ennery and Cap- "Fran§ais by a band of about fifty ruffians. Send to "these bloodthirsty men trustworthy and well-paid ' ' emissaries ; the money will be refunded to you. "There are, my dear General, some arrangements I * 'would like to make with you, but which cannot be "settled by mail; a conference of one hour will bring **the matter to a close. Were I not so exhausted by *' stress of business, I would to-day have brought my ■"answer to you; but I am unable to go out; come; if "you have recovered your health, let it be to-morrow. "One must never delay ehen one can do good. You "will not find in my country home all the attractions I * ' would like to gather there in order to welcome you ; "but you will find in my house the sincerity of an "honest man [galant homme], whose best wishes are "for the prosperity of the colony and your own happi- "ness. "If Madame Toussaint, whose acquaintance I would "like to make, could accompany you, I would be very "glad. If she want horses I will send her mine. "I will say again, General, you will never find a more "sincere friend than I. Have confidence in the Captain- " General, and friendship for those who are his subordi- " nates, and you will enjoy peace. ' ' Cordially yours, ' * Brunei. ' ' "P. S.— Your servant, who is going to Port-au- Arrest of Toussaint Louverture 121 "Prince, was here this morning; he left with his pass "in order."" Toussaint had had many warnings. Some friends who had remained true to him had informed Viitti of Leclerc's intentions and had entreated him to leave Beaumont. The black General refused to believe that French officers could dishonor their calling by such base deceit. Leclerc had promised to forget the past. Bru- net had just written to him that he was his sincere friend and that he would find in his house ' * the sincerity of an honest man." Toussaint was unwilling to cast the least doubt on the word of two major-generals. Furthermore, it seemed incredible to him that they would invite his wife to come and witness his arrest; for Brunet in his letter had offered to send his own horses for Madame Toussaint should she wish to accom- pany her husband. On the other hand should Toussaint fail to respond to Brunei's call and flee from Beau- mont, it would seem as though he were guilty of some offense. As a consequence, Leclerc would at once seize the opportunity to go in pursuit of him with all the forces of the colony. As foon, therefore, as he had received the letters of the two French Generals, Toussaint left for the Georges plantation," where General Brunet was stationed. In his memorial to the first Consul he states the odious outra;retext of renewing his declaration of devotion and faithfulness to Leclerc, Dessalines sud- denly api>eared at Cai)-Fraii5ais ; in reality he came to confer with Petion, who was at that time at Haut du Cap with Clervaus. Whilst awaiting reinforcements Leclerc was eomjjelled to resort to the native soldiers in order to quell the insurrection. For this purpose he was obliged to act as though he placed entire confidence in Dessalines, who nevertheless remained undeceived by the welcome given to him. He hastened to return to Artibonite. In the mean time, Clervaux had been imprudent enough to say that he would not hesitate to join the insurrection were he sure that the French intended re- storing slavery at Saint-Domingue. To prevent the arrest and the possible execution of his companion Petion decided to precipitate matters. Late on the night of October 13, 1802, he deserted the cause of France ; after spiking the cannon he left Haut-du-Cap and withdrew on the Dericourt plantation, followed by the troops under his command. In winning him over the insurrectionists made a valuable acquisition. But ^ "The executions," says Pamphile de Lacroix, "taking place daily, "new defections were of daily occurrence. The proof that there was "abuse in the executions can be found in the fact that the more that "took place, the less the rebels seemed to be scared. The blacks showed "on the callows the same courage with which the martyrs of the early "a^es faced death." (B. Ardouin, Vol. V, p. 278.) ""Shooting, hanging, and, what is still more horrible, drowning, deci- "mated the indigenes, who were condemned on mere deniinciations which "were often of very slight foundation. These cruelties, unworthy of the "French, were vainly multiplied; they served only to provoke terrible "hatred against us and to give new followers to the cause of the rebels." (Gastonnet des Fosses, La perte d'une colonic, p. 328.) 132 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors the dauntless spirit needed to inspire them and the strong hand capahle of energetically delivering the de- cisive blows were still missing. Cleivanx had followed Petion; Christophe was about to jom them. Still the combined gallantry of these brave soldiers did not suf- fice : it was the sword and the unfailing courage of Des- salines which were indispensable in the mighty task of freeing the island forever of the oppression of the French domination. At the very outset Petion 's position demanded the display of much caution and tact. The followers of Petit Noel Prieur, against whom he had not long ago been fighting, assumed a threatening attitude; he had not only to appease them, but also to try and get them to set aside their grievances against Christophe. Griving them himself the example of conformity to discipline and abnegation, Petion, who up to that time had held the rank of adjutant-general, yielded the command of the insurrection which he had provoked to Clervaux, who was a brigadier-general. On the 15th of October, 1802, the native troops which had deserted France's cause stormed Haut-du-Cap. There the French committed a crime so appalling that of itself it would have been sufficient to justify all the excesses of the natives. On learning of Petion 's defec- tion Leclerc had immediately ordered 1,200 native sol- diers to be disarmed and embarked on the men-of-war at that time in the harbor of Cap-Frangais. These unfortunate prisoners were massacred at the first news of the storming of Haut-du-Cap, theii' bodies being one after the other hurled into the sea. Twelve hundred vic- tims at one stroke ! Was not such a merciless act enough to fill the hearts of the men of their race with wrath ! Nicolas Geff rard, who was in hiding at Cap- Frangais, availed himself of the confusion resulting from the fight at Haut-du-Cap to escape and join Petion. The future leader of the war in the Southern pro"\ance was thus on hand. "Whilst these occurrences were taking place in the vicinity of Cap-Frangais, Dessalines had been at work DesscUines in Arms Against France 133 in the interest of the cause. He went to Plaisance and Gros Mome, where he conferred with Magny and Paul Prompt, already at the head of many followers. In the neighborhood of Gonaives he afterward held an inter- view with Greneral Vemet, Commandant of the arron- dissement. Leaving Gonaives he proceeded to Petite Kiviere, where Cottereau had already secretly gathered together a great number of cultivators. On entering Petite Eiviere, on October 17, 1802, he was warned by Saget that the Commandant of the place was commissioned to arrest him. Nevertheless, Dessalines committed the imprudence of accepting an invitation to breakfast at Father Videau's, the rector of the parish, in whose house French soldiers had been concealed. But an old woman, a servant of the rector, saved the life of the future liberator of Haiti in warn- ing him by a stealthy gesture that they were about to tie him down. With the swiftness of a flash of light- ning, the black General rushed from the house, sprang into the saddle and galloped at full speed to the Place d'Armes, where he fired two shots with his pistols. Cottereau and his followers understood the signal and fell upon Petite Riviere. The die was thus cast, and from that hour the insurrection had its acknowledged leader. Dessalines lost no time in taking possession of the fort of La Crete-a-Pierrot, where he found arms and ammunition of which he was sorely in need. This success provoked a new crime on the part of the French: General Quentin, at Saint Marc, caused a whole battalion of native troops to be massacred; here occurred another wholesale slaughter. These atrocities inflamed the spirit of the natives. Colonel Gabart at- tacked Gonaives with so much vigor that the French were compelled to evacuate the town. Dessalines was less successful against Saint-Marc, which he failed to storm. This defeat convinced him of the necessity of organizing his troops. After establishing his headquar- ters in the Artibonite province, this illiterate man, who could barely sign his name, astonished even his oppo- nents by the energy and the audacity of his combina- 134 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors tions. Within a comparatively short time he got up a regular army. And what were these soldiers? Men who had just been freed from slavery— peasants, most of whom had never handled a gun ! But he succeeded in transforming these ignorant and ineffective forces into invincible legions. His army was scantily clothed and fed— he had neither the means nor the time to organize a commis- sariat. Arms and ammunition had often to be taken from the enemy. The tatterdemalions who made up his army soon commanded the respect of the haughty Frenchmen whom they were defeating at every turn. In facing death the blacks were decidedly not inferior in courage to the whites. Leclerc was greatly surprised to see those whom he still affected to despise, to see those whom he still con- sidered like * ' serpents and tigers to be destroyed, ' ' fast becoming lions bent on devouring his army. He was soon compelled to center his forces at Cap-Frangais. His disappointment was inconceivable. Instead of the splendid success he expected to achieve, he found him- self facing a humiliating defeat. This embarrassing situation had a bad effect on his health. On October 22 he became ill, and on the 2d of November, 1802, he had ceased to exist. His funeral-knell was also the death-knell of the French domination. Toussaint Louverture had been deported only five months since, and yet his prediction was becoming veri- fied: the powerful branches of the tree of liberty were strangling those who had tried to uproot it. After Ijeclerc's death, Eochambeau assumed the post of Captain-General. The colonists were overjoyed; at last they had as their leader a man of so unscrupulous a conscience that the shedding of the blood of the natives would be unlimited— the man who had inaugu- rated the system of execution by asphyxiation in the hold of the men-of-war. The struggle was already a fierce one ; henceforth it was to be of the most savage, barbarous kind. The new Captain-General arrived at Cap-Frangais Death of Maurepas 135 on the 17th of November, 1802, and he at once began committing the acts of cruelty for which he was famed. General Maurepas, whom Brunet had arrested at Port- de-Paix, had been, together with his whole family, transferred to the man-of-war Le Duguay-Trouin, at that time in the harbor of Cap-PranQais. Colonel Ban- din and a regiment of native troops were also embarked on the same ship. By Eochambeau's order all these unfortunate people were thrown into the sea and drowned.' At that time it sufficed to be black or mulatto to be suspected of sympathizing with the insurgents, and, in consequence, to be mercilessly murdered. Yet the French were among the first to call Dessalines a mon- ster when he retaliated by killing the whites. If it were possible to excuse such excesses, must not one make allowances foi- the uncultured men who were fighting in order to shake off an odious yokel The French were supposed to represent progress and civilization ; should they not be the ones to give the example of respect of human life and of the rules of war? If Dessalines is called a monster, what epithet then does Eochambeau deserve, he whose victims cannot be numbered ! At first good fortune seemed to favor the new Captain-General. Eeinforcements had just arrived from France; he availed himself of this opportunity ' Here is the opinion of a Frenchman, Mr. Gastonnet des Fosses, about Maurepas's death (La perte d'une colonie, Paris, A. Faivre, editeur, 1893; p. 334) : "Two black Generals, Laplume and Maurepas, "were faithful to us and we could trust them. Maurepas was under "the authority of General Brunet, who was in command at Port-de- "Paix. For some time he was wrongly suspecting him of treason and of "being in relations with the insurgents. In consequence, when he was "instructed to evacuate Port-de-Paix and to retreat to Cap-Francais, he "arrested Maurepas and several colored officers, whom he brought with "him to Cap-Francais. General Leclerc had just died and Dauze, the "Colonial Prefect, was in command until the arrival of Eochambeau. "He was of the opinion of sending Maurepas and his companions to "France. On the 17th of November Eochambeau landed at Cap-Fran- "cais, and, by his order, the fate of the prisoners was quickly settled. "Maurepas, his family and his companions, were embarked on Le Duguay "Trouin; and at night these unfortunate people were east into the sea. "This was murder; and it is sad to notice that its perpetrators were "Frenchmen." 136 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors to assume the offensive. Grenerals Clauzel and Lava- lette were ordered to storm Fort Liberte, which with strong forces under their command they attacked on the 1st of December, 1802. Toussaint Brave, who was in command, gallantly defended the post as long as he was able, and when at last he was compelled to evacu- ate the town he set fire to it in order to leave the French naught but its smouldering ruins. Probably finding the help of the brave soldiers whom France was sending to the island at a great sacrifice not sufficient for quelling the insurrection, Kochambeau decided to resort to auxiliaries, his equals assuredly in ferocity. General de Noailles was sent to Havana, in- structed with the important mission of buying blood- hounds to aid in the destruction of the blacks. In order to excite the ajiiDetite of his new assistants, the son of a field-marshal had the inspirations of a Nero. A post was set up in the centre of a circle where the seats were occupied by Eochambeau, the officers of his staff, and many colonists and their wives. And this was the per- formance that they witnessed. Hungry blood-hounds sprang into the arena; tied to the post could then be seen a young black servant of the French General Pierre Boj'er. The beasts seemed to shrink from their horrible task. In order to invite them to it General Pierre Boyer drew his sword and with one stroke dis- emboweled his unfortunate servant ; then catching hold of one of the dogs he forced its mouth into the pal- pitating entrails of the victim ; and the appalling feast began amidst the applause of the spectators and the sounds of the military band; a live man was torn to pieces by the blood-thirsty animals ! ' What are the reprisals made by the blacks when compared with such revolting cruelty? But the hounds were not more successful than the soldiers of Marengo; they failed to subdue the natives. ' B. Ardouin, Studies of Haitian History, Vol. V, p. 392. "Rochambeau -went so far as to import from Cuba hounds especially "trained for the hunting of the blacks. At the beginning of the nineteenth "century he renewed the horrors committed in the sixteenth century by "the Spanish conquerors." (Gastonnet des Fosses, loc. cit., p. 338.) Dessalines Commander-m-Chief 137 Thinking that Leclerc's death would have discouraged the French army, Petion, Christophe, and Clervaux tried to storm Cap-Frangais at night on the 7th of November, 1802. But they were defeated and a lack of ammunition compelled them to abandon the forti- fications they occupied in the vicinity of the town. Petion thought that the time had come to unify the command, as a conflict between the various leaders would have been detrimental to the cause of independence. Be- sides, the forces were scattered without any cohesion. In the Northern province Sans-Souci was endeavoring to assert his authority as Commander-in-Chief, and he was supreme in power from Borgne to the mountains of Fort Liberte. In the West Lamour Derance had under his command: Larose at I'Arcahaie; Cange in the neighborhood of Leogane; Metellus, Adam, Ger- main Frere, and Caradeux in the vicinity of Port-au- Prince; Magloire Ambroise, Lacroix in the mountains of Jacmel. For Petion, Christophe, and Clervaux the only legitimate authority was that of Dessalines ; this was fully acknowledged in the Artibonite province; and it was strictly necessary to have it accepted by all. In consequence, after his failure in the attack on Cap-Frangais Petion went to Petite Eiviere, where he met Dessalines ; there they came to a thorough under- standing. Proclaimed Commander-in-Chief of the native army, Dessalines appointed Petion Brigadier-General. Chris- tophe and Clerveaux were of great assistance to him in helping to bring under his authority the followers of the other leaders, who, although acting independently of one another, were bravely fighting against the French soldiers. Lamour Derance tried to storm Jacmel and Leogane but failed in the attempt. The followers of Germain Frere and Caradeux succeeded in occupying Turgeau, from which place Port-au-Prince gets her water supply; they were, however, soon compelled to leave. At the end of 1802 the island was divided thus : The 138 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors French occupied the whole former Spanish portion ; in the North they had Cap-Frangais, Mole, Fort Liberte, and Tortuga Island, the rest of the province being in the possession of the natives. The whole Artibonite province, with the exception of Saint-Marc, was under the authority of Dessalines. In the West, Port-au- Prince, Mirebalais, Croix-des-Bouquets, Grrand-Goave, Petit-Goave, Leogane, and Jaemel were still under French domination; as was also the whole Southern province. However, the Southern province had begun to be dis- turbed. In order to prevent more disturbance, the French resorted to their usual system : the executions. At L'Anse-a-Veau many people were drowned. At Cayes blacks and mulattoes who were merely suspected of not having much sympathy for France were at once hanged or drowned. These crimes incensed the natives ; and a black man, Joseph Darmagnac, took up arms in the town of Cayes. He was defeated and with the rest of his followers was put to death. The French availed themselves of Darmagnac 's affray to gratify their ven- geance. Twenty-two native officers who were impris- oned on board the frigate Clorinde in the harbor of Saint-Louis were all thrown into the sea and drowned. Af usual these cruelties, instead of demoralizing. the blacks, made them more eager to retaliate. Geffrard had succeeded in penetrating" into the Southern province. He hastened to organize the forces at his disposal. After occupying Miragoane he stormed Anse-a-Veau on the 16th of January, 1803. At the same time Gilles Benech, at the head of about 2,000 peasants, took possession of Tiburon. Uprisings took place at Port-Salut and at Camp Perin in the plain of Cayes; all the leaders acknowledged the authority of Ferou, who was at that time Commandant of the arron- dissement of Coteaux. Intrenched at "Morne-Fendu" and at Marauduc the natives defeated the French who had tried to dislodge them from their positions. This success provoked the insurrection of the whole plain of Cayes. War of Independence 139 Yet Geffrard had met with some reverses. Defeated by the French he was compelled to evacuate Anse-a- Veau and Miragoane and to take shelter in the mounts ains, where he reorganized his forces. However, he was soon able once more to assume the offensive ; and on the 5th of March, 1803, he was in the plain of Cayes, where he met Ferou. He immediately set about obtain- ing the acknowledgment of the authority of Dessalines as Commander-in-Chief. Unity of command prevailed thus in the Southern province without any trouble. It was soon established also in the North and in the West. From Artibonite Dessalines proceeded to Port-de- Paix, where his authority was acknowledged without demur by Capois whom he appointed brigadier-generaL Eomain and Yayou were still under Sans-Souci's com- mand. Dessalines appointed both brigadier-generals and placed the former at the head of the arrondisse- ment of Limbe and the latter in command of Grande- Eiviere. In order to win over Sans-Souci 's last remain- ing officers he conferred the rank of colonel- on Petit Noel Prieur, who became Commandant of the Place of Dondon belonging to the arrondissement which was under Christophe's authority. After this Dessalines went up into the mountains of Grande-Kiviere, where he met Sans-Souci, who, being deprived of the help of his principal followers, was compelled to acknowledge the authority of the Commander-in-Chief of the native army. Having settled all things to his satisfaction, Dessa- lines returned to the Artibonite. But Christophe had not forgotten his old quarrel with Sans-Souci. Consid- ering the moment propitious for ridding himself of his enemy, he invited him to an intendew on the Grandpre plantation, and there murdered him. Petit Noel and his followers rose up at once in order to avenge the death of their former leader. Christophe was com- pelled to flee; and Paul Louverture,* who endeavored to pacify Sans-Souci's avengers, was beheaded by them. Dessalines arrived with a strong body of soldiers and ' The brother of Toussaint Louverture. 140 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors dispersed Petit Noel's followers. Henceforth his au- thority was securely established in the North, In the West Lamour Derance still remained in open defiance, but every means was employed in the hope of subduing him. In the mean time, Petion, Christophe, Clervaux, and Vernet were appointed by Dessalines major-generals, thus completing the organization of his army. The whole French portion of the island was now devastated hy fire and sword. In the North, Eochambeau, profiting by the reinforce- ments he had just received from France, despatched General Clauzel against Port-de-Paix, which Capois was forced to evacuate. But the fearless black General redeemed his defeat by storming the Petit-Fort, where he captured the ammunition of which he was in great ileed. Capois, sumamed Capois-la-Mort by reason of his indomitable courage, now conceived one of those plans the temerity of which alone illustrates the spirit of the soldiers of the war of independence. He decided to attack Tortuga Island. But how to reach this island without ships was the difficult problem. For this lack he made up by btiilding a raft consisting merely of planks held together with lianes. On the night of Feb- ruary 18, 1803, 150 soldiers under the command of Vincent Louis were huddled together on this frail means of transport in tow of two row-boats. They fell unexpectedly on the garrison of Tortuga and for a while seemed to be the conquerors. But the French, who soon got over their sui-jsrise, rallied, and owing to their superior forces defeated Vincent Louis, who suc- ceeded in making his escape with some of his com- panions. The unfortunate blacks who were taken prisoners were tortured to death in expiation of the audacious attempt. This failure did not discourage the untiring energy of Capois. On April 12, 1803, he stormed Port-de- Paix, and soon after Vincent Louis on his raft was again on his way to Tortuga. He succeeded this time War of Independence 141 in taking possession of the island, which the French never recovered. In the vicinity of Cap-Frangais the struggle was very fierce. Bomain tried twice to storm Ihe town, but failed. On his side Toussaint-Brave captured and then lost Fort-Liberte. In the South one event was succeeding the other with great rapidity. After establishing his headquarters at Grerard, Geffrard pushed on with his military oper- ations. Nothing could stop the enthusiasm of the people. In every encounter the French were routed. The insurgents occupied successively Anse-a-Veau, Miragoane, Petit-Trou, Saint-Michel, Aquin, Saint- Louis, Cavaillon ; all the coast line up to Tiburon was in their power. In order more easily to suppress the insurrection in the South, Eochambeau took up his abode at Port-au- Prince. Instead of gaining new laurels he daily de- based himself with new crimes. By his order Madame Paul Louverture and her son Jean-Pierre Louverture were drowned in the harbor of Cap-Frangais. The executioners spared neither age nor sex.° Sixteen native officers were left on an islet where they were tied to the trees ; defenseless against the stings of all kinds of insects they suffered the slow and terrible agony of starving to death.' On his arrival at Port-au-Prince (March 20, 1803) Eochambeau heard that Petit-Goave had just fallen in Lamarre 's power and that Leogane was threatened by Cange. The troops he despatched succeeded in ridding Leogane of the enemies who surrounded it. But Gen- eral Neterwood failed at Petit-Goave. In trying to storm the fort where I^amarre was intrenched the French General fell mortally wounded and his soldiers fled in great disorder. The natives were steadily gaining ground. Petion • A black woman -who was about to be executed with her two daugh- ters, raised their courage with the following words: "My children, death "will exempt you from bringing forth slaves." " B. Ardouin, Studies of Haitian History, Vol. V, p. 393. 142 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors was holding his own at L'Arcahaie, where he had estab- lished his headquarters. In the beginning of June, 1803, Dessalines had stormed Mirebalais ; and his army, like an irresistible torrent, broke into the plain of Cul-de- Sac, which was devastated by fire. Port-au-Prince was, in consequence, in great straits as to procuring needed provisions. These successes were gained in spite of the reinforcements which from time to time France was sending to Saint-Domingue. And the rup- ture of the peace of Amiens came in time to strengthen the cause of the natives. In May, 1803, France was again at war with England ; therefore the French forces in Saint-Domingue could no longer rely on the least help from the mother country; and in addition to this yellow fever reappeared : the last flicker of the French dominion was about to be extinguished.' When in July, 1803, the first English men-of-war began to harass the French ships on the coasts of Saint- Domingue, Dessalines saw his opportunity to deliver the decisive blow. But Lamour Deranee still refused to acknowledge his authority; he had assumed an inde- pendence detrimental to the uniformity of the military operations. Colonel Philippe Guerrier was therefore instructed to arrest him. Lamour Deranee, invited to come and inspect the Colonel's regiment, accepted the invitation confidently, relying on his influence, and was thus caught in the trap into which his credulity led him. Once among Guerrier 's soldiers he was arrested with- out any trouble ; he was afterward sent on the Marchand ' The flag whose folds would henceforth protect the right to freedom and liberty of a whole race, which centuries of oppression were unable to suppress, was adopted toward the month of May, 1803. Revolution- ary France had raised the tricolored flag which, for the natives of Saint- Domingue, meant the union of the whites, the blacks, and the mulattoes. Dessalines had kept the three colors of France; and many were led to believe that he had no intention of separating from the mother country. To assert the idea of independence the Commander-in-Chief, by Potion's advice, suppressed the white portion of the flag and kept only the blue and the red. Henceforth, in the mind of every native the exclusion of the white from the flag meant also the expulsion of the white French- men from the island, which was to remain in the sole possession of the blacks and mulattoes. War of Independence 143 plantation, where he died soon after. Henceforth the native army had but one chief —Dessalines. There was no longer any hindrance in its way. Dessalines, who in the mean time had left for the South, proceeded to organize the forces of that prov- ince; it was put under the command of Geffrard, who was promoted to the rank of major-general. Gerin, Jean-Louis-Frangois, Coco Heme, and Ferou were re- spectively appointed Commandants of the arrondisse- ments of Anse-a-Veau, Aquin, Cayes, and Jeremie. Dessalines chose for his secretary Boisrond-Tonnerre, the future author of the Act of Independence. Without losing time the Commander-in-Chief re- turned to the Western province. The French had just lost Leogane, which Cange had stormed. From Leogane Dessalines marched to Jaemel, the siege of which he organized ; he then proceeded to Petit-Goave, and from there returned to Cul-de-Sac. On his passage he had created four new regiments. Untiring in his activity, he possessed entire control of everything and missed no opportunity to further the success of his cause. He held friendly intercourse with the officers of the British men-of-war which were blockading various ports of Saint-Domingue ; in this way he was able to procure arms and ammunition, always scarce in the camp of the natives. Whilst Dessalines was everywhere communicating his ardor and his faith to all around him, Eochambeau had returned to Cap-Frangais, where he centred his forces in view of the decisive struggle. At that time the French army numbered 18,000 men, including of- ficers and privates. To avenge its reverses, the chief continued to commit incredible atrocities. Placide Justin" gives the following account of an encounter which took place at I'Acul: "The attack began with "great fury; and for a while the blacks retreated; but "they soon assumed the offensive and repelled the "enemy, who retreated with heavy losses; at night they ■ Histoire d'Haiti (Paris, 1826), p. 399. 144 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors "were masters of the battlefield. During the day the "French had taken about 1,500 prisoners in the camp "of the blacks. The French General ordered that the "unfortunate native soldiers be at once put to death. "A great number of the victims of this cruelty did not "die immediately; they were left in a mutilated state "too horrible to be described. Their agonizing cries "and groans broke the silence of the night; they could "be heard at a great distance." ' Rochambeau's cruelty became so revolting that two of his companions, the French Generals Clauzel and Thouvenot, thought of securing "the person of this "madman and of sending him to Europe in order to rid "the colony of his presence." " But the Captain-Gen- eral discovered the conspiracy, the authors of which ■ Here is the statement made by Marcus Sainsford, late Captain of the Third West India Regiment (An Historical Account of the Black Empire of Hayti; London, 1805), of the affair of L'Acul (pp. 336-338) : "Rochambeau began the attack with impetuosity, and the blacks for "a short time gave way, but on his endeavoring to push the advantage, "they repulsed him with loss, when the day closed. In penetrating the "black line the French had secured a number of prisoners, and on them "they determined to wreak the vengeance of which they were disap- "pointed in the battle. Whether this determination arose from an idea "that the part of the French wing which had been cut off were already "absolutely sacrificed, or from the mistaken policy of extermination, "cannot here be determined, but the unhappy victims were, without the "smallest consideration for their own men who were prisoners in the "black camp, immediately put to death. As they were not carefully "exterminated, many were left in a mutilated state during the whole of "the night, whose moans and shrieks were heard at a distance around "the spot sufBciently loud to excite a. sensation of horror throughout "the country. The black commander, when acquainted with the case, "although the maxim of the benevolent Toussaint, not to retaliate, had "been hitherto followed up, could no longer forbear; he immediately "caused :i number of gibbets to be formed, selected the officers whom he "had taken, and supplying the deficiency with privates, had them tied "up in every direction by break of day, in sight of the French camp, "who dared not to interfere. The blacks then sallied forth with the "most astonishing vigor and regularity, raised the very camp, threw "the whole line in disorder, and drove the French army close to the "walls of Cap-Fransais. Such was the retaliation produced by this "sanguinary measure; a, retaliation the justice of which, however it is "lamented, cannot be called in question." James Franklin (The Present State of Haiti: London, 1828) con- firms Rainsford's statement. '° Gastonnet des Fosses, La perte d'une colonic, p. 339. War of Independence 145 were arrested and deported. However, his tyranny and the woeful plight of the island made the colonists so uneasy that they began to flee from Saint-Domingue. "It was," says Gastonnet des Fosses," "a general "signal of dispersing; the colony looked like a ship ' ' about to founder. ' ' Under the heavy blows of the natives the ship was foundering in reality. In the South, Ferou, assisted by Colonel Bazile, was sweeping away the French posts in his victorious maich against Jeremie. The French General Fressinet, who was in command, was unable to defend the town, which he evacuated on the 4th of August, 1803, Ferou at once taking possession of it. The bi-colored flag bearing its proud motto, "Liberty or death," floated over the arrogant city of the over- bearing colonists of Grand 'Anse. Cayes, the only im- portant town of the Southern province still in the power of the French, was being besieged by Geffrard. Dessalines, who seemed to be ubiquitous, so great was his activity, had gone from Cul-de-Sac to Petite Eiviere where he instructed Gabart to storm Saint-Marc. The arrival of the natives before the town coincided with the presence in the harbor of an English frigate. The gar- rison, already starved out, was in the last stage of exhaustion. In consequence, the French General d'Henin, who was in command, did not deem it wise to wait for an attack. He hastened to sign a capitulation with the captain of the English frigate and, on the 4th of September, 1803, he evacuated the town, which. Gabart immediately occupied. Dessalines, who was at that time at Port-de-Paix, left in haste for Saint-Mare. On the 9th of September, Toussaint-Brave took pos- session of Fort-Liberte, which the French had also abandoned. On September 17 Cange and Magloire Ambroise, who were besieging Jacmel, occupied the town in pursuance of an armistice concluded with the French General Pageot, who retired with his army to Santo Domingo. " Gastonnet des Fosses, La perte d'une colonic, p. 340. 146 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Dessalines decided then to asstune a vigorous offens- ive against Port-an-Prince, at which place the French authorities were at odds; to which was added the further disadvantage of the starving condition of the inhabitants owing to the great scarcity of food. The Commander-in-Chief made his last preparations at Petite Riviere, and started forth on September 15 with Generals Petion and Gabart as principal lieutenants. After successfully engaging in a series of skirmishes, Dessalines took possession of La Croix-des-Bouquets ; and on the 23d of September he established his head- quarters at Turgeau, at the very entrance of Port-au- Prince, which was being besieged by Petion on one side and by Gabart on the other. Cange was investing the fort of Bizoton, which the French garrison was com- pelled to evacuate on the 2d of October. The artillery, under Petion 's command, then conmienced the bom- bardment of the city. The French General Lavalette was soon at the end of his resources and obliged to capitulate. On the 5th of October he sent one of his aides-de-camp to Dessalines 's headquarters, where an agreement was speedily arrived at. According to the convention the French soldiers were allowed to leave the island ; hence, on the 8th of October, 1803, they were embarked on the French men-of-war at that time in the harbor. On the following day Dessalines made his triumphal entrance into Port-au-Prince. In the North the French had in their power only Cap- Fran^ais and Mole St. Nicolas; and but Cayes alone in the South. And this last-named town was almost lost to them. Closely surrounded by Geffrard and blockaded by the English, the town was incapable of great resistance. Therefore, General Brunet, who was in command, signed the capitulation with the English, and on the 17th of October, 1803, Geffrard took posses- sion of Cayes. In the South, as in the West, there was no longer any vestige of the French domination. In order to become the sole master of Saint-Domingue it now remained but for Dessalines to storm Cap-Fran- Qais, in which place Eochambeau had established quite Dessalines Attacks Rochambeau at Cap 147 a reign of terror. The Captain-General did not spare even his own countrymen. The blood of a Frenchman was the last stain upon his hands. "In order to get "money," says Gastonnet des Fosses," "he ordered the "inhabitants to contribute to a forced loan. Eight "European merchants were taxed 30,000 francs each; "one of them, Fedon, being unable to pay his share, "was arrested and shot by the order of the Captain- ' ' General. This was in reality a murder. By his cruel- "ties Eochambeau had incensed the inhabitants so that "he could not now rely on their help." Nevertheless, he was getting ready for an energetic defense. But his plans were frustrated by Dessalines 's prompt action. The Commander-in-Chief of the army of the indigenes did not waste time in celebrating his victory. As soon as he was master of Port-au-Prince he began his preparations for the last and decisive struggle. After instructing his generals to centre their troops at Oarrefour Limbe, Dessalines left Port-au- Prince on the 21st of October, 1803. When he reached the vicinity of Cap-Fran^ais he found himself at the head of an army of 20,000 men, well disciplined and inured to the hardships of war. The plan of attack was cleverly prepared and carried out. The approaches of Cap-FrauQais were defended by forts esiablished at Breda, Champain, Pierre-Michel, and by Vertieres Hill, where a blockhouse sheltered the French infantry. Dessalines perceived at a glance the mistake made by Eochambeau in neglecting to occupy the important position of Charrier, which he at once instructed Capois to take possession of. This place could not be reached without facing the hostile fire of both the infantry and the artillery. On the morning of November 18 the columns moved forward, seemingly unmindful of the bullets and cannon shots which were mowing down their ranks. Eochambeau in person, surrounded by his guard of honor consisting of artillery and infantry, was in command at Vertieres ; he was, in consequence, exposed La perte d'une colonie, p. 344. 148 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors to the fierce attacks of Capois. Both, sides fought -vyith desperate bravery. The native generals, incited by Dessalines's presence and also by the goal they wished to reach, were often seen during the bloody struggle fighting gun in hand side by side with their soldiers. As to Capois, he compelled the applause even of Eochambeau; driven off by the relentless fire of the enemy, his army unceasingly returned to the charge, stimulated by the audacity with which its leader was defying death. Horse and rider rolled on the ground as a cannon ball hit the General's charger; but with lightning rapidity Capois extricated himself, and sword in hand he once more rushed back to his place at the head of his soldiers. Amidst the hurrahs of the French troops Eochambeau gave order for the firing to cease, and a cavalryman proceeded toward the amazed natives. "Captain-General Eochambeau," said he, "congratu- lates the General who has just covered himself with so much glory. ' ' The messenger withdrew and the fight was resumed, until in the afternoon a torrential rain put an end to the battle. Both sides lost heavily. But the consequences of this encounter were of the greatest importance to the natives : they acquired possession of a coimtry. Eochambeau hastened to return to Cap-Frangais, the exterior fortifications of which were partly evacuated. On the same night, November 18, he sent a flag of truce to Dessalines ; and on the 19th the following capitulation was agreed upon : ."This day, the 27th Brumaire, of the 12th year (19 "November, 1803), the Adjutant Commandant Duvey- "rier, having received full power from General "Eochambeau, Commander-in-Chief of the French "army, to treat for the surrender of the town of Cape, "and Jean- Jacques Dessalines, General of the native ' ' army, have agreed on the following articles, viz. : "I. The town of the Cape (Cap-Frangais) and the ' * forts dependent thereon shall be given up in ten days, "reckoning from to-morrow, the 28th of Brumaire, to "General-in-Chief Dessalines. Articles of the Capitulation Agreed Upon 149 "11. The military stores which are now in the ar- "senals, the arms and the artillery of the town and "forts, shaU be left in their present condition. "III. All the ships of war and other vessels which "shaU be judged necessary by General Eochambeau "for the removal of the troops and inhabitants, and for ' ' the evacuation of the place, shall be free to depart on "the day appointed. "IV. All the officers, military and civil, and the "troops composing the garrison of the Cape, shall leave "the town with all the honors of war, carrying with "them their arms and all the private property belong- "ing to their demi-brigades. "V. The sick and wounded who shall not be in a con- "dition to embark shall be taken care of in the hospitals ' ' until their recovery. They are specially recommended '^'to the humanity of General Dessalines. "VI. General Dessalines m giving the assurance of "his protection to the inhabitants who shall remain in "the town, calls at the same time upon the justice of ' ' General Rochambeau to set at liberty all the natives "of the country, whatever may be their color, who under "no pretext of right should be constrained to embark "with the French army. "VII. The troops of both armies shall remain in "their respective positions until the tenth day after the "signature hereof, which is the day fixed on for the "evacuation of the Cape. "VIII. General Eochambeau will send, as a hostage "for the observance of the present stipulation, the "Adjutant-General Urbain Devaux, in exchange for "whom General Dessalines will send an officer of the •"same rank. "Two copies of this Convention are hereby executed "in strict faith, at the headquarters of 'Haut-du-Cap' "on the day, month, and year aforesaid. "(Signed) Dessalines. Duveykier." "The articles of capitulation, accepted by General 150 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Dessalines, are," says Marcus Kainsford " "an instance "of forbearance and magnanimity of which there are "not many examples in the annals of ancient and ' ' modem history. ' ' Commodore Loring, in command of the English squadron which at that time was cruising in the vicin- ity of Cap-Frangais, requested Dessalines to send him some pilots in order to allow him to enter the port. But the Commander-in-Chief of the army of the indigenes, being unaware of the intentions of the English, refused to grant the request. Nevertheless, Eochambeau" at last consented to become their prisoner of war, together with the whole French garrison. On the 29th of November, 1803, Dessalines took pos- session of Cap-Francais, which was usuallj' called the Cape; and on December 4 Colonel Poureely entered Mole, which was evacuated by General de Noailles. Saint-Domingue was thus entirely lost to France. After a year of heroic efforts the natives were at last masters of a land literally soaked with their blood. The bicolored flag, the emblem of liberty, now floated over the whole French portion of the island. James Franklin " speaks as follows of the people who had just conquered their country : "It would be ' ' wrong not to express in proper terms the admiration "called forth by the resistance which the blacks made "whenever they were hard pressed by the French "troops. They at times displayed a great deal of hero- "ism and unshaken courage. Standing on the dead "bodies of their comrades, they were often seen fight- "ing man to man with the French. * * * At the "evacuation of the island the negro troops were in a "state of discipline but little inferior to the French, and "in point of courage equal. Looking at them in other " An historical account of the Black Empire of Hayti, p. 341. " Son of Count Kochambeau, whose statue adorns "Lafayette Square in Washington, Donatieu de Rochambeau, made prisoner by the English, •was sent to England, -where he remained vmtil 1811. Excl^nged at that time he served in .the French army in Germany and died, in 1813, at the battle of Leipsic. " The present State of Haiti. London, 1828; p. 170, 171. Bravery of Haitian Troops 151 "respects, and taking into consideration that they were "men who before, nay even at that time, were in the "grossest state of ignorance and moral degradation, "our astonishment is excited when we find that in the "moment of rage and revenge they often refrained "from acts of cruelty and torture, whilst their insati- ' ' able enemies were committing the most shocking bar- "barities." CHAPTER X SProclamation of independence — Saint-Domingue becomes Haiti — Dessa- lines, the first ruler of Haiti (January 1, 1804-October 17, 1806) — Intrigues of the English — ^Military organization of Haiti — Discon- tent provoked by Dessalines's administration — ^His death. The struggle for supremacy liad cost the lives of over 60,000 Frenchmen/ Dessalines desired to notify France by a solemn declaration that a new State had replaced her former colony. By a happy inspiration he chose for the proclamation of the Independence of Haiti the very spot on which had been enacted the treacherous deportation of Toussaint Louverture. Toward the end of December, 1803, he went to Gonaives, at which place he had given instructions to the generals of his army to assemble. On the 1st of January, 1804, they all met 'together on the Place d'Armes and swore to abjure for- ever allegiance to France, to die rather than to live ■under her dominatiom The oath was met by the ring- ing cheers of a people mad with joy. Enthusiasm reached its highest pitch when Boisrond Tonnerre, Sec- retary to the Commander-in-Chief, read out Haiti's certificate of birth, consisting of the following words : "On this the first day of January, 1804, the Com- "mander-in-Chief of the army of the indigenes, accom- "panied by the Generals of the ai-my assembled for the "purpose of taking the measures destined to secure "the happiness of the country; ' Gastonnet des Fosses. La perte d'une eolonie, p. 34. 152 Act of Independence 153 "After informing the Generals of his true intentions "to give forever to the natives of Haiti a stable govem- "ment, which he had previously done in a speech which "aimed at acquainting the foreign Powers with the "resolution to make the country independent and to "enjoy the liberty acquired with the blood of the people "of the island; and after taking the opinion of all "present; "Requested the Generals to swear to abjure forever "allegiance to France, to die rather than to live under "her domination, and to fight to the last for the preser- "vation of their independence. "The Generals imbued with these sacred principles, "after proclaiming in a loud voice their unanimous ' ' adhesion to the resolution of independence, swore for ' ' all their posterity and to the world to abjure forever "allegiance to France, and to die rather than to live "under her domination. "Done at Gonaives on the 1st of January, 1804, and * ' on the first day of the Independence of Haiti. "(Signed) Dessalines, Commander-in-Chief; Chris- tophe, Petion, Clervaux, Geffrard, Vernet, Gabart, Major-Generals ; P. Eomain, E. Gerin, F. Capois, Daut, Jean-Louis Francois, Ferou, Cange, L. Ba- zelais, Magloire-Ambroise, J. J. Heme, Toussaint- Brave, Yayou, Brigadier-Generals; Bonnet, F. Papalier, Morelly, Chevalier, Marion, Adjutant- Generals; Magny, Roux, Chiefs of Brigades; Chareron, B. Loret, Quenez, Macajoux, Dupuy, Carbonne, Diaquoi aine, Raphael, Malet, Derenon- court, Officers of the Army; and Boisrond Ton- nerre. Secretary." In order to efface the last vestige of an abhorred domination, the very name of Saint-Domingue was changed. The island assumed once again the name given to her by her first inhabitants and henceforth was known as Haiti. That the young State conferred absolute power on its liberator is testified by the following act : 154 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors "In the name of the people of Haiti: "We, Generals and Chiefs of the army of the island "of Haiti, thankful for the benefits received from the "Commander-in-Chief Jean- Jacques Dessalines, the "protector of the liberty which we are enjoying; "In the name of Liberty, Independence and of the "people he has made happy, "Proclaim him Grovernor-General of Haiti for life. "We swear entire obedience to the laws he shall deem "fit to make, his authority being the only one we ac- " knowledge. We authorize him to make peace and "war, and to appoint his successor. "Done at the headquarters of Gonaives this 1st of ""January, 1804, and the first day of the Independence "of Haiti." "(Signed) Gabart, P. Eomain, J. .J. Heme, Capois, Christophe, Geffrard, E. Gerin, Vernet, Petion, Clervaux, Jean-Louis Frangois, Cange, Ferou, Yayou, Toussaint-Brave, Mlagloire-Ambroise, L. Bazelais, Daut." The dictatorial power intrusted to Dessalines was the natural sequel of events. The generals who had just led the people to victory considered themselves to be the legitimate representatives of the country. Ac- cording to their views, their most pressing duty was the immediate organization of a government capable of defending their newly acquired conquest. At the head of such a strong government they naturally placed their Commander-in-Chief. Not all the elation at their suc- cess, great though it was, could make them forget that they were to be prepared for all contingencies should France choose to renew the struggle. The Spanish por- tion of the island was still in her possession ; she had thus a convenient basis for her military operation. Tn consequence the Haitians clung to their military organ- ization. Instead of a Commander-in-Chief they had at their head a Governor-General, merely a change of title. Petion, Christophe, and Geffrard were respectively appointed Commandants of the Western, Northern, and Great Britain Tries to Obtain a Quasi-Protectorate 155 Southern departements ; Gabart was given command of the Artibonite. They were all animated by the one thought to be ready for an energetic defense in case of an attack by their former opponents. The soldiers were constantly kept on the alert. Profiting by the experi- ence acquired on the battlefields, they began fortifying all the. valleys and the summits of hills and mountains ■where it would be easy for them to stand their ground against an enemy superior in forces.^ Every citizen was compelled to join the army. The municipal and judicial powers were all in the hands of the military authorities: Haiti was an im- mense military camp. The task of the new Government was a difficult one. Everything had to be organized. Eochambeau's crimes had so much incensed the natives that the Frenchmen who had not accompanied the remainder of their army had been put to death. All functionaries of the Gov- ernment and administration had to be created, from policemen to statesmen. In reality there were many worthy and gallant officers and brave soldiers; but experts in civil administration were scarce. Notwith- standing the absence of special knowledge on this sub- ject, the natives to a man were determined to preserve the independence of the country they had just con- quered. Dessalines courageously set to work. He be- gan by rejecting the insidious overtures made by Great Britain. This power, whose advances to Toussaint Louverture had not met with success, believed that these people, whose existence seemed to be so preca- rious, would be more than happy to have its protection. In consequence the Governor of Jamaica lost no time in despatching Edward Corbed to Haiti with the object of obtaining the exclusive right to the commerce of the ' Christophe undertook the building of Laferrifire, which later on became the Citadelle Henry; Pfition built Fort Jacques and Fort Alex- andre. In the South Geffrard erected the Fort des Platons. Forts Campajn, Cap Rouge, Bonnet Carrfi, Marfranc, Desbois, etc., were built in the mountains around L^ogane, Jacmel, Anse-a-Veau, Aquin, and jerSmie, etc. 156 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors island and a quasi-protectorate. The request was de- nied; and Admiral Duckworth, angered by the failure of his scheme, threatened to capture the Haitian guard- ships. In the event of this Dessalines declared that he would at once prevent the English merchant ships from entering the ports of the island. This threat produced the desired effect; for just at that time the United States frigate Connecticut was at Gonaives and on board there was an agent sent to renew with Dessalines the commercial relations which had formerly been car- ried on with Toussaint Louverture. The Governor- General of Haiti was thus turning all his efforts toward safeguarding the dignity and the interests of his country. In accepting the title of Emperor he was not prompted by mere foolish vanity. The Agents sent by France to Saint-Domingue had been known as Gov- ernors-General ; the continued use of this title might therefore leave the impression that the Haitians were still dependent on the former mother country; thus it was thought proper to adopt another name more suited to the chief of a sovereign State. Bonaparte had just been proclaimed Emperor of the French. This seemed to be a particularly fit occasion to affirm once again the independence of the country. Accordingly Dessalines decided to assume the same title with which the ruler of France had been invested. In September, 1804, the army acclaimed him Emperor of Haiti. This new ap- pellation added nothing to the dictatorial power with which he was already clothed. And Dessalines gave the best evidence of his great common sense by refusing to create a nobility. He avoided establishing any dis- crimination of rank; he even refused to allow any special privileges to be conferred upon his children: the equality of all citizens was to be the prevailing feature of the new State. In becoming Jacques, first Emperor of Haiti, Dessa- lines did not lose sight of the necessity of making pro- vision for the future good and tranquillity. The French were still in possession of the Spanish portion of the Dessalines Invades the Spanish Portion 157 island. On the 5th of January, 1805, General Ferrand, who was in command of this portion of the country, ordered a sudden attack upon the Haitians, among whorifi only those under 14 years of age were to be taken prisoners, the others being destined evidently to be massacred; the boys and the girls under 10 years were to be sold and kept on the plantations of the colony; whUst those between the ages of 12 and 14 years were to be sold and deported. To avenge this barbarous decree, Dessalines, at the head of 25,000 soldiers, invaded the Spanish territory. He started on February 16, and on the 6th of March his army, victorious in every encounter, began to lay siege to Santo Domingo, which would undoubtedly have fallen before him had not a French squadron ap- peared with reinforcements on March 27. Fearing the possibility of French troops being landed on the coasts of Haiti during his absence, Dessalines was obliged to raise the siege and to evacuate the whole of the Spanish portion. His apprehensions were happily unfounded: the French had made no hostile demonstrations against Haiti. Nevertheless, Dessalines took all precautionary measures. He availed himself of the opportunity to organize his Empire. On the 20th of May, 1805, the first Haitian Constitution was proclaimed. Slavery was forever abolished. Dessalines, whose surroundings and early training had not been such as would tend to fit him to act the part of law-maker, proved to be an able one. He enacted a military penal code, laws concerning ille- gitimate children and divorce and a law establishing the courts and their jurisdiction. By decrees he settled the respective limits of the military divisions of the territory; he opened some ports to commerce with for- eign countries; he regulated the coasting trade and established import and export taxes. Notwithstanding all his excellent good qualities, he was a man with whom it was hard to agree. Above all, Dessalines was a man of action, and he owed his success to his untiring energy and to the use of force. Slave, soldier, or general, he accepted or enjoined discipline : 158 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors he was accustomed to obey or to be obeyed. He was thus naturally led to consider as the best method of government that passive obedience which, as a mili- tary chief, he used to exact from his subordinates. This system succeeded in the struggle with the French ; why then should it fail when applied to the adminis- tration? Of a hasty and petulant temper the new ruler of Haiti was as quick in forming a decision as in its execution; in consequence, he did not tolerate any discussion of his orders. Hence he ruled the State as he was wont to command his soldiers — as an absolute master. As a rnatter of fact, his rule was not far removed from the despotism of the French. The vari- ous Governors-General never had shown any respect for civil or political liberty. They relied upon the army and knew no restraint. To their minds the rights of the people were of no account. Having from his earli- est years lived in such an atmosphere it was hardly possible to expect to find in Dessalines a liberal-minded ruler. And the purely rudimentary knowledge of his subordinates made them incapable of tempering the dictatorial power intrusted to him. A few of his eco- nomic and financial combinations were of necessity imperfect. In course of time these mistakes might have been remedied; and civil as well as political liberty would have prevailed. But Dessalines 's contemporaries were very hasty men ; his lieutenants took umbrage at the very tyranny they had contributed to create; and as the news spread that the most important amongst them were about to be arrested, they plotted a con- spiracy. The discontent which some of the adminis- trative measures had provoked among the people was taken full advantage of. The insurrection broke out on the 8th of October in the neighborhood of Port-Salut in the Southern Department. The insurgents acknowl- edged Henri Christophe, who was then Commander-in- Chief of the Army, as their leader. Petion joined the revolt and caused the defection of the troops tmder his command. Port-an-Prince ceased accordingly to acknowledge Dessalines 's authority. The Emperor, Death of Dessalines 159 unaware of these events, had left Marchand, his capital, on October 15, en route for the South, where he was going to reestablish peace and order. On his way sol- diers had been set by the conspirators ; without the least suspicion of the trap set for him, he continued his way in full confidence, paying no heed to the warning which Colonel Leger, one of his aides-de-camp, gave him, as he was approaching Pont Rouge, at a short distance from Port-au-Prince, on the 17th of October, 1806. He did not realize the danger until he was com- pletely surrounded on all sides. He tried to defend himself ; but G-arat, a young soldier, fired ; Dessalines 's horse fell to the ground. Charlotin Marcadieu, one of his aides-de-camp, hastened to his assistance. Just at that moment a volley of musketry was fired and Dessa- lines ceased to exist. Thus expired the liberator of Haiti, a victim of the sad customs of his time and of the very cause of liberty of which he had been the suc- cessful defender. CHAPTER XI Henri Christophe, Chief of the Provisional Government — ^Alexandre Potion — Convocation of a Constituent Assembly — Constitution of 1806 — Christoph« marches against Port-au-Prince — ^He is elected President of Haiti (December 28, 1806) — Civil -war — ^The Senate dismisses Christophe, who at Cap is elected President of the State of Haiti (February 17, 1807) — The Senate at Port-au-Prince elects P6tion President of Haiti for four years (March 9, 1807) — Christophe assumes the title of King of Haiti (March, 1811) — French intrigues against the independence of Haiti — ^Pftion and Simon Bolivar — Petion re-elected President March 9, 1811, and March 9, 1815 — Elected President for life on October 9, 1816; died on the 29th of March, 1818. The cries of ' * Liberty forever ! " " Down with tyran- ny!" were heard on all sides as Dessalines fell dead. In the Western and Southern provinces, where the insurrection had inflamed the people's minds, the Em- peror's death provoked a strong reaction against the political regime he had established. The discipline of the army felt the effect of this reaction; soldiers de- serted their regiments. And the citizens seemed to think that there was no longer any restraint to their ■will. There was but little show of authority and it looked as though! license had replaced Dessalines 's absolutism. This state of affairs was far from being satisfying to Christophe, who had become Chief of the Provisional Government. In reality he had the same ideas as Dessalines concerning the prerogatives of a ruler. Moreover, the insurrection had not had time to ' Formerly Cap-Francais. Was known whilst Christophe was King as Cap-Henri; and now is called Cap-Haitien. 160 Christophe and Petion 161 enter the Northern province, ■which was under his com- mand; thus he was able to maintain the severe disci- pline which he had established there. Like his former chief, Christophe thought that for the time being abso- lute power was the only system possible in Haiti. Therefore, he intended to pursue the same plan of action which Dessalines had instituted. In consequence he was distrustful of the new ideas current in the West- ern and Southern provinces, where they were discuss- ing the advisability of restricting the powers of the ruler of the country and of taking precautions against a possible restoration of tyranny. Fixing his sus- picions upon the originators of this movement he cau- tiously remained with his army at Cap. Alexandre Petion was undoubtedly the leading spirit among the generals who were planning to limit the authority of the ruler of Haiti. Great was the contrast between the two men whom coming events were going to set at enmity one against the other. Petion 's ^ father was a white Frenchman by the name of Sabes ; he owed to the accident of his birth the ad- vantage of a cultivated mind. Of a sickly constitution he was phlegmatic and easy-tempered ; his tastes were simple and he was known for his kindness and his benevolence. Christophe,^ born and raised in slavery, was very little inclined to pity. Of a tall and muscular buUd, with bright and intelligent eyes as his most striking feature, he seemed the very embodiment of force. One of his defects was the love of ostentation ; when he was a French general his home at Cap-Frangais was cele- brated for its luxurious richness, and his mode of enter- tainment was pompous. He was of a sanguine and = potion was born in Port-au-Prince on the 2d of April, 1770. A free man by birth, he studied mathematics, and became one of the best artillerymen of his time; he was also a competent silversmith. ' Christophe was bom in the island of San-Christopher in 1769. According to Listant Pradine (Lois et Actes, 1807, p. 199) he was bom at Grenada on the 6th of October, 1767. Christophe was still a slave when the events which led to the abolition of slavery took place in Saint-Domingue. 162 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors passionate nature, chafing easily under the slightest restraint. Petion was often actuated by his heart, whilst Chris- tophe rarely allowed himself to be thus ruled. The former trusted the people, in the welfare of whom he was deeply interested ; he contemplated granting them wise liberties and thought that it would be possible to instil into them a liking for work by making them the owners of the land they had watered with their blood. Christophe had very little faith in the improvement of the people through the enjoyment of liberty; he was convinced that an iron hand would more easily and more quickly compel the people to work. Two men of such vastly different natures could not ]Dossibly have the same political ideas. It was no wonder then that whilst Petion was thinking of establishing a republican form of government, Christophe, if he were not inclined to the maintenance of the monarchy, wished at least to create a strong and forcible executive power. On ac- count of this difference of opinion the two Generals were already at odds when on November 3, 1806, Chris- tophe, in his capacity of Chief of the Provisional Gov- ernment, summoned the citizens in order to elect a Constituent Assembly which was to meet at Port-au- Prince on the 30th of the same month. In the province of the North and in the Artibonite, which were under Christophe 's direct influence, there were more parishes than in the West and in the South. The Chief of the Provisional Government was therefore sure of having in the Assembly a majority willing to support him. In consequence, he caused a draft of a constitution suitable to his ideas to be prepared. To counteract Christophe 's plans Petion authorized the election of Deputies in many small towns in the Western and Southern departments, which had hitherto never been represented. He himself became a member of the Constituent Assembly, the majority of which he had now secured; and in his turn he prepared the draft of a constitution. By increasing the number of the members of the The Constitution of 1806 163 Assembly, Petion had unquestionably disregarded the authority of the Chief of the Provisional Government. The latter vras not disposed to suffer any such infringe- ment of his prerogatives and when, on the 18th of December, 1806, the Assembly met in the church at Port-au-Prince, the breach between the two Generals was complete. The Deputies from the Northern and Artibonite provinces at once protested against the pres- ence of those whom they considered as unlawfully elected. But no notice was taken of their protest. A committee, of which Petion was appointed the chair- man, was commissioned to draw up and to submit to the Assembly the draft of the Constitution. In a proclamation of December 24 Christophe openly declared many of the most important members of the Assembly to be rebels; he then prepared to march against Port-au-Prince. Yet on the 27th of December Petion submitted the report of the committee to the Assembly and that same day the Constitution was adopted. Immediately the Deputies from the Northern and Artibonite provinces despatched to Christophe a written protest against the "so-called Constitution, the * 'consequence of intrigue and malevolence, and against "all that may follow until the dissolution of the As- ' ' sembly. ' ' The Constitution of 1806 established a republican form of government ; as an evidence of the distrust then existing against Christophe, exaggerated precautions were taken against the Chief of the Executive Power, whose authority was greatly curtailed. All the powers were centred in one body, the Senate, which had the entire possession of all executive, legislative, and mili- taiy functions. The Senate alone had the right to ap- point the civil and military functionaries, to determine their duties and the place of their residence; it had the direction of the foreign affairs and was, in consequence, authorized to draw up all treaties ; it had the initiative in the matter of laws and legislative measures; it assumed also the privileges of a Supreme Court. The President of the Eepublic, elected for four years, was 164 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors simply invested with the care of proclaiming the acts adopted by the Senate and of taking the necessary steps for their execution; and although he was the Commander-in-Chief of the Army he was not allowed to confer any title or rank. Believiag that in this manner it had put an effectual stop to any tendency toward despotism, the Constituent Assembly, on the 28th of December, 1806, elected Chris- tophe President of Haiti ; the same day the twenty-four members of the Senate were also elected. Nevertheless, Christophe, who had not received any notification of his election, continued on his march against Port-au-Prince at the head of a formidable army. The Senate met on the 31st of December, and re- garded Christophe 's soldiers, who were then at I'Arca- haie, as enemies. However, according to the new Constitution, the President-elect was granted fifteen days in which to take the oath of the office. Before the expiration of this time he could not, in the absence of any overt action on his part, be considered as having declined the office or being in rebellion against the Constitution, a copy of which they had not even thought of sending him. Yet when Christophe 's soldiers reached Sibert on the 15th of January, 1807, they encountered the army of the Western and Southern provinces under the com- mand of Petion. A fierce battle ensued. Petion was utterly defeated and would have been killed but for the devotedness of one of his aides-de-camp, CoutUien Coustard, who, noticing the danger in which his chief stood, seized the hat adorned with gold lace usually worn by Petion and placed it on his own head. He was thus mistaken for his General and killed. Following up his success Christophe besieged Port- au-Prince. But after various ineffectual attacks on this town he returned to the Northern province. An Assem- bly which assumed the title of "Assembly of the man- datories of the people" met at Cap, and on the 17th of February, 1807, adopted a Constitution which, contrary Christophe President and King 165 to the one voted at Port-au-Prince on the 27th of Decem- ber, 1806, gave full power to the Chief of the Executive Power. The Government of Haiti, called now the State of Haiti, consisted of a President, Generalissimo of the land and sea forces, and of a Council of State of nine memhers appointed by the President The President, who was elected for life, had the right of choosing his successor. According to this Constitution Henri Chris- tophe was on the 17th of February elected President and Generalissimo of the land and sea forces of the State of Haiti. But on the 27th of January, 1807, the Senate at Port-au-Prince had declared Christophe to be an outlaw and deprived him of all his civil and mili- tary powers. On the 9th of Marcb Alexandre Petion, then a Senator, was elected President of the Eepublic of Haiti for four years. The country was then beneath the sway of two rulers with two separate governments : the State of Haiti consisting of the Northern and Arti- bonite departments, and the Eepublic of Haiti com- posed of the Western and Southern departments. The forces and resources of each were about equal. Christophe made desperate efforts to subdue Petion. In 1812 he failed in a last attempt to take possession of Port-au-Prince and returning to Cap he left his oppo- nent alone. They both jireserved their respective positions and by ceasing their attacks each one was able to look after the interests of the portion of the territory under his command. Christophe had himself proclaimed King of Haiti in March, 1811, and assumed the name of Henri I. Con- trary to the principles of Dessalines, whose desire was for the equality of all classes, he created a nobility and established a strict etiquette at his Court. As supreme ruler, free from the opposition of a deliberative assem- bly, he governed according to his will and fancy, keep- ing each one in his place by force of severe discipline. Personal safety and peace were the results of the order which existed throughout the land; thus agriculture and trade flourished and prospered. Christophe endeavored 166 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors to maintain friendly relations with both. Great Britain and the United States, and did his utmost to propagate public instruction. The portion of the country under his command was therefore prosperous, although there existed a feeling of discontent among the people. Petion, who was of a kind nature and easy tempered, was hampered besides by the Constitution to the adop- tion of which he had largely conti-ibuted ; he was thus unable to proceed in his administration with the same vigor displayed by his competitor. In more or less open opposition with the Senate, which finally ad- journed sine die, he had to contend with many plots. Groman, in the vicinity of Jeremie, further hai^assed him by keeping up a guerilla warfare. And in 1810 General Andre Kigaud,* who had returned from France, became Conmiander-in-Chief of the Southern Department, es- tablishing an administration independent of the Presi- dent's control. Petion 's authority was thus restricted to the Western Department. This secession occurred without any bloodshed, and ended peacefully after Rigaud's death, when the Southern Department ac- knowledged once more the authority of the President of the Republic (1812). O'R'ing to the unfavorable influences of these disturb- ances, agriculture suffered much neglect. However, Petion 's kindness to the peasants won over all their sympathies; and he gained their entire confidence and devotion when, through liberal grants and frequent sales of land, he transformed those who had been until then but simple tillers of the soil into landowners. By establishing this system of small estates Petion bound up the interests of the people to that of the Republic, thereby gaining their support for the maintenance of the national independence. To public instruction he gave likewise his earnest attention ; among other schools * Andre Rigaud was born at Cayes on the 17th of January, 1761; his father was a Frenchman and his mother a negress named Bose Bossey. He was one of the colored militiamen who fought at Savannali for the independence of the United States. He died at Cayea on the 17th of September, 1811. PQ Intrigues of France Against Haiti 167 he founded was the "Lycee" at Port-au-Prince, which' still bears his name. Imbued with a sense of the neces- sity of having the independence acknowledged by the great Powers he strove to display abroad the country's flag. Ships flying the Haitian colors were despatched to England and the United States, where they were made welcome; foreign commercial intercourse was thus secured. Great Britain even forgot that she had forbidden her colonies in the "West Indies to have any dealings with Haiti. Being at war with the United States she was scarcely able to supply Jamaica with provisions; the island would therefore have suffered from famine were it not for the help gladly given by Haiti. Under the administrations of both Christophe and Petion prospeiity reappeared. But anxiety caused by France's attitude soon paralyzed their efforts. Louis X\r[II had succeeded Napoleon I ; and the new monarch thought that it would be easy to reconquer Haiti. "With this object, at the end of June, 1814, he despatched to Haiti three agents: Dauxion Lavaysse, Dravermann, and Franco de Medina. At that time France did not possess an inch of territorj^ in her former colony; for the inhabitants of the Spanish portion had taken up arms and in 1809 once again bowed to the authority of Spain. However, among the papers of Franco de Medina, whom Christophe had caused to be arrested and tried under the charge of being a spy, were discov- ered the secret instructions given by the French Gov- ernment, which revealed the intention of the Bourbons, not only to send an army to recover Haiti, but alsoi to reestablish slavery in the island. The feeling provoked by these instructions was intense. Christophe and Pe- tion 's one thought was to have all in readiness for the national defense. Arms, ammunition, and all the neces- sary provisions were accumulated in the mountains, in the places most difficult of access, where Haitian strategy would be able to wear out the European troops. The expenses were considerable; but the people stoic- ally endured every discomfort and displayed the great- 168 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors est enthusiasm to defend, with their lives if need be, the liberty of the soil, of which they meant to remain the sole masters. Napoleon's escape from Elba occurred just in time to thwart the plans of Louis XVIII. Yet upon the return of the Bourbons to power they once again took up the idea of retaking Haiti. In July, 1816, Lieuten- ant-General Viscount of Fontanges, the Councillor of State Esmangart, and Captain du Petit Thouars of the French Navy were appointed the King's Commission- ers at Saint-Domingue. But they failed in their pur- pose, and the resistance offered them by both Chris- tophe and Petion left to them no other course of action but to return to France ; consequently they sailed from Port-au-Prince on the 12th of November, 1816.° On the same day Petion issued a proclamation to the people which read as follows: "Our rights are sacred; they "have their source in nature which created all men "equal. We will defend our rights against all those * ' who will dare to think of subduing us. Our aggressors "will find on this island ashes mingled with blood, bul- "lets and an avengeful climate. Authority rests on "your will ; and your will is to be free and independent. "Tou will be so or we will give to the world the awful "spectacle of burying ourselves under the ruins of our "countiy rather than submit again to servitude, even "in its mildest form. * * * " Christophe also issued a proclamation on the 20th of November, in the following terms : "We will negotiate "with the French Government on equal footing, from "Power to Power, from Sovereign to Sovereign. No "negotiation will be entered upon with that country "unless the independence of the kingdom of Haiti, "political as well as commercial, be previously recog- '^ On their arrival in France they tried to make believe that their failure was caused by the intrigues of Great Britain and the United States. In their report they charge the two countries with slandering France and making her odious to an ignorant people and with main- taining Petion's distrust by continually telling him that France's only design was to place him and his whole race once more under the yoke of slavery. (B. Ardouin, Vol. VIII, p. 257.) Petion and Simon Bolivar 1()9 ^'nized. * * * Neither the French flag nor any •'Frenchman will be allowed to enter any port of the "kingdom until the French Government positively ** recognizes the independence of Haiti. * ♦ • " The firm and explicit attitude of the two rulers put an end to France's last illusions. The only thing to subdue Haiti would be the use of greater force than it would be possible for her to coi)e with. Once more the Haitians prepared themselves for the attack which seemed to be imminent. Notwithstanding the anxiety caused by such a con- tingency, Haiti did not forget what she considered her duty toward those who were fighting to free themselves from European domination. She gave a hearty wel- come to Simon Bolivar, Commodore Aury, and the many Venezuelan families whom the successes of the Spaniards had compelled to leave their countiy. At the end of December, 1815, Bolivar arrived at Cayes, in which port were anchored, on January 6, 1816, ten men- of-war commanded by Commodore Aury, who had been forced to evacuate Carthagena. The embarrassed cir- ''umstances in which the Eepublic found itself did not prevent Petion from extending all the help he could to the sailors and the Venezuelan families, who, owing to their hasty flight, were in the greatest state of indigence. He was most kind to Bolivar, requesting only in return for the unselfish assistance given to the latter 's cause, that slavery be abolished. Bolivar * promised to pro- claim "general freedom in Venezuela province and all "other provinces which he should succeed in winning "over to the cause of independence." He received from the President of Haiti 4,000 rifles, powder, cartridges, all kinds of provisions, even a printing-press. Petion did not content himself with furnishing these articles; * Bolivar endeavored to be true to his word. He freed his own slaves numbering about 1,500 and, on the 6th of July, 1816, granted general freedom. But such a measure met with the strongest opposition. In 1821 a gradual freedom was proclaimed; it was only in 1854 that the last slaves were freed owing to the influence of General Monagas, the President of the Republic of Venezuela. 170 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors he was peace-maker between Bolivar and his two com- panions, General Bermudes and Commodore Aury, who had quarrelled, thus dispelling for the time being the misunderstanding which was about to set them at vari- ance. Haitians were authorized to join in the expe- dition. In the following letter written on the 8th of February, Bolivar expressed his intense gratitude to Petion : ' "Mr. Pkeside^tt: I am overwhelmed with your "favors. In everything you are magnaninious and "kind. We have almost completed our preparations * * and in a fortnight we may perhaps be ready to start ; "I am only awaiting your last favors. Through Mr. "Inginac, your worthy Secretary, I take the liberty to "make a new request. In my proclamation to the iu- "habitants of Venezuela and in the decrees I have to "issue concerning the freedom of the slaves, I do not "know if I am allowed to express the feelings of my "heart toward Your Excellency and to leave to pos- "terity an everlasting token of your philanthropy. I ' ' do not know, I say, if I must declare that you are the "author of our liberty. I beg Your Excellency to let "me know his will on the matter. * * * " Petion refused to be designated as the author of the independence of Venezuela and made the following answer to Bolivar : ' ' Poet-atj-Pkince. "February 18, 1816, the 13th year of the Independence. "Geij^ekal: Your kind letter of the 8th instant "reached me yesterday. You know my regard for the "cause you are defending and for yourself; you must "then be convinced how great is my desire to see free- "dom granted to all those who are still under the yoke "of slavery; but out of deference for a power which "has not yet openly declared itself an enemy of the "Republic, I am comjjelled to ask you not to mention ' Expedition de Bolivar par le S^nateur Marion aine, p 42 (Decem- ber, 1849). Petion and Simon Bolivar 171 "my name in any of your documents; and for this pur- "pose I reckon on tlie sentiments which characterize < ' vou * * * " ' 'After leaving Cayes" on the 10th of April, 1816, Bolivar landed at Carupano on May 31. Defeated on the 10th of July by the Spanish General Morales, he fled again to Haiti. Petion once more gave him his sympathy and assistance, furnishing him with large supplies of arms, ammunition, etc. On the 26th of December, 1816, Bolivar left Haiti and this time suc- ceeded in ridding his country of Spanish domination- He expressed his gratitude once more in the following letter which he wrote before embarking, to General Marion, Commandant of the arrondissement of Cayes : "Pokt-au-Peince, December 4, 1816. ' ' General : On the point of starting with a view to ' ' return to my country and strengthen its independence, "I feel that it would be ungrateful of me were I to miss "this opportunity of thanking you for all your kindness "to my countrymen. If men are bound by the favors ' ' they have received, be sure. General, that my country- "men and myself will forever love the Haitian people ' ' and the worthy rulers who make them happy. * * " ^* Petion was successively reelected President on the 9th of March, 1811, and on the 9th of March, 1815. On the 2d of June, 1816, the Constitution of 1806 was modified. The authority was divided between the Executive, the Legislative and the Judiciary Powers. A Supreme Court (Tribunal de Cassation) was created; and henceforth the Legislative body was to consist of a Senate and a House of Commons. The President of Haiti, elected for life by the Senate, had the right to appoint all the civil and military functionaries and also to direct the exterior relations. ' Expedition de Bolivar par le Stoateur Miirion ainf, p. 43 (Decem- ber, 1849). • The capital of the Southern Department. " And a few years later Bolivar refrained from inviting Haiti to the Congress of Panama! 172 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors In pursuance of this Constitution, Petion was elected President for life on the 9th of October, 1816. But he did not long survive this last election. On the 22d of March he had an attack of fever, to which he succumbed on the 29th of March, 1818, in spite of all the efforts that were made to restore him to health. CHAPTER XII Jean-Pierre Boyer, President of Haiti for life (March 30, 1818-March 13, 1843) — Pacification of "La Grand 'Anse" — Death of Henri Chris- tophe (October 8, 1820) — ^His kingdom made part of the Republic — The inhabitants of the Spanish portion of the island expel the Span- iards — ^They acknowledge the authority of the President of Haiti (January 19, 1822) — The Haitian flag floats over the whole island — ^Hostility of the Great Powers toward Haiti: the United States and Great Britain recognize the independence of Mexico, Colombia, etc., but refrain from recognizing the independence of Haiti — The Haitians abolish the preferential tariff hitherto granted to Great Britain — ^Haiti and France at odds over the question of the recog- nition of the Haitian independence — ^Preparations for war in Haiti — France strives to acquire a protectorate over Haiti — Promulga- tion of the Civil Code, the Code of Civil Procedure, the Penal Code, and Code of Criminal Instruction — Charles X grants the Haitians their independence — ^His ordinance and its effects — ^Loan in France and paper money, consequences of the ordinance — ^Nego- tiations with France for the conclusion of a treaty destined to destroy the bad effects of the ordinance of Charles X — Negotiations with the Pope — Treaty of 1838 by which France recognizes Haitian independ- ence — Treaties with Great Britain and France for the abolition of the slave-trade — The discontent provoked by the Ordinance of Charles X affects President Boyer's popularity — ^Reforms indispensable after the conclusion of the treaty of 1838 — The opposition takes advantage of Boyer's inaction — Charles Hfirard, surnamed RiviSre, takes up arms at Praslin (January 27, 1843) — Boyer resigns (March 13, 1843) and sails on the English sloop-of-war Bcylla. The death of Alexandre Petion, the founder of the Eepublic, was a source of profound and unanimous re- gret. No other President has ever had such a hold on his fellow-citizens' affections. The people, who cher- ished him dearly, remained true to the form of govern- ment he had established. The day after, on the 30th of March, 1818, the Senate met and elected Jean-Pierre Boyer, President for life. Even this choice was a 173 174 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors homage to the memory of the deisarted ruler; for Boyer had been the "spoiled child" of Petion and the com- mander of his body-guard. The new President was well informed for a man of his time. Of an upright and extremely thrifty nature, the first thing to receive his attention after his election was the finances, which were in a bad condition owing to the extreme generosity of his predecessor. He under- took also to restore peace and security in the Grand- 'Anse, wliich since January, 1807, Goman had been harassing. At the beginning of 1819 Boyer despatched a strong body of men against Goman, who was com- pletely defeated, and killed while trying to make his escape. This portion of the territory once pacified the President sought to restore unity in the Gt)vernment of the country. Petion 's wise and kind policy had already provoked many defections among Cliristophe 's followers. Mon- archy was indeed a very heavy burden to the inhab- itants of the Northern and Artibonite provinces, whilst under the Republic the people enjoyed more liberty. Comparisons were all in favor of the latter form of government, and, in order to maintain his authority, Christophe had to resort more and more to violence. He was aware of the fact that a struggle between his troops and the republican soldiers would be detrimental to his cause. In consequence he was anxious to prevent being attacked by Boyer, who was more aggressive than Petion. He found an obliging agent in the English Admiral Homer Popham. The latter went to Port-au- Prince in April, 1820, and did his utmost to induce the President to leave King Henri alone. Sir Homer was principally pleading the cause of the English commerce, which enjoyed great privileges in Christophe 's domin- ion. However, he failed in his purpose, for Boyer re- fused to commit himself by any promise. The President had full knowledge of the fact that the people in the North and the Artibonite were in a great state of dis- content and would avail themselves of the first oppor- tunity of shaking off the yoke. Death of Henri ChristopJie 175 As long as he was able to rouse his soldiers by the magic of his daring bravery, Christophe had still the possibility of maintaining his authority. But disease, on which he had not reckoned, made him impotent. On the 15th of April, 1820, whilst hearing mass in the church of Limonade, he fell heavily to the floor. The man before whom his fellow-citizens were made to bow their heads was laid low by a stroke of apoplexy. How- ever, he did not die from this stroke, but he remained paralyzed. Locked up in his palace of " Sans-Souci, " unable to ride on horseback as before, Christophe had no longer any means of stimulating the devotion of his followers. In consequence, on the 2d of October, 1820, Saint-Marc joined the cause of the Republic and asked the assist- ance of President Boyer. That was the signal for a general defection. On October 6 the Governor of Cap, General Richard, followed Saint-Marc's example. Christophe imagined that he could reduce even nature to submission; he resorted to a most extraordinary medication in order to regain the energy of which his poor paralyzed limbs were deprived : for over an hour he was vigorously rubbed with a mixture of rum and pepper (piment). In spite of this powerful stimulant, his strength failed at the very moment when he tried to mount his horse in order to lead his army. But with a stern determination not to give in he caused himself to be carried in' a chair and placed in front of his palace, where, on the 8th of October, 1820, he reviewed his body-guard and intrusted them with the mission of sub- duing Cap. This body-guard, on whose faithfulness no doubt had ever been cast, was no sooner out of his presence than it went over to the insurrection, crjdng out, "Vive la liberte!" That same night Christophe had retired to his room, where the news of this defec- tion reached him. He at once smnmoned his wife and his children, whom he loaded with tokens of his affection. After dismissing them, he ordered his servants to bring him fresh water, and after a bath he put on a spotless white suit. He then seized one of his pistols, pointed it 176 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors at his heart, and pulled the trigger. On hearing the report of the shot the whole household rushed to his room; Henri Christophe was but a corpse ^ and royally had ceased to exist. President Boyer neglected none of the means which might bring under his rule that portion of territory hitherto under Christophe 's authority. On October 16 he was at Saint-Marc; on the 21st he arrived at Gonaives, and on the 26th of October, 1820, he entered Cap,^ where the former subjects of Henri I decided to become part of the Eepublic. In this manner the seces- sion with its possibilities of grave consequences for the future of the country came happily to an end. The union of all the Haitians was complete. Boyer was thus enabled to undertake the realization of the plan of Dessalines, who thought that Haiti should have no other limits than "those laid out for her by nature and the sea." After the expulsion of the French in 1809 the inhabitants of the eastern portion of the island had again acknowledged Spain's authority. ' On the same night, October 8, Christophe's corpse was brought to the citadel of LaferriSre, where it was covered with lime. Built on the summit of Bonnet-a-l'EvSque. at an altitude of 3,000 feet, this citadel is the best testimonial of Christophe's genius. Up to the present day its splendid ruins are the admiration of the foreigners who visit them. A Frenchman ( Edgar-La-Selve — La Republique d'Haiti, p. 27), who was rather unfriendly to Haiti, could not help speaking as follows of this stronghold: "Nowhere in France, England, or in the United States, ."have I seen anything more imposing. The citadel of La Ferrigre is "truly a marvellous thing." The man who conceived and caused such a work to be constructed was certainly wonderful. Born and bred beneath the brutalizing system of slavery, Henri Christophe proved himself to be tactician, legislator, and statesman. His faults were the results of a system of government from which he had suffered greatly. Fond of progress, he thought that he could force it on his countrymen regardless of the time wanted for the evolution. In consequence he resorted to methods which made him unpopular. Thus one thinks only of the vio- lence of his temper and his harsh measures, forgetting the results arrived at. Owing to the worthiness of his intentions, to the impulse given by him to agriculture, and to the prosperity which his kingdom enjoyed, Christophe is deserving of impartial appreciation; foreigners are unfortunately too eager to ruthlessly condemn him. ' After the declaration of Independence Cap-Frangais became Cap; whilst Christophe was King the town was called Cap-Henri; but on joining the Republic it was given the name of Cap-Haitien, by which it has been since called. The Whole Island Under Boyer's Authority 177 The vicinity of this Power had always made the Haitians uneasy ; they were in consequence determined to embrace the first opportunity to get rid of it. Whilst at Cap-Haitien, Boyer had many interviews with secret agents sent by the inhabitants of the Spanish portion of the island. He in turn despatched to them trust- worthy emissaries with the mission of directly prepar- ing the way for the union of the whole country under one government. However, Nunez de Caceres, one of the leaders of the uprising then being prepared against Spain, thought that it would be more advantageous to establish an independent State and to form with Haiti nothing more than an offensive and defensive alliance; according to his idea the new State was to become one of the Colombian Confederation. Boyer lost no time in taking the necessary measures for the frustration of this plan. Before Caceres had had time to give the signal for the insurrection, Monte-Christi and Laxavon hoisted the Haitian flag (November 15, 1821). On the night of November 30 and on December 1 Caceres and his fol- lowers took possession of the most important posts in the town of Santo Domingo ; and the Spanish Governor, Pascal Real, unable to uphold Spain's authority, left the place on the 5th of December. Still believing in the possibility of carrying out his idea of independence, Caceres hoisted the Colombian flag and proclaimed the establishment of the Dominican Eepublic. But the public mind had already been won over to the cause of Haiti, the flag of which was floating over such import- ant towns as Puerto-Plata, Macoris, Banica, Azua, etc. In support of these friendly demonstrations President Boyer, on the 16th of .January, 1822, left Port-au-Prince at the head of 14,000 soldiers for Santo Domingo. The inhabitants of the former Spanish territory welcomed the President of Haiti and his army with the greatest enthusiasm. Nunez de Caceres was unable to resist the trend of public opinion. Yielding to the wish of his fellow-citizens he hoisted the Haitian flag at Santo Domingo on the 19th of January, 1822. And on the 9th 'of February President Boyer entered the town, 178 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors loudly cheered by the inhabitants. Without bloodshed both the former French and Spanish portions of the island became united and threw in their destinies one with the other; and for twenty-two years the Haitian flag floated over the whole island of Haiti. However, a few French colonists at Samana were striving to prevent this peaceful union. They still were slave-owners. At the first demonstrations on behalf of Haiti they had hastened to ask for the protection of the Governor of Martinique. In consequence a French squadron was despatched to Samana, which they found, upon arriving, already in possession of the Haitians. The firm attitude assumed by the new occupants com- pelled the French to withdraw. In this way was slavery abolished throughout the whole island. After organizing the administration and taking such measures as were necessitated by the circumstances, Boyer left Santo Domingo on March 10, and on the 6th of May, 1822, he was at Port-au-Prince. Territorial unity having now become an accomplished fact, it remained for Haiti to strive to put an end to her misunderstanding with France. It was impossible to make the most of the riches of the island sO' long as there was the probability of an attack from the former mother country. Complete security could only be ob- tained through the recognition of Haitian independence by France. It was thought that Great Britain would gladly help in bringing about this result. In conse- quence, Petion and Christophe unhesitatingly granted special privileges to British commerce. Boyer adopted the same policy. Whilst all foreign products had to pay an import duty of 12 per cent, those from Great Britain paid only 7 per cent ; and when these products were imported by Haitian ships, the duty was further reduced to 5 per cent. Great Britain profited by these advantages but did not show the least inclination to lend assistance to Haiti. On the contrary, in the treaty additional to the Paris treaty, Great Britain promised not to counteract any of the means to which France might resort in order to "recover Saint-Domingue and Attitude of Great Britain and the United States 179 to subdue the inhabitants of that colony." And as it would be perhaps necessary to almost exterminate "the inhabitants of the colony" in order to subdue them, Grreat Britain, though requesting the abolition of the slave-trade, forgot for a while her philanthropic prin- ciples and authorized France to continue this barbarous trade for five years, as it would probably be the only way of repeopling the depopulated island. In spite of this attitude, greatly out of keeping with the com- mercial privileges which had been granted her, the Haitians had still the hope that Great Britain could be induced to recognize their independence and to help them to obtain the same recognition from France. But they were rudely disillusioned when, in 1823, Great Britaia recognized the independence of Mexico, Colom- bia, etc., and refrained from recognizing theirs. They knew finally that they could not expect any assistance from this Power. In consequence, in 1825, they abol- ished all the privileges by which the British were profit- ing and ordered that henceforth the import tax of 12 per cent would be indiscriminately levied on all foreign products. As to the United States, Haiti had not even thought of having recourse to their intervention. In that coun- try the partisans of slavery were at that time omnipo- tent, ^hey naturally could not help bearing ill-will against" the former slaves, who had not only created a sovereign State, but who had even dared to transform their territory into an asylum of freedom and liberty for the unfortunate human beings who, on account of their color, were elsewhere subjected to a shameful yoke. President Boyer had even sent an agent to New York tq_Bncourage the men of the black race to emigrate to Haiti.! No wonder then was it that the United States recognized the independence of Colombia, etc., and ignored that of Haiti. Thus the young Eepublic, at the very beginning of its existence, found itself isolated and compelled to face the power of France without the sympathy of a single nation. But Haiti, with a sense of her responsibility, 180 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors remained undaunted and spared nothing in order to preserve her autonomy. French commerce was suffer- ing no less than that of Haiti, owing to the bad feeling existing between the two countries. On both sides the necessity of coming to some kind of an agreement was felt. Still, France could not yet make up her mind to accept as an accomplished fact the loss of her colony. In 1821, after the failure of the agents sent to Petion, she once again entertained the idea of forcibly estab- lishing a protectorate over Haiti ; with that end in view Mr. Dupetit Thouars was despatched to Haiti. Boyer, like his predecessor, flatly refused to take such a propo- sal into consideration. This evidently did not have the effect of discouraging France, as in 1823 another agent, Mr. Liot, was sent to Port-au-Prince. His in- structions were to try to induce President Boyer to take the initiative in the negotiations for the acknowl- edgment of the independence of his country. In May the President of Haiti charged the French General, Jacques Boye, who had given many proofs of his friend- ship to the Haitians, to enter into a parley with France. The French Government commissioned Mr. Esmangart to confer with the Haitian envoy. The two agents opened the negotiations at Brussels on the 16th of August, 1823. The Haitian plenipotentiary requested the full recognition of the independence of the Republic and, in return, offered freedom from all import duties, during the next five years, on all French products ; and at the conclusion of that time the duties on French products were to be only one-half of the amount levied on all other foreign products. Mr. Esmangart refused to recognize the full independence of Haiti; he put an end to the parleys and left Brussels on the 22d of August. This last display of France's ill will produced a very bad impression in Haiti. On the 6th of January, 1824, President iBoyer issued a proclamation ordering various energetic measures relative to the defense of the Haitian territory. Arms and ammunition were stored in the interior of the island, in all places which could serve as the basis of military operations. Once Negotiations ivith France 181 more the country was preparing for war. The inhab- itants were still in a state of great agitation when Mr. Laujon, the new agent of France, arrived in Haiti and requested President Boyer to take up the negotiations once more. Accordingly, two Haitian agents, Mr. Rouanez and Senator Larose, were again sent to France. They left Haiti on the 1st of May, 1824, and arrived at Havre on the 14th of June. The Haitian plenipotentiaries were at first taken to Saint-Germain, and afterward to Strasbourg, where they met Mr. Esmangart, the French agent. Upon their declaring that the negotiations could not be successfully carried on at so great a distance from Paris, the conferences were transferred to Meaux. The Haitian envoys kept their patience throughout all these changes and finally succeeded in arranging that the parleys be held in Paris. _ They were instructed to secure the recognition of the independence of Haiti, and in return to agree to the payment of an indemnity to the former colonists; the French products, however, were to enjoy no greater privileges than those granted to the more favored nations; and Haitian products were not to pay higher duties in France than importations from the French colonies. As soon as Larose and Rouanez had made known the views of their G-ovemment, the French agent raised a grave question. He contended that the King of France having in 1814 reconveyed the Spanish portion of the island to Spain was empowered to negotiate only for the French portion of Saint-Domingue. Since 1822 there existed neither a French nor a Spanish portion: the Republic of Haiti was in peaceful possession of the whole island. In consequence, the Haitian envoys re- fused to take into consideration any such discrimination and threatened to brea:k up the parleys. They were then invited to confer directly with Marquis de Cler- mont-Tonnerre, the Minister of War and of the colonies. In an interview with him on the 31st of July they were astounded to learn that the King of France, whilst will- ing to recognize the independence of Haiti, intended, 182 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors however, to retain the right to manage the foreign rela- tions of the Eepuhlic. They energetically protested against such a pretension, and considering it useless to prolong the negotiations, they left France on the 15th of August. Their arrival in Haiti created great excite- ment. President Boyer at once acquainted the people ■with France's intention of forcing a protectorate upon them ; he informed the Senate of the failure of his pleni- potentiaries and summoned the most important among the generals of the Haitian army to Por1>au-Prince. War appeared to be inevitable. Once more the neces- sary measures were taken in order to enable the country to repel a foreign invasion. Whilst resorting to the precautions rendered neces- sary by circumstances, President Boyer did not neglect to complete the organization of the Republic. A Civil Code, a Code of Civil Procedure, a Commercial Code, a Penal Code, and a Code of Criminal Instruction were successively enacted and proclaimed. The whole coun- try was thus under the same laws. Whilst the Haitians, in spite of the ill will shown them abroad, were striving to consolidate their govern- ment, France harassed them still further by a himaili- ation in the guise of a favor. This was the act of Charles X, who bestowed on them as a charity the recognition of their independence. Without their con- sent, regardless of their desire in the matter, and with- out taking the slightest notice of the arduous negoti- ations which had been hitherto carried on, the haughty Bourbon signed, on the 17th of April, 1825, the follow- ing ordinance : ' ' Charles, by the grace of God, King of France and "Navarre. "Wishing to attend to the interest of French Com- "merce, to the misfortunes of the former colonists of " Saint-Domingue and to the precarious condition of ' ' the present inhabitants of the island ; "We have ordered and order the following: "Art. I. The ports of the French part of Saint-Do- * ' mingue shall be open to the commerce of all nations. Ordiitance of Cliarles X 183 "The duties levied in these ports either on ships or "merchandise at the times of their entry or departure "shall be equal and uniform for all nations except for "the French flag, on behalf of which these duties are to "be reduced to half the amount. "Art II. The present inhabitants of the French part "of Saint-Domingue shall pay at the Caisse des Depots "et Consignations of France, in five annual instal- "ments, the first one due on the 31st of December, 1825, "the sum of one hundred and fifty millions of francs, "in order to compensate the former colonists who may "claim an indemnity. "Art. m. Under these conditions we grant, by the "present Ordinance, to the present inhabitants of the "French part of Saint-Domingue the full independ- ' * ence of their Government. "And the present Ordinance shall be sealed with the "great seal. "Done at Paris in the Palace of Tuileries, this 17th "of April A. D. 1825, and the first of our reign. ' ' Chables. "By the King: The Peer of France, Minister-Secre- ' ' tary of State for the Navy and the colonies. "COMTE DE ChABEOL." Baron Mackau, a captain in the French Navy, was intrusted with the mission of submitting the ordinance to the approval of the President of Haiti. He left on the 4th of May, 1825, and arrived at Port-au-Prince on the third of July on the frigate La Circe, accompanied by two other men-of-war. Soon after there arrived also several squadrons under the command of Admirals Jurien de la Graviere and Grivel, who had been in- structed to cruise in Haitian waters. This display of forces served to create the impression that France was willing to renew hostilities should the ordinance of the King be rejected. Did President Boyer shrink from the responsibility of provoking wax, or did he consider it wiser to remove the most important cause of conflict with France so as 184 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors to be able henceforth to devote his whole efforts to the improvement of his country? After four days of hesi- tation he finally accepted, on the 4th of July, the ordi- nance, which the Senate approved on the 11th. When the exact wording of the ordinance became known, a shudder of indignation ran through the whole country. The old warriors took offense at the very thought of their independence being granted to them after their having fought so hard to gain it for themselves. The people were highly incensed at the lordly tone adopted by the King of France, as well as at the heavy burden laid upon them. As a result of this step President Boyer's popularity was deeply affected. Seeing the mistake he had made he set to work to try and counteract the ill effects of it. On the 21st of July, 1825, he despatched three plenipotentiaries to France with instructions to negotiate a treaty less offensive to the nation's self-respect. It was urgent to come to a clear understanding, for France, through a miscon- struction of the Ordinance of April, 1825, was paying lialf of the duties, not only on her products imported to Haiti, but also on those exported from the island: in •consequence there was an important decrease in the revenues at the very moment when Haiti was in sore need of money on account of the indemnity which was being extorted by France. In order to pay the first instalment, viz., 30,000,000 francs, it was necessary to resort to a loan, which was floated at Paris in Novem- ber, 1825, and yielded 24,000,000 francs, though the Bepublic issued bonds for 30,000,000 francs. To make up the required sum the country was thus eom]3elled to ship 6,000,000 of francs ; all the disposable cash was in consequence sent to France. In this way the effects of paATnent of the indemnity and of the interest on the loan began to be heavily felt. The export of the metal- lic currency compelled the Haitian Government to issue paper money in September, 1826. The evil consequence of the Ordinance of 1825 could not be questioned. No wonder was it that the Haitians devoted all their ener- gies to have it annulled. However, the plenipotentiaries Strained Relations ivith France 185 sent to France in 1825 had failed lo obtain either a reduction in the amount of the indemnity or the de- termining of a date for the discontinuance of the priv- ilege of the payment of half duty on all the French products. On the 31st of October, 1825, they signed a commercial convention * which the President of Haiti refused to approve. Instead of improving, the relations between Haiti and France grew daily worse. It was impossible for Haiti to pay the enormous sum which Charles X had forced upon her. There were unavoidable delays in the payment of the instalments, which gave rise to endless disputes and misunderstandings with France. In 1828 a Haitian agent, Mr. St. Macary, went to Paris ; he also failed in his mission, and returned in 1829 to Haiti, where the French Consul-General again took up the negotiations. As a result of this a commercial treaty and a convention concerning the indemnity were signed in April, 1829. These, however, France refused to ratify; and Baron Pichon was appointed to carry on new negotiations. He arrived at Port-au-Prince in 1830, and failing to come to an agreement with the Haitian plenipotentiaries, he returned to France in April. Thus relations between the two countries be- came very strained; for the Haitian Government was bent on discontinuing the advantage of the payment of half duty which the Ordinance of 1825 had granted to French commerce. The instalments were irregularly paid and the French products were made to pay the same taxes levied on the merchandise of all other nations. The ordinance of 1825, the cause of so much trouble, was thus little by little repudiated by the Haitians. To prevent any complaint on the part of France, Boyer, in April, 1830, again sent St. Macary to France. The negotiations were being carried on in Paris when the revolution of 1830 occurred. The downfall of Charles X put an end to the parleys, which were not ' J. N. L6ger, Eecueil de Trait^s et Conventions d'Haiti, p. 2. 186 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors resumed until the following year; and on the 2d of April, 1831, St. Macary and Pichon signed a com- mercial treaty and a convention relating to the indem- nity.* These two documents, instead of annulling the Ordinance of 1825, which the Haitians had firmly de- cided to abolish, granted new favors to the French. Thus it was that Louis Philippe lost no time in ratify- ing them, whilst President Boyer flatly refused to sanc- tion them. This refusal so incensed the King of France that his Consul was immediately withdrawn from Port- au-Prince. This time all semblance of friendliness in the relations between the two countries was at an end. War seemed to be unavoidable. And the people, glad at having an opportunity to wipe out the insult placed upon them by the Ordinance of 1825, showed the great- est enthusiasm. The Haitians were ready to make the greatest sacrifices in order to obtain not the concession, but the recognition of their independence by a treaty voluntarily drawn and agreed upon. This independence had been recognized by Great Britain, which, in May, 1826, had appointed a Consul- General at Port-au-Prince and Consuls and Vice-Con- suls in the various ports open to foreign trade. Nether- lands, Sweden, Denmark were also in official relations with the young Republic. Negotiations were being carried on with the Holy See with a view to the settle- ment of religious matters. In January, 1834, John England, Bishop of Charleston, was sent to Port-au- Prince in the capacity of a Legate. The Pope wanted to control the church of Haiti without any interference from the temporal Power; consequently, he made up his mind to appoint a Vicar Apostolic for Haiti. The Haitian Government claimed the right to appoint the Archbishops and Bishops, reserving to the Pope the right of conferring the canonical investiture. Unable to come to an understanding, Bishop England left Haiti, but returned in May, 1836, and signed a Concordat, which he took with him to Rome, hoping to have it rati- ' J. N. Lfiger, Recueil des Traitfe et Conventions d'Haiti, pp. 7, 11. Treaty Signed tvith France in 1838 187 fied. Pope Gregory XII refused to approve this treaty, and in May, 1837, Bishop England arrived at Port-au- Prince witii the title of "Vicar Apostolic, Administra- tor of the Church of Haiti." On the refusal of Presi- dent Boyer to receive the Pope's agent in such a capacity. Bishop England returned to Charleston, vs^here he died soon after." Although Haiti had been greatly displeased with the ordinance of Charles X, she had nevertheless benefited by it in obtaining the recognition of her independence by Great Britain and some other European Powers. The rupture with France, caused by President Boyer 's refusal to ratify the treaties of 1831, was very detri- mental to the interests of both countries, which were therefore eager to come to an understanding. After seven years of untiring efforts Haiti succeeded in reaching an agreement satisfactory to all concerned. Baron E. de Las Cases and C. Baudin, a captain in the French Navy, arrived at Port-au-Prince on the 28th of January, 1838; they were commissioned by Louis Philippe to settle the disagreements existing between i^ance and Haiti. On the 31st of January the parleys with the Haitian plenipotentiaries were begun, and on the 12th of February, 1838, the following treaty," which " In 1842 the negotiations were renewed with the Holy See. Joseph Rosati, Bishop of Saint Louis (5Io.), arrived at Port-au-Prinee in Janu- ary as Papal Legate. On the 17th of February, 1842, he signed with the Haitian plenipotentiaries a Concordat which contained the following principal stipulations: "The right to appoint the Archbishops and "Bishops was rested in the President of Haiti with the reservation of "the right of the Pope to grant the canonical investiture; before enter- "ing upon the duties of their offices they were to take, before the Presi- "dent, the oath of fidelity and obedience to the Government of the "Republic and of doing nothing injurious to its rights or interests. The "Bishops were empowered to appoint their Vicars-General, the rectors "and parish Vicars, with the reservation of the right of the President "of Haiti to approve or reject these appointments, etc." The events which occurred in Haiti in 1843 prevented this agreement from being taken into consideration. But in 1860 negotiations began again, and on the 28th of March the Concordat which still governs the relations of Haiti with the Vatican was signed in Rome. (J. N. L^ger, Recueil des Traites et Conventions de la Rfipublique d'Haiti, p. 59.) " J. N. L6ger, Recueil des Traitfis et Conventions de la R^publique d'Haiti, p. 23. 188 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors was entirely satisfactory to the national amour-propre of Haiti, was signed : "In the name of the Holy and indivisible Trinity. "His Majesty the King of the French and the Presi- "dent of Haiti, desiring to establish on a solid and last- "ing basis the friendly relations which ought to exist "between France and Haiti, have decided to settle them "by a Treaty and for that purpose have appointed the "following plenipotentiaries: "His Majesty the King of the French: Emmanuel "Pons-Dieudonne Baron Las Cases, officer of the Royal "order of the Legion of Honor, and Charles Baudin, "officer of the same Eoyal order of the Legion of Honor, " Captain in the Royal Navy. The President of Haiti: "Brigadier-General Joseph Balthazar Inginac, Secre- "tary-General; Colonel Marie Elisabeth Eustache Fre- "mont, his aide-de-camp; Senators Dominique, Fran- "cois Labbe and Alexis Beaubrun Ardouin; and Louis "Mesmin Seguy Villevalaix, Chief Clerk of the Secre- ' ' tary-General ; ' ' "Who after having communicated to each other their "respective full powers, found in good and due form, "have agreed on the following articles: ' ' Art. I. His Majesty the King of the French, in his "name and in the name of his heirs and successors, ' * recognizes the Republic of Haiti as a free, sovereign, "and independent State. "Art. IL There shall be inviolable peace and per- "petual friendship between France and the Republic "of Haiti, and between the citizens of both States, with- "out distinction of persons and places. "Art. in. His Majesty the King of the French and "the President of the Republic of Haiti intend to sign, "as soon as possible and in case of need, a special "treaty destined to govern the relations of commerce "and navigation between France and Haiti. In the "mean time, it is agreed that the Consuls, the citizens "and the merchandise or products from one country "will in every respect enjoy in the other the treatment Abolition of the Slave Trade 189 "granted or which may be granted to the most favored "nation; and this, gratuitously if the concession be "gratuitous, or in return for an equivalent compensa- "tion if the concession be conditional. "Art. rV, The present treaty shall be ratified, and "the ratifications shall be exchanged in Paris within "three months, or sooner if possible. "In faith whereof we, the undersigned plenipoten- "tiaries, have signed the present treaty and have here- "unto affixed our seals. "Done in Port-au-Prince this 12th day of February "in the year of grace 1838. "(Signed) Emmanuel Baron de Las Cases, Charles "Baudin, B. Inginac, Fremont, Labbe, B. Ardouin, * ' Seguy Villevalaix. ' ' In a convention signed on the same day, the indem- nity to be paid by the Eepublic of Haiti was reduced to sixty millions of francs. Having taken the initiative of abolishing slavery, the new State could not be indifferent to the measures adopted with a view to put an end to the inhuman slave- trade. In consequence, in August, 1840, Haiti signed with France a treaty ^ in which she gave her adhesion to the Conventions of November, 1831, and March, 1833, between Great Britain and France, which was destined to secure the abolition of the slave-trade. And, in order to complete her philanthropic mission, the Republic had previously agreed to pay the crews of the English men- of-war for the slaves who, after being rescued from the hands of the traders in human flesh, would be landed on her territory.* Haiti had spent the first thirty-four years of her independence in the anxious expectation of an aggres- sion from France. After thirty-four years of sacrifices and perseverance she at last succeeded in freeing her- self of this anxiety. In the mean time, the greatest part of her resources had been devoted to armament, the ' J. N. L^ger, Eecueil des Trait^s et Conventions d'Haiti, p. 26. • B. Ardouin, Etudes sur I'HistoiTe d'Haiti, p. 127. 190 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors building of fortresses, and the establishment of store- houses for arms and ammunition in the inaccessible parts of the island. The heavy indemnity requested by France had increased the embarrassment caused by these comparatively high expenses. The aggravation of the bad financial circumstances in which the country found itself was not the only result of the ordinance of Charles X. The discontent provoked by this incon- siderate document was taken advantage of by President Boyer's opponents. The opposition in the House of Bepresentatives grew more and more bitter. The Con- stitution had conferred on the President alone the right to introduce laws. And it was thought that the Chief of the Executive Power was abusing his privilege of initiative by refraining from submitting to the legisla- tive body the measures which were required by circum- stances. The opposition, of which Herard Dumesle, the Representative from Cayes, was the leader, was resort- ing to every available means in order to bring about the revision of the Constitution with a view to invest in the House the right of introducing laws and to curtail the President's prerogatives, which, it was claimed, were excessive. On the other hand, a new generation bad sprung up. From the schools created since the inde- pendence had come many yOung men imbued with ideas of liberty and progress, and desirous of participating in the affairs of State in order to give the country the benefit of their knowledge. Finding the offices in pos- session of the old collaborators who, for 25 years, had been working with Boyer, these young men were loud in their complaints about what they termed the Presi- dent's exclusiveness. The situation had become so tense that a catastrophe was imminent. Boyer might have prevented this occurring by taking the proper measures necessitated by the new state of things, after the Treaty of 1838, which gave full security to the country's future. Unfortunately, he refrained from acting at the right moment. And as a final stroke to a situation already very much strained, an earthquake, which occurred on the 7th of May, 1842, destroyed Cap- Boyer Leaves Haiti 191 Haitien, Port-de-Paix, Mole Saint-Nicolas, Fort-Liberte and several less important places. This catastrophe was turned to account by the opponents of Boyer, who contended that he had not hastened to give assistance to the sufferers. The opposition succeeded in imputing to Boyer the reputation of being averse to progress and of systematically preventing the improvements which the institutions of the country needed. Men's minds were agitated by the bitter and animated dispute which ensued. Such was the state of things when Major Charles Herard aine, sumamed Riviere, took up arms on the 27th of January, 1843, on the Praslin plantation in the vicinity of Cayes. The whole Southern Department at once sided with him. Boyer, owing to the strong public opinion which declared itself against him, was unable to repress the insurrection. Realizing the futility of his efforts in enforcing his authority, he sent his resig- nation to the Senate on the 13th of March, 1843, and in the afternoon of the same day he embarked on the English sloop of war Scylla which the Consul, Mr. Thomas Usher, had graciously placed at his disposal.* Boyer died in Paris on the 9tli of July, 1850. CHAPTER XIII The revolutionists of 1S43 — Their reforms; the Constitution of 1843 — Charles Hfirard ainS, sumamed Ririere (December 30, 1843-May 3, 1844 — Loss of the Spanish portion of the island — Claims of the peasants of the Southern Department — Jean-Jacques Acaau — ^The period of transition — Guerrier (Mav 3, 1844-April 15, 1845) — Pierrot (April 16, 1845-jrareh 1, 1846)— p!ich6 (March 1, 1846-February 27, 1847). The departure of Boyer had the effect of throwing the country into a state of political convulsions all the more acute, as the various elements which had con- tributed to the success of the revolution of 1843 were far from having the same tendencies or the same object. Those who had taken up arms with the impetuosity of youth in the name of liberty, craved for the termination of the militaiy regime and for the establishment of a civil form of government. Tlie man whom circum- stances had placed in the foremost rank was unfortu- nately devoid of the qualities which go to the making up of a capable leader of a great liberal movement. Charles Herard aine, surnamed Eiviere, was but a sol- dier, and as such was not a sincere partisan of the civil regime. On the other hand, great hopes were being entertained by the peasants, who had been promised a decided betterment of their condition. The new and conflicting ideas which were agitating each class of people could not fail to cause friction. In the mean time, a provisional government had been organized at Port-au-Prince (April 4, 1843). Popular elections were ordered, and the meeting of the Constitu- 192 The Constitution of 1843 193^ ent Assembly was fixed for the 15th of September. Municipalities were created and the mayors began to exercise powers which hitherto had belonged to the military authorities. The Constitution, enacted on the 30th of December, 1843, contained many important innovations. The judges were to be elected by the people, instead of being appointed by the President; all offenses, either crim- inal, political, or by the press, were to be submitted to trials by jury. Presidency for life was abolished; the term of the Chief of the Executive Power was limited to four years ; and no measure could be adopted by the President without the countersign of the proper Minis- ter. The right to introduce laws was conferred on the House of Representatives and on the Senate as well as on the President. Matters concerning the communes and the arrondissements were in charge of the munici- palities and the arrondissement councils. An estimate of the revenues and expenses was to be voted annually ; a Court of Accounts was instituted. The Army was declared a law-abiding body ; and strict measures were enacted in view of guaranteeing personal freedom and respect of property. The Haitians are still governed by most of the stipu- lations of the Constitution of 1843. Had it been earn- estly carried out from the time it was adopted, it might have proved the beginning of a new era for Haiti. Charles Herard aine, who was elected President on the 30th of December, 1843, was imfortunately deficient in the competency necessary to facilitate the' transition from a military to a civil government. When a member of the Provisional Government he had provoked dis- content among the inhabitants of the Northern and Eastern Departments. He had shown no regard for the susceptibility of his fellow-citizens of the former Span- ish territory. Besides, the Provisional Government had committed the error of decreeing, on the 27th of Sep^ tember, 1843, the closing to foreign commerce of all the ports of this portion of the island. This measure so excited the people that they rose in revolt on the 16th 194 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors of January, 1844, a few days after the new President had taken the oath of ofBce. The inhabitants of the f ormei- Spanish portion seceded from the Haitian Grov- emment and, on the 27th of February, 1844, established an independent State which they called the Dominican Eepublic/ "Whilst the territorial unity was being destroyed, grave complications were threatening the Republic of Haiti. In August, 1843, disturbances had already taken place in the South. The revolutionists, elated by their success, had completely forgotten the promises made to the i>easants. The latter therefore gathered together in the plain of Cayes, with a view of obtaining what was due to them. But they were speedily dispersed, and their leaders, the Salomons, were sent in exile to Azua, in the former Spanish territory. Haiti had still many great difficulties to overcome; Taut these were not insuperable. With earnest efforts and good will it was still possible to restore security hy obtaining the confidence of the people. Unfortu- nately, Charles Herard aine deemed his sword all-suf- ficient in settling the delicate questions which were agitating the countr}^ By openly avowing his antipa- thy to the Constitution, which had put a check on his authority, he had incurred the distrust of the liberals, to whom he owed his high dignity, and disturbed the peaceful security of those who believed that henceforth the laws would be faithfully obeyed hj all. The Presi- dent had also lost the sympathy of the peasants of the Southern Department by not keeping the promises made to them. In consequence, both classes of inhab- itants, those of the country as well as those of the towns, were equally displeased. This situation, already fraught with danger, was still more aggi-avated by con- tinual conflict between the civil and military authorities. ' In the United States people are in the habit of calling the whole Dominican Republic San Domingo. This is incorrect. San Domingo is the name of the Capital. The Dominican Republic is the correct desig- nation of the country, whose inhabitants are kno^vn as Dominicans, and not as San Domingans as is often to be seen in American newspapers. Discontent Against Charles Herard 195 The prerogatives of the mayors and the municipalities had to some extent restrained the powers hitherto vested solely in the military commandants of the arron- dissements and communes, who therefore strove to regain their former importance; hence there stai'ted a struggle with the new civil functionaries created by institutions of too recent a date to command the respect of all, more especially as the Executive Power was giving his hearty support to the military party. The President set the bad example of not submitting to the civil power ; consequently there existed between him and the Constituent Assembly, which but recently elected him President, a state of open warfare. The popularity of Charles Herard aine was already on the wane when, at the head of the Haitian army, he undertook to subdue the insurgents of the Spanish por- tion of the island. The soldiers bravely performed their duty, so that the President entered Azua in the first days of April. There was nothing seriously to impede the advance of his army upon Santo Domingo. The days of the Dominican Eepublic were numbered, had it not been for the events which occurred at that moment at Cap-Haitien, Port-au-Prince, and Cayes, and which saved its existence. The discontent pro- voked by the acts attributable to the inexperience of Charles Herard aine broke out simultaneously in vari- ous places. In a proclamation of April 25 the inhab- itants of Cap-Haitien seceded from his . government ; and a council of state appointed General Guerrier President of the Northern Department. On the 3d of May, 1844, Port-au-Prinee, following Cap-Haitien 's ex- ample, acclaimed Guerrier President of the Republic. The Southern Department was also in a much agitated condition. The peasants of Cayes were bent upon ob- taining the fulfillment of the promises made to them. On the 27th of March, 1844, they assembled at Camp- Perrin and assumed the name of "L'Armee Souf- frante" (the army of the sufferers). They chose a leader of their own, Jean-Jacques Acaau, who adopted the title of "General, Chief of the claims of his fellow- 196 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors citizens." Tliis was an absolutely illiterate man, but one possessed of that daring and gallantry wbich fasci- nate and arouse the masses. He soon became the prime mover of this popular outbreak, and on the 5th of April he took possession of the town of Cayes. The griev- ances of the country people, which had long been held in check, broke forth at last with a violence that terrified the inhabitants of the town. The peasants had one aim in view: the holding of the land; the means used in attaining this end were of minor importance to them. Like an impetuous torrent, Acaau's followers bore down, wreaking destruction on all who stood in their way. They committed many very regrettable excesses. Whilst Acaau was enjoying his dictatorship at Cayes, the peasants in the Grand 'Anse took up arms with the cries of ' ' Down with the process-servers ! " ^ They suc- ceeded in occupying Jeremie and in becoming masters of the whole arrondissement of Nippes. Ridiculous as the cries of "Down with the process-ser%^ers!" may seem, they were nevertheless an evidence of the fixed idea of the peasants to remain in possession of their fields. Taking advantage of the hard circumstances in which they at that time found themselves, certain of the city merchants lent them money at usurious rates and, through the redemption proviso or by means of mort- gage deeds, easily dispossessed them of their proper- ties. By serving the judiciary acts the process-server foretold the approaching dispossession; hence the hatred he incurred. Though political in the North and agrarian in the South, the agitation which was disturbing the entire country had the same object in view : the dismissal of Charles Herard aine, whose blunders were accountable for all this turmoil. The President was still at Azua ^ It is noteworthy that the Haitian peasants, who knew nothing about the history of England, were manifesting the same aversion against the practitioners of law as was shown by the English serfs during the riots which took place in 1381 during the reign of Richard II. The serfs destroyed every judiciary document they could lay hands on and killed many lawyers in London. Death of Guerrier 197 when he heard that the people whose rights he had dis- regarded, had, so to speak, dismissed him. He did not try to resist their will, but he went to Arcahaie, from whence he saUed for Jamaica on the 2d of Jmie, 1844.' General Guerrier, who, on the 3d of May, 1844, be- came President of Haiti, was already 87 years old. After taking the oath of office on the 9th he devoted his ejBforts to the restoring of peace in the Southern prov- ince. As a veteran of the war for independence his deficiency in knowledge was counterbalanced by his great love for his country. He showed great moderation in exercising the dictatorship which circumstances had conferred upon him. At a word from him the peasants of the Southern Department laid down their arms. After restoring peace the government of President Guerrier undertook the problem of diffusing public instruction; a "Lycee" was created at Cap-Haitien and one at Caves. A Council of State took the place of the House of Representatives and of the Senate. President Guerrier, owing to his very advanced age, was unable to stand the fatigue of his high office; he died at Saint-Marc on the 15th of April, 1845. The next day the Council of State elected General Pierrot President of the Eepublic. The new Chief of the Executive Power was not much younger than his predecessor, being 84 years old. His most pressing duty was to check the incursions of the Dominicans, who were harassing the Haitian troops along the bor- ders. There they had elected General Santana Presi- dent, and seized every opportunitj^ to attack and annoy our soldiers. Their crafts also were making depreda- tions on our coasts. President Pierrot decided to open a campaign against the Dominicans, whom he considered merely as insur- gents. The Haitians, however, not being anxious to engage upon war with their neighbors, were unwilling to support the President's views. Furthermore, he had displeased the army by conferring military rank • Charles Hgrard ain6 died in Jamaica. 198 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors on the leaders of the peasants of the Southern Depart- ment and on many of their followers. And there existed also among the inhabitants of the towns of this depart- ment a feeling of uneasiness regarding the tendencies of Pierrot, who had appointed Acaau, the former ter- rorist of Cayes, Commandant of the arrondissement of 1 'Anse-a-Veau. Fearing a new Jacquerie the towns- men made up their minds to divest Pierrot of his office. In consequence, on the 1st of March, 1846, General Jean-Baptiste Riche was proclaimed President of the Republic at Port-au-Prince. On the 24th of March Pierrot resigned and, leaving Cap-Haitien, which he had made the capital of the country, retired to his plantation "Camp-Louise," where he led a quiet and peaceful life.* His affability and good nature had secured for him the sympathy of the peasants of the Southern Depart- ment. They therefore resented his enforced retirement. They had little confidence in the newly elected Presi- dent, who had fought against them in 1844. Acaau, who was in command of the arrondissement of Nippes, gave the signal for resistance. He openly dejBed Riche 's authority and entrenched himself at Fort Saint-Laurent at rAnse-a-Veau. He was defeated and took shelter on the Joly plantation, where, to avoid being captured, he blew out his brains with a pistol. As soon as the South had been pacified, Riche put an end to the dictatorship wuich had been established since 1844. The Council of State created by Guerrier was transformed into a Senate, which, on the 14th of No- vember, 1846, enacted the Constitution of 1816 with most of the modifications introduced in 1843. Unfortu- nately, presidency for life was restored. But Riche did not long enjoy the power intrusted to him. His health was not very robust, and was completely under- mined by the fatigues of a journey he had undertaken into the North of the country. He returned to Port-au- • Pierrot died on the 18th of February, 1857. Faustin Soulouque 199 Prince on the 23d of February, 1847, and died on the 27th of the same month. The Council of the Secretaries of State immediately- assumed the authority; and the Senate met on the 1st of March to elect a new President of the Eepuhlic. The struggle for the Presidency was between two candi- dates, Generals Souffrant and Paul. After eight bal- lots neither one was able to obtain a majority of votes. Both parties remaining obdurate, the Assembly decided to choose a man who was not aspiring to the dignity. In this way General Faustin Soulouque, who was far from expecting such an honor, was elected President of Haiti. CHAPTER XIV Faustin Soulouque (March 1, 1847-January 15, 1859) — Campaigns against the Dominicans — ^The Empire — Intervention of France, Great Britain, and the United States on behalf of the Dominicans — ^Navassa — Gonaives in rebellion — Faustin Soulouque leaves Haiti. From 1844 to 1847 Haiti had passed through one of the most critical epochs of her existence. After organ- izing an independent State An February, 1844, the in- habitants of the former Sp&nish portion of the island were committing unceasing acts of hostility on the bor- ders, where an army had to be maintained in order to keep them in check. The ex;penses necessary for the maintenance of the soldiers -n-ere comparatively high; moreover, owing to the inse^'-urity resulting from these disturbances, industry had been suspended in that part of the country. It was therefore urgent to put an end to this state of things, eitl'ier by subduing our former fellow-citizens or by comii»g to an understanding with them. The unsettled condition in which Haiti herself was at that time made rhe Dominican problem still more intricate in deali^ig with. The hopes which Boyer's retirement had gwen rise to all came to naught. The disappointment whi-ih this occasioned the peasants of the Southern Department had decided them to resort to violence; they wanted to free themselves from the incumbrance of the Rural Code; they demanded the establishment of schools and their share in the posses- sion of the land. Hav/ng been successive! v deceived by all, even by their own chosen leaders, they had be^n 200 Faustin Soulouque 201 unable to receive satisfaction. Their apparent submis- sion -was therefore more assumed than real. On the other hand, the liberal ideas of 1843 not hav- ing been successful in practical application, the military system seemed to many to be the only one able to insure peace and order; which idea was naturally much con- tested by the partisans of the civil regime. When on the 1st of March, 1847, Faustin Soulouque was elected President of the Republic, three most press- ing duties demanded his attention : He had to conduct the guerrilla warfare which was still continuing on the Dominican boundary, to appease the Southern peas- ants, and to check the growing discontent among the townspeople, who were demanding greater freedom. No one expected Soulouque to display the tact of a statesman ; but, as a soldier, he had strong ideas as to order and discipline. Highly flattered at the honor conferred upon him he was sincerely desirous of de- voting his best efforts to the proper management of affairs of State. He tried his utmost to comply with the exigencies of the Constitution ; he even went so far as to choose his Ministers from the ranks of the oppo- sition. His opponents conducted themselves with little regard for the President's susceptibility and did not hesitate to reproach him with his ignorance. The anger this caused Soulouque, whose lack of knowledge was well known to those who had elected him, made him distrustful. He was in one of these cheerless moods when, on the 16th of April, 1848, a riot occurred at Port-au-Prince. The disturbance was quickly subdued, and Soulouque made use of this opportunity to crush all revolutionary tendencies. He wielded authority with an iron hand; peasants and townspeople were made to understand that aimed manifestations would be most severely dealt with, which had the effect of producing quiet in the land. This duty accomplished, Soulouque 's next care was to see to the hostilities still in progress with the former Spanish territory. In order to stop the incursions of the Dominicans he determined to bring them back to 202 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors the authority of the Haitian Grovernment. He opened a campaign against them on the 5th of March, 1849. The army under his command at first raet -with success. Azua was stormed; once more the way to Santo Do- mingo was clear. But the news of discontent existing at Port-au-Prince, which reached Soulouque, arrested his further progress and caused him to return with the army to his capital. He was made to believe that the powers vested in him were not sufficient to allow him to maintain peace and order whilst engaged in bringing the former Spanish portion of the island into submis- sion. And the officers of the army were of the opinion that the only way to put an end to the existing discord and agitation was by conferring absolute power on their chief. In consequence they drew up a petition, and on the 29th of August, 1849, Soulouque was pro- claimed Emperor of Haiti; and on the 18th of April, 1852, he was crowned, together with his wife, in the Cathedral of Port-au-Prince. Under the name of Faus- tin I he was henceforth free to rule the country accord- ing to his will. Quiet prevailed as the result of this change and agriculture became flourishing. Emboldened by the sudden retreat of the Haitian army, the Dominicans had resumed their depredations. Their flotilla went as far as Dame-Marie, which they plundered and set on fire. Faustin I decided to start a new campaign against them. In 1855 he invaded the territory of the Dominican Republic. But, owing to insufficient preparation, the army was soon in want of victuals and ammunition. In spite of the bravery of the soldiers the Emperor had once more to give up the idea of restoring unity of government in the island. After this campaign Great Britain and France inter- fered and obtained an armistice on behalf of the Do- minicans. Later on these two Powers did their utmost to prevent Haiti from availing herself of the oppor- tunity of subduing her former citizens. In this they had the hearty support of the United States. At that time the Americans did not object to enter into an agreement with Europe in order to help to terrify Haiti. In the Webster Intervenes in Favor of the Dominiccms 203 following instructions to his agent at Port-au-Prince, Mr. Webster, then Secretary of State, did not try to conceal his intention of provoking an armed interven- tion : ^ " The material interests of the three countries "(France, Great Britain and the United States)," he wrote, "are largely involved in the restoration and "preservation of peace between the contending parties "in Santo Domingo. France is a creditor of the Gov- ' ' ernment of the Emperor Soulouque to a large amoimt. ' ' She cannot hope for a discharge of her debt when the "resources of his country, instead of being developed "by pacific pursuits and in part, at least, applied to "that purpose, are checked in their growth and wasted "in a war with a conterminous state. Great Britain "and France are both interested in securing that great "additional demand for their productions which must "result from the impulse to be expected for industry ' ' in Haiti and the Dominican Republic from a termina- "tion of the war; and the United States have a similar "interest. * * * jf the Emperor Soulouque shall "insist upon maintaining a belligerent attitude until "all his demands shall have been satisfied by the oppo- "site party, you will unite with your colleagues in re- "monstrating against this course on his part. If the "remonstrance shall prove to be unavailing, you will "signify to the Emperor that you shall jsrive immediate "notice to your Government, that the President, with "the concurrence of Congress, may adopt such meas- "ures, in cooperation with the governments of England "and France, as may cause the intervention of the "three Powers to be respected."' ' Santo Domingo and the United States, by John Bassett Moore, Review of Revieics, March, 1905, p. 298. ' "When Mr. Webster wrote these instructions," says Mr. Moore, "Great Britain and France had agreed, if the advice of the Powers was "not taken immediately, to institute a hostile blockade of the Haitian "ports. In this act of war the President of the United States was "unable to take part without the authority of Congress, and it was to "this fact that Mr. Webster referred when he stated that, in case the "Haitian €rOvemment should refuse to yield to remonstrance, the Presi- "dent would lay the matter before Congress, in order that the United 204 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors This agreement accounts for the attitude of Great Britain and France, who neglected none of the means in their power to prevent Faustin I from pressing Haiti 's legitimate claim concerning Navassa Island, of which some citizens of the United States had unduly taken possession.^ Yet the representatives of these two Powers had been the first to inform the Emperor of the seizure of this portion of the Haitian territory by the Americans. The sufferings endured by the soldiers during the campaign of 1855, the losses and sacrifices inflicted on the country without compensation or practical result provoked great discontent. The responsibility for the failure of the undertaking was cast on the Emperor. Confidence in him was shaken; however, the Empire might yet have been saved by taking wise measures in regard to the interests and welfare of the people. But the Government, in order to maintain its authority, resorted instead to intimidation and violence, whi6h method had once proven to be successful. No regard was paid to public liberty. Bad financial measures, added to a faulty management of the nation's revenues, soon aggravated the situation. The Emperor was still feared, but his prestige was entirely gone. Those who had cause to dread his anger began to plot against him. Even his partisans ended by seeking to come to an agreement with the enlightened Haitians who were endeavoring to obtain more freedom for their fellow- citizens. Such was the state of affairs when General Fabre Geffrard considered that the time had come for the overthrow of the man who had, in reality, assumed dic- tatorial power. On the night of December 20, 1858, he left Port-au-Prince in a small boat, accompanied only by his son and two trusty followers, Ernest Roumain and Jean-Bart. On the 22d he arrived at Gonaives, "States might be enabled to co-operate with the governments of England "and France in measures to 'cause the intervention of the three Powers " 'to be respected.' " ' J. N. L6ger, La Politique Ext^rieure d'Haiti, p. 99. Faustin Soulouque Sails for Jamaica 205 where the insurrection broke out. The Republic was acclaimed and the Constitution of 1846 was adopted. On the 23d of December the Departmental Committee, which had been organized, divested Faustin Soulouque of his office and appointed Fabre Geffrard President of Haiti. Cap-Haitien and the whole Department of Arti- bonite joined in the restoration of the Republic. Soulouque tried to maintain his authority, but all in vain; the monarchic system was too unpopiilar to find any supporters. On the 12th of January, 1859, General Geffrard, at the head of the republican army, had estab- lished his headquarters on the Drouillard plantation, at a short distance from Port-au-Prince, which he entered on the 15th of January without striking a blow. In the afternoon of the same day Faustin Soulouque embarked on the English frigate Melburn, which took him to Jamaica.* Monarchy had forever ceased to exist in Haiti. « Soulouque died at Petit-Goave (Haiti), on August 6, 1807. CHAPTER XV Fabre Geffrard (December 23, 1858-March 13, 1867) — Concordat with the Vatican — Reforms made by Geffrard: diffusion of public instruc- tion; law permitting marriage between foreigners and Haitians — Attempt to induce the colored people of the United States to go to Haiti— -Geffrard tried to have the whole island neutralized — Annex- ation of the Dominican Kepublic by Spain — The Rubalcava incident — Salnave takes up arms at Cap-Haitien — ^The Bulldog incident — Bombardment of Cap-Haitien by British men-of-war — Mr. Seward, Secretary of State of the United States, at Port-au-Prince — Geffrard leaves Haiti. Geffrard, appointed President of the Republic on the 23d of December, 1858, took the oath of office on the 20th of January, 1859. He entered at once upon new negotiations -^ith the Holy See concerning the situation of the Catholic clergy in Haiti. The parleys on this subject had begun in the first days of the independence of the country. The Pope was persistent in his idea of sending an Apostolic Prefect to Haiti and, in conse- quence, of ha\-ing the high control of the church ; whilst the Haitian rulers insisted upon having the right to participate in the appointment of the archbishops and bishops. There was such a firm determination on the part of the Haitians not to receive an Apostolic Pre- fect that the Vatican gave way to them. On the 28th of March, 1860, the Concordat which still rules the rela- tions of Haiti with the Holy See was signed at Rome. Until Geffrard's advent the foreigners in Haiti, whilst enjoying the greatest protection, were subjected to many restrictions ; thus they were not allowed to marry the natives. On the 18th of October, 1860, a law was enacted authorizing such marriages. Although Haiti had been holding intercourse with 206 Fab re Gejfrard 207 all the civilized Powers, the partisans of slavery in the United States continued to bear their old grudge against her. But the war of secession brought more cordial relations between the two countries, and on November 3, 1864, they signed at Port-au-Prince a treaty of amity, commerce, navigation, and for the ex- tradition of fugitive criminals.^ Geffrard did all in his power to assist the men of the black race in the United States, who, on account of color prejudice, were exposed to cruel humiliations ; he sent an agent to New York intrusted with the mission to induce them to emigrate to Haiti. But his attempt at colonization failed as a similar attempt made by Boyer had failed. The immigration idea was unpopular both in Haiti and among those who were to benefit by it. Therefore it was abandoned. Geffrard 's government failed also in its endeavors to secure the neutralization of the whole island. Still his overtures had met with the good will of the principal Powers of Europe; but the United States refused to participate in a treaty of guarantee ; ^ and Europe did not care to act without their support. This failure of Haitian diplomacy, unavoidable by reason of the policy then followed by the United States, was compensated for by the successful carrj'ing out of some valuable measures adopted in Haiti. The army was reorganized and put upon a solid basis ; discipline was strictly observed. Geffrard gave also his best attention to the diffusion of public instruction; many primary and high schools were established in the country. The School of Medicine was reorganized and even a School of Music established. And in order to have competent teachers and professors the Eepublic sent young Haiti- ans to Europe to make or complete their studies at its expense. ' J. N. L^ger, Recueil des Trait^s et Conventions d'Haiti, p. 84. The treaty of the 3d of November, 1864, vas denounced in May, 1904, and has been replaced partly by a treaty for the extradition of fugitive criminals signed at Washington on the 9th of August, 1904. In 1902 Haiti signed a convention on naturalization with the United States. » J. N. L6ger, La Politique Ext^rieure d'Haiti, pp. 145-157. 208 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Literature, which during Geffrard's administratioii had made unusual progress, produced new ideas in the minds of the people, who began to aspire to the greater security of public liberty. At the outset Geff rard had met with grave difficulties. The former followers of Soulouque, whom the sudden downfall of the Emperor had taken by surprise, began at once to try to regain possession of the power. In September, 1859, a conspiracy led by General Prophete, a member of Faustin 's Cabinet, was discovered. In 1861 the Haitian Government had a new source of anxiety. In March the President of the Dominican Eepublic, betraying the trust placed in him, had trans- ferred his country to Spain; once more the eastern portion of the island became a Spanish colony. The people who desired to remain an independent State protested against the President's treacherous act by resorting to arms. Spain held Haiti responsible for this resistance to her authority. A fleet under Admiral Rubalcava's command anchored in July in the harbor of Port-au-Prince and threatened to bombard the city. The matter was settled without any serious conse- quences. But the incident served to show the Haitians the danger there was for them to have one of the great European Powers as their close neighbor. And when in 1863 the Dominicans rose against Spain's authority, all the sympathy of the Haitian people was for those who were struggling for their independence. In 1865 the Spaniards were once more compelled to give up a colony which had cost them the sacrifice of so much life. Haiti might have profited by this opportunity to de- mand from the Dominicans at least some guarantee for the future. But President Geffrard reckoned too much upon their thankfulness, and they soon forgot the help that had been given them. In his own country there were many restless and disorderly spirits who unceasingly absorbed the President's attention. A liberal policy might have appeased the people ; but restraint irritated them. A new attempt at parliamentary government had just failed ; and the President, by a Decree of June Tlie Bulidog Incident 209 8, 1863, had dissolved the House of Representatives. On June 19 General Aime Legros and his accomplices who had tried to pi'ovoke an insurrection were court- martialed and sentenced to death. This severity did not pirevent Major Sylvain Salnave from creating fresh disturbances at Cap-Haitien on July 13, 1864. Failing in his attempt, he had left Haiti ; but on the 7th of May, 1865, he suddenly appeared at Ouanaminthe, on the Haitian-Dominican borders ; and, accompanied by many Dominican sympathizers, he reached Cap-Haitien, of which he took possession on the 9th of May. Closely surrounded in this town, he nevertheless managed to keep at bay all the forces of the Government. In August the President left Port-au-Prince and assumed the command of the army, whose headquarters were established at I'Acul, at a distance of four leagues from Cap-Haitien. On the 19th of October, 1865, the Jamaica Packet, a British merchant ship, appeared in the port of I'Acul, loaded with arms, ammunition, and victuals for the Government's troops. The insurgent steamer Provi- dence at once gave chase to the Jamaica Packet, but was prevented from capturing the ship by the interven- tion of the British man-of-war Bulldog. There ensued a heated altercation between the commander of the Providence and the commander of the Bulldog, the lat- ter being charged with giving his protection to a ship in the service of President Geffrard. When this inci- dent became known at Cap-Haitien there prevailed a very high feeling against the English; and Salnave, whose impetuosity knew no bounds, caused some of his opponents to be arrested at the British Consulate, where they had taken refuge, forbidding at the same time all intercourse between the inhabitants of the town and the crew of the Bxdldog. Captain Walker, of the United States man-of-war De Soto, made use of every means in his power to avoid a conflict. But on the 23d of October, without any warning, the conunander of the Bulldog opened fire on the fortifications of Cap-Haitien. The fire was immedi- 210 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors ately returned, the insurgents having accepted the fight forced on them. The gunners of ^e Bulldog quickly sank the Providence; but the shot of the land battery damaged one of the boilers of the English man-of-war, which, during the fight, had grounded on a reef. Cap- tain Wake, seeing that it was impossible to save his ship, blew her up that night at about 9 o'clock, going with the wounded and the members of his crew on board the De Soto. Following up this incident the British Charge d 'Af- faires arrived in the harbor of Cap-Haitien on board a man-of-war. He failed to obtain the satisfaction he asked for ; therefore on the 9th of November the frigate Galatea and other British men-of-war bombarded Cap- Haitien.^ Availing themselves of the excitement reigning in the ranks of the insurgents by this aggression of a great Power, the government troops attacked and stormed the town. The insurrection was thus stamped out. But Salnave and his principal allies had had time to fly for refuge on board the De Soto. Great Britain's action produced a disastrous effect. The Haitians as a rule always look askance on the inter- ference of foreigners in their affairs. The balls of the English cannon had, as it were, deeply wounded the national pride. They caused all the good done by Geffrard to be forgotten; he completely lost his popu- larity, which not even the visit paid him in January, 1866, by Mr. Seward, Secretary of State of the United States, could bring back to him. The favorable impres- sion produced by this courtesy was lost sight of, owing to the events which occurred one afte'- the other at Gonaives and Saint-Marc. And to crown the agitation of the year 1866, at four o 'clock on the morning of Sep- tember" 12 the arsenal of Port-au-Prince exploded; many lives were lost and great damage was done to property. The President became thoroughly disheartened by all • Concerning this incident, refer to Mr. Peck's letter to Mr. Seward, Decemljer 11, 1865. (Papers relating to Foreign Affairs, 1867, part II.) Geffrard Resigns His Office 211 these disturbances and catastrophes, which reached a climax when his favorite regiment, the "Tirailleurs," mutinied and opened fire on the Executive Mansion on the night of February 23, 1867. Entertaining many delusions as to the efficiency of the measures he had introduced in order to secure the welfare of the coun- try, Geffrard became convinced of the deep ingratitude of the people proved by their violent opposition. On the 13th of March, 1867, he resigned his office and left for Jamaica, where he spent the remainder of his life, his death occurring on tiie 31st of December, 1878. In restoring the Eepublic Geffrard had made a great mistake in accepting the Presidency for life. Had a term been fixed for the duration of his power, his oppo- nents would have been more patient, and his adminis- tration would have marked the beginning of a new epoch for Haiti. Ideas of reform and progress were uppermost in the minds of the people. A strong reac- tion had followed the downfall of the monarchy. After the long period of restraint enforced by Soulouque, the Haitians once aroused were not to be easily repressed ; they wished to secure then and there the reign of lib- erty. This ideal of political liberty and freedom of thought was to be the cause later on of much unpleasant friction and disagreement with the Executive Power, g,lways slow in yielding to public opinion. This ac- counts for the great number of disturbances which had to be suppressed by Geffrard 's government. CHAPTER XVI Sylvain Salnave (June 14, 1867-December 19, 1869) — Constitution of 1867: abolition of the Presidency for life — Salnave becomes a dictator — Resistance of the country — Overthrow of Salnave; his trial and execution. After Geffrard's departure the Council of the Secre- taries of State became the supreme authority for a time. But in April, 1867, Sylvain Salnave arrived in Port-au- Prince, where he was given a hearty welcome, and on May 2 he became, together with Nissage Saget and Victoria Chevallier, a member of the provisional gov- ernment which was organized. His adherents were dis- pleased at this distribution of power, and under their pressure he assumed, on May 4, the title of ' ' Protector of the Republic. ' ' The attitude of the masses and the growing popularity of Salnave began to occasion much concern to the liberals, who found themselves once more obliged to submit to a military man. This mistrust of their new leader boded ill for the tranquillity of the Republic. The National Assembly met at Port-au- Prince on the 6th of May, 1867, and on the 14th of June adopted a Constitution ^ which abolished the Presidency for life, the duration of the authority vested in the Chief of the Executive Power being fixed at four years. On the same day Salnave was elected President of Haiti. He gained the sympathy of the people by his courage and his simple tastes. But he was far from being a ' The Constitution of 1867 was taken from the Constitution of 1843, •with the alterations demanded by the existing circumstances. 212 Sylvain Salnave 213 liberal ; so much, so in fact that he was soon at odds with the legislative body, which thought that the time had come to establish the parliamentary system. On the 11th of October, 1867, the rupture with Congress was complete, caused by an interpellation of the Cabinet by the House of Kepresentatives concerning the arrest and imprisonment of General Leon Montas. About that time the peasants had taken up arms at Valliere against Salnave; and the General was charged with being the instigator, if not the leader, of the uprising. The mem- bers of the Cabinet openly accused the House of Rep- resentatives of being in connivance with the rebels; whereupon the mob invaded the House on the 14th of October and drove out the Congressmen. This ill-con- sidered act of violence was followed by grave conse- quences. In the mean time, the President had left for Gonaives with a view of subduing the insurgents at Valliere, who had assumed the name of "Cacos." By forcibly ejecting the members of the House of Bepresentatives, Salnave had suspended the Constitu- tion ; yet he affected to believe that the opposition he met with was due to his limited authority. Accordingly, on the 22d of April, 1868, he committed yet another blunder by permitting the officers and non-commis- sioned officers of his army, whose headquarters were at Trou, to form a petition requesting the suspension of the Constitution and dictatorship for the head of the Executive Power. Thus Salnave reestablished the Presidency for life and arrogated unlimited power. Nissage Saget, who. was at that time Commandant of the arrondissement of Saint-Marc, took up arms against this usurpation. Once more frustrated in the hopes of having a government founded on legality and liberty, the country reached one of the most critical periods of its existence, as the insurrection soon became general. Petion Faubert at Leogane, Normil at 1 'Anse-a-Veau, Domingue at Aquin, and Boisrond Canal at Petionville and Croix-des-Bouquets, all rose up against the dic- tatorship assumed by Salnave, who was being besieged at Port-au-Prince. The insurgents from the South had 214 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors their headquarters at Carrefour, at a distance of three leagues from the capital. Salnave tried to come to terms with them ; but failing in his attempt, he determined to rely henceforth on his energy and valor in maintaining his authority. He had the advantage of the unity of command over his oppo- nents; for the rebels in the South had numerous lead- ers : Domingue, whose headquarters were at Cayes, Nor- mil at 1 'Anse-a-Veau, etc.; whilst in the Artibonite, Nissage Saget's authority was fully acknowledged. In consequence of a counter-revolution which occurred at Leogane and in the mountains of Jacmel, the insurgents were compelled to raise the siege of Port>au-Prince on the 17th of July, 1868. They now felt the necessity of organizing their government; therefore, on September 19, 1868, Nissage Saget was proclaimed at Saint-Marc provisional President, whilst on the 22d of September Domingue was acknowledged President of the Meridi- anal State, with headquarters at Cayes. Salnave 's intrepidity gave him for a while all the chances of crushing his foes. He had purchased a steamer in the United States to replace the two men-of- war, Le 22 Decembre and Le Geffrard, which had gone over to the insurgents. The new steamer, which was given the name of Alexandre Petion, arrived at Port- au-Prince on the 19th of September, 1868. The next day Salnave went on board and sailed for Petit-Goave, in which harbor the two steamers belonging to the rebels were anchored. The Alexandre Petion opened fire on Le 22 Deceinhre, which was sunk; the command- ant of the Geffrard blew up his ship so as to prevent her being captured.^ ' Salnave's ship was under the command of Captain Nickells, an American citizen. She entered the port of Petit-Goave flying the Amer- ican flag, which was hauled down and replaced by the Haitian colors at tlie moment that she opened fire on Le 32 Dicemhre. Deceived by this abusive use of the colors of si friendly Power, the two steamers of the insurgents were taken by surprise and in this manner were easily destroyed. In October, 1868, Salnave transgressed once again upon International law. He was on hoard the Alexandre Pition, which was bombardin" Sylvain Salnave 215 This success made Saltiave master of Petit-Goave, whicli town the insurgents were compelled to evacuate. In February, 1869, the whole of the Southern Depart- ment was once more under his authority, with the ex- ception of Jeremie and Cayes, which were closely sur- rounded. From Camp-Boudet, where he had established his headquarters, he personally directed the siege of Cayes, of which eventually he would have taken posses- sion had not fortunes of war gone contrary to him in the Artibonite. His principal lieutenant. General Victoria Chevallier, had been obliged to evacuate Gonaives, which was occupied by Saget's troops. On their arrival at Port-au-Prince Chevallier 's soldiers created such dis- turbances that Salnave had to leave Camp-Boudet hur- riedly for the capital, where he arrived on the 1st of September, 1869. He had also at that time to fight the opposition of the Catholic clergy. On the 28th of June he had summarily dismissed Testar du Cosquer, the Archbishop of Port-au-Prince; and had taken the same measure against Mr. Guilloux, the Vicar-General, on the 16th of October. Salnave 's position was getting worse ; one of his most faithful followers. General Victorin Chevallier, Secre- tary of War, who was in command of the army sur- rounding Jacmel, deserted his cause in November and joined the insurrection. Salnave now began to reflect that he might yet be able to allay the discontent reign- ing throughout the country by relinquishing the abso- lute power he had usurped. In August, 1869, he ap- pointed a Legislative Council. This body met in Novem- ber and, reestablishing the Presidency for life assumed J4r6mie, when the American steamer Maratanza entered this harbor. Her owners were negotiating with the Haitian Government, which desired to purchase her. The diplomatic agent of the United States, ilr. G. H. Hollister, was on board, on his way from Port-au-Prince to Jeremie, there to confer -nith his Consul as to the best way of protecting American interests and citizens. Salnave went on board the Maratanza, which he bought at once. The American flag was hauled down and the Haitian colors were hoisted. Mr. Hollister was not allowed to land at J6r6mie; and whilst he was still on board, the Maratanza joined in the bombardment of the town, in spite of his protest. (Papers relating to Foreign Affairs, Washington, 1869; part II, p. 364.) 216 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors by Salnave, reenacted the Constitution of 1846. But it was too late to be of avail and the abolition of the dictatorship was powerless in saving the Government; for Cap-Haitien and the whole department of the North- west had already joined the cause of the insurrection. A bold attack on Port-au-Prince at length put an eiid to this deplorable civil war. On the 18th of December, 1869, Generals Brice and Boisrond-Canal landed at the capital at the head of 1,200 soldiers ; in the night they had surprised the Government man-of-war La Terreur. During the fight which ensued this ship began bombard- ing the Executive Mansion; a shot struck the powder magazine, causing it to explode just after Salnave had ■quitted the place. He succeeded in reaching the Do- minican territory; but General Cabral, who was in •sympathy with his opponents, betraying the trust he liad placed in him, gave him up to the Haitians. On the 15th of January, 1870, Salnave arrived at Port-au- Prince, where he appeared before a court martial. He was sentenced to death and shot on the same day at six o'clock in the evening, tied to a pole set up on the smok- ing ruins of the Executive Mansion. Since then no President has ventured to accept or to assume the -Presidency for life. On the 27th of December, 1869, the following pro- visional government was organized: Nissage Saget, President; Michel Domingue, Vice-President; Nord Alexis, Dupont junior, and Volmar Laporte, members. CHAPTER XVn Nissage Saget (Marcli 19, ISTO-JIay 14, 1874) — ^Redeeming the paper money — Xhe Batsch incident — The Hornet incident — The Dominican incident — ^The Haitians send a gold medal to Senator Charles Sumner — At the expiration of his term of office Nissage Saget leaves Port- au-Prince for Saint-Marc. The National Assembly met at Port-au-Prince on the 19th of March, 1870, and elected General Nissage Saget President of Haiti for a term of four years, expiring on the 15th of May, 1874. The terrible crisis through which the country had just passed had made a deep impression on the people. The new President did his utmost to observe the Con- stitution of 1867 gained at the cost of so much sacrifice. .The liberals were in full possession of the authority. Unfortunately, they were not circumspect in their con- duct, and instead of trying little by little to extend public liberty, they endeavored to force a sudden change upon the country by introducing the parliamentary sys- tem; thej'^ tried to subject the Executive Power to the legislative body; and those members of the Cabinet who were not in sympathy with the House of Representa- tives were compelled to relinquish their ofi&ces. Mis- understandings with the President ensued. Notwith- standing, some useful reforms took place, the most important of them being the redeeming of the paper money. This measure was authorized by a law enacted on the 24th of August, 1872. In order to carry it out, a loan was floated in Haiti, whose currency became from 217 218 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors that time up to 1883 the silver and gold coins of the United States. But unexpected events almost occasioned grave inter- national complications. During the war between Ger- many and France the Haitians openly showed their sympathy for the latter country. Germany took excep- tion to their attitude, for which they were made to expiate as soon as she had crushed France. Under the pretext of demanding the payment of £3,000 on behalf of two subjects of the German Empire, Captain Batsch, of the frigate Vineta, arrived at Port-au-Prince on the 11th of June, 1872. Without a word of warning he took possession of the two Haitian men-of-war, which, not expecting such an aggression, were lying at anchor in the harbor and unable to make the slightest resistance. Indignant at this unjust and most uncalled-for attack, the Haitian people, as their national poet ^ expressed it, ' ' threw the money to the Germans as one would cast a bone to a dog. ' ' Captain Batsch took the amount, gave back the two men-of-war, and left Port-au-Prince. But the resentment caused by his unwarranted action has not yet passed away. AJiother grave conflict was provoked by Spain. This Power had never missed a single opportunity to humil- iate Haiti, which, consequently, was quite indifferent to its reverses and misfortunes. Haiti naturally sympa- thized with the Cubans who were fighting for their independence ; her territory had become an asylum for all the unfortunate families who were compelled to fly for their safety. At the height of the struggle, the Hornet, a small steamer flying the flag of the United States, arrived at Port-au-Prince on January, 1871, hotly pursued by two Spanish men-of-war. At that time the American Navy was not as formidable as in 1898. The Hornet was charged with being a pirate and with having on board contraband of war intended for the Cuban insurgents; in consequence the Spaniards imperiously demanded that she be given up to them. Mr. Oswald Durand. President Grant Tries to Annex the Dominicans 219 The United States Minister immediately interposed, declaring that the Hornet was a bona-fide American steamer. Therefore, Haiti refused to deliver up the ship. She remained firm, in her decision in spite of the presence of the Spanish men-of-war in the harbor of Port-au-Prince and of the open threats of the repre- sentative of Spain. The Consul of that country had gone so far as to address an ultimatum to the Haitian Secretary of Foreign Affairs on the 5th of October, 1871, demanding the delivery of the Hornet within twenty-four hours. The dispute was assimiing a very threatening aspect for Haiti, when the United States decided to relieve that country of all further responsi- bility in the matter; in consequence, the man-of-war Congress was despatched to Port-au-Prince, with in- structions to convoy the Hornet either to Baltimore or to New York. This steamer eventually left Port-au- Prince in January, 1872, her sailing putting an end to the controversy between Haiti and Spain. Whilst this incident was causing much trouble to the Haitian Government, the United States were making strong representations concerning the Dominican Re- public. President Grant had seen fit to sign a treaty for the annexation of that Republic with President Baez. As was to be expected, the Dominicans became highly incensed at those who were making a traffic of their independence, and rose up in arms against the government which had betrayed their trust. The two leaders of the insurrection, Generals Cabral and Lupe- ron, entered a protest against the treaty of annexation. Nevertheless, the United States endeavored to hold Haiti responsible for the disturbances ; and in January, 1870, Mr. Bassett, at that time American Minister at Port-au-Prince, notified the Haitian Government that his country was in negotiations with Baez and requested Haiti to refrain or desist from any interference in the Dominican affairs. This request the Haitian Govern- ment promised to observe ; nevertheless, on the 9th of February, 1871, the Secretary of State, Mr. Hamilton Fish, wrote to his Minister at Port-au-Prince, saying 220 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors that it would be difficult to lend entire credence to the assurances given hy Haiti.^ The energetic opposition against the treaty of annex- ation, led in the United States Senate by the Honorable Charles Sumner, made President Grant decide to send a Commission to Santo Domingo. Two of the Commis- sioners, Senator Wade and Doctor Howe, accompanied by Mr. Frederick Douglass, their secretary, arrived at Port-au-Prince on the 3d of March, 1871, on board of the United States man-of-war Tennessee. On the fol- lowing day they were received by the President, and the exchange of views which took place between them tended to dispel the misunderstanding which was about to alter the good relations existing between the two countries. At the end of the intei-view Dr. Howe men- tioned that he was a personal friend of Senator Charles Simmer, whereupon President Saget warmly shook hands with him and told him to transmit that handshake to the Senator from Massachusetts as coming from the whole Republic of Haiti. On the refusal of the United States Senate to approve the treaty signed with President Baez, some Haitians started a public subscription with the object of present- ing Senator Sumner with a gold medal. Owing to his office the Senator could not accept the medal, which was therefore deposited in the Library of the State House = Mr. Fish to Jlr. Bassett. "Departmext of State, "Xo. 58. "Washington, February 9, 1871. "Sir: « * ♦ xhe assurances offered to you by the Haitian Gov- "ernment as to its disposition to keep Avholly neutral in the contest "between the Dominican parties, severally headed by Baez and Cabral, "do not seem to be expressed in a way to inspire perfect confidence in "their sincerity. If it be borne in mind that, for a considerable period, "both the Spanish and the French parts of the island of San Domingo "were under the sole dominion of Haiti, that it has been the policy of "that government not only to oppose the independence of the Spanish "part of the island, but to prevent its occupation by a foreign power, "the difficulty of lending entire credence to any assurances which that "government may give as to its indisposition to interfere in Dominican "affairs will be apparent. The protest of the Haitians against the recent "attempt of Spain to regain her foothold in that island is fresh in the "recollection of the public. ♦ ♦ » " (Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the U. S., Washington, 1871, p. 566.) The Incident of the Nantasket 221 at Boston. His portrait was, in pursuance of a law enacted in July, 1871, placed in the Haitian House of Eepresentatives, and when he died the national flag on all public buildings in Haiti hung at half-mast for three days in token of regret. In 1872 Captain Carpenter of the United States ship Nantasket, at that time in the harbor of Cap-Haitien, occasioned some concern to the inhabitants of that town. On the 19th of April, without a word of explanation to the Haitian authorities, a party from the man-of-war landed at the Carenage ° with a howitzer mounted on a gun-carriage. A company of the Twenty-seventh Regi- ment immediately started out to find out the meaning of it, whereupon the Americans reembarked with their howitzer and returned to the Nantasket. General Nord Alexis, who was at that time in command of the depart- ment, wrote at once to the United States Consul at Cap- Haitien asking for an explanation; the reply was that Captain Carpenter's sole object was to find out the time it would take to land and reembark a piece of artillery ; proper regrets were expressed to the Haitian Govem- ment and the incident was declared closed. In spite of these few minor troubles with the foreign Powers, peace remained undisturbed, and the term of office of the President was nearing its end when he found himself in a somewhat embarrassing predica- ment. The House of Representatives and the Senate, which had met in April, 1874, were to assemble in National Assembly in order to elect a new President. There were two candidates for the office: Michel Do- mingue. Commandant of the Southern Department, sup- ported by Nissage Saget and his followers, and Pierre Monplaisir Pierre, the candidate of the liberal party. In the legislative body the Domingue party was led bv Septimus Rameau, a representative from Cayes, whilst Boyer Bazelais, one of the representatives from Port-au-Prince, was at the head of the Monplaisir Pierre faction. In the House of Commons the validity ^ A suburb of Cap-Haitien. 222 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors of the election of Boyer Bazelais was hotly contested by his opponents, whose motion for unseating him was nevertheless not adopted; thereupon they withdrew from the House, creating what is called a dissidenee. For want of quorum the legislative body could not do any practical work. In the mean time, the month of May began; on the 15th the term of office of Nissage Saget was to come to an end. The liberal party tried to persuade him to remain in power until his successor could be elected. This he emphatically refused to do, and on the 14th of May, 1874, he relinquished his high office into the hands of the Council of the Secretaries of State, having previously appointed Michel Domingue Commander-in-Chief of the Haitian Army. On the 20th of May he left Port-au-Prince for Saint-Marc, where he lived up to the time of his death, which oc- curred on the 7th of April, 1880. CHAPTEE XVin Michel Domingue (June 11, 1874- April 15, 1876)— The loan of 1875— Discontent caused by the deaths of Generals Brice and Honplaisir Pierre — Riot at Port-au-Prince — Overthrow of Domingue. Upon his being appointed Cormnander-Ln-Chief of the Haitian Army, General Michel Dondngue, who np to that time had been Commandant of the Southern De- partment, left Cayes for Port-au-Prince, which city he entered with a strong body of troops. His opponents at once realized the impossibility of holding out against his candidacy. Besides, the Council of the Secretaries of State, intrusted with the Executive Power, had taken such measures as to facilitate his election. Profiting by the dissidence which, by want of a quorum, prevented the legislative body from holding its meetings, they declared the two Houses of Congress divested of their functions ; upon which orders were issued for the elec- tion of a Constituent Assembly. In this manner the Council of the Secretaries of State annulled the Consti- tution, from which all their authority proceeded ; a situ- ation fraught with danger resulted. However, the elec- tions were speedily held ; and on the 11th of June, 1874, General Michel Domingue was elected President of Haiti for a term of 8 years. Domingue, above all things, was a soldier; he pos- sessed neither the penetration nor the tact of a states- man. Therefore he considered it wiser to leave the care of the public affairs to Septimus Rameau, one of his relatives, whom he had appointed Vice-President of the 223 224 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Council of the Secretaries of State by Decree of Sep- tember 10, 1874. This made Rameau the true ruler of Haiti. The Constitution adopted on the 6th of August, 1874, was drawn up by him. Unfortunately, he was of a dictatorial and domineering nature ; his will became supreme, whilst Domingue was but a figurehead. One of the first acts of Salnave after his election to the Presidency was the signing of a treaty with the Dominican Eepublic, which the Haitian Congress re- fused to ratify. His object in recognizing the independ- ence of the new State was to put an end to the unceasing hostilities which were causing so much bloodshed on the borders. Septimus Eameau immediately proceeded to resume negotiations with General Gonzalez, who was at that time President of the Dominican Republic. Gen- eral N. Leger, who was then Chief of the Staff of the President of Haiti, was despatched to Santo Domingo with instructions to make preparations for a new con- vention. On his return to Port-au-Prince he was accom- panied by the Dominican plenipotentiaries; and on the 9th of November, 1874, a Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation was agreed upon.^ Haiti thus accepted as an accomplished fact and fully recognized the inde- pendence of the Dominican Republic. Since that time relations between the two countries have been most cordial. In the course of the same year, 1874, Haiti signed a treaty with Great Britain for the extradition of fugitive criminals.^ The other measures adopted by Domin.gue's Govern- ment did not turn out so happily. In 1875 a loan was floated in Paris concerning which the Haitian people were grossly deceived. Foreign bankers and unscrupu- lous agents conspired in defrauding the Republic, which was made the debtor for money from which others had profited. This scandalous financial transaction did not tend to allay the dissatisfaction already existing in ' J. N. L^ger, Reeueil des Trait^s et Conventions de la Efipublique d'Haiti, pp. 119, 140. ' Ibid. Deaths of Brice and Pierre 225 Haiti. So to prevent any popular manifestations orders were issued on the 15tli of May, 1875, for the arrest of Generals Brice, Monplaisir Pierre, and Boisrond Canal, who were charged with being the leaders of a conspiracy against Domingue. Monplaisir Pierre, with gun in hand, met the soldiers who were sent to arrest Mm ; he made an energetic resistance and in defending the entrance to his house was killed in the fight which ensued ; Brice, who liad also made a brave defense, was successful in reaching the Spanish Consulate, where he died from the effects of a bullet wound in the thigh. Boisrond Canal, who was living on his plantation at Freres, a short distance from Petionville, was fortunate enough to be able to make his escape before the arrival of those who were commissioned to arrest him, and sought shelter in the United States Legation, which was then situated at Turgeau, a suburb of Port-au-Prince. Although the tragic death of Brice and Pierre had produced a very bad impression on the minds of the people, the Grovernment did nothing to palliate the effect of this sad event ; on the contrary, many citizens were arbitrarily compelled to flee the country. This high-handed proceeding naturally met with resentment ; and disturbances at once took place in various parts of the Republic. The inhabitants of Port-au-Prince were already in a great state of excitement, when on the 15th of April, 1876, there started a report to the effect that the Government was sending abroad the money depos- ited in the vaults of the Bank of Haiti.' In a trice the entire population arose; the agitation at first seemed like a riot, but soon attained more formidable propor- tions. Septimus Eameau, who was held to blame for ' With a view of organizing a State Bank the government had entered into an agreement with llr. Lazare, an American citizen, who became unable to fulfill his part of the contract. In consequence of the obligation imposed by this contract, the Haitian Government, within the stipulated time, had deposited her quota of the capital in the vaults of the bank. It was this money which Septimus Eameau was about to send to Cayes, the capital of the Southern Department, when the upris- ing broke out at Port-au-Prince on the 15th of April. 226 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors the death of Brice and Pierre as well as for the loan floated in Paris, was killed in the streets. Domingue succeeded in reaching the French Legation, whence he took ship for Jamaica.* ' Domingue died at Kingston on June Zi, 1877. CHAPTER XIX Boisrond Canal (July 17, 1876-JuIy 17, 1879)— Misunderstanding with France caused by the Domingue loan — ^The Autran incident: dif- ficulties -with Spain about Cuba — ^The Maunder claim — ^The Lazare and Pelletier claims — ^Attitude of the Legislative Power — ^The Presi- dent's resignation. After Domingue 's departure the Constitution of 1867 once more came in force. According to this Con- stitution Boisrond Canal was elected President of Haiti for four years on the 17th of July, 1876. The new ruler was beset with innumerable difficulties resulting from the financial measures taken by his predecessor. He was principally exposed to the ill-will of France, which, with a view of imposing a settlement of the loan known as the Domingue or the 1875 loan, went so far as to refuse to recognize his Government officially. Yet at Paris it was a well-known fact that Haiti had not re- ceived the amount of money the responsibility for which France was trying to force upon her. In Europe and in the United States people clamor unceasingly as to the alleged corruption and unscrupulousness of Haitian statesmen, declaring that without the assistance of for- eign Powers they are incapable of honestly managing their finances. However, whenever a financial scandal occurs in Haiti, among the guilty parties there will always be found, either as the inspirers or the accom- plices of the misdeed, those very foreigners who loudly denounce Haitian corruption whilst claiming for them- selves the monopoly of virtue and integrity. ^ As it was, the Haitian people, who have never repudi- 227 228 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors ated a legitimate debt, flatly refused to accept the re- sponsibility for the frauds which had been, committed in the floating of the Domingue loan, and the National Assembly undertook to investigate the matter. This important inquiry proved that there could not exist the least doubt as to the well-founded attitude assumed by Haiti; it was found out that she owed neither the 58,000,000 of francs which were originally claimed, nor the 40,000,000 which France wanted her to acknowledge as the amount due. By Decree of July 11, 1877, the National Assembly admitted, in the name of the country, a debt of 21,000,000 francs, bearing interest at 6 per cent per annum. In this manner the Haitian Republic incontestably proved her desire to safeguard her inter- ests without sacrificing those of her legitimate creditors. Consequently, France, which had in the mean time been brought to a clear understanding as to the true facts of the case, resumed her official relations with Haiti by sending in December, 1878, a Minister Pleni- potentiary to Port-au-Prince. The cordial intercourse which formerly existed between the two nations was restored and the Haitians were enabled to come to a just and reasonable agreement with the bond-holders. "V^Hiilst Boisrond Canal's government was in the midst of its difficulties with France it was suddenly threatened with graver complications with Spain, which, being unable to subdue the Cuban insurrection, seemed bent on making Haiti her scapegoat. On the 3d of December, 1877, the man-of-war Sanchez Barcaiztegui anchored in the harbor of Port-au-Prince; her Com- mander, Antonio Ferry y Rival, was commissioned to make an inquiry as to the legality of the sentence passed on one Jose Santisi by the Haitian criminal court. She left the port without having caused any trouble. But a few days later, on the 14th of December, Commandant Jose Maria Autran arrived on the man-of-war Jorge Juan, and at once gave rise to a situation fraught with much danger. On the 17th he sent an ultimatum to the Secretary of Exterior Relations of Haiti allowing seventy-two hours for the settlement of the alleged The Autran Incident 229 grievances of Spain. The sentence imposed on Jose Santisi^ was made a pretext for this haughtily aggress- ive attitude; but what in reality annoyed Spain was that the unfortunate Cuban refugees foimd a safe asylum on Haitian territory.^ In his ultimatum ' Cap- tain Autran affected to see an insult to his country in the fact that the sentence inflicted on Jose Santisi, a Spaniard, having, on account of a technicality, been an- nulled by the Supreme Court (Cour de Cassation), tiie prisoner had not at once been set free. He at the same time, however, declared that Haiti had offended Spain in not having enforced a sentence passed upon a Cuban, Manuel Fernandez, which had also been declared void by the Supreme Court. Jose Santisi and Manuel Fer- nandez were both Spanish subjects, Cuba at that time not being an independent State; they were therefore entitled to the same protection from Spain. The judg- ments severally rendered against them having been re- versed, they had, according to Haitian laws, to be tried again. Nevertheless, Captain Autran did his utmost to compel Haiti to discriminate; for, whilst demanding that Santisi be immediately set free, he insisted on the rigorous execution of the sentence against Fernandez. This contradictory demand did not prevent him from affirming in his letter to the British Consul at Port-au- ^ After a trial by jury Jose Santisi was found guilty of arson and sentenced to death. He had set fire to the ice factory of Port-au-Prince, which was under his management, with a view of defrauding the French Insurance Company "Le Globe." This was the man on whose behalf Spain was trying to bully Haiti. ' "The conduct pursued by the Haitian Government is inconceivable, "and I have the assurance that circumstances would never have arrived "at the extreme in which they now are if the Cuban insurrection had not "existed. Those separatists of the Greater Antilles who do not find in "their breasts sufScient breath to meet the charge of the Spanish bay- "onets are scattered in the nearest foreign places, with the object of "creating at every step International difficulties and to lend aid to those "who have risen in arms. • » * But where those sympathies have "cast deep roots and caused the perpetration of unheard-of wrongs, has "been without dispute in the Republic of Haiti. ♦ » • " (Letter of Commandant Autran to the British Consul, December 17, 187". Foreign Relations of the United States, 1878, p. 424.) • Le Moniteur, December 22, 1877. 230 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Prince* that his country was "the faithful depositary and .iealous guardian of justice and right." Captain Autran also requested the arraignment of those persons who were charged with crying aloud, "Down with Spain!" and "Vive Cuba libre!" whilst passing before the Spanish Consulate at night; other grievances mentioned in the ultimatum were that the Spanish flag had been trampled on by unknown persons and had also been insulted by one Despeaux. Haiti refused to admit the contention of Spain con- cerning Santisi and Fernandez and insisted on apply- ing the same treatment to both; she denied also all responsibility for the alleged cries of defiance heard at night before the Spanish Consulate by unknown parties and for the non-specified insult to the Spanish flag. The diplomatic corps at Port-au-Prince tendered its good offices, and on the 19th of December the matter was satisfactorily ended by an exchange of salutes between the Jose Juan and the Haitian man-of-war "1804." In his letter of December 17, 1877, to the diplomatic corps at Port-au-Prince, Captain Autran had stated that the Cuban insurgents enjoyed also great sympathy in Jamaica, Nassau, etc. It is worthy of notice that Spain refrained not only from sending any ultimatum to Great Britain, but did not even venture to make any remonstrance to this Power, whilst toward Haiti her manner was most offensively overbearing. It would seem as though there were an agreement among the European Powers to harass the government of Boisrond Canal ; for Great Britain now made a claim for $682,000 on behalf of Madatae Maunder." This woman, a Haitian by birth, had been granted the con- cession of Tortuga Island. But she failed to pay the rent due from 1870 to 1875; and the Haitian Govern- ment, in order to safeguard the interests of the treas- ury, seized the products of the island, and brought suit against the grantee with the object of obtaining from ' Foreign Relations of the United States, p. 425. • See page 240. The Pelletier and Lazare Claims 231 the courts the cancellation of the contract, this proceed- ing being the usual one taken by all creditors against their debtors. Great Britain affected to consider this as a grave attack upon the interests of one of her sub- jects, which caused her in due time to resort to threats to extort an indemnity from Haiti. Even the United States, whose relations with Haiti were at that time most cordial, introduced unjust claims against the country, those concerning Lazare and Pelle- tier being among the most unreasonable.' In September, 1874, the Government of Domingue had granted to A. H. Lazare, an American citizen, the privilege of establishing a bank in Haiti. Of the metal- lic reserve to the value of $1,500,000, one-third, viz., $500,000, was to be furnished by the Haitian Govern- ment, and the balance, $1,000,000, by the grantee. It was agreed that in case the bank should not be in oper- ation a year after the signature of the contract, which occurred on the 1st of September, 1874, the concession was to be held null and void. On the 1st of September, 1875, A. H. Lazare was unable to make the deposit of the $1,000,000 ; the Haitian Government agreed to wait until the 15th of October, notifying him, at the same time, that they would consider the concession cancelled if on that day he was not ready to fulfil his part of the contract. On the 15th of October the Haitian Govern- ment deposited in the bank the $500,000, its share in the transaction ; but neither Lazare nor his million were forthcoming. The concession consequently was declared void. Lazare, knowing full well that he had no money with which to establish a bank, accepted the accom- plished fact. The Haitian Government, with its usual benevolence, had the extreme kindness to give him $10,000 to cover his traveling expenses and the cost of advertisement; besides which, he was appointed Haitian Consul-General in New York. Nevertheless, as soon as he heard of the overthrow of Domingue he began in- triguing, until the United States Legation at Port-au- • See pages 237, 239. 232 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Prince finally introduced in his behalf a claim for $500,000, under the pretext that his concession had been arbitrarily cancelled. Another claim of still more extraordinary nature was presented by the same legation. This was founded on events that had taken place over eighteen years before. One Antonio Pelletier,' a Frenchman by birth, who be- came a citizen of the United States by naturalization in 1852, was well known as a slave-trader. In April, 1859, his ship, The Ardennes, had been captured at the mouth of the Congo Eiver by Cap. Thomas W. Brent of the United States man-of-war Marion. This much was known of Pelletier when he arrived at Port-au-Prince in January, 1861, on the schooner Williams flying the flag of the United States. A member of the crew in- formed the Haitian authorities that the ship was a slaver and that the Captain had come with the intention of kidnapping about 150 people on the coast of Haiti, with the object of selling them in Cuba. A few days before Pelletier had tried to engage 50 men and some women at Port-au-Prince, under the pretext of taking on a cargo of guano at Navassa Island. The Haitian police at once proceeded to make a thorough search on board the Williams, where arms, ammunition, many handcuffs, and barrels of water were found. These articles at that time were the necessary accompaniment of the slave-trade. The ship, however, was not seized ; she was allowed to sail for New Orleans, the Haitian Government causing her to be convoyed for a while by the man-of-war Le Geffrard. As soon as the Williams was left alone she changed her course, and returning to Haiti. cruised for five days along the north coast, and finally entered Fort-Liberte, a small port closed to foreign commerce, on the 31st of March, 1861. This time she was flying the French flag. Her name was no longer Williams, but Guillaume Tell, and Pelletier also had changed his name to Jules Letellier. His plan was to get a sufficient number of the inhabitants on board Tlie Americin and Haitian Claims Commission, Washington, 1885. Boisrond Canal: Pelletier Claim 233 and carry them off to be sold. Under the pretext that his ship needed some repairs he entered into relations "with the authorities of the town for engaging some workmen, and then announced that there would be a dance given on board the Guillaume Tell. Alarmed by the audacity of his captain, a member of the crew, one Miranda, deserted the ship and denounced the whole plot to the Haitian authorities. The French Consul at Cap-Haitien proceeded forthwith to Fort-Liberte, and at once found out that Jules Letellier was no other than Antonio Pelletier, and that the ship was not the Guill- aume Tell from Havre, as her captain had reported, but the same Williams which some time previous had set sail from Port-au-Prince for New Orleans ; and that she had no right to fly the French flag. The Haitian authori- ties caused the ship to be seized, and Antonio Pelletier with his accomplices was delivered up to justice. On the 30th of August, 1861, he was sentenced to death by the Criminal Court of Port-au-Prince, but the sentence was reversed by the Supreme Court on the 14th of October ; Pelletier was again tried by the Criminal Court of Cap- Haitien, which sentenced him to imprisonment for five years. Pelletier was serving his term of imprisonment in the jail at Port-au-Prince when he became ill in 1863. Out of humanity the Haitian Government authorized his transfer to a hospital. He profited by this oppor- tunity to make his escape and flee to Jamaica. The action of the Haitian Government met with the full approval of the representatives of the foreign Powers then accredited at Port-au-Prince. Mr. Lewis, who was the Commercial Agent of the United States in Haiti in 1861, personally requested that Pelletier should not be set free. In his report of the 13th of April, 1861, to Mr. Seward, at that time Secretary of State, Mr. G. Eustis Hubbard, Commercial Agent of the United States at Cap-Haitien, expressed the following opinion: "I have no doubt that the intention of Cap- "tain Pelletier was to induce a number of Haitians to " go on board of his vessel, under contract or otherwise, "and then make his escape with them and sell them 234 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors "into slavery. * * * Indeed, my own doubts about "the legality of the vessel's proceedings were so great "that, had she escaped from Fort-Liberte, I should at "once have written to Saint-Thomas, Aspinwall and "Havana, requesting the American Consuls of those "places to lay the facts before the commander of any "foreign man-of-war in port, so that the vessel might "have been apprehended and her real intention dis- " covered." * Nevertheless, eighteen years later, in February, 1879, Mr. Langston, then United States Minister at Port-au- Prince, introduced a claim on Pelletier's behalf; in the name of this pirate he did his utmost to extort from the Haitian people the trifling amount of $2,466,480. The foreign Powers seemed bent upon causing embar- rassments to the government of Boisrond Canal, which was showing in every way the greatest respect for the law. The two Houses of Congress exercised a rigid control of the finances, and the public expenses were reduced to the strictest necessities. Public works also received much attention. Mr. Borrott, an Amer- ican citizen, obtained the concession for the building of a railroad and tramway at Port-au-Prince; the construction of canals was undertaken and pipes were laid for supplying water to private houses; contracts for the building of wharves and bridges were also signed. Haitians and foreigners alike enjoyed complete freedom. Yet throughout Boisrond Canal's adminis- tration there was continued trouble arising from all kinds of pretensions on the part of the foreign legations at Port-au-Prince, as well as from party strife. The opposition in the legislative body aimed at absorbing the prerogatives of the Executive Power. The rivalry in Congress during 1879 between the National and Lrib- eral parties, both of which were contending for the supremacy, made the situation still more delicate. On the 30th of June, 1879, a disturbance occurred in the • The American and Haitian Claims Commission, Claim of Antonio Pelletier (Washington, 1885), p. 1103. Boisrond Canal Resigns His Office 235 House of Eepresentatives, followed by a riot at Port- au-Prince, in "which Mr. Boyer Bazelais, the leader of the liberal party, took the chief part. The Government succeeded in restoring order. But feeling that he had lost the confidence of the Nationals and the Liberals alike after having unsuccessfully tried to play the part of peace-maker between them, President Boisrond Canal » resigned on the 17th of July, 1879. • Boisrond Canal died at Port-au-Prince on the 6tli of March, 1905, at the age of 73 years. CHAPTER XX Lysius Salomon (October 23, 1879-August 10, 1888) — Insurrection at Miragoane — ^Misvmderstanding with the Catholic clergy — Various for- eign claims: Lazare, Pelletier, Maunder (continued) — ^The Domingue loan — Bank of Haiti — Financial scandal — ^Universal Postal Union — Telegraph — ^Agricultural exposition — ^Ec election of Salomon — Dis- content at Cap-Haitien — Salomon leaves Haiti. After the resignation of Boisrond Canal the Consti- tution of 1867 was modified, and on the 23d of October, 1879, Lysius Salomon was elected President of Haiti for seven years. This term has, since that time, been adopted; the term of four years having too frequently been the occasion of dangerous agitation. The new President was of a decidedly remarkable personality. He had previously held important offices. He had been Haitian Minister to France, after which he continued for a long time to live abroad, devoting much of his leisure to study. The struggle between the two parties was at an important juncture when he came into power; but he took hold of the authority with a firm hand. The Liberal party, which had met with a severe defeat, was doing its utmost to regain its former influence. Their leader, Boyer Bazelais, who had taken refuge in Kingston, was plotting, without any interfer- ence on the part of the British Government, against Salomon. On the 27th of March, 1883, Bazelais arrived at Miragoane on board an American steamer The Tropic, where he started an insurrection. This rebel- lion was suppressed, but at great cost to Haiti, which 236 Salomon: Misunderstanding with Catholic Clergy 237 besides the expenses which the axjtual strife necessi- tated, had to pay heavy indemnities to foreigners who had sustained damages more or less important in Port- au-Prince and in other towns. On being informed of the part taken in the insurrec- tion by an American steamship the United States had hastened to accord Haiti the satisfaction she requested. The captain and the crew of The Tropic were tried at Philadelphia and sentenced for violation of the neutral- ity law. At the very beginning of his administration Salomon was called upon to settle a serious difference existing between the civil and religious authorities. During the first years of their independence the Haitians had pro- claimed freedom of cults and established civil marriage, and according to the laws still in force the ministers of all creeds were forbidden to celebrate any marriage without requesting the presentation of the certificate of the civil marriage. Little by little the Catholic clergj'- had come to disregard this requirement entirely, con- tending finally that they had the right to perform re- ligious marriages without taking any notice of the civil ceremony. The legislative body took up the matter and a resolution was passed by the House of Represent- atives requesting the President to denounce the Con- cordat signed with the Holy See in 1860. Salomon was taking the necessary steps in carrying out this decision, when the priests gave in to the law. Since then there has been no further friction between them and the civil authority. These internal difficulties were not the only ones with which Salomon had to contend. Like his predecessor, he had to deal with numerous claims from foreign Powers. The United States were still persisting in claiming an indemnity on behalf of Pelletier and La- zare.^ In order to put an end to this prolonged discus- sion the Haitian Government at last agreed to submit the two cases to arbitration. In pursuance of a pro- ' For the particulars of these two claims, see pages 231, 232. 238 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors tocol ' signed on the 28th of May, 1884, by Mr. Preston, Minister of Haiti, and Mr. Frelinghuysen, Secretary of State of the United States, Mr. William Strong, a late Justice of the United States Supreme Court, was ap- pointed sole arbiter. The award rendered on the 13th of June, 1885, was of a most astounding nature. The Republic of Haiti was condemned to pay to A. H. Lazare $117,500 with interest at 6 per cent per annum from the 1st of November, 1875, and to the pirate PeUe- tier $57,200. On this occasion the Department of State gave manifest evidence of the sentiment of equity and justice which places the United States so high in the esteem of weaker nations. Haiti naturally complained of this extraordinary award and appealed to the Secre- tary of State, proving beyond doubt that Lazare had neither the money nor the credit wherewith to organize the bank. As to Pelletier, his crime was so evident that Mr. Seward, who was at that time Secretary of State, had refused most decidedly to act in his behalf ; in his letter of November 30, 1863, to the United States Com- missioner at Port-au-Prince, he thus expressed his opinion of the matter: ^ "His ( Pelletier 's) conduct in ** Haiti and on its coast is conceived to have afforded * ' the reasonable ground of suspicion against him on the "part of the authorities of that Republic which led to "his arrest, trial, and conviction in regular course of "law, with which result it is not deemed expedient to "interfere." And Mr. Gorham Eustis Hubbard,* who was United States Commercial Agent at Cap-Haitien in 1861, had made the following declaration when he was summoned by the arbiter on the 22d of February, 1885: "It has always been my belief from that day to "this that the Haitian Government ought to have ex- "ecuted the man as a pirate and confiscated his vessel "and property beyond redemption."* ' The American and Haitian Claims Commission, Claim of A. H. Lazare, p. 1. ' Foreign Relations of tlie United States, 1888, p. 594. • See Mr. Hubbard's letter of April 13, 1861, to Mr. Seward. Claim of Antonio Pelletier, p. 1099. • Hubbard's deposition. Claim of Antonio Pelletier, p. 1120. Salomon: Pelletier and Lazare Claims 239 In June, 1874, the United States Senate had refused to take into consideration the petition of Antonio Pelle- tier. In 1868 and in 1878 the House of Eepresentatives had also refused to make any recommendation to the State Department concerning the case. Upon its atten- tion being called to all these facts by the Haitian Lega- tion at Washington the Department of State, without the least hesitation, put aside the two awards and exempted Haiti from paying indemnity either to Pelle- tier or Lazare. The reasons stated in a memorial ' of the 20th of January, 1887, presented by Mr. T. F. Bayard, then Secretary of State, do honor to the great Eepublic of North America. The foUowrog are his words concerning Pelletier: "This claim, I do now "assert, is one which, from its character, no civilized ' ' Government can press. * * * I do not hesitate to "say that, in my judgment, the claim of Pelletier is one "which this Government should not press on Haiti, * ' either by persuasion or by force, and I come to this "conclusion, first because Haiti had jurisdiction to in- "flict on him the very punishment of which he com- " plains, such punishment being in no way excessive in "view of the heinousness of the offense, and secondly, "because his cause is of itself so saturated with tur- "pitude and infamy that on it no action, judicial or "diplomatic, can be based." The following opinions expressed by Mr. Bayard con- cerning Lazare will be read with pleasure by all those who place faith in the justice and the strict sense of duty of the United States : "Essential as it is that the "intercourse between nations should be marked by the "highest honor as well as honesty, the moment that the "Government of the United States discovers that a "claim it makes on a foreign Government cannot be "honorably and honestly pressed, that moment, no mat- "ter what may be the period of the procedure, that "claim should be dropped." Whilst the United States was thus giving proof of its • Foreign Relations of the United States, 1888, p. 593. 240 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors respect for the rights of a weaker nation, Great Britain was resorting to threats in order to compel Haiti to pay an indemnity to the Maunders/ This claim might easUy have been referred to arbi- tration ; for the Haitian Government contended that the grantee had not paid the rent agreed npon, whilst the Maunders declared that they had sustained heavy losses — the case being thus a mere matter of accounts to be settled and damages to be estimated. But Great Britain arbitrarily determined upon the amount to be paid, and in March, 1887, the man-of-war Canada, with a special Commissioner on board, anchored in the harbor of Port- au-Prince, demanding an immediate settlement. In order to secure peace Haiti had to agree to pay the sum of $32,000. Foreigners never cease criticising the management of Haitian finances, without seeking the reason for the impoverished state of the exchequer. The frequent assaults made upon the Haitian treasury by one or other of the great Powers have in a large measure contributed to a deficit in the budgets and to the straitened circum- stances in which the country has many a time found itself. However, Salomon did not allow these various dif- ficulties to prevent him from taking some useful meas- ures. He started at once to enter into direct negoti- ations with the holders of the bonds of the Domingue loan.* An agreement was speedily arrived at, and since then the interest has been regularly paid. By the year 1922 this loan will have been entirely redeemed. Convinced as to the integrity of the Haitians, French capitalists undertook to establish a State Bank in Haiti. This bank, which is called Banque Nationale d 'Haiti, was established in 1881 ; it is intrusted with the mission of collecting the revenues and meeting all the expenses of the Republic. Unfortunately, this institution did not give the example of strict probity and careful man- The Maunders claim. See page 230. See pages 224, 227. B Reelection of Salomon and Discontettt Following 241 agement which was expected from it by the Haitians. Scarcely four years had elapsed from its organization when a scandal broke out: orders already paid were again put into circulation; a criminal prosecution en- sued which resulted in the conviction of a Frenchman and an Englishman, who were both sentenced to three years ' imprisonment. Several years later, in 1904, the same bank was again implicated in a conspiracy to de- fraud the Haitian people ; and the director, the chief of its branch offices, the sub-director, and the head of the department of bills and acceptances— two Frenchmen and two Germans— were found guilty and sentenced to hard labor. Foreigners in Haiti have decidedly not given the example of strict probity to which they lay claim. It is worthy of note that in this last scandal not one of the Haitians employed in the bank was impli- cated in the frauds. Although Haiti's expectations in this establishment have not yet been completely ful- filled, still with proper management it may prove of great good to the country. Besides the National Bank, Salomon gave also to Haiti her first submarine telegraph, and in 1880 ob- tained her admission to the Universal Postal Union. He caused a national exposition of all the agricultural products of the Republic to be held at Port-au-Prince. The Law School was organized by him on a practical basis, so that now it is no longer necessary for Haitians to go to Paris in order to study law. Salomon's term as President was to have expired on the 15th of May, 1887. But upon consideration the National Assembly decided to try to keep him at the head of the Government ; for this purpose the Constitu- tion, which prohibited reelection, was modified; and on the 3()th of June, 1886, Salomon was reelected Presi- dent for a new term of seven years. On the 15th of May, 1887, he took the oath of ofSce. Great discontent followed this reelection, which seemed to be an attempt at reestablishing Presidency for life. General Seide Thelemaque, who was Commandant of the arrondisse- ment of Cap-Haitien, headed the malcontents, and on 242 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors the 4th of August, 1888, openly refused any longer to recognize Salomon's authority. On the 10th of the same month a hostile manifestation took place at Port- au-Prince, whereupon the President at once declared that he was willing to resign his office. Thus without the shedding of blood either at Cap-Haitien or at the capital, Salomon left for France on the afternoon of the 10th of August.* The task of maintaining order was intrusted to a pro- visional government presided over by ex-President Boisrond Canal. ' He died at Paris on the 19th of October, 1888. CHAPTER XXI Seide Thelfimaque — F. D. Legitime (December 16, 1888-August 22, 1889) — The incident of the steamship Haytian Republic — ^liigitime leaves Port-au-Prince. The Presidency was being eagerly disputed by two candidates : General Seide Thelemaque, late Command- ant of the arrondissement of Cap-Haitien, and ex-Sen- ator F. D. Legitime, who had been Secretary of Agri- culture. The elections were hotly contested ; and on the 17th of September, 1888, all the constituents had been elected. Theirs was the duty of choosing a new Presi- dent for the Republic, and the majority of them seemed to have been in favor of Legitime. On the night of September 28 an unfortunate clash occurred at Port- au-Prince between the partisans of the two candidates. General Seide Thelemaque went among his soldiers, endeavoring to quell the disturbance, when in the dark- ness he was hit in the abdomen by a stray bullet and died a few hours after. This sad accident provoked very grave consequences. The Departments of the North, the Northwest, and the Artibonite held Legitime responsible for the death of his rival and demanded the withdrawal of his candidacy. The Western and South- ern Departments, however, espoused the cause of Legi- time, who they knew was incapable of participating in a crime, if indeed crime there were; and strongly re- sented the attempt to cast the odium of Thelemaque 's death on him. The protestants, as the followers of the 243 244 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors late General Thelemaque were called, organized a pro- visional government at Cap-Haitien, at the head of which General Hyppolite was placed; whilst the con- stituents of the Western and Southern Departments, after meeting at Port-au-Prince, elected F. D. Legitime Chief of the Executive Power on the 14th of October, 1888. Seeing that their colleagues of the North, North- west, and Artihonite persisted in keeping aloof, they elected Legitime President of the Eepublic on the 16th of December. His opponents protested against this election, contending that the Constituents assembled at Port-au-Prince had not the proper quorum. However, Legitime 's authority was recognized by the European Powers, whilst the United States appeared undecided as to what course to pursue ; but being evidently made uneasy by the intimacy which existed between the new President and Comte de Ses Maisons, then Minister of France in Haiti, Hyppolite 's cause by degrees grew in favor with the Americans. Their partiality almost pro- voked grave complications. On the 22d of October, 1888, the Haitian man-of-war D ess alines captured the American steamship Ha-ytian Republic as she was leav- ing Saint-Marc after having previously entered several Southern ports with a Commission on board, whose object was to try to detach them from Legitime 's au- thority. The same steamer also carried soldiers, arms, and ammunition for General Hyppolite 's cause. The case was in consequence laid before a prize court. The Department of State at Washington intervened; and after some protracted parleys the Haitian Government gave up the Haytian Repiibiic, which had been declared confiscated ; and the ship was restored to Bear- Admiral Luce on the 20th of December. Legitime being unable to maintain his authority, sailed from Port-au-Prince on the 22d of August, 1889.^ ' In 1896 Legitime returned to Port-au-Prince, -where he is still living. CHAPTER XXII J'lorville Hyppolite (October 9, 1889-MarcU 24, 1896)— The United States try to gain possession of M6le Saint-Nicolas — ^The United States and Samana Bay — Incident with France concerning Haitians registered at the French Legation — The Chicago Exposition — ^Tele- graph — Telephone — Public works— Death of Hyppolite. The Constituent Assembly met at Gonaives on the 24th. of September, 1889 ; and after amending the Con- stitution, elected on the 9th of October General Hyppo- lite President of Haiti for seven years. He took the oath of office on the 17th of the same month. As soon as he assumed the power he had to settle a very delicate matter. Considering that they were entitled to some recognition for the sympathy which they had shown for Hyppolite 's cause, the United States decided that the time had come to try to get Mole Saint-Nicolas into their possession, with the intention of establishing a naval station. They were, however, greatly mistaken in supposing that the people of Haiti would be willing to give up a particle of their territory; popular feeling is very strong on this subject and all parties would at once unite against the President who would dare to place either the independence of the nation or the integ- rity of the territory in jeopardy. Unaware of this characteristic of the peoi)le, President Harrison, acting under the advice of Mr. Blaine, his Secretary of State, commissioned Rear- Admiral Bancroft Gherardi to ne- gotiate for the acquisition of Mole Saint-Nicolas. With the intention, it would seem, to intimidate the Haitians, a formidable fleet was despatched to Port-au-Prince; 245 CHAPTER XYTT riorville Hyppolite (October 9, 1889-March 24, 1896)— The United States try to gain possession of MSle Saint-Nicolas — ^The United States and Samana Bay — Incident with France concerning Haitians registered at the French Legation — ^The Chicago Exposition — ^Tele- graph — Telephone — Public works — Death of Hyppolite. The Constituent Assembly met at Gonaives on the 24th of September, 1889 ; and after amending the Con- stitution, elected on the 9th of October General Hyppo- lite President of Haiti for seven years. He took the oath of office on the 1.7th of the same month. As soon as he assumed the power he had to settle a very delicate matter. Considering that they were entitled to some recognition for the sympathy which they had shown for Hyppolite 's cause, the United States decided that the time had come to try to get Mole Saint-Nicolas into their possession, with the intention of establishing a naval station. They were, however, greatly mistaken in supposing that the people of Haiti would be willing to give up a particle of their territory ; popular feeling is very strong on this subject aud all parties would at once unite against the President who would dare to place either the independence of the nation or the integ- rity of the territory in jeopardy. Unaware of this characteristic of the peoi)le. President Harrison, acting under the advice of Mr. Blaine, his Secretary of State, commissioned Eear-Admiral Bancroft Gherardi to ne- gotiate for the acquisition of Mole Saint-Nicolas. With the intention, it would seem, to intimidate the Haitians, a formidable fleet was despatched to Port-au-Prince; 24S EyppoUte: The United States and Sanuma Bay 247 But President Harrison and Mr. Blaine were not dis- couraged by this failure. Still bent upon acquiring a naval station in the West Indies, they applied in 1892 to the Dominican Eepublic. Mr. Durham, who had re- placed Mr. Douglass as Minister at Port-au-Prince and Charge d 'Affaires at Santo Domingo, was instructed to lease Samana Bay for a term of ninety-nine years, for which the sum of $250,000 was to be paid. General Ig- nacio Gonzales, who was at that time Secretary of State for Exterior Relations in President Heureau's Cabi- net, hesitated at taking upon himself the responsibility of signing such a lease, consequently, having disclosed the request made by the United States, he was obliged to fly from Santo Domingo into a self-imposed exile. These events caused both Presidents, Harrison and Heureau, to give up the negotiations. The affair of Mole Saint-Nicolas once disposed of, Hyppolite 's Government had to come to an understand- ing with the French Legation at Port-au-Prince con- cerning the practice it had been indulging in of late, of granting naturalizations on Haitian territory. Natives of Haiti who were able to lay claim to being of French descent would go to the legation and have themselves registered as French citizens. The Haitian Secretary of State of Foreign Relations undertook to put an end to this abuse, which could not be tolerated. After a long and tedious discussion on the subject, France at last yielded, and fully admitted Haiti's contention; she ordered her IMinister at Port-au-Prince to cancel the names of all those who had not had the right to have them registered. Hyppolite held friendly intercourse with all the For- eign Powers. In 1892 the Holy See proved its good will toward the Republic of Haiti in accrediting a Delegate and Envoy Extraordinary to Port-au-Prince. have succeeded; for the people of Haiti are always ready to resort to extreme measures in order to preserve the integrity of their territory or their sovereignty. The foreign Power which shows no regard for this sentiment by trying to take possession of a portion of the country must prepare to face a merciless struggle, to wage a war of extermination. 248 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Desirous of extending her commerce and making her products known abroad, Haiti took part in the Chicago Exposition, where she won many high prizes. President Hyppolite devoted his earnest attention to the public works of the coimtry. Wharves were built in several ports ; large markets were erected in Port-au- Prince and Cap-Haitien. In several towns canals were coiistrueted for the distribution of water to private houses. Telegraph lines connected the principal towns in the E«public at about the same time that the tele- phone was first introduced. The roads were kept in good repair ; agriculture and commerce were in a flourishing condition. It now became possible for the Republic to redeem her internal debt, upon which she was paying interest at the rate of 18 per cent per annum ; for this purpose a loan of 50,000,000 francs at 6 per cent per annum was floated in Paris in 1896. That was the last important act of Hyppolite 's Gov- ernment. • For some time the President, who was 69 years old, had not been in good health, and disregarding the friendly warnings of those who were interested in his welfare he refused to give up his hard work and to take the rest of which he was in sore need. Against the advice of his doctor he decided to undertake a long jour- ney to Jacmel. He started on the 24th of March, 1896, at three o'clock in the morning, but before he even had time to leave Port-au-Prince he fell from his horse dead, in a fit of apoplexy, at a short distance from the Executive Mansion. His funeral took place on the 26th of March. The Council of Secretaries of State took charge of the affairs of the Government until the elec- tion of his successor. o CHAPTER XXm T. Simon-Sam (March 31, 1896-May 12, 1902)— The Lttders incideat — The Northern Bailroad — Railroad from Port-au-Prince to L'Etang — ^jVIisunderstanding as to the duration of Sam's power — ^His resig- nation. Seven days after Hyppolite's death the National As- sembly met at Port-au-Prince, and on the 31st of March 1896, the Secretary of War, General T. Simon-Sam, was elected President for a term of seven years; he took the oath of office on the 1st of April. All parties had concurred in this election. But the Liiders incident was detrimental to the popularity of the new President. On the '21st of September, 1897, the police of Port-au-Prince were seeking to arrest one Dorleus Presume, charged with having committed petty larceny. Presume was arrested at the entrance of Les Ecuries Centrales (Central Livery Stable), where he was employed. This was under the management of Bmile Liiders, who was bom in Haiti of a Haitian mother and a German father. Upon his refusal to fol- low the policemen the latter took hold of him and a fight ensued. The noise attracted Emile Liiders, who sided with his employe in helping him in his forcible resistance against the ofScers of the law. At the police court a complaint of assault and battery was lodged against Liiders and Presume, who were both sentenced to one month's imprisonment. They appealed to the Correctional Tribunal; but instead of being charged this time with having committed assault and battery alone they were also charged with having resieted arrest 249 250 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors by force; they were consequently sentenced to one- year's imprisonment on the 14th of October, 1897. It is worth noting that in 1894 Emile Liiders had beaten a soldier and had been sentenced to six days' imprison- ment. This fact, together with the depositions made by the several witnesses, among whom were two French- men, a German, and an Englishman, did not prevent the German Legation at Port-au-Prince from interfer- ing on Liiders 's behalf. On the 17th of October, 1897,. Count Schwerin, then Charge d 'Affaires, went to the Executive Mansion and formally demanded that Liiders be set free and that the judges who had pronounced the sentence, and the policemen who had made the arrest, be dismissed. Astounded by this action so contrary to international customs. General Sam declined to look into the matter, referring the German Charge d 'Af- faires to the Secretary of State for Exterior Relations. Count Schwerin 's attitude, however, became such that the American Minister thought it wise to write to the Haitian Government on the 21st of October requesting Liiders 's release ^ out of courtesy for the United States. Complying with this request, President Sam, on the 22d of October, granted the pardon, and Liiders hastened to leave Haiti. Nevertheless, on the 6th of December two German men-of-war, the ChaHotte and the Stein, an- chored at Port-au-Prince. Captain Thiele of the Char- lotte at once despatched an ultimatum to the Haitian Government demanding an indemnity of $20,000 for Liiders, apologies to the German Government, a salute to the German flag, and the reception by the President of the German Charge d 'Affaires, allowing four hours for the fulfilment of these conditions. The excitement at Port-au-Prince was intense. The people, highly incensed at this high-handed attitude assumed by the Germans, were determined to defend themselves should the capital be bombarded. The representatives of the foreign Powers used every means in their power to urge President Sam to yield, until he consented to ' Solon Mfinos, Affaire LOders, p. 132. T. Simon Sam 251 accept the conditions dictated by Germany. This giv- ing way offended the national amour-propre. Never- theless, no disturbance ensued; Haiti remained calm in the face of the gratuitous humiliation inflicted on her by a powerful nation. Like his predecessors, President Sam took much in- terest in public works. At Port-au-Prince the construc- tion of a new building for the sittings of the Court of Justice was begun, as was the railroad connecting the capital with I'Etang-Saumatre, and that of Cap-Haitien in the North. Treaties and conventions were signed with France for reciprocity in 1900 and with the United States on naturalization in 1902. In the mean time, the newspapers had been discuss- ing the duration of the President's term of office. The Decree of the National Assembly concerning General Sam's election had wrongly prescribed that he would be in authority until the 15th of May, 1903. The elec- tion had taken place on the 31st of March, 1896, and article 93 of the Haitian Constitution reads as follows : "In case of the death, resignation, or dismissal of the * ' President, his successor is appointed for seven years, "and his power must always cease on the 15th of May, ' ' even if the seventh year of his term be not completed. ' ' Accordingly, General Sam, to whom this article was applicable, was to relinquish the Presidency on the 15th of May, 1902. So as to prevent any misunderstandings the President sent in his resignation to the National Assembly on the 12th of May, 1902, three days before the legal expiration of his term, and left Port-au-Prince on the 13th. The task of maintaining order was intrusted to a pro- visional government presided over by General Boisrond Canal, a former President of the Republic. CHAPTER XXIV Legislative elections — ^AflFray at Cap-Haitien — ^A. Firmin at Gonaivea — The Markomania incident — ^The' blowing up of the CrSte-a-Pierrot by Killick — Nord Alexis elected President on the 2l8t of December, 1902 — The "Consolidation" scandal. The Provisional Goveminent ordered the election of the Deputies who, together with the Senators, were to elect Greneral Sam's successor. The Presidency was aspired to by three caiididates : Seneque M. Pierre, Senator and former Secretary of War ; A. Mrmin, Min- ister Plenipotentiary in France and former Secretary of the Treasury and of Exterior Relations ; C. Fouchard, former Secretary of the Treasury. WhUst Pierre and Fouchard contented themselves with directing their electoral campaign, Firmin took a more active part in the struggle by trying to be elected Deputy for Cap- Haitien, his native town. The contest in this part of the country grew daily more intense. Firmin exerted every power in order to secure his election, whilst his opponents, who knew that- a failure would be detri- mental to his chances of attaining the Presidency, neglected none of the means which might cause his defeat. Affrays had already occurred at Cap-Haitien, when Greneral Nord Alexis, who was Secretary of War and a member of the Provisional Government, was sent there with the purpose of maintaining order. At the opening of the primary Assembly, on the 28th of June, 1902, the followers and the opponents of Fir- min came to blows. Killick, who at that time was at Cap-Haitien with the flotilla, espoused the latter's cause. Upon his being compelled to give up the fight, 252 K a O The Markomania Incident 253 Mrmin embarked on the Crete-d-Pierrot on the 30th of June, and went to Gonaives, where he had been elected Deputy. On his arrival he -protested against the Provisional Government, declaring that the elec- tions had not been rightly conducted. Killick, who had followed Firmin to Gonaives, boarded the Ger- man steamship Markomania on the 2d of September and forcibly took possession of the arms and anmiu- nition which had been shipped from Port-au-Prince to General Nord Alexis at Cap-Haitien. At Berlin this act was considered as piratical; and on the 6th of September the German man-of-war Panther arrived at Gronaives where the Grete-Or-Pierrot was anchored. Her captain demanded that within five minutes the Haitian ship be delivered to him. Killick, thoroughly taken by surprise, was incapable of offering any resist- ance ; he requested to be allowed fifteen minutes. Send- ing his crew ashore he lighted a fuse connecting with the powder mag'aaine; having done this, he seated himself on deck, lit a cigar, and quietly awaited the explosion, which was not long in taking place. Rather than give her up to the Germans, he preferred to sacri- fice his life in the destruction of his ship. - The tragic death of Killick and the loss of the Crete-d-Pierrot left no chance of success to Firmin 's cause. In consequence the latter sailed from Gonaives on the 15th of October and went to Inagua. In the mean time, the electoral campaign was going on; and it looked as if the contest for the election of the President would be very protracted. Tiring of a seem- ingly endless struggle, the population of Port-au-Prince put aside the three candidates who were striving for the Presidency and, on the night of December 17, 1902, declared in favor of General Nord Alexis, whom the National Assembly elected President of Haiti on the 21st of December for a term of seven years. According to article 93 ^ of the Haitian Constitution he will retire from office on the 15th of May, 1909. ^ See page 251. 254 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors As soon as he had been elected, Greneral Nord Alexis asserted his determination to enforce a strict respect of the public funds. There were rumors of frauds hav- ing been perpetrated in the consolidation of the floating debt which had taken place under President Sam's ad- ministration. On the 22d of March, 1903, President Nord Alexis instructed a Commission to investigate the matter; and it was found that the Haitian people had been defrauded of over $1,257,993. The case was re- ferred to the courts; and after a legal inquiry which lasted more than ten months the Chamber of Council (grand jury) of Port-au-Prince indicted Joseph de la Myre, a Frenchman, and late director of the National Bank of Haiti; Georges Oelrich, Eodolph Tippenhauer, Poute de Puybaudet, — the two former Germans and the latter a Frenchman,— all three employed in the National Bank; Vilbrun Guillaume, former Secretary of War; G. Gedeon, former Attorney-General; B. Saint- Victor, former Secretary of Exterior Relations; Herard Roy, former Secretary of the Treasury; Demosthenes Sam, Lycurgue Sam, J. C. Arteaud, and Auguste Leon. The "consolidation" scandal caused a considerable amount of agitation. The indicted parties were influential and well-known men. Their friends did all in their power to prevent their being, tried. The National Bank of Haiti went so far as to publicly declare that it would no longer give any help to the Haitian Government if its former employes implicated in the frauds were not set free and allowed to leave the country without any further trouble. In spite of his personal sympathy for many of the offenders and in spite of the pressure brought to bear on him, President Nord Alexis re- mained firm in his determination not to interfere in the matter, whilst the Haitian people turned a deaf ear to all threats and entreaties; they calmly awaited the con- clusion of the case. On the 28th of November, 1904, the indicted parties appeared before the Criminal Tribunal (Cour d 'Assises) of Port-au-Prince. The proceedings, which lasted nearly a month, were aU public. The Min- isters of France and Germany personally attended the Nord Alexis: The Consolidation Scandal 255 sittings of the conrt; Mr. Allen, a barrister of the Paris Court of Appeals, was sent from France for the pur- pose of watching all the aspects of this famous crimiaal suit. The impartiality and the correctness of Haitian justice were such that our worst detractors had nothing to say. The evidence against the parties was over- whelming. The jury was given eighty-five questions to answer; which answer was rendered on the 24th of December, being in the negative for Herard Boy alone, who was acquitted and at once set free. The following punishment was inflicted on the others, who were found guilty as indicted : J. de la Myre Mory, Georges Oelrich, R. Tippenhauer, de Puybaudet were sentenced to four years of hard labor; Vilbrnn GuUlaume to penal servi- tude for life; Gedeon, Demosthenes and Lycurgue Simon-Sam to three years of hard labor; Brutus Saint- Victor to three years of imprisonment. Thus ended the scandal, which for a while was fraught with danger, threatening to involve Haiti in grave complications. President Nord Alexis proved himself to be a man of energy, all the more remarkable in consideration of his age, being over eighty. All pub- lic works are given his personal attention. The Lycee of Port-au-Prince will soon be entirely rebuilt ; the new Court of Justice is almost completed. In the begimiing of 1905 he laid the comer-stone of the monumental Cathedral, which is being erected at Port-au-Prince and will be completed within four years. Desirous of facili- tating the means of transportation for the numerous products of the country the President has caused the building of the railroad of Cap-Haitien, which enter- prise has been abandoned by the grantees, to be con- tinued at the expense of the Government. Another railroad is also under construction at Gonaives, the concession of which has been granted to a Haitian citizen. Peace, the advantage of which is daily gaining in the appreciation of the Haitians, in procuring security will 256 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors facilitate the exploitation of the many natural resources of the country with the help of foreign capital. It is the usual thing for ouitsiders to misrepresent and slander Haiti ; in so doing these critics show a lack of knowledge of the history of the country, and of discern- ment in their failure to appreciate the difficulties which have from the beginning stood in the way of Haitian progress. The history of Haiti's struggle for liberty and free- dom, of her constant efforts toward social and political betterment, of all that she has achieved unaided and in spite of the ill-willof many of the great Powers, clearly shows how unjust and undeserved are the calumnies heaped upon her by her detractors. Haiti asks no favors; neither has she ever received any; all she desires is to be judged with impartiality and in good faith. 5a: " HniTt ' -CONSTRUCTION UN BHT^XN ah,-.-^e: Systej-v£. FEIR-RAUD/' DUMAS f'p_ fit S^f, ^ 1S W\ aM -^^ % 1 f ^ = M ^ ^ ^1} /■^ V J ?f '' 1 I p ;. j^ PRU cifa.^. Cathedkal of Port-ac-Prixce .Facing 256 PART n CALUMNIES AND THEIR REFUTATION CHAPTER I Limits of Haiti — ^Area — ^Mountains and rivera — ^Adjacent islands — ^Popu- lation — Grovernment — Divisions of the territory into Departments, arrondissements, ' communes, and rural sections — Financial organiza- tion; the national debt — Academic organization; public instruction — Judiciary organization^ — ^Religious organization. Haiti is bounded on the east by the Dominican Republic, on the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south by the Caribbean Sea. She derives from her position at the entrance of the Gulf of Mexico and almost in the centre of the AntUlean archipelago exceptional facilities for commimications with foreign countries. Cuba is at a distance of 50 miles to the northwest, Jamaica 100 miles to the southwest, and New York but 1,400 miles away.^ The length of the island from east to west is over 400 miles, the breadth from north to south, ranging from 160 to 17 miles, and its perimeter about 900 miles. According to B. Ardouin's Geography, its area, in- cluding the adjacent islets, is 52,000 square leagues,* of * Handbook of Haiti issued by the Bureau of American Republics. ' A league is equal to 3.89 kilometres. In his dictionnaire adminis- tratif dTSaiti, Mr. S. Rouzier gives the following figures: Length of the island from east to west, 638 kilometres; width, from 264 to 12 kilo- metres; perimeter, 2,600 kilometres; area, not including the adjacent islets, 75,074 square kilometres, of which 26,000 belong to the Republic of Haiti. The adjacent islets have an area of 2,100 square kilometres. 257 258 Haiti: Her History and Her Jfetractors which a third constitutes the Republic of Haiti; the remaining portion forming the Dominican Republic. Fourteen mountain ranges lie across the country, which is watered by forty-four rivers and streams, thus rendering the soil exceedingly fertile. Among the rivers the most important are the Artibonite, 60 leagues long,' which rises in the Cibao Mountain and flows into the Gulf of Gonave, near Grande-Saline ; the yearly rising of its waters and its consequent benefit to crops has caused it to be compared with the Nile ; it is navigable and greatly facilitates the traffic of the plain which bears its name. As to the mountains which give to Haiti so pictur- esque an aspect, they literally ridge the country. The peak of La Hotte in the South is about 2,470 metres and the peak of La Selle in the West 2,950 metres * above the sea level. The adjacent islands belonging to Haiti are: 1st. La Gonave in the bay of Port-au-Prince is 14 leagues long by 3 wide.' The air is pure and the climate healthy; there is a lake on this island, and there are many mahogany and other valuable trees for cabinet- work and building purposes. 2nd. La Tortue (Tortuga Island), opposite Port-de- Paix, was the cradle of the French domination in Saint- Domingue, having been occupied by the freebooters in 1630 ; it is 9 leagues long. The climate of the island is so healthy that in the older times the French were in the habit of going there to escape from or recuperate after yellow fever. Here also are to be found mahogany and building timber, and land crabs much sought after as food. 3rd. L'lle-a-Vaches, at about three leagues from ' B. Ardouin, Geography of Haiti, p. 24. * According to Moreau de Saint M^ry and G. Tippenhauer, some of the mountains in Haiti have the following altitudes: Morne Belle Fon- taine, 2,150 ra.; Montagne Noire, 1,780; Plateau de Furcy, 1,540; Morne L'Hopital, 1,029; Morne Commissaire, 1,500; Morne des Crochus, 1,200; Lea Matheux, 1,300; Tapion de Petit Goave, 488; Piton du Borgne, 692; MoniP du Cap, 580. ' B. Ardouin, Geography of Haiti, p. 26. Population of Haiti 259 Cayes, is four leagues long; it is very fertile and fur- nishes the town with all Hnds of victuals; at certain times wood-pigeons are plentiful there. 4th. Les Caimites, opposite Corail and Pestel, are a series of islets the largest of which has an area of only two square leagues ; they furnish timber for building. 5th. La Navase, which has been taken possession of by the United States in spite of Haiti's protests. The population of Haiti numbers about 2,000,000. Under the Constitution the following persons are con- sidered Haitian citizens: 1st. Those who are bom in Haiti or any other country of a Haitian father; 2nd. Those born in Haiti or any other country of a Haitian mother and not acknowledged by their father; 3rd. Those born in Haiti of foreign parents provided that they be of African descent. A foreign woman upon marrying a Haitian citizen becomes a Haitian, whilst a Haitian woman who mar- ries a foreigner loses her nationality. Any foreigner can be naturalized a Haitian by de- claring his intention of settling in Haiti before a justice of the peace and by taking the oath of allegiance ; the naturalization papers being delivered afterward by the President of the Republic' (Article 14 of the Civil Code.) Haitians alone are allowed to own real estate. At the age of twenty-one years a Haitian-bom citizen attains his majority and the exercise of his political rights ; but foreigners who have been naturalized must reside in Haiti for five years before being allowed to enjoy political rights. The supreme power is in the hands of the people, who are represented by three independent powers : the Legislative, the Executive, and the Judiciary Powers. The Legislative power is exercised by a House of Representatives (Chambre des Communes) and by a Senate. The House of Representatives is elected for « The only exception to this rule are Syrians, who cannot become Haitian citizens without residing ten years in Haiti. (Art. 7, law ol August 10, 1903.) 260 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors three years by the direct vote of the people. There is one ^Representative (Depute) for each conuumie, with the exception of Port-au-Prince, which elects three, and Jacmel, Jeremie, Saint-Marc, Cayes, Gonaives, Port- de-Paix, and Cap-Haitien, each of whidi elects two Rep- resentatives, makrag up the number of 95 Represent- atives or Deputies. The qualifications for the election of a Deputj' are that the candidate be not less than 25 years old, enjoy civU and political rights, be owner of real estate or practise some profession or trade. A Deputy receives a salary of $300 a month during the legislative session, and may not hold any other office paid by the Republic. The Senate consists of 39 members elected for six years by the House of Representatives from a double list presented by the electoral assemblies and by the Presi- dent of Haiti. There are 11 Senators from the "Western Department; 9 from the Northern; 9 from the South- em ; 6 from the Artibonite, and 4 from the Northwest. To be elected Senator one must be not less than 30 years of age, the other necessary qualifications being the same as those required from a member of the House of Representatives. The Senate is divided into three series of 13 members each; new elections taking place every two years. The salary of each Senator is $150 a month. The Senate and the House of Representatives meet in National Assembly at the opening and close of each session; for the election of the President of Haiti and the administration of the oath of office ; to declare war ; to examine and approve of treaties of peace and to amend the Constitution should the necessity arise. The legislative body meets every year on the first Monday in April; its session of three months heing sometimes prolonged to four. In very urgent cases the Executive Power is authorized to call an extraordinary session. The legislative body enacts all laws concerning public welfare; the initiative of such measures belonging to the two Houses as well as to the President of Haiti The Executive Power 261 since 1843. The House of Representatives, however, mnst first pass all laws concerning taxes or the expenses of the State. All Deputies and Senators are privileged from arrest from the day of their election to the end of their func- tions. In criminal, correctional, or police matters they cannot be arrested or prosecuted without the formal authorization of the Chamber to which they belong, save in case of flagrant crimes and for crimes of an atrocious nature. The Executive Power is exercised by a President elected for seven years by the House of Representatives and Senate assembled in National Assembly. He enters upon the duties of his office on the 15th of May and at the expiration of his term cannot be reelected before seven years haxe elapsed. In case of death, resignation, or dismissal of a President his successor must relinquish the office on the 15th of May, even if he have not served a full term of seven years. During a vacancy of the Presidency or whenever the President is unable to per- form the duties of his office the Council of Secretaries of State acts in his place. The requirements of a candidate for election to the Presidency are that he be bom of a Haitian father, and have never forfeited Haitian nationality ; that he must be not less than 40 years of age, enjoy civil and political rights, own real estate in Haiti and have his residence in the same country. The President promulgates all laws enacted by the legislative body and issues the decrees necessary to their fulfilment ; commands all the forces of the Repub- lic; appoints and dismisses all public functionaries; makes treaties and conventions, which must be submit- ted for approval to the Legislative Power; and has the right to grant amnesty and pardon as well as to com- mute penalties. In case of abuse of authority, the President is in- dicted by the House of Representatives and tried by the Senate sitting as the High Court of Justice. The President appoints and dismisses the members of his 262 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors Gabinet, He. cannot execute any valid measure without the countersign; of I the Secretary under whose sphere of authority, it comes and who becomes responsible therefor. The President's salary amounts to $24,000 a, yeax,. besides $15,000 for traveling expenses. His Gabinet consists of six Secretaries of State. The De- partments are those of the Interior, Agriculture, Public Works j Justice, Public Instruction, Finance, Commerce, Exterior Relations, War and Navy. A Secretary of State must have attained the age of 30 years, enjoy civil and political rights, and own real estate in Haiti. AH important measures are examined by the Council of the Secretaries of State, who are responsible not only for their own acts but also for 'the acts of; the President, which they countersign; the verbal order of the President cannot shield them. They participate in the labor both of the House of Represent- atives and of the Senate, where they have the right to introduce, uphold, or oppose the projects in debate. Both Houses can interpellate them on all matters rela- tive to their administration, and upon receiving a vote of want of confidence they usually resign at once. In the event of any crime being committed in the exercise of their functions they are impeached by the House of Representatives and tried by the High Court of Justice (the Senate). The salary of a Secretary of State is $6,000 a year. The Judiciary Power is exercised by a Tribunal de Cassation (Supreme Court) sitting at Port-au-Prince, by civil and commercial tribunals, and by justices of the peace. * « * The territory of the Republic is divided into Depart- ments, the Departments into arrondissements, the airrondissements into communes, and the communes ipto rural sections.^ There are five departments: the ■' -.Several . rural sections form a commune ; two or more communes form an arrondissement and two or more arrondissements form a Depart- ment. There are now 26 arrondissements and 86 communes. O Ph « H Division of the Territory 263 Western, capital Port-au-Prince, which is also the capi- tal of the Eepublic; the Artibonite, capital Gonaives.; the Northwestern, capital Port-de-Paix; the Northern, capital Cap-Haitien, and the Southern, capital Cayes. A Delegate appointed by the President is at the head of each Department. The arrondissements and communes are under the rule of oflacers appointed by the President and respectively called Commandants of arrondisse- ments and Commandants of "places" and communes. The Commandant of an arrondissement exercises both civil and military power. As the representative of the Executive Power he has all the armed force of his territory under his authority, and is responsible for the maintaining of peace and order. He has about the same prerogatives as those conferred upon the prefects in Prance. In aU military matters he is in direct com- munication with the President and the Secretary of War, whilst in administrative business he is dependent upon the Secretary of the Interior. The Commandant of a commune has the special care of the mending of roads, the control of agriculture and the police. The civil and financial interests of each commune are managed by an independent body elected for three years by the people and called the Communal Council. Out of its members this council elects a chairman who assmnes the title of Communal Magistrate and whose powers resemble those of a mayor. Apart from the foregoing territorial divisions Haiti is subdivided into financial administrations, academic circumscriptions, jurisdictions, and dioceses. For the whole country there are eleven ports open to commerce with foreign countries ; * there are eleven financial administrations, at the head of which is a func- tionary called the Administrator of Finance. In each " These ports are Port-au-Prince, Petit-Goave and Jacmel in the West; Miragoane, J6r6mie, Cayes, and Aquin in the South; Saint-Marc and Gonaives in the Artibonite; Cap-Haitien in the North, and Port-de- Paix in the Northwest. The port of Mole Saint-Nicolaa has been opened lately ( 1905 ) but is not yet in operation. 264 Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors of the eleven ports is a custom-house, where all goods or products imported or exported are controlled. The Administrator of Finance signs all documents relative to the collection of duties or to the expenditure in that part of the territory under his authority; the duties are afterward collected and all expenses paid by the National Bank of Haiti, which has charge of the Service of the Treasury.* He is in relations with the Secretary of the Treasury and Commerce as well as with the Court of Accounts. The members of this Court of Accounts are elected by the Senate from a list of candidates presented by the House of Representatives. The property of the Secretaries of State and of all those who are account- able for the management of the public funds remains mortgaged until a favorable report is made by the Court of Accounts concerning their administration. The financial situation of Haiti is in a better condition than that of many other countries. The external debt amounted on the 31st of December, 1904, to $12,123,105 ; it consists of two loans floated in France in 1875 and in 1896. The balance due on the loan of 1875 is 19,252,- 560 francs or $3,609,855, and yields an interest of 5 per cent. Haiti pays an annuity of 1,557,492 francs. In 1922 this loan will be entirely redeemed. The loan of 1896, amounting to a total of 50,000,000 francs, pays 6 per cent interest. Owing to the regular payment of the annuities the balance of this loan in December, 1904, was 45,404,000 francs, or $8,513,250. It will be entirely paid in 1932. On the 31st of December, 1904, the home or internal debt amounted to $14,181,870, not including the paper money, which is being gradually redeemed by means of special taxes. There are usually as many academic circumscriptions as arrondissements, although an academic circumscrip- tion may, according to circumstances, include two or • Since the scandal of "La Consolidation" the service of the treasury- has been in the hands of Haitian officials appointed hy the President of the Kepublic. Public Instruction 265 more arrondissements ; at present there exist fifteen of them. At the head of each academic cireimiscription is an inspector of schools, who is in direct relations with the Secretary of Public Instruction. All public and private schools located in his circumscription are under his control and authority. Teaching is free in Haiti; natives as well as foreign- ers can practise this profession, provided that they fulfil the conditions required by the law on public in- struction. One must of course be in possession of a