^i^ CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY The Charles and Mary Collectien From An Annonymeus Danorl Cornell University Library arY38 V.I -3 Historical and statistical Information r 3 1924 032 190 161 olln.anx Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032190161 IS4 < ETHNOLOGICAL RESEAECHES, RESPECTING THE RED MAN OE AMERICA. (i) ■J AND RE SPE CTIig^G THE HISTORY, CONDITION AND PBOSPECTS ^'r//rr/^ r/ ^r // // /^ /■/// /'//rr/ ////////■ ///r (lire (lion of the BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS per act of Conoress //■.I/// /■/■// J fr^ ///-//. E Y >J 't ri h y J:! . o C .M D D 1 G E A J^ '/ 1 „ H JU „ Illustrated 1)y S.EASTMAiX, CAPT. T. S.AEMY. Published b\' aiitliorilv of Couoress. Part 1. PHILADELPHIA: LIPPINCOTT, (VRAMBO )t CO. HISTOEICAL AND STATISTICAL INFORMATION, RESPECTING THE HISTOEY, CONDITION AND PROSPECTS OF THE INDIAN TKIBES OF THE UNITED STATES : COLLECTED AND PEEPAKED UNDER THE DIRECTION OP THE BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIES, PER ACT OF CONGRESS OF MARCH 3d, 1847, BY HENEY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, LL. D. ILLUSTRATED BY S. EASTMANJAPT. If. S. A. PART I. PHILADELPHIA: LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & COMPANY, (SUCCESSORS TO GRIGG, ELLIOT & CO.) 1851. <»3 MESSAGE OP THK PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. To THE Senate of the United States: I transmit herewith a communication from the Department of the Interior, and the papers which accompanied it; being the first part of the results of investigations by Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq., under the provisions of an Act of Congress, approved March 3d, 1847, requiring the Secretary of War " to collect and digest such statistics and materials as may illustrate the history, the present condition, and future prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States." MILLARD FILLMORE. Washington, 10th Augmt, 1850. Department op the Interior, Washington, August 9, 1850. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, with the view of their being laid before the Senate, a communication from the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and the papers which accom- pany it : viz., a letter from Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq., together with the manuscripts and drawings ; being the first part of results of investigations under the provisions of an Act of Congress, approved March 3d, 1847, requiring the Secretary of War to collect and digest such statistics and materials as may illustrate the history, present condition, and future prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States. Very Respectfully, Your Obedient Servant, D. 0. GODDARD, Secretary ad interim. To the President of the United States. ;iu) iv INTRODUCTORY DOCUMENTS. Department of the Interior, Office Indian Affairs, August 7th, 1850. Sir: Under the Act of Congress approved Marcli 3d, 1847, Henry R. Schoolcraft was appointed " to collect and digest such statistics and materials as may illustrate the history, present condition and future prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States." I have the honor to submit for transmission to Congress, the manuscripts and drawings here- with, — being the first part of the results of Mr. Schoolcraft's investigations, — also a letter from him, explanatory of the nature and extent of his labors, and suggesting the proper course to be pursued in relation to the publication of the work. He naturally feels solicitous as to the correct- ness and style of the mechanical execution ; and in view of the labor, learning, and ability he has devoted to the work, and its nationality of character, I trust his wishes in that respect may be regarded. Very Respectfully, Your Obedient Servant, L. LEA, Commissioner. D. C. GoDDARD, Esq., Secretary of the Interior, ad interim. Washington, Juh/ 22d, 1850. L. Lea, Esq., Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Sir: In conformity with authority confided to me under the provisions of an Act of Congress, approved March 3d, 1847, requiring the Secretary of War " to collect and digest such statistics and materials as may illustrate the history, the present condition, and future prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States," I have the honor to submit to you the first part of the results of my investigations. Time was required in order to place an inquiry so comprehensive in its character on a proper basis. Misapprehensions on the part of the Indians, with respect to the object of the collection of their statistics, were to be met. The additional duties required of the agents of Indian afi"airs presupposed so intimate an acquaintance with the history and languages of the tribes and the distinguishing traits of races, that few of this class of ofiicers were prepared to undertake them. The investigation in these particulars was therefore extended to embrace gentlemen of experience, observation, and learning, in various parts of the Union ; including numerous teachers and mis- sionaries employed in moral and intellectual labors among them. Facts were, indeed, solicited from all who had facts to communicate.' ' A copy of the Historical Inquiries, drawn up for this purpose, is inserted as an Appendix to this volume. INTRODUCTORY DOCUMENTS. v Valuable memoirs and communications have been received as the result of these joint mea- sures, official and unofficial, and a mass of information collected which may serve, it is believed, to rescue the topic, in some measure, from a class of hasty and imaginative tourists and ■^Titers, whose ill-digested theories often lack the basis of correct observation and sound deduction. American and European writers have been, to no small extent, misled by these suppositi- tious views, not only respecting the real character of the tribes, but the policy of the govern- ment itself in relation to them, has been extensively prejudged and misapprehended. Some of the most able and profound writers, at home and abroad, whose works will, in their main parts, be long cherished, have taken the mere synonyms of tribes, as distinct and separate tribes, playing diiferent parts in history. The languages which have so many features to be admired in common with the Shemitic plan of thought, to which they must be referred, have been pronounced, on very slender materials, to contain high refinements in forms of expression ; an opinion which there is reason to believe requires great modifications, however terse and beautiful the languages are, in their power of combination. The aboriginal archaeology has fallen under a somewhat similar spirit of misapprehension and predisposition to exaggeration. The antiquities of the United States are the antiquities of bar- barism, and not of ancient civilization. Mere age they undoubtedly have ; but when we look about our magnificent forests and fertile valleys for ancient relics of the traces of the plough, the compass, the pen, and the chisel, it must require a heated imagination to perceive much, if anything at all, beyond the hunter state of arts, as it existed at the respective eras of the Scandinavian and Columbian discoveries. It has been the practice of some writers, astonished at the isolated monuments of labor and skill, which are manifestly intrusive, to speak of the antiquities of the Mississippi Valley as denoting a high state of ancient civilization in the aboriginal race. But when these vestiges of human labor are attentively studied on a broad scale, in connection with all the attending phenomena, they do not appear to sanction the belief of any high and general state of advance in the race before the arrival of Europeans. This may be emphatically said of the tribes within the territory of the United States, whatever judgment may be formed respecting the ruins of Palenque, Cuzco, Yucatan, and the Valley of Mexico. A predisposition to admire and wonder in viewing objects of archaeological discovery, is not peculiar to this continent, but has stood in the way of sober deduction, founded on an impartial basis of migratory action and reaction in all ages of the world's history. However these subjects may, in our own land, puzzle and distract inquirers, lying, in some minds, as so many stumbling-blocks in the way of historical truth, it was due to the character of the government, and to a peculiar variety of the race of man, — for such we must regard the Indian tribes, — to place the record from which both their and its actions are to be judged, on grounds of authentic information while the tribes are yet on the stage of action. It could not have been anticipated in the beginning of the 16th century, that erratic and predatory hordes of hunters, without agriculture, arts, or letters, and with absolutely nothing in their civil polity that merits the name of government, should have been able to sustain themselves ; far less, to cope with the European stocks who landed here with the highest type of industrial civilization. vi INTRODUCTORY DOCTTMENTS. But justice to every period of our history, colonial and sovereign, requires it to be shown that the great duties of humanity have not been constantly performed towards them ; that their possessory right to the soil has not been at all times fully acknowledged, and that their capacities for improvement and knowledge have not been attempted to be elicited in every way, and unceas- ingly cultivated and appealed to. A continent has been appropriated, in the occupancy of which this race preceded us. For their actual character in peace and war, and capacities for the duties of life ; for their history and idiosyncracies ; for their arts and habits ; their modes of subsistence, and inter-tribal inter- course ; for their languages and mental traits and peculiarities, as developed by curious oral recitals and mythologie dogmas and opinions, which carry the mind back to early oriental epochs ; for their system of mnemonic symbols, and, in fine, for the general facts that go to establish their nation- ality and character, posterity will look to .the present age for its record, whatever may betide the history of the tribes, or the efforts of humanity in their behalf. In providing for their enumeration and statistics, Congress has regarded these as indispensable points in the illustration of the main design. How far the inquiries are accomplished in the investigations made, there will be better means of judging when the results shall have been fully presented. The present materials are submitted as a part of the information collected, and will be followed by others as early as the returns and papers can be fully examined and digested. It will occur to you, sir, that this inquiry is of a national character, and that, in bringing the matter forward, there will be a propriety in permitting the same hand that prepared it to supervise the publication. Many of the papers abound in aboriginal expressions to which no one unacquainted with the- languages could do justice. The system of pictography, which is for the first time exhibited, imposes a degree of critical care in the typography which is not ordinarily expected. I have the honor, therefore, to suggest that Congress, to whom I request you will refer this communication, be solicited to order that the present manuscripts and the succeeding parts of them, together with the illustrations and engravings, be printed under the special charge of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, acting for the Library Committee. Very Respectfully, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, Agent on Census, &c. Act of M March, 1847. P E E FA C E. While these papers are believed to exhibit, in a new light, the history, condition, and prospects of the Indian Eace, an effort is made to base the subject on the broad grounds of their continental relations, as one of the primary varieties of the human family. Names, geographical positions, events, languages, antique monuments- of art — whatever serves, in fact, to define or illustrate the varying phases of their histoiy and character, is found to assume increased importance from this consideration. Tribes, families, and groups are thus invested with a new power of generalization. In carrying out these relations, through the intricacies of physical and intellectual development, the chief reliance is placed on the general deductions of history and ethnology, as these data have been applied in the consideration of the affinities of the races of men. Stress has also been laid on that peculiar feature of the human mind, by which nations form their ideas of a Deity, — a trait which is deemed fundamental in the mental type. The subject of Indian History is locally approached, through aboriginal traditions, tribal and general, and the topics of American antiquities and American languages. The latter is, however, considered as the true key of their aflSnities. It is unde- niable, that whatever light may be obtained from other sources, it is upon comparative views of the principles of their languages, and of the actual state of their lexicography, that we must chiefly rely for anything aspiring to antiquarian value. The author conceives that he has had unusual opportunities of becoming acquainted with the principles of these apparently ancient mediums of human thought. He has given to these studies his days and nights, when, without this motive to exertion, they would have passed as a blank in the remotest forests. The theme has, been pursued with all the ardor and hopefulness of youth, and the perseverance 1 c™) viii PREFACE. of maturer years, passed in the vicissitudes of a frontier life. If, to many, the wilderness is a place of wearisome solitude, to him it assumed, under these influ- ences, far more the semblance of the choicest recesses of an academic study. This study has only been intruded upon by the cares of business, and the higher duties of ofl&ce; but it has ever been crowned, in his mind, with the ineffable delights that attend the hope of knowledge, and the triumph of research. Thirty years thus spent on the frontiers, and in, the forests, where the Ked Race still dwells, have exhibited them to his observation in almost every possible development. He has been placed in a variety of situations to observe the structure and capacities of the Indian mind, in its minutest idiosyncracies ; to glean his notions of life, death, and immortality; his conceptions of the character and being of a God, who is uni- versally acknowledged as the Creator ; and to detect the secret springs of his acts, living and dying. The peculiarly intimate relations the author has held to them (having married a highly educated lady, whose grandfather was a distinguished aboriginal chief- regnant, or king,) has had the effect of breaking down towards himself, individually, the eternal distrust and suspicion of the Indian mind, and to open the most secret arcana of his hopes and fears, as imposed by his religious dogmas, and as revealed by the deeply-hidden causes of his extraordinary acts and wonderful character. The mental type of the aborigines, which has been systematically pursued through the recondite relations of their mythology and religion ; their notions of the duality of the soul; their conceptions of a complex spiritual agency affecting man and beast; their mysterious trust in a system of pictographic symbols, believed to have a reflex power of personal influence ; and their indomitable fixity in these pecu- liarities, reveal the true causes, he apprehends, why the race has so long and so pertinaciously resisted, as with iron resistance, all the lights and influences which Europe and America united have poured upon their mind, through letters, arts, knowledge, and , Christianity. The United States has maintained relations with some seventy tribes who occupy the continental area east of the Rocky Mountains. The great practical object, which has at all periods pressed upon the Government, has been the preservation of peace, on the constantly enlarging circle of the frontiers. This effort, basing itself on one of the earhest acts of "Washington, has been unintermitted. Occupying the peculiar relation of a mixed foreign and domestic character, the intercourse has called for the exercise of a paternal as well as an ofl&cial policy. No people has ever evinced such a non-appreciating sense of the lessons of experience, in the career of their history and destiny ; and the problem of their management has still returned to us, to be repeated again — What line of policy is best suited to advance PREFACE. ix their prosperity? The present plan of collecting information respecting their actual condition, character, and prospects, is based on an appeal to the entire ofiicial organi- zation of the Department on the frontiers ; and is believed to be the most efficient one that can be pursued to collect a body of authentic information, which may serve as the record from which the tribes are to be judged. Its results will be communicated as the materials accumulate. In the consideration of the policy to be adopted with respect to the wild prairie and transmontane tribes, who rove over immense tracts with no sense of dependence or responsibility but that which they daily acknowledge to the bow and arrow, the gun and club, — in the use of which they have acquired great dexterity — and new power by the introduction of the horse ; we commend to notice the remarks of Mr. Wyeth, formerly of Oregon, on the best mode to be adopted respecting the shifting and feeble tribes of those latitudes. The faithless and robber-like character of the prairie hordes east of the mountains, is graphically depicted by Mr. Burnet, in his memoir on the Comanches, and by Mr. Fitzpatrick, respecting the Arapahoes and other predatory tribes on the higher Arkansas and Nebraska. Although this cha- racter is inapplicable to the more easterly tribes, many of whom are advanced in arts and knowledge, it is yet important to keep it in view in adjusting our policy respecting those remote and lawless tribes. The experience of two hundred years, with the entire race, demonstrates the delusion of a prosperous Indian nationality, as based on any other system but that of agriculture and the arts. And, it is believed, the sooner the several tribes cease to regard themselves politically as containing the elements of a foreign population, the sooner will the best hopes of their permanent prosperity and civilization be realized. Meantime, while they preserve a pseudo-nationality, it may be affirmed as one of the clearest deductions of statistical and practical investigations into the operation of our laws, and the general principles of population, that nothing beyond the interest of the funds due to the tribes, for lands purchased from them, should continue to be paid as annuities, — while policy requires, that the principal should be devoted, with their consent, wholly to purposes of civil polity, education, and the arts. With all their defects of character, the Indian tribes are entitled to the peculiar notice of a people who have succeeded to the occupancy of territories which once belonged to them. They constitute a branch of the human race whose history is lost in the early and wild mutations of men. We perceive in them many noble and disinterested traits. The simplicity of their eloquence has challenged admiration. Higher principles of devotion to what they believe to be cardinal virtues no people X PREFACE. ever evinced. Faith lias furnished the Christian martyr with motives to sustain him at the stake : but the North American Indian has endured the keenest torments of fire without the consolations of the Gospel. Civihzed nations are cheered on their way to face the cannon's mouth by inspiring music ; but the warrior of the forest requires no roll of the drum to animate his steps. Mistaken in his beUef in a system of gods of the elements — misconceiving the whole plan of industrial prosperity and happiness — wrong in his conceptions of the social duties of life, and doubly wrong in his notions of death and eternity, he yet approves himself to the best sensibilities of the human heart/ by the strong exhibition of those ties which bind a father to his children, and link whole forest communities in. the indissoluble bonds of brotherhood. He lingers with affection, but with helpless ignorance, around the dying couch of his relatives ; and his long memory of the dead ceases but with life itself. No costly tomb or cenotaph marks his place of burial; but he visits that spot with the silent majesty of grief. God has planted in his heart affections and feelings which only require to be moulded, and directed to noble aims. That impress seals him as a brother, erring, indeed, and benighted in his ways, but still a brother. To reclaim such a race to the paths of virtue and truth ; to enlighten the mind which has been so long in darkness ; and to give it new and solid foundations for its hopes, is a duty alike of high civilization and warm benevolence. Philadelphia, December 3, 1850. LIST OF PLATES. Title-Pagb Page 1 1 and 2. Ideographic Map of Botturini 20 3. Indian offering Food to the Dead 39 4. Entrances or Gateways to different Mounds 48 5. Comparative Size of Mounds 52 6. Garden-Beds in Grand River Valley, Michigan 55 7. Garden-Beds in the Valley of St. Joseph's River, Michigan 55 8. Antique Pipes from Thunder Bay, &c., Michigan 74 9. Antique Pipes 75 10. Antique Pipes 76 11. Mace or War-Clubs, Fleshing Instrument, Antique Pipe, and Coal-Chisel 77 12. Section of Grave Creek Mound. Antique Pipes and Idols 120 13. Antique Pipe found in Western Virginia 78 14. Indian Axe, Stone Tomahawk, and Stone Chisel 79 15. Indian Axe and Balista 285 16. Stone Axes 80 17. Arrow-Heads 81 18. Arrow-Heads 82 19. Gorget and Mineralized Spoon 103 20. Medals and Gorget 83 21. Stone Pestle and Copper Chisel 84 22. Cooking-Pot and Vase 85 23. Discoidal Stones and Block-Print 86 24. Coin Enamel Beads 104 25. Amulets and Beads 105 26. Spear-Heads 87 27. Awls, Antique Mortar and Corn-Cracker 88 28. Bone Shuttle and Implements for Twine-making 89 29. Block-Prints and Fleshing Instruments 90 30. Specimens of Cloth from the Sandwich Islands 91 31. Copper Wrist-Bands 92 82. Brass Rings and Stone Tubes 93 33. Baldrics of Bone and Antique Pottery 94 34. Fragments of Pottery , 94 (xi) XL xii LIST OF PLATES. 35. Shells 94 36. Dighton Rock Inscription 114 37. Synopsis of Dighton Rock Inscription 119 38. Stones with Inscriptions, and Skull from Grave Creek Mound 122 39. Map of Grave Creek Flats, Virginia 123 40. View of the Ohio from an Antique Lookout or Watch-Tower in the vicinity of Grave Creek 124 41. Map of the Source of the Mississippi River 148 42. View of Itasca Lake, Source of the Mississippi River 147 43. Map of Kansas River 159 44. Cavern in the Pictured Rocks, Lake Superior 170 45. Oneida Stone 177 46. Indian Doctor Curing a Sick Man 250 47. Pictographic Writing — Hieroglyphic Interpretation of Proverbs, Chap. xxx. Indian Inscriptions on Bark 336 48. Dacota Mission of Peace, and warning against Trespass \ 338 49. Pictographs on a Tree from Upper Mississippi. Tutelar Spirits of Chusco 352 50. Grave-Posts 356 61. Meda Songs 361 52. Wabeno Songs 373 53. Pictographic Inscriptions used in Hunting 383 54. Pictorial Records of a Chief's Success in Hunting 387 55. Vision of Catherine Wabose 390 56. War and Love Songs 401 57. Pictographs on Lake Superior, Michigan 406 58. Synopsis of Indian Hieroglyphics 408 59. Synopsis of Indian Hieroglyphics 409 60. Pictograph A, Chippewa Petition to the President of the United States 416 61. Pictograph B, Chippewa Petition to the President of the United States 417 62. Pictograph C and D, Chippewa Petition to the President of the United States 419 63. Pictograph B, Chippewa Petition to the President of the United States 420 64. Siberian Inscription relating to the Chase 424 65. Transcript from the River Irtish, Tartary 425 66. Egyptian Fly God, Baal, and Rock Inscriptions of the Mongolic and Tartar Races 342 67. Inscriptions from the Mongolian and Tartar Races 343 68. Inscription on a Laplander's Drum-Head 427 69. Triumphal Tablet of Belistun, Persia 423 70. Atotarho, the first Iroquois Ruler 421 71. Iroquois Picture-Writing 429 72. Iroquois Picture-Writing 40A 73. Iroquois Picture-Writing 40-. 74. Local Manito -ioq 75. Ohio River, from the Summit of Grave Creek Mound 125 76. Shoshonee Implements 011 CONTENTS. 1. GENERAL HISTORY. SYNOPSIS. A. History, National and Tribal Page 13 1. Its Fabulous Character 13 2. Summary of the Indian Cosmogonists 14 3. Antiquity of their Origin 14 4. Permanency of the Physical Traits 15 6. General Unity of Race and Language 15 6. Utter Impracticability of the Indian Mind and fixity of the tribal Tie 15 7. Indian Mythology 16 8. The Great Spirit Dualistic Polytheism of the Indian Mind 16 9. A Worshipper of the Elements 16 B. Origin 16 1. Ancient Historians and the Persic and Nilotic Inscriptions are silent respecting them 16 2. A very old Race of Men — too old for any records but the divine oracles — probably Almogic 17 3. Summary of Belief 17 4. Belief of a Deluge 17 5. Belief in a Subterranean Origin 17 6. Traditions of the monster Era. Algonquins assert it to have preceded the creation of Man 18 7. Tradition of public Benefactors 18 8. Tradition of the Arrival of Europeans 18 0. Traditions of the Antb-Oolumbian Epoch 19 1. Tradition of the Athapascas 19 2. Tradition of the Shawnees 19 3. Tradition of the Aztecs and Toltecs 19 4. Ideographic Map of Botturini; explained, Plates 1 and 2 20 5 The Aztecs not Aborigines 21 6. Toltec and Aztec Tradition of their History 21 (13) f CONTENTS. 7. Nationality of Quetzalcoatl ^^ 8. Examination of this Question by the lights of Modern Observation in Geography 22 9. Theory of Winds, Currents, and Temperature, in the Latitudes applied to the early Migration to America ^-^ 10. Observations at the National Observatory. Lieutenant Maury 23 11. Historical Deductions ^" 2. THE MENTAL TYPE OP THE INDIAN EACE. A. Generic Views 29 1. Has the Race claims to a Peculiarity of Type? 30 2. Sun Worship 30 3. Sacred Fire 31 4. Oriental Doctrine of Good and Evil 31 5. Idea of the Germ of Creation under the Symbol of an Egg 32 6. Doctrines of the Magi 32 7. Duality of the Soul 33 8. Metempsychosis 33 9. Omens from the Flight of Birds 33 10. Images and Omens drawn from the Sky 34 11. Indian Philosophy of Good and Evil 34 12. Theology of the Indian Jugglers and Hunter-Priests 35 13. Great Antiquity of Oriental Knowledge 35 14. Nature and objects of Brahminical Worship 36 15. Antiquities of America 36 16. Antiquities of the United States 36 17. Antiquity of Philological Proof 37 18. Hindoo Theology 37 19. Eternity of Life the boon of Hindoo Deliverance 37 20. Difficulty of comparing Savage and Civilized Nations 37 21. A Dualistic Deity 38 22. Worship of the Elements. Transmigration 38 23. What Stock of Nations 38 24. Cast. Incineration of the Body 38 25. Offerings to Ancestors 38 26. Offerings at Meals, or on Journeys 39 27. Parallelism of Idolatrous Customs among the Jews 39 28. Extreme Antiquity of Hindoo Rites 39 29. Indian Languages. Shemitic ^^ 30. Manners and Customs Mongolic 4q 31. Conclusions of the early Anglo-Saxons ^q 32. Permanency of the Physiological Type 41 33. Mental Type Non-Progressive a\ 34. Proof of Orientalism from Astronomy a-i 35. Proof from Aztec Astronomy A,y CONTENTS. XV 3. ANTIQUITIES. A. General Archeology 44 B. Antique Skill in Fortification 47 C. Erection of Tumuli, or Altars of Sacrifice 49 1. Tumuli proper 49 2. Eedoubt Mounds 51 3. Barrovrs 61 4. Minor Altars of Sacrifice 61 6. Totemic Mounds 62 D. Evidences of a FIxed Cultivation at an Antique Period 64 1. Prairie Fields 64 2.. Kemains of antique Garden Beds and extensive Fields of Horticultural Labor in the primitive Prairies of the West 54 3. Influence of the Cultivation of the Zea Maize on the Condition, History, and Migra- tions of the Indian Race 60 4. Antiquities of the higher Northern Latitudes of the United States 65 E. The State of Arts and Miscellaneous Fabrics 70 1. General Views 70 2. Antique Pipe of the period of the Landing 72 3. Stemless Pipe of Thunder Bay 74 4. Indian Axe 75 5. Arrow-Head 77 6. Mace, or War-Club 78 7. Antique Gorget, or Medal 78 8. Corn Pestle, or Hand Bray-Stone 80 9. Akeek, or Indian Cooking-Pot 81 10. Discoidal Stones 82 11. Funereal Food- Vase 83 12. Coin, or its Equivalent 84 13. Balista, or Demon's Head , 85 14. Medaeka, or Amulets 86 16. Antique Javelin, or Indian Shemagon or Spear 87 16. Aishkun, or Bone Awl 87 17. Bone Shuttle 88 18. Ice-Cutter 88 19. Reed, for Rope or Twine Making 89 20. Antique Mortar 90 21. Stone Block-Prints 90 22. Fleshing Instrument, or Stone Chisel 91 23. Antique Indian Knife 92 24. Ancient Stone Bill, Pointed Mace, or Tomahawk 92 2 rxvi CONTENTS. 25. Copper Arm and Wrist-Bands ^^ 26. Anomalous Objects of Art and Custom 93 F. Attempts in Mining and Metalluegy 95 1. General Remarks 2. Ancient Copper-Mining in the Basin of Lake Superior 95 3. Vestiges of Ancient Mining in Indiana and Illinois 100 4. Vestiges of Ancient Mining Operations in Arkansas and Missouri 100 5. Evidence of Ancient Mining Operations in California 101 G. Ossuaries 102 H. Akch^ological Evidences of the Continent having been visited by a People HAVING Letters, prior to the Era of Columbus 106 1. Ancient Inscription on the Assonet or Dighton Rock 108 2. Notice of an Inscription in Antique Characters found on a Tabular Stone or Amulet in one of the Western Tumuli, of probably the beginning of the Sixteenth Century . 120 3. Devices on a Globular Stone of the Mound Period, found in the Ohio Valley 124 4. Ancient Shipwreck on the American Coasts 125 5. Skeleton in Armor 127 5. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. A. Geographical Memoranda respecting the Discovery of the Mississippi River, M^iTH A Map of its Source 183 B. Gold Deposits of California 149 C. Mineralogical and Geographical Notices, denoting the Value of Aboriginal Territory 157 1. Tin on the Kansas River, with a Map 157 2. Wisconsin and Iowa Lead Ore 160 3. Black Oxyde of Copper of Lake Superior 160 4. Native Silver in the Drift Stratum of Michigan 161 5. Petroleum of the Chickasaw Lands 161 6. Artesian Borings for Salt in the Onondaga Summit 162 7. Geography of the Genesee Country of Western New York 163 D. Existing Geological Action of the American Lakes 166 E. Antique Osteology of the Monster Period I73 F. An Aboriginal Palladium, with a Plate I76 G. Minnesota 281 6. TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 1. Preliminary Remarks iqo 2. Shoshonee, or Snake Nation 298 CONTENTS. xvii 3. Indian Tribes of Oregon, &c. ; by N. J. Wyeth, Esq 204 4. Comanches and other Tribes of Texas, and the Policy to be pursued respecting them ; by D. G. Burnet, Esq 229 5. Indian Tribes of New Mexico; by Governor Charles Bent 242 6. Dacotas of the Mississippi; by Thomas S. Williamson, M. D 247 7. The Small-Pox a Scourge to the Aborigines 257 8. Tribes on the Santa Ee Trail and at the Foot of the Kocky Mountains 259 9. History of the Creeks or Muskogees 265 10. Massachusetts Indians 284 11. Former Indian Population of Kentucky 300 12. History of the Menomonies and Chippewas 302 13. Miscotins and Assigunaigs 305 14. Origin and History of the Chickasaws 309 VI. INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. A. Mythology and Oral Traditions 316 1. Iroquois Cosmogony 816 2. Allegorical Traditions of the Origin of Men, of Manabozho, and of the Introduction of Medical Magic 317 3. Allegory of the Origin and History of the Osages 319 4. Pottowattomie Theology 320 5. The Island of the Blessed, or the Hunter's Dream 321- 6. The Fate of the Red-Headed Magician 323 7. The Magic Ring in the Prairies 327 8. The History of the Little Orphan who carries the White Feather 329 B. Indian Pictography 333 1. Preliminary Considerations 333 2. Extreme Antiquity of the Art of Pictorial Writing ; its General Use amongst the Oriental Nations, &c 341 8. Elements of the Pictorial System. Common Figurative Signs, designed to convey General Information among the Tribes, &c 350 4. Kekeewin, or Hieratic Signs of the Medawin and Jeesukawin. Definition of the Terms and Principles of the Scrolls 358 5. Rites and Symbolic Notation of the Songs of the Wabeno. Pictorial Signs used in this Society. A Description of the Songs and Dances 366 6. Symbols of the Art of Hunting and the Incidents of the Chase 383 7. The Higher Jeesukawin, or Prophecy 388 8. Symbols of War, Love, and History. Translation of War-Songs, kc 401 9. Universality and Antiquity of the Pictographic Method. Geographical Area Covered by Migrations of the Algonquin Tribes. The great Fixity of Mental and Physical Character , 411 xvm CONTENTS. 10. Comparative View of the Pictography of Barbarous Nations. Foreign Pictographic Signs. The Chinese Characters founded on the Picture- Writing Devices of the Samoides, Siberians, Tartars, &c '*21 VII. POPULATION AND STATISTICS. A. GrENBRAL KeMARKS ON THE INDIAN POPULATION OF THE UnION 433 B. Census Ebturns of the Indian Tribes op the United States, with their Vital AND Industrial Statistics 439 1. Iroquois Group 441 2. Algonquin Group 458 3. Dacota Group 498 4. Appalachian Group 508 C. Tables of the Tribes within the nbwlt acquired States and Territories... 518 1. Texas 518 2. New Mexico 519 8. California 520 4. Oregon 521 5. Florida 522 6. Utah 522 7. Ultimate Consolidated Tables of the Indian Population of the United States 523 APPENDIX. Inquiries, respecting the History, Present Condition, and Future Prospects of THE Indian Tribes op the United States 525 1. GENERAL HISTORY. And these are ancient things. I. Chron. iv. 22. A. HISTORY; NATIONAL AND TRIBAL. 1. Aboriginal history, on this continent, is more celebrated for preserving its fables than its facts. This is emphatically true respecting the hunter and non-industrial tribes of the present area of the United States, who have left but little that is entitled to historical respect. Nations creeping out of the ground — a world growing out of a tortoise's back — the globe re-constructed from the earth clutched in a muskrat's paw, after a deluge, — such are the fables, or allegories, from which we are to frame their ancient history. Without any mode of denoting their chronology, without letters, without any arts depending upon the use of iron tools, without, in truth, any power of mind or hand, to denote their early wars and dynasties, except what may be inferred from their monumental remains, there is nothing, in their oral narrations of ancient epochs, to bind together or give consistency to even this incongruous mass of wild hyperboles and crudities. Whenever it is attempted, by the slender thread of their oral traditions, to pick up and re-unite the broken chain of history, by which they were anciently connected with the old world, their sachems endeavor to fix attention by some striking allegory or incongruous fiction ; which sounds, to ears of sober truth, like attempts at weaving a rope of sand. To impress the mind by extraordinary simplicity, or to surprise it, with a single graphic idea, is quite characteristic of Indian eloquence — whatever be the theme. Manco Capac, deriving his pedigree from the sun, or Tarenyawagon, receiving his apotheosis from the White Bird of Heaven ; Quetzalcoatl, founding the Toltec empire with a few wanderers from the Seven Caves ; or Atatarho, veiling his god-like powers of terror with hissing rattle-snakes, fearful only to others; such are the proofs (13) 14 NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. by which thej aim to stay the ill-proportioned fabric of their history, antiquities, and mythology. 2. The native cosmogonists, when they are recalled from building these castles in the air, and asked the meaning of a tumulus, or the age of some gigantic tooth or bone, which remains to attest geological changes in the surface of the continent, answer with a stare ! and if they speak at all, they make such heavy drafts upon the imagination, that history never knows when she has made allowances enough on this head. A mammoth bull, jumping over the great lakes ; ' a grape-vine carrying a whole tribe across the Mississippi ; ^ an eagle's wings producing the phenomenon of thunder, or its flashing eyes that of lightning; men stepping in viewless tracks up the blue arch of heaven ; the rainbow made a baldric ; a little boy catching the sun's beams in a snare ;^ hawks, rescuing shipAvrecked mariners from an angry ocean, and carrjdng them up a steep ascent, in leathern bags.^ These, or a plain event of last year's occurrence, are related by the chiefs with equal gravity, and expected to claim an equal share of belief and historic attention. Where so much is pure mythologic dross, or requires to be put in the crucible of allegory, there appears to be little room for any fact. Yet there are some facts, against which we cannot shut our eyes. 3. We perceive, in them, if examined by the light of truth, as revealed alike by divine and profane records, a marked variety of the human race, possessing traits of a decidedly oriental character, who have been lost to all history, ancient and modern. Of their precise origin, and the era and manner of their migration to this continent, we know nothing with certainty, which is not inferential. Philosophical inquiry is our only guide. This is still the judgment of the best inquirers, who have investigated the subject through the medium of physiology, languages, antiquities, arts, traditions, or whatever other means may have been employed to solve the question. They are, evidently, ancient in their occupancy of the continent. There are, probably, ruins here, which date within five hundred years of the foundation of Babylon. All history demonstrates, that from that central focus of nationality, nations were propelled over the globe Avith an extraordinary degree of energy and geographical enterprise. It is well said by a recent and eminent writer, that the foot of man has pressed many a soil, which late travellers assume was never trodden before.' We have known this con- tinent but three centuries and a half, dating from 1492. That discovery fell like a thunder-clap. But it is now known that the Scandinavians had set foot upon it, at a long prior date, and had visited the northern part of it, from Greenland, as early as the beginning of the 10th century.^ Even in the 9th century, we are ■ Jefferson's Notes. ' Heckewelder's History of the Indians. ' Oneota. ■» Cusio's Ancient History of the Iroquois. ' Charles Hamilton Smith's History of the Human Species. ' Antiquitates Americana. Copenhagen. NATIONAL AND TEIBAL HISTORY. 15 informed, Othere proceeded on a voyage to the North Pole. The brothers Zeni had made important prior discoveries, in the western and northern oceans. Biscayan fish- ermen were driven off the Irish coasts ia 1450, and there is a chart of Andrea Bianca in the Ducal Library at Venice, of 1436, on which the names of Brazil and Antillia occur. 4. But whenever visited, whether in the 9th, 10th, or 15th century, or late in the 16 th, when Virginia was first visited, the Indians vindicated all the leading traits and characteristics of the present day. Of all races on the face of the earth, who were pushed from their original seats, and cast back into utter barbarism, they have, apparently, changed the least ; and have preserved their physical and mental type, with the fewest alterations. They continue to reproduce themselves, as a race, even where their manners are comparatively polished, and their intellects enlightened ; as if they were bound by the iron fetters of an unchanging type. In this unvarying and indomitable individuaHty, and in their fixity of opinion and general idiosyncracy, they certainly remind the reader of oriental races — of the Shemitic family of man. 5. Viewed in extenso, the race appears to be composed of the fragments of various tribes of men, who bore, however, a general affinity to each other. With some small exceptions, they appear to be parts of a whole. Most of their languages and dialects are manifestly derivative. While they are transpositive and polysyllabic, they are of a type of synthesis more concrete and ancient in its structure than those of Rome and Greece, and exhibit no analogies to those of western and northern Europe, unless it be the Basque and Magyar. But they are philosophically homogeneous in syntax, capable of the most exact analysis and resolution into their original and simple elements ; and while some of them impose concords, in reference to a wild aboriginal principle of animate and inanimate classes of nature, they are entirely una-sy7ithetic. This subject will be examined in its proper place. 6. As a race, there never was one more impracticable ; more bent on a nameless principle of tribality ; more averse to combinations for their general good; more deaf to the voice of instruction ; more determined to pursue all the elements of their own destruction. They are still, as a body, nomadic in their manners and customs. They appear, on this continent, to have trampled on monumental ruins, some of which had their origin before their arrival, or without their participation as builders ; though these are apparently ruins of the same generic race of men, but of a prior era. They have, in the north, no temples for worship, and live in a wild belief of the ancient theory of a diurgus, or Soul of the Universe, which inhabits and animates every thing. They recognise their Great Spirit in rocks, trees, cataracts, and clouds ; in thunder and lightning ; in the strongest tempests and the softest zephyrs ; and this subtle and transcendental Spirit is believed to conceal himself in titular deities from human gaze, as birds and quadrupeds ; and, in short, he is to be supposed to exist under every possible form in the world, animate and inanimate. 16 NATIONAL AND TKIBAL HISTOKY. 7. While a Great Spirit thus constitutes the pith of Indian theory, the tribes live in a practical state of polytheism ; and they have constructed a mythology in accord- ance with these sublimated views of matter and spirit, which is remarkable for the variety of its objects. To this they constantly appeal, at every step of their lives. They hear the great diurgic Spirit in every wind; they see him in every cloud; they fear him in every sound; and they adore him in every place that inspires awe. They thus make gods of the elements : they see his image in the sun ; they acknow- ledge his mysterious power in fire; and wherever nature, in the perpetual struggle of matter to restore its equilibrium, assumes power, there they are sure to locate a god. 8. This is but half their capacity of stout belief The Indian god of North Ame- rica exists in a dualistic form ; there is a malign and a benign type of him ; and there is continual strife, in every possible form, between these two antagonistical powers, for the mastery over the mind. They are in perpetual activity. Legions of subordinate spirits attend both. Nature is replete with them. When the eye fails to recognise them in matei'ial forms, they are revealed in dreams. Necromancy and witchcraft are two of their ordinary powers. They can, in a twinkling, transform men and animals. False hopes and fears, which the Indian believes to be true, spring up on every side. His notions of the spirit-world exceed all belief; and the Indian mind is thus made the victim of wild mystery, uneijding suspicion, and para- lyzing fear. Nothing could make him more truly a wild man. 9. It is a religion of woods and wilds, and involves the ever-varying and confused belief in spirits and demons, gods of the water and gods of the rocks, and in every imaginable creation of the air, the ocean, the earth, and the sky, — of every possible power, indeed, which can produce secret harm or generate escape from it. Not to suffer, with the Indian, is to enjoy. Not to be in misery from these unnumbered hosts, is to be blest. He seems, indeed, to present the living problem of a race which has escaped from every good and truthful influence, and is determined to call into requisition every evil one, to prevent his return to the original doctrines of truth ; for he constantly speaks, when his traditions are probed, of having lived in a better state; of having spoken a better and purer language, and of having been under the govern- ment of chiefs who exercised a more energetic power. Such, at least, I have found the tone of the Algonquin mind, during a long residence among them. B. ORIGIN. 1. Where such a race can be supposed to have had their origin, .history may vainly inquire. It probably broke off from one of the primary stocks of the human race before history had dipped her pen in ink, or lifted her graver on stone. Herodotus is silent; there is nothing to be learned from Sanconiathus and the fragmentary ancients. The cuneiform and the Nilotic inscriptions, the oldest in the world are NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 17 mute. Our Indian stocks seem to be still more ancient. Their languages, their peculiar idiosyncrasy, all that is peculiar about them, denote this. 2. Considered in every point of view, the Indian race appears to be of an old — a very old stock. Nothing that we have, in the shape of books, is ancient enough to recal the period of his origin, but the sacred oracles. If we appeal to these, a pro- bable prototype may be recognised in that branch of the race which may be called Almogic,^ a branch of the Eber-ites ; to whom, indeed, the revelation was not made, but who, as co-inhabitants for many ages of the same country, may be supposed to have been more or less acquainted with the fact of such revelation. Like them, they are depicted, at all periods of their history, as strongly self-willed, exclusive in their type of individuality, heedless, heady, impracticable, impatient of reproof or instruc- tion, and strongly bent on the various forms of ancient idolatry. Such are, indeed, the traits of the American tribes. 3. What may be regarded, in their traditions of the world, their origin, and their opinions of man, as entitled to attention, is this. They believe in a supreme, trans- cendental power of goodness, or Great Merciful Spirit, by whom the earth, the ani- mals, and man were created ; also, in a great antagonistical power, who can disturb the benevolent purposes of the other power. This person they call the Great Evil Spirit. The belief in this duality of gods is universal. 4. They relate, generally, that there was a deluge at an ancient epoch, which covered the earth, and drowned mankind, except a limited number. They speak most emphatically of a future state, and appear to have some confused idea of rewards and punishments, which are allegorically represented. 5. They regard the earth as their cosmogonic mother, and declare their origin to have been in caves, or in some other manner within its depths. The leading dogma of their theology is, however, that a future state is destined to reward them for evils endured in this; and that the fates of men are irrevocably fixed, and cannot be altered, except, it may be, by appeals to their seers, prophets, or jossakeeds, which finally, if we are to judge by the stolidity of an Indian's death, they entirely forget, or appear to have no faith in. They declare themselves generally to be aborigines. Pure fables, or allegories, are all that support this. By one authority, they climbed up the roots of a large vine, from the interior to the surface of the earth f by another, they casually saw light, while underground, from the top of a cavern in the earth.' In one way or another, most of the tribes plant themselves on the traditions of a local origin. Seeing many quadrupeds which burrow in the earth, they acknowledge a similar and mysterious relation. Tecumseh affirmed, in accordance with this notion, that the earth was his ' From Almodad, the son of Joktan ^ Breckenridge's Voyage up the Missouri. " Onebta, p. 207. 3 18 NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. mother; and Michabou held that the birds and beasts were his brothers A few of the tribes, north and south, have something of a traditional value to add to these notions, expressive of an opinion of a foreign origin. This, as gleaned from vanous authors, will be now particularly mentioned. .^^ ... j 6. These ideas, which vary greatly in different tribes, are mmgled with fables and behefs of the grossest absurdity. To separate tradition from mythologic behef, m the chaos of Indian intellect, has some resemblance to the attempt of a finite hand to separate Ught from darkness. The overflow of waters on the earth havmg been nar- rated, an event, by the way, which they attribute to the Great Evil Spirit, their tra- ditions skip over thousands of years, which they fill up as an epoch of mythology. In this, monsters, giants, spirits, genii, gods, and demons, wield their powers agamst each other, and fill the world with cannibalism, murders, and complicated fears and horrors. Buckland himself could not desire a fairer field for one big saurian to eat up another; but the era is wholly spoiled for the geological warfare of monsters, by making man live on earth at the same time, and exposing him to all the horrible mutations and mutilations of the tooth and claw era. The Algonquin Indians indeed say, in accord- ance with geological theory, that the animals at first had the rule on earth, and that man came in as a later creation. 7. One of the chief features of this epoch of monstrosities, in each leading family of American Tribes, is the tradition of some great hero, giant-killer, or wise benefactor, whose name is exalted as a god, and to whose strength, wisdom, or sagacity, they attribute deliverance. Such is Quetzalcoatl among the Toltecs and Aztecs ; Atahen- tsic, Atatarho, and Tarenyawagon, among the Iroquois, and Micabo, or the Great Hare, popularly called Manabozho, among the Algonquins. 8. The next thing that is heard, in their history of the world, is accounts, variously related, of the arrival of Europeans on the coast, about the end of the 16th century. From that era to the present day, is, with the exceptions below recited, the period of authentic tradition. Most of the tribes possess traditions of the first appearance of white men among them, and some of them name the place. The Lenni Lenapes and Mohicans preserve the memory of the appearance and voyage of Hudson, up the river bearing his name, in 1609. The Iroquois have the tradition of a wreck, apparently earlier, on the southern coast ; and the saving, and, after a time, the extinction of the infant colony in blood. This possibly may be the first colony of Virginia, in 1588. The Algonquins have a tradition of Cartier's visit to the St. Lawrence, in 1534, and call the French, to this day, People of the Wooden Vessel, or Warmitig-oazh. The Chippewas affirmed (in 1824) that seven generations of men had passed since that nation first came in to the lakes.* ' If 1608, the period of the settlement of Canada, be taken as the era, and thirty years allowed to a genera- tion, this is a remarkable instance of accuracy of computation. NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 19 C. TRADITIONS OF THE ANTE-COLUMBIAN EPOCH. On this subject, we are confined to narrow limits. Three or four of the chief stocks now between the Equinox and the Arctic Circle, have preserved traditions which it is deemed proper to recite. 1. In the voyages of Sir Alexander Mackenzie among the Arctic tribes, he relates of the Chepeweyans, that " they have a tradition that they originally came from another country, inhabited by very wicked people, and had traversed a great lake, which was narrow and shallow, and full of islands, where they had suffered great misery, it being always winter, with ice and deep snow." '■ In a subsequent passage, p. 387, he remarks — " Their progress (the great Athapasca family) is easterly, and according to their own tradition, they came from Siberia ; agreeing in dress and manners with the people now found upon the coasts of Asia." 2. The Shawanoes, an Algonquin tribe, have a tradition of a foreign origin, or. a landing from a sea voyage. John Johnston, Esq., who was for many years their agent, prior to 1820, observes, in a letter of July 7th, 1819, published in the first volume of Arch^ologia Americana, p. 273, that they migrated from West Florida, and parts adjacent, to Ohio and Indiana, where this tribe was then located. " The people of this nation," he observes, " have a tradition that their ancestors crossed the sea. They are the only tribe with which I am acquainted, who admit a foreign origin. Until lately, they kept yearly sacrifices for their safe arrival in this country. From where they came, or at what period they arrived in America, they do not know. It is a prevailing opinion among them, that Florida had been inhabited by white people, who had the use of iron tools. Blackhoof (a celebrated chief) affirms that he has often heard it spoken of by old people, that stumps of trees, covered with earth, were frequently found, which had been cut down by edged tools." At a subsequent page, he says — "It is somewhat doubtful whether the deliverance which they celebrate has any other reference, than to the crossing of some great river, or an arm of the sea." (P. 276, Arch. Am., Vol. I.) 8. The next testimony is from Mexico. Montezuma told- Cortez of a foreign con- nection between the Aztec race and the nations of the Old World. This tradition, as preserved by Don Antonio Solis, led that monarch to assure the conqueror of a relationship to the Spanish^ crown, in the line of sovereigns. His speech is this : — "I would have you to understand before you begin your dis- course, that we are not ignorant, or stand in need of your persuasions, to believe that the great prince you obey is descended from our ancient Quetzalcoatl, Lord of the ' Mackenzie, OXII. Introd. ' This wa,s of course entitled to no weight whatever, except as denoting a foreign origin. 20 NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. Seven Caves of the Navatlaques, and lawful king of those seven nations which gave beginning to our Mexican empire. By one of his prophecies, which we receive as an infalhble truth, and by a tradition of many ages, preserved in our annals, we know that he departed from these countries, to conquer new regions in the East, leaving a promise, that in process of time, his descendants should return, to model our laws, and mend our government." ' 4. The general tradition of the nation, of their having originated in another land, and their migration by water, is preserved in the ideographic map of Botturini.^ By the accompanying Plates (1 and 2) they describe pictographically their first landing from Aztlan. This place is depicted as an island, surrounded on three sides by the sea. It has the representative sign of six principal houses, with a temple surmounted with the usual emblem of their priesthood ; and with a king and queen, or chief and chieftainess. The former has a shoulder-knot, and long garments ; the latter a looking-glass, with her hair in two front knots, and her feet drawn backwards, a la mode de savage. Both are sitting. The next figure is a man in a boat, with flowing hair, and a long garment. This drawing typifies the passage. It is evi- dently a landing, and not a departure. Agreeably to the authors who urge the remotest date, this landing took place A. D. 1038. Others think 1064. The Aztecs began to count their chronology, or tie up their years, as they term it, in 1 Tecapatl of their system of cycles. (109.) Their first residence was at Colhuacan, the Horn mountain, where there were eight chiefs, each denoted by his peculiar family badge, or what the Algonquins call totem. From this, the persons charged with carrying their idol, and sacerdotal apparatus, set forward, passing down the Pacific coast. In this journey they spent twenty-eight years, to 2 Calli of their first cycle. During this time they had made three removes, reached the tropics, where they found fruits, growing upon trees, whose trunks were so large, that a man could hardly span them. They took three prisoners, who were sacrificed by their priests, by tearing out their hearts, in the same barbarous manner that was observed after this people became masters of Mexico. From this latter period, their chronology is carefully recorded. They made twenty-two removes, abiding various periods from four to twenty years at a place, making altogether one hundred and eighty-six years; till they reached the valley of Mexico. Agreeably to Clavigero, they reached Zampango in 1216, and migrated to Tizayocan in 1223. It is seen that while they dwelt at Chepoltepec, or the Locust Mountain (No 20) they took prisoners, who were dragged before their chief magistrate. These prisoners ' History of the Conquest of Mexico. 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