■ LESSO-NS m 
 
 H'^'D AND tiE IKAINING 
 
 "OR. BOYS AND OrRLS 
 
 Bv GUSTAY KAI,R 
 
 AXD iiDAFTEB FOR EkGLISH UsK 
 
 lELD, M„A. 
 
BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 FROM THE 
 
 SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 ZS91 
 
 ^^^^- ^^4»^»^ 
 
 5474 
 
Cornell University Library 
 arV16460 
 
 First lessons in hand and eye trainim 
 
 3 1924 031 425 659 
 
 olin.anx 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031425659 
 
FIRST LESSONS IN MANUAL WORK 
 
FIRST LESSONS 
 
 IN 
 
 HAND AND EYE TRAINING 
 
 OR MANUAL WORK 
 3for B012S anb (Blrle 
 
 with illustrations inserted in the text 
 Arranged for Home and School 
 
 GUSTAV KALB 
 
 OF THE LEIPZIG LEHRERB1LDUNG5AN5TALT 
 
 Translated and Adapted for English Use 
 
 BY 
 
 W. G. FIELD, M.A. 
 
 FORMERLY SENIOR SCHOLAR OF CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE 
 LATELY A MASTER IN LANCING COLLEGE 
 
 LONDON 
 O. NEWMANN & CO., 84 Newman Street 
 
 T 
 
 [All Rights Reserved] 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The attempt made by the present writer in 1889, to develop 
 a system of practical training, based on Frbbel's but extended 
 to meet tbe requirements of a boy up to tbe end of his tenth 
 year, was cordially received, and has enjoyed an unusual 
 degree of popularity. A considerable number of institutions 
 for the young have adopted my little work as a text-book, 
 and even our public schools have in many places made 
 experiments with the occupations I proposed and explained. 
 In the discharge of my duties as a teacher of manual 
 dexterity I have had ample opportunities of gaining increased 
 experience and discovering new forms of employment. I 
 am accordingly now able to offer an enlarged scheme of 
 occupations, of a kind which, I trust, will prove effective in 
 kindling interest and stimulating activity. 
 
 At the same time, I desire to point out how these oc- 
 cupations can be directed to intellectual and moral ends ; 
 how through them, simple as they seem, we may draw out 
 intuitions, inculcate knowledge, expand natural aptitudes, 
 strengthen the wUls and mould the characters of our 
 children. And these results we seek to achieve by a method 
 suited to the nature and inclinations of a child ; not by 
 mere instruction, but by calling into play that impulse to 
 activity of body and mind which is innate in man. 
 
 The size of my book and the multiplicity of its contents 
 render it inevitable that much must be simply indicated; 
 the user will have no difficulty in elaborating the details for 
 
6 Preface 
 
 himself. Eeferences to the literature of the subject and 
 other assistance of a valuable kind will be found in Dr. 
 Gotze's Handbook of Manual Training, of which an English 
 version has recently been issued by the publishers of this 
 volume. 
 
 I commend my booklet to mothers, schoolmasters, and all 
 who are concerned in the education of the young. It is 
 intended for their guidance; their own judgment will 
 enable them to select such parts of the matter as are suitable 
 to the special gifts and dispositions of their pupUs, to 
 introduce changes and amplifications, and to foster in count- 
 less ways the inventive faculties and the energy of the little 
 workmen whom it is their pleasant task to control. 
 
 GusTAV Kalb. 
 Geha, March 1893. 
 
 [Herr Kalb's book has been freely translated, somewhat expanded, 
 and adapted to the requirements of English readers. This edition 
 contains much additional matter supplied by the author, especially 
 new designs for cutting out and moulding, and an introduction to chip- 
 carving. I trust that it may find favour in the home no less than in 
 the school, and that the reader will set down its demerits to the 
 translator rather than to one who has gained his spurs in the cause of 
 Manual Ti-aining. "W. G. F.] 
 
INTEODUCTION. 
 
 In the present day there is no difficulty in finding for boys 
 of from two to six years of age employment at once useful 
 and adapted to their intellectual development. Toys of 
 wood, cardboard, metal, or stone are yearly turned out in 
 abundance to meet their wants. Though care in selection is 
 necessary, the supply of pictures and story-books is endless. 
 Most useful of all for children at this stage are the Gifts 
 devised by Friedrich Frobel for the Kindergarten. These 
 Gifts are usually divided into six groups : — 
 
 1. The ball of worsted. 
 
 [Six worsted balls, contained in a box. Three 
 are of the elementary colours : one, red ; one, 
 yellow ; one, blue. The others are of mixed 
 colours : one, green ; one, violet ; one, orange.] 
 
 2. Wooden ball, cylinder, and cube. 
 
 3. The first building-box. 
 
 [A two-inch cube divided once each way into eight 
 one-inch cubes.] 
 
 4. The second building-box. 
 
 [A two-inch cube divided by one vertical and 
 three horizontal cuts into eight blocks.] 
 
 5. The third building-box. 
 
 [A three-inch cube divided twice in every direc- 
 tion, so as to give twenty-seven one-inch 
 cubes.] 
 
8 Introduction 
 
 6. The fourth building-box. 
 
 [A ttiree-inch cube divided into twenty-seven 
 blocks.] 
 
 After these six Gifts come, in Frobel's system, various 
 form-exercises, in which form is considered in a wider sense. 
 Such exercises are — 
 
 Tablet-laying. 
 
 Stick-laying (called also lath-laying). 
 
 Eing-laying. 
 
 Folding. 
 
 Weaving or braiding. 
 
 Pricking or perforating. 
 
 Embroidering. 
 
 Checker- drawing. 
 
 Cutting out. 
 
 Intertwining. 
 
 Interlacing slats (called also lath-plaiting). 
 
 Cork and pea work. 
 
 Modelling in clay. 
 
 Not a few of these occupations ^ can only be pursued in 
 the Kindergarten, that is to say, up to a child's sixth year, 
 in a very elementary manner. Elaborated, they become an 
 excessive tax upon immature powers. Most of the form- 
 exercises belong to a later stage of development, and cannot 
 be practised with understanding and profit before attendance 
 at the school proper has begun. Perforating, embroidering, 
 and checker-drawing have disadvantages which are generally 
 admitted, and these may perhaps be eliminated from the list 
 of occupations for children, At the same time, the objections 
 raised to them have less force in England than in Germany, 
 where danger to the eyes is an important factor in every 
 
 ^ It is not relevant here to lay stress on the difference between the 
 Gifts and the oocupations. But see The Education of Man, by 
 Friedrioh Frobel, translated by W. N. Hailmann, p. 287 (Appleton & 
 Co., New York, 1889). 
 
Introduction 9 
 
 question of this kind. For all children of from six to eight 
 years of age, tablet-laying, stick-laying, ring-laying, the pro- 
 duction of simple forms by plaiting, the interlacing of slats, 
 cork and pea work, and moulding with clay or plastilina 
 will be found interesting, practically useful, and, if wisely 
 governed, of high educational value. 
 
 My aim, then, is to bring the tasks of the school into close 
 connection with those of the Kindergarten : the latter are 
 in part repeated, and in part extended. As soon as the 
 child has completed its eighth year it is required to fashion 
 the various parts of its work for itself by means of simple 
 tools, adapted to its strength and capacity. Understanding 
 the parts, it learns to understand the whole, and it must also 
 learn to resolve the whole into its parts. Analysis and 
 synthesis go hand in hand. 
 
 Of late years many books and series of designs have 
 appeared for boys above the age of ten ; and in school work- 
 shops, technical schools, homes for boys, and so forth, very 
 gratifying results have been obtained. But a bridge was 
 needed between the Kindergarten and the school proper, or 
 between the Kindergarten and all -institutions in which 
 Manual Training has been cultivated. I have endeavoured 
 to build this bridge. Taking as a basis Frobel's principles, 
 I have erected a structure which, I hope, will be of 
 permanent interest and value. 
 
 As the years pass, much that is new appears, to employ, 
 entertain and instruct our boys. It has been found 
 impossible to notice all that has been written. I have been 
 compelled to restrict myself to what is most important, to 
 exclude mere trifling, and to obey the sovereign rule of 
 progress : Voni LeicMen zum SeJiweren, from the easy to the 
 more difficult. 
 
 G. K. 
 
OUTLINE OF A SCHEME OF WORK 
 
 FOR BOYS OF VARIOUS AGES. 
 
 I. Age — six to seven. First school-year. 
 
 Form or shape laying witli given forms. In representing 
 number we do not go beyond ten. 
 
 1. Building (Frbbel's third and fourth Gifts). 
 
 2. Tablet-laying. 
 
 3. Stick-laying. 
 
 4. Eing-laying. 
 
 5. Interlacing slats. 
 
 6. Weaving or braiding. 
 
 7. Folding. 
 
 8. Modelling or moulding. 
 
 9. Combined occupations and their application in the 
 
 school. 
 
 n. Age — seven to eight. Second school- year. 
 
 Form-laying and the fashioning of forms. 
 
 A. Without tools. B. With the aid of the scissors. 
 
 1. Building with Frobel's building-boxes (Gifts 5 and 
 
 6), and with other boxes of bricks. 
 
 2. Stick-laying and tablet-laying. 
 
 3. Interlacing slats (more than ten). 
 
 11 
 
12 Outlines of a Scheme of Work 
 
 4. Weaving or braiding of combined patterns, and 
 
 intertwining. 
 
 5. Folding and mounting. 
 
 6. Moulding in plastilina. 
 
 7. Cork and pea work. 
 
 8. Cutting out and mounting. 
 
 9. Eemarks upon the ways of conducting the different 
 
 kinds of work mentioned, in the bouse or in the 
 school. 
 
 III. Age — eight to eleven. Third, fourth, and 
 fifth school-years. 
 
 Form-laying continued. The fashioning of new forms 
 with the aid of tools. 
 
 1. Building with large brick-boxes. 
 
 2. Moulding in clay or plastilina. 
 
 3. Weaving, folding, and mounting; cutting out and 
 
 mounting. 
 
 4. The making of small ornaments for the Christmas 
 
 tree, etc. 
 
 5. Cardboard-work. 
 
 6. Work with thin wood-pulp. 
 
 7. Wood-work, executed with the knife. (Use of the 
 
 pocket-knife.) 
 
 8. Wood-work, executed with help of knife, hammer, 
 
 brad-awl, etc. 
 
 9. Use of the fret-saw for simple work. 
 
 10. Supplementary exercises in cutting out. 
 
 11. ,, „ in modelling. 
 
 12. Introduction to chip-carving. 
 
FIRST LESSONS IN MANUAL WORK. 
 
 Age — six to seven. First school-year. 
 FORM OR SHAPE LAYING WITH GIVEN FORMS. 
 
 I. BUILDING (Frobel's Third and Fourth Gifts). 
 
 The third Gift, or first building-box (see Fig. 1), is a cube of 
 2 inches, divided by three cuts into eight 1-inch cubes ; 
 the fourth Gift, or second building-box (see Fig. 2), contains 
 
 >::C 
 
 lijlj 
 lili l 
 
 a cube divided by means of one vertical and three hori- 
 zontal cuts into eight blocks. If we add to the first 
 buildiag - box two 1 - inch cubes, and to the second two 
 
 blocks of the same size as those already contained in it, we 
 
 13 
 
14 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 have material enough to engage the attention of boys during 
 their first school-year, and to develop their ideas of number 
 between the limits of one and ten. 
 
 Moreover, by means of these cubes and blocks we can 
 produce a variety of forms illustrative of the world of life 
 and beauty, and calculated to draw forth a child's sense of 
 form, its impulse towards activity, and its imitative faculty 
 (Figs. 3-19). 
 
 The following rules may be given for the use of the 
 little workman : — 
 
 1. Begin with the cube, and, when you have ended 
 
 your play, build the cube up again. 
 [What is a cube % How does it differ from a ball and 
 from a cylinder? What is the edge of a cube ?] 
 
 2. Use all your bricks for whatever you build. 
 [Examine always the qualities of what you have 
 
 built. See what effect is produced . by taking 
 away one brick.] 
 
 3. Make one building out of another ; never pull down, 
 
 but add to what you have made. 
 
 4. Combine the bricks in the first building-box with 
 
 those in the second, and invent new shapes for 
 
 yourself. 
 [Eemember that all may be apprentices, all may 
 endeavour to learn. He who has learned and can 
 do something is the journeyman. The master crafts- 
 man is he who can design and invent for himself.] 
 
 2. TABLET-LAYING. 
 
 Tablets may be made of wood, coloured and polished, or 
 of wood-pulp, covered with glazed paper. They are gener- 
 ally about -^ inch thick. The shapes in use are : — 
 
 1. Squares of 1 inch. 
 
 2. Half-squares, that is, right-angled isosceles triangles, 
 
 formed by cutting the squares diagonally. 
 
Tablet-Laying 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 (. 
 
 
 
 4ij 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 V" A 
 
 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 11 1 
 
 ■ 
 
 ft 
 
i6 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 3. Oblongs or double squares. 
 
 4. Equilateral triangles, the length of a side being 1 inch. 
 
 5. Scalene triangles, formed by cutting the equilateral 
 
 triangles in the direction of the perpendicular 
 from the vertex on to the base. 
 
 H 
 
 
 C 
 
 ^ 
 
 3o 
 
 in 
 
 
 Mill 
 
 
 ft 
 
 1i,. ml.. 111,1 
 
 
 z. 
 
 gJ 
 
 u 
 
 'U 
 
 O^^ 
 
 
 6. 
 
 Obtuse-angled isosceles triangles, formed by bisecting 
 
 the angles of the equilateral triangles and cutting 
 
 to the point where the bisecting lines meet. 
 
 Not only can we, by means of these tablets, convey to the 
 
 child an immediate ^ perception of the elementary geometrical 
 
 forms, but they afford an excellent means of reproducing and 
 
 analysing various shapes in the world of life and beauty. 
 
 1 Used technically for Anscha/uung. See Hailmaun as quoted, 
 
 Russell {Lifi of Pestaiozsi) employs "sense-impression." 
 
Stick-Laying 17 
 
 They will also be found of great utility for counting, 
 drawing, and language exercises. The Figs, above (20-33) 
 exhibit different ways in which the number 8 can be 
 represented by the aid of the tablets, without by any means 
 exhausting the possible combinations for the purpose. The 
 child will devise for itself new forms — an occupation at 
 once delightful and conducive to its mental development. 
 
 To tablets bounded by straight lines are afterwards to 
 be added circular tablets (or discs). The former may be 
 conceived as limiting the cube and its parts, the latter 
 as limiting the cylinder. The disc forms the transition 
 between cylinder and ring. 
 
 3. STICK-LAYING. 
 
 The sticks required are from 1 to 5 inches long, and of 
 the same size in other respects as common matches. They 
 should be coloured rather than white, as one of the objects 
 with which they are used is to awaken and develop the 
 colour-sense. The exercises present great variety, and are 
 in a high degree interesting and instructive. 
 
 Although the sticks are exceedingly cheap, it is to be 
 recommended for many institutions that boys of eight or 
 nine years should make them for themselves. The doing so 
 is an exercise in the use of the knife. Blocks of wood, 
 2 inches thick, are chosen, and split downwards with the 
 grain into rectangular splints, which are painted by the boys 
 themselves with suitable colours. The best wood for the 
 purpose is that of the spruce fir {pinus aides), which can 
 easily be split. Serviceable half-round sticks can be made 
 from cane or withies. 
 
 Stick-laying should be closely combined with drawing. 
 Single^ sticks or patterns are arranged on the checkered 
 slate. The child then removes them one by one, and re- 
 presents each in turn by a line. Lastly, it reproduces with 
 the sticks on the table what it has drawn on the slate. 
 
[8 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 35. 
 
 m. 
 
 36. 37. 
 
 38. 
 
 39. 
 
 W. 
 
 U. 
 
 m. 
 
 u. 
 
 13. 
 
 45. 
 
 m. 
 
 11 
 
 50. 
 
 52 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 53. 
 
Stick-Laying 
 
 19 
 
 dH. 
 
 35. 
 
 
 56. 
 
 
20 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 The value of stick-laying in communicating an idea of 
 number and a knowledge of simple processes of reckoning 
 cannot be overestimated. One method of procedure is that 
 of Goldammer : ^ — . 
 
 Each child receives a packet of ten sticks, and the teacher 
 begins : " Take a stick and lay it perpendicularly on the 
 table (i.e. so as to be perpendicular to the edge of the table). 
 Take another and lay it by the first one. How many have 
 you on the table now % One and one are two. Lay another 
 down. How many are there now % One and one and one, 
 or two and one, are three. Now another." And so forth, 
 until all ten are upon the table. 
 
 " Now take one away. How many are left ? One from 
 ten leaves nine. Take another away. How many remain ? 
 One from nine leaves eight. Take away another. There 
 are left % " Seven. The process is continued until all the 
 sticks are again in the child's hand. 
 
 "Take two sticks from your hand and lay them on the 
 table ; two more, and lay them a little way off (| | 1 1). How 
 many have you on the table now 1 Two and two are four. 
 Now two more. Two and two and two, or four and two, 
 are six. Two more. Six and two are eight. Two more. 
 Eight and two are ten." 
 
 The child has thus learned to add two sticks at a time 
 and to find the resulting number. Keverse the process and 
 it will have learned to take away two at a time. 
 
 We continue in the same way with sets of three, four, 
 and five. Then we interchange addition and subtraction, 
 but confine ourselves to multiples of the same number 
 (not unity). Thus we cause the children to lay three times 
 two sticks on the table, then to take away twice two, and to 
 add four times two. Lastly, we dismiss the restriction, and 
 add, for instance, two and three (equals five), five and two 
 (equals seven), seven and three (equals ten). We can now, 
 more often than in the previous exercises, present the 
 1 Kindergarten Guide by Goldammer, 10s. 6d. 
 
R ing-L aying. 2 1 
 
 numbers from 6 to 9 to the child as distinct wholes. "We 
 pursue the same course with regard to subtraction, and finally 
 interchange addition and subtraction of unlike numbers. 
 For example, the children lay down six sticks, take two away, 
 add four, take one away, add three ; and are required after 
 each operation to declare the result — four, eight, seven, ten. 
 In Figs. 34 - 63 various methods of illustrating the 
 numbers 1, 2, and 7 are given. 
 
 4. RING-LAYING. 
 
 Kings, half-rings, and quarter-rings of iron-wire coated 
 with zinc yield a multiplicity of new and graceful forms, 
 and enable us to pass from the straight lines of stick-laying 
 to curves. The rings may be made by binding the wire 
 tightly round a gas-pipe or other cylindrical body (1 in. or 
 2 in. in diameter), and then cutting with a triangular file 
 or with a chisel into halves or quarters, as required. The 
 rings can also be bought at the cost of about 3s. 6d. for 
 a box containing two dozen circles, two dozen semicircles, 
 and four dozen quarter-circles. 
 
 "We restrict ourselves as before to numbers not greater 
 than ten. The following rules must be observed : — 
 
 1. "When once a form has been made, each new form 
 
 should spring from it. Do not destroy; change 
 little by little. 
 
 2. Do not lay ring on ring, but place rmg leside ring, 
 
 with ends in contact. If you have different sizes, 
 you may also put one ring within another. 
 
 3. Start from the number one ; take one more, and 
 
 make all possible forms with the two ; then one 
 more, and make what you can with the three. 
 Exhaust the possible forms with the number you 
 are using before you increase it. 
 
 4. Try to draw the forms you have made. You may 
 
 do this on a plain or checkered slate. 
 
22 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 v^JSl^ 
 
Interlacing Slats. 23 
 
 Figs. 64-75 contain a number of forms within the limit 
 of from one to ten. They will serve to show how the 
 process is developed for higher numbers. 
 
 S. INTERLACING SLATS OR LATHS. 
 
 This occupation, in which children, especially boys, take 
 great delight, forms a transition to the construction of 
 surfaces. 
 
 We have often cut the slats from a thin maple board, ^V 
 in. thick and 4 in. long, by drawing a sharp-pointed knife 
 along the edge of a ruler. This can be done very rapidly. 
 Bigger boys can make their own slats from what are called 
 roof-shingles, and colour them by laying them in wood- 
 stain. Walnut-stain, which is easily prepared or procured, 
 gives an agreeable hue. In England the slats used are 
 5 or 10 in. long and f in. wide. Bought ready-made, 
 they cost 3s. a gross for the larger size, or if of cardboard, 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 Even with from four to ten sticks a long series of forms 
 and relations of forms can be represented. The thinking 
 faculties and the natural impulse towards making and 
 fashioning are stimulated. Each form produced is a victory 
 wliich encourages the child to renewed effort. With 
 three slats he can make the same patterns as in stick- 
 laying. Add a fourth, and explain the method of inter- 
 lacing. He now finds that he has made a step forward : 
 he can lift his work from the table without destroying what 
 he has made. Moreover, he can change the shape without 
 breaking up the structure. 
 
 Appended are a few examples (Figs. 76-83) of the forms 
 which can be produced with not more than ten sticks. 
 
24 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
Weaving or Braiding 25 
 
 6. WEAVING OR BRAIDING. 
 
 For work of this kind common white writing-paper and 
 coloured glazed paper may be employed. The use of thicker 
 paper, thin cardboard or pulpboard, gives a firmer and 
 more durable product. The exercises are done by drawing 
 strips of paper shuttle-wise through cuts in a prepared sheet, 
 called the mat. Mats and strips of all sizes and qualities may 
 be obtained from Kindergarten publishers, but may also be 
 made by the teacher thus : take a piece of paper 5f x 9|^ 
 in. and fold it lengthways ; on the outside draw a square of 
 3f in. so as to leave a margin of 1 in. on every side except 
 where the fold is; on the two sides of the square which 
 are at right angles to the fold mark off spaces of f in. ; join 
 the opposite points of division by five lines, and cut along 
 these through the double sheet; unfold, and make along 
 the crease a cut of the same length as the others ; press 
 the paper quite flat. To obtain the strips, take a larger 
 sheet of a different colour and cut along lines | in. apart. 
 The strips are drawn through the mat by means of needles, 
 the best being of steel and of the same width as the 
 strips. The latter can be bought in smaller sizes, y\ in. 
 or \ in. ; but for children at the stage which we are now 
 considering the size | in. is most to be recommended. 
 Moreover, the learners should be confined to very simple 
 patterns and to the use of ten strips at most. The width 
 of the mat-strips is the same as that of the loose ones. 
 
 Mat and strips are given the child ready-made. The 
 exercises will be found very useful as a basis of instruction 
 in reckoning and drawing. It need hardly be said that 
 they assist materially in training the colour-sense. Care 
 should accordingly be taken to contrast suitable colours. 
 In the first exercises a blue mat and white strips will give 
 a pleasing result. Then we may try a white mat and green, 
 red, and black strips ; then a grey or brown mat and blue, 
 white, and orange strips. 
 
26 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 As the needle draws the loose strips through the strips of 
 the mat, some of the latter are above, others below, the 
 crossing strip. To describe a pattern, we specify how many 
 of the mat-strips are above, and how many hidden below. 
 Here foUow descriptions of the accompanying patterns 
 (Figs. 84-91) :— 
 
 
 iS7. 
 
 (a = above; b = below.) 
 
 84. la, 16, la, 16, and so on. 
 16, la, 16, la, ,, 
 la, 16, la, 16, „ 
 
 First line, continued to end of mat. 
 Second line, ,, ,, 
 
 Third line, „ „ 
 
 85. 2a, 16, 2a, 16, 2a, 16, la. 
 16, 2a, 16, 2a, 16, 2a, 15. 
 2a, 16, 2a, 16, 2a, 16, la. 
 
Folding 27 
 
 86. la, n, la, 2J, la, 26, la. 
 2J, la, 2J, la, 2J, la, 16. 
 16, la, 26, la, 26, la, 25. 
 
 87. la, 16, 2a, 16, la, 16, 2a, 15. 
 2a, 16, 2a, 15, 2a, 16, la. 
 
 15, 2a, 15, 2a, 16, 2a, 16. 
 
 88. 2a, 26, 2a, 26, 2a. 
 26, 2a, 25, 2a, 26. 
 2a, 26, 2a, 25, 2a. 
 
 89. 2a, 15, la, 16, 2a, 16, la, 15. 
 la, 15, 2a, 16, la, 15, 2a, 15. 
 
 16, 2a, 15, la, 15, 2a, 16, la. 
 
 90. 26, 2a, 16, la, 25, 2a. 
 2a, 25, la, 1.6, 2a, 26. 
 26, 2a, 15, la, 26, 2a. 
 
 91. 16, 3a, 35, 3a. 
 la, 36, 3a, 36. 
 16, 3a, 36, 3a. 
 
 It will be observed that in the patterns exhibited above, 
 the mats are ten strips wide. Nor should this limit be 
 exceeded if the work is to be used in connection with 
 counting lessons. Otherwise, larger mats, such as that the 
 construction of which was given on p. 25, may be profitably 
 employed. The child realises the pattern more vividly when 
 it is on a larger scale. 
 
 7. FOLDING. 
 
 The folding-sheet is a means of occupation which intro- 
 duces the child to a number of new and various forms. It 
 has the advantage of being the cheapest of all the occupa- 
 tions. Any kind of paper may be used — note-paper, surface- 
 paper, both sides coloured, paper of various tints, etc. 
 
 In the first exercises the folding-sheet is square. For 
 them we recommend paper white on one side, coloured' on 
 the other. Papers white on the inside and silvered or gilt 
 on the reverse, are by no means^ unsuitable. Paper of this 
 
28 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 kind causes the forms produced to stand out clearly, and 
 enables the teacher to simplify the instructions given. 
 
 The sheet is shaped before it is placed in the child's 
 hands. Attention should be called to the lines or creases 
 as well as to the ultimate outline. 
 
 Fig. 92 yields four forms. (1) Folded along a h, it gives 
 an oblong. (2) Folded along c i, or diagonally, it shows the 
 form of a right-angled isosceles triangle. (3) Folded along 
 a b and e f, the form resulting is that of a square one-fourth 
 the size of the original square, that is to say, not properly a 
 new form, but a known form of smaller dimensions. (4) 
 So, if we fold along c i and i g, we have another right- 
 angled isosceles triangle, smaller than (2). 
 
 The teacher will, of course, use discretion as to the intro- 
 duction of mathematical terms. The essential thing is that 
 the learner should observe the qualities of the shape pro- 
 duced by his work. 
 
 From Fig. 93 we also derive four forms. (1) Folding 
 along n, then unfolding, and turning down the two top 
 corners to meet in the middle point of o n, we get what is 
 called the barn gable. (2) Folding the barn gable along 
 the perpendicular from the point of the roof gives us the 
 gable end of a stable. (3) Beginning with the barn gable and 
 turning another corner down to the middle point shows us the 
 gable end of a house. (4) Fold the fourth corner, as well as 
 the other three, to the middle point, and you have the letter. 
 
 [How do the three gables differ 1 How many points has 
 each figure ? How many corners (angles) ? Are the comers 
 all alike ? Draw them on the slate and see. j 
 
 Fig. 94 again shows us four forms. (1) Fold along i o 
 and a 6 to obtain the middle' point, the intersection of the 
 diagonals ; unfold, and turn o the right-hand bottom corner 
 on to this point ; we then see the five points of an ivy leaf 
 (r ai b g). (2) Turn i as well as o on to the middle point, 
 and we have a six-sided figure (hexagon). (3) Fold the 
 hexagon so that its two longer sides come together ; this gives 
 
Folding 
 
 29 
 
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 / 9l\ 
 
30 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 us the outline of a boat. (4) Open again, and fold along 
 Im, lm,e m, I m, that is, turn all four comers down, but not 
 as far as the middle point; we have made an eight-sided 
 figure (octagon). 
 
 [As to (2), show the child a regular hexagon and explain 
 the difference.] 
 
 Fig. 95 indicates the method of producing six forms. 
 
 (1) Fold along a b, and open; then fold along a 6; the 
 form is like half the middle stone of an arch, but wider. 
 
 (2) Fold along o b and a A; ; we have made a rhomboid. 
 (.3) Fold along a i, g b, and a 6 ; we obtain a bridge. (4) 
 Fold along o b, a k, then along r s, so that b falls on a ; the 
 form is that of the front or back of a cart with sloping sides. 
 (5) Fold along a i, b g, then along e v, so that i falls on g ; 
 the result is a pentagon. (6) Fold along o b and a Jc, then 
 in such a way as to produce the small figure x — a boat 
 with two sails — drawn inside the square. After each exer- 
 cise the sheet is supposed to be opened. 
 
 Fig. 96 gives three forms. Make the letter as described 
 in connection with Fig. 93. 
 Then- 
 First form — i on o, I onb, g on d, r on h. 
 Second form — r on s, g on /, and so on. 
 Third form — r on s, g on a, I on k, and so on. 
 
 Fig. 97 exhibits two forms. They are likewise derived 
 from the letter by folding the flaps back. Crease twice to 
 obtain the first form ; three times to obtain the second. In 
 the former case the points of the flaps are brought on to the 
 sides of the inner square ; in the latter, they rest on the 
 sides of the outer. 
 
 In these forms the teacher will have material enough for 
 the present stage. Those of a more complex character lead to 
 weariness and distaste for the work. The folding-sheet affords 
 excellent Anschauungsmittel for drawing lessons and for con- 
 veying notions of space. The exercises should be repeated 
 at a later stage, and additions made to the number of them. 
 
Moulding 3 1 
 
 8. MODELLING OR MOULDING. 
 Moulding with clay or sand caiises a high degree of 
 pleasure to boys and girls alike. Children of from two to 
 ten years of age will occupy themselves for hours making 
 bricks with clay, or forts and mills with the sand on the 
 beach. Their natural impulse is to busy themselves, and 
 they adopt the first means that offers. But many days in 
 summer, and in winter still more, do not admit of open-air 
 employments. We can then utilise what we may call the 
 plastic instinct of the child, and set boy or girl to moulding 
 indoors. For younger children, plastilina or Italian modelling 
 clay, which preserves its pristine moisture, is the most suitable 
 material ; older ones may use modelling clay or wax. 
 
 When the name of the subject is mentioned, a difficulty 
 arises. The words moulding and modelling are often used 
 as interchangeable. It would perhaps be wise to confine 
 moulding to those exercises in which a mould or form is 
 used, as in Sonntag's^ system of brick-making, modelling 
 to those in which the hand is free. At present we use the 
 term moulding for our simple exercises for boys of six or 
 seven, and recommend the following : — 
 
 (a) The sphere (ball) is produced by rolling the material 
 in the palms of the hands. From the sphere the 
 workman should form a cherry, an apple, a pear, a 
 hemisphere (half-ball), an egg, a loaf, a button, a nest 
 (a hemisphere with the inside hollowed out), an 
 orange [and the form of the earth is . . . ?] 
 (6) The cylinder (garden roUer, or roll of bread) is made 
 by rolling the sphere on a flat surface, a sheet of 
 tinned iron, a slate, or a board, while the hand, 
 kept parallel to the plane of the surface, exerts a 
 downward pressure. Then from the cylinder we 
 can derive stick, pointed pencil, nail with head, 
 mushroom (cylinder crowned with a hemisphere), 
 half-ring, and whole ring. 
 ' See Gotze, Mmiual of Hand and Eye Training, pp. 113-15. 
 
32 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 (c) The coue. If, after forming the cylinder, we press 
 more heavily on one of its ends than on the other, 
 a cone is produced. The soft plastilina or clay may 
 then he developed into a club, a snake, the figure 8, 
 or a ring. 
 
 (d) The disc is formed hy flattening the sphere consider- 
 ably and squaring the edges. From the disc we 
 may fashion wheel, plate, or pendulum (disc with 
 rod). 
 
Brief Remarks upon the Occupations 33 
 
 This last step, the joining of the diso with the rod, leads 
 naturally to cork and pea work. But at the present stage 
 we confine ourselves to suggesting such simple eomhinations 
 of the sticks used in stick-laying with little balls of plastilina 
 as are shown on the opposite page (Figs. 98-105). 
 
 Perhaps our readers will forgive us for repeating that the 
 child must be led to examine every form produced. 
 
 9. BRIEF REMARKS UPON THE OCCUPATIONS AND 
 THEIR APPLICATION IN THE SCHOOL. 
 
 First school-year (six to seven). 
 
 Occupations with Spielmittel ^ may have a double purpose : 
 first, to employ the child, so that in the exercise of its 
 faculties it may strengthen its bodily and mental powers ; 
 secondly, to instruct it, not in an abstract but in a 
 practical way, by means adapted to its capacity for doing 
 and thinking. To effect the first of these objects is the 
 task of the home ; the second belongs to the province of 
 the school. 
 
 The employment of children in their own homes should 
 be conducted with some sort of system ; but the system need 
 not be strict, and deviations are not only permissible, but 
 even desirable. On the other hand, the school must follow 
 a definite plan, every detail of which has been carefully 
 elaborated with a view to securing the best possible educa- 
 tional results. Premising that the occupations, as given in 
 the preceding and following sections, are not intended to be 
 pursued in regular sequence, but to be carried on side by 
 side, we now offer illustrations of the method in which we 
 conceive instruction should be imparted during the first 
 school-year, and of combined lessons in language, writing, 
 reading, reckoning, and drawing. 
 
 ^ Toys with an educational tendency, Kindergarten appliances. 
 3 
 
34 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 The number one. 
 
 One stick. — I / \ (Every child receives one of 
 the sticks described in section 3.) 
 
 Ideas : beginning, end, top, bottom, right, left, before, 
 behind, vertical, horizontal, oblique, round, cornered, side, 
 edge. 
 
 What things have the same form? Needle, pencil, 
 flower-stick, walking-stick. 
 
 Eeckoning : The number one. 1 - 1 ; 1x1. 
 
 Language : The stick stands. 
 The stick lies. 
 The stick roUs. 
 The stick is smooth. 
 The stick is round. 
 The stick is white, etc. 
 
 Exercises preliminary to reading : The splitting up of 
 monosyllables — 
 
 at = a — t. 
 an = a — n. 
 of = o— f. 
 re = r — e. 
 to = t — o 
 
 As in the examples given, the vowel sound should some- 
 times precede, sometimes follow the consonant. 
 Writing and drawing : 1 1 = ^ "^ etc. 
 A tablet, the table. □ □ t\. A. 
 
 (Every child receives one tablet. See section 2.) 
 
 Language : The tablet stands, lies, etc. 
 The tablet is four-cornered. 
 The tablet is red. 
 The tablet is green. 
 The tablet is black, etc. 
 The fonr-cornered tablet, etc, 
 
Brief Remarks upon the Occupations 35 
 
 The red tablet, etc. 
 
 The red. tablet stands, lies, etc. 
 
 The table — the tablet. 
 
 The lamb— the lambkin. 
 
 The stream — the streamlet. 
 
 Eeckoning : 1-1; 1x1; l-=-l. 
 Drawing: /// ||| = = 
 
 Exercises preliminary to reading : an — na, in, not, let, 
 now, thus. 
 
 The number two. 
 
 Two sticks. Ideas : over, under, near, upper, lower, 
 pointed. 
 
 Language : The sticks stand. 
 
 The sticks lie. 
 
 The sticks roll, etc. 
 
 The stick stands. 
 
 The sticks stand. 
 
 The contrast, or opposition, between one and two is to be 
 emphasised. 
 
 One stick stands, two sticks stand, etc. 
 
 The white stick stands, the white sticks stand. 
 
 The stick is red, the sticks are red, etc. 
 
 Eeckoning: 1 + 1; 2-1; 2-2; 2x1; 1x2; l-=-2; 
 
 2-r2. 
 
 Drawing and writing : |\ |\ \ /L /L Z. \ \ = 
 
 + X etc. 
 Exercises preliminary to reading : as before. 
 
 Two tablets. The tablet, the tablets. 
 The table, the tables. 
 
 Ideas : round, long, broad, thin, angular. 
 The other exercises may be developed as before. 
 The ring and the half-ring may now be added. (One into 
 two goes twice.) 
 
36 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 Thus with every number the instruments for the cultiva- 
 tion of the perceptive faculties and for instruction in 
 language, drawing, and writing are multiplied. "With the 
 number 4 the sphere, a ball of plastiUna, is brought into 
 use as well as the folding-sheet ; with 5 the cylinder and 
 the disc appear and the interlacing of slats is begun ; 6 
 brings the cube, 8 the first two building-boxes, and so on. 
 We are thus provided with material for a whole year. The 
 hints we have given will suffice for the practical teacher, who 
 will have no difficulty in applying them, especially if he 
 (or she) has had some experience of Kindergarten work. 
 
II. 
 
 Age — seven to eight. Second school-year. 
 
 FORM-LAYING AND THE FASHIONING 
 OF FORMS. 
 
 A. Without tools, B. With the aid of the scissors. 
 
 (The number of form-parts goes beyond 10 . The limit in 
 reckoning is 100.) 
 
 I. BUILDING WITH FROBEL'S BUILDING-BOXES 
 (Gifts Five and Six), and with other Boxes of Bricks. 
 
 FhSbel's fifth Gift consists, as we have seen, of a 3-inch 
 cube divided into twenty-seven 1-inch cubes. But a further 
 modification is introduced : three of the small cubes are divided 
 diagonally into halves, and three others cut, also diagonally, 
 into quarters, the box containing in all 39 pieces. We 
 are thus enabled to make a considerable addition to the 
 forms produced, and the number is further increased if we 
 combine the sixth Gift with the fifth. Highly to be 
 commended as a means of occupation are the Arikersteiii- 
 haukdsten, made by F. Ad. Eichter & Co., of Eudolstadt. 
 The size (100 bricks) required at our present stage can be 
 obtained in England for about 5s. Some of their boxes 
 contain as many as 1400 pieces, and cost £3. The coloured 
 stones and the weight of them prove very attractive to 
 boys. 
 
 There are three methods of procedure in this occupation. 
 (1) The boys may imitate the designs supplied with most 
 
 37 
 
38 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 boxes of bricks. Useful and necessary as this work is, it 
 should not be too long continued. (2) They may build 
 known objects suggested by the teacher. The following 
 list may be useful : flight of steps, chair, horse-trough, 
 house, various forms of the cross, church, factory with 
 chimney, temple, castle, park-gate, set of pigeon-holes for 
 papers. (3) They may work quite independently, choosing 
 or inventing their own forms. 
 
 As before, the rule is : never destroy, but change what you 
 have made. All the pieces should be used, if not for the 
 main structure, for something naturally belonging to it. 
 The children should state what these accessories are and for 
 what purpose they are used. 
 
 In school-teaching building-boxes will be found especially 
 useful in reckoning, and local geography will occasionally 
 justify their introduction. A model of the schoolhouse 
 may be made, or a ground-plan of the town or village. 
 
 2. STICK AND TABLET-LAYING. 
 
 These simple occupations yield, as the number of the imple- 
 ments is increased, an excellent means of utilising a child's 
 impulse to self-activity. 
 
 Sticks of 4 and 8 inches, round, half-round, and quadran- 
 gular, now make their appearance. This in itself is a 
 cause of enhanced interest. New series of mathematical 
 forms, and forms taken from real life or the world of art, 
 can be developed. And so it is with the tablets. The 
 learner will have already made acquaintance with equal 
 magnitudes of the same shape ; he may now be introduced 
 to those which are equal, but unlike in shape. 
 
 Both sticks and tablets furnish, in the school, valuable 
 material for instruction in reckoning and drawing, and in 
 the home a means of employment and recreation. Figs. 
 106-111 and a 'lo g exhibit by means of a few examples 
 
Stick and Tablet-Laying. 39 
 
 103" 
 
4cr 
 
 First Lessofis in Manual' Work 
 
 the rich variety of form that can be obtained ; indeed, the 
 inventive facidties of the child have an almost boundless 
 field for exercise. 
 
Interlacing Slats. 41 
 
 3. INTERLACING SLATS (more than ten). 
 
 Interlacing ■with more than ten slats presents considerable 
 difficulties. Hence the work aifords an opportunity of 
 testing and strengthening the will-power and perseverance 
 of the boy. Often he believes that his figure is nearly 
 complete, when a slat slips from its place and the whole 
 structure falls to pieces. But if he learns why this happened, 
 he will be encouraged to begin again, and success will 
 eventually crown his efforts. 
 
 The elementary forms made with not more than ten slats 
 (see p. 24) should be repeated, then new ones produced 
 from these by means of additional slats. Stars lend them- 
 selves readily to this treatment ; and if longer slats be 
 introduced, a number of pretty and interesting patterns for 
 barred gates and fences may be devised. That the teacher 
 may have the most important designs always in readiness, 
 he should after making them fasten the joints with small 
 tacks or pins. 
 
 In this occupation, as in others, great importance is to be 
 attached to examining : the child must consider and describe 
 the constituent parts and the qualities of the whole. 
 
 4. WEAVING OR BRAIDING OF COMBINED PATTERNS, 
 AND INTERTWINING. 
 
 In this stage as in the preceding one, mats and loose strips 
 are given the boys ready for use. Perhaps the more 
 experienced of them may attempt with the scissors the 
 cutting of their own strips ; but they must first mark care- 
 fully the points of division on the edges of the sheet and 
 join them by ruled lines. For patterns on a large scale the 
 ■^■^ in. strips may now be used. 
 
 The patterns are rendered particularly attractive by the 
 employment of different but harmonious colours. For 
 instance : a white ground (mat) with blue, green, and orange 
 
42 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 strips ; or a green ground with white, black, |red, and brown 
 strips, will be found effective. 
 
 The learner will be at once struck by the resemblance of 
 the patterns to those of the woven fabrics with which he is 
 acquainted. 
 
 i[M|||i|| 
 
 A i 
 
 71? i 1 
 
 ' r 
 
 ■P "'^ ~Wi \ ■■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 w^r 1 1^^^ I \ i^^n ■ a^r III III 
 
 w^^k 1 )^^k I 1 B^B I ^hT 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 
 
 i^^^^ ^^^H B^HV ^^M 1 1 II 1 1 1 
 
 ^■h I ^H^ I ^^hfl I ^Hh III III 
 
 ^^■a 1 ^^Km ■^^^■b I ^fal 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 
 
 pV F P^ P r^ \ Tl 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 
 
 
 
 
 □e'viviv iQAnHnAE 
 
 ^^^B ^^^1 ^^^1 l^^^^l^H^^^^I^H^^^^I^^H 
 
 rr'TEpTr'Tl""JTgTBOS" 
 
 ^\ 1 J 
 
 1 'i 1 id 
 
 \ 1 
 
 III llll 1 H 1 4 P ' l~li 1 1 
 
 llll III' ^L 1 ■■■^^^^■i^^^^HB^a^ll 
 
 III llll llll '■Hi p**^ '~~^^^' ^ ' 
 
 Ti^ilM^T^ ■^■■■■b ^B^ I ^J BT ■ ■J^TI^^^^I'^P^l 
 
 H ^H W ■ ^H ■ ■ "■■■^■^^■■^T^TMM^TI^TB 
 
 ^^^^^m^w^mTm^m 1 \ f ^^^^T^^^T^^i " 
 
 
 118 
 
 119 
 
 The above figs. (112-119) contain a number of 
 designs suitable for the present stage. The packets of 
 material, supplied by dealers, often contain coloured 
 diagrams. 
 
 After weaving with the net we may proceed to what is 
 called free weaving. The method is illustrated by Fig. 120. 
 
Weaving or Braiding of Combined Patterns 43 
 
 Take two or three strips of white paper, fold them double, 
 and place them so that the folded end of the one to the left 
 is at the bottom, that of the next at the top, and so on. 
 Then cut two or three shorter slips of a different colour 
 
44 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 (say, blue) ; draw one of these round this first white strip on 
 the left, through the second, and so on. With the second 
 blue strip proceed as with the first, biit begin at the right- 
 hand side, and in such a way that if the right-hand white 
 strip was covered before it is now exposed ; if exposed, now 
 covered. The number of strips and their colours are at the 
 discretion of the worker. When the strips have all been 
 woven in, they are drawn tight and the ends secured with 
 glue. Projecting pieces may be removed with the scissors, 
 or cut into pennon shape, as in Fig. 120. Fig. 121 repre- 
 sents another development of free weaving. Book-markers 
 of various kinds and ornamental crosses are the commonest 
 objects produced by this occupation. The designs may be 
 altered by varying the width of the strips used. 
 
 In Figs. 122-125 simple forms of intertwining are 
 shown. The corners, except the last, which is fastened with 
 paste or glue, are simply pressed with the finger. Strips of 
 glazed or packing paper, f in. or ^-^ in. wide, are commonly 
 used ; but the work, as well as weaving, can be executed 
 with leather, oil-cloth, ribbon, or wood. Thus with strips 
 of oil-cloth, woven into a round or square form, we can 
 make pretty little table-mats ; with wood shavings, moistened 
 before use, we may weave a basket with handle, such as is 
 seen in Fig. 251 6. 
 
 S. FOLDING AND MOUNTING. 
 
 The little learner is now, we trust, so far skilled that 
 we may trust him with a pair of scissors as a tool, and let 
 him handle a brush with glue or gum. Moreover, he must 
 learn how to manage lead-pencil and foot-rule (marked to 
 eighths of an inch), in order that he may measure and draw 
 lines for himself. His first attempts must be on cheap, 
 unprinted paper. Afterwards, when he has gained some 
 experience in measuring, ruling, and cutting with the 
 scissors, coloured paper may be given him. Glazed paper. 
 
Folding and Mounting 
 
 45 
 
4-6 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 both sides coloured paper, or thick printing paper, will serve 
 for the purpose. 
 
 The forms already practised (Figs. 92-97) should 
 be repeated, and new ones connected therewith. In Figs. 
 126-130 a few patterns for mounting are represented. As 
 the drawing lessons proceed, the number may be multi- 
 plied, and all will afford excellent means for intuitive 
 instruction. 
 
 Fig. 126 is a combination of three squares; two have 
 sides 4^ inches long ; the third, a 3-inch side. Surface 
 paper is used, white on one side, coloured on the other. The 
 undermost square o o o o is grey ; on it lies the equal square r, 
 which is red ; the smaller square g in the middle is green. 
 The points w oi r being folded over show the white under- 
 side of the paper. The parts of the design are fastened 
 together with glue, which is laid on as thin as possible with 
 a small brush. 
 
 Fig. 127 is also produced by means of three squares. One 
 is light-green; another w, of the same size as o but folded 
 into letter form (see p. 28), is white underneath, red 
 above ; thus when the points of the letter flaps are turned 
 back, the red triangles r are shown ; gr is a smaller square of 
 dark-green. 
 
 Fig. 128. Square 6 brown; smaller square o orange; 
 square h blue. The pattern is produced by folding along 
 i k, i 10, and so on. 
 
 Fig. 129. Three equal squares, r red, g green, m j)ink. 
 The pattern is easily formed by folding the corners. 
 
 Fig. 130 has its origin in two equilateral triangles, the 
 smaller red and the larger green. The larger one is upper- 
 most, and its corners are turned down to the middle point 
 of the triangle so that its outline becomes hexagonal; the 
 comers of the smaller triangle below are thus exposed, and 
 these are in turn folded over, as r. 
 
 Many other combinations may be developed, with square, 
 triangle, hexagon, or octagon as a basis. 
 
Moulding in PlasUlina 47 
 
 6. MOULDING OR MODELLING IN PLASTILINA. 
 
 It is recommended that boys should start as before with 
 the sphere, and should add new forms to those with which 
 they are already familiar. For example : — 
 
 The sphere (ball). From this they derive the nut, plum, 
 
 basin, and bell. 
 The cylinder. Hence the stick, bent subsequently into 
 letters, figures, etc. 
 We then add — ■ 
 
 The cube ; dice, sphere on cube, pillar, sphere on pillar. 
 Square prism ; large cube as pedestal, upon that pillar, 
 
 the whole crowned with a sphere. 
 Square prism halved (slab) ; arches of various forms. 
 Pyramid with square base. 
 Lastly, the various elementary forms are combined into 
 objects from real life : the house, tower, steeple, bridge, etc. 
 
 7. CORK AND PEA WORK. 
 The outlining of solids by means of sticks. 
 
 For work of this kind a considerable degree of manual 
 dexterity is required, and want of skill will cause many 
 failures. Nevertheless, the attempt should now be made to 
 outline simple solids. 
 
 The material consists of small round sticks, from 2 to 5 
 inches long, or of wire about as thick as a hairpin ; indeed, 
 broken hairpins are themselves not unsuitable. To join 
 the sticks at the points of contact we may use little balls of 
 clay, wax, or plastiHna. Peas which have been soaked in 
 water for from eight to twelve hours, then dried for an hour, 
 are also employed. If the material chosen is wire, small 
 pieces of cork are the best fasteners. A pricker is used to 
 bore holes in the corks. Small metal tubes have recently 
 been introduced to supersede corks and peas ; they give in- 
 cresksed strength and stability to the forms constructed. 
 
48 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 In the earlier stage (Figs. 98-104) we dealt with plane- 
 figures; we pass now to solids, or figures of three dimen- 
 sions. On the triangle we build up the tetrahedron ; on 
 the square, the four-sided pryamid and the cube ; on the 
 oblong, the quadrangular prism, etc. Kgs. 135 and 136 
 are combined forms, and indicate to the learner the way 
 in which he may proceed to build up structures of his own 
 designing. 
 
 We observe, in conclusion, that sticks or wires can be 
 pointed by rubbing them on sandstone or sand-paper. 
 
 8. CUTTING OUT AND MOUNTING. 
 
 Cutting out is excellent training in the use of the scissors. 
 A boy delights in cutting soldiers, beasts, etc., from picture- 
 sheets j if, before or after the cutting, these are mounted on 
 stronger paper or cardboard, he may provide himself with a 
 whole army at but little cost. If he fastens the soldiers he 
 has cut out on to little slips of wood, '-j-^jj or f of an inch 
 thick, he can make them stand ; or he may obtain the same 
 result by cutting little slits in a piece of thin board or wood- 
 pulp and inserting his mounted figures therein. By grouping 
 the smaller ones in front, the larger ones according to size 
 behind them, he may often produce a perspective of very 
 happy effect. 
 
 Picture-sheets can readily be obtained ; but a boy can 
 without them cut with the scissors and a piece of paper 
 folded double a long series of pretty patterns, and then 
 mount them. At present we confine ourselves to straight 
 cuts. 
 
 To produce the forms given in Figs. 137-144, we avail 
 ourselves of the ordinary folding-sheet, a square of glazed 
 paper, each side measuring 4 inches. The sheet is folded 
 diagonally, and the longer side of the resulting triangle 
 assumed as the base. Fold again along the perpendicular 
 from vertex to base ; a new right-angled triangle is produced ; 
 
Cork and Pea Work 49 
 
 13^. 
 
 
 134. 
 
 7' 
 
so First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 fold this again along the perpendicular from vertex to base. 
 We now have another right-angled triangle eight folds deep, 
 as it were. It is this triangle that is represented in Fig. 
 137. On the upper face of this we draw a checker pattern, 
 by dividing the base into eight equal parts, and the per- 
 pendicular from vertex to base into four equal parts. We 
 now have the auxiliary lines which wiU enable us to cut as 
 required. 
 
 Accordingly as we out horizontally, vertically, or obliquely 
 into, through, or from the eight-fold triangle, various patterns 
 are produced, which, when mounted, serve as drawing copies, 
 or, at a later stage, as decorations for more elaborate work 
 in paper or cardboard. When the child has made the 
 necessary cuts, it regards the patterns which have resulted 
 with the utmost pleasure and surprise. 
 
 The last step is to mount the patterns. If folding be com- 
 bined with this work, i.e. if loose corners be turned in, the 
 number of forms derived will astonish the inexperienced. 
 
 Very suitable paper for cutting out and for mounting is 
 either surface paper, or paper coloured on both sides. Kinder- 
 garten dep6ts generally keep a stock of such papers. The 
 mounted figures are preserved by means of varnish. 
 
 To describe the figures, 137-144 exhibit various patterns : 
 137 shows vertical cuts into the eight-fold triangle, the two 
 end ones extending to the base; 138 shows horizontal cuts ; 
 139 and 140 are examples both of cutting in and cutting off j 
 141 and 142, of oblique cutting in and cutting off; in 143 
 we have oblique and vertical cuttings out; in 144 the cuts 
 are more complicated ; but in no case can there be diffi- 
 culty, as the thick lines in the plates are those along which 
 we cut. 
 
 Besides the obvious advantages cutting out and mounting 
 possess in connection with drawing and the development of 
 the form and colour senses, they assist in producing im- 
 mediate perceptions in reckoning, in division, for instance, 
 or in treating of fractions, as also in local geography. Let 
 
Cutting Out and Mounting. 5 1 
 
52 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 us give an example of the last-mentioned application. It 
 is difficult for a child to comprehend the transition from 
 reality to geographical representation, from schoolhouse, 
 village, or district to the pictures of these on a plane- 
 surface. But the relation is made clear if we proceed as 
 follows :— 
 
 When the features of, let us say, the schoolroom have 
 been discussed- in regard to length, breadth, height, the 
 arrangement of the furniture, etc., each child receives a sheet 
 of stout white paper in the form of an outline of the ground- 
 plan. Strips of black or brown paper, gummed at the back, 
 are now cut to scale to represent the desks, forms, dais on 
 which the master's desk stands, stove, and so on. These 
 strips are fastened in their proper places on the white sheet. 
 The children now have a complete ground-plan of the room. 
 When this has been drawn on the blackboard, the idea of 
 a map has been fully conveyed. In like manner plans may 
 be made of the playground, village, or a part of the town. 
 Fig. 145 gives the ground-plan of a schoolroom, the shaded 
 spaces denoting the coloured strips attached. The desks 
 may be dark-brown, the stove black, the forms and the dais 
 light-brown. 
 
 9. BRIEF REMARKS UPON THE WAY OF CONDUCTING 
 THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WORK IN THE HOME 
 AND IN THE SCHOOL. 
 
 We have thus brought together material for the second 
 school-year as weU as for the first. Ample means will be 
 found here to busy and instruct the child, to satisfy its 
 formative instinct and its desire of activity. We hardly 
 need add that the occupations suggested will prove as 
 valuable and entertaining to girls as to boys. Indeed, they 
 are of special importance to the former in view of their 
 subsequent duties as mothers and nurses of children : they 
 should learn that they may themselves teach what they have 
 
Cutting Out and Mounting 
 
 S3 
 
 i 
 
 745. 
 
54 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 learned. As in the school the master assists the iDoy with 
 deed and counsel, so in the home must mother, sister, or 
 nurse render like help to the little ones under her care, and 
 supply information when it is needed. The raw material 
 used is so cheap that it is within the reach of the poorest, 
 and children who have perhaps to be left without supervision 
 for long hours may, after a few hints, be set to employ them- 
 selves with such work as we have proposed. They will thus 
 be saved from idleness and its pernicious consequences, and 
 gain a love of work which will stand them in good stead in 
 after-life. 
 
 As regards the school, it will not be found possible to 
 work through every variation of the tasks given. The 
 question is to find in employment, or, more properly speak- 
 ing, in practical work, a means of furthering the intellectual 
 development of -the child and rendering the process of learn- 
 ing more independent. We do not seek to teach from 
 without inwards, but rather assist the faculties in developing 
 from loithin outwards. The child must win knowledge by 
 work, not simply receive something presented, and accept 
 the statement of the teacher as to the truth and value of the 
 information. Experience is of more value than belief or 
 mental acquiescence. The course of work pursu.ed must 
 obviously depend not on the kind, not on anything inherent 
 in the work, but on the stage of development reached by 
 the learner and on his intellectual requirements. Thus from 
 every department of work we must choose what is most 
 suitable for the workers. It may happen, for instance, in 
 teaching number, that we must have recourse in one and 
 the same day to building with bricks, and folding and cutting 
 out, according as the matter of instruction prompts. But it 
 will readily be understood that in any one kind of work the 
 natural sequence will be observed, that the less difficult will 
 precede the more difficult. There is another rule to be 
 obeyed. It will often happen that certain work is not 
 called for by the subject of instruction in which we are 
 
Brief Remarks upon conducting the Work 5 5 
 
 engaged, but must nevertheless be prosecuted in order that 
 there may be no gap in the development of eye and hand. 
 Thus moulding is one of the occupations at our present stage 
 (second school-year), not because it is in itself requisite, 
 but because it is a connecting link between an earlier 
 stage and more advanced modelling, besides yielding useful 
 Ansehauunr/smittel for geometry. 
 
III. 
 
 Age — eight to eleven. Third and fourth school-year. 
 
 FORM-LAYING CONTINUED. 
 THE FASHIONING OF NEW FORMS WITH TOOLS. 
 
 I. BUILDING WITH LARGE BRICK-BOXES. 
 
 The boxes already recommended, manufactured by Fr. Ad. 
 Eichter & Co., along with Frbbel's fifth and sixth Gifts, will 
 be found most suitable. They afford material enough for all 
 exercises proper to the present stage, as well as for more 
 advanced work. 
 
 The designs given with the boxes enable the learner to 
 construct tasteful, indeed almost artistic buildings. For older 
 boys special architectural plans have been issued. Series of 
 simpler designs may also be had separately. 
 
 2. MOULDING WITH PLASTILINA, CLAY, OR PULP. 
 
 Although in the following exercises the hand remains the 
 fittest and simplest instrument, yet for the execution of some 
 work we press tools into our service. 
 
 In moulding, the boys should now repeat the most im- 
 portant elementary forms — the sphere, the cone, the cylinder, 
 the cube — and particularly should practise combinations, 
 such as slab and pillar, slab and obelisk. From the blunted 
 cone they should fashion a jar or a cup. The hollowing is 
 effected by turning a knife in the moulded shape. Other 
 
Moulding with Plastilina, Clay, or Pulp 57 
 
 m. 
 
 liZ 
 
58 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 objects may also be represented : for example, the acom, 
 the onion, the kidney, the vegetable-marrow, the paper- 
 weight, the snail's shell, etc. 
 
 We here avail ourselves of a simple modelling tool or 
 tools. The best are made of boxwood, but cheaper ones of 
 plum or apple wood wiU suffice for our purpose. Figs. 146 
 and 147 show two forms of modelling tools, which must be 
 about 8 inches long; and Figs. 148-156, a few objects for 
 reproduction in plastilina. 
 
 If there is a suitable place for the boys to pursue their 
 occupations, moulding with clay may also be practised. 
 This again has its special attractions. The material is 
 cheap, and thus the objects to be made can he produced 
 on a large scale. It is the common potter's clay, usually 
 sold under the name of modelling clay. To give the 
 mass firmer cohesion and a stone-like appearance, we may 
 mix into it scotiring sand — 50 grammes of sand to 100 
 grammes of clay. The clay is beaten up and worked on 
 a roof-slate, a smooth slab, or, best of all, on a modelling- 
 board of hard wood, 6 inches by 8 inches. First the children 
 may make afresh some of the objects already moulded in 
 plastilina ; then new objects, especially slabs, upon which 
 decorations are first drawn and afterwards cut with the 
 knife or modelling tool. These slabs are formed by fastening 
 two parallel strips or guides, | in. high, on to the modelling- 
 board so that their ends are equidistant ; the clay is then 
 pressed between the guides, and any superfluity removed by 
 means of the edge of a moistened ruler. The same process may 
 be followed in moulding tiles or finishing off a house. The 
 slabs will vary in size according to the height of the guides 
 and their distance apart, and can be cut into cubes or pillars. 
 If we mix the clay with sand, tolerably firm bricks may be 
 made, which may be coloured with yellow or red ochre. 
 
 The work just mentioned is naturally suitable only for the 
 more skilful boys, as considerable accuracy is required. Figs. 
 157-165 exhibit forms for practice. 
 
Moulding with Plastilina, Clay, or Pulp 59 
 
6o First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 As moulding with, clay very often involves the soiling of 
 the clothes, the little sculptors should provide themselves with 
 aprons, and should turn up their sleeves before they begin. 
 
 Note. — The removal of the superfluous clay which rises 
 above the level of the guides may also be efi'ected with a 
 roller, such as bakers use ; but at present it is desirable to 
 limit the number of tools employed, and to employ the 
 hand as much as possible. 
 
 3. WEAVING, FOLDING, AND MOUNTING ; CUTTING 
 OUT AND MOUNTING. 
 
 The work under this heading is all connected with the 
 corresponding work of the previous stages. Weaving 
 receives an extension, in that all the boys now cut both 
 strips and mats for themselves. The lines to be traced with 
 scissors or knife are first set out with foot-rule and pencil. 
 At first paper of little value is used, scraps of note-paper or 
 the like, and preliminary exercises in cutting are done with 
 the scissors and the knife. As soon as the boys have gained 
 some little experience, mats and strips may be made of 
 surface-paper. Free weaving should, above all, be practised. 
 For this in Figs. 166-168 some pretty patterns are given — a 
 book-marker and two borders for table-mats. The execution 
 is easy, and needs no further explanation. When finished, 
 the woven borders are glued on to cardboard of appropriate 
 shape and colour ; the table-mat may also be decorated with 
 an edging of cut paper. See Figs. 169 and 170. 
 
 The book-markers in Figs. 171-173 are produced' with a 
 strip of glazed or both sides coloured paper, from 4 to 9 inches 
 long and from 1^ to 2 inchesbroad, which is folded lengthways 
 La the middle. Leaving on the open side a margin (marked 
 a 6 in Fig. 171) of y\ in. or more, we draw lines at an angle 
 of 45° with the edge and /^ in. apart, and cut along them 
 from fold to margin with the scissors. The paper being 
 unfolded, the triangles which have been formed are woven 
 
Weaving, Folding, and Mounting 6 1 
 
62 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 together, one being laid over the other, as shown in Fig. 172. 
 Fig. 173 shows a mat obtained in the same way, but with 
 strips of the ordinary kind woven vertically through it. 
 
 Folding, and folding and mounting, show the same step 
 in advance as weaving, in that all must now cut the folding- 
 sheets for themselves. 
 
 The elementary geometrical forms, the square, oblong, 
 equilateral triangle, regular hexagon, octagon, and circle, will 
 serve as preliminary exercises. These forms are produced 
 in paper of various colours, and combined into numerous 
 patterns which prove useful in the drawing • lesson, and, at 
 a later time, in the decoration of large surfaces. In Figs. 
 174-179 we give a number of combinations deduced from 
 the elementary forms ; additions may be made by the help 
 of drawing. The forms are glued on to coloured paper, 
 
Weaving, Folding, and Mounting 6^ 
 
 / 
 
 Pill ^ 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 
 176. 
 
64 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 either square or circular in shape. We have here a further 
 use for the tablets, which will serve as patterns. 
 
 Folding itself is continued upon the lines of the examples 
 already given (p. 29). The sheet is now folded so often 
 that the letter gives rise to the double letter. This is 
 represented in Fig. 180. If in the same part o and 'p are 
 turned over to the middle point of the back, Fig. 181 is 
 produced ; the reverse shows the same form. 
 
 If, after making the single letter, we turn the points of 
 the flaps back to the middle of the sides, then fold the 
 double letter by turning two of the points under to the 
 middle point and two over to the same point, we obtain 
 Fig. 182. If we first form an octagon (p. 30), turn the 
 angular points down on the upper side so that a square 
 results, then fold the corners of this square hackwards to the 
 middle point, we have a figure one side of which is shown 
 in Fig. 183, the other in Fig. 184. Beginning with the letter 
 form, fold two opposite flaps underneath to the middle point ; 
 turn in the points of either pair of flaps to the sides of the 
 square ; now make a letter shape by turning, two opposite 
 corners to the middle point on the upper side, two to that 
 on the lower side; you will have produced Fig. 185. 
 
 It is not advisable for boys to attempt anything very 
 elaborate in the way of folding. They will profit more by 
 making simple forms as neatly and accurately as possible, 
 then mounting a number of small forms side by side in a 
 continuous decoration. Triangular and hexagonal folding- 
 sheets will also give interesting results. Variations are 
 produced by pasting smaller sheets upon larger ones of a 
 different colour, as was illustrated in the preceding stage 
 (Figs. 126-130). 
 
 The occupation of cutting out from the thrice-folded 
 square is further pursued, and finds a development in that 
 the cuts are now executed along curved lines. A surprising 
 abundance of new forms is thus revealed to the child. The 
 application of these in drawing is obvious. The figures 
 
Weaving, Folding; and Mounting 
 
 65 
 
 ^i 1 1 
 
 ipir 
 
 <• ' ■ "^ 
 
 F-^'.\ 
 
 
 ll'iTv ' V, 
 
 
 
 '^ \y N 
 
 1 F^ N^'. ^ 
 
 \ j£ 
 
 
 
 IllE'' 
 
 
 k 
 
 lillB 
 
 f 1 
 
 ( \ 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 182. 
 
 J83. 
 
 I8¥. 
 
 183. 
 
66 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 which have been successfully produced may be fastened on 
 a coloured ground. The variety and beauty of the ornaments 
 thus produced incite to renewed exertions. See Figs. 186- 
 191. 
 
 More 'difficult kinds of intertwining may be introduced at 
 this stage, as it is a natural sequence to the occupations of 
 weaving and folding. 
 
 The exercises already given may now be followed by 
 those indicated in Figs. 193-198, which are examples of 
 cutting out from the right-angled triangle, once or twice 
 folded (Fig. 192). The boy will here, in particular, learn 
 the value of accuracy in tracing and cutting his lines. The 
 exercises are also useful in conveying ideas of the nature of 
 regular forms and the correspondence of their parts. They 
 also lead to the production of objects of utility, and so 
 impress the learner with the reality of his work and its 
 practical character. 
 
 Our sketches are, of course, on a reduced scale. This 
 must be considered when the exercises are being done, and 
 the necessary enlargement must be made. 
 
 Figs. 186-190 are to be cut with the scissors ; in Fig. 191 
 the employment of the point of the knife for cutting out 
 finds exemplification. 
 
 If squares of thin paper in two different colours are laid 
 one on the other, folded and cut out, then mounted, a sort 
 of parquetry results. All the figures cut out of the sheet 
 should be preserved for decorations, or to be combined into 
 new patterns. The scraps should also be kept, as many of 
 them can be utilised afterwards. 
 
 The whole of the figures 186-203 presuppose a certain 
 degree of skUl in drawing, and should therefore not be 
 attempted before the fourth or fifth school-year. 
 
 Figs. 204 and 205 exhibit an extension of intertwining. 
 The corners of the strips are not merely pressed, but folded 
 into rosettes. The method, easily understood, is described 
 and illustrated by Goldammer (Berlin, 1872), p. 156. Most' 
 
Weaving, Folding, and Mounting 67 
 
 20^. 
 
 205. 
 
68 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 suitable for this work is rosette-paper, f in. wide. The 
 forms may be multiplied : for instance, two squares can be 
 combined into an octagonal star, two equilateral triangles 
 into a hexagonal star; or the forms given (p. 24) for 
 interlaced slats may be imitated. 
 
 4. THE MAKING OF SMALL ORNAMENTS FOR THE 
 CHRISTMAS TREE, AND SIMILAR WORK. 
 
 (The chief tool is the scissois. ) 
 
 In many English homes, and in all German ones, the 
 Christmas-tree forms the central point of the Christmas 
 festivities. The larger it is and the more handsomely 
 decked, the greater the joy of the children. The shops, it 
 is true, offer material for decoration in embarrassing abund- 
 ance ; but ornaments made by the children's own hands 
 are their special delight. Many pleasing little objects can 
 be produced at a trifling cost. We need but give the boy 
 or girl the necessary guidance. 
 
 Fig. 206. Chain of paper rings. Strips of wrapping- 
 paper or cardboard, 3 or 4 inches long, and f in. wide, are 
 arranged one within the other and joined into a chain, the 
 ends of the bent rings being joined with glue. Gold or 
 silver paper, strengthened by backing with writing-paper, 
 may also be employed. 
 
 Fig 207 shows us the Christmas-tree chain. Take a 
 piece of glazed paper, white on one side, coloured on the 
 other ; the length depends on the length of chain required ; 
 he width is from 3 to 4 inches. Fold it lengthways in the 
 middle, so that the coloured surfaces are in contact. Draw 
 with a pencil down both edges, the creased as well as the 
 open one, lines to mark off a margin of | in. Cut, as shown 
 in Fig. 207, alternately from the right and left to the 
 marginal lines, making the cuts f in. apart. Now unfold 
 the sheet and draw out the chain. Children should be 
 cautioned to exercise care in performing this last operation 
 
Making Small Ornaments for the Christmas Tree 69 
 
 208. 
 
 a 
 
 209. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 XX 
 
 xS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 207. 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 ~-^ r-\ 
 
 211. 
 
70 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 especially if the paper be thin ; otherwise the chain will 
 break. If the paper is folded twice instead of once, we find 
 on unfolding that a double chain has been produced. The 
 white sides of two different kinds of coloured paper may be 
 pasted together, and the procedure given above adopted. 
 
 Fig. 208. Tie apple -net or nut -net. For the former 
 we use wrapping-paper in the form of a square with a 6-inch 
 side, for the latter glazed paper, square and with a 3-inch 
 side. The original square is folded along one diagonal into 
 the form of a right-angled triangle, then along perpendicular 
 from vertex to base into a smaller right-angled triangle, 
 then once more in the same way (see Fig. 137). The open 
 side of the fold is at a. Margins are marked off, ind.icated 
 in the diagram by dotted lines. Then cuts are made 
 alternately from o and /; these are all parallel to a, and 
 distant from one another about -^^ in. Unfolding the sheet, 
 we place in the middle an apple or a nut, as the case may 
 be ; the square is then lifted by the corners, and resolves 
 itself into a net. The ends are joined by a ribbon, and the 
 net may then be hung on to the tree. It is worth noting 
 that in unfolding cut patterns a paper-knife or bookbinder's- 
 stick will be found very useful. 
 
 Fig. 209. Candle-guard. This may be made of coloured 
 tissue or glazed paper, cut into strips, 2| in. x 9 in., which are 
 folded lengthways. The margin a is set off on the open side, 
 and is from f in. to -^-^ in. wide. Parallel cuts, ^ in. apart, 
 are made from the creased edge to the margin. The sheet 
 is not unfolded, but the marginal edge is wrapped round the 
 bottom of the candle and the ends are glued together. The 
 fringe is pressed down a little with the fingers. 
 
 Fig. 209 (in the circle) shows a candle-guard in bowl or 
 candlestick form, which catches wax or stearine drippings 
 still better. After cutting from wrapping-paper or cardboard 
 a circular disc, 3| inches in diameter, we divide it into eight 
 equal parts. These divisions can easily be obtained by fold- 
 ing a thin sheet of the same size three times and marking off 
 
Making Small Ornaments for the Christmas Tree yi 
 
 the points required. At a we cut towards the middle of the 
 circle and make there a hole of the same size as the candle. 
 We now cause the eighth part to overlap the first so that a 
 falls on h, and glue the overlapping parts together. The 
 result is a sort of funnel. If we wish for the form shown in 
 Fig. 210, the bottom of the funnel must be pressed upwards. 
 
 Fig. 211. Sweet-box. For this pretty toy we need a piece 
 of thin cardboard, 8 inches square. Fold the letter, then 
 unfold ; put a on e, and so fold in ni ; unfolding, put h on s, 
 and so fold in e ; deal in the same way with the two other 
 corners. The sheet will now be found to be marked with a 
 checker pattern. Flatten, but not so as to obscure the lines, 
 and cut out the eight triangles marked i ; then make the 
 ten cuts indicated in the diagram by thick lines. Lastly, 
 bend so that the four inner squares represent the bottom of 
 the box, and latch together the upper flaps. A closed box 
 will have been produced. 
 
 Fig. 212. A nut-holder. On a square piece of paper with 
 a 4^-inch side draw a line f in. distant from one of the 
 sides and parallel to it. Starting with this line, describe an 
 equilateral triangle with a 4^inch side. The three sides of 
 the triangle are halved, and each half divided into three 
 parts. The angles of the triangle are bisected, and each 
 bisecting line produced to a distance equal to one of the 
 thirds of the half-sides. The outline of the figure is 
 completed and cut out. Crease the back along m, so that i 
 falls on 0. Place the nut in the middle, and gather the three 
 short star points together by means of a thread. Or crease 
 along ?•, so as to bring d on d, and gather the longer star 
 points together. This produces a somewhat different shape. 
 It will be noticed that there are three j-'s ; so that crease 
 along ?• means crease three times, once in each direction 
 indicated. 
 
 The best colours for Christmas-tree ornaments are yellow, 
 red, and green, as the effect of these is not impaired by the 
 light. 
 
72 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 The little baskets to be mentioned later on also form 
 pleasing decorations for a Christmas tree, especially if worked 
 in suitable colours or with gold paper. 
 
 Fig. 213 shows a small paper bag, like those in which 
 sweets are sold. As in the shops, the bag may be made by 
 simply twisting the paper into a conical shape, the over- 
 lapping edges forming a rough join. But it wiU be better 
 to secure them with glue. If the bags are to be hung on 
 the Christmas tree, use silver or gold paper, fill with sweets, 
 and attach by means of thread or narrow ribbon. 
 
 Fig. 214. The Christmas-tree star. "We take four narrow 
 (y\ in. to J^ in. wide) paper strips of two different colours 
 (gold and silver paper will serve), fold them together 
 in the middle, and interweave them on the round and 
 through principle, as shown in Fig. A. We then point 
 the ends with the scissors, that they may go through more 
 easily. Taking the four upper strips, we bend them back 
 and plait them together. Every two strips are now lying 
 side by side (Fig. B). From each of these eight strips one 
 of the points of the star is formed. As we work we turn 
 the strips round, so that the strip from which the point is 
 to be formed is upwards. Thus in Fig. C we begin with 
 strip a, crease it by bending it over towards h and g, and 
 then again.by turning it over and laying it next to / and e. 
 If i is folded on to k, the first point of the star has been 
 formed. It is secured by passing the end of strip a through 
 near k and drawing tight. To form the second point of the 
 star, turn the work round so that c and d are upwards, and 
 crease and fold as before. In this way we form four star 
 points ; we then turn the whole over, and develop star points 
 from the remaining four strips, beginning with strip h. 
 With the ends of the strips trimmed ofi', the star even in its 
 present form may be used to deck the Christmas tree. But 
 we can add another attraction in ■ the shape of eight little 
 bags such as are shown in Fig. 213, four on each side of the 
 star. Before proceeding to do so, we bend the four strips 
 
Making Small Ornaments for the Christmas Tree 73 
 
 215 k 
 
74 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 on the upper side (a c e g) back, and place the whole so 
 that strip a is upwards (Fig. D). We next bend strip a 
 downwards to lie next to h and e, take it by the end, turn 
 the end over g and d and thrust it under strip c so that it 
 comes out under c between the points of the strips. Fig. E 
 illustrates the process of forming the first bag. Should it 
 be found difficult to pass a under c as required, we may use 
 the point of a knife or of the scissors to thrust it through. 
 The . other bags are made in the same way. Superfluous 
 ends are cut off, and the star is ready for the tree. 
 
 Fig. 215 a. The concertina. Cut paper or thin card- 
 board into strips, | in. to f in. wide, and from 8 to 12 inches 
 long. The ends of two strips are joined at right angles, and 
 strip folded over strip alternately. The ends are secured with 
 glue. This is a very easy piece of work, which even younger 
 children can do. It is developed in the next exercise. 
 
 Fig. 215 h. Another star. Bend the ends of the con- 
 certina round so that it forms a ring, and join them 
 together with glue, and a star like that drawn in the plate 
 results, which can also be used for decorative purposes. 
 
 As we have said, the delight of the boy in his own creations 
 is far greater than any purchased tinsel can give. He now 
 begins to see that his work is real, and any tendency to 
 despise it disappears. 
 
 SMALL PLAYTHINGS. 
 The windmill (Figs. 216 and 216 6). A sheet of glazed 
 paper, from 4 to 6 inches square, is folded in the direction 
 of the diagonals. Unfolding it, we cut along the diagonal 
 creases as shown in Fig. 216, each cut being in length 
 about one-third of the whole diagonal. The four tips 
 marked a are bent over (not folded) on to the intersection of 
 the diagonals, and fastened there with a pin or small nail. 
 Several of these windmills may be fastened on a stick or 
 wooden framework. The four tips in the middle can be hidden 
 by means of a smaU cardboard disc of a different colour. 
 
Small Playthings 
 
 75 
 
 219(1 
 
 2i9b. 
 
'jQ First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 Wind-wheels (Fig. 218). On a piece of cardboard or 
 thin " wood-pulp " is traced and cut a circle of 2J in. 
 radius. In this circle a circle with the same centre is 
 described, having a radius of \\ in. The inner circle is 
 divided into six, or (as in the diagram) into eight parts 
 (sectors). The opposite points of division are joined by 
 lines. Along these lines we cut, making first a small 
 opening at the centre with the point of the scissors. The 
 tips at the centre are bent alternately to the left and to the 
 right. 
 
 Kg. 217 shows another form of wind -wheel. We 
 describe the inner circle \ in. from the outer. From outer 
 to inner circle we trace lines (32 in Fig.) directed to the 
 common centre ; these are, on the outer circle, about f in. 
 apart. We then cut along these lines, from the outer to the 
 inner circle. The resulting divisions are bent, as before, 
 alternately to the right and to the left. In divisions of this 
 kind we must always take care that the number is even ; 
 otherwise the folding cannot be symmetrical. 
 
 [It may perhaps be asked how we can make our thirty-two 
 divisions of eqpial size. One method obviously is by folding, 
 which is a useful practical means of obtaining many 
 geometrical results. Thus, if the pupil has to trisect a line, 
 let him take a strip of paper of the same length as the line, 
 and fold it in two creases so that the free ends are at 
 different sides. An angle may be trisected in a similar 
 manner (see Fig. 346). Many other applications of folding 
 will suggest themselves to the expert teacher. If, for instance, 
 the learner should need a circle, the teacher might describe 
 it for him with the compasses ; but this would be against 
 the principle that the boy must do the work for himself. 
 Let the pupil take a sheet of thin paper once folded, and 
 cut a rude semicircle ; then let him fold radially as often as 
 possible, and cut an arc along the open edge. After a little 
 practice he will be able to produce a circle true enough for 
 ordinary purposes.] 
 
Small Playthings 
 
 77 
 
 a [ --.--■■ - - — - ■- -- -.^. 
 
 ^^5. 
 
 226b^ 
 
78 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 The wind -ball (Figs. 219 a-d). Trace out three discs, 
 a, 6, c, 2^ inches in diameter. Cut as in the several plates 
 a, &, c, the length of the cuts being rather more than half of 
 the line cut. Pass the upper part of the disc a through the 
 slit i in h. To do this it will be necesssary to press the ends 
 e and / together. Now pass the upper part of the cross- 
 form (two circular planes at right angles to each other) 
 which has been produced, through the cross - slit in c. 
 Here again we must bend the parts to be inserted backwards, 
 so that they may pass easily through the slit. Fig. 219 ci 
 shows the wind-ball in its finished state. 
 
 Fig. 220 represents a sledge made from a folded sheet 
 of strong paper, the crease being along r. 
 
 Figs. ,221 and 222 are outlines of two beasts made in a 
 similar way. 
 
 The beasts drawn in Figs. 223 and 224 are first made 
 without heads, also from a folded sheet. The heads are 
 cut out separately and gummed on to the bodies, or they 
 may be attached by means of a thread, so as to be movable. 
 
 Fig. 225. How a boy may creep through a common 
 playing-card. This is an easy trick. Fold the card 
 lengthways along a b. Cut alternately from the crease and 
 from the open edges to the dotted lines. Make the cuts as 
 close together as possible, say about ^ in. apart. Unfold ; 
 cut not the whole length of the crease, but from a to b, and 
 draw out. You will find that a child, or even a man, can 
 easily pass through the ring produced. 
 
 The dancing serpent (Figs. 226 a and 226 b). A spiral, 
 such as is shown in Fig. 226 a, is cut not according to any 
 geometrical construction, but by the unguided hand. Several 
 attempts will probably be necessary before a satisfactory 
 result is obtained. The paper is turned with the left hand. 
 The part which is to form the serpent's tail should be left 
 somewhat broad, in order that it may be fastened on a 
 knitting-needle, about which the serpent hangs in a coil. 
 The needle is fixed in a small block of wood. Placed on a 
 
Small Playthings 
 
 79 
 
 a 
 
 227a. 
 
 -6 ' 
 
 Ik 
 
 if 
 
 J 
 
 \ 
 
 230 
 
 a. 
 
8o First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 stove, the serpent will revolve about the needle, in conse- 
 quence of the rising heat. 
 
 Hand-bag with handle, made with two pieces of paper 
 (Figs. 227 a-c). We take a rectangular piece of paper, 
 about 8 in. by 6 in. ; lay one third, a d, on the middle 
 third, 6 c, and fold It h over on to the other two thirds, a d and 
 b c. We then unfold the paper, and draw with the point of 
 the knife in the middle of the right half two cuts, i and o, 
 which extend to 1 cm. from the middle hne, and 2 cm. from 
 the outer edge. ' These cuts produce the handle. We now 
 fold as before, and thrust the side at b into the opening at 
 c. Pressing the sheet flat, we fold along r s so that the 
 handle is inside. We have thus far obtained the two sides 
 of the bag joined by the handle, which is lifted up. We 
 next take a strip of paper rather narrower than the sides 
 of the bag, and about three times as long. This is to form 
 the ends of the bag. At one extremity we crease it {if, 
 Fig. 227 b) ; fix the part towards i in one of the slits at 
 the right side of the bag, then pass the free end through 
 the other of those slits to the left side. Here we crease 
 as before, and secure the end in the unoccupied slit of the 
 left side. 
 
 Fig. 227 c shows the hand-bag completed. 
 
 The cocked hat (Fig. 228 a). A rectangular piece of 
 wrapping-paper or newspaper, fairly large, say 15 inches 
 long and 9 inches broad, is doubled, then folded as indicated in 
 Fig. 228 a ; that is, so that A is brought on to L, and B on 
 to F. The upper piece of the margin M is turned up, the 
 lower folded back, and the ordinary cocked hat is produced. 
 Lay the front point o of the hat on to the back point r by 
 pressing the hat together. The square shown in Fig. 229 a 
 is the result. At F there are two free points ; fold one of 
 these backward, the other forward on to S, and you have 
 the three-cornered hat drawn in Fig. 229 6. The middle 
 point may be decorated with a few feathers, or a tuft made 
 of shreds of paper. [Note. — In doubling at the outset, fold 
 
Cardboard- Work 8 1 
 
 along the breadth, so that the rectangle resulting is 9 by 1\ 
 inches. A B\s, the folded edge.] 
 
 The boat (Fig. 228 6). If we draw out corners i and o of 
 the three-cornered hat, and fold the middle corner in half, 
 we have the shape of a boat. 
 
 Nut basket (Fig. 230 &). From a square folding-sheet 
 (6-inch side), letter-shaped as in Fig. 230 a, we can easily form 
 Fig. 230 6, by bringing together the corners abed. These 
 four corners are turned underneath, and joined by means of 
 a thread. We are thus enabled to form a pretty Httle 
 basket for four nuts, which can be hung by a thread to the 
 Christmas tree. 
 
 To the playthings, the construction of which has been 
 described, might further be added : banners and streamers, 
 small kites, rosettes, and borders. The two last-mentioned 
 decorations may be made of fragments. We therefore repeat 
 the caution not to throw away the iigures which fall out 
 as coloured paper is cut, but to preserve them for use at 
 a later time. 
 
 5. CARDBOARD-WORK. 
 
 Baskets and boxes produced from simple i geometrical 
 plans on the flat. 
 
 The tools employed are the scissors and the knife. A 
 sharp-pointed steel paper-knife is used for the purpose. If 
 the boy can draw accurately, using the ruler as a guide, he 
 should now learn to cut along the drawn lines with the point 
 of the knife. The best rulers are of iron ; they can be obtained 
 from the publishers. 
 
 The other tools — the compasses, the lead-pencil, the foot- 
 rule or measure — have already been in use. To measure 
 distances it is perhaps better in the earlier stages to adopt 
 the foot-rule. If the diagrams show centimetres and milli- 
 metres, the reduction is easily effected by reckoning the 
 ' Plane projections, technically known as nets. 
 6 
 
82 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 centimetre as | in. When the learners have made some 
 progress, they may work according to the metric system. 
 For a cutting - board an ordinary hardwood hoard will 
 suffice. One about 12 or 15 inches long, 8 inches broad, and 
 1 inch thick, is all that is requisite of this kind at the present 
 stage. To join the different parts of the work we employ 
 glue. The glue-pot consists of an inner vessel, supported in 
 a water-bath, the object of which is to prevent the glue 
 from burning. The bottom of the inner vessel is best made 
 of zinc ; otherwise it is apt to rust. As the glue-pot is a 
 common object in most households, or can be obtained at a 
 moderate price, it is not desirable to seek any substitute for 
 it. It is most important that the glue used should be good. 
 Eussian or Scotch glue is recommended. The former is 
 white, does not so readily leave streaks on the outside of the 
 work, and cements very firmly. Before use the glue is soaked 
 in water for ten or twelve hours, and then warmed, not 
 boiled. Fine brushes are needed. The learner must be 
 reminded that glue is not laid on thick, but spread thinly 
 and evenly over the surface to be joined. A thick mixture 
 is required for cardboard-work, a thin for paper. 
 
 The exercises in cardboard-work which now follow, afford 
 an unusually rich store of novel and attractive forms. De- 
 veloped from simple geometrical patterns drawn on the 
 plane, they nourish and stimulate the formative impulse in 
 the child. 
 
 To procure the squares required, the best plan is to take a 
 large sheet of cardboard, 18 in. by 24 in. This we can cut 
 into twenty squares, each with a 4r|-inch side. There remains 
 a strip, \\ in. by 18 in. It will be seen that in cutting 
 the squares we begin by dividing the 18-inch side of 
 the sheet into four equal parts. The strip left over serves 
 for making the requisite handles. The size of the squares 
 (4J-inch side) is suitable for the scale on which we con- 
 struct the various objects, and also convenient for division 
 into parts, 
 
Cardboard- Work 83 
 
 The different lines in the diagrams indicate — (1) Thepattern 
 drawn on the plane ; (2) an alternative shape ; (3) lines to 
 be scratched so that the cardboard will bend ; (4) lines to be 
 cut. 
 
 Observations on the Several Figures. 
 
 Fig. 231 a shows the simple box shape, consisting of a 
 flat bottom and four sides, the whole produced from one 
 square of cardboard. The height of the sides is | in. The 
 cutting is done with the scissors, the scratching with the 
 point of the knife. The latter operation must be very 
 cautiously performed ; the scratch must only be through half 
 the thickness of the paper. The inner square is the bottom 
 of the box. When the sides are turned up, the overlapping 
 pieces o are used in glueing the sides together. So it is in 
 the subsequent tasks ; they must, therefore, not be cut off. 
 
 Fig. 232 is formed from a rectangular piece of cardboard, 
 4 J inches long, 3 inches broad, and represents the construction 
 of a long box. If we proceed as in the case of the square box 
 above, and cut along a, whilst we scratch as before, the sides 
 will be perpendicular. Cutting along 6 6 at the four corners, 
 and scratching along the sides of the inner square, will make 
 the sides oblique. In the second case, the points which, 
 after the glueing of the sides, rise above their level, are 
 cut off. 
 
 Fig. 234 contains the pattern for a box with perpendicular 
 sides, and for one with oblique sides. The construction 
 depends on the division of the sides of the square into four 
 equal parts. This division is effected by means of the 
 diagonals. The method of proceeding is then the same as in 
 Figs. 231 and 232. Corresponding views of the boxes are 
 given under the same numbers with h appended. 
 
 Fig. 233 shows four different forms, depending on the 
 division of the sides of the square into three equal parts. 
 The centres of the concave and convex arcs lie in i. "When 
 the frames of the baskets have been completed, handles are 
 attached. 
 
84 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 231a. 
 
 S32 
 
 - Plan. 
 
 -' Alternative shape. 
 
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 _ 2'o be cut. 
 
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 236a, 
 
Cardboard- Work 
 
 85 
 
 Fig. 235 gives the pattern for a number of variously 
 shaped baskets, the primary idea being the division of the 
 sides of the square into four equal parts. According as we 
 leave the points, cut them out or cut them off, round them 
 concavely or convexly, v\re can arrive at six or seven different 
 
 235A. 
 
 236 b. 
 
 shapes. The cuts into the pattern are always to the same 
 points. At J) we have indicated the various possibilities, the 
 cuts would have to take place at 6, the scoring to assist 
 the folding at a. Figs. 235 h-d give several forms of basket 
 produced from this pattern. 
 
86 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
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Cardboard- Work 
 
 87 
 
 21^0 b. 
 
 2^2 b. 
 
 Fig. 236 has also the fourfold division of the sides and 
 middle lines as a basis. Here again various forms are 
 indicated. 
 
 The small pieces which result from cutting out or cutting 
 off should he arranged into figures and mounted on sheets. 
 
 If when the basket derived from Fig. 236 a has been formed, 
 the sides are drawn out to the right and left, as is indicated 
 by the dotted lines in Fig. 236 h, so as to slope a little, we 
 obtain a pretty hand-basket, to which we attach a suitable 
 handle. 
 
88 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 Figs. 237 and 238 a arise from the division of the sides of 
 the square into three equal parts. The centres of the arcs 
 in Fig. 238 are in i. The pieces marked w, of course, fall 
 off. Fig. 238 h gives a view of the hasket with the tops of 
 the sides doubly curved. The handles should be made about 
 5 inches long. 
 
 Figs. 239 a and 240 a depend on the fourfold division of 
 the sides of the square. 
 
 Figs. 239 h, 240 h, exhibit the forms of basket produced 
 from patterns 239 a and 240 a. These forms may be varied, 
 as before, according as we round the corners concavely or 
 convexly, cut in or cut off. 
 
 Figs. 241 and 242 a give several shapes developed from 
 the equilateral triangle. The latter is cut from a square of 
 4|-inch side, as is shown in Fig. 241. From Fig. 241 we 
 can obtain a tetrahedron as well as a three-sided box. Fig. 
 242 a shows the ground pattern of various baskets, one of 
 which is drawn in Fig. 242 h. 
 
 Figs. 243 a and 244 are based, the former on a hexagon, 
 the latter on an octagon inscribed in a circle. According as 
 we measure off smaller or larger distances from the corners, 
 the sides of the baskets (or rather, trays) will be oblique or 
 perpendicular. The size of the bottoms can be varied at 
 will. Fig. 243 6 gives a view of a hexagonal basket. 
 
 Fig. 245 a shows us how to form a kind of " sweet-bag." 
 It is made by dividing a semicircle into four equal parts and 
 glueing the first over the fourth. A handle is then attached. 
 From Fig. 245 a we also obtain 245 6. 
 
 Fig. 246 (a plan, 6 object) is a tray with sloping sides 
 and horizontal edge. This edge is formed by folding back- 
 wards along i. After glueing we cut off the projecting 
 points. 
 
 To make the plaited heart drawn in Fig. 247 h, we take 
 two strips, each 5f in. by 1| in., of different colours; for 
 instance, blue and orange, or red and green. Each strip is 
 folded breadthways, and cuts are made f in. apart from the 
 
Cardboard- Work 89 
 
 closed edge to tlie margin a (see Fig. 247 a), which is rounded 
 off. We have thus formed two weaving mats with five strips 
 each. Beginning at the upper end, we weave these two 
 mats together on the once round, once through principle, 
 explained under free weaving. We thus arrive at the 
 heart-shaped figure shown in 247 b. If we add a handle, 
 we have a pretty little hag, which will serve to deck the 
 Christmas tree. 
 
 Figs. 248 a, h, c, and 249 a, b, show the formation of cylin- 
 drical and conical baskets with woven or curved casings. The 
 method of fashioning them is clearly enough indicated by 
 the diagrams. To make Fig. 248 c, the paper 248 a is folded 
 in the middle line before the glueing takes place. 
 
 The application of the woven mat to basket-making is 
 illustrated by Figs. 250 and 251 a, b. Take any woven 
 mat you please (Fig. 250), cut out at the corners (a b c), and 
 crease in d to form the bottom of the basket. Fasten the 
 corners by narrow ribbons. Tou wiU have a pleasing card- 
 basket.' Fig. 251 a, b is also a pretty design. To do the work, 
 cut a weaving mat, 6 inches long and 4J broad. Mark off 
 points -j^ in. apart, and cut the mat in the way already 
 known. Weave in strips of the same breadth (^ in.). 
 Then secure the ends of the strips with glue, and cut off any 
 ends of strips which project beyond the margin. Then 
 count at each corner six strips from the longer side, and the 
 same number from the shorter, and cut in from the shorter 
 sides to the points so obtained. Turn up perpendicularly 
 both the shorter and the longer sides. The projecting parts 
 of the longer sides are bent at right angles, brought within 
 the shorter sides, and fastened to * them with glue. It 
 is now necessary to form a handle. A narrow strip of 
 cardboard with a gold edging is bent over the basket and 
 joined to the middle of each of the longer sides, also 
 with glue. To give the basket a more finished appear- 
 ance, we may further trim the outside of the rim with a 
 gold edging. 
 
90 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
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Cardboard- Work 
 
 91 
 
 SWb. 
 
 8^8c. 
 
 The making of flower-pot screens and lamp-shades. 
 
 To make a flower-pot screen, we first cut out of a piece of 
 thin cardboard a pattern, such, for instance, as Fig. 252 or 
 253. This is laid on a sheet of the same kind of cardboard ; 
 the outline is traced with a pencil and cut out. Or w.e may 
 cut pieces of cardboard to a suitable size, fold them in the 
 middle, and lay the pattern, likewise folded, upon them. 
 This procedure has the advantage that the two halves of 
 
92 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
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 250. 
 
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Cardboard- Work 
 
 93 
 
 each part must correspoud exactly. Having made from 
 paper of various colours some eight or ten equal parts, we 
 lay them so that the creases lie one above the other at the 
 same',;side. We then join together every two parts, hy 
 sewing round the free edges with wool or yarn. When the 
 whole is finished, the joins must be on the inside. 
 
 In the same way a lamp - shade may be made. For 
 patterns see Figs. 254 and 255. 
 
94 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 We have now given examples in abundance of cardboard- 
 work without by any means exhausting the subject. See 
 for a more exhaustive treatment of the subject, Gardhoard 
 Modelling, by W. Heaton (Newmann & Co., London, 1894). 
 It will be found that girls, no less than boys, delight in such 
 exercises, where skiU of hand and ingenuity in arranging 
 and combining are alike required. In decorating the baskets 
 with ribbons and mounted pictures we need hardly say that 
 the girls excel. 
 
 6. WORKING WITH THIN "WOOD-PULP." 
 
 By way of practice in the cutting of thin " wood-pulp," 
 the children may construct simple geometrical figures, such 
 as squares, triangles, hexagons, circles, six-pointed and other 
 stars. Beginning with " wood-pulp " 1 mm. thick, they 
 may afterwards proceed to leather and press boards. 
 
 Prom geometrical figures they advance to the making of 
 boxes, sticks for stick-laying, and strips for the weaving mat. 
 
 An open box with a square bottom is constructed as 
 follows. First we cut two square pieces of wood-pulp, with 
 4|-inch sides. One of these pieces forms the bottom of 
 the box (Fig. 257). The other is used to form the 
 upper rim. 
 
 About ^ in. from the edges we draw lines parallel to 
 them, and cut out the inner square (Fig. 256 a). On the 
 rim thus formed we mark points equidistant from each 
 other, the interval between any two being f in. to y\ in. 
 We next lay the upper rim on the bottom of the box, and 
 pierce with the marking-point each one of the points on the 
 rim. The tool must also penetrate the bottom. The holes 
 made by the marking-point are then enlarged by means of 
 a punch, so that little sticks, such as those used in stick- 
 laying, can be inserted. These sticks are first made fast in 
 the bottom, then the rim is laid upon them, and they are 
 pressed into the holes in the rim. The next step is to 
 weave through the sticks cardboard strips, from -j^ in. to 
 
Working with Thin " Wood-Pulp " 95 
 
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 5 
 
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g6 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 f in. wide. The general appearance of the basket is 
 improved if we choose strips of various colours. The ends 
 are secured with glue. The boxes suggested by Figs. 258- 
 261 are made in a similar manner. 
 
 It is necessary that boys at the present stage should also 
 learn to perform the following task : — 
 
 Binding and cutting a small exercise-book. From two 
 to five sheets of foolscap or note-paper are folded and laid 
 one within the other. The oftener we fold a sheet the 
 greater is the number of leaves, the smaller the size of the 
 book. Thus, if each leaf is a half-sheet, the size is called 
 folio; if the sheet is divided into four, quarto; and so 
 octavo, and duodecimo. The last fold marks the back of 
 the book. When we have folded once a sheet of thick blue 
 paper, cut to a suitable size, and laid the inside sheets with 
 the crease upwards, the binding or covering begins. We 
 commonly use strong grey thread. Holding firmly with the 
 left hand cover and sheets face downwards, we pass the 
 needle in the middle from inside to outside; then \\ in. 
 from the upper edge, from outside to inside. We next 
 bring the needle to \\ in. from the lower edge of the crease, 
 and prick from inside to outside, then in the middle through 
 the hole first made, from outside to inside. The thread 
 along the inside of the book is secured between the two 
 free ends of the thread, the latter being drawn tight, twice 
 knotted, then cut off. Next comes the cutting of the book. 
 First we mark with the square and a pencil the lines at the 
 top, bottom, and side, along which we propose to cut. A 
 sharp knife is drawn over each of these in turn often enough 
 to cut through all the leaves. The knife must be kept 
 straight, and the iron ruler by which it is guided must be 
 firmly held, if the cutting is to be true. Lastly, on the 
 front cover of the book a little label may be pasted. 
 Patterns for such labels will be found in Figs. 193-198. 
 
Wood- Work with Use of the Knife 97 
 
 7. WOOD-WORK WITH USE OF THE KNIFE. 
 
 Whilst the exercises hitherto given have been, at least in 
 part, admitted into various Courses for the Kindergarten and 
 Magazines for the Young, in introducing wood-work for boys 
 . of from nine to ten or eleven years of age, it may be possible 
 to offer something new. The course now suggested is an 
 extension of that already sketched out in our earlier book. 
 
 The tasks under this heading can be executed with an 
 ordinary pocket-knife or kitchen-knife. The blade must not 
 be too stiff or too weak. Thus the knives sold for paper- 
 cutting are unsuitable. Kitchen-knives, costing about three- 
 pence each, are in Germany considered sufficient; most 
 English teachers will prefer to entrust their boys at once 
 with the Naas knife, employed in Wood-Sloyd. The blade 
 is 4 in. long by | in. broad ; it does not taper to a point, 
 but the end makes an angle of about 75° with the cutting 
 edge. The cost of the knife is only about ninepence ; so 
 that though any good pocket-knife wiU serve our purpose, a 
 knife of the Naas pattern is to be recommended as cheaper 
 as well as more serviceable. The pointed Sloyd knife has 
 also certain things in its favour. 
 
 The objections which have been raised to use of the knife 
 at the age we are now considering are not substantial. It 
 is better that boys should learn to apply the knife to the 
 making of useful things, than that they should employ it in 
 secret to damage and destroy. A boy of ten is not content 
 to exercise his strength on paper or wood-pulp : he seeks 
 some stronger material. He is delighted to bring his knife 
 into play, for instance, in the garden, where he borders his 
 flower-beds with twigs or splints. Nor should we repress 
 his inchnation to cut and fashion, but rather direct it into 
 right paths : it is only one of many manifestations of the 
 impulse to activity. We must teach him that the knife is 
 a tool, not a mere toy ; teach him how to sharpen it on a 
 stone, and how to handle it without injury to himself. If 
 7 
 
98 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 he cannot sharpen a pencil, make a peg, or cut a stick from 
 a tree -properly, he is the laughing-stock of his playmates, 
 and is justly reckoned awkward or helpless. On the other 
 hand, dexterity in the use of the knife is an accomplishment 
 of lifelong value. 
 
 The exercises which foUow are intended to instruct him 
 how to make things of use and beauty with the knife as his 
 sole or principal tool. 
 
 The raw material requisite for the work is easUy procured. 
 Suitable pieces, which can readily be split, are often to be 
 picked out from common firewood. In winter every garden 
 in which trees or shrubs are trimmed yields a supply of 
 branches and twigs which can be made available for our 
 purpose. Every kind of wood is serviceable. If we have 
 the choice, we prefer for these introductory tasks soft wood, 
 but hard may also be used.^ By hard timber we mean that 
 which offers great resistance to the tool. Such timbers are 
 hornbeam, maple, apple, pear, oak, and beech, whilst ash, 
 elm, walnut, and chestnut are less hard. Scotch fir, spruce 
 fir, larch, and poplar are reckoned soft timbers. Ash, beech, 
 alder, oak, Scotch fir, and spruce fir are easily split, and are 
 therefore very suitable for much of our present work. For 
 schools and institutes we recommend especially outside 
 pieces of spruce fir, free from knots. These can be obtained 
 from any dealer at a moderate price. From them we cut 
 lengths of 50 cm., 20 cm., and 10 cm., and split with the 
 axe to the thickness of ordinary faggots. We shall then have 
 all the material necessary for the work here, given. For 
 measuring we now use a metre folding-measure, costing 
 about Is. or Is. 6d. The metre system is quickly mastered 
 even by young children. 
 
 Fig. 262 is what we may call a pattern stick. It is round, 
 
 16 to 20 cm. long, and from 1 to 2 cm. in diameter. It 
 
 may be of ash, willow, maple, birch, spruce fir, or other 
 
 wood. The bark is left on the stick, so that the cuts show 
 
 1 Oil timber, see Salomon's Handbook of Sloyd, pp. 27-58, 
 
Wood- Work with Use of the Knife 
 
 99 
 
 273. 276. 277. 
 
100 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 more clearly. On it we practise pointing, cutting in, cutting 
 off, and rounding. The attention of the learner must be 
 called to the different ways of holding and guiding the knife 
 in the different processes. 
 
 Fig. 263 represents a small parcel-holder with pointed 
 ends and decorative cuts. The wood may be taken from the 
 garden. Such an implement may also be used for twisting 
 a cord tight. 
 
 Figs. 264-266 show thin laths, split with the knife 
 from spruce fir. Any number of them may be made for 
 practice or for use. Made according to Fig. 266, they 
 serve as uprights for the railing drawn in Fig. 295. 
 
 Fig. 267 represents a small plant-label, such as is used in 
 gardens on trees, rose-bushes, and shrubs generally. It is 
 intended to be hung on the plant ; hence the wire attach- 
 ment in the narrow part. Fig. 268 gives another form of 
 plant-label, to be stuck in the bed near the flower. 
 
 Fig. 269 suggests the production of a quadrangular beam. 
 The wood may be cut 5, 10, 15, or 20 cm. long, and from 
 1 to IJ cm. broad and deep. 
 
 Fig. 270 brings us to the making of cylindrical objects. 
 Such are : flower-sticks, paint-brush handles, sticks for 
 fencing in garden beds or for the occupation known as stick- 
 laying. The latter should also be made quadrangular, of 
 the size of matches or larger. 
 
 Figs. 271 and 272 show two different forms of spatula, 
 one with a straight, the other with an oblique edge. The 
 spatula may be made larger or smaller according to the purpose 
 it is intended to serve. Such implements have many uses 
 both in the house and in the workshop. They are employed 
 to lay on glue or apply putty, as well as for removing dirt, 
 etc. If they are for kitchen use, they should be made of 
 beech or maple, and be fairly broad. 
 
 The wooden knife drawn in Fig. 273 is made out of hard 
 timrber, and may be employed for opening letters or smooth- 
 ing and cutting paper. It is also serviceable in moulding 
 
Wood- Work with Use of the Knife loi 
 
 with clay. The modelling tools shown in Figs. 146 and 
 147 should also be made at this stage, the test wood being 
 pear or plum. 
 
 The wedge in Fig. 274 may be cut either from soft or 
 from hard wood. If of the latter, it is of use in securing the 
 handles of garden tools, axes, or hammers, or in fixiug the legs 
 of stools and benches. Before driving it in with a hammer, 
 we round the upper comers off, so that it may not split. 
 
 The wooden pegs or plugs represented in Figs. 275 and 
 276, one round, the other quadrangular, serve a variety of 
 purposes. Quadrangular pegs of the shape shown in Fig. 
 276, but somewhat thicker, are much used in conjunction 
 with wedges, to insert hooks or nails in stone. 
 
 An equally useful object is the pin shown in Fig. 277. 
 We find it on a chain as the fastening of a barn-door ; or, 
 decorated with chip-carving and hung on a cord, it will serve 
 to secure the garden-gate. If straight, it may be used as one 
 of the cross-pieces in a clothes-prop ; or, curved as in the 
 sketch, it makes a convenient planting-stick. 
 
 Fig. 278 shows another form of parcel - holder. The 
 incision in the middle keeps the string of the parcel from 
 sUpping off. In Germany the peasants use an instrument of 
 this shape for raising the harrow, to which it is attached by 
 a rope. English children will know it as a handle for draw- 
 ing toy carts. The length and thickness wDl be determined 
 by the purpose to which it is to be applied. 
 
 Fig. 279 gives us a pointed beam, or, erected vertically, a 
 pointed pillar. 
 
 Fig. 280 is another pattern stick (see Fig. 262). A number 
 of these sticks should be made, and the various cuts which 
 find application in the following exercises practised until 
 some degree of dexterity is obtained. 
 
 To give the work a neat and finished look, it may be 
 rubbed with sandpaper or glasspaper, but the proper use of 
 sandpaper is to clean. In wood-carving, the strong, true 
 cuts of the knife should not be obscured. But in this 
 
I02 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 elementary work round surfaces may be finished with sand- 
 paper or powdered glass. The rasp may be introduced in 
 some of the exercises, as, for instance, in making the paper- 
 knife (Fig. 273) or the wooden pin (Fig. 277). For Fig. 273 
 may be substituted either the bookbinder's folding-stick, 
 which is about 25 cm. long and has no handle, or one of 
 the ordinary forms of the paper-knife as used in England. 
 
 8, WOOD-WORK WITH USE OF KNIFE, HAMMER, 
 BRAD-AWL, ETC. 
 
 The hammer is now added to the number of tools we 
 employ, and we begin to use brads and small wire-nails. 
 Tacks are unsuitable for joining wood, but indispensable for 
 attaching cloth, etc., to it. 
 
 The first application of the cuts practised on the pattern 
 stick is shown in Fig. 281, the joint being formed by dovetail- 
 halving. Other forms of halving are also introduced (Fig. 
 282). Various cuts shown on the pattern stick may be 
 added as decorations or as distinctive marks. 
 
 The objects represented in Figs. 283-285 are made from 
 sticks cut in the garden and having the bark left on. The 
 cross (Fig. 283) is used for mounting windmills (see Fig. 
 216 V). The cross in Fig. 284 makes a stand for flower-pots 
 in a greenhouse. 
 
 Figs. 286 and 287 show two designs for borders of garden 
 beds. "Willow twigs will be the best material for reproducing 
 Fig. 287. 
 
 The triangle in Fig. 288, made on a large scale, would 
 serve to support a carriage-pole in the coach-house. Two 
 such triangles united by strong pieces of wood at the points 
 where the arms cross would give us the saw-horse. The 
 application of the object drawn in Fig. 289 will be no 
 mystery to a boy accustomed to play with a toy cart or 
 carriage. Well for him if he can himself repair the damage 
 his vehicle may sustain. 
 
Wood- Work with Use of Knife, Hammer, etc. 103 
 
 280. 
 
I04 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 Figs. 290 and 291 represent ladders. The second may be 
 made with either two or three cross-pieces, and is used as a 
 climbing-stick in training plants. 
 
 Fig. 292 is the pretty toy known as the shears or scissors. 
 If instead of tacks we take small screws, and place on them 
 lead soldiers, we can make the latter march backwards and 
 forwards at will. If we wish for a hastily-retreating army, 
 we make the turning-points i not in the middle of the sticks, 
 but towards one side, say 1 cm. to the left, and our soldiers 
 will quickly execute the " right about face." 
 
 Fig. 293 shows us a pop-gun, the barrel being made of 
 elder with the pith removed. Choose a branch two or three 
 years old, and cut off pieces 20 to 25 cm. long. The pith can 
 be thrust out with a stick. The rod is cut from spruce iir ; 
 the head formed with wadding and twine, so as to fit into 
 the barrel without letting the air escape. When the gun is 
 in use the head should be kept moist. If in the mouth of 
 the barrel we fix a plug of potato or turnip, and push the 
 rod quickly into the other end, the air in the barrel is com- 
 pressed, and the plug flies out with a loud report. 
 
 From the pith of the elder, balls such as we see dancing 
 on the tip of a water-jet in filter shops may be made, as well 
 as the toy called the cork tumbler. To construct the latter 
 we cut a piece of pith 4 cm. long, insert in one end a shoe- 
 nail with a round head, and mount on the pith a red-painted 
 man. If the shoe-nail is placed uppermost, the figure will 
 tumble over and stand on the head of the nail. 
 
 The water-wheel (Fig. 294) is an amusing toy for children 
 by a brookside. It is made of alder or hazel wood. For the 
 axle-tree we use a piece of the wood 20 cm. long and about- 
 the thickness of the thumb. In the middle we make two 
 slits crossing each other at right angles, and thrust what we 
 may call the spokes through these slits. Only one slit and 
 one spoke are shown in the drawing. To the ends of the 
 spokes. floats are attached by means of nails, or by fixing 
 them in slits made for the purpose. The axle-tree or shaft 
 
Wood- Work with Use of Knife, Hammer, etc. los 
 
 289. 
 
io6 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 rests on two supports forked at the upper end. The ex- 
 tremities of the axle-tree may be formed of round naUs 
 driven into it; in which case it turns more easily in the 
 supports. The floats must, of course, dip into the water. 
 
 Fig. 295 represents a railing made of laths. First two 
 stronger laths, 21 cm. long, 2 cm. wide, and 4 to 5 mm. 
 thick, are cut and carefully dressed. These serve as the 
 cross-pieces. We then prepare ten laths, 10 cm. long, 1 cm. 
 wide, and 2 to 3 mm. thick. These are the uprights. Laying 
 the cross-pieces parallel to each other and with an interval 
 of 3 cm. between them, we nail on the first upright to the 
 left so as to project \\ cm. above the upper cross-piece, and 
 the same distance below the lower cross-piece, and so as to 
 leave 1 cm. at the ends of the two cross-pieces free. Pro- 
 ceeding in the same way with the upright to the extreme 
 right, we have accounted for 4 cm. of the 21 cm. of each 
 cross-piece. The intervening 17 cm. is occupied by eight 
 uprights, each 1 cm. wide, and nine intervals of 1 cm. Thus 
 the position of the remaining uprights will be fixed by 
 marking off the centimetres on the two cross-pieces, and 
 leaving 1 cm. division between each pair of uprights. To 
 secure the equal projection of the uprights above and below 
 the cross-pieces, lay a ruler from the top of the right-hand 
 upright to the top of the left, and take this as your guide. 
 Carpenters employ a string. The brads used are 1 cm. long. 
 The thickness of upright and cross-piece together is from 6 
 to 8 mm. The projecting ends of the tacks must be bent 
 down or filed ofi!, In Fig. 295, as drawn, the ends of the 
 cross-pieces are let into little posts. If it is used as a 
 pattern, the right elevation of the uprights may be obtained 
 by the use of the string. 
 
 Garden -fence with perpendicular palings (Fig. 296). 
 The cross-pieces are of spruce fir, smoothly cut, 20 to 25 cm. 
 long, 1| cm. broad, 5 mm. thick. The upright palings are 
 of willow or hazel twigs, 10 cm. long. The construction is 
 as described under Fig. 295. 
 
Wood-Work with Use of Knife, Hammer, etc. 107 
 
 (0000 
 
 a D 
 goo 
 
 295. 
 
 y 
 
 Li 
 
 SS6. 
 
io8 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 Garden -fence with slanting palings (Fig. 297). The 
 cross-pieces are made 25 cm. long and 2 cm. broad. On the 
 upper cross-piece perpendiculars are drawn 2 cm. apart, so 
 that small squares are formed. The diagonals of these 
 squares give the direction and distances of the palings, 
 which are nailed on as shown in the figure, the diagonals 
 used being those from the left-hand bottom to the right-hand 
 top corners. 
 
 The more expert boys may nail on another set of palings 
 in the direction of the diagonals from the left-hand top to 
 the right-hand bottom corner, so as to produce a sort of 
 lattice-work. Another way of producing regular intervals 
 between the palings is to lay a lath of the proper width 
 between them and to use it as a guide. In this case, 
 too, the cross-pieces may be let into little posts, as in 
 Fig. 295. 
 
 The hurdle (Fig. 298). We first cut two laths, 20 cm. long, 
 1|- cm. broad, and 5 mm. thick, then four others of the same 
 breadth and thickness, but 30 cm. long. The four longer 
 cross-pieces are nailed on to the two shorter uprights, as 
 shown in the drawing. To hold the framework firmly 
 together, two other strips are nailed across diagonally. The 
 projecting ends are cut off, after the two strips have been 
 nailed on. 
 
 The wattled fence (Fig. 299). To make this fence we take 
 willow twigs, peeled or unpeeled. The uprights are made 
 of strong withies about the thickness of a lead-pencil and 
 10 cm. long. They are left round, that the wattling may be 
 easily effected. These uprights are fixed in holes bored in a 
 strip of wood. We next split a number of twigs 20 cm. 
 long, and weave them in so through the uprights that the 
 smooth or split surface is, at the first upright, on the inside. 
 When the weaving is finished, half-round twigs are nailed 
 on to the ends of the uprights, and the fence obtains the 
 necessary firmness. 
 
 Such wattled fences were made in the earliest times, and 
 
Wood- Work with Use of Knife, Hammer, etc. 109 
 
 2&Z 
 
 2$8. 
 
no First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 used in the construction of dwellings and enclosures, the 
 protection of river-banks, etc. They are still to he met with 
 in many neighbourhoods. 
 
 The ornamentation of a stirface with half-round sticks 
 (Figs. 300-303). This work is somewhat laborious, and 
 must be executed with the greatest care. It will be well to 
 have small boards of Scotch fir (pinus silvestris) made, 30 
 cm. long, 18 cm. broad, and 1|^ cm. thick. 
 
 On these boards, which need only be dressed with the 
 smoothing-plane, we first lay the half-round sticks which are 
 longest. In Figs. 301 and 302 the longest will be those 
 which cross the boards diagonally; in Fig. 300, the upper 
 and lower sides of the parallelograms ; in Fig. 302, those 
 which form the angular points of the largest squares. The 
 most advantageous course is to set out the whole pattern on 
 the board, and then to work according to it. 
 
 Besides the four patterns given in the sketches, many 
 others may easily be devised. Further variety may be in- 
 troduced by employing twigs with brown, grey, or green 
 bark. Strips of cane and artificially coloured sticks are also 
 serviceable. 
 
 In nailing the sticks to the surface the nails must not be 
 driven in too near the ends ; otherwise the sticks wiU split. 
 The brads or tacks used must be as thin as possible. "When 
 the nailing on is finished, the sticks may be coated with 
 varnish. 
 
 In Figs. 304-307 we give four articles for home use, to 
 be made from the cuttings of garden trees. 
 
 Fig. 304. Miniature crate. The bottom consists of a thin 
 board, 10 to 12 cm. square, 1 cm. thick; the oblong shape 
 is also suitable. Split withies are used for the sides, two 
 being naUed at each corner contiguous to each other so as to 
 form the legs. The rest of the procedure is shown by the 
 figure. The uprights and cross-pieces may alike be left 
 round. Lined with stuff or paper, the crate serves as a girl's 
 work-basket or as a cigar-holder. 
 
Wood- Work with Use of Knife, Hammer, etc. 1 1 1 
 
 riT 
 
 299, 
 
 300. 
 
112 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 Kg. 305. Small stand for photographs. This may be 
 made of hazel or maple twigs. Bronzed, gilded, or enamelled, 
 it forms an elegant ornament for a drawing-room table. The 
 design is, of course, borrowed from the easel. 
 
 Kg. 306. Eest for pen-holders. The sketch shows only 
 one of two similar ends, which are to be joined by cross- 
 pieces. 
 
 Fig. 307. Key-board. This is a familiar contrivance for 
 hanging up loose keys in a kitchen. The method of con- 
 struction is clear from the figure, and needs no description. 
 
 9. ELEMENTARY EXERCISES IN THE USE OF THE 
 FRET-SAW. 
 
 [Before introducing his pupils to these exercises, the 
 teacher may wish to give a brief account of the nature of 
 saws in general, and an explanation of such simple terms 
 as teeth, Icerf, set, etc. See Goss, Bench Work in Wood, §§ 
 49-57, Ginn & Co., Boston, 1888.] 
 
 Strong objections have been raised to the use of the fret- 
 saw, especially by the opponents of all manual work for 
 boys. We are, however, compelled to recognise its value as 
 a tool at once simple and useful, l^ot only is it most con- 
 venient for dividing weak wood, but it is easily handled, and 
 applicable to the production of a long series of forms. 
 These forms may be bounded either by straight lines or 
 curves, the surfaces may be either unbroken or pierced. For 
 the present we are- only concerned with work in which the 
 surfaces are unbroken, in which, therefore, the outlines only 
 are to be traced by the fret-saw ; it will not be necessary to 
 release the blade and attach it again, as is the case when 
 holes are bored. 
 
 The distinctive feature of the fret-saw is the rectangular 
 frame (a, Fig. 308), which may be of wood, iron, or steel. A 
 wooden frame is lighter and more durable, but dearer than a 
 
Elementary Exercises in the Use of the Fret-saw 113 
 
114 FirsiLessons in Manual Work 
 
 metal frame. The width, that is, the distance along the 
 side-arms from h to a, is various. For our work at this stage 
 a width of 25 to 30 cm. will be found sufficient, and frames 
 of this size cost from Is. 6d. to 3s. according to the quality 
 and make. Fitted with a patent spring, the price is 
 about 5s. 
 
 The complete tool consists of the following parts : — 
 
 1. The frame. 
 
 2. The two clamps (6 h). Each clamp has two faces set 
 with teeth. These faces can be pressed tightly together 
 by means of a screw, so that the blade of the saw can 
 be firmly secured between them. One clamp is fitted into 
 the handle (c) ; both are generally adjustable by means of 
 screws. 
 
 3. The blade. This is a narrow strip of steel with saw- 
 teeth (Fig. 311), which all point in the same direction. 
 When the blade is fastened in the clamps, it is so placed 
 that the teeth are on the outside, and pointing downwards 
 towards the handle (Fig. 308). In buying blades, choose for 
 the exercises which follow Nos. 1 and 2, and see that the 
 teeth are sharp and that the blades show no signs of rust. 
 To fasten the saw-blade in, we bring the ends of the side- 
 arms somewhat closer together, by pressing the frame against 
 the table, and then screw the blade in so tightly that when 
 struck it gives a musical note. 
 
 In using the fret-saw we need some form of cutting-board. 
 Fig. 309 shows such a board, made of beechwood, and 
 fastened on to a handscrew, by means of which it can be 
 attached to a table. 
 
 The cutting-board shown in Fig. 310 is also highly to be 
 recommended. The strip d on the under-side being fixed 
 not quite perpendicularly, a wedge i can be driven in 
 between the edge of the table and the strip. A board of 
 this kind may be 18 to 20 cm. wide; its length will depend 
 on the size of the table to which it is to be secured. Two 
 boys can work at it simultaneously. 
 
Elementary Exercises in the Use of the Fret-saw 1 1 5 
 
 311. 
 
Ii6 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 In regard to the wood used, it may be alder, poplar, birch, 
 beech, or maple. The pieces need not be above 5 mm. 
 thick. By maple we mean the wood of the great maple 
 {acer plataTioides), known in commerce as sycamore. It 
 is white, close-grained, and does not easily split or 
 warp. This is perhaps the most suitable wood for 
 fretwork. Cigar-boxes, made of South American cedar, 
 also yield serviceable material. See Professor H. Cranz, 
 Vorlagen fiXr Arbeiten aus Gigarrenltastenholz, Schreiber, 
 Esslingen. 
 
 The outline to be sawn is traced on the board by means 
 of cardboard or zinc patterns. The latter must be prepared 
 by the teacher or by older boys ; the former can be made by 
 every child who has learned paper-cutting and gaiaed some 
 little experience in drawing. Both drawing and cutting-out 
 hiust be executed with the greatest accuracy. Used post- 
 cards or old playing-cards serve weU enough for making the 
 patterns. 
 
 The pattern finished, a weU-pointed lead-pencil enables us 
 to transfer the shape to the wood. We then test its exact- 
 ness with ruler, measure, squarej and compasses, and make 
 any corrections which may be found necessary. Com- 
 parison should be made not with the cut pattern, but with 
 the original from which it was taken. 
 
 Now begins the process of sawing. With the left hand 
 the wood is pressed firmly on the cutting-board and guided 
 along the lines of the pattern to the saw. The right hand, 
 in which the saw is held, does not change its direction, 
 and must be moved up and down in such a way that 
 the blade is always exactly vertical. The saw is worked 
 with gentle pressure ; the wrist must not be too stiff. See 
 Fig. 312. 
 
 It may be convenient if we append a list of the prices 
 commonly charged for the tools and wood us.ed in fret-saw 
 work I — 
 
Work with the Fret-saw 
 
 117 
 
 Tools. 
 
 
 Fret-saw frame 
 
 
 (1) of wood 
 
 2s. to 5s. 
 
 (2) of steel 
 
 Is. to 3s. 6d. 
 
 Cutting-'board (pattern as in Fig. 309) 
 
 
 (1) With one handscrew . 
 
 Is. to 2s. 
 
 (2) With two handscrews 
 
 Is. 6d. to 3s. 
 
 Cutting-hoard (Scotch fir, pattern as in 
 
 
 Fig. 310) . . 
 
 Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. 
 
 Fi-et-saw blades Nos. 1 and 2 per doz. . 
 
 2d. to 6d. 
 
 File (with handles) .... 
 
 6d. 
 
 Wood. 
 
 (It is important that the wood, should be well seasoned. 
 Dealers wiU supply it carefully planed.) 
 
 Walnut . 
 
 Cedar 
 
 Pear 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 Birch . 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 Oak 
 
 i in. 4 '™-' ¥ i°' & i'l- thick. 
 
 4d. 
 
 6d. 
 
 lOd. 
 
 Is. per square foot 
 
 6d. 
 
 8d. 
 
 Is. 
 
 Is. 3d. 
 
 6d. 
 
 8d. 
 
 Is. 
 
 Is. 3d. 
 
 4d. 
 
 6d. 
 
 lOd. 
 
 Is. 3d. 
 
 4d. 
 
 4d. 
 
 6d. 
 
 8d. 
 
 4d. 
 
 4d. 
 
 6d. 
 
 8d. 
 
 6d. 
 
 6d. 
 
 8d. 
 
 lOd. 
 
 WORK WITH THE FRET-SAW. 
 
 The designs shown in Figs. 313-320 may be reproduced 
 on the same scale as the drawings; perhaps, however, in the 
 case of Figs. 315 and 316 enlargement maybe advisable. 
 
 Sawing in straight lines is practised on : — 
 
 The square (Fig. 313). "When the form of the square 
 has been outlined, we begin to saw at a in the direction 
 towards 6. To obtain a sharp corner at h, we guide the 
 saw a little outwards in the piece that is to fall off, so as to 
 make a wide kerf in which the blade may be turned. We 
 then continue the sawing from right to left. 
 
 By way of practice six such squares should be cut out. 
 If the edges prove to be not quite smooth, as is usually the 
 case at the outset, they are rubbed with a piece of sand- 
 
1 1 8 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 paper or glasspaper. That the glasspaper may not crumple 
 up, it should be glued to a piece of board. 
 
 Another useful exercise is to cut a fairly large square 
 (8 to 10 cm. side), and then to divide it into right- 
 angled triangles by sawing along the diagonals. 
 
 The equilateral triangle (Fig. 314). The triangle is 
 drawn inside the square. The process is as described under 
 Fig. 313. Four of these triangles should be sawn. 
 
 The oblong (Fig. 315). Make three oblongs. Divide 
 one by sawing along a diagonal. From the corners of the 
 second cut off equal and similar triaiigles. Use the third 
 to obtain the pattern shown in Fig. 316. 
 
 The regular hexagon (Fig. 320). To draw the hexagon, 
 describe a circle, then use the same radius to obtain the 
 six points. Join these in order by straight lines. The 
 sawing begins at a, proceeds in the direction of 6, and so on. 
 This exercise should be repeated six or eight times, and the 
 edges and surfaces of the hexagons carefully cleaned with 
 sandpaper. 
 
 The sawing out of stars (thread-winders, etc.). A 
 simple form of star, known to most boys, is produced by 
 joining every other point of a regular hexagon. Other 
 shapes are given in Figs. 317, 318, 319, and 320. The 
 drawing of the designs is easy, especially if the indications 
 given by the plates as to the division of the sides of the 
 fundamental form are followed. Moreover, many boys 
 will have become familiar with such star -shapes in the 
 drawing-lesson, and will have no difficulty in reproducing 
 them. 
 
 Two forms of Fig. 317 are possible, and both should be 
 cut. The second is suggested by the dotted lines. Here 
 again the sawing begins at a and proceeds to i and 6. 
 At h work the saw a little in the piece that is to fall 
 off, so as to be able to turn sharply round towards d. 
 Eemember the general rule of sawing : the kerf is always in 
 the waste piece. 
 
Work with the Fret-saw 
 
 119 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 h 
 
 
 313. 
 
 /\ 
 
 
 
 
 31t. 
 
 \ 
 
 3's. i 
 
 
 
 i n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 b 
 
 h 
 
 
 b 
 
 — '« 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 3i9, 
 
I20 First Lessons m Manual Work 
 
 In Fig. 319 the order of sawing is as f olio ws : first, the 
 fundamental square is cut ; then the triangles at its corners ; 
 lastly, the small triangles (o h %). In the case of such 
 triangles we always saw from without to within. For 
 example : after sawing from o to 6, we withdraw the tool 
 and saw from i to h. By this means we secure sharp 
 angles without turning the saw in the kerf. 
 
 The procedure is the same in Fig. 320 6, the star drawn 
 in Fig. 320. The cut surfaces are smoothed with a file, the 
 whole work is finished with sandpaper and varnished. 
 
 The joining of sawn boards. The bench. Fig. 321 re- 
 presents a toy bench for a doll's house. To make it, we 
 take wood 3 mm. thick. The seat may be 5 cm. long, 
 2 cm. broad; the legs, \\ cm. high. Great care must be 
 taken in nailing the seat to the legs. Three tacks, or 
 better, small brads, are used for each leg. 
 
 The box (Fig. 323). The dimensions of the front and 
 the back are 7 cm. by 1\ cm. ; of the ends, 2 cm. by 
 2J cm. The bottom is cut of the same length as the front 
 (7 cm.), but broader than the ends by twice the thickness of 
 the wood employed. 
 
 Table supported on trestles (Fig. 322). One of the 
 latter is shown in Fig. 322. It must be made in duplicate. 
 If thin strips be glued on to the under-side of the table-top 
 so that the upper ends of the trestles just fit between them, 
 the table will stand, and wiU serve to adorn a girl's minia- 
 ture kitchen. 
 
 Tesselated pavements, etc. Figs. 324 and 325 exhibit 
 two decorative patterns, the construction of which is 
 rendered clear by the plates. Wood of different colours is 
 used, and the strips, when sawn, are glued on to a thicker 
 piece of wood. In such work we may utilise the waste from 
 other exercises. The patterns may be multiplied at wiU, 
 and parquetry floors, tesselated pavements, etc., may be 
 represented. 
 
 The sawing of curves now begins. 
 
Wori with the Fret-saw 
 
 121 
 
 323. 
 
 325, 
 
122 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 Silk-winders, etc. Figs. 326, 327, and 328 show three 
 patterns for silk-winders, which are to be made of the same 
 size as they are in the plates. The drawing is easy, if the 
 patterns are carefully examined. In sawing we first cut out 
 the squares, and then deal with the curves. In the case of 
 Kg. 328 it wiU he advisable to begin each saw-cut from 
 without, so that the corners may be true. The pieces which 
 fall off are to be preserved. They serve as laying-tablets 
 for younger children. Or they may be painted red, blue, 
 and black, and arranged to form ornamental designs, as in 
 Kg. 325. 
 
 The sawing of circles and segments of circles requires 
 extreme care and minute attention. 
 
 Circles should be cut of various sizes, and the exercise of 
 cutting them should be repeated many times. The wood 
 patterns employed in modelling with clay may be made, as 
 well as stands for ink-pots and many other useful articles. 
 Using wood 5 mm. thick, we may cut a circular form, paint 
 on it concentric rings, and so provide ourselves with a small 
 target for dart-shooting. 
 
 The exercises numbered 329-332 are intended to con- 
 firm the learner in the power of cutting curves neatly and 
 accurately. Examples may be multiplied by the teacher. 
 We suggest also : pallet (without thumb-hole), pear-shaped 
 tablets, trefoil, and ornamental door-plates. 
 
 In Figs. 330 and 331 two patterns are given for making 
 railings, the tops showing curved outlines. Fig. 329, to be 
 reproduced as regards breadth to the scale of the drawing, is 
 a common form of plant-label. The length should be about 
 15 cm. 
 
 Key-labels. Fig. 332 shows one of many forms for key- 
 labels. The pattern must be cut from a post-card; the 
 sawing requires the greatest care. The label is rubbed 
 smooth, lettered, and varnished on both sides. 
 
 The bracket (Fig. 333 a and V). The top is semicircular 
 in form; its size depends on the purpose to which the 
 
Work with the Fret-saw 
 
 123 
 
 ",27. 
 
 4 Parts. 
 
 329. 
 
 330 
 
 331. 
 
124 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 bracket is to be applied. Made to the scale of the drawing, 
 it will serve to support some little article of bric-^brac ; but 
 by enlarging the dimensions we can obtain a flower-pot stand. 
 When both parts have been sawn and rubbed smooth, on 
 the upper and lower surfaces of the top lines are drawn at 
 right angles to the straight edge from its middle point. 
 These lines guide us in nailing or screwing the parts together. 
 The wood used should be fairly thick, to give the impression 
 of strength and for convenience in nailing. 
 
 Flower -pot cross (Fig. 334). Choose hard wood from 
 8 to 10 mm. thick. The cross, of course, requires two 
 pieces to be cut. In one the incision a is on the upper side, 
 in the other on the lower. The method of joining here 
 employed is technically called lap-halving. The cross should 
 be coated with varnish. The same figure, made at the 
 bench on a larger scale, is known in England as the pan- 
 stand. 
 
 Two box-carts for children to play with (Figs. 335 and 
 336). Fig. 335 consists principally of a box such as was 
 shown in Fig. 323. Across the bottom an axle is fastened, 
 its ends passing through wheels. The pole is attached to the 
 middle of the axle and also to the bottom of the box, as 
 indicated in the plate. 
 
 Fig. 336 represents another pattern of box-cart. It can 
 also be reproduced on a larger scale. 
 
 10. SUPPLEMENTARY OR REVISION EXERCISES IN 
 CUTTING OUT. 
 
 Before proceeding to chip-carving, which naturally follows 
 fret-saw work, we give some further exercises in cutting out 
 paper, and also in moulding. The teacher may treat them 
 as supplementary to the matter contained in II. 8, p. 48 ; 
 III. 3, p. 60 ; and III. 2, p. 56 ; or they will enable him 
 at once to vary the work of his pupils and to recall the 
 dexterity before acquired. 
 
Work with the Fret-saw 
 
 125 
 
126 First Lessons' in Manual Work 
 
 Figs. 337-344 contain some attractive designs for cutting 
 out. Figs. 337-340 involve only straight lines, whilst 
 in Figs. 341-344 the cutting is chiefly in curves. The 
 eight open edges of the sheet, which has been folded as in 
 Fig. 137, are to the left. If the sheet be only folded twice, 
 so that it is in four layers instead of eight, it may still be 
 cut according to Figs. 337-340, but in that case totally differ- 
 ent forms will be produced. 
 
 In Figs. 345-347 the process of developing the hexagon 
 from the square is exhibited. The square is first folded along 
 a diagonal (Fig. 345) ; the points of the triangle thus ob- 
 tained are so turned down that ni a and nih (Fig. 346) are 
 each an angle of 60°. If the child is not yet familiar with 
 the measurement of angles, i an and «' h n are turned over so 
 that three equal triangles lying one on the other are formed, 
 that is to say, so that the fold is in i n. If we cut along n n 
 and unfold the sheet, our hexagon is complete (Fig. 347). 
 
 From the hexagon thus made, the folded triangles used 
 in the following exercises (Fig. 348 - 356) are derived. 
 Fig. 348 shows such a triangle and a method of cutting it, 
 whilst Fig. 349 exhibits the pattern that results when the 
 sheet is unfolded. The drawing is set out by means of the 
 auxiliary lines indicated (Fig. 348). 
 
 The open sides of the folded sheet are in Figs. 351- 
 356, as in Fig. 348, at the base of the triangle ; in. Figs. 
 357-363 their position is marked a. The series last 
 mentioned is based on the square folding-sheet; all the 
 patterns in it will furnish excellent drawing copies. As we 
 have before said, the pieces that fall out during the cutting 
 must be kept, not destroyed. 
 
 Figs. 364 and 365 are examples of humorous designs. 
 Glazed or tissue paper may be used, fourfold, sixfold, or 
 eightfold. The inventive boy will find no difiiculty in 
 devising similar figures for himself. All pupils, as they 
 grow expert, should practise free cutting out, that is, cutting 
 out without first drawing the lines to be followed. 
 
Supplementary or Revision Exercises in Cutting Out 127 
 
 337 
 
 .338 
 
 339 
 
 3W 
 
 3^J 
 
 3^Z 
 
 3^3 
 
 3^^ 
 
128 ^^ " ' First L&isons in Manual Work 
 
 b. 
 
 3^3 
 
 34<J 
 
 350 
 
Supplementary or Revision Exercises in Cutting Out 129 
 
 35/ 
 
 d52 
 
 353 
 
 354 
 
■ 130 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 359 
 
 362 
 
 363 
 
Supplementary or Revision Exercises in Cutting Out 1 3 1' 
 
 365 
 
132 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 II. SUPPLEMENTAKY OR REVISION EXERCISES IN 
 MOULDING. 
 
 The boy of ten or eleven, as he moulds the plastic 
 material, will remember with pleasure the figures with 
 which he made acquaintance in his drawing-lesson. And 
 he must learn to draw from the solid. Drawing and mould- 
 ing react, as it were, on each other. By moulding or 
 modelling in clay or plastilina the learner can show his 
 capa-city for seizing and presenting the thing seen. Drawing 
 affords the same advantage, but differs from moulding in 
 that it represents the thing seen as on a plane ; whereas 
 moulding reproduces it as it is. 
 
 Clay has this disadvantage that it quickly dries and 
 crumbles. Work with this material once begun is not easily 
 resumed after the lapse of a few days. We recommend 
 that the tasks here suggested should be executed first in 
 plastilina, and afterwards, when greater speed has been 
 attained, in clay. Plastilina, wrapped in parchment-paper, 
 will keep soft and mouldable for years. Objects made of it 
 can readily be kneaded up again and the material used for 
 the production of new shapes. Clay, as prepared by the 
 potter, may be preserved for some little time if we guard 
 it from the air by wrapping it closely in moist cloths and 
 keeping it in a cool place. Care must be taken that it does not 
 become mixed with any foreign matter, such as oil or varnish ; 
 otherwise it will be unfit- for use and emit an offensive smell. 
 
 Modelling is best done, as far as is possible, with the 
 fingers, particularly with the thumb and the forefinger. 
 Nevertheless, the employment of a few tools is not excluded. 
 Besides those represented in Figs. 146 and 147, it is advisable 
 to procure the one shown in Fig. 380, as well as one 
 resembling Fig. 146, but having a broader cutting surface. 
 Required are also a knife, and a sponge for moistening the 
 fingers and the tools. Children should be cautioned against 
 using their tongues for this purpose. 
 
Sitppkvientary or Revision Exercises in Moulding 133 
 
 566 
 
 567 
 
 368 
 
134 
 
 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
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Supplementary or Revision Exercises in Moulding 135 
 
 On the figures which follow we may make the following 
 remarks : — 
 
 If the forms are to be modelled in plastilina, the scale 
 should be two or three times that of the drawing; if in 
 claj', four times. When a slab of clay has been fashioned 
 between the strips on the modelling-board (see p. 58), we 
 set out the drawing on the slab by means of ruler ami 
 compasses. The lines are traced with one of the points of 
 the compasses. Then with the modelling tool (Fig. 146) we 
 cut into the mass as required, and remove the superfluous clay 
 or plastilina, but only so dee^D that one-third of the original 
 thickness remains. 
 
 In modelling Figs. 368-371, as also in Figs. 375, 378, and 
 379, wc employ especially the tool shown in Fig. 380. The 
 star shape, Fig. 372, requires the tool Fig. 1 46, or a similar one 
 with a broad, oblique edge. Other stars, pentagonal, hept- 
 agonal, or octagonal, may also be made. The modelling of thii 
 rosette (Fig. 373), of the egg-moulding (Fig. 378), and of the 
 objects taken from life {Lehemformen), Fig. 374, etc., will need 
 attention and some degree of practice. The figures are 
 produced partly by cutting into the prepared slab, partly by 
 building up upon it. In the latter case, as soon as the slab 
 has been formed, the clay needed for the raised part of the 
 design is laid on approximately in the shape required. The 
 outline is then carefully traced and superfluous clay removed. 
 Lastly, the full beauty of the design is brought out by 
 means of the fingers and of modelling tools. 
 
 12. INTRODUCTION TO CHIP-CARVING. 
 
 A boy who has learned to handle knife, hammer, file, 
 fret-saw, etc., will not find it difficult to ornament small 
 objects made by himself, such as a stand for a glass, or the 
 lid of a box. Chip-carving supplies a large number of 
 patterns for such ornamental work, which, being confined to 
 
136 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 straight lines, may be cut with one simple tool, indeed with 
 the pocket-knife itself. 
 
 The exercises are based on elementary geometrical forms — 
 the square, the triangle, the circle, the semicircle, etc 
 Exact measuring and drawing are the chief conditions of 
 success. 
 
 Necessary tools are — ruler, measure with centimetre 
 divisions, pair of compasses with one arm for pencil, lead- 
 pencil, indiarubber, two iiles, knife or carving-tool, iron 
 handscrew. The boards may be cut with a fret-saw. 
 Beginning with a larger alderwood board, well planed on 
 both sides, 8 to 10 mm. thick, we cut with the saw to the 
 size required, and then dress carefully with the file. 
 
 The first step is to try the elementary cuts on a practice- 
 board. It should be of alderwood, 10 cm. thick, 12 cm. 
 broad, whilst the length will depend on the number of 
 trials proposed. Perhaps 20 to 30 cm. will suffice. On this 
 practice-board we draw a line 1 cm. from the edge, and set 
 off on the line points 1 cm. distant from each other. 
 Drawing parallels through these points, we obtain a number 
 of squares. How these squares are used in the drawing of 
 designs is shown in Figs. 390-406. 
 
 Exercise 1 (Fig. 390). The drawing set out, we begin to 
 cut. Our object in this exercise is to remove the triangle 
 a c h. Holding the oblique-edged tool (Fig. 382 a) in the 
 position shown in Fig. 386, we insert the point at c and cut 
 first towards h, then towards a. The depth of the cut is 
 at c 1 mm., but is gradually reduced, so that at a and 6 it 
 is hardly appreciable. When these two cuts have been 
 executed, we proceed to remove the triangle, the tool being 
 now held as in Fig. 387. As the board is secured by a 
 handscrew, both hands are free. Probably a beginner will 
 be unable to remove the triangle with a single cut. If so, 
 he must do it by pieces. Stronger boys will be able to 
 obtain the result with a knife held as in Fig. 389 ; the 
 shorter knife (Fig. 382 h) will then be more suitable. This 
 
Introduction to Cliip-Carving 
 
 137 
 
138 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 method is to be recommended when the board cannot be 
 secured to the table. 
 
 The knife shown in Fig. 388 may also be used for chip- 
 carving. It is obvious that the shape of the knife will 
 determine the position in which it is held. Our aim must 
 be to cut according to the fibre of the wood and to obtain 
 a clean surface. 
 
 Exercise 2 (Fig. 391). Here we have, in addition to the 
 cuts in Exercise 1, the small triangular incisions shown in 
 the plate at the middle points of the sides of the larger 
 triangle. 
 
 Exercise 3 (Figs. 392 and 393). The triangles before 
 left are in Fig. 392 removed, whilst those before removed are 
 left intact. In Fig. 393 the triangles to be removed are 
 determined by the diagonals of the squares. 
 
 Exercises 4 to 6. Figs. 394-396 show how the drawing 
 is set out and the cutting done. Observe that the lines a c, 
 c h, etc., must be sharp and true. 
 
 Exercises 7 and 8 are illustrated by Figs. 397 and 398. 
 
 The young chip-carver may now try his skill on a few 
 objects of utility. In Figs. 407 and following, patterns 
 for the purpose are given. Figs. 399-406 supply another 
 series of patterns to be cut first on a practice-stick, then 
 applied to the ornamentation of objects. It is not advisable 
 ■ to go further at the present stage. 
 
 To give the objects made a more attractive appearance, they 
 are covered when carved with walnut-stain. When dry 
 they may be coated with prepared wax, the surface being 
 brushed with a hard brush until a faint polish is obtained, 
 or they may be varnished instead of waxed. 
 
 All materials for chip-carving, as also a series of progressive 
 exercise boards and other useful articles, with a pattern 
 printed thereon, ready for carving, may be obtained at a 
 moderate price from the Publishers. 
 
Introduction to Chip-Carving 139 
 
 
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Conclusion 141 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 We have thus brought together a long series of tasks 
 suitable for boys from their sixth to their eleventh year. 
 When these have been mastered, the young workmen will 
 find no difficulty in dealing with tougher material and more 
 elaborate tools. This will especially be the case if they have 
 learned to regard their work as real, to feel that they too 
 must play their part in a working world. 
 
 A boy who has been taught to handle tools, who is able to 
 make shafts or ladder for his toy cart, and repair the damage 
 his playthings have sustained, can always occupy himself. 
 He will never be disposed to idleness; he will know that 
 what costs time, trouble, and skill to make must not be 
 broken ; he will begin to take pleasure in work for its own 
 sake, finding how good it is to be busy and to employ his 
 little hands in making things of use and beauty. The re- 
 peated efforts necessary will strengthen his will. Failure 
 and success will alike operate in moulding his character. 
 Manual work will cease to be accounted despicable, and 
 those who live by it will be regarded with interest and 
 sympathy. The object of education is to make good men 
 and good citizens ; here is a form of education which many 
 wise men think a potent means of effecting that object. 
 
 Nor need the schoolmaster fear the introduction of these 
 practical occupations into the school course. There is no 
 rivalry between Manual Training and other kinds of in- 
 struction. On the contrary, whilst it must not be made 
 subordinate to them to the detriment of its own methods, 
 it can render them valuable assistance. What is taught in 
 the classroom may be veranscliaulicM in the workshop. If 
 this course be adopted, the vague will become definite, the 
 obscure clear. To the relation between our work and draw- 
 ing several references have already been made. It is 
 satisfactory to find that this relation is recognised by the 
 Science and Art Department. The circular (Form 813) 
 
142 First Lessons in Manual Work 
 
 dated June 5, 1890, lays down that Manual Instruction in 
 elementary schools seeking the grant must be " connected 
 with the instruction in drawing — that is to say, the work 
 must be done from drawings to scale previously made hy the 
 students. " Geometry, arithmetic, physics, and local geography 
 can all be illustrated in the workshop. To those who have 
 introduced the last-named subject we particularly recommend 
 the practice of modelling in clay or plastilina. 
 
 It is a common opinion that, however suitable Manual 
 Training may be for elementary schools, it is superfluous in 
 higher ones. That opinion may fitly be held by those who 
 believe that the sole end proposed is to impart a certain 
 dexterity of band, useful for bread-winning — and by them 
 alone. If our work has the moral and social value that its 
 advocates claim for it, no school can afibrd to ignore it. To 
 those who are in doubt we venture to make a practical 
 suggestion. There is in many large schools, and there inight 
 easily be in all, a workshop, where teaching is given, usually 
 by an artisan, in the routine of his craft. Substitute for 
 the mechanical instruction of the workman a systen^tic 
 course of educational handicraft, directed by a trained 
 teacher. "We can safely prophesy that the result will be 
 a substantial gain from every possible point of view. 
 
 But it is not in the school alone that manual work may 
 be carried on. Children have many friends. There are 
 many who think with Whittier — 
 
 "A dreary place would be this earth 
 Were there no little people in it ; 
 The song of life would lose its mii'tli 
 Were there no little ones to begin it.'' 
 
 All who delight in the young will find in the occupations 
 we have proposed ample means of instructing and amusing 
 their child companions. And the home will be all the 
 brighter when, guided by their elders, the children ply their 
 hands in work like this. 
 
Conclusion 143 
 
 Doubtless our little book has its imperfections. ISIuch 
 Blight have been added, the explanations might have been 
 fuller, the descriptions more minute. But we have always 
 held that much verbal teaching is out of place in practical 
 work. A few hints given, the plate examined and under- 
 stood, the boy may set to work with good heart and hope of 
 success. Moreover, the amount of help furnished must 
 always depend on the teacher. Our notes will suffice for 
 him, and he can, in case of need, follow the rule of doing 
 the work before the boys, requiring them to copy it, and 
 insisting on a detailed examination of all the parts. Nor 
 will he allow them to stop at imitation, but will suggest 
 variations, then leave his pupils to devise others. 
 
 In England our boys seldom suffer from want of exercise 
 in the open air ; they have as seldom learned the value of 
 practical work. That those who have not may do so, 
 we send forth these pages, with the valediction, Elire der 
 Arbeit. 
 
 " Ehre der Arbeit — des Kopfes, der Hande, 
 Wo sie mit Eifer sich tummelt iind regt ! 
 Wo ist das Missgesoliick, das nloht verscliwande, 
 Wird sie mit freudigem Herzen gepflegt? 
 
 Ehret die Arbeit, sie wiirzet das Leben, 
 Kraftigt den Kbrper und adelt den Geist ; 
 Seht, wie die Saaten sich golden erheben, 
 Und wie der Himmel den Segen verheisst." 
 
 (Graf von Bsntlieim.) 
 
 " Arm ist, wer ohne Wissens-Erute 
 Dasteht im Lebenskreis. 
 Doch armer noch, wer das Erlernte 
 Ificht anzuwenden weiss." 
 
 {DraxJer- Manfred. ) 
 
 MOERISON AND OIBB, PRINTERS. EDINBURGH. 
 
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