CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT 
 FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY 
 
 HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE 
 
Qarpentn 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031233301 
 
CARPENTRY 
 
 By 
 IRA SAMUEL GRIFFITH 
 
 Chairman of the Manual Arts Department 
 University of Missouri 
 
 THE- MANUAL ARTS PRESS 
 PEORIA, ILLINOIS 
 
 1916 
 
 A 
 
Copyright, 1916, uy 
 Ira Samuel Grifitith 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 To my father, whose patient instruction and 
 forbearing oversight during the period of car- 
 pentry apprenticeship has made possible the. 
 practical aspect of this present volume, grateful 
 acknowledgment is made. 
 
 Acknowledgment is also made of assistance 
 derived from the various trade magazines and 
 from the few hooks on carpentry. 
 
 Credit is due Mr. Franklin G. Elwood, 
 Peoria, for most of the excellent drawings 
 which accompany and clarify the text. A 
 number of the drawings were penciled by 
 Gordon Kellar, Boston. The photographs are 
 the work of James F. Barham, Columbia, Mo. 
 
 I. S. G. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 IT is the author's hope that the following text may be of service 
 to apprentices to the trade, to vocational and trade school 
 students, and to manual training students. The author's 
 experience as a carpenter leads him to feel that not a few Journey- 
 man carpenters may find their horizon widened and their usefulness 
 as framers of the unusual roof increased by a study of Chapter IV 
 where an effort has been made to indicate how the principles in- 
 volved in framing the square and octagonal roof may be "gen- 
 eralized" so as to make possible their application to roofs of any 
 number of sides. Beyond this, the book makes claims to being 
 nothing more than an elementary treatise of the essentials of 
 carpentry. 
 
 No apology is offered for making use of trigonometric solutions 
 of plane right triangles as a basis for developing generahzed roof 
 framing principles in Chapter IV. There is absolutely nothing in 
 the use of natural trigonometric functions to prevent their intro- 
 duction early in the mathematical experience of a boy, except 
 academic tradition. The author has made use of this mathe- 
 matical tool with upper grammar grade boys with less effort upon 
 their part in mastering the principles than was expended in master- 
 ing square root. The ease with which roof framing problems lend 
 themselves to solution by the use of natural trigonometric functions 
 and the readiness with which problems may be generalized thereby 
 has emboldened the author to make use of it in a text as elementary 
 as this. No previous knowledge of trigonometry is presupposed, 
 the Appendix provides all the information required for the solution 
 of any problem given herein. 
 
 7 
 
8 PREFACE 
 
 Should a reader, because of lack of time or for any other cause, 
 not care to consider more than roof framing of the square cornered 
 building, he will find a complete treatise in Chapter III without 
 reference to solutions other than by common arithmetic. Appendix 
 IV offers a still more abbreviated approach to both square and 
 octagonal roof framing. 
 
 The greatest good in studying the chapter on ' ' Estimating " will 
 come only when each student is provided with a set of plans and 
 specifications completely drawn, as by a practicing architect. 
 Plans and specifications, such as will serve the purpose, can be 
 purchased at small cost from architectural companies, should local 
 architects be unwilling to provide sets for the schools. 
 
 Also, there must be provided for each student, catalogs of 
 lumber and millwork specifications and prices. These can be 
 obtained from mail order lumber and millwork companies. As a 
 rule, local lumber and millwork companies are glad to provide such 
 data, but it must be in a form complete, and readily accessible to be 
 of the greatest value. 
 
 Ira S. Griffith. 
 
 Columbia, Missouri, 
 September, 1916. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter I. Foundations . . . . .13 
 
 I. Laying out; 2. Grade line; 3. Excavation; 4. Founda- 
 tions; footings; 5. Foimdation materials; 6. Forms for con- 
 crete walls; 7. Waterproofing; 8. Basement frames. 
 
 Chapter II. Main Frame . 27 
 
 9. Methods of framing superstructure; 10. Sills and girders; 
 
 II. Bridging; 12. Trimmers and headers; 13. Walls and 
 partitions; joists and rough floors; 14. Openings in framework. 
 
 Chapter III. Roof Frame: Square Cornered Building 45 
 15. Roof framing; 16. Framing the common rafter; laying out 
 the plumb cut; 17. Finding the length of a common rafter; 
 18. Laying off a common rafter seat cut and end cut. 19. Ridge 
 piece; 20. Hip and valley rafter; 21. Framing hip and valley 
 rafters; 22. Side or cheek cut of hip or valley rafter; 23. Deter- 
 mining length of hip or valley rafter; 24. Laying off seat cut 
 and end cut of hip rafter; 25. Reduction of hipor valley length 
 because of ridge piece; 26. Backing a hip rafter; 27. Valley 
 rafters; 28. Framing jack rafters; plumb cut; side cut; 29. 
 Lengths of jacks. . 
 
 Chapter IV. Roor Frame: Any Polygon ... 69 
 
 30. Tangents; miter cuts of plate; 31. Octagonal roofs; 32. 
 Common rafter for plate of any number of sides; 33. 
 Hip and valley rafters for octagon and other polygons ; 34. Plumb 
 cut of octagonal and other polygonal hips and valleys; 35. Side 
 or cheek cuts of hip or valley rafters, any polygon; 36. Rafter 
 lengths of octagonal and other polygonal hips and valleys; 37. 
 Reductions in lengths for king-post; 38. Seat cut and end cut of 
 octagonal and other polygonal hips and valleys; 39. Backing 
 octagonal and other hips; 40. Framing octagonal and other 
 polygonal jacks; 41. Side cut of octagonal and other polygonal 
 jacks; 42. Lengths of octagonal and other polygonal jacks; 
 
 9 
 
10 CONTENTS 
 
 43. Framing by means of a protractor; 44. Translating fram- 
 ing problems from protractor to framing square and vice versa; 
 45. Framing an octagon bay; 46. Framing a roof of one pitch to 
 another of different pitch; 47. Framing roof of uneven pitch; 
 
 48. Decks; chimney openings. 
 
 Chapter V. Exterior Covering and Finish . 95 
 
 49. Sheathing; 50. Scaffolding; 51. Cornice; 52. Raked 
 mouldings; 63. Shingling; 54. Shingling hips and vaUeys; 
 55. Finishing exterior waUs; 56. Setting window and door 
 frames; 57. Siding. 
 
 Chapter VI. Interior Finish . . ... 115 
 
 58. Lathing; grounds; 59. Interior walls; 60. Stair building; 
 porch steps; 61. Risers and treads; 62. Porches; 63. Interior 
 finish; 64. Setting door jambs; 65. Fitting window sash; 
 66. Placing door, window, and other trim; 67. Hanging doors; 
 68. Fitting a door; 69. Hinging a door; 70. Fitting locks; 
 71. Laying and scraping floors; 72. Door and window frames; 
 
 73. Woodwork in masonry structures. 
 
 Chapter VII. Estimating . ... 142 
 
 74. Methods of estimating; 75. Table for estimating by cubic- 
 foot unit; 76. Grading rules; 77. Estimating lumber quan- 
 tities; 78. Estimating millwork quantities; 79. Example of 
 form for bill of materials; 80. Estimating labor costs; 81. 
 Estimating quantities of nails; 82. Example of form for car- 
 pentry costs; 83. Total building costs by percentages. 
 
 Appendix . 158 
 
 I. Natural trigonometric functions; formulte deduced. Solution 
 
 of right triangles, (brief) 
 
 II. Table of natural functions (for degrees only). Interpolation. 
 III. Useful tables. 
 
 Fractional equivalents for decimal values. 
 
 Wood and machine screw sizes. 
 
 Length and number of nails. 
 
 Wire brads. 
 
 Board measure table. 
 
 Strength of materials. 
 
 Stresses for structural timbers. 
 
 Contents of brick walls. 
 
CONTENTS 11 
 
 IV. Short cuts to roof framing. 
 
 Directions for Griffith's Framing Tables. 
 V. Estimating. 
 
 Excavations. 
 Masonry. 
 Slate. 
 Plaster. 
 Painting. 
 Bibliography of References. 
 
CARPENTRY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Foundations 
 
 1. Laying out Foundations. — In most communities it is 
 customary for the carpenter to be present and to assist the mason 
 in the laying out of the foundations. Where buildings are large 
 and important, this work is 
 done by an engineer with a 
 steel tape and a surveyor's in- 
 strument,' Fig. 1. This instru- 
 ment is known as a builder's 
 transit, and consists of a tripod 
 upon which rests a small tele- 
 scope with crossed hair wires 
 within, by means of which the 
 observer may fix the Une of 
 sight very accurately. A cir- 
 cular dial contains a magnetic 
 needle which enables the fixed 
 dial to be set with reference to 
 the true north and south Une 
 of the observer. After the fixed 
 dial has been adjusted, the tele- 
 scope may be swung to the right 
 or the left until the circular 
 graduations indicate that it 
 points in the direction wanted, ^^^ 
 after which stakes may be set. 
 
 • 13 
 
 Fig. 1. Transit 
 
14 CARPENTRY 
 
 A level upon the telescope enables the observer to sight grades 
 or levels; a helper carrying the leveling rod, Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 3 shows a more common instrument. This is an architect's 
 Y-level and differs from the other in that it is less com- 
 plete. It has no attachment for measuring vertical 
 angles. This is not serious, however, since the builder 
 seldom needs such an attach- 
 ment, the level being the most 
 essential part. Y-levels are made 
 both with and without compass 
 attachments. 
 
 Upon ordinary residence work 
 a surveyor is employed to locate 
 lot Unes. Once these Unes are ^'^- ^- ^-Level 
 
 located the builder is able to locate the building lines by 
 measurement. Suppose it is desired to locate a building 
 by means of the side lot line: (1) Measure from the side 
 lot line, along the front and along the back lot lines, a 
 distance equal to that which it is desired the house shall 
 hold relative to the lot side line. Drive stakes here. (2) 
 While sighting from one of these stakes to the other, 
 have an assistant locate two other stakes in the line of 
 sight, a distance apart sufficient to guarantee the placing 
 of the cross-lines for the back and front of the house 
 without restaking these, A-B, Fig. 4. The process of 
 laying out lines for a house is almost identical with that 
 
 I: used in laying out a rectangle on a drawing board. 
 "t E^ (3) Having located a Une of indefinite length for one side 
 of the house, a second line of indefinite length, preferably 
 H for the front of the building, may next be located. To do 
 Fig- 2 this, first locate a front corner stake upon the first Hne 
 Rod just located. This is done by measurement from the 
 
FOUNDATIONS 15 
 
 street line. Having located and driven in this stake, A , Fig. 4, drive 
 a nail in the top of the stake to more accurately locate this corner. 
 If an instrument is available it will be located over this stake and 
 the front line A-C, Fig. 4, located by laying it off at 90 degrees 
 from the side Une already located. If no instrument is available, 
 the front Une may be laid off at right angles to A-B by holding a 
 framing square at their intersection. This angle should be verified 
 by the 6-8-10 method. This consists in measuring from the 
 
 Loiiia^- 
 
 Fig. 4. Batter Boards 
 
 intersection at A along one Une a distance of 6 feet and sticking a 
 pin in the Une at that point; a pencil mark may be used when the 
 cord is white. In a similar manner, measure off 8 feet along the 
 other Une and then measure .the hypothenuse of the triangle so 
 formed. It should measure 10 feet. If it does not, the front 
 building Une must be shifted until it does. (4) With these two 
 Unas located, the remaining two lines may be located by measure- 
 ment from them, the nail of stake A giving the starting point. 
 Before this is attempted, however, the batter boards should be 
 placed. Batter boards are variously constructed. Those shown 
 are common types. They should be placed free of the foundation 
 proposed by at least 3 or 4 feet. (5) Test the squareness of the 
 whole lay-out by measuring the diagonals A-D and B-C. If the 
 building lay-out is square the diagonals should be equal. If they 
 are not equal, shift the cords at C and D, retaining their paralleUsm, 
 until the diagonals become equal. (6) Once the lay-out is correct, 
 
16 CARPENTRY 
 
 saw kerfs should be made in the batter boards where the cords are 
 placed. These kerfs will permit the cords being removed and re- 
 placed without further measuring. 
 
 2. Grade Line.— A properly drawn set of plans will show 
 both the present lay of the ground upon which the building is to 
 be erected and the new grade hne which is to be established after 
 
 I - % 
 
 Fig. 5. Taking Sights with Y-Level 
 
 the building is completed. The most conve'nient method of 
 determining old grade lines and of establishing new ones is by 
 means of the transit, Fig. 1, or the Y-level, Figs. 3 and 5, with the 
 rod, Fig. 2. Both instruments operate upon the same principle in 
 grade work. The telescope is set level and sights taken thru it 
 to the target upon the rod. The reading of the target's position 
 upon the rod compared with the height of the telescope above the 
 base, usually the street walk, determines the difference in grade 
 of that particular placing of the target. 
 
 To locate levels for the masonry, (1) set the instrument at some 
 
FOUNDATIONS 
 
 17 
 
 convenient place and level the dial. (2) Having determined the 
 height of the instrument above some predetermined base, such as 
 the street walk, swing the telescope about and, making allowance 
 for the difference in level as shown by the drawings, place suc- 
 cessively stakes at each corner of the building with the required 
 level marked thereon. As a rule, the mason has his own Y-level 
 and uses it freely as the wall is constructed, especially where levels 
 are to be maintained as the layers of material are placed. 
 
 Fig. 6. Leveling with Straight-edge 
 
 In a similar manner the earth grade about the building may be 
 located, stakes being driven into the ground at frequent intervals 
 and the amount of " fill " or reduction indicated thereon. Grade 
 levels are established usually only after the builders are thru, 
 except that the mason will have the grade indicated for him where 
 the wall above the grade is to be differently finished from that 
 below. 
 
 Where no surveyor's level is at hand, the mason or carpenter 
 will secure the levels by means of a straight-edge of some 14 feet 
 in length. A common level is placed upon this plaiik as shown in 
 Fig. 6. By successive levels with stakes driven td indicate the 
 
GRAVEL 
 'TILL 
 
 18 CARPENTRY 
 
 successive levelings, a grade may be carried quite a distance with- 
 out very great variations. 
 
 3. Excavations. — Excavations should be made enough larger 
 than the proposed foundation that the mason may have room to 
 
 wield his trowel in pointing the 
 outer joints, and for water- 
 proofing. An extra foot of ex- 
 cavation upon each side wiU 
 usually be required. 
 
 All foundations must be 
 carried well below the frost 
 line. Excavations should be 
 made accordingly. 
 
 4. Foundations; Footings. 
 — Because of the tendency of 
 a building to settle unevenly, 
 due to variations in the 
 strength of the supporting 
 ground or the unequal weight placed upon this ground, found- 
 ations must be constructed of some non-yielding material such 
 as brick or stone, and of such thickness and so bonded that the 
 weight of the building may be evenly distributed. 
 
 The thickness of wall will depend upon the weight to be sup- 
 ported and upon the character of the soil. 
 
 Unless rock or gravel is encountered, every foundation should 
 have a footing, Fig. 7. The amount of footing used is usually 
 twice the thickness of the foundation wall. In brick walls this 
 footing draws into the wall by "stepped" courses of brick, each 
 layer being narrower than the one just preceding. For ordinary 
 residence work with ordinary soil conditions a 10- or 12-inch wall 
 resting upon a footing 2 feet wide and 8 or 10 inches deep will 
 suffice. 
 
 tootihg: 
 
 Fig. 7. Foundation Detail 
 
FOUNDATIONS 
 
 19 
 
 A safe footing for supporting posts of 6" x6" yellow pine, for 
 most soils, will be 10 inches deep by 18 inches square. Partition 
 walls carrying no unusual load need not be over 8 inches in 
 thickness. 
 
 K 
 
 aOSEEr 
 
 SECTIOM OMA-B" 
 
 ■HEADERS 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 American Bond 
 
 In many communities the use of concrete is supplanting that 
 of stone or brick, especially below the grade line. Such a wall 
 should be composed of 5 parts of crushed stone or gravel, 3 parts 
 sand, and 1 part cement. The footing may be formed by tamping 
 
 1 1 1 \z\ II 
 
 1 111 
 
 1 1 1 1 2 1 II 
 
 1 111 
 
 II 1 1 2 1 1 1 
 
 1 111 
 
 PLAN OF COURSE 1 
 
 PLAN or COURSE 2 
 
 Fig. 9. English Bond 
 
 the mixture in a form made by spading out of the earth a depth and 
 width sufficient for the wall to be supported. 
 
 5. Foundation Materials; Construction. — Of the materials 
 commonly used in the construction of foundations monolithic 
 concrete is becoming the most common for that part of the wall 
 which lies below the ground or grade level. Brick and stone are 
 sometimes used. 
 
 Where brick or stone is made use of, some device is required to 
 "tie" the material together, due to the fact that the mortar used 
 
20 CARPENTRY 
 
 in filling the voids or spaces between the members has little 
 strength as compared with that of the stone or brick itself. This 
 bonding is secured by placing the brick or stone so that they shall 
 overlap one another, both along the faces of the wall and across 
 the wall. 
 
 Bricks laid with their lengths in the same direction as that 
 of the wall are known as stretchers; those laid with their lengths 
 across the wall are known as headers, Fig. 8. The manner of 
 
 "I — r 
 
 T^~r 
 
 I I 
 
 -TTT 
 
 "1 T 
 
 XE 
 
 plah or couRsr-i 
 
 PLAN Of C0UR5E-2. 
 
 Fig. .10. Flemish Bond 
 
 placing these headers among the stretchers determines the type 
 . of bond. The American, EngUsh and Flemish are the more com- 
 mon types. Of these the American, Fig. 8, is the most used upon 
 ordinary work. It consists of a course of headers placed every 
 sixth course. The EngUsh bond. Fig. 9, is much stronger, having 
 every other course a header course. It is used mainly upon very 
 important work where unusual strength is required. Flemish 
 bond is illustrated in Fig. 10. 
 
 Of the various types of stone work, rubble work and ashlar 
 predominate. Fig. 11. Rubble work is most frequently used for 
 that part of the wall below the grade Une, and ashlar for the re- 
 mainder of the wall. In either case, thru stones are placed every 
 4 or 5 feet in the length of the wall and every 18 inches in the 
 height, to provide bonds. 
 
FOUNDATIONS 
 
 21 
 
 .THRU 3T0ME 
 
 RANDOM RUBBLE 
 
 3T0NE BOND BRICK BACKlUg, 
 
 METAL BOHDv 
 
 COURSED A5HLAR. FACING 
 
 BROKEN ASHLAR 
 
 t 
 
 rRUBBLE BACKINGo 
 
 
 
 ROCKFACED ASHLAR 
 Fig. 11. Types of Stone Work 
 
22 CARPENTRY 
 
 In rubble work the stones are rough and unhewn. They must 
 be laid upon a. good bed of stiff mortar with their stratifications 
 in a horizontal position. Otherwise, the face of the wall might 
 "peel" from the effects of frost and moisture, making an unsightly 
 as weiras a weaker wall. The term "ashlar" refers to a wall 
 
 Fig. 12. "Form" for Concrete 
 builded of stones having finished faces. When either rubble work 
 or ashlar is laid up in courses it is known as coursed rubble or 
 coursed ashlar. When the' horizontal joints are not continuous 
 the wall is known as random rubble or broken ashlar. 
 
 Not infrequently a wall will be constructed with an ashlar 
 facing attached to a brick backing by means of metal bonds. In 
 such a wall, the faced ashlar, unless more than 8 inches in thickness 
 and well bonded into the wall, should not be considered in esti- 
 mating the strength of the wall. 
 
 In the construction of both brick and stone walls the work 
 
FOUNDATIONS 23 
 
 should be carried up as nearly as possible at the same levels. In 
 both brick and stone walls the corners are run up with stepped 
 courses, the corners being plumbed as the wall is carried upward. 
 A line is then stretched between the corners and, layer by layer, the 
 rest of the wall filled in. No corner should, ordinarily, be carried 
 more than 3 feet above the rest of the wall. In the case of un- 
 coursed stone work the wall is leveled every 15 to 18 inches in its 
 height. 
 
 6. Forms for Concrete Walls. — The economical building of 
 forms for concrete walls is a matter of importance in building con- 
 struction. Fig. 12 shows a type of form suitable for foundation 
 work. Such forms should be made of semi-seasoned stock. 
 Thoroly seasoned stock will warp badly when the wet concrete is 
 placed. Spruce, Norway pine, etc., are better woods to use than 
 hard or Georgia pine. 
 
 For ordinary foundation work 1-inch boards may be used, the 
 studs _being placed not over 2 feet apart. These studs may be 
 assisted materially in holding the forms in position, by wires placed 
 as in Fig. 12, and by props placed against the dirt wall of the 
 excavation. 
 
 In placing the concrete a 4-inch layer is laid and then "spaded " 
 or "worked" well into place, a "wet mix" being used. The 
 smoothness of the resulting faces is increased by an additional 
 spading of the mixture away from the form. A good spading tool 
 is made by straightening out an ordinary garden hoe. This allows 
 the cement and mortar to flow next to the form and hold this place 
 while the filling proceeds. 
 
 Where forms are placed to give finished walls, that is, walls to 
 which no plaster is to be apphed, they should be ahgned with no 
 greater variation than %" from the lines specified. 
 
 Forms should be allowed to remain until the concrete will 
 resist indentation with the thumb, upon ordinary walls. 
 
24 CARPENTRY 
 
 There is no limit to the ingenuity one may make use of in form 
 building. The illustration given is merely suggestive. 
 
 7. Waterproofing. — The extent to which a wall should be 
 waterproofed will depend upon the location of the building. 
 Foundations near running water must naturally be better protected 
 
 ^ 5TArF 
 
 BEAD- 
 
 JOIST 
 HEAD 
 
 JAMB 
 
 SILL 
 
 - i I I I ,_L-, — I I ir S TONE 
 
 Fig. 13. Cellar Frame with Sash 
 
 than those in weU drained locations. Fig. 7 illustrates a treatment 
 which will prove quite safe for almost all locaUties. The exterior 
 face of the wall is covered with several layers of asphaltum or tar. 
 By coating the top of the footing and the top of the concrete floor 
 just before the finish floor of cement is placed, little water will 
 enter. A drain tile carried about the house as shown in Fig. 7, 
 especially if gravel is placed against the wall above it, will meet 
 every emergency. 
 
 There are other ways of waterproofing basement walls,- but this 
 is t5fpical of the external wall treatments. In monoUthic construc- 
 tion waterproofing may be secured by appropriate additions to the 
 mixture of waterproofing materials such as slacked Hme, just before 
 the mixture is placed, no external appUcations being required. 
 
FOUNDATIONS 
 
 25 
 
 8. Basement Frames. — Fig. 13 illustrates one successful form 
 of basement window frame construction, with sash. In this type 
 the sash is hinged to the top of the frame, and a catch or button 
 at the bottom of the frame secures the sash when closed. The 
 
 RABBETID 
 TRAMt ' 
 
 ,UG5 
 
 •TEMBORAEY 
 3TAY~ 
 
 yCILLAR 
 \rLOOR. 
 
 Fig. 14. Basement Door Frame 
 
 construction is such as to best shut out wind and water when the 
 sash is closed. 
 
 Fig. 14 illustrates a basement door frame. Frames such as 
 this, and the window frame of Fig. 13, are made of heavy stock and 
 are known as plank frames. 
 
 Basement frames are held in place by means of wooden blocks 
 nailed to the sides of the frame, as well as by the projecting "lugs" 
 of the frame itself. The frame is set and plumbed by the car- 
 penter as soon as the mason has prepared the sill. Fig. 14 shows a 
 frame plumbed and stayed, ready for the mason to lay the adjacent 
 
26 CARPENTRY 
 
 wall. Fig. 15 indicates the position of plumb and level in the set- 
 ting of a frame. The edges of a door frame are ' ' sighted ' ' for wind. 
 Where it is necessary to attach frames or other woodwork to 
 brick walls, it is customary to have the mason insert wooden 
 
 EL 
 
 J 
 
 r 
 
 
 _J 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 1 — 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Fig. 15. Plumbing and Leveling Cellar Frame 
 
 "bricks" as the wall is constructed. Wooden bricks are of the 
 same size as other bricks, and should be constructed with the edge 
 which is to be laid back in the wall thicker than the front edge, so 
 that a dovetailed effect is secured. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 Main Frame 
 
 9. Methods of Framing the Superstructure. — In the early 
 days when lumber was plentiful, houses and barns were framed 
 in what is known as ' ' full 
 frame." Such frames con- 
 sisted of heavy and soHd 
 timbers mortised and 
 tenoned and pinned to- 
 gether, Figs. 16 and 17. 
 With the grpwing scarcity 
 of lumber the "half 
 frame" of Fig. 18 became 
 common. This latter 
 t)rpe, it will be seen, makes 
 less use of heavy timbers 
 and wooden pins, and 
 more use of planks and 
 nails. To-day the vast 
 majority of buildings, 
 where wood is the ma- 
 terial used, are constructed 
 by what is known as 
 "balloon framing" in 
 houses and "plank fram- 
 ing" in barns, Figs. 19 
 and 20. In view of this, 
 attention will be directed 
 
 >10J0I5T 
 Fig. 16. Full Frame House 
 
 27 
 
28 CARPENTRY 
 
 to balloon framing only. One who is able to frame a house 
 should have no trouble with plank barn framing, where drawings 
 show the details. 
 
 Fig. 17. Heavy Timber Bam 
 
 It must be understood, too, that there are quite a variety of 
 ways of framing a balloon and a plank frame. It will be possible 
 in this chapter to treat of but one type. A mastery of this one 
 type should enable the student to work out other types, with 
 suitable detailed drawings provided him. 
 
MAIN FRAME 29 
 
 10. SiUs and Girders.— In Fig. 21 will be found illustrated 
 three types of box sill construction. Whatever the siU used, care 
 must be taken to so plan that mice may not have free access to the 
 
 Fig. 18. Half-Frame House Fig. 19. Balloon Frame House 
 
 various parts of the building. If the sill does not inhibit, then 
 blocks should be spiked between the studs. Such blocks serve as 
 fire breaks. 
 
30 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
MAIN FRAME 
 
 31 
 
 The bed plate of the 
 box sill should be selected 
 from stock with straight 
 edges. In the framing of 
 joists, plan so that the 
 crowning edges shall be 
 up when in position, and 
 in placing the joists see 
 that the most crowning 
 are in the middle of a 
 room. Joists are fastened 
 to their sills as in 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Fig. 22-a illustrates a 
 built up girder, and the 
 manner of framing the 
 joists to it. Three 2"x 
 10 "'s with a 2"x4" at- 
 tached to each side, the 
 whole thoroly spiked to- 
 gether, form the girder. 
 The advantage of this 
 type of girder Ues mainly 
 in the fact that it leaves 
 the headroom of a base- 
 ment clear, which is not 
 the case in the type shown 
 in Fig. 22-b. This second 
 type is somewhat easier 
 to frame, and is therefore 
 greatly used where the 
 owner does not object. 
 
 '^^Tonn^" 
 
 Fig. 21. Three Types of Box Sills 
 
32 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 It is better where furnace stacks must be placed in a partition 
 above it. 
 
 First floor joists, like second floor joists and studs, should be 
 
 Fig. 22-a. Fig. 22-b. 
 
 Girder Types 
 
 spaced 16 inches from center to center, beginning at one side or 
 end of a room. Not to make such provision would cause a waste 
 
 in lathing, since the lath are 
 all 4 feet in length, a multiple 
 of 16 inches. Any remainder 
 after such a spacing should be 
 allowed to come at the side or 
 end of the room. 
 
 1 1 . Bridging.— To add to 
 the carrying power of floor 
 joists, bridging is cut in be- 
 tween them as shown in Fig. 
 23. For ordinary dwellings 
 l"x3" stock will serve. On 
 large work, stock two inches 
 thick should be made use of. 
 Bridging should be spaced not ' 
 
 Fig. 23. Cutting Bridging 
 
 /■ /' 
 
MAIN FRAME 
 
 33 
 
 more than 8 feet apart. A miter-box, set at the appropriate angle, 
 may be used in cutting bridging, all the pieces being cut at one time 
 with the exception of those for the odd spacings at the side or end 
 of a room. A more common practice is to take a piece of stock, 
 and, after cutting a bevel on one end, place it as in Fig. 23 with 
 
 SPACinG STAY 
 
 Fig. 24. Laying off a Stay 
 
 the beveled end above the lower edge of the joist against which it 
 rests, a distance sUghtly in excess of the thickness of the stock; 
 then saw as indicated, sawing vertically and along the joist. 
 
 Before placing bridging, the joist must be spaced and properly 
 fastened in place. This is done by placing a piece of stock, 1 " x 6 " 
 or 2"x 4", as in Fig. 24. With a try-square, mark the locations 
 of the joists. This board may then be transferred to the center 
 of the room and the joists there spaced according to the marks, and 
 held in place by being "tacked." A second method consists in 
 
34 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 
 Fig. 25-a-b. Headers and Trinimers in Floor Frame 
 
MAIN FRAME 
 
 35 
 
 placing the spacing board in the center of the room and having 
 a second person sight the joists for straightness while the first 
 party places them as directed 
 and tacks them. This tacking 
 consists in driving the nails 
 only partially in, leaving the 
 heads project enough that they 
 may later be withdrawn with a 
 claw hammer. Still another 
 method is to lay off the "stay" 
 by measurement with the fram- 
 ing square so that it corresponds 
 with the spacihgs of the joists 
 at the side walls. 
 
 Bridging should be nailed 
 with two nails at each end of 
 the piece. 
 
 12. Trimmers and Head- 
 ers. — In the making of stair and chimney openings it becomes 
 necessary to support the ends of joists other than in the usual 
 
 manner. 
 This is done 
 by cutting 
 in headers 
 as in Figs. 
 25, 26 and 
 27. Where 
 the span is 
 not great, 
 such as at 
 an ordinary 
 Fig. 27. Floor Frame and Rough Floor chimney in 
 
 Fig. 26. Placing Headers and Trimmers 
 
36 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 residence work, in which but one or two tail beams are to be 
 carried, headers are not doubled and are merely spiked in place. 
 Where many joists are to be carried, headers or trimmers, or 
 carrying joists must be doubled. Iron stirrups or hangers should 
 be used instead of spikes in joining headers to carrying joists 
 where spikes would weaken the carrying joist and would not give 
 
 r 
 
 \ h 
 
 J 
 
 H 
 
 u 
 
 I 
 
 f 
 
 \ 
 
 H 
 
 
 NiEADER 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i-^rmkJ i 
 
 TRU56ED /<RIFH£ 
 SET on EDGt' 
 
 Fig. 28-a. Fig. 28-b. 
 
 Headers and Trimmers in Wall Frame 
 
 sufficient strength to the joint. Except upon long spans, tail 
 beams are usually fastened to the header by spiking only. On 
 long spans they should be framed to the header as joists are framed 
 to a girder, a 2" x4" being spiked firmly to the header as a support. 
 
 In determining the amount of space to allow for head room in 
 framing about a well hole for a stair, determine the run and rise 
 of the stair from the plan and elevation, and then plan to allow at 
 least 6' 6", measured from the proposed nosing line of the treads 
 up to the proposed location of the trimmer, or carrying joist, or 
 header, as the case may be, at the ceiling level, Fig. 121. 
 
 The term "header" is also used to designate the studding, or 
 joist in the case of double doors, placed horizontally over window 
 and door openings. Fig. 28. Studding cut in below window open- 
 
MAIN FRAME 
 
 37 
 
 Fig. 29. Headers and Trimmers in Wall Frame 
 ■STOP 3 V 
 
 riRST FLOOH J0I51 
 
 SIZIHG 
 
 e 
 
 StCOND TLOOE. JOIST 
 Fig. 30. Stud and Joist Patterns 
 
 ings forms the stool, also known as header. The illustration shows 
 the manner of framing for openings of different widths. A small 
 single window may require but one thickness of 2" x4". A medium 
 sized opening will have a header of two pieces of 2" x 4". Where 
 
38 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 the opening is rather large, as in the case of double door openings, 
 two joists will be set on edge over the opening as header. 
 
 13. WaUs and Partitions ; Joists and Rough Floors.— A study 
 of Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 and 29 should give an understanding of 
 
 the essential members of 
 the framed wall of a 
 building, and their rela- 
 tions one to another. 
 
 Whether side walls 
 shall be framed and 
 raised before the rough 
 or false floor of the first 
 story is laid wOl depend 
 upon the type of sill 
 construction made use of. 
 In laying off studs, 
 joists, etc., a pattern is first framed. These patterns are afterward 
 used in the building and are therefore counted in with the total 
 number of pieces to be framed. To these patterns, stops and 
 
 Fig. 31. Marking Joists from Pattern 
 
 Fig. 32-a. 
 
 Fig. 32-b. 
 Comer Post Types 
 
 Fig. 32-c. 
 
 fences are attached near the two ends and at the middle. Fig. 30. 
 The other studs or joists of similar dimensions are laid off one 
 at a time by superimposing these patterns and marking about 
 them with pencil. Fig. 31. 
 
xw 
 
 y^ 
 
 MAIN FRAME 
 
 39 
 
 ' Ribband or ribbon boards and plates are laid off by placing them 
 alongside the "layout" for the studs made upon the sills, and tran- 
 scribing the marks to the ribband board and plate by means of try- 
 square and pencil. Sometimes ribband boards and plates are laid 
 off by measurement, 
 as are sills. 
 
 Corner posts are 
 constructed first and 
 placed. Fig. 32-a 
 shows a section of a 
 corner post which 
 has much to com- 
 mend it. Fig. 32-b 
 illustrates a more 
 common type of 
 construction. The 
 most serious objec- 
 tion to this type is 
 the fact that the 
 post must be furred 
 
 after the lather has placed the lath upon one side of the room. 
 Corner posts are plumbed and stayed in two directions, after being 
 raised, Fig. 33. Either 2" x 4" or 1" x 6" stock wiU be used for 
 stays. With the corner posts set, the ribband boards are placed. 
 Where the span is too long for any available length of ribband 
 board, in laying out the ribband boards provision must be made for 
 their "breaking" joints upon studs. These studs will be raised 
 immediately after the corner posts, the ribband board attached to 
 corner post and stud, after which the stud will be plumbed and 
 stayed. Fig. 34. Studs are framed before being raised so that 
 ribband boards may be ' ' let into " them as shown in Fig. 34. Sec- 
 ond and third floor joists will be notched to sUp over these boards 
 
 Fig. 33. Comer Post Being Plumbed and Stayed 
 
40 CARPENTRY 
 
 and will be spiked to the studs in addition. Remaining studs are ^ 
 
 placed one at a time, one man setting up and nailing the foot while 
 
 5TUD5 
 IxioKIBBOn STRIP 
 
 , "^COEliER 
 P05T 
 
 STAYS 
 
 Fig. 34. Side Wall Stayed 
 
 another fastens the ribband board to the stud at the second floor 
 Une, Fig. 35. 
 
 With the completion of the raising of the two outside walls 
 which are to bear the joist ends, the middle partition, should there 
 be one, parallehng these walls should be framed and raised. A 
 
MAIN FRAME 
 
 41 
 
 slightly different procedure from that just described is followed, 
 that is, instead of raising one stud at a time the whole partition is 
 framed and nailed together upon the floor, even to the cutting 
 in of headers, etc. When a section such as the number of men 
 available can raise is ready, the same is raised, and stayed after 
 being plumbed. The stud-s of parti- 
 tions are framed but one story high 
 and "plated" at such a height that 
 second floor joists may be placed 
 thereon in splicing. Just as far as 
 possible first and second floor joists 
 should be spaced to rest one directly 
 above another and in line with the 
 supporting studs of partitions so that 
 furnace stacks may be placed with 
 ease. If joists rest upon partition 
 plates and not directly above studs, 
 a double plate must be made use of. 
 
 Having placed the second floor 
 joists, the studs at the ends of the 
 house may be set up. Their locations 
 will be marked upon sill and upon 
 second floor joist which is to be 
 ■ placed at the end of the house. This 
 marking is best done by placing the 
 joist upon the sill and transcribing 
 
 the marks laid out upon the sill to the joist, after which it is to 
 be raised into place. 
 
 Double plates will next be framed. They should break upon 
 studs and be marked by transcribing the marks for the studs from 
 the sills. At the corners the plates will be framed with butt joints, 
 the second set lapping over the joints made by the first plate. 
 
 Fig. 35. Setting up Studs and 
 Attaching to Ribbon Board 
 
H£AT) CASIHG ih 
 
 \ 
 
 Z LIGHT 
 
 lo MEETIHG 
 
 -28- 
 
 ^' 
 
 42 CARPENTRY 
 
 Next, the sustaining middle partition of the second story is 
 raised as was that of the first story. The attic floor joists are 
 placed as were those for the second floor. 
 
 All walls and partitions are now "lined up," that is, any irregu- 
 larities are taken out by additional stays. 
 
 False or rough floors are laid in the 
 various stories where not already placed, 
 bridging being placed and openings for 
 stairs and chimneys framed. Such floors 
 are laid either diagonally or straight 
 across the joists. The diagonal floor is 
 considered better, Fig. 27. 
 
 14. Openings in Framework. — Studs 
 in outside walls are set without reference 
 to openings for doors and windows. Such 
 openings are cut and headers and stools 
 placed after the walls are up and ready 
 for sheathing. The seeming waste oc- 
 casioned by this method is sHght since 
 the cut-out material is available for 
 headings, etc. Most carpenters make 
 a story pole to be used in laying off 
 window and door heights in cutting out 
 studs. This is nothing more than a piece of l"x2" or l"x3" 
 stock with the heights of the openings from the rough floor or 
 from the joists, where the irough floor is not laid, marked plainly 
 thereon. This pole is placed alongside the stud to be cut and 
 the mark transcribed from pole to stud. 
 
 Beginners are frequently troubled in determining the proper 
 opening, even when the size of the window is specified. In general, 
 carpenters plan to have the studs on either side of an opening, 
 either door or window, so set that the outer edges of the exterior 
 
 ^ 
 n 
 
 3A5H- 
 
 5UB 
 
 SILL-' 
 
 Fig. 36. Estimating 
 Window Openings 
 
MAIN FRAME 
 
 43 
 
 casings will break upon their centers. Windows are specified by 
 the width and height of their glass and the number of divisions or 
 lights, width always being specified first. The distribution of 
 excess measurement due to the meeting rail, top and bottom rails, 
 side rails or stiles is shown in Fig. 36. Rail and stUe widths and 
 sash thicknesses will vary from those given when any very great 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 C 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 DOOR 
 3'x7' 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — a'-r- 
 
 ti 
 
 
 
 'i 
 
 -28M0-|— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 11 
 
 
 Fig. 37. Framing Wall Openings 
 
 increase in size of window is made. Manufacturers of sash and 
 doors provide catalogs in which stock sizes are Hsted. 
 
 Estimate an opening vertically. Fig. 36, thus: Sill, 2"; sub- 
 sill, where frame is made with one, 1" ; bottom rail, from edge to 
 bottom of rabbet, 3"; glass in lower sash, 34"; meeting rail, from 
 rabbet to rabbet, 1"; glass in upper sash, 34"; top rail, 2"; space 
 for head jamb and lugs of side jambs, 2" or 3"; total, 79". A 
 carpenter would say, "Add 11" to the glass measurement to get 
 vertical height between stool and header. " Window sashes with 
 muntins require an addition of }4" for each muntin. The thick- 
 nesses of header and stool must be considered in addition to the 
 measurement just mentioned when studs are sawed, Fig. 37. 
 
 The width between studs would be estimated thus: Width of 
 
44 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 3' THEteiOLD, 
 
 glass, 28"; width of stiles, from rabbeted edge to outer edge, 4"; 
 width of casings, 8"; total 40", distance from center of stud to 
 center of stud. Comparing this with the width of glass it will be 
 seen that the difference is 12". A carpenter, therefore, makes use 
 of a general rule: Add 10" to the glass measurement to get distance 
 
 between studs, where a 4" or 
 43^" casing is used with this 
 type of window frame. 
 
 For the 3' x 7' door. Figs. 
 37 and 38, estimate the open- 
 ing as foUows: Height of door, 
 7'; allowance for rough floor, 
 %"; finish floor, %"; thres- 
 hold, 5^" to M"; tead jamb 
 and space for lugs of side 
 jambs, 2" to 3"; total from 
 joist, may be 7' 5". 
 
 For the width of opening 
 estimate: Width of door, 3'; 
 width of casings, at 43^" each, 
 9"; total spacing of studs center to center, 3' 9". Distance be- 
 tween studs will be 3' 1". This will leave space enough to put 
 the doubhng studs on each side between header and floor. Since 
 locations of openings in the main frame, both window and door, 
 are dimensioned to the centers of the openings, it is easiest in 
 laying off to estimate from the center each way rather than to 
 estimate total width. 
 
 After these openings are made, the frame of the house may be 
 covered with sheathing, or the roof may be framed; both orders of 
 procedure are common. 
 
 HHISH rijOOR 
 ROUGH ruWR. 
 
 Fig. 38. Threshold DetaU 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 Roor Frame: Square Cornered Buildings 
 
 15. Roof Framing. — ^The problem of framing the various 
 members of a roof is not a difficult one provided the underlying 
 principles are understood, and dependence placed upon this under- 
 standing rather than upon mere knowledge of what figures to use 
 upon the square to get the cuts, without knowing why those figures 
 
 ^iw^^4^ 
 
 SHED 
 
 GAMBREL 
 
 GABLE HIP 
 
 Fig. 39. Roof Types 
 An effort will be made in this treatment to indicate the 
 
 are used 
 "why." 
 
 In Fig. 39 are illustrated four tj^es of roof. Figs. 40, 41, and 
 42 illustrate the rafter forms and the names of the various cuts 
 to be made in framing the members to place. The common rafter, 
 it will be seen, has three cuts — plumb or ridge cut, seat or heel or 
 plate cut, and end cut. The hip, valley, and jack have four cuts 
 each; a side cut or cheek cut is possessed by each in addition to the 
 three cuts belonging to the common rafter. 
 
 Before any rafter can be framed, the rise and run of the com- 
 mon rafter, in other words, the pitch of the roof, must be known. 
 
 In roof framing, the "run" of a rafter when in place is the 
 horizontal distance measured from the extreme end of the seat 
 to a point directly below the ridge end of the rafter. Fig. 43. The 
 
 45 
 
46 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 ■A- RIDGE FItCE 
 •B-COMMOn RAFTEE 
 C- HIP RATTEE. 
 T5- VALLEY EATTER. 
 ■£• -HIP JACK EAETEE. 
 ■f -VALLEY JACK. 
 U'- CRIPPLE JACK 
 ■H-PLATE 
 "I- TAIL 
 
 -5IDECUT 
 
 PLUMB CUT 
 
 SEAT CVT 
 
 Fig. 40. Roo£ Details 
 
 HIP ratter; 
 
 Fig. 41. Plan of Roof Rafters 
 
 "rise" is the vertical distance from the ridge end of the rafter to 
 
 the level of the seat. The "pitch" of a roof or rafter is the ratio 
 
 of the rise of the rafter to the span or whole width of the building. 
 
 The terms rise, run, and rafter length have still another set of 
 
ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILDINGS 
 
 47 
 
 meanings — they may be used to designate "unit" lengths. In 
 •all such cases 12" of run of the common rafter is assumed as the 
 base, and the other unit lengths or constants are computed from 
 this constant. The numerical values of these constants will be 
 computed as tlje development of the subject of roof framing makes 
 their use necessary. 
 
 ©^ 
 
 A^ 
 
 ■JT IIW''^' 
 
 ,f">^s;^r 
 
 Wi 
 
 f w 
 
 
 I0A^ 
 
 ^m 
 
 mhH MH1H'^*PH 
 
 
 l^mm 
 
 mm 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^ji" 1 
 
 SI 
 
 
 4 
 
 ^Mftl 
 
 m 
 
 
 h 
 
 1^ 
 
 Fig. 42. Raising the Rafters 
 
 It will be noted in Fig. 44 that the constant of run, or 12", is 
 taken along the tongue and the rise per foot of run along the blade 
 of the square. It is not essential that this order be followed; the 
 beginner will generally find it easier to visualize his work, however, 
 if he keeps the tongue for either rise or run, and the blade for the 
 opposite. There are occasions when the reverse order is necessary 
 no matter which form is followed, so that it is unwise to insist upon 
 only one way. 
 
 The variation in terminology in roof framing is so general that 
 the beginner will do well to familiarize himself with the most com- 
 
48 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 b=R.UN 
 a = RISE 
 C= LEMGin 
 A-AriGLEOr 
 
 mcLiriATiort 
 
 Fig. 44. Unit Length of Common Rafter 
 
 mon. Hereafter an effort will be made to confine the text to 
 the following: plumb cut, seat cut, end cut, side cut. 
 
 The value to a beginner of a carefully made plan of a roof to be 
 framed with necessary data such as rafter lengths and positions 
 indicated thereon, cannot be too strongly emphasized. Architects 
 not infrequently prepare elaborate and complete framing plans for 
 the use of the carpenter. Upon intricate plans, experienced men 
 
ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILDINGS 49 
 
 prepare plans before attempting to frame the same. Fig. 41 
 illustrates a framing plan ready for the placing thereon of the 
 necessary data, such as measurements along the plate for spacing 
 the rafters, lengths of rafters, ridge pieces, etc. 
 
 16. Framing the Common Rafter; Laying out the Plumb Cut. 
 — While in this discussion the plumb cut is first described, it should 
 
 "^LEnGTnorTAIL 
 
 "=505111011 
 
 LEliGTHOFEATTER. 
 
 or OPiKATOR, 
 
 posiTioti or 
 
 OPERATOE 
 
 MGTHOriAlL 
 
 Fig. 45-a-b. Laying off Common Rafter 
 
 be understood that it is equally as convenient and more common 
 among carpenters to begin the framing of the members of a square 
 cornered roof frame with the end and seat cuts. In framing other 
 than a square cornered roof it is somewhat more convenient to 
 begin with the plumb cut. 
 
 The method of framing of the common rafter is the same for 
 aU buildings, whether the buildings have four sides or more or less. 
 (1) Place the framing square as in Fig. 45-b, taking 12 " on the tongue 
 as the run, and upon the blade the rise in inches per foot of run. 
 Keep these numbers against the crowning, or what is to become 
 the top edge of the rafter, and scribe along the blade. This gives 
 
50 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 the plumb cut. Occasionally a carpenter will be found who frames 
 to a center line rather than the top edge of a rafter. 
 
 Figs. 45, 46 and 47 illustrate the proper position of the worker 
 relative to his work. Such a position will seem awkward to the 
 
 Fig. 46. Position in Laying off Plumb Cut when Laid off before Seat Cut 
 
 beginner but hs should learn to visuaUze his work while in this 
 
 position that the efi&ciency of framing may not be reduced thru 
 
 the awkward position first hkely to be assumed. 
 
 17. To Find the Length 
 of a Common Rafter.^ First 
 Method: The theoretic length 
 of a rafter is indicated by 
 the center lines in Figs. 45-a 
 and 48. In estimating the 
 total length of stock for a 
 rafter having a tail, the run 
 of tail or length of lookout 
 must be considered. 
 
 The pitches most com- 
 monly used are the half, third, 
 
 and quarter. From an examination of Fig. 43 it will be seen that 
 the length of a common rafter is the hypotenuse of a right triangle 
 
 whose legs are the rise and the run of the roof. The problem, then. 
 
 Fig. 47. Laying off Plumb Cut when 
 Seat Cut is First Laid off 
 
ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILBINGS 51 
 
 of finding the length of a common rafter when the rise and run 
 are known is merely that of solving the equation c^==a^+i^. 
 
 Practical carpenters would not consider it economy to take 
 time to solve for rafter lengths in this manner, for every variation 
 in rise or run would necessitate a rather long solution. Instead, 
 they have discovered that for every foot of run of a rafter the 
 
 -Run OF TAIL 
 Fig. 48. Rafter Length 
 
 length of the rafter increases proportionately, the ratio of rise to 
 run remaining the same, Fig. 44. With g, table, therefore, in which 
 the length of rafter for each foot of run, for each of the common 
 pitches is given, the length of rafter for any given pitch can be 
 found by merely multiplying the constant given by the amount of 
 run for that particular rafter. 
 
 Fig. 49 shows such a table worked out for a rather extended 
 number of pitches. From this table it will be seen that the number 
 to take as a constant for the run is 12", and that the rise in inches 
 per foot of run is taken upon the other member of the framing 
 square. A jack rafter as will be illustrated later is but a shortened 
 common rafter, therefore, what is said of the common rafter is also 
 true of the jack rafter. The jack, however, has an additional cut 
 which will be discussed in another section. 
 
62 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 Example: 
 
 Determine the length of a common rafter of a house with a 25' span and a 
 quarter pitch, without tail. 
 
 Table tok. Coimon 
 AND Jack Ratters 
 SO'JARE t Octagohal 
 Root 
 
 / 
 
 / ^ 
 
 I 
 / ^ 
 
 / ^ 
 
 y. . . 
 
 *— COI 
 
 3^ 
 
 17/24 
 
 j/e 
 
 JZS. 
 
 l</g4 
 
 6- !/4- 
 
 3- 5/2-4- 
 
 va. 
 
 J^Si. 
 
 
 OS 
 
 4-50 
 
 9S 
 
 16 ST 
 
 4-4-50 
 
 2§ 
 
 op. 
 
 O pi 
 
 < o 
 
 ° n 
 1-1 o 
 
 8i 
 
 ¥3^ 
 
 e3% 
 
 19^ 
 16^ 
 
 17%; 
 
 JTJ 
 
 I6i; 
 
 si 
 
 
 3^ 
 
 2,II3. 
 
 to4 
 
 Po 
 
 Fig. 49. Framing Table for Common Rafter 
 
 Solitlion: 
 
 Run = \2yi' 
 
 Length per foot of run for quarter pitch = 13.42" 
 
 12.5 X 13.42" = 167.75" = 13.98' 
 
 (Looking for the nearest fractional value of .98 in the Table of Decimal . 
 
 Equivalents in Appendix III, H or practically 1') 
 The rafter would be framed 14' in length. 
 
 When a tail is a part of the rafter, proceed in the manner de- 
 scribed adding the run of the tail, or length of lookout, to the run 
 of the rafter. 
 
 Fig. 50 shows a framing square, containing among other data, 
 the rafter lengths per foot of run. To use the data pertaining to 
 
ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILDINGS 53 
 
 common or jack rafter lengths, (1) consider the run as 12" taken on 
 the tongue; (2) select upon the blade along its outer edge the inch 
 mark which represents the rise of the roof per foot of run required 
 to give the pitch specified; (3) the number directly below this 
 
 lllllll 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 iI'lH' 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 'I'I'i) 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 OF COMMOM 
 
 TiArrtR. 
 
 PtR OOT 
 
 Run 
 
 2 
 
 63 ZOlBO It 
 
 n 
 
 or HIP OR. 
 
 VALLEY 
 
 EATTtR 
 
 PER. FOOT 
 
 RUN ? 
 
 
 DIFFLRLNCE 
 
 in LtJIGTH 
 
 
 ff, inCMM 
 
 CE.MTERS 
 
 
 4% 2 
 
 S'Sa 3 
 
 
 
 
 z. rcET 
 
 
 
 1\ z 
 
 5*6 i 
 
 FIGURLS 
 
 Givma 
 
 51 DL CUT 
 
 or JACK5 
 
 
 
 
 14 i 
 
 
 
 
 or mp OR 
 
 
 EArTEKS 1 
 
 16 7 
 
 10 a 
 
 u 
 
 
 CJT 07 
 
 aitATHlSG 
 
 IM VALLEY 
 
 ORMIP'^ 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 III 
 
 2 
 
 III 
 
 1 
 III 
 
 2 
 
 III 
 
 
 
 III 
 
 1 
 III 
 
 9 
 
 III 
 
 ^ 1 8 
 
 Hill 
 
 r 
 
 1 6 
 
 ih_Hh 
 
 15 
 
 ih 111 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 50. Framing Square Detail 
 
 mark, reading across the blade in the space marked "Length of 
 Common Rafter Per Foot of Run" gives the length per foot for 
 that particular rise or pitch. 
 
 As a check for rafter length computations, the following pro- 
 cedure is suggested: Selecting the run as 12" on the tongue and the 
 rise in inches per foot of run on the blade, place one square upon an- 
 other as shown in Fig. 51, using that side of the square divided into 
 inches and twelfths. Do not use the end of the blade, the rounded 
 corner makes it impossible to secure the accuracy demanded. Ex- 
 treme accuracy is required if the constant is to be used for rafters of 
 considerable length of run. Read the diagonal length between 
 the numbers representing the run and rise. Read the whole num- 
 ber of inches as feet, and the fractions as inches, and take off any 
 fractional remainder upon a very sharp pointed pair of dividers. 
 Read this divider spacing by means of the hundredths scale on the 
 framing square. The result should, if the work is very accurately 
 done, be the same as that obtained by computation from the 
 tables, even to the hundredths place decimal. Upon ordinary Work 
 where great accuracy is not required carpenters sometimes deter- 
 mine this constant for a given pitch by placing the framing square 
 as in Fig. 46 or 47, taking upon the tongue the run and on the 
 
54 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 blade the rise, marking along both tongue and blade. The dis- 
 tance between these marks is then read on a square placed along 
 the edge. 
 
 Second Method: In determining rafter length, an equally com- 
 mon practice is to lay the framing square as is shown in Fig. 45-a. 
 
 While in this position 
 the seat cut is scribed, 
 cf. Section 18, and also 
 a short sharp Une scribed 
 along the other member 
 of the square at the top 
 edge of the rafter. The 
 square is moved along, 
 using the same numbers, 
 and another advance 
 mark scribed. This op- 
 eration is repeated just 
 as many times as there 
 are feet in the run of the 
 
 Fig. 51. Finding Rafter Length by Scaling 
 
 With a span of 24' the operation would be 
 
 common rafter, 
 repeated 12 times. 
 
 Should the run not happen to be in even feet, the square would 
 be placed as many times as there were full feet in the run. In 
 addition it would be advanced that fractional part which the frac- 
 tion of the run was of 12 ". For example, in a run of 12' 7 ", with a 
 roof of }/i pitch, the square would be advanced 12 times using the 
 number 12 on the tongue and 6 on the blade. In addition to this 
 the square would be advanced using A of 12" or 7" on the tongue 
 and tV of 6" or 33/^" on the blade. As these numbers do not 
 allow enough of the square to rest on the rafter to give a full Une, 
 as soon as the advance Hmit of rafter length is indicated the square 
 may be moved up, using the set of numbers first used, that is 12" 
 
ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILDINGS 55 
 
 and 6". On common rafters, this last operation is simplified by 
 noting that the fractional run, divided by 12, times 12, always 
 equals itself. The final position of the square, therefore, may be 
 obtained by simply shding the member, used in laying out the 
 last full foot Kne which parallels the seat cut, an additional dis- 
 
 Fig. 52. Laying out Rafter 
 
 tance equal to the fractional foot of total run, Fig. 44. The tail 
 length is obtained similarly. Fig. 44. 
 
 18. Laying ofE Common Rafter Seat Cut and End Cut. — First 
 Method: Having determined the rafter length as directed in Sec. 
 17, first method, (1) lay off this length along the upper edge begin- 
 ning at the plumb cut. The whole number of feet is more safely 
 "taken off " by means of a pole marked in feet, and of good length. 
 The rule or square may be used to transmit fractional parts of a 
 
56 CARPENTRY 
 
 foot. (2) Place square as at "b," Fig. 52, standing as in Fig. 45-b, 
 and scribe a plumb line as indicated at 1-2, Fig. 52. (3) From the 
 point 1, Fig. 52, measure along the line marked 1-2 a distance 
 equal to one-half that of 1-2. The distance 1-3 may be increased 
 or decreased somewhat when an extreme pitch makes it advisable. 
 As a rule this should be 23^" to 3". (4) Place the square as at c, 
 Fig. 52, with the edge of the tongue resting on 3 and scribe a line for 
 
 ViTHlCKtlESS or — jy 
 tolAGOHALOrm?^ 
 
 ^J^ 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^ 
 
 
 '■>^ 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 53. Independent Rafter Tail 
 
 TtlEORZTIC LEnGTH 
 or RIDGE — 
 
 TtEAL LERGTH- 
 
 Fig. 54. Length of Ridge Piece 
 
 the seat cut, as 3-4. These last marks give the bird's mouth joint 
 which is to fit over the plate. 
 
 While many carpenters allow end cutting of the rafter tails to 
 wait until the rafters are set in place so that they may be Uned 
 and cut while in position, certain kinds of work permit the ends 
 to be cut at the same time the remainder of the rafter is framed. 
 In this latter method the square is placed as in Fig. 44 and (5) the 
 end cut scribed. The point of cutofi on the tail is determined in 
 the same manner as that used in determining rafter length, the run 
 of the tail being considered and the tail length being measured from 
 the point 1, Fig. 52. 
 
 Where a cornice is of unusual width, tails are usually framed 
 independent of the rafters and are then spiked to the ends of the 
 rafters either above or below the plate, Fig. 53. 
 
ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILDINGS 57 
 
 Second Method: Where the second method of finding length, 
 Section 17, is employed, the end cut and seat cut will be laid out 
 before the plumb cut. The operator will stand as in Fig. 45-a. 
 
 When one rafter has been laid out it is cut and used as a pattern 
 by which to cut similar rafters. 
 
 19. Ridge Piece. — Roofs may be framed with or without a 
 ridge piece. The use of a ridge piece makes the assembly or raising 
 
 rREDUCTIOn 
 
 Fig. 55. Determining Diagonal 
 Thickness of Hip of Square Corner. 
 
 Fig. 56. Reduction of Common 
 Rafter for Ridge Piece. 
 
 of a roof somewhat easier, especially a hip roof. Upon an ordinary 
 dwelling a ridge piece is usually a 1" x 6" board. Upon a gabled 
 roof the length of ridge piece will be the same as that of the plate 
 which it is to parallel, and will be laid off by placing the ridge board 
 alongside the plate after the rafter positions have been marked 
 upon the plate. These marks are transcribed upon the ridge board 
 by means of the square and pencil. 
 
 On a hip roof, Fig. 54, the length of a ridge piece will be equal 
 to the length of the parallel plate diminished by the length of the 
 plate at right angles to this. This, however, is the theoretic length 
 of ridge as measured from center to center. Enough extra stock 
 must be left on the ridge when framing it to allow full contact of 
 hip cheeks. This additional measurement at each end of the ridge 
 will be equal to J^ the diagonal thickness of the hip plus 3^ the 
 thickness of the ridge. Fig. 54, making a total addition equal to the 
 
58 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 diagonal thickness of the hip plus the thickness of the ridge. Fig. 
 55 iUustrates the placing of the square to determine the diagonal 
 
 ^ thickness of a hip rafter 
 
 which strikes the ridge at an 
 angle of 45 degrees. 
 
 In reckoning the length 
 
 of a common rafter which 
 
 is to rest against a ridge, 
 
 the total length must be 
 
 Fig. 57. Hip or Valley E.after is Diagonal reduced by an ampunt equal 
 
 quare nsm ^^ one-halE the thickness of 
 
 the ridge measured at right angles to the plumb cut, Fig. 56. 
 
 20. Hip and Valley Rafters of Square Cornered Buildings.— 
 First Method: The line of measurement for length of a hip and 
 
 cemtee-OFeidgt; 
 amd ratters 
 
 .CEmts. or RiDGi 
 ^1 
 
 i— TAnGEirrCal— I 
 
 Fig. 58-a. Hip Rafter. 
 
 RAHGETlTCa') • 
 
 Fig. 58-b. Valley Rafter 
 
 valley rafter is along the middle of the back or top edge, as on 
 common and jack rafters. The manner of determining the num- 
 ber to use on the tongue of the square as a, constant for the run, in 
 terms of the 12" constant run of the common rafter, when the rise 
 of the hip or valley rafter per foot of common run is taken on the 
 blade; and the manner of constructing a table of unit lengths of hip 
 
ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILDINGS 59 
 
 and valley rafter, per foot of run of common rafter, are illustrated 
 in Figs. 57, 58, 59 and 60. From a study of these illustrations it 
 will be seen that a hip or valley rafter of a square cornered building 
 is in either case the diagonal of a square prism which has for its 
 base dimensions the tangent and run of the roof, and for its height 
 the rise of the roof. Fig. 57. On a square Cornered building the 
 run and tangent are always equal. 
 
 The length of the 
 diagonal of the base of 
 such a prism, which is 
 the run of the hip or 
 valley rafter, is found 
 by the formula 
 c'^ = a'^-\-b'\ Fig. 58. 
 When tangent and run 
 are equal and each 
 taken as 12", the run of 
 the hip or valley equals 
 16.97", which for prac- 
 tical purposes of carpentry is considered as 17". In laying on the 
 square, then, in framing a hip or valley rafter of a square cornered 
 building, 17" will be taken upon the tongue, the rise of the roof per 
 foot of run of common rafter or per 17 " of run of hip or valley rafter, 
 being taken on the blade. 
 
 The table of hip and valley lengths per foot of run of common 
 rafter. Fig. 60, will be formed by solving the right triangle 
 c"2=a"2+J"2, Fig. 59, for each of the pitches represented. 
 
 The positions to be assumed by the worker in framing a hip 
 or valley rafter are similar to those to be assumed in framing the 
 common rafter. 
 
 In measuring the length of a hip or valley rafter by the first 
 method, the plumb cut may be laid off first. The upper end of the 
 
 
 TAHGEnT 
 
 Fig. 59. Determining Unit Length of Hip 
 or Valley Rafter. 
 
60 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 hip rafter will have to be framed with a side cut as shown in Fig. 61. 
 The measurement for length will be made from a point along the 
 middle of the top arris. Where the second method is employed, 
 the end and seat cuts are laid off first. 
 
 21. Laying ofi Pliunb Cut of Hip or Valley Rafter for Square 
 Cornered Buildings. — Assuming a position with reference to the 
 rafter similar to that in framing the common rafter, lay off the 
 plumb cut using 17" on the tongue, and on the blade the rise per 
 
 TABLE. rOR.HIP OZmlLTf 
 RArrOL SQUARE COE.- 
 
 Z 
 
 / 
 
 A 
 
 / 
 
 .ifoH-aiAT COT 
 
 7/24 
 
 5g 
 
 
 34-30 
 35-20 
 
 36 20 
 39- IP 
 
 40-0 
 
 4Z-'Q 
 
 13-50 
 A4-10 
 
 44-?C m: 
 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 h COlwniliT i 
 
 Fig. 60. Framing Table for Hip or Valley Rafters 
 
 foot of run of the roof, or common rafter, which is also the rise of a 
 hip or valley on that roof per 17 " of hip or valley run. Scribe along 
 the blade. 
 
 22. Side or Cheek Cut of Hip or Valley Rafter.— First 
 Method: There are a number of ways to lay out a side cut on a 
 square cornered building. The simplest to remember, where no 
 framing tables are at hand, consists in measuring square back from 
 the plumb cut Une a distance A~B, Fig. 62, equal to the thickness 
 of the rafter being framed. Thru this point lay off another line 
 parallel to' the plumb cut hne and "carry" this across the top edge 
 
ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILDINGS 61 
 
 of the rafter with the square, as at D-E. Now adjust the bevel to 
 pass thru E and F, Fig. 62, and the setting is obtained for all side 
 cuts of hip or valley rafters of that pitch of roof. Scribe this Une on 
 the top edge of the rafter. Carry it down the remaining side 
 using the same numbers on the square as were used in laying off 
 the plumb cut on the first side. 
 
 Second Method: This method of laying off side or cheek cut 
 consists in laying the framing square across the top edge of the 
 
 ->UlGLtA 
 
 -A-B 
 
 Fig. 61. Side Cut 
 
 Fig. 62. Laying off Side Cut 
 
 rafter, taking 17" On the tongue and the length of hip or vaUey 
 rafter per foot of run of common rafter for the pitch required on 
 the blade, and scribing along the blade. 
 
 23. Determining Length of Hip or Valley Rafter. — First 
 Method: If a table of unit lengths of hip or valley per foot of run of 
 common rafter is available, Fig. 60, the total rafter length may be 
 determined by multiplying the unit of hip or valley rafter length 
 per foot of run of common rafter by the total run of common rafter. 
 Do not make the mistake of trying to multiply by the run of the 
 hip or valley rafter. Remember that these tables are all worked 
 out with the 12" run of the common rafter as the base. This is 
 true no matter whether the house is four sided, eight sided, or any 
 other number of sides. The respective tables are based in every 
 case upon 12" run of the common rafter. 
 
 Measurements for lengths of hip or valley are to be made along 
 
62 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 the top edge of the stock beginning at the line for side cut and 
 midway between the point and heel, Fig. 61. 
 
 Second Method: This method of determining length of a hip or 
 valley rafter is not unlike the second method described for the com- 
 mon rafter. Here, the numbers are 17 on the tongue, and the rise 
 per foot of run of roof or of common rafter, on the blade. The end 
 and seat cuts are scribed, after which the square is advanced step 
 
 by step, using these same num- 
 bers, as many times as there are 
 feet of run of common rafter. 
 Should there be a fraction of a 
 foot in the run of common rafter 
 an additional and proportional 
 advancement must be made. 
 For example, to frame a hip 
 for a square roof of J^ pitch. 
 
 OF ;RArTER.- 
 
 Fig. 63. Miter Cut of Hip Rafter End 
 
 having a run of common rafter of 12' 7". Advance the framing 
 square 12 times, using 17" on the tongue and 6" on the blade. For 
 the fractional advance take T^ of 17" or Qri" (the framing 
 square is laid off in twelfths on one side) on the tongue and tj of 6" 
 or 33^" on the blade, and scribe the limit. Fractional foot length 
 of tail will be determined in a similar manner, the run or 
 horizontal extension, or the lookout, of the common rafter deter- 
 mining the number of times the square must be advanced using 
 17 " and 6 " for the above given pitch. 
 
 24. Laying off Seat and End Cut of Hip Rafter for Square 
 Cornered Building. — The seat cut and end cut of a hip rafter will 
 be laid off in a manner quite similar to that used in laying off the 
 seat and end cuts of the common rafter as described in Sec. 18. 
 There will be this difference, of course; the numbers to be used on 
 the square will be 17" on the tongue instead of 12" as in the case 
 of the common rafter. The rise per foot of run will be the same as 
 
AnouriT or dsop 
 
 no BACKIMG 
 
 ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILDINGS 63 
 
 for the common rafter. The run of the tail of the common rafter 
 determines the length of lookout or the number of times the square 
 will be advanced. The distance 1-3, Fig. 52, must be the same on 
 hip and valley as on common rafter of the same pitch of roof. The 
 end cut of a hip rafter must be mitered to receive the fascia. The 
 amount to be taken off for a square 
 cornered building will be indicated by 
 laying off lines a distance equal to one- 
 half the thickness of the rafter, meas- 
 ured straight back from the lay-out of 
 the end cut, Fig. 63. Since these cuts 
 are identical with the side cut at the 
 upper end of hip or valley, the square 
 may be used as in laying off a side cut, 
 cf. Section 22, second method. 
 
 25. Reduction of Hip or Valley 
 Rafter Length Because of Ridge 
 Piece. — If a hip rafter of a square cornered building is to be 
 framed against a ridge piece, Fig. 40, its length must be reduced 
 correspondingly. To make such allowance, measure square back 
 from the line of plumb cut a distance equal to ]/2 the diagonal 
 thickness of the ridge. Fig. 61-A-B. 
 
 26. Backing a Hip Rafter for Square Cornered Building. — 
 First Method: Since the line of measurement of a hip rafter is along 
 the center of the top edge, if the rafter is framed with the same 
 plumb distance as was given the common rafters, 1-3, Fig. 52, it 
 stands to reason that the roof boards will not fit the top edge of the 
 hip properly until the arrises of the hip have been removed as in 
 the cross-section of Fig. 64. The laying out and removal of these 
 arrises is known as backing the hip. 
 
 The amount of backing for a hip rafter will depend upon the 
 rafter thickness, the pitch of the roof, and the number of sides to 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 BACKIIiGFORHIPOn 
 50mRtC0K1ER.=-^ 
 THICKNESS or RATTER 
 HEASURED IH PLAHE 
 or PLATE 
 
 Backing the Hip 
 Rafter 
 
64 CARPENTRY 
 
 the plate, and is indicated by gage lines on either side and one on 
 the top edge of the rafter. To determine the location of these gage 
 hnes on the sides of the rafter, (1) place the square on the hip as in 
 laying out the seat cut for the hip on which the backing is to be 
 placed, the constant, 17", on the tongue and the rise on the blade, 
 if the house is rectangular, Fig. 64. (2) Measure from the edge of 
 
 '/z THICKNESS or 
 
 RAFTER. rOR 
 SQUARE 
 CORMI 
 
 % X fe THICKHESS OF RAFTER FOR 
 OCTAGOH MEASURED III HAtlE OF 
 PLATE =f\- 
 
 Fig. 65-a. Fig. 65-b. 
 
 Framing Valley Rafter at Plate 
 
 the hip back along the tongue a distance equal to 3^ the thickness 
 of the rafter, and mark. This point gives the setting for the gage. 
 (3) Gage both sides of the rafter and then remove the arrises as 
 shown in the cross-section. Carpenters more frequently frame a 
 hip without backing, allowing the roof boards to rest upon the arrises 
 of the hip, forming a small triangular space between the roof boards 
 and the top edge of the hip. In order to keep these arrises in the 
 same planes as the tops of the common rafters, they must reduce the 
 plumb height 1-3, Fig. 52, of the hip. The amount of reduction, 
 that is, the amount of drop the hip must make is equal to the 
 plumb height of the backing. Fig. 64. 
 
 Second Method: Take the rise in inches per foot of run of com- 
 mon rafter on the tongue, and the length of hip or valley per foot 
 
ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILDINGS 65 
 
 of run of common rafter on the blade; scribe along the tongue to 
 get the angle of backing. 
 
 27. Valley Rafters.^ As has been indicated in previous sec- 
 tions of the text, valley rafters have their lengths, plumb cuts, and 
 seat cuts determined hke hip rafters. 
 
 There is one difference; the valley rafter at its seat must be 
 framed as in Fig. 65 in order that the plumb line may come directly 
 over the corner of the building. The ends of roof boards will rest 
 upon the valley rafter at its center line, which hue is in the same 
 plane as that of the common rafters. 
 
 Like the hip rafter, the upper end may be laid out first, after 
 which the rafter length is measured from this, the measurement 
 being made along the middle of the back of the rafter, the top 
 edge. 
 
 To lay out the cuts shown in Fig. 65-a, proceed as in laying out 
 the end of a hip rafter, as described in Sec. 24, Fig. 63. In the case 
 of an octagon the amount would be t*^ of that used for the square. 
 Fig. 65-b. 
 
 In Figs. 40 and 41 is shown a valley rafter framed thru to the 
 ridge. This is done to give the valley support, for a valley, unlike 
 a hip, is not self supporting when the jacks are attached. Against 
 this valley rafter is framed a second valley rafter. The upper end 
 of this second valley rafter is framed with a plumb cut such as 
 would be given a hip or valley of the same rise and run; the end, 
 however, is cut square across as in the case of a common rafter 
 resting against a ridge. 
 
 28. Framing the Jack Rafter for Square Cornered Buildings ; 
 Plumb Cut; Side Cut. — Jack rafters which have their top ends 
 framed against a hip are known as hip jacks; those having the lower 
 ends framed against a valley are known as valley jacks; those which 
 are framed in between hip and valley are known as cripple jacks. 
 
 The jack rafter, being but a portion of a common rafter, is 
 
66 CARPENTRY 
 
 framed in a manner quite like that used in framing the common 
 rafter. The chief difference is in the fact that the jack rafter has a 
 side or cheek cut, and that the lengths of jacks vary with their posi- 
 tion along the plate. The order of procedure may be: (1) To lay 
 off the plumb cut, just as for a common rafter having the same rise, 
 that is, using 12" on the tongue, and the rise per foot of run on the 
 blade; scribe along the blade. (2) Lay off the side cut or cheek cut, 
 This is done just as in laying off the side cut of the hip rafter on a 
 square cornered building, first method only. Fig. 62. Where a 
 table of common rafter lengths per foot of run is available. Fig. 49, a 
 second method of laying out the side cut of a jack rafter consists 
 in taking 12" on the tongue of the framing square, and the common 
 rafter length per foot of run for the pitch given, on the blade; laying 
 the square across the edge of the rafter and scribing along the 
 blade. (3) Lay off the length of the jack as determined in the next 
 section. (4) Lay off the seat cut just as in laying off the seat cut 
 of the common rafter for the same pitch of roof, Section 18. Equal- 
 ly common is the practice of beginning with the end and seat cuts. 
 
 The framing square of Fig. 50 contains data which makes 
 possible the laying out of side cuts for the square cornered building 
 by means of numbers taken upon tongue and blade. 
 
 While the ratios of the numbers used upon the tongue and the 
 blade are always the same for any given pitch, different makers 
 of squares use different numbers for side cuts. The student will 
 have to have special directions for each different make of square. 
 These may be gotten from the manufacturers. 
 
 29. Lengths of Jack Rafters for Square Cornered Roofs.— 
 First Method: The framing table for common rafters and jack 
 rafters. Fig. 49, may be made use of in determining lengths of jacks. 
 To make use of this table we shall need to know the run of each 
 separate jack. An examination of Fig. 66 shows that in a rec- 
 tangular house the run of a jack is the same as the length of plate 
 
ROOF FRAME: SQUARE CORNERED BUILDINGS 
 
 67 
 
 T 
 i 
 
 or of ridge which forms the angle. This is true of hip jack, valley 
 jack, or cripple jack. However, such measurements are along the 
 centers of the top edges of the rafters and allowance must be made 
 in the length of the jacks for the thickness of hip or valley rafter. 
 In the case of the cripple jack this amount of reduction will be 
 equal to y^ the diagonal thickness of the hip plus 3^ the diagonal 
 thickness of the valley, measured at right angles to the plumb cut. 
 Fig. 61, or measured in the plane of the plate, or a parallel plane. 
 
 Top and bottom 
 ends of cripples are 
 alike, but in nailing 
 them ill place the 
 lower ends must be 
 held up so that their 
 center lines .will strike 
 the center of the 
 , valley rafter. Their 
 tops will be kept even 
 with the outer arrises 
 of the hip whether the 
 hip is backed or not. ^'s- ^- ^^^S'"^^ °^ J^"^"^ ^^f'^-^^" 
 
 In determining the true length of hip jack and valley jack 
 we should know that a reduction of 3^ the diagonal thickness of 
 hip or valley, measured straight back from the plumb cut, is to be 
 made. In the case of a valley jack resting against a ridge piece, 
 an additional reduction must be made as described in Section 19, 
 Fig. 56. In actual practice carpenters usually measure the length 
 of hip or valley jack from the long point, along the arris, instead 
 of along the center of the top edge, no reduction being made for 3^ 
 the diagonal thickness of hip or valley. Cripple jacks are measured 
 from long point to long point, no reduction being made for 
 thickness of hip and valley. 
 
CARPENTRY 
 
 Second Method: Where jacks are framed so that equal spacings 
 may be laid off, beginning with a full length common rafter, as 
 in Fig. 67, the simplest method of determining lengths of jacks 
 is to first count the number of spaces between jacks, which must be 
 laid off on ridge or on plate, and divide the length of common 
 
 rafter by this number. The 
 result will be the common differ- 
 ence between lengths of jacks. 
 The longest jack will be framed 
 first by reducing the length of 
 common rafter by the common 
 difference. The next, by reduc- 
 ing the jack just framed by the 
 common difference, etc. This 
 method is apphcable to roofs of 
 any 'number of sides. 
 
 Third Method: If we begin . 
 to frame with the shortest jack 
 instead of the longest, we first determine the length of the shortest 
 jack, remembering that its run in the square cornered building will 
 be the same as its spacing from the corner along the plate, or along 
 the ridge in case of a valley jack. The length of this first jack 
 will also be tlje common difference, which will be added to each jack 
 successively to get the length of the next. 
 
 Fourth Method: As rafters are usually spaced either 16" or 24" 
 apart, a table consisting of the common differences in lengths for 
 the various pitches will be found convenient. Fig. 49. The steel 
 square of Fig. 50 also shows such a table for the square roof. 
 
 Fig. 67. Determining Length of 
 Jack Rafters 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 Roof Frame: any Polygon 
 
 30, Tangents; Miter Cuts of the Plate. — Before the prin- 
 ciples involved in the laying out of rafters on any type of roof can 
 be understood, a clearer idea of the term tangent as used in roof 
 framing must be had. A tangent of an angle of a right triangle is 
 
 RUHOF 
 
 HIP OR. VALLEY 
 
 12=C0Ii3TAM.T OF 
 
 COUMOH RAriER 
 
 C^RUtlOFHIPOK. 
 VALLEY 
 IGLE A' 
 
 Fig. 68. Tangents 
 
 the ratio or fractional value obtained by dividing the value of the 
 side opposite that angle by the value of the adjacent side. The 
 tangent at the plate, to which reference was made is the tangent 
 of the angle having for its adjacent sides the run of the common 
 rafter and the run of the hip or valley. By making use of a circle 
 with a radius of 12" we may represent the value of this tangent 
 graphically in terms of the constant of common rafter run, Fig. 68. 
 By constructing these figures very carefully and measuring the 
 line marked tangent, we may obtain the value of the tangent for 
 
 69 
 
70 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 the polygon measured in inches to the foot of run of the common 
 rafter. Such measurements, if made to the 1/100 of an inch w!ll 
 serve all practical purposes. A safer way, however, is to make 
 use of values secured thru the trigonometric solutions described in 
 Appendix I, using the graphic solutions as checks. The values of 
 tangents at intervals of one degree are given in the Table of Natural 
 
 piT STEEL SQUARE ^^ 
 
 Sti^p -*~^- B Y A.vy . woo D&.^^>>- xi"*^ 
 WfftJ/Smc Cut or Jam , 12 onT, Com.r,on B.Cutokd!,,. 
 '70D//SrDECur0cTjAcri; 5 o»*T.Com.RonB.CutohB1\ 
 •j — J/5'OECuTorMip; [7omT, Hipon B Cur on BJ|i 
 
 sfe RAFTER O TABLE. 
 
 S,Seat 
 
 iCuT 
 
 (COM, R. \2]^ l£j ^ a 
 
 <0CT. Hip. 13 ONTONGUP-/ 
 
 Table of Tangents 
 
 Fig. 69-b. Rafter Table. 
 
 Functions, Appendix II. By interpolation, fractional degree 
 values may be found. 
 
 Example: 
 
 Find the value of the tangent for an octagonal plate. 
 Solution: 
 
 Angle A' of Fig. 68 = 22^° 
 
 (ts of the sum of all the angles about a point) 
 
 Tan 22K° = .4143 
 
 Tables are builded with 1 as a base. In roof framing 1' or 12" is taken as 
 
 the constant or base, or unit of run of common rafter. .4143 may be 
 
 considered as feet, which equals 4.97"- 
 In a similar manner .tangents may be found for plates of buildings of 
 
 any number of sides. 
 
 In Fig. 69 is illustrated a handy device one side of which, by the 
 twirling of one disk within the other, can be made to give tangent 
 values, in terms of a 12" base, for any number of degrees. The 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 71 
 
 reverse side of this "key" gives data to be used in the framing of 
 square cornered and octagonal roofs. Such a key will be found a 
 convenient way in which to carry needed data and should be easily 
 understood and intelligently used, once the principles discussed 
 in this chapter are mastered. An explanation of the author's key, 
 Fig. 70, will be found in Appendix IV. 
 
 Now as to some of the uses for tangent values: First, by taking 
 12" on the tongue and the tangent value in inches per foot of 
 common rafter run upon the blade of the square, we are able to get 
 the lay-out for the miter joint of the plate. 
 
 Fig. 71-b illustrates the square placed for the lay-out of the 
 octagonal plate or sill miter. Five inches is taken as tangent since 
 the real value 4.97" is equivalent to 5" for all practical purposes. 
 
 For the square cornered building 12" and 12" would be used in 
 making the plate miter lay-out, since the tangent of 45° is 1 accord- 
 ing to the Table, Appendix II. Any other like numbers would give 
 a tangent value of 1, of course, but it is best to consider 12" on the 
 tongue, in which case 12" must be ta'ken on the blade. 
 
 Second, this tangent value is needed in determining the cheek 
 or side cut of hip, valley and jack rafters, as will be shown in 
 Sec. 35. ' 
 
 Third, this tangent value is needed in determining the amount 
 of backing to be given hip rafters. This is discussed in Sec. 39. 
 
 Not infrequently the plate miter in degrees is required. This 
 is determined for any regular polygon by the proposition: The 
 
 cerltral angle 
 plate or miter angle of any regular polygon =90° — 2 
 
 Example: 
 
 Find the value of the plate miter of the octagon. 
 
 Solution: 
 
 The octagon has 8 sides; therefore central angle = 45° 
 45° -r- 2 = 22>^° 
 90° — 22>^° = 67K° 
 
72 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
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ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 
 
 73 
 
 Fourth, the tangent value is needed in iinding the length of a 
 side of a polygon, the span or run of the polygon being known, and 
 -vice versa. Length of side = span x tangent of plate, using 12" 
 as base. 
 
 Example: 
 
 An octagonal silo has a span of 18'; determine the length of plate for any- 
 side. 
 
 Solution: 
 
 The tangent value of the octagon = 4.97" (to each 12" of run) 18 X 4.97" 
 = 89.46" = 7' 5.46" = 7' 5^"- 
 
 \ / 
 
 u- 
 
 ■]?=- 
 
 ± 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 TAN 
 Fig. 71-a. 
 
 Fig. 71-b, 
 
 Laying out Miters 
 
 Example: 
 
 A side of a hexagon measures 4'; determine the run of the hexagon. 
 
 Solution: 
 
 Transposing the rule above: Span = length of side divided by tangent of 
 
 plate. 
 Tangent of hexagon = 6.92" when base = 12" 
 4' divided by 6.92" = 6' 6.48" = span. Run = 3' 3.24" 
 
 31. Octagonal Roofs. — While the square cornered building is 
 the most common, the octagon is frequently used in the form of a 
 bay attached to the side of a house. The octagon is also common 
 upon silos and towers. The manner of finding the run, tangent, 
 length of hip and valley rafter, miter cut of plate or sill, the manner 
 
74 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 of determining the numbers to use on the square to lay out the 
 plumb and seat cuts, etc., will be found developed herein for both 
 square and octagonal roof. Having mastered the principles in- 
 volved in these two forms, the student should be able to work out 
 framing problems for roofs of any number of sides. 
 
 32. Common Rafter for Plate of any Number of Sides. — By 
 referring to Figs. 68 and 72 it will be seen that common rafters have 
 for their runs the apothem of the 
 polygon made by the plate, repre- 
 sented in Fig. 68 by the lines 
 b, V, b". The run of the hip is 
 represented by the line c, c', c". 
 The rise will be found the same 
 for full length common rafters and hips. 
 Plumb and seat cuts and lengths per 
 foot of run of common rafters and Jacks 
 are determined for a building of any 
 number of sides just as for the square 
 cornered building. The degree of in- 
 cHnation of common and jack rafter is 
 applicable, too. Fig. 49. 
 
 33. Hip and Valley Rafters for Octagonal and other Polygons. 
 — Before the table of constants for hips and valleys for octagonal 
 and other polygonal roofs can be formed, it is necessary to deter- 
 mine the tangent values of these polygons, as described in Sec. 30. 
 
 Proceeding with the octagon, whose tangent was found to be 
 4.97" when the run of the common rafter was taken as 12", by the 
 formula c^^a^+l^, Fig. 72, the run of the octagon hip or vaUey 
 will be found to be 12.99" for each foot of run of the common rafter. 
 
 34. Plumb Cut of Octagonal and other Polygonal Hips and 
 VaUeys.— The run of an octagonal hip or valley is 12.99" for each 
 foot of run of common rafter. For practical purposes this is con- 
 
 Fig. 72. Run of Common 
 
 Rafter of any Roof is 
 
 Apothem of Polygon 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 
 
 75 
 
 sidered as 13". To lay off a plumb cut for an octagonal hip or 
 valley, take 13 " on the tongue and the rise per foot of run of com- 
 mon rafter on the blade, Fig. 73; scribe on the blade. 
 
 In a similar manner, having determined the tangent of any 
 polygon under consideration, the run of hip or valley per foot of 
 
 Table ronocxAGori 
 
 HlPCR.mLLEY 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / ^ 
 
 I 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 9^H- SEAT CUT 
 
 J^ 
 
 mz 
 
 13/g4 
 
 3/S 
 
 iZA_ 
 
 iy&. 
 
 uiz 
 
 \/ZA 
 
 3 OS 
 
 w 
 
 
 42-50 
 
 ^7-10 
 
 47- a) 
 
 49-30 
 
 550 
 
 
 h 
 
 7/16 
 
 7/lfe 
 7/16 
 
 3/a 
 
 3/6 
 
 5/lfe 
 5/ia 
 5/16 
 
 JZ4. 
 
 -1Z4. 
 
 .a/ii. 
 3/lfe 
 3/16 
 1/6 
 J/8 
 
 JZ8. 
 1/16 
 
 ^- — COHSTAMT 
 
 Fig. 73. Table for Octagon Hip or Valley 
 
 run of common rafter may be figured. The result will give the 
 number to take on the tongue when the rise per foot of ruA of com- 
 mon rafter is taken on the blade, for laying out plumb cuts. 
 
 35. Side or Cheek Cuts of Hip and Valley Rafters for Roofs of 
 Any Number of Sides. — Fig. 74 illustrates the principles involved 
 and method used in determining side cuts whatsoever the pitch 
 and number of sides involved. (1) Lay the square across the jack 
 or hip or valley, whatever is to be framed, at any convenient place, 
 using on the blade the tangent (with 12" as base) of the polygon 
 
76 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 being framed, and on the tongue the constant of the run of the 
 common rafter, 12". Scribe along the tongue ^-C, Fig. 74. (2) 
 With the square, carry the line B-C across the edge as indicated. 
 (3) Lay off the plumb cut for the required pitch, taking upon the 
 blade the rise, and upon the tongue the constant of the run of the 
 hip or valley or jack, according to the requirements for that par- 
 
 Fig. 74-a. Fig. 74-b. 
 
 Laying ofi Side Cut of Jack, Hip or Valley, any Polygon 
 
 ticular member as determined by the style of roof. (4) Measure 
 square back from this plumb cut Hne the distance A-B of Fig. 74. 
 (5) Thru point A scribe a line D-A parallel to that of the plumb 
 cut line and (6) square this across the edge as at D-E. (7) Adjust 
 the bevel to pass thru E and F, Fig. 74. (8) Scribe a plumb cut 
 line upon the reverse surface of the stock. 
 
 It will be observed that in one case the square is laid across the 
 edge with 12 " on the tongue and 12 " on the blade. Fig. 74-a. This, 
 as might be supposed, is for finding the cheek or side cut for jack, 
 hip, or valley on square cornered buildings where the tangent is 
 12" when the run is 12". In the case of the octagonal hip, valley, 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 
 
 77 
 
 or jack 5" must be taken upon the blade, since that is the tangent 
 value of the octagon, 12" as base being taken on the tongue. 
 Fig. 74-b. This tangent value will vary, then, according to the 
 number of sides to the building. 
 
 The reason for using the tangent and run for this work is in- 
 dicated by the position of the square on the plan of the roof, Fig. 
 75. These figures are for use only when the timbers lie in the plane 
 
 Fig. 75-a. Fig. 75-b. 
 
 Securing Value of A-B of Fig. 74, Various Angles 
 
 of the plate, or any parallel plane. When rafters take on pitch or 
 rise, however, the upward projection of the plan of the miter cut, 
 Fig. 74, will determine the side cut as just described. 
 
 36. Rafter Lengths of Octagonal and other Polygonal Hips and 
 Valleys. — First Method: Knowing the run of a hip or valley for the 
 polygon under consideration (17" for the square, 13" for the 
 octagon, etc.), by assuming the respective rises for the various 
 pitches and solving c'^ = a'^+b'^, Fig. 76, data pertaining to hip or 
 valley unit rafter lengths, such as that for the octagon in Fig. 73, 
 is obtained. 
 
 To determine a rafter length, having available such a table, 
 multiply the hip or valley length per foot of run of common rafter 
 
78 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 as given in the table by the run of the common rafter of that roof. 
 
 Reduce to feet. Such lengths will be laid off by measurement from 
 
 the side or cheek cut, which will 
 have been laid off, down the top 
 edge of the rafter. 
 
 Lengths of hip or valley tails 
 will be determined in a similar 
 manner from the same table. 
 
 Second Method: This consists 
 in successive placings of the 
 square, using the same numbers 
 on tongue and blade as will be 
 used in laying out the plumb 
 cut for this particular roof. The 
 successive advances will be de- 
 termined, as in the hip or valley 
 of a square cornered building, by 
 the number of feet in the run of 
 the common rafter of this roof. 
 A fractional part of a foot in run 
 will be treated in a manner similar 
 to that described for the square 
 cornered building. Suitable 
 
 Fig. 76. King-Post 
 
 allowance must be made for the fact that the length of rafter is 
 along the middle of the top edge of the rafter, when this latter 
 method is used. 
 
 Example: 
 
 An octagonal roof of 14 pitch has a span of 25'. 
 
 The run of common rafter = 12' 6". 
 
 Taking 13" on the tongue and 6" on the blade lay off successively 12 meas- 
 urements. Take ^ or i^ of 13" or 6^" on the tongue and i«j or }4 of 
 6" or 3" on the blade for the fractional foot of run. 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 79 
 
 37. Reductions in Lengths for King-Post. — ■ Suitable reduc- 
 tion must be made for king-post, should there be one, Fig. 76, or for 
 rafter thicknesses should no king-post be used, Fig. 75-b. Where 
 a king-post is used the reduction will be 3^ the width of the square 
 out of which the king-post is formed, the measurement being made 
 square back from the line of the plumb cut, as in reducing common 
 rafter lengths for ridge piece, Fig. 56. 
 
 Where an apex is formed as in Fig. 75-b, one pair of hips is 
 framed each with a run equal to J^ the octagon's diagonal, with cuts 
 at the top the same as those of common rafters. The second pair 
 will be similarly framed but the lengths will each be reduced an 
 amount equal to }/^ the thickness of the first pair, measuring 
 straight back from the plumb cut. The third and fourth pairs will 
 be reduced an amount equal to J^ the diagonal thickness of. the 
 rafters already framed, measured straight back from the plumb 
 cut. Figs. 74-a and 75-b. These rafters will have to have double 
 side cuts as indicated in Fig. 75-b. It will be noted that these 
 latter rafters meet the others at an angle of 45 degrees, making the 
 framing of the side cut similar to that of a square cornered building 
 except that these are given double cheeks. 
 
 38. Seat and End Cut of Octagonal and other Polygonal Hips 
 and Valleys. — The method of procedure in laying out the seat 
 and end cuts of octagonal and other polygonal hips and valleys is 
 similar to that described for the square hip, except of course, the 
 numbers to use on the square will differ. These numbers will be 
 determined by the run of the hip for that particular roof, and by 
 the rise in inches per foot of run of common rafter. In the case 
 of the octagon the numbers will be 13" on the tongue, and the rise 
 on. the blade. The length of tail may be figured by the tables, if 
 such are available, or the framing square may be advanced suc- 
 cessively as many times as there are feet in the run of the tail or the 
 lookout of the common rafter of that roof, as heretofore described. 
 
AMOUNT OFBROP 
 liOBACKina 
 
 S 
 
 'M- 
 
 H' 
 
 •BACKIHGTORHIPOIi 
 OCTAfiOH- ?£»fe-rHICKtlE33 
 or RATTER MEASUEffi Itl 
 PLAH^ or PLATE 
 
 80 CARPENTRY 
 
 The miter cut on the end of a hip rafter and in the crotch of a 
 valley rafter will vary with the tangent value of the plate. For the 
 octagon, whose tangent is 6" the measurement from the end cut 
 and at right angles to it will be A that used on the square cornered 
 building. This same ratio will hold for the measurement at the 
 crotch of the valley, Fig. 65-b. 
 
 39. Backing Octagonal and other Hips.— The principle 
 involved in determining the amount of backing on hip rafters for 
 the octagon, as well as that of other poly- 
 ' gons,.is similar to that for backing hips for 
 the square cornered building. 
 
 (1) Place the framing square upon 
 the hip as for making the seat cut 
 of the octagon hip rafter, Fig. 77. 
 
 (2) Referring to Fig. 78 it will 
 be seen that the more sides a roof 
 possesses the less will be the backing 
 required. Fig. 78 represents the 
 hips on square, octagon, and 
 hexagon as they would appear upon 
 
 the plan if made to stand straight up at the corners of the 
 plates. The backing in each case is determined by the tangent 
 of the angle whose adjacent side is J^ the rafter thickness, and 
 whose angle is equivalent to J^ the central angle as A, A', A", 
 Fig. 78. The fact that the hips are inclined and not vertical in 
 their final position in a roof makes no difference in the principle of 
 determining backing because of the fact that our measurements 
 are made in a horizontal plane, or in the plane of the plate. Figs. 64 
 and 77. 
 
 The ratio of the backing of the octagon or any other polygonal 
 hip to that of the square of equal rise will be proportional to their 
 tangent values. For illustration, on the square roof we measured 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 Laying out Backing for 
 Octagon Hip 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 
 
 81 
 
 along the tongue of the square, from the top edge of the hip, Fig. 64, 
 J4 the thickness of the rafter, for reasons made plain in Fig. 78. 
 In laying off the octagon backing we should lay off along the 
 tongue in the line of the octagon seat cut, 'A of Y2 the thickness of 
 the rafter. In the case of a 2" rafter, T^" will be set off, using that 
 side of the square containing graduations in 12ths. 
 
 (3) Where backing is not desired the rafter will be dropped a 
 plumb distance equal to the plumb distance of the backing of the 
 rafter, Fig. 77. Consult Fig. 73. 
 
 \ felHlCKHESS OF 
 EATTER 
 
 ^THICKHESS 
 
 & TmCKI1E35 
 
 ■IAH45=lx)feTHICKHE53 
 
 THICKMESS 
 
 " Fig. 78. Backing for Hip of any Polygon 
 
 40. Framing the Octagonal and other Polygonal Jacks. — 
 Plumb cuts of jacks are determined by the rise and run of the com- 
 mon rafter of that particular roof. The seat cuts will be deter- 
 mined by the same numbers. Side cuts, end cuts, and lengths of 
 jacks are determined as described in Sections 41 and 42. 
 
 41. Side Cut of Octagonal and other Polygonal Jacks. — First 
 Method: The method described in Section 35 is apphcable to jacks 
 as well. 
 
 Second Method: If a table of common rafter lengths per foot of 
 run is available, the side cut of any polygonal jack may be laid 
 out by placing the framing square across the top of the rafter, 
 taking the tangent value of the polygon on the tongue, and the 
 length of common rafter per foot of run on the blade, and scribing 
 on the blade. The tangent of the polygon forms the opposite side 
 
82 CARPENTRY 
 
 of a triangle in which the adjacent side is the length of common or 
 jack rafter per foot of run. The angle formed being the angle of 
 side cut of jack. 
 
 42. Lengths of Octagonal and other Polygonal Jacks. — The 
 methods of procedure in determining the lengths of jacks for 
 other than square cornered buildings differs from that described 
 for the square cornered building only in the fact that the runs, 
 hence lengths, of the jacks must be determined differently. An 
 examination of Figs. 68 and 72 will show that the runs, hence the 
 lengths, of jacks for the square, the octagon, etc., when the run of 
 common rafter is the same, will vary inversely as the tangent ratio. 
 For example, the tangent of the square is 12" when its run of com- 
 mon rafter is 12", while that of the octagon is 4.97" or practically 
 5". The runs, and, therefore, the lengths of octagon jacks will 
 differ one with reference to another, V of those of the jacks for the 
 square building. If an octagon jack rests 24" from the corner, its 
 run, and therefore its length, will be V times that of a jack on a 
 square cornered building similarly placed. 
 
 Second Method: Difference in lengths of jacks may be deter- 
 mined by counting the spacings along the plate and dividing the 
 length of common rafter by that number. 
 
 43. Framing by Means of a Protractor. — By means of a pro- 
 tractor used in connection with the columns containing degree 
 measurements, Figs. 49, 60, and 73, roof framing may be greatly 
 simplified. 
 
 To lay off a seat cut, it is merely necessary to look in the table 
 of hip, valley, jack, or common rafter, whatever is being framed, 
 and read the degree of inchnation of rafter for the pitch required. 
 The blade of a T-bevel is set by means of the protractor to this 
 angle; or a combination tool may be used, and the tool applied as 
 in Fig. 79. 
 
 The plumb cut and seat cut are complementary. Since a pro- 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 
 
 83 
 
 tractor is made to read in either of two directions, the plumb cut 
 setting may be got by adding to or subtracting from 90 degrees 
 the angle of incUnation of that rafter. With a combination tool, 
 one setting of the tool serves to lay out both seat and plumb cut. 
 The degree of setting for a side or cheek cut, the gage setting 
 for backing, and the amount of drop where no backing is used will 
 be found under appropriate columns in the tables referred to above. 
 The manner of applying the combination tool for laying out plumb 
 
 Fig. 79. Laying off Seat Cut with 
 Framing Tool 
 
 Fig. 80. Laying ofE Plumb Cut with 
 Framing Tool 
 
 cut, seat cut, side cut and end cut is indicated in Figs. 79, 80, 81 
 and 82. The manner of determining the data found in these tables 
 is a matter of trigonometric solution, no more diflScult than that 
 already given, and omitted for lack of space. Such problems may 
 well form a part of the pupil's work in mathematics. 
 
 For Example: Data for side cuts of jack, hip and valley for 
 square and octagonal roofs will be found in Figs. 49, 60, and 73. 
 In these tables will be found a column marked "Degree of side cut 
 of hip or valley," also of jack. To secure the angle of side cut it is 
 only necessary to solve by simple trigonometric formulae, the 
 triangle ab c and then a' b' c' of Fig. 62. The angle A is the angle 
 of inclination of hip or jack or valley, and will be found for each 
 inch of rise in the tables; the manner of determining the same 
 having been described. The side b is A-B of Fig. 74, the value of 
 which is also easily determined once the principles of Fig. 74 are 
 
84 CARPENTRY 
 
 mastered. With this data the student may find the angle ^' of 
 Fig. 62 as given in the tables. 
 
 Rafter lengths are determined as previously described in con- 
 nection with framing with the steel square. 
 
 44. Translating Framing Problems from Protractor to Fram- 
 ing Square and Vice Versa. — Frequently it is desirable to translate 
 framing problems from degrees to numbers to be used upon the 
 steel square, and vice versa. To change from degree framing to 
 
 Fig. 81. Side Cut 
 
 Fig. 82. End Cut 
 
 steel square framing it is only necessary to remember that the 
 numbers to use on the square must be numbers such that their 
 ratio one to the other shall give a tangent value equal to that given 
 in the Table of Natural Functions, Appendix II, for the angle under 
 consideration. . 
 
 Example: 
 
 Given: Angle of inclination of common lafter or of roof = 30 degrees. 
 Find the numbers to take on the square to frame seat and plumb cuts. 
 Solution: 
 
 Tan 30° = .577 (by Table, Appendix II). 
 
 By agreement, run of common rafter takes 12" on one member of the 
 
 square for constant of run. 
 Therefore, rise must be 6.93", or 6H", must be taken on the other 
 
 member of the square. (The base of the table is 1 so that for 12" run 
 
 we must have 12" x .5774.) 
 
 In a similar manner the number to be taken on the blade, when 
 the inclination of any other common or jack rafter is given, may be 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 85 
 
 determined. In the case of the hip or valley inclination, however, 
 it must be remembered that 17" is to be taken on the tongue for 
 the run in the square cornered house, with 13" in the octagon, which 
 will necessitate multiplying the tangent value of the angle of in- 
 clination by 17 and 13 respectively to find the number to take on 
 the blade when one or the other of these is taken on the tongue. 
 
 Example: 
 
 Given : Side cut of jack rafter, or hip or valley = 38 degrees. 
 
 Find the numbers to use on the framing square to lay off this same angle. 
 Solulion: 
 
 Tan 38° = .7813 
 
 By agreement, we shall take 12" on the tongue. 
 
 The number to be taken on the blade must be, therefore, 12" x .7813 = 
 
 (In the case of the side cut, any number other than 12" might have been 
 assumed on the tongue.) 
 Example: 
 
 Given: A hip rafter on a square roof which is framed with 17" on the 
 
 tongue and 8 " on the blade. 
 To find the angle of inclination of the hip. 
 
 Solution: 
 
 A = .4706 
 
 The angle whose tan = .4706 is 25° 19' 
 
 45. Framing an Octagon Bay. — Whatever may be one's 
 opinion as to the propriety of the octagon bay architecturally, its 
 very common use makes it obligatory upon the builder to know 
 how to properly frame it. 
 
 Referring to Figs. 72 and 83-a it will be seen that the octagon 
 bay is but a portion of a full octagon set up against the side of a 
 house. From this it follows that the framing of the plate, sills, 
 the laying out of plumb and seat cuts, and side or cheek cuts of 
 jacks that rest against hips, etc., will be according to principles dis- 
 cussed in previous sections of the text. The chief thing which 
 needs explanation is the matter of la5dng out side cuts for hips and 
 jacks which are to rest against the side of the building. 
 
CARPENTRY 
 
 Consider the bay as cut along the line /-/, Fig. 83-a. To frame 
 the hip nearest the building: (1) Determine the angle which would 
 give the side or cheek cut of the rafter involved when the rafter 
 has no pitch, that is, when it lies in the plane of the plate. Fig. 
 83-a indicates the manner of determining this angle, which will be 
 found to be 223^°. If we wish to use a framing square instead 
 of a framing tool we may readily translate the 223^°. We shall 
 find that 12" taken on the tongue of the square will require 4.97" 
 O 
 
 5j 
 
 ^ 
 
 SCRIBE 
 ALOMG TOHGUe 
 
 Fig. 83-a. Fig. 83-b. 
 
 Framing Rafters of Octagon Bay 
 
 or 5" on the blade. (2) Place the square as in Fig. 83-b and scribe 
 along the tongue. Remember that this gives the miter when the 
 rafter lies in the plane of the plate. This would give the cut to be 
 used where ceiling joist or floor joist of octagon bay are run parallel 
 with the rafters. On small bays, joists are seldom run thus but are 
 run parallel with other joists of the house. No special directions 
 are needed for setting the protractor, or the combination tool, the 
 manner of setting and placing is so obvious. (3) Once having 
 this miter when the rafter lies in the plane of the plate, proceed as 
 directed in Sec. 35, (2) et seq. With one such rafter framed the 
 mates may be laid out by transposition. 
 
 To frame the remaining hips of Fig. 83-a proceed in a manner 
 similar to that just described. In this case the angle made by the 
 hip when it lies in the plane of the plate and the side of the house 
 will be 673^ degrees. Why? Fig. 84-a. The framing tool 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 
 
 87. 
 
 or protractor and T-bevel provide the simplest means of framing. 
 If one wishes to use the framing square he will find that by using 
 the tangent value of 673^° he gets 28.97" to take on the blade 
 when 12" is taken on the tongue. This he cannot find, of course. 
 He may either take other smaller numbers having the same 
 ratio, or he might better take the cotangent value of 673^°. Cot 
 of an angle of a right triangle is the ratio of the adjacent side to the 
 opposite side. 
 
 Solution: 
 
 Angle A' = 67>^°, Fig. 84-o. 
 Cot &1yi° = .414 when V = 1. 
 When V = 12" cot A' = 4.97" or 5" 
 
 (1) Place the square as in Fig. 84-b and scribe along the blade. 
 By this time the student should have observed that the tangent 
 value of any angle 
 increases as the 
 cotangent value of 
 the angle decreases 
 and vice versa. Note 
 that when a cotan- 
 gent value is used, 
 12" is still taken on 
 the tongue and the 
 same number as for 
 the tangent value of 
 that number of de- 
 grees is taken on the 
 blade, but that the scribing is done along the blade and not 
 along the tongue as is the case when tangent values are used. 
 (2) Proceed from this point ais in Sec. 35, (2) et seq. 
 
 To frame the jack intercepted by the side of the house. Fig. 
 85-a; (1) Proceed to find the miter for the intercepted jack when it 
 
 Fig. 84-a. 
 
 Fig. 84rb. 
 
 Framing Octagon Hip Intercepted at 67}^° 
 
88 CARPENTRY 
 
 lies in the plane of the plate. It is 45 degrees. Tan 45 degrees = 1 
 when b" = l. Tan 45 degrees= 12" when 6" = 12". (2) Place the 
 square as in Fig. 85-b and scribe along the tongue. (3) From this 
 on, continue as in Sec. 35, (2) et seq. 
 
 From these solutions the student should be able to generalize 
 sufficiently to care for rafters of any angle of intersection with the 
 side of a building, and of any pitch. The use of the framing 
 tool or protractor and T-square is strongly recommended upon 
 
 _i& 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 85-a. Fig. 85-b. 
 
 Framing an Intercepted Jack 
 
 such work as this. Nothing but tradition prevents its more general 
 use in carpentry. Having determined the lay-out for the side cut 
 of these rafters, the length of each must next be determined. To 
 determine the length of hip or jack intercepted by the side of the 
 house and the plate: (1) Determine the run of the intercepted part 
 of the common or jack rafter, as b, Fig. 83-a. (2) By means of the 
 table of rafter lengths per foot of run compute the length of rafter 
 under consideration. 
 
 In determining the run of an intercepted part it is necessary to 
 have data concerning the size of the octagon and the amount 
 cut off by the building. The lines E-D and F-D, Fig. 83-a, when 
 dimensioned, give this data. The actual lengths of the various 
 hips, jacks, etc., in practical carpentry, upon small bays, are usually 
 determined by actual measurement from the plate or sill to the 
 proper point of intersection on the building as indicated by a 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 89 
 
 stick or extension rule held at the proper angle. Sometimes a 
 large scale drawing is made and the runs taken from this. Upon 
 large work where accuracy is necessary and measurements im- 
 possible, trigonometric solutions should be used. 
 
 To determine the length of the intercepted hip rafter over c 
 of triangle a b c Fig. 83-a, the value of b must first be secured. 
 
 This value represents common rafter run for hip rafter rising 
 over side c, and run of intercepted common rafter rising over side b. 
 
 Length of intercepted hip rising over side c=6xunit length of 
 hip. (Table of lengths of octagon hips in terms of run of common 
 rafter, Fig. 73.) 
 
 Length of intercepted common rafter or jack nearest house = 
 b X unit length of common rafter. (Table of lengths of common 
 rafter in terms of run of common rafter. Fig. 49.) 
 
 It must be remembered that these are theoretic lengths meas- 
 ured down the middle of the top edge of the rafters. In framing, 
 suitable reductions must be made. For example, in framing the 
 intercepted common rafter nearest the building, the rafter must be 
 set over one-half its thickness that it may be nailed against the side 
 of the building. The allowance necessary in order to do this may 
 be secured by measuring the length from the long point instead of 
 the middle of the side or cheek cut. Suitable reduction, too, must 
 be made for the hip thickness — in this case one-half the diagonal 
 across the top edge of the hip, laid off at an angle of 22^/^°, or 5" 
 and 12" on the square. This amount will be laid off straight back 
 from the plumb cut, Sec. 35, (2) et seq. 
 
 Length of hip must be measured along the middle of the top 
 of the rafter. 
 
 46. Framing a Roof of One Pitch to Another of Different 
 Pitch. — Occasionally one must frame a roof of one pitch against 
 a roof of another pitch. To determine the cut, if the combination 
 tool is to be used, merely find the difference in degrees of the angles 
 
90 CARPENTRY 
 
 of inclination of the two rafters, and apply the tool as indicated in 
 the tables for making any other plumb cut, Figs. 49, 60 and 73. 
 The seat cut will be determined by the rise and run of the shed 
 rafter in the usual manner. 
 
 Where the framing square is to be used, lay the square as in 
 framing a plumb cut on the shed rafter, as at yl, Fig. 86, taking on 
 the tongue, the run, and on the blade the rise of the shed rafter. 
 Next lay a second square as at B, Fig. 86, taking on the blade the 
 
 rise and on the tongue the 
 run of the rafter of the 
 main roof, using the blade 
 of ^ as a reference edge. 
 Blade of B gives the cut. 
 47. Framing a Roof 
 of Uneven Pitch. — Not 
 infrequently a roof must 
 be framed in which several 
 pitches are involved. All 
 of the principles necessary 
 for framing such a roof 
 have been developed. It 
 remains for the student to make the applications to uneven 
 pitches. It is advisable to prepare a framing plan as shown 
 in Fig. 87. From such a plan it may be seen that the seat and 
 plumb cuts of common and jack rafters are determined in the usual 
 manner, being different upon the different pitches, of course, but 
 determined as for any given pitch. Lengths of common rafters 
 will be determined for any pitch by the tables already made use of, 
 the run being known or determined. 
 
 In selecting the numbers to use on the tongue and the blade of 
 the square, in laying out seat and plumb cuts of hip or valley rafters 
 of intersecting roofs of different pitches, any numbers may be used 
 
 Fig. 86. Laying off Cut of Shed Rafter 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 
 
 91 
 
 providing they have a ratio equal to that of the run and rise of the 
 rafter-being framed. Since the angle of intersection changes with 
 every change of pitch, it is hardly worth while developing a constant 
 to be used on the tongue in framing hip and valley rafters on 
 irregular pitches. 
 
 Side or cheek cuts for valley, hip or jacks are determined 
 according to principles developed in Sec. 35. 
 
 The backiiig of hips on roofs of uneven pitches, while the 
 amount to be removed on each 
 side of the hip will vary, is 
 determined by the principles 
 developed in Sec. 39. The 
 amount to be removed from 
 each side must be separately 
 determined according to the 
 angle the hip makes with the 
 plate. 
 
 Lengths of hip and valley 
 jacks are determined as in 
 
 Fig. 87. Plan of Uneven Pitches 
 
 Lengths of cripple 
 
 Sec. 42. 
 
 jacks will not be of uniform length, as in even pitched roofs. 
 The runs for such jacks may be obtained with sufficient 
 accuracy by measurements taken from an accurately made scale 
 drawing. 
 
 The following example will make clear the method of attack 
 where it is desired to develop a constant for hip or valley in 
 terms of the common rafter of one of the pitches. 
 
 Example: 
 
 Given: Main roof, Rise 
 
 8', Run = 12' = J pitch. 
 
 Minor roof, Rise = 5', Run = 6' = A pi'ch. 
 
 (1) Find the run of valley rafter over c, Fig. 88-a, in terms of 
 the run of the common rafter over b. 
 
92 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 Solution: 
 
 <;2=a2+62=(7K)2+6^(a :12::5 :8, whence a = 714) 
 
 c = 8.08' 
 
 Expressing this run of valley in terms of 12" of run of common rafter over b. 
 
 8.08': 6':: a;: 12" 
 
 a;= 16.16". (Check this value by scale drawing.) 
 
 Length of valley rafter, then, is found by taking 16.16" on the 
 tongue with 10" (|- of 12") on the blade, advancing the setting as 
 
 many times as there 
 are feet in the run of 
 the common rafter 
 over b. 
 
 The numbers 
 just given will give 
 the plumb cut and 
 the seat cut of this 
 valley rafter. 
 
 (2) Find the side 
 cut of the valley 
 rafter when it rests 
 against the ridge of 
 the minor roof. 
 
 R13E-5' 
 Fig. 88-a. Uneven Pitches 
 
 Solution: The side cut of the valley when allowed to rest in the plane of the 
 
 6 6 / 12 
 
 plate = angleB, Fig. 88-a, whose tangent=- = yi7 y =r^ =.800 = 38° 40') 
 
 Therefore, take 73^" on the blade (always the run of intercepted 
 common rafter of major roof), and 6" on the tongue (always the 
 run of the common rafter of the minor roof) ; scribe on the blade. 
 
 For side cut of valley rafter when it is to be fitted to a ridge of 
 the major roof, the lay-out when in the plane of the plate is ob- 
 tained by means of these same numbers, but the scribing is done 
 on the tongue. This lay-out in either case is for the rafter when 
 
ROOF FRAME: ANY POLYGON 93 
 
 lying in the plane of the plate. Having secured this, proceed as in 
 Sec. 35, (2). 
 
 Side cuts of jacks for the minor roof are determined by the 
 length of the ridge over a, Fig. 88-a, and the length of the rafter 
 over b. But the length of the ridge over a= the run of the inter- 
 cepted common rafter of the major roof, 7J^' here. A general rule 
 may be derived, therefore: For the side cut of a jack on a minor 
 roof take on the blade of the square the run of the intercepted 
 common rafter of the major roof (inches for feet), and on the tongue 
 
 Fig. 88-b. Fig. 88-c. 
 
 Side Cuts of Jacks for Uneven Pitches 
 
 take the length of rafter of the minor roof; scribe on the tongue. 
 Fig. 88-b. For the side cut of jacks on a major roof, take on the 
 tongue of the square the run of the common rafter of the minor 
 roof, and on the blade the length of the intercepted common rafter 
 of the major roof; scribe on the blade. Fig. 88-c. 
 
 A new problem arises in connection with uneven or irregular 
 pitches, the problem of making the projecting cornice member one 
 with another. Manifestly, if one part of a roof is steeper than 
 another and the plate the same height all around the building, the 
 cornice cannot be made to meet in the same plane. This difficulty 
 is overcome by raising the plate of the steeper roof an amount equal 
 to the difference in the rises of the two pitches for a run equal to 
 that of the projecting cornice. For example, in a half-pitch the 
 rise would be 24" for a run of 24" in the cornice. In a quarter- 
 pitch rise for a 24" run of cornice would be 12", a difference in rises 
 
94 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 ^ 
 
 Dice 
 
 TKinKKtll I II 
 
 of 12". The plate of the steeper roof must be raised that much 
 higher than that for the lower pitch. 
 
 48. Decks; Chimney Openings. — Decks are sometimes used 
 in roof framing to prevent some part of the roof from rising too high 
 
 above the remainder. Such 
 tV decks are framed of joist 
 stock spiked together with 
 butt joints. Upon the top 
 of such deck joists are 
 placed feathering strips so 
 sawed as to give the deck a 
 slight "fall" in each direc- 
 tion, two to three inches in 
 eight to ten feet. Upon 
 these feathering strips 
 flooring is laid. 
 
 The deck is framed, raised and braced, being held up by 
 studding placed under each corner. Next, the hip rafters are 
 placed, then the flooring on the deck, and finally the common 
 and jack rafters. Should common rafters be placed before the 
 deck flooring, the joists must be braced to withstand the pressure 
 against their sides. On large decks the outer deck frame is 
 doubled. 
 
 Chimney openings are framed as shown in Fig. 89. 
 
 /■ 
 
 / / — - 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 L-HEADEE. 
 Deck Frame 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 Exterior Covering and Finish 
 
 49. Sheathing or Sheeting. — After the frame work of a 
 building is erected and the openings made in the frame for windows 
 and doors, the sheeting is to be placed. Sheeting is placed either 
 horizontally across the studs or 
 diagonally, sometimes both ways, 
 depending upon the specifications of 
 the architect. The diagonal is some- 
 what stronger but is more expensive. 
 The horizontal is satisfactory upon 
 ordinary frame dwellings, especially 
 where the building is braced at the 
 corners -by studs cut in diagonally, 
 or by sheeting placed diagonally at 
 the corners as in Fig. 90. Such 
 sheeting should be matched and well 
 nailed with two 8d nails to each 
 stud. Building paper should be 
 placed upon the sheeting to further 
 protect the interior from cold. 
 
 Roof sheeting for shingle roofs 
 may best be of unmatched boards 
 spaced about 2" apart. For slate, matched stock should be used 
 and this covered with a tar or asphalt paper. 
 
 In making the face cut on roof boards for hips or valleys the 
 framing tool or the T-bevel may be made use of, being set to 
 the complement of the angle used in making the side or cheek cut 
 
 95 
 
 Fig. 90. Sheathing 
 
PLAn 
 
 -mm 
 
 SLADl 
 
 ELEVATIOK 
 
 Fig. 91. Setting T-bevel 
 for Roof Boards 
 
 96 CARPENTRY 
 
 on jack rafters. The complement angle in this case equals 90° 
 
 less the angle of the side cut of jack. Or, if the framing square is 
 to be used, the same numbers used in 
 making the side cut of the jack will be 
 used in la5dng out the face cut of roof 
 boards, with the scribing being done 
 along the tongue instead of along the 
 blade as in the case of the side cut. 
 
 A second T-bevel may be set as in 
 Fig. 91, the beam being placed across 
 the edge of the jack and at right 
 angles to it, with the blade adjusted 
 to the cheek or sawed surface of the 
 jack which is to fit against hip or valley 
 
 rafter. A framing tool might be used. 
 
 Carpenters more frequently, however, get the angles for sawing 
 
 roof boards by laying the board 
 
 to be cut out over the hip or 
 
 valley rafter, then sawing along 
 
 the side the rafter as in Fig. 92. 
 In warm climates, weather 
 
 boarding is often applied directly 
 
 to the studs, no sheeting being 
 
 used; the frame being strongly 
 
 braced at the corners. 
 
 50. Scaffolding. — Cornice is 
 
 placed after sheeting. To do this 
 
 advantageously it is necessary 
 
 to erect scaffolding or staging. 
 
 T7- no -ii i ^ Fig. 92. Sawing Roof Boards 
 
 iig. 93 illustrates a common 
 
 type. Stock 2"x4" is used for the uprights, and l"x6" for the. 
 
 horizontal members and braces or stays. Planks are placed upon 
 
EXTERIOR COVERING AND FINISH 
 
 97 
 
 Fig. 94. Scaffold Bracket 
 
98 CARPENTRY 
 
 these horizontals as shown. Fig. 94 illustrates a substitute for 
 staging, a scaffold bracket upon which planks are laid. 
 
 51. Cornice.— Cornices are generally classified as open or 
 skeleton, and box, Figs. 95 and 96. Each of these types will be 
 found constructed in almost endless variety of forms. The illus- 
 trations shown will serve the purposes of this text. The student 
 
 BID MOULDING. 
 5HIHGU3 
 ROOT BOASDIN( 
 CROVm 
 
 Fig. 95. Skeleton Cornice 
 
 Fig. 96. Box Cornice 
 
 should familiarize himself with the various common forms, details 
 of which may be got from any good, modern book on building 
 details. 
 
 In making the various cuts on cornice work, a miter-box must 
 be available for mouldings. The old type of wood miter box, with 
 the various necessary cuts laid out in its sides is satisfactory. 
 Some experimenting will be necessary upon the part of the beginner 
 to determine the manner of placing the moulding in the box to give 
 the correct cut. 
 
 The cuts for the plancher, which rests in the planes of a hipped 
 roof and which must be membered around a corner are determined 
 in a manner similar to that described for roof boards, Sec. 49, from 
 the cuts of the jack rafter cheeks. 
 
EXTERIOR COVERING AND FINISH 
 
 99 
 
 LOOKOUT HALVED 
 m GABLt RATTER. 
 
 GABLE RATTEIt 
 — 5TUD 
 
 Fig. 97a. Skeleton Cornice 
 
 ■ROOT 
 BOARD 
 
 CROWN 
 
 nouLDiriG 
 
 'PA5CIA 
 ■PLANCHER. 
 
 ex4 LOOKOUT 
 STUD 
 
 GABLE, KAf TCR' 
 
 -■C0R11E.R. POST 
 Fig. 97-b. Box Cornice. 
 
 Fig. 97 illustrates the manner of "framing in" the lookouts on 
 gables, where a skeleton cornice is used. Also there is illustrated 
 the manner of placing lookouts in gables for a box cornice. Unless 
 the cornice is quite wide, these blocks are merely fastened to the 
 
100 SARPENTRY 
 
 underside of the roof boards at intervals of 3 or 4 feet. The depth 
 of these blocks will depend upon the manner of framing the tail 
 ends of the rafters. 
 
 MetaUic gutters made to assume the form of the crown mould, 
 no wood crown mould being used, will be found in common use 
 upon ordinary house construction. A fall of Yi inch to every 10 
 feet is usually given gutters. 
 
 52. Raked Mouldings. — In all cases 
 where a moulding resting in one plane, 
 as crown or bed moulding at the eaves, 
 is to be membered with moulding swung 
 up out of that plane, as up a gable, one 
 of two things must be done to make the 
 surfaces of the mouldings match or mem- 
 ber properly at the joint: (1) The mould- 
 ing at the eave may have its top edge 
 tipped forward until its top edge lies in 
 the same plane as the top edge of the 
 corresponding gable moulding; (2) a moulding with a new face 
 may be worked which will member with the eaves moulding 
 when their reverse surfaces are fitted to the fascia or, in case of 
 bed moulding, to the frieze. 
 
 To member by means of the second method proceed as follows: 
 (1) Make a full sized drawing of a cross-section of the moulding. 
 Fig. 98. (2) Draw a number of lines thru the more important refer- 
 ence points of the moulding at an angle equal to the pitch of the 
 gable. (3) Draw horizontal lines thru the points of reference and 
 erect a perpendicular thru these passing thru the back of the 
 mould as A-B. (4) Lay off a hne C-D, Fig. 98, perpendicular to 
 the obUque Hues. (5) Using the lines A-B and C-D as reference 
 Unes, transfer the distances of the various points on the eaves 
 moulding, measured horizontally from A-B, to pitch lines meas- 
 
 Fig. 98. Laying out Gable 
 or Raked Moulding 
 
EXTERIOR COVERING AND FINISH 
 
 101 
 
 ured obliquely. A curve traced thru these points will give the 
 shape of the moulding required for the gable. Since this moulding 
 would, in all probability, have to be worked up especially for any 
 particular job, this practice is not followed except upon large or 
 important work. Cornices are usually designed so as to avoid 
 such work. 
 
 Figs. 99 and 100 illustrate two miter-boxes constructed for use 
 in cutting rake mouldings in gables. 
 
 I < > 
 
 t 
 
 Fig. 99. Miter Box for Raked Gable Moulding Cut at Eaves 
 
 f=f 
 
 T. 
 
 ¥ 
 
 Fig. 100. Miter Box for Plumb Cut of Gable Mouldings 
 
 In making the miter cuts on mouldings of the eaves, the hori- 
 zontal members, no special box is needed. The moulding will be set 
 on the far side of the box, upside down. The box will have the side 
 cuts perpendicular to the top edge and the angles across the top edges 
 will be determined by the miter of the plate, sill, or corner of the 
 building. On a square cornered building this miter will be one of 
 45°, 12" and 12" being taken on the square. Two cuts of each kind, 
 but reversed, are made in each box so that the moulding for each 
 side of each gable may be readily cut. On the octagonal building 
 5" and 12" would be used in laying out the miter, with scribing 
 done along the 5" member of the square. 
 
 For the miter cuts of the rake or gable member, special boxes 
 would best be constructed. For the cut of the gable member 
 
102 CARPENTRY 
 
 where it joins the eave moulding: (1) Lay off across the top of the 
 miter-box, right and left, the miter of the plate, sill, or corner of 
 the building. (2) Down the sides of the box lay off the slanting 
 lines as shown in Fig. 99, at angles determined by the plumb cut of 
 the common rafter. (3) Lay the moulding in the box as indicated 
 by the cross-section, Fig. 99, being careful to keep the backs of the 
 mouldings adjusted to the side and bottom of the box. A good 
 plan is to drive a nail or two in the bottom 
 of the box against which the moulding 
 may be made to rest, once the proper 
 position is determined by trial. 
 
 For the plumb cut of the gable mould- 
 ing, (1) lay off lines across the edges of 
 the box as in Fig. 100, using on the fram- 
 ing square the numbers which give the 
 plumb cut of the common rafter. Lay off 
 a right and a left cut as shown. (2) 
 Square these lines down the sides of the 
 box and saw. (3) The moulding will be 
 placed in the box as shown in the cross-section view of Fig. 100, 
 especial care being taken to have the backs of the mouldings ad- 
 justed to the back of the box. 
 
 Manifestly, one box may contain all these cuts to advantage 
 instead of having three boxes. 
 
 These cuts. Figs. 99 and 100, serve in cutting the miters on ends 
 of the gable fascia. A little consideration will make clear the 
 remaining cuts upon ordinary cornice work. 
 
 In splicing mouldings, corner boards, etc., a mitered joiiit is 
 best and should be made so as to shed water from the joint. 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 S3. Shingling. — The reason for placing cornice before base or 
 window frames, etc., is to allow the workmen to work inside should 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 101. Spliced Corner 
 Boards and Moulding 
 
EXTERIOR COVERING AND FINISH 
 
 103 
 
 inclement weather overtake building operations at any time. 
 Shingling, therefore, will follow cornice work. 
 
 The amount of shingle to be exposed to the weather will de- 
 pend in general upon the pitch of the roof. In no case should 
 this exposure exceed 5 inches. The shingle most used is 16 inches 
 long, and each shingle should lap two courses beneath it. The 
 usual amount of lay is from 4" to ^^" , by quarters. When 
 
 /9/) /) /) 
 
 CHALK LraE— 5HinGLE HAIL- 
 
 Fig. 102. Beginning Course 
 
 DOUBLt 
 LAYER OF 
 SHIHGLES 
 
 nearing the ridge or comb of a roof in shingling, the dimensions 
 used on the main body of the roof should be increased or de- 
 creased so as to make the final layer show under the comb or 
 ridge or saddle boards properly. The worker should begin such 
 calculations when within about four or five feet of the ridge so 
 that changes of exposure of the different layers may not be notice- 
 able and so that the line of shingle butts may be kept parallel 
 with the ridge. 
 
 The first layer of shingles should be a double one with joints 
 properly broken, and with the butts projecting over the crown 
 moulding about 1}4," to 2". Lay the shingles at the gables first, 
 then at intervals of about ten feet. Stretch a chalk line between 
 these fastening it to the butts by shingle nails driven into the butts, 
 Fig. 102. 
 
104 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 The remaining courses may be laid by means of a straight-edge 
 or by means of a chalk Hne. Both practices have ardent advocates. 
 Where a straight-edge is used, it is usually a piece of lap siding or 
 clapboard, and is held in place by being hghtly tacked. 
 
 In using the chalk hne a man for each end is required. The 
 line is chalked and snapped for three courses at a time. The me- 
 
 DfflnGLE 
 
 Fig. 103. Shingling. Toe Hold 
 
 chanic, aftejr a little practice, is able to keep the butts of the 
 shingles straight and to sight them so that they shall follow the 
 chalk line mark. On long courses a third person may be utilized in 
 chalking and in laying shingles. In chalking, this person holds 
 the line to the roof as sighted by an end man and the snapping is 
 done on each half of the line. 
 
 The chalking of a line so as to conserve the chalk is one of the 
 tricks of the trade which must be mastered early. It consists, in 
 
EXTERIOR COVERING AND FINISH 
 
 105 
 
 rotating the chalk about its hemispherical axis while being worked 
 backward and forward along the Kne, the line being held between 
 the chalk and the ball of the thumb. Otherwise the Hne would 
 soon sever the chalk. 
 
 Cut nails should be used in preference to wire nails because of 
 their greater rust-resisting quaUty. Dry shingles should not be 
 laid tight together, }/^ inch between is not unusual with dry shingles. 
 
 Fig. 104. Shingling. Toe Holds 
 
 It is best to spHt shingles over 10 inches wide before laying them. 
 Each shingle should have at least two nails, the average is two 
 nails for every four to six inches of shingle. 
 
 Scaffolding for roof work, or toe hold, is usually constructed by 
 nailing shingles to 2" x 4" as shown in Figs. 103 and 104. ' Other 
 forms are equally common. Apparently the holes left by the nails 
 used to fasten the toe hold to the roof would cause a leak in the 
 roof. To avoid any such danger, tho such danger is sUght because 
 of the swelling of the wood fiber upon the application of moisture, 
 the shingles having such holes are driven down the roof sUghtly 
 by striking their surfaces a glancing stroke. 
 
 54. Shingling Hips and Valleys; Flashing; Saddle or Comb 
 Boards. — Hip and valley shingles are usually sawed to shape before 
 
106 CARPENTRY 
 
 being taken to the roof, the face cut being the same as that used 
 across the face of the roof boards and plancher members inter- 
 secting about a corner of a hipped roof where plancher lies in the 
 plane of the roof. The cut across the edge of such shingles is made 
 square to the face. 
 
 Of the many ways of protecting the intersection of hip shingles 
 when in place upon a roof, the simplest is that of employing tin 
 
 BC A.EDS 
 
 Fig. 105. Shingle Tins 
 
 Fig. 106. Valley 
 
 shingles. Such shingles should be of sufficient length to allow the 
 corners to be turned under as shown in Fig. 105, and still extend 
 far enough under the next course of shingles to permit the nails 
 holding the tins to be covered. It is not good practice to nail 
 thru these tins after the roof has been covered, that is, to place 
 these tins after the roof has been shingled because the action of 
 the weather "lifts " the nails when exposed thus. 
 
 Valleys are covered with a strip of metal to a width of 20 inches. 
 Upon steep roofs and short valleys this width may be reduced to 
 
EXTERIOR COVERING AND FINISH 
 
 107 
 
 16 inches. Space must be left between the edges of valley shingles 
 as shown in Figs. 106 and 107. The amount will depend upon the 
 length of the valley and the steepness of the roof. For a J^ pitch 
 with a length of twelve to fourteen feet of valley, the space at the 
 top of the valley may well be 1 inch to each side of the valley center 
 line, widening gradually toward the lower end to 2}/^ inches to 
 each side. Chalk lines snapped upon the tin or other metal form- 
 ing the valley indicate the location of shingle edges. Nails in val- 
 
 Fig. 107. Shingling VaUey 
 
 ley shingles should be kept well back from the valley edge of the 
 shingles. 
 
 Flashing consists in placing tin shingles or other material about 
 the members making up a joint so that the joint shall "turn 
 water." Counterflashing consists in placing a double layer of tins 
 in such a way as to doubly insure turning water from a joint. 
 
 Fig. 108 is an illustration of flashing where shingles meet lap 
 siding. Shingle tins are forced under the siding on one side and 
 either under or over the shingles, several inches of lap being allowed 
 all about. 
 
 Fig. 109 illustrates a counterflashed chimney. A layer of tins 
 is placed as in flashing against siding except their top edges are not 
 
108 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 inserted. Over these tins a second layer is placed as shown, the top 
 edges being inserted % " between the layers of brick, the mortar being 
 raked out so that this can be done , These turned edges are held in 
 place by theinsertion of a wedging nail or tack, after which the cracks 
 are filled with cement, or better, an elastic roofing composition. 
 
 Tins should be carried high enough to prevent drifted snow from 
 entering; 2}/^ or 3 inches at the narrowest place. 
 
 ;tCOUMTER. rLA5HIT1G 
 FLASKinSp 
 
 Fig. 108. Flashing Fig. 109. Flashed and Counter-flashed 
 
 Saddle or comb boards are of various forms. They are used 
 to give the ridge a finished appearance and to turn any water which 
 might happen to strike thereon; also to hold the last course of 
 shingles in place. A simple form is obtained by creasing to the 
 appropriate angle a strip of tin eight inches in width. Place this 
 on the ridge and nail its edges at intervals of 3 or 4 inches. Where 
 boards are used, one board should overlap the other and extend a 
 half inch beyond to turn water from the joint so made. Gal- 
 vanized ridge rolls may be purchased in stock styles. 
 
 55. Finishing Exterior Walls.— With the roof completed, side 
 walls are next covered except where porches are to be attached. 
 
 Fig. 110 illustrates the manner of constructing an exterior wall 
 having a water table and lap siding, also the relation of the various 
 parts of an exterior wall. 
 
EXTERIOR COVERING AND FINISH 
 
 109 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 O 
 
110 CARPENTRY 
 
 A belt course is sometimes used between the first and second 
 stories of a building. Such a course is often constructed like the 
 water table. Like the water table or base, this belt course is furred 
 out in order to throw the course into greater relief. In case this 
 furring is not done, the lower edge of the belt board must be 
 rabbeted to receive the top edge of the siding. Frieze boards, too, 
 are frequently furred instead of being rabbeted. More elaborate 
 
 belt courses are common. 
 
 Building paper should be 
 stripped about the openings 
 for doors and windows before 
 the frames are set, to insure 
 warmth; also about corner 
 boards and cornice. 
 
 Corner boards and casing 
 edges should be very slightly 
 beveled so that the siding 
 may take a slight squeeze as 
 it is placed. Care in setting 
 frames and in making casing edges true will insure a saving of 
 time in placing siding. 
 
 56. Setting Window and Door Frames. — Two men usually 
 work together in setting frames, as in fact they do on much other 
 carpentry work. In setting door frames on outer walls (1) the 
 rough floor, etc., must be cut away so that the top of the sill may 
 rest on a level with finished floor when that is in place. (2) When 
 this is done the door sill is carefully leveled. Fig. Ill, and shingle 
 points inserted under the sill where needed to give solidity and 
 support. (3) The casing is given a nail close to the sill at each side 
 of the frame and (4) the sides of the jambs are plumbed and the 
 casings finish nailed. If the work is carefully done the frame 
 should be square. 
 
 Fig. 111. Leveling Door Sill 
 
EXTERIOR COVERING AND FINISH 
 
 111 
 
 Where heads of several windows are a given distance from the 
 floor, a stiff stick may be cut this length and used in placing win- 
 dows in position for height. The window sills will be leveled as 
 are door sills; the jambs are plumbed, Fig. 112, and casings nailed 
 at intervals of about a foot. 
 
 57. Siding. — -Preparatory to siding, a siding stick should 
 be made. Such a stick is made by planing parallel edges upon a 
 
 Fig. 112. Plumbing Frame 
 
 Fig. 113. Using Siding Stick 
 
 piece of J^ inch stock about 1 inch in width. Upon this stick markc 
 will be made which will indicate the spacing of the siding; these 
 marks being transferred to corner boards and casing edges, Fig. 
 113. To lay off this stick a given space is taken, water table drip 
 cap to the lower edge of a window sill for example. (1) This space 
 may be transcribed upon the stick easiest by setting the stick upon 
 the drip cap and against the casing edge, marking under the sill 
 upon the stick. (2) This space is "stepped off" by means of a 
 pair of dividers set to the amount of exposure desired. Exposures 
 will run from 43^^ to 4^ inches on ordinary lap or bevel siding. 
 
112 CARPENTRY 
 
 (3) Should there be a remainder, and there almost always is, the 
 exposure must be increased or decreased, whichever is necessary, 
 an amount sufficient to give an equal or even number of divisions. 
 In practice this amount is found by stepping off as suggested and 
 then making necessary adjustments by guess and again stepping. 
 This is continued until the desired result is attained. The differ- 
 ence is thus divided equally over the whole space instead of over 
 
 Fig. 114. Marking Length of Siding Fig. 115. Using Siding Hook 
 
 the last courses as in shingHng. In a similar manner a stick, or 
 another space of the same stick is laid ofi and stepped for the space 
 between the bottom of the window sill and the top of the drip cap 
 above the head casing of the window, etc. On long lateral spaces 
 this stick will be used to keep the lower edges of the boards in 
 position between the casings, by transferring its marks to the 
 building paper, stepping down from one of these marks with a pair 
 of dividers to the lower edge of the siding board being placed. (4) A 
 bunch of siding boards should have one end of each sawed square 
 across the face, but sawed under on the back side slightly so as to 
 
EXTERIOR COVERING AND FINISH 113 
 
 insure a fit on the surface. (5) One end is next fitted, with block 
 plane if necessary, after which (6) the length is marked by turning 
 the board upside down and marking on the lower edge of the board, 
 which is uppermost, with a knife. Fig. 114. Another way to mark 
 length is indicated in Fig. 115. This tool is called a siding hook or 
 tool and this method possesses 
 the advantage of caring for any 
 lack of squareness in the frame 
 or trim. 
 
 In nailing, care must be 
 taken to place the nail so that 
 it shall pass thru both boards 
 where lapped. Under windows 
 it will be necessary to trim off 
 part of the upper edges of the 
 siding boards. Saw kerfs at 
 either side of the part to be cut, 
 and a sharp, deep knife scoring 
 along a straight-edge should be 
 used to outline the part to be 
 removed. To determine the 
 amount to be removed, set the 
 dividers to the amount of spacing used for the boards in the space 
 under the window, plus the depth of rabbet, or groove in the 
 under side of the window sill into which the upper edge of the 
 siding board must fit. Set off this amount on the siding board 
 from the butt or under edge at each end of proposed cut, and 
 connect with straight-edge; scoring with knife. 
 
 Occasionally the carpenter is called upon to side a circular tower 
 or rounded corner of a building. That the lower edge of each 
 board may rest in a horizontal plane it will be necessary to shape 
 that edge before applying the board to the side of the building. To 
 
 SECTION OF- 
 
 aicme board m 
 
 P03IT10M 
 
 Fig. 116. Siding Circular Tower 
 
114 CARPENTRY 
 
 determine the amount of curvature to give such an edge proceed as 
 follows: (1) Plot a curve to represent the plan of the tower, Fig. 
 116. Draw this upon a scale suflftciently large and make use of 
 accuracy such as will insure a result equal to the requirements of 
 the occasion. (2) Draw the line A-B of indefinite length. (3) 
 Place a section of a clapboard in the position it will have on the 
 sheeting, as at abc, Fig. 116, and (4) extend a line along the face 
 surface to meet A-B. (5) With a radius equal to B-C describe 
 an arc with 5 as a center which shall cut the siding board as shown, 
 taking an equal amount off the edge at each end. 
 
 Occasionally it becomes necessary to fit a casing against a sided 
 wall. This casing is scribed as indicated in Fig. 117, a pair of sharp 
 dividers being made to follow the contour of the waU with one point 
 while the other marks or scribes the casing. A saw will be used to 
 cut to these lines, sawing under sHghtly to insure a fit at the face. 
 
 Fig. 117. Scribing against Irregular Surface 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 Interior Finish 
 
 58. Lathing ; Grounds. — Lathing is usually considered a part 
 of the plasterer's work but the carpenter is expected to prepare 
 the grounds and place the necessary furrings. The success of 
 the plasterer depends in no small degree upon the way the car- 
 penter does this work. If 
 corners are not firmly con- 
 structed, cracks will be sure 
 to appear in the plastering. 
 
 In lathing, joints must be 
 broken upon different stud- 
 ding every dozen lath, and 
 joints are not to be allowed 
 about a door or window open- 
 ing where their presence 
 would weaken the wall; such 
 as short lath nailed at one end 
 only. Neither are lath to be 
 placed at right angles to the 
 usual run of lath on the wall because uneven shrinkage would 
 cause the plaster to crack. 
 
 That the plasterer may make walls true and of uniform thick- 
 ness about door and window openings and along the floor, grounds 
 are placed as in Fig. 118. Such grounds are of stock rf " x 1 " or 2 " 
 nailed firmly to the studding. Grounds for base should be placed 
 so that the wall may be lathed and plastered entirely to the floor 
 that cold and vermin may be kept out. 
 
 115 
 
 Fig.. 118. Plaster Grounds 
 
116 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 3TUD3 
 
 BASE, nOULB, 
 M5t BOARD. 
 51101 Mou: 
 
 E'lOJOIST- 
 
 riNlSH !L00] 
 BEARING JOISTS- 
 
 Fig. 119. Detail of Partition Wall 
 
 For grounds on external corners in a room, metallic corners 
 especially manufactured for this purpose are recommended. 
 
 The beginner will be surprised at the numberless places requir- 
 ing attention in preparing for the plasterer. He should visualize 
 every corner and angle as he thinks the plasterer or lather must 
 have it. 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 117 
 
 59. Interior Walls.— Fig. 119 illustrates the construction of a 
 corner of an interior wall which is to be recommended highly for 
 strength. All door studding are to be doubled for strength, also 
 window openings of unusual size. 
 
 Interior door jambs are not usually placed until after plaster- 
 ing has been done. Thresholds are no longer used with interior 
 openings where both rooms are to be heated. 
 
 Joists doubled to support partitions should be spread sufl5ciently 
 to allow furnace pipes to enter, and still provide bearing for 
 partition studs. 
 
 Badly crooked studs in a partition wall may be straightened by 
 sawing a kerf on the hollow side, almost thru, and wedging with a 
 shingle point. A cleat nailed to the side of the stud after wedging 
 will give the original strength. Straight studs should be selected 
 for use about openings. 
 
 In setting studs for interior door jambs where studs are to be 
 doubled on the inside, add to the width' of door enough to make 
 the outer edges of the casings center on studs, and double inside 
 these, as in figuring openings between studs for outside door jambs. 
 Make allowance for the extra thickness of stud on each side. For 
 height of opening, where no threshold is to be used, add 23^" to the 
 height of the door. Remember that enough more must be cut 
 from vertical studs to allow for thickness of header. 
 
 60. Stair Building; Porch Steps. — Stair building is an art in 
 itself and as such belongs to millwork rather than to carpentry. 
 However, the carpenter must know the principles of simple stair 
 lay-out and construction for he is called upon to construct porch 
 steps, basement and often attic stairs. In smaller communities 
 he may also have to build the main stair. Fig. 120 illustrates three 
 common types of stair. 
 
 In planning a stair, the first requisite is to know its rise and run, 
 Fig. 121. The rise in this case is the vertical distance measured 
 
118 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 
 
 119 
 The 
 
 from the top of the first floor to the top of the second floor 
 run is the horizontal span of the stair. 
 
 A good average stair for a cottage will have a rise per step of 7 
 inches and a run of tread of 10 inches. Variations will have to be 
 made in both rise and tread to meet conditions, but the student 
 
 Fig. 121. Rise and Run of Stair 
 
 may take these dimensions as starting dimensions unless otherwise 
 directed. Steps should not be either too steep, due to excessive rise 
 per foot, or "slow" due to extreme width of step. An old rule for 
 determining the relation of rise to tread is: "Twice the rise plus the 
 tread should equal 24"." 
 
 Proceed as follows: (1) Lay off on a story pole the total rise 
 of the stair by placing the pole upright in the well hole. (2) Set 
 a pair of dividers to 7" and step off this distance so marked. If 
 there is a remainder, increase or diminish the divider's space and 
 again step off the space. Continue this until a setting is obtained 
 which gives no remainder. The number of risers will be found by 
 counting the spaces, and the rise per step by measuring one of these 
 
120 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 spaces. (3) If the run of the stair is not of exact specification 
 (some variation is usually possible) the run per step or tread may be 
 determined by the rule just given. If a definite total run is speci- 
 fied the tread must be figured. (4) Since there is always one more 
 
 riser than tread, the run 
 per step is obtained by 
 dividing the total run in 
 inches by the number of 
 risers less one. The 
 numbers thus obtained 
 for rise and run per step 
 are the ones to be used on the framing square in laying out the 
 stringers. 
 
 (5) Joint one edge of each stringer straight and square and 
 
 Fig. 122. Laying out String 
 
 PITCH BOARD- 
 
 WASTE FROn- 
 Sm 3TELHG!;E.5 
 
 Fig. 123. Pitch Board. Fig. 124. Economical Center Stringer 
 
 place the framing square as in Fig. 122 and scribe along both blade 
 and tongue. (6) Scribe the line A parallel to the 9" run, at a 
 distance from it equal to the rise diminished by the thickness of the 
 proposed tread. (7) Continue to lay the square as in (5) until the 
 required number of steps have been laid out. A pitch board might 
 have been constructed and made use of instead of the framing 
 square in laying out the stringers. This is nothing more than a 
 piece of stock which serves as a template by which to lay out the 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 121 
 
 rise and run of each step, Fig. 123. A cleat or fence nailed to one 
 edge after the three edges have been planed to dimensions permits 
 easy and accurate placing of the same. 
 
 (8) There remains the sawing out. On open stringers this is 
 done by sawing square across the board or plank. Where the 
 exposed ends of risers would make a bad appearance, the cuts in 
 the stringers for risers are made 
 mitering and the ends of the WALI,E>OAEDs 
 
 risers are mitered correspond- .„__-.-, 
 ingly. In either case the end 
 
 of the riser will be flush with ^^^^ _^ Q "^/^ STKIMGEK. 
 the exposed side of the stringer 
 or string. 
 
 Fig. 124 illustrates an ^'^■^'^^- Stringer for Attic Stair 
 economical way of constructing a center stringer, a 2"x 4" having 
 nailed to its top edge the waste cut from the side or wall 
 stringers. 
 
 61. Risers and Treads. — Upon the common stair, such as 
 attic and porch, etc., treads and risers are placed as in Fig. 120, 
 being nailed to place, risers first and then treads. 
 
 On porch steps and open stringers, the treads should overhang 
 at their ends an amount equal to that given the front. The cove, 
 if one be used, should be carried around and "returned" under the 
 end of the tread. 
 
 On enclosed or semi-enclosed stringers, a combination of 
 stringer and wall board is commonly used. Fig. 125 illustrates a 
 type of construction often used upon attic stairs. In this the side 
 stringers are framed of 1 " stock and then nailed to the wall board 
 of similar thickness. Such construction is not suited for first 
 floor stair work where the effects of shrinkage would show to 
 greater disadvantage. 
 
 Fig. 126 illustrates the manner of framing a modern stair suit- 
 
122 CARPENTRY 
 
 able for a first floor where the best type of construction is demanded. 
 As a rule, such stair work will be done at a mill and the stair 
 brought to the building knock-down. The carpenter will have 
 framed the rough stringers which are to support the ceiHng below 
 the stair, and placed them so that they may be used as a temporary 
 stair for the workmen. If the stairway is an open one or semi- 
 
 GROOVES 
 
 AHD GLUED ITt PLACE 
 
 Fig. 126. Main Stair Detail 
 
 open, the plastering under these stringers will have been placed, 
 the stair being put together on the floor and then raised to its place. 
 If the well-hole is such that the stair must be assembled while the 
 strings or wall boards are in place, the lath and plaster must be 
 left off the rough stringers until after the stair has been assembled 
 and the wedges glued and driven in place as shown in the illustra- 
 tion. Rough stringers must be placed far enough from the sides 
 of the well-hole so that the wall board may settle in place and that 
 the wedges may be easily placed, usually about 4" or 5" from the 
 wall will be sufficient. 
 
 62. Porches. — Fig. 127 illustrates the manner of framing 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 
 
 123 
 
 the floor of a porch. Such framework should be given a pitch 
 downward away from the house of about 1 " in. 10' that the water 
 may be drained. 
 
 Fig. 128 illustrates the manner of placing water table and 
 
 Itl ^ 
 
 2x6 HIPEAriER 
 
 II 
 Z*A JACK 
 
 RAFTtR-jfy 
 
 CEILIHG 
 
 cniDDLE 
 
 itlD 
 5TRlTiGER3 
 Fig. 127. Detail of Porch Framing 
 
 flooring, etc. Water table is first placed, the corners being mitered 
 and the whole furred out from the frame about a quarter of an 
 inch to allow any dampness to escape. Porch floors should have 
 their joints painted with lead just before beiag laid. 
 
124 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 Posts and balusters are usually placed after the porch roof has 
 
 been placed, the upper frame being temporarily supported by studs. 
 
 In Fig. 127 is also shown the manner of framing the bearing 
 
 RArTER- 
 CEILING JOIST- 
 
 CROWHMOULW 
 EASCIA- 
 
 PLAMCHER- 
 BEDMOULDinS 
 
 CASinG 
 
 DOOR ■ 
 SIDIHG 
 
 TU3CAM COLUMK 
 
 rLOORIIlG 
 
 noas. 
 
 J0I3T- 
 
 -WATER. TABLE 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 TUREIHG STRIP 
 \BA5EDQAED 
 Detail of Porch Finish 
 
 joists, ceiling joists and rafters for a hip roof. The various cuts 
 are obtained in the same manner as are similar cuts on the main 
 roof. Porch roofs are seldom given as much pitch as the main 
 roof. They do not need as much and must, usually, be kept below 
 the window sill Hue of the second story. 
 
 Fig. 128 also illustrates a common type of trim for porch 
 
INTERIOR FINISH _ 125 
 
 cornice. Where supporting plates are long, a flitch plate girder 
 is formed of them by the insertion between them of a stiff plate of 
 structural steel of suitable length and width. 
 
 63. Interior Finish. — -A part of the carpenter's duty is the 
 placing of all interior finish, such as base boards, door jambs, etc. 
 Formerly the carpenter made, or "got out" his trim by hand but 
 today he finds it much pleasanter and cheaper to buy the machine- 
 made product of the mill. Even door and window frames are 
 usually purchased from the mill, either assembled or knock-down. 
 
 64. Setting Door Jambs. — -If the studs about interior door 
 openings have been carefully selected for straightness and properly 
 set or plumbed, the setting of the door jamb should be an easy 
 matter. If this work has not been properly done, considerable 
 ingenuity will be required oftentimes to get the frame set so that 
 its edges are out of wind and the frame plumb. If a jamb should 
 not be set plumb and out of wind, the operation of making a door 
 fit its stops properly is a most trying one and the result usually 
 unsatisfactory. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the 
 necessity for proper placing of studs and jambs. (1) Saw off the 
 head lugs just enough to allow the frame to be placed in the open- 
 ing. (2) Cut a spacing stick of a length sufficient to reach from the 
 floor to the under surface of the head jamb when that member is 
 in its proper place. (3) Place the head jamb at one of its ends upon 
 this stick and tack the jamb to the stud hghtly. (4) Level the 
 head jamb and Hghtly tack the second jamb, inserting wedging 
 blocks or shingle points between the jamb and stud. A spread 
 stick cut to hold the jambs apart properly at the base is desirable. 
 (5) Lay a piece of finish floor against the face of each jamb and 
 scribe along the top of this to indicate where the jambs must be 
 cut off to fit the finish floor when it is placed. It is taken for 
 granted that the finish floor is to be laid last. If a finish floor is 
 not to be used, or if it is to be placed before the wall trim, the head 
 
126 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 jamb will be leveled but not located as to height, the dividers being 
 used to scribe the feet, being set so that the proper amount will 
 be cut off to allow the jamb to rest at the right height when cut to 
 the scribed hnes. (6) Remove the jamb and saw to the scribed 
 lines. (7) Replace the frame and tack it at one side after plumbing 
 
 Fig. 129. Setting Dividers at 
 Meeting Rails 
 
 Fig. 130. Scribing Bottom of 
 Lower Sash 
 
 it both on its face side and face edge. See that the jamb is at the 
 right height by inserting the blocks of flooring used in scribing to 
 length. (8) Tack the second side-jamb close to the head. (9) Sight 
 across the edges of these jambs and adjust the loose jamb until 
 the frame is out of wind. Plumb its face, blocking the back. 
 Shingles placed point to point provide easy blocking where the 
 space is not too large. A straight-edge placed against the face of a 
 jamb will indicate whether it has been sprung in the blocking or 
 wedging between jamb and stud. 
 
 65. Fitting Window Sash. — Sash are often fitted before the 
 house is plastered and before the sash are glazed. (1) Joint the 
 top and sides of the top sash, chamfering the arrises very slightly 
 by a stroke or two with the plane. (2) Cut and fit the meeting 
 rails about the parting stops remembering to leave a little "play," 
 that successive coats of paint on the stops may not cause binding, 
 1^" on each side is not too much. (3) Joint the edges of the lower 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 127 
 
 sash. (4) Since the bottom rail has not been beveled, only the 
 lugs sawed off, the meeting rails will appear with reference to one 
 another as in Fig. 129. Set a pair of dividers to a distance equal 
 to that between the tops of the meeting rails. This can be done by- 
 placing the dividers between the meeting rails. (5) Scribe the 
 bottom rail as indicated in Fig. 130. If the sash has been glazed 
 so that the outer face of the bottom rail is not accessible from the 
 inside, the scribing is to be done on the inside of the bottom rail and 
 a T-bevel set to the slope of the sill and this used to transfer the 
 angle to the edges of the sash. Before scribing the bottom rail, 
 see that the meeting rails are apart a uniform distance across the 
 sash. (6) Saw and then plane to the scribed line. 
 
 Where sash weights are to be used, they are easiest placed 
 before lathing. The proper tying of a sash cord so that it shall 
 not work loose with time is a matter for careful instruction by the 
 teacher. No good carpenter will have his sash cords coming 
 untied. The cord can be cut the estimated length after the 
 weight has been attached, and a knot or loop tied in the free end so 
 that the cord shall not slip thru the pulley. 
 
 In case weights are not placed before the lath and plaster, it will 
 be necessary to make use of a "duck" to draw the end of the sash 
 cord up thru the removed pocket cover of the jamb. This "duck" 
 is usually a piece of lead beaten about one end of a piece of stout 
 short cord. This lead weight is lowered thru the pulley by means 
 of a longer cord, the end of the sash cord is then fastened to the 
 longer cord, after removing the duck, and then drawn up and thru 
 the pulley. 
 
 To determine the length of sash cord, draw the sash weight to 
 the top of the jamb and, setting a sash upon the sill, mark and cut 
 the cord about four or five inches below the opening in the edge of 
 the sash in which the knotted end of the cord is to rest. 
 
 66. Placing Door, Window, and other Trim. — In Fig. 110-a 
 
128 CARPENTRY 
 
 is shown one of the many styles of casing in common use. Base 
 blocks and casing stock are prepared at the mill and the carpenter 
 has but to cut these to the proper lengths and fit and attach them. 
 (1) The base block is first placed, the some workmen prefer to fit 
 
 the base first, cutting it to a 
 length such as will allow the 
 proper placing of the block after 
 the base is nailed in position. 
 Where the finish floor is laid last, 
 this block will be scribed at its 
 bottom by means of a piece of 
 flooring, otherwise the dividers 
 would be used. (2) After the 
 blocks are placed the casings are 
 cut to length and nailed. (3) The 
 head member is next made up and 
 placed. It is customary for all 
 door and window heads, where 
 built up, to be constructed at one 
 time. It should be noted that 
 door casings are not placed flush 
 with the face of the jamb. They should be kept back about 
 ■is". This is to allow the easy placing of hinges and also for 
 appearance' sake. In all casing work the expedient of sawing 
 under at the back should be supplemented by the use of the block 
 plane, where necessary, that tight joints may result. 
 
 Window stool stock, like that of casings, is prepared at a miU 
 and needs only to be cut to length and have the ends "returned" 
 to match the face edge. (1) Lower the sash, then fit the stool 
 to this allowing enough "play" that subsequent paint or varnish 
 may not cause the stool to bind the lower rail of the sash. (2) 
 Place and nail the apron. (3) Cut and place the side casings. 
 
 Fig. 131. Using Block to Locate 
 Door Stop Position on Jamb 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 
 
 129 
 
 RAIL 
 
 PAHEL 
 
 Note that side casings are placed flush with the face of the jambs. 
 The crack so formed is concealed when the stop bead is placed. 
 (4) Place the head. 
 
 Base boards and base mould may now be placed. Blocks of a 
 thickness of the finish floor placed along the 
 wall at frequent intervals will serve to locate 
 the position of the base above the rough floor, 
 when the finish floor is to be laid afterward. 
 Internal corners of base mould and picture 
 mould, when of irregular face, should be 
 coped. External corners should have mitered 
 joints. Shoe mould will be placed after the 
 finish floor is laid. 
 
 Stop beads may next be placed in the 
 windows and in such doors as are not rab- 
 beted. Head stops are placed first and the 
 side stops then coped to these. A block of 
 a width equal to the thickness of the door 
 will be an aid in placing stops easily. Fig. 131. 
 Window stops should be so placed that the lower sash may move 
 freely as it is raised. 
 
 67. Hanging Doors. — In the fitting of large doors, such as in 
 dwellings, allowance must be made for subsequent coats of varnish 
 or paint, usually a scant xt" is allowed at top and each side of a 
 door. The bottom of a door is often not touched, except to saw 
 away the lugs of the stiles, until after the door is hung. The door 
 is hinged, then closed and the bottom scribed to the floor so as to 
 allow the door to swing over rugs or carpet freely. Where a thres- 
 hold is to be used, the door is scribed to fit the thickness of the 
 proposed threshold. }4," should be allowed at the bottom of the 
 door for play. If a door has a stile with a bow in its face, it should 
 be turned so that the bow is next the stop of the lock side. 
 
 Fig. 132. Door Parts 
 
130 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 68. Fitting a Door. — The names of the parts of a door and 
 their relative positions are indicated in Fig. 132. (1) Mark with 
 a try-square and saw off the lugs, the parts of the stiles which pro- 
 ject beyond the rails. (2) Plane an edge of the door until it fits 
 the side of the frame against which it is to be hung. If the frame 
 is straight, this edge may be planed straight. It is not wise to take 
 
 for granted the square- 
 ness or straightness of a 
 frame. A test or series 
 of tests may first be 
 made with square and 
 straight-edge. A me- 
 chanic, however, usually 
 planes an edge until it 
 fits the frame, testing by 
 holding the door against 
 the frame as near to its 
 position as its size will 
 allow. (3) Measure the 
 width of the frame at its 
 top and bottom. Fig. 133, and transfer these dimensions to the top 
 and bottom of the door, Fig. 134. When approaching the line, in 
 planing, place the door against the frame often enough to see 
 where the allowances must be made for irregularities in the frame. 
 (4) Plane the top edge of the door until it fits the frame properly 
 when the first planed edge is in position. (5) The length of the 
 door will be determined by scribing it to the floor after being 
 hinged. 
 
 The edge of the door which js to swing free is usually planed 
 slightly lower at the back arris than at the front. An examination 
 of the movement of an ordinary house door will show the reason for 
 this. 
 
 Fig. 133. Measuring Opening 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 
 
 131 
 
 69. Hinging a Door. — The hinges most commonly used in 
 carpentry are the kind shown as butts. Where the door stands in 
 a vertical position, hinges in which the two parts are joined by a 
 loose pin are generally used. By removing the pins the door may 
 be removed without taking the screws out of the hinge. Such 
 hinges are more easily applied than those with the fixed pin. 
 (1) Place the door in position; keep it tight against the top and the 
 hinge side of the frame. (2) Measure from top and bottom of the 
 door to locate the posi- 
 tion for the top of the 
 higher hinge and the 
 bottom of the lower 
 hinge. Usually, the 
 lower hinge is placed 
 somewhat farther from 
 the bottom than the 
 higher hinge is frqm the 
 top. (3) With the knife 
 or chisel mark on both door and frame at the points just located. 
 Fig. 135. (4) Take out the door, place the hinge as in Fig. 136, 
 and mark along the ends with a knife. In a similar manner mark 
 the frame. Make certain that the openings on door and on 
 frame are laid off so as to correspond before proceeding further. 
 (5) Set the gage for the depth the hinge is to be sunk Fig. 137 
 and gage both door and frame. (6) Set another gage for width 
 of openings. Fig. 138, and gage both door and frame, keeping 
 the head of the gage against the front of the door. (7) Chisel 
 out these gains on door and frame, Fig. 139. (8) If loose-pin 
 butts are used, separate the parts and fasten them in place. 
 Use a spiral drill to make openings for the screws. To insure the 
 hinges' pulling tight against the side of the gain make the holes 
 just a little nearer the back side of the screw hole of the hinge. 
 
 Fig. 134. Laying off Width 
 
132 CARPENTRY 
 
 Put the door in place and insert the pins. It s a good mechanic 
 
 who can make a door hang properly the first time it is put up. It 
 
 is better, therefore, to insert but 
 one or two screws in each part of a 
 hinge until the door has been 
 tried. (9) If the door hangs away 
 from the frame on the hinge side, 
 take it off; take off liinge on door 
 or frame, or both if the crack is 
 large ; chisel the gain deeper at its 
 front. By chiseling at the front 
 only and feathering the cut to- 
 ward the back, the gain needs to 
 be cut but about one-half as deep 
 as if the whole hinge were sunk. 
 If the door should fail to shut 
 because the hinge edge strikes the 
 
 Fig. 135. Locating Hinge Position frame too soon, the screws of the 
 
 offending hinge must be loosened 
 
 and a piece of heavy paper or card- 
 board inserted along the entire edge 
 
 of the gain. Fasten the screws and 
 
 cut off the surplus paper with a 
 
 knife. If plain butt hinges are used 
 
 the operations are similar to those 
 
 just described except that the whole 
 
 hinge must be fastened to the door 
 
 and the door held in place while 
 
 fastening the hinges to the frame. 
 70. Fitting Locks. — Two types 
 
 of lock are in common use upon dwelling doors, the rim and 
 
 the mortise lock. The rim lock. Fig. 140, iS used upon cheap 
 
 Fig. 136. Knifing Hinge 
 Location 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 133 
 
 construction and is attached to the outer surface of the door. 
 The mortise lock is used upon the better class of work; the box is 
 housed into a mortise and the selvage into a gain cut into the edge 
 of the door stile. Door locks are made so that the bolts may be 
 reversed to fit either right or left hand, doors. This is accomp- 
 
 Fig. 137. Setting Gage for 
 Depth of Gain 
 
 Fig. 138. Setting gage for 
 Width of Gain 
 
 lished by removing a screw in the side of the box and carefully 
 lifting the bolt, replacing it in reversed position. A right hand 
 door is one which swings to the 
 right when pushed open. 
 
 To attach a rim lock: (1) Place 
 the lock against the side of the 
 door and mark thru the key hole 
 and knob spindle hole with a sharp 
 awl or divider point. (2) Remove 
 the lock and bore appropriate 
 sized holes. (3) Fasten the lock 
 
 and place the escutcheons, knob spindle and knobs. (4) Locate 
 and attach the strike or latch plate. 
 
 To place a mortise lock, Fig. 141: (1) In a manner similar 
 to that used in placing the rim lock, locate the knob spindle and 
 
 Fig. 139. Gain Ready for Hinge 
 
134 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 ypUNAGt 
 
 UTCH PUTE- 
 
 Rim Lock 
 
 key holes. A more accurate result is obtained if the knob spindle 
 hole is located by four points, one at each corner of the square, 
 Fig. 142. In placing the lock, keep the selvage back from the edge 
 of the door a scant ts" so that the selvage may be sunk below the 
 
 edge of the door by that 
 amount when mortised 
 in. This will permit the 
 door to be trimmed with- 
 out the removal of the 
 lock in case the door 
 should swell after being 
 fitted and locked. (2) 
 Bore the holes for knob 
 spindle and key. (3) 
 Locate a center line on 
 the edge of the stile and bore for the mortise which shall receive 
 the box of the lock. (4) Place the box and then mark about the 
 protruding selvage 
 using a sharp knife. 
 Fig. 143. (5) Re- 
 move the lock and 
 "gain in" the sel- 
 vage. Fig. 144. (6) 
 Fasten the lock by 
 means of the screws 
 thru the selvage and 
 attach the escutch- 
 eons, knob spindle 
 and knobs. (7) 
 Close the door and 
 mark the vertical position of the latch upon the jamb. (8) Open 
 the door and place the latch or strike plate, locating its vertical 
 
 TOP 
 
 4 
 
 UTCH HATE 
 
 \ 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 [! 
 
 ^ 
 
 Gh 
 
 TOP 
 -5ELVAGE. 
 
 -LATCH 
 
 (S> 
 
 -BOLT 
 
 KHOB 
 SPIMbLt 
 
 rROIiT 
 
 SIDE rRom 
 
 Fig. 141. Mortise Lock 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 
 
 135 
 
 position by means of the knife marks just made upon the jamb, 
 
 and its horizontal position by a measurement taken from the latch 
 
 to the face of the door; transfer to the jamb by rule or gage. (9) 
 
 Scribe about the plate and then gain it into the jamb. On a 
 
 door with a rabbeted jamb instead of an adjustable stop, the 
 
 essential measurement will be 
 
 from the back arris of the stile 
 
 to the front of the latch. (10) 
 
 Attach the plate, then chisel out 
 
 the openings for latch and bolt. 
 Equally common is the practice 
 
 of taking step (3) first, with steps 
 
 (1) and (2) taken after step (5). 
 71. Laying and Scraping 
 
 Floors. — Quarter - sawed stock 
 
 makes the best wearing floor. 
 
 However, oak wears well in either 
 
 plain or quarter-sawed forms. All 
 
 hard wood finish floors are milled 
 
 with tongues and grooves on edges and ends. 
 
 ing are usually drilled at the mill also. 
 
 In laying a finish floor, it is not advisable to lay it with its 
 lengths extending in the same direction as those of the rough floor. 
 The shrinkage of the wide boards of the under floor will open 
 unseemly cracks in the finish floor. Where it is necessary to run 
 lengths for both floors in the same direction the finish floor should 
 be separated from the rough floor by thin furring, such as lath, 
 placed 16" apart. Rough floors laid diagonally overcome this 
 difficulty. Paper is usually placed between the two floors. Care 
 should be taken in starting a floor to select straight boards. Where 
 grooves fail to fit tongues of boards that are laid, a piece of 2"x4" 
 about 3' or 4' long should be used as a pounding block that the 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 Locating Knob Spindle 
 Hole 
 
 Holes for nail- 
 
136 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 tongue of the board being laid may not be battered, the most com- 
 mon cause of trouble in floor laying. Nails are driven "toeing" 
 thru the board just above the tongue that the heads may be con- 
 cealed and also to better draw the board in position. Hammer 
 marks showing upon the. face of a floor indicate carelessness. It is 
 
 Fig. 143. Locating Selvage Gain 
 
 Fig. 144. Ready for the Lock 
 
 not necessary that nails should always strike joists, for a good 
 rough floor will hold such nails with sufficient firmness. Where 
 nails must be driven into hard maple, a hole must be drilled first. 
 On the great majority of hard woods the dipping of the point of the 
 nail in soap or oil will cause it to enter the wood with careful driving, 
 without the drilUng of a hole. 
 
 After a hardwood floor has been laid it should be scraped. 
 Scraping floors is a tedious task at best. Electrically driven ma- 
 chines now reheve the carpenter of much of this work, the floors 
 being laid and finished by a speciaHst in floor work. The shoe 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 
 
 137 
 
 mould is placed last, being nailed to the floor, so that any shrinkage 
 of the joists will cause the mould to drop with the floor. Base 
 board and shoe mould should be stained, but not varnished, be- 
 fore the mould is placed. 
 
 On account of waste in tonguing and grooving and straightening 
 flooring stock, an allow- 
 ance of from i to i 
 
 in 
 
 SRIPCAP 
 ^4-^iEAD CASITIG 
 ^-0UT31DtCA5mG 
 
 yEABBOID JAMB 
 
 extra is necessary 
 estimating. 
 
 72. Door and Win- 
 dow Frames. — Like 
 other carpentry detail, 
 window and door frames 
 may be constructed in 
 any one of a number of 
 styles. Fig. 145 illus- 
 trates a satisfactory type 
 of door frame for cottage 
 use. The sill will be 
 given a pitch or fall of 
 1" in 12" and will have 
 its ends housed into the 
 jambs. The jambs will 
 be assembled first, being nailed together. Next, the side casings are 
 fitted at their lower ends, cut to length and nailed. Frequently 
 they are nailed and then cut to length. The head casing with its 
 cap is next placed. 
 
 Fig. 146 illustrates a common type of cottage window frame. 
 The method of procedure is not unlike that described for the door 
 frame. The sill will be grooved on its under side to receive the 
 top edge of the siding board and given a fall of 1" in 10". Jambs 
 must be grooved to receive a parting stop as shown. Where 
 
 Fig. 145. Detail of Door Frame 
 
138 CARPENTRY 
 
 weights are to be used each jamb must have a pocket as detailed. 
 The stock sawed out of the jamb may be made use of for pocket 
 cover stock by proper manipulation. Pulleys may be placed be- 
 fore the jambs are assembled, at least the holes for them should be 
 prepared. 
 
 There are a number of "tricks of the trade" in frame making. 
 
 Their presentation must 
 DRIP CAP 
 
 JAMB 
 
 PULLEYS 
 
 PARTIOG STM 
 
 STOP 
 BIAD 
 
 ■WEIGHT POCKET 
 PULLEY 3TILE, 
 BLIND STOP 
 
 3ILL 
 
 be left to the instructor, 
 for the making of frames 
 belongs to millwork and 
 space can be spared here 
 for general directions 
 only. 
 
 73. Woodwork in 
 Masonry Structures. — 
 Wood framing in brick 
 and other masonry build- 
 ings is but slightly diSer- 
 ent from that wholly in 
 wood. Fig. 147 illustrates 
 the manner of framing 
 the ends of joists which 
 rest in solid masonry walls. 
 The ends are shaped as indicated so that, in case of fire, the floors 
 in falling will not pull over the walls, but will fall free. Anchors 
 are used to tie the building together, and these are to be placed 
 near the lower edge of the joists so that they may split out of the 
 joists easily or allow the floor to drop free, in case of a falling of 
 the floor and joists. 
 
 A popular type of construction is that known as brick veneer. 
 Fig. 148. It consists of an ordinary framed house with a cover- 
 ing of brick as shown. These bricks are fastened to the wall by 
 
 Fig. 146. Detail of Window Frame 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 139 
 
 metallic bonds. From the outside, the building has all of the 
 appearance of sohd brick, while it is claimed that a wall so formed 
 is warmer than one of solid brick. 
 
 5TRAP AnCHOR.' PLATtAtiCHOR 
 
 Fig. 147-a Fig. 147-b 
 
 Joist Framed into Briclc Wail 
 
 Over openings in brick walls, lintels are required to support the 
 arch. Fig. 150. 
 
 Fig. 149 shows the manner of framing a window opening for 
 
 niTAL EONDS. 
 
 TAR. 
 PAPER. 
 ■AIR 5PACL 
 
 Fig. 148. Brick Veneer 
 
140 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 Fig. 149. Window Detail for Brick Wall 
 
INTERIOR FINISH 
 
 141 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,1,1 , J^, ,1, p^l^l — II 
 
 ] ' 1 ■ i^n'rniiliims-^ 
 
 
 
 ^^DiijUlJ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 WoBi inmr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ANCHORS 
 
 Fig. ISO. Lintels 
 
 a brick wall. Fig. 151 illustrates the manner of attaching a plate 
 to a brick wall. 
 
 Fig. 151. Attaching Plate 
 to Brick Wall 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 Estimating 
 
 74. Methods of Estimating. — Building costs may be divided 
 into two main divisions, cost of material and cost of labor. There 
 is but one so-called safe way to figure or estimate the cost of any 
 particular piece of carpentry work. This consists in "taking off" 
 the material quantities in detail and to this adding the labor cost 
 of placing the same. This is the method in common use by con- 
 tractors in making a final estimate. Where a rough or working 
 estimate is required, such as an architect's estimate of the probable 
 cost of a building planned by him, two methods may be used. 
 One consists in figuring the cubical contents in feet and multi- 
 plying a predetermined, or unit price per cubic foot for that 
 type of house. Ordinarily, the main frame is figured, counting 
 from the basement floor to the top of the attic walls that are, or 
 may be finished — outside measurements. Porches and open 
 spaces are not figured. A second method consists in estimating the 
 number of squares (100 sq. ft.) of side wall, of partitions, of floors, 
 etc., and multiplying a predetermined price per square for a 
 similar type of building. This latter method is more accurate than 
 the cubic-foot unit method. 
 
 75. Table for Estimating by Cubic-Foot Unit. — The follow- 
 ing table of unit prices will give a rough working estimate for 
 various types of building differentiated after the custom of in- 
 surance adjusters. The prices are for 1915 and to be of any value 
 must be compared with known costs of similar structures in the 
 community in which they are to be used. Any evident variations 
 in unit costs so discovered should be noted and corrections made. 
 
 142 
 
ESTIMATING 143 
 
 CUBIC-FOOT UNIT ESTIMATE 
 
 COUNTRY PROPERTY PER CUBIC FOOT 
 
 Frame dwelling, small box house, no cornice 5c 
 
 Frame dwelling, shingle roof, small cornice, no sash weights, plain. 6^- l%c 
 
 Brick dwelling, same class 8^-lOc 
 
 Frame dwelling, shingle roof, good cornice, sash weights. Minds 
 
 (good house) S^-lOc 
 
 Brick dwelling, same class 1\}4-V2yic 
 
 Frame barn, sMngle roof, not painted, plain finish 2yi- Zyic 
 
 Frame barn, shingle roof, painted, good foundation 3 - 4 i^c 
 
 Frame store, shingle roof, painted, plain finish 6J^- 8^c 
 
 Brick store, shingle roof, painted, good cornice, well finished 8M-ll><c 
 
 Frame church or school house, ordinary 6X- 8^c 
 
 Brick church or school house, ordinary 10 -12}4c 
 
 If slate or metal roof, add yic per cubic foot. 
 
 CITY PROPERTY 
 
 Frame dwelling, shingle roof, pine floors and finish, no bath or 
 
 furnace, plain finish (good house) 7)4- 8Hc 
 
 Brick dwelling, same class 10 -ll>ic 
 
 Frame dwelling, shingle roof, hardwood floors in hall and parlor, 
 
 bath, furnace, fair plumbing 10 -\lj4c 
 
 Brick dwelling same class. 10 -12}4c 
 
 Frame dwelling, shingle roof, hardwood in first floor, good plumb- 
 ing, furnace, artistic design, some interior ornamentation, well 
 
 painted 12>^-15c 
 
 Brick dwelling, good plumbing, bath, furnace, pine finish, well 
 
 painted 13K^-15c 
 
 76. Grading Rules. — There is no uniformity as to grades of 
 lumber. Fifteen or more associations have rules for inspection and 
 classification of lumber and these rules vary with the association 
 and from year to year in the same association. The following 
 rules taken from a catalogue of a middle west lumber concern will 
 be found helpful: 
 
 Yellow Pine Dimension, Studding, Joists and Timbers 
 No. 1 Common. — The best grade and the one recommended for 
 use on first class jobs. 
 
144 CARPENTRY 
 
 No. 2 Common.— Dimension up to 20 feet long only can be 
 obtained in this grade. Timbers are not manufactured in No. 2. 
 This stock will show defects not found in No. 1 grade, and 
 some pieces are not entirely straight. It is a sound, serviceable 
 grade, but not recommended for first class work; 
 
 Yellow Pine Boards, Sheathing, Shiplap, and Fencing 
 No. 1 Common.— This grade is not clear, but is strictly sound 
 and uniform in thickness and width. It is used on the best 
 classes of work, for barn boards, and wherever exposed to wear 
 and weather. 
 No. 2 Common. — This grade is sound but contains more sound 
 knots than No. 1 and is somewhat coarser. It is mostly used 
 on first class jobs for sub or rough floors, and for sheathing under 
 siding. It can be used for outside work, but is not recom- 
 mended for this purpose except upon cheap buildings. 
 No. 3 Common. — A fairly good lower grade which will work up 
 nicely but with some waste due to cutting out defects. Runs 
 uneven in quality. Makes a fair subfloor or sheathing. 
 
 Yellow Pine Flooring, Ceiling, Partition, and Drop Siding 
 
 Clear Grade. — -The best grade manufactured. Practically free 
 from defects and the grade used upon first class jobs. Is strong, 
 sound, and will lay without waste due to cutting out of imper- 
 fections. Should be used when a natural finish is desired. 
 
 No. 1 Common. — This grade will contain small, sound knots, 
 sap stains, pitch or pitch pockets. It is sound and durable, 
 and a good grade for ordinary work or wherever covered with 
 paint. 
 
 No. 2 Common. — Coarser than No. 1 grade; will lay up with 
 little waste. Is sound, and flooring of this grade is often used 
 for sheathing or sub flooring where a warm, tight job is desired. 
 Can also be used on cheap painted jobs. 
 
ESTIMATING 145 
 
 Fir Boards, Timbers, Drop Siding, Ceiling and Flooring 
 Select No. 1 Barn Boards. — This grade is especially selected and 
 
 is better than No. 1. 
 No. 1 Timbers. — Good sound straight stock, to be used for sills 
 
 and posts subjected to moisture. 
 Clear Ceiling. — Free from defects. Good for cornice work and 
 
 porch ceilings. 
 Edge Grain Flooring, Clear Grade. — Especially suited to porch 
 
 floors as it wears well and resists effects of moisture. 
 Clear Drop Siding. — Contains no sap, shakes or other defects. 
 
 Shingles, Lap Siding, Y. P. and Cypress Finish, 
 White Pine Boards 
 
 5 to 2 Clears. — The heaviest grade — five shingles laid one on 
 
 top of the other will measure 2" at the butts. 
 
 6 to 2 Extra Star A Star.— A lighter grade, but clear and 16", as 
 
 are the 5 to 2" grade. 
 
 Bevel or Lap Siding. — Carried in stock in red cedar, redwood, 
 cypress, and white pine. "Clear" is free from all defects. 
 
 Cypress " C" Grade. — Has small sound knots and other slight 
 defects such as can be covered with paint. All siding is bundled 
 10 pieces to the bunch in random lengths. Not furnished in 
 specified lengths. 
 
 Yellow Pine and Cypress Finish. — This stock in "clear" grade 
 is practically free from defects. The yellow pine is suitable for 
 interior finish. C5T)ress is suitable for inside finish or for cornice 
 work on first class jobs. "C" cypress finish contains some 
 knots and other sUght defects. Is suitable for outside finish on 
 ordinary jobs. 
 
 White Pine Boards. — As a rule, carried in stock only in No. 1 
 grade. Nothing but sound, red-knotted boards should be in- 
 cluded. No shakes. Excellent for exposure to weather. 
 
146 CARPENTRY 
 
 77. Estimating Lumber Quantities.— Lumber is measured in 
 terms of the board foot as a unit, 12" by 12" by 1 " or its equivalent, 
 indicated by the abbreviation B. M. (board measure). 
 
 Example: 
 
 Determine the B. M. in a girder 6" by 8" by 16'. 
 
 Sohdion: 
 
 Rule — Thickness in inches times width in inches, divided by 12" times the 
 
 length in feet gives a number equal to the number of board feet. 
 
 6"x8" 
 
 ^2 X16' = 64' B.M. 
 
 Stock less than 1 " thick is figured as 1 " thick. In commercial 
 practice lumbermen make use of tables in determining quantities. 
 Appendix III. 
 
 In estimating quantities, suitable allowance must be made 
 for waste. This waste is incurred (1) thru loss when boards or 
 planks are cut to required lengths. Standard lengths are 10', 12', 
 14', etc., and these will not always cut to advantage. (2) Waste 
 is incurred in machining the stock, as dressing, edging, tonguing 
 and grooving. Necessary allowances will be indicated herein. 
 
 Heavy Timbers. — Girders, posts, etc., are determined by count. 
 
 Joists. — To determine the number of joists required for a room 
 or a building, count the actual number required beginning at a 
 wall (3^ times number of feet in liength or width of room when set 
 16" on centers), and to this add one joist to be placed against the 
 second wall. 
 
 Cataloged or listed sizes are for lumber fresh from the saw. 
 Shrinkage due to seasoning and surfacing one side and one edge so 
 that the stock may have uniform thickness and width will give 
 actual sizes as follows: 2" x 4" when sized on one side and one edge, 
 will give lYs" X 35^"; 2" X 6", 5-1-5 and IE, lyg" x 5^"; 2" x 8", 
 5-1-5 and IE gives l^"x7i^"; 2" x 10", 5-1-5 and IE gives 
 iys"x9y2"; 2"xl2", 5-1-5 and IE gives 1^ x 11>^. When 
 
ESTIMATING 147 
 
 5-2-5' and 2E, or sized on 4 sides, stock will measure 3^" less than 
 indicated above. 
 
 Studs for Walls and Partitions. — Count one for each lineal foot of 
 wall or partition, where specified 16" on centers. The extra studs 
 are to be used in doubling corners, at doors and windows, and in 
 gables. Barns and sheds will not require these extra studs. 
 
 Bridging. — Allow 25 lineal feet of 2" by 4" for each square of 
 flooring. 
 
 Rafters. — On a plain roof, count actual number and add one, 
 as in counting for joists. 
 
 Sheathing. — Calculate the exact surface to be covered, deduct 
 openings; then, for unmatched sheathing or barn boards or fencing, 
 as it is also called, add -^ for 12" boards, tV for 10" boards and Y^ 
 where 8" boards are used. Four inch and 6" are seldom laid solid, 
 being used mainly for roof sheathing for shingle roofs, and laid 2" 
 apart. These additions are due to the fact that thru seasoning and 
 dressing, a 12" board becomes 113^", a 10" becomes 9^^", an 8" 
 becomes 1%", a 6" becomes 5^" and a 4" becomes m". The 
 additions specified allow for waste in cutting. 
 
 Shiplap. — Calculate the exact surface to be covered, deduct 
 openings; then add for floors 17%, for sidewalls 20%, for 
 roofs 25%. 
 
 Sheathing laid with 2" spaces should have proportionate de- 
 ductions made, that is, on l"x6", figure as if laid solid, then 
 deduct 3^ ; for 1 " X 4" deduct }/^- Sheathing when matched, such 
 as is used sometimes for sub-floors and side walls and roof sheathing 
 under slate roofs and better known as flooring, will be estimated by 
 figuring the exact surface to be covered, deducting the openings, 
 then adding for 6" stock, which is the kind most always used, 15% 
 for floors, 17% for sidewalls, and 20% for roofs. 
 
 If shiplap or matched sheathing is laid diagonally add 5% for 
 waste due to lack of ability to reverse cut. 
 
148 CARPENTRY 
 
 Siding. — For bevel siding, calculate the exact surface, deduct 
 openings; then add for 6" siding when laid 43^" to the weather, 
 33%; for the 4" siding add 50%. 
 
 Drop Siding. — Drop siding, ceiUng and wainscoting are 
 figured just like matched flooring, which is described below. 
 
 Flooring. — ■ For square edge, calculate the exact surface to be 
 covered, add for 6" flooring 11% for waste in matching, etc.; for 
 4" flooring add 20%. It is becoming common practice to specify 
 flooring by actual face measurement after being machined. The 
 following figures are for actual surface measurements. 
 
 For matched flooring, calculate the exact surface to be covered, 
 then add 20% for 5}i " flooring, for 33^ " flooring add 25%, for 2}^ " 
 add 33%, for 1^" add 40%. 
 
 Flooring less than 1 " thick, like all other lumber, is estimated as 
 1" thick. 
 
 Shingles. — A bunch of shingles contains the equivalent of 
 250 shingles of 4" average width. With an exposure of 43^" to the 
 weather a 4" average shingle will cover 18 square inches, making 
 800 shingles to the square. Waste in doubling the first course and 
 in laying will necessitate an addition of 8% on a plain roof and 
 12% on hips or on gabled walls. Cost estimates are based upon 
 the M. or 1000. 
 
 SfflNGLES PER SQUARE 
 Plain ropf, 4 " exposure, 990; roof cut up, 1010 
 Plain roof, 4>^" exposure, 880; roof cut up, 900 
 Plain roof, 5 " exposure, 790; roof cut up, 810 
 
 Latk. — Lath for interior plaster work are usually ^" by 1^" 
 by 4', put up in bundles of 50 each and are sold by the 1000. 
 1000 lath will cover 70 yards of surface and will require 8 lbs. of 
 3d fine lath nails. Lathing is usually considered a part of the 
 plasterer's contract. There is no uniformity of practice as to the 
 deduction for openings. 
 
ESTIMATING 
 
 149 
 
 Building Papers. — The cheapest is "rosin sized," and is not 
 waterproof. This is used mainly under floors and upon side walls ■ 
 under bevel siding. It is sold by the pound in rolls each 36" wide 
 containing 500 square feet. 
 
 Dry felt is used where better protection from cold is desired. 
 In the cheaper grades, the material is made of wood fiber and rosin. 
 In the better grades wool is used. Tar felt, used where moisture 
 is to be resisted, is dry felt saturated with tar. These materials 
 are sold by the pound: 12, 15, and 20 lbs. to the 100 square feet, 
 in rolls of various widths. A catalog should be consulted for 
 weights and covering capacity. 
 
 78. Estimating Millwork Quantities. — The number of doors 
 and windows will be determined by an actual count. 
 
 Mouldings, casings, baseboard when moulded, window stools, 
 etc., are sold by the 100 feet lineal measure, random lengths. 
 Extra charge is made for specified lengths where the quantities are 
 determined by scale measurements of the plan and elevations. 
 Window frames. of stock sizes, door frames, inside jambs, stair 
 parts, buffets, etc., will be found priced in millmen's catalogs, and 
 assist greatly in determining prices for ordinary work. This text 
 cannot give space to list such data, which is so readily obtained 
 from commercial catalogs. 
 
 79. Example of Form for Bill of Materials. — 
 
 BILL 
 
 Ticket 
 
 No. or 
 Feei 
 
 No. OP 
 Pieces 
 
 Size 
 
 Length 
 
 Description 
 
 Price 
 
 Catalog 
 Number 
 
 Rate 
 
 Exteosions 
 
 
 270 
 300 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 1x6 
 
 2x4 
 
 M 
 
 14 
 
 Y. P., SIS 
 
 and IE 
 5-2" red ce- 
 dar shingles 
 « 2 Y. P.— 
 
 flooring 
 
 22 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 55 
 
 5 
 7 
 6 
 
 94 
 10 
 00 
 
 19 04 
 
150 CARPENTRY 
 
 80. Estimating Labor Costs. — In estimating labor costs the 
 following data is to be made use of. The estimator will have 
 to determine the hours per day and the scale of wages per hour 
 paid in his locality, and make whatever changes in the data is 
 necessary. He should also compare the quantity of work done by 
 men he may observe with that given herewith. The time data 
 herewith is based upon the work of one mechanic who has mastered 
 his trade fairly well. With an efficient foreman and a selected 
 group of workmen these time allowances can be reduced in many 
 instances as much as one-half. Experience alone will determine 
 the possibilities of such reductions with safety. 
 
 COST OF PLACING FRAME AND COVERING 
 By One Man 
 
 HRS. PER 1000 B.M. FT. 
 
 Sills and plates 6"X8", no gains or mortises 20 
 
 Sills and plates 6"X8", gains no mortises 40 
 
 Sills and plates 6"X8", gains and mortises 60 
 
 Joists and box sills 20 
 
 Studding 2"X4" 32 
 
 Studding 2"X6" 23 
 
 Rafters 2"X4", plain gable roof 40 
 
 Rafters 2"X4", hip roof add 5% to 30% for each hip or valley. 
 
 Rafters2"X6", plain gable roof 27 
 
 Rafters 2"X6", hip roof add 5% to 30% for each hip or valley. 
 
 Sheathing, square edged, horizontal, walls 16 
 
 Sheathing, square edged, diagonal, walls 19 
 
 Sheathing, 6" matched, walls 24 
 
 Sheathing, 6" matched, walls diagonal 32 
 
 Sheathing for floors, sub-floors, square edged 10 
 
 Sheathing for floors, sub-floors, square edged diagonal 12 
 
 Roof Sheathing, plain gable roof 13 
 
 Roof Sheathing, hip roof 20 
 
 * For a more complete treatise of labor costs, the student is referred to - 
 Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data, Section X, the source, in the main, of the 
 basis of this data. 
 
ESTIMATING 151 
 
 COST OF PLACING FRAME AND COVERmG— {Continued) 
 
 HKS. PEE 1000 LIN. FT. 
 
 Cornices 400 to 800 
 
 Water table, 3 member 220 
 
 Corner boards 73 
 
 Belt 195 
 
 HRS. PER M. 
 
 Shingling, plain roof, new work 3^ 
 
 Shingling, hips and valleys, add 5% for each hip or valley. 
 Shingling, old work, add 20% for labor in removing old shingles. 
 
 Shingling side walls, plain 5j4 
 
 Shingling side walls, fancy 8 
 
 HRS. PEE 1000 B.M. FT. 
 
 Siding, bevel, 6" 35 
 
 Siding, bevel, 4" 42 
 
 Siding, shiplap 27 
 
 Siding, drop, when window and door casings and corner boards are placed 
 
 over siding 20 
 
 Siding, drop, when jointed between casings and corner boards 32 
 
 Surfaced barn boards i ' 11>^ 
 
 Ceiling, store 53 
 
 Wainscoting, cut, put up, finished with cap and X round, in a dwelling. . . 46 
 
 COST OF PLACING FLOORS 
 By One Man 
 
 HRS. PER 1000 B.M. FT. 
 
 Floors, pine 35 
 
 Floors, yellow pine, 3}4 " face, laid on sheathing, including paper between, 
 
 smoothing rough joints, business block 40 
 
 Floors, yellow pine, dj4" face, laid direct on joist, no smoothing 26^ 
 
 Floors, yellow pine, Z}i " face, smoothed and sanded 45 
 
 Floors, maple, 2^" face, laid not smoothed 40 
 
 Floors, maple, 2)4 " face, laid and smoothed 80 
 
 Floors, maple, 1}4" face, laid and well smoothed 107 
 
 Floors, oak, fine floor, glued, smoothed, scraped, sand papered 320 
 
 COST OF BRIDGING AND FURRING 
 
 HRS. PER 1000 LIN. FT. 
 
 Bridging 65 
 
 Placing plaster grounds 20 
 
152 CARPENTRY 
 
 COST OF PLACING BASEBOARDS 
 
 HRS. PER 100 riN. FT. 
 
 Baseboard, three member, hardwood, average number miters 10 
 
 Baseboard, two member, scribed to floor 16 
 
 Baseboard, plain, % round at floor 8 
 
 Moulding, bed, flat, 3" 1]^ 
 
 COST OF PLACING DOORS, WINDOWS, BLINDS 
 
 HEtS. ON EACH 
 
 Window, to put together when K. D. (knock-down) \]4 
 
 Window, making frame 3 
 
 Window, setting frame ^^ 
 
 Window, setting frame in brickwork 1 
 
 Window, fitting and hanging sash per pair 1 
 
 Window, hanging blinds per pair, before frames are set ^ 
 
 Window, hanging blinds per pair, after frames are set 2 
 
 Window, casing inside 2 
 
 Window, ordinary pine in frame building, including setting of frame ... 5 
 
 Window, same but hardwood 6X 
 
 Window, ordinary pine in brick building, including setting of frame. . . . 6K 
 
 Window, same but hardwood 9 
 
 Window, attic and cellar \y^ 
 
 Door, making frame 2>^ 
 
 Door, making frame with transom %yi 
 
 Door, common hardwood, set jambs, case, hang and finish, including 
 
 transom 10 
 
 Door, common IJ^" pine complete 4>^ 
 
 Door, common IJ^" pine complete hyi 
 
 Door, casing opening one side y^ 
 
 Door, casing opening both sides \yi 
 
 Door, fitting, hanging and trimming li^ 
 
 Door, fitting, hanging and trimming outside door, pine 2yi 
 
 Door, fitting, hanging and trimming outside door, oak 4 
 
 Sliding doors, pine, (framing not included) to finish complete with lining, 
 
 jambs, casing and hardware, per pair 32 
 
 Sliding doors, same, but hardwood 48 
 
 Sliding doors for barn 12'X18' 24 
 
 Transom, fixed 1 
 
 Transom, hung \y^ 
 
ESTIMATING 153 
 
 COST OF STAIR WORK 
 
 HRS. LABOR ON EACH 
 
 Box stair, cellar or attic 25 
 
 One flight plain stair, 7-room house, hand rail, balusters 40 
 
 One flight fine stair, 9-room house, handrail, paneled 100 
 
 PORCHES IN GENERAL 
 
 Hours per lineal foot 5 
 
 Balustrade hours per 1000 lineal feet 500 
 
 Lattice for porches, hours per 1000 square feet 16 to 200 
 
 LATH 
 Lath, hours per 1000 7 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LABOR ITEMS 
 
 Paneling, pine, hours per 100 sq. f t 50 
 
 Paneling, hardwood, hours per 100 sq. ft 83 
 
 Drawers, dovetailed, hours, each 2}4 
 
 Drawers, 15"X18", including racks and fittings 2 
 
 Shelves, in storeroom, dadoed into compartments 18" square, hours 
 
 per 100 sq. ft &2yi 
 
 Shelves, pantry, no dado, hours per 100 sq. ft. shelf Ziyi 
 
 Closet hooks on strip of wood, 12 " apart, hours per 100 lineal feet 15 
 
 •Sideboard, oak, 8'X8', hours 100 
 
 81. Estimating Quantities of Nails. — The following table 
 will enable one to estimate the quantity of nails required for 
 the various kinds of common carpentry. The table of length 
 and number of nails to the pound, Appendix III, may be made 
 use of in determining nail estimates for other kinds of work not 
 here specified. 
 
154 CARPENTRY 
 
 QUANTITIES OF NAILS 
 
 MATERIALS POUNDS 
 
 Joists and sills per 1000 B.M. ft. 25 
 
 Studding per 1000 B.M. ft. 15 
 
 Rafters per 1000 B.M. ft. 15 
 
 Sheathing, drop siding, shiplap . per 1000 B .M. ft. 20 
 
 Cornice per 1000 lin. ft. 18 
 
 ShingUng per 1000 4 
 
 Bevel siding per 1000 B.M. ft. 18 
 
 Ceiling, wainscoting per 1000 B.M. ft. 20 
 
 Floors, pine per 1000 B.M. ft. 30 
 
 Floors, hardwood per 1000 B.M. ft. 30 
 
 Baseboard per 1000 B.M. ft. 12 
 
 Window trim, one side Ji 
 
 Door trim, one side ^ 
 
 Lath..: per 1000 8 
 
 Lattice for porches per 1000 sq. ft. 20 
 
 Balustrade per 1000 lin. ft. 18 
 
 SKE 
 
 KIND 
 
 20d 
 
 common. 
 
 lOd 
 
 common. 
 
 lOd 
 
 common. 
 
 8d 
 
 common. 
 
 8d 
 
 common. 
 
 4d 
 
 common. 
 
 6d 
 
 common. 
 
 6d 
 
 common. 
 
 8d 
 
 common. 
 
 6d 
 
 common. 
 
 8d 
 
 finish. 
 
 8d 
 
 finish. 
 
 8d 
 
 finish. 
 
 3d 
 
 common.fine. 
 
 3d 
 
 common. 
 
 6d 
 
 casing. 
 
 82. Example of Form for Carpentry Costs. — The following 
 form, used by a practical carpenter, and published in the Corre- 
 spondence Department of The American Carpenter and Builder, 
 should suggest means whereby the data just given may be made 
 more readily available for estimating purposes. 
 
 It must be remembered in interpreting all such data that costs 
 will vary greatly with conditions. A carpenter, for illustration, 
 who gives his time and attention to general carpentry cannot lay 
 shingles with the speed a specialist in shingling can. Again, a 
 carpenter cannot make window and door frames by hand with the 
 same speed that these can be made by machinery in a mill. The 
 prices given herewith are for work done by a general carpentry 
 mechanic. The estimator should test out these figures to see 
 how they compare with actual working conditions in his com- 
 munity. The following table is made for "country" conditions, 
 the men working at 30c per hour, 9 hours a day. 
 
ESTIMATING 
 MATERIALS IN PLACE AT 30c PER HOUR 
 
 155 
 
 Various Materials 
 
 Ft. per 
 
 9-HRS. 
 
 2 Men 
 
 Hrs. PER 
 1000 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Cost of Labor 
 
 MFt. 
 
 L or Sq. 
 
 Nails 
 
 Lbs. Size 
 
 Joists and silU 
 
 Studding, placed 
 
 Rafters 
 
 Slieathing, vertical 
 
 Sheathing, diagonal 
 
 Bevel siding 
 
 Cornices 
 
 Shingling, new roofs 
 
 Lathing for plaster 
 
 Lattice for porches 
 
 Balustrade for porches. . . . 
 
 Baseboards, 8" pine 
 
 Baseboards, 8" hardwood . 
 
 Floors, laid, pine 
 
 Floors laid, hardwood. . . . 
 Floors cleaned, hardwood. 
 
 Wainscoting, pine 
 
 Paneling, pine 
 
 Paneling, hardwood 
 
 Porches and verandas .... 
 
 900 
 
 600 
 
 450 
 
 750 
 
 562 
 
 514 
 
 45 
 
 4000 
 
 2572 
 
 1125 
 
 36 
 
 216 
 
 108 
 
 514 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 54 
 
 36 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 35 
 400 
 4K 
 7 
 
 16 
 500 
 
 83 
 166 
 
 35 
 180 
 180 
 
 $6.00 
 9.00 
 
 12.00 
 7.20 
 9.60 
 
 10.50 
 
 1.35 
 2.10 
 4.80 
 
 24.90 
 49.80 
 10.50 
 54.00 
 54.00 
 
 .12 
 
 .15 -L 
 .02>^-L 
 .05 -L 
 
 .05^-L 
 .05>^-L 
 .10 -L 
 .15 -Sq 
 .25 -Sq 
 1.50 -L 
 
 20d 
 lOd 
 lOd 
 8d 
 8d 
 6d 
 8d 
 4d 
 3d 
 3d 
 6d 
 8d 
 
 8d 
 6d 
 
 6d 
 
 18 8d 
 
 M = 1000 Ft. 
 
 L = Lineal Sq = Square Feet. 
 
 Shingles are for new roofs; where hips and valleys are required 
 add 5% additional foi: each one; where old shingles and nails must 
 be removed, add again (20% to total) for this work. 
 
 The above rate is based on figures of 30c per hour. For other 
 rates the following will apply in addition: At 35c per hour add 
 17%; at 40c add 34%; at 45c add 51%; and at 50c per hour add 
 
 Example: 
 
 {A) Take 1,000 feet of hardwood floor to be cleaned at 50c per hour = 
 $54.00+S36.72 = $90.72 
 
 Looking again we find it would take 180 hours at 50c per hour = $90. 00 
 
156 CARPENTRY 
 
 (B) Take 1,000 feet of joists to be placed at 50c per hour=$6.00+$4.08= 
 $10.08. 
 
 Looking for the hours we find it would take 20 at 50c, or $10.00. 
 
 83. Total Building Costs by Percentages. — Having carefully 
 estimated the costs of one or two of the large items in a building, 
 such as lumber or millwork or labor, the total cost of a building 
 may be approximated with a fair degree of accuracy by a general 
 contractor by means of the following table of percentages. Foun- 
 dations or any other parts of a building which may be unusual 
 should be excluded and figured separately in detail. In any event, 
 before a building is finally completed the contractor will have to 
 settle with each sub-contractor upon the basis of detailed cost 
 estimates. Where time is available, the contractor as a rule 
 secures bids from the various sub-contractors, such as the plumber, 
 the lather, the mason, etc., combining these and adding his com- 
 mission of 10% for oversight, and an additional 10% for incidentals 
 or contingencies. 
 
 COSTS BY PERCENTAGES 
 
 Frame Brick 
 
 Items Building Dwelling 
 
 Excavation, brick and cut stone 16% 36% 
 
 Plastering and materials, including lathing 8 6 
 
 MiUwork including glass and glazing 21 20 
 
 Lumber 19 12 
 
 Carpentry labor 18 10 
 
 Hardware 3^ 3 
 
 Tinwork and galvanized iron 2J^ i)4 
 
 Plumbing and gas fitting and materials 7 3 
 
 Painting and materials 5 51^ 
 
 Heating (not included) 
 
 Total 100% 100% 
 
 Example: 
 
 A lumber bill for a given frame house is found to "figure" $500, determine 
 the approximate cost of the various sub-contracts, and for the house as a whole. 
 
ESTIMATING 157 
 
 Solution: 
 
 $500 = 19% of the total cost. 
 
 Total cost =$2632 (exclusive of heating). 
 
 Excavation, brick and cement work = 16% of $2632 = $421 . 12 
 
 Plastering = 8% of $2632 = 210.56 
 
 Millwork and glazing = 21% of $2632 = 552.72 
 
 Carpentry labor = 18% of $2632 = 473.76 
 
 Hardware=3X% of $2632 = 92.12 
 
 Tinwork = 2>^% of $2632 = 65.80 
 
 Plumbing = 7% of $2632 = 184. 24 
 
 Painting = 5% of $2632 = 131 .60 
 
 Lumber = 500.00 
 
 $2631.92 
 
 To this must be added heating, electric wiring, electric and 
 gas fixtures, window shades, cement walks, sewerage, grading, 
 decoration of walls, architect's fee and contractor's commission. 
 
 For furnace heat, add 6 to 7%; for steam, add 8 to 10%; for 
 hot water, add 10 to 12% additional. 
 
 For electric wiring, add 1)^%. For fixtures, electric and gas, 
 add 2 to 3%. 
 
 To this total add 10% for incidentals and contingencies; add 
 10% for contractor's charge. Above this amount add 6% for 
 architect's fee, to get the cost to the owner. 
 
 Such a method of estimating should not be mistaken for any- 
 thing but fairly safe approximation where normal conditions exist. 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 Natural Trigonometric Functions. — Consider the angle DA E, 
 Fig. 152. From any point on the Une A D drop a hne perpendicular 
 to the side A E forming the right triangle ABC. Let a represent 
 the value or length of the side BC;letb represent the value of the 
 side ^ C; let c represent the value of the side AB. The ratio of 
 the side a to the side c is called the sine of the angle A. More 
 
 concisely stated, f = sin A. The sine of an angle is the ratio of 
 its opposite side to its hypotenuse, or opposite side over hypote- 
 nuse = sine of angle A = sin A. In a similar manner : 
 
 = cosine of angle A = cos A . 
 
 b _ adjacent side 
 
 c hypotenuse 
 
 a opposite side r , , 
 
 T = -y? , ., = tangent of angle A = tan A . 
 
 adjacent side 
 
 h adjacent side r , , 
 
 - = r- — 73- = cotangent of angle ^ = cot ^ . 
 
 a opposite side 
 
 c _ hypotenuse 
 
 b adjacent side 
 c _ hypotenuse 
 a opposite side 
 
 = secant of angle A = sec A . 
 
 = cosecant of angle A = esc A . 
 158 
 
APPENDIX 159 
 
 These ratios are known as natural functions of the angle because 
 their values change with every change in the value of the angle. 
 
 The lengthening of the sides of the angle should not be mis- 
 taken for a change in the value of the angle. Draw to scale very 
 carefully any angle and drop Hues from any two points, as at B 
 and B', Fig. 152, which shall be perpendicular to the base line. 
 Measure the sides of the triangles so formed and express their 
 ratios as functions of the angle A. Comparing hke functions of 
 large and small triangle it will be seen that once an angle is known 
 in degrees, its sine, cosine, etc., are determined irrespective of the 
 length of sides. And, vice versa, if we know the functional values 
 or ratios of certain sides of the right triangle formed about an 
 angle, we have determined the value of the angle in degrees. The 
 Table of Natural Trigonometric Functions, Appendix II, is nothing 
 more than a compilation of these various ratios carefully figured 
 out and placed in the form of a table to assist in the easy solution 
 of problems having to do with the finding of certain parts of a 
 triangle when other parts are given. 
 
 With a protractor, measure the angle A of the triangle whose 
 sides were just measured, and compare the ratios of the sides or the 
 functional values with those given in the Table, Appendix III, for 
 the same angle. The larger the scale of the drawing, the greater 
 the accuracy. By making use of the hundredths scale of the 
 framing square together with a finely pointed pair of dividers, 
 variation in values should not be great. 
 
 Solutions of Right Triangles. — By the solution of right tri- 
 angles is meant the finding of unknown sides or angles when values 
 of other sides and angles are known. 
 
 Example i. — Given ^4 =30 degrees, c = 24; Find B, a, b. 
 
 Solution — 5 = 90 — 30 = 60 degrees. (The sum of tlie angles of a triangle 
 equals 180 degrees. C= 90 degrees.) 
 
160 CARPENTRY 
 
 -=smA; whence, a=c sin A. (a=c times sine A.) 
 
 (2) b 
 
 ~=cos A; whence b=c cos A. 
 c 
 
 From the Tables, Appendix II, sin of ^, or 30 degrees, = .5. 
 Substituting numerical values in (1), a =12. 
 
 Again, from Tables, cos A, or 30 degrees, = .866. Sub- 
 stituting numerical values in (2), 6 = 20.784. 
 
 Arith. check— c2=a2+i2; 242 = 12^+20.78^ 576=144+431.8; 
 576 = 576. 
 
 Graphic check. — The graphic check which, it will be seen, 
 might have been made use of as a graphic solution, consists in 
 setting one square upon another with the angle of direction 
 and the, length of one side determined by the data given. That 
 is, in this problem the protractor is set at 30 degrees and a 
 length of 24 units is taken on the incUned square. The lengths 
 of a and b are then carefully measured by taking a reading of 
 the full inches and reading the remaining fraction to hundredths 
 by means of a sharp pair of dividers and the hundredths scale of 
 the square. 
 
 Very many carpenters make use of graphic solutions such as 
 this in determining rafter lengths. A little consideration, however, 
 will show that it is a rather risky method of procedure unless the 
 scale is large and the work scaled small. Graphs serve as easy 
 checks against grave errors upon all kinds of work. 
 
 Example 2. — Given A and a. To find B, c, and h. 
 
 Solution — B = 90 degrees — A . 
 
 a a 
 
 ~: = sm A; c = ~ r 
 
 ' sm. A 
 
 b 
 
 '" = cos A; b = c cos A. 
 
 Substitute the numerical values and check as in Example i. 
 
APPENDIX 161 
 
 Example 3. — Given A and b. To find B, a, and c. 
 Solution — ^B=90 degrees — A. 
 
 ": = sin ^ ; o = c sin ^ . 
 
 Substitute the numerical values and check as in Example i. 
 
 Example 4. — Given a and c. To find A, B, and 6. 
 
 a 
 Solution — sin A = - (That is, look in the tables, Appendix II, for the angle 
 
 which has a sine equal to the result obtained by dividing the numerical 
 
 value of the side a by the value of the side c.) 
 
 B = 90 degrees — A . 
 
 b 
 
 ": = cos A; b = c cos A. 
 
 Substitute numerical values and check as in Example i. 
 
 Example 5. — Given a and h. To find A, B, and c. 
 
 a 
 Solution — tan j1 = T 
 
 B = 90 degrees — A . 
 
 a a 
 
 -=sm4; c=-^^ 
 
 Substitute numerical values and check as in Example i. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 Directions. — An examination of the table of natural functions 
 will indicate in the column at the left, angles of degrees to and 
 including 45 degrees, reading down. The column to the extreme 
 right will be found to contain degrees from 45-90 inclusive, read- 
 ing up. 
 
 This compact arrangement of table is made possible thru the 
 fact that sines and cosines, tangents and cotangents are reciprocals 
 one of the other. That is, as the sine (column 2, reading down) 
 increases in value, the cosine of the complementary angle (columns 
 6 and 2, reading up) decreases. 
 
 Example 1 . — Find the value of the sine of 40 degrees. 
 
 Solution — Columns 1 and 2, reading down, sin 40 degrees = .6428. 
 
 Example S. — Find the value of sin 50 degrees. 
 
 Solution — Columns 6 and 5, reading up, sin 50 degrees = .7660. 
 
 Example S. — Find the value of cos 40 degrees. 
 
 Solution — Columns 1 and 5, reading down, cos 40 degrees = .7660 (which is 
 as might have been expected. Since 40 degrees is the complement of 
 50 degrees, the' cos 40 degrees should be the same in value as the sin 60 
 degrees. 
 
 Example 4. — Find the value of cos 87 degrees. 
 
 Solution — Columns 6 and 2 reading up, cos 87 degrees = .0523 
 
 Example 5. — Tangent and cotangent values. Proceed as with sines using 
 columns 1 and 3, reading down, for tangent values between 0-45 degrees 
 inclusive, columns 6 and 4, reading up, for values between 45-90 degrees. 
 
 For cotangent values between 0-45 degrees use columns 1 and 4 reading down, 
 and columns 6 and 3 reading up for cotangent values between 45-90 degrees 
 inclusive. 
 
 162 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 163 
 
 TABLE OF NATURAL SINES, TANGENTS, COSINES, AND 
 COTANGENTS 
 
 Degrees 
 
 Sine 
 
 Tangent 
 
 Cotansent 
 
 Cosine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 .0175 
 .0349 
 .0523 
 .0698 
 
 .0175 
 .0349 
 .0524 
 .0699 
 
 57.2900 
 28.6363 
 19.0811 
 14.3007 
 
 .9998 
 .9994 
 .9986 
 .9976 
 
 89 
 88 
 87 
 86 
 
 5 
 
 ,0872 
 
 .0875 
 
 11.4301 
 
 .9962 
 
 85 
 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 .1045 
 .1219 
 .1392 
 .1564 
 
 .1051 
 .1228 
 .1405 
 .1.584 
 
 9.5144 
 8.1443 
 7.1154 
 6.3138 
 
 .9945 
 .9925 
 .9903 
 .9877 
 
 84 
 83 
 82 
 81 
 
 10 
 
 .1736 
 
 .1763 
 
 5.6713 
 
 .9848 
 
 80 
 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 .1908 
 .2079 
 .2250 
 .2419 
 
 .1944 
 .2126 
 .2309 
 .2493 
 
 5.1446 
 4.7046 
 4.3315 
 4.0108 
 
 .9816 
 .9781 
 .9744 
 . 9703 
 
 79 
 78 
 77 
 76 
 
 15 
 
 .2588 
 
 .2679 
 
 3.7321 
 
 .9659 
 
 75 
 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 
 .2756 
 .2924 
 .3090 
 .3256 
 
 .2867 
 . 3057 
 .3249 
 .3443 
 
 3.4874 
 3 . 2709 
 3.0777 
 2 . 9042 
 
 .9613 
 . 9563 
 .9511 
 .9455 
 
 74 • 
 73 
 72 
 71 
 
 20 
 
 :3420 
 
 .3640 
 
 2.7475 
 
 .9397 
 
 70 
 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 .3584 
 .3746 
 .3907 
 .4067 
 
 .3839 
 .4040 
 .4245 
 .4452 
 
 2 . 6051 
 2.4751 
 2.3559 
 2.2460 
 
 .9336 
 .9272 
 .9205 
 .9135 
 
 69 
 68 
 67 
 66 
 
 25 
 
 .4226 
 
 .4663 
 
 2 . 1445 
 
 .9063 
 
 65 
 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 
 .4384 
 .4540 
 .4695 
 .4848 
 
 .4877 
 .5095 
 5317 
 .5543 
 
 2.0503 
 1.9626 
 1.8807 
 1.8040 
 
 .8988 
 .8910 
 .8829 
 .8746 
 
 64 
 63 
 62 
 61 
 
 30 
 
 .5000 
 
 .5774 
 
 1.7321 
 
 .8660 
 
 60 
 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 .5150 
 .5299 
 .5446 
 .5592 
 
 .6009 
 .6249 
 .6494 
 .6745 
 
 1 . 6643 
 1 . 6003 
 1 . 5399 
 1.4826 
 
 .8572 
 .8480 
 .8387 
 .8290 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 57 
 56 
 
 35 
 
 .5736 
 
 .7002 
 
 1.4281 
 
 .8192 
 
 55 
 
 36 
 37 
 38 
 39 
 
 .5878 
 .6018 
 .6157 
 .6293 
 
 .7265 
 .7536 
 .7813 
 .8098 
 
 1.3764 
 1.3270 
 1 . 2799 
 1.2349 
 
 .8090 
 .7986 
 .7880 
 .7771 
 
 54 
 53 
 52 
 51 
 
 40 
 
 .6428 
 
 .8391 
 
 1.1918 
 
 .7660 
 
 50 
 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 
 .6561 
 .6691 
 .6820 
 .6947 
 
 .8693 
 .9004 
 .9325 
 .9657 
 
 1.1504 
 1.1106 
 1.0724 
 1.0355 ■ 
 
 .7547 
 .7431 
 .7314 
 .7193 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 47 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 .7071 
 
 1 . 0000 
 
 1 . 0000 
 
 .7071 
 
 45 
 
 
 Cosine 
 
 Cotangent 
 
 Tangent 
 
 Sine 
 
 Degrees 
 
164 CARPENTRY 
 
 TO FIND THE VALXJE OF AN ANGLE, THE VALUE Or A FUNCTION 
 BEING KNOWN 
 
 Example 6. — sin= . 5150, find the angle. 
 
 Solution — 'Looking in columns 2 and 5 (sine values from 0-90 degrees) Ans. 
 
 31 degrees (Columns 2 and 1). 
 Example 7.— cot = 1 . 3764, find the angle. 
 Solution — Looking in columns 3 and 4, Ans. = 36 degrees. 
 
 Interpolation. — Frequently one must find a functional value 
 for fractional degrees, or degrees and minutes. Also, it becomes 
 necessary to find the value of an angle with greater accuracy than 
 even degrees, as given in the table herewith. This process of 
 finding more accurate values is known as interpolation. 
 
 TO FIND THE VALUE OF A FUNCTION WHEN THE ANGLE IS IN 
 FRACTIONAL DEGREES 
 
 Example 8. — Find the value of tan 50 degrees 20 min. 
 
 Solution. — tan 50 degrees = 1 . 1918 
 
 tan 51 degrees = 1.2349 
 
 difference for an interval of 1 degree = .0431 
 
 20 1 
 20 mm. =gQ = 3 of 1 degree; H of .0431= .0144 
 
 tan 50 degrees 20 min. = 1.1918+. 0144 =1.2062. 
 
 The value of a fractional degree would be similarly treated for 
 the sine, these functions increasing as the value of the angle in- 
 creases. The cosine and cotangent, however, decrease in value as 
 the angle increases. For this reason the fractional value of the 
 cosine and cotangent must be subtracted from, instead of added to, 
 the value of the function of the next lower number of degrees. 
 
 Example 9. — Find the value of cos 26 deg. 30 min. 
 Solution — cos 26 deg. = . 8988 
 cos 27 deg. = .8910 
 
 difference for interval of 1 deg. = . 0078 
 
 30 min. = >^ of 1 deg.; }^ of .0078= .0039 
 
 COS. 26 deg. 30 min. = .8988— .0039= .8949. 
 
APPENDIX 165 
 
 TO riND.THE VALUE OF AN ANGLE WHEN THE FUNCTIONAL VALUE 
 CANNOT BE FOUND IN EXACT FORM IN THE TABLE 
 
 Example 10. — Find the angle whose tan is .5 
 Solution — From the table, .4877 = tan 26 deg. 
 .5095 = tan27deg. 
 difference for interval of 1 deg. = .0218 
 
 . 5000 = tan angle X. 
 .4877 = tan26deg. 
 difiference for interval between tan angle X and tan 26 deg. = .0123 
 123/218 of 1 deg. or 60 miu. = 34 min. 
 Therefore, angle whose tangent = .5 = 26 deg. 34'. 
 
 Rule: (1) Search the body of the table for the functional values 
 next above and next below that given. (2) Find the difiference 
 between these functional values. This difference is for an interval 
 of 1 degree or 60 minutes. (3) Find the difference between the 
 given functional value and that of the lower angle of the two used 
 above. (4) Express this last difference as the numerator of a 
 fraction whose denominator is the first difference found, or the 
 difference for the interval of 1 degree. This gives the fractional 
 part of 1 degree or 60 minutes which the second difference is. 
 (5) Express this difference in minutes and add if the function be a 
 sine or tangent, and substract if a cosine or cotangent to the 
 number of degrees representing the angle whose function was the 
 lower of the two functions found given in the table. 
 
APPENDIX III 
 
 USEFUL TABLES 
 FRACTIONAL EQUIVTULENTS FOR DECIMAL VALUES 
 
 .0156 
 
 6^ 
 
 .2656 
 
 a 
 
 .5156 
 
 If 
 
 .7656 
 
 n 
 
 .0312 
 
 1 
 32 
 
 .2812 
 
 9 
 32 
 
 .5312 
 
 17 
 32 
 
 .7812 
 
 M 
 
 .0468 
 
 ^ 
 
 .2968 
 
 M 
 
 .5468 
 
 35 
 64 
 
 .7968 
 
 M 
 
 .0625 
 
 ■h 
 
 .3125 
 
 1^ 
 
 .5625 
 
 ^ 
 
 .8125 
 
 13 
 16 
 
 .0781 
 
 A 
 
 .3281 
 
 li 
 
 .5781 
 
 37 
 64 
 
 .8281 
 
 53 
 64 
 
 .0937 
 
 A 
 
 .3437 
 
 32 
 
 .5937 
 
 if 
 
 .8437 
 
 u 
 
 .1093 
 
 7 
 6T 
 
 .3593 
 
 a 
 
 .6093 
 
 39 
 64 
 
 .8593 
 
 If 
 
 .125 
 
 1 
 
 .375 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 .625 
 
 f 
 
 .875 
 
 1 
 
 .1406 
 
 9 
 64 
 
 .3906 
 
 H 
 
 .6406 
 
 Ii 
 
 .8906 
 
 M 
 
 .1562 
 
 A 
 
 .4062 
 
 13 
 32 
 
 .6562 
 
 f* 
 
 .9062 
 
 29 
 32 
 
 .1718 
 
 11 
 64 
 
 .4218 
 
 H 
 
 .6718 
 
 a 
 
 .9218 
 
 If 
 
 .1875 
 
 A 
 
 .4375 
 
 7 
 16 
 
 .6875 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 .9375 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 .2031 
 
 13 
 64 
 
 .4531 
 
 If 
 
 .7031 
 
 45 
 64 
 
 .9531 
 
 Ii 
 
 .2187 
 
 3^ 
 
 .4687 
 
 15 
 32 
 
 .7187 
 
 23 
 32 
 
 .9687 
 
 Ii 
 
 .2343 
 
 M 
 
 .4843 
 
 fi 
 
 .7343 
 
 47 
 64 
 
 .9843 
 
 63 
 64 
 
 .2.50 
 
 i 
 4 
 
 .500 
 
 4 
 
 .750 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1.000 
 
 1 
 
 Where rafter lengths are determined by multiplying unit 
 lengths by the run, the answer will almost invariably result in 
 a decimal. Such decimal values may be readily translated into 
 fractional forms by means of the accompanying table. 
 
 Example: A roof of }4 pitch has a common rafter run of 14'; 
 find the length of common rafter. 
 
 Answer: 14x14.42" = 201.88" or 16.82'. By the table, .82 = ||. 
 A carpenter, however, would not care for such accuracy; the 
 nearest ^" or even }i" would be sufficient. 
 
 166 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 WOOD AND MACHINE SCREW SIZES 
 The difference between consecutive sizes is .01316". 
 
 167 
 
 No. op 
 Screw 
 Gage 
 
 Size of 
 Number in 
 Decimals 
 
 No. of 
 Screw 
 Gage 
 
 Size of 
 Number in 
 Decimals 
 
 No. OF 
 
 Screw 
 Gage 
 
 Size of 
 Number in 
 Decimals 
 
 000 
 
 .03152 
 
 16 
 
 .26840 
 
 34 
 
 .50528 
 
 00 
 
 .04486 
 
 17 
 
 .28156 
 
 35 
 
 .51844 
 
 
 
 .05784 
 
 18 
 
 .29472 
 
 36 
 
 .53160 
 
 1 
 
 .07100 
 
 19 
 
 .30788 
 
 37 
 
 .54476 
 
 2 
 
 .08416 
 
 20 
 
 .32104 
 
 38 
 
 .55792 
 
 3 
 
 .09732 
 
 21 
 
 .33420 
 
 39 
 
 .57108 
 
 4 
 
 .11048 
 
 22 
 
 .34736 
 
 40 
 
 .58424 
 
 5 
 
 .12364 
 
 23 
 
 .36052 
 
 41 
 
 .59740 
 
 6 
 
 .13680 
 
 24 
 
 .37368 
 
 42 
 
 .61056 
 
 7 
 
 .14996 
 
 25 
 
 .38864 
 
 43 
 
 .62372 
 
 8 
 
 .16312 
 
 26 
 
 .40000 
 
 44 
 
 .63688 
 
 9 
 
 .17628 
 
 27 
 
 .41316 
 
 45 
 
 .65004 
 
 10 
 
 .18944 
 
 28 
 
 .42632 
 
 46 
 
 .66320 
 
 11 
 
 .20260 
 
 29 
 
 .43948 
 
 47 
 
 .67636 
 
 12 
 
 .21576 
 
 30 
 
 .45264 
 
 48 
 
 .68952 
 
 13 
 
 .22892 
 
 31 
 
 .46580 
 
 49 
 
 .70268 
 
 14 
 
 .24208 
 
 32 
 
 .47896 
 
 50 
 
 .71584' 
 
 15 
 
 .25524 
 
 33 
 
 .49212 
 
 
 
 Frequently the carpenter wishes to know the diameter of hole 
 necessary to receive the shank of a screw of a certain gage. Should 
 a screw gage be accessible, he may readily determine this. Should 
 no gage be at hand, he may determine the size of hole by consult- 
 ing the accompanying table of Wood and Machine Screw Sizes. 
 
 Example: What size bit must be selected to bore a hole for a 
 No. 10 screw. By the table, a No. 10 screw is .18944" in diameter. 
 By the table of Fractional Equivalents for Decimal Values it will 
 be seen that a ^" bit must be used. The test for gage of screw is 
 always made over the shank just below the head. 
 
168 CARPENTRY 
 
 LENGTH AND NUMBER OF WIRE NAILS TO THE POUND 
 
 Size 
 
 Length 
 
 INS. 
 
 Common 
 
 Casino 
 
 Finish 
 
 Clinch 
 
 Fence 
 
 Fine 
 
 Gal. 
 Shingle 
 
 V, 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2d 
 
 1 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 
 
 1440 
 
 
 3d 
 
 IX 
 
 615 
 
 
 
 
 
 810 
 
 568 
 
 4d 
 
 I'A 
 
 322 
 
 473 
 
 584 
 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 5d 
 
 IK 
 
 254 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6d 
 
 2 
 
 200 
 
 180 
 
 300 
 
 157 
 
 114 
 
 
 
 
 7d 
 
 2y, 
 
 154 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8d 
 
 2y, 
 
 106 
 
 112 
 
 190 
 
 99 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 
 9d 
 
 2K 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lOd 
 
 3 
 
 74 
 
 90 
 
 134 
 
 69 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 12d 
 
 3^ 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16d 
 
 3>^ 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20d 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30d 
 
 4X 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40d 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SOd 
 
 ny 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60d 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nails are sold in quantity by the keg, 100 lbs. of nails, ex- 
 clusive of the keg. Twenty, 30, 40, 50 and 60d are ' ' base." Other 
 sizes have certain fixed additions per keg to this base price. For ex- 
 ample, the price list adopted by manufacturers in 1896 allows an 
 addition per keg of $.70 for 2d common, $.45 for 3d common, etc. 
 
 Wire nails are also bought and sold by weight, the size of wire 
 according to the standard wire gage and the length in inches being 
 taken into consideration in specifying the size and in fixing the 
 price per pound. 
 
 Common wire nails are thick and have large flat heads. They 
 are used in rough work where strength is desired. Finishing nails 
 are used for fine work such as inside woodwork and cabinet work. 
 Casing nails are somewhat thicker and stronger than finishing 
 nails; they have smaller heads. 
 
APPENDIX 
 WIRE BRADS 
 
 169 
 
 Size, inches 
 
 Wire Gage, nos 
 
 Approx. no. brads to lb 
 
 Size, inches 
 
 Wire Gage, nos 
 
 Approx. no. brads to lb. 
 
 Size, inches 
 
 Wire Gage, nos 
 
 Approx. no. brads to lb 
 
 20 
 7500 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 1558 
 
 18 
 7200 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 1143 
 
 19 
 
 4267 
 
 IK 
 
 17 
 
 1246 
 
 19 
 3556 
 
 16 
 913 
 
 'A 
 
 18 
 
 2758 
 
 IK 
 16 
 761 
 
 16 
 2600 
 
 IK 
 15 
 584 
 
 18 
 2364 
 
 IK 
 14 
 500 
 
 Vi 
 
 17 
 
 1781 
 
 IK 
 15 
 500 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 2069 
 
 IK 
 14 
 406 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 350 
 
 2 
 13 
 
 268 
 
 2K 
 13 
 214 
 
 2K 
 12 
 164 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 150 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 137 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 105 
 
 BOARD MEASURE TABLE 
 
 Size 
 
 
 
 
 Length, in feet, of Jois 
 
 T, Scantling AND 
 
 Timber 
 
 Inches 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 2i 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 2x 4 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 2x 6 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 2x 8 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 51 
 
 53 
 
 2x10 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 57 
 
 60 
 
 63 
 
 67 
 
 2x12 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 68 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 80 
 
 2x14 
 
 . 28 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 42 
 
 47 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 61 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 79 
 
 84 
 
 89 
 
 93 
 
 3x 6 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 57 
 
 60 
 
 3x 8 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 68 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 80 
 
 3x10 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 3x12 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 102 
 
 108 
 
 114 
 
 120 
 
 3x14 
 
 42 
 
 49 
 
 56 
 
 63 
 
 70 
 
 77 
 
 84 
 
 91 
 
 98 
 
 105 
 
 112 
 
 119 
 
 126 
 
 133 
 
 140 
 
 4x 4 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 51 
 
 53 
 
 4x 6 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 68 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 80 
 
 6x 6 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 102 
 
 108 
 
 114 
 
 120 
 
 6x 8 
 
 48 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 ■ 72 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 104 
 
 112 
 
 120 
 
 128 
 
 136 
 
 144 
 
 152 
 
 160 
 
 8x 8 
 
 64 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 •96 
 
 107 
 
 117 
 
 128 
 
 139 
 
 149 
 
 160 
 
 171 
 
 181 
 
 192 
 
 203 
 
 213 
 
 8x10 
 
 80 
 
 93 
 
 107 
 
 120 
 
 133 
 
 147 
 
 160 
 
 173 
 
 187 
 
 200 
 
 213 
 
 227 
 
 240 
 
 253 
 
 267 
 
 10x10 
 
 100 
 
 117 
 
 133 
 
 150 
 
 167 
 
 183 
 
 200 
 
 217 
 
 233 
 
 250 
 
 267 
 
 283 
 
 300 
 
 317 
 
 333 
 
 10x12 
 
 120 
 
 140 
 
 160 
 
 180 
 
 200 
 
 220 
 
 240 
 
 260 
 
 280 
 
 300 
 
 320 
 
 340 
 
 360 
 
 380 
 
 400 
 
 12x12 
 
 144 
 
 168 
 
 192 
 
 216 
 
 240 
 
 284 
 
 288 
 
 312 
 
 336 
 
 360 
 
 384 
 
 408 
 
 432 
 
 456 
 
 480 
 
 12x14 
 
 163 
 
 196 
 
 224 
 
 252 
 
 280 
 
 308 
 
 338 
 
 364 
 
 392 
 
 420 
 
 448 
 
 476 
 
 504 
 
 532 
 
 560 
 
 14x14 
 
 196 
 
 229 
 
 261 
 
 294 
 
 327 
 
 359 
 
 392 
 
 425 
 
 457 
 
 490 
 
 523 
 
 555 
 
 588 
 
 621 
 
 653 
 
170 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 
 YELLOW PINE POSTS 
 
 
 Load in 
 
 Tons 
 
 
 
 
 
 Length 
 
 IN FT. 
 
 
 
 Size in inches 
 
 
 
 
 4x4 
 
 5x5 
 
 6x6 
 
 7x7 
 
 8x8 
 
 9x 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 HARD PINE BEAMS AND GIRDERS 
 
 Length 
 in FT. 
 
 6. 
 
 8. 
 10. 
 12. 
 14. 
 16. 
 18. 
 
 Load in Tons 
 
 2x6 
 1 
 
 3X 
 
 Size in inches 
 
 3x6 4x6 6x6 
 
 V/2 2 3 
 
 1 IK 2K 
 
 y, \% 2 
 
 yi 1 IK 
 
 K 1 
 K 
 
 5K 
 5 
 
 4K 
 
 3 
 
 2K 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 STEEL I BEAMS 
 
 Length 
 
 IN FT. 
 
 Load 
 
 in Tons 
 6 
 
 Size 
 
 ININrTTES 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 8 
 6 
 4 
 
APPENDIX 171 
 
 BRICK PIERS 
 
 Load in Tons 
 Height 
 IN FT. Size in inches 
 
 6x6 6x8 8x8 8x12 12x12 12x16 16x16 
 
 6 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 
 
 8 IK 2>^ 3K 4>^ hyi 6 8 
 
 10 1 2 3 5 5>^ 6 7 
 
 STRESSES FOR STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 
 
 WORKING UNIT STRESSES USED IN DRY LOCATIONS 
 
 Bending Compression 
 
 Stress in Horizontal Parallel to Perpen- 
 
 extreme shear grain "Short dicular 
 
 Species of fibre stress Columns" to grain 
 
 Timber Lbs. sq. in. Lbs. sq. in. Lbs. sq. in. Lbs. sq. in, 
 *Fir, Douglas — 
 
 Dense grade 1,600 100 1,200 350 
 
 Sound grade 1,300 85 900 300 
 
 Hemlock, eastern 1,000 70 700 300 
 
 Hemlock, western 1,300 75 900 300 
 
 Oak 1,400 125 900 400 
 
 Pine, eastern white 900 80 700 250 
 
 Pine, Norway 1,100 85 800 300 
 
 *Pine, southern yellow — 
 
 Dense grade 1,600 125 1,209 350 
 
 Sound grade 1,300 85 900 300 
 
 Spruce 900 70 600 200 
 
 Tamarack 1,200 95 900 350 
 
 * Note : The safe working stresses given in this table are for timbers with 
 defects limited according to the sections on defects in the rules of the Southern 
 Pine Association for Select Structural Material. "Dense'' southern yellow 
 pine and "dense" Douglas fir should also conform to the other requirements 
 of this rule. "Sound" southern yellow pine and "sound" Douglas fir require 
 no additional qualifications, whereas the other species should, in addition to 
 being graded for defects, have all pieces of exceptionally low density for the 
 species excluded. 
 
 This table gives working unit stresses for structural timbers used in dry 
 locations, and is compiled in the main from material furnished by the Forest 
 Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. 
 
•172 CARPENTRY 
 
 TABLE OF BRICK WALL CONTENTS IN NUMBER OF BRICKS 
 Seven Bricks to Each Sq. Ft. of Wall Surface 
 
 No. OF 
 SQ. FT. 
 
 OF WALL Thickness 
 
 4" 8" 12" 16" 20" 24" 
 
 1 7 15 23 30 38 45 
 
 2 15 30 45 60 75 90 
 
 3 23 45 68 90 113 135 
 
 4 30 60 90 120 150 180 
 
 5 38 75 113 150 188 225 
 
 6 45 90 135 180 225 270 
 
 7 53 105 158 210 263 315 
 
 8 60 120 180 240 300 360 
 
 9 68 135 203 270 338 405 
 
 10 75 150 225 300 375 450 
 
 20 150 300 450 600 750 900 
 
 30 225 450 675 900 1,125 1,350 
 
 40 300 600 900 1,200 1,500 1,800 
 
 50 375 750 1,125 1,500 1,875 2,250 
 
 60 450 900 1,350 1,800 2,250 2,700 
 
 70 525 1,050 1,575 2,100 2,625 3,150 
 
 80 600 1,200 1,800 2,400 3,000 3,600 
 
 90 675 1,350 2,025 2,700 3,375 4,050 
 
 100 750 1,500 2,250 3,000 3,750 4,500 
 
 Example — Determine the number of bricks in a wall 12"X18'X60'. 
 
 Solution — The wall contains a surface area of 1,080 sq. ft. By the table 
 
 100 sq. ft. contains 2,250 bricks, then 1,000 sq. ft. will contain 22,500 bricks. 
 
 80 sq. ft. will contain, by the table, 1,800 bricks, making a total of 24,300 
 
 bricks. 
 
APPENDIX IV 
 
 (Short Cuts to Roof Framing) 
 
 Griffith's Framing Tables for the Square and Octagonal 
 
 Roof 
 
 Directions for Using Table for the Steel Square. — Fig. 70-a. 
 Example. — Given a square hipped roof, that is, a roof with 
 square corners, having a span of 25 ft. and a pitch of J^. 
 
 1. To Lay Out Miter Cut of Plate. — Take 12" on tongue of 
 framing square and 12" on blade; scribe along blade. (Cf. small 
 table, Fig. 70-a.) 
 
 2. Length of Ridge. — Length of long plate diminished by length 
 of short plate, increased by thickness of ridge piece plus diagonal 
 thickness of hip. 
 
 3. To Lay Out Common Rafter. — 
 
 a. Plumb cut. — (Cf. column 5, beginning at left. Fig. 
 70-a.) Take 12" on tongue of square and 12" on blade 
 (column 2), scribe along blade. 
 
 b. Length of common rafter. — (Cf. column 11) 12J^ 
 (run of common rafter) x 16.97" (length of common 
 rafter per foot of run) = 17' 8.12"= 17' 8)^"(.12" = H", 
 
 columns 3 and 4). 
 
 c. Seat cut. — (Cf. column 8) Take 12" on tongue and 
 12" on blade; scribe along tongue. 
 
 d. Tail for common rafter. 
 
 (1) Length — determined as was that of common 
 rafter, the horizontal projection or length of look- 
 out becoming multiplier. 
 173 
 
174 CARPENTRY 
 
 (2) End cut — use same numbers as for plumb cut but 
 invert position of square, 
 e. Reduction for ridge.— Measure straight back from 
 plumb cut a distance equal to Yi the thickness of ridge 
 piece. 
 4. To Lay Out Rip or Valley Rafter. — 
 
 a. Plumb cut. — (Cf. column 6) Take 17" on the tongue 
 and 12" on the blade; scribe along the blade. 
 
 b. Side cut.— (Cf. column 16) Take 17" on the tongue 
 and 20.78" or 20tI" (columns 3 and 4) on the blade; 
 scribe along the blade. 
 
 This also gives the miter cut at the end of the tail 
 of the hip for fascia, and also the miter cut at the bird's 
 mouth joint of valley rafter, where it must be cut out 
 to fit the angle of the plate. 
 
 c. Length of hip or valley rafter. — • (Cf. column 12) 12J^ 
 (run of common rafter) x 20.78" (length of hip or 
 valley rafter per foot of run of common rafter) = 21' 
 7.75 " = 21' 7M" (-75 = M, columns 3 and 4.) 
 
 d. Seat cut. — (Cf. column 9) Take 17" on tongue and 
 12" on the blade, scribe along the tongue. 
 
 e. Tail for hip or valley rafter. — ■ 
 
 (1) Length — determined as was that of hip or valley 
 rafter, the horizontal projection of tail or length 
 of the lookout of common rafter becoming the 
 multiplier. 
 
 (2) End cut — use same numbers as for plumb cut 
 of hip or valley but invert square. 
 
 f . Reduction for ridge. — Measure straight back from 
 plumb cut ]/2 diagonal thickness of ridge. 
 
APPENDIX 175 
 
 g. Backing of hip.— (Cf. column 21) Take 12" (rise of 
 common rafter) on the tongue and 20x1 " on the blade, 
 scribe along the tongue for angle of backing. 
 
 h. Drop of hip when no backing is given. — (Cf. column 
 23) Reduce at seat cut rs", measured at right angles to 
 seat cut. 
 
 5. To Lay Out Jacks. — 
 
 a. Plumb cut. — Same as that for the common rafter. 
 
 b. Side cut. — (Cf. column 14) Take 12" on the tongue 
 and 16.97" or 17" on blade (.97 " = 1 ", columns 3 and 
 4), scribe on the blade. 
 
 Scribing along the tongue will give the face cut of 
 roof boards, also of plancher. 
 
 c. Length. — Jacks set 24" centers, beginning with 
 shortest jack =2' 10" (column 19). Second shortest 
 jack = length of shortest increased 2' 10", etc. 
 
 Beginning with longest jack = length of common 
 rafter diminished by 2' 10", etc. 
 
 d. Tail for jack. — Same as for common rafter. 
 
 6. Note.— 
 
 All rafter lengths are measured down the middle 
 of the top edges theoretically. On the square cornered 
 roof, measurements of hip or valley rafters may be made 
 from the long point without further reduction in length 
 providing a 2" thick ridge is used. Jacks need no 
 further reduction in length on a square cornered building 
 provided the hips or valleys are of the same thickness 
 as the jacks and the measurements are made from the 
 long points of the jacks. Otherwise suitable reductions 
 must be made for rafter and ridge thicknesses. 
 
176 CARPENTRY 
 
 Directions for Using Table for Protractor. — Fig. 70-b. 
 
 Example. — Given to frame an octagonal silo with a span of 21' 
 and a roof pitch of 11 " to the foot. 
 
 1. To Lay Out Miter Cut of Plate.— (Cf. small table Fig. 
 70-b.) Eight sided polygon, plate miter =673^ degrees. Seta 
 T-bevel by means of a protractor* to this angle. 
 
 2. To Find Length of a Side for Plate. — (Cf. small table, 
 Fig. 70-b.) 21' (2 X run) x .414 (cotangent of octagon) = 8.69' = 8^' 
 (.69 = ^,, columns 3 and 4.) 
 
 3. To Lay Out Common Rafter. — 
 
 a. Plumb cut.— (Cf. column 5) =47 de^-. 30 min. Set 
 T-bevel by means of protractor to same. 
 
 b. Length — (Cf. column 11). Take lOJ^ (run) x 16.28" 
 (length of common rafter per foot of run) = 14' 2.94" = 
 
 ■ 15'. (.94=1, columns 3 and 4.) 
 
 c. Seat cut.— (Cf. column 8) 42 deg. 30 min. Set T- 
 bevel by means of protractor. 
 
 d. Tail.— 
 
 (1) Length — Determined as is length of common 
 rafter (Cf. column 11), horizontal projection of 
 tail or length of lookout becoming the multiplier. 
 
 (2) End cut. — Use same number of degrees as for 
 plumb cut. 
 
 4. To Lay Out Hip or Valley Rafter. — 
 
 a. Plumb cut. — (Cf. column 7) = 49 deg. 50 min. 
 
 b. Side cut.— (Cf. column 17) = 17 deg. 40 min. This 
 
 also gives miter cut at end of hip tail for fascia, and 
 
 also the miter cut of the bird's mouth joint of valley 
 
 rafter, where it must be cut out to fit the angle of 
 
 the plate. 
 
 *Starrett's "Framing Tool" is strongly recommended for framing in 
 degrees, Cf. Figs. 81 and 82. 
 
APPENDIX 177 
 
 c. Length of hip or valley rafter. — (Cf. column 13) W}/i 
 (run of common rafter) x 17.03" (length of octagon 
 hip or valley per foot of run of common rafter) = 14' 
 10.32 " = 14' 10^" (.32 = 3^, columns 3 and 4). 
 
 d. Seat cut. — (Cf. column 10) = 40 deg. 10 min. Use 
 protractor and T-bevel. 
 
 e. Tail for hip or valley rafter. — 
 
 (1) Length. — ; Determined as for hip or valley, hori- 
 zontal projection of tail or length of lookout of 
 common rafter becoming multiplier. 
 
 (2) End cut. — Use same number of degrees as for 
 plumb cut of hip or valley. 
 
 f . Backing of hip. — (Cf . column 22) = 74 deg. 50 min. 
 
 g. Drop of hip when no backing is used. (Cf. column 24) 
 
 5_ff 
 
 — 16 • 
 
 To Lay Out Jacks. — 
 
 a. Plumb cut. — Same as for common rafter. 
 
 b. Side cut. — (Cf . column 15) = 17 deg. 
 
 c. Length. — (Cf . column 20) = ^ that for square roof 
 of same pitch. When set 16" centers =Vx21^" = 
 52 iV") common difference. Proceed accordingly. 
 
 d. Tail for jack. — Same as for common rafter. 
 
APPEN£)IX V 
 
 Miscellaneous Estimating 
 
 Excavations. — Excavations are estimated in terms of the cubic 
 yard, 27 cubic feet. The price per yard will vary according to the 
 nature of the soil. 
 
 Where ground is not level, the plot should be divided into 
 squares, each square being figured as to its cubical contents and the 
 various amounts combined. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER CUBIC YARD 
 
 Spading or picking — labor, J^ hour at 
 
 Throwing out — labor, f^ hour at 
 
 Wheehng 50 feet, J^ hour at 
 
 Cost per yard $ ' 
 
 Concrete. — Concrete is estimated in terms of the cubic yard. 
 The price will vary somewhat according to the mixture and the 
 amount of form work required. Mixtures are designated as 
 " rich " — 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts crushed rock, by 
 volume; " medium " — 1:21^ :5 ; "ordinary" 1:3:6, and "lean," 
 1:4:8. The rich mixture is used for cellar floors on high grade 
 work. Cisterns and tanks make use of a special mixture of 1 :2 :3, 
 the stone or gravel being passed thru a J^" screen. Cement top- 
 ping for cellar floors is a mortar composed of 1 part cement and 2 
 parts sharp sand. Sometimes a 1:1 mixture is used. Cellar 
 floors and sidewalks are often priced by the foot surface measure, 
 standard specifications for depth and construction being under- 
 stood. 
 
 178 
 
APPENDIX 179 
 
 TABLE FOR ESTIMATING QUANTITIES FOR CONCRETE 
 (Proportion of materials in one cubic foot of concrete.) 
 
 MIXTURE 
 
 Rich (1:2:4) Medium (1:2>^:5) Ordinary (1 :3 :6) 
 
 Cement 0.058bbl. 0.048 bbl. 0.041 bbl. 
 
 Sand 0.0163CU. yd. 0.0170 cu. yd. 0.0174 cu. yd. 
 
 Stone or gravel 0.0326cu. yd. 0.0341 cu. yd. 0.0348 cu. yd. 
 
 Example — Estimate quantities of various materials needed for a wall 10"X7'X 
 
 48', using a 1:2^:5 mixture. 
 
 „ , . 10X7X48 „„„ 
 Solution — Tg = 280 cu. ft. 
 
 Cement =280X0. 048 bbl. =13.44 bbl. 
 Sand = 280 X . 017 cu. yd. = 4 . 76 cu. yd. 
 Stone = 280 X . 0341 cu. yd. = 9 . 548 cu. yd. 
 
 Knowing the cost of cement per bbl. and of sand and stone per 
 cu. yd., the cost of materials for the wall may be easily determined. 
 
 TABLE FOR ESTIMATING QUANTITIES FOR CEMENT MORTAR 
 (Proportion of materials in one cubic foot of cement mortar) 
 
 MIXTURE 
 
 1:1J^ 1:2 1:2J^ 
 
 Cement 0.1481 bbl. 0.1239 bbl. 0.1052 bbl. 
 
 Sand O.OSllcu. yd. 0.0344 cu. yd. 0.0370 cu. yd. 
 
 Example — Estimate quantities of material for 1 :2 cement mortar for topping 
 
 of ceUar floor 1"X24'X40'. 
 
 24X40 
 Solution — — j2 — =80 cu. ft. 
 
 Cement=80XO. 1239 bbl. =9.912 bbl. 
 Sand = 80X0 . 0344 cu. yd. = 2 . 752 cu. yd. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF LABOR COST FACTORS PER CUBIC YARD 
 
 1 mason, 2 hours @ 
 
 2 laborers, 2 hours each @ 
 
 Total $ 
 
 Where forms are required add: 
 
 1 carpenter, 2}4 hours @ 
 
 Cellar floor construction costs approximately the same as wall 
 work having forms. The expense of form work in ordinary base- 
 
180 CARPENTRY 
 
 ment wall construction is offset by labor and additional cement 
 cost of topping of cellar floor. 
 
 Brickwork. — The unit of measurement in brickwork is the 
 1000 bricks, ordinarily. 
 
 To determine the number of bricks in a wall, multiply each 
 square foot of surface by 7 (sometimes l]/2 is used) which is the 
 average number of bricks per foot of wall when 4" thick. Add 6% 
 for breakage. Deduct for openings over 2' square. For walls 
 thicker than 4", make suitable allowance. 
 
 A mason can lay 800 to 1000 common and 300 to 400 face 
 bricks in a day. 
 
 Bricks may be laid in lime mortar or in cement mortar. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER 1000 BRICKS, 
 LIME MORTAR 1:3 
 
 Brick, 1000 @ 
 
 Lime, 3 bu. @ 
 
 Sand, }4 cu. yd. @ 
 
 Mason, 10 hrs. @ 
 
 Tender, 10 hrs. @ 
 
 Total $ 
 
 ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER 1000 BRICKS, 
 CEMENT MORTAR 1:3 
 Brick, 1000 @ 
 
 Portland cement, \% bbl. @ 
 
 Sand yi cu. yd. @ 
 
 Mason, 10 hrs. @ 
 
 Tender, 10 hrs. @ 
 
 Total I 
 
 Chimneys. — One foot of chimney height will contain five 
 courses of ordinary bricks. 
 
 CHIMNEYS 
 
 No. Size OP Size of No. Beicks 
 
 "OES Flue Chimney per Ft. 
 
 1 8"X 8" 16"X16" 30 
 
 2 8"X 8" 16"X28" 50 
 
 3 8"X 8" 16"X40" 70 
 1 12"X12" 20"X20" 40 
 
APPENDIX 181 
 
 Slate Roof. — Exposure of each slate will equal the length of a 
 slate diminished by 3" (the usual amount of lap) divided by 2, 
 multiplied by the width of the slate. 
 
 To determine the number of slates required, divide the area 
 to be covered by the exposure of each slate as determined just 
 above. 
 
 Example — Determine the number of 6"X 12" slates required to cover a surface 
 16'X20'. 
 
 12"-3" , ^ 
 Solution — — 2 — "X6 =27 sq. m. 
 
 16X20X144" ,„„^ , 
 
 • 27^; =1707 slates. 
 
 TABLE OF SLATES PER SQUARE OF 100 FEET 
 Size Length of Expos. No. Req. Nails Req. 
 
 6"X12" 4^" 533 3.8 lbs. 
 
 7"X14" 5^" 377 2.66 
 
 8"X16" 6}4" 277 2 
 
 9"X18" 7K" 214 1.5 
 
 ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER SQUARE. (100 SQ. FT.) 
 
 Slate, @ 
 
 Slater, 8 hrs., @ 
 
 Roofing Paper, @ 
 
 Placing paper, 20 min 
 
 NaUs, 2 lbs. (8"xl6" slate) @ 
 
 Total $ 
 
 Metal work extra. 
 
 Plastering. — Plastering is estimated by the square yard. In 
 estimating the number of square yards, deduct }4 the area of 
 openings. The extra labor involved in working around grounds is 
 thus allowed for. Strips of plastering less than 1 foot wide are 
 estimated as a foot in width. Closet areas are increased by J^ to 
 make allowance for the extra labor involved in working small sur- 
 faces. Special plastering of cornice, etc., will be charged extra.- 
 
182 CARPENTRY 
 
 Lathing is usually a part of the plasterer's contract, tho done 
 by a different set of workmen. The unit is either the square yard 
 or the 1000 laths. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS FOR LATHING A SQUARE (100 SQ. FT.) 
 
 Lath, 1500 @ 
 
 Nails, 10 lbs. 3d fine @ 
 
 Lather, 8 hrs. @ 
 
 Total $ 
 
 ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER SQUARE FOR 2-COAT LIME 
 
 PLASTER 
 
 Lime, 10 bu. @ ' ■ 
 
 Hair, 6 lbs. @ 
 
 Sand, 1 yd. @ 
 
 2 plasterers, 12 hrs. each @ 
 
 1 helper, 12 hrs. @ 
 
 Total $ 
 
 ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER SQUARE FOR 3-COAT LIME 
 
 PLASTER 
 
 Lime, 13 bu. @ 
 
 Hair, 8 lbs. @ 
 
 Sand, l}4 yds. @ 
 
 Plaster of Paris, 1 bbl. @ 
 
 2 plasterers, 16 hrs. each @ 
 
 1 helper, 16 hrs 
 
 Total $ 
 
 Painting. — ^ Painting is estimated by the square yard, no 
 deductions being made for openings such as doors and windows. 
 Railings, grills, etc., are figured as if solid. 
 
 A gallon of paint will cover approximately 250 to 300 sq. ft. of 
 old work and 350 ft. of new work. A painter should cover 150 
 sq. ft., 1st. coat, per hour, and 90 sq. ft., 2nd coat. 
 
 Cost factors may be easily determined from the above state- 
 ments, and costs easily estimated for ordinary work. 
 
APPENDIX 183 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF REFERENCES 
 Chicago Millwork Supply Co.: Price Book and Specifications for Lumber 
 
 and Millwork, Chicago. 
 Gillette: Handbook of Cost Data, Myron C. Clark Co., New York. 
 Goedon-Van Tine Co. : Price Book and Specifications for Lumber and Mill- 
 work, Davenport, Iowa. 
 GRirFiTH: Essentials of Woodworking, Manual Arts Press, Peoria, lU. 
 Hodgson: Modern Carpentry, Frederick J. Drake Co., Chicago. 
 Hodgson: Practical Uses of the Steel Square, Frederick J. Drake Co., Chicago. 
 Kidder: Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book, John Wiley and Sons, New 
 
 York. 
 Kidder: Building, Construction and Superintendence, Wm. T. Comstock, 
 
 New York. 
 Radford: Cyclopedia of Building Construction, Radford Architectural Co., 
 
 Chicago. 
 Radford: Details of Building Construction, Radford Architectural Co., 
 
 Chicago. 
 The National Hardwood Lumber Association: Rules for Measurement 
 
 and Inspection of Hardwood Lumber, McCormick Bldg., Chicago. 
 
INDEX . 
 
 (numbers refer to pages) 
 
 American Bond 20 
 
 Anchor, Brick Wall 139 
 
 Angle Post 118 
 
 Apron 109 
 
 Architrave 109 
 
 Ashlar 20 
 
 B 
 
 Backing Hip Rafter for Square 
 
 Cornered Building 63 
 
 Octagon and Other Hips 80 
 
 Balloon Frame 27 
 
 Base Block 109 
 
 Blocks, Placing 128 
 
 Mould 109 
 
 Mould, Placing 129 
 
 Batter Boards 15 
 
 Bed Moulding 98 
 
 Belt Course 110 
 
 Bibliography of Reading Refer- 
 ences 183 
 
 Blind Stop 109, 138 
 
 Board Measure Table 169 
 
 Bonds, Masonry 20 
 
 Brick Walls 20 
 
 Contents Table 172 
 
 Bridging 32 
 
 Building Paper 95, 98 
 
 Casing 109, 138 
 
 Casings, Placing 128 
 
 Chalk Line 103 
 
 Common Rafter 74 
 
 Concrete Mixtures 19 
 
 Corner Boards 109 
 
 Board, Splicing 102 
 
 Posts 38,39,109 
 
 Cornice 98 
 
 Costs, by Percentages. . . .- 156 
 
 Example of Form 154 
 
 Counter Flashing 107 
 
 Cove 118 
 
 Crown Moulding 98 
 
 Deck 94 
 
 Door, Fitting 130 
 
 Frame 137 
 
 Hanging 129 
 
 Hinging 131 
 
 Jambs, Setting 125 
 
 Parts Named 129 
 
 Sm 109 
 
 Trim, Placing 127 
 
 Drain Tile 24 
 
 Drip Cap 109, 138 
 
 "Duck" 127 
 
 End Cut of Common Rafter 55 
 
 of Hip and Valley Rafter 62 
 
 of Octagonal and Other Hips 
 
 and Valleys 79 
 
 English Bond 20 
 
 Estimating 142 
 
 Brick Work igQ 
 
 184 
 
INDEX 
 
 185 
 
 Estimating Cement Mortar 179 
 
 Concrete . 178 
 
 Cubic-foot Unit 142 
 
 Excavations 178 
 
 Labor Costs, Carpentry 150 
 
 Lathing 182 
 
 Lumber Quantities 146 
 
 Millwork Quantities 149 
 
 Painting 182 
 
 Plastering 181,182 
 
 Quantities of Nails 153 
 
 Slate Roof 181 
 
 Excavations 18 
 
 Exterior Wall Coverings 95 
 
 Fascia 98 
 
 Finisli Floor 109 
 
 Finisliing Exterior Walls 108 
 
 Flashing 105 
 
 Flemish Bond 20 
 
 Floors, Laying and Scraping .... 135 
 
 Footings 18 
 
 Forms for Concrete 23 
 
 Foundations 18 
 
 Laying out 13 
 
 Foundation Materials 19 
 
 Frames, Basement 25 
 
 Framing Common Rafter 49 
 
 Joists 31 
 
 Roof about Chimney 94 
 
 Square with Rafter Table 53 
 
 Table for Common and Jaclc 
 
 Rafters 52 
 
 Frieze 98 
 
 Full Frame 27 
 
 Furring 109 
 
 Girders 29,31 
 
 Grade Line 16 
 
 Grading Rules, Lumber 143 
 
 Gritath's Roof Framing Tables. . . 72 
 
 GrifiSth's Tables, Directions for.. 173 
 
 Grounds 115 
 
 H 
 
 Half-frame 27 
 
 Headers 20, 35, 109 
 
 Headroom 119 
 
 Hip and Valley Rafter End Cut. 62 
 
 and Valley Rafter Lengths. ... 61 
 
 and VaUey Rafter Plumb Cut. 60 
 
 and Valley Rafter Seat Cut. . . 62 
 and Valley Rafters for Octagon 
 
 and other Polygons 74 
 
 and Valley Rafter Side Cut. . . 60 
 
 Rafter, Unit Lengths 59 
 
 Interior Finish 115, 125 
 
 Walls : 117 
 
 Interpolation 164 
 
 Jamb 109, 138 
 
 Jack Ratter for Octagonal and 
 
 Other Polygonal Roofs . 81 
 
 for Square Cornered Building . 65 
 
 King-Post 78 
 
 Lap Siding Ill 
 
 Lathing -. 115 
 
 Length and Number of Wire Nails 
 
 to the Pound 168 
 
 Length of Common Rafter. .'. . . 50, 54 
 of Hip and Valley Rafters .... 61 
 of Jacks for Square Cornered 
 Building 66 
 
INDEX . 
 
 (numbers refer to pages) 
 
 American Bond 20 
 
 Anchor, Brick Wall 139 
 
 Angle Post 118 
 
 Apron 109 
 
 Architrave , 109 
 
 Ashlar 20 
 
 B 
 
 Backing Hip Rafter for Square 
 
 Coirnered Building 63 
 
 Octagon and Other Hips 80 
 
 Balloon Frame 27 
 
 Base Block 109 
 
 Blocks, Placing 128 
 
 Mould 109 
 
 Mould, Placing 129 
 
 Batter Boards 15 
 
 Bed Moulding 98 
 
 Belt Course 110 
 
 Bibliography of Reading Refer- 
 ences 183 
 
 Blind Stop 109, 138 
 
 Board Measure Table 169 
 
 Bonds, Masonry 20 
 
 Brick WaUs 20 
 
 Contents Table 172 
 
 Bridging 32 
 
 Building Paper 95, 98 
 
 Casing 109,138 
 
 Casings, Placing 128 
 
 Chalk Line 103 
 
 Common Rafter 74 
 
 Concrete Mixtures 19 
 
 Corner Boards 109 
 
 Board, Splicing 102 
 
 Posts 38,39,109 
 
 Cornice 98 
 
 Costs, by Percentages. . . .• 156 
 
 Example of Form 154 
 
 Counter Flashing 107 
 
 Cove 118 
 
 Crown Moulding 98 
 
 D 
 
 Deck 94 
 
 Door, Fitting 130 
 
 Frame 137 
 
 Hanging 129 
 
 Hinging 131 
 
 Jambs, Setting 125 
 
 Parts Named 129 
 
 SiU 109 
 
 Trim, Placing ■ 127 
 
 Drain Tile 24 
 
 Drip Cap 109, 138 
 
 "Duck" 127 
 
 E 
 
 End Cut of Common Rafter 5.5 
 
 of Hip and Valley Rafter 62 
 
 of Octagonal and Other Hips 
 
 and Valleys 79 
 
 English Bond 20 
 
 Estimating 142 
 
 Brick Work 180 
 
 184 
 
INDEX 
 
 185 
 
 Estimating Cement Mortar 179 
 
 Concrete 178 
 
 Cubic-foot Unit 142 
 
 Excavations 178 
 
 Labor Costs, Carpentry 150 
 
 Lathing 182 
 
 Lumber Quantities 146 
 
 Millworlt Quantities 149 
 
 Painting 182 
 
 Plastering 181,182 
 
 Quantities of Nails 153 
 
 Slate Roof 181 
 
 Excavations 18 
 
 Exterior Wall Coverings 95 
 
 Fascia 98 
 
 Finish Floor 109 
 
 Finishing Exterior Walls 108 
 
 Flashing 105 
 
 Flemish Bond 20 
 
 Floors, Laying and Scraping .... 135 
 
 Footings 18 
 
 Forms for Concrete 23 
 
 Foundations 18 
 
 Laying out 13 
 
 Foundation Materials 19 
 
 Frames, Basement 25 
 
 Framing Common Rafter 49 
 
 Joists 31 
 
 Roof about Chimney 94 
 
 Square with Rafter Table 53 
 
 Table for Common and Jack 
 
 Rafters 52 
 
 Frieze 98 
 
 Full Frame 27 
 
 Furring 109 
 
 Girders 29,31 
 
 Grade Line 16 
 
 Grading Rules, Lumber 143 
 
 Griffith's Roof Framing Tables. . . 72 
 
 Griffith's Tables, Directions for.. 173 
 
 Grounds 115 
 
 H 
 
 Half-frame 27 
 
 Headers 20, 35, 109 
 
 Headroom 119 
 
 Hip and Valley Rafter End Cut. 62 
 
 and Valley Rafter Lengths. ... 61 
 
 and Valley Rafter Plumb Cut. 60 
 
 and Valley Rafter Seat Cut. . . 62 
 and Valley Rafters for Octagon 
 
 and other Polygons 74 
 
 and VaUey Rafter Side Cut. . . 60 
 
 Rafter, Unit Lengths 59 
 
 Interior Finish 115, 125 
 
 WaUs : 117 
 
 Interpolation 164 
 
 Jamb 109,138 
 
 Jack Rafter for Octagonal and 
 
 Other Polygonal Roofs . 81 
 
 for Square Cornered Building . 65 
 
 King-Post 78 
 
 Lap Siding Ill 
 
 Lathing ■. 115 
 
 Length and Number of Wire Nails 
 
 to the Pound 168 
 
 Length of Common Rafter. .'. . .50, 54 
 of Hip and VaUey Rafters .... 61 
 of Jacks for Square Cornered 
 BuUding 66 
 
186 
 
 CARPENTRY 
 
 Length of Octagon and Other 
 
 Polygonal Jacks 82 
 
 of Rafter by Scaling 53 
 
 of Side of Polygon 73 
 
 LeveUng Door Sill 110 
 
 Foundation 16 
 
 Rod 14 
 
 with Straight-edge 17 
 
 Lintels 141 
 
 Locks, Fitting 132 
 
 Lookout 98 
 
 Lookouts, Framing 99 
 
 Plates 41,98 
 
 Platform, Stair 118 
 
 Plumb Cut of Hip and Valley 
 
 Rafter 60 
 
 of Octagonal Hip and Valley 
 
 Rafters 74 
 
 Porches 122 
 
 Porch Steps 117 
 
 Protractor, Framing with 82 
 
 Pulleys 138 
 
 PuUey Stile 109, 138 
 
 H 
 
 Main Frame 27 
 
 Masonry Construction, Wood- 
 work for 138 
 
 Miter Cuts of Plate 69 
 
 N 
 Natural Trigonometric Functions 158 
 Nosing 118 
 
 Octagonal and Other Jacks 81 
 
 Roofs 73 
 
 Octagon Bay, Framing 85 
 
 Openings in Framework 42, 94 
 
 Parting Strip 109, 138 
 
 Partition 38 
 
 Wall Detail 116 
 
 Patterns for Joists and Studding . 38 
 
 Pier 123 
 
 Pitch 46 
 
 Pitch Board 120 
 
 Placing Joists 32, 41 
 
 Plancher 98 
 
 Plank Frame 27 
 
 Raked Moulding 100 
 
 Reduction for King-post 79 
 
 for Ridge 67 
 
 Ribbon Boards 39 
 
 Ridge, Length of 66 
 
 Piece 67 
 
 Rise 46 
 
 Rise of Stair 119 
 
 Riser 118,121 
 
 Roof Boards, Cutting of 95, 96, 98 
 
 Frame 45 
 
 Frame, Any Polygon 69 
 
 Framing 45 
 
 Framing Terms 46 
 
 Rough Floors 42, 109 
 
 Rubble W^ork 20 
 
 Run 45 
 
 Run of Stair 119 
 
 Sash Cord 127 
 
 Scaffolding gg 
 
 Scribing Against Irregular Surface 114 
 
 Seat Cut of Common Rafter 65 
 
 of Hip and Valley Rafter 62 
 
 of Octagonal and Other Hips 
 
 and Valleys 79 
 
 Setting Basement Frames 25 
 
INDEX 
 
 187 
 
 Setting Partitions 41 
 
 Studs 40 
 
 Window Frames 110 
 
 Sheathing or Sheeting 95, 98 
 
 Shed Roof Framing 89 
 
 Shingling 102 
 
 Hips and Valleys 105 
 
 Shingle Tins 106 
 
 Shoe Mould 109 
 
 Placing 129 
 
 Side Cut, Hip and Valley Rafters 60 
 Octagonal and Other Hips 
 
 and Valleys 75 
 
 of Jack Rafter 65 
 
 of Octagonal and Other Poly- 
 gonal Jacks 81 
 
 Siding ■ Ill 
 
 Circular Tower 113 
 
 Hook 113 
 
 Stick Ill 
 
 Sills 29,31,109,138 
 
 Six-eight-ten Method 15 
 
 Sole Piece 109 
 
 Solution of Right Triangles 159 
 
 Spacing Joists 32 
 
 Stair Building 117 
 
 Types 118 
 
 Stirrups 36 
 
 Stock Bill Form 149 
 
 Stone Work 20 
 
 Stool 109 
 
 Stop Bead 109, 138 
 
 Story Pole 42 
 
 Straightening Studding 117 
 
 Strength of Materials 170 
 
 Stretchers 20 
 
 Stringer 118 
 
 Table for Hip and VaUey Rafters . 60 
 of Common and Jack Rafters . 52 
 
 Table of Fractional Equivalents 
 
 for Decimal Values 166 
 
 of Natural Functions 163 
 
 of Octagonal Hip and Valley 
 
 Rafters 75 
 
 Tail, Rafter 66 
 
 Tangents 69 
 
 Threshold 109 
 
 Toe Hold 104 
 
 Transit 13 
 
 Translating Framing Problems 
 from Protractor to Framing 
 
 Square and Vice Versa 84 
 
 Tread 118,121 
 
 Trimmers 35 
 
 U 
 
 Uneven Pitch of Roof 90 
 
 Useful Tables 166 
 
 Valley Rafters 65 
 
 Rafter Unit Lengths 58 
 
 Value of a Function, The Angle 
 Being Given in Fractional 
 
 Degrees 164 
 
 of Angle, The Value of a 
 
 Function Being Known 164 
 
 Veneer, Brick 138 
 
 W 
 
 Wall Board 121 
 
 WaUs 38 
 
 Water Proofing 24 
 
 Table 109 
 
 Weight Pocket 109, 138 
 
 Well Hole 36 
 
 Winders, Stair 1 18 
 
 Window Detail, for Brick Wall. . 140 
 
 Frames 137 
 
 Sash, Fittmg 126 
 
188 CARPENTRY 
 
 Window Sill 109 Wooden Bricks 26 
 
 Stool 109 Wood's Key to the Steel Square. 70 
 
 Trim, Placing 127 
 
 Wire Brads, Table for 169 Y 
 
 Wood and Machine Screw, Sizes Y-Ievel 14 
 
 Table of 167 Yoke 109