'J ^ ''1,1 ' ' -' ' 
 
 ^■_^.*1?^'. .„^,.t 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ,w* 
 
 "■t-T Kf, 
 
 
 
 
 iiblil 
 
 ;-si..w^ 
 
 Mi 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924073891677 
 
HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY; 
 
 OE, 
 
 THE FARMER'S BOOK 
 
 OP 
 
 PRACTICAL INFORMATION 
 
 ON 
 
 AIGRICULTURE, STOCK RAISING, 
 
 FRUIT CULTURE, SPECIAL CROPS, 
 DOMESTIC- ECOI^OMY & FAMILY MEDICINE. 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES W. DIOKBRMAN, 
 
 MEMBER OP THE PENS. AURKJULTDBAri SOCIETY. TUB AMERICAN POMOI.OGICAL SOCIETT, 
 ^ AND THE PENNSYLVANIA HyKTICUhTUKAL SOCIETY. 
 
 ASSISTED BY 
 
 Hon. CHARLES L. FLINT, 
 
 Secretary Mass. State Board of Agriculture, 
 AND OTHER PRACTICAL AGRICULTURAL "WRITERS. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY ENGRAVINGS 
 
 ZEIGLER, McOUEDY & CO. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, Ea., CINCINNATI, Ohio, CHICAGO. III. 
 
 AND ST LOUIS, Mo. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in tko year 1869, by 
 
 CHAELBS W. DICKERMAN, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastera 
 District of. Pennsylvania. 
 
 S. A. GEORGE, 
 
 ElBOTROTrPER, STEREOTTPEE, AND PRINTER, 
 
 124 N. SK7XNTH STREET, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
TO 
 
 JOHE" JOHE"STOE", 
 
 OF GENKVA, N, Y. 
 
 THK VETERAN PROMOTER OP ALL AGEIOTTLTUEAL 
 
 IMPROVEMENT IN THIS COUNTRY, 
 
 THIS VOLUME IS 
 
 DEDICATED WITH THE SINCERE ADMIRATION OF 
 
 THK AUTIIOll. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 : one at this day doubts the importance of agricultural 
 information. Knowledge in this department is not only 
 power, but it is wealth, individual and national. That 
 system of cultivation which produces two blades of grass 
 or two kernels of grain where only one grew before ; which 
 produces two quarts of milk or two pounds of meat in place 
 of one, must not only be a benefit to each individual pro- 
 ducer, but of immense advantage to the country and the world. 
 Great improvements have been made in the past twenty years. 
 Underdraining, improved machinery, the better understanding 
 of the rotation of crops, and the application of manures, and the 
 improvements in the breeds of domestic animals, have all helped 
 to raise Agriculture, from mere drudgery, to an important 
 science. And improvement must still continue. Only a small 
 proportion of the great body of farmers have adopted the 
 advanced position in modern agriculture. The great mass of 
 farmers are still laboring under the disadvantages of a false and 
 ruinous system of agriculture, without knowing just how to 
 better their position. It is the duty of those who do know, to 
 bring their knowledge to the use of these their brethren in toil. 
 Much of the best talent of the country is devoted to this object. 
 Agricultural colleges are springing up on every hand. Men of 
 genius, of the best scholarship, of great scientific attainments, 
 are devoting their lives to the work of bringing forth the secrets 
 of the soil. Enterprising young men of good abilities are putting 
 
 their hands tc the plow, and the plow to the furrow, resolved to 
 
 (iii) 
 
IV PEEFACE. 
 
 leave tlie mark of improvement on the work of the farm. The 
 labor of the farmer is thus elevated. What has always been 
 claimed by a few, will soon be acknowledged by all, that the 
 prosperity of a country depends upon the intelligent cultivation 
 of the soil. 
 
 In this land of schools, where every child can have an educa- 
 tion, knowledge is easily disseminated. Improved methods of 
 culture can be spread broadcast over the land by means of books 
 and papers. For these reasons American farmers are more 
 intelligent than the same class in any other country. Few 
 farmers are now so ignorant as to scoff at agricultural informa- 
 tion. They desire it, and welcome it. The trouble has been 
 and is, that it is not given them in a form adapted to their wants. 
 There have been many technical and scientific works, containing 
 most valuable information, but in language not readily under 
 stood. These works are very largely theoretical, and the practical 
 is not so distinctly separated as to be easily applied. 
 
 They have performed a noble service, for without the informa- 
 tion they have contained, but little advance would have been 
 made. 
 
 The agricultural papers come down more nearly to the wants 
 of the farmer, and we advise every farmer to take some agricul- 
 tural paper. They furnish many useful hints and valuable 
 suggestions, and serve to- interest the younger members of the 
 family in the labors of the farm. But agricultural papers are noL 
 wholly satisfactory. Of course, each number can refer to only a 
 limited variety of subjects, and a farmer may take the paper for 
 years before he gets information upon the very subject- he wishes 
 most to know about. Again, much that is in these papers is 
 crude. Many theories are given that have not been suflSciently 
 tried, and must be received with the greatest caution. The records 
 of carefully conducted experiments are the most valuable part of 
 these papers, if the farmer has the wisdom and patience to study 
 them, and apply their principles to his practice. 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 There is another class of agricultural books, by our best 
 writers, on specific subjects, the objection to them being their 
 cost. In order to make a book, a great deal is put in that is' 
 curious and interesting, but not practical. For instance, one of 
 am best writers has recently published a book on " Wheat Cul- 
 ture," which, while it contains nearly all that is practically 
 worth knowing about the plant, is so full of other matters, as to 
 be called by the editor of one of our agricultural papers, " The 
 Romance and Curiosities of Wheat Growing." It is just the 
 avoidance of these superfluities which is aimed at in the present 
 work, while all the practical information is retained. To obtain 
 information on all the subjects treated of, it would be necessary 
 for the 'farmer to purchase books upon drainage, manures, imple- 
 ments, wheat culture, grasses, sheep-husbandry, milch cows and 
 dairy farming, horses, cattle, fruit culture, market gardening, 
 and numberless other books, large and small, requiring much 
 money to purciiase, and much time to read 
 
 To make the present volame wholly reliable, it has been aimed 
 to record nothing but what has been proved in practice, beyond 
 a doubt. Mere theory has been rejected. Some valuable ideas 
 have in all probability been thus lost, but it is the only safe 
 course ; the only course by which the farmer can be saved from 
 disastrous mistakes. The results of practice in diflferent sections 
 and on different soils have been carefully compared with the re- 
 corded opinions of the oldest and best of our own writers ; and 
 much valuable assistance has thus been received from such able, 
 careful, and practical men as the Hon. Charles L. Flint, Secretary 
 of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, (to whom the 
 reader is indebted for the valuable chapters on Agricultural Imple- 
 ments and Dairy Stock, in this volume ;) John II. Klippart, of Ohio ; 
 S. Edwards Todd, of New York ; Professors Norton and John- 
 ston, of Yale College; J. J. Thomas, of Albany, New Yorkj Norman 
 J. Coleman,of St.Louis, Mo.; Lewis F.Allen, of New York; Robert 
 Stewart, M. I)., V. S., author of " The American Farmer's Horse 
 
VI PEEFACE 
 
 Book;" Henry S. Randall, L.L. D., author of "The Practical 
 Shepherd ;" George H. Dadd, V. S. ; Andrew S. Fuller, Peter B. 
 Mead, and Dr. C. W. Grant, of New York ; George Hussman, of 
 Mo. ; Edmund Morris, of New Jersey ; Donald G. Mitchell, of New 
 Haven, Conn. ; Charles B. Williams, of Va. ; Joseph B. Lyman, 
 of La. ; Fearing Burr, Jr., of Boston, author of " The Field and 
 Garden Vegetables of America ;" Marshall P. Wilder, Robert M. 
 Copeland, Joseph Breck, and Edward S. Rand, of Boston ; 
 Patrick Barry, of Rochester, New Tork; L. L. Langstroth, of 
 Ohio, and many others. To all these gentlemen the author 
 tenders his most sincere acknowledgments. 
 
 In writing this volume, the author has kept steadily in view 
 the requirements of the East, the West, and the Sout^ with 
 her fields newly opening to agricultural enterprise. That it will 
 fully meet the wants of every farmer is too much to expect ; but 
 that it will more fully meet them than any other single volume 
 is his hope and belief. With the sole desire that it may be of 
 permanent value to his brethren of the Plow, the author commits 
 it to the Press. 
 
 Near Philadelphia, 1 
 October 1, 1868. J 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PREFACE 3 
 
 INTKODUCTION « 19 
 
 CHAP TEE I. 
 
 DBAINAGE. 
 What Soils need Drainage — Sign&— Effects of Stagnant Water upon various Crops— Shortens 
 the Working Season — Shortens the Ripening Season — Effects of Drainage — Removes 
 Stagnant Water from the Surface — Removes Surplus Water from under the Surface — 
 lengthens the Working Seaaou — Deepens the Soil — Warms the Under Soil — Equalizes 
 the Temperature— Prevents Injuries by Frost— Prevents Injury from Drought — Increases 
 the Effect of Manures — Prevents Rust in Wheat and Rot in Potatoes — Other advantages 
 — Material for Drains— Open Drains — Brush — Stone Drains— Tile— Why the best— Depth 
 of Drains — Draining Tools — Time to make Drains — Laying out — Digging — Mains- 
 Minors — Joints — Heads — Outlets — Obstructions — How discovered — How remedied — 
 Ditching Machines— Mole Drains, etc , etc. — Draining Prairie Laud 31-46 
 
 CHAPTEE 11. 
 
 PLOWING. 
 
 Objects— Pulverization — Wet Soils— Deep Plowing — Shallow Plowing— Increase your Acret, 
 Lapped Furrow Slices— Double Furrow Slices — Plat Furrow Slices — Trench Plowing — 
 Benefits of Trench Plowing^Subsoil Plowing — Benefits — When not applicable- Fall 
 Plpwing — Winter Plowing— Spring Plowing — Which the best— Why — Stubble Plowing 
 — Plowing Clay Soils— How to Plow — Heavy and Light Plows — Breaking Prairie — 
 Harrowing — Rolling — Clod Crushing 47-61 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 MANURES. 
 Waste of Mannres — One Thousand Dollars a Tear to waste — Liquid Manure — Human Excre* 
 Boent — How to save it— Its value— The Barnyard — More waste — Urine— Manure Wells- 
 Soiling— Horse Manure — Liability to " fire fang"— Loss of Ammonia — Its value— How to 
 prevent It — The Piggery — Hen Dung— Liquid Manure alone valuable— Application to 
 the Soil — Surface Manuring — Fall Manuring— Spring Manuring — Protected and unpro- 
 tected Manures— Peat — Mnck — Straw— Leaves — Bones, and how to Dissolve them — Dead 
 HorseH, etc.— Ashes— Sawdust— Soot — Soap— The Sink Spout and Privy— Red Clover as a 
 Manure — Other Green Manures — Their value — Plowing them under — Make the most of 
 your Mannre— When to use Fertilizers — Gnano, the same thing as Hen Dung — Lime — A 
 necessity — Its application— Gypsum — Plaster of Paris— Do Fertilizers exhaust the Soil — 
 Composts— Drainage necessary to give effect to Manures — Last words - 63-99 
 
 yii 
 
VUI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEK IV. 
 
 FARM IMPLEMENTS. 
 Amount of Capital invested in them — Impnivements — One Plow to a town — The Carey Plow 
 — Shovel Plow— Implements for preparing the Land— Tree Sawiug Machinea— Stump 
 Pullers and Stone Lifters — Drainage and Draining Implements — Plows and Plowing— 
 Draaght— The Doe Plow— Its general application — Deep Tiller Plows — Telegraph Plow — 
 Cylinder Plow— Mead's Conical Plow— Sod, Stuhble, and Side Hill Plows— Steel Plows- - 
 Their advantages— Collins Plow — The Subsoil Plow— Its gi-eat usefulness — Other Plows 
 — Dr. Grant's New Trenching Plows — Plows for the Prairie Farmer — Skinner's Gang- 
 Plow — Steam Plow— Comstock's Spader— Harrows— Qeddes' Harrow— The Hinge Har- 
 row — Share's Harrow— Horse Hoes— Cultivators— Sulky Cultivator— Clod Crusher- 
 Rollers — Cooper's Lime Spreader — Drills — The advantages of DrUling in most Crops— 
 The Star Drill — Seed Sowers — Weeding Hoes— Allen's "Weed Killer"— ^Implements for 
 Harvesting — The rapid march of improvements — Number of Mowing Machines manu- 
 factured — Their progress towards perfection — The Buckeye — Woods — Other Mowers — 
 The Hay Tedder — Its remarkable success — Horse Eakes — JForks — Horse Forks — Reaper 
 Trials — Self Rake Reapers — Automatic Binders — Combined Mowers and Reapers — Pre- 
 servation and cai'e of Implements — Valuable directions — Threshing JMachines — Corn 
 Shellers — Hay Fodder and Root Cutters — Cider and Grape Mills 70-152 
 
 CHAPTEK Y. 
 
 GRAINS. 
 Wheat Cdlturb. Its importance — The corner stone of Wheat Culture — Drainage — Soils- 
 Clay — Limestone — Sandy Soils — Mistake in Prairie Farming— Manures required — Clover 
 Fallows — Cost of Manuring with Clover— Its value— Lime, Ashes, Salt, etc., — Relative 
 value of each to the Wheat Crop— Fattening the Soil — Thorough Pulverization — Sheep 
 V8. Cattle — Preparing the Soil for Wheat — Deep Cultivation — Mellowing the Soil— Sow- 
 ing — Early and ]<at6 Sowing — The Depth — Amonnt of Seed to the acre — Drilling in the 
 Seed — Can be done earlier — Less Seed requix'ed — Uniformity secured — Other advantages 
 — Harrowing Wheat in the Spring — Chess, Grass, and Weeds — Time to Harvest Wheat — 
 Sign's of Riipening — Reaping — Cradling — Raking — Binding — Stacking — Grain Caps- 
 Spring Wlieat — Special directions — Selection of Seed Wheat — Carelessness in selecting 
 Seed the great bane of Agriculture— Qualities of Good Wheat — Varieties of Wheat — Their 
 Qualities described — If not properly selected and carefully cultivated the best Wheal 
 will degenerate — Snvut — Rust — Mildew — Ergot — Insects, Rtb. Soils — Preparation — 
 Manures — Sowing — Harvesting — Selection of Seed. Barlet, Buckwheat, Oats. Varieties 
 — Soils best adapted to their Culture — Tbeir place in the rotation of Crops — Manures to 
 be applied — i'reparation of the Soil — Harvesting, etc., etc. Indian Corn. The Staple 
 Crop— Ci)tton po longer King — Soil — Autumn Plowing — Manures — Lime— Salt — Guano — 
 Ashes— Bones, etc.— Preparing the Seed— Time to Plant—Corn Planters or Drills — Culti- 
 vation — Southern and Western itletbods — How can they be improved — Corn for Fnddpr — 
 Topping condemned — Harvesting — Huskings — Raising, selecting and piH-Jorvius^ Seed 
 Corn — Varieties — Broom Corn — Legal Weights of Grains, Roots and Seeds in different 
 States — Number of Seeds to the pound of different Grains and Grasses 153-182 
 
 CHAPTER yi. 
 
 GRASSES. 
 Parposes for which Grass is cultivated — Hay — Pasture — Thirty Species of Agricultural value 
 — Varieties of Grass described^Their relative value — Red Clover — ^Time fbr Seediug Clover 
 — Quantity of Seed per acre — Cutting and Curing — Early us. Late Cutting — Curing in one 
 day — Cutting for Seed — Hay Caps — Clover as a Manure — Time to Sow Grass Seed — Early 
 Spring vs. Fall Sowing — Quantity of Seed per acre — ^Too small a variety of Seed ueually 
 sown — Twenty varieties in natural sod — Mixtures recommended — Tables — Top dressing 
 Orass Lands— Seeding wet Prairie— Red Top vs. Slough Grass— Improvement of Pas- 
 mes— Selection of Grass Seed — Raise your own Seed Ifi3-195 
 
CONTENTS. ix 
 
 CHAPTEK VI I. 
 
 ROOT CROPS. PAflB 
 
 The best Farming implies a Culture of " Roots" — Roots for Stock in "Winter— Relative valae 
 of Roots aod Corn — Wliere Roots can be raised to advantage — Soil — Preparation— Ma- 
 imres— Turnips — Ruta Bagas — Mangolds— Carrots— General Cultivation — Harvest! d^— 
 Storiug — Feeding — Careful selection and preparation of Seed — Drilling vs. Sowing — 
 Pruflt.3. Potatoes. Geueral use — Preparation of the Soil — Manures and their applica- 
 tion — Plantiag whole or cut, large or small, in Hills or Rows — Cultivation — Harvesting 
 — Storiug — Varieties — Characteristics of a good Potato — Description of thirteen good 
 varieties— Sweet Potatoes 196-206 
 
 CHAPTER YIIL 
 
 SPECIAL CHOPS AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 Cotton. Its great importance — Cheap Cotton means Cheap Clothing — Three classes of soils 
 — Cotton States — Division of a Cotton Plantation — Plowing — Plantiug — The Seed — Circle 
 Plowing — Marking off — A cheap Marker — Distance to Plant — LrilUng in — Dropping by 
 hand — Rules of Dr. Cloud — Fertilizers — The best and their application — Cultivation- 
 First Plowing — Bringing to a stand — Keeping out the Weeds — Care for the Laborers and 
 Stock — ^Picking — When to commence — Directious of J. B. Lyman — Ginning, Baling, and 
 Miirketing — Suggestions — A common Gin House — Home Manufacture — Diseases — Insects 
 — Certain methods of preventing their ravages — Cotton Seed — Oil Cake. Rice Cdlture. 
 Tobacco. Does it exhaust the Soil — Faulty methods of Culture — S&ll — Preparation — Sub- 
 Beiling — Manures the life of the Crop — What Manures — ^he Seed Bed —How much Seed — 
 Transplanting — Cultivation — Enemies — Suckei-s — Worms — Topping — Indications of Ri- 
 pening— ^-Harvesting — Frost — Curing — Artificial Curing— rBihb & Co.'s Apparatus — Sweat- 
 ing. Hops. Soil— Underdraining — Position- Preparation of the Soil— Fertilizers — Run- 
 ners — TranspIautiQg — Planting out — Sets — Distance — New and improved method of 
 Training — The Hop Louse — Prevention — Gathering — Drying — Storiug. Hemp. Its Cul- 
 tivation. Flax. Where raised to advantage — Soil required — PrepaifUion must be thor- 
 ough — Manures — Place in a Rotation — Weeding — Muwing vs. Cradling — Rippling — 
 Retting — Pools — Seed — Sorghum — For Sugar — For Syi'up only — Is it piofitable — Cultiva- 
 tion — Manufacture. Maple Sugar. 'Piaut Maple Trees — Profits large in proportion to 
 the expense — How to Tap Trees — New methods of Boiling the Sap. BiiET Roots fob 
 Sdoab. Amount of Sugar imported — Economy of raising Beets — Cost ol Crop — Amount 
 of Sugar — Cost of Manufacture — Great Profits to the Producer— Cheap Sugar — Value of 
 the Crop in a Rotation — Improvement of Land and Stock — How to go about it — Combina- 
 tion-Soil and Climate — Manures— Preparation of the Soil— Sowing — Gathering— When 
 to gather — Storing— Pits— Manufacture of Sugar — Beet Pulp — Seed — How t.i secure, clean 
 and save the best Seed — Rotation of Crops and Manures — The adaptation ol Stock to the 
 Soil and Crops, and General Management of Crops — Theory of Rotation — Agricultural 
 Chemistry — Analysis of Crops — Of Manures — Necessity of Rotation — Rotation of Manures 
 —Replacing the Constituents removed by the Crops — Adaptation of Manures to the 
 gyil — To the Crops — Stock — What Stitck to keep— Neat Cattle — Sheep — Pigs — Adaptation 
 of Stock to the Soil and Crops—" Keep nothing hut the best" — Improve what you have 
 .„How!-Keep all in good condition — One too many — Consume the Crops on the Farm — 
 "Why does Farming Pay no better"— Mixed Husbandry— Rotations again — Systems of 
 Rotation — Place of Wheat in the Rotation — Corn — Oats — Clover — Other Grains — Grasses 
 —Roots — Other Crops — Rotation on Prairie Soils — On Plantations — General Management 
 of Crops— The best Market 209-263 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 PART SECOND-STOCK RAISING. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 HORSES AND MULES. l-AGB 
 Thb Horbb. How to Breed— Selection of the Stud— Treatment of the Stnd— Selection of tne 
 Mare — Treatment of the Mars— Care — Kindness— The Foal — How to Train— Gentling — 
 Vices the result of Treatment— Profit of Early Training— Breakiag-Karey's System- 
 How to Feed a Horse — Stables — Grooming — VTorking — Kindness -ps. Harshness — No Vicea 
 —How to Buy a Horse — PoiDts— How to Sell a Horse — Truthfulness- Duty of the Horse 
 owner — A Draught Horse — Mares vs. Geldings— Uses of the Horse — Anatomy of the 
 Horae. Diseases of the Horse — Symptoms and Remedies. Diseases of the Booes — 
 Diseases of the Feet — Diseases of the Glands and Membranes of the Nose — Diseases of 
 the Eye — Diseases of the Muscles and Tendons — Diseases of the Skin and Ears — Diseases 
 of the Brain and Nervous System — Diseases of the Teeth and Mouth — Diseases of the 
 Throat — Diseases of the Chest and Lungs — Diseases of the Stomach and Bowels — Dis- 
 eases of the Liver and Urinary Organs — Diseases of the Heart and Blood-*^Insecth and 
 Poisons — Fractures — Shoeing — Table of Remedies, and how to prepare them — How to 
 give Medicines. Mules. Their Usefulness — Mules vs. Oxen — Mules -BS.Horees — Breed- 
 ing — Training — Breaking — " Obstinate as a Mule" — Fjiult in Training — Kicking— Kind- 
 ness — Feeding — Diseases and Remedies 263-339 
 
 CHAPTEK X. 
 
 CATTLE. 
 Breeding — Crossing— Selection — Pure Bred— Adaptation. OtTK Dairy Stock. The Buttei 
 Dairy — Qualities desired — Quality rather than quantity — "Native Stock" — "Jerseys"— 
 Good qualities for the Butter Dairy — Great yield of "Lady Milton" — Grades — The 
 " Brittany" Cow — The Poor Man's Cow. The Milk Dairy. Quantity instead of qual- 
 ity — Feeding and Management — Shorthorns — Crosses — The " Sixth Duke of Thorndale" 
 — "Aurora 2d" — "The Ayrshires" — Milking qualities — "Flora" — *' Honest John — A good 
 Cross with the common Stock — Beef qualities— ^Dutch Cows — "Kerry Cow8"~Races — 
 Breeds — Families— Improving — Pflre Bred Males — The Family Cow — Jersey and Brit- 
 tany — ^The Raising of Calves — Hay Tea — Care and Feeding — The Heifer — Time of drop- 
 ping the first Calf— Feeding and General Management of Dairy Stock — Grass — Hay- 
 Roots — Water-steamed Food — Ftall Feeding— Soiling — Regularity. Working Cattle. 
 Oxen vs. Horses — Training — Advantages — The Devons — Herefords — Ayrshires — Holsteins 
 — Improved Stock — How to get it — Pure Bred Bulls — Breeding Cows — Care and Manage- 
 ment — Bulls — Care and Treatment — Working Balls — A New Plan — Rearing Calves — Beef 
 Stock — Feeding Stock — "Keep them Growing" — Shelter — Stall Feeding — Soiling — Six 
 Advantages — Directions for Soiling — Summer Soiling — Winter Soiling — Cutting and Cook- 
 ing Food — Six Advantages — Cheap Process — Diseases of Cattle — Remedies — Diseases ot 
 Milk Cows — Remedies — Operations 340-405 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 SH^EP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 
 
 Bbeep Husbandry, by H. S. Randall, LL.D. — Profits of Sheep Husbandry — Sheep vs. Cattle- 
 Mutton — Wool — Common Breeds — Merinos — Crossing — Cotswolds — South Downs — Lei- 
 cesters — Other Breeds — ^Points — Breeding — " None but the best" — Pure Breeds — Rams- 
 Ewes — Spring Management— Tagging — Lambing — Docking — Castrating— Washing— 
 bbearing — Shearing Machine — Selection and Branding — Culling — Ticks — Maggots- 
 Educating Rams — Wearing and Fall Feeding Lambs — "Well Summered is half Win- 
 tered" — Fall Feed and Shelter foi Ewes — Coupling — Herding — Winter Management — 
 Shelter — Sheep Barns — Plan for Sheep Barn — Winter Feed — Water— Salt — Exercise — 
 Turnips — Barn Management — Unclaimed Lands for Pasturage — Grass — Corn — Turnips — 
 Lambing on the Range — Shelter — Directions of Hon. Sam. P. Boardman, Diseases op 
 6ai!rp. Grub in the Head — The Scnb— Foot Rot— Other Diseases, Swing, "What are 
 
CONTEXTS. xi 
 
 the best"— Cheater Whites — Berkshires — Suffolks — Other' Breeds — Crosses — Poiats — The 
 Sow — Farrowing— Care of Pigs— Feeding — Cooking Food — Western methods of Feeding 
 "Keep them Growing" — The Piggery — Plan of a Piggery — Diseases of Swiue, with 
 Symptoms and Remedies — Castrating — Spaying — Abortion. Goats. Cashmere — An- 
 gora—Wool — Milk— Goats vs. Sheep — Feeding — Diseases. Dogs. Curs— Expense — Dam- 
 age done to Sheep — Worthlessness-^Nine out of every Ten should be killed — Good Dogs 
 — Watch Dogs — Shepherd's Dog — More good Dogs wanted— Diseases. « 40&-468 
 
 CHAPTER XI L ' 
 
 POULTRY AND BEES. 
 
 Poultry. Hens — Profits of Keeping— Advantages — "The little Pile of Manure" — Hens vs. Hoga 
 —Eggs — Poultry on a large scale— The MetropoUtau Farm— Four Thousand Fowls — Poul- 
 try raised Cheaper than Beef— How — Good Breeds — Shelter — How to build a. Poultry 
 House — Feeding and Water in Winter — Setting — Raising Chicks — Breeds — Ham'burgs — 
 Game — Cochins — Bralimas — Polands — Leghorns — The Hen Fever — Don't get it — Buy 
 Jlcderately — Changing Cocks Yearly — It Pays — EHtimates of a Poultry Keeper — ^Turkeys 
 — How to keep them at home to Lay — Care of young Turkeys — How to Fatten — Br6nze 
 Turkeys — Fowls in Horse Stables, etc. — Ducks — Water — Eggs by the Pound — Breeds — 
 Rouen — Aylesbury — Geese — Setting — Bremen or Embeden. Bees, their Habits and 
 Management. Great Interest as a Study— Profit the Object in this Book— The Queen- 
 Drones — Workers — ^Pollen — Propolis — Wax — Combs — Brood Comb— Cells — Queen Cells — 
 Worker's Cells — Droue Cells — Honey — Honey Plants — Enough on every Farm — Hives — 
 The Old tStyle — The Laugstroch Hive — Movable Combs the Great Secret of Success in Bee 
 Culture — Honey Board — Other advantages of the Langstroth Hive — Spring Manage- 
 ment — March — Opening Hives — Cleaning — Water — Feeding Rye Fiour for Brood — Inter- 
 esting Experiments of Mr. Laogstroth — Position of Hives — April Management — Feeding 
 Destitute Stocks — May — Hives for Swarms — Rearing Queens for Artificial Swarming — 
 Summer Management— June— Natural Swarms — Indications of a First Swarm — Swarm- 
 ing Boards — Hiving — Handling Bees— Sweetened Water — Bee Hat — After Swarms — Indi- 
 cations — Management — Returning to the Old Stock — Prevention of Swarming — Artificial 
 Swarming — Its Advantages — Preparation of Hives — Dividing the Bees — Changing Loca- 
 tion — Second Method of Artificial Swarming — July Management — Shade and Ventilatioa 
 — Removing Drone Brood and Destroying Drones — August — Second Honey Hai-vest — 
 Failure of Supplies — Robbing — Loss of Queen — Fall Management — September — Surplus 
 Honey — October — Feeding — Uniting Weak Stocks — November — Successful Bee Feeding — 
 Mrs. Tapper's Method of uniting Weak Colonies. Winteb Management. December — 
 Wintering Bees in a Bee House — A Cellar the Best — Burying Bees — Wintering In the 
 open air — Upward Ventilation — ^January — Cleaning the Hives and supplying Watei — 
 February — ^Feeding Destitute Stocks — Box Hives — Directions for making and using them 
 — Itaiian Bee» 471-,61ff 
 
X31 CONTEKTS. 
 
 PART THIRD-FRUIT CULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTEE XII I. 
 
 ORCHARD CULTURE. Pahe 
 
 A Thrifty Orchard easily secured — The Nursery — Planting Seeds — Cuttings — Layers— Drew- 
 iug— Planting outr— Cultivation— Budding— Qraftiug— Pruning— Objects of Pruning— 
 Methods of Pruning to accoinpliKh special objects — Transplanting , 619-035 
 
 CHAPTER XI Y. 
 
 APPLES, PEARS, AND QUINCES. 
 Apples— Soil — Situation— Planting, Transplanting, and Cultivation^Pruning— Annual Bear- 
 ing — Stock in the Orchard — Best Varieties for the Whole Country — Select Varieties for the 
 New England States — Select Varieties for the Middle States— Select Varieties for the 
 Northwest — Summer, Autumn, and Winter Apples — Select Varieties for the Southwest 
 — Select Varieties for the Southern States— Select Varieties for the Gulf Statea—Qathering 
 and Preserving the Fruit — Table of nearly fifty Varieties of Apples, with time of Ripen- 
 ing, etc., etc. Peabs. Soil and Situation — Pears on Pear Stocks— On Quince Stocks- 
 Planting, Transplanting and Cultivation— Pruning — The Quince — Varieties adapted to 
 Quince Stocks— Woodbuds and Fruit Spurs — Thinning — Picking, Ripening, and Pre- 
 serving—List of thirty Varieties, time of Ripening, Section to which they are adapted, 
 etc., etc 536-548. 
 
 CHAPTEK XY. 
 
 PEACHES, PLUMS, CHERRIES, AND APRICOTS. 
 Easily Cultivated — Stocks from Seeds, The Peach. Soil and Situation — Planting — Orchard 
 Cultivation — Budding — Pruning — Trimming — Borers — Tables of Select Varieties adapted 
 to different Sections of the country — Varieties approved by the American Pomological 
 Society. The Plum. Propagation — Soils and Situation — Budding — Varieties— The Cherry 
 ■:— Soil — Situation — Budding — Varieties — The Apricot — Cultivation — Varieties 649-557 
 
 CHAPTEE XYL 
 
 DISEASES AND INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT. 
 
 Diseases the Result of Bad Management or Neglect — The Bliglit — Remedy — Stagnation oi 
 Sap — Cause and Remedies — Winter Killing — Prevention — Warts and their Remedy- 
 Mildew — Gummed Fruits — Remedy — The Yellows — Cause and Cure. Ihsectb. The 
 Borer — How to be rid of him — ^The Tent Caterpillar — A Terrible Foe — Prevention and 
 Destruction — The Canker. Worm — Destruction of the Moth — Preventive and Destructive 
 Measures— The Apple Worm— How to destroy them— The Slug— The Curculio— Various 
 Methods of destroying them — The Pigs will help you — Also the Birds 558- 563 
 
 CHAPTER XYIL 
 
 GRAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING. 
 
 Corner Stones of Grape Culture — Vineyard — Culture— Soil— Situation— Preparation of the Soil 
 — Fertilizers- Propagation — Raising your own Vines — A few Cuttings from the Nursery 
 —Packing Cuttings — Planting Cuttings— Layers — Transplanting — Laterals— Tendrils- 
 Catting Back — Final Planting — Results of five years — Grape Growing Contagious — De- 
 mand for Cuttings — Pruning and Training — The Trellis-^Horizontal Arms — Alternate 
 Renewal — The System explained and illustrated — Objections answered — Profits from a 
 Vineyard — George Hussman's Vineyard — The Lakeview System of Trellis and Training 
 —Cultivation in the Vineyard — Covering the Vines or "laying down'* for Winter — Gath- 
 ering — ^Packing— MHrketing and Keepiag — Giirden Cultnve — Nearly every one can have 
 
Missing Page 
 
Missing Page 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 FAOB 
 
 gar — Pickles — Summer Drinks — Soaps — Washiog Recipes— Cleaning Farnitare — CU^an- 
 ing Paint — Preserving Furs — Family Glue— Tooth Powder — Restoring Colors— A Candle 
 to Burn all night — How to make Good Butter — Coloring Butter — Putting Down Bucter — 
 To keep Summer Butter — To Deodorize Milk 685-728 
 
 CHAPTER XXII I. 
 
 THE JAMILY PHYSICIAN. 
 
 Jiaeasea Come, to All— Simple Remedies efficacious in the flrst Stages — Preventive Treatment 
 — Arrestive — Curative — The First the most Important — Foundation of Disease laid in 
 Infancy — The Mother's Care — Terrible Consequences of Ignorance — Advice to MotherB— 
 Dr. King's Twenty-four Rules for the Care of Infants — Teething — Thrush; Symptoms, 
 Treatment, and Remedies — Convulsions — Fits — Treatment — Worms— Symptoms — Reme- 
 dies — Summer Complaints — Easily arrested if Treated at once — Treatment — Infantile 
 Remittent Fever — Treatment — Scarlet Fever, Scarlatina, Canker Rash— Symptoms, 
 Treatment, Remedies — Measles — Treatment — Lunx Fever — Croup — Treatment — Hooping 
 Cough — Ti'eatraent — Colds — How Prevented — How Cured — Fevers in General — Symp- 
 toms and Treatment — Fever and Ague — Typhus FavRV — Typhoid Fever — Brain Fever 
 — Diseases of the Eyes — Quinsy— Symptoms, Treatment, and Remedies — Bronchitis — 
 Catarrh — Diseases of the Lungs — Oxygenized Air — Diphtheria — Symptoms and Treat- 
 ment — Inflammation of the Stomach — Gastritis— Pleurisy — Inflammation of the Bowels- 
 Dysentery — luflammatory Rheumatism — Apoplexy — Sun Stroke — As*ihma— Hearthui u— 
 Cholera Morbus — Costiveness— Headache— Dyspepsia — Scrofula— Piles — Suffocation from 
 Drowning or otherwise — Simple Rules for Recovery — The use ot Liquors — Exercise 
 — Benefits of Exercise — Modes of Exercise — Time fur Exercise — Simple Rules in regard 
 to Exercise — Sleep — How and when to Sleep — Simple Rules in regard to Sleep— Pre- 
 scriptions for the various Diseases named 720 .746 
 
 DICTIONARY OF THE "WORDS USED IN TITIS VOLUME 747 
 
 [NDEX - 749 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOIS. 
 
 Frontispiece. 
 
 A splendid steel engraving by 
 Sartain, from a painting 
 from life by Moran. Painted 
 and engraved expressly for 
 this work. 
 
 The building in the back 
 ground is a bank Bam, the 
 ground plan and description 
 of which will be found at 
 page 627. 
 
 The side buildings are sheds, 
 as recommended and ex- 
 plained in Chapter III. 
 
 The pump in the centre is the 
 manure pump, the use of 
 which is enforced in the 
 Chapter on Manures. The 
 stock is all grouped to- 
 gether in the yard, although 
 we of course recommend se- 
 parate yards and stables for 
 the horses and sheep. The 
 horses represented are car- 
 riage horses ; we could not 
 spare the farm team from 
 their work long, enough to 
 have their pictures taken. 
 
 1 Round Tile. 
 
 2 do. do. 
 
 3 Sole Tile. 
 
 4 Horseshoe Tile. 
 
 5 Pipe and Gollar Tile. 
 
 6 The Span. 
 
 7 Stone Drain. 
 
 8 do. do. 
 
 9 Drained Field. 
 
 10 Draining Shovel, 
 
 11 do. do. 
 
 12 do. Spade. 
 
 13 do. do. 
 
 14 do. Scoop. 
 
 15 do. do. 
 
 16 do. do. 
 
 17 Tile Layer. 
 
 18 Peat Gutter. 
 
 19 Peat Tiles. 
 
 20 Shovel Plow. 
 
 21 Tree Sawing Machine, 
 
 22 Stump Puller. 
 
 23 Grapple. 
 
 24 Stone Lifter. 
 23 Doe Plow. 
 
 26 Deep Tiller Plow. 
 
 27 Telegraph Plow. 
 
 28 Allen's Gylinder Plow. 
 
 29 Mead^s Gone. 
 
 30 Mead's Gonical Plow. 
 
 31 Double Mouldhoard 
 
 Plow. 
 
 32 Swivel Plow. 
 
 XVI 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 33 Iron Beam Plow. 
 
 34 Collins' Plow. 
 
 35 Collins' Plow. 
 
 36 Subsoil Plow. 
 
 37 Dreer's Cast Steel Plow. 
 
 38 Skinner's Gang Plow. 
 
 39 Geddes' Harrow. 
 
 40 Improved Hinge Harrow. 
 
 41 Share's Harrow. 
 
 42 Knox's Horse Hoe. 
 
 43 SulTcey Cultivator. 
 
 44 Allen's Olpd Crusher. 
 
 45 Cooper's Lime Spreader. 
 
 46 Buclceye Mower. 
 
 47 Star brill. 
 
 'Danver's Seed Sower. 
 
 48| 
 49J 
 
 50 ^ZZe^'s " Weed Killer." 
 
 51 7Vie Montgomery ForTc. 
 
 52 TAe iforae i^o?-^. 
 
 53 Self-Locking Rake. 
 
 54 TFbocZ's Mower. 
 
 55 TAe American Hay TedL- 
 
 der. 
 
 56 /SfeeZ Tbo^^ Horse Rake. 
 
 57 TFbot^'s Self-Raking Rea- 
 
 per. 
 
 58 W/teeZer's Thresher. 
 
 59 Ptite' Thresher and SepOf- 
 
 rator. 
 
 60 Southern Corn S heller. 
 
 61 Universal Fodder Cutter. 
 
 62 Excelsior Root Cutter. 
 
 63 Huiehinsan's Cider and 
 
 Wine Mill. 
 
 64 5eveZ Fanning Mill. 
 
 65 Cotton Marker. 
 
 66 i^Zncc ObmS. 
 
 67 Universal Cotton Gin. 
 
 68 OZc^ Black Hawk. 
 
 69 /SitoZZiW "Draco 
 
 JV-ince." 
 
 70 Rarey's Method of 
 
 Horse Tamping. 
 
 71 5eacZ o/ Aurora 2d, 
 
 Shorthorn Cow. 
 
 72 "Xac^?/ MZton." 
 
 73 "Abraham." 
 
 74 "Sixth Luke of Thorn- 
 
 dale." 
 
 75 "Flora." 
 
 76 " Honest John." 
 
 77 X)m!!cA Cbw. 
 
 78 Hereford Bull. 
 
 79 Merinos. 
 
 80 Merino Ewes. 
 
 81 Merino Ram. 
 
 82 Leicester Ram. 
 
 83 South Lowns. 
 
 84 Sheep Shearing Ma- 
 
 chine. 
 
 85 Sheep Barn. 
 
 86 Suffolk Boar. 
 
 87 Improved Prince Al- 
 
 bert. 
 
 88 Chester TFAife Pi^s. 
 
 89 Chester FAite 5oar. 
 
 90 Piggery. 
 
 91 Cashmere Goat. 
 
 92 Shepherd Dog. 
 
 93 Black Bantam. 
 
 94 Sumatra Game Fowls. 
 
 95 Gbme Cbc^. 
 
 96 Clipper Game. 
 
 97 Poultry House. 
 
 98 Cochin China Fowls. 
 
 99 Silver Laced Bantams. 
 100 Brahma Fowls. 
 
xvm 
 
 ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 101 Brahma Fowls. 
 
 102 /Silver Hamhurghs. 
 
 103 Wliite Dorhing Fowls. 
 
 104 Orey Dorkings. 
 
 105 Crested Ducks. 
 
 106 Wild Turkey. 
 
 107 Drome Turkeys. 
 
 108 Bremen or Emheden 
 
 Qeese. 
 lt)9 Dog Churn. 
 
 110 Movable Comh Hive. 
 
 111 Honey Comh and Bees. 
 
 112 Frontispiece to Fruit 
 
 Culture. 
 
 This beautiful Colored Plate 
 is the admiration of all be- 
 holders. The upper cluster 
 of grapes is the Concord, 
 the most widely cultivated 
 grape in America. The lower 
 cluster is the transparent 
 lona, undoubtedly the finest 
 grape ever grown in the 
 United States. 
 
 The apple next this cluster of 
 grapes is the Gravenstien; 
 then comes the Orange 
 Quince, the Louise Bonne 
 de Jersey and Bartlett 
 Pears, and the Blackberry. 
 
 Going back on the middle tier 
 of fruits we have repre- 
 sented the Cherry Currant, 
 Early York Peach, Apricot, 
 and Golden Plum. 
 
 Above these are the Cranber- 
 ry, Houghton Gooseberry, 
 Crawford's Late Peach, 
 Strawberries, and Cherry. 
 Each one of these fruits^ 
 drawn and colored from 
 life, represent the most per- 
 
 fect specimens to be ob- 
 tained. We d«em this Fruit 
 Plate not surpassed by any 
 ever published in this coun- 
 try. 
 
 113 Haw to Cut a Bud. 
 
 114 Budding. 
 
 115 Budding. 
 
 116 A Bud Set. 
 
 117 One Year from the 
 
 Bud. 
 
 118 Tongue Graft. 
 
 119 Wedge Graft. 
 
 120 Saddle Graft. 
 
 121 Illustration of Pruning. 
 
 122 A Peach Tree well 
 
 Prwiied. 
 
 123 Setting a Cutting. 
 
 124 Layering the Vine. 
 
 125 Planting the Vine. 
 
 126 Planting the Vine. 
 
 127 Pruning Shears. 
 
 128 Grafting Chisel. 
 
 129 Pruning Saw and Chi,- 
 
 sel. 
 
 130 Pole Pru/ning Shears. 
 
 131 Fruit Ladder. 
 
 132 Garden Vine. 
 
 133 Grape Vines and Trel- 
 
 lis. 
 
 134 Garden Vine. 
 
 135 R. Island Greening. 
 
 136 Cluster of Grapes. 
 
 137 Free Fruit Box. 
 
 138 Plan of Farm House. 
 
 139 Plan of Farm House 
 
 140 Lahorer^s Cottage. 
 
 141 Plan of Barn. 
 
lETEODUOTIOIsr. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE. 
 
 BY HON. CHARLES L. FLINT. 
 
 ■ GEICULTUEAL Literature !" we can imagine we hear 
 
 the reader exclaim ; " what has the barnyard, the cart 
 
 horse, the milk pail, the .plough, or the corn field, 
 
 homely objects, interesting, no doubt, but by no means 
 
 literary, to do with literaiure ?" Much, let me tell you. More 
 
 than appears at first sight, for in these subjects are found the 
 
 results of scientific knowledge, of the great and immutable 
 
 truths of chemistry, of physiology, of the laws of breeding, of 
 
 mechanics, of botany, of entomology, in fact, of every science 
 
 and of many arts. 
 
 What literature has done for theology, for astronomy, for all 
 
 the sciences that elevate and adorn Jiumanity, she is ready -to 
 
 do for Agriculture, the art of arts, to which we owe all the 
 
 comforts of civilized life. 
 
 Says the editor of the "Rural World": — 
 
 "Book Farming — what is it % It is simply thb best farming 
 
 put in books — ^yours, reader, if it is the best. A fool cannot 
 
 write a book ; an able man must do it — not a man of mere 
 
 19 
 
*20 INTEODQCTION. 
 
 aecomplislimenta or learning — but one versed, in the business 
 he writes upon. It is thus that we have books by the best 
 men in all the departments. These make our literature — and 
 to be opposed to them, is to be arrayed against knowledge, 
 against schools and newspapers. "What is thought of the man 
 who opposes education ? And what is education, but to learn 
 to know a thing ? If the prejudiced reader, (prejudiced against 
 book farming,) knows how to trim his vine, he is the man, if he 
 has words for it, to write a book on the subject — the very man 
 we want, for we are 'after facts, after the best mode. And yet 
 this would be called 'book farming.' It is mere prejudice, 
 depend upon it." 
 
 It is one of the most striking and encouraging signs of the 
 present period, in the history of Agriculture, that it has been 
 able to call the highest talent to its aid, and that men of science, 
 m all departments, have devoted their lives to investigations 
 designed to promote its progress. We can remember the time 
 when even farmers themselves were quite indifferent to the 
 assistance which scientific investigations could offer them. All 
 improvements were regarded merely as innovations, and were 
 looked upon with distrust, not to say contempt. Farm work 
 was done in the old customary way, or if any change was made, 
 it was only with a vague hope of gain. No sound principle 
 was followed in either case. 
 
 Happily, those days have passed. Men of the hightest at- 
 tainments in science now vie with each other in their efforts 
 for the advancement of agriculture, and the practical farmer if 
 ready and anxious to avail himself of their teachings. Me 
 chanical ingenuity, too, has brought its tribute in the form of 
 newly invented machines of inestimable value. Progress has 
 fairly begun, and it must continue as long as the mind of man 
 can devise and his hand can execute. 
 
INTEODUCTION. 21 
 
 No one who has carefully watched this progress in Agricul- 
 ture, for the last few years, can have failed to observe that it ia 
 constantly growing more scientific, though not, perhaps, less 
 practical. Its standard is continually becoming higher. It is 
 now the aim of all intelligent farmers td unite science and prac- 
 tical skill. These two powers are not antagonistic, but each 
 will aid the other, and by their help we may make ourselves 
 familiar with the mysteries of nature and remove the worst 
 difficulties which have beset the farmer in his work. The 
 thinker in his closet, the chemist over his crucibles, and the 
 earn^t experimenter in the field, are laboring together for the 
 discovery of truth, and it is only by their united efforts tha.t 
 the highest truth can be obtained. 
 
 The tendency of the age is to change. All educational sys- 
 tems are changing. Scholastic and monastic education! \an- 
 ishing, and even purely literary culture is waning to make way 
 f(Jr more practical, more active, more scientific instruction , an 
 instruction which shall have a more direct bearing upon Lhe 
 work of everyday life, and the time will, perhaps, come, m hen 
 even the chilctren in our common schools will be taught to 
 recognize and to know by sight all the stones upon which they 
 tread, all the plants, and animals, and reptiles, and birds, and 
 insects which are to be found in their neighborhood, so thai 
 they will go better prepared to the higher schools of science. 
 The study of nature, in a word, will lie nearer the foundation 
 of our school system, and so permeate all our higher institutes 
 of instruction till our literature becomes more agricultural in 
 its character, for what branch of natural history is not linked 
 and interwoven with the farm itself, and what better prepara- 
 tion could there be, for that practical training which our age 
 demands? The time may, indeed, come, when mathematics, 
 when geometry, when astronomy, will be taught by men who 
 
22 JNTEODUCTION. 
 
 are trying practically to draw lightning from the skies, and to 
 devote knowledge to some use, rather than to the purpose of 
 merely training the human mind. 
 
 Agricultural literature is, of course, utilitarian. It would be 
 of little account if it -^ere not. It is an important guide to 
 develop the boundless resources of our soil, and it will always 
 be valued as one of the most powerful aids to improvement in 
 practice. Much of it may still be crude. We are groping 
 along in the dark, but it is not diificult to se^ that a brighter 
 day is dawning. Science and mechanic art are solving one 
 problem after another ; a better system begins to prevail, and 
 we are led to hope that the time will come wben we shall know 
 pracucall}'- and positively what we are to do, and how to do it, 
 when every process of the farm will be conducted with greater 
 certainty of results, when practice itself will have more of the 
 exactness which is supposed to belong to the applied sciences. 
 
 It is the true province of agricultural literature to indicate 
 the processes and to record the triumphs of science and me- 
 chanic art as applied to the promotion of agriculture, to bring 
 to the knowledge of the farmer all the suggestions and dis- 
 coveries of the chemist, the geologist, and the botanist, which 
 can be useful to him, to make known the results of experi- 
 ments by which new theories of culture are tested, and to show 
 how the highest knowledge may be applied to the improve- 
 ment of the common processes of agriculture, thus aiding the 
 ceaseless struggle to meet the ever increasing demands of 
 growing populations. It records both the failures and suc- 
 cesses of the past, and teaches alike by both. 
 
 Take, for example, the principles of breeding. The stock 
 grower needs to keep a clear and definite aim in view, and to 
 understand the surest means of attaining it. The experience 
 of any one man will go but a little way toward acquiring a 
 
INTKODDCTIOK. '2?> 
 
 knowledge of these principles. Indeed, a life-long expeiience, 
 witliout the aid of the acquisitions of others, would fail to 
 arrive at i1j. Now, we know, that vast achieveme"nts have heen 
 made in this direction. Long continued, extensive, and careful 
 observation has established many facts, and discovered physi- 
 ologicai laws from which sound principles have been deduced. 
 Others, no doubt, still lie hidden from us, so that what we do 
 not know, may far exceed the aggregate of what we know, but 
 to ignore what has been fixed and acquired by laborious experi- 
 ment and observation, would be like setting sail upon a vast 
 and unknown ocean without chart or compass. Now these 
 facts of vital importance to the interests of Agriciilture mast 
 inevitably be lost unless recorded, and thus saved from ob- 
 livion, and Agricultural Literature has done this. 
 
 A faithful record of an experiment in Agriculture, well 
 planned and carefully conducted, is a valuable addition to our 
 stock of knowledge, and contributes to the substantial progress 
 of the art. In this especially our modern agricultural literature 
 differs from the ancient. The agricultural literature of the 
 ancients, including that of Greece and Eome, extends over a 
 period of more than eight centuries. In literary merit and in 
 social estimation it may have excelled our own, but it is some- 
 what remarkable that in all these eight hundred years, which 
 have transmitted to us many volumes of great interest and 
 value relating to Agriculture, we seek in vain for any sign of 
 real progress. We find -a piactice that is careful, exact, and 
 saving, but it is the same, age after age ; no new implements 
 are adopted, no old custom abandoned for better. "We may 
 search every page, from Cato to Palladius, a period of nearly 
 five hundred years, but there is no mention of any improve- 
 ment in system or advance of any kind, and it is doubtful if the 
 whole of that long period added as much to the real productive 
 
24: INTEODUCTIOK. 
 
 power of the farmer as has been gained within the last ten 
 years of our own history. 
 
 In English agricultaral literature, we find many marked and 
 striking evidences of progress. TMiis is especially true of the 
 works of the present century. Within this time the minds of 
 all have been awakened to a wonderful activity. Scientific 
 men have developed important theories, which experience has 
 proved to be true, while cultivators of the soil have done their 
 part by careful observation, and discoveries have followed one 
 another in quick succession. Every step, moreover, has been 
 recorded. Every new machine invented, and every new pro- 
 cess carried through to success, has been published to the world, 
 and thus we have a multitude of works by which a flood of 
 light is thrown upon every department of farm economy. 
 
 Scientific discoveries in Agriculture are the property of the 
 intelligent farmer everywhere, and those made abroad have had 
 a matSrial and important influence in promoting the advance- 
 ment of practical agriculture among us. No one who desires 
 to be even moderately skilful and successful can dispense with 
 the use of books relating to his calling. It is much to the 
 credit of the present time that old prejudices against books 
 upon farming, which are the recorded experiences of careful 
 observers and experimenters, are fast giving place to a generous 
 appreciation of the labors of the inventor, the chemist, the 
 geologist, the entomologist, the botanist, and the practical man 
 who tries experiments and records results. 
 
 Eor some years after the public mind, in this country, began 
 to discard its narrow prejudice against the use of books on 
 farming, we relied chiefly upon the mother country. English 
 works on Agriculture were our only resource. These were not 
 in all respects adapted to our climate, our soil, and our cir- 
 cumstances, and, notwithstanding their great value for many 
 
INTEODUOTION. 25 
 
 purposes, their directions aad suggestions often misled. Even 
 when based upon sound practice, it was not a practice with 
 which most of us were familiar, and hence it was far less valua- 
 ble to us than if it had pifesed through the crucible of the 
 practical American brain. The only means of removing these, 
 difficulties was the creation of an agricultural literature of 
 our own ; and this we shall accomplish by patient labor. We 
 have begun to think, to experiment, and to record results. By 
 the publication of agricultural periodicals and books, and by 
 means of our agricultural societies, national, state, and local, 
 the r'esults of our labors are made known to all who care to 
 learn them, and our agricultural literature is assuming the 
 dignity and importance which it deserves as the instrument and 
 aid of the most important material interest of a great and 
 powerful nation, capable, from its extent and boundless re- 
 sources, of becoming the granary of the world. 
 
 We do'not mean to say that farming can ever cease to be 
 practical, or that such a state of things would be desirable, if 
 possible. But it is certainly becoming more a matter of study 
 and science. No amount of information can do away with the 
 necessity of hard work, but a knowledge of principles and the 
 application of scientific laws is of the utmost importance to the 
 farmer. When these are well understood, and when sound 
 reasoning and close calculation are substituted for that mixture 
 of tradition and guess-work, which once guided all farm 
 operations, we may expect to lighten labor and shorten its pro- 
 cesses while we continually increase its products. 
 
 Agriculture cannot be made profitable simply by securing 
 good crops and abundant products ; but it is necessary to take 
 into consideration, also, the judicious employment of the capi- 
 tal invested, the expenses to be incurred, the wages to be paid, 
 the prices, and the varying state of the market. These matters 
 
26 IPTTRODUCTION'. 
 
 have a most important bearing on the general results, but tiiey 
 do not come directly within the cognizance of science, and 
 actual experience is necessary for the solution of the questions 
 continually arising in regard to them. He -vrho depends wholly 
 upon books, even if he be well read and have thoroughly mas- 
 tered the general and well established principles of his occupa 
 tion, may fail from want of this experience. But this is far 
 from showing that no advantage is to be derived from well 
 selected books. It is unreasonable to expect that tact and busi- 
 ness ability can be obtained from any amount of study and 
 reading. Experience itself does not always give them. To a 
 great extent they seem to be intuitive and innate, and though 
 familiarity with business affairs may sharpen the wits and 
 quicken the perception, it does not always mature the judgment 
 or create the skill which commands success in the market. 
 
 Practice and experience in the field should, therefore, be re- 
 garded as an essential part of an agricultural education?. But the 
 farmer should not, for these reasons, depreciate the aid he may 
 gain from the man of science, the man of letters, or the faithful 
 and accurate experimenter. The revelations of science will bring 
 ever new and ever varied instruction to his mind. From year 
 to year he may improve his practice, thus attaining greater and 
 greater results ; and no limit can be set to his upward progress. 
 A simple record of experiments, carefully made and well de- 
 scribed, will give him material for much improvement. By 
 the exercise of judgment and discrimination he may separate 
 the good and useful from what is of doubtful utility, arid what- 
 ever he thus gets is so much positive gain. The actual results 
 of an experiment are facts from which truth itself may be ex- 
 traeted. They are not mere, vague conclusions, or the opinions 
 or reflections of another, they are that which induced and ena- 
 bled him to reflect. 
 
INTBODUOTION. 27 
 
 It must be borne in mind that, as scieniifio investigation nad 
 advanced in modern times, it has brought its contributions to 
 Agriculture from a great variety of sources, each of "whicb 
 brings something peculiar to itself. Chemistry has explained 
 the composition of soils and manures. Botany has solved the 
 mysteries of plant growth. Vegetable and Animal physiology 
 have lent invaluable aid. Geology, Mineralogy, and, indeed, all 
 the sciences, have done their share, and the farmer has only to 
 use the knowledge so lavishly thrown out before him. 
 
 In considering the value and uses of a high standard of Agri- 
 cultural Literature, it is not to be forgotten that it tends to 
 create enthusiasm, and must exert a powerful influence to draw 
 and to keep the young upon the farm, and to stimulate them 
 to constant efforts to attain greater excellence and success. 
 In this view, it is hardly possible to over-estimate the value 
 and practical importance of well selected works on agricultural 
 and horticultural subjects. When any one begins to read 
 what has been written by others about any pursuit, and to 
 reflect upon the facts and theories he finds stated, when he 
 learns the results of investigations and experiments, and sees 
 the labor and care bestowed upon them, he will soon become 
 interested himself. As he proceeds his interest will grow into 
 enthusiasm, and this enthusiasm will give him a love for his 
 occupation and a strong desire to elevate it and attain a high 
 position in it. Hence, he will gain vigor and energy which 
 will insure success. 
 
 The young farmer, like other men, is subject to these influ- 
 ences. If he work in his calling with enlightened views, look- 
 ing at its scientific and theoretical side while attending to its 
 practical labors, he will acquire the strong interest in it, and 
 love for it which is so esaeutial to success. His enthusiasm 
 will keep him upon the farm, and carry him through ita 
 
28 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 labors, and he will be able gradually to infuse into others the 
 spirit by which he is himself animated. Enthusiasm is conta- 
 gious, magnetic, and all powerful. If scientific investigation 
 and well-written books on Farming and Gardening had done 
 nothing more than create a love for rural pursuits, they would 
 have rendered an invaluable service to mankind. This they 
 have done already, and the feeling they have excited is con- 
 stantly growing. "We find to-day, in our farming community, 
 a more earnest spirit of inquiry and more interest in agricul- 
 tural pursuits than at any former period, and these alone will 
 lead us steadily and surely to higher results. 
 
 And wh^t an influence the progressive character of an Agri- 
 cultural Literature has exerted in another direction 1 It has 
 attracted the interest and awakened the kindliest sympathies of 
 the wealthy and educated classes. Men who, by their energy 
 and foresight, have acquired property or position, who once, 
 saw little in the hard realities of farm life but drudgery and 
 mechanical routine, and looked with pity upon the farmer as 
 one compelled to toil without intellectual culture, shut out, 
 almost, from the amenities of life, have been led, by the fascina- 
 tion which this class of writings has for cultivated minds, to find 
 in farming arrtple scope for the highest intellect, and prob- « 
 lems worthy of the greatest efforts of human genius. This 
 kindly sympathy has elevated the farmer in the social scale,' 
 given his occupation the character and dignity of an intellec- 
 tual pursuit, and introduced him to a common brotherhood 
 with men of culture, science, and social position. And so it 
 should be. Agriculture is the mother of us all. 'Agriculture 
 feeds ; to a great extent it clothes us ; without it we should 
 not have manufactures, we should not have commerce. They 
 all stand together like pillars. in a cluster, the largest in the 
 centre, and that largest is Agriculture 1" 
 
Fig. 6. The Span. 
 
 Fig. 7. Stone Dbaests. Fig. 8. 
 
HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DRAINING. 
 
 ■ NDBRDEAINHSTG will improve three fourths ot the land 
 now under cultivation in this country; and full one 
 half will abundantly pay for the expense. Drainage 
 deepens the soil, assists vegetation, lengthens the seasoi: 
 for labor and vegetation; precludes the necessity fox replanting_ 
 prevents the freezing out of winter crops, promotes the absorp- 
 tion of fertilizers, supplies air to the roots of plants, improves 
 the quantity and quality of crops and tends to prevent drought. 
 These are facts established beyond all doubt, by multiplied ex- 
 periments in nearly every state in the Union. The lesson this 
 reads to every farmer is. Drain your wet lands. 
 
 The best of all materials for drains is the round or pipe 
 tile. See Figs. 1 and 2. Sole tiles. Fig. 3, are more expensive 
 and more difficult to lay, and not as good as the pipe tile. 
 Horseshoe tiles. Fig. 4, should never be used. The pipe tile is 
 improved by having a collar. Fig. 5 ; but this can be dispensed 
 with by putting a thin piece of board or slate under and a strip 
 of turf over each joint, to steady it until its position is secured. 
 
 Where tiles are scarce and high, and stones are plenty, resort 
 3 . 31 
 
82 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 may be had to stone drains, which, if properly constructed, 
 answer a very good purpose. 
 
 Where peat can be had for the digging, very good tiles can 
 be made from it. Brush drains hardly pay for the making, and 
 open drains are, as a general thing, a disadvantage rather than 
 an improvement, as the expense of digging is the same ; they 
 take up a large portion of the land, render farming operations 
 difficult, afford a harbor for muskrats and other pests, are 
 liable to be tread in, or prove pitfalls for cattle, promote the 
 growth of rank grasses and noxious weeds, and must be dug 
 over every year. 
 
 The Depth of Dbains, of whatever material constructed, 
 should never, in the Northern States, be less than three feet, 
 and if the soil is easily worked, four feet, while in the Southern 
 States, where the frosts do not penetrate the ground, the depth 
 may be lessened to two and a half or three feet. 
 
 "What lands require Draining, and how it shall be deter 
 mined, are questions we must answer before going further 
 Evidently swamps, marshes, and all visibly wet lands, require 
 drainage before they can be profitably cultivated. All high, 
 lands holding too much water at any season of the year, 
 require drainage. Most useful plants are drowned by being 
 overflowed, even for a short time, and injured by stagnant 
 water about their roots. Lands in which planting is delayed 
 in the spring, by reason of their wetness, require drainage. In 
 the Northern States nearly two weeks may be gained by thor 
 ough drainage, an advantage which only those can appreciate 
 who have been obliged to haul their manure over soft ground, 
 plow their land when too wet, and then find the season too 
 short to mature their crops, and all because of a siirplus of 
 ",old water in the soil. Land on which water stands and froezea 
 )n the winter should be drained. 
 
DRAINING. 33 
 
 In all these cases, thorougli drainage will abundantly pay. 
 
 As we have before hinted, nearly all land will be improved 
 by drainage; for the expense is a permanent investment,, a 
 brush drain will last ten to fifteen years, a well laid stone drain 
 twenty to forty years, and there is no reason why a perfect tile 
 drain may not last one hundred years. In all this time the 
 crops are improved both in quantity and quality. 
 
 A distinction can be made in view of crops to be raised, as 
 land that is too wet for root or grain crops, may do admirably 
 for grass, and it is often well to keep such lands permanently 
 in grass, maintaining their fertility by top dressing or by occa- 
 sional plowing and re-seeding in the fall. The indications of 
 too much moisture are, in grass, the growth of rushes and 
 v/'eeds ; if it be in grain, there will be frequent spots of sparse, 
 low, and sickly looking stalks. Eoot crops, in too wet soils, 
 instead of growing straight down plump and even, divide into 
 numerous small fibres just below the surface. Our corn fields 
 are yellow and sickly, and our cribs filled with nubbins from 
 the effects of too much water in the soil. 
 
 Drains should be laid as far as practicable, directly down the 
 slopes. A fall of three inches in one hundred feet, is all that is 
 absolutely necessary, and this can be secured on almost any 
 field, however level it may seem to the eye. The best means 
 of determining the slope is with the span, Fij. 6. This may be 
 made of lath or inch boards, and should be sixteen and one half 
 feet wide at the base. When set upon a perfectly level floor, 
 and the plumb line applied at the top the line will croos the bar 
 in the centre, put a block just one inch thick under one foot 
 and mark the bar where the line now crosses it, this denotes a 
 fall of one inch to the rod. This operation repeated, if done 
 with care, will give a sufficiently accurate measure for the 
 whole work of laying out and constructing the drains. 
 
84 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 Next determine carefully the number and position of the 
 drains. This is the most difficult part of the operation. A few- 
 general rules will aid you. As far as possible the drains 
 should run parallel with the inclination of the slope. When 
 laid three feet deep they should be forty feet apart ; in sandy or 
 light soils, they should never be less than four feet deep, and 
 may be sixty feet apart. If other lands drain into the field, 
 there should be a three-inch drain at the head across the whole 
 field with which the smaller drains should be connected. For 
 convenience we will call these, heq,d drains, or headers and sub 
 mains or minors ; and the large drain into which they all enter, 
 the main drain. If there are marshy places lower than the 
 stream into which the drainage must be carried, they may be 
 drained into wells dug at their lowest points. If you have no 
 outlet in your own field, after it is drained into one main drain, 
 it may be carried under a highway or a neighbor's field to some 
 outlet, without great expense. If possible, there should be but 
 one general outlet for the whole system of drains, as the outlets 
 are the most exposed portion of the whole work. Having 
 determined the proper point for an outlet, the whole work can 
 be directed towards this point. 
 
 Fig. 9 represents an ' irregular field, which it seemed impossi- 
 ble at first sight to drain thoroughly, and as it illustrates the 
 general principles of drainage, we shall describe it in detail, a 
 was a sluggish stream almost stagnant ; at the bottom of the 
 field, h a knoll some nine or ten feet in height, cc an entirely 
 useless swamp, d the main drain laid about forty feet from the 
 brook, EB the minor drains sixty feet apart, and entering the 
 main drain at an angle to prevent obstructions, ff wells into 
 which the northwest and southeast . comers were drained. It 
 was thought at first that the southeast corner could not be 
 drained, but on applying the span, it was found that there was 
 

 hi 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 fe> 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 c3 
 
 ci 
 
 a 
 
 t- 
 
 to 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 fS 
 
 <» 
 
 t^ 
 
 &. 
 
 
 
 ' ' — ^ 
 
 
DRAINING. 37 
 
 a fall of six inches in one thousand feet, and by deepening the 
 drains in the same proportion a fall of twelve inchds was 
 obtained, and daring a very dry summer the well was dug and 
 filled with cobble stones, and the minors connected with it. 
 One drain which could not be connected with the main was car- 
 ried under the highway, and connected with the brook at a 
 lower point. The expense of draining this field of eighteen 
 acres was,* 
 
 9600 1^ and 2 in. pipe tiles at 16.00, say 150.00 
 3400 4 in. " " " 45.00, " 150.00 
 
 The expense in cash $.300.00 
 51 days, work of 4 men, 6 days, work of 1 yoke of oxen. 
 
 The stones used in filling the wells, were dug out of the drains, 
 and thrown to one side for that purpose. Much of the work 
 was done at odd spells during two years. The increase in the 
 crop paid the cash expense in two years, and the drainage is a 
 permanent improvement for fifty years to come.. If a peat bog 
 had been at hand, a substitute for the clay tiles could have been 
 procured for less than half the above cash expense. After 
 careful measurement the positions for the drains should be 
 staked out. 
 
 In opening the drain, a plow may be run through both ways, 
 to turn over the turf and loosen the soil, and a sub-soil plow 
 may be often used to advantage for this purpose, unless pipe 
 tiles without collars are to be used, when the turf should be 
 carefully cut in sods and laid quite to one side, for use in 
 covering the joints. A drain to be three feet deep, may be 
 commenced two feet wide, while three feet will be necessary for 
 a four foot drain. Excavation must commence at the outlet, 
 
 * Of course only a small proporti6n of tlie drains is shown in this 
 figure, but enough to show the general principles adopted. 
 
38 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT.^ 
 
 the main drain being the, first dug and the last laid. For a 
 stone 'drain, cut one side nearly perpendicular. 
 
 Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, represent a series of spades used in 
 digging drains; the ordinary shovel and spade answers, hovv- 
 ever, for the first three feet, but a narrow spade, like Fig. M, 
 is very desirable in cutting the last foot, while the bottom is 
 fitted for the round tile by an instrument like Fig. 15. The 
 instrument represented in Fig. 16, is used for shaping the 
 bottom of the drain for sole tiles. Any old shovel or spade 
 can readily be transformed, by the nearest blacksmith, into the 
 required shape, and a long handle completes the tool. Much 
 time and labor is saved by using tools of the proper shape, 
 while it is necessary that the bottpm of the drain should be as 
 nearly uniform as possible. 
 
 It is desirable that the main drain should be from two to 
 four inches lower than the minors, in order that they may 
 enter it from above, rendering it less liable to obstruction at 
 the junction. The slopes of all the drains should be as regular 
 as possible, which may be regulated by the use of the span. 
 Fig. 6. After completing the trenches, laying the pipe and 
 collar tile {Fig. 5) is a simple operation of fitting one over the 
 other, commencing at the higliest point in all cases. With 
 simply the pipe tile a small bit of shingle, slate, or thin board, 
 should be put under, and a sod of turf over each joint, to hold 
 them in place and prevent their settling, or the loose soil wash- 
 ing in at the joints. The earth will soon harden so as to obvi- 
 ate the necessity. Care should be taken to place the openings 
 as nearly opposite as possible, in order that there may be no 
 obstruction to the water. (With an instrument like Fig. 17, 
 tile can be laid very rapidly.) Joint tiles should be used at the 
 junction of the drains. The most accurate measurements 
 
Fi(j. 10. 
 
 FUj. 12. 
 
 Firj. 13. 
 
 ?^S5KS!;5?-^- 
 
 Firj. 14. 
 
 J'ir/. 15. 
 
 FUj. 10. 
 
 J'i:/. 17. 
 
 19 
 
DEAIXIXG. il 
 
 s'ould be kept in order that the junctions may, at any tune, 
 be ascertained and readily opened should obstructions occur. 
 
 In covering the drain, the first foot of earth should be put in 
 carefully, so that there may be no displacement of the tiles. 
 Never fill in with stones, as is the custom with many. The 
 water will enter at the bottom, and thewater level be lowered to 
 tbe bottom of the drain. In clay soils auger holes phould be 
 ,bored through the clay to some other soil at distances of not 
 more than one hundred feet. If there is no header used, (see 
 Plate 9,) the upper ends of the drains should be carefully pro- 
 tected with a brick or stone, in order that no soil may be 
 washed in, and particularly that neither moles, mice, or snakes, 
 may find lodgment in them. 
 
 Of stone drains, only two styles that we have ever seen, are 
 worthy of consideration in these pages. In the one represented 
 in Fig. 7, the bottom is filled with cobble stones for a few 
 inches. These are packed in with the pestle, forming a pretty 
 solid foundation. Flat stones are then set up against one side, 
 which is cut nearly perpendicular, other flat stones are leaned 
 against these from the opposite side, the joints being broken a^i 
 in laying shingles. If the fall is made uniform, the cobble 
 stones packed evenly and hard, and the joints well broken, 
 these form very serviceable and durable drains. "Where the 
 scones are to be had for the drawing, they are often the most 
 economical. Fig. 8 represents a drain n^ade wholly of flat 
 stones, and explains itself. Where the soil i3 firm, so that the 
 stones will not be swallowed up, these make an excellent sub 
 stitute for tile drains. 
 
 Where a peat bog is at hand, peat tiles may be made to 
 answer the purpose of clay tiles. An open drain, from four 
 to six feet deep, should be cut into the swamp for a short 
 distance, and the surplus water removed. The upper surface 
 
42 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 may them be removed to the baru yard, from twelve to 
 eighteen inches of the top being useless for tiles. The simplest 
 method of cutting out the peats is to lay out a plot, say twenty 
 feet square on one side of the drain, then, with a sharp spade, 
 cut this into strips, six inches wide from the drain, and these 
 crosswise again eighteen inches long; then commencing inside 
 the ditch cut out these peats at a depth of six inches. The peats 
 will thus be six inches square and eighteen inches long, but , 
 will shrink in drying to about four by twelve inches. The 
 inside of these peats must be hollowed out as soon as cut, 
 and carefully laid out on boards to dry, with the hollow 
 d(nvn. 
 
 Fig. 18.— Peat Cutter. 
 
 
 .<■ ) 
 
 Fig. 19.— Peat Tiles. 
 
 An instrument for cutting peat tiles is shown at Fig. 18. 
 This cuts the peats and hollows them at the same time, Fig. 19, 
 and can easily be made from a stout piece of sheet iron. Drains 
 are sometimes made by piling brush in the bottom of the 
 trenches, and filling up with stones, but we doubt whether such 
 drains last long enough to pay for the expense of ditching. 
 They furnish a home to all sorts of barrowers, who soon 
 obstruct them. This brings us to speak of the Obstructions 
 TO Drains. As we have before hinted, all sorts of burrowers 
 infest carelessly constructed drains. If the outlet is not pro- 
 tected, toads, frogs, snakes, muskrats, moles, and a host of 
 
DRAINIIfG. 48 
 
 creeping things will soon take possession of them and render 
 them worse than useless ; but carefully protect the upper ends 
 of the drain with bricks or flat stones, cover the joints with 
 turf, or, in stone drains, with flat stones, and put an iron grating 
 over the outlet, and you may feel pretty secure against obstruc- 
 tions. But the further precaution (as we have before stated) 
 ■ should be taken of accurately marking the entrance of each 
 minor to the main, so that if there are obstructions their posi- 
 tion may be ascertained. The outlet should be of stone so as 
 not to be easily destroyed. 
 
 If it is nearly on a level with the bed of the stream into 
 which it enters, a basin should be dug, in order that all sedi- 
 ment from the drain may be deposited in it and not set back 
 into the drain. Care should be taken to have hard-burned 
 tiles, as the crumbling of one tile will obstruct a whole drain, 
 as will also a 'carelessly laid tile. Boots obstruct cobble stone 
 and brush drains, but can hardly penetrate hard-bur-nt tiles or 
 flat stones. 
 
 The Drainage op Swamps sometimes requires very dif- 
 ferent treatment from that previously described. If the wettest 
 part of the swamp is about the edges, a deep trench should bo 
 cut, not through the center, but around the outside, with an 
 outlet at the lowest practicable point ; after this drain has done 
 its work of removing the surface water, shallower drains may 
 be laid sixty to one hundred feet apart, and if the soil is clayey 
 auger holes should be bored down to the gravel beds. These 
 auger holes should be a little to one side of the current of the 
 drain. Thus far, we have been instructing the farmer to con- 
 struct drains, with the. means always at his command; we 
 now come to the description of the various Draining Ma- 
 chines in use in different parts of our country. ♦ 
 
 The Mole Plow works well in stiff clay soils free from 
 
M HO"W TO MAKE THE FARM FAT. 
 
 obstructions. It consists of a iong wooden beam and stilts, 
 but, instead of the share, has a long, thin iron shank, at the 
 bottom of which is a short, pointed bar of iron, two, three, or 
 four inches square, as the nature of the grouhd permits. This 
 machine can be dragged through clay at a depth of from three 
 to four feet, by means of a capstan and chain and a pair of 
 horses or oxen, or by putting on five or six yoke of oxen. It 
 leaves a narrow channel like a mole run, whence its name. A 
 somewhat similar machine has been used, (and, we believe, may 
 yet be perfected,) which also draws in the tile after it. A short 
 section of trench is first dug, and then the tiles are strung on a 
 vope and drawn through after the plow, and then the rope 
 removed. We believe this to be entirely practicable, and we 
 urge the propriety of continued experiments upon our western 
 prairies until the idea is brought to perfection. There are 
 various machines which cut a ditch two feet deep, leaving the 
 last half of the ditching still to be done by hand. 
 
 In many hard limestone soils, where a regular system of 
 drainage is impossible, there are points at which wells might be 
 sunk and filled with cobble stones. 
 
 If these wells reach a substratum of porous soil they will 
 drain quite an extent of ground. Experiments are required to 
 prove the practical economy of this system of drainage. 
 
 The size of Drain Tiles is an important consideration, as 
 prices increase with the size. The common mistake is too 
 large minors and too small mains. One and one and a half 
 inches is ordinarily large enough for minors, unless they are of 
 great length, when the first half may be one and a half, and the 
 latter half two inches. As the slope increases the necessitv for 
 size diminishes. The mains should be able to carry off all the 
 ..."^ater brought by the minors. But here, it should be remem- 
 bered, that one three inch pipe is equal to nine one inch pipes 
 
DRAINING, 
 
 45 
 
 in capacity Tbat is, all the water that can be brought by six 
 one and a half inch pipes will be carried off by one three inch 
 pipe. Taking the plan, Mg. 9, the first six minors dischai ge 
 into a three inch main, the next six into a four inch main or 
 into a second three inch. 
 
 Elaborate tables are prepared, by some writers, to show how 
 many gallons of water will be discharged per minute by dif- 
 ferent sizes of pipe, but they are of no praciical value to the 
 fa'rmer, as it is impossible to calculate the amount of water that 
 they will be required to discharge in any given time. 
 
 The following tables give the number of tiles required per 
 acre : 
 
 Table No. 1. 
 
 Width be- 
 tween drains. 
 Feet. 
 
 20. 
 30. 
 40. 
 50. 
 60. 
 
 Length of 
 drains. 
 Hods. 
 
 .132. 
 . 88. 
 . 66. 
 . 52. 
 . 44. 
 
 No. of 13 inch 
 
 tiles per 
 
 lie re. 
 
 .2,011... 
 .1,341... 
 .1,006... 
 . 805... 
 . 671... 
 
 No. of 18 inch 
 
 tiles per 
 
 acre. 
 
 .1,452 
 . 968 
 . 726 
 . 581 
 
 . 484 
 
 Table No. 2. 
 
 No. of 
 acres. 
 
 1.. 
 1.. 
 1.. 
 1.. 
 
 11.. 
 11.. 
 
 No. of 
 
 feet 
 apart. 
 
 ..20.. 
 ..30.. 
 ..42.. 
 ..45.. 
 
 No. of 
 rods of 
 drain. 
 
 . 125 
 
 . 88 
 
 . 62 
 
 . 58 
 
 .21 1,382 
 
 .30 968 
 
 No. of 
 axires. 
 
 11., 
 11.. 
 
 21., 
 21., 
 21., 
 21.. 
 
 No. of No. of 
 
 feet rods of 
 
 apart. drain. 
 
 ..42 691 
 
 ..45 6.56 
 
 ..21 2,640 
 
 ..30 1,848 
 
 ..42 1,320 
 
 ..45 1,2.32 
 
 That is, in one acre with drains twenty feet apart, there wilJ 
 be about one hundred and twenty-five rods of drain requiring 
 about two thousand thirteen inch tile. * 
 
46 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 Table No. 3. 
 
 No. of rods No. of No. of rod No. of 
 
 ofdniin. 13 inch tile. of drain. 13 inch tile. 
 
 40 610 80 1,219 
 
 50 762 90 1,371 
 
 60 914 100 1,524 
 
 70 1,067 
 
 Table No. 1 shows how many rods of drain are required in 
 an acre at given distances, and how many tiles of given lengths 
 are required. Table No. 2 gives the number of rods of draii 
 in fields from one to twenty-one acres, with drains from twenty 
 to forty-five feet apart. Table No. 3 shows the number of 
 thirteen inch tile required for any given number of rods of 
 drain. 
 
 Note. — "We desire to return our thanks to George Jackson, Superin- 
 tendent New York State Drain Tile Works, for assistance in illustrating 
 this chapter, and to recommend to the farmers of that section the 
 superior hard burned tiles made by that Company. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 PLOWING. 
 
 HE objects of plowing are, to pulverize the soil, to 
 mingle tlie different portions, to kill weeds, to covei 
 manures, and to keep the surface open and fresn. 
 
 The plowing which accomplishes these objects best, is 
 the best plowing. ♦ Pulverizing being the most important, that 
 system of plowing which pulverizes the most thoroughly and 
 the deepest is the best. Gardeners understand this, and where 
 they wish to raise fine vegetables and plants, they work ihe soil 
 thcoughly and deep. Do the same on your farms. If you 
 have been plowing twenty acres four to six or eight inches 
 deep, make it forty acres by doubling the depth of your plow- 
 ing ; it is better and cheaper than to buy twenty acres. It is 
 less work to raise thirty bushels from one acre, than from two 
 or three. We do not mean by this, that eight inches of the 
 sub-soil is to be turned to the surface, but that it is to be stirred 
 up and broken up where it lies, by means of sub-soil plowing. 
 If made with the common plow, the change from shallow to 
 deep plowing would have to be made very gradually, as it will 
 not do to throw more than an inch or two of the subsoil on the 
 surface at a time, but even by deepening one or two inches each 
 year, an entire change would soon be effected in the productive- 
 ness of our fields. Stronger implements and teams will be 
 needed, but the increase of our crops will soon compensate ua 
 
 for the outlay. 
 
 4 47 
 
48 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 Nearly every farmer in the country has a new farm under 
 the old one : indeed if the desire, for more land could be changed 
 to a desire for deeper land,' the number of acres under cultiva- 
 tion would soon be doubled. Eoot crops especially need deep 
 culture. Those who plow six or eight inches and never sub- 
 soil, have but little idea of the size to which carrots, turnips, 
 etc., will attain, when they have room to reach down. Try it. 
 There are two kinds of deep plowing ; trench plowing and sub- 
 soiling. The former often fails where the latter would be suc- 
 cessful. Trench plowing is deep plowing, and turning the 
 subsoil to the surface. This subsoil is often hard, cold, and 
 wet, and it takes two or three seasons of manuring and cultiva- 
 tion, to render it productive. It is this kijid of deep plowing 
 which many have tried and condemned, for the reason above 
 stated. But subsoiling is deep plowing and pulverizing, and 
 stirring up the subsoil without raising it to the surface ; this is 
 always beneficial, except in the case of a very few sandy soils, 
 with no basis of clay subsoil. Stiff clay soils are most bene- 
 fitted by deep plowing after thorough draining, but when filled 
 with water, any kind of plowing in such soils is nearly useless. 
 A wet clay cannot be pulverized, any more than so much 
 dough. After a clay soil is drained, it should be plowed always 
 in the fall, in order that the action of the frost may pulverize it. 
 The later in the fall the better. Trench plowing on such land 
 through two inches of snow has proved to be the most success- 
 ful plowing we have ever done. 
 
 There are four ways of plowing sod ground, known as 
 lapped furrow slices, flat furrow slices, round furrow slices, and 
 trenching. To make lapped furrow slices with the common 
 plow, shorten the traces, so as to just clear the heels of the 
 horses when turning round. Adjust the guide so that the plow 
 will run level and true, directly after the team. After turning 
 
PLOWING. 49 
 
 the first furrow wtioli will be flat, drive the team close to the 
 furrow slice, and lean the plow handles to the left until the 
 furrow slice will just lap on the first one turned; after one 
 round has been plowed, the plow can be gradually adjusted to 
 cut just as wide or as deep as required, although. on new land 
 good execution cannot be done at a greater depth than seven 
 inches. If greater depth is desirable, a double plow is better. 
 
 For turning flat furrow slices, a plow with a narrow base and 
 broad at the top of the mould board, is the most desirable. 
 The coulter should be set so as to cut under ; and the handles 
 inclined a little to the right. The slices must be twice as wide 
 as their depth. This style of plowing is most suitable for 
 bushy, ^ rooty, and obstructed pastures, or other grass lands, 
 where the double plow cannot be used to advantage. Trench 
 plowing is dpne by putting a skim plow forward of the main 
 plow on the same beam, which removes a thin sod, and lays it 
 upside down in the bottom of the furrow, while the main plow 
 turns up ten inches or more of the undersoil. This sort of deep 
 plowing should be decided upon with caution. Except in light 
 sandy soils, trench plowing should be done late in the fall. On 
 most soils, two inches deeper each year is enough. The excep- 
 tions are light soils underlaid with clay, and old worn soils. 
 
 Sod and Subsoil Plowing is done with what is commonly 
 sailed the Michigan Sod Plow, (an illustration of which, with 
 all the plows, etc., mentioned, is given in the article on Agri- 
 cultural Implements,) consisting of two plows on one beam; 
 the forward, or skim plow, cutting not more than three or four 
 inches deep, and the rear plow lifting the under soil to the 
 depth of six or eight inches, raising it up, and laying it over 
 the sod, breaking the soil well, and leaving a clean channel for 
 the next sod. For the deep breaking up of all sod land, free 
 enough of obstructions, this is the best method of plowing. 
 
50 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 How to Subsoil. If you have but one team, plow one fur- 
 row round tbe field, or suoli portion of it as you wish to plow ; 
 then hitch to the subsoil plow, and go round again in the same 
 furrow. As the subsoiler does not raise the earth to the top, 
 but only pulverizes it where it lies, it can safely be run as deep 
 as your team can draw it. A span of horses, or yoke of oxen, 
 will draw a subsoiler from eight to fourteen inches deeper than 
 the first cut. In preparing orchard grounds, the subsoiler is 
 often run eighteen to twenty inches deeper than the first cut. 
 When the plow cuts a wide furrow, the subsoiler must be run 
 twice in the same furrow. It is all the better to use the sub- 
 soiler also in cross-plowing. Subsoiling in this way, for two or 
 tliree years, will mellow the ground for fourteen to eighteen 
 inches deep, and the subsoil may then be turned to the surface 
 by trench plowing. In subsoiling, you must keep a sharp eye 
 on your plow. It is of little use to subsoil wet, heavy lands, until 
 they have been under-drained. Many valuable acres would be 
 added to our farms if we would underdrain and subsoil these 
 lands, at much less expense than to buy new acres. 
 
 Underdrain as soon as possible, but until your drains are 
 completed, plow your wet lands up and down the slope, in nar- 
 row divisions, sixteen to twenty feet wide — not with flat furrow 
 slices, which give the land no chance to drain, but with lapped 
 furrow slices. After these divisions are completed, run the 
 plow as deep as your team can draw it through the middle fur- 
 rows. Then, with a round-pointed shovel, throw out the loose 
 dirt from them, and you have free channels for the surplus 
 water to run off. It is not so much extra work as it seems and 
 will abundantly pay. 
 
 The time for plowing has been hinted at in the preceding 
 pages, but we would say distinctly, here, that all hard, heavy 
 soils, inclined to be lumpy, should be plowed in the fall as late 
 
PLOWING. 51 
 
 as possible. The frost will pulverize the lumps, and the "worms, 
 hid in their winter quarters, will hardly have life enough to 
 find their way back again. All soils, except light, sandy, or 
 gravelly soils, that are already too porous, had better be plowed 
 in the autumn. 
 
 Harrowing is fine plowing, and is only second in importance 
 to it. The harrow is designed to complete the pulverization 
 of the soils, and, as we have said before, the more completely 
 this is done, the better, for many reasons, which we do not need 
 to state. Be as particular to harrow, where the soil is in good 
 condition, as to plow. Harrow your land until the lumps are 
 gone. Lumps are as bad as stones. More so ; for they hold 
 plant food, that the plants will get at if the lumps are pulverized. 
 If the harrow will not do it, roll it and harrow it until the ob- 
 ject is accomplished. Use the roller also on light soils after 
 spring plowing. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 [ EXT to thorough draining, the great lack, in American 
 farming, is a proper economy and application of ma- 
 nures and fertilizers.' By manures, we mean that pro- 
 duced on the farm ; and by fertilizers, guano, phos- 
 phates, and the like. And no farmer should buy any fertilizers 
 until he saves and applies his manures. From extensive ob- 
 servation, we conclude that not one farmer in one hundred 
 makes the most of his manures. The urine of a cow is as 
 valuable as her dung ; and not one farmer in one hundred saves 
 it. The urine and excrement of each member of the family is 
 as valuable as that of the cow ; and yet it is not cared for. 
 
 Such waste of valuable food for crops cannot be too strongly 
 condemned. 
 
 Our object, then, in this chapter, will be to show the farmer 
 how to save and apply manure. And we begin where there is 
 the most general and inexcusable waste — at the privy. The 
 urine and excrement of each member of the family is abun- 
 dantly sufficient to fertilize a half acre of land yearly. The 
 simplest way to save this, where the vault can be opened, is to 
 cover it with five or six times its bulk of peat or muck once a 
 week. But a much better way, is to have a shallow vault, with 
 a cemented or tight board bottom, sloping to one corner, from 
 whence there should be an ample drain leading into a cesspool 
 
 at convenient distance from the house. Into the upper corner 
 52 
 
MANUEES. 58 
 
 of the privy vault should run the drain from the sink, not only 
 to save the washings of the sink, but also to keep the vault 
 washed out, and to dilute the urine, which renders it more 
 valuable. Of course, a brick or stone cesspool is the most 
 durable, but an oil butt, or hogshead, sunk in the ground, forms 
 an economical substitute. The place may be hidden from pub- 
 lic view by a row of dwarf trees, pines, or spruces. Near it 
 should be hauled peat, muck, leaves, straw — any kind of vege- 
 table matter — and the contents of the cesspool poured on to it. 
 For this purpose, a long-handled dipper may be constructed 
 of a keg or firkin. When this heap is thoroughly saturated, 
 fork it over, haul it away, and bring new material. Peat will 
 absorb more ammonia than any other soil, and is therefore the 
 most valuable for this purpose. The manure thus made will 
 be worth more than the same amount of the best barnyard ma- 
 nure. Don't pay a dollar for fertilizers till you have made the 
 most of this valuable matter right at your elbow. Proceed 
 about it at once, for it is money wasting every hour before 
 your eyes. 
 
 The Baentabd must always be the farmer's main source of 
 supply for manures. And here, as in the previous case, the 
 almost universal mistake is in the waste of the urine, the liquid 
 manure. The urine of most animals is nearly, if not quite, as 
 valuable as the solid manure ; but it is usually allowed to go 
 wholly to waste. And, more than this, it is allowed to carry 
 away with it many elements of fertility fK>m the solid manure. 
 "We protest, in the name of the hungry lands, against this waste 
 of vegetable food, of the best quality. And we not only pro- 
 test, but shall give practical directions for saving it. 
 
 Every farmer should soil his cattle in the stables or in the 
 yard. A cow will produce about three and a half cords of 
 solid and three of liquid manure ; this, absorbed in twice its bulk 
 
54 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 of peat or muck, makes twenty cords of manure worth from 
 five to eight dollars a cord. This mixing can he done just as 
 well in the yard, as to shovel the dirt in and out of the 
 stables. All stables should have tight floors, and be so laid 
 that the liquid will all run to one point, where there should 
 be a manure well, which can be made by sinking a hogs- 
 head, The liquid is made more valuable by being diluted 
 with water, and the stable-floors should be washed down 
 occasionally with a few pailfuls of water. The barnyard 
 should also be graded to one corner or to the centre, and 
 another manure well sunk at the lowest point. Every barn- 
 yard should be surrounded on three sides by sheds with eave- 
 troughs to carry off all the rain water, which would otherwise 
 wash away the wealth of the yard. 
 
 Under these sheds, the solid manure of all the animals, to- 
 gether with the litter from the stables, with double its bulk of 
 peat or muck, should be evenly spread every week, and the 
 liquid manure from the wells dipped or pumped over it. 
 Light troughs may be made to carry it from the pumps to any 
 part of the yard. 
 
 The liquid manure is thus not only saved, but helps in the 
 decomposition of the solid and prevents it from becoming 
 heated or fire fanged. Manure thus treated will be doubled in 
 quantity and doubled in quality. The yard should be kept 
 well supplied with peat or muck. We repeat that no farmer 
 can justify his purchase of fertilizers until he has used these 
 simple and comparatively inexpensive means of increasing his 
 home manufacture. 
 
 The Horse stable is especially apt to be the scene of this 
 waste. The manure of the horse contains a large amount of 
 ammonia, (which is the best of all fertilizers,)' and 'less mois- 
 ture than other manures, and is therefore much more likely to 
 
StANUEES. 55 
 
 neat and becomes fire fanged. "When it becomes heated and 
 mouldy its value is nearly all gone. It is hardly worth carting 
 to the field. Horse manure should never be kept in a pile by 
 itself, it should either be spread evenly with the other manures, 
 or muck, and kept moist with the liquid from the manure well. 
 Water and muck are the universal absorbents of ammonia, and 
 should always be plentifully supplied to the manure heap. 
 
 The Piggery and Hennery should also be kept well supplied 
 with peat or muck, which in the Hennery should be kept moist. 
 The manure, both liquid and solid, of fattening pigs, being espe- 
 cially rich, should be especially cared for; enough soil should be 
 shoveled in every day to absorb all the droppings ; it should be 
 protected from the rain and sunshine ; and whenever practicable 
 should be mixed with the barnyard manure before spreading. 
 
 The pig will work over the soil, pulverizing it and adding at 
 the same time to each particle the most valuable fertilizing in 
 gredients ready to be dissolved for the use of the plants ; for it 
 must be born in mind, that in the end nothing but liquid ma- 
 nures can be of any value to the plants. The roots can take up 
 nothing but liquids. Every solid particle must be reduced to a 
 liquid state before it will be available to the plants. There- 
 fore the more thorough the decomposition of the manure the 
 sooner and the more surely will it reach the plant ; and the 
 more moisture the manure absorbs the more readily will it dis- 
 solve in the soil and be taken up into the crops. 
 
 Barnyard manure, ■ prepared as above, contains all the ele- 
 ments of nutrition needed by any crop. 
 
 It does not always contain them all in sufficient quantities 
 for a succession of crops, and here is where the fertilizers 
 come in as aids. But before discussing this subject we will 
 speak of the application of manures to the soil. 
 
 The general principle of application is that manure sinks 
 
56 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 into the soil, and the roots catch it and appropriate it on its way 
 downward. Surface manuring is often very effective, and ma- 
 nure covered so deep as to be for the most part beyond the 
 reach of the plants is valueless. It will never rise again to the 
 surface, and is, lost. Manure should be put, then, as nearly as 
 possible where it is to do its work. 
 
 Eor. light grasses it may be spread upon the surface and^will 
 soon reach the roots which are near the surface. Manure for 
 this purpose should "be as thoroughly pulverized and as evenly 
 spread as possible, and applied in the fall before the frosts; 
 if green manure is used, the unrotted straw, cornstalks, etc., 
 should be raked off with a horse rake in the spring. We 
 think this method gives the best results of any on light grass 
 lands. Mamiring such lands in the spring w;e have found to be 
 very much less effective. 
 
 For nearly all other crops, manure should be well decom- 
 posed and plowed under, or thoroughly harrowed and cross- 
 harrowed into the soil after plowing. No time can be set for 
 applying manures, for every farm§r has, more or less, to consult 
 his own convenience as to the time. 
 
 Having reccommended fall plowing, tite recommend, as far 
 as practicable, fall manuring with green manure, as it is at 
 present managed: but if we could persuade every farmer to 
 adopt the system we have . advised, of thoroughly composting 
 his manures, under cover, with peat and liquid manures, oSfcen 
 forked over, and thus ready at once to give up their fertilizing 
 elements to the plants, we could say emphatically, manure in 
 the spring, except surface manuring of light grass lands. This 
 housing of manure through the winter is the best economy. 
 By actual and oft repeated experiments we have proved that 
 manure thus protected will produce double the crop that un- 
 protected manure will. This is nearly all clear gain ; there is 
 
MANUBE3. 57 
 
 no more expense for seed or tillage, but little more for cartage ; 
 the only increase of expense is in harvesting double the crop. 
 Pitching manure and forking it over is very laborious work, 
 but if our plan of mixing with muck, and keeping moist, is 
 followed, it will fork over much more easily, and in the spring 
 will be so thoroughly decomposed that it will readily fall in 
 pieces, and the labor, both of loading and spreading, will be 
 much lessened. There will be no hard, dry lumps to be knocked 
 in pieces, or left like pieces of brick to retard rather than aid 
 the growth of the plants. Try it, if you are incredulous, on a 
 small scale at first, and you will find in it a new source both of 
 pleasure and wealth. 
 
 We wish here to say a few words about pitching and spread- 
 ing manure. Use a long handled dung fork in loading manure, 
 using the handle as a lever across the knee. In distributing 
 it in the field, never dump a whole load in' a place. Many 
 small heaps are better than a few large ones. They should 
 never be more than a rod apart. If the manure is left on the 
 field through the winter, do not leave any where the heap stood 
 in the spring, as enough fertilizing material will have washed 
 into the soil at that ^pot. If the manure has been composted 
 according to our plan, it can be very evenly distributed, in spread- 
 ing ; but if it has lain and dried hard, the laborer who spreads 
 it must go all over it a second time to knock the lumps in 
 pieces. Once more we say, that, as the barnyard is the farmer's 
 main source of supply, it is his bounden duty, as well as his 
 greatest profit, to save and make the most of it. But there are 
 many other materials on your farms that you must use before 
 you can justify the purchase of fertilizers, and foremost among 
 these is pEat ob swamp muck. We shall use the term peat 
 as covering swamp muck and marsh mud also. These are a 
 valuable amendment to two entirely opposite kinds of soil, viz: 
 
58 HOW TO MAKE ^HB FAEM PAT. 
 
 ligHt, porous, sandy soils, and heavy, clayey soils. In the former, 
 the peat binds the soil together, acts as a sponge to hold 
 moisture, manures, and gases for plant food, warms the soil by 
 absorbing the sun's rays, while at the same time it cools more 
 rapidly at night, and collects the dew so necessary to vegetation 
 in hot weather. In clayey soils it separates the particles and 
 renders them more porous. Its second source of value is as a 
 • compost with the manure of the yard. It absorbs and retains 
 the ammonia, the most valuable element of manures ; it also 
 holds the moisture necessary to keep the manure heap from 
 heating and becoming iire fanged. . 
 
 By its use, and only by its use, the farmer is enabled to save 
 the liquid manure. We do not hesitate to say that, properly 
 composted with one half its bulk of solid and liquid stable 
 manure, it makes an article each cord of which is equally 
 valuable with any cord of the original manure. 
 
 The excavation and preparation, then, of the peat, is an im- 
 portant matter. 
 
 Every man's circumstances must determine the time and 
 manner of getting out peat. The month of August, is all things 
 considered, the best time. But most farmers will have to put it 
 off till winter, as labor is cheaper, and there is less hurry with 
 other matters on the farm. It should be thrown into a pile 
 upon loose boards, and covered with loose boards, leaving it to 
 the action of the air for several months before it is carted to the 
 yard. An excavation should be begun at the border of the 
 marsh in the autumn, and continued into it sufficiently wide 
 for a cart path, and the muck thrown out in piles on each 
 side. By the succeeding autumn this will be seasoned enough 
 to cart away, and can sometimes be done on the surface, or 
 waiting until the ground is frozen, can be readily hauled to the 
 vicinity of the barnyard. It is better to get out enough at 
 
MANURES. 59 
 
 one time to last for several years, and have it convenient for 
 constant use. 
 
 Eed Clovee is one of the most convenient, effectual, and 
 economical fertilizers that can be used for improving the fer- 
 tility of an impoverished soil. Its long tap roots reach down 
 into the soil, absorbing fertilizing influences that are beyond the 
 reach of ordinary vegetation, and bringing them to the surface 
 to form the stem and leaves. These roots make the soil more 
 porous than before, and in decay leave a large amount of vege- 
 table matter for the food of the succeeding crop. Its leaves 
 absorb a large amount of ammonia from the atmosphere, and 
 if plowed under at the proper time, this is all secured for the 
 soil. For plowing under sow the large clover and plow it 
 under when it is ripe, just as the blossoms begin to change 
 color. Do not be tempted to cut the crop for hay. Lime or 
 plaster should usually be sown with the clover in small quanti- 
 ties, and on many lands this is all the fertilizing that is needed. 
 It is always an economical and valuable aid to the barnyard. 
 On many barren hill-sides, red clover, plowed under, will effect a 
 change in the soil which no other fertilizer could produce so 
 quickly or so economically. 
 
 Every thing that can make manure should be saved. Leaves, 
 litter, chip-dirt, saw-dust, ashes, bones, waste salt, soot, should 
 all be put into the compost heap. Soap contains a large pro- 
 portion of fertilizing matter. In a barrel of good soft soap there 
 is enough to produce a half a ton of good hay, or several 
 bushels of grain. After this soap has been through the wash 
 tub, it is more valuable than before. It is in the very best 
 possible condition to be applied to the soil, yet it is usually 
 suffered to run off into some slough hole or stream and wasted. 
 Construct your privy vault on the plan we have advocated, and 
 run the sink spout into it, for such waste is inexcusable. 
 
60 HOW TO mXKE THK FAEM PAY. 
 
 Wood ashes is a very valuable manure, and much of it can be 
 saved at home. They are nearly as valuable after being leached 
 as before, if they are used immediately. The longer they stand 
 after being leached the less valuable they become. They are 
 most valuable for sowing on grass lands, and for cereal grains. 
 They give stifiEhess and strength to the straw; one hundred 
 pounds of ashes being sufficient for the production of three 
 thousand pounds of good straw. When sown they should be a 
 little wet, or else sown on a misty, damp day, or they will blow 
 away. When used on potatoes they should be thrown evenly 
 all around the hill, where they will reach all the roots. When 
 sown on any root-crops, care should be taken to put as little as 
 possible in contact with the leaves or. stems. There is no 
 danger of using too much ashes; but their use should always be 
 accompanied by manure, muck, or the turning under of clover. 
 Ashes mixed in the compost heap assist in the decomposition 
 of elements, which would otherwise be useless, without destroy- 
 ing their efficacy. We, therefore, advise this method of appli- 
 cation, except when sown on grasses and cereal grains. Ashes 
 give compactness to light, sandy soils, and render heavy clay 
 soils light and friable. About the best use to which ashes 
 can be put on the farm, is in dissolving bones. Put a layer 
 of ashes in the bottom of a barrel, then a layer of bones, 
 then another of ashes, and so on until the barrel is full, then 
 keep the ashes wet with soap-suds, but not wet enough to 
 leach. 
 
 Never deposit ashes in any bin, box, or barrel, until more 
 than a week after they have been taken from the fire. Many a 
 barn and farm-house has been destroyed by neglecting this 
 precaution. The bottom of a dry cellar is a good place to keep 
 wood ashes, but a bin of brick or stone is better. If put out 
 doDrs they should be at a distance from any building or fence, 
 
MANURES. 61 
 
 and covered with loose boards. Most insurance policies are 
 forfeited by keeping asbes in wooden vessels. 
 
 Bones are the very cream of manures. Our best crops are all 
 the time going into bones. Some way should be contrived to 
 get it back. There are large manufactories where bone dust is 
 prepared, but the best part of the bone is boiled out, and the 
 remainder is adulterated with shells, lime, plaster, marl, sand,, 
 etc., and sold for sixty dollars per ton. Never buy any of this 
 stuff. Put a molasses hogshead in your back yard, cover the 
 bottom with peat, muck, or mellow soil, cover this again with 
 ashes four or five inches deep, into this throw all bones from 
 the kitchen, and all that you can hire the small boys to collect 
 for you at ten or fifteen cents a bushel. All the large bones 
 should be broken before they are put in. When there are eight 
 or ten inches of bones, cover them with ashes, then soil, or 
 muck, then a thin spreading of plaster. Let this mass be wet 
 with soap suds occasionally. The alkali of the ashes dissolves 
 the bones, and the muck and plaster absorb the gases. Contract 
 at the slaughter house for the skulls and other bones, and 
 furnish a sugar hogshead to receive them. 
 
 When there is a large quantity they must be crushed by 
 machinery, an ordinary grain mill with horses will grind one 
 thousand pounds per hour. The ground bone of commerce sells 
 for three dollars per hundred, and the bones a farmer would 
 collect and grind would be worth twice as much. One hundred 
 pounds of bones contain enough phosphate of lime for twelve 
 thousand pounds of hay. The finer they are ground, and the 
 more thoroughly they are mingled with the soil, the better. 
 
 Some farmers can secure spent tan bark near home, and at 
 little expense. It should never be used on light or porous soils. 
 The true way to use it is as a litter. It should be put under 
 cover until dry and then spread in the stables, or the pig pen. 
 
62 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 It will absorb and retain a large amount-of liquid manure. It 
 makes excellent bedding for all animals except sheep, as it gets 
 into their wool. When nsed in the piggery it makes a most 
 valuable top dressing for grass or grain. In the preparation of 
 the soil for root-crops, tan bark prepared in this "way will supply 
 an abundance of those salts essential to their rapid and luxuriant 
 growth. The same remarks apply to saw dust, turning shav- 
 ings, planing mill shavings, etc. They should never be put into 
 the stable wet. 
 
 The carcases of dead animals should never be left for the 
 orows to pick. Cover the carcass six inches deep with muck, 
 and allow it to decompose, which will take six months or a 
 year. It may be placed within sight of the house, as, if covered 
 thoroughly, the muck will absorb all the ammonia and other 
 gases. Watch it a little at first, to see that dogs and crows do 
 not uncover it. After having lain through a summer, fork over 
 the mass, and throw out the bones, add a half bushel of plaster 
 and another load of earth, and leave it another month or two ; it 
 is then fit for use and worth more than an equal bulk of barnyard 
 manure. It should be spread very thin and well harrowed in. 
 
 Other green crops, besides clover, are turned in for manure, 
 although we consider clover the best when it is to be turned in 
 on the land where it is grown. Indian corn and buckwheat 
 come next in value for this purpose. When fields are at a 
 distance from the barnyard, this is often a most economical 
 method of manuring. Four things must be observed in raising 
 green manures. Those plants must be used whose seed is 
 cheap ; which are sure to succeed and grow very fast, which are 
 deep rooted, and contain no substances which will be injurious 
 to the succeeding crop. Usually five or six bushels to the acre 
 of lime, plaster, or ashes, should be sown with the seed, or just 
 before the crop makes its appearance on the surface. Vetch and 
 
MANURES. 68 
 
 white lupine are valuable on all except limestone soils, turnips 
 are good on all soils, either plowed under or fed to sheep on the 
 land. Spurry is valuable on sandy soils, as it grows fast, and 
 two or three crops can be secured in a season. 
 
 There are many plants which can be used for this purpose, 
 both annual and perennial, the latter having the advantage of 
 saving the seed after the first season. In plowing under crops 
 on the soil where they are grown, a chain is attached to the end 
 of the whiffletree of the off horse, or if oxen are used, to a stick 
 bolted into the plow beam for the purpose, and the other end 
 hitched to the beam near the standard; this will draw the 
 plants into the furrow to be covered up by the furrow slice. 
 
 We take the following from the transactions of the New 
 York State Agricultural Society on Husbanding Manures : 
 
 " "Where sufScient has been reserved for arable lands, barn- 
 yard manure may be spread upon pastures and meadows under 
 the following restrictions. If spread early in the spring on 
 pastures for ilnmediate use, it should not be the droppings of 
 that species of animals intended to be placed in the pastures. 
 Coarse manures should never be spread upon meadows in the 
 spring. It may be evenly spread on meadows any time after 
 harvest, and bushed in. When spread the atmosphere should 
 indicate the absence of high winds, the approach of rain, or 
 damp weather. On rapidly sloping lands, a heavy top dressing 
 should be applied near the summit. No manure should be ap- 
 plied to the surface of hill-sides in winter, when the ground is 
 frozen, as it will be likely to be washed away. 
 
 " On farms whose principal staple is grain, where the straw 
 is in excess in the barnyard, it should be spread profusely, 
 trodden down by the cattle, mixed with their droppings, kept 
 moist with liquid manure from the manure tank, and thus 
 thoroughly decomposed before it is applied to the soil, else the 
 
64 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 straw of the crop will be in excess of the grain. Where there 
 is a scarcity of straw, muck, leaves, tan bark, and sawdust, will 
 take its place as absorbents, and stall feeding resorted to. 
 Where there are many sheep, they should be kept under sheds, 
 with small yards attached. 
 
 " By the use of peat, muck, etc., for soiling, the straw may be 
 saved for food, cut up, mixed with feed, thoroughly wetted and 
 allowed to stand a few hours before being fed, for which pur- 
 pose it is twice as valuable as for 'litter. 
 
 " In this way a larger number of animals can be kept upon the 
 farm, and a much larger mass of manure made. Horn piths, 
 from the tanneries, waste from the woolen mills, scraps from 
 the shoemakers, charcoal from the pits, and all vegetable sub- 
 stances, should be secured by the farmer for his crops." 
 
 It is often desirable to use liquid manures for special crops, 
 gardens, etc. It can always be made by soaking barnyard 
 manure in several times its bulk of water, or by diluting urine 
 with three or four times its bulk of water. 
 
 After having saved and' made the best application of all his 
 home manures, the farmer may be justified in purchasing 
 fertilizers as aids, but seldom as a main reliance. When 
 tempted to pay sixty dollars for guano, look carefully to see if 
 the same amount of money cannot be better invested in the 
 barnyard, in permanent improvements which will enable you, 
 for years to come, to save the liquid mature. Where sixty 
 dollars is wanted for bone flour, calculate if a much better arti- 
 cle than the article of commerce cannot be made at home for 
 less money. If poudrette calls for money, ask yourself if a less 
 amount of money will not make the impl:ovements we have 
 suggested, by which the privy and sink spout shall be made to 
 contribute their valuable supplies for many years to come. 
 For every dollar you think of putting into super-phosphates, 
 
MANUEES. • 65 
 
 can you not haul a load of muck to your privy, piggery, or 
 barnyard? When you cannot, we recommend the use of 
 fertilizers. We have no doubt of their value ; and first among 
 them, by common consent, is guano, or the droppings of sea 
 fowl, which has been accumulating for ages on certain islands 
 of the sea. In its pure state it is one of ihe most powerful of 
 fertilizers, and should never be applied successively to laud, 
 unless with barnyard manure or green crops plowed under, as 
 it will force such large crops as to exhaust the soil. The best 
 and safest way to apply guano, is to dissolve it in water, a few 
 pounds to a barrel of water, and apply it with a dipper, but 
 this cannot be done on any extensive scale, and it must usually 
 be sprinkled by hand. In either case, cai'e must be taken that 
 it does not come in contact with the leaves or stems. If 
 applied before planting, a handful should be sprinkled over an 
 area of at least eighteen inches, around where the hills are to 
 stand, and dirt sprinkled over it. It is useless to drop a hand- 
 ful in a place or to leave it uncovered. Indeed it is positively 
 injurious when applied in this way, and many crops of Indian 
 corn have been spoiled, and guano brought into disrepute by 
 such a course. Many fields, at a distance from the barnyard, 
 may be kept in a state of fertility by the application of guano, 
 alternating with the plowing under of clover or other green 
 crops. We cannot recommend the practice of sowing it broad- 
 cast and harrowing it in until it becomes much cheaper than it 
 now is. Hen manure is of the same nature as Peruvian 
 guano, and when the droppings of the hens are absorbed in 
 peat or muck, an article is formed worth more, pound for pound, 
 than the adulterated guano of commerce. 
 
 Fish guano is the product of the millions of fish that are 
 caught every year along our coasts, the oil being extracted 
 from them by steaming and pressure. It contains much phos- 
 
DO HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 phate of lime and ammonia ; composted with salt marsh mud, 
 these fish are a valuable fertilizer. 
 
 Lime is a necessity in Agriculture. If the soil is destitute 
 of it, it must be supplied. Of itself it gives no fertility, but it 
 assists in decomposing the organic vegetable matter in the soil, 
 in fixing and retaining the ammonia of the manures, in destroy- 
 ing the acidity of the soil, (the worst foe to productiveness,) in 
 pulverizing granitic soils, in lightening heavy, clayey, peaty 
 soils, and in other ways is a valuable assistant to the farmer. 
 When a large amount is to be used upon a field, it may be 
 dropped in small heaps, and slacked by the air, rain, and dew, 
 and spread with shovels, but where only ten or twenty bushels 
 are applied to the acre, it should be more thoroughly slacked. 
 T^his may be done by spreading it on the cellar bottom about 
 one foot deep, and let it air-slack for a few weeks, forking it 
 over every few days, and sprinkling a little water on the large 
 chunks. We advise spreading it on the cellar bottom, as much 
 the best place, but if not convenient, a covered shed will 
 answer the purpose. If it iS to be sown with a machine, the 
 flint and stones should all be raked out. Cooper's lime 
 spreader, or some other machine of like character, spreads it 
 more evenly than it can be done by hand, and is equally useful 
 in sowing ashes or plaster. {See fig. 45.) The best plan is to 
 sow fresh slaked lime, in the finest possible condition, and 
 immediately harrow it in throughly. Do not plow it under. 
 The amount of lime to be sown to the acre, can only be deter- 
 mined by experiment. A few bushels to the acre cannot injure 
 any soil. On dry clay or peaty soils, it may always be used 
 bountifully with good effect. Underdraining is the first requi- 
 site for wet clays and manures, and fertilizers are wasted until 
 this is done. "When the proportion of vegetable matter in a 
 soil is so great that crops of grain go mostly to straw, a liberal 
 
MANURES. 67 
 
 top dressing of lime will rectify the evil, and improve both the 
 quantity and the quality of the grain. 
 
 All old' pastures and grass lands may be improved by the- 
 application of lime or ashes, as a top dressing. Our western 
 prairies, long cropped, will improve by liming. As we have 
 said, when the soil is acid, a liberal supply of lime will destroy 
 the acidity, and thus supply food for plants. It may be applied 
 to potatoes, and other root crops, on almost any soil, -with good 
 effect. If lime is needed, and is near at hand, supply it bounti- 
 fully, but if lime is not plenty, apply a few bushels, say ten or 
 fifteen each year, rather than a large amount at once. None of 
 it will then be lost. The heavier the soil, (except when wet,) 
 the larger the quantity of lime that may be sown. On light 
 and sandy soils, the application of ten or fifteen bushels per 
 acre once in five years, alternating with the plowing under of 
 green crops, is often all the manuring that is necessary to keep 
 them in fertility, although an occasional dressing of barnyard 
 manure, well composted with muck, is still better. A few cau- 
 tions are necessary in regard to the use of lime. Do not apply 
 water too fast when slacking. Do not use unslacked lime. 
 Keep it near the surface. Mix it well with the soil by harrow- 
 ing. "When applied to growing crops, be careful not to bring 
 it in contact with the leaves or stems. Sprinkle it thinly all 
 about the plants, and not in small heaps. 
 
 Gas lime, which is often thrown away and wasted at the works, 
 is the most valuable of all fertilizers. In compost with strawey 
 manure, or mixed with barnyard manure when it is applied to 
 the soil, it is better than fresh lime, as it comes from the puri- 
 fiers powdered and highly charged with ammonia. 
 
 Gypsum, Plaster of Paris, Sulphatjj: of Lime; substan- 
 tially the same article under three different names, is an im- 
 portant addition to our already large list of fertilizers. 
 
bo HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAT. 
 
 It should be ground very fine, the finer the better, as it 
 must be dissolved before it can aid the growth of plants. It is 
 used as a top dressing on pastures, grass, grain, and growing 
 crops. The nature of the soil, as with other fertilizers, deter- 
 mines its value as a fertilizer. A soil already full is not bene 
 fitted by more; an exhausted soil cannot be expected to be- 
 come fertile by its application alone, bat it will greatly aid 
 barnyard manure ; cold, wet soils must be underdrained before 
 it will benefit them. Bat farms either sandy, gravelly, or 
 loamy, if also well dunged, are greatly benefitted by plastering. 
 Manuring a poor soil with nothing but lime or plaster is simply 
 folly. Using plaster with manures is wisdom. Do these fer- 
 tilizers exhaust the soil? Such is a very common opinion. We 
 reply, nothing put into a soil can exhaust it. It is the increased 
 crops that are taken off the soil that exhaust it. Barnyard 
 manure or green crops should always alternate with any of the 
 fertilizers. Whatever may be the article; guano, bone flour, 
 poudrette, superphosphate, or gypsum; remember you pay a 
 very large price for a very impure article and only use it 
 where, after the most careful economy, your home-made ma- 
 nures fail to be sufficient. In app^ing any of these fertilizers, 
 c^re should be taken that they ^re thoroughly incorporated into 
 the soil. Pulverizers, such as efi'ective harrows, clod crushers, 
 and subsoilers, assisted by thorough drainage, may be made of 
 greater benefit than all the guano that is imported. 
 
 Before leaving this subject, we will give our idea of the 
 proper formation of the compost heap. When it is desirable 
 to f(}rm a compost heap of weeds, straw, litter, leaves, etc., with 
 muck, without the additian of much dung, ashes and lime, or 
 plaster, should be sprinkled in at the rate of a bushel to each 
 layer. We recommend the long narrow heap rather than the 
 round one. Spread muck at the bottom six inches, then litter 
 
MANUBES. 69 
 
 or yard manure six inches, sprinkle witli plaster, and cover 
 with muck. Continue this jintil the pile is three feet high. 
 If dung is added in any large proportion it must be forked 
 over to prevent heating. One cord of muck exposed for one 
 year to the action of air and frDst, ten bushels leached ashes 
 and five bushels crushed bonfes, is an excellent compost for the 
 garden or orchard. Any thing that will decompose is valuable 
 in the compost heap. 
 
 Our last words on this subject are, save every thing, solid or 
 liquid, that will make manure ; pulverize it as thoroughly as 
 possible, incorporate it thoroughly with the soil, and abundant 
 crops will rise up to reward you for your cape and labor. 
 
 Note. — The ashes should be added to the compost heap, at the last 
 forking oyer, just before spreading. If added before, they will tend to 
 liberate valuable elements which will make their escape. 
 
CHAPTER IV- 
 
 FARM IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 HE amount of capital now invested in farm implements in 
 the United States, by a reasonable estimate, exceeds five 
 hundred million dollars. No argument therefore is 
 needed to show the importance of its being well invested. 
 The difference in economy, between working at a disadvantage 
 with poor tools, and the use of the modern appliances to lighten 
 labor and save time, is clear to every farmer, of even ordinary 
 comprehension. 
 
 There was a time in the earlier history of this country, and it 
 continued with little change to within the memory of persons 
 still living, when labor was cheap, when strong limbs and the 
 power of endurance were the requisites chiefly sought for in the 
 man on the farm, and' when his work was paid for as so much 
 brute physical force. Thought and skill found higher rewards 
 in other callings, and the' practical farmer was held to be sufi- 
 ciently well informed if he was able to hold a plow, to mow, to 
 BOW, and to reap. 
 
 When labor, or the physical force necessary to carry on the 
 simple operations of the farm, could be obtained so easily, a 
 limited variety of implements was enough to satisfy the necessi- 
 ties of the times. 
 
 It was the custom for years, in some parts of the country, for 
 any one owning a plow to go about and do the plowing for 
 a considerable extent of territory. A town often paid a bounty 
 
PABM IMPLEMENTS. 71 
 
 to any one wlio would buy and keep a plow in repair for the 
 purpose of going out to work in this way. The old wooden 
 plow then in use was so massive and clumsy that it required 
 a strong and well fed team to move it through the soil; a heavy, 
 muscular man to press it into the ground ; another to hold, and 
 another to drive. Other implements were of a similar rude 
 description, and the various processes on the farm were conducted 
 in a manner that was traditional, handed down from father to 
 son, each one adhering to his prejudices in the strongest 
 manner. Besides the plow there was the ruae and heavy 
 spade, the clumsy wooden fork, and now and then a harrow. 
 
 As the plows in use were made chiefly at the blacksmith's 
 shop, without patterns, they assumed an almost infinite variety 
 of forms, scarcely any two being precisely alike. Still, now 
 and then a maker of a little more than ordinary skill would gain 
 a local reputation which, in some cases, spread beyond the 
 limits of his native village, and to some extent over the country. 
 Hence we hear of the " Carey plow," in somewhat general 
 use, the particular form varying almost as much as the skill 
 and efficiency of each small manufacturer or blacksmith who 
 made it. This had a cltimsy wrought iron share, a standard 
 made of wood, and a wooden mould board, often plated o-ver in 
 a rough manner with pieces of tin, sheet-iron, or pieces of old 
 saw plates. The handles were upright, and held in place by" 
 two pins. A powerful man was required to hold it, and at 
 least double the strength of team now used to do the same or 
 better work. The " bar -side plow " and the " bull plow " were 
 other forms that gained some general reputation, while the 
 "shovel plow" was in use in the Southern States. In this, a 
 rough hewn stick served for a beam, with another stick framed 
 into it, upon the end o^ which a piece of iron, shaped like a 
 sharp pointed shovel, was fastened. Two rough handles were 
 
72 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 aailed or pinned to the sides of the beam, with a draught iron 
 at the forward end of the beam. This plow, in a greatly 
 improved form, is still extensively used there. {Fig. 20.) 
 
 In attempting to convey some idea of the wonderful improve- 
 ments which have been effected in the implements of the farm 
 within the last fifty years, it will be convenient to group them 
 under several heads, according to the work they are designed 
 to accomplish; such as the Cleaning and Preparation of the 
 Land, Sowing the. Seed, and Harvesting the Crops. 
 
 Implements foe Pbbpaeing the Land. — The preparation 
 of knd for crops varies with the state and character of the 
 soil, the object being, in all cases, tq secure a texture, or 
 mechanical condition, most favorable to plant growth. The 
 soil must be mellow, so that the roots and the air can penetrate 
 it freely. The processes most commonly required are clearing, 
 draining, ploughing, harrowing, and rolling, (for which the 
 contrivance shown sA,fig. 21 is very convenient.) 
 
 Clearing is required in a new country, or where new land or 
 woodland is to be cultivated. Cutting down and removing the 
 timber and brushwood is simple enough, but the greatest diffi- 
 culty has always been to free the land" from, stumps and stones, 
 which often present very serious obstacles to after cultivation, 
 increasing the labor and expense at every step. Various simple 
 powers have been devised to effect this end, by means of which 
 a powerful leverage, or purchase, is gained, so as to raise a 
 stump or a stone of several tons weight with comparative ease. 
 
 One of the simplest and cheapest forms of the stump puller 
 is shown in the annexed out. {Fig. 22.) For stuinps of ordinary 
 size it is very convenient. It is so well illustrated as hardly to 
 need any explanation. For pulling the tangled masses of 
 roots of bushes, etc., a simple and powerful grapple is very 
 useful. {Fig.2^ 
 

 Ko 21 Tbee Sawing Machine. 
 
FABM IMPLEMENTS. 75 
 
 For lifting and removing stones, we Have found nothing equal 
 to the Stone Lifter, as shown in the adjoining figure. Fig. 24. 
 
 This machine is easier to manage and less wearing upon the 
 team than the two-wheel machine, while the double gearing at 
 the top gives it great power. We have seen a lad of fifteen 
 lift a stone of three tons from its natural bed with this power- 
 ful machine, while a single yoke of cattle was suf&cient to 
 move it off to be dumped into the foundation of a wall or else- 
 where. The two-whe«led lifters, when heavily loaded and 
 moving over uneven surfaces, cause unnecessary wear and tear 
 upon the cattle. There is no patent upon this arrangement. 
 The castings are easily made, and the wheels and wood work 
 can be constructed by any wheelwright or carpenter. 
 
 The next operation in the way of preparing the soil for cul- 
 tivation is that of drainage, which lies at the very foundation 
 of all good husbandry on many classes of soils which are sub- 
 jected to tillage. The importance of drainage, the various 
 processes by which it is to be effected, the implements required, 
 are fully explained in the chapter devoted to the subject. 
 
 Plows and Plowing. — "We come now to the most im- 
 portant of all the operations of the farm, that of plowing, 
 and here it is that the earliest improvements of modern 
 agricultural mechanics have been displayed. The Plow has 
 probably passed through more changes and transformations 
 than any other implement of the farm. It has, from the first 
 dawn of civilization, been regarded as the emblem, the great 
 central figure and type of agriculture, and, indeed, of civiliza- 
 tion itself. The fact that the ancients had many forms of the 
 plow, adapted to a great variety of uses, shows the estima 
 tion in which it was held as compared with all other imple- 
 ments, for simple and rude as its construction raust have been, 
 as compared with the highly finished plows of our own times, 
 
76 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 we know that they had plows with colters and without, with 
 wheels and without them, with mould boards and without them, 
 with broad painted shares and with narrow ones, plows 
 adapted to light soils, and others adapted to clays. 
 
 The Eoman's idea of a plow was that of a movable wedge, 
 but he did not comprehend the necessity of combining the 
 principles of the wedge and the screw which modern science 
 has applied to the mould-board, and on which most of its im- 
 provements have been based. 
 
 It is apparent that by far the greater part of the draught of 
 the plow, or the strength of team required, is due to friction 
 in the soil. The cutting, raising, and turning over of the turf, 
 are comparatively easy if the mould-board is properly con- 
 structed. The friction itself is somewhat increased, to be sure, 
 by the weight of the plow, and this in turn is somewhfl,t in- 
 creased by the weight of the furrow slice as it is lifted from its 
 bed, but the draught is not increased by an increase of speed, 
 since this does not add to the friction, which remains nearly the 
 same on the bottom of the furrow, on the land side and 
 between the furrow slice and the mould-board, whether the 
 motion be fast or slow. Now modern improvement has aimed 
 to overcome the friction and resistance by an improved con- 
 struction of the mould-board, and by the use of better mate- 
 rials, for it is now well settled, by practical experiment, that 
 the draught depends less on the weight of the plow itseli 
 than on its construction. The draught is not increased in pro- 
 portion to the increase of weight, and hence, though some haVe 
 objected that our modern plows were too heavy, as com- 
 pared with those in use half a century ago, it is universally 
 admitted that they require much less strength of team to do far 
 better work. 
 
 Every farmer is aware that no one form of plow can be 
 
'rr^'^ 
 
 Fig. 22. Stump Pullee. 
 
 Fkj. 23. GritAiTJui;. 
 
 Fig. 24. Stoste Lifter. 
 
 77 
 
FARM XMPLEilENTS. 7y 
 
 adapted lo all circumstances. The form, size, weight, aud 
 material, must necessarily vary with the infinite variety of 
 soils and situations where a plow is to be used. Science, to 
 be sure, has demonstrated that "the mould-board should ha 
 composed of straight lines in the direction of its length, with 
 continually increasing angles to the line of the furrows, and 
 these lines are severally straight, convex, and concave," and 
 Ransbme, one of the most distinguished of modern plow 
 makers, says of the rule: "Although no one form of mould- 
 board will or can be applicable to every variety of soil and 
 circumstance, there is no description oi soil for which a perfect 
 mould-board may not be made by this rule in some of its modi- 
 fications." Many plow manufacturers in this country make 
 a great variety, some as many as a thousand or twelve hundred 
 different kinds and sizes, and on more man'a hundred different 
 and well defined principles. It is quite impossible, of course, 
 to do justice to them all by even an allusion to their compara- 
 tive merits. A plow best adapted to breaking sod land can 
 hardly be expected to be best adapted, also, to plowing 
 stubble, and the best stubble plow would not, perhaps, be a 
 good sod plow. Still, some plows, though not the best at 
 either, are very good at both. In other words, some are 
 adapted to a wider range of circumstances, and, as the farmer 
 cannot always have both, it is often the best economy to choose 
 one that will do good work in a great variety of soils, one that 
 is well adapted to the widest range of usefulness. 
 
 Amono- the plows eminently adapted to the general pur- 
 poses of farm work, that known as the " Doe Plow" luis 
 reached a high degree of popularity in many parts of New 
 Eno-land. This favorite plow was, at first, manufactured ai 
 Concord, New Hampshire, but is now made by Whittemore, 
 Belcher & Co., at Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts. It received 
 
80 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 tte first premium of the New England Agricultural Society, at 
 Providence, in 1867, as a just recognition of its quality as a 
 plow for general work. 
 
 The series of plows known as the Deep Tiller, {fig 26,) 
 now manufactured by the Ames Plow Company, of Boston, is 
 designed to embrace a variety of sizes and forms of the mould- 
 board, adapted to every kind of soil and peculiarity of a varied 
 agriculture. 
 
 The mould-board is formed by a series of straight lines, hori- 
 zontally of in the direction of the movement of the furrow 
 slice, but admits of all the variations required to produce a 
 longer or a shorter mould-board, of a gentler or a more abrupt 
 curvature, with straight or more or less concave lines laterally, 
 as different soils or practices may demand. The mould-boards 
 have a combination of curved lines and planes, having an equal 
 bearing upon the furrow slice, and receiving an even polish 
 upon their entire face, giving the furrow slice an equal and 
 complete twist in turning over, laying it in the desired position, 
 and in a mellow and disintegrated condition for the reception 
 of the harrow. 
 
 For stubble land and stiff soils the same firm manufacture 
 what is known as the " Telegraph No. 3," {fig. 27,) which is 
 considered an improvement upon the Deep Tiller, in, the form 
 of the standard mould-board, and in securing the beam to the 
 plow by a clasp instead of a bolt. This plow cuts a furrow 
 from twelve to fourteen, inches wide and eight inches deep, lay- 
 ing it flat and smooth. Both these plows received the highest 
 premium of the New England Agricultural Society at the trial 
 of plows at Amherst, in May, 1868, as the best in their re- 
 spective classes. 
 
 Another form of mould-board is found in Allen's " Cylinder 
 Plow." {Fig' 28.) 
 
Fig. 25. Doe Plow. 
 
 .wo-^\,w*^' 
 
 Fig. 26. Deep Tillek Plow. 
 
 Fig. 2tT Tblegbaph Plow. 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 83 
 
 Here a second or smaller front plow is attaclied to the 
 plain cylinder plow. By this arrangement the top sod is first 
 cut and thrown into the furrow, where it is completely covered, 
 leaving the plowed surface light and easily worked by the 
 harrow into a mellow seed bed. It gives a general idea of 
 what is known as the Michigan or double mould-board plow. 
 The mould-board is made of a curvature to fit a perfect 
 cylinder, and the plow is named from the principles on which 
 it is constructed. 
 
 The " Conical Plow," invented and made by Solomon Mead, 
 a practical plowman, of New Haven,. Conaecticut, is another 
 instance of the adaptation of the various parts of the plow to 
 mathematical principles. {Fig. 29.) 
 
 The mould-board is made to fit the frustrum of a i.one with the 
 base or larger end forward. A block of wood, rounded oft" in 
 the form of a cone, will fit closely to the surface of the mould- 
 board from the highest point to within about two inches of the 
 cutting edge of the wing of the share. The angle of the share, 
 for two or three inches of the cutting edges, is so slight that 
 some inches of the furrow slice are completely separated before 
 i-t rises much. This gives an easy separation of the furrow 
 slice, since it rises slowly and gradually at first till it reaches a 
 point higher up on the mould-board, where a more abrupt 
 curve hastens it over. {Fig. 80.) 
 
 By this form of the mould- board, the furrows are more 
 thoroughly pulverized and crumbled up, than when the board 
 is made to fit the straight surface of a cylinder. The surface 
 of the board of the conical plow is neither concave nor con- 
 vex in a horizontal plane, so that the friction between the board 
 and the furrow slice is uniform, no greater in one place than 
 another. It cleans, therefore, more readily than a concave 
 Doard can do, and the wear is evenly distributed over the sur 
 
84 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 f&ce. The draught of this plow is easy, and in light and 
 medium soils it leaves the surface even and mellow. Being 
 short on the sole it is well adapted to stony land. It is remark- 
 ably evenly balanced, and in stubble land it scarcely requires 
 holding. This shows the plow to be made on true mechanical 
 principles. 
 
 A plow has been constructed for the purpose of opening 
 drills to plant corn or potatoes, and for ridging up for certain 
 kinds of vegetables or root-crops.' {Fig. 31.) It is a double 
 mould-board, as shown in the foregoing cut, and throws, the 
 furrow out both ways. It has often been found convenient in 
 digging potatoes. 
 
 A plow is often requij-ed for side hills, or rough and un- 
 even land where the ordinary plow cannot readily be worked. 
 
 What is called the Swivel plow, {fig. 32,) is used for this 
 purpose, the mould-board being constructed double, and so as to 
 revolve from one side of the standard and beam to the other, 
 making a right or left hand plow at pleasure, while the team is 
 in the act of turning at the end of the land. The hook being 
 lifted it turns of itself, X)r with only a slight effort, from one 
 side to the other. The plowman may begin on the lower edge 
 of a side hill, and turn his furrows all down the slope, or he 
 may begin on one side of a level field, and lay his furrows all 
 one way, and so avoid the dead furrow in the centre and the 
 ridging on the sides. Now that the mowing machine has be- 
 come so universal, it is quite important to keep the land levi-1, 
 and hence the Swivel plow is coming into general use upc a 
 well managed farms. 
 
 This plough, manufactured by the Ames Plow Company of 
 Boston, received the medal, or highest premium, of the New 
 England Agricultural Society, at the great plow trial at Am 
 herst, in 1868. 
 
FAEM IMPLEMENTS. 85 
 
 la a fine, sticky mould, like the black friable soils oJ the 
 prairies of the West, none but steel plows can be used, for tht; 
 reason that no others will "scour," or run clear. -In some 
 sections the soil seems like putty in its adhesive propenietJ, 
 while often a very fine quartz sand will rough up the polished 
 surface of even a steel plow, if made of ordinary sheet or 
 cast steel, and not high tempered or sufi&ciently hardened. 
 
 Sheet steel plows have, therefore, been in use on the 
 prairies of Illinois and other adjoining States for the last forty 
 years, having been introduced as a matter of necessity. The 
 first steel plow was made there by John Lane, near Lockport, 
 Illinois, the sheet being taken from saw- mill saws and welded 
 together to get a sheet broad enough for a mould-board. This 
 plow scoured in the heavier prairie soils, and was a - great 
 and 'decided advance upon all iron and wooden mould -boards 
 hitherto in use. Sheets of spring or blistered steel we^e after- 
 wards rolled out, and thousands of plows were made from 
 them, the plow makers forming them with the hammer on the 
 anvil. 
 
 But even cast steel plows made in this manner were found 
 to be defective. They could not be uniformly tempered. Many 
 of them, therefore, would not scour perfectly and run clean. 
 The process of hammering, rolling, and bending, would produce 
 a strain upon the fibre of the steel. It would stay in shape 
 only while it was cold. It would warp while heating to get 
 the requisite temper, and warp still more while cooling ofi' again. 
 Verv few, therefore, could be brought to a sufiicient temper for 
 a good scouring plow, so that even if it could stand the heat to 
 produce a proper temper, the warping would ruin the form, so 
 that the sections of the plows could not be duplicated, which is 
 requsite in order' to supply new shares in place of those broken 
 or worn out. 
 
o6 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 To remedy these defects, a most important invention waa 
 made by Mr. F. F. Smith, of Illinois, in 1860, that of casting 
 plows from molten steel in iron moulds, a process which was 
 adopted by the Collins Manufacturing Company, of Collinsville, 
 Connecticut, the same year. It was a process of casting cast 
 steel, and hence the plows are known as cast-cast . steel plows. 
 {Fig. 34.) 
 
 Being cast to form, they will keep that form after receiying 
 the highest temper. They can, therefore, easily be duplicated 
 from molten cast steel. This process forms a hardened 
 cast steel plow that the quartz sand, found in many prairie 
 soils, does not scratch. The sections' receive- their temper 
 kindly, because the metal is "set" in the iron moulds into which 
 it is poured, and where it has no strain upon its fibre. They 
 do not warp in heating or in cooling, so that the parts are 
 duplicated perfectly. A cast-cast steel plow has all the ad- 
 vantages of cast iron, and hardened cast steel combined. 
 
 The Collins plow, though a comparatively recent invention, 
 has rapidly gained popularity and favor, especially on the 
 prairie farms of the West. When tempered hard, it never clogs, 
 but clears perfectly in sticky soils, and hence its draught is light 
 and easy. So far as its form and mechanical finish are con ■ 
 cerned, it is all that could be desired. {Fig. 35.) 
 
 Among the advantages claimed for the Collins cast-cast steel 
 plow, are : First, that it will last much longer than any other 
 steel plow. Sheet steel is often " cut through" after a short 
 wear in gritty soils : Second, that it will scour in the most diffi- 
 cult soils, where other plows fail, the extreme hardness ol the steel 
 preventing all scratching, and the high polish enabling it to 
 shed the mould, however sticky it may be : Third, that it draws 
 tme fifth lighter than other plows cutting the same width and 
 itepth': Fourth^ that the share can be sharpened, or a new steel 
 
Fig. 28. Allen's Cylinder Plow. 
 
 Fig. 29. Cone. 
 
 Fig. 30. Conical Plow. 
 
 87 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 89 
 
 point welded On as readily as on the ordinary plow, by any 
 blacksmith, the steel being perfectly malleable, and working 
 kindly: Fifth, that any section can be duplicated or replaced, 
 the share, land-side, and mould-board, being cast in moulds. 
 
 Though absolutely essential to the prairie soils of the West, a 
 steel plow is equally servicable on many other soils, and many 
 think it superior on account of its greater lightness of weight 
 and of draught. 
 
 The Subsoil Plow. It is often desirable to break up and 
 loosen the subsoil, to a greater depth than can be done with the 
 common plow, without bringing it up to the surface where its 
 effect would be injurious to vegetation. This loosening up 
 admits the air and the surface water to work down through the 
 lower strata, and so gradually to improve the whole soil. To 
 effect this often a subsoil plow is used to follow in the furrow 
 of the common plow. {Fig. 36.) 
 
 Subsoil plows are of various forms, the general principle of 
 the wedge being adopted in them all. Sometimes the same 
 object is effected by a subsoil attachment to the ordinary plow. 
 In drained soils, and in soils where a hard pan has been, formed 
 just below the action of the common plow, subsoiling is highly 
 beneficial. 
 
 A large variety of plows are exhibited and advertised by 
 inventors and manufacturers. We can only name those we deem 
 the best. Dreere's steel plow, manufactured at Moline, Illinois, 
 {fig. 37,) has many good qualities, and the prairie farmer will 
 not go amiss in purchasing it ; a curved iron beam plow, is a 
 late improvement by the same firm. Dr. 0. W. Grant, the 
 veteran grape culturist of Ionia, Kew York, has perfected a 
 series of trenching plows, which, for preparing ground for root 
 crops, and particularly for orchards and market gardening, are 
 exceedingly valuable. 
 
90 HOW TO 'MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 Skinner's Gang Plow. In the wheat regions of the West, 
 and in California, the Gang Plow has been introduced and 
 worked to advantage. This is an arrangement by which one, 
 two, or more mould-boards are attached to a frame with wheels, 
 the plowman riding on a sulky seat. {Fig. 38.) 
 
 Skinner's Gang Plow, which is regarded as one of the best, 
 met with eminent success last season, giving great satisfaction 
 in many sections of the country. This machine is manufac- 
 tured by the Ames Plow Company, of Boston. AVith two 
 mould-boards, it requires three or four horses, which are 
 worked abreast. The point of draught can be regulated to 
 -accommodate the team, and there is no side or down draught on 
 the pole. The plow can also be set to run deep or shallow, and 
 be changed in a moment without stopping. 
 
 The Steam Plow. The eftbi'ts made within a few years to 
 introduce the steam plow upon the prairie soils of the West, 
 have not proved successful. Several trials have been made in 
 the last ten years, chiefly in the State of Illinois, but they have 
 been abandoned, and nothing of any practical importance has 
 come of them. The success attending similar efforts in Eng- 
 land, has been due to the use of fixed engines, working the 
 'lommon plov/ by means of wire cables. Iron machinery, coal, 
 and labor, are cheaper there than in this country; and the same 
 appliances that might be economical there, would perhaps result 
 in failure here, so far as the saving of any expense is concerned. 
 Intelligent, practical farmers, have, at any rate, come to the 
 conclusion that the inventions offered to the country possess no 
 Economical advantages over the simple implements now in tise. 
 
 The opinion is however still entertained, that steam plowing 
 ought to be practicable upon the broad stoneless prairies of the 
 West, and that it is destined, ultimately, to come into use there. 
 
 Comstock's Eotaey Si'ADBE. In the Eotary Spader, a dif- 
 
Fig. 31. Double Mould Plow. 
 
 Fig. 32. Swivel Plow. 
 
 Fig.d3. Iron Beam Plow, 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 93 
 
 f 
 
 ferent principle is attempted. Instead of plowing, the Spader 
 is designed to dig ap and loosen the earth to a sufficient depth, 
 This has not as yet succeeded to any extent in this country, 
 unless we except the machine invented for this purpose by 
 Eon. Cicero Comstock, of Milwaukee. His machine is some- 
 what complex and expensive, but it has been introduced into 
 3ome parts of the West, more especially in Illinois, where, it ia 
 said to have been used with some satisfaction. 
 
 In a, clear, friable soil, the Spader will dig up a strip of laud, 
 three feet wide, to the depth of eight inches, and with a power 
 of two or four horses, will spade about six acres a day. It 
 seems probable that a digger, in some form, will eventually 
 supersede the plow, as it appears to be more philosophically 
 adapted to the end in view. It is proper to say, that Comstock'a 
 Spader made a successful trial at Paris in 1867, and that it is 
 now being introduced into France, Belgium, and Great Britain^ 
 as the result of its succesg. 
 
 Haeeows. The harrow naturally follows the plow, and its 
 object is to effect a more complete pulverization of the soil. It 
 has, till quite recently, undergone less changes and modifica- 
 tions than most other farm implements ; and, in fact, many 
 forms of the wooden harrow bear some resemblance to those of 
 the- ancients, as illustrated on medals and sculptures. Though 
 simple, the harrow, if properly constructed and worked, is 
 hardly less important than the plow itself. 
 
 The triangular harrow is, perhaps, the most common. Th-e 
 Geddes Harrow, as shown in the annexed cut, is a modification 
 of it. It is made of two pieces of frame work, joined by hinges 
 in the centre, so as to adapt itself easily to uneven surfaces. 
 One side can be raised to pass an obstruction without stopping 
 the team, and without interfering with the operation of tho 
 other half. Each tooth makes its own impression, and the 
 
1)4 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 extent and effectiveness of the work is dependent in part upon 
 the number of teeth, which vary from twenty to fifty, {fig. 39.) 
 
 The Hinge Harrow. The improved Hinge Harrow is an 
 effective implement in breaking up clods, disengaging roots, 
 and pulverizing the soil. It is usually made so as to take a 
 breadth of five feet. {Fig. 40.) 
 
 Two pieces of framework are connected by iron hinges, in 
 the form of common barn door hinges, extending across the 
 frame, and bolted to each bar, helping to strengthen the whole. 
 This harrow may be folded doable, or separated into two parts 
 for transportation or other purposes. Tiike the Geddes Harrow, 
 either side may be lifted, and it easily adapts itself to uneven 
 surfaces, as in passing through hollows, and over knolls or 
 ridges, so that it is always at work. It usually contains thirty 
 teeth, so arranged, that they are not liable to clog. The fraurie 
 is made of white oak bars, thi'ee inches square. It may be 
 drawn by either end, so as to relieve the wear on the teeth. 
 
 This, like any other harrow, should be moved rapidly over 
 the ground. A light, sharp-toothed harrow, moved quickly, 
 accom])lishes far the best work. The work of the same im- 
 plement, moved quickly or sluggishly over the ground,, differs 
 widely in its results. The implement should therefore be com- 
 pact in form, not too light, and -furnifihed with sharp steel- 
 Dointed teeth. 
 
 Shares' Hareow. For some purposes, the foim known as 
 Shares' Harrow, is superior to all others. The advantage of 
 this lies in the form of the colters, whjch are broad thin blades 
 of cast iron; or, what is far better, of steel, because lighter, less 
 easily broken, and less liable to wear dull. These teeth, or 
 'iolters, incline forward, which prevents clogging with grass 
 roots, stones, or clods. There is a mould-board attached to 
 'j,nd forming the lower end of the colter. This harrow is six 
 
Mg. 34. Collins Plow. 
 
 Fig, 35. Collins Plow. 
 
 Fig. 36. Subsoil Plow. 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 97 
 
 feet wide wlien expanded, but may be closed up to two feet, for 
 transportation. It is usually made seven feet long, and weighs 
 about one hundred and fifty pounds. {Fig. 41.) 
 
 For pulverizing the surface of sod land we have found no 
 harrow equal to this. The sharp flat blades, or teeth, sloping 
 backward like a sled runner, cut the soil very effectively, pass 
 over and press down the sod, while, at the same time, shaving 
 off and grinding up finely the upper surface. A single passage 
 of this implement will mellow the surface more than twice as 
 deeply as the ordinary harrow; acting also like a roller, to 
 press and keep down the grassy sod. 
 
 Several forms of rotary harrows have been invented, but 
 are not likely to come into general use. 
 
 HoESE Hoes and Cultivators. Anothei class of imple-. 
 ments combine the principles of the plow and the harrow. 
 These are the Horse Hoes and the Cultivators, which ha've ren- 
 dered very important aid both in the original preparation of 
 the soil, and the after- cultivation between the rows of corn or 
 other crops. {Fig. 42.) 
 
 One of the most useful of these is known as Knox's patent, 
 as made by the Ames Plow Company, of Boston. It is de- 
 signed to hoe or cultivate corn and root crops, cotton, and the 
 hoed crops generally. It is very light, and easily managed, 
 with the draught of one horse, and thoroughly pulverizes the 
 surface, cutting up weeds, grass, etc. It is steadied by a forward 
 tooth, or colter, the two middle teeth being miniature plows, 
 which are easily changed from one side to the other, turning 
 the earth from, or towards the rows, as may be desired. 
 
 The frequent use of the cultivator among hoed or drilled 
 crops, cannot be too highly recommended. It is the easiest and 
 quickest way to keep down the weeds. It has been said, with 
 much show of truth, that one day's work in the cornfield, with 
 
98 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 a horse and cultivator, is -worth ten with the hand hoe, and if 
 the farmer would use it oftener, as often as once a week in a 
 dry time, he would find it pay in the result of the crop. To 
 facilitate this work, the rows, of course, should run even and 
 straight. 
 
 The Sulky Cultivator {fig. 43) has been gaining in favor for the 
 last few years, and will very soon, no doubt, come into general 
 use, as its advantages in cultivating corn on a large scale become 
 more and more apparent. The driver is furnished with a seat 
 sufficiently high to be in full view of his work, the forward 
 shovels being some feet in front of him. This is made by Dreere 
 & Co., of Moline, Illinois. Other modifications of the Sulky 
 Cultivator are manufactured in other parts of the country. 
 
 Sereated Clod Crusher. The clod crusher is one of those 
 implements ' that have made their way but slowly into public 
 favor, partly because of their expense, and partly because they 
 have failed to be appreciated as they deserve to be. But on 
 some soils, particularly on stiif cloddy lands, dependent very 
 much upon the season, it is really invaluable. {Fig. 44.) 
 
 In a wet season it often happens that strong lands cannot be 
 worked to advantage. The soil turns up in solid lumps, which 
 become as hard as a brick when dry. The clod crusher then 
 becomes almost indispensable. 
 
 On light land farms, too, it may often be substituted to advan- 
 tage for the common iron roller. Like the roller, it is usually 
 cast in sections kept apart by washes on the main shaft. It pul- 
 verizes the lumpy soil, and breaks down the clods much more 
 effectually, while on lighter soils it compacts the surface earth. 
 No farmer who has once used the tilod crusher so as to be 
 able to appreciate its many advantages, would think of doing 
 inthout it, and wherever it is used it will increase in favor. 
 
 Coopbb's Lime Spreader. The use of lime as a manure ia 
 
Fig. 37. Deeee's Cast-steel Clippee Plow. 
 
 Fig. 38. Skinxeb s Gang Plow. 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 101 
 
 very common in many sections of the country, especially in the 
 wheat growing regions, and the necessity for it on some classes 
 of soils is very generally admitted. It must be regarded as one 
 of the most important fertilizers we have, after barnyard or 
 stable manure, and the judicious application of it on a large 
 proportion of the farms of the country would be attended with 
 beneficial results. It should be sown fresh slacked, and in a 
 fine condition, and immediately mixed with the soil by harrow- 
 ing or plowing. The better practice is to plow first, spread 
 the lime upon the furrows and harrow in. 
 
 It is a laborious and difficult operation to spread it uniformly 
 over a large area. Cooper's Lime Spreader meets this difficulty 
 and does its work with perfect evenness, saving a great deal of 
 labor and time. It may be worked either with oxen, horses, or 
 mules, may be loaded anywhere, and hauled to the field without 
 waste, where it may be put in operation in a few seconds. The 
 quantity per acre is easily regulated. The machine weighs no 
 more than the common ox-cart, and it will carry as large a load, 
 feeds itself, and crushes and pulverizes all lumps. {Fig. 45.) 
 
 One man and team can do as much with this spreader, as four 
 men and two teams can do without it, while the manner in 
 which it performs its work cannot be equalled by hand spread- 
 ing. It is simple, strong, and durable, the operating parts being 
 made of iron. It may be used to sow ashes and plaster as well 
 as lime. 
 
 The Star Drill. The practice of drilling in wheat is of 
 comparatively recent origin, but the advantages of it are now 
 so well understood that few English farmers would think of 
 sowing wheat broadcast, and the best farmers of this country 
 have adopted it. By means of the drill the seed may be 
 dropped and covered uniformly, and, if in dry weather, deeply. 
 Sown broadcast and harrowed in, during a period of drought 
 
102 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 suoli as we often have at the time of sowing winter wheat, 
 much of the seed will fail to germinate. The kernels may 
 absorb moisture at night, but the parching sun dries it out by 
 day, and these alternations destroy the germ. 
 
 Besides, the amount of seed required per acre is considerably 
 less, and the liability to winter-kill, by being thrown out by 
 frost, is less. These and other advantages of drilling over 
 broadcast sowing, are so apparent that the time cannot be 
 far distant when the practice will become quite general, if not 
 universal. 
 
 The Star Drill is manufactured by Ewell & Co., of Baltimore, 
 Maryland. It combines the drill, the cultivator, and the roller. 
 The seed is taken from the seed-box by a revolving distributor, 
 and dropped just behind and in the furrow of the plow, and 
 left to be covered by the next plow. The openings at regular 
 intervals in the distributor provide for a continuous stream of 
 seed, and the quantity is increased or diminished by the depth 
 of the openings. {Fig. 47). 
 
 This machine may be worked separately, as a cultivator only, 
 if the operator desires, the roller and seeding apparatus being 
 readily detached. 
 
 Various other drills are manufactured in different sections of 
 the country well adapted to the purpose in view, and we strongly 
 advise their use on all grain farms. 
 
 Seed Sowers. A great variety of smaller machines for sow- 
 ing garden, and other minute seeds, have been invented and 
 introduced. In principle they do not greatly vary, though some 
 are no doubt more efficient than others. 
 
 One of the later inventions of this class is known as the 
 Improved Danvers Seed Sower, made by G. B. Herrick, of 
 Lynnfield Centre, Massachusetts. {Figs. 48 and 49.) 
 
 It is to be recommended for its simplicity and cheapnesg a 
 
Fkj. 39 
 
 G-BDDES' HAKKOW 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 105 
 
 feature of some importance, since it insures its use in many- 
 lands, where a more e^ensive machine would not find its way. 
 It sows onions, turnips and other similar seeds, with great uni- 
 formity, and mangolds, carrots, beets, etp., as well as any machine 
 I have examined. 
 
 Weeding Hoes. The first American patent for improve- 
 ment in hoes was granted in 1819, and for cast steel hoes in 
 1827, though cast steel hoes were made in Philadelphia, by two 
 establishments, as early as 1823. The business in the manu- 
 facture of these and other small agricultural implements has 
 grown up to immense proportions, employing a large number 
 of hands. For lightness and high finish, combined with 
 strength and durability, American hoes are unrivalled. 
 
 Allen's Weeding Hoe. A simple but effective and valu- 
 able implement is a weeding hoe, invented by Geo. P. Allen, of 
 Woodbury, Connecticut. {Fig. 50.) 
 
 It is a scuffle hoe, to be worked back and forth between the 
 rows of vegetables, running just beneath the surface. It is one 
 of the most useful little implements in the garden, and in clean- 
 ing walks. The zigzag edges of the blade greatly increase the 
 cutting surface, and make it easy of operation and very useful 
 in destroying weeds. It is appropriately named "the weed 
 killer." 
 
 Implements foe Harvesting. But by far the most 
 striking improvements in modern agricultural implements, are 
 those connected with the harvesting of crops, particularly the 
 grass crop and the smaller grains. So important have these 
 become to the welfare of society, that if we could suppose them 
 to be blotted out of existence, even for a single season, it would 
 produce a shook, which would be felt all over the civilized 
 world. And yet scarcely more than fifteen years have elapsed, 
 since the practical economy of mowers and reapers became an 
 
106 HOW TO MAKE THE FA-EM PAT. 
 
 established fact, since their ultimate success and practibility 
 was acknowledged. 
 
 The number of mowing machines made, and in use previous 
 to 1850, was probably, less than five thousand. Ketch um'a 
 mower, and Hussey's reaper, were the pioneers, the machines 
 that did more to make it certain that grass and grain would 
 finally be harvested by machinery, than any former patents, 
 and yet when the former was tried at the show of the New 
 York Society at Buffalo, in 1848, the large body of farmers who 
 witnessed the trial were not prepared to admit that the work 
 accomplished was good enough to be even tolerated in com- 
 parison with the hand scythes. Some thought it might work 
 in straight coarse grass, but in finer grass it was sure to clog. 
 
 At a subsequent trial of reapers and mowers, instituted by 
 the New York State Agricultural Society at Geneva, in 1852, 
 seven machines competed as mowers, and nine as reapers, but 
 not more than two or three of the former were capable of 
 equalling the common scythe in the quality of work performed, 
 and not one among them all, when brought to a stand in the 
 grass, could start again without backing to get up speed. All the 
 machines had a heavy side draught, some of them to such an 
 extent as to wear seriously on the team. None of them could 
 turn readily in any reasonable space, and all were liable to tear 
 up the sward in the operation. The old Manning and the 
 Ketchum machines, were the only ones, as mowers, that were 
 capable of doing satisfactory work. 
 
 One or two of the reapers, like the Burrall, the Manning, and 
 the Seymour & Morgan machines, did fair work, and the judgeel 
 decided that, in comparison with the hand-cradle, they showed 
 a saving of eighty-eight and three quarter cents per acre. 
 Here was some gain; a positive advance. But still most of the 
 reapers as well as the mowers, did very inferior work; the 
 
Mg. 42. Knox's Hokse Hoe. 
 
 Mg. 43. Deeee's Sulket Ctotivatoe. 
 
 Mg. 44'. Allen's Clod Cettshek. 
 
 107 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 109 
 
 draught in all was heavy, and some of the best had a side 
 draught sufficient to be destructive to the team. 
 
 In June of the same year, 1852, twelve reaping machines and 
 several mowers, competed at the trial held by the Ohio State 
 Board of Agriculture, among them McOormick's, patented first 
 in 1834, and Hussey's, first patented in 1838 ; but according to 
 the report of the judges, there appears to have been no very 
 striking superiority in the merits of the different machines. 
 
 The importance of these early efforts to overcome the obsta- 
 cles to the successful operation of new machinery, will be 
 sufficiently clear when we consider that more than twenty 
 million tons of hay are annually raised and cured in this coun- 
 try, and that the grass and hay crop is the true basis of our 
 agriculture, since, without it, in a northern climate, we can have 
 no cattle; without cattle, no manure ; without manure, no crops. 
 With the necessity we have for stall feeding, from three to five 
 or six months of the year, for means of which we are dependent 
 mainly upon hay, it is apparent that, in an economical point of 
 view, this crop is one of the most important that can occupy 
 the farmer's attention. 
 
 From this time the inventive genius of the country was 
 stimulated to an extraordinary degree of activity. Patents 
 began to multiply, and the rapid growth of this important 
 branch of manufactures may be dated about the year 1855. 
 
 Local trials, to test the merits of the various machines, were 
 held in different parts of the country nearly every year ; but five 
 years after the meeting at Geneva, a general desire was mani- 
 fested to have another on a scale that should bring together all 
 the prominent reapers and mowers in the country ; and, accord- 
 ingly, the United States Agricultural Society held a national 
 trial at Syracuse, New York, in 1857. Here more than forty 
 entries of mowers and reapers were made, and they were 
 
110 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 brouglit to the test upon the field. Striking improvements had 
 been made since the Geneva trial. The draught had been very 
 materially lessened in most of the machines, though the side 
 draught in some of them was still objectionably large. In the 
 ability to cut fine and thick grass without clogging, there was 
 manifest progress in most of the machines, and the two that 
 stood first at Geneva had gained something in this point, but 
 of the nineteen that competed as mowers, only three could 
 start in fine' grass without backing to get up speed. The Buck- 
 eye, patented in 1856, won its first great triumph here, and re- 
 ceived the first premium. 
 
 New inventions and improvements now multiplied in quick 
 succession, every year adding to the list. In 1859, the cele- 
 brated Wood mower was invented, and very soon took a high 
 rank. In 1864, there were no less than one hundred and 
 eighty-seven establishments in the country devoted to the 
 manufacture of reapers and mowers, many of them of vast 
 extent, substantially built, completely furnished with abundant 
 power, machinery, and tools of the finest description, while the 
 work had become wisely and beautifully systematized. The 
 population directly sustained by these manufactories exceeded 
 sixty thousand. The value of the annual product exceeded 
 fifteen millions of dollars, and the n<umber of machines made 
 amounted to about one hundred thousand. 
 
 After the lapse of nine years from the Syracuse trial; it was' 
 thought desirable to hold another, which should be national in 
 its character, machines from all parts of the United States being 
 allowed to compete ; and this was accordingly arranged under 
 the . direction of the New York State Society, at Auburn, in 
 that state, in July, 1866. i 
 
 For this trial the number of mowers which entered, single 
 and combined, was forty-four, the number of reapers, thirty, in 
 
Fig. 
 
 ■ia. 45. COOPER'S LIKE Spbeader. 
 
 
 " m4&. BUCKEYE MOWEE. 
 
 HI 
 
FABM IMPLEMENTS. 113 
 
 all seventy -four. As compared with the machines at Syracuse, 
 nine years previous, there was a decided improvement in work- 
 manship and mechanical finish. The mowers were more com- 
 pact, more simple in construction, lighter and equally strong. 
 They ran with less friction, with easier draught, and generally 
 witli less noise. They cut the grass better, especially over 
 uneven surfaces. 
 
 The following extract from the report of the committee will 
 convey an idea of the general progress : — " Those who had been 
 present at former trials, were astonished at the general perfec- 
 tion which had been attained by manufacturers of mowing 
 machines. Every machine, with two exceptions, did good 
 work, which would be acceptable to any farmer ; and the ap- 
 pearance of the whole meadow, after it had been raked over 
 w^s vastly better than the average mowing of the best farmer 
 in the State, notwithstanding the great difficulties that had to 
 be encountered. At previous trials, very few machines could 
 stop in the grass and start without backing for a fresh start. 
 At the present trial, every machine stopped in the grass and 
 started again without backing, without any difficulty, and 
 without leaving any perceptible ridge to mark the place where 
 it occurred." 
 
 In this trial the Buckeye, as at Syracuse, recieived the gold 
 medal as a mower, a tribute alike to the genius of the inventor 
 and the skill of the manufacturers, Messrs. Adriance, Piatt & 
 Co., of Poughkeepsie, New York. This machine is also manu- 
 factured, for a part of the New England States, by the Buckeye-*' 
 Mowing Machine Company, at West Fitchburg, Massachusetts. 
 
 The frame of the Buckeye is made of wood, this being re- 
 garded as, on the whole, the best material. Where iron is used 
 the weight of the machine is increased, and, in case of breakage, 
 it is not so easily repaired; in fact, a new frame is needed, 
 
114 HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAY. 
 
 requiring the parts to be fitted anew. The driving wheels are 
 thirty inches in diameter and run loosely on the axle. The 
 draught is direct and easy, and it is capable of working in 
 hollows and over ridges w;ith a remarkable power of adaptation. 
 The cutting is easy and uniform, the cutter bar entirely inde- 
 pendent of the frame, and having nothing but its own weight 
 to sustain under any circumstances. The Buckeye deserves its 
 high reputation. 
 
 "Wood Prize Mowee. This machine, long a favorite in this 
 country, has 'attracted a more than ordinary share of attention 
 and interest by its triumphs at the great Paris Exposition of 
 1867, where, in competition with some of the best mowers in 
 the world, it won two grand gold medals, and secured for its 
 inventor, "Walter A. "Wood, Esq., the honorable distinction of a 
 decoration of the Imperial Cross of the Legion of Honor. This 
 gives it a national reputation, in which every American feels a 
 just and national pride, for it has probably done more to estab- 
 lish and vindicate the high character af, American agricultural 
 mechanics abroad than any other machine, having taken the 
 highest prizes offered in this or any other Country,! both for 
 practical work on the field and perfection, of mechanical con- 
 struction. {Fig. 54.) 
 
 This is a jointed bar mower, running upon two driving 
 wheels, each furnished with internal gear, so as to make each 
 an independent driving wheel. These wheels are so placed as 
 to run in the tracks made by. the track clearer to avoid unne- 
 cessary injury to the crop. The spring seat is so placed as 
 to balance the tongue, so as to leave no pressure on the necks 
 of the team. 
 
 The frame is of wood, made of four timbers lying in the same 
 plane, the middle line over the axle. The tongue is attached 
 to the axle by a joint. The forward part of the shoe is attached 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 117 
 
 to a spring bar bolted to the underside of the left front corner 
 of the frame. The connections on the shoe are by joints which 
 allow the bar to be turned up to a perpendicular position. The 
 outer shoe is sharp on the under side to part the grass, and has 
 a wheel five inches in diameter adjustable to regulate the height. 
 The holders on the finger bar are chilled at the bearings of the 
 cutter bar. The guard fingers are made of malleable iron and 
 faced with steel, securely riveted in. The cutter bar is raised 
 with great ease to enable the machine to pass an obstruction. 
 Lightness of draught is secured by a simple and direct applica- 
 tion of power, all needless parts being dispensed with, so as to 
 lessen the friction. The machine is light and elastic, and 'yet 
 strong enough to stop the strongest team. Simplicity of con- 
 struction insures durablity. 
 
 This machine cuts with remarkable smoothness and uni- 
 formity, and is not liable to clog. It is manufactured by the 
 Wood Mowing Machine Company, at Hoosick Falls, New 
 York. Aboat seventeen hundred machines a month on an 
 average have been made at the old works, employing five hun- 
 dred hands. The capacity of the works is now doubled. Fully 
 one hundred thousand machines have been built, and fifty 
 thousand were in the harvest fields last year. The sale abroad 
 is alsci very large. 
 
 Amebioan Hat Tedder. The mower was an immeasura ■ 
 ble step in advance upon the older methods of cutting grass. 
 It comes in at a time when the work of the farm is peculiarly 
 laborious ; when labor is held at even higher than the usual 
 high rate of wages, when the weather is often fickle and pre- 
 carious, generally oppressively hot and trying to physical 
 strength, and it relieves the severest strain upon the muscles 
 during the time of harvest. 
 
 The invention of the horse rake preceded it in point of time, 
 
118 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM FAY. 
 
 and must be regarded as second only in importance ii. tlie 
 economy of labor, taking the place of many men, and accom- 
 plishing a larger amount of work equally Tvell, at a season when, 
 if ever, time is money. 
 
 But there was still some new invention wanting. The faimer 
 could now cut his grass rapidly enough, and, after it was suffi- 
 ciently cured, he could gather it rapidly enough, but it was still 
 difficult to handle and cure what the mowing machine could 
 easily cut. Spreading hay by hand, though not so laborious as 
 some other processes of haymaking, is slow work, and, not- 
 withstanding the ease and rapidity with which the other work 
 could be done, a strong force was still required to cure tte 
 gra§s* There was a want of balance in the new system, and 
 here the Tedder came in to complete and round it out as it were. 
 In this respect it must be regarded as of nearly equal import- 
 ance with the mower and the horse rake. 
 
 After one or two attempts, which met with partial success, 
 we have now the American Hay Tedder, ag manufactured by 
 the Ames Plow Company, of Boston. The draught of this 
 machine is light and easy for the horse, the construction simple, 
 the work effective. {Fig. 55.) 
 
 The forward action of the old English machine was too vio- 
 lent, and it handled the half made hay too roughly. Jivery 
 farmer knows that, after grass is partially dried in the process 
 of haymaking, a rough, and violent action or handling is to be 
 avoided. It breaks off the tender leaves of the clover, shakes 
 out the seeds of such of the plants as have approached the 
 period of maturity, and wastes many of the finer leaves of the 
 natural grasses. The American Tedder has aimed to avoid this 
 objection, while, at the same time, it lightens up the grass to 
 the sun and air, and hastens the curing process without the 
 
Fig. 48. Danvek's Seed Sowek. ^ Fig 49. 
 
 I 
 
 Fiy. 50. Allua-'s W j,x.^..<u ilOE. 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 52. HoKSE FoBK. 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 fij/, 53. Self Locking Rake. 
 
 119 
 
FABM IMPLEMENTS. 121 
 
 waste which would follow a violent hurling into the air of 
 wilted and partially cured grass. 
 
 This machine has been used very successfully and satisfac- 
 torily in New England and in some other sections of the 
 country, and it supplies a want which has been felt since the 
 introduction of the mower, even more than ever before. Those 
 who have used it consider it quite indispensable. 
 
 The Hobse Rake. In raking hay the work to be per- 
 formed, though slow, is comparatively light, and does not 
 require the exertion of a great amount of physical strength. 
 Here, as also in spreading or tending hay, the application of 
 animal power is of the greatest advantage, since it multiplies 
 the efficiency of the hand many times. The same is true in 
 the case of the hand drills for sowing the smaller seeds, like 
 turnips, carrots, beets, etc., where the labor by hand is slow, and, 
 though light, is laborious and irksome. 
 
 It has been found, therefore, that the labor to be performed 
 by a good horse rake, is equal to that of eight or ten men, in 
 the same time, and that from twenty to thirty acres a day can 
 be gathered by a single horse and driver, without over exertion. 
 
 Of the innumerable patents issued for horse rakes, within the 
 last twenty years, it would be difficult to single out any one 
 and say that it was lie best, all things considered, or that the 
 merits of all have been or could be united in one. Still, many 
 'of them work so perfectly that it is impossible to avoid the 
 conclusion that they leave little, if any thing, to be desired in 
 this direction. 
 
 The best judges have arrived at the conviction that wire oi 
 Bteel teeth have the preference on accoujit of their wider range 
 of usefulness. 
 
 The Bay State is a steel tooth, each tooth being hinged to the 
 axle and held down by spiral springs. The ease with which 
 
122 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 ttis rake is worked is quite wonderful. The driver iias, ouly 
 to touch a lever with his foot, with a slight pressure, which any 
 boy can apply, when the rake is lifted by the horse, and, by 
 means of the cleaning rods, frees itself at once of its load. It is 
 set so high that a large windrow can be gathered, and, if de- 
 3:red, the windrow can be cocked ready for loading. 
 
 This rake is independent in its action, that is, each tooth 
 operates independently of the others in passing an obstruction, 
 while the draught is light, and the material and workmanship 
 are unsurpassed. It is made by the Buckeye Mowing Machine 
 Company, at West Fitchburg, Massachusetts. {Fig. 56.) 
 
 A simple and effective machine has been introduced into 
 New England, known as the Whittemore Self-Locking Eake. 
 This may be worked either by the foot or the hand, and is easy 
 of operation. The lock lever is arranged to hold the teeth to 
 the ground in doing heavy work, when, in many machines, 
 they are inclined to rise and scatter the hay. An easy spring 
 seat is secured to the axle, so that the weight of the driver does 
 not press upon the horse. It can be set with the teeth a little 
 above the surface of the ground, when it becomes a very effec- 
 tive gleaner in grain stubbles. The teeth of this rake act inde- 
 pendently also, and it is furnished with cleaners, which secure 
 the instant unloading of the rake when it is lifted. It is manu- 
 factured by the Messrs. Whittemore, Belcher & Co., of Chico- 
 pee Falls, Massachusetts. {Fig. 58.) 
 
 No farmer can afford to be without a good horse rake. It 
 saves labor and time at the most critical season . of the year, 
 and often when, without one, it would be impossible to avoid 
 the injury from rain or exposure to foul weather. In the 
 economy of labor, the horse rake must be regarded as second 
 only in importance to the mower, and it is almost as essential 
 on the farm as the plow itself. 
 
^ t 
 
 123 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 125 
 
 The Montgomery Fork, A recent improvement in forks 
 has been introduced by the Montgomery Fork Co., 254 Pearl 
 St., New York city, by which the tines can be taken out and 
 replaced without loss of time in case of breakage or other 
 accident. All farmers know that in repairing a broken tine 
 of the common fork, the other tine is usually made worthless, 
 and so on the breakage of a tine the whole fork is thrown aside 
 as lost. 
 
 By this arrangement, if the handle should get broken the 
 tines are good and can be set in another handle in a few minutes, 
 and the fork is as good as ever. The handle, instead of being 
 tapered at the end near the fork, is made larger there, so that 
 the whole strength of the wood is left. The ferule, easily re- 
 moved by loosing a screw, binds the whole together, and holds 
 the tines firmly in position. The process of manufacture se- 
 cures a uniform texture of steel, and the weight of the fork is 
 no greater than ordinary. This fork received the first prewiium , 
 at the New York State Fair of 1867. In many sections of the 
 country it will be found to be good economy to use a fork of 
 this description. {Fig. 51.) 
 
 The Horse Fork. Among the labor-saving implements 
 designed to relieve the severe labors of hay making, few have 
 met with greater popular favor than the Horse Pitchfork. It 
 saves not only the violent strain upon the muscles, but a great 
 deal of time, which, in the hurry of haying, is often of the 
 utmost importance. 
 
 Several different patterns have been ibtroduced and worked 
 with success. 
 
 The Harpoon fork was originally invented by E. L. Walker, 
 of Jenner Crossroads, Somerset county, Pennsylvania. It was 
 simply a straight spear, and, as such, it entered the hay when a 
 bolt was drawn at the handle, which threw out at the side one 
 
126 HOW TO MAKE FABMING PAY. 
 
 or more lateral hooks, which seized upon the hay, and thus 
 lifted it in large quantities from the load. There is no doubt 
 that a larger amount of hay can be removed from the load by 
 this arrangement than by any other style of fork. But Mr. 
 "Walker became satisfied that he could improve upon it, and 
 DOW his fork has assumed the simple form as illustrated in 
 fig. 52, and in this form it has been very largely sold and very 
 widely distributed over the country. It is made entirely of 
 iron, which gives it durability, while its weight -is only ten 
 pounds. The construction, as appears by the cut, is extremely 
 simple, and there seems to be but little liability to get out of 
 order, having no tines to bend or to break. It takes up but 
 little room as compared with some of the other forks, and it is 
 worked so easily that a boy can operate it. Its strength and 
 its grappling power are so great, that it will take and hold 
 enough for two horses to raise over the barn beams. At a trial 
 before the Pennsylvania State Fair, in competition with others, 
 the committee report that they found it the best implement for 
 unloading hay. 
 
 This Fork is manufactured by Wheeler, Melick & Co., of 
 Albany, New York, who send out with it the best style of 
 anti-friction roller pulleys, which are admirably designed to 
 facilitate the practical working of the machine. 
 
 The Ebapees. The progress made in the improvement, and 
 the extent of the manufacture of reapers, is scarcely less impor- 
 tant than that of mowers. For the boundless West it is, per- 
 haps, of even great importance. The last official census re 
 ported an aggregate production of 173,104,924 bushels of 
 wheat, and it is hardly too much to say that the product at the ' 
 present time exceeds two hundred million bushels. The appli- 
 cation of machinery has given us the power of an almost unlim- 
 ited expansion of this product. 
 
PAEM IMPLEMENTS. 129 
 
 At the public trial of reapers at Geneva, fifteen years ago, 
 all the machines were very defective in the execution of their 
 work. The draught was very heavy, and the side draught even 
 in the best of them was described as killing for the horses. 
 There was not, at that time, a self-raker in the country that 
 was capable of doing satisfactory work. Five years later, at 
 Syracuse, some progress had been made in this direction, but 
 scarcely more than to make it certain that a self-raking reaper 
 was destined eventually to succeed. 
 
 At the Auburn trial, in 1866, the self-rakers did better work 
 than the hand rakers, and they will very soon drive the hand 
 raking machines completely from the field. They had im- 
 proved in other respects to such an extent that they could 
 readily cut lodged and tangled grain,»and leave it in a good 
 condition for binding. The side draught, which, in previous 
 trials, had been severe, was reduced to a very low point, some 
 machines showing none at all. 
 
 The next demand on the mechanical ingenuity of the country 
 is for a self-binding, as well as a self -raking, reaper, and there 
 is strong reason to believe that this important object will s^n 
 be attained. Attempts have been made to accomplish this,, but 
 they have not as yet given general satisfaction. Perhaps ex- 
 ception should be made in favor of Carpenter's automatic Grain 
 Binder, patented by S. D. Carpenter, of Madison, "Wisconsin, 
 who is thought by many good judges to have discovered the 
 principle on which an automatic binder, to be attached to the 
 reaper, is possible. This is a contrivance which binds with a 
 wire in bundles to be regulated by the character of the crops. 
 It does not materially add to the draught of. the reaper. 
 
 The automatic rake and the automatic binder, both attach- 
 ments to the reaper, must be regarded as the most important 
 recent inventions in agricultural machinery. Neither of them 
 
130 HOW TO MAKE THE PAEM PAY. 
 
 can be said to be perfected, but the success so far attained seems 
 to leave no doubt that the time will soon come when the hand 
 raking machines will be as much behind the times as the sickle 
 and the scythe. 
 
 One of the most popular self-rake reapers at the West is that 
 of Walter A. Wood. This machine was first brought out in 
 1860, with a novel'mode of discharging the grain. The motion 
 given to the rake resembles somewhat the action of the human 
 arm, audit leaves the grain in gavels the size of which is regu- 
 lated by the will of the driver. The rake is driven by a chain 
 which passes around the edge of the platform, working with 
 great precision, and delivering the grain in compact bundles 
 ready for binding. The reaper cuts a swath five and a half 
 feet in width, and will flo from fifteen to twenty acres a day, in 
 the most satisfactory manner. {Fig. 57.) 
 
 Use and Caee of Mowers and Eeapebs. With regard to 
 the higher cost machines upon the farm, it would be natural to 
 expect the exercise of at least ordinary care, not only in their 
 selection but in their management, both while in use and after 
 the season is past. But farmers are notoriously negligent. A 
 valuable mowing machine is not uncommonly left, after its wprk 
 for the season is done, under the lee side of a fence, uncleaned 
 and unoiled, or perhaps iinder the barn, or in an open shed, 
 where it is liable to rust and be injured by neglect far more 
 than by the wear and tear of a whole season's usage. 
 
 The following suggestions apply to both mowers and reapers: 
 
 1. Buy the best. It will be the cheapest in the end. 
 
 2. Buy it early, so as to be sure you have the one you wish, 
 and not find, just as you are ready to begin, that you cannot get 
 the one you intended to buy. 
 
 3. When attaching the horses see that the knives are in a 
 
131 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 133 
 
 horizontal position, neither pointed up or down. This secures 
 a smooth, even stubble. 
 
 4. See that all the nuts are turned tight. The manufacturers 
 are often obliged to finish a part of their machines some months 
 before the time for using them, and all wood, is liable to shrink 
 a little. 
 
 5. Buy the very best sperm oil, if possible. Poor oil will be 
 sure to gum up. If you cannot get sperm oil, kerosehe and 
 castor oil mixed, one third of the former and two thirds of the 
 latter, will answer a good purpose. 
 
 6. Keep the bearings well oiled, also the buttons which hold 
 the knives down to the plates in the fingers. 
 
 7. Keep the knives sharp all the time. Take both scythes 
 into the field sharp, and once an hour or so rub the edges with 
 a sharp gritted whetstone ; this saves sweating your horses, and 
 the wear upon the machine, and leaves the field looking as if 
 you understood your business. Use the scythes about equally, 
 as they fit and work the better for it. 
 
 8. Keep the buttons down as close to the cutter as possible, 
 and have the scythes play easily. They are made of malleable 
 iron, and will bear pounding, but in long use they are apt to 
 wear loose. Examine them frequently, and as they wear, rap 
 them down with a hammer so as to keep the edge of the cutters 
 in close contact with the edge of the steel plates in the fingers. 
 You might as well expect to out wet paper with a dull, loose 
 jointed pair of scissors, as to cut grass with dull scythes, not in 
 their proper position. 
 
 9. When the' cutters become worn to a point, and begin to 
 grow shorter, have new ones put on ; it is the poorest economy 
 to use them so ; like using a worn out plough point. 
 
 10. Examine your machine carefully as- soon as haying or 
 reaping is over, and if it needs any repairs, send it at once to 
 
134 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 the manufacturer, unless you can replace the parts wanted 
 yourself. He has time in the fall, before beginning to turn out 
 machines for the next season, to attend to it faithfully, and you 
 save much vexation, and perhaps loss, which might occur if 
 this is neglected till spring. 
 
 11. If the machine needs no repairing, take out the knives, 
 wipe them clean, and then rub them over with an oily rag, to 
 prevent rusting. Oil the fingers, and remove the pole and bar, 
 put the bar and scythe in a dry place, clean your machine 
 thoroughly, and keep it dry and clean through the winter. 
 
 If these suggestions are not heeded do not blame the manu- 
 facturer if your machine soon wears out. 
 
 ■ Threshing Machines. The improvement in machines for 
 separating grain, has been- constantly progressive, until they 
 may be said to have reached a truly wonderful degree of per- 
 fection. The older portion of the present generation can re- 
 member, when the old fashioned flail resounded on nearly 
 every threshing floor in the country. Here and there the 
 grain was trodden out by the tramping of cattle. The writer 
 often adopted this method of separating- both wheat and oats, 
 many years ago, not merely by way of experiment, to see if the 
 thing could be done, but in real earnest, as if it were one of the 
 best and most approved ways in the world. But what a waste 
 of time atid labor I 
 
 Wheeler's patent is a well known and efficient thresher, 
 which saves labor and time, and separates and cleans wheat or 
 rye, with great rapidity. The machine is manufactured by 
 Wheeler, Melick & Co., of Albany, New York. Two horses 
 will work the machine, while a three horse power will drive it 
 with such velocity, as to keep a smart man hard at work to 
 feed it up to its capacity. {Fig. 58.) 
 
 The horse power thresher is of Pjiiglish origin. Its introduc- 
 

 o 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 CO 
 H 
 
 t^ 
 
 It) 
 
 135 
 
FAEM IMPLEMENTS. 187 
 
 tion was strenuously opposed by the laboring classes thero, as 
 an attempt to infringe upon their rights. Separators and 
 winnowers were attached to the thresher at a much more recent 
 date, but they have been found so important, that now few 
 machines are made without one or the other. Straw carriers 
 followed soon after, by means of which the straw is stacked 
 away. A bagging apparatus is now often added, so that the 
 grain is threshed, winnowed, measured. anJ bagged, ready for 
 market, at one operation, and the straw taken care of with very 
 little labor. Most of the labor is done by the team, whUe the 
 rapidity of work is quite wonderful. 
 
 At the trial of Threshing Machines, at the Paris exhibition, 
 in 1855, the victory was won by an American machine, and 
 during the operation, to ascertain the comparative rapidity and 
 economy of threshing, six men were engaged in threshing with 
 flails, who, in one hour, threshed sixty litres of wheat. In the 
 same time 
 
 Pitt's American machine threshed 740 litres 
 
 Clayton's English " " 410 " 
 
 Duvoir's Trench " " 250 " 
 
 Pinet's " " " 150 » 
 
 A French journal, speaking of this trial, said : " This 
 American machine literally devoured the sheaves of wheat. 
 The eye cannot follow the work which is effected between the 
 entrance of the sheaves, and the end of the operation. It is one 
 of the greatest results which it is possible to obtain. The im- 
 pression which the spectacle produced on the Arab chiefs, was 
 profound." And yet, since that exhibition, still farther im- 
 provements have been effected in this country. {Fig. 59.) 
 
 Pitt's machine itself has been somewhat improved, and as 
 now manufactured by J. T. Case & Co., of Eacine, Wisconsin, 
 is one of the very best machines in the world. These makers 
 
138 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAY. 
 
 turn off from three hundred to five hundred machines in a 
 year, each one including an admirable thresher, separator, and 
 carrier. Most of our approved American machines, in fact, 
 now in use, separate the grain from the chaff and the straw 
 and carry the latter back to the stack. Many of them measure 
 and bag the wheat, ready for market. Wherever our com- 
 plete machines have come into competition with those of Eng- 
 lish, French, or other European manufacture, they have in 
 variably proved thfemselves superior in point of simplicity, 
 rapidity, and perfection of work. 
 
 CoBK Shellers. On farms where a considerable amount 
 of corn is raised, a Corn Sheller is quite indispensable. It shells 
 with great rapidity, and on many a farm would pay for itself in 
 a single year. 
 
 There are several patents, some of them adapted more espe- 
 cially to hand, others to both hand and horse power. Some of 
 them are adapted more especially to the small-sized ears usually 
 grown in the Eastern and Middle States, others to the large ears 
 of the Southern and Western States. {Mg. 60.) 
 - . The Southern Corn Sheller is made expressly for the large 
 farms and plantations of the West and South, where the corn 
 is large. It is made both single and double, to shell one or two 
 ears at the sanie time. 
 
 National Hay Cutter. The advantage of cutting food 
 for stock, though it has at various times been a subject of dis- 
 cussion among practical men, is now very generally conceded. 
 Wherever a large stock of cattle, or a large number of horses 
 are kept, it is often good economy to feed out more or less of the 
 coarse substances of the farm, like straw, corn, clover, second- 
 quality hay, etc., mixing them either with the better qualities 
 of hay, or with some form of meal or concentrated food. 
 
 The form in which food is given to cattle is by no means a 
 

 /T7 
 
 r 
 
 
 W ft V55"f SSil -"'''' V. » J 
 
 
 £r>^4« 
 
 
 JVfcj 
 
 .#■ 
 
 ■> I 
 
 ^PhiTji-'-''"-' 
 
 1S9 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. 141 
 
 matter of indifference. Hay or straw, when cut short, or 
 chaffed, is taken up in a condition to prevent any unnecessary 
 expenditure of muscular force. As less mastication is requisite, 
 if cut fine, less of the tissues of the body are expended in 
 grinding down the food. 
 
 Hay or Fodder Cutters are made to cut the feed of different 
 lengths, according to the stock for which it is designed. For the 
 ruminating animals, it may be less finely divided than for others. 
 If for an ox, a cow, or a sheep, it is cut from one to two 
 inches long ; for a horse it would be better economy to cut it 
 from a quarter to half an inch. It is of the first importance 
 that a machine should cut short, and with perfect regularity ; 
 and to this end the hay or straw must be delivered to the 
 knives with the same regularity, or the work will be impei feet. 
 
 Here is the great defect of the machines fed by hand. Next 
 to a short and regular cut, strength, simplicity, and durability 
 are to be considered. 
 
 But besides the great economy of feeding cut fodder, which 
 amounts to a gain of at least twenty-five per cent., under ordi- 
 nary circumstances, in 'the food and the increased thrift secured, 
 there is a positive advantage to be derived in the manure. Long 
 stalks of coarse straw are often quite inconvenient to handle, 
 and are liable to be troublesome in plowing. The use of some 
 form of hay and straw cutter has, therefore, become almost uni- 
 versal, and must be regarded as quite indispensable on every 
 well-conducted farm. 
 
 The National Fodder Cutter possesses many points of de- 
 cided superiority, and is very properly regarded as ,one of the 
 best. It is manufactured by J. D. Burdick & Co., of New 
 Haven, Connecticut, of several sizes, to suit the requirements 
 of large as well as smnll farms, the former to be worked by 
 borse or steam power, and capable of reducing a ton and a half 
 
142 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 per hour, the latter easily worked by hand, and cutting or 
 chaffing from three hundred to one thousand pounds per hour. 
 This Cutter unites the important elements of strength, ease of 
 working, and safety, the knives being covered to protect the • 
 operator from accident. I know of no better machine in the 
 market. {Fig. 61.) 
 
 Excelsior Eoot Cutter. No farmer who keeps a flock of 
 sheep or a stock of cattle, should neglect to cultivate a wide 
 breadth of root crops ; and to feed them out judiciously requires 
 the use of a good vegetable cutter. Neat cattle and sheep, 
 when attempting to eat turnips, mangolds, carrots, potatoes, or 
 pumpkins, in pieces so large that they cannot readily take them 
 between the teeth, are extremely liable to get choked. Many 
 a valuable animal, whose life might have been saved, has been 
 sacrificed by a neglect to cut the roots. {Fig. 62.) 
 
 The Excelsior Cutter is the best adapted to this work of any 
 that I have any knowledge of. At the New York State Fair 
 at Buffalo, it cut a bushel of potatoes fine enough for sheep in 
 twenty-six seconds. It cuts pumpkins, turnips, and other roots, 
 into strips of a size best suited to sheep and cows, and it does it 
 with such remarkable ease and uniformity that a small boy or 
 girl can cut a bushel of roots in a minute. The cylinder is 
 hollow, made of hard iron, and the little gouge-shaped cutters 
 are fastened to the surface, and slice off the pieces of the size 
 of a man's thumb, or larger, the cutters being easily adjusted to 
 cut the size desired. This simple and effective root-cutter is 
 manufactured by J. E. Eobertson, of Syracuse, New York. It 
 has taken the first premiums at the Pennsylvania, the New 
 Jersey, the New York, and olher State Fairs, and, so far as 
 known, it has given universal satisfaction in practical use on 
 the farm. > 
 
 Cider Mills. Many a small farm has a supply of apples 
 
Fig.- 59. Pitt's Thkjsshee. 
 
 Fig. 60. Corn 8helleb. 
 
 113 
 
FARM IMPLEMENTS. '115 
 
 and other fruits, wliicli, for want of adequate means of econo- 
 mising them, are of less value than they might otherwise be 
 made. A hand cider mill is, therefore, a great convenience to 
 the small farmer. With it he can crush, and grind, and press 
 his apples, his currants, his grapes, etc., and make them into 
 cider or wine, at a trifling expense of time and trouble. 
 {Fig. 63.) 
 
 Hutchinson's Cider and Wine Mill. The best mill which 
 I have examined, is Hutchinson's patent — a simple and con- 
 venient machine, of various sizes, that has often been exhib- 
 ited, and taken premiums. This mill enables the farmer to 
 produce sweet cider and wine at anytime, and thus to save 
 many fruits that would otherwise be lost. The juice comes out 
 clear and sweet, and if from sound apples, will keep good a 
 long time. The fruit is first crushed, and then ground into a 
 fine pomace, without breaking the seeds, and discharged into 
 the press beneath, to be pressed out at convenience. The press- 
 ing is a simple and easy process. 
 
 All the iron work, with which the juice would be liable to 
 come in contact, is covered with a durable preparation that pre- 
 vents all rust, and keeps clear and free from any thing disa- 
 greeable. The screws are made of wrought iron, with a fine 
 thread. The teeth of the grinder are not liable to clog. From 
 eight to ten bushels of apples, grapes, currants, etc., can be 
 ground by hand power in an hour. For simplicity, neatness, and 
 compactness, I know of nothing of the kind superior to this ; 
 and as it is always ready to make a quart, or a barrel, of cidei 
 or wine, at any time, it is an article of great convenience. It 
 is manufactured by the Peekskill Plow Works, at Peekskill, 
 New York. 
 
 If any farmer is desirous of knowing the extent and variety 
 of agricultural implements, let him send one dollar to Messrs. 
 
146' HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 E. H. Allen & Co., 189 Water street,TTew York city, for their large 
 illustrated catalogue, containing upwards of three hundred and 
 eighty illustrations ; including plows, harrows, cultivators, seed 
 sowers, harvesting implements of all sorts — ^wind, water, steam, 
 horse, and dog powers — fans, shellers, and separators— corn, 
 cob, and grain mills (which should be in more general use 
 among large farmers) — hay, straw, vegetable, and stalk cut- 
 ters — hay presses, churns, barrows, wagons, and trucks ; be- 
 sides hundreds of little things of value and interest to the 
 farmer. A careful perusal of this work will well repay the 
 farmer for the time and cost. Messrs. Allen & Co. have long 
 devoted themselves to the interests of the farmer, and we are 
 indebted to them for valuable assistance in the preparation and 
 illustration of this chapter. 
 
 Care op Farm Implements. Nothing is more common 
 than to hear the farmer charged with neglecting the imple- 
 ments of the farm, by unnecessary exposure to the weather and 
 careless usage generally. There is, no doubt, some ground for 
 this charge ; and yet there is often a good cause for an apparent 
 neglect. 
 
 The proper care , and management of mowers and reapers 
 have been alluded to on a previous page, and we have only a 
 few general suggestions to add, in this connection, with regard 
 to other implements. These are of two kinds — such as are ' 
 used within doors mainly, and such as are used without. The 
 former are not usually subject to exposure and injury to such 
 an extent as the latter. Implements used in the field might be 
 again divided into such as are required more or less at every 
 season, and such as come into occasional use only. Those that 
 are liable to be required* at any season, must necessarily be 
 more exposed than others ; but they are, fortunately, of simple 
 construction, and less costly, when they are to be renewed, 
 
Fig. 61. National Fodder Cutteb. 
 
 Fig. 62. Excelsior Eoot Cutter. 
 
 10 
 
 147 
 
PABM IMPLEMENTS. 149 
 
 than many of those that are used for a short time at certain 
 seasons. 
 
 The plow is, perhaps, more frequently used than most other 
 implements, and it is subject to. great exposure. "When it was 
 made of wood, it was liable to Tapid decay. It is still often in- 
 jured by neglect, and want of housing after use. All plows 
 should be cleaned before storing them away, and if pains were 
 taken to brush over the iron work with a cloth moistened with 
 oil, it would prevent rust, and prolong the period of usefulness. 
 
 A tool-house is an obvious necessity on every well-regulated 
 farm, and all those tools that are but rarely required, should be 
 kept there, and immediately returned after use. In fitting up 
 this tool-house for the reception of miscellaneous implements, 
 care should be taken to keep the floor as little encumbered as 
 possible, in order to allow free access to every implement when 
 it is wanted. A large class of small implements — scythes, 
 wheels, saws, etc., are best hung against the wall, on nails. 
 Small articles, not readily suspended, should have a place on 
 shelves. Hoes and weeders, and similar tools, are more 
 accessible in framed stands. Plows, grubbers, etc., may be 
 kept along the side walls. Have a specified place for every- 
 thing. 
 
 As often, at least, as once a year, there should be a regular 
 muster and examination of all tools. It may be the work of 
 rainy weather. Collect into the tool-house every thing that be- 
 longs there. Scrub and polish with sand and water, if needed ; 
 oil such tools as will not be needed for some time ; mend any 
 that show the need of repairs, and take to the blacksmith shop 
 or carpenter such as cannot be done at home ; and, when in good 
 condition, return each to its place. Plow points get worn and 
 broken, nuts and bolts are loosened perhaps, or lost, and a 
 thousand little things require to be mended or replaced, which, 
 
150 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM FAT. 
 
 in the hurry of the working season, have to be tolerated. It 
 is econorny to keep them, as they should be, in order ; and a 
 day or two, at the close of the season, in a general picking up, 
 mending, painting, oiling, and scrubbing, will save many a 
 dollar, which will be required to buy new implements in place 
 of those ruined by neglect. 
 
 We have alluded to the wonderful development which me- 
 chanical ingenuity has wrought in our agriculture. The mower, 
 the reaper, and the thresher, are fit types of the ever restless 
 and progressive spirit of the present age. A few, wedded to 
 old prejudices and to early customs, may resist them as innova- 
 tions, for a time, but their language is too powerful and per- 
 suasive to be long unheeded. They promise for us a glorious 
 future, in which they will accomplish, for us and for our coun- 
 try, triumphs no less graiid than the triumph of arms, foT they 
 develop the means of supporting the millions of human beings, 
 which the implements of war can only destroy. 
 
 In the early ages of the world, men dug the earth, and sowed 
 the seed, and reaped the grain ; but while the myriads toiled, 
 without aspiration or hope, civilization was confined to the few, 
 the mechanic arts languished, and the gigantic forces of nature 
 waited the hand of a master to call them into beneficent ac- 
 tivity. The river rolled on its resistless current for more than 
 a hundred years after the Christian era without turning a wheel. 
 The winds swept over the hills of Europe till the eleventh cen- 
 tury, without giving motion to a single mill. The mighty 
 power of steam lay hidden. 
 
Fig. 63. 
 Hutchinson's Cidek Mill. 
 
 Mg. 65. Cotton Marker. 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 Flax Comb. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 GRAINS. 
 
 I HEAT CULTUEE is the most important of all agricul- 
 tural operations, and has more influence upon the world 
 than any other. 
 
 Wheat is brain food, and the progress of civilization 
 and intellectual culture can be traced by the extent of its 
 growth and consumption. Two hundred million bushels ~ of 
 wheat are annually raised in this country, and we have the soil 
 and the machinery for an almost unlimited expansion of the 
 product. Such an important branch of our industry is worthy 
 of the most attentive and pains-taking consideration. 
 
 The Coenbe Stone of Wheat Cultuee, as of all improved 
 farming, is drainage ; it is here that the largest amount of capital 
 is required, and it is here that it pays. And as drainage is the 
 corner stone, fattening stock, rich manure, and clover fallows, 
 are the foundation stones. Each of these will be treated of in 
 this chapter. 
 
 Soils for Wheat. The best are the clays ; clay and lime, 
 clay and sand, clay and loam. There must be clay for a suc- 
 cession of good crops, there must be sand for bright stiff straw. 
 A sandy soil is too porous for wheat, although a single good 
 crop of spring wheat is sometimes produced even on the sands 
 of New Jersey. Muck is not adapted to wheat culture. Wheat 
 will succeed on a greater variety of soils than is commonly sup- 
 posed, if care is taken to enrich and fatten the land. 
 
 153 
 
154 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 There is no State but what can and ought to raise enough 
 wheat for its home consumption, and there are no obstacles in 
 the way greater than the tradition that wheat will not pay. 
 
 The New England States produce only one fifteenth of their 
 consumption, and pay from eight dollars to sixteen' dollars per 
 barrel for wheat flour. "We do not propose to the farmers of 
 that section to raise wheat for exportation ; leave that to the 
 Western farmers ; but they can, by an improved system of farm- 
 ing for wheat, produce the wheat for home consumption at a 
 great ultimate saving. It will require the investment of con- 
 siderable capital in drainage, in improving soils, (see Chapter III.,) 
 in the purchase of stock, etc.; but the object is a worthy one, 
 and ultimate success and profit are, we ^believe, certain. The 
 Impeovbment op Soils for Grain is discussed in Chapter III., 
 but we would say here that there are many soils that can be 
 made to produce good crops of corn, oats, rye and barley, that 
 will only yield small crops of wheat, because wheat requires 
 some elements not required by the other grains. Some soils, 
 with only a small admixture of clay, will only give a fair wheat 
 crop in a six years' rotation. Where clay and sand, or 
 clay and gravel, are commingled in just the proportion which 
 will insure drainage without drought, wheat can be profitably 
 raised every three years. If your soil is not of this character, 
 the first thing to be done is to drain. Clay contains the food 
 fbr the wheat plant, but it is also the most retentive of water, 
 and an excess of water is death to winter wheat. After drain- 
 age of a heavy clay soil a few hundred bushels per acre of sand 
 completes the work of improvement, and you have a soil which 
 can be made to yield remunerative crops. A p;ire sand cannot 
 he made a remunerative wheat soil. Clay can always be made 
 so by the application of Sand, Lime, Salt, and rich Baen- 
 YAiiD Manure. The new soils of the prairies will, for a few 
 
GBAINS. 155 
 
 years, bear good crops of wheat without manures, or additions 
 of any sort, but to crop lands in this way is ruinous in the end, 
 and the prairie farmers have often found it out to their cost. 
 Nor does it help the matter much to put back the straw or to 
 feed it out and return the manure to the land. Something 
 richer must be added. Either a portion of the grain must be 
 fed with the straw to the stock or some substitute must be found. 
 Ashes, lime, plaster, etc., applied to green crops and plowed 
 under, form the substitutes. The relative value of these fertili- 
 zers is given in Chapter III. Ashes and lime should be com- 
 posted with straw, leaves, stalks, and muck. Gypsum, lime, etc., 
 should be sown on clover or buckwheat, and the crop plowed 
 in green. An acre of wheat requires one thousand four hun- 
 dred and eighty-seven pounds carbon, one thousand two hun- 
 dred and sixty-two pounds oxygen, one h'undred and seventy- 
 one pounds hydrogen, and thirty -two pounds nitrogen ; an acre 
 of ^clover, well set and plowed under in blossom, yields 
 one thousand seven, hundred and fifty pounds carbon, one 
 thousand three hundred and ninety-six pounds oxygen, one 
 hundred and eighty-five pounds hydiogen, and seventy-eight 
 pounds of nitrogen. It will be seen by the above that there 
 can b9 no better preparation for the wheat crop than a clover 
 lay turned under. "Wheat will not perfect without nitrogen, 
 and one gallon of the urine of a cow, or one quart of the urine 
 ' of a horse, when they are fed on grain, contains nitrogen enough 
 for sixty pounds of wheat. One pint of human urine contains 
 the same amount. Eead Chapter III., and learn how to econo- 
 mise this product more precious than gold. Pulverized char- 
 coal will retain a large amount of urine, and is a most valuable 
 fertilizer for wheat, especially on a -worn soil. Other applica- 
 tions for renovating such lands are, first, ten cords well rotted 
 ptable manure, twenty bushels leached ashes, five bushels bone 
 
156 HOW TO MAKE THE PAEM PAT. 
 
 dust, one bushel plaster, and one bushel of salt per acre. 
 Second, five two-horse loads of wood mould or swamp muck, 
 two hundred pounds superphosphate; one hundred pounds 
 Peruvian guano, one peck plaster, and one bushel salt per acre. 
 Third, three hundred pounds superphosphate, twenty bushels 
 leached ashes, one peck plaster and one bushel salt per acre. 
 Salt in some form we believe to be necessary on all wheat lands 
 for permanent, cultivation; refuse salt can be obtained from 
 fish, beef, and pork dealers, at a nominal price. A correspond- 
 ent of the American Farmer writes that "he mixes five 
 bushels of salt with ten of air-slacked lime, lets it stand three 
 months, turns it three times during that period, and sows three 
 bushels of the mixture per acre before the last harrowing." 
 This is an excellent method of using it. 
 
 John Johnston, the veteran farmer of Geneva, New York, 
 says that he has sowed five bushels of salt per acre, and believes 
 that for every bushel of salt, he got an extra bushel of whpat, 
 besides hastening the ripening several days, by which means 
 his crop escaped the ravages of the midge. Let every wheat- 
 grower test the value of salt on his own lands, by using it on 
 one portion of his field, and carefully noting the results. Clover, 
 as we have before stated, is the most efficacious of all green 
 crops to plow under for wheat. It is also economical. Calculate, 
 the cost. One peck seed, $2.50 ; one hundred pounds plaster, 
 70 cents ; labor, hauling, sowing, etc., $1.00 ; or $4.20 per 
 acre. But, after all, we must still depend largely on rich 
 barnyard manure, and fatten the land through' a regular 
 rotation of crops ; especially with a view to the wheat crop. 
 
 Says S. Edwards Todd, agricultural editor of the New 
 York Times, for many years a careful wheat culturist, and 
 always a close observer : " After a wet soil has been thoroughly 
 underdrained, so that there are no apprehensions that the young 
 
GRAINS. 157 
 
 plants will be lifted out of the grouud by freezing and thawing ; 
 after the surface soil has been renovated with clover and kept 
 in an excellent state of fertility, by a judicious system of rota- 
 tion of crops for several successive seasons ; after the ground has 
 been plowed, replowed, and plowed again, and again, and again, 
 and then harrowed, scarified, teased with the cultivator, and 
 fretted with the roller, and vexed with the clod crusher ; and 
 after every noxious weed has been exterminated, root and 
 branch, and their leaves, stems, and radicles have been changed 
 into a fertile mould, the hopes of the ambitious husbandman 
 will not be realized in beholding a bountiful crop of the full 
 wheat in the ear, unless he has fattened the soil. In this lies the 
 grand secret of raising wheat. Yet very few, even of our best 
 farmers, understand that this is the chief requirement of the 
 soil, after every thing else, to appearance, has been done which 
 is really essential." 
 
 How to fatten the soil, then, is a question of greatest import- 
 ance. It is by the application of wheat-producing material to 
 the soil in the previous rotation of crops. The base of clay 
 soils is alumina, the great requisite for large heads and ful 
 kernels of wheat. The phosphatic materials contained in lime, 
 plaster, gypsum, bones, ashes, etc., are essential to the produc- 
 tion of the milk of which the kernel is formed'. Silicia must 
 also be present to assist in making a healthy, bright, stiff straw, 
 that will maintain an erect position until the grain is harvested. 
 And all these elements must be in such a state that the roots 
 can appropriate Ihem at once. The food must be prepared for 
 them. This can only be accomplished by applying them to 
 previous crops ; and no crop so well prepares food for wheat as 
 clover. Clover, then, either plowed under or fed to fattening 
 stock, and the manure returned to the soil, is a prerequisite of 
 successful wheat culture. Lime or plaster should be sown with 
 
158 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 * 
 
 the clover, and after it is well started in tlie spring, it may be 
 pastured ; this is much better than the old system of sdmmek 
 FALLOWS. That was an exhausting system ; the naked land was 
 baked and burned under the direct rays of the summer sun. 
 The clover fallow does not take as much from the soil as it 
 returns when plowed under or plastered. The clover draws 
 many valuable elements from the atmosphere, which it yields 
 lip to the soil ; it shades, protects, and mulches the ground, and 
 improves its condition. (See CAop^erlll.) But even this rotation 
 of clover and plaster is not enough to maintain the fertility of 
 the soil and produce renumerative crops of wheat. The further 
 fattening of the soil is accomplished by keeping stock. Sheep 
 are the best stock for this purpose, if the best breeds are se- 
 lected. (See Sheep.) Sheep require more care in summer than 
 neat cattle, but in winter they can be housed, and fed with 
 much less expense ; they do not require their grain to be ground, 
 as that for cattle always should be, and they will bring quicker 
 returns in wool and mutton, than any other kind of stock, and 
 will add as much valuable manure to the compost as any kind 
 of stock. But whatever kind of stock is kept, whether horses, 
 cattle, sheep, or hogs, they should be kept fat, should be fed 
 with grain or oil cake, and never be allowed to grow poor. 
 Give them all they can eat, and a little to spare, for the manure 
 from one fat animal is worth certainly twice as much as the 
 manure from a lean one. For this purpose we recommend the 
 raising of a wide breadth of root crops, their careful preserva- 
 tion and liberal feeding. (See Boots) Keep not one more 
 animal than you can keep fat; carefully preserve all their ma- 
 nure, both solid and liquid, apply.it to the rotation preceding 
 your wheat, let a clover fallow bring it into condition for wheat 
 ■food, and you have the basis of successful wheat culture. 
 
 Prepaeinq the Soil. We have elsewhere {Cha;pter II.) given 
 
GRAINS. 159 
 
 our views, in regard to the benefits of deep cultivation, and the 
 crop under consideration is no exception. Although at the 
 time of putting in the seed, the plowing should be shallow, the 
 land should have been previously subsoiled. Cultivate the sod 
 to the depth of from sixteen to twenty inches, for the crops 
 preceding wheat, whether they be corn, roots, or clover, not by 
 turning ten inches of the subsoil to the surface, but mellowing 
 it by means of the subsoil plow, and bringing only an inch or 
 two at a time to the surface. All your crops will be better, for 
 this mellowing of the subsoil ; each will return you a large pro- 
 portion of the expense, and you can expect nothing but failure 
 of your wheat crop without it. " If it is thus subsoiled for the 
 crops that intervene between the wheat crops, it will be in just 
 the condition required by this most fastidious plant. But when 
 it comes to preparing directly for seeding the wheat, plow 
 shallow. If you plow deep now, the wheat will at once take 
 deep root, and by the lifting of the frosts, the roots will be 
 broken off. Plow shallow, or even harrow the surface 
 thoroughly, and the roots will spread out horizontally, and mat 
 together, and though raised by the frost, will settle back into 
 their proper place again, when the frost is gone. 'Skinner's 
 Gang Plow, and Ides' Wheel Cultivator, are preferable to the 
 ordinary plow, in preparing the soil for wheat. For similar 
 reasons, the manure, applied directly to the wheat crop, should 
 be merely covered two inches below the surface, or harrowed 
 in. For this purpose, only thoroughly decomposed manures 
 should be applied at the time of seeding. This manure, being 
 immediately available and near the surface, will promote the 
 growth of the roots in the manner desired. We have sug- 
 gested that the seed bed should be shallow; it should also .be 
 mellow. The harrow and the clod crusher should be used, until 
 
160 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT> 
 
 the whole surface is as fine as the garden bed, if you would get 
 the largest crops. 
 
 Sowing the Seed. Early and late solving. If there were no 
 Hessian fly in the land, the last of August would undoubtedly 
 be the best time to sow wheat in the Northern States, but early 
 sown wheat is liable to be destroyed by this pest. We think, 
 then, that in the northernmost tier of wheat-growing States, 
 sowing should rather be delayed, until the last week of Septem- 
 ber, unless there occurs a sharp frost previous to that time. 
 Let the intervening time be spent in thoroughly preparing the 
 soil, so that the seed, when sown, may find no difficulties- in the 
 way of an immediate and thrifty growth. If you must sow in 
 soil not fattened, and enriched, and deeply mellowed, you must 
 plant early, so that the grain will get a fair growth before the 
 winter sets in. The depth to covee seeds, must be deter- 
 mined by all the circumstances of the case. If there were no 
 frosts, undoubtedly six inches would be as good depth as any to 
 cover wheat, but when we take into consideration the cer- 
 tainty of frosts, and the injury they do by breaking ofi" the 
 roots of the plants, we conclude that shallow planting is more 
 desirable.' Two inches in an ordinary wheat soil is sufficient ; 
 of course a very light sandy soil requires greater depth. The 
 AMOUNT OF SEED TO THE ACRE, depends upon the quality ahd 
 condition of the soil. In a poor and imperfectly prepared soil, 
 a large proportion of the seed does not germinate, and what 
 does get a start, tillers but little, and two and a half or three 
 bushels of seed per acre, is often required to produce a crop of 
 from eight to fifteen bushels per acre. This is poor farming, 
 because it keeps both the land and the owner poor. A much 
 better system is that which so fattens and prepares the land, 
 that from one to one and a half bushels of seed will suffice for 
 <i crop of from twenty-five to forty-five bushels. One bushel 
 
GRAINS. 161 
 
 of wheat, selected as described on page 168, and well drilled in, 
 is sufficient for soil in the very best condition. But we think it 
 safer to add one peck to this quantity ; and, when sowed, one 
 and a half to two bushels will be required. 
 
 Drilling in Wheat has many advantages over sowing 
 broadcast. Less seed is required, as it is all put in and covered 
 at a uniform depth. Less time and labor are req aired, as the 
 whole is completed at one operation, while, when sowed broad- 
 cast, it must be harrowed twice. Drilled wheat comes up much 
 more uniformly, the stalks are more nearly uniform in height, 
 and the heads are consequently more uniform. Another advan- 
 tage of the drill is, that an acre or two may be plowed, har- 
 rowed, and the seed drilled in, all in one day, while the soil is 
 in the best condition for it. The Star Drill and Cultivator, de- 
 scribed in Chapter IV., is well worthy the attention of grain 
 growers. "We hope the drill will ere long supplant hand sow- 
 ing, as the reaper and mower are supplanting the cradle and 
 the scythe ; but meantime we must give directions for sowing and 
 covering wheat. In hand-sowing, always cast the grain all one 
 way, and that away from the margin of the field ; calculate the 
 width of one throw, and make it as even as possible ; let the 
 seed slip off the fingers, never through them. There are seve- 
 ral hand- sowing machines, which will do the work a little better 
 than it can be done by hand. It is very difficult to harrow in 
 grain evenly. The feet of the teams will tread much uf it in 
 too deep, and much will be left on the surface uncoverea. We 
 believe the Eotary Harrow, manufactured by the American 
 Agricultural Works, is the best for this purpose, although not 
 equal to some other harrows for ordinary farm operations. 
 Mulching winter wheat, when it gets but a feeble start in the 
 fall, will sometimes save it from being winter-killed. If the 
 
162 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 first heavy fall of snow is rolled, it will liave a good effect. 
 Never pasture grain in the fall, however well it may be started. 
 
 Hareowing "Wheat in the spring may be very beneficial 
 if the wheat has been drilled in two inches deep. Instead of 
 the ordinary coarse harrow, use a harrow with a large number 
 of fine teeth ; the crust is then thoroughly broken up, and a 
 mellqw soil prepared for the secondary roots, which make their 
 appearance as soon as growth commences. Where the seed has 
 been sowed broadcast, and harrowed in, a large proportion of it 
 will be covered very shallow, and will be torn up in the process 
 of harrowing. Spring harrowing offers opportunity also for 
 seeding to grass where this is desired. Aside from this very 
 early harrowing, no attempt should he made to hoe or cultivate 
 the wheat crop. If the soil is drained, mellowed, and thorough- 
 ly prepared as directed in these pages, it will not cake and harden 
 so as to need ' the cultivator. If drilled in, the rows offer an 
 opportunity to pass through the crop and pull the weeds ■ and 
 grass by hand, but they should not be hoed up, as the roots of 
 the wheat will be injured by the hoe. Pull up every plant that 
 appears among your wheat, and lay them in the rows for a 
 mulch. The wheat is particularly sensitive in regard to weeds. 
 Chess and quack grass are its inveterate enemies, and should 
 be destroyed without mercy. 
 
 The Time to Haevest Wheat is just after the kernels have 
 passed from a m"ilky to a doughy state, which is' about two 
 weeks before it is fully ripe. There are various signs by which 
 this is determined. One is by opening various kernels from 
 different heads, and if the interior is thick or doughy, it is time 
 to cut it. On the contrary, if it is still thin or milky, it will 
 shrink after being cut, and will not give as much or as good 
 flour. 
 
 Another sign of the proper state for harvesting is when the 
 
GRAINS. 163 
 
 straw turns yellow, either from the head downwards, or from the 
 root upwards, say about two joints. If the straw between the 
 two lower or upper joints has turned yellow on a majority of 
 the stalks all over the field, cut at once. "When the grain has 
 been drilled in, this ripening will be very uniform. If the grain 
 is allowed to stand after this period, it will lose a proportion of 
 gluten, which goes to the shell ; and will be more dif&cult to 
 handle without shaking out a large proportion of the. grain ; 
 and the straw will lose much of its nutritious qualities. The 
 straw would be better for fodder if cut a week or two earlier ; 
 it is therefore important that the harvesting be not delayed a 
 day after the proper period has arrived : have every thing in 
 readiness to, harvest the grain immediately. This can be done 
 with modern improvements at the rate of ten to fifteen acres 
 per day, with a single pair of horses, and a self-raking reaper. 
 By a^l means have a machine that will harvest all kinds of 
 grass and grain. (See in Ghajpter IV., description and directions 
 in regard to mowers and reapers.) If you only raise a small 
 amount of grain or grass, secure an interest in some neighbor's 
 machine ; but if you cut ten acres, of either grass or grain, buy 
 a machine. 
 
 A southern farmer, who raised seven hundred acres of wheat, 
 had it cradled by hand, commencing about ten days too soon, 
 and finishing ten days too late. That first cut, shrank ; and that 
 last cut, shelled badly, and gave a large proportion of bran. 
 His loss on the crop was not far from twelve hundred dollars. 
 A great deal of grain will still be cradled. The cradle scythe 
 is better less than four feet in length than over ; the fingers 
 should be a little shorter than the scythe. Do not grind the 
 scythe too thin. Many scythes are spoiled by too much grind- 
 ing. Stack the grain as fast as it is cut ; do not let it lie in the 
 swath. Whether cut by a self-raking reaper, and left in gavels, 
 
164 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 or raked by hand, it should be bound as soon as possible, and 
 stacked. The size of the gavels is an important consideration ; 
 they should be as large as can be conveniently bound, and of 
 uniform size. If one thousand sheaves are made where only 
 seven hundred and fifty were needed, just the time used to bind 
 two hundred and fifty sheaves is lost. In raking gavels, great 
 care should be taken that the butts be kept even, else it will 
 not stack properly. , A great convenience to the grain raiser is 
 a ,band maker. We give a description, and as it is not patent 
 any blacksmith can make one. Take a piece of half-inch 
 round iron twenty inches in length ; make three inches at one 
 end into a hook, and nine inches at the other into a crank. 
 Before bending the hook, run the iron lengthwise through a 
 six-inch stick of hickory, or other hard wood, for a handle. 
 
 The bands are made as follows. "Wet a quantity of straw, 
 fasten some of it to the hook and walk backward, turning the 
 crank. A person should sit on the floor, and let out the straw 
 as it is wanted. Several hundred feet of good bands can be 
 made in an hour in this way. 
 
 Shocking Wheat is one of the most important operations 
 of the harvest. The main cause of so much poor flour is bad 
 shocking and stacking. Wheat can be shocked in such a 
 manner as to receive no injury from ordinary rains, but it is 
 seldom done. 
 
 The loss- to the wheat crop from faulty shocking, can be 
 reckoned only by millions. In forming a shook, either set one 
 sheaf in the centre, and lean others against it, or set two sheaves 
 leaning against each other. Upon these centre sheaves depends 
 the stability of the shock, and great care should be taken that 
 they securely brace each other. 
 
 And here we would stop to recommend, in the strongest lan- 
 guage we are capable of using, the employment, by every grass 
 
GBAINS. 1«5 
 
 or grain grower, of hay and grain caps. Says S. E. Todd : "As 
 there is so much uncertainty about having fair weather during 
 the days of harvest, they seem to be an almost indispensable 
 requisite to successful agriculture. Indeed, I think that grain 
 caps are far more important than a mowing machine or a 
 reaper. If I could have but one of the two, I should consider 
 it more economical to purchase one hundred dollars' worth of 
 hay caps, than a mower or reaper. Few farmers really under- 
 stand and appreciate the eminent advantage of such appendages. 
 I think that if a farmer who has been accustomed to secure his 
 crops without grain caps, will employ them during a wet season, 
 he would be ever after unwilling to dispense with their use. 
 In localities where long and heavy storms of rain are apt to 
 prevail during the haying and harvesting season, every farmer 
 ought to prepare a good supply of hay caps, not only for pro- 
 tecting his hay while it is in cock, but for protecting his cereal 
 grain and Indian corn-stalks, when they are in the shock. 
 Such caps will often pay for themselves in a single season in 
 protecting hay only, but after the hay has been gathered, they 
 will be found quite as serviceable for protecting barley, wheat, 
 and oats." 
 
 These caps should be made of common ticking or sheeting, 
 six feet square, with the rough edges hemmed. Turn up the 
 corners about three inches and sew them down tightly, work 
 holes in each corner for wooden pins to go through ; these pins 
 may be made of any hard wood, and should be twelve to 
 eighteen inches long, with a knob at one end, and sharp-pointed 
 at the dther. They should be dipped in boiled oil to render 
 them impervious to water. The writer just quoted says: 
 " Make a paint of three parts of coal tar and one part of ben- 
 zine, and apply to the cloth in hot weather, and you will have 
 caps that will last as long as any one man will need them." 
 
166 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 Wheat, if properly stacked, can be kept nearly as well out 
 of doors as in ; but not in the way it is usually done. Says 
 Mr. Todd : "A farmer should never attempt to stack his own 
 grain until he is sure he knows how, and he can never be sure 
 of that until he has a vivid recollection of the time when he 
 did not know how. In Great Britain it has long been the cus- 
 tom to secure grain in stacks, and they have brought the art to 
 a great deal of perfection, and every farmer who has not learned 
 the art himself, should secure the services of some English, 
 Welsh, or Scotch farmer to do that job for him, until he has 
 thoroughly acquired the art himself." 
 
 Spring Wheat. There are some special directions necessary 
 in regard to spring wheat, or wheat sown in the spring, instead 
 of the fall, for this is the only difference between the two. 
 Some varieties are better adapted to spring sowing ; but winter 
 wheat can be made spring wheat and vice versa. After the 
 crops are off in the fall, the ground can be thoroughly mellowed, 
 the frosts will still more completely pulverize it > and, in the 
 spring, this winter fallowed ground will be in splendid condition 
 for the seed. If you sow wheat in the spring, prepare the soil 
 in the previous autumU) and then you will be able to take ad- 
 vantage of the first opportunity. Light soils are better adapted 
 to spring wheat than heavy soils, yet very light soils should not 
 be winter fallowed. 
 
 Sow spring wheat as early as the ground will admit. If you 
 defer plowing until spring, your seeding will be too late, 
 especially if the spring is wet. Sow your wheat in the mud if 
 your soil was thoroughly prepared in the autumn ; but do not 
 sow until the hard frosts are passed. With a hardy variety of 
 spring wheat, retaining the character of the winter wheat from 
 which it sprung, it may be sown as soon as it can be got two 
 inches into the ground ; but such are not most of our spring 
 
GRAINS. lt)7 
 
 wheats. Spring wheat can he raised wherever tuinter wheat can, 
 and there are many advantages in raising spring wheat. Let 
 every farmer pepare his land as we have directed, and sow one 
 crop of spring wheat, and few, we think, will ever choose to 
 depend again entirely on winter wheat. 
 
 The selection of "Wheat -for Seed, is a matter in which 
 most cultivators are culpably ignorant or v;areless. The points 
 to be aimed at in the first selection of a variety for cultivation, 
 are, abundant yield ; early ripening; (a few days makes a vast 
 difference, m this respect;) hardiness in winter; regularity of 
 growth ; a close chaff, rendering it proof against the midge ; a 
 thin skin, and stiffness of straw, without which the grain lodges, 
 and the kernels never fill fall and plump. If the land is fattened, 
 prepared, and kept in the best state of cultivation, the SouLES, 
 DiEHL, and BotrGHTON, or Oregon wheat, are probably the best 
 of the white wheats. The Soules is productive, hardy, regular, 
 with close chaff, thin skin and stiff straw, but is not quite 
 early enough for the slipshod farmer. The Diehl is earlier 
 and perhaps the very best of all the white wheats, for a rich 
 soil. The Pedigree Wheat is a good wheat with a bad 
 defect, a loose chaff that permits it to shell out badly in har- 
 vesting. 
 
 The "Weeks Wheat is a much esteemed variety in some 
 sections, and worthy of general cultivation. The White 
 Mediterranean is the standard variety for farmers who are not 
 willing to give their fields the best cultivation. It is early, 
 hardy, with a close chaff, but is not as productive, nor of as 
 good quality as the other wheats named, nor is the straw as 
 stiff. It will bear slack cultivation better than any of the other 
 varieties. We still lack a wheat which shall be as early 
 and as hardy as the Mediterranean, and at the same time 
 as productive and as fine as the others named. The Eb'd 
 
168 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 Wheats bring a less price than the white, but are still much 
 cultivated. 
 
 Eed Blue Stem "Wheat. We give this the preference 
 among the red wheats. It is a little later than the Mediter- 
 ranean, but hardy, regular, with close chaff, gives as good 
 quality of flour as any other of the red wheats, and is very pro- 
 ductive under good cultivation. 
 
 The Eed Andeiola is objectionable, on account of its long, 
 rough arms. 
 
 The GoLDEK Steaw is an amber wheat, that promises well 
 under the best cultivation ; it is said to succeed best on a rich, 
 sandy loam, which we are inclined to doubt ; if so, it will be a 
 very convenient variety, as it will be profitable where other 
 wheats will not. 
 
 The Eed Chaff Ambee, and the Wittee, are good varieties 
 for the best cultivation; but, as with the white wheats, the 
 Mediteeeanean red wheat is the surest of moderate success 
 under moderate cultivation. For spring wheats, the Black. 
 Sea, when pure, the Caitada Club, the Eio G-eakde, the 
 Fife, and the China Tea Wheat, all .have good qualities to 
 recommend them. There are many other excellent varieties of 
 wheat, and each farmer must decide for himself, by experiments 
 on his own soil, which is the best for him to cultivate. We do 
 not believe in universal varieties of any plant. What is best 
 adapted for one section may not, and probably is not, equally 
 valuable in another. But when a variety has been selected it 
 should be kept pure, the seed carefully selected from year to 
 year, and the quality kept up, and if possible improved by the 
 best cultivation, or it will soon degenerate. The great inexcusa- 
 ble sin of American wheat growers has been, and is, their care 
 lessness in this respect. The Selection of Seed for wheat is 
 as important as the selection of stock for breeding. Seed wheat 
 
GRAINS. 169 
 
 stould be grown separately, harvested separately, threshed 
 separately, cleaned separately, and kept separately, for this spe- 
 cial purpose. 
 
 The crop of wheat in this country can be increased fifty, and 
 we honestly believe one hundred per cent., by attention* to this 
 matter. If you sow ten acres of wheat, select one acre of the 
 best of the land, give it special attention, sow ashes and plaster 
 more freely on it, add a few extra loads of rich compost, give it 
 extra cultivation, go through it often while growing, and puU 
 all weeds, grass, etc. It should be allowed to ripen a little 
 longer than the main crop, (it will naturally mature a few days 
 earlier,) and be carefully harvested to prevent shelling. It should 
 not be threshed in a machine, (as this often breaks the skin and 
 destroys the germ,) but very moderately with the flail. You 
 only want the plumpest, fullest, kernels. Every farmer should 
 have a fanning mill that will separate the large from the small 
 grain. {Mg. 64.) 
 
 The cut represents a fanning mill which will not only do 
 this, but will separate barley, chess, grass seed, etc. For cleaning 
 grass seed nothing equals it. Clover and timothy are sepa- 
 rated as if by magic, and the seeds of weeds are separated from 
 the whole. It separates grain into three grades, according to the 
 size and weight of the kernel, and the best bushel in ten, 
 twenty, or fifty, is easily secured for seed. 
 
 But until you get this or some other separator you can still 
 further improve your seed by the following process. Clean 
 your barn floor, open the doors at both ends, when there is a 
 good current of air, throw the grain towards the wind, and at 
 the further end of your floor you will have the largest and 
 heaviest kernels. Sowing without selecting the seed is such a 
 shiftless piece of business that we should think any farmer 
 would be ashamed to confess it. Two kinds of wheat should 
 
170 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 never be sown in the same field, or so near as to hybridize or 
 mix. Keep your variety pure, save the best seed -with care, 
 and cultivate well, and your wheat crop will increase both in 
 quantity and quality. 
 
 Smut is a great enemy of the wheat crop, and the only help 
 for it is brining the seed. The most convenient method is the 
 following. Gut a cider barrel or oil tierce in two, in the middle, 
 or use two large wash tubs; make a strong brine, strong 
 enough to bear an egg, and if used hot all the better ; put the 
 brine into one of the tubs and turn the wheat into it ; stir it 
 up two or three times and skim off the chess, chaff, and light 
 wheat which will come to the surface ; then shovel it out into 
 a basket, and let it drain over the other tub ; turn it on to the 
 floor and sift slackened liiAe into it slowly, stirring it in with a 
 rake until it will not stick together ; sow as soon as possible. 
 EusT is another foe the wheat grower is obliged to encounter ; 
 the remedy for this disease is to supply the soil at once with 
 ashes and sand, in addition to the careful selection and preser- 
 vation of seed as before described. If the farmer continues to 
 sow his seed without this care in raising and preserving it he 
 will continue to have smutty and rusty wheat. The only reme- 
 dies for the insect enemies, the midge, the fly, the worm, and the 
 chinch bug, are careful selection and thorough tillage. " Make 
 the wheat grow so luxuriantly that the little which the insects 
 consume will not be missed," nor the growth checked. 
 
 Eye. Much that has' been said in regard to wheat is applica- 
 ble to this crop as well. Eye will grow on poorer soils and 
 with less cultivation than wheat ; it will flourish on quite sandy 
 soils, and on soils nearly destitute of clay, if given a moderate 
 dressing of compost, guano, or plaster. Still we affirm that the 
 more liberally it is supplied with fertilizers the more profitable 
 will be the crop. 
 
GRAINS. 171 
 
 All that we liave said in regard to the preparation of the soil, 
 careful selection of seed, drilling in the seed, and harvesting the 
 crop, in the preceding pages, is applicable equally to rye as to 
 "wheat. 
 
 Eich barnyard manure, composted as described in Chapter III., 
 and applied at the rate of ten cords to the acre, will prove 
 abundantly remunerative. Farmer Slack, who allows the most 
 valuable part of his manure to go to waste, has little or none 
 left to apply to his rye, and has poor crops. 
 
 "When rye straw is as valuable as at present, a heavy crop of 
 rye is an object worth trying for. Subsoil, harrow and cross 
 harrow, manure as directed, not forgetting the salt, lime, or 
 bones, and sow early, the last of August or first of September. 
 We have known over eighty bushels of grain, and over nine 
 thousand pounds of straw, secured from two acres by the above 
 method of cultivation. If the seed is carefully selected the 
 grains will be larger than the average and not as many, of 
 course, to the bushel ; we therefore advise sowing from one and 
 a half to two bushels of selected seed, or drilling one to one and 
 a half bushels. Every sheep raiser would do well to sow a 
 patch of rye for late pasturage, as it brings the stock to the 
 winter in the best condition, and will also afford early pasture 
 in the spring. ' ' 
 
 Barley is usually and best grown, between a root or corn 
 crop that has been heavily manured and well cultivated, and a 
 wheat crop. No barnyard manure should be applied directly 
 to the barley, but liberally to the crop that precedes it. When 
 the crop of corn or roots is ofiE", plow the land. There will not 
 .be time in the spring, as the crop must go in as soon as the dan- 
 ger of severe frosts is over. If drilled in, use two bushels of 
 seed ; if -sowed broadcast, two and a half bushels. When the 
 head assumes a reddish cast and lops down, is the time to cut 
 
172 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 it, and it should be done at once, as botli straw and grain lose 
 by every day's delay. It can be mown, cradled, or cut with a 
 reaper. When the straw is short, it can be raked and housed 
 without binding. Barley is excellent food for stock, but it is 
 mostly used for making beer. Some is exported for that pur- 
 pose. The straw is worth more for fodder than wheat straw. 
 
 Buckwheat will grow upon a very poor soil, with very poor 
 cultivation, but should have a little more manure and a little 
 more cultivation than it usually gets. It makes an excellent 
 green fodder for milch cows ; for which purpose, three pecks 
 should be sown in June, which will be fit for cutting in August. 
 If plowed under green, it makes an excellent fertilizer for 
 wheat. It can be sown as late as August 15th, and if it does 
 not ripen before frost, can be turned under, so that nothing is 
 lost. In sowing for a grain crop, two pecks is an average 
 quantity of seed. The straw, if not touched by the frost, is 
 good fodder, and the grain is very nutritious. We could never 
 do without our " huclcwheat cakes." The grain should be stacked 
 as soon as harvested, as it will cure better than in the swath. 
 
 Oats, being the best known feed for the horse, form a very 
 important crop, and we are quite sure they can be made a ,very 
 profitable crop in all our thickly settled districts. We allow 
 that twenty-five bushels per acre, -vfeighing twenty-five pounds 
 to the bushel, may not be very profitable — ^but thirty-five bush- 
 els, weighing thirty-five pounds to the bushel, on the same land, 
 with only one extra plowing (subsoil) and one extra harrowing, 
 is profitable. The first great necessity of this crop is the 
 selection of a new variety for seed. The common oat may be 
 improved, but there are already in the market several most 
 excellent varieties, which it will pay for the farmer to procure, 
 provided he will thereafter keep them pure. We recommend every 
 farmer to make a trial of some of these oats. We have no 
 
GRAINS. J 73 
 
 doubt that over one hundred bushels to the acre have been 
 raised of the " Suepeise Oats," the " Noewat Oats," and the 
 " New Beunwsiok Oats." Not having grown these oats our- 
 selves, we depend upon the following statements from the 
 American Stock Jbv/mal, to sustain our remarks: 
 
 " The Suepeise Oats. The producing classes are interested 
 in knowing more about these oats. The writer has a wholesome 
 distrust of new seeds, wonderful roots, and remarkable fruits. 
 He looks a man in the eye steadily a long time before he re- 
 ceives his statements of the wonderful character and newness 
 of any thing. And even then, like Thomas, he doubts. Ac- 
 cordingly, to satisfy himself concerning the statement made of 
 these oats, he has to-day visited Sandwick, talked with Mr. Yan 
 Olinda's neighbors, looked upon and walked over the fields 
 where the oats gr&w, examined the straw, explored the granary 
 where the oats are stored, seen and felt of them as they came 
 from the thresher, handled them as they came from the fanning 
 mill, thrust his hands into the bins from which the public are 
 supplied. And we are entirely satisfied, that if we can believe 
 our own senses, there is no -sort of humbug about them. They 
 are of wonderful size, weight, and beauty — will weigh nearly 
 or quite as much per bushel as barley." 
 
 " New Beitnswick Oats. Having purchased, in the spring 
 of 1866, two bushels of the above-named variety of oats, and 
 grown it with such astonishing success, for two successive sea- 
 sons, without the slightest deterioration, I will briefly state my 
 experience relative to its qualities. The two bushels above 
 mentioned were sown in drill, on three quarters of an acre, the 
 tenth day of April, 1866. The yield was forty-one bushels — 
 weighing forty pounds by measure — equal to seventy-three 
 bushels standard measure per acre. Last spring I drilled broad- 
 cast twelve acres, and harvested four hundred and eighty 
 
174 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT, 
 
 bushels, weighing forty-one pounds by measure — equal to six 
 hundred and fifty-six bushels standard weight. 
 
 " The average crop, this season, of our common degenerated . 
 variety, varies from twenty to thirty bushels per acre, weighing 
 twenty to twenty-eight pounds the bushel, quality very inferior. 
 
 " In addition to the vast superiority of the New Brunswick 
 oats, it ripens about one week earlier than our common varie- 
 ties, has heavy, stiff straw, which is not so liable to fall." 
 
 "Norway Oats. It has been grown in this country 'for the 
 past two years with great success, and promises to supersede all 
 the best varieties of oats heretofore grown. The grain is very 
 large and plump, handsome, and of a heautiful color, has a re- 
 markably thin hvsh, and is nearly double the weight of our com- 
 mon degenerate varieties of oats. 
 
 " This oats ripens earlier than the common varieties, and will 
 yield from fifty to one hundred per cent, more grain per acre, on 
 the same soil, and "with the same culture. 
 
 "The straw is a bright clear yellow, stout, and not liable to 
 lodge, and is perfectly clear of rust, and grows from four to five 
 feet high. 
 
 " This oats has been grown on evgry variety of soil, and in 
 every State of the Union, with the most perfect success." 
 
 It will be useless, however, to pay five dollars per bushel for 
 these oats for seed, unless you are determined to use some care 
 in preserving the seed ; for these, or any other seeds, will de- 
 generate under poor management. Oats can be grown two or 
 three seasons on the same land, by the following treatment. 
 After the crop is cut, harrow in the gleanings and scattered 
 seed; it will be a foot high before winter. Just before the 
 ground freezes, plow it under, running the subsoiler in each 
 furrow after the plow. Early in the spring, prepare the surface 
 with the harrow or cultivator, and drill in two bushels of seed, 
 
GEAINS. 175 
 
 or sovr three bushels. This should in no case be continued 
 more than three seasons, as it tends to degenerate both the soil 
 and the seed if continued longer. Sow grass seed, or clover, as 
 deaired, with the last crop. Oats Avill pay as well, for good 
 composted barnyard manure, as almost any crop. If ten cords 
 of compost, per acre, be applied in the rotation we recommend, 
 we believe an average of seventy -five bushels per acre of heavy 
 oats can be secured, besides a much larger crop of the best oat' 
 straw for fodder. The seed should be raised and saved, aiid 
 separated just as described, for growing and saving seed vvh'jat. 
 It will ]pay. 
 
 Indian Coen is the great staple crop of America, greater 
 than wheat, hay, or cotton, it is a prime necessity in our 
 agriculture. More bushels of corn are raised in the United 
 States, than of all other cereals together. It makes our beef, 
 pork, mutton, and poultry. It is a necessary accompaniment of 
 all good farming at the Bast ; in its culture is the progress and 
 wealth of the Northwest; it is at present the life of the South. 
 Cotton ig no longer king. Corn must occupy the attention of 
 southern farmers, if they would arise from their desolations. 
 They must adopt new methods of culture, and new implements, 
 and it will be our aim, in this chapter, to show how it can be 
 made to pay. 
 
 Peepaeation of the Soil. The necessary preparation for 
 wet lands will be found described in the first chapter of this 
 book. When corn ground is rather heavy, or when corn is to 
 be planted on sod ground, by far the best plan is to plow and 
 subsoil in the autumn. The frost pulverizes the soil, and it 
 will be ready for the seed several days earlier in the spring. If 
 barnyard manure or compost is to be used, spread it on after 
 plowing in the fall, or haul it on while the ground is frozen, 
 during the winter, unless the land is sloping, and liable to be 
 
176 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 washed in the spring, buU never apply undecayed barnyard 
 manure directly to the corn crop at the time of planting. If 
 your land was plowed and subsoiled t« a depth of eighteen 
 inches in the autumn, you can plow in the spring, as soon as 
 four to six inches of the surface soil is in condition, which will 
 often be two weeks earlier than it could be plowed, if it had 
 not been subsoiled in the autumn. Eeduce the surface soil to 
 the finest tilth by means of the plow, cultivator, roller, clod 
 crusher, and harrow. This will save much after cultivation. 
 Each harrowing now is better then once hoeing during the 
 growing season. Farmers of the South, it is in your power, by 
 this deep and thorough cultivation, even without the aid of 
 expensive fertilizers, to raise four bushels of corn on ground 
 where only one could be raised by the old shovel plow system. 
 It will pay. If need be, cultivate fifty acres instead of one 
 hundred, and cultivate it thoroughly. You will soon be able 
 to purchase a few fertilizers. In the mean time fatten a little 
 stock, a few hogs, a few sheep, or other stock. Keep them fat 
 the year round, and carefully saving the manure, put it back 
 on your corn land. 
 
 Manures foe Coen. On the new soil of the prairies, a few 
 crops of corn may well be grown without any application of 
 manures ; they are already in the soil ; the decaying vegetation 
 of centuries ; the ashes of a thousand prairie fires have put them 
 there. But some of the elements of the corn crop' will ere long 
 be exhausted. In the East any attempt to raise corn, without 
 manures of some kind, is sheer folly. And in the South, the 
 use of some of the modern fertilizers will in time so increase 
 the productiveness of the soil, that the corn crop will exceed in 
 value that of both corn and cotton previous to 1862. Lime, in 
 some form, is one of the elements that is to accomplish this re- 
 sult. Apply fifty bushels of lime per, acre, to as many acres 
 
GRAINS. 177 
 
 as possible this year, and you will find it returning to you in 
 the harvest time. Apply five to ten bushels of salt per acre, to 
 all corn land. Next year, or this if you can get it, apply two 
 hundred or three hundred pounds per acre, of Peruvian guano, 
 in the hill. Or sow two hundred pounds guano broadcast, and 
 put one hundred pounds plaster in the hills. Or, if you keep 
 poultry, sow three" hundred pounds superphosphate of lime, and 
 apply a handful of poultry droppings to each hill. We have 
 reliable reports of one hundred and sixteen bushels per acre, 
 and of two hundred bushels upon one acre, in South Carolina, 
 by underdraining, subsoiling, and the application of two hun- 
 dred pounds of guano and three huna/ed pounds of plaster to the 
 acre. We have also reports, from nine farmers in Kentucky, 
 of from ninety to one hundred and eighty-nine bushels per 
 acre, by the same process. Geo. C. Gilmer, of Charlottesville, 
 Virginia, raised last year, on twenty-five acres, two hundred 
 and fifty barrels of corn, by means of this thorough cultivation, 
 and one ton superphosphate of lime, one ton old dominion 
 fertilizer, and one ton of plaster mixed. This is at the rate of 
 about two hundred and fifty pounds per acre, of the mixture. 
 Fifty acres of the same farm, cultivated shallow, and without 
 fertilizers, produced one hundred barrels. The above remarks 
 apply equally to eastern and western farmers, save that the 
 former must depend mainly upon the manure of grain-fattened 
 stock ; use more ashes, bones, etc. The droppings of poultry, 
 composted with peat or charcoal, can hardly be esteemed too 
 highly, as a dressing for the hill at planting time. The pou • 
 drette described on page 52, is still richer for the same 
 purpose. 
 
 The following experiment shows the economy of liberal. cul- 
 ture. 
 
 A twenty-acre corn plot was divided into two plots, which 
 
178 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 we call A and B. Both received tliorough culture, including 
 subsoiling. A received two tons unleached ashes, half a ton of 
 plaster, and two and a half tons of Peruvian guano. B received 
 no manure. Plot A yielded twelve hundred and fifty bushels. 
 Plot B, six hundred and sevent|r bushels. The following year 
 f.he application was reversed, A receiving no manure, and B 
 receiving the above-mentioned application. Plot A this year 
 yielded nine hundred and twenty bushels, and plot B, ten hun- 
 dred and seventy-six bushels. ' This showed, in two years, an 
 increase of twelve hundred and thirty-six bushels of corn, to 
 pay for the fertilizers, and leaving much of their value still in 
 the soil. 
 
 Soaking the Seed is practiced by a great many farmers, 
 and we think is, as a rule, beneficial. If tar is used it should 
 be tar water, very thin. We think a better mixture is one 
 pound of copperas and one pound of chloride of lime, dissolved 
 in a hogshead of soft water, or in that proportion. Put the seed 
 in over night and commence planting the next morning, taking 
 out the seed as fast as it is wanted, and roll it in lime, plaster, 
 bone dust, or ashes. This prevents the ravages of birds and 
 insects. 
 
 The Time to Plant Corw varies so widely in different parts 
 of the country, that no date can be set ; but as soon as the apple 
 trees are in blossom, it should be planted, if the soil is ready 
 for it. 
 
 How to Plant Corn. We say with a drill or corn planter, 
 by all means. A good corn planter opens the furrow, drops 
 the com, sows whatever fertilizer you wish to put in the hill, 
 covers and rolls it all at one operation, and the evenness and 
 regularity with which it is done is as great a recommendation 
 as the time and labor saved by it. The Star Drill, recommended 
 alsewhere, will not only sow all kinds of grain, corn, and grass 
 
GRAINS. 179 
 
 seed, but plows the ground and plants ttie seed at the same 
 time. Plant closely if your land is in good condition, three 
 feet apart is better than five. Three and a half to four feet is 
 the average distance at -which to plant. Where the seed is 
 dropped by hand, care should be taken that the kernels are 
 dropped near together. In drilling, with the rows forty-two 
 inches apart, and corn six inches apart in the rows, there will 
 be about six ttousand more stalks than by the ordinary hill 
 planting. Of course the land must be better fertilized, but the 
 increased yield, both of corn and fodder, will pay foi the 
 manure. 
 
 Cultivation after planting, is very much simplified by the 
 thorough preparation of the soil. In fact, as we have intimated, 
 an extra harrowing, before planting, is as good as one hoeing 
 after the corn is up. But if you have not mellowea your soil 
 as thoroughly as you wished, you can do so before the corn 
 gets started ; fasten a harrow behind your roller, and go over 
 the field with them. As soon as the rows show plainly, start 
 the cultivator, and keep it going until the corn gets two feet 
 high, when it is best to leave it alone, except to go through 
 and pull the weeds once more. But if you do not cultivate 
 thoroughly at first, you will be obliged to continue cultivation 
 until the ears set, when it must be left absolutely alone. At 
 the second cultivation, pull all but three stalks in a hill, and if 
 ashes or plaster was not put in at planting, give each hill a 
 handful now. Cultivate level. Do not hill up around the 
 stalks, but keep the ground level, and the whole surface mellow. 
 Hilled corn will not stand the drougth as well as if the surface 
 is level. 
 
 Foe Fodder. If corn is sown for fodder, it should be sown 
 
 only on well prepared and liberally manured land, and then 
 
 sewn so thickly that no ears will be likely to set. Some drill 
 12 
 
180 ' HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 in the seed with a wheat drill two and a half feet between the 
 rows. Others sow broadcast and cover with a cultivator. 
 We know of no choice in methods, but know that there can 
 be nothing better for summer fodder for milch cows, when the 
 grass is short and the pastures burned. One square rod per 
 day will feed a cow to the full. An acre will then feed four 
 cows one month. The feed should be cut only the day before it 
 is used, and wilted .slightly. If wanted for winter fodder, bind 
 in small bundles, and it will cure perfectly in stocks. Gut, and 
 steamed, and fed with ground grain through the winter, no 
 feed can excel it for milch cows. 
 
 Hakvesting. Never top corn, but let it stand until glazed, 
 and then cut up and shock. You will thus have both corn and 
 fodder. If cut before frost both corn and fodder are better. 
 In making shocks, either leave one hill uncut to form the 
 centre, or bind a stout bundle for the purpose. Several con- 
 trivances are in use, but a good, sharp, heavy corn cutter, in 
 the hands of a strong man, is the most common. We do not 
 see why some method may not be contrived of doing this work 
 by horse power. The man who contrives some simple and 
 economical method of doing this hard work, will be a public 
 benefactor. Where it is desirable to husk corn in the field, the 
 ears should never be thrown upon wet or frozen ground. 
 Where corn can be hauled under cover, it can be husked rainy 
 days or evenings. Many of us have pleasant reccollections of 
 husking parties, where all the neighbors were invited in, young 
 anfl old, and the barn floor was covered, and stories, cider, 
 apples, pumpkin pies, and good cheer generally, made the evening 
 hours fly swiftly, while huge piles of golden ears came out 
 from their husky coverings. We should like to see these old 
 social gatherings revived, for they tend to create kindly feeling 
 and make the farm more attractive to the young fo-lks. Corn 
 
GEAINS. Ibi 
 
 husks are in many localities well wortli careful saving, as they 
 bring a good price for making mattrasses. 
 
 Raising, Selecting, and Preserving Seed Corn. As with 
 the other grains, if we would raise the best corn, we must care- 
 fully attend to the seed. Select the best ear from all stalks 
 bearing two ears, and plant an acre by itself, giving it extra 
 cultivation and manure ; continue this process from year to year 
 and you will get two ears on nearly every stalk. We would 
 say here that two-eared crops require more manure, and if you 
 cannot give this, you had better continue to planjjthe one- eared 
 variety, selecting always the finest ears. These should be 
 secured before freezing, and hung up in a protected room where 
 they will not freeze. Three, four, and even six ears to the 
 stalk can be raised on the same principle as above described. 
 
 The King Philip, Button, Tusoarora, Baden, and Flint, are 
 the common varieties of the Bast ; the South and "West have 
 their own peculiar varieties, known as the southern and western 
 corn. Any of the common varieties can be improved by careful 
 cultivation and selection of seed. • 
 
 Broom Corn does not properly belong here, but will be 
 more likely to be seen in this connection. It requires the 
 best of soil and cultivation, and is not considered profitable 
 except on a large scale, and for a succession of years. It is 
 drilled in rows three feet apart, and from six to ten inches apart 
 in the rows, and from six to ten seeds in a place; cultivate until 
 it is five or six feet high throwing a little dirt to the rows every 
 time. The heads are bent down, and the brush cut before it is 
 fally ripe, and the crop cured- under cover. The seed is of 
 some value as fodder, and the stalks for litter, while the brush 
 brings from $200 to $300 per ton. One ton to three acres is a 
 fine crop. 
 
 Legal "Weight. The legal weight, per bushel, of the dif- 
 
182 
 
 HOW TO MAKE FARMING PAY. 
 
 ferent grains, varies very largely, sHelled corn ranging from 
 fifty -two to fifty-eight pounds ; corn in the ear, from seventy 
 to seventy-two ; rye, fifty -two to fifty-six ; barley, thirty -two to 
 fifty -two ; buckwheat, forty to fifty -two ; oats, thirty -two to 
 thirty-six. The legal weight of wheat is sixty pounds in all 
 the States. The following table, from the Agricultural Annual, 
 shows the number of seeds in a pound, of the different grains 
 and grasses. 
 
 Wheat 10,500 
 
 Barley « '.. 15,400 
 
 Oats 20,000 
 
 Eye 23,000 
 
 Beans 600 to 1,300 
 
 Peas 1,800 to 2,000 
 
 Flax 108,000 
 
 Turnip 155,000 
 
 Cabbage 128 000 
 
 Mangel Wurzel 24,600 
 
 Parsnip,.. 97,000 
 
 Carrot 257,000 
 
 Lucern 205,000 
 
 Red Clover 249,600 
 
 White Clover 686,400 
 
 Eye Grass 334,000 
 
 Sweet Vernal Grass .... 923,000 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 GRASSES. 
 
 HE Grass Crop is one of the three great crops of the 
 country ; and yet the means by which it' may bo im- 
 proved and increased, are very little known. Some 
 sort of grass will grow upon almost any soil ; but the 
 most nutritive grasses, and the largest crops, can only be pro- 
 duced upon good, well-cultivated lands. 
 
 This crop has two main purposes — hay and pasture. The 
 great •point is, to select such seeds, and sow them in such pro 
 portions, as will best answer the purpose for which they are 
 intended. "We will here speak of some of the more valuable 
 grasses, and their respective qualities. There are upwards of 
 three thousand species of grasses known to botanists ; but those 
 of agricultural value can be reduced within -thirty species. 
 
 ElOE Gbass, of value in the South only, grows in wet 
 ground, and can be cut several times during the season. 
 
 Meadow Foxtail — an early grass — productive, nutritious, 
 
 with a luxuriant aftermath, which springs up immediately after 
 
 cutting or cropping, and is a favorite with sheep and cattle. It 
 
 does not take fall possession of the soil for three or four years, 
 
 and is therefore not suited to a rotation. It loses seventy per 
 
 cent, of its weight in drying, and is injured by being cut in the 
 
 blossom, and is therefore not in the first class for a field crop ; 
 
 but, as a grass for permanent pastures, it is superior. It thrives 
 
 183 
 
184 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 on almost all soils except the dryest sands and gravels, though 
 best on rich, moist, strong soils. 
 
 Timothy, oe Heeds Geass, we consider, in the northern 
 half of this country, to be unsurpassed by any other grass as a 
 hay crop. It is later than clover, and therefore we think should 
 not be sown with it. It is very productive ; as high as ive and 
 a half tons of dry hay having been cut to the acre. It is very 
 nutritious, giving, by analysis, a larger proportion of nutriment 
 than any other grass. It gives but little aftermath ; and if 
 cropped closely, springs up slowly. It is therefore not suited 
 for pastures. It is inclined to run out in three or four years, 
 and cannot be relied upon for a permanent meadow. It thrives 
 best in moist, peaty, or loamy soils, and is not suited to light, 
 sandy, or gravelly soils. If cut in the blossom, or immediately 
 nfter, it is relished better by stock, although the yield is greater 
 in weight when the crop is ripe, owing to the seeds, of which it 
 yields from four hundred to twelve hundred pounds pe:> acre. 
 
 Ebd Top, Fine Top, Burdens Grass, Dew Grass, are com- 
 mon names for the Agrostis Vulgaris — called in England Fine 
 Bent, and in Pennsylvania and the Southern States, Herds 
 Grass — a second quality meadow grass, or permanent pasture 
 grass, suited to moist soils, though growing in all. Cattle do 
 not relish it when ripe. It should therefore be cropped closely 
 in the pasture, and cut in the blossom for hay. 
 
 White Top, or White Bent, is a variety of the same genus 
 as the Eed Top, and is especially adapted to overflowed mead- 
 ows. Blue Joint Grass is common to low grounds, is nu- 
 tritious, and relished by stock in winter. Orchard Grass, or 
 Cocksfoot, is one of the most valuable grasses. It is as early 
 as red clover, and is therefore the grass best adapted to sow 
 with it. It is productive, yielding from three to five tons per 
 acre. It is very nutritious, and very palatable to all kinds of 
 
GRASSES. 185 
 
 Stock. It gives a bite earlier tlian almost any other grass, is 
 permanent, will bear close and constant cropping, stands severe 
 drought, and, when cut, will in a week give a good bite to stock. 
 It is therefore admirable as a permanent past.ure grass. It blos- 
 soms with clover, gives a very large proportion of hay, grows 
 a speedy and luxuriant aftermath, and is well adapted for per- 
 manent meadow with clover. It is inclined to grow in tufts, to 
 prevent which it should be harrowed and rolled in the spring ; 
 and some other grasses should always be sown with it. 
 
 Meadow Spear Grass is recommended as a mixture with 
 other pasture grasses in moist pastures. 
 
 Kentucky Blue Grass — scientific name, Poa-pratensis ; com- 
 mon names, (jrben Meadow Grass, Jujste Grass, Common- 
 Spear Grass, etc. Early, productive, nutritious, and palatable. 
 This is one of our valuable pasture grasses, on soils containing 
 limestone. It endures the cold, but is liable to be parched in 
 droughts. It requires two or three years to arrive at perfection, 
 and is therefore adapted only for permanent growth. It makes 
 a very choice hay, but the crop is never large. It should be 
 cut just before the seeds ripen. It should not, be closely crop- 
 ped, as it starts slowly. Blue, or Wire Grass {Poa Gompressa) 
 is a more valuable variety of the same genus as the above, so 
 hardy as to flourish on sandy, hard, or rocky soils ; not very 
 productive, but yielding a very large per cent, of nutritive mat- 
 ter in proportion to its bulk. .It is greatly relished by all 
 grazing animals, and is especially valuable in producing an 
 abundant flow of milk. It should always form one in any mix- 
 ture of pasture grasses on dry rocky knolls. Annual Spear 
 Grass is a very common pasture grass, flowering through the 
 whole season, and furnishing an early bite, and continual feed, 
 except in very dry seasons, when it becomes parched. EouGH- 
 Stalk Meadow Grass. Productive, permanent, not as nutri- 
 
186 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 tive as some of the other grasses, but very much relished by 
 stock. Adapted only to moist soils, in connection with other 
 grasses. Wood Meadow Geass is a fine, succulent, n atritive 
 grass, losing only fifty-five per cent, in curing, and is 
 worthy of more general cultivation in connection with other 
 grasses. 
 
 Fowl Meadow Grass, {Poa Serolina,) one of the earliest 
 and best of the cultivated grasses. It is both productive and 
 nutritive, but its chief recommendation above other grasses is 
 that it may be cut at any time from July to October. It makes 
 a sweet and tender hay, the aftermath containing more nutri- 
 ment than orchard or oat grass. It should always be mixed 
 with other grasses in rich moist soils. MbadoAt Fescue is a 
 pasture grass natural to moist pastures, ripens its seeds early, 
 and scatters them itself. If ever sown it should be with several 
 other grasses. Italian Eye Grass gives an early and con- 
 stant growth of nutritive foliage, but not as good as many 
 other grasses. Tall or Meadow Oat Grass is well calcula- 
 ted for a permanent pasture grass, growing spontaneously on 
 deep sandy soils when once introduced, and also succeeding on 
 tenacious clover soils. 
 
 Sweet Scented Yernal Grass is not very valuable for 
 hay, giving but twenty per cent, of hay ; and its chief value as a 
 pasture grass is its early and constant growth, and its peculiar 
 pleasant flavor, which it imparts to the butter made from it. It 
 should be sown with a large mixture of other grasses. Blace 
 Grass is the best product of salt marshes ; Sea Spear Grass 
 or 'Goose Grass, being next in importance, the hay made from 
 the mixture of the two making a valuable fodder when fully 
 cured. Many barren tracts of salt marsh might be made to 
 yield valuable crops of the grasses, if properly ditched, while the 
 peaty matter taken o\at would repay a large portion of the ex- 
 
GEASSES. 187 
 
 pense. Eed Olovee. Although the clovers are not properly 
 grasses they are practically treated as such, and form the basis 
 of much of the best husbandry of the country. It is cultivated 
 for four distinct purposes; for hay, for pasture, for seed, and for 
 manure. When for hay, sow on "vinter wheat in the spring, 
 either on the snow, or, as soon as the snow is off, harrow the 
 surface and sow to the acre eight pounds clover seed, eight of 
 orchard grass, four of timothy and two of red top. 
 
 Clover is distinctly a lime plant, and the soils in which it 
 thrives the best, are stiff loams containing lime. Lime should 
 also be sown either with the seed or as soon as it is up. One 
 or two bushels of plaster or gypsum will be sujficient where 
 the soil already contaias considerable lime.. If the plaster is 
 not sown in the spring sow on the stubble as soon as the grain 
 is off. 
 
 Do not pasture the young clover in the fall; and the next 
 spring sow plaster again as before. Out when the heads begin 
 to ripen, and sow plaster again. If a crop for seed is desired 
 cut the first crop early, before a seed ripens, and sow no plaster 
 after the first cutting. The seed crop should stand until two 
 thirds of the heads are ripe. 
 
 Olover and timothy are often seeded with the wheat in ths 
 fall, but, as we have S'tated elsewhere, clover and timouhy are 
 not so well adapted for each other as clover and orchard grass, 
 and, as we shall attempt to show further on, no two grasses should 
 be sown by themselves. Olover is apt to be winter-killed unless 
 the land is top dressed, of which we shall speak in another 
 place. 
 
 OuTTiNG AND OuRiNG for hay si ould be ordinarily done just 
 as the earliest heads begin to ripen. Out no more than you can 
 cock at once. As soon as it is fairly wilted, cock it, and let it 
 cure in the cock. Handle as little as possible. Mow or stack 
 
188 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 it the day after it is cut 'unless it gets wet. If only a small 
 quantity is out it may often be housed the same day, but it is 
 better to put the whole crop of clover in at the same time, that 
 it may settle evenly. A peck of salt or lime to the ton is always 
 an improvement. Cover the top of the stack or mow with straw, 
 or, what is better, salt marsh hay. 
 
 In cutting for seed, the best plan we have ever tried is to cut 
 with the reaper, attaching a board at the back edge of the 
 grain platform. When the platform is full, pitch it off in 
 heaps. In cutting with the scythe lay two swaths together. 
 Secure as soon as dry, as a hard rain will wash out much of the 
 seed. The grain caps recommended in Chapter V., are often in- 
 valuable at this time. A crop of clover ought to average three 
 bnshels to the acre, and the straw and chaff are worth enough 
 to pay for harvesting. Another practice is to get the largest 
 possible crop at the first cutting for hay, and then when the new 
 growth gets well started, pasture it. We consider this advan- 
 tageous, as it saves hauling the clover and hauling back the 
 manure. 
 
 Clover as a Manure. Valuable as clover may be, both for 
 hay and pasture, we consider its greatest value to be as an im- 
 prover of the soil. We have spoken at length of this elsewhere, 
 and would only add that gypsum or plaster should always be 
 sown with the seed, or on the young clover, for whatever pur- 
 pose it may be intended. When the first crop has been cut for 
 hay, the second can be turned under when in blossom. The 
 next ye^r this crop will pasture a cow to the acre until August, 
 when, if plowed eight inches deep, the soil will be in admirable 
 condition for winter wheat. Clover must be seeded every two 
 years. If a permanent meadow or pasture is desired, enough 
 other grasses must be sown with it to take complete possession 
 of the soil at the end of two years. 
 
GRASSES. ISy 
 
 White Cloves is a pasture grass very much prized in 
 the best dairy regions, and should be sown in all mixtures for 
 permanent pastures. Nothing gives a better flow of milk than 
 the clovers. 
 
 Time to sow Grass Seed. We advise early spring as the 
 best time to sow clover and orchard grass, which should always 
 be sown together, either on the late snows or as soon as it can 
 be harrowed in. If timothy is to be grown with clover, (a 
 practice we cannot commend,) the timothy should be sown in 
 the faU, and the clover brushed in in the spring. We consider 
 it well to sow a mixture of grass seed with all the small grains. 
 The growth between harvesting and fall plowing makes a great 
 deal of manure for the next crop, besides shading the land. We 
 conclude that with all the other grasses that we have recom- 
 mended foi" cultivation the best time to sow is in the fall as soon 
 as the ground begins to be moistened by the fall rains, the 
 ground being prepared before the rainy season commences. If 
 sown before this time, much of the seed is likely to be burned, 
 or dried up and lost. Grass seed may be sjown with corn. The 
 ground must be thoroughly worked at the last hoeing, and the 
 seed sown and harrowed with a fine toothed harrow. Six 
 pounds clover, one peck each of orchard grass, red top and 
 timothy, is a good mixture for this purpose ; we prefer, however, 
 making the quantity of these a little smaller, and adding small 
 quantities of other grasses. 
 
 How MUCH Seed per Acre, is a very important question. 
 Opinion and practice are very much divided, but it is clear 
 that we do not sow a sufficient variety of seeds, to take the 
 fullest possession of the soil. We sow two or three varieties 
 together, while in a natural pasture or meadow, twenty to 
 thirty varieties may be found growing in a single square rod. 
 Twelve pounds of clover seed per acre, with ten of orchard 
 
190 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 grass, is a safe and economical average ; but better than this, wo 
 think, will be found the following mixtures. For Permanent 
 Pasture, meadow foxtail, two pounds, orchard grass, six pounds; 
 white clover, five pounds ; red clover, four pounds; rye grass, four 
 pounds; timothy, four pounds; Kentucky blue grass, four 
 pounds ; meadow fescue, four pounds ; red top, four pounds ; and 
 rough stalked meadow grass, four pounds. If the above is to 
 be reduced at all, leave out the clover. For Mowing in the 
 EoTATiON. Orchard grass, six pounds ; red clover, ten pounds ; 
 rye grass, five pounds; red top, four pounds; timothy, six 
 pounds. For Hat and Pasture. Timothy, six pounds; 
 June grass, four pounds; orchard grass, four pounds; rye grass, 
 four pounds ; wood meadow grass, four pounds ; white clover, 
 four pounds; perennial .clover, two pounds; rough stalked 
 meadow grass, two pounds ; vernal grass, two pounds. If any 
 of the grasses in either of the above lists are to be left out, the 
 amount of timothy should be increased ; but we believe that 
 the number of varieties usually sown, is far too few to produce 
 the best results. We present five additional tables, copied 
 mostly from the report of the secretary of the Massachusetts 
 State Board of Agriculture. 
 
 Mixture for Sowing on Light Sands. 
 
 Founds. Pounda. 
 
 Tall meadow oat grass , . 3 Timothy 3 
 
 Meadow soft grass 3 Orchard grass 4 
 
 Italian rye grass 4 Hard fescue 6 
 
 Perennial rye grass 1 White clover 4 
 
 Perennial red clover 3 
 
 :^IXTURE FOR DrT GRAVELS. 
 
 Founds. Pounds. 
 
 Perennial rye grass 5 Red top 3 
 
 Tall oat grass 8 Red fescue 4 
 
 Meadow soft grass 4 June grass 4 
 
 Soft broom grass 4 White clover 4 
 
GEASSES. 191 
 
 Mixture fob Eockt Hills. 
 
 Pounds. Poiin(!s. 
 
 Perennial rye grass 6 Timotliy 6 
 
 Wood meadow grass 3 Red fescue 4 
 
 Crested dog's tail 3 Pall oat 2 
 
 Meadow soft grass 2 Bed top 2 
 
 Bough stalked meadow 2 White clover 8 
 
 Common spear grass 2 Orchard grass 3 
 
 MiXTUBE FOB MABSHT OB OVEEFLOWEB GbOUNDS. 
 
 Founds. Pcuncts, 
 
 Bough stalked meadow grass.... 3 Korin 3 
 
 Beed canary grass 4 Timothy 4 
 
 Fowl meadow grass 5 Tall fescue 4 
 
 Manna grass 5 White clover 4 
 
 MixTUBE- FOB Peaty Lands ; (reclaimed). 
 
 Founds. Pounds. 
 
 White top 2 Meadow Foxtail 2 
 
 Bed top 2 Italian rye grass 4 
 
 Timothy 10 Perennial rye grass 5 
 
 White clover 4 Bed canary grass 3 
 
 Fowl meadow 4 Bough stalked meadow 3 
 
 We earnpstly recommend the above mixtures to the con- 
 sideration of farmers. Of course they can be varied indefi- 
 nitely, as circumstances may demand, but the principle on 
 ■which they are based should never be forgotten. Sow such a 
 mixture of seeds, and in such quantities, that they 77111 take 
 complete possession of the land, leaving no room for the 
 inferior grasses and noxious weeds, which will otherwise surely 
 occupy their place, and reduce the value of the crops. 
 
 The following shows the number of pounds to the peck, of 
 the previously mentioned seeds. Timothy, eleven; clover, six- 
 teen ; orchard grass, three ; red top, three. The fescues, three 
 and a half; meadow foxtail, one and a quarter ; vernal grass, 
 one and a half; fall oat grass, one and three quarters; meadow 
 soft grass, one and three quarters ; Italian rye grass, three and 
 
192 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 three quarters ; perennial rye grass, five to seven ; -wood 
 meadow grass, three and three quarters ; June or spear grass, 
 three and a quarter ; rough stalked meadow grass, three and 
 three quarters. 
 
 Top Dressing Grass Lands, is an approved, but not 
 sufficiently appreciated practice. A top dressing of wood 
 mould in the autumn, serves both as a mulch and a manure, 
 and increases the yield of hay. A very interesting series of 
 experiments have been made at the Michigan State Agricultu- 
 ral College, by which it was ascertained that, 
 
 2 bushels of plaster per acre gave an increase of 4153 ibs of hay. 
 f) " of wood ashes " " 
 
 3 " of salt " " 
 20 loads of muck " " 
 20 " •' " and 3 bushels salt 
 2.0 " Horse manure 
 20 " Gqw manure 
 
 The soil was a light sandy loam. Bstima,ting hay at fifteen 
 dollars a ton, twenty loads of muck are worth something over 
 twenty-five dollars, and three bushels of salt applied with it as 
 much more. Five bushels of ashes bring nearly thirty dollars. 
 We advise farmers to invest a few days' labor in the muck 
 swam.p in the fall ; draw the muck on to the fields, and let the 
 frost crumble it ; spread in the spring, and add the salt. The 
 great object to be kept in view in 
 
 Cutting and Curing hay is to have it as much like grass as 
 possible. This will depend both upon the time of cutting and 
 the method of curing. The safest time to cut is just when in 
 full blossom. A small per centage in weight will be lost bv 
 this early cutting, but it is gained in the aftermath. Timothy 
 should be cut about four inches high, or it will be killed out. 
 The various machines and tools for harvesting hay are fully 
 described in Chapter IV. Most hay is cured too much. We 
 
 11 il 
 
 " 3942 " 
 
 tl It 
 
 11 (( 
 
 " 4184 " 
 
 tl It 
 
 li tt 
 
 " 3683 " 
 
 It It 
 
 tl >l 
 
 "5318 " 
 
 tl tl 
 
 it c( 
 
 "5023 " 
 
 tt li 
 
 tl tl 
 
 "4874 " 
 
 It 11 
 
GRASSES. 198 
 
 have said it should be as much like grass as possible, and, 
 therefore, should not lie out until the juices are all dried out 
 of it. 
 
 Do not mow when the grass is very wet, either with dew or 
 rain. If cut with the scythe, turn twice, if with a machine, 
 once will be sufficient after the top has wilted ; after two hours' 
 hot sun on the other side, cock it, haul it before the dew begins 
 to fall, or after the dew is dried off in the morning, and store it 
 in well ventilated mows. This is the great trouble with hay 
 barns, no ventilation. See Chapter XIX. If properly ventilated, 
 hay may be put in quite green, and be relished like grass all 
 winter. A peck of salt to the ton is always an improvement, 
 and green hay is safer from heating when salt or lime is 
 sprinkled in at the time of mowing away. 
 
 Hay that has been wet, and, therefore, cured twice, should 
 always be kept by itself. 
 
 Seeding Wet Peaibie. Either harrow as soon as the frost 
 is out two inches deep, sow the seed and cross harrow ; or pas ■ 
 ture until it is dry enough to plow. Plow across, the way you 
 wish the surface drainage, and harrow the same way ; sow the 
 seed, cover with a brush, harrow and roll it. 
 
 As we llave intimated, we believe in frequent seeding, and in 
 a much larger variety of seeds than is usually sown. An Iowa 
 farmer advises the seeding of prairie sloughs to red top. " Sow 
 as soon as the ground thaws, and harrow well. Mow it before 
 harvest for two years, and you can be pretty sure of an unfailing 
 crop after. For pasture it is worth three to one of slough grass." 
 
 Improvement of Pastures, as recommended by that 
 veteran writer, S. B. Todd, is to plow them, and cultivate the 
 soil for a few years, applying liberal dressings of barnyard 
 manure, or turning under red clover. After turning under a 
 crop of clover, sow three or four bushels of Indian corn per 
 
194 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 acre, turn' the crop under before frost, and sow winter rye just 
 before it freezes up ; sow with the rye, or early in the spring, 
 before vegetation commences, one of the mixtures recommended 
 for pastures, not less than six or eight varieties of grass seed. 
 When it it desirable to improve pastures without plowing, 
 apply a liberal dressing of either good barnyard compost, bone- 
 dust, wood-ashes, or gypsum, and harrow with a heavy harrow, 
 with long and sharp teeth. Then sow a liberal miKture of 
 grass seeds and harrow in. Pastures treated thus should never 
 be fed early. The middle of summer or early autumn is soon 
 enough to turn stock on to it. The fertility of pastures should 
 be kept up by the application of compost, ashes, lime, bone- 
 dust, etc. If farmers will save and compost their solid and 
 liquid manures, as recommended in Chapter III., they will soon 
 have some to spare for their pastures. Where brush and briars 
 have taken possession of the pasture, cut the brush, sow a few 
 bushels of plaster, and turn on a flock of sheep ; continue this 
 two or three seasons, and you will get a fair pasture. A moder- 
 ate application of muck, compost, lime, or ashes, every year, 
 would undoubtedly keep up our pastures and be profitable in 
 every respect. Making a pasture of mowing lands ; that is, 
 turning stock on after the hay has been cut, is an injurious and 
 exhaustive practice. It sometimes seems absolutely necessary 
 when pastures fail, but the less of it that is done, the better. 
 Eather sow an acre or two of corn to supply fodder in case of 
 drought. 
 
 The Selection of Ghass Seed, whether for meadow or 
 pasture, is an important consideration. Old seeds are mixed 
 with new, and not more than half k crop is the consequence. 
 The safest way is to raise your own seeds, or buy of some 
 neighbor in whom you have confidence. 
 
 You can certainly raise your own clover, timothy, orchard 
 
GBASSES. 195 
 
 grasses, and other more commoa seeds. And when it is neces- 
 sary to buy, samples can be bought and germinated in a 
 few days, and the farmer thus be enabled to tell how large 
 a' proportion is likely to grow, and regulate his sowing ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 13 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ROOT CROPS. 
 
 HEEB can be no " best farming" without a liberal cul- 
 ture of roots. Good farming implies plenty of manure ; 
 manure implies stock ; stock implies feeding ; and the 
 best feeding is that which combines hay, grain, and roots. 
 It is also very much better for the health of stock to feed them 
 partly with roots through the winter. The farmer should not 
 deprive his stock of vegetables any sooner than his family. 
 
 As to the relative value of roots and corn, there is a great dif- 
 ference of opinion. One farmer says, " I have formerly raised 
 roots and put a thousand bushels or more of them into my 
 cellar ; and when I have had to bring them up myself and feed 
 them out in winter, I have asked myself the question whether 
 I could not get along more easily by raising corn and feeding 
 it to my stock. It is a very easy thing to get a thousand 
 . bushels of roots into your cellar, but it is some work in a cold 
 morning to bring them up, chop them, and feed them out. 
 Then another thing we have to guard against, is excessive cold ; 
 roots, after they have been frozen, are unhealthy for any 
 animal. I know of cows that have been made sick by eating 
 carrots that had been frozen. There is no such trouble with 
 Indian corn. That is the crop adapted to us. My experience 
 is that I can raise one hundred bushels of corn where I can 
 
 raise one thousand bushels of roots." Another says : " The 
 
 196 
 
BOOT CROPS. 197 
 
 most expeditious way of raising corn, after all, is to raise roots. 
 A. thousand bushels of roots, which can be raised as easily as 
 a hundred bushels of corn, will buy three or four hundred 
 bushels of corn. That is the reason I do not raise any grain. 
 I cannot afford it. I raised none this year of any kind ; but a 
 little less than a third of an acre of mangolds sold for enough 
 to buy one hundred bushels of corn ; and I had enough Erench 
 turnips, from five eighths of an acre, to buy two hundred and 
 fifty bushels of corn. Those French turnips cost ten cents a 
 bushel, and, as I said before, that is the most economical way 
 of raising corn, that I know of." Another says : " The com- 
 parative value of the crops you can raise upon an acre of 
 ground properly prepared for mangolds, is hardly the question. 
 Nor -is it the question whether fifteen hundred bushels of man- 
 golds would not be better than one hundred bushels of corn, 
 because you would not be likely t.o get, on such land, any thing 
 like one hundred bushels of corn. But fifteen hundred bushels 
 of mangolds are worth more to any man, for his cattle and 
 sheep, than any one hundred bushels of corn that ever grew. 
 There is no doubt about that at all. Turnips for growing 
 cattle ; they are as natural to them as oats to a growing horse. 
 A bushel of turnips for fifty sheep ; there is no better food in 
 the world. I have tried it over and over again I would 
 rather have it than a pint of corn for each sheep. You can 
 easily figure which would cost the most." 
 
 "We believe roots to be necessary to the best estate of man 
 and beast alike, and were the difficulties of raising them twice 
 as great, we should still say, to the farmer who desires the best- 
 (and the most profitable because the best) mode, feed roots with 
 your hay, grain, stalks, or straw. A larger amount of manure 
 is required ; but the crop will return it or pay for it. A dry, 
 warm cellar is requisite; every farmer should have such a 
 
198 . HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 cellar. They must be cut ; but root cutters are at hand and 
 will cut all kinds of roots, pumpkins, squashes, etc. Of course, 
 we must have corn and grain for our stock, but on expensive 
 lands near large cities, or on the lines of railroad, convenient to 
 market, roots will be more profitable. Every farmer should 
 raise roots enough to give his stock a taste every day they are 
 stall fed. Dry hay and grain sustain life, but will not give the 
 best results. Five tons of turnips are certainly equal to one of 
 hay for feeding purposes ; and, as certainly, ten tons of turnips 
 can be raised to one of hay upon the same land. Eight tons of 
 turnips are about equal to one of corn, and twenty tons of 
 turnips to one and a half of shelled corn, is about the average 
 of the crop. Enough has been said to show the value of root 
 crops ; we now proceed to the method of culture. 
 
 Turnips. Eobinson says, " The,best soil for turnips is newly- 
 cleared forest, or reversed sod, not too clayey ; but they will 
 grow well on pretty stiff clay, if finely pulverized." Our ex- 
 perience is, that the common English turnip (which is the easi- 
 est of all root crops to grow) wants a light mineral soil, but, 
 with careful preparation of the soil, will grow well upon any 
 but heavy rich clay lands. Green manure should never be ap- 
 plied to any root crops. Well rotted compost is the thing. Or, 
 green manure may be hauled on in the fall, five to eight cords 
 to the acre, and covered in ridges, and plowed in in the spring. 
 Plow late for turnips, and sow not earlier than July. Early 
 sowing causes them to get their growth before it is time to har- 
 vest them, and the consequence is rot. October is the great 
 month for root growth. Turnips may be sown to advantage as 
 late as the last of July, after some early crop that has been very 
 heavily manured, like the early potato, or strawberry crop. 
 The turnip is not fitted for long keeping, and is only valuable 
 for early winter feeding. The Swedes, White Globe, Yellow 
 
KOOT CEOPS. 199 
 
 Globe, Purple-top, and Cow Horn, are all good varieties for 
 field culture. 
 
 EuTA Bagas are more valuable for stock than turnips, and 
 are raised with more difficulty. They require a stronger soil, 
 but substantially the same culture as turnips. They should be 
 sown earlier, say about the middle of June, or first of July, at 
 the latest. Theie are some twelve or fifteen different varieties 
 in cultivation, but there appears to be no satisfactory decision 
 as to which are the best. 
 
 The Mangold is adapted to a wide range of cultivation, and 
 a great variety of soils. The seed should be sown in May ; in 
 other respects the cultivation is the same as with the other root 
 crops. The Long Eed and Long Yellow are the best for deep 
 soils, and the Globes for shallow soils. 
 
 Carrots, we judge, all things considered, to be the best of 
 all the root crops for the soil and for feeding, but the assertion 
 that they are worth as much, bushel for bushel, as oats, is a 
 simple absurdity. No farmer can afford to let his stock be 
 without roots, but they can never take the place of grain. 
 They are to be used in connection with grain. They are best 
 suited with a warm light soil, well cultivated, as all .soils for 
 root crops should be. The land for carrots and for mangolds 
 should be plowed as early as possible. Only thoroughly de- 
 composed manure ■^vill do for carrots. The seed should be sown 
 the last of May, or first of June. Plow, cross-plow, and harrow 
 at intervals, before sowing. It does the weeding in advance. 
 A field thus worked before sowing, will not only grow more 
 and better roots, but with one third the labor of weeding. 
 Carrots can be raised by almost any farmer for six cents a 
 bushel, after he learns the most economical ways of doing it. 
 "We shall speak of these things under the head of General Cul- 
 tivation of Eoot Crops. The tops of carrots, if cut while they 
 
200 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 are still green, are very palatable food for stock. Every par- 
 ticle is greedily eaten by cows, horses, and sheep. This is a 
 strong argument in favor of late planting. The Long Orange 
 we deem the best variety for field culture. 
 
 GrENERAL CULTIVATION OF EooT CROPS. Nothing but deep 
 plowing will do for root crops. Fifteen inches deep is the 
 shallowest plowing we can' commend for tTiem. Give the 
 roots a chance to run down straight and smooth. Eepeated 
 plowings, and harrowings, dragging and rolling until the ground 
 is mellow and free from clods, is the proper preparation of the 
 soil, in connection with heavy manuring. Roots cannot be 
 made profitable without heavy manuring. Put on five to ten 
 cords of good compost to the acre. The compost of muck and 
 liquid manure which we have previously recommended, is 
 especially valuable here. The selection of seed is of vital im- 
 portance with this crop. The only sure mode of procuring 
 good seed is to raise it yourself. Select good sized smooth 
 roots; and as soon as the ground is settled in the spring, plant 
 thern. out in rows. The seed stalks will grow with numerous 
 branches, and the heads will ripen at different seasons. . They 
 should be out off as they mature. The husks should be rubbed 
 or threshed off, some clear, dry, cold day in winter. • The seed 
 is cleaned by sinking. Put it all in a tub, fill with water, stir 
 the seed slightly, skim off the chaff and light seed, and turn off 
 the water ; repeat this operation two or three times, and you 
 will only have full plump seeds, nearly every one of which will 
 germinate and give a good root. Here is the first and great 
 secret of raising large crops of fine roots. It can never be done 
 without this careful selection of the seed. After washing, spread 
 them out on a cloth. Let it dry three or four days, (unless it is 
 to be sown at once,) turning it every day. Do not diy by a 
 fire. We approve of drilling in all root crops. It is much 
 
BOOT CROPS. 201 
 
 more certain. "With seeds selected and cleaned as -we have 
 described, you can sow just the number of seeds you want on 
 an acre. If it is desired to have the roots one inch apart, twelve 
 seeds to the foot can be dropped with great, regularity. Many 
 of these seed sowers also have an attachment by which guano, 
 phosphate, or any fertilizer, can be sown with the seed. If the 
 droppings of the privy have been saved and composted, as 
 directed in Chapter III., you have just the thing to sow, 
 with your seed. Some application of the sort is desirable. 
 Four or five bushels of salt to the acre should never be omitted 
 unless yo"u have kelp or other sea mosses in abundance. Eefuse 
 salt is as good as any ; when sown with the drill, less seed is 
 required, and thinning is unnecessary. When good turnip seed 
 is drilled in, oh well prepared ground, one half pound per acre 
 is enough. Too thick seeding is injurious. One pound to the 
 acre is often sown broadcast, but that is too large a quantity. 
 Mr. Ware, a successful cultivator in Massachusetts, drills three 
 and a quarter pounds of carrot seed per acre. They germinate 
 sooner if soaked, for twenty -four hours before planting, in warm 
 water. The drills should be far enough apart to allow a horse cul- 
 tivator between them. Constant weeding is necessary in growing 
 root crops, although a large proportion of the weeding may be 
 saved by previous thorough breaking up the soil. When sown 
 broadcast, they may be thinned by harrowing after they come 
 up. This also tends to leave them in rows, kills many weeds, 
 and loosens the crust. As soon as the weeds get started, go 
 through with a horse hoe between the rows, and follow with 
 the hoe or " weed killer." Never let the weeds get the start of 
 the crop. Euta bagas should be thinned ; this may be done by 
 cutting up the plants with the hoe. With rows three feet apart, 
 and plants on an average two inches apart, if the soil is flowed 
 deeply go that the roots can find pasture, from twelve to fifteen 
 
202 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 hundred bushels of turnips, ruta bagas, and even carrots, may be 
 secured. Eoots, as a rule, should be left in the ground as late as 
 may be without danger of freezing. They may be topped in 
 the field before the tops decay, by means of either the hoe or 
 shovel. The tops are relished by stock. One great objection 
 to this crop is the labor of handling. Much of this can be 
 economized. 
 
 Run a subsoil plow beside the rows, and it will lift them so 
 that they can be very easily pulled. Indeed, the ground should 
 be so mellow that they can be pulled without difficulty. Gather 
 them on a dry day in dry weather. Throw them between the 
 rows and let the dirt dry on them. An hour or two will dry the 
 dirt so that most of it will shake off while loading them. Have 
 a scuttle to your cellar, so that you can slide them in by the 
 cart load. After they are in the cellar, don't forget them. On 
 cold nights (not freezing) open the windows and scuttle door ; 
 in warm or wet weather shut them up as tightly as possible. A 
 very successful farmer says, " If I am fattening hogs and want 
 to give them meal and grain, I cook the roots and mix the 
 meal in so that it is alPcooked and steamed. I think, for fat- 
 tening hogs, cooked meal is better than raw. But I will state 
 that I have kept successfully, for years, store hogs and breeding 
 sows, from November to March, with nothing at'all but raw 
 mangold wurzels. I don't approve of feeding raw roots to 
 small pigs ; but store hogs, weighing from one hundred and 
 twenty-five pounds upwards, will thrive well on them." 
 
 It is undoubtedly more desirable to steam roots for hogs than 
 cattle. Cutting them up with a root cutter, or in small quanti- 
 ties, chopping them with a hatchet, is usually sufficient prepa- 
 ration for cattle. One half bushel of roots is a liberal allow- 
 ance for each animal, allowing six pounds of grain, and twenty 
 pounds of cut corn-stalks and straw. Where hay and grain are 
 
BOOT CROPS. 203 
 
 very cheap, as in some parts of the West, large crops of roots 
 are not profitable, but small crops, to give the stock an 
 occasional iDite, should, we judge, be raised even by western 
 farmers. 
 
 Potatoes. There is no need of urging the cultivation of 
 potatoes, for the farmer wants these himself, and will have them 
 even if they cost him- one dollar a bushel. In this country 
 they are more generally used than any other article of food. 
 The soils best suited to the potato, are the dryer and lighter 
 soils. New land, or pastures newly cultivated, give the most 
 certain and most abundant crops. In wet, undrained soils, or 
 in those of stiff clay, they are«not of as good quality, and are 
 more liable to disease. Land that has been long cultivated, 
 seldom produces good crops. No green or unfermented manure 
 should be used on land intended for potatoes, within one year 
 of planting. No stable manure should be used, until thoroughly 
 rotted and composted with peat, muck, or sods. The safest 
 applications are ashes, or plaster. Guano, or superphosphate, 
 if sown broadcast and plowed in lightly, will prove beneficial. 
 No application of strong manures shouldf ever be made directly 
 to the sets. "We advise always planting in drills or ridges. 
 Hill planting is only fit for gardening. The ground should be 
 subsoiled at least to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches. The 
 mp,nure should be plowed in at this first plowing. The seed 
 may be either put in with a drill, which makes the furrow, drops 
 the sets at the required distances, and covers them ; or a light 
 plow run through, making a furrow four to six inches deep, the 
 sets dropped, and the plow run through again, to cover them. 
 This is an expeditious and excellent method of planting pota- 
 toes. For the smaller early sorts, the drills may be from twenty 
 to thirty inches apart, and the sets from six to ten inches apart 
 in the drills and covered three or four inches deep. For large 
 
204 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 and later sorts, make tlie drills thirty to thirty-six inches apart, 
 sets ten inches apart in the drills, and cover four to six inches 
 deep, according to soil. If the soil is inclined to be heavy or 
 wet, four inches is sufficient. 
 
 There is a great variety of practice in selecting seed for 
 planting. Large or small, whole or cut, the discussion has 
 been going on for years. Our own experience, as well' as our 
 judgment, from all reading and observation, is that large fair 
 specimens of any grain, fruit, or vegetable, are the best for seed. 
 But if large potatoes are selected and planted whole, there are ■ 
 too many. sprouts, and the crop will be small; but if cut into 
 pieces, having two or three eyes,, there will be enough to give 
 food to the young plant, without crowding too many roots to- • 
 gether. The great objection to planting cut sets can be obviated 
 by cutting a week or two before planting, and allowing the 
 cuts to heal over. As soon as the sprouts make their appear- 
 ance above ground, harrow the field across the drills. This 
 breaks up the surface, kills the weeds, and gives a good chance 
 for the young plants to grow. A light fine toothed harrow is 
 best for the purpose. Such a one we recommend every far 
 mer to have for harrowing his meadows, grain fields, corn 
 fields, and potato fields, after the crops are up. This early 
 harrowing saves much after cultivation. Cultivate with an 
 ordinary cultivator, until the blossoms appear, then hill up 
 with the plow. It is injurious to work the ground in wet 
 weather, or when the tops are wet. 
 
 In harvesting potatoes, a plow can be run on each side of the 
 drill, and then the potatoes are readily forked out. Many far- 
 mers plow out their potatoes, with the common plow, and 
 others use a plow made for the purpose. Pick up and store, as 
 last as uncovered, and while the potatoes are still cool, as dry- 
 ing and heating cause them to rot. Any method of storing 
 
ROOT CROPS. 205 
 
 potatoes, that keeps them from the -light and cold, is sufficient. 
 The great difficulty in raising the potato, is the rot, for which 
 ihere is no remedy. Care in the selection of varieties, and in 
 planting none but the best specimens of those varieties, may be 
 of some value ; care in the application of manures, and in /the 
 cultivation of the soil and crops, may mitigate the severity of 
 the disease ; care in the harvesting and storing of the crop, may 
 lessen its ravages, but there it remains, a most serious obstacle. 
 The following varieties are especially recommended for cultiva- 
 tion. Buckeye, early and productive. Dykeman, early and 
 productive. Grows better in strong clayey soil, than any other 
 we know. Mercee, early and of the finest quality, but not as 
 productive or hardy as others. State op Maine, quite early, 
 of good quality, and moderately productive. Early GrOOD- 
 RICH, productive, hardy, and a good keeper. The Early 
 EosE we consider, in some respects, the best of all the early 
 potatoes. It is ten days earlier than the Early Goodrich, very 
 productive, of finest quality, and so far free from disease. Car- 
 ter, once esteemed the finest of all the late varieties. 
 
 Davis Seedling. "As a winter potato, or for extensive 
 cultivation for market, is one of the best of all varieties." 
 Hardy and productive. Jackson White; earlier than Davis 
 seedling, commands a high price in its season, free from disease, 
 and a good keeper ; one of the best for general cultivation. 
 Jenny Lind, very large, productive, free from disease, and 
 keeps well. Peach Blow, handsome, hardy, productive, 
 keeps well, brings a good price in market ; but is really not of 
 as good quality as any of the other late potatoes recommended 
 
 Colebkook's Seedling, Pinkeye, and Gleason, have each 
 desirable qualities for general cultivation. There are many 
 other excellent varieties, but none we believe better than those 
 recommended above. As to feeding potatoes to stock, we be- 
 
206 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 lieve other roots are raore profitable to raise for that purpose ; 
 but all the small potatoes will come in play, in feeding ; and if 
 the farmer finds them difScult to dispose of, at paying prices, in 
 the market, they are worth twenty-five cents a bushel to feed 
 to stock, with hay at sixteen dollars a ton. Stock should al- 
 ways have some roots, during the winter, and potatoes will 
 answer the purpose. 
 
 Sweet Potatoes are raised from sprouts or slips. Almost 
 any corn land below 41°, will give a go'od crop. The 
 slips are raised in beds, and transplanted, when three or 
 four inches high, or any time before they commence running 
 The slips are pulled, and the tubers left in the bed. Two or 
 three crops of sprouts can be obtained in one season, fnom the 
 same tubers. The soil should be deeply plowed, subsoiled, 
 harrowed, rolled, or dragged, and put in the most mellow condi- 
 tion. Only well rotted stable manure should be used. Make 
 ridges three feet apart, by turning two heavy furrows together 
 Set the slips in these ridges, burying them nearly one half their 
 length. The after cultivation consists in keeping down the 
 weeds. They can be plowed out the same as potatoes. They 
 should be dug before frost. For keeping, at the North they 
 must have a dry atmosphere of even temperature. At ordi- 
 nary prices a large crop of sweet potatoes is very profitable. 
 Other root crops will be treated of under the head of Market 
 Gardening. 
 
Missing Page 
 
Missing Page 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 SPECIAL CROPS AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 'OTTOW, though no longer King, is a mosr important 
 crop. AuS corn furnishes cheap food, so cotton furnishes 
 cheap clothing. It is a child of the sun and flourishes 
 only where it can have seven or eight months secure 
 from frost, and be nearly free from rains for three or four months. 
 Three classes of soils are suited to cotton. Soft or rotten lime- 
 stone soils; the black soils of the Texas prairies, and the 
 Alabama canebrakes; and, best of all, the river bottoms or 
 alluvions. The cotton region proper in this country is within 
 the limits of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, the northern 
 part of Florida, Mississippi, the northern half of Louisiana, the 
 southern half of Arkansas, and the eastern half of Texas; but 
 within these limits, with improved modes of culture, might be 
 raised the cotton of the world. 
 
 There are other small portions of the South where cotton can 
 be grown, but not in profitable quantities, except at a high 
 price — twelve to sixteen cents per pound. Not more than one 
 half the oultivatable land of a plantation should in any case be 
 planted in cotton. The remainder should be devoted to corn, 
 roots, pasture and woodland. Perhaps a still better division is 
 one third in cotton, one third in some green crop to be plowed 
 under, and one third in grain, grass, and roots. Every culti- 
 vated acre will thus have a chance to recuperate itself once in 
 
 209 
 
210 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 three years ; and as cotton is not an exhaustive crop, with a few 
 fertilizers, this might be made sufficient. 
 
 A satisfactory rule is one mule and one hand for every ten 
 acres of cotton. The best mules for the purpose are fast walk- 
 ing mules, and quickness of movement is more desirable than 
 great strength. The same is true of hands — a rather small but 
 active hand is the best on the cotton plantation. 
 
 The best mode of preparing for planting and cultivating a 
 cotton crop is briefly as follows ; 
 
 Plow early; the last of February, if the soil will admit. 
 Mark off the rows. Give the soil a month to settle. Run a 
 light harrow along the ridges. Follow with a marker, soak the 
 seeds in some fertilizer, drop evenly two or three inches apart 
 if by hand, four to six inches if by a drill ; cover one inch deep. 
 As soon as the third leaf appears, with a shanghai plow, or a 
 cultivator that can be run astride the rows, clean away the 
 grass and weeds from both sides at once. Follow with the 
 hoes, " chopping out " weeds and superfluous plants. Cultivate 
 once in two weeks with plows and hoes till the plants interlock 
 across the middles. 
 
 Plowing. The planter of one hundred acres of cotton, with 
 the necessary grain and roots, requires four or five large plows 
 for preparing his grain land, and for making the ridges for his 
 cotton^ Cotton requires a deep soft bed for its long tap root; 
 but deep cultivation between the rows has been proved injuri- 
 ous. At least ten small plows of different patterns are de- 
 sirable. The scooter or bull tongue, for marking the rows 
 where a drill is not used ; the scraper or sweep, for cultivat- 
 ing ■ the middles ; the shanghai, for clearing the rows at the 
 first cultivation where a cultivator is not used; the shovel 
 plow and the mould plow. In Chapter IV. will be found a 
 description of the lest large plows, and Messrs. R. H. Allen & 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 211 
 
 Co., of New York, or Messrs. Sinclair & Co., of Baltimore, 
 will furnish, on application, special price lists of all plows, 
 especially adapted to southern crops. We advise also the 
 purchase of subsoil plows for grain and root crops. Buy one, 
 and make an experiment, and we feel assured it will prove 
 profitable. 
 
 We would allude here to what is known as circle plowing. 
 What we mean by this is best illustrated by turning a tub, 
 measure, or round basket, bottom side up, tying a s\ ring to each 
 handle, and so winding them around the basket or tub that they 
 shall reach the top, each over the opposite handle from which 
 they started. Thus we have a gradual ascent to the top in a 
 half circle. On the light uplands -where the soil i? mellow as an 
 ash heap, it has been for years washing down the slopes until 
 much of it is ruined. Circle plowing is the only remedy. First 
 make ditches in the form we have described, so ttat they will 
 take the water that comes pouring down the hill, and they will 
 bear it away down a slope so gradual that no washing will take 
 place. 
 
 After a heavy rain send through the ditches and have the 
 gulches filled up, and the earth thrown out. They will soon 
 harden and protect the soil from washing. Conform the plowing 
 to the slope of the ditches. Care and piactice will render the 
 marker very expert, and the rows will be nearly as uniform as 
 on level ground. 
 
 The plows should be started early in the spring, or rather the 
 latter part of February, whenever the ground will admit. If the 
 previous growth was cotton let what was a middle last year be 
 a row this, and vice versa. On stubble or corn land, mark off the 
 rows with a light plow, or scooter, follow in the same furrow 
 and enlarge it with the shovel plow, drag the litter into this 
 furrow and cover by turning two furrows over it. The custom 
 
212 HOW TO MAKK THE FARM PAT. 
 
 of lapping two furrows together, leaving the soil beneath them 
 unbroken, is shiftless, and unprofitable, as well as unworthy any 
 enlightened cultivator. Leaving these ridges for a month or 
 more to be settled by the spring rains, planting commences from 
 the fifteenth of March to the tenth of April. Every day's delay 
 in planting shortens the season by so much, and lessens the 
 prop. Mark off your rows for planting with a light plow or a 
 marker. The great object is to have the rows perfectly straight. 
 A perfectly straight row is easily cultivated ; and when it is re- 
 membered that for three months cultivation must be constant, 
 you will see the utmost care here will be well repaid. The fol- 
 lowing contrivance is simple but effectual for the purpose. It 
 consists of a stick of timber with V shaped blocks fastened on 
 one side, and a hoop-shaped handle on the other with wh|ich 
 to guide it. It is drawn by one mule ; easily managed, and as the 
 blocks are just the distance apart required for the rows, uni- 
 formity is readily attained. {Fig. 65.) 
 
 The one represented in the cut is sixteen feet long, and marks 
 four rows five feet apart. Of course the size can be varied to 
 suit the convenience. On light lands, or under poor cultiva- 
 tion, from- four to four and a half feet apart is the average dis- 
 tance required between the rows, while under the best cultiva- 
 tion, or on very strong lands, the plant grows so luxuriantly that 
 six and even seven feet are desirable. 
 
 Apply no manure directly to the plants, but sow broadcast, 
 and plow in at the first plowing. The system recommended by 
 Dr. Oloud, of Alabama, as condensed by J. B. Lyman, of Louisi- 
 ana; is so near perfection that we give it nearly entire. " First, 
 by circle plowing let the planter prepare his lands so as to pre- 
 vent washing, and retain in the soil all the salts, and all the 
 fertilizers he may add. Now let him arrange for a rotation of 
 crops, as follows : In his mind's eye divide the plowed land into 
 
SPECIAL CROPg. 218 
 
 three parts or tracts, one third cotton, one third grains and roots, 
 and one third fallow, assigning to each farm laborer an equal 
 amount of cotton and corn land.* 
 
 "Calculate to have on the farna stock enough to consume all 
 the food that grows on it ; mules, horses, cows, sheep, poultry ; 
 and lay it down as a first principle that no manure is to be wasted. 
 Provide stock pens, hollowed towards the centre, and also sheds 
 for the stock. Let every animal on the place be confined at 
 night in these enclosures, with an. abundance of litter ; leaves 
 and pine straw are better even, than wheat or oat straw. 
 
 "Cotton requires potash and lime, wood ashes, plaster, 
 slaked lime, or bones, will easily supply this demand. The ne- 
 cessity for phosporic acid is imperative, in order to produce a 
 healthy plant, and in all soils that are not alluvial, that is, where 
 there is not a great abundance of fine vegeiable mould, the de- 
 mand for phosphorus is probably the reason why diseases of 
 various sorts, such as the rust and the rot, attack the plant. In 
 addition to lime and ashes some fertilizers containing the phos- 
 phates must be used. Compost, or barnyard manure and bone 
 manure, weeds, muck, and peat abounding in vegetable matter, 
 will supply them. (See Chapter III.) 
 
 " Moisture is needed to rot any litter you may use. Scrape 
 your yard on wet days, piling the compost under the sheds ; 
 sprinkle over the compost a little lime, ashes, poultry manure, 
 etc. Guano and crushed bones are the most valuable of the 
 condensed fertilizers. Obtain a few pounds of sulphuric acid, 
 and after it has absorbed all the bones, sprinkle it on the com- 
 post heap." 
 
 Cotton seed is one of the best fertilizers of cotton, but it 
 
 * We recommend, instead of t}ie fallow, some green crop, not only to 
 
 shade the Boil from the hot summer sun, but to help in enriching it. 
 
 Plow under liajhtly while still green. 
 14 
 
211 HOW TO JiAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 should be applied to the preceding crop, and not to tho 
 cotton itself. By the above system of Dr. Cloud, on many plan- 
 tations, five hundred bushels of compost manure to the acre 
 may well be made before March comes. Look at it. Straw, 
 leaves, weeds, muck, peat, the droppings solid and liquid of 
 your well fed stock, your poultry, and your family, what an in- 
 exhaustible mine of treasures; andtheu the value of all these can 
 be doubled by the addition of a few dollars' worth of lime, or by 
 saving your ashes, and by putting sulphuric acid on your bones. 
 
 Supposing then there are five hundred bushels for each acre of 
 cotton. " Mark off the field with a scooter plow, (unless the old- 
 lines are visible,) the first line fifteen feet from the boundary, 
 and the others thirty feet apart.. On these lines or rows deposit 
 the manure in heaps of ten bushels each. This is easily done 
 by having the capacity of the cart twenty bushels and dropping 
 half for the first heap, and dumping the balance for the second. 
 In this way the manure is distributed at the rate of five hundred 
 bushels to the acre. This will produce very thrifty plants, and 
 the rows should be at least five feet wide." Cover the manure 
 lightly at the first plowing. 
 
 Planting. The seed should be soaked in a weak solution 
 of stable manure, water and salt, and then rolled in lime, ashes, 
 and guano — or in plaster, which is preferable, as the seeds then 
 ^how more plainly in the drill. Thirty pounds to the acre is 
 recommended; but with perfect seed, prepared as above, and 
 evenly sowed by drill or by hand, one half this amount is 
 abundantly sufdcient. 'We have known twice this amount, 
 or sixty pounds to the acre, sown, without producing plants 
 enough for a stand. The seed to' be used for planting should be 
 the best, cleaned of fibre as much as possible, and carefully 
 housed. The great piles of cotton seed lying about the gin 
 houses through the winter, furnish very uncertain seed. "Im 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 215 
 
 prove the cotton seed, and your staple is directly augmented in 
 value. One advantage of this system of generous manuring, 
 is the improvement of the seed, and consequently an increase 
 in the length and fineness of the staple ; for an excellent quality 
 and an abundant yield of cotton -wool can no more be expected 
 from seeds that are dwarfish, than large clips of wool from sheep 
 that are dwarfed." 
 
 Having then good seed, in good condition, and prepared for 
 planting, put it in with a drill, or cotton seed planter, if you 
 can (beg, borrow, steal, or) buy one. These implements are 
 now made to combine a small harrow, which goes in front of 
 the ridge and breaks the crust; a drill that makes a furrow. for 
 the seed; awheel that distributes the seed evenly at any re- 
 quired distances ; and a scraper that follows, and covers them 
 evenly, levelling the surface on either side. Bifteen to twenty 
 acres of cotton per day can be planted with it. It can also be 
 used to sow any kind of seeds. A common corn planter can be 
 arranged to put in cotton seed- much faster and better than it 
 can be done by hand. If you can by no contrivance get a drill 
 or planter, mark out the rows with the implement we have 
 described on page 212; let the hands follow close behind it 
 and drop the seed, three or four in a place, at distances 
 of thirty to thirty-six inches apart, (under our system of 
 manuring ; under the ordinary system, twenty to twenty -four 
 iijches apart,) in the drills. Cover with a drag made of a piece 
 of plank, and drawn along the ridge. Here are four operations, 
 requiring the w;hole field to be gone over four times ; when, with 
 a cotton seed planter, costing only from thirty to forty dollars, 
 the whole can be done at one operation. This, wnere time is so 
 valuable, and every day's delay indicates the loss of a day's 
 picking at the other end of the season, is a small item indeed. 
 Ingorsoll's is the best cotton planter we have seen, but it can be 
 
216 , HO"W TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 improved, and will be, if the demand for machines is such as to 
 promise remuneration for the improvements. The planter can 
 now for a fortnight leave his cotton field, and hurry up his 
 other work ; about which time, under favorable circumstances, 
 his cotton will need 
 
 CaLTlVATlON, which consists in keeping down all grass and 
 weeds, and keeping the surface stirred. As soon as the third 
 leaf appears, har off, that is, run a light plow on each side of 
 the row, close to the plants, cutting up the grass and throwing 
 away the dirt from the row. A double plow is the best for 
 this purpose — ^that is, two light plows on one beam, that will 
 run astride the rows and do both sides at once. A cultivator, 
 with the forward hoes taken out, will answer the same end. 
 The poorest implement for the purpose is the single plow, which 
 must be run on each side of the row. Here the advantage of 
 perfectly straight rows is seen, as the plow can be run, by an 
 expert plowman, close to the rows, without disturbing a plant. 
 The hoe gang should follow immediately after the plow, and 
 chop out the grass and superfluous plants from the rows, leav- 
 the plants in clumps of three or four, at distances of from twelve 
 to thirty-six feet,' according to the condition of the soil. 
 
 This work should be done very rapidly. "With one mule and 
 one hand to each five acres of cotton, a week should suffice for 
 this first operation. In about a week, or not more than two 
 weeks from the day you commenced to "5a?- o^," start in your 
 small plows and "mould" the cotton; "that is, let the plows 
 throw the dirt up to the rows, the hoes to follow, thinning the 
 plants to a ' stand/ and leaving every thing clean and smooth." 
 This working should be very thorough and careful, the mosb so 
 of any. The plants can all be cut away except the two most 
 thrifty ones in each clump, and this is called a " stand." All 
 the grass and weeds should be destroyed, and fresh earth drawn 
 
SPECIAL CHOPS. 21V 
 
 around the stand. Keep the plows running until the middles 
 are all broken out. Manage now to get over your ground once 
 in two weeks with the scraper. This is light work, and the 
 teams should be urged to a brisk pace. Eapid movements are 
 n9W required. 
 
 The common corn cultivator will answer the purpose on light 
 lands, where it is not necessary to ridge high ; but the " cotton 
 sweep" is better. Any thing that kills the weeds, and tends to 
 throw the earth up to the ridges, if kept moving rapidly, will 
 answer the purpose. During the very hot weather of July and 
 August, the teams should be in the field at the earliest dawn, 
 and rest from eleven until two or three o'clock, the mules hav- 
 ing shade and dry fodder. Or, better, if the planter has an 
 extra mule or two, to let them work only half the day. At 
 this season, buttermilk should be provided for the laborers. 
 Nothing is more nourishing and cooling. One cow to every 
 three or four persons, should be a part of the stock on every 
 cotton plafatation. "When the plants begin to interlock across 
 the rows, haul off the cultivators and let it alone until the time 
 for PICKING. This commences from the first of August to the 
 middle of September, according to the soil, the season, and the 
 cultivation. For at least four months, the chief business, to 
 which every thing else must yield, is picking. Every available 
 hand should, be employed — for the hands required to cultivate 
 the cotton will not suffice in picking time. 
 
 We give below the gist of tjie directions recorded by Joseph 
 B. Lyman, of Louisiana, the author of a most excellent statisti- 
 cal and practical work on cotton. " Start the pickers as soon 
 as you can see a half dozen open balls down the row. Each 
 hand should have a bag and a basket, the bag fastened about 
 the nock and adapted to the height and strength of the picker. 
 Activity is now required, and women, with their quick fingers, 
 
218 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 usually make the fastest pickers. The basket should be so 
 arranged by the planter that the bags can be conveniently 
 emptied when they attain a weight of twenty-five pounds. 
 Every arrangdment that tends to facilitate the work, or relieve 
 the laborer, is to the credit and profit of the planter. Humanity, 
 as well as interest, demands that every thing that can be done 
 to lighten this monotonous task, shall be done. By many over- 
 seers, there has seemed to be an entire disregard of the welfare 
 of the laborers. Let there be refreshments at the baskets. 
 Kindle a fire and have coffee boiling before sunrise, and when 
 tbe gang come out of the rows give each a half pint with corn 
 bread. It will give them strength for their work and is a pre- 
 ventive of miasmatic disease, to which cotton pickers are par- 
 ticularly liable from working from the cool morning air into 
 the fierce heat of midday. In the heat of midday, provide a 
 tub of buttermilk, or sweetened water, and give them a few 
 minutes rest before they set in again ; the time will not be lost, 
 for they will strike in with more spirit, and the expectation of 
 another drink will quicken their movements on the way back. 
 The month of October is the height of the picking season, and 
 the planter must urge his hands to their best exertions. But 
 let him not, in his pushing, encroach upon the hours of relaxa- 
 tion and rest. His rule should be gather no cotton after 
 nightfall, and pay high for fast picking, rather than for night 
 work. I 
 
 "Sometimes it is well to divide the force into ' fast pickers' 
 and the ' trash gang,' the former pressing rapidly through and 
 gathering all the fair, clean cotton, that is hanging open on the 
 upper branches, the others gleaning the ' trash cotton,' as all 
 inferior or dirty cotton is called. There is no time so favora- 
 ble for sorting this trash cotton as when it is first picked. The 
 ' first picking' should never be allowed to become wet with 
 
Fig. 67. 
 
 219 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 221 
 
 dew, -but should all be picked before nightfall, and taken, while 
 still warm and dry, to the sheds, to be stored for a month or 
 two before it is ginned. This increases the weight and gives it 
 a better color." 
 
 Ginning, Baling, and Maeketing, hardly come within 
 the scope of this book ; but, as we believe the past and the 
 present systems to be wasteful and faulty in the extreme, we 
 embody oome suggestions in regard to this part of the subject. 
 In many parts of the cotton States, a community living within a 
 compass of five miles, produce, in favorable seasons, five 
 thousand bales. The number of persons in such communities 
 averages about fifteen hundred. The average number of bales 
 ginned, at each gin house, is not over two hundred. The average 
 cost of the gin houses and equipments is five thousand dollars, 
 or one hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars laid out in gin 
 houses and equipments. Now, instead of this arrangement, let 
 the planters combine to put up a factory that will gin out 
 this wholQ crop, bale it in the best manner for market, and, at 
 the same time, manufacture eighty thousand yards of cloth for 
 home use, which could readily be done in the four mouths 
 that the gins are idle. The advantages oi such a system are 
 numerous. • 
 
 The planters would be saved so large an investment m 
 machinery. Better machinery, better operators, and conse- 
 quently better work would be secured, and at much less 
 expense. It could be packed in the best manner by the best 
 power presses, and baled with iron hoops, thus saving to the 
 planter the old charges of one dollar and a half or two dollars 
 per bale for repacking. 
 
 After the principal part of the crop has been thus perfectly 
 prepared for market and shipped, the power can be thrown 
 upon the spindles, and the remainder of the crop made first 
 
222 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 into light clotlis, for summer wear, and afterwards linseys for 
 winter wear ; and the worst of the cotton into bagging." We 
 consider these suggestions well worthy the consideration of the 
 cotton planters whose gins have been destroyed, whose capital 
 is limited, and who desire not only to build up their own 
 broken fortunes, but to bring the best and most lasting pros- 
 perity to the South. 
 
 Insects and Diseases. The cotton louse is the first enemy 
 of the young plants. Proper fertilizing and thorough culture 
 are" a preventive; but, where the louse appears, dry ashes and 
 plaster should be dusted over the plants. It will destroy most 
 of the insects and be always beneficial to the plants. 
 
 The Cut Worm should be treated to a mixture of ashes 
 and lime in equal parts, and applied around the stem of the 
 olant. The Cotton Moth is the great enemy of the cotton 
 and should be fought with all conceivable weapons. Just at 
 the time the first balls open a gray moth may be seen in small 
 numbers flying about the field in the morning and early 
 evening. This moth, an inch or more in length, is of a rusty 
 gold color on the back, and a dull silvery white on the breast. 
 There are two black spots on the wings, and two little horns 
 projecting from the head. .As we have said, there are but few 
 of them, but unless they and their eggs are immediately de- 
 stroyed an army of worms will soon destroy every green leaf 
 of the cotton plants. The following methods should all be 
 used without delay. Put the laborers mto the field early every 
 morning for a week, with paddles, and as the moths fly up from 
 the leaves strike them down and kill them. Make a mixture 
 of molasses, vinegar, and cobalt, and expose it on plates elevated 
 in different parts of the field, one plate to the acre. Just at 
 dusk build bonfires in difi'erent parts of your field, and many of 
 them, attracted by the blaze, will fall into it and perish. What 
 
SPECIAL CEOPS. 223 
 
 few escape these three methods of destruction will deposit 
 their eggs on the leaves. They cut the mid-rio or main fibre 
 of the leaf, and bend it over, fastening it down with a slender 
 thread, and within the shelter thus formed, deposit their eggs. 
 After the moths disappear, which will be in about ten days 
 after their first appearance, put your whole, foice into the field 
 and let every leaf thus curled up be gathered and burned. 
 These leaves are readily distinguished after examining one 
 sample. The planter may now feel at ease, for his enemy is 
 destroyed. If not destroyed at this time, the>e will appear in 
 about a month an innumerable host of them, and in a few days 
 a more innumerable host of worms. The Army Worm is a 
 formidable foe. He eats every green thing in his track. An 
 army of these worms marches in regular order, and the planter 
 has time to prepare for them. When you hear of their ad- 
 vance towards you, bring out your force and plow a trench 
 about your place, beginning on the south and west. Let it be 
 deepened with the hoe and spade to eighteen inches, with a 
 smooth perpendicular wall on the inside up which they cannot 
 climb. As soon as they make their appearance at this trench, 
 put a patrol with plows and spades along the line, to plow 
 under the pests, if they find any weak spots and make their way 
 through. Straw and dry sedge grass laid in the ditch and 
 burned will destroy many of them. The Ball Wobm belongs 
 to the corn field, but migrates to the cotton fields when the 
 corn gets hard. There are three methods of lessening their 
 ravages. The first is to build fires about the corn fields at 
 dusk, during the first two weeks of July, when the moths are 
 flying, and before they deposit their eggs. Millions will be 
 thus destroyed, and as every pair destroyed would breed some 
 five hundred or more ball worms, it is readily seen that this 
 proceeding ie very effective. The second method is included in 
 
224 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 the system of rotation recommended. Never follow corn -with 
 cotton or vice versa, but let a year intervene between these 
 crops, in which either put in grain or roots, or sow some green 
 crop to be plowed under. The Ball Worm must have either 
 corn or cotton, and if he has neither he dies. The third 
 method is to plant a few rows of very late corn among the 
 cotton. All three of these methods should be used, as no one 
 of them issufBoient. / 
 
 "Eust," "Sore Shin," " Eot," "Blue Cotton," and all other 
 diseases, so far as we know, are in nine cases out of every ten 
 the direct result of defective cultivation, and the onljr remedy 
 is to return in the shape of lime, plaster, ashes, etc., some of 
 the elements withdrawn from the soil by the crop.^ 
 
 CoTTOif Seed. The principal value of cotton seed is as a 
 manure, to return to the soil from which the cotton is taken. 
 This is the only use to which it can be put in the interior, and 
 should be carefully husbanded for this purpose. As we have 
 before stated, it should not be applied directly to the cotton 
 but to the previous crop. A small but constantly increasing 
 portion of the cotton seed, will be used for making oil. It is in 
 the process of making the oil, that the cotton seed cake, is pro- 
 duced. This cake is very nutritious to stock. Less than one- 
 fiftieth of the cotton fields of the United States are under culti- 
 vation, and enterprise and capital turned in that direction, must 
 ultimately bring a large reward. 
 
 From the "Southern Farmer." — "RiCE — Preparation' AND 
 Cultivation. New land is preferred, free from grass seed, 
 and the richer the more profitable, of course; if not rich, old or 
 new, it is good economy to make it rich. 
 
 "First, prepare by good plowing, if old land, deep and 
 thorough, harrow as fine as can be, then open furrows two to 
 three feet apart, owing to quality of land ; drill the seed, one to 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 225 
 
 two pecks per acre, depending on number of rows, two or three 
 feet distant being a guide ; cover with a wooden tooth harrow, 
 cotton coverer or roller, but about one half to one inch deep — 
 best about one inch. "When the 'plant is about two to three 
 inches high, the two to four first blades 'bar off,' or run a 
 cotton scraper as for scraping cotton, not deep, merely to shave 
 off the surface; then, with a sharp hoe, scrape the entire surface, 
 leaving it clean — cut c?ff all weeds, grass and rice. In a few 
 days the rice will be up, and as the season has become warmer, 
 the rice grows faster; a bull tongcie plow can be used near the 
 plant so as to turn enough earth to it on each side as to cover 
 the earth and mould the plant. When some six inches high, 
 pass the hoe through the row, leaving trenches about one foot 
 distant. Keep clean with cultivator, sweep or shovel plow, stir 
 from time to time to keep plant growing. To be harvested by 
 the sickle and left for two days to cure, by shocking up ; open- 
 ing out and shocking as good hay or fodder is made. Thresh 
 by flail, by machinery, by the old plan of horse tramping on it, 
 or by striking the heads over some pices of "wood." 
 
 Tobacco Cultuee is, for the time being, a paying crop, but 
 it exhausts the soil more rapidly than any other crop. Any 
 methods of culture that leave this fact out of view are faulty ; 
 as' they enrich the land owner at the expense of all the fertility of 
 his land. And when land is once exhausted of its fertility by 
 the cultivation of tobacco, no process can make it profitable to 
 cultivate them again for any crop whatever. For proof of this 
 look at the exhausted and abandoned lands of Virginia and 
 Maryland. So far as the system of cultivation, urged in the 
 following pages, is- different froni others, it is because this idea 
 is prominent, viz : any method of culture that steadily exhausts the 
 land, is faulty and ruinous. Tobacco will grow on almost any soil 
 
220 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 and in any climate that will produce corn, but a warm, mellow 
 soil, is its chosen home. 
 
 The northern cultivator mast secure warmth, by selecting 
 an alluvial, sandy soil, or a light warm loam, and increase it by 
 abundant manuring. The southerner may depend more for 
 warmth upon his sunny climate, and insist more upon depth 
 and richness of soiL A heavy loam, or a soft clay, will do him 
 good service. There are two exceptions to these rules, and 
 they are rank soils which produce a " strong" tobacco, and ex- 
 posures subject to strong winds, where the plants will be broken 
 and bruised. The preparation of the soil should be most 
 thorough, as it not only increases the quantity, but improves 
 the quality. We have seen two crops of tobacco, grown on 
 adjoining farms, sell, the one for eight and the other for twenty- 
 two cents a pound, the difference being wholly in cultivation 
 and handling. The one crop cost about fifty per cent, more to 
 cultivate than the other, but it brought one hundred and 
 seventy-five per cent. more. If the land has not been subsoiled 
 for the previous crop, plow in the fall, and subsoil to the depth 
 oPat least fourteen inches, and the deeper the better. As early 
 in the spring as the ground will do to plow, the manure should 
 be plowed in. The oftener it is plowed, harrowed, rolled, 
 plowed, crushed, and harrowed, the better condition it will be 
 in for the growth of the plant. It is difficult to tell just where 
 this working of the soil ceases to be profitable, but our experi- 
 ence is that six workings (including plowing and subsoiling in 
 the fall) is the least to be recommended. This only provides 
 for two plowings, one rolling, and one harrowing in the spring. 
 Manures are the life of this crop, and it is -only by the most 
 abundant manuring, that the fertility of the soil can be main- 
 tained in Tobacco. On newly cleared land, where the soil, is 
 filled with vegetable matter, and the brush has been burned 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 227 
 
 on the land, three crops may be raised without manure, but no 
 more tobacco should be raised on it, for at least three years, and 
 it should be liberally manured for the intervening crops. 
 
 Well rotted barnyard manure, ashes, and salt, are the three 
 specifics for tobacco. Lime it must have, either in tfie shape 
 of ashes, gas lime, or superphosphate of lime. Salt at the rate 
 of from three to six bushels to the acre, furnishes the soda re- 
 quired by the plant. As for other manures, the cultivator must 
 use what he can get. Twenty-five loads per acre of compost, of 
 muck with solid and liquid manure, with twenty bushels of ashes 
 and four of salt, is the plainest prescription we can, make. 
 Twelve loads (by loads we mean hads) of compost as above, 
 with two hundred weight of guano, (salt and ashes added, as 
 before,) is a good proportion. If the ashes are not at hand, two 
 to three hundred weight of phosphate can take their place. 
 Guano, on all crops, should be covered deeply, while superphos- 
 phate should be left near the surface. Manure from the hog 
 pen, where peat and muck have been supplied liberally, is a most 
 excellent dressing. In fact any substances that will promote 
 t'he growth of other crops, will benefit this. Green and strawy 
 manure should never be applied directly to the crop, but first 
 rotted and composted. No ashes, lime, or other fertilizer, should 
 ever be sprinkled on the leaves of the plants. 
 
 Prbpaeing the Seed Bed should be attended to as early in 
 the season as the ground gets dry. One tablespoonful of seed, 
 if each seed produce a plant, would suffice for an acre. But, as a 
 precaution against all accidents, sow three tablespoonfuls of seed 
 for each acre to be set in tobacco. Each spoonful of seed should 
 have a square rod of land, so that a seed bed of three square rods 
 is required for each acre in plants. The most approved method 
 of treating the seed bed is as follows. Select a protected, sunny 
 spot, the south side of a wood, or a southern slope, if possible. 
 
228 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 near a brook, for convenience in watering. Cut off all weeds, 
 grass, etc., close to the turf; pile up dry, well-seasoned wood, 
 and burn the surface thoroughly ; clear off the coals, and spade 
 in a quantity of manure about four inches deep. Eake in bone 
 manure if handy. Stir up the seed in three times its bulk of 
 plaster, and sow in a still, damp day, or water as sown. Eake 
 the bed lightly, not to exceed half an inch' in depth, then roll, 
 or tread down hard and even. Water the young plants con- 
 stantly, if dry weather succeeds, always with tepid water, and 
 never while the hot" sun is shining on them, which rule applies 
 to the plant in all stages of its growth. Cover the bed with 
 brush until the plants are well out of the ground. 
 
 The time for sowing tobacc'o seed, in the extreme South, is 
 from the first of February to the first of March. In the ex- 
 treme North it is two months later. 
 
 Transplanting should be done, if possible, when the ground 
 is damp, otherwise it will be necessary to water while trans- 
 planting. Three feet apart, both ways, is a safe rule in setting 
 the plants, and the earth should be pressed firmly about the 
 roots. Great attention is necessary to the newly-set plants. 
 Some cover them during the heat of mid-day, others water 
 them morning and evening until they get established. Many 
 will fail, and should be at once replaced. If the ground is very 
 dry, a little hole should be made for the plant, and a pint of 
 water turned in. As soon as it has disappeared, set the plant. 
 In a week or ten days after setting, cultivate and hoe. Ee- 
 peat the operation as often as once in ten days, and keep the 
 ground loose and clean till the crop is too large to be worked 
 among. 
 
 Soon after the plant is set, the cut worm makes his appear- 
 ance, cutting off the stems of the young plants. Go through 
 the field every morning, and where a plant has been out off, 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 229 
 
 dig open the hill and destroy the -worm. This is the only 
 method we know of as being effectual. A few bushels of salt 
 per acre will keep away many of them. These cut worms have 
 no sooner been destroyed, than a greater enemy appears, in the 
 tobacco worm, or " horn worm" a large green worm, which, if 
 left to itself, would destroy every leaf. The first preventive of 
 their ravages is to destroy the moths, by fires and torches, dur- 
 ing the last of May, as directed in Cotton Culture. The second 
 is, to examine the. under side of the leaves for the eggs, and 
 destroy them. They are small, of a lignt transparent green. 
 As soon as the worms begin to appear, get over the field every 
 week and pick off and kill every worm, large and small. 
 ''■ Topping," consists in breaking off the stalk about the time 
 the blossoms appear. One third of the leaves shoula usually 
 be topped off. After topping, break off all the suckers. Eepeat 
 this last operation three times, at intervals of a week. 
 
 Good practice differs so widely in regard to harvesting this 
 crop, that it is useless to give more than the main points lo be 
 kept in view. When the leaves bend over to the ground, and 
 are dotted with yellow spots, lose their fur, and look glossy, 
 they are supposed to be ripe enough to harvest. The crop is 
 greatly improved in quality by letting it stand two weeks 
 longer ; but the risks are so great, that most think it wise to 
 begin harvesti-ng as soon as it will do. Hail, winds, frosts, 
 worms, and suckers, are only to be insured against by early 
 - harvesting. To cut so as to save handling is a great object. 
 To cut two rows and lay them over together, is good practice. 
 A hatchet or a cleaver which will sever the stem at one stroke 
 is desirable. If handled before it is wilted, the leaves get 
 broken and bruised , if left to wilt in the hot sun, they get sun- 
 burnt. On this account, cutting is often delayed until the mid- 
 dle of the afternoon, and left over night. Great care should be 
 
230 HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAY. 
 
 taken, in handling and hanging tobacco, not to biuise, break, or 
 tear a leaf. There are still great risks before the tobacco is 
 finally cured. Where the crop is large, we bfelieve fully in the 
 utility and economy of curing by furnace heat. From five 
 days to a week is all that is required to cure it, and the best 
 quality and greatest weight is thus secured. 
 
 Dr. Dorsey, an intelligent and experienced cultivator, in Cal- 
 vert county, Maryland, writes to the Maryland Farmer: 
 
 " Owing to the great uncertainty which always attends the 
 curing, in the natural way, I adopted, several years ago, Bibb 
 & Co.'s Tobacco Curing Apparatus, with which I have been 
 entirely successful, not only saving my whole crop from injury, 
 but greatly enhancing if not doubling its value. The 'Furnace' 
 is so arranged, in a barn, as to take up but little room, the 
 pipes running so near the floor the hands walk over them with- 
 out difficultjr, enabling the planter to fill every part of the 
 building except a small space near the apparatus. The heat is 
 distributed very uniformly throughout the barn by means of 
 two distinct sets of pipes — one set conveying the smoke to the 
 chimney or smoke stack, and the other distributing hot air, 
 drawn off from under a jacket thrown over the ' furnace.' This 
 jacket answers the double purpose of protecting the tobacco 
 from scorching overhead, and holding for distribution the sur- 
 plus heat at the furnace end of the building. Either wood or 
 coal may be used in firing with this arrangement. My plan is 
 to use wood (of any kind well seasoned) during the day, and 
 up to bed time, when two or three bushels of coal are thrown 
 in, which insures ample heat for the night. The door of the 
 barn may then be locked, and the fireman retire." 
 
 The peculiar color of the leaf is obtained by sweating Three 
 or four hundred pounds are packed in a case and pressed. If 
 quite dry, it should be moistened before packing. 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 231 
 
 Hops form quite an important crop in some parts of the coun- 
 try, and might in other parts ; we therefore give a few directions 
 by which any farmer may start a hop yard. The soil best 
 adapted to hop growing is a loamy clay, underlaid with lime- 
 stone, but they can be raised on any land that will produce a 
 crop of corn. It should be thoroughly underdrained if at all 
 inclined to be wet, as standing water is fatal to the plants. 
 
 The position should not be exposed to the fiercest winds, 
 neither should it be so sheltered that it will not get a constant 
 supply of air and sunshine. Thorough preparation of the 
 ground at first is good economy, as the plants are permanent. 
 
 It should be plowed twelve inches, and subsoiled twelve 
 more, or if it is old sward, the turf should be turned under and 
 _ covered, and then followed by the subsoiler. In the spring, 
 manure heavily, plow, cross plow, harrow, and cross harrov/ 
 until the soil is mellow, and the manure thoroughly mixed with ' 
 it Decomposed vegetable matter is preferable to barnyard 
 manure. If the soil is destitute of lime sow a few bushels 
 every year, as the plant must have lime. Planting. — The vines 
 are not propagated by seeds, but by runners or sprouts from 
 old vines. They are called " sets," and can be obtained in any 
 quantity from old hop yaids, and sent by express. The "sets '' 
 should be taken up as soon as the frost is out, by loosening the 
 earth about them, cutting them off near the main plant, and 
 lifting them out so as to break or bruise them as little as possi 
 ble. These should be cut into small pieces, with two or three 
 eyes each-. Mark off your field both ways, and make the hills 
 eight to ten feet apart each way. Let these distances be care- 
 fully measured, as perfectly straight and uniform rows are a 
 very great advantage in after cultivation. When places for 
 hills are determined, put two or three sets in a hill eyes up. 
 15 
 
232 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 Cover from two to four inches deep, press the earth firmly about 
 them, and mark the place with a stake. 
 
 The male plants should he set at regular distances of eight 
 hills and eight rows apart, making from eight to twelve male 
 plants to the acre. They should be distinctly marked so that 
 they can be known at a glance. Keep all weeds and grass out 
 by means of plow, cultivator, and hoe. Any hoed crop can be 
 cultivated between the rows the first year. Corn or potatoes 
 are commonly planted. The old system of training to stakes 
 sixteen to twenty feet high was clumsy and expensive. A 
 much better and cheaper system is as follows : When your 
 plants are three or four inches high, set a stake at each hill, 
 eight feet out of the ground. The best and cheapest stakes are 
 sawed one and one quarter inches square, and coated with tar. _ 
 The tar preserves the stakes, and is offensive to the hop louse. 
 The first year the vines are trained to these stakes alone. The 
 second year the tops of the stakes are connected by twine and 
 the vines ran all over the top of the yard. 
 
 At the male hills, put a stout high pole, eighteen or twenty 
 feet long, and let the male vine run up, so that its pollen may 
 be distributed on tb,e. others. The cost of this method is one 
 third that of the old method, and has great advantages in 
 gathering the crop. 
 
 The hop louse is the only insect that injures the plant to any 
 great extent. 
 
 They can be destroyed by thoroughly dusting' fine plaster 
 among the leaves and stems. If done early, say the first week 
 in July, one application will generally rid the vines wholly of 
 them, but if they appear again give them another. 
 
 Burn the vines that are cut up in the fall. The work in suc- 
 ceeding years consists in keeping out grass, weeds, and worms. 
 'Tn spring, the yard, as soon as dry enough to work, must be 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 233 
 
 grubbed. Hoe the dirt from the hill without injuring the 
 crown of the root. "With a knife cut off all the old vines 
 smooth, and any runners that are seen. Never tear them off 
 nor cut them with the hoe. At the same time examine whether 
 there are any grubs in the hill, and kill all found. 
 
 " There are two kinds of grub, both which must be killed 
 wherever found. Tie the vines as often as any stray from the 
 poles, with soft yarn, but it should not be done on a cold day, 
 or in the morning, as then they will break. 
 
 " When the smallest vines have got a good start, three feet or 
 more, select four vines, and bury the refuse vines at the foot of 
 the stake with 1«wo inches of dirt, and never pull or cut them 
 off, as is usually done. In a few days the leaves will rot, mak- 
 ing manure, and the vines will make cheaper food for the grubs 
 than those running up the stake. These vines throw out small 
 roots, and help make the crop for the year, besides they are the 
 best kind of 'sets' for a new yard next year. Mix air -slacked 
 lime and unleached ashes, and put on about a pint to each hill." 
 {Prize essay of H. 0. GoUins.) 
 
 When the vines get above the- top of the stakes train them 
 out on the twines, one in each direction, and keep them going 
 as long, as fast, and as far as they will. 
 
 After the frosts have destroyed the vines, cut them off close 
 to the ground and throw two or three shovels full of compost 
 OQ the hill. Where the vines are trained on high poles the 
 vines must be cut down right in the growing season, iu order to 
 pick the hops, but by the horizontal system of training the crop 
 can be reached from the ground. 
 
 Picking begins as soon as the earliest seeds ripen. The crop is 
 not in as good condition as it would be if it could have a little 
 more time, but it is better to pick it two days too soon, than oae 
 day too late. When ripe, the seeds become hard, and are 
 
234 HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAY. 
 
 of a purple color. Some portions of the yard will ripen earlier 
 than others, aud here the work should commence. Do not 
 hurry the picking too fast at first, but after a few days, when 
 fully ripe, put on all your force and secure the crop. The cleaner 
 the hops are picked the better price they will bring. A man who 
 has the reputation of picking his hops clean and putting them 
 up nicely, will find sale for them, even if the market is dull. 
 
 Get the best pickers; pay the best prices; feed the pickers 
 well, and treat them well, and you will have clean hops. 
 
 The most expensive part of the hop culture is kiln drying ; 
 but large cultivators can afford it; and if three or four smaller 
 cultivators, owning contiguous lands, would combine to erect 
 a kiln for their common benefit, they could readily compete with 
 the larger growers. The kiln has usually four apartments, the 
 stove room, dry room, store room, and press room. The kiln 
 should have a good draft ; it is directly oyer the stove room, and 
 separated from it by a slat floor, and a moveable wire or hemp 
 carpet. The hops are spread on this carpet, twenty to twenty- 
 four inc'hes deep, (except those first picked, which are green, 
 aiid should not be more than twelve inches deep,) and fires im- 
 mediately built in the stoves, of large seasoned wood, and kept 
 up until the hops are all dry, usually eight to twelve hours. 
 Next te the dry room is the store room, which should be kept 
 perfectly dark while the hops are in it. The press room is 
 underneath the store room. The pressing and baling can be 
 done on rainy days, from four to six weeks after drying. The 
 Harris press is the best we know of for pressing and baling^ 
 but any screw press can be made to do the work. 
 
 Hemp and Flax. Hemp can be grown on any good corn 
 land with profit, and as the supply never equals the demand we 
 consider it a sure and profitable crop. It has a long tap root 
 and the soil should be plowed deep and subsoiled. The surface 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 235 
 
 should also be made very mellow and even, to receive the 
 minute seeds. As soon as the ground is warm re-plow with a 
 light plow, sow one and one quarter bushels per acre of care- 
 fully sele'fcted and preserved seed, harrow it in and brush the 
 surface smooth. Cut when the stalks turn yellow and the 
 leaves begin to fall. 
 
 Cutting hemp with a hemp-hook or grain cradle is very hard 
 work, but there is no reason why a reaper cannot be made 
 strong enough to do the work. Hemp is not a rapid exhauster 
 of the soil, the leaves and stubble affording a good supply of 
 manure. An application of compost, one third barnyard to 
 two thirds muck, peat, or leaf mould, would keep the land in 
 good condition for years. A rotation, however, with coru, 
 wheat, or clover, is beneficial. 
 
 Flax can be raised to advantage in all parts of the couhtry. 
 There is always a good demand and a fair profit. It' likes a 
 fertile loam, deep and mellow, but will not flourish on wet lands. 
 Underdraining is the first step on such lands, whatever crops 
 you propose to raise. The most important point in the cultiva- 
 tion of flax, is the preparation of the soil. It should be deep, 
 mellow, but compact, smooth, and clean. No farm crop requires 
 more thorough preparation of the soil than this. Our remarks 
 on the preparation of soil for wheat, apply to this crop as well 
 and should be read here. As far as possible every weed should 
 be eradicated in cultivating the previous crops. Potatoes, corn, 
 or oats, are the crops recommended to precede flax; a good five 
 years' rotation is grass, corn, potatoes, flax, oats; for seven years, 
 grass, corn, oats, potatoes, flax, clover, wheat. A third is corn, 
 oats, potatoes, flax, clover, wheat. Once in five years is as 
 often as flax should be grown on the same soil. Thoroughly 
 rotted manure, rich compost and vegetable matter, applied to 
 the previous crops, is, the rule in flax culture. Prepare the 
 
236 HOW TO MAKE" THE FAEM FAT. 
 
 soil as early in the spring as it -will work without being sticky, 
 leaving it as mellow and fine as the harrow, roller, and brash, 
 can make it. Let it lie until the grass and weeds spring up all 
 over it, and the leaves on the trees begin to unfold, then give 
 it a thorough harrowing to destroy these weeds, and while the 
 ground is still fresh sow the seed as speedily as possible. Mark 
 off your ground both ways, . in " lands" eighteen feet wide, by 
 dragging a chain after yoa from stake to stake, across the 
 field. This is a more important matter than you may think it, 
 and should never be neglected. Soak the seed in warm water 
 an hour or two, and then roll in gypsum. This is of great 
 advantage in sowing these Slippery seeds. Now sow around 
 your " land,'' giving the seed an even, uniform cast. Only a 
 small portion of seed should be taken at a time. A great 
 difference of opinion exists as to the amount proper to be sown 
 to the acre, from one peck to seven bushels being recommen- 
 ded. If sown only for seed, one bushel, or even three pecks, 
 may be suflS.cient ; and if sown only for the fibre, two and one 
 half, or even three bushels, may not be too much ; but where 
 both seed and fibre are taken into consideration, which we 
 strongly recommend, one and one fourth to one and three fourth 
 bushels is the proper quantity. After sowing, brash in with a 
 hand brush. Do not allow any team on the field. A brush 
 harrow, drawn by two men, will brush the seed in evenly and 
 none will be trodden down three or four inches deep, which is 
 exceedingly injurious. If the ground has been worked as 
 recommended, and the weeds conquered beforehand, the' crop 
 will need but little weeding ; but if, unfortunately, weeds should 
 appear before the plants are a foot high, a careful hand, without 
 boots, should go in and cut them up just beneath the surface, 
 and bring them off the field. It is far better to destroy the 
 weeds before the flax is sowed. If the seed has been evenly 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. ■ 2B7 
 
 covered and the teams kept off, it will have grown very evenly 
 and will ripen very evenly, which is a great advantage. It will 
 be ready to harvest, when the stems turn yellow, and the balls 
 brown, and the lower leaves are dead. If raised for the 
 fibre, begin ' at once ; but if the seed is the only purpose, let il 
 stand until dead ripe. In harvesting, when the best fibre is 
 desired, pulling is resorted to. "Each laborer takes a strip 
 about four feet wide, and either spreads it in a swath behind 
 him or throws it down in gavels. The flax is grasped just 
 below the ball with both hands, and pulled with a quick jerk." 
 Cradling and mowing are often resorted to, and if the ground is 
 so level that the mower can cut it evenly one inch from iho 
 ground, nearly the whole of the fibre will be secured. 
 
 Mowing is better than cradling. One great point is to keep 
 the butts even. 
 
 " Rippling" is the process of separating the seed from the 
 flax. It is done by means of a rippling comb, as shown in the 
 cut fig. 66, consisting of twelve rods of round iron, set in a 
 block. Two ripplers, each with a boy to hand them the flax, 
 can hatchel out seed very fast by this contrivance, which we 
 consider much better than any kind of threshing. As the pre- 
 paration of the ground is the most important item in the 
 cultivation of flax, " Eetting," or as it is sometimes called, rot- 
 ting, is the most important in \t^ preparation. It consists in keep- 
 ing it under water until fermentation softens the fibre. For this 
 purpose a pool is formed, either by a dam, or by digging a pit 
 and turning the water of a stream into it. In either case it 
 should be but little deeper than the length of the flax, should 
 be as tight as possible, to prevent leakage, and should be so 
 arranged that all leakage can be replaced. Rain water is the 
 best for the purpose. River water, that has been warmed in 
 the sun, next ; and cold spring water, the least desirable ; the 
 
238 ' HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 latter should always 'stand in the pool several days before the 
 flax is harvested. The pool, if accessible on both sides, may be 
 sixteen to twenty feet wide, if accessible only on one side, 
 eight to' ten feet will be more convenient ; the size and ar- 
 rangement of the pool being wholly a matter of convenience. 
 The flax should be kept from the bottom by a layer of rails or 
 boards. Where soft water is to be had, the flax could be set 
 into the pool before it is turned on. The water should cover 
 the flax about six inches. , Put boards over the whole and hold 
 them down by means of flat stones. After the water has been 
 on the flax seven days examine it by getting into the centre of . 
 the pool and putting the hand down into the heart of the 
 bundle ; if it feels hard and wiry, leave it another day and until 
 it begins to feel soft, then repeat the examination thrice a-day, 
 until it feels quite soft, when a bundle should be taken out and 
 a lock of it bent several times across the forefinger ; when the 
 woody part of the stem breaks, and the loose fibre detaches from 
 the stem, it is on the point of decay and should not be left in 
 the water longer. Take out carefully by hand and not with a 
 fork. Never use the same water twice. It should now be spread 
 out very thin on the grass, for a week, to dry, then bound in 
 large- bundles and housed. It is now ready for market," and 
 will bring a good price. There are other methods of retting, 
 but the above is the simplest and best. Any method that 
 accomplishes "the same result is just as good, as far as the 
 flax itself is concerned, bijt the above is a safe, sure, con- 
 venient, and economical mode, wherever a stream of water is at 
 hand. 
 
 A proper selection of seed is as necessary for the best success 
 in raising flax as in raising wheat. Eiga seed has been often 
 pronounced the best, and we recommend with this crop, as we 
 have for others, that the farmer raise his own seed. He can do it 
 
SPECIAL CBOPS. ' 239 
 
 cheaper and will be sure of fresh seed. Only the large, plump, 
 bright seeds, should be used. These can be separated from the 
 others by means of the fanning mill. The seeds should be dried, 
 immediately after threshing them out ; by spreading them out 
 and turning them often, giving them a free circulation of air, 
 they will soon be dry enough to store away. Twenty-five 
 bushels of seed are raised per acre, and it is worth from three to 
 five dollars per. bushel for linseed oil. The cake made from it 
 is a most valuable food for stock and makes better manure than 
 any other food. It should be fea in connection with grain. 
 
 Sorghum will grow successfully on any soil that will pro- 
 duce a good crop of corn. The ground should be prepared in 
 the same manner as for corn. It can be sowl. a little earlier 
 than corn, and at intervals of two or three days, or a week. 
 The seed should be soaked to the point of sprouting. Plant in 
 rows three to four feet apart, and the hills twelve to eighteen 
 iuohes apart in the rows. Bach seed will send up several stalks ; 
 when six inches high, thin out to four or five stalks. Cultivate 
 the same as Indian corn, and hill up vsell around the stalks. 
 If sown in drills, three feet apart, leave one plant to the foot. 
 In drilling in seed, cover one and a half inches. After the 
 plant has blossomed, and before the seeds ripen, strip off the 
 leaves. They make excellent fodder. In ten days or a fort- 
 night from the stripping, the cane will be in condition to make 
 syrup, and will remain so for some time. ]?reezing will not 
 injure it, unless it thaws afterwards. As soon as convenient, 
 commence cutting up, and continue it, just as fast as you can 
 possibly press the cane and boil the juice. Take from the 
 field at once to the rollers, or mill, and press the- juice the same 
 day it is cut, and commence boiling at once. All who know 
 how to manage maple sap, in making syrup, know how to man- 
 age this. Those who have the patent pans for boiling sap, are 
 
240' HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 fortunate. Those who have not, had better get them. Until 
 they do, however, the juice can be boiled in the ordinary sap 
 kettle. The question here arises, if it is profitable to raise 
 sorghum for sugar. We do not think it is, or ever can be 
 made so, except on a large scale. But we do believe it profita- 
 ble for the farmer to raise it for making syrup, and for fodder 
 for his stock. It is a very simple process to make syrup from 
 it, and the farmer may make a barrel or two, from a small 
 strip of ground. Three hundred gallons per acre, has been 
 pronounced an average crop, but even at two hundred gallons 
 per acre, or two barrels from half an acre, it will prove profita- 
 ble. It has been raised and made at a cost of sixteen cents per 
 gallon, and we think that it may be done by almost any farmer, 
 at a cost of not over twenty-five cents a gallon. 
 
 As a fodder for stock, sorghum hardly has its equal. For 
 this purpose it should be sown in drills, two or three quarts of 
 seed to the acre, and cut just before blossoming. It will imme- 
 diately spring up again, and three crops may be cut during the 
 season. It is very niitritious for cattle, who eat every particle 
 of the stalk yith avidity. 
 
 Maple Sugar and maple syrup are such delicious, and 
 withal such marketable articles, that we consider it worth while 
 to know how to get the most and best. Never destroy a sugar 
 maple, as long as you can get sugar from it. If you are clear- 
 ing up, and cannot leave the young trees where they are, plant 
 them out somewhere else. Plant them out in your orchard, or 
 along your fences, or on some hillside. " Its form and foliage 
 are beautiful ; its shade delightful ; its sap delicioxis and health- 
 ful in all its stages; audits products profitable. Plant Maple 
 Trees." "We indorse the above quotation, and shall endeavor 
 to give the most economical methods of making syrup and 
 sugar. At some leisure time during the winter, get your 
 
SPECIAL CEOPS. 2-i.i 
 
 * 
 
 augers, spouts, buckets, barrels, pans, etc., ready, have your 
 Virood cut and hauled to the " sugar camp," 
 
 At the first sign of freezing nights, and thawing days, tap 
 your trees on the sunny side, two feet or more above the 
 ground, and if liable to be disturbed by animals, four feet above 
 the ground. Make a hole with a three quarter or one inch 
 auger, slanting upward, and not more than one half or three 
 quarters of an inch into the wood at first. After a few days, 
 it may be bored a little larger and deeper. " Boxing," or tapping, 
 with an axe, is unmitigated folly. Use wood spouts, which are 
 \ . y easily made of soft wood or elder. Select, every year, a 
 spot removed from the last year's wound. Use large buckets. 
 You will be much more likely to save all the sap. Foar gal- 
 lon tin pails, if taken care of, are the best and most economical, 
 but common wooden pails answer a good purpose. Never use 
 large and small pans, tins, etc., for you will be likely to lose a 
 great deal of sap. The nails on which the buckets are hung, 
 should be pulled out at the close of the season. Keep every 
 thing clean. Collect the sap in tight barrels, and have a molas- 
 ses hogshead for a reservoir. This shouid, for convenience, be 
 set a little higher than the kettle or pans, so that the sap can 
 be drawn into them steadily, by means of a faucet. If you have 
 used kettles in boiling sap, use them no more. Get sheet iron 
 or copper pans. You can make them yourself, out of stove 
 pipe iron. They save time and wood. 
 
 A New Hampshire farmer says : " I have a brick furnace, and 
 sheet iron pans, the whole costing twenty dollars. My son has 
 done all the labor this season, at a cost of eight dollars. He 
 used one and a half cords of wood, and made twenty-nine gal- 
 lons of syrup, for eight days' labor." The sap, when boiling, 
 must be carefully watched, and not allowed to overdo. When 
 boiled in pans, it evaporates very rapidlj; and if not attended 
 
242 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAY. 
 
 « 
 
 to, will catch you napping. When done it will be brittle it" 
 cooled suddenly on snow or ice. To clarify syrup, strain it- 
 through a cloth while hot, into a kettle, and when cool, add an 
 egg and a half pint of milk well beaten together, for every five 
 gallons of syrup ; mix it, and put it on the fire, heat gradually 
 to boiling, when all impurities will rise to the surface, and 
 should be at once skimmed off. This makes a beautiful syrup, 
 and, when further evaporated, a very pure sugar. Thirty 
 maples would supply almost any farmer with syrup and sugar, 
 at much less expense than to purchase them at present prices. 
 
 Beet Boot Sugae. "We use in the United States, yearly, 
 four hundred thousand tons of sugar, three hundred and iifty 
 thousand tons of which is imported. Instead of this, we should 
 not only produce all we use, but become large exporters. • This 
 end can be accomplished, if we will turn our attention to the 
 sugar beet.. 
 
 The production of beet sugar, throughout the world, is now 
 about six hundred and fifty thousand tons, or one fourth of the 
 whole production of sugar. We have millions of acres adapted 
 to the cultivation of the sugar beet. We have the best labor 
 saving machinery of any country on the globe, and there is no 
 good reason why we should not produce a million tons of 
 sugar annually, within ten years. We shall endeavor to show 
 that it is to our pecuniary, and especially to our agricultural 
 interests, to do so. 
 
 The cost of raising the beet cannot, under judicious cultiva- 
 tion, exceed three dollars per ton, and we think that they can 
 be raised for two dollars per ton. But taking the highest esti- 
 mate, of three dollars per ton, there is left a large margin for 
 profit, as one ton of beets will yield from one hundred and 
 forty to one hundred and eighty pounds of refined sugar ; about 
 fifty pounds of molasses suitable for distillation ; five hundred 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 2 -'8 
 
 pounds of leaves, an excellent green fodder; and five hundred 
 pounds of pulp, worth one third as much as good hay. But 
 this is not all ; the beet crop cleans and prepares the soil ; and, 
 in a rotation, is one of the best preceders of any grain crop. 
 The yield of beets, per acre, varies from seventeen to forty-two 
 tons. We think that, with our improved methods, an average 
 yield of thirty tons per acre can readily be secured, but taking 
 the low average yield of twenty tons per acre, at five dollars 
 per ton, is one hundred dollars, deducting the highest estimate 
 of the cost of production, three dollars per ton, leaves .brty dol- 
 lars per acre clear profit to the farmer. Considering the 
 probability of a yield of thirty tons per acre, costing two dol- 
 krs per ton, we have the possibility of a profit of ninety dol- 
 lars per acre. 
 
 There are, at present, but few manufactories of beet sugar in 
 this country, but they would spring up on every side, if the 
 farmers once determined to raise the crops, and made that 
 determination known. Communities settling on the rich soils 
 of the West, have this matter in their own hands. Let a dozen 
 farmers, in any section of the country, agree with some capital- 
 ist to supply him with beets, and a market will be at ouce 
 created. It is for farmers to agitate this matter, in their daily 
 conversation, in their visits to the city markets, in farmers' 
 clubs, and through the columns of their chosen agricultural 
 journals. The manufacture must be exceedingly profitable. 
 It is carried on from September to March, a period when labor 
 is easily commanded. It will employ the extra farm laborers, 
 at a season when their services are not required on the farm ; 
 thus incidentally conferring a permanent benefit upon every 
 community, where such an industry is established. The 
 estimated cost of working one thousand tons of beets is, 
 
244 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 1000 tons of beets @ |5.00 $5,000 
 
 Labor. 2,000 
 
 Other expenses ,• 1,200 
 
 Total $8,500 
 
 , Receipts. 
 
 160,000 lbs. sugar @ 10 cents $16,000 
 
 7200 gallons molasses @ 25 cents '. . - . • 1,800 
 
 200 tons pulp @ $4 800 
 
 Total $18,600 
 
 leaving a profit of over one hundred per cent, on the manu- 
 facture, reckoning the sugar to be worth only ten cents per 
 pound. But supposing such a quantity could be raised as to 
 bring the price of raw sugar down to eight cents per pound, 
 there would still be a profit of over fifty per cent, on the invest- 
 ment of the manufacturer. Certainly this branch of industry 
 cannot remain long unoccupied. 
 
 We copy the remarks of Mr. E. B. Grant, upon the influence 
 of the beet sugar culture, and then proceed to describe its culti- 
 vation. 
 
 "The effects produced upon agriculture in Europe, by the 
 cultivation of beets, for sugar and alcohol, have been astound- 
 ing, and the importance of the interest' is now everywhere 
 acknowledged. In the cane sugar countries, upon the territory 
 surrounding a sugar establishment, no crop is to be seen but 
 the cane, while the cattle and sheep are few. In the beet sugar 
 districts, on the contrary, the fields are covered with the great- 
 est diversity of crops, among which are, wheat, oats, rye, corn, 
 barley, rape, flax, tobacco, and all the cultivated grasses. 
 Every field is cultivated, close up to the roadside, and the 
 stables are filled with fine cattle, sheep, horses, and swine. No 
 farmer needs to be told which system is the best and most 
 enduring. 
 
 " The amount of beets raised in France in 1865, could not 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 216 
 
 have heen less than two million tons, producing at least one 
 million tons of pulp— an amount sufficient to feed ninety thou- 
 sand cattle, or nearly one million sheep, for one year; or to 
 fatten, in the winter months, nearly three times that number. 
 It also furnished more than one million five hundred thousand 
 
 tons of manure. 
 
 " In an agricultural point of view, the efiect produced by the 
 culture of so much land in beets, and the application of the 
 manure of so many cattle, with the consequent increase in the 
 amount and value of subsequent crops, is perfectly apparent. 
 The quality fif wheat raised after beets, is better than that 
 usually produced ; the ears are larger and heavier, the straw 
 • stronger, and not so liable to lodge ; the berry is larger and 
 brighter; its specific gravity is also greater, weighing from two 
 to three pounds per bushel more than ordinary wheat. 
 
 " The effect of its introduction into the United States would 
 be to produce results correspondingly greater than have at- 
 tended it in Europe, for here the consumption of sugar, per 
 capita, is nearly four times greater, and the value of lands is 
 not a quarter of those in Continental Europe, whilfe they are by 
 nature far richer and more easily cultivated. The supply of 
 coal is unlimited. The vast distances over which many farmers 
 are obliged to transport their produce, render it difficult or im- 
 possible to dispose of their more bulky crops at a profit. The 
 introduction of sugar-making would give them another and 
 most profitable crop, for which they would have a home mar- 
 ket. It would enlarge the local demand for other farm produce, 
 by interspersing a manufacturing with an agricultural popula- 
 tion, to the great advantage of both. It would go far to change 
 the present wasteful, and necessarily uneuduring system of agri- 
 culture, and to substitute for it another, founded upon more 
 correct principles." 
 
246 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 Soil and Climate. The cultivation of the sugar beet is not, 
 like cane sugar, confined to any small section of country, but 
 flourishes in all the varieties of climate to be found in the 
 United States. Deep, rich soils, especially those abounding in 
 vegetable mould, produce large crops of beets. The black soils 
 of the West are well adapted to beet culture. Sandy ground, 
 if rich, gives an excellent quality of beets rich in sugar. Any 
 soil that is dry, deep, and mellow, is suitable. A clayey, tena- 
 cious soil, stony land, and mineral soils, should be avoided. 
 Alluvial or bottom lands, overflowed yearly, are desirable, as 
 they require no artificial manure. All grain land^ are, not only 
 suitable, but are improved by the cultivation of the sugar beet. 
 
 Manures should be applied to the preceding crops, rather 
 than directly. 
 
 The virgin soils of the West do not at first require maiiure, 
 but the soils should be turned under, and one season's cultiva- 
 tion, at least, precede the beet. Human ordure is perhaps the 
 most effective fertilizer of this crop. There is an objection to 
 the ordure of sheep and hogs, on the ground that the salts con- 
 tained in thera are injurious. We are inclined, from all experi- 
 ments in that direction, to conclude that the ordure of cattle 
 should be preferred. Strawy manure, well rotted, is preferable 
 to unfermented manure, or manure without straw. Stable ma- 
 nure, composted with muck, ashes, etc., as we have recom- 
 mended for wheat and root crops, is as efficacious here. The 
 only difference in the manures for this crop and any other root 
 crop is, that salt must be omitted, as it renders the sugar more 
 difficult of extraction. Guano should not be used alone, but 
 composted with bone dust and superphosphate of lime. 
 
 Bone dust, wood ashes, and lime, form a most excellent com- 
 post. Some fertilizers we deem to be absolutely necessary to 
 the perfection of this crop far a series of years, for stable ma- 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 2J7 
 
 nure will not supply all the elements taken from the soil. 
 Fieret Brothers, the model farmers of France, where the culti- 
 vation of the beet has attained its greatest perfection, have 
 cultivated a farm of five hundred and fifty acres for thirteen 
 years, growing oats, rye, hay, beets, and wheat, in rotation. 
 They are sugar manufacturers, and fatten eight hundred head 
 of cattle and three thousand sheep every year. They attribute 
 their success to the immense amount of fodder and manure their 
 " pulp" enables them to make, and to the improvement of the 
 soil consequent upon beet culture. Their average crop of oats 
 has increased, in this time, from forty-five and a half bushels to 
 ninety -two and a half bushels, and the straw in proportion. 
 
 The average crop of rye has increased from seventeen to 
 thirty-four and a half bushels, and straw in proportion. Their 
 average crops of wheat, for the time, have been thirty-six and 
 a half bushels, of hay over three tons, and of beets twenty tons. 
 
 They state that the cultivation of beets reduces the cost of 
 cultivating the succeeding crops enormously. They use lime 
 and manures liberally, plow deep, and cultivate thoroughly 
 the beet crop, and a single light plowing is sufficient to prepare 
 the land for the succeeding grain crop, which is drilled in. 
 
 The Preparation of the Soil, by deep plowing and 
 thorough pulverization, is one of the main elements of suc- 
 cess. The beet requires a deep, mellow bed, that its long tap 
 root may grow straight and smooth. If the soil is not mel- 
 lowed to a sufficient depth, a part of the beet will grow above 
 ground. This top, which grows above the surface, is not only 
 ivorthless for sugar, but is injurious to the balance, and is cut 
 off before the- beets are ground. If the ground selected has 
 been in previous cultivation, manure in the fall, and cover the 
 manure about six inches deep. Follow this with a second plow- 
 ing, as deep as possible, with a double Michigan plow ; or, what 
 16 
 
248 HOW TO MAKK FAKMING PAT. 
 
 is better, one deep plowing, from eight to t"welve inches, and a 
 subsoil plow six to eight more. 
 
 If a crop of -weeds make their appearance before winter, 
 harrow, and cross-harrow, or dig them up with the cultivator. 
 
 As soon as the ground is dry and warm in the spring, cross- 
 plow it, and cross-harrow it. Grant advises that the last har- 
 rowing be followed with a drag, or the harrow turned upside 
 down, to smooth and level the soil. We think this operation 
 must answer the purpose admirably. 
 
 SowHSTG commences the latter part of April, or as soon there- 
 after as the ground is warm and dry. The seed should be 
 steeped for five or six hours in the following solution : Nine 
 ounces sulphate of potash, and an equal quantity of sulphate 
 of lime, in one gallon of warm water. Add to this five or six 
 gallons of water, and cover the seed. After the liquid is turned 
 off' roll the seed in wood ashes, or slaked lime, or plaster of paris, 
 or guano, until each seed is coated. Sow with a drill or seed 
 sower, in rows, sixteen to eighteen inches apart, and six to eight 
 inches apart in the rows. Cover not more than two inches deep. 
 If there is any doubt about the vitality of the seed, sow bounti- 
 fully, and thin out all superfluous plants. The object is to have 
 the plants stand one foot apart after the final thinning. Their cul- 
 ture and gathering is not materially different from that of other 
 roots. The former consists in cutting or pulling all weeds, keep- 
 ing the ground mellow between the rows, thinning to twelve 
 inches, and transplanting superfluous roots to fill vacant places. 
 The gathering can be done with a plow. The plow used in Europe, 
 called an " awachem," is thus described by Grant : " A sort of 
 plow with a share shaped like a cone, the section of which is 
 an oval, somewhat flattened on the lower side, about three feet 
 in length, seven or eight inches in diameter, and tapering to a 
 Ijlunted point. It is drawn by two horses, and will dig from 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 24 1> 
 
 one and a half to one and three quarter acres per day." Some 
 improved implement of this kind for digging roots is needed, 
 and will probably soon be supplied. 
 
 The be'et ripens, in the latitude of Illinois, about the first of 
 September. The leaves turn yellow, wither, and begin to drop 
 off. The longer the beet stays in the ground without freezing, 
 or being soaked by the fall rains, the better. But if there are 
 indications of rain or frost, secure your crop. It the rains 
 take you unawares, as soon as they are over, and ine weather 
 is dry, harvest the crop as speedily as possible. Beets, once 
 frozen, should be left a few days before being dug. Great care 
 should be taken not to bruise, cut, or otherwise injure the beets, 
 especially when they are to be kept any length of time before 
 using. If some are to be used at once, and others preserved in 
 the pits, select the ripest for preservation, and let. those least 
 ripe, and those grown in the richest soil, be always used first. 
 The best way to preserve the beet is to Tceep it frozen. Let them 
 once freeze, and then protect them from the rays of the sun, and 
 they will remain frozen throughout our northern winter; but 
 as soon as they thaw, they must be used at once. The French 
 pile them in huge piles, of a uniform depth of from five to 
 eight feet, covered with straw in such a way as to shed the rain, 
 ventilated by various contrivances — sometimes not ventilated at 
 all. The outside beets are placed in perfectly systematic layers, 
 one by one, with the roots in and the tops out; the rest are 
 thrown promiscuously into the interior of the pile. 
 
 Another method, is placing them in pits dug in dry soil, two 
 feet deep and twelve wide, and of any required length. If the 
 bottom of the pit is inclined to be damp, a coating of dry sand 
 is put on the bottom, and sometimes a ditch is dug all around 
 the pit, outside the roots, and a little deeper than the pit. The 
 roots are then thrown into the pit, and a wall of beets built 
 
250 -HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 around them as .before described. This pile narrows gradually 
 till it reaches a height of six to eight feet. A wall of earth is 
 now built around the pile, and its thickness increased as the 
 weather demands. The upper three feet of the pile can be 
 covered with six or eight inches of straw, until the earth is 
 actually needed to prevent freezing. The sooner the beets are 
 put in piles or pits after being dug, the better, as they lose 
 weight by exposure to the light. 
 
 Beet Pulp is the residue of the beet after the sugar has been 
 extracted, and is worth at least one third as much per ton as 
 hay for feeding stock. It will keep for two years or more in 
 good condition, and.be always relished by cattle. It is preserved 
 by the Messrs. Fieret, to whom we have alluded, in the follow- 
 ing manner : A ditch is dug in dry, hard soil, and the pulp 
 trodden firmly into it, filling it two feet above the surface. The 
 whole is covered with two feet of earth. They fatten yearly 
 eight hundred head of cattle and three thousand sheep. They 
 will fatten in one hundred days. They allow cattle eighty 
 pounds of pulp, five pounds chopped straw, and five pounds oil 
 cake, daily. The sheep are each allowed six pounds pulp, half 
 pound chopped straw, half pound oil cake, and one pound 
 chaff. Chopped corn stalks, and Indian meal, can be fed with 
 the pulp to advantage in this country. The beet leaves are 
 also an excellent fodder, and can be preserved in layers, with 
 salt sprinkled between the layers ; and fed to milch cows with 
 the pulp, they increase the flow of milk. 
 
 Seed. A most important consideration is the selection of 
 seed, both as to quality and variety. At present the seed must 
 be imported. We recommend Messrs. JB. K. Bliss & Son, of 
 New York, as reliable dealers in seeds, and they will gladly 
 answer all inquiries in regard to their cost, etc. But it should 
 be the aim of the cultivator to raise his own seed. The White 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 251 
 
 Silesian seems to tinite tte necessary qualities for the best sugar 
 beet, which are a pear-shaped root, growing wholly beneath the 
 surface of the soil when it has room to extend itself; a smooth 
 surface, free from lateral roots ; a firm flesh, and 'medium size. 
 The beets for seed should be chosen before they are piled or put 
 in the pits. The most perfect specimens should be selected. 
 Those grown in very rich soil are not as good for seed as those 
 grown in a medium soil. No beets should be selected any por- 
 tion of which has grown above ground, nor any with a double 
 or imperfect crown. Cut off the leaves within about an inch 
 of the crown, and also the extreme end of the tap root. Dig a 
 trench, as before described, and lay the beets in carefully in 
 layers, covering each layer with just sufficient earth to separate 
 the beets. Form a conical pile three feet above the surface, and 
 cover with a few inches of earth, increasing the covering as 
 cold weather advances, to prevent freezing. All other roots 
 require ventilation ; and although it is claimed by Grant and 
 others that the sugar beet does not, we consider it safer to ven- 
 tilate all piles or pits. This can be done by setting tiles on the 
 top of the beets, at convenient distances, and stuffing them with 
 sti'aw, as is recommended for all roots. As early in the spring 
 as the ground can be worked, set out the beets in a dry soil 
 tbat has been deeply plowed and heavily manured the previous 
 year. Set them in rows three feet apart, and two feet apart in 
 the rows, mixing a couple of handfuls of bone dust with the 
 soil when the beet is set. Set the crowns just below the sur- 
 face, and press the earth closely about them. An inch of earth, 
 and another handful of bone dust on the crown of the plant, 
 completes the setting. The French cut three or four longitudi- 
 nal slits in the beet, commencing about an inch below the crown. 
 "We have no doubt that these cuts assist the plant, enabling it 
 to throw out more and stronger roots, and consequently pro- 
 
252 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 ducing more and better seed. As soon as the beets- sprout, 
 weeding and cultivation must begin, and be kept up until the 
 seed ripens. Cut away weak flower stems, and when the seeds 
 begin to form, pinch off the tips of the stalks. Just before the 
 seed stalks turn brown, cut them off near the ground, and dry 
 them in some airy and sunny place. Thresh out the seeds in 
 hot weather, blow out all the chaff you can, and spread them 
 out until they are thoroughly dry, occasionally stirring them. 
 Put into small sacks, and hang in a dry, airy, secure place, until 
 they are two years old. Never sow one year old seed. Before 
 sowing, the coarsest of the seed should be rubbed between two 
 boards and partially crushed, or they will clog vne sower, and 
 the seed will not be evenly distributed. 
 
 EoTATioN OP Crops and Manures, the Adaptation of 
 Stock to the Soil, and General Management op , Crops. 
 The theory of rotation is that the soil contains in a greater or 
 ■ less degree all the elements of plant food ; and that each crop 
 extracts its own peculiar elements and no others. This is un- 
 doubtedly true. Agricultural chemistry shows, by analyses, 
 what elements are extracted by each crop. For instance. 
 
 The results of various chemical analyses has shown that red 
 clover is composed principally of potash, lime, and carbonic 
 acid, and that the grain of wheat consists, for the most part, ot 
 phosphoric acid and potash, and the straw of silica. Potatoes 
 are composed principally of potash, carbonic acid, and phos- 
 phoric acid; turnips, of potash, lime, carbonic and sulphuric 
 acids ; peas consist principally of potash, and phosphate of lime ; 
 the grain of rye of phosphate of lime and potash; the straw of 
 rye of potash and silica. M. Sprengel found potash, soda, and 
 silica, to be the principal ingredients in the grain of maize, and 
 the stalks to consist principally of silica and lime. The ashes 
 of the grape vine consists principally of potash, lime, and 
 phosphoric acid. 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 25;5 
 
 Analyses also sliow the composition of soils, and are, in some 
 measure, a guide iu adapting crops to tlie soil, but the expecta- 
 tion cherished, a few years ago, that chemistry would solve all 
 the difficulties of agriculture, has not been realized. There are 
 so many considerations besides the elements in the soil and 
 crops, that chemistry can only suggest what the farmer must 
 prove by practice. It, is true that the intelligent farmer mil 
 always ie AIDED, by a knowledge of the principal elements of 
 the crops he cultivates, of the soils on which he cultivates them, 
 and of the manures applied, but the rain and the dew, the air 
 and the sunshine, which he cannot regulate, will often change 
 his best planned results. 
 
 All soils contain mineral matter and p'hosphate of lime suffi- 
 cient for a crop of any kind ; but it is readily seen that if the 
 same crop is removed, year after year, and no equivalent 
 returned, certain elements will become entirely exhausted. 
 But if the elements removed can be replaced by manures, oi 
 such a succession of crops raised that each element will be 
 taken in its turn, allowing the soil an interval of several years 
 to recuperate, the soil will retain its fertility. It is in this con- 
 nection that the analyses of manures are valuable, and here 
 that chemistry has done and is doing useful work for agricul- 
 ture. We give below the principal elements of various 
 manures and fertilizers. 
 
 A cord of leached ashes contains about 
 
 147 pounds phosphoric acid, 184 pounds silex, 
 
 41 " oxide of magnesia, 21 " oxide of iron, 
 
 196 " magnesia, 50 " potash, • 
 
 1,657 " carbonic acid, 2,227 " lime. 
 
 Average dung of a cow, for one year, contains 
 4,800 pounds genie, , 37 pounds chalk, 
 
 677 " carbonate of ammonia, 24 " common salt, 
 
 71 " bone dust, 15 " sulphate of potash, 
 
 37 " plaster. 
 
254 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 A family of six persons will ordinarily produce per day 
 about eighteen pounds of excrement, liquid and solid; or, in one 
 year, six thousand five hundred and seventy pounds, containing 
 twelve pounds of chlorine, fifty pounds of salts, two hundred 
 and twelve pounds of dry, organic matter. In the latter there 
 will be forty-five pounds nitrogen. This is equal to fifty-five 
 pounds oipure ammonia, or one hundred and forty -two pounds 
 of the carbonate of ammonia of commerce. See, in Chapter III., 
 directions for saving and utilizing this valuable manure. 
 
 The manure of fattening hogs approaches nearly to night soil. 
 Sheep dung comes next in order. Horse manure contains, in 
 one hundred parts, about 
 
 10. carbon, 3.28 carbonate of ammonia, 
 1.30 hydrogen, .96 other salts, 
 
 9.50- oxygen, Balance water. 
 
 .60 nitrogen, 
 
 But horse dung rapidly loses these valuable qualities, unless 
 composted as directed in Chapter III. 
 
 Guano should contain from thirty-four to thirty -eight parts 
 phosphates, thirty-three to thirty-five parts organic matter and. 
 salts of ammonia, and sixteen to twenty-four parts water. One 
 hundred pounds cow's urine contains forty pounds of ammonia, 
 and eighty pounds of the most powerful salts ever used by the 
 farmer ; its actual value, therefore, is nearly double that of the 
 dung. One cord of loam saturated with urine, is fully as 
 valuable as a cord of solid dung. See directions, Chapter III., 
 for saving the liquid manure. The urine of the hog is 
 still more valuable, containing one fourth more ammonia, and 
 also phosphates of which the urine of other animals is destitute. 
 "We wish we could awaken, in the mind of the farmer, an alarm 
 at the waste of these valuable products which is constantly 
 
SPECIAL CEOPS. 255 
 
 going on around him. Two hundred pounds of bones, yielding 
 one hundred pounds of bone ash, contain, 
 
 Phosphate of lime, 88.00 pounds. Soda 3.25 pounds. 
 
 Carbonate of lime.. 6.00 '■ Alkaline sulphates 
 Magnesia 1.25 " and chlorides 1.50 " 
 
 This will require about eighty-eight pounds of oil of vitriol to 
 reduce to super phosphate. 
 
 The above analyses show, in a measure, the constituents of 
 the various crops and manures, and may suggest the proper 
 application of the one to the other. It must be remembered, 
 in this connection, that the crops can take up nothing but 
 liquids ; and the most powerful manures, unless readily soluble 
 in the soil, are of no value to the crops. 
 
 No application of manures, however, can preclude the neces- 
 sity of a rotation of crops in order to the hest results. There are 
 elements, both in the soil and in the air, that the nicest analyses 
 cannot detect, and nothing but time can replace. A rotation 
 of manures is also a necessity. The farmer who applies the 
 same manure, whatever crop he may take from the soil, has 
 yet to learn the first principles of rotation; which are to replace, 
 as nearly as may be, the constituents removed by the crop. 
 There is also an adaptation of manures to the soil as well as 
 to the crop. A soil already full of lime is not benefitted by 
 more. 
 
 Stock raising and mixed husbandry are essential requisites 
 of a system of rotation of crops. Farmers must keep more and 
 better stock if they would make farming pay. Says S. E.' 
 Todd : " When the agriculture of our country is characterized 
 by that system of judicious management which will eventually 
 prevail — when our soils shall have been underdrained as they 
 ought to be — when they shall be improved in fertility by 
 manuring and more complete pulverization — when our farmers 
 
256 HOW TO MAKE FARMIJS'G PAY. 
 
 have learned how to save, to make, and to apply manure in the 
 most profitable manner — and when they have learned to turn 
 their grain into meat which will be worth as much as the grain, 
 while the manure of the animals fed will increase the amount 
 of the next crop nearly two fold — then we may not only reckon 
 on our agriculture as heing progressive, but as a system of farm- 
 ing that 'will pay,' and be worthy of universal adoption." 
 " What then is paying farming ? We answer, it is that system 
 of management in which our old worn out farms are renovated 
 from their greatly impoverished condition, the DOor land ren- 
 dered good and productive, and the good land rendered better, 
 paying the cost of cultivation and the interest on the capital 
 invested ; and leaving a profit to the proprietor, all from the 
 resources of the/arm." "We want to sell the products, and, at 
 the same time, make such a disposition of them that the soil 
 will not be impoverished by removing crops from it. We want 
 to keep our cake and eat it too, in a certain sense. For exam- 
 ple : if a farmer raises one hundred bushels of Indian corn, his 
 aim should be to use it up in such a- manner that his soil will 
 not be impoverished. The same is true of his other crops of 
 cereal grain and grass. By feeding out one hundred bushels 
 of corn in the most economical manner, and to the best kind of 
 swine, cattle, or sheep, and by saving all their manure and apply- 
 ing it to the soil where the corn grew, and by cultivating that 
 soil in a most thorough manner, its fertility may be improved." 
 " If a farmer desires to raise bountiful crops, of any kind of 
 grain or grass, he cannot expect to be able, to do it on a soil 
 that has been exhausted of most of those substances which are 
 required to produce that kind of grain. But by raising stock 
 in connection with growing grain, by feeding out a large por- 
 tion of coarse grain to animals ; by husbanding all the resources 
 for saving and preparing fertilizing materials for the soil ; and 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 257 
 
 bj adopting a judicious system of rotation of crops whicli arc 
 adapted to the soil and to the locality, the grain producing 
 material which is especially adapted to promoting the growth 
 of each kind of grain, will have time to accummulate in the 
 soil, so that, whenever a given crop of grain or grass is to be 
 grown, there will be such an abundance of it that not only the 
 stalks, but the grain, will be large in quantity and superior in 
 quality. 
 
 "In case a farmer keeps sheep, in connection with grain 
 raising, he will want one or tnore cows, to furnish milk and 
 butter. Then, lard will be very essential for culinary purposes, 
 to say nothing of the value of pork for food. Then a span or 
 two of good horses will be indispensable, and a yoke of good 
 oxen. All these animals are absolutely necessary, even on a 
 grain farm. Therefore, where such animals are kept, we have 
 all the elements of a good system of mixed husbandry to begin 
 with. And now, if every thing is arranged harmoniously, in 
 connection with a judicious system of rotation of crops, pro- 
 viding all the manure is made and saved, and properly applied, 
 that can be; and if the soil is thoroughly drained, where it is 
 too wet, and properly cultivated, and every operation per- 
 formed in good time, and in a farmer-like manner, we may rest 
 assured, that success will attend the effort of the husbandman." 
 " In order to come fully up to the standard and practice of a 
 thrifty and successful cultivator of the soil, every farmer should 
 calculate to keep some kind of stock, neat cattle or sheep, to 
 consume, and to work into manure the corn stalks, straw, and 
 coarse grain. It is, and always has been, and always will be, 
 ' penny wise, and pound foolish' policy, to keep poor animals, 
 or to keep am'waZs poor. It has ever been a mystery, that I 
 could not unravel, why multitudes of farmers could be so re- 
 gardless of their own interests, as to allow their animals, which 
 
258 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM I AY. 
 
 come into the barnyard in a thrifty, fleshy con Htion, in late 
 autumn, to return to the pasture poor, in the spring. It is the 
 worst policy on the whole farm, to allow animals of any kind 
 to grow poor. A farmer should not attempt to keep one more 
 animal than he can keep in a growing and thrifty condition. 
 To keep too many half-starved animals, is a practice which de- 
 serves the severest condemnation. I have always acted on the 
 policy, that it is better to save a pound of fat or flesh, than to 
 attempt to produce it. The kind of soil that a man cultivates 
 in connection with the crops he raises, should determine, in a 
 great degree, what kind of stock he should keep on his farm. 
 If a man's soil will produce abundant crops of wheat, oats, corn, 
 and grass ; then we may conclude that it will support thorough- 
 bred animals of the largest size, whether they be neat cattle or 
 sheep. If neat cattle, those that have a large infusion of Durham 
 blood will be found quite as profitable, and doubtless more so, 
 than any other breed." 
 
 On a hilly, barren, and rather unproductive soil, Mr. Todd 
 recommends the Devon cattle, and South Down sheep, or a 
 cross between the Merino and South Down. (We have quoted 
 thus at length from Mr. Todd, as expressing, better than we 
 could do it, our idea of the principles of rotation and mixed 
 husbandry, and we can give no better advice just here, than to 
 advise every reader to procure Mr. Todd's book, " The Young 
 Farmers^ Manual", notwithstanding its exorbitant price, and 
 we can assure you that it will well repay a careful perusal.) 
 This system requires improved stock. A good cow, ox, or 
 sheep, got by a thoroughbred male; is preferable in every re- 
 spect to two poor ones, by grade males. They give more milk, 
 more beef, more wool, and more mutton, in proportion to the 
 food furnished them, and the manure voided is more valuable. 
 
SPECIAL CEOPS. 259 
 
 Our advice to farmers is: Never, when avoidable, put any ani- 
 mal to a grade male, but always to a thoroughbred. 
 
 Sheep will often, be more valuable than neat cattle on the 
 farm. A farmer can take care of sheep with less labor and ex- 
 pense, and will get annual returns for wool and mutton, whereas 
 neat cattle must be kept three or four years. Sheep will eat 
 coarse grain and fodder, which for, cattle should be ground. 
 ISTeat cattle and sheep should not be pastured together, as the 
 sheep will take advantage of them and get most of the fine, ten- 
 der grass. Pigs should always forn» a part of this system of 
 mixed husbandrj^j as they work over and make into valuable 
 manure a great deal that would otherwise be lost. 
 
 Consuming the productions of the soil on the farm is the key 
 note of our system of agriculture, and the only system to be 
 recommended for universal adoption. Neglect of this principle 
 is one of the reasons why farming pays no better. " A mixed 
 husbandry is a system of farm management, in which raising 
 grain constitutes only a portion of a farmer's employment, while 
 raising stock of some kind' is a chief part of his business. In 
 other words, raising stock and growing grain on the same farm 
 posesses decided advantages over that system of husbandry in 
 which nothing but grain is grown or stock reared. A system 
 of mixed husbandry includes all the good practices to which we 
 have made allusion in this chapter. Every farmer must judge 
 for himself what stock to keep, what crops to raise, and what 
 system of rotation to pursue, we shall therefore only indicate 
 briefly some of the systems of rotation, and the proper place of 
 the Drincipal crops in the same. . 
 
 The farm is divided into pasture, meadow, and tillage land, 
 
 ,. the latter into four, five, six, or seven fields, according to the 
 
 number of crops to be raised. As a rule, none but the pastures 
 
 should be fenced off. (See " Fences") The seven field system 
 
260 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 does not make permanent grass lands, but gives several yeara 
 to grass of each of the divisions of land, and -gives one to corn, 
 one to oats, and one or two to wheat. 
 
 Supposing the rotation to begin with corn, a cleansing crop; it 
 is followed by oats, which has the same effect in that respect as 
 the corn crop, though not hoed. It makes a shade at midsum- 
 mer, calculated to check the growth of weeds, and the stubble 
 being shortly after plowed, it has the effect of a hoed crop, and, 
 with the previous corn crop, combines to leave the ground in 
 condition for grass seeds. The oat stubble is manured at mid- 
 summer, with the contents of the farmyard, and a good foun- 
 dation is laid for a crop of wheat, and of grass foUovang. 
 
 Whether clover seed alone, or timothy or other grass seeds, 
 be now sown, depends upon whether one or two crops of wheat 
 are to be taken from the course. If two crops, then clover seed 
 only will be sown the following spring. From this sowing, a 
 crop of clover hay will be taken the next year, and a fallow 
 prepared for wheat the coming fall. Upon this wheat is sown 
 timothy, or other grass seeds. The crops should nearly all be 
 consumed on the farm, and the refuse returned to the soil. 
 This is a system to be recommended. It makes variety in the 
 crops ; gives the soil the benefit of the preserving effects of a 
 long standing sod; devotes half of the period of rotation to 
 ameliorating treatment, and returns not only the coarser pro- 
 ducts to the soil, but feeds at home a large i)roportion of the 
 grain. 
 
 The following is a good six course rotation. First year roots 
 heavily manured. Second, clpver limed, and second growth 
 plowed under. Third, wheat. Fourth and fifth, grass, two 
 years. Sixth, corn, rye or oats. A five year course rotation 
 First, green crop. Second, wheat. Third, grass. Fourth, roots 
 Fifth, corn or oats. 
 
SPECIAL CROPS. 261 
 
 By this plan two grain crops are never raised off the same 
 field in succession. The following is a four course rotation, 
 which, in some localities, will do very well : First year, corn, 
 potatoes, or fallow, manured. Second, oats. Third, clover. 
 Fourth, wheat. 
 
 The only objection to this course is that one grain crop, corn, 
 is followed by another grain crop, oats; but in the culture of 
 maize the soil is, or should be, kept perfectly free from weeds, 
 and being a dull crop, the land is generally in good heart Tor 
 cereals. 
 
 Of course the farmer must form his system to suit his own 
 peculiar circumstances, but will do well to adhere to the princi- 
 ple laid down. It will be noticed that we advocate wheat after 
 clover, or more literally clover before wheat. "We consider it 
 good practice, as will be seen by reading the chapter on wheat 
 culture. In many wheat growing districts the rotation is limited 
 to wheat and clover, two seasons in clover and one in wheat, 
 sheep and horses consuming the clover on the farm. This can 
 only be good practice, however, in districts covered with lime- 
 stone and plaster beds. Another plan is to raise wheat after 
 potatoes, commencing the rotation with corn, heavily manured 
 and thoroughly cultivated, following this with potatoes and 
 barnyard manure, the third year wheat, and then two years in 
 grass. We have heretofore spoken of turnips and wheat in 
 Chapter V. A crop of peas is one of the best to precede winter 
 wheat; they take but a small proportion of the wheat producing 
 material, mature rapidly, and when fed out to growing stock 
 return full value to the soil. They leave the ground mellow 
 and friable, but a dressing of well composted manure should be 
 plowed in after the peas are removed. "Wheat was formerly 
 sown after Indian corn, but as it takes, in large measure, the 
 same plant food, it cannot be called good practice. 
 
262 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 The sugar beet is excellent to precede all grain crops. {See 
 Ohajpter on Beets for sugar) Corn on sod ground is the common 
 practice, and we do not know that it can be improved upon. 
 We are aware that corn is often raised on the same ground for 
 successively five, ten, and even twenty years, but such a prac- 
 tice is simple folly. We should not follow roots with corn as a ' 
 general rule, although we have met with good success on 
 heavily manured land. The grasses are usually sown with and 
 therefore follow grain in almost any system of rotation. 
 
 The rule to be observed in all rotations is : If any crop takes 
 np a large proportion of any given element from the soil, do 
 not follow it with another crop requiring the same element. 
 The rotation on prairie soils is often coflJ.ned to grass, corn, and 
 wheat, the grain being all removed, . siid the straw burned. 
 This is an exhaustive process ; and there should be, substituted 
 for it, at once, a more extended rotation, or at least a system of 
 mixed husbandry, which shall consume a portion of the grain, 
 with the hay, stalks, and straw, on the farm, and return them to 
 the soil. The systems of rotation for cotton and other crops 
 are given in connection with the culture of those crops. 
 
 In conclusion, we would say, raise such crops, and in such 
 quantities, that you can give each a full share of attention, re- 
 membering that to get the best crops requires the best care, and 
 make it your ruling principle that the best market for your 
 crops is in the manger, the stall, and the piggery. 
 
261 
 
PART SECOND-STOCK RAISING. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 HORSES AND MULES. 
 
 |N breeding- HOESES for farm use, quickness' ol 
 ■working, power to pull loads, and ability to endure 
 constant daily labor, are the prime qualifications to 
 be aimed at. 
 
 Sjpecd, draught, and endurance. We say speed, for a horse that 
 can harrow, or rake two acres while another is doing one, or 
 that can go to mill, or market, in one hour, when it takes 
 another two, is worth to his owner, other things being equal, 
 twice as much as the othra". In the choice of a stallion, then, 
 for breeding good horses, the more blood compatible with the 
 size required the better; the "pare blooded," high-bred horse, 
 'having greater quickness, strength, bottom, health, and vigor 
 of constitution, as well as greater courage. 
 
 Black Hawk, whose portrait forms the frontispiece to this 
 chapter, is a good specimen of the roadster. {Fig. 68.) 
 
 The blood should be on the side of the stallion ; breed up, 
 not down. Never put a mare to a stallion of inferior blood. 
 
 The stallion should be free from vices of temper and disposi- 
 tion, as he will surely transmit these to his progeny. He will 
 also transmit diseases and malformations, therefore these should 
 
 be avoided. The general description for a stallion for the pur- 
 17 ■ , 265 
 
266 HO"W TO MAKE THE FARM I AT, 
 
 pose of the farmer is — sixteen hands high ; fore legs above the 
 knee, and hind legs above the hock, long and muscular ; below 
 these joints, short and bony ; joints round and well set, short 
 backed, well ribbed up, short in the saddle place, and long 
 below it ; high withers, broad loins, broad chest, straight rump, 
 a high muscular crest, a lean well set head, broad nostrils, 
 small ears, and a small clear eye. (See fig. 69.) A dark bay is 
 the best color, an iron grey next, then black, and other dark 
 shades. The mane and tail should always be darker than the 
 hair of the body. The prevailing method of using stallions 
 cannot be too strongly condemned. The unscrupulous owners 
 of stallions tax them to a degree ruinous to them and their 
 progeny. No stallion should be used regularly as a breeder, 
 until he is four years old. When three, he may be put to a 
 half dozen mares, and his qualities tested, but too much must 
 not be expected of his stock, at this age. If it is passable, keep 
 him for a stallion ; with moderate usage his colts will be good 
 until he is twelve or sixteen. But the present monstrous prac- 
 tice of allowing stallions to serve from sixty to eighty mares in 
 a single season of three months, rapidly deteriorates the stock. 
 Twenty mares, or at most two a week, for the season, is all that 
 any stallion can be taxed, without serious loss in the quality of 
 his colts. And instead of being confined all the time in the 
 stable, eating heating food, and only seeing the mare when led 
 out for copulation, they should be allowed to run together for 
 a day or two, in the pasture ; both the hoi'se and ihe mare will 
 enjoy this season, and the superiority of the foal will abundant- 
 ly repay such an allowance. You will raise horses with much 
 less disposition to be vicious. 
 
 Our breed of horses will continue to degenerate as long as 
 the present exhaustive practice is continued. The only practi- 
 cal remedy, that we now see, is for farmers to club together and 
 
HOESES AND MULES. 267 
 
 purchase a stallion, or raise one among themselves, keeping 
 kim for their' own breeding. This course has been largely 
 practiced in some communities, and a marked and most profit- 
 able improvement in the stock has been the result. 
 
 In the Choice of the Mare, size, symmetry, and sound- 
 ness, are to be regarded as essentials. ("Beauty from the 
 dam ; temper and disposition, from the sire.") She should 
 have a roomy frame, a little more than the average length 
 from hip to shoulder, sloping hips, wide chest, deep girth, 
 strong quarters, .and particularly a wide deep pelvis ; permitting 
 the passage of the foal into the world uninjured. She should 
 be gentle, free from all vicious habits, and from all constitu- 
 tional diseases or deformities, such as diseases of the lungs, 
 eyes, or spavins, bad feet, or any bony enlargements, as 
 she will almost surely transmit these ill shapes, even if 
 she 'herself is excellent. Never breed from a sulky, baulky, 
 savage, or vicious mare, unless you wish to perpetuate 
 the breed. It is true, these are often overcome by the sire, 
 but the risk is too great to be advisable. Before putting 
 her to the stallion, by careful usage and feeding, get her 
 into the most perfect state of health, not over loaded with 
 fat, but in a first rate condition. Her state at the time of coi- 
 tion, will have a lasting effect upon the foal. Gestation should 
 commence under the most favorable circumstances. There 
 should be mtttual adaptation, between the sire and the dam, 
 in both form, size, and all other important characteristics. The 
 mare should be a little larger than the horse, unless the mare 
 be too low, when she may be bred to a horse a trifle taller, but 
 not of the leggy kind. A low mare to a leggy horse, to pro- 
 duce height, is a mistake. Any great difference in size will 
 usually produce distortions. If either is defective in any 
 point, be sure the other is perfect in that point. If the colt is 
 
268 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 desired for tlie farm, put the mare to a farm-horse, if for the 
 carriage, to a stallion adapted for a roadster. If the design ia 
 to improve the breed, -without special reference to either, a 
 pure blooded horse will certainly, under our limitations, accom- 
 plish the purpose. If your stock is ' good, you may breed in 
 and in, for two generations, but never more, that is with near 
 blood relations, and if your stock is degenerated, cross it at 
 once, with some distinct strain of pure blood, to reinvigorate 
 and strengthen the stock. Where stock has already been long 
 inbred, breed up, by stinting the mares to the best thorough- 
 bred stallion that can be found, broad chested, and strong 
 loined, about the height of the mare, but stouter. The fillies 
 from this cross will be larger and stouter than their dams, and 
 from them may be bred again, still larger and stouter hordes, 
 by the same process. 
 
 The Canadian horse, we think, all things considered, the •best 
 breed for the farmer, and if special care were taken to breed 
 only from the largest and most perfect specimens, or to breed 
 the mares to thoroughbreds of the Norman stock, the breed 
 might be greatly improved. It possesses endurance, but needs 
 a little increase in size, and decrease in weight, and increase in 
 speed. Judicious breeding, with this object in view, will 
 abundantly repay the breeder. We cannot close this subject 
 without entering our strongest protest, against the abuse of the 
 mare often practiced. She should never be put to the stud 
 before she is three years old,, and it is usually much better 'to 
 wait still another year, that she may perfectly mature. Again; 
 let her have more of the companionship of the horse ; a single 
 connection does not satisfy her ; let them run together two or 
 three days, in a retired pasture, the disposition of your colt 
 will be enough better to. warrant it. Thirdly, do not make her 
 bring a colt every year, it is too great a tax upon her, and the 
 
HOESBS AND MULES. 271 
 
 colts -will not be -worth any more. Two inferior colts are no 
 better than one first class. Again, don't try to get colts from 
 a poor old, worn out mare, tbat after years of bard labor, baa 
 earned the right to rest. It is a cruelty to her, and the foal 
 will be nothing but an abortion and a disgrace. 
 
 The Make intended for Bebeding, should be subjected 
 only to light labor, and this should be continued through the 
 first months of gestation, taking care that she be not subjected 
 to any strains, or great fatigue. When not required to work, 
 if the weather is good, permit her to run in the pasture. "When 
 the weather is inclement, she should have shelter. Her food 
 should be liberal and nutritious. Clover, lucerne, green corn, 
 ruta bagas, and carrots, a few old and thoroughly dried oats, 
 and steamed bran mashes, are the best food during gestation 
 and suckling. She has two lives to support, and her food should 
 be moist, easily digested, and nutritious. 
 
 She should be carefully groomed, and most kindly treated, 
 all through the period of gestation, if you expect from her a 
 good dispositioned foal. During the last six or eight weeks 
 she should be subjected to no labor, removed from all other ani- 
 mals, allowed to roam at will, or taken out and gently exercised. 
 As she comes nearer the time of foaling, keep her where she 
 can be watched, and assistance rendered if any should be needed. 
 When the period arrives, the time occupied by the mare in foal- 
 ing is short, and her pain severe. We cannot approve of foal- 
 ing in the field. Lead her in on to the barn floor, or under a 
 shed well littered. Let all your actions and words be gentle 
 and kind — a harsh tone is unnecessary, and may be injurious. 
 Even the voice of a stranger, or of one of whom she is afraid, 
 adds to the sufferings of the mare at this time. The hour of 
 labor being near at hand, fasten a pair of light hobbles to the 
 fetlocks of both hind legs, and ropes from them run between 
 
2T2 HOW TO MAKE THE PABM PAT. 
 
 the fore tegs. This sliould be done by some one in whom she 
 recognizes a friend. They should be held firmly, to prevent 
 her striking out at the attendant who assists the birth. 
 
 After the birth, bring a pail of warm milk gruel, and leave 
 the mare and foal to themselTes. Entire quiet for two or three 
 hours is the best medicine. After this, give her a meal of pre- 
 pared food. Do not resort to purgations if she does not imme- 
 diately espel the after-birth. Some writers recommend a quart 
 of ale once in three hours ; if, after the third dose, it is not 
 expelled, inject cold water until it is. 
 
 The colt is now the object of care. If the dam is in good 
 condition, she will need no medicine. After a month or six 
 Weeks, the labor of the mare should be gradually resumed, and 
 the colt allowed to run with her ; but not yet on the roads. If 
 the colt is strong, he may be weaned in six months — except 
 that fall colts should, not, be weaned until the spring grass 
 appears. The future animal is now in your hands, and will be 
 about what you make him; Half tlie diseases, and all the vices 
 of t?he horse, are the result of man!s treatment of him. Unvary- 
 ing kindness and attention novsr, are a thousand times better 
 than the whip or the horse-breaker by and by. He should be 
 coaxed'to take morsels from the hand, petted and fondled. The 
 lesson is soon learned, and he learns to regard men as friends, 
 and to do their bidding. It is surprising how universally men 
 repel the instinct of confidence and affection in the horse, and 
 think it is more manly to assert their authority in harsh and 
 threatening tones, which only awaken dread and fear. The 
 colt should be warmly housed and sheltered during the winter. 
 Thousands of good .colts are injured for- life by being compelled 
 to stand out without shelter, and with scant food. Chopped 
 feed moistened, bran mashes, etc., are even more necessary for 
 the colt than for the mature animal. 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 273 
 
 If the colt is to be castrated, it should be done when he ia 
 from four to six months old. "We would repeat here, that the 
 supply of stallions is altogether too small, and urge upon farm- 
 ers the desirableness of preserving entire their best male colts. 
 Castrating, if done early, is a safe operation, and may be done 
 by the farmer himself. Find the orifice through the lining of 
 the belly ; trace it back to the testicle, a distance at this ago of 
 only two or three inches ; bring down the testicle with the two 
 forefingers. The vessels will bleed but little. Apply a little 
 fine salt and turpentine, and the evil effects will be soon re- 
 moved. The longer castration is delayed, the more difficult and 
 dangerous it becomes. 
 
 We have been, in all this chapter, considering the method of 
 breeding good horses. Those who are satisfied with the poor, 
 scrubby, inferior horses so common all over the country, which 
 cost just as much to get, and just as much to keep, as a good 
 horse, will probably continue the old method of breeding, hap- 
 hazard, from broken down, half-starved mares — ^and when they 
 get a colt, will ruin all his good qualities by neglect and un- 
 kindness. 
 
 Beeaking and Training the Colt, on the present system, 
 engenders nearly all the so called vices of the horse. The 
 horse is not by nature vicious. Judicious training of the colt 
 will break up any vices that may have been inherited. Within 
 a week from his birth the training should commence. "When 
 you take a mash to the mare, seat yourself, and let her eat out 
 of your dish, at the same time offering some tempting morsel 
 to the colt, take advantage of his acquaintance to handle him a 
 little pat his neck and gradually to handle him all over until 
 you can lift his feet, handle his ears, and look in his mouth, 
 without his showing any signs of fear. If you always act and 
 speak kindly he will know no cause for fear. A few moments 
 
0-74 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 each day will suffice to accomplish all this, and much more, be- 
 fore he is weaned. A bit made of a green stick may be held 
 'n his mouth by strings, until he will open his mouth readily to 
 >ake it, Avhen the &olt bit and bridle may be put in its place ; 
 after this has been tried a few times he may be led about a little 
 with it beside the dam, he may then be tied by it a few minutes 
 at a time until he will stand easy. All this while it should be 
 done gradually, and, without a harsh word or a blow, should De 
 done firmly. If the colt is inclined to resist any of the opera- 
 tions, gently but firmly insist and persist until he learns that 
 whatever you want of him he must do, and that instead of be- 
 ing hurt, he is rewarded when he does what is wanted. He 
 will soon learn that man is his master as well as his friend, and 
 will never forget it ; no more will he ever forget abuse, or un 
 kindness. 
 
 He should now be walked around with a bag over his back, 
 first loose and then strapped on, then the stirrups attached and 
 allowed to dangle, until the fear of any thing of the sort is re- 
 moved. When he is a year old he may be reined up occasion- 
 ally to the surcingle and allowed to mouth the bits, and if de- 
 signed for a saddle horse the sfemblance of a man put on his 
 b^ck, or for a farm horse, the different portions of the harness 
 put on, and taken off occasionally. 
 
 During his second year he may be tied beside some steady 
 horse, and taught to walk and trot, to be guided by the lines 
 without the shafts, to be backed into the shafts, and finally to 
 draw the buggy himself, all by slow, easy stages, and all the 
 danger and difficulty of breaking a wild colt when he is wanted 
 is avoided. If he is turned out to pasture, the person who car- 
 ries him salt should, as often as once a week, give a few mo- 
 ments to some portion of the above training. 
 
 The common method of letting the colt run wild until he ia 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 275 
 
 two or three years old, and then beginning his training, is un- 
 natural, cruel, harmful in every way. A colt gentled in the 
 way we have described is worth at the age of three years double 
 the value of the unbroken colt. Neglected till he is three 
 years old the, colt can never he properly broken. He may be sub- 
 dued to sullen obedience, but by the above method he may be 
 made the willing servant of man, whom he has learned to regard 
 as his friend, as well as master. Nothing but the most stupid dis- 
 regard of the law of kindness can make this patient, docile and 
 naturally obedient animal, vicious. 
 
 But as there are some who will still persist in destroying this 
 most valuable trait of character in their most valuable property, 
 we shall give directions for breaking these already half spoiled 
 animals. 
 
 The more high spirited and the more valuable the colt is, the 
 more likely is he to be spoiled, by trying to do at three years 
 old the work that should have been done before he was one. 
 
 He should be brought into the stable, and visited, and 
 handled often, until he is somewhat used to it, then portions of 
 the harness tried on; if he can be accustomed to it without 
 showing fear, lead him out into the yard, and make him turn to 
 the right or left at the word or the reins. If he refuses to obey, 
 which is quite likely, we know of no way but to whip him into 
 subjection. When he does obey caress and reward him. If 
 you succeed in making him obey helo, fasten him beside a 
 steady horse with a light wagon, and make him go, peaceably 
 if he will, forcibly if you must. If after all these operations he 
 shies from the harness, tries to run from the wagon, or refuses 
 to draw, do not give it up, but use every exertion to bring him 
 to submission, and, finally, to the process known as taming. 
 No horse properly gentled and trained according to the above 
 directions will need taming, but as the majority of colts are 
 
276 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 never trained a great many horses will have to be tamed, for 
 which 
 
 Earet's Method is the best. ' It consists in fastening up the 
 left fore leg, by a strap, buckled tight over the ankle, and the 
 arm near the body, and the second strap attached to the right 
 foot, run through' the surcingle to the right hand of the tamer, 
 while the left holds the bridle. See fig. 70. The horse is now 
 harmless, and should be made to hop, when a vigorous pull 
 with the right, will throw him on to his knees, where he can 
 be held until he is ready to turn on his Side, which he should 
 be encouraged to do. These operations will take from fifteen 
 minutes to three hours, according to the strength and spirit of 
 the horse. "When once fairly down, he should be caressed, 
 handled, and a saddle or portions of the harness put on to him 
 until he finds that none of them will do him any harm. This 
 throwing should be repeated several' times, until the horse 
 readily submits, and allows his master to do whatever he pleases. 
 By this method Mr. Earey has tamed the most vicious of horses. 
 
 How TO Stable, Feed, and Groom a Horse. No man has 
 any right to torture a dumb animal. It is poor economy to 
 breed disease and death, in so valuable an animal as the horse. 
 Yet both these things are done in most stables. They are 
 abodes of torture and death. Each horse should be allowed, at 
 least, six by nine feet of stall room, that he may have room to 
 turn about, change his position, lie down, or stand up, as he 
 pleases; during the long weary hours that he is a prisoner. The 
 partition between these stalls should be solid, only the height 
 of the horse's chest ; the balance should be open work. In this 
 stall he should not be tied by the head, as this prevents the 
 change of position, of which we speak. He should be allowed 
 ttie freedom of at least a six by nine feet cell. The present 
 method of tying a horse in a narrow stall, with the floor slant- 
 
«7 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 279 
 
 ing backwards, is the cause of the diseases of the feet and joints, 
 so common and so disastrous. It is desirable to have the floor 
 slant backward to save the urine, but the horse should never 
 be forced to sleep, or stand long, in that position ; if he has the 
 freedom of the stall; he will choose his own position. We 
 allow the horse nine feet, and there should be at least six more 
 to the stable doors. No matter how many horses there are, no 
 horse should have less than this space, and twelve feet in 
 height. It is a thousand times better to have no loft at all 
 over the horses, to give them the clear space to the roof, and 
 light and* air their stables from the rpof ; but as it will be im- 
 possible to persuade most farmers to do this much for the 
 health and comfort of the animal that serves him so faithfully, 
 we will say that no stable for a horse should be one inch less 
 than twelve feet high, well lighted, and well ventilated. We 
 do not mean by this that there should be cracks in the floor, and 
 doors, and sides, by which cold currents of air are let in upon 
 the poor shivering creature, but that there should be some 
 regular outlet for the impure, and inlet for the joure air. 
 
 If you still persist in having a loft over your stable, there 
 should be left at least a space of three feet, between the loft 
 and the back of the stable, and this space opening into the back 
 of the stable and extending to a ventilator at the roof, will 
 carry off one half the diseases that now affect your horses. 
 The impure air that most horses breathe, is a most flagrant 
 violation of all the principles of health. Shut yourself up in a 
 contracted room for months, eat, drink, sleep, urinate, etc., in 
 the close quarters,' and how long before you would wish an end 
 to your existence ? But the lungs of the horse are as sensitive 
 as yours, his smell is keener, his eye is as tender. This brings 
 us to the matter of light ; blindness in horses is in three cases 
 out of four the result of dark stables. 
 
280 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 The horse can see in the dark, but not in total darkness. 
 Nothing thrives without light. The stables should have the 
 sunlight by day, and whatever light there is at night. If the 
 best plan is adopted and the stables run to the roof, they can 
 well be lighted by windows in the roof. But, however this 
 may be, the light should come from above and behind the 
 horse. A twelve feet stable will allow of a window over the 
 Soor, for there should be a door, six feet wide and eight feet 
 high, behind each horse ; this door should be cut in halves, 
 both ways, making four quarters, either one or all of which can 
 be opened or closed at pleasure. They should be Vide and 
 high, in order that there might be no danger of the horse 
 hitting either his head, or his hips, in going out and in; it 
 should be divided in order that in the summer the upper half 
 can be kept opened, and a draft of cool air supplied. 
 
 The stable should be cleaned out and aired every morning, 
 and, if the horse stands in it at all during the day, at night also. 
 The manure should not only be shovelled entirely out of the 
 stable, but the floor should be thoroughly washed down with 
 water, as recommended in the chapter on manures, not only to 
 save the manure, but to save the eyes, nose, and lungs of the 
 horse from the ammonia generated by the fermenting urine. 
 This ammonia is the fruitful cause of many of the diseases of 
 the horse. Not only should the impure air be as far as possible 
 excluded, but the horse absolutely requires fresh air if you 
 would keep him in a state of health. This can be secured by a 
 very cheap and. simple contrivance. An air-box, eight inches 
 square, should be run through the whole length of the building, 
 each end being open to the air, but protected by a screen of 
 iilats or wire. This box may be about even with the nostrils, and 
 openings, an inch square, made in it in each stall. In most 
 stables the mangers are too high. The horse naturally eats off 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 281 
 
 the ground. This bfings us to the subject of Food. The pasture 
 is the natural feeding-ground of the horse. Tender, juicy grass 
 and twigs are his natural food. His teeth are soft, his throat, 
 stomach, and intestines are sensitive. In feeding the horse, 
 these plain facts are generally overlooked or ignored. No posi- 
 tive rule for feeding all horses can be given ; but the food 
 should be soft, juicy, easily digested. It should be clean and 
 sweet. Clean, frosh water should be always within his reach. 
 The farmer's horse can and should have more or less pasturage. 
 When the grass is green and tender, in the spring, the horse 
 delights in it. In the warm summer nights, if possible, he 
 should be permitted to roam at his pleasure in the pasture, 
 rather than be confined in the heated stable, tormented by flies 
 and other insects. The cool, dewy grass will be very beneficial 
 to him. "When confined in the stable in warm weather, the 
 upper half of the stable door should be open, and he be free to 
 thrust his head out into the night air if he choose, which he cer- 
 tainly will. We have, in the chapter on breeding, referred to 
 the food necessary for the mare and foal, and will only speak 
 here of the food of wbRKiNG horses. 
 
 Too much hay and too little grain is the mistake in feeding 
 wor]j:ing horses. For ordinary work, from eight to ten pounds 
 of hay, (by which we mean the best of hay, properly prepared,) 
 and twelve quarts of good heavy oats is amply sufficient for 
 regular feed. They should be fed with a lock of hay and a 
 half -pail of water on opening the stable ; and when the stables 
 have been cleaned and aired, and the horse groomed, he should 
 have the other half-pail of water, and, if going out, six quarts of 
 oats, if not, four quarts, and, after these are eaten, four or five 
 pounds of hay. Horses should be watered, if convenient, during 
 the forenoon, and certainly at noon, when they should have four 
 quarts more of oats, and when they return at night, should be 
 
282 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 "cleaned, watered, and have fheir oats and hay without fail. Two 
 or three pecks of clean carrots, turnips, beets, or potatoes, a few 
 at a time, will be grateful to them, and invaluable in regulating 
 the bowels and cooling the blood. A mash of stewed bran and 
 oats once a week is not too much to ask for such a faithful 
 slave, and will tend to his health and usefulness. If he is to be 
 put to severe work, the amount of grain musf be increased and 
 of hay diminished. 
 
 The condition in Vhich the hay and grain is given is another 
 important consideration. The natural food of the horse is soft 
 and j uicy ; hay, oats and corn are hard, harsh, and dry. One 
 third less fodder is necessary where it is moistened and softened. 
 All hay for the horse ought to be chopped and moistened an 
 hour before feeding. Oats should be ground and mixed with 
 the hay in the form of provender. Corn should never be given 
 whole, unless steamed or soaked, and the same with oats. We 
 repeat that this is economy, as two thirds of the amount will give 
 the horse as much or more sustenance than before, and the teeth 
 and digestive organs will last vrmch longer. The best of the 
 grasses for the horse is timothy, then herds grass and clover. 
 The only grain suitable is the oat. Corn should always, be 
 used sparingly, as it works many disorders in the system, as 
 do also rye, barley, wheat, and bran. If any of these are used, it 
 should be ground, with oats for chopped feed. Some attention 
 should be paid to the tastes of the horse. If, after long feeding 
 with one continual round of the same food, he loses his appetite, 
 make a change. Do not allow your horse to run down during 
 the cold weather, it is then that he needs the best of food and 
 shelter. If he works hard for you through the spring, summer, 
 and fall, you owe him a good winter's keep, and you lessen his 
 vigor, and shorten his term of usefulness, if you deny it to him. 
 The natural age of the horse is forty years, and at twenty a horse 
 
HORSteS AND MULES. 2h3 
 
 should be in his prime. Steady and severe labor need not wear 
 out the horse before this time, if he be properly cared for from 
 the hour of his conception, tbrongh all the stages of his exist- 
 ence. This sounds strangely, because the carelessness and 
 cruelty, the meanness and ignorance of man, has shortened by 
 more than one half the natural term of his existence. 
 
 The horse delights to be the faithful servant, slave, and friend 
 of man. He will tax his strength and powers of endurance to 
 the utmost, at the bidding of his master. Such faithfulness 
 should be returned by kindness and attention. Harsh words, 
 kicks and blows for every supposed offence of the unreasoning 
 creature, are marks of- a most contemptible character. 
 
 In addition to stabling and feeding, GrROOMlNa the Hoese is 
 of more importance than is usually allowed among farmers. 
 Grooming is hard, tedious, disagreeable business, and is, 
 therefore, very much neglected. Daily grooming is absolutely 
 essential to the health of the horse in his imprisoned state. The 
 dust of the stable, and the mud of the street, will soon stop up 
 the pores of the skin without grooming. Except in cold and 
 stormy weather, the horse should be groomed out of doors 
 between his feeds in the morning. 
 
 Every portion of the body should be combed, and rubbed, and 
 brushed, and in warm weather sponged. And here we would 
 protest against the universal use of the curry comb. Some 
 horses do not mind it, even like it, but to some horses with ten ■ 
 der skins it is an implement Of torture, and instead of being 
 glad to be groomed they shrink and shy, and perhaps kick ana 
 bite, and are severely punished as vicious. Try the same im- 
 plement on your own skin and see how you like it. "When a 
 horse is thus sensitive to the curry comb it should only be used 
 to comb the mane and tail, and to scratch the legs, and a hair 
 
 cloth and brush used for grooming. Says Herbert, " In ordinary 
 18 
 
284 HOW TO MAKE THE' FABM PAY. 
 
 cleaning in the morning the head should be first dressed. The 
 hair should be lifted and deranged lightly, not stretched or 
 torn with the curry comb ; and then rubbed well, in all direc- 
 tions, both against and across the grain of the hair as well as 
 with it, until it is entirely clean from dust and dandruff. The 
 ears should be gently stripped and pulled with the hand from 
 the roots to the points ; and the whole head should then be 
 washed smoothly and evenly as the hair ought to lie. The 
 neck, back, shoulders, loins, croup, and quarters follow, the 
 same plan being used, except that in dressing these parts, while 
 the comb is used lightly and dexterously with one hand, the 
 brush is employed in removing the scurf with the other. ' The 
 flexures of the skin at the insertion of the limbs are parts that 
 require especial care, as the dust is most apt to collect in these 
 places. 
 
 " This done the horse must be thoroughly wisped all over with 
 bunches of dry straw till his coat is quite clean and glossy, 
 when it may be gone over for the last time with a fine soft 
 brush or a light duster." When he is brougti in from his 
 daily toil and stabled for the night, the process si ')iiid be care- 
 fully repeated ; all mud, sand, and dirt must be removed from 
 the legs and belly, and the legs rubbed by hand until they are 
 warm. 
 
 The horse should have a good bed of clean litter, straw, or 
 sawdust, not deep, but with room for him to lie in any position 
 that suits him. Most horses should be blanketed in cold 
 weather, but to some horses a blanket is an annoyance and pre- 
 vents rest. As rest is what the horse needs after his day's labor, 
 he should be accommodated by allowing him to go without his 
 blanket. 
 
 The practice of singeing and clipping horses in the fall is 
 abominable and dangerous. Just as his master is about to put on 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 285 
 
 his flannels and great coat his horse is deprived of the warm 
 hair that has been growing for his protection against the winter 
 chills, and disease is almost surely the consequence. 
 
 The practice of clipping the fetlocks is undoubtedly bad, as 
 the heel of the horse is tender, and when exposed is subject to 
 many diseases. Nature has provided the fetlock as a protection, 
 and as such let it remain. Never in grooming dash cold water 
 upon the legs of the horse. Use water with a sponge; or after 
 washing with soap and warm water, cold water may be turned on 
 the back from a watering-pot to rinse off the suds and shut the 
 pores. 
 
 This should never be done in the stable where the horse has 
 to sleep, unless ther^ be a chance to air it and dry it before 
 night. 
 
 How TO Buy, Use, and Sell a Hoese. It is useless to 
 try to buy a very good horse at a very low price. People do 
 not exchange gold dollars for dimes. A perfect horse, thanks 
 to bad breeding, bad training, and bad care, is a rare thing, and 
 is not parted with except for a fair equivalent. If the horse is 
 well and sound, and is offered low, be sure he has been spoiled 
 in training, _ and will fail you when you need him most. Men 
 will prevaricate and deceive in regard to a horse, who would 
 not in other things — for such is the common custom — so the 
 buyer must always judge for himself. The eye should be ex- 
 amined from the front, with the head a little shaded. If there 
 are any white, filmy spots, or streaks, on the eye, it denotes 
 inflammation, which is likely to return, and detracts from the 
 value of the animal. Next to the eyes, or rather before them 
 in importance, is the condition of the lungs. Owing to our 
 miserable stables, a large proportion of our horses are more or 
 less diseased in the lungs, 
 
 Bboken Wind will be detected by galloping a horse up hill 
 
286 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEi PAY. 
 
 a hundred yards, and then jumping out ; apply the ear to the 
 chest, and a double expiration will be heard. Thick Wind, 
 roaring, and whistling, are only the earlier stages of broken 
 wind, and can be detected by the above process. Another 
 method of detecting these defects, is to grasp the throat from 
 the front, and compress it until he is forced to cough.- A sound 
 horse will cough once, and recover his wind with a clear, sonor- 
 ous inhalation and exhalation. The diseased horse' will utter a 
 •broken, rattling cough, and recover his breath with a long, 
 wheezing, laborious rattle. 
 
 Defects in the Legs and Feet cannot always be dis- 
 covered, but there are certain marks that surely indicate them. 
 White spots on the knees show that the horse has broken his 
 knees at some time or other, and as it is usually by falling, 
 which is likely to occur again, the chances are that a broken 
 kneed horse is a stumbler. Says Herbert, " In examining the 
 legs of a horse, the purchaser should first stand with his face to 
 the broadside of the horse as he Stands on flat ground, and ob- 
 serve whether he rests perpendicularly on all his legs, having 
 the natural proportion of his weight on each leg straightly, 
 squarely, and directly ; or whether he stands with all his legs 
 straddled outside of their true aplomb ; or with all drawn to- 
 gether under the centre of his belly, as if he were trying to 
 stick them all into a hat; or lastly, whether he favors one or 
 more of his legs, either by pointing it forward, or by placing it 
 in any position in which no weight at all, or a very small stress 
 of weight, is thrown upon it. A horse may apparently favor 
 one foot accidentally from a casual impatience or restlessness. 
 He is not therefore to be rejected because he points a toe once 
 or twice. But if he seem to do so he should be constantly 
 brought back to his original position, in which he must bear 
 equally on each foot, when, if he be found constantly to favor 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 287 
 
 the same foot in tlie same manner, something serious must be 
 suspected which gives the horse uneasiness and pain, though not 
 perhaps sufficient in degree to produce present lameness. 
 
 If the toe of a fore foot be pointed forward it indicates disease 
 of the coffin bone, almost incurable. If both fore feet are thrown 
 forward and both hind feet thrown back it indicates founder. 
 If with all his feet drawn together under him he is used up. If 
 his knees be"id forward and his legs tremble he has 'been knocked 
 up with hard work or hard driving. 
 
 OuEBY Hocks, or a protuberance at the commencement of the 
 shank bone are objectionable in young horses. After the side 
 view take a front view, and see that the horse is not bow legged or 
 knock kneed. SPiENTS are small pieces of bone extending from 
 the shanks, and if so near the knee as to interfere with the ac- 
 tion of the joint, or so far back as to interfere with the sinews, 
 will produce lameness. The Back Sinews sometimes give way, 
 and although healed are never as good as new. Euu the hand 
 downward from the knee to the fetlock with the nails of the 
 thumb and middle finger in the groove between the bone and 
 sinew. If the sheath be round, hard, straight, and even, well; 
 but if there are knots, or soft places, something is wrong ; if 
 pinched at these places the horse will wince. 
 
 EiNGBONE is a bony excresence around the foot, just above 
 the hoof. It is one of the worst of defects. Sidebone is the 
 same, only it extends but part way around the hoof. Bone 
 spavin is a bony excrescence on the inside of the hook-joint, and 
 can be discovered by the hand. Bog spavin occurs a little inside 
 and below the bone spavin ; it is a collection of the fluid that 
 lubricates the joint, and gives under the pressure of the ha:d. 
 Blood spavin is of the same nature, and detected in the same way. 
 These are sufficient reasons for refusing to purchase a horse. 
 
 The Age of a Horse cannot be told by his teeth, if he be 
 
288 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 properly fed. The cruelty ■which makes the soi't loothed 
 horse eat hard hay, grain, and corn, causes his teeth to wear 
 down, and in proportion as they are worn down, his age is cal- 
 culated. A horse, properly fed, at twenty years, should have 
 as good teeth as most horses now do at ten years. 
 
 How TO USE A HoESB ; as not abusing it. Overworking is 
 a common method of abuse. Do not overwork' the mare with a 
 foal ; neither work the colt too early ; for every year that you 
 delay putting the colt to hard work, you will gain two years in 
 his longer usefulness. Other things being equal, a colt that is 
 not put to hard work, till six years old, will be as good at fifteen, 
 as another will at ten, if put to work at three years old. Never 
 pair a strong horse with a feeble horse. Make your loads suit- 
 able to the roads you have to go on, and do not strain your 
 horse through a quag or plowed field with the same load you 
 consider sufficient for level ground. Beating a horse is usually 
 worse than useless. Never allow a hired man to strike a horse 
 a blow. Absolutely forbid it, and discharge a man for it as you 
 would for picking your pocket. The cruelty of men to these 
 poor dumb beasts, is not only barbarous and •sickening, but is 
 also ruinous. Millions of dollars worth of horse flesh is ruined 
 by these brutal punishments. The horse kindly treated delights 
 to serve his master, and will strain every nerve, to accomplish 
 his commands. Brutality only causes fear and stubbornness. 
 Striking a horse with a hoe, shovel, or other tool, kicking in 
 the abdomen, striking with a club, and such punishments, are 
 acts of which any decent man will never be guilty. Kicking a 
 mare with foal is so perfectly abhorrent that it seems as if no 
 man would ever do it; but it is done, always to the injury, 
 and often to the death of the foal. Slitting and cropping the 
 ears, nicking and docking the tail, are cruelties that ought to bo 
 wholly abandoned. The horse is not absolutely your property 
 
Ipb w^ t^. )^ M^ U 
 
 
 E p « Se • c!« E.M 3 gs p o 
 
 S.-g i? S ■ -I < 5 4 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 291 
 
 like a board, whicli you may saw, cut, burn, or nail at your 
 pleasure. Nor have you a right to sell a horse to one whom 
 you know to be a hard, cruel master. "When you sell never 
 cover up or hide any defects ; state fairly the good and bad 
 qualities of your horse, and set your price ; if bought on your 
 terms, no warranty is necessary, and no lawsuits will follow. 
 To sell an unsound horse for sound is a transaction of the same 
 nature as passing a counterfeit note, and no upright man, if he 
 looks at the subject rightly, will do it. The good points of a 
 draught horse are : large feet and legs ; square shoulders ; a 
 broad, muscular neck, strong and thick at the junction with the 
 shoulders ; a round, wide breast ; short legs ; short upright pas- 
 tern ; a short back ; large, broad hindquarters ; a short thigh, 
 with strong muscles ; (if the muscles here ate weak and thin, 
 the horse is defective.) Such a horse as we have described is 
 only fit for draught. As most farm operations require a steady, 
 slow movement, a heavy team is better than a light one. A 
 horse weighing seven hundred might be just as strong as one 
 weighing fourteen hundred, and yet he will not be able to 
 haul a load with the same ease, and would need a stronger 
 hames, and stronger whiffletree. A light horse, drawing a 
 heavy load, must move quick and expend great muscular force; 
 while the heavy horse, hauling the same load, does it largely by 
 the momentum of his body. The momentum of a heavy team 
 tends to keep a load in motion ; whereas a light team must do 
 it with their muscles, which is very exhausting. As to mares or 
 geldings for teams, a recent writer states, that when he had only 
 a few acres of land to plow, he found a team of good mares the 
 most profitable. He had them drop their foal before they were 
 needed for spring labor, or else after their spring labor had been 
 done, and thus got two good colts annually, which in good part 
 paid the expense of keeping the team. "We should say that such a 
 
292 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 team should only be in the hands of a most careful and reliable 
 - workman. In case a farmer keeps two teams, one of mares and 
 one of geldings, he can give the latter the heavy work and the 
 mares the light work, usually to good advantage. Says S. E. 
 Todd, " Horses can turn the grindstone, do the churning, pitch 
 our hay, hoe our corn, dig our potatoes, and do almost any thing 
 else, and do it with ease, and keep fat, too, if we will only think 
 for them, and give them the word to go ahead and to stop. 
 Our business is to think, and it is theirs to do the work. When 
 I see a little man lifting and tugging, hour after hour, to load a 
 few tons of hay, and get it on the mow, while he has two fat 
 horses standing idle, which could do it in a few minutes, I 
 always think, what a dunce you are, to make such a beast of 
 burden of yourself, when the Creator has given you such strong 
 animals .to perform your hard labor." 
 
 It is undoubtedly true, that with a little exercise of ingenu- 
 ity, and a small outlay for tackle, nearly all of this hard labor 
 can be done by the horses. Every thing that can lessen the 
 hard labor of the farm, is worthy of consideration, and 
 especially every thing that will save time, during the busy season 
 of harvest. 
 
 Anatomy of the Hoesb. The preceding cut, (Fig. 71 a.) 
 gives a correct representation of the frame of the horse, and the 
 position of the different parts, of which we shall have occasion 
 to speak, in treating of the diseases of the horse. The skeleton 
 is composed of two hundred and forty-seven separate bones, 
 thirty-one of which are in the spine, thirty-seven in the thorax, 
 three in the pelvis, seventeen in the tail, the fore extremities 
 forty, the hind extremities thirty-eight, the cranium ten, face 
 and jaws eighteen, teeth forty, ears eight, tongue five. 
 
 The hoofs are the foundation, and hold the coffin bone (31), 
 resting on this is the lower pastern bone (30), with an opening 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 293 
 
 in the back, holding the navicular bone (32). Next is the upper 
 pastern bone (29), upon which rests the shank bone (24), with 
 the sessamoid bone (27, 28). The knee joint has seven, some- 
 times eight bones. Back of, and just below the knee, is a small 
 thin bone, extending down the front shank, nearly its whole 
 length, called the splint bone of the foreleg (25, 26). Above 
 the knee is the main bone of the leg, called the radius or the 
 arm (15), above the arm the elbow (16), and still higher the 
 humerus or shoulder bone (14). In the hind leg, the bones are 
 the sam.e until we reach the hock joint, which has six bones. 
 The shank has two splint bones. Above the hock joint is the 
 tibia, the largest of all the bones (38). The stifle joint is 
 formed by the tibia, and the femur or thigh bone, which is next 
 above (37). It is covered in front by the knee pan or patella 
 (v). The six bones of the hips complete the bones of the legs. 
 The bones of the head and neck are easily comprehended, by 
 an examination of the skeleton. The bones of the skull, are 
 thin plates locked or dovetailed together, to prevent displace- 
 ment. The head and neck are joined at (e), by the ligament, 
 known as whit-leather, and it is here, that Poll Evil and Fistula 
 have their origin. The bones of the spine are linked together 
 by lock-joints. The scapula or shoulder blade unites the fore- 
 leg to the frame (13). Some of the above bones are solid, 
 others hollow, while the ends or heads of all the bones that 
 form the joints, and all the small bones of which the joints are 
 composed, are spongy, as are also the ribs, shoulder blades, and 
 back portions of the jaw bones. It is in these spongy bones, 
 that diseases make their appearance. 
 
 The movements of all these bones are governed by the mus- 
 cles and tendons, the muscles all ending in tendons, and being 
 joined to the bones by cartilages. The strength of the horse 
 is in the muscles, and they should be full and hard. They are 
 
294 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 composed of fibrine and albumen, the latter sbeathing each 
 muscle, preventing friction, loosens and lubricates the fibres, 
 assists their growth, and renders them elastic and flexible ; and 
 the food should be such as to give the largest amount of muscle. 
 
 The horse is lined with membranes. They form a fine coat- 
 ing over the bones, the brains, bowels, kidneys, heart, lungs, 
 and line all the cavities of the body. 
 
 The construction of the skin, and the purposes it serves, are 
 the same as in other domestic animals, and will be treated of, 
 as will other portions of the system, in the specific chapters 
 relating to diseases. 
 
 Diseases of the Bones. Big head and big jaw, are the 
 result mainly of bad food and bad treatment, although water 
 and climate favor its development. It is mostly confined to 
 Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama, 
 where the horse is fed through many months, often on corn and 
 corn stalks, dirty, rotten, and mouldy, from standing too long 
 in the field. Says Stewart, in the "American Farmer's Horse 
 BooltJ^ (the best authority on the horse in this country,) " On 
 such food, two thirds of the horses at the South are compelled 
 to live, and as a consequence, more than one half of them suffer 
 continually from fever. No wonder they have Big head, and 
 every other disease that horse flesh 'is heir to ; the only marvel 
 is, that they are ever well, or indeed that they live at all. To 
 feed them corn exclusively is bad enough, but when that corn 
 is rotten, and eked out by mouldy fodder, the condition of the 
 poor animals is deplorable." 
 
 To Dr. Stewart belongs the credit of discovering the causes 
 and applying the remedies to this disease. In its first stages, it 
 may be detected by running the thumb up under the lip, beside 
 the under jaw bone. The symptoms are, an enlargement of nasal 
 bone, the skin and muscles of the head harden, and pulling the 
 
HOESES AND MULES. 295 
 
 lips fails to move them ; there is a constant sleepiness while 
 standing, a drawing up of the feet, running eyes, stiff joints, 
 hard, dry skin, and great difficulty in voiding the dung, which 
 is hard, black, and dry. The appetite continues good. The 
 treatment should commence as soon as the symptoms are dis- 
 covered. It consists, first, in ileeding. Where the disease is in 
 its early stages, take three pints of blood at intervals of two 
 weeks, in bad cases two or three quarts at intervals of a week. 
 After bleeding, apply corrosive liniment, with a small mop, to 
 the parts affected. The liniment should then be dried in with 
 a hot iron held near the skin, but in no case allowed to touch. 
 In mild cases apply for two weeks every other day. In severe 
 cases, use it every other day of every other week, until diges- 
 tion becomes improved, which is the sign of success. To relieve 
 the other portions of the body, give the horse <i tablespoouful 
 of stramonium three times a week, every other week, as long as 
 it may seem necessary. Stramonium is the seed of the thorn 
 apple or jimson weed ; it is the best known horse medicine. 
 The horse should be allowed rest, quiet, and good housing 
 until fully recovered. 
 
 Former methods of treating this disease by extracting teeth, 
 burning, etc., were barbarous, and are now wor'se than useless. 
 
 SwiNNEY, or inflamation of the shoulder or hip, is caused by 
 a strain, and aggravated by diseases of the feet. The symptoms, 
 at first, appear only in the feet and legs, but may be distin- 
 guished from founder by the animal's unwillingness to lie down 
 and his evident suffering when compelled to do so by exhaus- 
 tion. There is great fever at the shoulder, the flesh becomes 
 hard, and the skin adheres. At this stage apply the corrosive 
 liniment three or four times a week, for a month or so, or 
 until the symptoms disappear. The second stage of swinney is 
 called big shoulder ; the flesh and tendons of the breast shrink 
 
"296 HOW TO MAKE FARMING PAY. 
 
 and the bone at the shoulder joint grows larger. The feet are 
 nearly always diseased, and no cure can be effected until the 
 feet are restored to a more healthy condition, for which, {see 
 Diseases of the Feet,) at the same time, apply the corrosive lini- 
 ment to the shoulder, and loosen the skin by rubbing and pull- 
 ing it daily. 
 
 Bone Spavin is an enlargement on the inside of the hock, 
 below the joint, and is usually ruinous to the horse unless 
 .promptly treated. It is caused either by a blow or a sprain, 
 and is transmitted by breeding. Undoubtedly, hard usage, , 
 improperly constructed stables, and other abuses, aggravate the 
 disease. 
 
 Never breed from a sprained stud or mare, and do not let 
 the colt run too soon, or too much, on the roads. The symp- 
 toms of spavin are so plain that the man who takes care of the 
 horse, and does not discover it in its earliest stages, must be a 
 very careless observer. The lameness is irregular ; the horse 
 will step lame in the morning,' or after standing for some time ; 
 sometimes a bunch appears, but often not for many weeks ; the 
 dif&culty will gradually increase and the joint become stiff. On 
 observing any symptoms of it, make an examination, and- the 
 enlargement may be felt by the hand. Give the horse rest at 
 once, and apply the corrosive liniment four times a week every 
 other week, as long as necessary. The blister and the applica- 
 tion of mercurial salve is often beneficial, but all cutting, firing, 
 or other barbarous uses are to be condemned. If not attended 
 to, in its early stages, it readily becomes incurable. 
 
 Lameness of the Hock should be treated with the corrosive 
 liniment, and, in case it is broken, perfect rest is the only cure. 
 Ring Bone occurs at the coffin-joint, and admits of cure in its 
 early stages, but not afterwards. It is often bred, and . often 
 caused by a bad formation of the legs. Rest and trpatment, 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 297 
 
 the same as for spavin, should be given upon its first appear- 
 ance. Club foot is simply the worst stage of ring bone. Stifle 
 or lameness of the stifle joint, as well as all bruises and injuries 
 in the vicinity of the stifle joint or patella, induces heat and 
 tenderness, which increase, if the horse continue to be used, to 
 terrible suffering and permanent injury. Give immediate rest 
 and an application of corrosive liniment every other day for a 
 week or ten days. Splint is an enlargement on the splint 
 bone, and usually interferes but little with the useTulness or 
 comfort of the horse, except a little inflammation at first. Apply 
 a lotion (see Remedies) to a pad, fastening it over the spot, and 
 moisten often until inflammation subsides. When a splint inter- 
 feres with a tendon or appears to be troubling a horse, give a 
 few applications of the corrosive liniment. 
 
 Stumbling is the effect of a bad formation of the joints and 
 limbs and not a vice. Sway back is a deformity caused by 
 riding a colt before it is strong enough to bear such a weight. 
 
 There are various other bone diseases which require the 
 skill of an educated veterinarian, and if a serious lameness 
 cannot be traced to any part a veterinary surgeon had best be 
 consulted. Most of these lamenesses are the result of misuse ; 
 great care should be taken to prevent them. Loads should be 
 moderated to the strength of the animal. The horse is not 
 matured until eight years of age, and should never be taxed 
 to his full strength previous to this time. The appointments 
 of the stable should be such as to preclude accidents to the 
 
 limbs. 
 
 Diseases of the Feet are among the most injurious, as 
 
 well as the most painful, to which the horse is subject ; and 
 
 when it is discovered that there is any trouble with the feet, its 
 
 cause should be at once discovered, and prompt measures taken' 
 
 for relief. Most diseases of the feet, if taken in their earliest 
 
298 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 stages, can be so far subdued, as to preserve the usefulness of 
 tbe horse. This is not only economy, but mercy likewise. 
 Navicular Disease, so called, is a disease of the small bone, 
 forming the projection of the heel, and resting upon the frog. 
 Severe bruises upon the frog, by stones, frozen earth, and the 
 like, extend to this bone, and disease sets in. A horse appa- 
 rently sound, suddenly becomes lame in one of the 'fore feet. 
 No cause is discernible ; he points the toe out several inches, 
 whether standing or travelling ; in travelling the toe is made to 
 touch the ground before the heel ; the horse favors that foot, at 
 all times; no, enlargement, or inflammation, are discovered. 
 This is the first stage, and a cure is now wholly within your 
 power, if you act at once. In the course of a week or two, the 
 lameness, which was slight, disappears, and is forgotten, but ere 
 long it appears again, with renewed violence. There is now an 
 ulcer on the navicular bone, and, like an ulcerated tooth, is a 
 most painful affliction ; the horse is in agony ; every step is con- 
 centrated agony. The navicular bone begins to decay, the hoof 
 shrinks, and fracture of the bone, or rupture of the hoof, end 
 the usefulness of the animal. It often leads to ringbone, foot 
 evil, narroio heel, thrush, greasy heel, hoof rot, sand crach, and 
 other afflictions of the feet. As a prevention, the frog should 
 be kept from the ground by paring the frog, and by refraining 
 to pare down the hoof behind ; or, when necessary, putting 
 leather under the shoe at the back, as is recommended by 
 English farriers. 
 
 The treatment, in the first stage of the disease, is simple 
 enough. Put the, horse in the stable yard, or in the stable, if 
 it gives room for him to choose his own position at his pleasure. 
 Feed liberally of grain, to keep up the vigor of the body, soak 
 the foot an hour, in hot or warm water, every other night for a 
 fortnight, and apply the corrosive liniment the intervening 
 
HOBOES AND MULES. 299 
 
 nights. After another fortnight's rest, the work may be re- 
 sumed. But if the disease is neglected at first, and ulcers 
 allowed to form, treatment becomes much more difficult and 
 uncertain. The object now is to form an abscess, and thus an 
 outlet for the ulcerated matter. Apply the liniment to the frog, 
 the bottom and back part of the foot, and also to the heel. Cut 
 out any decayed matter from the bottom of the foot and apply 
 the liniment freely. Continue this course until the foot re- 
 covers, whether it be two months or six. If you can produce 
 a discharge of the ulcerated matter a cure is sure. , Keep his con- 
 dition good. Give him a dose of sulphur {see Remedies) every 
 other day for a week. If the treatment does not produce an 
 abscess or subdue the lameness, after two or three months, ISTeu- 
 rotomy is the last resort. The hoofs of the horse, like the nails 
 of man, are a secretion, and are naturally hard and strong ; but 
 when disease is present, in any part of the leg or foot, the secre ■ 
 tion becomes imperfect, and soft hoof, or brittle hoof, is the 
 result. Any disease of the foot leads to others. This shows the 
 necessity of instant attention, even to the slightest lameness. 
 
 Cbaoked Hoop is one of the ailments from a feverish con- 
 dition of the feet induced by other diseases. Narrow he 
 causes the front of the hoof to crack. "When the hoof is 
 not 'properly pared in shoeing, the hoof will crack in the 
 quarters. Founder produces brittleness, brittleness produces 
 contraction, and contraction is one cause of cracks. Cracks 
 often extend to the sensitive part of the foot, the flesh grows 
 into them and the pain of stepping on the- foot must be intense. 
 We advise, first, that the disease which causes faulty hoof be 
 removed, and the crack will heal. In the meantime, if the 
 crack does not extend to the flesh, carefully clean out all sand, 
 dirt, etc., pare down the edges of the crack, and cover it with a 
 
 bandage, smeared with pitch, so as to prevent any dirt from 
 19 
 
300 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 getting in. Keep this on until the hoof grows over. The 
 hoof will grow an inch in about ten weeks. The horse 
 should not be put to hard labor. "When the crack extends 
 down the whole hoof, and into the sensitive part of the- foot, 
 wash it out with the chloride of zinc lotion, {see Remedies,] 
 until bleeding ceases, then bind the parts together by wires, as 
 in sewing up a wound. Give the horse perfect rest until the 
 union is complete, and then remove the wires. Dr. Dadd 
 claims to have done the same thing successfally with waxed 
 threads. The crack had better be covered with pitch, and a 
 bar shoe worn. To prevent a partial crack from extending the 
 whole length of the hoof, draw lines with a red hot iron in the 
 shape of a V, from the coronet to the crack. These lines 
 should only be through the outer crust of the hoof. 
 
 Hoof Eot is a very common and annoying complaint, 
 English writers call it pumice foot ; and some American writers, 
 tender foot, but no horse's foot is tender -unless diseased or injured. 
 It often causes various other diseases of the foot and joints, and 
 is as often caused by them. Its symptoms are a dry rot of the 
 bottom of the feet, which appears chalky, and may be dug out 
 with the knife. The frog sinks away, 'and the ankle joints are 
 swollen at times, after long standing. If caused by some other 
 disease, that must be first treated; The direct treatment fo:? the 
 hoof rot is, after cleaning out all the decayed matter from the 
 bottom of the foot, pare down the frog and sides of the hoof 
 and apply the corrosive liniment four times a week, for two 
 weeks. Moisten the horn twice a day, with glycerine ointment. 
 {See Remedies). Now shoe the horse with a dish shoe ; that is, a 
 bar shoe having the web hollowed out like the sides of a dish ; 
 the only part which touches the ground being the rim of the 
 inner circle, or else with a light shoe, thick in the web, but 
 narrow. A stopping, of leather or gutta percha^ forming a 
 
HOKSES AND MULES. 301 
 
 cushion for the yet tender sole, will enable the horse now to 
 resume work. 
 
 Corns, so called, are an accompaniment of hoof rot, or some 
 other disease, which should be first treated. They are not 
 propierly corns, but consist of patches of blood or matter forced 
 into the horn from above. When the hoof is cut away, a red 
 spot is discpvered, which will grow brighter the more the hoof 
 is cut away. If not attended to promptly, ulcers are formed, 
 and the confined matter finds an opening either at the heel, or 
 the coronet, sometimes continuing around the foot and causing 
 the hoof to drop off entirely. Cure the hoof rot, and as a 
 general thing the corns will disappear. 
 
 Stone Bruise, Nail Pricks, and bruises of the feet, should 
 all be treated with a few applications of the corrosive liniment. 
 The bar and shoe, and tow filling, to ease the pressure upon the 
 injured part, are to be recommended. The best immediate 
 remedy, when the liniment is not at hand, is water on a flan- 
 nel bandage, and fastened around the fetlock. It should be 
 kept wet. 
 
 Narrow Heel, or contraction of the hoof, as we have seen, 
 is a resultant from navicular disease, and always denotes a dis- 
 eased condition of some other portion of the foot ; for so long as 
 the foot is sound, it will secrete healthy horn ; and if there is 
 no fever to dry it up, it will not contract. "With the disappear- 
 ance of the disease, the foot will again secrete healthy horn. 
 When this is assured, the horn should be frequently rubbed 
 with the glycerine ointment. The common practice of filling 
 the foot with cow dung, is based on the idea that the foot should 
 be kept moist, which is correct. But it can be much better 
 accomplished by stuf&ng with wet rags, which also tend to keep 
 the foot clean. The cow dung tends to produce other disorders 
 of the feet. A soft pasture is nature's remedy for all ailnienta 
 
302 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 of the horse's foot. In cold, stormy weather, however, the 
 horse, whatever may be his condition, should have a dry stable, 
 plenty of room, and good bedding. 
 
 FouNDEE, acute or sub-acute inflammation of the feet, {Lami- 
 natis,) is, with one or two exceptions, the most common* o^ all 
 horse complaints. It is caused by bad usage. On examination • 
 of the feet, it is fotmd that there is some other disease, generally 
 hoof rot, and we have never seen feet, otherwise sound, attacked 
 with founder — or, more properly, inflammation — which leaves 
 the horse foundered. Keep the feet sound and healthy, and you 
 need not fear founder. The immediate causes of inflammation 
 in unsound feet, are various. Overheating, and sudden cooling ; 
 a change from the cold and wet to the stable, where he stands 
 in hot dung ; long standing in some mud hole ; a long journey 
 on a hard dry road ; over-feeding after great exhaustion ; or over- 
 drinking when hot ; — will produce inflammation which is likely 
 to terminate in the feet. Inflammation of the lungs is some- 
 times suddenly transferred to the feet. The symptoms are rest- 
 lessness and frequent changing of the fore feet. There is an in- 
 clination to lie down, but a fear of doing so, and three or four 
 feints will often be made before he succeeds. He will lie quietly 
 for awhile, and seem to be relieved. "When he attempts to rise, 
 the pain is so great that he falls back again upon his side. The 
 nose is often laid upon the fore feet, as if to indicate the seat of 
 the pain and ask relief. This is the first, or sub-acute stage. 
 
 Eemove the shoes as carefully as possible, cleanse the feet with 
 soap and water, fasten a sponge to the sole, and bandage the feet 
 with thick bandages. Keep these bandages wet with the arnica 
 mixture {see Remedies) for several days. Give the patient gruel, 
 scalded mashes, and boiled roots. Give daily a dose of sulphur 
 and cream of tartar. Dilute the drink with cream of tartar. 
 This is the ordinary form of inflammation, taken in its first 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 303 
 
 stages, and usually yields to tlie above treatment ; but some- 
 times it progresses so far that the flesh quivers, the eyes glare, 
 the nostrils are distended, the breath is jerking, the flanks are 
 tuck;ed up, the back is roached, the head is erect, the mouth 
 firnily closed, the fore legs are pushed far forward, and the hind 
 legs advanced to take the weight of the body, and the feet are 
 constantly on the move. This is the acute stage. 
 
 Eemove the shoes, bleed from the jugular vein from two to 
 four quarts, according to the condition of the animal, and insert 
 a pint of warm water into the veins by a large syringe. Pur- 
 gation and perspiration will ensue, and the horse will be re- 
 lieved. We do not often advocate bleeding, but believe this to 
 be a case where it will always be beneficial. Now, drench the 
 horse with hot salt and water, bathing his feet and legs with it, 
 and rubbing them dry with a rough cloth or brush. Eepeat 
 the bathing and rubbing three or four times in the course of 
 an hour; and after this apply turpentine, or the corrosive lini- 
 ndent, to the foot, just at the edge of the hair. Do not work the 
 animal until well over the attack ; and then proceed to cure the 
 hoof rot, or other disease, which niay have caused it. It often 
 affords relief to split open the little knob, in the long hair, at the 
 back of the fetlock. For an established founder, the following 
 prescription is given by Dr. Stewart : " Flour of sulphur, one 
 pound ; cream of tartar, quarter of a pound ; saltpetre, quarter 
 of a pound; pulverized 'jimson' seed or stramonium, one pint. 
 Mix, and make seven doses, giving one every day for a week.'' 
 At the same time, use the corrosive liniment on the feet. 
 
 QuiTTOE is caused by wounds, bruises, pricks, neglected 
 corns, etc. Pus, or matter, collects, and moves upward through 
 the tissues for an outlet. It causes severe pain, but makes no 
 sign until it reaches the coronet, when swelling begins. When 
 this is discovered, remove the shoe, pare the sole, soak the hoof 
 
804 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 in warm water for several hours, make an opening in the hoof 
 below the sinus, or swelling, and apply a poultice — the object 
 being to get a discharge downward. If this does not succeed, 
 slit up the sinuses or swellings, and inject tincture of blood root, 
 [f you secure a discharge from the opening in the sole, inject 
 blood root, and the cure is soon complete. 
 
 Canker, and Cracked Heels, or Grease, are only continuations 
 or developments of a disease known as Thrush, which ia 
 usually caused by filthy stables. A horse who stands in filth 
 all the time, will probably have, sooner or later, Thrush — and 
 then, Greasy or Cracked Heel. As we have said before, the 
 stable should not only be cleaned out and washed down in the 
 morning, but, if the animal has been in the stable during the 
 day, all filth should be removed, and a bed made of clean litter. 
 Thrush and Grease are usually the signs of filth, and they are 
 a disgrace to the owner, which should make him hang his head 
 with shame. Thrush is sometimes caused by other diseases, 
 but in such cases it appears in the fore foot ; while, in the hind 
 foot, it is always, we believe, the result of inexcusable negli- 
 gence. It is a foul discharge, which has the power of decom- 
 posing the horn. It is known by its disgusting smell. It 
 appears in the cleft of the frog. It should be treated by soak- 
 ing pieces of cloth in the corrosive liniment and pressing them 
 into the cleft of the frog and heel at night, removing them in 
 the morning. Do this about five nights a week, until all smell 
 is removed. Oajstkeb, as before stated, is a second stage of 
 Thrush, the horn not only being decomposed, but fungoid or 
 spongy horn being secreted. For treatment, cut away all the 
 poor horn, and apply the chloride of zinc lotion, adding enough 
 flour to thicken it. Fasten on a pad. Ee-dress daily, or every 
 other day, and at each dressing cut away all faulty horn. Any 
 contrivance which will press the pad to the foot will answ'er 
 
HORSES AND MULES, 305 
 
 the purpose. Mayhew recommends putting on tlie shoe and 
 putting in wedges. 
 
 Oeackbd Heels, called by English farriers Grease, is a dis- 
 ease -which follows thrush, and can often be said to be only 
 a continuation of it. It is the oozing out of the ulcerated 
 matter attending disease within. Either the cof&n or the navi- 
 cular joint is affected. The skin of the heel becomes dry and 
 feverish, cracks open, and foul matter exudes. If not checked, 
 the whole heel becomes a mass of putrefaction, filthy and offen- 
 sive. Grease never occurs when there is a decent attention to 
 the care of the animal. To let it go on after it is once discov- 
 ered is shameless brutality, and should be a State Prison offence. 
 A' growth of fung^is, or proud flesh, will commence from the 
 sores, which will soon harden and become horny. Durmg all 
 this time the poor creature suffers untold agony. As a preven- 
 tive of Cracked Heels we recommend clean stables, good bed- 
 ding, rubbing the legs when the horse comes in from the wet, 
 and a warm dry stable in cold and wet weather. The practice 
 of dashing water on the heels and leaving them to dry as best 
 they will, is a fruitful cause of diseased feet. "When the legs 
 axe wet they should always be rubbed dry with a cloth, or a 
 wisp of straw. 
 
 As soon as cracked heels are discovered, or the heel becomes 
 dry, hot and scurfy, wash with soap and water, and rub dry; 
 then apply the corrosive liniment for three or four days. After 
 this, apply the glycerine ointment for the same length of time. 
 If the disease is not discovered until the grease begins to exude 
 and hang on the hair about the fetlock, cut off all the long haii, 
 and pursue the same course as above. In either case, give the 
 horse almost entire rest while operating on him, or a cure will 
 be doubtful; An hour's moderate exercise daily will be benefi- 
 cial. We will not give directions for treating the worse stages 
 
306 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 of the disease, for we cannot believe that any man intelligent 
 enough to read this book, will allow it to go on after it is once 
 discovered. 
 
 Diseases op the Glands and Nasal Membranes. Gland- 
 EES is a fearful disorder, bred by filth, and spread by conta- 
 gion. It is found mostly in the close, filthy, ill ventilated 
 stables of the city, where impure air, water, and food, are 
 more common. From these it is transferred to the farmer's 
 stables by various means. Horses purchased in the city and 
 transferred, to the country, carry the infection with them. The 
 farmer's horse, put up at the city stable when he goes to market, 
 or to court, contracts the affection. Eating, or drinking, after 
 glandered horses, is often sufficient to transmit it. The snort of 
 one horse to another will sometimes carry the infection even at 
 a distance of several yards. The symptoms are running of one 
 nostril, in nine cases out of ten the left; the fluid thin and 
 transparent ; it increases, grows thicker, and more sticky ; its 
 color changes towards yellow ; it becomes clotted with mucus, 
 and long sticky white threads of mucus hang to the nostrils. 
 This soon changes to a stream of filthy pus, thicker, darker, and 
 sometimes bloody. These are the first two and curable stages 
 of the disorder. It is readily distinguished from other secretions 
 running from the nose by its glueiness or stickiness, and in the 
 second stage by its sickening smell. During these early stages 
 of glanders, the horse loses flesh, the air passages are affected, 
 the breathing becomes difficult, the glands swell, ulcers form in 
 the nostrils, and the discharge, which was only from one nostril, 
 extends to both, and sometimes to the eye. A gland adheres 
 to the inside of the jaw; the nostril changes color and becomes 
 pallid. As a consequence of this state of things the horse loses 
 his spirits, appetite fails, the coat stares and is easily rubbed off, 
 and the horse rapidly goes down. Unless taken now a cure is 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 307 
 
 impossible, for. every bad symptom rapidly increases; tumors 
 form in the head, and Farcy, which is only another name for the 
 last stage of glanders, ends the miserable existence. The dis- 
 covery of a cure for glanders by Dr. Stewart, entitles him to 
 the gratitude of all owners of horses. Preventive measures 
 should be taken against this disease. The ill ventilated and foul 
 stable should be aired and cleaned, the manger washed out every 
 day, and the drinking pail kept as clean and sweet as if for your 
 own use. "When the^ farmer puts his horse in a strange stable 
 he should insist that the manger be washed out before his horse 
 eats from it ; when leaving a strange stable the nostrils should 
 be sponged out. "When the manure is thrown into a basement 
 under or near the horse, powdered charcoal thrown upon it will 
 not only save the ammonia and nearly double its value as 
 manure, but will prevent this ammonia from entering the nose 
 and lungs of the horse. A half peck for the dung of each 
 animal will be sufficient. 
 
 "We give Dr. Stewart's treatment for Glanders. "Bleed in the 
 neck vein, removing about three c[uarts«of blood.* Have ready 
 a strong decoction of tobacco, of which put one gill in a pint 
 of warm water and turn this down the horse. It will make him 
 very sick, but it will affect him much less than when in health, 
 and thus used is not really dangerous. "Wash out his nostrils 
 with the tobacco decoction, weakened with water, as directed in 
 the next section for staggers. Be at pains to reach as high up 
 the nostrils with the mop as you can. The mixture must be as 
 hot as he can bear it. Continue this treatment from two to fou r 
 weeks, or until a favorable change is apparent. TJse the mop" 
 
 * We do not think Dr. Stevrart means to advise bleeding in the first 
 stage of the disease, but only when there is considerable inflammation, ul- 
 ceration, and enlargement of the glands. At any rate two or three quarts 
 of blood is a small loss to an animal having sixty to eighty quarts. 
 
308 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT, 
 
 in tlie nose for eight or ten days ; drench with the tobacco mix 
 ture two or three times at intervals of three days. Give the 
 horse as much sulphur and resin as you can get him to eat, for 
 the space of ten days. A full dose will be four ounces of sul- 
 phur, and two of resin, both pulverized. Let the food be light 
 and relaxing, grass if it is in season ;" if not, boiled roots thick- 
 ened with shorts, and salted. A quantity of salt should be 
 placed where the animal can help himself. "Attend, promptly 
 to disinfecting your stable. Fumigate it with tobacco-smoke 
 while the horse is in it. Make him and all his companions in- 
 hale as much of the smoke as you can. Fill the stable with 
 the smoke until you can no longer remain in it yourself. Wash 
 every part of it, and especially. the mangers, with a strong de- 
 coction of tobacco, and keep pounded tobacco leaves in every 
 feeding place used by any horse that has been exposed to the 
 disease." An occasional fumigation of the stable when any in- 
 fectious disease is suspected, will act as a preventive. 
 
 Blind Staggers is a disease known only on the newly 
 cleared plantations of the Southern States, and is caused by 
 eating worm-eaten corn. The worm leaves a peculiar and 
 poisonous dust on the corn, which the horse inhales, the pas- 
 sages from the eyes to the nose are closed, inflammation ensues, 
 the poison is carried to the brain, and the horse goes deaf, blind, 
 and raving mad. Cure is doubtful if not discovered before the 
 mad stage. Bleed freely, give the tobacco decoction recom- 
 mended for glanders, and, if possible, add a half pound of 
 epsom salts. While still under the effects of this medicine give 
 'two ounces of laudanum in a little warm water. Your object 
 is to get the horse quiet, and to prevent spasms. Make a soft 
 swab or mop on the end of a stick, and swab out the nostrils 
 with the decoction of tobacco and warm water. This is to 
 open, the passages to the eye, and as soon as a discharge can be 
 
HOESES AND MULES. 309 
 
 effected, the horse is out of danger ; repeat the swabbing out 
 every day until the cure is complete. As soon as a discharge 
 is effected from the head, draw a blister immediately over the 
 brain. 
 
 If any one must feed worm-eaten corn, let it be swept and 
 brushed to scatter the poison. Tobacco dust in the manger will 
 act as a preventive. Watch the horse under such circum- 
 stances, examine the nostrils often, and if these little passages 
 are closed, the nostrils inflamed, and the head hot, not a 
 moment is to be lost. Prompt action is the only hope. Dis- 
 TEMPEB, or Steangles, is another contagious disease, alto- 
 gether too common. It is often designated as horse-ail. It 
 appears in all horses, but usually in the colt, when taken either 
 from his mother's milk, or the tender grass and fresh air of 
 the pasture ; confined in a narrow, dark, dirty cell, standing 
 and sleeping in its own filth, and fed on dry food. Such a 
 change is sufficient to induce distemper. We believe that it is 
 always caused by some such violent change, aind is spread by 
 infection. It seems to be an effort of the system to adapt itself 
 to the change. The symptoms are, in the first stage, a general 
 derangement, some fever, quick pulse, a dry, hacking cough, 
 sore throat, and running at the nose. 
 
 This discharge can be distinguished from glanders by always 
 being white ; the neck soon becomes £tiff, the throat becomes 
 swollen, an abscess forms, the swelling is hard and hot, the lever 
 becomes high, the breathing is oppressed, food and drmk are 
 refused, the swelling comes to a head, and, being opened, the 
 animal speedily recovers. The above symptoms are exceed- 
 ingly suggestive ; first, of care in making the change from the 
 pasture to the stable, from green food to dry, from the mother's 
 milk to fodder, or any other great change in the habits. All 
 change should be gradual. Second, it suggests what we have 
 
310 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 before urged, air,' light, ventilation, and cleanliness in the stable.. 
 As a preventive, when one horse has the disease separate him 
 from the rest, where they cannot possibly take his breath, and 
 fumigate and wash with tobacco water as recommended after 
 glanders. Treatment. — "Wash the neck and throat with a strong 
 decoction of tobacco, as hot as the horse can bear it, two or 
 three times a day. Give sulphur and resin, two pounds of the 
 former to one of the latter. Contrive to make the horse eat a 
 quarter of a pound of this every day, for several days. Give 
 mashes, boiled oats, or green feed, but no corn. If the swelling 
 continues, but does not soften, poultice with steaming mashes ; 
 when it softens open it at once. 
 
 Dr. Stewart recommends bleeding three pints, "then. take 
 and thoroughly mix together one tablespoonful of gunpowder, 
 one of lard, one of soft soap, one of gum myrrh, and two of tar ; 
 put a spoonful of this down the horse's throat, as far as you can, 
 with a paddle or spoon, twice a day." Nasal Gleet is usually 
 a continuation o'f distemper, or, rather of the discharge ■ accom- 
 panying distemper. We confess that we do not know its cause. 
 The symptoms are an irregular discharge, often mixed with 
 blood. It will sometimes cease for a few days, and then recur. 
 The discharge changes color with the food. Leave the horse to 
 himself, in an ordinary, dark, ill ventilated, filthy stable, and 
 you will soon have an incurable case of glanders. If this is not 
 desired, treat the same as for distemper, washing out the nose 
 daily with the tobacco water, until the discharge ceases. Good 
 pasture, if in mild weather, and good stabling, if cold or wet, 
 are requisite. If stabled give some green food and roots, with 
 daily out-door exercise. 
 
 Diseases of the Bye are almost, if not wholly, unknown 
 in the wild horse, being the result of the carelessness or cruelty 
 of man. They are very seldom hereditary, as a blind mare will 
 
HOESES AND MULES. 311 
 
 produce cults witli tlie best of sight. They are in no way con- 
 nected with the teeth, as is often supposed. The term, " Natu- 
 EALLT WEAK Btes," SO often used, is folly, as there is no such 
 thing as naturally weak eyes. The Creator has provided every 
 horse with perfect vision, and it is the ignorance or recklessness 
 of man that destroys it. Other diseases of the head will some- 
 times affect the eye ; when the disease is cured, the eye will 
 recover. There are three causes which account for nearly all 
 cases of disease of the eye. The first is ammonia. The dung 
 and urine constantly give out ammonia ; it is often so strong 
 as to make you sneeze and your eyes to water, even when in the 
 stable for a few minutes ; what then must be the effect upon 
 the sensitive, tender, eye of the horse, who stands in it hour after 
 hour. It is the cause of three-fourths the cases of weak and 
 diseased eyes. It can only be lessened by having the urine 
 drained off as it falls, by removing the dung, by daily washing 
 down the stable, and by admitting fresh air at the head, and 
 having ventilation at the back of the stable, for all which full 
 directions have been given. The second cause which renders 
 the first much worse is the want of light. Nothing thrives 
 without light, and the frequent change from the dark stable to 
 the glare of day, and vice versa, produces a very injurious effect. 
 {See Oonsirudion of Stables.) The third cause is from injuries 
 to the eye, from hay seed dropping into the eye, from cuts of 
 the' lash, and blows about the head. The former is prevented 
 by having no lofts over the stable, and by putting the hay where 
 the horse can reach it withoiit stretching up his head. The latter 
 is prevented by kindness instead of cruelty. The general treat- 
 ment for Weak Eyes, Simple OpHTH^LMIA, or Inflammation- 
 op THE Byes ; Soee Eyelids ; and simple injuries of the eye, 
 causing soreness or inflammation, is easy, and should never be 
 neglected, as these simple affections readily become serious dis- 
 
312 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT, 
 
 orders. When the eyelid is closed, and tears drop fpm it, 
 attend to the case at once. Eemove all the causes of the disease. 
 Examine the eye and remove any hay seed or other substance 
 that may have caused it. Bind a cloth over the eyes, and wet 
 it with arnica and water, one pipt of water to an ounce of arnica. 
 Repeat this for several nights, sponging the eye several times a 
 day with cold water. If inflammation is excessive, and white 
 spots are seen on the eye, indicating sores or abscess, bleed three 
 pints, and use the eye-wash invented and prescribed by Dr. 
 Stewart. {See Bemedies.) The blood should now be attended to. 
 Give two or three ounces of sulphur, every other day for a week, 
 and every other week for six weeks. If inflammation does not 
 decrease, bleed the inner surface of the eyelid, or the eye vein. 
 Give no corn, but green food or roots. Specific Ophthalmia, 
 or Moon Byes, is a terrible disease, without cure. It is caused by 
 the fumes of impure stables. Symptoms : — Swollen eyelids^ tears ; 
 the circumference of the ball is inflamed ; the horse cannot 
 bear the lid to be lifted in the light, but will submit in the 
 shade, the iris loses its bright color, and grows lighter; the 
 whole eye is disorganized. Soon these symptoms disappear 
 only to break out again with renewed violence. Sometimes it 
 attacks one eye, sometimes both ; it changes from one eye to the 
 other, disappears and returns, but continually grows worse, and 
 finally produces total blindness in one or both eyes. To check 
 the disease, and save one eye, should be attempted. The horse 
 should have a roomy, well-ventilated stall, perfectly dark in 
 front, but well lighted from behind or above. Open the eye 
 vein, and puncture the interior of the lid. Put a cloth saturated 
 with cold water over both eyes, at night, and if the eyelids are 
 very much inflamed add one ounce of arnica to a pint of water, 
 and keep the cloths wet with this during the forenoon. Give 
 green food, or roots, but no corn, and but little hay. Give the 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 313 
 
 following preparation : Powdered sassafras, three ounces ; skunk 
 cabbage, three ounces; gentian, three ounces; sulphur, two 
 ounces ; elm bark, eight ounces ; ginger, two ounces ; salt, three 
 ounces. Mix, and divide into twelve powders, giving one every 
 night with the food. Let every farmer who has a horse 
 attacked with this disease, raise or remove his loft, give venti- 
 lation, light, etc. This will cost money, but the price of one 
 good horse will pay for a good deal of carpenter work. The 
 little washer, cosily stowed away in the -nner corner of the eye, 
 called the haw, which serves to wash the eye and clean it of 
 specks, dust, and grit, sometimes becomes inflamed and pro- 
 trudes over the eye, in the form of a white hook, and is there- 
 fore called a Hook, and is sometimes removed by persons who 
 should know better. This deprives the horse of his only re- 
 source to keep his eye clean. When much inflamed, prick it 
 slightly ; pull the lids apart, and apply the eye wash two or 
 three times a day, and the inflammation will disappear. 
 
 The various affections of the eyes are the cause often of shy- 
 ing, fright, wheeling,, sudden starts, running, backing, turning 
 out of the road, and all eccentric movements of the horse. He 
 sees imperfectly, and, being timid, acts accordingly. Whipping 
 in sjich cases is barbarous, mean, and cowardly, besides being 
 worse than useless. Instead of further fear, colifidence should 
 be restored by kind words. If the owner always speaks kindly 
 to the beast, he will soon learn confidence, and the sound of his 
 voice, during fright, will do more good than the whip or the 
 rein. When frightened, speak kindly before you draw the rein, 
 then draw it gently, talking all the time, not in loud, harsh 
 tones, but mildly. 
 
 Diseases op the Muscles and Tendons. 
 
 Poll Evil, and Fistula, are the same disease appearing in 
 different places — Fistula on the top of the shouldec, just under 
 
314 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 the upper portion of tlie shoulder blade, in the cartilage marked 
 Q in the skeleton. Poll Evil occurs in the neck, just back of 
 the ears, near the point marked B in the skeleton. Both are 
 caused by bruises against the top of a low stable, or the sides 
 of a narrow stall — against the top of a low doorway, or against 
 the sides of a narrow one. It is strange, that to save a few 
 dollars, or a little space, men will thus allow their valuable 
 property to be injured. These diseases are sometimes caused 
 by blows ; by the saddle ; and, rarely, by rolling on a stone or 
 stick. The tendon becomes swollen and painful ; the horse tries 
 to rub the place against the sides of his stall, which only aggra- 
 vate<) the evil. A small swelling appears. Any person who 
 watches his horses with any care, will discover the evil before 
 it goes farther. When the above symptoms are discovered, put 
 the hand to the places mentioned. There will be heat and ten- 
 derness, even if the swelling has not appeared. At this stage, 
 apply the corrosive liniment every morning for a week or ten 
 days. If, however, there is a considerable swelling before it is 
 discovered, or if, after applying the corrosive liniment as above, 
 the swelling should continue, an abscess has formed,'^and prompt 
 measures are required. The following is Dr. Stewart's valuable 
 prescription : " Spread a thin coating of May Apple liniment 
 (see Remedies) over the whole tumor every morning, washing it 
 off at night, and then greasing the surface of the tumor. Con- 
 tinue this three or four days, until pus begins to ooze out; 
 increase the liniment, apply every other day, and let it be on A 
 day and a night, but never longer. Always wash it off thor- 
 oughly with warm soapsuds, and grease with any kind of 
 grease." If the tumor is not made to discharge, cut it with a 
 sharp knife, at its junction with the body. If the May Apple 
 liniment is not to be had, apply a linseed poultice, or a poultice 
 of equal parts of sugar, soap, and powdered bloodroot. 
 
HORSa-S AND MULES. 316 
 
 Bog and Blood Spavins, so called, are not spayins, and 
 bear no resemblance to spavin. They are of the same nature as 
 Wind Galls and Thoeough Pin ; bat where, and why, these 
 diseases got their odd names, it is difficult to conceive. The 
 spavins appear at the hock ; wind galls at the ankles ; thoro'ugh 
 pin on the back part of the hock joint. Because they do not 
 often cause immediate lameness, they are said to be harmless. 
 But how would a man like to have his injuries an^? sores 
 judged in the same way ? They are caused by severe strain, 
 and by blows and kicks on the legs, such as brutal men often 
 give. They should never be opened, as they cause a permanent 
 running sore. 
 
 Apply the corrosive liniment three or four times a week for 
 three or four weeks, and if "no improvement occurs, let them 
 alone. When, however, they produce stiffness of the joints, 
 or inflammation, apply the liniment until it disappears. Cues 
 is an enlargement on the back of the leg below the hock. Give 
 rest, and corrosive liniment. It is a dangerous injury, and will 
 often render the horse uSeless unless a long rest and treatment 
 are given. 
 
 Tetanus, or Lock Jaw, though not very common, is an ex- 
 ceedingly painful and dangerous disease. It is usually caused 
 by wounds, bruising either nerves or tendons, such as prick in 
 shoeing, nicking, docking, broken knees, galls, etc., etc. It is 
 also caused by such abuse as hard driving and standing in the 
 cold or wet. The horse first grows fidgety, the ears are set, the 
 muzzle protruded, the head elevated, the nostrils remain dila- 
 ted, the muscles grow rigid ; upon lifting the head, the " haw" 
 projects over the eye ; the tail is raised, the helly contracts, the 
 legs are straddled and stiff, the eye is sunken, the whole body 
 becomes hard and contracted, the jaws are locked, and agony 
 
 and starvation make short work of the sufferer. If the symp- 
 20 
 
Si6 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 toms are discovered before tlie jaws become looked, make a 
 mash by boiling a peck of bran in a gallon of water. The bran - 
 should be in a loose bag; and after boiling twenty minutes, bind 
 this bag to the throat as hot as it can be borne; at the same time 
 fasten a quilt, or a couple of large blankets, over him. Just 
 before binding on the bag, give a quart of corn meal gruel. If 
 you can thus produce perspiration, you will be likely to save 
 locked jaw. 
 
 If, however, the jaw should be locked before action is taken, 
 or become locked in spite of the means taken, resort must be 
 had to bleeding and opiates. Bleed two quarts from the neck 
 vein, then stop the flow for half an hour; then bleed three 
 quarts again ; stop the flow, and again bleed three or four quarts. 
 Wever bleed continuously -in any case. 
 
 Now have ready the bran mash and quilt, adding a little to- 
 bacco juice and camphor to the water. Dissolve a quarter of 
 a pound of salts in a half pint of warm water, and add one 
 ounce of laudanum. Turn this slowly down the horse's throat, 
 by means of a tunnel or open horn irfserted between the front 
 and back teeth. After three hours, give the corn meal gruel ; 
 and in three more, two ounces of salts. Give the gruel every 
 six hours. In the mean time, let a pailof gruel stand where 
 he can stick his nose into it with ease, and he will suck it up 
 himself as soon as his sufferings abate. If all these measures 
 should fail of relief, cut the scab from his fore leg, grate it fine 
 on a coarse file, put a teaspoonful in each ear, and dust a little 
 up his nose. 
 
 Cramps, or spasms of the muscles, are caused by over-exer- 
 tion during the day, and cramped confinement during the night. 
 The horse loses control of his limbs ; one moment they may be 
 stiff and rigid, the next they may jerk and twitch with more or 
 
HOESES AND MULES. 817 
 
 Jess violence. Eub the legs with salt and water, and, when dry, 
 with the corrosive liniment. 
 
 Eheumatism is a common complaint. It mostly affects the 
 joints, shoulders, and hips, but often the chest also. It follows 
 colds and chest affections. Driving a horse into a pond when 
 heated, exposure to cold wind or rain, excessive exertion, and 
 sudden changes, are all causes of rheumatism. It is more likely 
 to attack a high conditioned horse than a lean horse. The 
 symptoms are the same in 'cramps, but more marked; the limbs 
 swell, it flies from one part to another, and sometimes to the heart, 
 where it proves fatal. Sometimes it settles in the feet and 
 becomes founder, again, it settles in the chest, and the horse is 
 said, to be chest foundered. Eub the legs with salt and water 
 as for cramps, and give a quart of salt and water, as hot as the 
 horse will take it. The bowel's can be relieved by an injection 
 of the same. Give two or three doses of " jimson seed." 
 
 For spasms of the muscles, or twitching of the muscles in 
 any part of the body, rub with salt and water, and. when dry, 
 apply the corrosive liniment. In cases of String -Halt apply 
 the liniment to the hip, at the junction of the spine, and to the 
 back part of the foot, daily, for a month. Give two doses of 
 "jimson seed" the first week, and one dose a week for the 
 next three weeks. If the string halt is confirmed there is not 
 much use of touching it. When it first appears the above treat- 
 ment often removes it or makes it less. 
 
 Diseases of the Skin and Eabs. As all hardships first 
 fall upon the skin,. it is no wonder that it is often diseased. 
 Scratches. This troublesome affection is caused by stable 
 filth, helped by a bad state of the system, the blood, and the 
 digestion. It makes its appearance on the back side of the 
 foot, in the form of dry, scabby patches, which are very itchy, 
 and the horse, scratching them with the other foot, extends 
 
318 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 them upward to the fetlock, until they form a solid mass, often 
 raw aud bleeding. It is readily disco-vered from the continual 
 scratching of the horse, whence it is called scratches. Use the 
 corrosive liniment, four times a week, until cured. Feed green 
 food or roots,, mashes, etc. For swelled legs or ankles, from 
 whatever cause, apply the liniment as directed above. Surfeit 
 is a general disease of the skin, indicating a thick and impure 
 state of the blood. Little pustules appear iipon the skin, and 
 the oily secretion whose work it is to moisten and lubricate the 
 surface exudes from them. Bleed the horse from two to four 
 quarts, according to size and condition, give two doses of sul- 
 , phur and resin, rub the skin where the pustules have appeared, 
 with an ointment of sulphur and lard in equal parts. Do this 
 two or three nights, turn him to pasture, or let him have a 
 week's rest, and he will be as good as new. Mange is a disease 
 into which neglected surfeit will run. It is also caused by 
 negligence, filth, lack of grooming, starvation, bad digestion, and 
 bad condition generally. It is exceedingly contagious; any 
 thing it touches will carry contagion ; it is accompanied by a 
 little insect, but whether the insect is the cause or the effect is 
 not fully ascertained. The first sj'-mptoms are a scurf, or scabby 
 eruption of the skin, usually about the mane, accompanied by ex- 
 cessive itchiness. The skin becomes scaly, peeling off and leaving 
 raw, red spots, often bleeding. The horse rubs himself as if he 
 would tear the skin from his body, everywhere he rubs he leaves 
 dandruff, scurf, or scabs to infect other animals, unless prevented. 
 If the horse is in good condition, he has probably been in-' 
 fected. Wash the whole body in lime water. Make an oint- 
 ment of one pint each corrosive liniment, sulphur, and lard 
 and anoint the whole body, from the nose to the hoof; spread 
 thin as possible, but see that, every part is touched. If fair 
 weather, let the horse out during the day, but keep him in, in 
 
HOESES AND MULES. 819 
 
 cold or wet weather, or at night ; in two days wash again with 
 lime water. If the horse is in low, poor condition, give a dose 
 of sulphur and resin every third day, for two weeks, and feed 
 well with green feed, steamed oats, boiled roots, etc. The 
 formef treatment will be of little avail unless you now bring 
 him into good flesh and condition. 
 
 Hide Bound. This very peculiar disease is caused by the 
 drying up of the secretions which make the skin soft and pliable, 
 and the hair sleek and glossy. Any complaint attended with 
 much fever, will do this. It is also caused by exposure, and by 
 poor ventilation. The skin becomes dry and. hard, adhering to 
 the flesh ; the hai. is rusty and staring, the digestion is usually 
 very much impaired, and the excrement is dry, hard, and black. 
 The blood is corrupt, thick, dark and feverish. Bleed ; taking 
 two to three quarts, give a tablespoonful of "jimson seed" 
 three times on every third day. , Let' the horse have sulphur 
 and resin in his food, as previously directed. Green food, or 
 roots, good stabling, fresh air, and rest will do the remainder. 
 Stiff Complaint is only an aggravated case of Hide Bound. 
 "Warts. Seed warts are not of much account, unless they ap- 
 pear where they will be likely to become chafed. Blood warts 
 should be removed as soon as they appear. In either case 
 grease the skin for three inches about the wart with tallow. 
 Make a strong solution of potash, one and a half pounds to one 
 pint of water. Touch the end of the wart with this, morning 
 and evening, always applying the grease before doing so. 
 Apply the potash every other day, always scraping off the dead 
 matter before doing so. Do not let the potash touch any thing 
 but the wart. After the wart is reduced apply corrosive lini- 
 ment a few times at intervals of two days. Keep them greased, 
 but wash off the grease before putting on the liniment. Har- 
 ness Galls, Saddle Galls, "Wabbles, and Sit Fasts, are. all 
 
320 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 different developments of the same thing, namely galliag by 
 harness, saddle, shafts, etc. When such a gall is observed, 
 wash clean with cool water, and when dry cover with an adhe- 
 sive plaster of common salve. If swollen and matterated, leave 
 a slit in the plaster for the escape of the matter. • 
 
 In bad cases nse the corrosive liniment until healing begins, 
 then put on the plaster. When they harden like corns, leaving 
 the edges sore, remove the hard portion with a knife and apply 
 the chloride of zinc lotion until they begin to heal, then apply 
 plaster as before. Scabby eruptions of the ears are to be 
 washed with strong soapsuds, and anointed daily with the sul- 
 phur ointment. Tumors appearing on different portions of the 
 body should be treated at once with the corrosive liniment. 
 
 Deafness, and most diseases of the ear, are the results of vio- 
 lence, beating over the head, pinching and pulling the ears, etc. 
 If tumors or swellings appear within reach of the little mop, 
 apply the corrosive liniment. If- within the ear inject small 
 quantities of the eye-wash. (See Remedies) 
 
 Diseases of the Bbain and Nervous System are usually 
 fatal. Water on the brain ; hydrophobia ; epileptic fits ; phre- 
 nitis or inflammation of the brain, and insanity are, so far as we 
 know, wholly incurable. Dr. Stewart thus writes of Apoplexy : 
 Apoplexy is caused by a pressure of blood upon the brain. 
 It is hardly recognized by the farmer, and he would probably 
 be surprised to know how many horses die of it yearly. The 
 animal's death is usually attributed to some other disease, and 
 the treatment pursued aids in hastening the result. Perhaps 
 nearly one-fourth of those severe attacks of disease which go 
 among the masses by the name of bots are really apoplexy." 
 
 It is often mistaken for staggers or some other disease of the 
 stomach. High feeding and little exercise are often the imme- 
 diate cause, but these are not suffjcient to account for it withoui 
 
HOBSES AND MULES. 821 
 
 Other and predisposing causes. Apoplexy is always character- 
 ized by giddiness and wildness of motion, and nearly always by 
 a staggering gait. Hence the reason why it is so frequently 
 mistaken for " the staggers." 
 
 Its severe symptoms in the next stage are profuse sweating, 
 a trembling of the whole frame and especially of the knees; a 
 wild, wistful look and a twitching of the skin, and jerking of the 
 ears. Youatt's description is perfect. ''The actual illness is 
 perhaps first recognized by the horse standing with his head 
 depressed. It bears upon or is forced against the manger or the 
 wall, and a considerable part of the weight of the animal is 
 evidently supported by this pressure of the head. . ^s ne thus 
 stands he is balancing himself from one side to the other as if 
 he were ready to fall ; and it is often dangerous to stand near 
 him or to move him, for he falls without warning. If he can 
 get his muzzle into a corner he will sometimes continue there 
 motionless for a considerable time, and then drop, as if he were 
 shot; but, the, next moment he is up again with his feet almost 
 in the rack {we think the last is a rare exhibition. G. W. D). 
 He sleeps or seems to do so, as he stands, or at least he is nearly 
 or quite unconscious of surrounding objects. "When he is 
 roused, he looks vacantly around him. Perhaps he will take a 
 look of hay if it is offered to him, but ere it is half masticated 
 the eye closes, and he sleeps again with the food in his month, 
 soon afterwards he is perhaps roused once more. The eye 
 opens, but it has an unmeaning glare. The hand is moved be- 
 fore him, but the eye closes not ; he is spoken to, bat he hears 
 not. The last act of voluntary motion which he will attempt is 
 usually to drink ; but he has little power over the muscles of 
 deglutition, and the fluid returns through the nostrils." These 
 are the first stages ; foaming, gnashing of teeth, twitching, wild- 
 ness and convulsions follow. As there is a pressure of blood 
 
322 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 ■which is fearfully congested, bleeding must be resorted to. 
 Take first a couple of quarts. In ten to twenty minutes as 
 much more. Between these bleedings give a pint of hot salt 
 and water, with a teaspoonful of cayenne pepper, and half an 
 ounce of laudanum in it. If the horse is not weak from the 
 bleeding, in ten or twenty minutes bleed again, until he shows 
 signs of weakness. Mix one-half ounce each of gentian and 
 ginger, and four ounces epsom salts ; make two doses. Give one 
 four hours after the laudanum, the other twelve hours later. 
 Give a warm meal gruel after this until the bowels are free. 
 
 If the horse recovers, take pains to prevent his getting in high 
 condition again, as he will almost surely have another attack. 
 
 Palsy, or partial paralysis, is a rare disease, is not well 
 understood, and no treatment is sure. Nervous spasms, in 
 which the horse becomes frightened, agitated, and trembling, 
 without apparent cause, are usually treated with the whip, 
 which can only aggravate them. Give the horse a little quiet, 
 pat his head, talk soothingly to him, and a few minutes will 
 restore his tranquillity. Eelax the system by giving only soft 
 food. 
 
 Diseases of the Teeth and Mouth. — Few people com- 
 pare animals with themselves, when called upon to care for their 
 wants, but in most respects, physically, they are alike, and the 
 same causes produce the same effects in each. As the child 
 suffers in teething, and the adult from toothache, so do the colt 
 and the horse, under like circumstances. During suckling, the 
 mother's milk prevents the evil effects of teething, but after 
 weaning, the colt is liable to various diseases from this cause. 
 The process by which the first teeth are removed, and replaced 
 by the permanent set, is wonderful and curious, but we have 
 not space to describe it. During all this period, or into the 
 third year, there is always' more or less soreness and inflamma- 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 823 
 
 •* 
 
 tion. A tooth striving to push through the gums at one end, 
 and to fasten its fangs at the other, is a serious matter, and it 
 should be aided in its upward course by cutting the gums. The 
 mouth should be often examined, and wherever a tooth is try- 
 to push its way through, with a sharp knife, cut from the base 
 of the tooth to the point. If this is not done, inflammation will 
 often extend to the throat, the head, and the eyes. The inflamed 
 condition of the mouth, constantly tends to sour stomach. The 
 practice of putting out the colt to pasture, and leaving him for 
 weeks to take care of himself, is to be severely condemned. In 
 this time, he may lay the foundation, and we know that 
 thousands of colts do thus lay the foundation of serious diseases 
 of after life. The colt should be often visited, examined, and 
 handled, if you desire a sound or reliable horse. Pasture is best 
 for him in summer, but will not excuse neglect. In winter 
 keep him warmly and comfortably housed, give provender, cut 
 feed, a few oats, roots, and other light diet, but no solid, heating 
 food. Keep a little salt where he can easily get at it, and occa- 
 sionally put half a dose of sulphur in his feed. Good wood 
 ashes, put often in the bottom of the manger, will neutralize 
 the sour stomach. Toothache we believe to be very common 
 among horses, not alone from decayed teeth, but from biting 
 pebbles, grit, etc., in the food, and from hard substances getting 
 between the teeth. The head is often carried on one side, or 
 pressed against the wall, saliva dribbles from the lips, the food 
 is allowed to fall from the mouth. One day the horse eats little, 
 and is low spirited ; the next day he makes up for both, show 
 ing the same condition as in men. If the symptoms continually 
 grow worse, the teeth should be examined, and the decayed one 
 removed. If the breath is hot and offensive, the saliva thick 
 and stringy, give sulphur, four ounces ; if possible, an ounce of 
 "jimson seed." Put ashes in the manger, as directed for coltg. 
 
324 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAY. 
 
 It 
 
 Green limbs of tlie poplar are raost excellent in these cases, and 
 will be eaten greedily. Scurvy of the teeth is only a form of 
 decay, the decayed portion being left on the surface. Treat as 
 above, and when the stomach recovers its healthy tone, the 
 crust can be removed with a coarse file. The tooth should be 
 sandpapered after filing. Before closing the subject of the 
 teeth, we would say that the practice of feeding unground grain 
 to young colts, before the permanent teeth are set, is injurious, 
 not only at the time, but in after years. 
 
 There are many abuses of the horse's mouth by bit and 
 bridle ; and mouth and tongue are often chafed and wounded 
 by those who profess to have feeling for brutes. Severe 
 pulling and "sawing" on the bits, pulling up hard and sudden- 
 ly, and all like practices, except when absolutely necessary for 
 personal safety, are to be condemned. Always say whoa, 
 before you begin to puU on the bit, and then pull up steadily. 
 
 Lamp AS as a disease, is only imaginary, it is an inflammation 
 of the muscles in the roof of the mouth. The old resorts to 
 burning, and caustics, are horrible. If the inflammation is 
 severe, make a slight cut in the muscles, cfose to the teeth, wash 
 the mouth and gums with some cooling lotion, weak arnica and 
 water, or weak chlorate of potash. 
 
 Diseases of the Throat and Lungs are common in our 
 climate, as well to horses as to man. But climate is not all. 
 The horse has huge lungs, and absorbs large quantities of air 
 'at each breath ; to breathe this air over again is injurious. 
 When we take into our account, that in ninety-nine stables out 
 of one hundred, the air is not fit for the horse' to breathe at all, 
 and that this air has to be breathed over and over many times for 
 lack of ventilation, it is a wonder that any horse has sound lungs. 
 CoXjDS, infliienza, ("pinkeye," "horse-ail," so-called by many 
 horse jockeys,) are produced in the horse in just the same manner 
 
HOESES AND MULES. ^25 
 
 as in men. Heating and exposure afterwards; a hard, wet 
 drive without being properly dried, rubbed down, warmly 
 housed, well bedded, etc. Such are the causes. Swelled 
 THEOAT. In this term we include, sore throat, enlarged glands, 
 and laryngitis, or inflammation of the larynx. In all these 
 developments of cold, there is more or less soreness, swelling, 
 redness of the eye, an increase of mucus from the nose, dullness, 
 stiffness, failure to eat, slobbering of saliva, etc. To discover 
 laryngitis, apply the ear to the windpipe from the chest to the 
 head ; as you proceed, carefully listening, up the neck you will 
 hear a little gurgle, which increases to a wheeze or whistling 
 sound. All these affections lead to bronchitis, consumption, 
 and death. The place to stop them is here at the outset, the 
 time is now, when first discovered. If a mild case, dissolve 
 half an ounce of extract of belladonna in two quarts of water. 
 Put half a pint in a bottle, hold up the horse's head, and turn 
 it into the mouth ; let him retain it thirty seconds, drop the 
 head, and it will run from his lips. Eepeat this at least three 
 or four times a day. Give no hay or whole grain ; only green 
 food, roots, boiled grain, mashes, gruel, and such soft food 
 should be given during any soreness or inflammation of the 
 throat. If the attack is severe, or increases in spite of the above 
 treatment, open the neck vein, and bleed two or three quarts. 
 Prepare chloride of zinc, three drachms ; extract of belladonna, 
 half an ounce ; tincture of capsicum, two drachms ; water, one 
 gallon, and use as directed for the belladonna and water. 
 Apply the corrosive liniment on the outside of the throat, not 
 more than two mornings in succession. Cough is an accom- 
 paniment to almost every disease of the throat and lungs. 
 The first cough should be noticed, and its cause ascertained. 
 The disease which causes it should be attacked. Dr. Stewart 
 recommends the gunpowder mixture, {See Remedies,) and if ha 
 
326 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 stands in stable, as much sulphur and resin as he will eat. 
 Undoubtedly a piece of rock salt in the manger is beneficial in 
 all throat and lung complaints. Grass in its season, and soft 
 food as above, are nature's remedies. Beoken Wind, Heaves, 
 roaring, -wheezing, and various other diificulties in breathing, 
 are all of one nature, and ought to be all classed as one. They 
 are incurable in the present state of science. Such horses 
 should never be driven hard, far, fast, or heavily loaded. Feed 
 and water before starting, and never put them to work when 
 the stomach is distended with food. 
 
 Diseases or the Chest and Lungs. Chest Founder. 
 Symptoms, stifihess of shoulders during action, pain in the 
 breast when touched. Give hot salt and water, and wash 
 the breast in the same. If on the second day the symptoms 
 grow no better, apply the corrosive liniment, and give a pint 
 of hot salt and water, in which mix half an ounce of ginger, 
 and a drachm of tartar emetic. Bronchitis is one in the list 
 of maladies that follow each other from cold to consumption. 
 First cold, then enlarged glands, swelled throat, bronchitis, 
 pneumonia, congestion, and last, consumption. When will 
 men learn that care for their animals which shall prevent 
 this train of maladies. Dr. Dadd thus gives the symptoms of 
 Bronchitis. " Yeterinarians recognize this disease under three 
 aspects, viz. : — 
 
 1. "Acute, as when the horse is suddenly attacked with an 
 irritable cough and sore throat, with the usual febrile symp- 
 toms, such as quick, wiry pulse ; membranes of the nose and 
 mouth redder than usual, accelerated respiration ; great anxiety 
 of countenance, etc., etc. 
 
 2. " Chronic bronchitis, which sets in after the acute has sub- 
 sided. This stage in marked by a discharge of watery and some- 
 
HOESES AND MULES. 327 
 
 times mucous fluid from the nose ; and the act of rofepiratioa is 
 performed with a wheezing noise. 
 
 3. " The third variety has been named the epidemic." Give 
 two oances of Epsom salts, in a pint of salt and water, pretty 
 warm ; while this dose is being prepared, wash the whole neck 
 and chest with a decoction of tobacco, weak, but hot. Now put 
 one ounce each of gentian and ginger in a quart of water, and 
 boil until one half evaporates. Divide this into four doses, 
 and give night and morning. Continue these until improve- 
 ment in the patient is perceptible. We also wish to cover 
 the mucous membranes. Slippery elm is the best possible 
 article ; into two quarts of boiling water, stir just enough to 
 thicken it, not quite as thick as cream ; make four doses of it, 
 and give twice daily. Keep the bowels loose by means of 
 warm gruels and mashes. Dadd says : ^^Fine feed, scalded and 
 set before the animal warm, answers two purposes, viz., that of 
 relaxing the engorged surfaces of the nose and throat, and also 
 has a relaxing effect on the bowels. If the bowels should re- 
 main closed, inject warm soapsuds. Pneumonia, of inflamma- 
 tion of the lungs, is the next stage of the disease ; it is usually 
 ushered in with a chill, (the horse shivering all ovei), succeeded 
 by unnatural warmth of the body and coldness of the extremi- 
 ties ; the pulse is quick, breathing short, quick, and hard ; a sure 
 symptom is the icy coldness of the extremities. If you do not 
 conclude to end these sufferings with the bullet, treat vigorously 
 as recommended for bronchitis. Congestion is the last stage of 
 pneumonia, and unless death follows immediately, the horse is 
 spared for the finishing stroke of Consumption, for which we 
 prescribe no cure, as there is none. 
 
 Diseases of the Stomach and Bowels, 
 
 The BoT is a natural inhabitant of the stomach of the horse. 
 His history is as follows : The gadfly, that torment of the horse, 
 
828 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 attaches her eggs to his hair, they hatch, and the little grub is 
 licked off by -the horse and swallowed. Sometimes several 
 hundred will thus be deposited in the stomach. They attach 
 themselves to the upper part of the stomach, where they spend 
 the winter and pass off in the following season to make room 
 for another company. They seldom do any harm. In rare 
 instances they obstruct the entrance of food. It was formerly 
 supposed that they injured, and sometimes killed the horse, 
 and there are still those ignorant enough to give powerful doses 
 of medicine " to kill the bots," or, " to drive out the bots." 
 
 Xow, if it were worth while to attempt to kill them, or drive 
 them out, it cannot be done. No medicine can be given strong 
 enough to kill them. They will live for months corked up in 
 spirits or poison. But supposing the dose given would kill, it 
 can only reach a very small proportion of them. They are 
 securely fastened where the dose goes over them like a shower 
 bath, and has no effect, except on a few stray ones who may be 
 wandering about off their guard. When examined under the 
 microscope, they are seen to have a little mouth no larger than 
 the point of a needle, which they can close at their pleasure 
 and refuse all doses you may send them. It is said that they eat 
 through the stomach of the horse, and cause death ; this is not 
 so. They have no power to eat the stomach until it becomes so 
 diseased that death must surely follow. The stomach of a horse 
 apparently sound, killed by accident, will often be found eat 
 through. It is probable that they attack some weak or partially 
 diseased spot. Any one who will examine them under the 
 microscope will see that they have no means of penetrating the 
 liealthy, sound stomach. When bots are voided in the excre- 
 ment or are found, clinging to the anus, give the following 
 prescription: powdered fern, two ounces; powdered poplar bark, 
 four ounces; mustard seed, two ounces; common salt, six 
 
HORSES AND MULES. , 329 
 
 ounces; sulphur, three ounces; aloes, one ounce. Mu»c and 
 divide into eighteen powders; give one, night and morning, 
 in the feed. This will bring away any not firmly attached, and 
 will promote digestion. The awful doses sometimes given for 
 bots, we condemn. Soue Stomach is liable to trouble the 
 horse at almost any time ; it is caused by fermentation of the 
 food ; grass after eating hay ; too much food after fasting, and 
 other like causes. Fermentation produces gas, the gas dis 
 tends the intestines, and the horse has Colic, inflammation 
 of the bowels. Enteritis, (fret, gripes,) or Spasmodic Colic 
 which though called by the above differing names, is sub- 
 stantially the same, and has three stages. The symptoms 
 are, first stage, uneasiness, eating stopped, pawing with fore foot, 
 hind foot raised to the belly, the nose points to the flank. 
 Second stage, spasms, they grow more frequent and more violent ; 
 the sufferer sweats and trembles ; he assumes various positions 
 to obtain relief. Third stage, he suddenly lies down, rolls, 
 kicks, and as suddenly comes to his feet again. He is now in 
 terrible pain, and in danger every moment of a rupture of the 
 bowels,' and instant death. The treatment for the colic is so 
 'simple that a child can understand it, and yet many persist in 
 turning all kinds of nostrums into the already terribly inflamed 
 stomach. During the first stage, give a tablespoonful of chloro- 
 form in a gill of whisky, and a pint of warm water. In ease 
 the chloroform is not right at hand, dissolve in a- pint of hot 
 water all the salt it will dissolve, and give as hot as the horse 
 will take it. Now inject a pint of warm soapsuds. If you have 
 no syringOj put it in a long necked bottle and turn it into the 
 rectum, or turn it through a tunnel. Secure a discharge from 
 the, bowels and the horse is saved. If the disease has reached 
 the second, and especially the third stage, the horse must be 
 bled before any other treatment. 
 
330 , HOW TO M4.KB THE FARM PAT. 
 
 Flatulent Oolio is mucli like fhe former, but occurB in 
 the large intestines, and is caused by a stricture or stoppage of 
 the rectum. Hard masses of excrement are held fast in the 
 passages, and the gases cannot escape. A rumbling is hear^^ in 
 the abdomen, which distinguishes this from the ordinary colic. 
 The bowels must be moved, but not by physio. Give the in- 
 jection of warm soapsuds two or three times, at short intervals; 
 and if these fail, strip your arm, grease^ it to the elbow, force it 
 up the rectum until the obstruction is reached, and crush it 
 with the fingers — or, if that cannot be done, roll it backward 
 until it can be removed. After the bowels are freed, in any 
 colic, give a dose of sulphur and resin, daily, for three or four 
 days, with soft food, and a little daily exercise. While waiting 
 for a movement of the bowels, the work can be hastened by 
 bathing the flanks in hot tobacco water. Inflammation and 
 soreness of the rectum, sometimes accompanied by bleeding, 
 ®often follow these severe attacks of colic. Bathe the rectum 
 with salt and water, cold. Grease the anus with lard and salt 
 whenever it appears to itch or be sore. 
 
 Diseases of the Liver, Ueinart Organs, etc-. Jaun- 
 dice, or Yellows, is distinguished by yellowness of the eyes, 
 mouth, and skin. The dung hardens, the urine is highly co- 
 lored, and the appetite fails. Give four doses of " jimson seed," 
 two days apart ; omit for a week ; and if the symptoms do not 
 begin to yield, repeat the doses. If jimson seed is not to be 
 had, give daily a half dose of sulphur and resin. The bark of 
 yellow poplar is beneficial in all these diseases. 
 
 Nephritis, or Inflammation op the Kidnets, is a very 
 troublesome complaint, caused by any one of the thousand 
 abuses to which the horse is subjected. Bad fodder is one, and 
 strong diuretics, such as copperas, saltpetre and mineral poisons, 
 are the frequent agents. In this, and all other diseases of the 
 
HOESES AND MULES. 331 
 
 urinary organs, the horse stahds with his hind legs wide apart; 
 he frequently tries to urinate, but the amount is small, and 
 grows more scanty ; it is high colored, and sometimes bloody ; 
 he refuses to turn the body, and shrinks when the loins are 
 pressed. In the first stages, apply a cold water bandage to the 
 loins. Into one pint of boiling water stir enough powdered 
 slippery elm to make it creamy, and add one half pint of lin- 
 seed oil, for a dose. In severe cases, bleed once ; apply the 
 corrosive liniment to the loins ; increase the linseed oil to one 
 pint. Give for drink, oat meal water, made by stirring a quart 
 of oat meal into a gallon of boiling water. 
 
 Diabetes, or Peopusb Stallikg, may become nephritis, 
 and should be taken in time. Dr. Stewart recommends whor- 
 ^ tleberry leaves, two ounces to one quart of boiling water, for 
 two doses, on alternate days. Bloody discharges with the urine 
 he treats in the same manner. Sometimes the urine is thij^ 
 and reddish, and again white and milky. These states precede 
 Gravel, or Stone in the Bladder, which is indicated by 
 partial suppression of the urine and great suffering. The 
 symptoms are otherwise very much of the nature of spasmodic 
 colic. The cure of gravel is doubtful, but Dr. Stewart says he 
 has cured five cases out of six in his extensive practice by the 
 following means: A table spoonful of "jimson seed" every 
 other day, in the feed, until six doses have been given. Also 
 four doses, or a dose morning and night, for two days, of the 
 spirits of nitre four ounces, oil of juniper half an ounce, oil of 
 sassafras one ounce, made into four doses. Suppression of urino 
 may be present without any of the diseases we have named, 
 caused by any injury to the urethra. Give the dose last named 
 in a pint of warm water, three times a day, on alternate days. 
 
 Foul Sheath is not a disease, but leads to it. The sheath 
 
 should be bathed and washed quite frequently. When this is 
 21 
 
332 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM FAT. 
 
 not done, dirt will collect inside it, forming into lumps, whicL 
 irritate it, and cause inflammation. Eoul, putrid, offensive mat- 
 ter runs from the sheath, a disgusting advertisement of either 
 the ignorance or carelessness of his keeper. The penis is not 
 protruded at all to urinate, but the water is allowed to run out 
 of the sheath. The first thing to be done is to remove the 
 lumps, wash the sheath with -soap and water, and grease it with 
 lard and salt. This washing and greasing should be repeated 
 two or three times a week, until the sheath is perfectly well and 
 the foul odor gone. 
 
 Diseases of the Heart and Blood are not common, unless 
 we name all fever' a disease of the blood, which it really is. 
 Disease of the heart cannot be ascertained except by the most 
 experienced eye and ear, and when discovered we know of no 
 remedy. Fevers accompany nearly all diseases of the horse, 
 and require no separate treatment. Bleeding is treated of under 
 the head of Eemedies. Poisons of snakes 'and insects, should 
 be treated at once with a half pint of whisky and a teaspoonful 
 of hartshorn, internally, and a wash of the same externally 
 For the sting of insects, mosquitos, gadflies, etc., we would 
 recommend, as a preventive, the use of the cresylic soap, sold 
 by Orange, Judd & Co., publishers of the American Agricul- 
 turist^ New York. An animal washed with this is insect proof, 
 and the endless torment and irritation are at an end. A box of 
 ten pounds costs four dollars, and will prove well worth the 
 money. We would once more caution farmers against the use 
 of poisons in treating their stock. Nux vomica, canthdrides or 
 Spanish flies, copperas, or sulphate of iron, and corrosive sublimate, 
 are all poisons. Sumach will sometimes poison the nose, caus- 
 ing sores. These should be grep,sed with glycerine or lard. 
 
 Fractures of the skull, of the nasal bones, and of the ribs, 
 are sometimes caused by blows or kicks. No person should 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 333 
 
 ever strike a horse with any hard or heavy instrument, and to 
 kick a horse in the abdomen is brutal. 
 
 Feaotuees of the Limbs are simple when broken only in 
 one place, and compound, when broken in two or more places ; 
 in which case they will protrude. A simple fracture if taken at 
 once can be made to heal. Pads of cotton should be laid upon 
 the leg and bound tightly to it with strips of cloth. These 
 should be soaked with arnica tincture and water, half and half; 
 keep them wet for several hours at a time every day. 
 
 The next thing is to sling the horse to prevent his lying down. 
 Get six or more yards of bagging, according to the width of the 
 stall. Fasten one end to one side of the stall, run it under the 
 horse's belly, and draw it up on the other side till it takes him 
 nearly off his feet. Any contrivance that will answer this pur- 
 pose is all that is required. He must be fastened in front, so 
 that he cannot pull himself out of the sling. When the ftac- 
 ture is a compound one, and the bones are displaced, the setting 
 should take place before he is raised to his feet. The leg should 
 be wet for sometime previous in hot soapy water. Cloths may 
 be wrapped around, and hot water poured on for twenty min- 
 utes. A rope must be fastened to his foot and carried around a 
 post or some fast body and the leg gradually pulled until the 
 bones come in place again. This can be told by a gentle press- 
 ure of the hand. The wet cloths should now be removed, and 
 if the bones are all right the leg may be rubbed with the hand 
 until it is dry. This may be done by one while others prepare 
 the bandages, three inches wide, and dipped in a warm mixture 
 of equal- parts of pitch, beeswax, and tallow. Begin to wind 
 below the fracture, place cotton padding over the fracture, and 
 wind the bandage tightly over this. Wind as far above the 
 fracture as below it. Two pieces of green wood may be hol- 
 lowed out so as not to press upon the wound, and the ends 
 
334: HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 shaved down thin, and then bound on with more of the adhe 
 sive strips. All this should.be done as quickly as possible, and 
 the leg relieved from the ropes." A horse in good condition 
 will usually by this treatment recover the use of the limb. 
 The leg should be bathed for a few days with arnica, to pre- 
 vent inflammation. We have known a simple fracture heal in 
 one month, and have heard of a compound fracture taking seven 
 months. A fracture below the knee will heal sooner than one 
 above. Let the horse decide when it is healed by giving him a 
 chance to use it after one or two months. Feed him well, and 
 keep up his strength. 
 
 Shoeing requires little to be said, as the smiths take that in 
 their own hands. No horse should be shod before he is three 
 years old. 
 
 The shoes on young horses should be cleaned as often as once 
 in two months. The farmer should stand by and watch the 
 operation, and see that the heel is not pared down too much. 
 One-third less should be pared off at the heel than the toe. 
 
 An account of the remedies for diseases of the horse. 
 
 Db. Stewart's Corrosive Liniment. Turpentine, one pint ; 
 corrosive sublimate, one ounce ; gum camphor, one ounce ; shake 
 well, -and let it stand twenty-four hours. It should be kept con- 
 stantly on hand by every owner of a horse. The corrosive 
 sublimate should be powdered as fine as it is possible for any 
 druggist to do it. Tell the druggist so when you go for it. 
 Never turn this liniment on to your flesh or clothing, or on to 
 any tin or m^tal. Always turn it into some glass or earthen 
 vessel. Shake the bottle well before opening. Apply with a 
 little mop, and for bone diseases dry it in with a hot iron, held 
 near the flesh. 
 
 Glycerine Ointment. Animal glycerine, half a pint ; chloride 
 of zinc, half an ounce. 
 
HOESES AND itULES. 335 
 
 Chloride of Zinc Lotion. One grain chloride of zimj to 
 one ounce of water. 
 
 Splint Lotion. Acetic acid, two ounces ; water, eight oun- 
 ces ; chloric ether, one ounce ; apply to a pad of two or three 
 thickness of cotton cloth bound on. 
 
 Gunpowder Mixture. One tablespoonful each of gunpow- 
 der, lard, soft soap, gum myrrh, and two of tar. Divide into 
 six doses. 
 
 Sulphur and Eesin. A dose of sulphur is two ounces. 
 A dose of resin two tablespoonfuls. Two ounces of sulphur 
 and one ounce resin form a dose for every other day. 
 
 JiMSON Seed. This well known plant {Datura Stramonium) 
 possesses great virtues as a horse medicine. It grows in. waste 
 places among rubbish, and is sometimes called thorn apple. 
 Gather the seeds in October. A dose is a tablespoonful. 
 
 The remaining five prescriptions we copy from Dr. Stewart's 
 invaluable book. The American Farmer's Horse Book. 
 
 May Apple Liniment. Boil May apple roots until you ob- 
 tain a thick syrup ; while still boiling add one-fourth as much 
 lard as you have syrup. Great care will be necessary to keep 
 this stirring and prevent it from burning. 
 
 Magic Nerve Liniment. Spirits of hartshorn, one and a 
 half ounces ; sulphuric ether, one and a half ounces ; spirits tur- 
 pentine, half an ounce ; sweet oil, three fourths of an ounce ; oil 
 of cloves, half an ounce ; chloroform, one ounce. Keep tightly 
 closed, and excluded from the light. Do the bottle up in a 
 cloth. 
 
 Mercurial Salve. Quicksilver, the size of a pea. Iodine, 
 the size of a pea. Corrosive sublimate, one ounce. Mix with 
 two tablespoonfuls of lard. Eub it in with a rag, on the end of 
 a stick. 
 
 Sulphur Ointment. Eed precipitate, half an ounce; sul- 
 
336 HOW TO MAKE THE PABM. PAT. 
 
 ptur one ounce; lard, four ounces. Mix well and preserve for 
 use. 
 
 Bye Wash. Take three lien's eggs and break them into a 
 quart of clear cold rain-water. Stir until thoroughly mixed 
 Boil over a slow fire, stirring often. Add half an ounce of suL 
 phate of zinc, (white vitriol,) continue the boiling a few min 
 utes, and it is ready to set oflf. The curd that settles in the bot. 
 torn, applied to the eye' at night, will draw out all fever and sore 
 Dess. The liquid on top is the best eye wash ever' made foi 
 man or beast. 
 
 Bleeding is recommended by Youatt, Percival, Mayhew, 
 and Stewart, the leading Veterinarians of this country and Eu- 
 rope. It is to be done judiciously, however, as wholesale blood- 
 letting for every disease is bad practice. Bleed always from 
 the large neck vein, the jugular vein, from six to ten inches 
 down the neck, from the back of the jaw. Draw a small 
 hard cord tightly about the neck, about six inches below the 
 place where you intend to bleed. 
 
 As soon as the neck fills out, moisten the finger, and smooth 
 he hair straight with the vein. Cover the eye on that side. 
 Lay the fleam lengthwise of the vein, holding it in the left hand 
 and strike it a smart blow with a stick, taking care not to cut 
 through on the opposite side of the vein. "When you wish to 
 stop the bleeding cut the cord from the neck. 
 
 Bring the edges of the cut together, and pin the skin with a 
 small pin. Tie some of the tail hairs tightly under the pin. 
 
 In twenty-four hours the pin can be removed, and the scar 
 wet occasionally with spittle or, better, diluted arnica. To find 
 the pulse of a horse press the finger along the artery on the un- 
 derside of the lower jaw bone. A proper pulse is thirty to forty 
 per minute. Fifty beats to the minute is evidence of disease. 
 
 Mules. The usefulness of the mule as a farm laborer has 
 
H0BSE3 AND MULES. Sg? 
 
 been fully appreciated, in some of the middle and border States-, 
 but there seems to be an unaccountable prejudice against them' 
 in the eastern and western States. We regard tnem as moT© 
 desirable than horses or oxen on the farm. They are much 
 quicker in their movements than the ox, and are as tractable 
 when rightly trained. 
 
 Mules, on an average, are more valuable than horses, are 
 easier raised, are not as subject "to disease and accident, are not 
 likely to run, and are longer lived; but to make them thus 
 valuable, just as much care must be taken in breeding them, 
 for "any kind of a jack," "or any kind of a mare," is not 
 " good enough," to breed a mule from. The same points in 
 breeding must be observed as in breeding' horses. 
 
 The following comparison instituted by a writer in the Agri- 
 cultural Annual is, in the main, true : 
 
 "•Cost of getting hotse colt or mule colt, tho same. Cost of 
 raising the first two years, a little against the mule. The third 
 year the mule will do light work enough about the farm to pay 
 for his keep, and after he is three years old will do any 
 ordinary farm work. But the horse colt must be kept until he 
 is four years old before he is worked at all, and when he is 
 four must be a first-rate colt to bring as much as the mule 
 will at two years old. 
 
 "But assume the animals are both requited for the farm 
 work, see what a difference there is in faVor of the mule. The 
 working life, of the mule can be as safely estimated at thirty 
 years, as that for a horse at ten years, so while a CQule is working 
 its life out, three horses will be required to do equal service. 
 But these are not the only items; the saving of feed is at 
 least one-fourth, or not lels than five hundred and forty -seven 
 bushels of corn, and twenty-seven and a half tons of hay. 
 These amounts added to the original saving in purchase of 
 
338 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 animals show an advantage in favor of the use of the mule, over 
 the horse, of over one thousand dollars, during the ordinary life 
 of the animal. There are still other advantages, the mule 
 seldom runs away, breaking wagons, harnesses, etc., and when 
 one does run he is'' not likely to run again. He is healthier, 
 and less dainty ahout food, unground grain and dry feed being 
 just the thing for him." 
 
 The so-called vices of the mule, are jumping, kicking, and 
 obstinacy; "as obstinate as a mule" has become a proverb, and 
 like many other proverbs conveys only half a truth. These 
 faults are all in training. The mule wiU not jump if when a 
 colt he is kept where he can not get over the fences. Most 
 people will let down one or two of the top bars and let the mule 
 colt jump over the lower ones. He then learns to jump. It 
 would be much better to leave the top bar and make him go 
 under. Kicking comes a little more naturally to the mule than 
 the horse, but the habit can be broken up in colthood, and they 
 will not kick thereafter. We have the word of Mr. Eiley, 
 superintendent of government mules, who has had over five 
 thousand under his care at one time, that by kind treatment 
 to the colt he is readily broken of this vice. The mule colt 
 should be handled and gentled, just as directed for the horse 
 colt, and taught not to fear the presence and handling of 
 man. It is fear that makes him kick. Most trainers, fully 
 believing in the natural " devilishness" of the mule, leave 
 them alone just as long as they can and then go at them 
 with club and lash, harsh words and harsher actions, and 
 soon break the mule into an inveterate kicker. As to obsti- 
 nacy ; train a mule colt as we have directed for training colts, 
 and we venture that there will btf no more, obstinate mules 
 than there are baulky horses. The good points of a mule, are 
 short stout limbs, rather than long slim ones ; a compact body, 
 
HORSES AND MULES. 389 
 
 rathei than a large frame. The best color seems to be the 
 black, and dark colors. As we have said, the diseases of the 
 mule are fewer than those of the horse, but otherwise are the 
 same, and the treatment is the same also. The mule was 
 introduced into this country by Washington, and is a univer- 
 sal favorite wherever he has had a fair trial. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 |EBEDING-. It should be the object of every breeder to 
 raise as good cattle as his circumstances will permit. 
 This requires great care in breeding. No one breed has 
 all the good qualities, and therefore there should be a 
 careful and judicious selection of those individual animals, of 
 different breeds, having the points desired, and a cross made to 
 produce an animal adapted to each separate purpose of the 
 farm. 
 
 This theory, with all its limitations, we now propose to set 
 before our readers. 
 
 OUB DAIEY stock:.* 
 
 The characteristics of the domestic Cow are dependent upon 
 a great variety of circumstances. They are partly hereditary, 
 and partly acquired, or implanted in the system, by the treat- 
 ment and management adopted in raising the young animal. 
 "What are called dairy qualities, are not strictly inherent in any 
 particular race, breed, or family of stock, but may be found 
 more or less developed in individual animals, not only among 
 all the well established breeds, but also among those not recog- 
 nized as belonging to any particular breed, as the common or 
 "native" stock of the country. ' 
 
 * By the author of Milch Cows and Dairy Farming. 
 340 
 
sn 
 
CATTLE. 343 
 
 If a farmer wished to collect a dairy stock for any special 
 purpose, as, for instance, the production of butter or of cheese, 
 or the manufacture of large quantities of milk, for sale as such, 
 he could find animals not only among our common stock, but 
 also among all the well-known breeds, that would be well 
 adapted to his objects. Still, there would be a decided dififer- 
 ence in these animals. With those selected from any of the 
 well established breeds, especially cows that have been bred 
 with reference to the dairy, he would find a remarkable degree 
 of uniformity. He would soon discover that they transmitted 
 their good qualities to their offspring with certainty, and that 
 he could rely upon them to produce their kind, when bred to a 
 male of their own class or breed — while in those selected from 
 the common stock of the country, he would see no uniformity, 
 either in size, color, or milking capabilities, and that they could 
 not be relied upon to produce a progeny like thelnselves. And 
 here is the great and most striking defect of the " native" stock, 
 so called. While much of it possesses high qualities, there is 
 no reliance upon the quality of its progeny, as there is > among 
 the well established breeds, and hence the advantage of a resort 
 to the latter. 
 
 Dairy stock may be divided into three classes : Cows that are 
 adapted to the Butteb dairy, or where the making of butter is 
 the leading object; cows that are adapted to the Cheese ob 
 Milk Dairy ; and cows more especially adapted to the Family 
 Daiby. Animals best adapted to either one of these purposes 
 might be unfit for the others. 
 
 The Butter Dairy. For the butter dairy, we want a cow 
 that gives a rich quality of milk, or a milk in which the oily 
 or butter particles readily separate from the water, and rise .in 
 a thick, rich, golden coating upon the surface. Quality, here 
 la more important than: quantity. The milk of some cows is 
 
844 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 more than double the value of that of others, in the butter 
 dairy, simply on account of this property of separating readily 
 into its component parts. It may be no richer, intrinsically., 
 and no more nutritive, than milk that has a better emulsion, as ' 
 the chemists say, that separates more slowly, with greater diffi- 
 culty, and less completely. Milkmen know very well that milk 
 of the latter quality will bear transportation and hauling far 
 better than what is commonly called richer milk, and that it is 
 less injured by such transportation. 
 
 The milk of the Jersey cow, for example, is quite celebrated 
 for its butter-making qualities. It sends up rapidly, under 
 favorable circumstances, a large proportion of rich, thick, yel 
 low cream, that makes a delicious butter. The milk of the 
 Ayrshire, on the other hand, does not so quickly or so com 
 pletely part with its cream. Set a pan of Jersey milk" along- 
 side a pan of Ayrshire milk, under equally favorable con- 
 ditions, and let them remain for twelve or eighteen hours, and 
 then skim the two, and the difference will be immediately per- 
 ceptibly. The skimmed milk of the Jersey is blue and watery, 
 poor in quality, while that of the Ayrshire is still white and 
 rich. The Ayrshire m^k is more nutritious, probably, than the 
 Jersey ; it has parted with less of its cream ; it is rich in casein, 
 or cheesy properties, in which the nutritive qualities of the 
 milk are found. 
 
 Now, for the purposes of the butter dairy, it is easy to see 
 which of the two is most desirable, which is worth the most. 
 The one will make a larger proportion of rich butter than the 
 other, quart for quart, but the latter is undoubtedly the more 
 nutritive of the two, to say nothing of the larger quantity. It 
 is also easy to see which is the most valuable animal for the 
 production of milk, to be sold and consumed as milk. And 
 this illustrates the difference between the products of the two 
 
CATTLE. 815 
 
 breeds, and also the importance of studying the specific object 
 of the dairy, or of breeding and feeding animals that are espe- 
 cially adapted to secure that object. 
 
 The Jersey cow was introduced into this country about thirty 
 years ago. She came from the Channel Islands, off the coast 
 of France, but belonging to Great Britain. The Island of Jer- 
 sey has been noted, for many years, for the great care with 
 which it has bred its cows with special reference to the produc- 
 tion of butter. Taken first to England from the little island 
 of Alderney, to which the animal was transplanted from Jersey 
 just a century ago, it acquired, as a breed, the name of Alder- 
 ney — a, name to which.it is now little entitled, since that island 
 is but a speck in proportion to Jersey, and it is now nearly cot- 
 ered with residences, and not devoted to the raising of stock of 
 any kind. When first imported, the Jersey cow was ill-shaped, 
 lean, and described as resembling " two boards nailed together, as 
 thin as a lath." But within the last twenty years she has been 
 quite transformed into a comely-shaped creature, with a fine 
 deer- like head and neck, delicate limbs, soft skin, and all the 
 points of a good dairy cow — with good hind quarters, less thin 
 and angular than formerly, the whole form giving promise of 
 the highest dairy qualities. 
 
 The Jersey is by no means remarkable for the quantity of 
 milk she gives, but she holds out better than most other classes 
 of dairy cows, so that if she does not fill the pail in the height 
 of the season, she makes up for it by yielding a good supply of 
 milk the year round, it being often no easy matter to dry her 
 off previous to parturition. 
 
 " Lady Milton" {Fig. 72,) is a capital model, not only of a good 
 Jersey, but of a good dairy cow; she gave her owner, Mr. 
 James C. Converse, of Arlington, Massachusetts, a yield of 
 butter which is worthy of special record. In the first week of 
 
346 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 June 1867, she gaye one hundred and twenty quarts of milk, 
 which made fifteen pounds of butter. In the first week of July, 
 the yield of milk was one hundred and fourteen quarts, and of 
 butter, eighteen pounds. In the first week of August, she gave 
 of milk, one hundred and fifteen quarts, and of butter, sixteen 
 pounds. In the first week of September her yield of milk was 
 one hundred and seven quarts, and of butter, fifteen pounds. 
 In July her aggregate yield of butter was seventy -nine pounds, 
 and from the 1st of June to the 7th of October, on green food 
 without grain, her butter amounted to two hundred and ninety- 
 three and a half pounds, or an average of fifteen pounds and 
 ninety-two one-hundredths a week, for eighteen weeks and three 
 days.' And this was no exception to her ordinary yield, nor 
 was there any special effort made to feed her up to her utmost 
 capacity. Pasture grass constituted her food in June and July, 
 with pasture and a little gi^eeri fodder corn at night in August 
 and September. 
 
 This cow is, perhaps, better than the average of animals of 
 her breed ; but the same general characteristics are to be found 
 in them all ; a rich and high quality of butter, and an abun- 
 dance of it. She was drawn from life, and the engraving gives a 
 very good idea of the form of the Jersey cow, and of her color, 
 which is usually fawn and white, sometimes shading into a bluish 
 gray, or mouse color, and darker. 
 
 "Abraham " {Fig. 73.) of which we also give an engraving, 
 shows the color and the form of a good Jersey bull. He is owned 
 by the city of Boston, and kept at the public institutions at Deer 
 Island, in Boston harbor. He is represented as in rather high 
 flesh, but otherwise is correctly drawn from life for this volume, 
 and a capital likeness of one of the best breeders in this country. 
 
 For the butter dairy, the Jersey cow must hold the first place 
 among the well established breeds of this country. But she is 
 

 >■ 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 § 
 < 
 
 p 
 o 
 
 5' 
 
 05 
 
 317 
 
CATTLE. 349 
 
 rather a large eater, and she does not fatten to a good quality 
 of beef when she is ready to be laid aside. That the breed does 
 not make the best of working oxen, can hardly be regarded as 
 any objection, when it is considered that human labor must be 
 at rather a low ebb wherever it can be profitably associated 
 ■with so slow an animal as the ox. 
 
 The estimation in which the Jersey is hela as a dairy cow, is 
 sufficiently shown in the high prices which she commands, and 
 the readiness with which she sells. She has grown in popularity 
 every year wherever her merits have become known, and this 
 not merely among amateur farmers, or on the grounds of 
 the suburban gentleman who wants a pet familv cow to otip 
 ment his lawn and sapply the small family witn milk, out m 
 the hands of the dairy farmer who seeks profit rather than the 
 gratification of taste or fancy. One or two pure bred Jerseys 
 in a herd of ten " native" cows, will improve the butter qualities 
 of the milk to an extraordinary extent. The same object may 
 be attained at less cost, by an infusion of .Jersey blood, secured 
 by a cross of a pure Jersey bull and the common cow. 
 
 It should be stated that the butter of the pure bred Jersey is, 
 rather too rich to keep well, and that to have it in perfection it 
 should be consumed fresh. This is a fact too often overlooked, 
 but which is perfectly well established and admitted by many 
 who have had the largest experience with the pure bred Jersey. 
 It may well be doubted whether any herd of " native" cows 
 could be selected which would give such uniformly rich milk, 
 and so highly colored and delicious butter. 
 
 The Brittany cow has characteristics very similar to the Jer- 
 sey. She is not remarkable for the quantity of milk she yields 
 so much as for the quality of the butter made from it. In this 
 respect she stands first in reputation among the breeds of France, 
 Brittany butter being eagerly sought not merely for its superior 
 
350 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 richness and beautifol color, but for a peculiarly sweet and 
 "nutty" flavor wliich it possesses to a greater extent than any 
 other butter. This peculiarity is preserved in animals crossed 
 with the Brittany, even to the thir'd and fourth generation, an 
 evidence of the antiquity and established qualities of the race. 
 The agent who visited the district of Morbiham to select two 
 herds recently imported, saw cows of this race at Vannes, whose 
 milk yielded four pounds of butter a day for some days in suc- 
 cession. 
 
 ' The Breton cow is small in stature, the average height being 
 only about thirty-six to forty inches. She is a perfect dairy cow 
 in miniature, with a remarkable symmetry of form, a short, fine, 
 clean head, with sharp outline, a small muzzle, a bright eye, 
 small ear, and slender horn. Her neck is thin, long and slender, 
 with a free crest and little dewlap. She has a straight back 
 and prominent and well developed hind quarters. The ribs 
 are well arched,, the chest wide and deep, showing abundant 
 room for the internal organs. The limbs are remarkably beau- 
 tiful, the legs short, the joints small and well defined, the hoof 
 small, dry and generally black. The skin is fine, soft, and yel- 
 low, the hair fine and curly, the color black and white. A few 
 are all bla,ok, and now and then a red and white. one appears. 
 
 This is the poor man's cow, the pet of small farms and scant 
 pastures, hardy, docile, living and yielding a good product longer 
 than most other races of domestic cattle, satisfied with little' and 
 with that little coarse, willing to shirk for itself around the 
 house, or wherever she can find a morsel of food. She con- 
 tinues often till twelve or fifteen years of age to yield well, los- 
 ing only about a quarter of her greatest flow of milk at the 
 age of sixteen or eighteen years. The Brittany cow is worthy 
 of a high place in the butter dairy, either as a pure breed, espe- 
 cially in regions of short pasture and limited fertility, or as a 
 

 >■ 
 
 a 
 
 >-r> 
 
 351 
 
CATTLE. 353 
 
 gi-ade with our common stock, or with any of the well marked 
 breeds. The butter will command the highest price in the 
 market, while, from the small size and gentle disposition, the 
 animal will be sought as a family pet. 
 
 The Milk Dairy. In the milk dairy, or where cows are 
 kept for the production of milk to be sold in its natural condi- 
 tion, the object is usually to obtain the largest quantity with 
 less reference to the quality. And here not only the class of 
 stock, but the whole system of feeding and management should 
 be quite different from that adopted in the butter dairy. "We 
 want an animal that yields largely in proportion to the food 
 consumed, and'that holds out well. In regions of great fertility 
 where the pastures are naturally luxuriant, a few families of the 
 Shorthorns and Shorthorn grades or crosses of the improved 
 Shorthorn male, with well selected common cows of the coun- 
 try, meet this essential featuie to a very high degree. 
 
 The improved Shorthorns, as a breed, originated towards the 
 
 close of the last century, the basis of it being a class of cows at 
 
 that time to be found in the counties in the North of England, 
 
 especially in Durham, Yorkshire, and Lincolnshire. They 
 
 were noted as milkers, and remarkable for large size, which 
 
 was due to the striking fertility of the region. So susceptible 
 
 were these animals, in the , hands of the skilful breeder, that 
 
 they rapidly. gained a high reputation, and to this day they 
 
 have maintained their position, though, as a breed, they have 
 
 lost, to some extent, the, strongly developed milking qualities 
 
 of the old stock. This was, perhaps, the fault of the breeder 
 
 rather than of the breed. The abundance of nutritious food 
 
 furnished to the young animal induced an early maturity, which 
 
 led to the general practice of breeding for beef, rather tnan for 
 
 fflilk, and to the consequent neglect of the dairy qualities. 
 
 Some families of improved Shorthorns have retained the 
 22 
 
354 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 milking qualities, however, to a much greater extent than 
 others, and a few breeders have taken special pains to keep the 
 dairy qualities in view. The "Sixth Duke of Thorndale" 
 {Fig. 74,) one of the most perfect animals of this breed in the 
 country, owned by George T. Plunkett, Esq., of Hinsdale, 
 Massachusetts, traces his pedigree through a long line of rich 
 milkers. The milking strain is concentrated in him to a ra- 
 markable degree. And so it is in " Aurora Second," a superior 
 cow belonging to H. G. "White, Esq., of South Earmingham, 
 Massachusetts, the head of which forms the frontispiece to this 
 chapter. For dairies where the production of milk for sale or 
 for the manufacture of cheese, constitutes the leading object, 
 some strains of the Shorthorn or Shorthorn grades are very use- 
 ful in regions of abundant pasturage, or where the soiling sys- 
 tem is adopted and practised. 
 
 It is for the town dairy, or where cows are kept for the supply 
 of milk to the cities, that the grade Shorthorn is chiefly sought 
 In such cases the space the animals occupy becomes a matter 
 of some importance, and the object is to make the most of it. 
 And hence, in the London dairies, we find the old Yorkshire 
 cow, essentially a Shorthorn, and the modern improved Short 
 horn crosses are kept as the most profitable, though, in propor- 
 tion to the amount of food consumed, they may not yield any 
 more than animals of some other breed. 
 
 The Ayrshire is another fixed and well established breed 
 which has been frequently imported into this country, and has 
 exerted a marked influence upon the stock on our dairy farms, 
 Ayrshire, to which the breed owes its name, lies on the coas<i 
 of the Eirth of Clyde, in the southwestern parf of Scotland 
 The climate is milder and softer than that of most other pArt^i 
 of the country, and well calculated for a dairy district. Here, 
 about a century ago, originated a series of improvemente iu 
 
aes 
 
CATTLE. 357 
 
 dairy stock, wMch, thougli not remarkably promising at first, 
 have made the name of Ayr as widely famous for its dairy 
 oattle as for the sweet songs of its poet. Burns. 
 
 It was not alone by the careful selection from the old native 
 stock that these improvements were effected, but it is probable 
 that more or less crosses were taken with breeds already esta- 
 blished. A native race may be improved by careful, choice, 
 and systematic breeding and selection, but the process is slow 
 and uncertain, and offers less advantage to the enterprising 
 breeder, than the more promising one of using stock already 
 improved to obtain first crosses. Just what the crosses were 
 that led to the early modifications of the old Ayrshire cattle, it 
 matters little. They were, no doubt, desultory efforts made 
 without any clear idea of building up a famous breed on the 
 basis of the old stock, which was small, ill-fed and ill-treated, 
 supposed to have been derived originally from the western 
 coast of France, the country of the Bretons. A better course of 
 treatment, which prevailed after these early attempts, did much, 
 no doubt, to change the general character of the stock of Ayr- 
 shire, as it will any other. 
 
 The Ayrshire cattle, now a well-established and well-defined 
 breed, have long been distinguished for their remarkable dairy 
 qualities, and for the quantity of milk they give in proportion to 
 the size of the animal and the amount of food consumed. The 
 form and structure of the cow, from the muzzle to the tail, 
 indicates that she possesses qualities which adapt her, in an 
 eminent degree, to the purposes of the dairy. Her head is 
 small, with a long and narrow muzzle ; her eyes, sparkling and 
 lively ; her horns usually small, clear, and crooked, and set 
 well apart at the roots. Her neck is long and slender, small 
 towards the head and free, from the dewlap. Her shoulders are 
 thin, her fore quarters light, and her hind quarters large and 
 
358 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 well developed, giving her often a sort of wedge-shaped ap- 
 pearance, which, though it may not add materially to her beauty 
 of form, is universally regarded, among dairymen, as a sign of 
 a great milker. 
 
 T^ie engraving of " Flora" {Fig. 75,) a prize Ayrshire cow, 
 belonging to William Birnie, Esq., of Springfield, Massachu- 
 setts, gives a very correct idea of this wedge shape, and. the full 
 development of the hind quarters, by which it is produced. It 
 is the form of a cow of great capacity at the pail. The back is 
 straight and broad behind, the dorsal joints loose and open, the 
 carcass deep, the pelvis full and wide over the hips. The tail 
 is usually long, small, and slender, and the legs short with firm 
 joints. The udder is large, square, broad, extending well for- 
 ward, not over fleshy, too low hung, nor too loose. The milk 
 veins are large and prominent, the teats sometimes too small, 
 pointing outwards, and set well apart. The Ayrshire is gene- 
 'ally a good handler, her skin thin, her hair soft, her whole 
 figure compact and well proportioned, having no objectionable 
 amount of ofial. 
 
 "ffonesi John" {Fig. 76,) drawn by the same artist, and belong- 
 ing to. the same ownef; shows the form and figure of an Ayr- 
 shire bull. He is represented in too high flesh, a weakness of 
 the artist, but otherwise the likeness is correct. He is dark red 
 and white; the color of the breed, generally, is variegated, 
 either dark or light red and white, often beautifully contrasted. 
 Occasionally the color is all red. 
 
 There is a tendency to nervousness in some of the Ayrshires, 
 particularly in young heifers, but it seldom extends to vicious- 
 ness. With mild and gentle treatment, frequent handling, and 
 freedom from excitement, it is easily overcome. The cow is 
 docile and managed without difficulty. 
 
 It is now nearly forty years since the importation of Ayr 
 
CATTLE. 361 
 
 filiires into this country began. During that time the breed 
 has considerably changed and greatly improved in appearance. 
 The black muzzle, always objected to by the Ayrshire breeder, 
 was then quite common. The color was darker, usually deep 
 Ted or brown, flecked with white. More recently there has 
 been a tendency to lighter colors, the red becoming of a lighter 
 •shade and less in extent, and the white forming the prevailing 
 color in many good speoimens. The form, too, is more sjm- 
 metrical, and more attractive to the eye. These changes have 
 not interfered with the tendency to milk, and the animal is 
 hardy, active, full of life and spirit, and remarkably well 
 adapted to our climate and short pastures. She is a good milker, 
 and seldom fails to yield a large quantity and a good quality 
 of milk. 
 
 It should be borne in mind that no dairy cow could be ex- 
 pected to do as well here as in the moist and mild climate of 
 Scotland. Our climate is dry. A drizzling rain or mist in 
 Ayrshire, keeps the grass green, succulent, milk producing. A 
 dry, hot, sultry summer is seldom known there. Here it is 
 the rule. No cow, in such a climate, and on such food as we 
 can offer her, in most part of the older States, will do as well 
 at the pail as in such a climate as that of Scotland, and we 
 have no right to expect it. 
 
 But a cow belonging to Mr. Birnie, the owner of " Flora" 
 with the milk carefully and accurately weighed, gave in April, 
 after calving on the 25th of March, one thousand one hundred 
 and twenty-seven pounds of milk ; in May, nine hundred and 
 thirty-four pounds; in June, one thousand and tVventy-flve 
 pounds; in July, nine hundred and seventy-two pounds; in 
 August, nine hundred and twelve pounds; a total in five 
 months of four thousand seven hundred and fifty-three pounds, 
 on pasture feed or green hay and cornstalks. This was her own 
 
362 HO"W TO MAKE THK FABM PAT. 
 
 weight of milk every month for the five months of the tridl, 
 and four hundred pounds over. Larger yields than this are 
 recorded. 
 
 One of the four Ayrshires originally imported into this 
 country by the late John P. Gushing, Esquire,, of Massachu- 
 setts, gave in one year three thousand eight hundred and sixty- 
 four quarts, beer measure, or about nine hundred and sixty-six 
 gallons, at ten pounds to the gallon, being an average of over 
 ten and a half beer quarts per day for the whole year. And 
 the first Ayrshire cow imported by the Massachusetts Society 
 for Promoting Agriculture, in 1837, yielded milk from which 
 was made sixteen pounds of butter a week for several weeks in 
 succession, on grass feed alone. 
 
 The cow "Jean Armour," imported in 1838 by Mr. H. H. 
 Peters, of Massachusetts, gave in June, having calved on the 
 20th of May, one thousand five hundred and twenty-four and a 
 half pounds of milk, an average of fifty and five-sixths pounds 
 per day. In July she gave one thousand six hundred and six 
 pounds, or an average of fifty-one and five-sixths pounds a day. 
 In August, one thousand four hundred and forty-one pounds, 
 an average of forty-six and a half pounds per day. In Sep- 
 tember, one thousand and forty-one pounds, or forty-seven and 
 one-third pounds per day. The total product from June 1st to 
 Septeftiber 23d, a period of one hundred and fourteen days, was 
 five thousand six hundred and twelve and one-half pounds, or 
 an average of forty-nine and three-sixteenths pounds a day. 
 During the second ten days of June she gave five hundred and 
 twenty-one and one-half pounds of milk, or fifty-two pounds a 
 day. During the second ten days of September she gave four 
 hundred and sixty-two pounds, or forty-six pounds per day. 
 Her milk was set for three days in July, and six pounds and 
 three ounces of butter made from it. Her weight, in good 
 
863 
 
CATTLE. 365 
 
 order, was nine hundred and seventy-six pounds. She was in 
 good pasture all tlie season and after June 12th had three 
 pints of corn and cob meal and three pints of bran, and, late 
 in the season, in September, green cornstalks once a day. 
 
 These yields of Ayrshire cows, which might be multiplied, 
 show the general characteristics of the breed. In her native 
 country the Ayrshire is generally bred for the dairy and for no 
 other object, and hence the cow has attained a just and world- 
 wide reputation for this quality. Still she fats readily when 
 her usefulness is over. ' She is hardy and does well on short 
 and thin pastures, and so has proved herself very useful on a 
 great proportion of the farms in the Eastern States, where a 
 larger cow would not thrive. 
 
 The Ayrshire makes a good cross with the common stock of 
 the country and with the Shorthorn. The cross with the Jersey 
 is not to be recommended. "With the Shorthorn her form be- 
 comes a little more symmetrical, while there is no risk of lessen- 
 ing the milking qualities of the offspring, if sufficient regard 
 is paid to the selectionof individual animals to breed from. 
 As a breed, it probably unites, to a greater extent than any 
 other except the Brittany, the supposed incompatible qualities 
 of yielding a great deal of milk and beef in proportion to the 
 food consumed, or cost of keeping. 
 
 The Dutch cow was early imported into the colonies nrsi 
 established at New York and in New Jersey. It is probable 
 that, even at that early day, the milking qualities of the race 
 were fully developed. The climate of Holland, and the low, 
 rich, and luxuriant pasturage, so moist, succulent, and milk- 
 producing, naturally induQcd the milk -yielding capacities of 
 the stock and a large growth of the animal frame. Trans- 
 planted to our dry and warm summer climate, and to the expo- 
 snte of our long and severe winters, the animal could hardly 
 
866 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 be expected to maintain her extraordinary power of secreting 
 milk in so large quantities, and hence, though the Dutch race 
 laid the foundation of the stock of the Middle States, its supe 
 riority as a milker does not seem to have been fully sustained. 
 
 Nature has done more for the race of cattle along the marsh 
 districts of Northern Europe, extending from th'e confines of 
 Holstein around to the borders of France, a distance of some 
 hundreds of miles, than art or the skill of man. The soil .s all of 
 a low and swaly character, formed by the accumulated deposits 
 of successive ages. The whole country is intersected by slug- 
 gish streams and still more sluggish canals, the banks raised so 
 as to prevent the rush of the tide over the green and smiling 
 farms. The land, of course, is extremely rich and fertile, a 
 magnificent stretch of lowlands, much of it diked in with 
 incredible labor from the treacherous sea, and covered here and 
 there with low and comfortable farm-houses and a thrifty, 
 honest, and hard-working class of farmers. The soil and the 
 moisture of the climate are exceedingly well calculated to lead 
 to an extraordinary development of the cultivated grasses and 
 other forage plants so important in nourishing a large race of 
 cattle. On such a soil and in such a climate we should expect 
 to find the grass-feeding animals of all kinds attaining a size 
 not genei-ally found in other circumstances. 
 
 There are- some general characteristics to be found in all the 
 cattle of this long, and fertile stretch of m.arsh region, though 
 they are divided into many distinct races, all due to local influ- 
 ences, rather than to any systematic effort at improvement. 
 The Dutch may be regarded as a type of thfem all. It belongs 
 among the larger races of cattle, though its bony structure is 
 said to be only a little above the average in weight. The head 
 is usually small and fine, the horns of medium length, stout and 
 inclined forwards, the neck long and sunken or curved, with 
 

 1 'srfiM^: 
 
 iC. 
 
 
 •67 
 
CATTLE. 369 
 
 rather a large dewlap, the shoulders strong and thin, the rump 
 large and broad, and the hind quarters generally well deve- 
 loped. The legs are long and the general form of the animal 
 is rather thin than fleshy, sharp, an5 angular, and not generally 
 well rounded. The color is almost invariably black and white, 
 though red and white Dutch cows are often seen. 
 
 The most striking economic character of this race is its milk- 
 ing capacity, the product being more remarkable for quantity 
 than richness, the milk being thin and watery, the characteristic 
 of all the marsh races as compared with the highland or moun- 
 tain races of continental Europe. The cows bring heavy calves, 
 and the young stock on abundant food grows rapidly to great 
 weights ; but it requires very rich food to effect it, and without 
 this, the race does not justify its otherwise distinguishing 
 qualities. 
 
 For a milk dairy, in regions of rich and succulent food, the 
 Dutch may be a profitable animal for the mere production of 
 milk or cheese, but' she is a large eater and a slow feeder, that 
 is, she requires great expense to fatten in proportion to many 
 other races and breeds. It is not an improved breed in the 
 sense in which the term is applied to the Shorthorn, the Ayr- 
 shire, or any other class of animal? built up by selection and 
 great care. It is the common stock of a country and a climate 
 where, a small milker must be the exception, the whole course 
 of feeding from the birth of the calf being naturally such as to 
 induce an abundant secretion of milk. The term " Holstein," 
 often used in connection with " Dutch," as applied to this race 
 is wholly inappropriate, the Holstein races, of which there are 
 several, being entirely different in many essential particulars. 
 Dutch cattle have recently been imported, and efforts are being 
 made to establish them as a dairy stock upon our soil. 
 
 Other well established breeds or races of cattle might be 
 
S70 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 mentioned as having claims to the attention of the dairyman, 
 and among them the Kerry, a small,' hardy race of cattle from 
 the mountainous districts of Ireland. It has been imported 
 recently to a limited extent.' Some families of the Devons have 
 been bred in this country with special reference to the dairy, 
 but^ as a breed, it is not to be thought of for the purposes of the 
 milk dairy. The milk, however, is of excellent quality. In its 
 own country it has been bred more for beef than for milk- 
 There are many well known races on the continent, in France, 
 Switzerland, and Germany, whose dairy qualities have been 
 celebrated for many years, but none of them have been im- 
 ported to a sufficient extent to have influenced, in any perceptible 
 degree, the general character of our stock. 
 
 The common stock of the country owes its origin to a great 
 variety of sources, which date back to the early importations 
 for the colonies, before any systernatic efforts had been made, 
 even ^n the respective countries from which they came, to im- 
 prove the breeds of domestic animals. From the West Indies, 
 from Wales, from the southern coast of En-gland, from Holland, 
 and Denmark, and Spain, from every country which furnished 
 its quota to establish a new colony in the new country, came 
 the cattle for the early supply of the settlers, and an infinite 
 mixture of races and breeds followed, just as chance or con- 
 venience dictated. Hard and scanty fare, exposure to cold and 
 danger, and starvation, left little to be expected in the way of 
 improvement, and it is a matter of surprise that our " native" 
 cattle came down to us as good as they were at the time when 
 our importations of improved stock began, and more system 
 prevailed in selection and management. 
 
 As it is, many individual animals might be selected from 
 our common stock, which would possess more than ordinary 
 qualities as dairy cows; but they are the result of chance 
 
CATTLE. 371 
 
 rather than Isreeding. They do not constitute a race, breed, 
 or family, the qualities of which are inherent, uniform, 
 well established, and capable of being transmitted to their 
 progeny. 
 
 Many peculiarities, when once established in the animal sys- 
 tem, become hereditary or readily transmissible from the parent 
 to the offspring, and hence the natural foundation of races and 
 breeds, or families. The term race, in domesticated and other 
 animals, applies only to those of the same species, possessing, 
 besides the general characteristics of that species other pecu- 
 liarities, which they owe to local circumstances to which they 
 have long been subjected, and which they transmit with cer- 
 tainty to their progeny ; and it is essential to the idea of a race 
 that it shall have possessed these characteristics from a time 
 " whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary," 
 that is, beyond the limits of authentic records. 
 
 The term breed, on the other hand, applif)s to a fb.mily of animala 
 built up by a long course of careful. selection till certain desired 
 qualities became fixed, capable, and sure of being transmitted. 
 The peculiarities of races are more inherent, fixed, and strongly 
 marked than those of families built up or made artificially, or, 
 in the language of the farm, the " blood" is stronger in the one 
 than in the other. 
 
 Our common stock may form a good basis of improvement, 
 but good as it is, in many respects, it has. defects which it is 
 desirable to remedy. Two modes of improvement naturally 
 suggest themselves -to the mind of the enterprising farmer, 
 either of which seems to promise good results. The first is that 
 of selection from among our "native," or common cattle, of -the 
 best and most perfect specimens not known or suspected to be 
 related to any of the well established breeds, and to use them 
 as breeders, and so' to build up a new and artificial breed aftei 
 
372 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 the manner adopted by the early founders of the improTed 
 breeds in England. 
 
 This mode of improvement is simple enough -when applied 
 to any of the long established breeds. Indeed it is the only 
 mode which preserves the purity of blood in such cases ; but to 
 do it successfully with our common cattle would require great 
 experience, a quick eye for stock, a mind free from prejudice, 
 and a patience, and perseverance quite indefatigable. It would 
 be necessary to pay great attention to the calves thus produced, 
 to furnish them at all times, during their early growth, with an 
 abundant supply of nutritious food, and to regulate it carefully 
 according to their growth. And when it is considered that this 
 mode would require a long series of years to arrive at any fixed 
 and satisfactory results, owing to the fact that our '' native" 
 cattle, made up as they are of so infinite a variety of incongru- 
 ous elements, do not produce their like, that the defects of an 
 ill-bred ancestry will be continually " cropping out" for several 
 generations, constantly thwarting the expectations of the ex- 
 perimenter, it is not surprising that so few efforts of the kind 
 have been made, or that those that have been made have 
 attracted so little public attention. To be sure the objection 
 of time, and expense, and repeated disappointment should have 
 little weight, if there were no more sure and speedy method of 
 accomplishing the object. 
 
 The second method is more feasible, and it is the one that 
 has generally been adopted, afid constitutes the basis of en- 
 lightened and systematic efforts to improve our stock at the 
 present day. It is to select animals from races or breeds 
 already improved and brought to a high degree of perfection, 
 and to use them in obtaining crosses or grades with our 
 '•native" cattle. A good selection of pure bred males, from 
 breeds distinguished for their> dairy qualities, and the use of 
 
OATTLE. 37b 
 
 COWS remarkable for these qualities, will secure the desired 
 results more surely than any other course. But a stop should 
 generally be made at the first cross, that is we should go back 
 to the pure bred sire of the same breed,' to be used with the pro- 
 geny of the first cross, and so on. Any other course will lead 
 to confusion and degeneration, and is never advisable if it can 
 be avoided. 
 
 Dairy qualities do not,' it is true, belong to any one breed in 
 particular, but as they are dependent largely upon structure 
 and temperament, which are hereditary, they are themselves 
 transmissible through the male parent. Endless disappoint- 
 ment has followed the raising of the offspring of cows remark- 
 able as milkers, simply because the qualities in them were 
 accidental, the males not coming from cows of similar long 
 established, high dairy qualities. Three or four years of labor 
 and expense have been incurred, only to find that the offspring 
 of such animals will not justify the outlay, unless equal care 
 is taken in selecting the male, to which they are bred, with 
 special reference to the same qualities, or qualities which we 
 seek to obtain and perpetuate. 
 
 The offspring of crosses, taken in this way, with a pure bred 
 male and the common cow, will be grades, but grade cows are 
 often better for the practical purposes of the dairy farmer than 
 pure bred ones. Both parents tmdoubtedly have a great influ- 
 ence in transmitting the milking qualities of the stock, and the 
 skill of the breeder is displayed in the selection of individual 
 animals from which to obtain crosses. 
 
 This latter mode of improvement requires less skill, however, 
 and less exact and critical knowledge of stock than the first. It 
 is easier to appreciate the good points of an animal already 
 greatly improved than to discover them lying latent in the ani- 
 mal which we propose to use as the basis of improvement. This 
 23 
 
374 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 method also has an immense advantage in the fact that results 
 are more rapidly obtained, and the various steps of improve- 
 ment more directly perceptible, from year to year. , 
 
 By the first method, that of buildmg up a breed or family 
 from judicious selection of both sire and dam from our common 
 stock, the final attainment of success could hardly be expected 
 in the ordinary life of man. By the second, every successive 
 step may be one of progress and improvement, provided the 
 selection of the male is judicious. And this selection should be 
 made wholly with reference to the specific object we desire tq 
 attain. If it is a class of cows for the butter dairy, take the 
 male from the breed distinguished for its rich milk, and its 
 butter making properties, and adhere to such a breed through 
 each successive stage of the effort. If it is cows for the milk or 
 the cheese dairy, select the male from a breed remarkable for its 
 large yield, and adhere to males of this character. This course, 
 when the selection has been made with proper care, has seldom 
 failed, and it ofi'ers advantages at the present time superior to 
 any other. 
 
 The special reason for a resort to the pure bred male, in 
 crossing, is not so much that the particular individual animal 
 selected has the desired .properties united and developed in 
 "himself, as that they are hereditary in the breed to which he 
 belongs. The moment the line is crossed, and the pedigrees or 
 ancestry of the sire lost, uncertainty commences. The form of 
 a grade or cross-bred bull may be even better, in individual 
 cases, than that of the pure-bred one, but there is less hope of 
 his transmitting the qualities for which the breed to which he 
 is allied is most noted. As already stated, we have the basis 
 in our common cattle of the most excellent dairy stock in the 
 world. Their defects are want of uniformity and uncertainty 
 in breeding, to a uniform high standard of quality. They are 
 
CATTLE. 375 
 
 hardy, thorouglilj acclimated, capable • of great endurance, and 
 by the methods already indicated may become the most useful, 
 the most profitable, and the most satisfactory cows on the dairy 
 farm. 
 
 The Family Dairy. For the family cow, where usually 
 only a single' one is kept for the limited supply which she 
 affords, we need not resori to any established breed, to the ex- 
 clusion of others. " Utile au riche, providence au pauvre," — 
 useful to the rich, a blessing to the poor, — is the characteristic 
 description of the Brittany cow, and it includes the essentia] 
 requisites in a cow for family use. The man of wealth wants 
 an animal to ornament his lawn, and he will select her for 
 beauty, or because she is rare, and unlike the common cattle of 
 the neighborhood. He wants a docile, gentle creature, that 
 will become the pet of the family. A limited quantity of milk, 
 of a rich and creamy quality, will meet his requirements, so far 
 as product is concerned, and in these, or other respects, the 
 Brittany or Jersey cow, or a high grade of either breed, will be 
 unsurpassed. The man of more limited means wants a cow that 
 will yield a quantity of good milk, large in proportion to the 
 food consumed, docile, thrifty and hardy. A well selected 
 grade Ayrshire or a " native," of medium size, will be as useful 
 as any cow to be had. As no calves are to be raised in such 
 circumstances, as a general rule, little regard will be paid to 
 the selection of breed, but even here it is not to be overlooked 
 that the better the breed, the better price will the calf bring, 
 when it comes to be sold, either to the butcher, or to be raised. 
 
 The Raising of Calves. The mode of raising the calf has 
 an important influence upon its qualities, and its usefulness as 
 a dairy cow. Here the object is not to force the animal, as in 
 raising for beef, to early maturity. The quality of food, as 
 
376 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 well as the quantity and mode of feeding, are to be considered 
 with reference to their effect, upon the animal structure. 
 
 In most sections, where animals are bred for the dairy at all, 
 the value of the milk, whether to be manufactured into butter 
 or cheese, or to be sold in its natural state, is such as to make 
 it necessary to adopt some system of economy. It is a com- 
 paratively easy matter to feed the calf, designed for breeding 
 purposes, or for beef, by letting it run with the dam, taking all 
 the milk it requires, and this method, with high priced stock, 
 or in raising for beef, is the best economy, no doubt, but it is 
 found to be too expensive where the, dairy is an object of 
 attention. Various modes have been adopted to lessen the ex- 
 pense of raising stock for the dairy, and the effect which differ- 
 ent kinds of food will produce on the animal economy, has 
 been carefully studied. Strict care is necessary, not to feed the 
 young so as to develop a tendency to great size, either of bone 
 or of adipose tissue, or fat cells, and so we must avoid feeding 
 too highly upon articles of a very stimulating nature. 
 
 Most dairymen, therefore, have adopted the plan of taking 
 the calf from the cow at an early period, and feeding it from the 
 dish by hand, up to the time of bringing it to solid food. By 
 this method the food can be easily modified, and the growth is 
 not liable to be checked, as it often is when the calf is allowed 
 to run with the cow to a certain age and finally taken away. 
 As soon as the calf is dropped, the cow is allowed to lick it 
 dry, and the young creature to suck once or twice, which it will 
 do as soon as it is able to stand — when the cow is milked clean, 
 given some warm bran mash or gruel, and left for a day or two 
 with the calf After that, if the udder is all right, not inflamed 
 or caked, the calf is taken away, and taught to feed by putting 
 the fingers into its mouth and gently bringing its muzzle down 
 to the milk in a dish. In the dairy districts of Holland, the 
 
CAlTLfi. 377 
 
 calf is generally removed at once to a shed bj^ itself, a.nd rubbed 
 dry, without allowing the cow even to see it; and if the udder 
 is right, this is, perhaps, the better way. As soon as it is able 
 to stand, it is supplied with the warm milk drawn directly from 
 the cow. This it should have, in all cases, as its first food, since 
 it contains certain medicinal properties admirably calculated to 
 free the bowels and intestines from mucus and excrementitious 
 matter. It should have the milk of the cow, m this way, three 
 or four times a day, for a week or ten d'ays at the least, what- 
 ever course it is designed to adopt after that. The milk during 
 this period of time possesses, as we have said, certain qualities 
 which are necessary to the calf, and which cannot be effectually 
 supplied by any other food. 
 
 In the third or fourth week, the milk for the calf may be 
 skimmed, but warmed to the degree of fresh-drawn milk ; 
 though, after that, less care is required to warm it and to give 
 it the milk of its own mother, that of other cows now answer- 
 ing equally well. 
 
 If in spring, the calf at the age of six to eight weeks may be 
 tethered out upon the green grass, or put into a small enclosure 
 near the house, and still fed twice or, better, three times a day, 
 upon skimmed milk, with a mixture of half hay tea or gruel. 
 If in winter, a wisp of clover, or other sweet hay, should bo 
 hung up over its pen within easy reach. This will soon lead 
 the young animal to begin to eat solid food. The careful Dutch 
 dairymen prefer not to turn their calves into grass till the age 
 of ten or twelve weeks, and then even continue the skim milk 
 or buttermilk several times a day. If the weather is chilly, 
 they take care to warm the milk. 
 
 The most important thing to be borne in mind, in the raising 
 of calves, is neither to starve nor to overfeed. A calf should 
 never be surfeited, nor fed so highly that it cannot be fed more 
 
378 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 highly as it advances. It should be kept growing thriftily, 
 without getting too fat. Both extremes are to be avoided. At 
 the same time the utmost gentleness should be observed at all 
 times. Persevering kindness will overcome the most obstinate 
 natures. The disposition of the cow is greatly modified, if not 
 indeed wholly formed, by her treatment while young. Calves, 
 therefore, should be handled frequently, led by a halter, ca- 
 ressed, and made into pets. They will almost invariably become 
 docile, and suffer themselves to be approached and handled in 
 the. pasture and the barn ; and it is the quiet temperament and 
 confidence acquired by this course of treatment that constitutes 
 one of the most important characteristics of the good dairy cow. 
 With respect to hay tea, often used in this country as a par- 
 tial substitute for milk after the calf is several days old, it is 
 prepared by making an infusion from the best and sweetest 
 hay, cat by a chaff or straw cutter into pieces about two inches 
 long and put into a kettle and boiling water poured over it, 
 when it is allowed to stand two hours, carefully covered. After 
 the first week of the creature's life, the proportions of the pure 
 milk of its dam and hay tea may be equal. After the third or 
 fourth week, two thirds of hay tea and one third of milk ; and 
 a few days after, three quarters hay tea and one quarter milk. 
 It should be given at least three or four times a day, at the rate 
 of about three quarts at each meal, to be gradually increased to 
 four quarts as the calf grows older. This diet should be con- 
 tinued till the age of ten or twelve weeks, when each meal may 
 be reduced to less than a quart of milk with hay water — or 
 skimmed milk or buttermilk may be substituted. At this age 
 the animal will soon be able to take care of itself. It is im- 
 portant that the hay tea should be made fresh at least every two 
 days, as it will lose its nutritious quality if kept too long. This 
 ■jourse is adopted not as being better than milk, hut simply as a, 
 
CATTLE. 379 
 
 matter of economy in providing the most suitable and cheap 
 substitutes. 
 
 In Ayrshire, calves that are to be raised as dairy cows arf 
 usually fed on whole milk for the first four, five, or six weeks, 
 ■<vhen they are allowed from three to five quarts at each meal, 
 twice a day. Some never give any other food, while so young, 
 except milk, and lessen the quantity as they begin to eat grass 
 or other food, which they do at five or six we^ks old ; and at the 
 age of seven or eight the milk is wholly withdrawn. If in 
 winter, the milk has to be continued longer. A calf will not 
 learn so soon to eat hay as grass, nor will it thrive upon it so 
 well when it does eat it. Hay tea is also used then, and linseed 
 boiled to a jelly and mixed in the milk. Treacle, and other 
 substitates, are sometimes used, but milk, when it can be 
 spared, is regarded as the best and most natural food. 
 
 A method by which the expense of raising calves could be 
 reduced in the proportion of two-thirds, as compared with feed- 
 ing it all milk, was suggested by the Duke of Northumberland, 
 in the following manner: Half an ounce of common treacle, or 
 molasses, is well mixed with a pint of skimmed milk, when an 
 ounce of finely-powdered linseed oil cake is gradually added, 
 stirring it until thoroughly mixed, when it is to be added to 
 the remainder of a gallon of milk ; the whole to be brought to 
 the temperature of new milk, and fed to the animal. After a 
 short time the proportion of pulverized oil cake may be con- 
 siderably increased. 
 
 Hay tea, oil cake, and oat meal will form the basis of substi- 
 tutes for pure milk ; but the first few days the milk fresh from 
 the cow must be given, and the gruel added gradually after- 
 wards, till water is substituted for milk. Mixing oil cake with 
 gruel is the secret of the success of this method, and the oil 
 cake must be the best to be had. It may be prepared by taking 
 
380 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 a largo six-gallon bucket and putting into it two gallons of 
 sca'.ding water; tlien add seven pounds of the fine oil meal 
 Stir the oil cake and water together, and add two gallons of hay 
 tea into which middlings, barley, or oat meal have been mixed. 
 It requires but little calculation to estimate the comparative 
 economy of these different methods. If we suppose the calf to 
 run with the cow for six months, and to take eight quarts a 
 day, which an ordinary cow ought to give for the first six 
 months after calving, we have the cost as follows: 
 
 8 quarts, at 2 cents a quart, for six months, . . . $26.88 
 8 " " 3 " • " " " ... 40.32 
 
 8 " "4 " " " "... 53.76 
 
 There are few locations where milk will not command one 
 of these prices, either to sell or to convert into butter or cheese. 
 If we take the first estimate, and add to it the cost of keeping 
 during the first winter, we have the following as the cost at one 
 year old : 
 
 Amount of milk consumed $26.88 
 
 Hay the first winter 5 00 
 
 Eoots, at the rate of half peck per day for 4 months, 3 .05 
 
 Cost at one year old . . . $34.93 
 
 Take now the method of bringing up .by hand as indicated, 
 and say, 
 
 50 quarts of milk at 2 cents per quart $1.00 
 
 700 quarts of milk at 1 cent per quart 7.00 
 
 Pasture for five months •. ... 200 
 
 Hay during first winter 5.00 
 
 Eoots for four months of first winter, half peck per 
 
 day, at 20 cents a bushel 8.05 
 
 Cost of one year old raised by hand , . $18.05 
 
CATTLE. 381. 
 
 Calling the. second season's pasturing $5, and the second 
 season's wintering $10, we have the cost, at two years, when 
 the heifer ought to come in as a dairy cow, $33.00. 
 
 This is, of course, only a general estimate. The price )f 
 food, labor, and other incidental expenses vary so much in dif- 
 ferent localities, that practical results in one section would not 
 apply to others ; but it niust be evident, that the feeding of the 
 first year is not only the most expensive, but requires greater 
 care and judgment. 
 
 So far as it can be controlled, the period of dropping the first 
 calf should be arranged to take place in the month of May or 
 June, just before the greatest luxuriance of pasture feed. This 
 will induce the largest possible flow of milk when the milk 
 glands are in a condition of growth to be readily influenced by 
 food. A greater development of the mammary or glandular 
 system takes place now than if the animal came in on dry food, 
 and it creates the capacity for large secretions of milk through 
 the life of the cow. The capacity of the udder for holding 
 milk will depend largely upon the character and abundance of 
 the food during the first year; and a cow coming in for the first 
 time in May, or early in June, will be worth more, as a milker, 
 than she would be to come in at any other season. Feed, there- 
 fore, so as to induce the largest possible flow of milk the first 
 year. 
 
 Feeding and Management op Dairy Stock. No branch 
 of the dairy can exceed in importance the feeding and manage- 
 ment of stock. It will be found in practice that nothing comes 
 out of the bag that is not first put into the mouth. The breed 
 of animals may be the best in the world, and yet success in the 
 dairy will depend very largely upon feeding, regularity, and 
 general treatment. 
 
 The feeding, or nutritive value of all the various articles of 
 
.382 now TO make the farm pay. 
 
 food, has been fully investigated, so that we know what constit- 
 uents produce fat, what are heat, and what are flesh producing, 
 what goes to build up the bony structure, and what enters into 
 the muscular tissues; but while there is much of practical 
 interest, in these investigations, we are not to overlook the fact 
 that, in actual practice, we have to deal with living organiza- 
 tions, and that the most conflicting variety of circumstances 
 often comes in to modify the results which theory would lead us 
 to expect. Instead of the test-tubes and retorts of the labora- 
 tory, in which a certain number of materials, under certain cir- 
 cumstances, will invariably combine and form a certain substance, 
 we now have the living animal, with its fine adjustment of ner- 
 vous and muscular organizations, and we find that our results 
 depend upon physiological peculiarities, upon likes and dislikes, 
 upon circumstances over which we have not always a full control. 
 Food relished one day will be rejected another. That which 
 gives satisfactory results at one time will utterly fail at another. 
 Under precisely the same conditions of shelter, food, and man- 
 agement, so far as we can tell, the yield of milk will vary in 
 the same cow ; and while one cow thrives on one kind of food, 
 another will not. Let the system of management remain the 
 same, and the quality of milk of the same cow will often vary, 
 be rich and buttery at one time, and watery or cheesy at 
 another. 
 
 Many of those changes and variations, which introduce an 
 element of uncertainty into our calculations are due to hidden 
 causes, but there are others which we know more about, and 
 which have an important influence over the nutritive value of 
 food. Bad air, or want of ventilation in the stall, will reduce 
 not only the quantity, but the value of milk. Fright or worry- 
 ing by dogs, or fast driving, the irritation caused by flies in the 
 pasture, any thing in fact, which disturbs the quiet of the ani- 
 
CATTLE. 38iJ 
 
 mal, will have its injurious effect. And so ^lie coLdition in 
 which food is given will exert nearly as perceptible an influence 
 as the kind of food itself. 
 
 The most natural and the most commonly adopted method 
 of feeding dairy cows, in the latter part of spring, through the 
 summer, and the early autumn, is to let them run at pasture. 
 This period will extend from four to six months, according to 
 the locality and the season. Here the cows rely almost wholly 
 upon grass. But it often happens, owing to droughts or over- 
 stocked pastures, that an additional amount of food has to be 
 provided to supplement the supply obtained in the pasture. 
 This will consist, generally, of green food, cut from day to day, 
 in the shape of green corn-fodder, or other cultivated crops, as 
 root tops, rye, green oats, or other forage crops. On many dairy 
 farms, carried on for the supply of milk, the cows are supplied 
 daily with a small amount of cotton-seed oil meal, wh'ch yields 
 a large quantity of milk. When it is judiciously fed, not 
 exceeding two to four pounds a day for each animal, it is 
 attended with good results. 
 
 The greatest judgment will be required in the winter or stall 
 feeding of stock, and with respect to the different modes pur- 
 sued, the greatest diversity of opinion and practice prevails. 
 "While some feed exclusively upon hay, and often an inferior 
 quality and quantity of hay, others feed roots, brewers' grains, 
 and some variety of meal, and take the trouble to steam and 
 cook the food, so as to increase its nutritive qualities and render 
 it more palatable. Good hay will undoubtedly form the basis 
 of feeding on a vast majority of dairy farms, and, if furnished in 
 sufficient quantity, it is generally adequate to the supply of 
 dry cows, or cows not giving milk at the time. 
 ■ For cows in milk, during the winter months, the root crop in 
 some form, as that of turnips, Swedes, mangolds, or carrots, is a 
 
384 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 most important addition, as they keep the system open and 
 healthy, and promote the secretion of milk. And if the cows 
 are not in milk, but are to calve in spring, the difference should 
 be rather in the quantity than the quality of the feed. 
 
 In feeding roots, the common English turnips, a sort of make- 
 shift crop, to be sown after some early crop has left the land, is 
 to be used first, and it helps to break the otherwise sudden 
 change from green food, to dry hay in November and December. 
 The Swede will naturally follow,- at the rate of half a bushel to 
 a bushel a day, according to the size of the animal. The man- 
 gold, which keeps admirably till late in the spring, and improves 
 in quality, should follow the Swedes, and will carry the stock 
 along to grass in good condition. 
 
 All coarse fodder, cornstalks, swale hay and straw, should be 
 out in the straw cutter and mixed together. The roots, after 
 being cut into slices, may also be mixed into this mass of cut 
 food, when the whole may advantageously be put into a large 
 close box, and a few quarts of shorts, middlings, or bran scat- 
 tered over it. If now hot water is poured upon this mass, it 
 will, after standing covered up a few hours, constitute a highly 
 relished and nutritious feeding. This is a simple and cheap 
 method of securing some of the advantages of steaming. 
 
 Regularity in the hours of feeding, and all the operations in 
 the cow-house, is of the utmost importance, and second only to 
 a full and liberal supply of food. Indeed, regularity, cleanli- 
 ness, and gentle treatment may be considered as the cardinal 
 points of successful dairy management. These, in conjunction 
 with judicious feeding,' will insure the highest rewards to be 
 derived from dairy stock. — G. L. Flint. 
 
 OxEN". We know they are somewhat out of fashion, but we are 
 convinced that where a farmer keeps more than one team, one 
 of them had best be an ox team. You want horses to take you 
 
CATTLE. 385 
 
 to mill and to market, but for plowing and hauling on the farm 
 a properly broken ox team is to be preferred. If the young 
 oxen are trained to a quick step, in a light cart they will do 
 their work as quickly as a horse team. 
 
 They will stand more continuous hard work with less liability 
 to disease, or accident. It is not hard work that worries the 
 ox, but the continual whipping and bawling to which many 
 "hands " treat them. An ox can be trained to go by the word 
 just as well, and better than by the whip. Let t:i^ compare the 
 advantages of the two teams. In the first place, the horses cost 
 twice as much as the oxen ; their harness costs more ; they are 
 more liable to disease and accident, to run away and smash 
 wagon, harness, and their own necks. And when the horse is 
 lamed and his service at an end, he is good for nothing but hia 
 hide, while the oxen, after two or three years' service, can be put 
 in the stall for a few weeks, and men sold for enough to buy a 
 young and vigorous pair to replace them. 
 
 Some writers also claim that the ox costs less to keep, but 
 we think he ought to cost just as much, and have juoc as much 
 and as good feed as the horse. Give him grain and he will give 
 you work, manure, and finally beef. 
 
 In this v/ay oxen can be made to pay a profit, while the 
 horses are wearing out. From six to ten years of age the oxen 
 steadily increase in value, and when too old for service will 
 bring a profit for beef. Lest we be misunderstood here, we repeat 
 that where time is an object, as in going distances, the horses are 
 to be preferred, and if a farmer keeps but one team it must be 
 horses. 
 
 The Devons make, all things considered, the best cattle for 
 the farmer. They are not large enough for the heaviest work, 
 but no ox of his size equals him in strength, activity, perseve- 
 rance, or willingness. A cross between the Devons and some 
 
886 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 of the larger breeds, whicli retains all the excellencies of the 
 Devons, with an increase of size, weight, and power, is what we 
 think should be aimed at by breeders. 
 
 The Devon is naturally medium as a dairy cow, giving a fair 
 quantity of very rich milk, but when they are bred with a view 
 to increase their size, strength, and beef qualities, as they should 
 be, the milking qualities decrease. 
 
 As a beef animal the Devon is in the first class. He fats 
 readily, has cpmpact bones, and therefore a small amount of 
 waste, and the flesh is of the finest quality, and well laid on. 
 We recommend the Devons for workers, and for beef, but not 
 for the dairy. 
 
 The Herefoeds are the perfection of strength for a working 
 ox, but of no account as a dairy breed. They have, therefore, 
 never been very popular in this country, and are perhaps larger 
 than is absolutely required for ordinary farm labor ; but this is 
 not to their disadvantage, for they take on flesh readilj'', mature 
 early, and turn out splendidly on the butcher's block. As a cross 
 with the Devons, or selected native cows, to produce working 
 oxen, we think the Herefords will yet prove their superior quali- 
 ties. The Ayeshiebs have been already spoken of as a dairy 
 breed. They have not the characteristics of working cattle and 
 do not put on flesh as fast as the Herefords, or the Durhams, 
 neither do they consume as much feed. 
 
 The Holsteins have not been fairly tried as working oxen, or 
 as beef cattle, but we think grades with lighter and more active 
 breeds will give good results. That they will take a leading 
 place as dairy stock, we have no doubt. The Shorthoens, 
 whose value as milkers has been discussed, are also superior 
 as beef animals, putting on flesh with astonishing rapidity, 
 and maturing at four years old. At that age they give one 
 quarter less waste than any ordinary cattle of the same weight. 
 

 3S7 
 
CATTLE. 389 
 
 Crossed witb good native cows or Devons, tLey make excellent 
 "Working oxen. Improved Stock is the aim of every cnterpris- 
 ing farmer. It costs no more to raise and keep a pure " Short- 
 horn" or "Jersey" than a common scrub, but for any conceiva- 
 ble purpose they are superior. They will give more milk, 
 more valuable calves, and when past service more beef, on the 
 same amount of feed. It is not, however, within the means of 
 many farmers to buy a herd of pure breeds at three hundred 
 or four hundred dollars each, nor is it necessary. Get one 
 bull and one cow of the breed best adapted to your wants, 
 or else arrange with a neighbor to purchase the one and you the 
 other. Breed your best grade cows to the bull and you will 
 soon find a great improvement in your stock. Now dispose of 
 those animals that do not come up to your standard of excel- 
 lence; cows that do not conceive readily, oi that are liable to 
 abortion, no matter how good milkers they may be ; breed from 
 none of the grade bulls, but keep the bulls from the two pure 
 animals first purchased for breeding purposes. It is perfect]}' 
 safe to breed in and in, unless you discover some defect in the 
 stock, when a cross can be made with some other pure bred 
 stock. None but pure bred animals are certain of reproducing 
 their characteristics in their progeny. A grade bull will some- 
 times do it, but it is mere chance work, and cannot be relied 
 upon. It will not do however, in these crosses, to breed the 
 small cow to the large bull, but the small Devon or Alderney 
 bull to the Shorthorn cow, or the large native or grade cow 
 usually produces good results. Breeding Cows, that is those 
 kept for breeding choice stock, when they are discovered to be 
 in heat should be immediately put by themselves until they can 
 be introduced to the bull. This should be done in some quiet 
 place with no other animals about, and above all, no crowd of 
 men and boys, as is often the case. There should be no attempt 
 
390 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 to force an acquaintance, no bustle or worrying them. After a 
 once repeated service confine the cow in the stall until her heat 
 fully passes off. 
 
 JSTine and one-half months is the average time of the cow, and 
 after about seven months' pregnancy, milking should cease, and 
 she should have good care, shelter, and warm beds, good food 
 and a plenty of it. She now has two lives to support, and the 
 quality of the calf will be greatly affected by the care now 
 given. The cow should not be allowed to lay on fat, but kept 
 up to a good condition. Mr. L. ]?. Allen in his recent publica- 
 tion says : " A breeding and milk cow, in all her bodily condi- 
 tion, should be gently and kindly treated. 
 
 "She should never be driven at a pace beyond a walk. 
 
 "She should never be jumped over fences or bars. 
 
 " She should never be shouted at or worried in driving. 
 
 " If they meet with objects occasioning fright or fear, let them 
 leisurely survey the obstacles until fear is removed. 
 
 " Never suffer the cow or the herd to be worried by dogs. . 
 
 " Be gentle with them always." 
 
 Bulls intended for stock raising should be well fed from 
 their birth ; never fattened, but kept constantly and steadily 
 growing. Oat meal, barley meal, and peas are better than corn 
 meal, (in fact we recommend that no bull ever be fed on corn 
 at all ;) these, with milk and grass until he is eight months, will 
 insure great seminal and muscular vigor. Teach him to lead as 
 early as possible, and when he is nine months old put a copper 
 ring in his nose. Handle him often and gently, and in ninety- 
 nine cases out of one hundred he will be gentle in return. 
 Most of the viciousness of bulls is the result of either improper 
 handling, or no handling at all. When once they become 
 vicious there is little dependence to be placed on them, and their 
 keeper must be on his guard. Never use a yearling bull 
 
CATTLE. 391 
 
 unless it be on a singh cow as an experiment. At two years old 
 he may be used sparingly on twenty to thirty cows, and when 
 three years old he will be vigorous, and ought to be good for at 
 least five years' service of one hundred cows a season. "When in 
 service his feed must be the best, and he should be groomed and 
 washed often. This is necessary to his best health, as is also 
 daily exercise. 
 
 The following from the " Gauntry 0-entleman" is so admirable, 
 that we copy it and indorse it entire. WoRKiisrG Bulls. " I 
 have one of Emery's endless chain powers to drive my hay- 
 cutter. My bull is an Alderney two year old, weighing a little 
 over nine hundred pounds. I put on the brake and had him 
 led into the power, where he had a small feed of oats given 
 him. While he ate these he was groomed and caressed. This 
 was repeated two or three days in succession. Then, while he 
 was eating, the brake was slacked a little, and as the floor 
 moved down (slowly, so as not to alarm him) he stepped 
 up to keep his muzzle at the oats. At the fourth lesson 
 he worked an hour, and cut hay enough to last my stock — 
 some eighteen head in all — two or three days. 
 
 " We have not had the slightest trouble, and so much does he 
 appear to like the exercise and the pleasant remembrances of 
 the reward of good behavior, that 1 shall not be surprised if, 
 when he happens to find the door open, he should go in and run 
 the machine' on his own account. I intend to put up a circular 
 saw and let him cut my fire-wood. 
 
 " Now for the advantages. The pampering and confinement 
 
 which makes a horse run away will, in time, make a bull 
 
 devilish. The work I give him requires no harnessing ; it is 
 
 only an hour's walk up a hill of thirteen degrees elevation. It 
 
 gives him an outlet for his superfluous spirits. It keeps him 
 
 ' in hand' and gentle ; it wears away the growth of his hoofs, 
 24 
 
392 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 develops his muscle, and improves his health. Have I not a 
 right to expect my herd to be benefited by such management ?" 
 
 Eeaeing Calves has been spoken of in connection with 
 dairy stock, hut we have a few words further to say. They 
 should always have enough food to satisfy their hunger, enough 
 pure water always at band to satisfy their thirst, a comfortable, 
 warm, dry, and well bedded shelter, to which they can help 
 themselves whenever th'e weather is bad. For whatever pur- 
 pose the calf is to be raised, for beef, for work, or for the dairy, 
 these things will pay. If for veal, calves should have their ' 
 mothers' milk for four weeks, with meal added if they will take 
 it. We do not mean by this, that the calves should be allowed 
 to run with the cows and look out for themselves. The teats 
 are not evenly milked by the calf, and one or more of them are 
 likely to become worthless. The constant sucking also lessens 
 the future flow of milk. Males, not intended for breeding, 
 should be castrated young. Heifers intended for beef should be 
 spayed. Steers should be early accustomed to be fastened 
 together. Any time after six months a- little gentle training 
 may be commenced. It is less labor to train them now, and 
 they will be more tractable and docile than if left to be two or 
 three years old. 
 
 "When they are first put into the cart, they should be driven 
 around the inside of some lot, next to the fence, which prevents 
 them from turning out in that direction, while you stand on the 
 inside to keep them to their track. Never put steers to a 
 great heavy cart, unless your object is to make them slow. 
 Put them to a light cart and teach them to step quick, to walk 
 ■fast. 
 
 Feeding Stock is the most important operation, in improved 
 farming; for the farmer feeding all hia crops to his stock 
 depends upon them to turn it into manure and beef. He calcu- 
 
CATTLE. 393 
 
 lates to see his returns come in from the sale ot his beef, 
 mutton, and pork, and desires to know how his hay and grain 
 must be fed to make the- most meat. Of course, we take it for 
 granted that he has breeds that will fat, for some breeds will 
 not, no matter what you feed them, and others will only fat 
 on such enormous quantities as tend to ruin thQ prudacer. We 
 have seen a great, big headed, paunchy ox, fed for three 
 months beside a grade Devon, eating "full one-third more, and 
 gaining less than one-half as much in the three months. 
 
 Get a breed that will fat, and then keep them (jrowinj, summer 
 and winter. It is wretched policy, east, west, north or south, to 
 let any animal lose a pound of flesh. That pound of flesh has 
 cost you money, and it will cost you money to replace it. 
 
 A man who for any reason is obliged to pay twice for a piece 
 of property, is reckoned unfortunate, but many a farmer volun- 
 tarily pays six or eight times over for the same fifty pounds. of 
 flesh, and wonders why farming does not pay any better. My 
 friend, when you get a pound of flesh, keep it. It won't cost 
 one-half as much as it will to replace it. 
 
 If pasture get scant in the fall, so that animals have to trave 
 all day to satisfy their hunger, they will soon fall off in flesh. 
 The farmer should piece out the pasture by feeding cornstalks, 
 root tops, pumpkins, etc. Winter feeding, and care, is where 
 many farmers fail. Feeding stock of any kind from stacks is 
 miserable policy. Hay thus fed will not go more than one 
 half as far as when fed under shelter. The cold and wet cause 
 the, cattle to eat more, and yet they do not thrive on it. Much 
 is trampled under foot and wasted. Says Mr. Allen : " The con • 
 sequence of all this is, that, through irregularity of feeding 
 and carelessness of distributing their food, and want of shelter, 
 the cattle lose flesh every day, and be their condition what it 
 may, on coming into winter quarters they go out 'spring 
 
394 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM 'PAT. 
 
 poor.' Better keep ten head only, and keep them well shel- 
 tered and well fed, than one hundred in this shiftless, cruel way. 
 It will be profitable, while on every ill-kept animal you will 
 lose money, and the manure of the animals thus fed will be 
 worth but little more than so much clay." 
 
 Stall Feeding. For milk cows and fattening stock, stall 
 feeding the year around is certainly advisable. The experience 
 of every stock raiser who has ever given it a trial testifies that 
 the profit is at least double. There is no doubt of it. If we 
 could persuade every stock owner to adopt this soiling system, 
 we should feel that we had done as much for our country as 
 Fulton, Eli Whitney, or Blias Howe. It would increase the 
 agricultural wealth of the country in a tenfold ratio. It would 
 in five years pay the whole national debt. It is tlie only true 
 economy in stock raising. In our soiling system we include 
 stall feeding, cutting and steaming food, and the husbanding of 
 manures. Its advantages are first, A saving in fences. All 
 the fences required (and all there ever ought to be on any farm) 
 will be a good-sized yard to exercise them in. Now a man 
 having one hundred and fifty acres of pasture often divides it 
 into six lots. To fence these lots costs not less than one thou- 
 sand dollars ; the interest and repairs on which every year will 
 be sufficient to pay a man for doing all the extra work of soil- 
 ing fifty head of cattle. Can't you invest your one thousand 
 to better advantage. Again, each of these fences takes up land. 
 Your one thousand dollars worth of fence takes up from three 
 to four acres of land. A second consideration is the saving of 
 land. .Four acres each, or twelve head to fifty acres of land, are 
 required by the pasturing system, and often six acres each, or 
 only eight head to fifty acres. Put this fifty acres under culti 
 vation, and it will keep twenty-four head as well, yes, better 
 than it now keeps eight or twelve. We have already seen that 
 
CATTLE. 395 
 
 the saving in fences will pay all the extra expenses of soiling. 
 leaving one thousand dollars to be invested in the additional stock 
 that can be fed under the new system. We venture to say that 
 one and a quarter acres in hay and gi-ain for winter soiling, and 
 three quarters of an acre in green crops for summer soiling, will 
 be sufficient for any stock. , We 'have statements from a large 
 number of reliable men who practice soiling and no one of (hem 
 allows over two acres per head. It will thus be seen that the 
 same number of acres can be made to feed twice or three times 
 as many head of cattle by the soiling system. Third, is the sav- 
 ing in manure, and this is the most important consideration of 
 all. Manure is valuable even on the virgin soil of the prairies. 
 No amount of manure is wasted when applied even to these. As 
 we have already seen, the soiling system enables the farmer to 
 keep double the number of animals on the same amount of land ; 
 it will also double the value of the manure of each animal, thus 
 making four times the amount of manure to return to the fields. 
 
 No land will ever become '' exhausted" under such a system, 
 but will constantly increase in fertility. A fourth consideration 
 is that there will be a large extra product of milk, butter, or 
 beef ; enough to pay for the labor of soiling. 
 
 DiEECTiONS FOR SOILING. For summer feeding an open 
 shed may be used, connected with a yard or lane. The sheds 
 should be divided into stalls, and every creature should have 
 its own place, and never be allowed to feed anywhere else. 
 They will soon learn to take their own places without crowding 
 or hunching each other. Their feeding hours should be regular 
 and often, at least four times a day. 
 
 The sheds should, of course, be provided with mangers, and 
 the stalls with stanchions, as it is desirable to have the animals 
 stand in them all but two or three hours in the day, when they 
 are out for exercise. 
 
."^96 irOW TO MAKE THE FARM FAT. 
 
 The crops for summer soiling are winter rye, wliicli comes 
 first, and can be cut in May, and is excellent to let them down 
 from dry to green food; next clover and other grasses in 
 succession ; then rye again, for Tje will farnisli several cuttings 
 during the season ; then early sowed corn, oats, sorghum, and 
 other crops. Corn should be' sown every fifteen days, until the 
 first of August, or even later. T?or fifty head of cattle, we 
 would advise the following summer crops : Five acres winter 
 rye, twenty acres of corn, sowed at five different sowings 
 fifteen days apart; seven acres of red clover, and five acres of 
 Timothy, or oats. Bach animal should have enough, but no 
 more than they will eat up clean at each meal. As each animal 
 always eats at the same place, tbe feeder can easily manage 
 this. 
 
 .Plenty of pure water is indispensable to the best results, 
 especially with milk cows. Free access to pure water will 
 increase the flow of milk. The best arrangement we bave ever 
 seen for this purpose was a double manger, or rather a pretty 
 wide manger, (lower down than is customary,) and a partition 
 through the middle, from end to end. Either half of this 
 manger could be filled with water, at any time, from a pump 
 outside the building. This having water always at hand is a 
 most important matter, and adds to the profits of the dairy. If 
 open sheds are used for summer soiling, they should be so 
 arranged that the team can be driven along in front of them, 
 and the fodder passed from it to the stalls. If feeding is done 
 in the stable, which is best for milk cows, at least, the team can 
 be driven in on the floor. In winter all feeding should be done 
 in the stables, and here much will depend on cleanliness, air, 
 pure water, and constant care. 
 
 Remember that you are saving enough to pay for a great deal 
 of labor and attention. Summer is the best time to fatten beef, 
 
CATTLE. 397 
 
 but you must keep up your stock in the winter also. In coming 
 down from, green food to dry, care must be exercised that the 
 change is not too sudden, especially with milk cows. As the 
 green food grows insuficient, out some early cured hay, and 
 mix a little meal with it. Keep up' not only the amount, but 
 the quality of the milk., 
 
 Cutting and Cooking Food for Stock now engages our 
 attention. There are six cogent reasons why this should be 
 done. It saves the labor of mastication, which s severe work 
 for cattle, as their teeth are only calculated for eating grass. 
 The finer fodder is cut the better. However fine you may cut 
 it, it will still require more mastication than green grass. 
 While cutting renders it fine, wetting it renders it more suc- 
 culent, and cooking it softens the fibre; it therefore is all 
 available as food, and the same amount cut and steamed will 
 go twice as far as in the natural state. Theie are thousands 
 of reliable statements to prove this, and yet, either from indif- 
 ference, indolence, or unbelief, the multitude of farmers still 
 go on feeding uncut hay and stalks, .unground grain and whole 
 roots to their stock. A third great advantage of cutting, and 
 steaming is, that every thing can be made palatable and used. 
 The profit in this direction is equal to the cost. Half hay and 
 half straw are by this means made fully as good as clear hay 
 uncut. Coarse hay, badly cured hay, straw and cornstalks are 
 eagerly devoured by the most dainty stock when cut and 
 steamed. This shows that even poor fodder cut and steamed 
 is more palatable to the stock than the best uncooked : this is 
 the cow's argument in its favor. Twenty pounds of good hay 
 cut and steamed will keep a cow in hctier, condition than thirty 
 pounds uncut and uncooked. 
 
 Says Mr. Allen, on this point : " If the food goes into the 
 animal at blood heat, so much of the animal heat as has to be 
 
398 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 expended in warming that otherwise cold food after entering 
 the stomach, would be saved to go into flesh ; for the animal 
 heat has to be created by this food, and is therefore expended 
 in producing it, and cannot to that extent, of course, make fat 
 or flesh. So also would be saved the amount of food expended 
 in producing the muscular strength and work of the jaws in 
 grinding; for this power has to be furnished from some source, 
 and we hold that the power so produced in the internal system 
 of the animal itself is the dearest possible way of making it. 
 Cooking or warming the food is, therefore, a great economy, 
 much more, we consider, than its additional expense." The 
 trouble with Mr. Allen, and a dozen other writers on this 
 subject whom we might name, is that they follow with long 
 and elaborate descriptions of cooking apparatus, boilers, pipes, 
 etc., which frighten away those who would like to try the 
 experiment. After a man has once tried it and found what an 
 immense improvement it is, he does not hesitate to invest any 
 reasonable amount of time, labor, and money in perfecting it. 
 A CHEAP PROCESS is what is wanted at first. 'The following is 
 simple: Line your feed-box with tin or sheet iron, cut your 
 feed, turn on a gallon of boiling hot water for every two 
 bushels of feed : shut on the cover tight, and leave it from two 
 to five hours; it will keep warm over night. Where more 
 than five animals are to be fed it will pay to have a power 
 cutter. A horse power is a convenient thing to haVe for a 
 great many purposes on the farm. By it hay, straw, stalks, 
 and roots can be cut with very little trouble. A set-kettle just 
 outside the door will heat the water. This can be covered 
 tightly, and a pipe run from it to the feed-box ; this will keep 
 the feed cooking as long as the water is hot. "When roots are 
 to be fed, they should be cut up and put into the box with the 
 feed. It is good practice to mix a little bran, meal, or mid- 
 
CATTLE. . 399 
 
 dlings -with the feed; it seasons the whole and sayes hay. 
 George A. Moore, of Buffalo, New York, says: "I think 
 cutting and steaming combined insure a gain to the feeder 
 of at least thirty-three per cent. The manure resulting from 
 feeding steamed food is worth double that from feeding in 
 the ordinary way." This man feeds eighty head and cooks 
 their feed. Hundreds of dairymen and stock-raisers are trying 
 it, and pronounce it at least one-third more profitable than the 
 ordinary method. We now proceed to the Diseases of 
 Cattle, and their treatment. 
 
 Inflammatory Diseases. Inflammation of the stomach 
 causes numerous symptoms of restlessness and evident pain. 
 The animal lies down, points its head towards the belly, and 
 often strikes the belly with the foot. Give a slippery elm drink 
 every two hours; inject warm soapsuds. Keep up these reme- 
 dies for several days. Feed on gruel and other light feeds. 
 Inflammation of the bowels is not readily distinguished from 
 inflammation of the stomach, except by a greater rigidity, and 
 evidences of more severe pain. Wring out a horse blanket in 
 hot water and apply to the bowels, and inject clysters of soap 
 and water, as in inflammation of the stomach. 
 
 Inflammation of the Lungs is indicated by cough, dul- 
 ness, and cold extremities. The mouth is hot, and the animal 
 is reluctant to move. Apply flannels saturated in hot vinegar 
 to the legs and feet. Give half a pint of tlioroughwort tea 
 every hour. Inject warm soap and water. Inflammation of 
 the bladder, kidneys, womb, or urinating organs is indicated 
 by a frequent desire to urinate, and also to void the excrement ; 
 but small quantities are dropped, and the animal is in increased 
 pain ; the loins shrink from the touch. The slippery elm drink 
 and soapsuds injection should be used, and a wet blanket kept 
 
400 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 on the abdomen. It should be kept warm by frequent wring 
 ing in hot water. 
 
 Inflammation of the Bkain. The symptoms and treat- 
 ment are the same as described for the horse. 
 
 Inflammation of the Eyes. Use the eye wash directed for 
 the horse. Dysenteey, Diarrhcba, Gripes, and Colic, are in- 
 flammatory in their character and results. They are caused by 
 sudden changes either in temperature or in food. In calves, flour 
 milk gruel, with a little chalk, is usually all that is required. 
 A gill of castor oil should be given if the former does not give 
 relief; and if still obstinate, inject the warm soap and water. 
 Give grown animals a pint of castor oil, or, if not to be had, 
 substitute sweet oil or melted lard. Gruel and slippery elm 
 drink, in all these complaints, is a most excellent laxative. 
 Diarrhoea may often be checked by the following dose : one gill 
 of finely pulverized charcoal, one ditto fine salt, diluted with 
 melted lard. If this does not check it, double the dose. 
 
 Bloody Murrain is caused by leeches, which the animal 
 sucks up from muddy water. Cattle should always have pure 
 and, if convenient, running spring water. 
 
 Mange is a contagious disease of the skin, caused by filthi- 
 ness, in connection with improper feeding. We never knew it 
 to generate on a cleanly, well-kept beast, but if once generated 
 in a herd it will soon spread. The diseased cattle should at 
 once be put by themselves. The symptoms are a dry scurf 
 about the roots of the hair near the tail, and spreading from 
 that part, all over the body, causing severe itching and violent 
 rubbing. Give sulphur one ounce, slippery elm two ounces, char- 
 coal one gill, lard sufficient to mix. Make into six doses, and 
 give two a day in the feed. Prepare an ointment of spirits of 
 turpentine one pint ; sulphur three quarters of a pound ; and oil 
 sufficient to reduce it to an ointment. Rub in gently. This 
 
CATTLE. 401 
 
 ointment will keep for months, if new butter, without salt, is 
 used instead of oil ; and for all diseases of the skin in cattle, 
 sheep, or hogs it is the besl; thing we know of 
 
 Pleura Pneumonia, Einderpbst, Contagious Typhus, 
 and other modifications of the same contagious diseases have 
 from time to time swept off thousands of cattle and are likely 
 to do so again. The symptoms are fetid breath, hot mouth, 
 unnatural heat and redness in the vagina and rectum. Soon the 
 lower lip, on the inside, will be covered with pin- head blisters, 
 and a thick fluid will begin to run from the mouth. The ani- 
 mal will hold its head to one side and have a pitiful look. 
 When discovered, kill every infected animal without a mo- 
 ment's delay, bury all their excrement, and every thing that has 
 been in their stalls. Isolate the rest of the herd, and kill them 
 as fast as a sign of the disease appears. Pui a box of chloride 
 of lime where every animal will have to step in it some time 
 in the day, and see that every one that comes into the yard 
 steps in a box of the same when they go out. 
 
 HoovEN is caused by eating too greedily of green food, 
 which, clogging in the stomach, ferments and generates gas, 
 which distends the stomach and often causes death. Give two 
 ounces of ammonia (hartshorn) in a quart of soft water every 
 fifteen minutes. A flexible tube passed down the gullet will 
 often allow some portion of the gas to escape. Cloths wrurig 
 out in hot water and applied to the body, and vigorous rubbing 
 with the hatid, often assist the work. An injection ol warm 
 soap and water, at short intervals, is also to be recommended. 
 Prompt, vigorous, and persevering measures are to be kept up 
 until the animal is relieved or dies. But do not add to the 
 load already in the stomach any physic or nauseating doses. 
 
 Lice or Fly Bites should be treated by rubbing grease and 
 Scotch snufi" into the skin. 
 
402 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 Choking often occurs where farmers do not cut up their 
 roots, or where cattle get to the apples or potatoes unbidden. 
 The best practice we know of, is to strap up one fore foot and 
 make the animal hop. The obstruction will soon be thrown 
 up. Another plan is, to have a rod about three feet long, with 
 a greased swab on one end, and, one man pulling out the 
 tongue, another forces the swab quiclSy down to the obstruc- 
 tion. 
 
 The Diseases of Daiey Stock are few, where properly 
 cared for ; but garget, milk-fever, and slinking, are by far too 
 common. Garget is an inflammation of, the udder. One or 
 more teats become swollen and tender ; the milk cakes in the 
 bag, and in time the flow will cease. When first discovered, 
 put the calf to the mother several times a day. The udder 
 should also be washed frequently. Give a physic of Epsom 
 salts and molasses. Dissolve one-half to a pound of salts in a 
 quart of boiling water, add a teacup of molasses, and give before 
 it gets cold. 
 
 Slinking the Calf {abortion) is quite common among high 
 fed cows, but the causes are not yet known. It usually occurs 
 from the fourth to the sixth month of pregnancy. If the cow 
 is uneasy and feverish, excited and timid, remove her from the 
 rest, give her a dose of salts and molasses in gruel or a mash. 
 A cow that has once slunk her calf is not reliable to breed from 
 again, but with a valuable cow we should always make a second 
 trial, but never more; dispose of such cows and get others. 
 We think something can be done in the way of prevention, 
 In the first place, when near calving time, and for some Weeks 
 after calving, the cow should not be exposed to cold rains or 
 drink very cold water. Ice cold water given to a cow, just 
 before or just after calving, has often caused the loss of the ani- 
 mal as a breeder. Again, we are of the opinion that hard water 
 
CATTLE. 403 
 
 has something to do with it, although it is by no means su£6i- 
 cient alone to cause it. Keeping the bull with the cows is, we 
 are satisfied, a frequent cause of abortion ; it should never be 
 allowed. Eating frosted grass must be very bad for the cows, 
 whether it aids in procuring abortion or not. When there is 
 frost on the grass, keep the cows in the .yard until the sun 
 dissolves it. 
 
 If one cow suffers abortion, the whole herd often follow from 
 sympathy. The smell and symptoms are known to them by 
 instinct, and has an injurious effect upon them. They will 
 smell of the sick cow and her droppings, and then run bellow- 
 ing about, and soon follow her. Therefore, on the first symp- 
 toms, the diseased cow should be removed from sight, smell, or 
 sound of all others, and kept until all is over. And if the cow 
 drops her calf in the field, the fcetus should be removed far 
 away and buried, and the cow removed from the herd. Any 
 putrid or offensive matter, fright, or sudden change of feed will 
 in some cows produce abortion. 
 
 Puerperal or Milk Fever. All cows are subject to more 
 or less fever at calving, which in a day or two, or perhaps in 
 three or four days, increases; the cow loses her appetite, 
 becomes dull, rolls the eyes, and looks wildly at her flanks ; she 
 loses the use of her hind legs, and if down cannot rise. If the 
 cows are watched, as they should be, the first symptoms will be 
 discovered. If so, give the dose of Epsom salts and molasses. 
 If the fever is high, and the hind legs are already stiff, add half 
 •an ounce of red pepper, or ginger, or caraway, or quartei of an 
 ounce of each to the salts and molasses. If the disease has gone 
 so far that this dose does not give relief, give another, doubling 
 the quantity of ginger, pepper, etc. At the same time that the 
 first symptoms are discovered, the soapsuds injections, wet 
 cloths, etc., must be also attended to. These are of as much 
 
404 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 importance, and often more, than the internal remedies. After 
 recovery has commenced, good gruel, mashes, etc., should be 
 furnished, always warm. Cows and cattle are subject to fevers 
 of greater or less intensity, but all requiring prompt treatment. 
 
 Symptoms of Simple Feveh. Nose dry and hot ; rumina- 
 tion dull ; breathing quickened ; horns hot ;. feet and limbs often 
 cold ; bowels usually constipated. Salts and molasses, with a 
 continued use of wet blankets, will usually relieve fever at this 
 stage; but if symptomatic fever ensues, and the above symp- 
 toms become aggravated, the eyes red and staring, the animal 
 uneasy, and in such distress as to moan frequently, one quarter 
 of a pound of sulphur and half an ounce of ginger must be 
 added to the above dose. In both cases soapsuds injections 
 will assist in relieving the bowels. Typhoid fever is usually 
 accompanied with some diarrhoea. No salts or other physic 
 should be given in this case, but the water treatment must be 
 used rigorously, and red pepper or ginger given in gruel ; one 
 quarter of an ounce of each, or half an ounce of one in oatmeal 
 gruel is the proper method of administering it. 
 
 These fevers cause heat in the horns, called by some " horn- 
 ail," " horn distemper," etc., and such resort to boring the horns. 
 Now this is all folly. There can be no disease of the horns ; it 
 is only the result of fever and inflammation elsewhere. When 
 the cause is removed, the '< horn-ail" will also disappear, and not 
 till then. 
 
 Loss of the cud is a symptom of indigestion. Give a slight 
 dose of salts and molasses with a little ginger and sulphur. 
 
 Operations. Castrating. We quote from "Allen on 
 Cattlfe." " First grasp the scrotum in the left hand, and bring 
 the testicles down to the foot of the bag ; then with the other 
 hand and a sharp small hnife cut a perpendicular slit in the rear 
 of each testicle, chse to the bottom, and long enough for the 
 
CATTLE. 405 
 
 released testicle to pass through ; then cut through the skin 
 and the inner case enclosing it ; push out the testicle, and gently 
 draw the cord attached to it out one or two inches, and out or 
 scrape it off, and the work is done. Then put in a little salted 
 soft grease, and push it upwards towards the belly." In hot 
 weather apply a little turpentine to the cut edges to keep off the 
 flies. In cold or stormy weather house the calf. If the scrotum 
 becomes inflamed, open again and press the matter out. From 
 three to six months old is the proper time for the operation. 
 
 Spaying is the same process performed on the heifer, and 
 where the stock is to be fatted it is a profitable operation, as 
 they make better beef and fatten more readily. Another object 
 of spaying is to secure a uniform flow of milk the year round. 
 For this purpose ii is done from four to six weeks after the 
 calving, when the milk is at its fullest flow. Where a regular 
 quantity of milk is desired all the year, and the raising of stock 
 is no object, spaying becomes desirable. A veterinary surgeon 
 will spay a herd of cows in a very short time, at a small expense, 
 and with little danger. Only about one per cent, are lost in the 
 operation. 
 
 Diseases op the Feet and Limbs should be treated aa 
 described for the same diseases in the horse. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 
 
 |B have searched a number of volumes for all possible 
 information upon sheep husbandry, and have found 
 ^^Ib most of that contained in this chapter included in two 
 large volumes by the Hon. Henry S. Eandall, LL.D., 
 to whom we here acknowledge our indebtedness. We advise all 
 flock masters, and especially any who are just entering the 
 business, to purchase Mr. Eandall's volumes. 
 
 We have before alluded to the profits of keeping sheep on 
 grain farms, and we are fully of the opinion that many more 
 might be kept to advantage in the Middle, Northern, and 
 Eastern States. A farmer can turn his money quicker in sheep 
 than in cattle. They pasture better, and there are thousands of 
 acres of worthless, briery, bushy pastures, that cau be made 
 fertile by turning in a flock of sheep. The common breeds of 
 poor blood, long legs, large heads, and slab sides will not pay ; 
 they consume more food than the improved breeds, do not get 
 fat, and neither the carcases nor the wool will bring as good price, 
 often not more than one-fourth as much. 
 
 The market for mutton is increasing, and near large cities, or 
 
 convenient to the railroads connecting with cities, the mutton 
 
 may be made the main point. But in the interior, and espe- 
 
 ,cially in the West and South, wool must be the chief object. 
 
 When wool is the main object the Merinoes have no competitor, 
 406 
 
Fig. 79. Meeinos. 
 
 •^■iNvS^-o 
 
 Fig. 80. Meeino Ewes, 
 
 407 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHKR DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 409 
 
 Coramou breeds, put to a pure bred Merino ram, produce a 
 grade averaging at the lowest calculation one pound heavier 
 fleeces. And if these and their progeny are continually 'bred 
 to a pure blood Merino, the same increase will continue. In 
 fact no ewe should ever be bred to any but a pure blooded ram, 
 when the services of such a one can be obtained. 
 
 The Cotswold is a large, fine mutton sheep, and will shear 
 from ten to sixteen pounds of wool. The carcass often weighs 
 over two hundred pounds at two years old, and will be worth 
 several cents more per pound than the common breeds. When 
 near a good market the Cotswolds are asj profitable as any 
 breed we know. The South Down, for both mutton and fleece, 
 are fully equal to any other breed.- They do not shear quite as 
 heavy a fleece, nor market so heavy a carcass as the Cotswolds, 
 but both fleece and carcass are worth more per pound than the 
 Cotswolds. This breed is ready for the butcher at any time 
 from three months to five years old, giving as much weight for 
 their feed as any other. Thi buck can be profitably introduced 
 into any flock where it is not especially desirable to keep up 
 pure blood for breeding purposes. 
 
 The Leicesters are only mutton sheep, but near large 
 markets they can be raised with great profit, as they put on 
 flesh very fast. They shear six to eight pounds of fleece. The 
 introduction of the Cotswold ram to this breed greatly improves 
 the animal for breeding purposes. 
 
 We will briefly state the points of a good fine woolled sheep. 
 A stout, vigorous body of medium size for the breed ; a thin, 
 loose, elastic skin of a rosy color ; a regular skin, except folds 
 about the neck, (the folds once so much in fashion, all over the 
 body, were of no use, and interfered with the shears) ; fleece 
 of even length and thickness all over the body ; a thick, short- 
 ish coat on the hind legs and over the top of the head, and 
 25 
 
410 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 also covering the scrotum of the ram. Exceeding fineness of wool 
 is not desirable in the American market. The wool should be 
 " true," that is the same size from root to point, The cuts , of 
 the different breeds in this chapter give a good idea of their 
 points. 
 
 Beeeding should alwavs be accompanied by a purpose to 
 improve the flock, and all ewes of inferior form or fleece, 
 having any serious defect in constitution or habit, sbould be 
 "culled" and sent to the butcher. The owner should keep a 
 constant watch of his flock, and if large, select the ewes with 
 reference to the rams to which they are to be bred. We surmise 
 that no breeder will allow the ram to run indiscriminately with 
 the flock at or near coupling time. If there is a difference in 
 the size of the rams, select the ewes with reference to the size, 
 not breeding a small ewe to a large ram. When you get a 
 good ram, a sure lamb-getter, who stamps his good qualities on 
 his stock, keep him and breed in and in, until you have a whole 
 flock with his good qualities. There is no danger from breeding 
 in and in, if the ram is perfectly sound, but if any defects begin 
 to appear in his get, change him at once, and stamp out the 
 defect by disposing of all that have it, no matter how good they 
 may otherwise be. " Keep none hut the best." That motto is the 
 sheet anchor of sheep husbandry. It costs something to be 
 served by a full blooded ram, but the profits are sure. A flock 
 of a hundred common ewes worth four hundred dollars, served 
 by a common ram worth, perhaps, ten dollars, will bring an 
 equal flock, but worth no more than their dams. But serve 
 this same flock with a full blooded ram worth one hundred 
 dollars, and every lamb at six months old will be worth at 
 least one dollar more, and at every shearing their fleece 
 will be worth more; every lamb they drop will be worth 
 
FUj. 8'. Meuixo Ram. 
 
 
 
 
 Leicester Ram. Owuud by JurLin Winne, of Albany Co., N. Y. 
 
 Ill 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 413 
 
 still more and so on, the profits of the transaction increasing 
 every year. 
 
 Rams at eight to ten months old, if very strong and healthy, 
 may serve five or six ewes ; in the second year thirty or forty, 
 in the third year, one hundred. After this, if properly managed, 
 every strong, healthy, well-cared for ram may serve one hundred 
 and fifty to two hundred and fifty ewes in the coupling season of 
 six weeks. This is on the supposition that he serves each ewe 
 but once. When the foolish practice is adopted of allowing the 
 ram to run with the ewes, forty to fifty are enough for a ram, 
 and two rams should never be put into a flock together. Eams 
 properly used, and never overtasked, are good until their 
 seventh or eight year. "When in service the ram should have 
 oats with his hay, and a few roots, oil cake, and extra care. 
 
 Spring Management of Sheep. "When changing the 
 flock from dry feed to grass, let them out only a few hours 
 each day for several days, keeping up iii part their dry feed. 
 Tagging, is cutting off the wool about the vent, from the roots 
 of the tail, down the inside of the thigh. It should always be 
 done before the flock is turned out in the spring. Ewes with 
 lamb should be held on their side by a helper, and always 
 handled very carefully. If the pastures contain burdock, this- 
 tles, beggar ticks, etc., they should be cut, gathered, and burned 
 before the sheep are turned out. Lambing time varies widely 
 with different flock-masters. The aim should be to have the 
 lambing season from about the middle of April to the middle 
 of May. The ewe averages about five months in pregnancy. 
 The flock -master should make himself very familiar with the 
 ewes for some time before lambing, so that he can handle them 
 without difficulty. Never a harsh word or action among sheep. 
 Lambing requires a well littered, clean, well ventilated room, 
 whether stable or shed. If the days are warm and pleasant 
 
414 HOW TO ilAKE THE FAKM PAY. 
 
 ihe sheep should run in the yard, but at night should be shel 
 -tered. More harm than good usually results from going around 
 in the night. If their accommodations are such as they should 
 be, all lambs dropped will be found right side up in the morn- 
 ing. No assistance should be given in lambing, until the ewe 
 shows signs of exhaustion in her efforts to expel the foetus, 
 when a little gentle assistance may be rendered by taking hold 
 of the feet of the lamb and giving a gentle pull when the ewe 
 makes an effort to cast it. The lamb should come with a fore 
 foot each side of the nose. If it comes in any other shape, it 
 should be pushed back into the womb and the attempt made to 
 get it in position. If new born lambs are acknowledged and 
 licked by the dam, do not interfere. If the lamb appears weak, 
 or for any reason does not suck, put him to the teat, milk a little 
 onto his nose, and rub his back about the roots of the tail. Be 
 very gentle, never get out of patience, even if the* little brat is 
 stupid ; persevere, and you will succeed. Do not feed with a 
 bottle or spoon until you are sure he will not suck. If the 
 difficulty is with the teats of the ewe, put the lamb to'anothej 
 ewe that has plenty of milk, until you can get the teats right. 
 In cold weather the lamb will sometimes be found chilled ; it 
 can neither move nor swallow. "Wrap it up in a blanket and 
 put it either into an oven or into water as hot as is comfortable 
 for the hand ; rub it dry at once, and, if still too weak to suck, 
 as soon as it can swallow, give a teaspoonful of spirits in warm 
 milk. Strong tea will sometimes do, if you have not the 
 spirits at hand. If any lambs have to be brought up on cowV 
 milk, let it be new milch cows. Such lambs are apt to become 
 costive ; the evacuations are difficult or cease, and the lamb 
 becomes dull and sleepy. An injection of milk and molasses 
 at blood heat should be given, two ounces at a time, until the 
 bowels are moved. Give six teaspoonfuls of thoroughwort or 
 
Fig. 83. South Downs. 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 Sheep SnuArasra MAcnrN-i;. 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 417 
 
 boneset tea. We shall often recommend injections, and would 
 say that no flock-master should ever be without a syringe. 
 The lamb is to be held up perpendicularly by the hind legs, 
 the fore feet just touching the floor, for a moment during and 
 after the injection. If a healthy looking lamb does not suck 
 well, examine his teeth, and cut the gums where any are press- 
 ing through. Watch the lamb and see that his dung does not 
 pin down his tail over the vent. If so, remove the dung and 
 rub the vent with chalk, or dry clay. If a lamb purges too 
 freely, give a teaspoonful of chalk in milk. When the lambs 
 are born with swelled neck, bind a woollen cloth around the 
 neck and soak it in camphor. If the lambs are otherwise im- 
 perfect, cull them and get them out of the flock. 
 
 Ewes after Lambing should be allowed rest, quiet, and the 
 best of feed. If any of 'the ewes do n'ot seem to give milk 
 enough for their lambs, separate them from the rest and give 
 them oatmeal gruel, roots, bran slop, etc. 
 
 When the teats have been cut off by the shearer, open them 
 with a knitting needle, following with a hot needle ; insert only 
 far enough to secure an opening. A young ewe will some- 
 times refuse to let the lamb suck , she should be held until the 
 lamb has once drawn his rations. If the udder is inflamed or 
 caked, wash in hot water until a flow is secured ; in the mean 
 time putting the lamb to a ewe that has lost hers, or has milk to 
 spare. A ewe with a good supply of milk, who loses her lamb, 
 should have another, if there are > twins or extra lambs, but 
 if she is to be dried off, she should be . fed on dry feed, and 
 milked once a day for a week, and two or three times the next 
 week. Every flock should have a dozen or two of pens for a 
 hundred or more sheep. These should be three or four feet 
 square, and high enough so that a sheep cannot jump out. 
 Whenever a ewe disowns a lamb, or is wanted to adopt a lamb, 
 
418 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 the ewe and lamb should be enclosed in one of those pens. If 
 in the dark and away from the others, all the better. If a lamb 
 dies, take off the skin from the body and wrap it around 
 another lamb and the mother will adopt it. For some time 
 after birth the .dam recognizes its own lamb only by the smell. 
 
 DociiiNG Lambs is best done when two weeks old. The 
 lamb is held on a block, the skin of the tail is shoved towards 
 the body, and the tail is cut with a chisel. It only needs to be 
 left long enough to cover the anus and vagina. If the lamb 
 bleeds too much, tie a cord tightly around the tail for ten or 
 twelve hours. If the weather is warm and the flies are about, 
 rub a mixture of tar, butter, and turpentine on the parts. 
 When docking, is a good time to count, the sexes and put a 
 little mark on the males. Castratiok should be done be- 
 tween the second and sixth week. .The operation should be 
 done carefully, the spermatic cord cut, not jerked oat, and tar, 
 butter, and turpentine applied to the parts. "Washing Sheep 
 is under many circumstances dangerous and inconvenient. 
 Wherever it is so, we advise shearing without washing. Wash- 
 ing is not wholly safe before the middle of June, in the latitude 
 of Pennsylvania, and as it is often desirable to shear long 
 before that time, the sheep must either go without or be 
 washed in chilling cold water. When washed, the object 
 usually Is to see how little of the dirt can be got out and yet 
 have the fleece sell for washed. The unwashed wool of a 
 clean, careful breeder is worth more, often, than the half 
 washed wool of careless ones. Any man who buys wool 
 ought to be able to judge pretty accurately as regards shrink- 
 age. In washing wool the wool should be wet and left to soak 
 for a little while, then the sheep are dipped and the wool 
 squeezed, then dipped once more, or put under a fall of water 
 When the sheep are brought to the washing the hoofs will be 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 419 
 
 found to have grown out of shape, curled under, etc. "Washing 
 softens the hoof and frees it from dirt. Have a strong sharp 
 ' knife and pare oS all these irregularities and also a part of the 
 sole, if very thick. The long toes are usually clipped with 
 nippers. Shearing may be done from one to two weeks after 
 washing, of as soon as the fleece is so far filled again with oil or 
 yolk as to be silky and glossy ; seven warm days will accom- 
 plish this better than fourteen cold ones, and three hot days 
 better than either. Says Mr. Eandall : " Shearing should always 
 be done on smooth, clean floors or platforms, with the sheep 
 penned close at hand. If the weather is fair, it is best to drive 
 only enough sheep into the pen at once to employ the shearer 
 three hours, the,rest remaining in the pasture to keep them- 
 selves filled with feed. A hungry, empty sheep is more impa- 
 tient, and the shears run around its collapsed belly and sides 
 with more difficulty. The bottom of the pen should be kept 
 clean with straw, stalks, or corncobs ; corncobs are the best. If 
 there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging they should 
 be the first taken out. They should be carried a little aside 
 from the shearing floor and the dungy locks cut away. When 
 the catcher catches a sheep in the pen he should lift it in his 
 arms clear of the floor, instead of dragging it to the door, and 
 thus filling its feet with straw, manure, etc. At the door of the 
 pen he should hold it up with its back resting against his own 
 body and its feet projecting toward the shearer, who should be 
 there to clear its feet of filth, and with a small broom to free its 
 belly from all dirt, before carrying it to the platform." 
 
 Shearing is a nice operation and not well done by a novice. 
 R. M. Smith, of Manchester, has invented and patented a 
 machine for shearing sheep, and good authority pronounces it 
 successful in doing the work rapidly and well. Messrs. R. H. 
 Allen & Co., the great implement manufacturers of New York 
 
420 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM I'AY. 
 
 city, are preparing to manufacture them on a large scale. 
 Selecting and Marking can be done at shearing time. The 
 breeder should have a box of type, or large letters cut in the 
 ends of blocks of soft wood. The following brands are conve- 
 nient. The initials of the owner's name, and in addition a B 
 for those, that are to go to the butcher, for very choice ewes, 
 and the initials of each of your rams for marking the sheep 
 after they are topped. At shearing time the owner should 
 stand by and examine each sheep and decide what mark should 
 be put upon it. At no other time can the decision be made so 
 well ; the shape, sisi?, and weight of fleece are now seen. 
 Breeding qualities are also to be taken into account. All im- 
 perfect sheep should be drafted out of the flock, if perfection is 
 desired. Where all are to be sold, only the initials of the 
 owner need be branded, but choice sheep may well be marked, 
 and perhaps an extra price can be obtained. The branding is 
 done with a mixture of lampblack, turpentine, and oil. Oil 
 and turpentine boiled, and lampblack stirred in while boiling, 
 is another mixture, to be applied warm. Some have a series of 
 figures and stamp the age at every shearing. Those who make 
 breeding their business have an elaborate system of marking 
 and registering. A little copper plate, fastened to a ring in 
 the ear, is a neat and simple contrivance. The plate contains 
 the initials and a number ; opposite that number in the owner's 
 book a description of the sheep is placed. After shearing, the 
 sheep should have shelter at hand until they are able to endure 
 the cold rain storms which often occur in June. Ticks can be 
 killed by dipping the sheep in tobacco water. Make enough 
 to cover a good sized lamb and strong enough to kill any ticks 
 you pull off and throw into it. One man holds the fore legs and 
 nose and another the hind legs, and then dip the sheep into the 
 tub or box. Set it into another tub or box, squeeze out the 
 
421 
 
 wool, and you will not be troubled with ticks. After sbeep are 
 sheared the tiek;s go to the lambs, and there is no excuse for not 
 exterminating them. If you do not, they will exterminate 
 your sheep. At shearing time the horns will often be found 
 growing towards the eye or cheek ; they should be cut back 
 with a small fine saw. Maggots penetrate into sores on sheep 
 and cause death. The tar, turpentine, and butter, applied to all 
 outs made at shearing pr to any wounds made afterwards, will 
 prevent this. Dung about the vent generates maggots and 
 should be removed, and the above application made. 
 
 Educating Eams should be begun early. They should be 
 visited and handled until they are perfectly docile. Two grown 
 rams should never be allowed to run together. A choice ram 
 can be mated with a couple of wethers in a good inclosure, 
 from which there is no possibility of escape. They should be 
 taught to lead before they are six months old. A ring put 
 through the horn is by far the best method of securing rams. 
 Fences around sheej) pastures should be sound but need not be 
 high, until the sheep 'learn to jump, when no ordinary fence 
 will keep them. If the fence is sound and tight, and they are 
 always taught to go under the bars instead of going over them, 
 there will be no trouble. But only teach one sheep that it can 
 jump over or crawl through, and you soon have a flock of, 
 jumping sheep. 
 
 Salt, Tar, Sulphur, Alum, etc., are often given sheep in 
 their summer pastures, but none of these except salt can be 
 necessary for a healthy sheep. Salt they must have ; once a 
 week is often enough to give them a taste. If lumps of rock 
 salt are kept in their troughs they will lick them whenever 
 they feel the need. If salt is thrown upon weeds, thistles, 
 clumps of coarse grass and bushes the sheep will eat them to 
 get the salt. "Water and shade are both beneficial in the 
 
4:22 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 sheep pasture. Sheep that have been feeding in a pasture 
 where there is water should not be turned into a pasture with- 
 out water. It is a good plan to have temporary sheds even in 
 summer pastures ; if an unusually inclement storm comes on 
 they will take refuge and save enough in strength, heat, and- fat 
 to pay for the sheds. 
 
 "Weaning and Fall Feeding. Weaning should seldom 
 be delayed after the lambs are four months old, and if sweet, 
 tender pasturage is ready for them a month earlier it is advisable 
 to take them off then. The great point to be aimed at is to 
 keep them growing rapidly until v/inter. In no case should 
 they be allowed to go backward, or even remain stationary. 
 
 " Well Summered is Half Wintered " with any kind of 
 stock. The ewes should be removed to a dry pasture ; if possi- 
 ble, out of hearing of the lambs, who should be in care of 
 wethers or old crones that have no lambs. As soon as pasture 
 begins to fail or frost nip the grass, begin to feed oats, shorts, 
 bran, and roots in small quantities. A tablespoonful of oats to 
 begin on is enough for each lamb. Before winter sets in 
 increase to a gill, or its equivalent in bran, and have a little hay 
 in the rack under their sheds. The crones they are with will 
 teach thera to eat it. Shelter should be provided for all sheep 
 pastures. Sheds opening to the south and west answer the best 
 purpose. 
 
 Fall Feed and Shelter for Ewes intended for breeding 
 is one of the most important items of sheep husbandry. For 
 various reasons they should come into winter in good condition. 
 Unless they do, it is difficult to keep them up through preo- 
 nancy, if they take the ram at all, and when lambincr time comes 
 their poor condition is shown in the number of poor and dead 
 lambs. As soon as the pasture grows at all scant, or the frost 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 423 
 
 injures the grass, feed them pumpkins, turnip tops, cornstalks, 
 and turnips. 
 
 If any ewes still remain thin, separate them, and feed still 
 better, giving a little grain. Shelter should be convenient of 
 access in all storms, and there should be hay in the racks for 
 them to nibble. 
 
 But does all this pay, says farmer "Behindhand." Yes, and 
 it is the only way to make large profits out of sheep. A poor . 
 flock brings a small percentage of profit, but a first rate flock 
 brings a large percentage. 
 
 A flock brought to the winter in good condition will take the 
 ram readily, few will miss, and it will take but about one-half 
 the time to serve them. They go through the winter much 
 better, especially if it is severe, and drop their lambs within a 
 few days of each other, being in uniform condition, and the 
 lambs partake of the good condition of the ewes. Coupling. 
 The ewes selected for the service of a particular ram should be 
 kept by themselves, and the ram let loose among them ; when a 
 ewe is served she should be drawn out of the flock and the 
 initials of the ram istamped on her. As soon as the ram has 
 served six or eight he should be returned, and the ewes sent to 
 the field. The served ewes should be kept apart for thirteen 
 days, when they can be turned in again to the ram. The old 
 method of allowing one or more rams to run with the flock will 
 never be revived again among breeders of any intelligence. 
 
 Teasers have also been discarded. The ram requires extra 
 care and feed for a month before and during the coupling sea- 
 son. No corn should be given, but oats, peas, beans, a little 
 .wheat, and the choicest of hay. No excess of food should be 
 given, but just what he will eat up clean at each meal. Eams, 
 we repeat, should at all times be kept separate from each other 
 and from the rest of the flock. Preparing for winter, the flocks 
 
424 HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAY. 
 
 should be divided after coupling, into lots, not to exceed one 
 hundred Merinos, or fifty South Downs, or twenty-five of the 
 larger mutton breeds. The sheep in each fiock should be 
 nearly uniform in size and strength. Feeble sheep and lambs 
 should be put in a hospital by themselves, or disposed of at any 
 price they will bring. 
 
 Winter Management op Sheep. Sheep should have 
 winter shelter in whatever portion of the country they may be 
 ,kept. It saves the lives of some, it saves loss of fat from expo- 
 sure in all. There is also a saving in food ; for sheep sheltered 
 during cold storms will not consume as much food, and will 
 consume it more economically. Wet and dried, hay loses not 
 only much of its palatableness but some nutrition. In the 
 South these shelters need only be of poles or slabs covered with 
 turf or straw. Set up crotched poles, ten feet apart and four 
 feet high ; lay long poles in these crotchen, and set up slabs 
 slanting against this frame. In all States south of forty degrees, 
 open sheds are sufficient, and the sheep will flock to them on 
 the approach of a storm. But north of that sheep barns with 
 open yards are much to be desired. The plan {Fig. 85) will 
 give an idea of an economical structure for a good sized flock. 
 It consists of three two-story buildings, the one across the end 
 eighty by twenty, the other two one hundred and twenty by 
 twenty feet. These are divided on the first story into eight 
 stables, a, a, a, each twenty by forty feet, which will accommo- 
 date sixty Merinos, though fifty each is the largest numoei 
 that has been, wintered in them. The stables are all connected 
 by doors, e, e, e, and a door, d, d, d, opens from each into a com- 
 mon yard, C ; each stable has also its separate yard, extending 
 for two hundred feet on each side of 'the buildings, and entered 
 by the doors, b, h, b. The lower end of the common yard is 
 fenced off by «. movable fence, indicated by the dotted line. 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 425 
 
 Mg. 85. Plan of Sheep-Bakn and Yards. 
 
426 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 This yaid is a liospital yard, shearing yard, coupling yard; 
 docking, castrating, tagging, and many other operations are per- 
 formed here. It is always kept clean, and deeply lined with 
 ^ood litter. The second story of the end building has one room 
 used for storing hay. The second stories of the two long build- 
 ings are divided into two rooms each, one each for grain, hay, 
 ■^nd straw, and one is used for storing any fodder. There is a - 
 good root cellar underneath one half, of one of the long buildings 
 At g, g, g, are half hogsheads, sunk to within one foot of the 
 sill bottoms, and supplied with water by troughs, connecting 
 with the pump, F. This arrangement is not quite satisfactory, 
 as it is liable to freezing in extreme cold weather. At A is a 
 ram pen. We consider the best features of this plan to be the 
 common yard, and the separate yards connecting with each 
 stable. These buildings can be made of light stuff" at a small 
 expense compared with the value of the stock which can be 
 stored in them from year to year. These barns abundantly 
 accommodate a flock of from four hundred to five hundred 
 Merinos and their winter food. A farmer, who commences wdth 
 a flock of fifty, can put up the end building first, and add the 
 others as his flock increases, but we think that, substantially, 
 this plan should be kept in view. Each stable has one small 
 window and one sliding window, (not glass,) so that they can 
 be ventilated at any time without opening the doors. The 
 sheep barn, whatever its construction, should be on dry ground, 
 and have yard room and ventilation. 
 
 Pure air is beneficial to all animals, and the practice of leav- 
 ing the dung in the stables all winter is a bad one, though very 
 common. Three times, at least, the stables should be well 
 cleaned out. The time of a thaw is, on several accounts, desi- 
 rable for this purpose. Gypsum should always be sown on the 
 manure before covering it with fresh litter, both to disinfect tho 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC AXlitALS. 427 
 
 manure and preserve its good qualities for the soil. A few 
 cords of seasoned peat, filled in each autumn, and hauled out 
 in the spring, collect the urine, and make a more valuable 
 manure, cord for cord, than ordinary barnyard manure. Sheep 
 should not be closely confined all wmter. A run on the snow in 
 the middle of a mild day is exceedingly beneficial. And if the 
 snow is off a couple of hours' nibble at the grass will do more 
 to keep the system in good condition thaf any nostrums, such 
 as tar, alum, etc. Especially on the ewes with lambs this short 
 hour of relaxation, whenever the weather will admit, is of incal- 
 culable benefit. Says Eandall, "I urge letting out breeding 
 ewes on the fields for this limited time each day, (wheh the 
 weather admits,) because no animal more intensely craves a por- 
 tion of green food in winter, and I consider nature or instinct 
 a first-rate judge of its own wants ; because the small portion of 
 green food obtained from the fields can exert no injurious effects 
 in any direction whatever, while it prevents the costiveness 
 peculiarly incidental to pregnancy, and, by ieeping the bowels 
 in an open and regular state, has a strong tendency to avert all 
 unhealthy action or agencies ; because the travelling about and 
 digging for green feed affords a most necessary and healthful 
 exercise ; and, finally, because a neglect ' of these ordinances 
 which nature has inculcated,' for the guidance of the pregnant 
 ewe, has been followed by wide-spread disaster." 
 
 For those who feed turnips, as every sheep owner ought, onco 
 a week for exercise is all the escape required. A sled load of 
 hay can be drawn off a half a mile or so, and the sheep allowed 
 to follow it out and back. 
 
 Winter Feed. Sheep require about three per cent, per day 
 
 of their weight in hay or its equivalent, that is, two pounds for 
 
 a sheep weighing sixty -five to seventy-five pounds; three 
 
 pounds for one in the vicinity of one hundred pounds, etc. 
 2fi 
 
428 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 Early cut clover, cured bright, is undoubtedly the best feed for 
 sbeep, but economy requires that they should also consume the 
 straw and stalks of the farm. We would say here, that every 
 sheep owner, who has any land adapted to turnips, should raise 
 them for his sheep. We should as soon think of going without 
 potatoes in the family, as raising sheep without turnips, or 
 some other roots. Turnips, as far as they can be fed, are 
 far cheaper than hay. 
 
 The following amounts are equal to one hundred pounds of 
 meadow hay, composed of clover, timothy, June grass, etc. 
 
 g. i 
 " a 
 
 . 90 lbs 
 
 . early cut red clover. 
 
 40 1b. 
 
 J. to 50 lbs. wh 
 
 150 " 
 
 pea vines. 
 
 
 360 " 
 
 rye straw. 
 
 300 " 
 
 turnips. 
 
 
 250 " 
 
 oat straw. 
 
 40 " 
 
 peas or beans. 
 
 
 200 " 
 
 barley straw. 
 
 60 " 
 
 corn, buckwheat, 
 or oats. 
 
 barley, 
 
 300 " 
 
 wheat straw. 
 
 o o a 
 a ■" " 
 ** ? « 
 
 It is not economy to feed any one of thq above alone, not 
 even the best hay, but as in our own food a variety is both more 
 palatable and more healthful. Eegularity in the hours of feeding 
 and in the amount given are also very essential. It is usually 
 desirable to feed a large proportion of straw during the first two 
 or three months of winter. Two and a half or three pounds of 
 straw is equivalent to one pound of hay, but that amount of 
 straw could not be digested properly, so a portion of the food 
 must be in more concentrated form. This is accomplished by 
 feeding three pounds of straw, equal to one pound of hay, and 
 one pound of grain, bran, meal, or oil cake, equal to two pounds 
 of hay. One pound of roots added to the above makes a most 
 excellent feed. John Johnston writes : " I generally buy my 
 sheep in October. Then I have good pasture to put them on, 
 and they gain a good deal before winter sets in. For the last 
 twenty-three years, I have fed straw for the first two or two 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHEE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 429 
 
 and a half months, with a pound of oil cake, meal, or grain to 
 each sheep. When I commence feeding hay, if it is good early 
 cut clover, I generally reduce the quantity of meal or grain one 
 half; but that depends on the condition of the sheep. If they 
 are not pretty fat, I continue the full feed of meal or grain with 
 their clover, and on both they fatten wonderfully fast. I have 
 fed buckwheat, a pound to each per day, half in the morning 
 and half at four in the afternoon, with wheat and barley straw." 
 
 As the breeder wishes to avoid fat, the grain can be wholly 
 dropped, when the clover is substituted ; but if the sheep begin 
 to fall off, it should be resumed in small quantities. The oats 
 and waste hay left in the racks by the sheep, if put into a sepa- 
 rate rack and sprinkled with brine, will be eaten by the sheep 
 for the sake of the salt. 
 
 Praieie Management of sheep is essentially different from 
 that heretofore described. In the newer States land can be 
 purchased at one dollar and twenty- five cents the acre, and vast 
 pastures without claimants can be pastured, rent free. The 
 following letter will show how the thing is done. 
 
 " To Hon. H. S. Randall. About the 29th of last July 1 
 started from Calhoun County, Michigan, with two droves of 
 sheep, about seventeen hundred in each drove. My sheep stood 
 driving remarkably well, and arrived in northern Iowa about 
 the 10th of September. I found good feed, and about the time 
 winter set in my sheep were in fine order. I sold three hun- 
 dred, and prepared winter quarters for the remaining three 
 thousand. I erected my sheds two miles apart, where water 
 was convenient. I succeeded in getting a grove at each place, 
 and built my sheds fronting the grove and parallel with 
 each other, about five hundred feet long. I built them of 
 poles and posts from the groves, and covered them with straw. 
 The front posts wer?- about six feet above ground, and the back 
 
430 HOW TO MAKE THE FAllM PAY. 
 
 ones about four. I employed Irishmen who were in the habit 
 of using the spade, and covered the back side with dirt, and 
 then with sod, which made them very warm; b^ing open in 
 front, this was very important. The sheds were thirteen feet 
 wide, and I cut them up twenty-two feet apart, with board 
 fences which ran out in front of the sheds about fifty feet, 
 making yards and shelter for fifty sheep." 
 
 Here are sheds with only the cost of putting them together, 
 and three months of feeding free. The writer goes on to state 
 that he bought the best hay he could get, bought corn in the 
 field, cut it and shocked it while the fodder was green, and 
 hauled it after the ground froze. He also got some oats and 
 some shorts. He fed the sheep what hay and corn fodder they 
 would eat, and fed a bushel of grain (one quarter oats, one 
 quarter corn, and one half shorts) to each fifty sheep daily. There 
 are a vast number of acres in the West and Southwest where 
 such a system on a large or small scale can be carried on. And 
 on many improved farms in the interior of any of the Western 
 States, where it takes one bushel of grain to haul another to 
 market, it will prove much more profitable to feed the grain 
 to sheep and raise wool, which costs only four to six per cent, to 
 take to market. 
 
 Summer Feeding on the prairies south of forty degrees 
 commences in April. The sheep are not coupled until December, 
 and lambs do not begin coming until May, when pasture is good 
 and the cold storms over. Lambing "on the range" is a 
 laborious operation, for all the lambs dropped during the day 
 ure to be got into the fold before night without separating them 
 from their dams. Mr. Eandall recommends strong pens to hold 
 a half dozen sheep each, strong enough to keep out the 
 wolves, so constructed that they can be hauled to any part of 
 the range. Any lambs dropped late in the day might be put 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND O'THER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 431 
 
 into tbese for the night. If covered with brush they will be a 
 protection from the storm. We can see how a half dozen such 
 pens»would be convenient in numberless cases, paying their 
 cost every season. The lack of water is the great objection to 
 prairie husbandry, and there is no use of locating a range unless 
 water is to be had the year around. Turnips sown broadcast 
 on the inverted sod will give green food in abundance. Indian 
 corn is the chief feed in addition to hay, and often almost wliolly 
 substituted for it. Its cultivation on the prairie soils is easy and 
 cheap. One man with a pair of horses, planters, and cultivators 
 can take care of fifty acres of corn, which will often yield eighty 
 bushels per acre, and nearly double the fodder we get in the 
 Eastern States. It should be cut and shocked before frost, and 
 drawn to the sheep as wanted: two men with a team will 
 feed three thousand sheep. One acre of corn with the fodder 
 will feed twenty sheep through the winter. Wheat straw brined 
 will be eaten for the salt. This is the cheapest way to furnish 
 salt, and the best way to dispose of wheat straw, much of which 
 is now wastefully burned. Washing, and shearing, and mo-t 
 of the operations of sheep husbandry are the same under all 
 circumstances. Care and culling are desirable everywhere. 
 
 Says Hon. Samuel P. Boardman, in regard to sheep husbandry 
 " on the range," as prairie husbandry is called : — " A man 
 should spot long legged and bad shaped sheep, broken mouthed 
 ind old sheep, light shearing sheep, bare bellied and thin 
 fleeced sheep ; ewes with spoilt or partially spoilt bags ; ewe? 
 which are known to be poor nurses, and whose lambs, for a 
 year or two, are known to have been given to other ewes to 
 raise ; wethers which are three years old, and which shear so 
 light that the butcher had better have them ; and, if trying to 
 breed common, coarse sheep into fine wool, all the coarse, 
 hairy hipped sheep. Ko man will ever get a Jirst rate, even 
 
432 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 profitahh flock of sheep, who does not make a practice of yearly 
 culling. 
 
 Before turning bucks off the floor, daub them well bejiind, 
 and under the horns with pine tar. This will prevent the flies 
 blowing them, which they frequently do in hot, damp, weather, 
 being attracted by the stench. If fly-blown, and not attended 
 to, the maggots will kill them. In case maggots, from any 
 cause-, get a lodgment, scrape them all out, and rub the parts 
 with turpentine. 
 
 The Diseases of Sheep are few compared with those of 
 other animals, and where sheep are well kept, according to the 
 rules we have laid down, foot rot and scab are the only diseases 
 to be feared. The face sometimes gets sore, or the lips swell 
 and crack, but if the lips are rubbed with lard or common pot 
 grease, (both without salt,) the soreness will disappear. Sore 
 or inflammed eyes should be treated with the eye wash pre- 
 scribed for the horse. 
 
 Grub in the Head is a troublesome and perhaps, occasion- 
 ally, fatal disorder, but not to such an extent as is generally 
 supposed. In mid-summer a gadfly attacks the sheep and lays 
 her eggs in the nostrils; these soon hatch into grubs, and 
 burrow into the head to spend the winter. Prevention is better 
 than cure in this case. Plow occasional furrows through the 
 sheep pasture, about the first of July, and the sheep when 
 attacked will run their noses into the fresh earth to escape the 
 fly. About the same time smear the bottom of the salt trough 
 with tar to the depth of two inches and sprinkle the salt over it. 
 The tar they get on their noses repels the fly. 
 ~ OoLio in sheep is shown by twisting the head, stretching, 
 frequent lying down and rising again, and other symptoms of 
 pain and uneasiness. An ounce of Epsom salts dissolved in 
 warm water with a teaspoonful of essence of peppermint should 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 433 
 
 be given to a grown animal, and half that dose to a lamb, 
 ■ Thoroughwort or boneset tea are the next best remedies. 
 
 Malignant Cataerh has been often mistaken for grub in 
 the head. It will never attack ■ sheep kept in a well .ventilated 
 stable, and as we have recommended. We know of no satis- 
 factory treatment for sheep whose whole internal structure has 
 been debilitated by lack of fresh air, impure odors, etc., and it 
 is only such that are subjects of this disease. 
 
 Abortion among sheep is not common, and is usually 
 caused by some injury, crowding, kicks, a butt from a ram, 
 fright, etc. It sometimes results from internal causes, however. 
 We consider moderate exercise and a limited supply of green 
 food, or turnips, an almost certain preventive, except in case 
 of accidents and injuries. Two abortions in succession is 
 sufficient excuse for sending the finest ewe in the flock to the 
 butcher. The ewe that aborts, with the lamb, after-birth, etc., 
 should be at once removed from the sight and smell of the 
 other ewes. Garget, or inflammation of the udder, is treated 
 the same as in cows. Fomentation in hot water, and a purga- 
 tive of Epsom salts two ounces and ginger one drachm, are the 
 simple remedies. 
 
 The Scab is a contagious skin disease, like mange in other 
 animals. The sheep becomes very restless, rubbing itself 
 against whatever comes in its way. often pulling out its wool 
 with its teeth in its distress. All affected animals should be 
 separated from the flock as soon as the disease is discovered. 
 Every one should be examined for the little red spots on the 
 skin which denote the scab. If the disease appears when the 
 wool is short, scrub the bodies with a stiff brush, and dip them 
 into the tobacco decoction described for ticks. If they are in 
 long wool, as is usually the case, mix lard, tar, and sulphur, in 
 the proportion of one pound of lard, a half pound of sul- 
 
434 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY 
 
 phur, and one-quarter pound of melted tar. Kub a little into, 
 the head ; then make a part in the wool from head to tail, and 
 rub, a little in with the finger wherever there is any redness. 
 Continue this all over the back and sides. "We also recom- 
 mend for this and all other skin diseases, insects, etc., the 
 cresylic soaps and cresylic sheep dip before mentioned. 
 
 Diseases of the Feet, such as are produced by sand, 
 gravel, frozen mud, hard travelling and the- like, require first 
 the cleaning of the hoof from all substances which cause dis- 
 ease, the cutting away of the outer portion of the horn, and the 
 application of a coat of tar and turpentine. 
 
 Hoop Eot is the most common and most dangerous of all 
 the diseases of sheep in this country ; we shall therefore give 
 Mr. Eandall's description and treatment in full : — 
 
 " The horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up, gradu- 
 ally thinning out, some way between the toes, or divisions of 
 the hoof, and above these horny walls the cleft is lined with 
 skin. Where the points of the toes are spread apart, this skin 
 is shown in front, covered with soft, short hair. The heels can 
 be separated only to a little distance, and the skin that is in the 
 cleft above them is naked. In a healthy foot it is as firm, 
 sound, smooth, and dry as the skin between a man's finger's, 
 which, indeed, it not a little resembles, on a mere superficial 
 inspection. Tt is equally destitute of any appearance of redness 
 or of feverish heat. 
 
 " The first symptom of hoof rot, uniformly, in my experi- 
 ence, is a disappearance of this smooth, dry, colorless condition 
 of the naked skin at the top of the cleft over the heels, and of 
 its coolness. It is a little moist, a little red, and the skin has a 
 slightly chafed or eroded appearance, sometimes being a very 
 iittle corrugated as if the parts had been subjected to the action 
 of moisture. And on placing the fingers over the heels it will 
 
" 
 
 SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 43.1 
 
 be found that the natural coolness of the parts has given place 
 to a degree of heat. The inflammation thenceforth increases 
 pretty rapidly. The part first attacked becomes sore. The 
 moisture — the ichorous discharge — is increased. A raw ulcer 
 of some extent is soon established. It is extended down to the 
 upper portion of the inner walls of the hoof, giving them a 
 whitened and ulcerous appearance. Those thin walls become 
 disorganized, and the ulceration penetrates between the fleshy 
 sole and the bottom of the hoof. On applying some force, or 
 on shaving away the horn, it will be found that the connection 
 between the horny and fleshy sole is severed, perhaps half way 
 from the heelr to the toe, and half way from the Inner to the 
 outer wall of the hoof The hoof is thickened with great 
 rapidity at thei heel by an unnatural deposition of horii. The 
 crack or cavity between it and the fleshy sole very soon exudes 
 a highly fetid matter, which begins to have a purulent appear- 
 ance. The extent of the separation increases iby the disorgani- 
 zation of the surrounding structures ; the ulceration penetrates 
 throughout the entire extent of the sole; it begins to form 
 sinuses in the body of the fleshy sole ; the purulent discharge 
 becomes more profuse; the horny sole is gradually disorganized, 
 and finally the outer walls and points of the toes alone remain. 
 The fleshy sole is now a black, swollen mass of corruption, of 
 the texture of' a sponge saturated with bloody pus, and every 
 cavity is filled with crawling, squirming maggots. The horny 
 toe disappears'; the thin, shortened side walls merely adhero 
 at the coronet; they yield to the disorganization ; and nothing 
 is left but a shapeless mass of spongy ulcer and maggots. At- 
 tempts to cure the disease, the state of the weather, and other 
 incidental circumstances cause some variations from the above 
 line of symptoms. When the first attack occurs in hot weather, 
 the progress of the malady is much more rapid and violent. 
 
436 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 The fly sometimes deposits its egg in the ulcer, and maggots 
 appear ahnost before — sometimes actually before — there are 
 any cavities formed into which they can penetrate. The early 
 appearance of maggots greatly accelerates the progress of dis- 
 organization in the structures. 
 
 "The fore feet are usually first attacked, sometimes both of 
 them simultaneously, but more generally only one of them. 
 The animal at first manifests but little constitutional disturb- 
 ance. It eats as is its wont. When the disease has partly run 
 its course in one foot, the other fore foot is likely to be attacked, 
 and presently the hind ones. When a foot becomes consider- 
 ably disorganized, it is held up by the animal. When another 
 one reaches the same state, the miserable sufferer seeks its food 
 on its knees ; and, if forced to rise and walk, its strange, hob- 
 bling gait betrays the intense agony it endures on bringing its 
 ulcerated feet in contact with the ground. There is a bare spot 
 on the under side of the brisket of the size of the palm of a 
 man's hand, but perhaps a little longer, which looks red and 
 inflamed. There is a degree of general fever, and the appetite 
 is dull. The animal rapidly loses condition, but retains con- 
 siderable strength. Nowhere else do sheep seem to me to 
 exhibit such tenacity of life. After the disappearance of the 
 bottom of the hoof, the maggot speedily closes the scene. 
 Where the rotten foot is brought in contact with the side ' in 
 lying down, the filthy, ulcerous matter adheres to and saturates 
 the short wool of the shorn sheep ; and maggots also are either 
 carried there by the foot, or they are speedily generated by the 
 fly. A black crust soon forms, and raises a little higher round 
 the spot: it is the decomposition of the surrounding structures, — , 
 wool, skin, and muscle, — and innumerable maggots are at work 
 below, burrowing into the living tissues and eating up the mise- 
 rable animal alive. The black, festering mass rapidly extends, 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 437 
 
 and the cavities of the body will soon be penetrated, if the poor 
 sufferer is not sooner relieved of its tortures by death. 
 
 "The offensive odor of the ulcerated feet, almost from the 
 beginning of the disease, is so peculiar that it is strictly pa- 
 thognomonic. I have always believed that I could by the sense 
 of smell alone, in the most absolute darknews, decide on the 
 presence of hoof rot with unerring certainty. And I had about 
 as lief trust my fingers as my eyes to establish the same point, 
 from the hour of the first attack, if no other disease of the foot 
 is present. But the heat, which invariably marks the earliest 
 presence of hoof rot, might arise from any other cause which 
 produced a local inflammation of the same parts. 
 
 " When the malady has been well kept under during the first 
 summer of its attack,, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost 
 or entirely disappear as cold weather approaches, and not mani- 
 fest itself again until the warm weather of. the succeeding 
 summer. It then assumes a mitigated form ; the sheep are not 
 rapidly and simultaneously attacked; there seems to be less 
 inflammatory action in the diseased parts, and less constitu- 
 tional disturbance, and the course of the disease is less malig- 
 nant, more tardy, and it more readily yields to treatment. If 
 well kept under the second summer, it is still milder the third, 
 A sheep will occasionally be seen to limp, but its condition will 
 scarcely be affected, and dangerous symptoms will rarely super- 
 vene. One or two applications of remedies made during the 
 summer will now suffice to keep the disease under, and a little 
 vigor in the treatment will entirely extinguish it. 
 
 " With all its fearful array of symptoms, can the hoof rot be 
 cared in its first attack on a flock? The worst case can be 
 promptly cured, as I know by repeated experiments. Take a 
 single sheep, put it by itself, and administer the remedies dailv, 
 after the English fashion, or as I shall presently prescribe, and 
 
438 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEII PA\ . 
 
 there is not an ovine disease -which more surely yields to treat- 
 ment. But, as already remarked, in this country, where sheep 
 are so cheap and labor in the summer months so dear, it would 
 be oat of the question for an extensive flock-master to attempt 
 to keep each sheep by itself, or to make a daily application of 
 remedies. There is not a flock-master within my knowledge 
 who has ever pretended to apply his remedies oftener than once 
 a week, or regularly as often as that ; and not one in ten makes 
 any separation between the diseased and healthy sheep of a 
 flock into which the malady has been once introduced. The 
 consequence necessarily is that though a cure is effected of the 
 sheep then diseased, it has infected or inoculated others, and 
 these in turn scatter the contagion before they are cured. 
 There is not a particle of doubt, nay, I know, by repeated 
 observation, that a sheep once entirely cured may again con- 
 tract the disease, and thus the malady performs a perpetual _ 
 circuit in the flock, Fortunately, however, the susceptibility 
 to contract the disease diminishes, according to my observation, 
 with every succeeding attack ; and fortunately also, as already^ 
 stated, succeeding attacks, other things being equal, become less 
 and less virulent. 
 
 " What course, then, shall be pursued ? Shall the flock- 
 master sacrifice his sheep ; shall he take the ordinary half way 
 course, or shall he expend more on the sheep than they are 
 worth in attempting to cure Ihem ? Neither. The course I 
 would advise him to pursue will appear as I detail the experi- 
 ments I have made. 
 
 " Treatment. The pre"paration of the foot is a subject of no 
 dispute, but the labor can be prodigiously economized by atten- 
 tion to a few not Yerj commonly observed particulars. Sheep 
 should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if 
 practicable, as then the hoofs can be readily cut. In a dry time, 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 439 
 
 and after a night wliicli bas left ho dew on the grass, their hoofs 
 are almost as tough as horn. They must be driven through no 
 mild, or soft dung, on their way to the yard, which doubles the 
 labor of cleaning their feet. The yard must be small, so they 
 can be easily caught, and it must be kept well littered down, so 
 they shall not fill their feet with their own manure. If the 
 straw is wetted, their hoofs will not of course dry and harden 
 as rapidly as in dry straw. Could the yard be built over a 
 shallow, gravelly bottomed brook,* it would be an admirable 
 arrangement; the hoofs would be kept so,soft that the greatest 
 and most unpleasant part of the labor, as ordinarily performed, 
 would in a great measure be saved ; and they would be kept 
 free from that dung which, by any other arrangement, will more 
 or less get into their feet. 
 
 " The principal operator or foreman seats himself in a chair; 
 a couple of good sharp knives, (one at least a thin and narrow 
 one,) a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers, a bucket of water 
 with a couple of linen rags in it, and such medicines as he 
 chooses to employ, within his reach. The assistant catches a 
 sheep and lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs 
 of the foreman, the head coming up about to his middle. The 
 assistant then kneels on some straw, or seats himself on. a low 
 stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep. If the hoofs are 
 long, and especially if they are dry and tough, the assistant 
 presents each foot to the foreman, who shortens, the hoof with 
 the toe-nippers. If there is any filth between the toes, each 
 man, after first using a stick, takes his rag from the bucket of 
 water, draws it between the toes and rinses it, until the filth is 
 removed. Bach then seizes his knife, and the process of paring 
 
 * A place might be prepared in any little brook by gravelling or by lay- 
 ing a floor of boards on the bottom. 
 
440 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 away the horn commences. And on the effectual performance of 
 this all depends. 
 
 " If the disease is in the first stage, i. e., if there is merely an 
 erosion and ulceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft .above 
 the walls of the hoof, no paring is necessary. Bat if ulceration 
 has established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole, the 
 ulcerated parts, be they more or less extensive, must he en- 
 tirely denuded of their horny covering, cost what it may of time and 
 care. It is better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed 
 freely, as the running blood will wash off the subsequent appli- 
 cations ; but no fear of wounding the sole must prevent a full 
 compliance with the rule above laid down. At worst, the blood 
 can soon be staunched, however freely it flows, by a few touches 
 of a caustic, say batter of antimony. 
 
 " If the foot is in the third stage — ^a mass of rottenness and 
 filled with maggots — the maggots should first be killed by 
 spirits of turpentine, or a solution of corrosive sublimate or 
 other equally ef&cient application. It can be most conveniently 
 used from a bottle having a quill through the cork. By con- 
 tinuing to remove the dead maggots with a stick, and to expose 
 and kill the deeper lodged ones, all can be extirpated. Every 
 particle of loose horn should then be removed, though it take 
 the entire hoof; and it frequently does take the entire hoof at 
 an advanced stage of the disease. The foot should be cleansed, 
 if necessary, with a solution of chloride of lime, in the propor- 
 tion of a pound of chloride to a gallon of water.* If this is 
 
 * Mr. Youatt recommends this, and says it " will remove the fetor and 
 tendency to sloughing and mortification which are the too frequent attend- 
 ante on foot rot." I never yet saw mortification (gangrene) of the foot 
 result from this disease. Mr. Youatt's directions as to treatment are far 
 more satisfactory than are his statements of the causes and symptoms of 
 ♦his malady. 
 
441 
 
 not at liaiid, plunging the foot repeatedly into water, just short 
 of scalding hot, will answer the purpose. And now comes the 
 important question, what constitutes the best remedy? 
 
 " The most common and popular remedy now used in Central 
 New York is : One pound blue vitriol ; one-quarter pound (with 
 some one-half pound) verdigris; one pint of linseed oil; one 
 quart of tar. The vitriol and verdigris are pulverized very 
 fine, and many persons, before adding the tar, grind the mixture 
 through a paint mill. Some use a decoction of tobacco boiled 
 until thick, in the place of oil. 
 
 " The remedy recommended by Mr. James Hogg, of Scotland, 
 is turpentine two ounces, sulphuric acid two drachms ; to be 
 well mixed before it is used and applied freely to the diseased 
 part. 
 
 " Any of these remedies, and fifty jnore that might be com- 
 pounded, simply by combining caustics, stimulants, etc., in dif 
 ferent forms and proportions, will prove sufficient for the 
 extirpation of hoof root, with projper preparatory and suhsequent 
 treatment. On these last, beyond all question, principally de 
 pends the comparative success of the applications. 
 
 " First. No external remedy can succeed in this malady unless 
 it comes in contact with all the diseased parts of the foot ; for 
 if such part, however small, is unreached, the unhealthy and 
 ulcerous action is perpetuated in it, and it gradually spreads 
 over and again involves the surrounding tissues. Therefore 
 every portion of the diseased flesh must be denuded of horn, 
 filth, dead tissue, pus, and every other substance which can 
 prevent the application from actually touching it and producing 
 its characteristic effects on it. 
 
 " Second. The application must be kept in contact with the 
 diseased surfaces long enough to exert its proper remedial influ- 
 
4i2 HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAY. 
 
 ence. If removed, by auy means, before tbis is accomplisbed, 
 it must necessarily proportionably fail in its effects. 
 
 " Tbe preparation of tbe foot, then, requires no mean skill. 
 The tools must be sharp, the movements of the operator careful 
 and deliberate. As he shaves down nearer the quick, he must 
 cut thinner and thinner, and with more and more care, or else 
 he will either fail to remove the horn exactly far enough, or he 
 will cut into the fleshy sole and cause a rapid flow of blood. I 
 have already remarked that the blood can be staunched by 
 caustics; but they coagulate it on the surface in a mass which 
 requires removal before the application of remedies, and in the 
 process of its removal the blood is very frequently set flowing 
 again, and this sometimes several times follows the application 
 of the caustic* Cutting down to the crack between the horny 
 and fleshy sole is not enough. The operator must ascertain 
 whether there is any ulceration between the outside horny 
 walls and the fleshy part of the foot, or at the toe, or whether 
 there is even a rudiment of an unreached sinus or cavity in 
 any part of the foot where the ulceration has penetrated or is 
 beginning to penetrate. The practised eye decides these ques- 
 tions rapidly from the characteristic appearances, without the 
 removal of unne^'-'^ssarv horn; but the new beginner must feel 
 his way along cautK Ub.y removing more horn where there is 
 doubt, but so removing it that he will not unnecessarily cause 
 an effusion of blood, or uncover the healthy quick, or disarrange 
 the proper bearing of the foot. If the foot is in the third state, 
 the removal of the maggots, the cleaning of the ulcers, tbe 
 proper excision of the dead tissues, etc., require much time, 
 sometimes more than half an hour to each foot. The most ex- 
 
 * The toe vein bleeds very freely, and it often requires some time and 
 trouble to staunch it. 
 
443 
 
 perienced operator cannot perform such processes in a harry — ■ 
 the inexperienced one must perform them slowly, or all the 
 time saved -will be lost, twenty times over, in having to repeat 
 them for an indefinite number of times. 
 
 " I had a flock of sheep a few years since that were in the 
 second season of the disease. They had been but little looked 
 to during the summer, and as cold weather was setting in many 
 of them were considerably lame — some of them quite so. The 
 snow fell and they were brought into the yards, limping, and 
 hobbling about deplorably. This sight, so jJisgraceful to me as 
 a farmer, roused me into activity. I bought a quantity of blue 
 vitriol, made the necessary arrangements, and once more took 
 the chair as principal operator. Never were the feet of a flock 
 more thoroughly pared. Into a large washing tub, in which 
 two sheep could stand conveniently, I poured a saturated solu- 
 tion of blue vitriol and water, as hot as could be endured by the 
 hand even for a moment. The liquid was about four inches deep 
 on the bottom of the tub, and was kept at about that depth by 
 frequent additions of the hot solution. As soon as a sheep's feet 
 were pared, it was placed in the tub and held there by the neck, 
 by an assistant. A second one was prepared and placed beside 
 it. When the third one was ready, the first was taken out, and 
 so on. Two sheep were thus constantly in the tub, and each 
 remained in it about ten* minutes. The cure was perfect. 
 There was not a lame sheep in the flock during the winter or 
 the next summer. The hot liquid penetrated to every cavity 
 of the foot, and had doubtless a far more decisive effect even on 
 the uncovered ulcers than would have been produced by merely 
 wetting them. Perhaps the lateness of the season was also favor- 
 
 * This, by a misprint, was published five, in Sheep Husbandry in the 
 
 South. 
 
 27 
 
44:4 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 able, as in cold -weather the ulcers of ordinary virulence dis- 
 charge no matter to inoculate the healthy feet ; and thus at the 
 time of applying the remedy there are no cases where there has 
 been inoculation not yet followed by the actual disease. I 
 think that the vitriol required for the above one hundred 
 sheep was about twelve pounds, and that it cost me fifteen cents 
 per pound. The account then would stand thus : — Twelve 
 pounds of vitriol at fifteen cents, one dollar and eighty cents ; 
 labor of three men one day each, tWo dollars and twenty-five 
 cents ; total four dollars and five cents — or about four cents per 
 sheep. 
 
 " Many years after the above took place, I treated a flock of. 
 diseased lambs in the same way — except that they were put into 
 a larger tub which would hold five of them, so that each stood 
 in the hot fluid from twenty to twenty-five minutes : and again 
 the cure was perfect. They too were handled just as winter 
 was setting in ; were wintered alone ; and were turned early in 
 the spring into a flock of about one hundred and fifty which 
 had never had hoof rot." 
 
 As Mr. Eandall has himself treated upwards of five thousand 
 sheep with this disease, we need no better authority. 
 
 Broken legs ar« treated with cold water and simple splints 
 bandaged to the legs. From four to six weeks is required to 
 firmly heal a simple fracture below the knee Fractures above- 
 the knee make a case for the butcher. Dog bites and other 
 wounds should be fomented with warm water until clean ; the 
 wound, if possible, sewed up, and a poultice applied. Flax- 
 seed, slippery elm, or bran make a good poultice. The poultice^ 
 
 Note. We' are indebted to Messrs. N. P. Beyer & Co., Parkesburg, 
 Chester County, Pennsylvania, for the cuts of Merino Sheep, Figs. SO 
 and 81. 
 
Fig. 86. Suffolk Boab. 
 
 Fig. 87. Impboved Peikcb Albbbt. 
 
 m 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 447 
 
 should be changed twice daily until inflammation is over. An 
 oiled or greased cloth over the place will be all that is required 
 after this. 
 
 Hogs fill an important place in our plan of mixed hus- 
 bandry, because they will convert into manure and pork much 
 that would otherwise be unconsumed. But few farmers at the 
 East raise as much pork as they might with profit, and the 
 markets are supplied with "Western pork. The reason why 
 they do not make it pay is, that they do not manage right with 
 their hog's. In the first place, there is no use in feeding a long, 
 thin, slab-sided breed of pigs, even if they are given to you. 
 Get a good sow of some first rate breed, or else breed the best 
 common sow you. can find to a thoioughbred boar and raise a 
 good breeding sow. Manage so as to have two litters, one early 
 in the season, and the other long enough before winter to have 
 them get well agoing. Good pigs are always in demand, and it 
 is just as easy to get six to ten good pigs as the same number 
 of poor runts that will never fat. And the same amount of 
 food fed to a good pig will make twice as much meat as to the 
 other. The only difference in expense is the first cost of the 
 boar or sow, and one litter of pigs will pay all the dififeience ift 
 expense between a pure bred Chester, Suffolk, or Berkshire, and 
 the lank specimens oidinarily used for breeding. 
 
 What is the Best Breed ? is a question often asked ; but 
 there are several so good that it is difficult to answer. "Where 
 the " Chester White" is known, no other breed can compete 
 with it. It is, according to our notion, nearer perfection as a 
 hog than has ever before been arrived at. Its outline is beauti- 
 ful, its disposition gentle, its habits quiet and contented — not 
 disposed to roam and fret, so that the food it consuines goes to 
 the formation of flesh, and is not spent in running after mischief. 
 It is not a gross feeder, but, like all other animals, requires ita 
 
448 HOW TO MAKE ^HE FARM PAY. 
 
 food at regular intervals. This cai'e and attention is never lost 
 on it. There is no other breed that enjoys better health. If 
 kept and properly cared for until twelve or fifteen months old, 
 it will yield from five to seven hundred pounds of pork. What 
 other animal will yield so much in so short a time, from so 
 small a beginning, with such a small outlay of capital ? 
 
 The Beekshiees are a larger breed, fatten well in propor- 
 tion to their food, and are excellent breeders. Wo one can go 
 amiss in purchasing a Berkshire. The Suffolks, and the im- 
 proved Prince Albert Suffolks especially, are good. The 
 Essex, Cheshire, Leicester, and Polands are much better than 
 the " no breed." The China is fit only for crossing with some 
 of the large coarse breeds. Such a cross improves the China 
 in size and the larger breeds in quality. 
 
 But in buying a sow or a boar for breeding, do not be satis- 
 fied with its being called a Chester, or Suffolk, or Berkshire, 
 (unless you buy of some responsible breeder,) but see for 
 yourself that the animal has the good points of the breed. 
 These points can be seen by close examination of the cuts we 
 give in this chapter from photographs of hogs owned and bred 
 by Messrs. N. P. Boyer & Co., Parkesburg, Chester County, 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Beeeding. The sow goes from fifteen to seventeen weeks with 
 pigs. At the end of the. fourteenth week she should be watched ' 
 considerably, and if she appears to be suffering, restless, wander- 
 ing about collecting straw, etc., coax her into a sty by herself, 
 where you can take care of her and the pigs. This sty should 
 have cleats nailed on the" sides a foot from the floor, under which 
 the pigs can escape, or else the sow may lie on them. It is not 
 best to interfere to take away the pigs unless she seems likely 
 to crush them, but it is well to be where you can watch her 
 without being seen yourself. When the farrowing is over and 
 
- r II ■*i" V r - -11 " - 
 
 Fig. 88. Chbsteb Whites. 
 
 Fig. 89. Chester "White Boab 
 
 m 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHBB DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 451 
 
 the after-birth is dropped, remove it at once, for if she eats it 
 she will be likely to eat her pigs also. If she should commence 
 to eat her pigs, give her a half pint of spirits and make her 
 drunk. If she is not too fat she will manage without lying on 
 her pigs. For a week or two before farrowing she should he 
 fed on cooked meal and milk, and this should be continued for 
 some time after. If roots are given, they should be cooked 
 also. If convenient, turn her out an hour or two every day 
 into grass. If a farmer has a few lengths of adjustable fence 
 always about his premises he will find it handy on many occa- 
 sions. He can fence in a few rods of grass for pigs, calv^3s, or 
 lambs, as required. After ten or twelve days the pigs can be 
 let out with the sow. Frequent feeding is better for the sow 
 than -large feeds. If she is weakly, or seems to have too many 
 pigs for her milk, make a mash of whey and bran, or skim milk, 
 meal and bran, and teach the pigs to eat as soon as possible. 
 
 Messrs. N. P. Boyer & Co., large breeders of improved swine, 
 say, in their " Stock Journal." 
 
 It sometimes happens that sows, especially with a first litter, 
 refuse to acknowledge the maternal relation ; and, like some of 
 our own species, endeavor to discard their ofispring. 
 
 "When a case of this kind shall occur, after the sow has ceased 
 labor enter the pen quietly and catch the sow, placing her upon 
 her side, and whilst one person at her back, with his knees 
 gently pressing upon her to keep her down, and a hand over 
 her to each set of feet to keep her from struggling, another one 
 places the pigs jn position at the teats, which they sometimes 
 refuse until the nipple be wet with new milk, when they readily 
 take hold and require little invitation afterward. After the pigs 
 have sucked they must be removed before letting go of the sow, 
 if she still remains belligerent, or she may injure them in her 
 haste to rise and get away ; but if she utters that short and con- 
 
452 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 tinuous lively grunt that sows are known to do when their pigs 
 are sucking, it shows that she is becoming reconciled, and little 
 danger may. be apprehended. But sometimes it will be neces- 
 sary to repeat the coercive process, which must be done. as 
 gently as possible, and a second trial rarely fails to induce the 
 sow to take to and become reconciled to her young brood 
 "Whilst I have known them to become reconciled and passive 
 upon the first trial, so as to continue quietly permitting the pigs 
 to suck, after the attendants have retired, I have, in a few. cases, 
 had to apply compulsion a third time before the sow would 
 succumb ; but this is rare, as a second trial scarcely ever fails to 
 succeed." 
 
 In any case, begin when they are two weeks old to give them 
 warm milk, and gradually thicken it with boiled vegetables or 
 bran. They should have a little trough of their own, under 
 their railing, where the sow cannot get at it. If another litter is 
 wanted in the fall from this sow turn the bOar in to her, when 
 she is out in the yard away from her pigs, a week or ten days 
 after farrowing. She should not ?uckle her pigs more than six 
 weeks after taking the boar. When you get pigs, whether you 
 raise them or buy them, keep them growing all the time. This 
 is the secret of success in making pork. If a pig is allowed to 
 stop growing it takes twice the time and twice the food to get 
 him started again. There is nothing equal to milk to give pigs 
 growth. Let them have oat meal, corn meal, and wheat bran 
 in equal quantities, always cooked. Scalded food will fatten 
 them all one-third more than raw. Never feed any grain whole. 
 Mow the pigs grass and clover. Many farmers just keep 
 their pigs on slops, grass, and whole grain until autumn, just 
 enough to " keep them along," and then crowd them in fatten- 
 ing. This is the reason they do n'ot make it pay. With a good 
 breed that will fat, nothing they eat is lost upon them, it all 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AKD OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 453 
 
 comes back in pork. So grain should always be ground and 
 steamed for hogs. They will make full one-third more fat on 
 the same quantity. A box like that described on page 398, will 
 answer the purpose. See our remarks on cooking food for cattle. 
 The same remarks apply here. J. V. Mapes, of Elmira, says : 
 
 " Instead of whole grain it is much more economical to grind 
 and cook it either by boiling or steaming. In winter, boiling 
 is much better than steaming, for the reason that it takes con- 
 siderably less fuel to boil a small quantity than to steam it ; and 
 farther, that you can boil merely what is wanted for a feed at a 
 time, and give it moderately warm, which renders it very grate- 
 ful to the animal in extreme cold weather. I am wintering 
 thirteen hogs, weighing from one hundred and forty pounds to 
 five hundred pounds, by feeding the lot on twelve quarts of oat 
 meal, boiled thoroughly with cut hay or cornstalks, and diluted to 
 thirteen pailfuls for a mess three times a day, which makes a veiy 
 fine porridge, adding about a pint of salt to each mess, making 
 for the whole thirty-six quarts of ground oats per day. If the same 
 hogs were kept on whole corn or any other grain it would, pro- 
 bably, cost five times as much, and they would be in no bettei 
 conditio!!, while they would be much more liable to disease. 
 
 " This kind of feed is very fine for sows suckling pigs, because 
 it keeps them in good heart and gives a large flow of milk. It 
 is also very fine for pigs just weaned, as they will leave butter 
 or skimmed milk to eat this. It is, probably, more nutritious 
 than buttermilk. 
 
 " In the summer season hogs and pigs should most certainly 
 have access to a good field of clover, both as a matter of 
 economy and of health, as they will keep in good condition and ' 
 grow rapidly thereon with but little or no other feed. Thus 
 by a rigid economy, both in winter and summer, hogs may be 
 kept as a matter of profit as well as any other class of stock." 
 
454 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 Hogs turned into the orchards, as recommended in the 
 chapter on Fruit Culture, will not only be of benefit to the or- 
 chard, but will pick up considerable forage. They are very fond 
 of acorns, beech nuts, etc., and will fat on them faster than on 
 any other food. It is not good economy, however, anywhere 
 to let hogs run in the woods much, for they will run off their 
 fat. A very large hog raiser in Kentucky says : — 
 
 " First, we bought the best, thinking* the only true economy 
 was in having the hog that made most meat and grease in the 
 shortest time, from the food we provided. And we never per- 
 mitted them to get poor ; finding it cheapest to feed a fat hog 
 and keep it so than to save by stinting, and then bringing up.^ 
 
 "Secondly, we never permitted our hogs to roam, keeping 
 them under fence; believing it cheaper to provide food than 
 to run them upon Uncle Sam's property, or any other body's, 
 and pilfer for a living. We provided pastures, water, small 
 grain, peas, pumpkins, squashes, potatoes, pindars, corn, etc. 
 Of course, we say not that we had all at once, or all of the time, 
 but we have had six acres of squashes, six acres of pindars, 
 hauled in ninety ox loads of pumpkins, etc. We never relied 
 on corn alone, it was too expensive. We had pastures^f divers 
 sizes and of the various clovers and grasses." 
 
 The western farmer depends largely upon corn of course, 
 after the pasturing is over, but we think the suggestion of pump- 
 kins is a good one. The piggery is an important consideration, 
 and in the following plan and explanation will be found our 
 ideas upon this matter. {Fig. 90.) 
 
 The heavy lines represent a building fifteen by thirty feet and 
 two stories high. The upper story is divided into two rooms ; in 
 one is stored the meal, bran, etc., required for feeding. In the 
 other is a set kettle for cooking the food. A pump runs from 
 this room to the barn well, and water is therefore handy. 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 455 
 
 \ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 ..--■ 
 
 \ ^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 
 ,,''' 
 
 N^ 
 
 CL 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 y 
 
 \, 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 .'■' 
 
 \- 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 *\ 
 
 / 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 \ 
 
 /' 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Cb 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 CL 
 
 ~N 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 hd 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 - _ . . 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 -, Zi 
 
 r 
 
 (J^»>. 90.) 
 
 Having a fire here, this is used for a work room in winter, and 
 all sorts of little odd jobs of mending, etc., are done in cold 
 weather. This heater is also very handy at butchering time. 
 P is the passage way, and S the stairs leading to the second 
 story. J., a, a, a, are for feeding pens, each having an entrance 
 to yards, C, 0, G, 0. These feeding pens have solid floors, of 
 matched boards and slant so that all the urine runs into the 
 yards. Each pen has two slide windows made of boards, one 
 opening into the yard, 0, and the other at the end. 
 
 The troughs which run along next the passage way are 
 square boxes of solid, seasoned, oak plank, with oblong holes 
 in the top for the pigs to eat through. This keeps each pig in 
 his place and prevents them getting their feet in the trough- 
 The feeding places at the corners are represented in the cut. 
 The side of the trough towards the passage way opens on 
 hinges for the purpose of cleaning. 
 
 The yards outside the pen, represented by the light lines, were 
 dug out two feet, and a stout board fence built. Three feet of 
 peat were then filled in, and this is taken out each year and re- 
 thaced by fresh. It is almost the best manure made on the 
 
456 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 farm, soaking up all the urine from the animals. Over the 
 parts inside the dotted lines, and marked is a roof of rough 
 boards, matched so as to shed all the rain and keep a dry sleep- 
 ing place for the hogs. The whole yard is kept well littered 
 with straw, leaves, etc., and never gets muddy. There is a gate 
 in each yard, not represented in the cut. 
 
 Diseases of Swine. Diaerhcba. Change the food and mix 
 in the morning's mess a teacupful of powdered chalk for a full 
 grown animal. HoG Cholera. The principal symptom is 
 almost constant evacuations of a dark color, of a fetid odor, 
 and containing much bile ; the extremities are cold. If one hog 
 has these symptoms give each of the others three times a day, 
 in their feed, a tablespoonful of the following mixture. Sul- 
 phate of iron, one part ; cinchona, two parts ; charcoal, two 
 parts ; flour of sulphur, twelve parts. (One pound of sulphur 
 two ounces each charcoal and cinchona, and one ounce sulphate 
 of iron, will make six days' doses for one hog.) Continue to 
 give for six days. 
 
 Fever. Symptoms. Byes red ; skin, lips, nostrils hot and 
 dry; great thirst and poor appetite. Bleed a large hog a 
 quart, and smaller ones in proportion. Bleed from one of the 
 veins in the ear, or in the fore leg, just above the knee. Peed 
 nourishing food often. If the bowels are closed inject warm 
 soap and water. Cracking of the skin, mange, and other cuta- 
 neous diseases are to be treated with a mixture of lard and tar.* 
 In cases of mange keep the hog without food for half a day, and 
 then give from one to three ounces of epsom salts in a warm 
 bran mash. After this give a tablespoonful of sulphur in each 
 meal, until the sores heal. 
 
 Measles. Symptoms. Eed eyes and pustules about the 
 
 * Also Cresylio soap, before recommended for cows, sheep, etc. 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 457 
 
 throat. Give no food for one day, then give sulphur with each 
 meal. Gases of Colic are best treated with doses of warm water, 
 and injections of warm soap and water if possible. Eheuma- 
 TISM, stiffness of the limbs, and unwillingness to move. Keep 
 the animal on boiled diet given warm. Wash the limbs and 
 shoulders in hot water, put him in a warm clean place and give 
 sulphur and cinnamon half and half, at each meal. Sometimes 
 the fore legs will be stiff from the stopping up of the little open- 
 ings on the inside of the fore legs. Scrub with soapsuds and a 
 corncob, until all scurf is removed, then soak in hot water, and 
 finish by rubbing in a little lard. Cleanliness. It may sound 
 strange to some when we say that cleanliness is necessary to the 
 health of the hog. No animal will keep cleaner if you will 
 give him a chance* .He wallows in'mud, but would prefer clean 
 water, he roots in filth, but prefers fresh earth, turf, and leaves. 
 He eats, sleeps and evacuates in the same room, only when you 
 oblige him to. Give him a place toeat, a place to sleep, and 
 a place for rooting, etc., and he will keep his sleeping apartment 
 cleaner than any other domestic animal under the same circum- 
 stances. The hog should have a clean, dry, well floored, well 
 littered place to sleep. When in a closed room it should be 
 cleaned out every morning, just as much as the horse stable ; it 
 should have a slide at each end, so that it can be ventilated all 
 day. All the diseases of the hog are bred of the dirt, wet, filth 
 and bad air to which he is forced. The trough should be 
 washed down daily. Our plan i'or the piggery shows how these 
 things can be done. Castrating should be done at six or 
 seven weeks old, before the pigs are weaned. The operation is 
 the same as described for calves. Spaying is also done about 
 the same age, when the sow pigs are not required for breeders. 
 It is also done when sows are to be fatted. When sows abort, 
 or protrude the womb after farrowing, or eat their pigs, they 
 
458 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 should be spayed and fatted. The animal.js laid on the left side 
 and firmly held by the assistants. An incision is then made, 
 and the fore finger inserted until it finds the ovaries ; these are 
 drawn out of the opening and both cut off at once. The womb 
 is returned and the wound sewed up, and rubbed over with a 
 little lard. Care should be taken for a few days after spaying 
 that they get neither wet nor cold. 
 
 Goats. The goat is destined before many years to be an im- 
 portant member of our family of domestic animals, and a 
 source of wealth both to farmers and manufacturers. Already 
 preparations are on foot for manufacturing the durable and 
 brilliant fabrics so long imported from Cashmere ; already rich 
 worsted stuffs and richer dress goods have been made in this 
 country, and we are promising ourselves, our daughter shall 
 have a Cashmere shawl from an American I0061 on her wedding 
 day. And it will be well for enterprising, far seeing men to 
 make an investment in this direction. 
 
 The Cashmere or Angoea goats, from whose silky hair 
 such lustrous articles are manufactured, are hardy, healthy, 
 and prolific. There are already some three or four thousand 
 of them in various parts of the country, and they have proved 
 their adaptation to the various, climates of the United States. 
 They will thrive in bleak, cold, mountainous regions or in the 
 tropics. Says the " Wisconsin Farmej" " The goat, generally, 
 is as cosmopolitan as the dog, or the sheep. He is found 
 amidst the snows of Norway and Siberia, on the burning sands 
 of Africa, and in the flowery and poetic vales of Turkey and 
 Cashmere. The finest varieties of the wool bearing goat live 
 in different countries and latitudes, from Persia on the thirtieth 
 to Silesia on the sixtieth parallel north latitude ; from China 
 in ^he east to Asia Minor in the west ; even the most valua- 
 ble and delicate varieties, in the bleak, cold, mountainous 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 159 
 
 climate of the Himalayas, Thibet aad Eassia, feeding on shruLa 
 and the scanty vegetation of those sterile regions ; also in the 
 warmer climates of Persia, Turkey and Cashmere. There- 
 fore, since this natural habitat embraces all the degrees of lati- 
 tude, including the United States, and has a similar variety of 
 climate, mountains, etc., reason and common sense teach, that 
 every variety of the wool bearing goat will thrive in most parts 
 of the United States, particularly in the mountainous and more 
 barren portions, as well as in' any region on the globe, while 
 abundant experience has established the fact, that wherever this 
 goat has been introduced, he has flourished as well as the 
 sheep." 
 
 All the evidence at hand shows without doubt that the goat 
 thrives with less care and on more scanty herbage than the 
 sheep, and is especially adapted to the mountainous grazing re- 
 gions of the Northern States. In New England, where the wool 
 would be at the door of the mills of Massachusetts and Con- 
 necticut, we can imagine no addition to the farm stock which 
 would be productive of more wealth than the goat. Their flesh 
 makes the nicest of meat, their milk is worth twice that of cow's 
 milk, and often gives twice as mnch cream as the richest cow's 
 milk. Goat's milk is often ordered for children and the sick by 
 our best physicians, and its peculiarly nutritious and healthful 
 qualities have long been known and acknowledged by the 
 medical fraternity. For many years to come their wool will 
 be much more valuable than that of the sheep, while they can 
 be kept at less expense, and will pay a large proportion of their 
 keep in milk. 
 
 An extensive breeder in Ohio writes to the Buralist: "For a 
 
 number of years I have been somewhat extensively engaged in 
 
 breeding these Cashmere and other breeds of goats. I have 
 
 found the Cashmere especially healthy and hardy, and have de- 
 28 
 
460 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 rived the greatest satisfaction from the attention I have be 
 stowed upon them. They are very prolific, well adapted to our 
 climate, and are profitable, not only for their wool, but for their 
 skins, which makes the most beautiful furs for the use of 
 ladies and children. Their flesh is superior in flavor to that of 
 mutton. 
 
 " I have now on ray farm upwards of one hundred and fifty 
 head, and I can state with certainty that it costs no more to 
 raise and keep two good goats than one sheep. 
 
 " Dogs are not inclined to molest them. They are not partial 
 in their choice of food, and will live on any kind of herbage. 
 They are very domestic in their habits, and readily seek their 
 proper shelter at night, and evince a ready instinct to seek 
 shelter from a coming storm." 
 
 These are great advantages, not the least of which is that they 
 will defend themselves against the dogs, whose ravages are so 
 destructive among the sheep. 
 
 The fleece of the Cashmere goat weighs from four to nine 
 pounds. They seem to improve in this country both in size 
 and weight of fleece. Says the authority before quoted : 
 
 " The skins of the mature animals are dreSsed for robes, which 
 sell for from fifteen dollars to twenty-five dollars. The skins 
 of the young are dressed for furs, colored or not, and command 
 often fifty dollars each, for such has been the progress of the 
 worsted manufacture within the last ten years, that machinery 
 already exists in this country and Europe upon which tnis 
 fl'^ece can be made into every fabric to which it has bden 
 applied in the Bast, with equal success and far greater dispatch 
 At present the main effort should be directed towards import- 
 ing perfect specimens of the wool bearing animals, and crossing 
 them upon the common goats already in the country. By this 
 means the latter are so much improved as to be in the third or 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AXD OTUER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 461 
 
 fourth generation scarcely distinguishable from pure breads. 
 Says the American Agriculturist : " Rocks that goats will not 
 climb, foliage that they will not eat, bark that they v/ill not 
 gnaw, are things hard to find. Still, these propensities to 
 overstep bounds, and do what we would rather they would not, 
 may all be controlled, and their silky fleeces made available to 
 the comfort and pleasure of man. We have been much inter- 
 ested in examining samples of the fleece of diiTerent pure 
 blooded and grade animals of this breed, if so it may be called, 
 as well as the animals themselves, and are convinced from thu 
 diversity of form in the animals, and of fineness of the wool ov 
 hair, that there is in the stock great capacity for improvemeni . 
 These goats impress their characteristics with great certainty 
 and power upon their offspring, when crossed with common 
 goats. The fleece consists of the long, often very fine, silky 
 hair, and beneath it, very close, fine wool, which coats the 
 animal in the winter season, and affords a most efficient protec- 
 tion from the cold. By careful breeding, doubtless either -of 
 these kinds 6f fleece may be increased in quantity. The fine 
 Cashmere shawls are made from, the soft, fine wool; and, though 
 experiments in introducing the fine haired goats of Cashmere 
 and Thibet into Southern India, to produce this fine fleece, have 
 failed, yet the Cashmere introduced into this country, and their 
 descendants, are said not to deteriorate in this respect." 
 
 A still further recommendation of these animals is that they 
 are not subject to rot, grub, and other diseases, to which sheep 
 are liable. The cut we give is from a goat owned by Messrs. 
 N. P. Boyer & Co., of Parkesburg, Pa. {Fig. 91.) ,. 
 
 The Dog. The late H. W. Herbert published a work, of six ■ 
 hundred and sixty-three pages devoted to the breeding, break- 
 ing, training, and diseases of dogs, yet the number of worthless 
 curs has continually increased. There is nothing so warthlesa 
 
462 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 as a wortliless dog, and yet they are counted by millions. The 
 Commissioner of Agriculture estimates the yearly cost of the 
 dogs ia this country at FIFTY MlLLiours of dollars, for a set 
 of good for nothing, thieving, sheep killing, mongrel curs. 
 It is a shame to our civilization. And not only a shame and a 
 loss, but a great disadvantage to the sheep interests. These 
 dogs annually destroy two million dollars worth of sheep. It 
 is often a great drawback to sheep raising, especially mutton 
 sheep, near large places. At least nine out of every ten dogs 
 should be at once killed by process of law, and the remainder 
 put under bonds of at least five hundred dollars each to keep 
 the peace. Then every dog owner will be responsible for the 
 damage done by his dog, and no one can keep a dog, that ia 
 not responsible ; the trouble now is that the owners of the half 
 starved pack that destroy the sheep usually have no property 
 but the dogs, and no damages can be recovered. This is one 
 of the hindrances in the way of raising pure bred sheep, for the 
 dogs might destroy the work of years in a single hour. Thus 
 one department of greatest importance is kept back by these 
 mongrels. We call upon farmers to see, each for himself, every 
 representative to the legislature or assembly from his section, 
 and urge the passage of more stringent laws, in regard to dogs. 
 Let a ten dollar tajc be instituted and collected. Let any owe 
 be permitted to kill any dog on iJ-hich the tax is not paid and 
 soon there will be a thinning of these hated ranks. We do not 
 advocate the killing .of good dogs, of good breeds, with good 
 qualities. No one admires such a dog more than the author, 
 \v\o would like to see the ranks of good dogs increased. But 
 such dogs are the rare exceptions. The so-called watch dog, if 
 of any service in that capacity, is usually an ugly, vicious brute, 
 and is no protection against a regular burglar or thief, for such 
 will give him chloroform even through barred and bolted 
 
Fig. 91. Cashjiebe Doe. 
 
 Mg. 92. Shepdekd Dog. 
 
 les 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 465 
 
 floors. And the bulldogs and other watch dogs are among the 
 roost destructive when they once get into the sheep pasture. 
 The full blooded Newfoundland and St. Bernard, or a cross 
 between the two, may be made of great service to the farmer, 
 and seldonr, of themselves attack sheep, but as soon as you begin 
 to cross them with any thing else, unless it be the shepherd 
 dog, you spoil them entirely. "We would not have a cross 
 from a Newfoundland, St. Bernard, or shepherd dog and a 
 bulldog, about our premises much more than we would a 
 rattlesnake. The Shepherd dog is the most valuable of ihe 
 whole family of dogs. A writer in the Western, Rural thus 
 describes them : 
 
 " The Spanish shepherd dog is said to belong to the same 
 family as the St. Bernard spaniel. Like the dogs of this breed, 
 he possesses great intelligence and sagacity, combined with 
 courage and endurance, properties that are invaluable in a 
 country infested by thieves and wolves. 
 
 " The Hungarian, French, and Mexican shepherd dog-8 are 
 evidently of Spanish origin. In Mexico the pups are suckled 
 by ewes, and become so much attached to the flock that they 
 never leave them, except when compelled by hunger to visit 
 the ranche. In the sheep districts of New Mexico the shep- 
 herd's dog not only defends the flocks from the attacks of 
 wolves and other beasts of prey, but contends to the death with 
 the Indian marauders who endeavor to take the sheep by 
 stealth or force. 
 
 "The Scotch shepherd dog or colley is a light, active animal, 
 of great sagacity and of incalculable use to the shepherds in the 
 Highlands of .Scotland and other mountainous pastures. Mr. 
 James Hogg, the ' Ettriok Shepherd,' says that a single shep- 
 herd and his dog will accomplish more in gathering a flock of 
 sheep from a Highland farm than twenty shepherds could do 
 
466 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 witlaout dogs ; in fact, witliout this docile animal, the pastoral 
 life would be a mere blank. It would require more hands to 
 manage a flock of sheep, gather them from the hills, force them 
 into houses and 'folds, and drive them to market than the profit 
 of the whole flocks would be capable of maintaining. 
 
 "Although the sheep husbandry of the United States differs 
 materially in many particulars from that of the Highlands of 
 Scotland, the colley is pretty extensively diffused in this 
 country, and is valued very highly by the farmer, shepherd, or 
 drover. In a communication to the American Agriculturist, 
 Mr. T. C. Peters, of Darien, New York, says :— ' I think the 
 shepherd dog the most valuable of his species, especially for the 
 farmer. Our dog Jack, a thoroughbred Scotch colley, has 
 been worth one hundred dollars a year in managing our small 
 flock of sheep, usually about seven hundred in number. He 
 has saved us more than that in time in running after them. 
 After sheep have been once broken in by and become used to 
 the dog, it is but little trouble to manage them ; one man and 
 the dog will do more than five men in driving, yarding, etc. 
 Let any man once possess a good dog, he will never do without 
 one again. The sagacity of the shepherd's dog is wonderful, 
 and if I had not seen so much myself, I could scarcely credit all 
 I read about them.' 
 
 " The English sheep dog, or drover's dog, is a iailkss animal, 
 larger, coarser, and stronger than the colley. It is very easily 
 trained, and s6ems especially adapted for working among cattlCj 
 keeping the herd from straggling Avhen on the prairie or the 
 road to market, and acting as an aid to the farmer in the man- 
 agement of his flocks and herds." 
 
 We consider it always well to allow the ewe to suckle the 
 pups. 
 
 In training these dogs for service they should be taught to 
 
SHEEP, SWINE, AND OTHER DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 467 
 
 follow behind the flock, running to this side and that, to start 
 up lagging sheep, to run over the fence and head off runaways, 
 to stand in front and hold them at bay, but never to worry 
 chem, bite them, or in any way frighten them. These dogs 
 thus brought up with the sheep, are the best drovers that can 
 ;be found. The sheep learn to obey them without fear, and 
 they drive the sheep without harming them. We have known 
 a slut of this breed to nurse and raise a lamb whose dam had 
 died. Such a race of dogs, well trained, which only requires 
 practice, for they take naturally to the business, would be of 
 great advantage in herding large flocks " on the range," and 
 we call the attention of flock-masters to their merits. 
 
 The Diseases of Dogs are numerous, but are not at all 
 necessary. The present style of promiscuous breeding is the 
 source of most of' them. Keep your breeds pure, and at once 
 kill a diseased slut and castrate a diseased dog, and diseases 
 will lessen. Distemper is the more common of these diseases. 
 The first symptoms are dulness and loss of appetite, purging or 
 vomiting, running from the eyes and nose, and a short cough. 
 The animal becomes very sensitive to cold, seeks warmth, and 
 is constantly shivering. The bowels generally become consti- 
 pated. All these and other symptoms increase, the eyes and 
 nose are obstructed by the discharge from them, and the dog 
 fast wastes away. But there is often a lapse of two or three 
 weeks between the first symptoms and the last, in which time 
 it is often supposed, that the dog is recovering. When the dis- 
 temper is mastered the dog will at once begin to fatten ; if he 
 does not the disease is only dormant. As soon as the symp- 
 toms are discovered all flesh must be forbidden, and skim milk 
 and bread given. When the bowels are constipated inject 
 warm soap and water. For the very largest dog make the 
 following into twenty -four pills, and give three daily : Bella- 
 
HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 donna, twenty -four grains ; nitre, four scruples ; gentian, four 
 drachms ; ginger to mix. One eighth of the above is sufficient 
 for a lapdog. If diarrhoea sets in, give a teaspponful of chalk 
 three times a day. If fits set in, kill the dog at once. Dis- 
 temper is not contagious, but epidemic. 
 
 Mange is another common ailment of the dog, the result 
 either of poor condition, filth, or contagion. Eub with lard 
 and sulphur. If in poor condition, give beef tea strong, and 
 good gruels ; the object being to get him in flesh as soon as 
 possible, without overloading his stomach. If the dog is in 
 very high condition, very fat, reduce him to a diet of gruel, 
 and get off his surplus flesh. 
 
Fig. 93, 
 
 Fig. 94, Sum A TEA Games. 
 
 Fig. 95. ■ Game Cock. 
 
 Fig. 96. Clipper Game. 
 
 470 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 POULTRY AND BEES. 
 
 jAEMEES usually keep a little Poultry, and yet but few 
 are aware that they are the most profitable stock on the 
 ^^^ farm. The farmer can well keep a liberal supply ot 
 fowls by feeding them three or four months in the year; 
 the remainder of the time they will forage for themselves. 
 They will, if given the range of the barnyard, the orchard, the 
 stubble field, or the tobacco plantation, secure worms, grubs, 
 bugs, and scattered seeds from April to November, sufficient to 
 keep them in good flesh and return their owners from three 
 to six dozen eggs each, to pay for the privilege. We consider that 
 a flock of hens or turkeys turned into the orchard or tobacco 
 field will pay for their winter's keep in destroying worms and . 
 insects. If the hen only lays fourteen weeks out of the fifty-two, 
 (which is less than the average for two, three, or four year old 
 fowls,) say one. hundred eggs at three cents a piece, you have 
 three dollars for her keep, and a little pile of the strongest manure, 
 besides her services among your insect enemies.. But what will 
 it cost, to keep her through the winter. A peck of grain will 
 feed a large hen about three weeks ; so if you feed four months, 
 you will feed six pecks of grain. Will any other animal return 
 you so much for so small an outlay ? But this is not all ; you still 
 have the hen either to put in the pot, send to market, raise you 
 
 471 
 
472 ' HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 a brood of chicks or give yoa another three dollars worth of 
 eggs. 
 
 The raising of poultry on a large scale can be made profitable • 
 anywhere within a day's reach of any of our large cities. We 
 are tempted here to condense a little account of poultry raising 
 on the farm belonging to the Metropolitan Hotel, of New York. 
 The farm is located in West Chester County, and about twenty 
 acres of rough land, worth little for tillage, all devoted to 
 poultry. The undergrowth is allowed to grow ; the turkeys 
 have the woods to range in, and there is a pond for the ducks 
 and geese. During the summer they are all allowed to range 
 at will ; but fowls once accustomed to a roosting and laying 
 place will usually return to it. For winter quarters, there are 
 two houses. Lime and plaster are used very freely to absorb 
 the ammonia, and compost the droppings. The sloping shelves 
 under the roosts are swept every week and newly sprinklod 
 with lime. All this valuable manure is barrelled and applied to 
 corn, producing the biggest corn in the country, and sixty tons 
 of hay from twenty acres. 
 
 We quote from the New Torh World: — ."The eggs pay 
 for food and attendance, leaving the sales of poultry clean 
 profit. Mr. L. says he can produce a thousand pounds of 
 poultry cheaper than he can the same weight of mutton, beef, 
 or pork. He finds as much profit from turkeys, and often 
 greater than from hens. They often require more attention, 
 but some years he has fifty to sell, for which he gets five 
 dollars each, besides a great many more, for which he gets 
 from one to three dollars. Just now he has three thousand 
 young chickens, several hundred young turkeys, two hundred 
 hens" laying every day or hatching broods, and handsome pla- 
 toons of ducks and goslings, probably about four thousand in 
 all, of domestic fowls, each of which, on -an average, is, or will 
 
t-l 
 
 
 
 473 
 
POULTRY AND BEES. 475 
 
 be by Thanksgiving, worth a dollar. Deduct from this the 
 cost of two hundred bushels of grain, and the hire of an attend- 
 ant, to whom he may pay two hundred and fifty dollars a year 
 and board, perhaps more. They eat up the grasshoppers, grubs, 
 worms, eggs of insects, larvae, beetles, snails, katydids, and 
 June bugs, so clean that his farm is less beset with pests than 
 most others about him. He has apples when others are ruined 
 by the borer, the caterpillar, the tent worm, the canker worm, 
 or the curculio." 
 
 This lool^s like a hazardous business, but it is not, and there 
 are hundreds of rough farms in the vicinity ot cities where a 
 flock of five hundred fowls, to begin with, would soon become 
 a vast army of producers. Since writing the above we have 
 read a somewhat elaborate article in a western paper to prove 
 that one hundred a year is all that can profitably be raised 
 together, yet the above poultry farm has been carried on for 
 years with unbroken success. The best points in Mr. L.'s 
 system are, free range in summer, cleanliness at all times, 
 liberal feeding and warmth in winter, and a change of cocks 
 every spring : and these things can be secured by every farmer. 
 We will try to give a few plain directions for farmers. 
 
 First, get a cock of some good breed for everj^ twelve hena 
 Secondly, build a poultry house for the winter protection of 
 the fowls, for nests, for a roosting place, and for the sake of thd 
 rich ammonaical manure they will drop. The droppings will 
 soon paj' for a good poultry house. We recommend the follovr- 
 ing plan. {Fig. 97.) This is ten by thirty feet, and eight feet 
 above ground, with a roof sloping one way. It can be built up 
 against a shed or other building, the shed answering for the 
 backside of the poultry house. In the first place a cellar is 
 dug six feet deep, and the bottom filled one foot with cobble 
 stones, rammed down hard; a foot of the earth thrown out is 
 
476 
 
 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 {Fig. 97. 
 then ramified down upon the stones, and a foot of good gravel, 
 fine, on top, as a floor. _ This secures permanent drainage, cleanli- 
 ness, and the gravel is indispensable to the health of the fowls. 
 The floor is three feet below the surface, which secures warmth 
 in the coldest weather. The house may now be built as directed. 
 Castaway boards are just as good as any thing, for it is not the 
 looks you are after, but the profits. Ten or fifteen dollars will 
 build such a house on many farms, and twenty-five dollars will 
 pay for it anywhere. The slant lines near the entrance repre- 
 sent the roosts, which are five feet from the'floor and two feet 
 above the level of the ground. Underneath these roosts is a 
 slanting shelf, which is swept every week and coveied with 
 lime. Don't omit this, whatever shape you put yotir poultry 
 house in. The squares at the opposite ends represent the nests, 
 which are ranged in tiers, commencing on the bottom. There , 
 are three tiers, allowing three feet for each tier ; forty-five nests 
 in all. After the hens come off with their broods, the nests are 
 scalded out with boiling water and lime. The hens should be 
 set as nearly as possible about the same time, and when they 
 come off twenty to thirty chicks given to one hen to take care 
 of, and the other hens treated to a cold bath, and shut up for a 
 few days, when they will commence laying again; Cracked 
 oSrD i^ the best and most economical feed for fowls, but they 
 
Fig. 100. Beahma Pootkas. 
 
 » 
 
 Mg. 101, White Bbahmas. 
 
 ■47? 
 
POULTRY AND BEES. 479 
 
 should never be kept on any one kind of food ; oats, kitohoii 
 scraps, buckwheat, bonny clabber, sunflower seeds, and other 
 changes should be made. Never feed all they will eat, but 
 stop when they cease to be greedy for the food. Lime, burned 
 oyster shells, and the shells of their own eggs will assist them 
 in forming new shells. Give chickens plenty of room and 
 plowed ground to scratch in. If you do not want the hens in 
 the plowed land, fasten the coop near it and let the chickens 
 run. But it is better, after the first week or two, to let them all 
 run, calling them to the house at least once a day to make 
 them feel at home there. 
 
 What are the best Breeds ? "We have already advised 
 the purchase of cocks of some good breed, and we will now 
 give the characteristics of the best breeds. Says a poultry 
 raiser writing to the Prairie Farmer: " Our common barnyard 
 fowl, with good care, will lay one hundred and forty eggs each 
 year, and give them time to rear each a brood of chickens. A 
 Black Spanish v/ill lay one hundred and twenty eggs, but does 
 not set at all. A Leghorn fowl will lay two hundred eggs in a 
 year; this breed does not set till three years old. ETamburgs 
 (Golden Pencilled) will lay from two hundred to two hundred and 
 forty eggs each year, but does not set till three years old, and 
 sometimes not even then. Bramah fowls will lay one hundred 
 and forty eggs, and bring up two broods of chickens each year. 
 " The average cost of keeping fowls, of all kinds, with corn, at 
 one dollar per bushel, and small grain in that proportion, wiL 
 be not far from one dollar and twenty-five cents each per year." 
 . We indorse the above estimate of the Hamburgs, their 
 refusal to set being no objection to them if you have Cochins to 
 set their eggs under. The game cock put upon common fowls 
 of good size is one of the best investments we ever made in 
 poultry. Their chicks make great layers, are hardy, always 
 
480 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 keep in good flesh. There is nothing like the game cock, for 
 keeping order in the flock and for keeping hawks, cats, skunks, 
 and all other enemies at bay. The black Spanish fowls are 
 good layers, but do not make good meat, and are not to be 
 recommended. The Dorkings are good, and no one can be 
 amiss in purchasing a few eggs and raising a cock of this breed. 
 The Cochin crossed on the common fowl improves the latter, but 
 we should prefer investing our money in something else. The 
 Bramahs are much better. The Polands are also good layers 
 but, like the Hamburgs,|do not set. The Leghorns also come 
 in the same class, but are of smaller size. We hope that no 
 one of our readers will ever have the " hen fever." We recom 
 mend no one to buy a stock of any of the above fowls. But 
 what we do recommend to every man that cultivates an acre of 
 ground is, improve your stock by an admixture of some one or 
 more of the above breeds. Make it a rule to get a new cock 
 every year. If your fowls are too small, get a large breed. If 
 poor layers, get a Hamburg or a game cook. If they are not 
 hardy, and none of them make good , mothers, get a game or a 
 Bramah. It will pay; having been surrounded by poultry 
 more than ten years, we insist tliat it will pay. 
 
 The Diseases of Poultry are caused by breeding, filth, im- 
 pure water, lack of gravel, and close confinement. Pure water 
 is absolutely essential to the health of fowls. When ranging 
 in the summer they will go to running streams or the barn- 
 yard trough, but in the winter they suffer for lack of fresh 
 water. In the plan of a poultry house, given in a preceding 
 page, A is a pipe on the bottom of the coop three feet below the 
 level of the ground, running into a keg set in the ground, with 
 an outlet on the other side. This pipe comes from the barn- 
 yard trough, and as long as there is water in it the hens are 
 supplied. As this poultry house is built against one of the 
 
Mq. 102. Silver Hambukgs. 
 
 ^s^^ 
 
 Fig. 103. White Dobkings. 
 
 481 
 
POULTRY AND BEES. 483 
 
 barnyard sheds only twenty feet from the pump, the operation 
 was easy. 
 
 A box of wood ashes set in the coop and changed every week 
 or two will keep the fowls pretty free from lice. Gravel and 
 sand on the floor keep their digestion §ood. Camphor in the 
 water or mixed with meal dough will cure gapes in chickens. 
 Rubbing the heads of chicks with lard and sulphur before they 
 are a week old will prevent gapes, killing the worms that cause 
 it. Roup is the most dangerous disease attacking fowls. The 
 breathing becomes hard and distressed; through the mouth 
 instead of the nostrils. The fowls affected with it should be 
 removed from the rest and, if of no special value, killed. If it ra 
 desired to save them, feed with stale bread soaked iii spirits, 
 boiled and mashed potatoes, and hard boiled eggs chopped fine, 
 and give them a clear, airy but warm j,lace. As they begin to 
 improve, chop fresh meat fine and give them every day. The 
 great cause of disease is yet to be considered ; it is, the continual 
 use of the same cock or his descendants. A new cock should 
 be introduced every year, or there can be no just expectation of 
 health or large returns of eggs. 
 
 Turkeys are also a source of profit near all large places. 
 The bronze turkey is the most desirable, and it would be well 
 if a cock or a pair could be introduced into every ■farm in our 
 more thickly settled States. Many farmers object to them in 
 the meadows, but if they can get at plowed ground, orchards, 
 tobacco fields, or stubble, they will not tangle your grass. The 
 hen turkey is* a wanderer and will naturally seek to hide her 
 nest, This can be prevented. Says Saunders, a poultry 
 breeder : " About the middle of March, generally speaking, the 
 female commences laying ; she indicates the coming event by a 
 peculiar cry, by strutting about with an air of self satisfaction, 
 and often prying into out of the way places, evidently in quest of 
 
484 HOW TO MAEE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 a secret spot for incubation. She should now be closely watched, 
 and some management is required to induce her to lay in tho 
 nest assigned to her. The nest should be prepared with straw 
 and dry leaves ; it should be secluded, and to incite her to 
 adopt it a nest egg should be placed in it. When her uneasi- 
 ness to lay is evident, she should be shut into the barn or shed 
 where her nest is prepared, and let out as soon as the egg is 
 laid." 
 
 The turkey is a persistent setter and often persists in staying 
 on her nest when she is suffering for food and water. She 
 should be carefully removed from the nest occasionally, and 
 during the last ten days the eggs should be sprinkled while she 
 is off. This sprinkling applies to the eggs of all fowls. After 
 hatching, the chicks should be sheltered for a few days, when 
 they will look out for themselves. Water is their great enemy, 
 for a thorougb ducking often kills them. After the hatching 
 appears to be all over, chop up some hard boiled eggs and feed 
 the brood. Bread crumbs wet up with milk or curd, or oat- 
 meal dough, will answer after this. Water should be put in a 
 7ery shallow dish for fear of ducking the chicks. Turkeys nor 
 any other fowl should ever be allowed on the hay, or in the 
 stables, when the horses are there. 
 
 Fattening Poultry for market is a very simple operation. 
 Not more than two weeks before they are wanted shut them 
 up in coops with just room to stand comfortably. Mix a dough 
 of meal and milk, just thick enough so that you can mate it 
 into rolls. Eoll it into crams abojit the size of your little 
 linger, (smaller for small pullets,) put it into the bill and help it 
 down. If the cram is dipped in milk it will go down easy. 
 We would say here that all fowls should be fed as soon after 
 light in the morning as possible, for they worry for their food 
 and lose their fat if they have to wait. At midday put a little 
 
Firj. 103. Crested Duck. 
 
 
 i'lg. 106. Wild Tuii 
 
 KEY. 
 
POULTRY AND BEES. 487' 
 
 cracked corn or oats wbere the cooped fowls can reach it ; also 
 keep water and sand within their reach. At night cram again, 
 unless the crop is still partly filled, iii which case the bill must 
 be held up, some warni water turned, in and the bill closed. In 
 this way inside of two weeks the largest fowls can be made 
 very fat at a trifling expense. This feeding should never be 
 continued more than two weeks. For twelve hours before 
 poultry is killed neither food, or water should be allowed. 
 
 DacKS can be raised by any one who has an acre of waste 
 land, with a stream or a pond at hand, but it is useless to at- 
 tempt to keep them in close quarters or without plenty of water. 
 They are good layers, and drop a large egg with very rich 
 meat ; their eggs are very heavy, and when eggs come to be 
 sold by the pound, as they ought always to be, ducks' eggs will 
 bring a high price. The Eouen and Aylesbury are the finest 
 breeds for eggs and poultry, and a pair of either of them will 
 soon raise a flock, as the eggs are set under the hen. One drake 
 should be allowed to every six layers. 
 
 Geese also require water and pasture, but will ndt pick up 
 all their living, as the duck will when it has a good range. 
 Geese must be fed morning and night with grain. When set- 
 ting, the female should have food and water convenient. Like 
 the duck and the turkey, the eggs require about four weeks to 
 hatch, and should be sprinkled several times in the last ten days. 
 The Bremen or Embeden geese are large, (weighing often forty- 
 five pounds per pair,) quiet, fat readily, not as likely to stray 
 as others, and the most profitable for market. 
 
 The Habits and Management of Bees present the most 
 interesting study we have ever attempted. Upwards of twenty 
 
 Note. The cuts of fowls in this Chapter are from poultry owned by N 
 P. Boyer & Co., stock breeders, Parkesburg, Chester County, Pa. 
 
488 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 volumes have been -written and published in this country alono 
 concerning them, and the half has not yet been told. "We shall 
 aim simply to give plain, practical directions,, which all can un- 
 derstand, for taking care of bees so as to make them profitable. 
 Certain well established facts must be well understood before 
 andertaking Bee keeping. 
 
 1. There are three kinds of bees in every prosperous hive, 
 viz., the queen, the drones, and the workers. 
 
 2. The Queen Bee is the only perfect female in the hive. She 
 is the mother of all the others. No swarm can prosper without 
 a queen. She is readily distinguished from all the others by 
 her long body, short wings, and yellow abdomen. {See No. 6, 
 Fig. 111.*) There are never two in a hive, as the reigning 
 queen destroys all others before they come out of their cells. 
 If the queen is lost, the industry of the hive is stopped until 
 preparations are completed for hatching another. The queen 
 leaves the hive when about seven days old to meet the male bee, 
 is impregnated, and never leaves the hive again, except with a 
 swarm. Queens are the only bees that live more than i>ne 
 season ; they sometimes live three years. They are capable 
 of laying one hundred thousand or more eggs in a season, if 
 supplied with brood cells. They have an effective sting, but 
 never use it, except against each other. A queen goes out with 
 every swarm ; if by any accident she is lost in swarming, the 
 bees return to the hive. 
 
 3. The Drone is ftie male bee. A large number are usually 
 
 * Note. Description of Fig. lU. 1. Egg. 2. Position of egg and 
 larva in the cells. 3. Pull grown worker larva. 4. Worker nymph or 
 pupa. 5. Drone. 6. Queen. 7. Worker, c. Queen Cell. 9. Probo- 
 scis or tongue of worker. iO. Sting of worker. 11. Ovaries of Queen. 
 12. Honey sac, intestines, and stomach of worker. It is exceedingly diffi'- 
 cult to make a good representation of comb on paper. 
 
Fi<j. 108. - BKE3IEN Geese. 
 
POULTRY AND BEES. ' 491 
 
 reared iu each hive, only to be destroyed after the honey season 
 is over and the young queens have been impregnated. They 
 are not producers, but constant consumers. They do no labor 
 whatever. In sho.rt, they are drones. They are larger and more 
 clumsy than the workers. {N'o. 5, Fig. 111.) There are some- 
 times several thousand in a hive, but they are soon killed. As 
 they are never allowed to live out their term of life, it cannot 
 be said how long they will live. 
 
 4. The Workers constitute the main" body of the colony; they 
 do all the labor of the hive. For the first two weeks alter they 
 are hatched they work inside the hive, after which they go oat 
 to gather honey. During the working season a worker seldom 
 lives more than two months, so that the colony is wholly 
 changed (except the queen) several times during the season. A 
 good swarm ought to contain from twenty thousand to thirt}' 
 thousand bees, and previous to swarming they often contain 
 double the above number. The workers have a poisonous 
 sting, which they use for defence, but when carefully handled 
 they will seldom sting. When away from their hives they will 
 never sting, if they can escape without it. "When swarming 
 they may be handled, shaken, or brushed, and, unless likely to 
 be crushed, will not attempt to sting. When filled with honey, at 
 any time, they will not attack, even in defence of their hi\e and 
 its treasures. They are smaller than the queen or the drone, 
 have a little sac for storing honey and little baskets on their 
 legs for pollen. In Mg. Ill are seen the proboscis or tongue, 
 the honey sac, the sting, etc. 
 
 5. There are four substances secreted or gathered by the bee, 
 and found in every prosperous hive, viz., pollen or bee bread, 
 Dropolis, wax, and honey. 
 
 6. Pollen is gathered from the blossoms, and is essential in 
 rearing the brood. Unless pollen, or a substitute, is furDished 
 
492 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 the colony will soon run out. Eye flour is a good substitute 
 for pollen. 
 
 7. Propolis is a substance gathered from trees, -with -which 
 ihe bee stops the cracks, fills the corners, and varnishes the 
 interior surface of the hive. It is also used with wax in fas- 
 tening up the comb, and sometimes in varnishing the comb. 
 
 8. Wax is a secretion from which the bees make their comb. 
 It is more valuable than honey, for it requires at least twelve 
 pounds of honey to produce one of wax. Good bee comb 
 should therefore never be destroyed when it can be avoided. 
 Just the amount of time and honey required to build the comb 
 is saved by furnishing each swarm with comb. 
 
 9. There are two kinds of comb, brood comb and honey 
 comb ; and the brood comb is also divided into worker comb 
 and drone comb, the drone comb having the largest cells. The 
 size of brood cells, as built by the bees, never varies a hair ; 
 that is, worker cells are all one size and brood cells one size; 
 while honey cells are of all sizes and depths. It is very im- 
 portant to be able, from the first, to, distinguish the different 
 kinds of comb. The difference ;;n the size of the cells deter- 
 mines the future of the bee, for all the eggs are the same. 
 Three or four worker cells are made into one long cell for a 
 queen, (c. Fig. Ill,) and drone cells never hatch workers, nor 
 workers drones, although the eggs in both, are just alike. 
 Comb building is carried on at night and in stormy weather. 
 When comb must be provided for the honey as fast as it is 
 gathered, much time is lost; but if the bees have plenty of 
 empty comb on hand, or it is furnished to them as fast as filled, 
 they will fill it with astonishing rapidity in the honey season. 
 We have known a strong colony add six pounds to their store 
 in a single day. 
 
 10. Honey, the great object of our labors in bee keeping, is 
 
Fig. 109. Dog Chuen. 
 
 '''^^rsfej 
 
 Fig. 110. Fig. 110. 6. 
 
 Lakgsteoth's Movable Comb Hitb. 
 
 30 
 
 «3 
 
POULTET AND BEES. 4:95 
 
 the nectar of the blossoms. The number of plants that supply 
 honey on a large scale is limited. As the honey undergoes no 
 change at the hands of the bee, but is the same when deposited 
 in the combs as when sipped from the blossom, there is necessa- 
 rily a great difference in the quality. It is especially desirable 
 that there should be a succession of honey producing plants ; 
 for the yield of surplus honey depends upon the length of the 
 honey season, and not upon a large quantity at any one time. 
 The main stay of the bees is clover ; but its season is so short 
 that it cannot be depended upon for a supply. The following is 
 a succession of honey producing trees and plants ; any one within 
 a mile or two of such a succession is in a most favorable posi- 
 tion for bee keeping. The willows are the first to give their 
 supplies in the spring ; then follow the sugar maples, fruit trees, 
 the dandelion, the tulip or poplar tree, the linden or bass wood, 
 the locust, seed onion, red, white and Alsike clovers, buckwheat, 
 berries, thistles, etc. 
 
 The first four, with the buckwheat, clover, and berries, form 
 the main supply. We venture to say that there is no farm in 
 the country but what will readily yield suf&cient supplies for a 
 few colonies of bees. Under the head of miscellaneous items 
 will be found an article in regard to Alsike clover, which, while 
 it is better for general cultivation than red clover, is the best 
 possible pasturage for bees. 
 
 11. Hives. It is safe to say that one half m bee keeping 
 depends upon the hive and the other half upon careful, intelli- 
 gent management. The bees will do their part if they have a 
 chance. In the old fashioned management the bees were hived 
 in square box hives, and kept there through the season. At the 
 end of the season the old colony was murdered and robbed. A 
 small amount of poor honey mixed with brood was obtained, and 
 
 but little pure, clean, unmixed honev could be had. Each swarm 
 30 
 
496 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 liad to begin anew to build comb, and as some forty to sixty 
 pounds of honey was required for comb, the honey season was 
 nearly over before the bees could begin to store surplus honey. 
 There was no way to examine the comb ; all was in the dark 
 and at hap-hazard, and bee keeping was unprofitable. This is 
 all changed. The Eev. L. L. Langstroth has invented a hive, 
 the intelligent use of which renders success certain. Bee keep- 
 ing is now a safe and profitable business. The main principle 
 in the Langstroth hive is the movable frame, as shown at Mg. - 
 110. Suppose the top which is turned up in the figure to be 
 taken off, and also the six honey boxes and the board under 
 them ; you have now the whole interior of the hive open to 
 you. The frames, S, are hunginside the hive from front to rear, 
 and instead of attaching their combs to the hive, they will build 
 them in these frames. As each one of these frames can be 
 removed and replaced at pleasure, all the operations of the beps 
 are under observation and control, which is the secret of success 
 in rearing bees. The second advantage of this hive is the 
 honey board, or the board between the top of the hive and the 
 honey boxes. {See Fig. 110.) This board has several holes, which 
 are kept covered until the lower hive is pretty well supplied 
 with comb, brood, and honey. They are then removed, and 
 the bees are allowed to fill these upper boxes with their surplus 
 honey. Any one of these boxes can at any time be removed 
 and an empty one put in its place. We advise every farmer in 
 this country to buy a Langstroth hive with the right to make 
 and use them, and bee keeping will become both a pleasure and 
 a profit. There are many other advantages in using the Lang- 
 stroth hive, which may be hinted at as we proceed. 
 
 Spring Management. March. Bees which have been re- 
 moved from their stands for the winter may, some calm, sunny 
 lay, this month be replaced for the summer. It should bo 
 
111. Bees and Comb. 
 
 497 
 
POUiTRT AND BEES. 499 
 
 done in the middle of tlie day, and the top' of the hive at once 
 removed, allowing the sun to shine directly on the bees. Clean 
 hives, dry and warm, should be at hand, and the combs with 
 all the adhering bees put into one of them. With the Lang- 
 stroth hive this is so easily done that there is no excuse for 
 neglect. The hive in which the bees were wintered can now 
 be washed, scalded, and made ready for another colony, or for 
 a swarm by-and-by. In making this change from one hive to 
 another, the condition of the bees can be ascertained. If they 
 have lost their queen, there will be no young brood hatching ; 
 and they must either be united with another colony, or brood, 
 or queen cells furnished them from some other colony who have 
 them to spare. If they have brood, they should be supplied 
 with water and rye flour. They cannot raise brood without 
 water, and by feeding rye flour you may gain from ten days to 
 three weeks in the hatching of the brood. A sponge saturated 
 in sweetened water, and put over one of the holes in the honey 
 board, is the best plan for supplying water. The following 
 most interesting communication from Messrs. Langstroth and 
 Son explains the feeding process. 
 
 "As soon as the weather permits the bees to fly and discharge 
 their accumulated faeces they are ready to commence breeding 
 with vigor ; and experience demonstrates the advantage of now 
 beginning stimulative feeding, to encourage the spread of brood. 
 It is not the abundance of old stores of honey or pollen that 
 tempts to early breeding, (though their scarcity will prevent it, 
 unless the deficiency is supplied,) but it is the sense of something 
 coming in that encourages the bees to hasten matters. There- 
 fore we supply them with this encouragement ; and where tho 
 hives have plenty of honey, it is an open question with us 
 whether in pleasant weather the flour alone is not all the 
 btimulus required. Let us tell you, readers^ how we feed it 
 
500 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 As soon as the bees begin to fly freely in the spring we pre- 
 pare one or two boxes, sixteen by twenty inches, and six inches 
 deep. Put a good layer of ckan straw in the bottom, spread 
 the flour on the straw, and set the boxes in some quiet, sunny 
 place, in or near the apiary. To start the bees to work, we put 
 a few drops of honey or sugar syrup on a comb in each box ; 
 once started, they will keep at it until the blossoms appear. 
 The bees quickly "get the hang of the operation," and it is 
 amusing to see them collecting the flour — the boxes being 
 nearly black with bees, and the whole air resounding with their 
 joyous hum. They moisten the flour with honey from their 
 stomachs and take it up with their jaws and front legs ; then, 
 hovering in the air over the box, transfer it to the baskets on 
 their hind legs, then away to the hive. We had them thus at 
 work (Italians) one bright, still day this month, when the 
 thermometer was at twenty-six degrees! To-day (March 12th) 
 was constantly showery, yet, with the covers over the boxes 
 propped open to admit them, they have carried in fully ten 
 pounds of flour, working until it was dark. This suggests 
 putting the boxes in a shed opening to the south, if such a one 
 is at hand, where they can work under cover. Our only fear has 
 sometimes been that they might carry in too much flour, but 
 the combs show no especial accumulation of it, and it is evident 
 that they use it almost as fast as gathered. 
 
 " Wheat flour and oat meal will do, if rye is not to be had. 
 See that your bees have enough honey left over to last them 
 until blossoming time. A little feeding will bring forward ten 
 thousand workers to assist in the honey harvest, as soon as'the 
 first blossoms open. The hives should be protected from the 
 high winds as much as possible, and yet be open on two sides 
 at least to the direct rays of the sun. We should recommend 
 that the bees be placed where they are to stand for the summer, 
 
POULTRY AND BBE3. 501 
 
 as soon as they are set out in the spring. " We prefer that no 
 two hives should haye an entrance less than one rod apart. If 
 it is desirable to place hives nearer than this, turn the entrances 
 in different directions, and do not change their positions after the 
 bees have marked it. Thousands of bees are lost from getting 
 into the wrong hives when the hives are too near together. 
 While the hives should all be of exactly the same size, the 
 fronts may. be painted different colors, or set in irregular order 
 so that each bee may^ readily distinguish his own." 
 
 April will usually bring some sunny days and a few blossoms, 
 but if your stocks are strong and you have fed as directed, your 
 , increased and increasing brood are consuming a large amount 
 of honey. As you went through the hives last month you saw 
 the state of each colony. If any had more brood comb than 
 honey they will now require feeding. A little judicious feed- 
 ing is desirable, even in well supplied hives. It encourages the 
 workers, both to early swarming and to storing surplus honey, 
 A mixture of equal parts of honey and sugar is the best foi 
 feeding. Southern honey will answer. Boil and remove the 
 scum ; when it cools turn into an empty comb, or into saucers, 
 and put them in the place of the honey boxes. With a Lang- 
 stroth hive you can take out a frame and oomb, and insert 
 another containing the feeding mixture. If you feed in saucers, 
 chop up straw and sprinkle on the surface of the mixture, or 
 your bees will be drowned in it. As soon as the blossoms are 
 abundant remove the feed. {See Winter Management far further 
 remarks on feeding!) Every bee that you keep alive now will 
 bring you in golden treasures bye and bye. The supply of 
 water should be continued, as the bees are still maturing large 
 numbers of brood. ' , 
 
 May. Have hives ready for swarming. As the weather be- 
 comes warmer the increase of bees in the hives is amazing. 
 
502 HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAT. 
 
 Drones begin to come out, and if any swarms were witheut a 
 queen, and you gave them brood comb from other hives, you 
 will have young queens. If they are not impregnated within 
 fourteen days, take them out and destroy them, and give another 
 brood comb from some other full hive. You can tell readily 
 whether the queen is fertile, for she will then begin laying eggs 
 in one of the central combs. If the bees now begin to gather 
 much honey, put on a honey box and give them access to it, and 
 thus let them use the lower hive mostly for brood. If, after 
 commencing to gather honey, they are shut off by a long cold 
 spell their numbers are so immense and so active that they will 
 soon consume all their store, and feeding will again be necessary. 
 But if the weather is good, and the fruit blossoms abundant, 
 colonies treated as we have advocated will often swarm, or be 
 ready to swarm. (We shall treat of both natural and artificial 
 swarms under the head of June Management^ Bees will only 
 swarm when honey is abundant in the fields, no matter how 
 large and crowded the colony, or how large the stores. As fast 
 as they fill the surplus honey boxes and seal over the cells, re- 
 move the boxes, and put empty ones in their place. For making 
 artificial swarms, queen bees should be raised. It is well to 
 commence this about the first of May in this latitude, (Pennsyl- 
 vania.) Late in the afternoon of some warm day, take a comb 
 with worker eggs, and young bees just gnawing out of their 
 cells, and put it with all the bees that are on it into an empty 
 hive. A pint of bees are enough to take with it. If you do 
 not secure this number on the comb, shake them off from 
 another comb into the empty hive. These bees will at once 
 begin to raise a queen. They should be fed with honey and 
 water. In*,bout three weeks this little colony will have a fer- 
 tile queen for use in artificial swarming. 
 Summer Management. Jwne is the great swarming month, 
 
POULTRY AND BEES. 503 
 
 and with the Langstroth hives the farmer, who has a dozen colo- 
 nies, may take a swarm from each almost any day, and thus 
 have swarming over. But we will speak first of natural swarms. 
 The common idea that the young bees go off leaving the old 
 bees in the hive is a mistaken one. As we have before stated, the 
 average -life of the bee at this season is not over two months, and 
 the oldest of the bees in the hive must be the ones to swarm, for 
 the very young bees are not yet ready to leave the hive. The 
 natural, swarming instinct, is so strong that great care and many 
 precautions are often necessary to prevent overswarming. The 
 indications of a first swarm from a hive are not very distinct. 
 The swarm is to be led off by the old queen, and young queens 
 are reared to supply her place. An old queen will seldom ven- 
 ture out with a swarm except about the middle of a fair still 
 day. If, on such a day, when the other colonies are busy 
 gathering stores, one colony seems to be idle, but few bees 
 leaving for honey, ther^ is probability of a swarm-. If the 
 inside is now examined, and queen cells are found sealed 
 over, the bees intend to swarm at once. We say intend, for 
 th"fey often delay after all their preparations are made. A sudden 
 failure in the supply of honey blossoms, or a sudden change 
 in the weather will often delay them. Before leaving, each of 
 the departing bees fills the honey sac with honey, a large swarm 
 sometimes taking six or eight pounds. As soon as they get 
 well out of the hive they will usually cluster on some limb, and 
 it is a good plan to have the bee hives in plain sight of some 
 low trees. A still better plan is to have three or four pieces of 
 board hung up in sight of the hives, with a large black cluster 
 painted on each of them in imitation of a swarm, with a new 
 clean hive set under each. Take a board twelve inches long 
 add six wide, make a circle or an oblong on it, and drive in a 
 dozen small wooden pegs inside this circle, leaving their heada 
 
504 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 out half an inch. Now paint the circle black, drive a hook into 
 one end of the board, hang it on a low limb in plain sight from 
 the hives, and you will catch a good proportion of your swarms 
 on them. Have one in each of four directions. Every swarm 
 clustering on one of these can be hived without difficulty, by 
 unhooking the board, putting it down on a sheet, setting the 
 hive over it, and taking the hive, inclosed in the sheet, to the 
 stand. On no account ring bells, drum on pans,, shout, shoot, 
 or make any such disturbance. Its only effect can be to drive 
 off the swarm. If they rise high in the air, and make a bee- 
 line away, throw the rays of a looking glass upon them. When 
 they cluster on a limb, jar them off into a basket, and tip them 
 down on a sheet before the hive, which should be propped up 
 to receive them. If they alight on the body of a tree, they can 
 be dipped off with a tin cup and turned on the sheet before the 
 hive. If they do not all go in readily, take a spoon and scoop 
 them in. If a little piece of comb is /astened with wax on the 
 frames, they will usually take to their new home more readily, 
 and often begin work within an hour. A^ soon as they are all 
 in, remove to their permanent position. Do not leave them 
 long where they are hived, for some will leave for honey'when 
 they discover comb, and will be lost when they return and find 
 the hive gone. "We speak of dipping, scooping, jarring, and 
 shaking bees as if they had no stings. Well, bee-keepers per- 
 form all these operations, with no protection, without being 
 stung. The bees are filled with honey, and will not make an 
 attack. The only danger of attack is from some improvident 
 bee who failed to fill his sac, and is, therefore, ill natured. We 
 advise all who are timid and those who suffer severely from a 
 sting to wear a bee hat and rubber gloves when handling bees. 
 The bee hat is made by sewing a strip of cloth to the edges 
 of a common stiff brim hat, long enough to button under the 
 
POULTRY AND BEES. 505 
 
 coat. Over the face sew into the cloth wire gauze ; if just coarse 
 enough to prevent the entrance of a bee it will not obstruct the 
 sight. A little sugar and water sprinkled on the bees at any 
 time will make them docile. Have a sprinkler with a fine rose 
 spout, put in sweetened water, lift off the cover of the hive, 
 and, before they recover from their astonishment, give them a 
 sprinkling, and their animosity is all gone ; you can take out 
 their combs, brush them off, cut out pieces of comb, and do just 
 as you please with them, so that you-donot squeeze them, which 
 indignity they will resent. Many men open their hives and 
 examine their bees without even this precaution. In every 
 case great care should be taken to make no sudden, quick 
 motions about the hives'; not to jar the combs, but lift each 
 one slowly and carefully ; not to breathe on the bees, which will 
 instantly rouse their anger, when not dosed with sweetening ; 
 and lastly, not to crush any, by either inserting frames, adjust- 
 ing honey board, honey boxes, or cover, or in any of the opera- 
 tions of hiving. 
 
 Second Swabms are more clearly indicated than first swarms; 
 The second swarm comes out from six to ten days after the first. 
 If you listen at the hive in the morning you will"! hear the 
 piping of the queen. It is different from any other sound ever 
 heard in the hive ; it sounds like peet, peet, several times re- 
 peated. When this is heard a swarm may be expected within 
 two days, and usually the next day, if the weather is good and 
 honey abundant. The third swarm will come ofi' within four 
 days after the second. These swarms, after the first, grow 
 smaller, and are likely to come out at any time of day ; they 
 are also more likely to go a distance before clustering. "We 
 should lay it down as a safe rule that third swarma should be 
 returned. Hive them in the usual way, and the next day return 
 them to their old quarters. Where there are large crops of 
 
506 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 buckwheat, second swarms form large colonies, and will often 
 make very strong stocks. One swarm from eacli stock, how- 
 ever, is usually the better plan for any except experienced 
 apiarians. If any of the swarms do not prosper, they can be 
 united before winter. Keep your stocks strong, even if you 
 allow no swarming. Two weak Stocks will perish, when, if 
 they were united, they would make good stocks. In the Lang- 
 stroth hive the swarming can be controlled, and one, two, or 
 three swarms allowed, as desired. 
 
 Artificial Swarming. The advantages of being able to 
 control swarming are numerous. The three principal ones are, 
 that it obviates the necessity of watching the bees all through 
 the swarming season, prevents the loss of swarms, and secures 
 just the number of divisions desired, and no more. If it is not 
 desired to increase the number of hives at all, the queen is pre- 
 vented from leaving the hive, and the colony kept in the same 
 hive for several successive years. This makes very strong 
 stocks, and, if plenty of room is given for storing surplus 
 honey, usually nearly two-thirds as much will be secured from 
 this one hive as if it h-*d been made into two. It will be aeen 
 by referring to Fig. 110, that plenty of surplus room can be 
 given to the bees in the movable comb hive. A second hive, 
 with the bottom off, can be set over the main hive, instead of 
 the honey boxes, if desired. At the entrance of the hive are 
 seen two little blocks ; these can be arranged so as to prevent 
 the exit of the queen, while giving free access to the workers ; 
 and by this means swarming is controlled. When drones begin 
 to appear, and queen cells have been constructed, is the proper 
 time for artificial swarming. Have ready as many hives as you 
 intend to make swarms. In arranging the frames {see frame b, 
 Fig. 110) in these (which we shall call new hives, to designate 
 them from the occupied hives, which we shall call old hives) 
 
POULTRY AND BEES. 507 
 
 leave space for t-w o frames, vacant. If you have plenty of good 
 worker comb fasten it in the frames with wax. The bees are 
 delighted to find such treasures in their new quarters; they 
 serve also as guides in building new comb. Never put drone 
 comb in the frames, but if good, save it to put into the surplus 
 honey boxes. Having your new hives all ready, you wish to 
 open a hive and take out a part of its bees. If there are any 
 clustered about the entrance give them a puff of smoke. A tin 
 tube in the shape of a cigaf, but longer, is needed in these ope- 
 rations ; in it put a burning chip, or piece of dry, decayed wood, 
 or a burning puff ball, or any thing that will make smoke. 
 Now take off the top of the hive, uncover a hole in the honey 
 board, and puff in two or three whiffs of smoke. Carefully 
 loosen and lift off the honey board, give the bees a gentle 
 sprinkling of .honey water or sweetened water, and you can do 
 what you will in the hive. Experienced bee keepers omit the 
 smoke and'only sprinkle the bees. Now with a knife carefully 
 loosen each frame from the side of the hive. Gently move 
 those in the center nearer together, so as to give plenty of room 
 to lift out the end frame first. If it should be fastened to the 
 side cut it off with a sharp knife. Slowly and steadily lift out 
 each frame and shake the bees from the comb on to the sheet in 
 front of the new hive. Get the bees once started into it and all 
 will follow. If you see the queen, which you will be likely to 
 clo, be sure that she goes into the new hive, and all will be well. 
 Put about three-fourths of the bees and one or two combs, with 
 both brood and honey, into the new hive. See that you leave 
 queen cells in the old hive. As you have put two frames from 
 the old hive into the new hive, you will make their places good 
 either with empty frames or frames with worker comb in them. 
 This whole operation is readily accomplished inside of ten min- 
 utes, after a little experience. Now close up the entrance to the 
 
508 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 old hive and remove it to the most distant stand from its former 
 position, facing its entrance in a different direction. Keep it 
 closed (except the ventilating holes) until the evening of the 
 next day. Put the new hive where the old one stood before. 
 The old hive must always he removed to another and different position, 
 and the new hive placed where the old one stood. 
 
 A variation of the above mode for those who are afraid of 
 the bees is to puff the hive full of smoke, remove the top ahd 
 honey board from the old hive, anli the bottom from the new 
 hive. Set the new hive on top of the old hive. Drum with two 
 light sticks on the sides of the old hive, at the same time pufBng 
 fm occasional whiff of smoke into the entrance. The bees will, 
 after filling themselves with honey, ascend into the upper hive, 
 when they may be treated as before. This is a more uncertain 
 method, and should not be practised by any one who can muster 
 up courage enough to handle these harmless little insects. In 
 a week or two after making the swarms, examine adl the colo- 
 nies and see that each has a fertile queen. This may be ascer- 
 tained by examining the combs for fresh laid eggs. If imma- 
 ture bees are at any time found on the bottom or about the en- 
 trance to the hive it is a sure sign of a fertile queen. If colo- 
 nies that have queens are raising others, it is a sign that they 
 intend swarming, and the queen cells should be cut out. 
 
 July is often a swarming month in bad seasons, and swarms 
 sometimes fill their hives and make some surplus honey. Shade 
 is very necessary during the heat of summer, and also free ven- 
 tilation. Give plenty of room to old colonies for surplus honey, 
 and also to new colonies as soon as they get the hive nearlv 
 filled with comb. If there is a surplus of drone comb remove 
 it, for drones are great consumers. After your young queens 
 begin to lay, shut out the drones by means of the entrance 
 blocks. This can be done about one o'clock on some fine day, 
 
POULTET AND BEES. 509 
 
 ■when a large number of these idle gentlemen are out airing. 
 
 ^As long as there are plenty of supplies the workers will allow 
 
 these worthless fellows to live and eat their hard earned stores. 
 
 August is usually the season of the second honey harvest. 
 The second clover crop and the buckwheat now furnish sup- 
 plies. Bees will sometimes so prosper on buckwheat as to 
 swarm again while it is in blossom. In other cases the supplies 
 will fail in this month, and bees will be tempted to robbing 
 other hives. This is disastrous, as bees once succeeding in rob- 
 bing another hive will seldom return to honest labor. Eobbing 
 often occurs when the hives are first put out in the spring. 
 
 If feeding is commenced and stopped before honey is abun- 
 dant, the weak colonies are likely to be robbed. In opening 
 hives and sprinkling bees with sweetened water or honey 
 water, a temptation is given to neighboring colonies, and an 
 attempt will often be made to rob the favored hive. A strong 
 colony with a queen will never be robbed. If hives are a suita- 
 ble distance apart, as we have recommended, the chances that 
 robbing will be atempted are decreased. A strong colony with 
 a queen will defend itself so vigorously against- the robbers that 
 the attempt will be speedily abandoned. Thousands of bees are 
 however killed in these enjounters, and it is best to keep all 
 hives well apart, all stocks strong, all colonies supplied with a 
 queen, all that are destitute of stores in the spring well fed, to 
 preveni their making any attempt at robbing,; and keep any 
 colonies that may be weak closed up when the honey harvest 
 suddenly fails. The blocks will enable you to so arrange the 
 entrance that but one bee can pass at a time. If you discovei 
 that a swarm is being robbed in spite of this precaution close 
 up the entrance entirely. The robbers will soon cluster in 
 large numbers on the outside of the hive. Now sprinkle them 
 with clear cold water and they will leave. The weak colony 
 
510 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT, 
 
 should now either be joined with another, or supplied with a 
 fertile queen. Some directions for supplying a queen will be iu 
 place here. 
 
 Three weeks are gained by supplying colonies with a queen 
 when lost. The queen is most frequently lost when going out 
 for impregnation, and as she has destroyed all the unhatched 
 queens and there is no worker brood, the loss must be repaired 
 by the keeper. The indications of loss are plain, and when 
 young queens are a week old the hives should be glanced at 
 morning and evening. The bees run about on the hive, fly 
 away a short distance and retuirn, and all is confusion within 
 and without the hive. This swarm should now be given some 
 worker brood from another hive, or better still a fertile queen. 
 (See our direction for rearing extra queens.) 
 
 The bees will receive her if she is covered with honey water. 
 When queens survive their second year it is best to remove 
 them to give place to a younger and more vigorous one. In 
 using the Langstroth hives brood comb can be obtained at al- 
 most any time. The bee keeper who allows his stocks to remain 
 without queens is too careless to succeed. 
 
 Fall Management. September. The fall flowers which 
 are in blossom this month afford often large quantities of honey, 
 but some colonies now seem averse to storing it in the surplus 
 honey boxes, but will crowd the hive full of honey, and leave 
 but little room for brood. When such a state of things occurs 
 remove some of the full combs and insert empty ones. If the 
 caps of the cells are sliced off with a sharp knife and the combs 
 laid over a pan and kept warm a little while a large share of the 
 honey will drain out, and the same combs can be returned again 
 and again to be refilled. 
 
 October. Any stocks now found without a queen should be 
 joined to a weak colony. Weak colonies should be joined 
 
POULTEY AND BEES. 5ii 
 
 until all are strong. Put two or three of the fullest honey 
 combs in the centre of the hive. If any stocks have not a large 
 supply of honey feed them, the last of this month, or the first 
 of next. Cut a hole through the centre of each comb near the 
 top for winter passage. 
 
 November. "Last season I had three swarms of bees. In 
 November two of them died, leaving no honey in either hive. 
 On examination, I found the third swarm alive, but their honey 
 was nearly gone. Being anxious to preserve my stock, I de- 
 termined upon an experiment in feeding. I obtained twenty- 
 three pounds of Southern honey for this purpose, costing seven- 
 teen cents per pound. My hive was of the Langstroth pattern. 
 In place of the surplus box, I put a box containing a part of 
 the Southern honey. As the bees emptied the box, it was re- 
 filled, until in three days they had disposed of the twenty-three 
 pounds. The swarm wintered well, and from the .fifteenth to 
 the thirtieth of last June the bees swarmed three times. Dur- 
 ing the summer and autumn, I took from the old swarm two 
 boxes of honey, weighing eighteen pounds, and from the first 
 new swarm six boxes of honey, weighing fifty-eight pounds. 
 The four hives are large and are now filled with comb and 
 honey — fifty pounds or more in each hive — making in all two 
 hundred and seventy-six pounds of comb and honey. Last 
 season, one of the most disastrous ^o the bee keeper of any I 
 have ever known, my neighbors' bees all died, one of them los- 
 mg twenty-two swarms. Forty-four swarms died in our neigh- 
 borhood last autumn and winter, most or all of which, in my 
 opinion, might have been saved by feeding." — Cor. N. E. 
 Farmer. 
 
 Mrs. Ellen S. Tapper, of Brighton, Iowa, one of the best 
 
 apiarians in the country, says: "In the fall in every apiary 
 
 some vreak stands will be found. Some Tvill have too few 
 31 
 
512 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 bees, others too little honey. I unite these and never have any 
 difficulty. 
 
 "I alarm the bees in both hives which I wish to unite, then 
 leave them a few moments to fill themselves with honey. I 
 then put one of them over an empty hive, {my hives hav? 
 movable bottoms,) take each frame out, and shake or brush the 
 bees into the hive below. When all are out, set the other in its 
 place and proceed in the same way. The bees, all brushed to- 
 gether thus into an empty hive, are too much frightened to 
 quarrel. I then arrange all my frames containing honey in one 
 hive, and set it over the one in which the bees are. They all 
 go up rapidly and take possession of the frames like one 
 colony." 
 
 Winter Maitagement. December. The later in the season 
 the bees are able to fly out, the better ; the bee keeper must 
 therefore be governed by the weather and the climate. If the 
 bees are to be housed it is best to leave them out until winter 
 is fairly settled. A cold snap or even a heavy snow storm will 
 not injure them, but continuous freezing weather will. The 
 best place to winter bees is undoubtedly a dry cellar. Next to 
 this is a building with double walls, the spaces being filled with 
 sawdust, tanbark or charcoal dust. An even temperature is 
 the main object. Darkness and steady cool air tend to keep 
 the bees quiet. When removed to winter quarters the lower 
 entrance should be left open and wire cloth placed over the 
 holes in the honey board. This gives upward ventilation. 
 After the bees are removed to their winter quarters, let them 
 alone ; all light and disturbance are now harmful. It is scspie 
 times well to bury bees for the winter, if you have a dry, sandy 
 soil ; the trench should be made larger every way than the 
 hives and the spaces filled with straw. With a little care, bees 
 ?-an be wintered out of doors. If there is a winter entrance 
 
POULTRY AND BEES. , 513 
 
 near the top of the hive the lower entrance can be nearly closed. 
 The honey board should be removed and a straw top put in its 
 place, over which put the regular top. Drive stakes around 
 the hives and pack in straw. All but the front of the hive 
 should be thickly covered with straw. The entrance should 
 face the southeast. We have seen colonies thus packed buried 
 in a snow bank half the winter and come out in good 
 shape in the spring. In January, breeding is again commenced. 
 -In November and December there is no breeding, and but little 
 activity in the hive, but now active preparations are com- 
 menced. Supposing the bees to have been closed up on the 
 first of December, about the middle of January the bottom of 
 the hives should be cleaned of all dead bees and the bees that 
 are housed supplied with water. Eemove the wire cloth from 
 one of the centre holes in the honey board and put in its 
 place a sponge filled with sweetened water. Cover the sponge 
 with a tumbler. Again in about a month the hive should be 
 cleaned, and if any of the stocks have exhausted their stores 
 they must be fed. 
 
 We have thus far spoken only of management in the mova- 
 ble comb hives, and have recommended only Langstroth's. It 
 is the only one with which we are perbonally familiar, but we 
 are assured on good authority that che "American Mw,e" is 
 equally meritorious. 
 
 Box Hives will still be largely used, at least until the great 
 superiority of the movable comb hives is felt, and we will give 
 a few directions for managing them. The shape of the hive 
 should be long from front to rear, fifteen inches deep, twelve 
 inches wide, and twelve inches high. About these proportions 
 will be found to be the best. Inch boards unplaned are better 
 than planed. The timber sliould be thoroughly seasoned and 
 pery carefully put togettici. The hive should set into a 
 
614 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAY". 
 
 groove in the bottom board and not be fastened to it. Two or 
 three half inch sticks crossing each way in the centre of the 
 hive help to support the combs. One-quarter inch from the 
 top of the hive fasten slats four to six inches wide, of one-half 
 inch stuff leaving cracks one-quarter of an ,inch wide between 
 them. Over the top put a cover projecting on all sides and 
 fastened to the hive by small hooks. You have then both a 
 movable top and bottom board,' and a honey board, which is as 
 near a Langstroth's hive as you can come in a box hive. If 
 you already have box hives, bore holes in the top and put on a 
 cover like the one turned back in Fig. 110. It is seldom well 
 to take honey from the brood chamber ; with holes in the top 
 of the hive you can set on surplus honey boxes and get your 
 honey clean and clear as in the movable comb hive. 
 
 Nearly all the directions for feeding, watering, natural 
 swarming, and wintering, which were given for the Langstroth 
 hive are applicable to the box hive thus constructed. Artifi- 
 cial swarming is much more dif&cult and uncertain. The box 
 hive must be turned bottom upward. This is accomplished by 
 smoking the bees. When it is ascertained what colonies are in 
 condition to part with a swarm, the new hive is prepared as 
 before directed, also a square box just the size of the hive. 
 
 Turn the hive bottom upwards after smoking the bees ; set 
 the box over it and rap steadily on the sides of the hive, giving 
 them also an occasional whiff of smoke. In ten or fifteen 
 minutes turn the bees that have gone up into the box out 
 before their new hive, remove the old hive to a new place, and 
 HGt the new one on its stand as previously directed. 
 
 Italian Bees are, on many accounts, much better than our 
 common bees. Italian queens are sent in little wire cages to 
 all parts of the country. The common queen is removed and 
 the next day the Italian queen, cage and all, inserted in a hole, 
 
POULTKY AND BEES. 515 
 
 «ut into one of the combs. The next day she can be released 
 from her confinement and the bees will usually receive her. 
 The hive will soon be filled with Italian bees. We have often 
 given directions in this chapter without giving reasons, and 
 made statements without bringing proof. For full explanation 
 and proofs which will satisfy the most sceptical, we refer the 
 reader to the large works of Langstroth and Quinby upon bee 
 culture. In the mean time follow our directions if vou desire 
 the best success. 
 
PART THIRD-FRUIT CULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ORCHARD CULTURE. 
 
 THEIFTY, PEOFITABLE OECHAED is within 
 
 the reach of erety farmer, by as plain and simple means 
 
 as a crop of potatoes or any other farm crop, and we 
 
 shall try to rob this exceedingly plain subject of some 
 
 of the mystery that has been thrown about it, and give practical 
 
 directions for accomplishing so desirable an object ; beginning 
 
 with the NuESERY, for every farmer may as well be his own 
 
 nursery man. Select for the nursery a warm, dry spot, perfectly 
 
 dry, plow it eight or ten inches, subsoil it ten or twelve inches 
 
 more, spread on three inches of compost of miick and manure 
 
 thoroughly rotted, {see Manures,) harrow and cross harrow it in, 
 
 then cross plow it under. If to be planted in the fall, the 
 
 pomace from the cider press may be planted for apple stocks. 
 
 Break it up fine by raking with an iron rake. If planting bo 
 
 deferred till spring, the seed must be separated from the pomact^ 
 
 by a coarse sieve, and the sifted pomaee repeatedly washed 
 
 until clean seeds alone are left. Spread the seeds thickly on 
 
 boards, and stir until perfectly dry. These seeds should be 
 
 packed in slightly moistened sand, in tight boxes, and kept 
 
 through the winter in a dry, cool, place,, and planted at the 
 
 earliest moment in t^e spring. Pear seeds will have to be 
 
 519 
 
520 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAY, 
 
 collected more carefully, or bought of the seedsman , but we 
 recommend the purchase of a few bushels of pears. They can 
 be cut and dried, and when cutting them to dry the soeds can 
 readily be saved. 
 
 Cherries should remain on the tree until perfectly ripe, then 
 put into tubs and the pulp washed off. All other things being 
 equal the autumn is the best time for planting all seeds. If 
 they are to be preserved until spring, they must be packed in 
 moist sand. They should be sown in drills three feet apart. 
 Cover one inch deep with earth, and another inch with leaf 
 mould from the woods. 
 
 These few precautions will secure you a vigorous growth of 
 shoots. 
 
 For peaches, apricots, and nectarines, the stones should be 
 kept in layers of sand. Put a layer of sand in a box, then a 
 layer of stones, and expose them to the action of the frost 
 through the winter. They should be examined a fortnight 
 before planting time, and if, they have not begun to crack, give 
 them a wetting ; if they do not open by planting time, crack 
 them on a wooden block with a wooden mallet. Fruit stones 
 should be planted deeper than seeds, say three inches, and the 
 rows three feet apart as before, and covered with leaf mould. 
 This prevents evaporation, retains heat and moisture, and does 
 not exclude the air ; and heat, moisture, and air are the three 
 requisites of germination. These preparations are simple and 
 easily made, and will insure good stocks. 
 
 Plum stocks must be gotten from horse plums, or some other 
 native species that reproduces itself from seed. Otherwise it is 
 to be treated the same as the other stone fruits. In all these 
 operations it should never be forgotten that one good vigorous 
 stock is worth five poor ones; and the temptation to drop the 
 seed too closely, and thus crowd and stunt the plants, should be 
 
ORCHARD CULTURE. 521 
 
 resisted ; and as soon as they appear above the surface, if too 
 thick, they should be thinned out, and when four or five inches 
 high, all the feeble plants should be thinned out, and only 
 those left which are vigorous. The weeds must not be allowed 
 to grow in the nursery, but the cultivator must be kept running 
 between the rows, which have been left three feet apart for this 
 purpose ; and the hoe must supplement the cultivator. 
 
 These seedlings will often make a growth of from four to six 
 feet before the winter. Three feet is enough, so that they 
 thicken and are vigorous. If the seeds are planted in the fall 
 and all the above conditions complied with, the seedlings will 
 be ready for transplanting one year from the seed. If not 
 planted until spring, or if not thoroughly cultivated and un- 
 sparingly thinned, they will have to be carefully covered for 
 the winter, and left over for another year. There is only one 
 proper time for taking up all seedlings, and that is the autumn. 
 Begin at one end of the row, run your spade slanting under the 
 roots, pry them up a little, and then pull them out with the 
 hand. These seedlings can be packed away in the cellar, 
 covering the roots and half the stalks with sand or mellow 
 earth, or they can be heeled in, in some dry place protected 
 from the frost, and taken into the house to be dressed when out 
 door work, is over. 
 
 Another method of obtaining stocks is by Cuttings, {Fig. 123,; 
 or shoots of one year's growth, cut in the autumn, or spring 
 before growth commences, and planted in the soil. Under the 
 ordinary circumstances of the farmer, this method can be applied 
 only to such species as throw out roots readily, such as the 
 grape, quince, currant, and gooseberry. In making cuttings it 
 will be better if a small portion of the older wood can be taken 
 off with the shoot. If cut in the autumn or early winter, they 
 should be kept in damp mould in the cellar until the frost is 
 
522 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 out of the ground in the spring. Three-fourths ot the shoot 
 should be under ground, with one or more buds above ground, 
 they may be laid in a slanting position, which will bring them 
 nearer to the heat and air. The soil should be pressed closely 
 about the cutting. A third method of obtaining stock is by 
 Layeeing, {see Fig. 124,) or bending down the branches of the 
 plant and covering a portion with earth. The advantage of 
 this method over the preceding, is that the new plant is 
 nourished by the mother plant until it has taken root. Layer- 
 ing should be done in the spring, and the new plant cut from 
 the parent in the autumn. Make a slight excavation in the 
 soil near the plant, bend the branch down into the place, make 
 a small cut on the underside, and fasten it in its place. Sprinkle 
 a very little earth over it at first, and more as it sprouts. 
 The end of the branch, shoot, or twig thus layered should be 
 fastened up straight. A fourth method is often successfully 
 adopted with the quince, called Mound Layeeing. The plant 
 is cut down early in the spring, nearly to the ground, leaving 
 only a few buds at the base. During the. summer, shoots will 
 grow from each of these buds. In the autumn, the earth is 
 drawn up around the base of the plant, so as to entirely cover 
 the old stump ; another season, each of the shoots takes root, and 
 in the autumn,, strong stocks are ready for the knife. 
 
 "We repeat that all stocks, whether from seed, cuttings, or 
 layers, should be taken up in the fall and protected, and the 
 Dressing done in the house during the winter. This consists 
 in trimming the roots and cutting back the stem. If the tap 
 root is long and there are but few branching roots, the tap root 
 must be cut back to within a few inches of the stem ; if there 
 are branching roots, they should be trimmed ; if but few and 
 short roots, the ends should only be smoothed off; in the case 
 of layers and cuttings, only those roots that have been mutilated 
 
113 114' 115 116 
 
 Budding and Gbatting. 
 
 Fig. 121 
 
 Pbtjning. 
 
 . 123 
 Setting the Cutting. 
 
 Fig. 124. The Latee. 
 
 523 
 
OKCHARD CULTURE. 525 
 
 will need to be removed. All injured roots should be cut oif. 
 All these operations, and all cutting of trees, should be done 
 v/ith .a very sharp knife, in order that the cuts may be perfectly 
 smooth. As this cutting of the roots lessens the power of the 
 plaat, the stem must also be cut back to keep the balance. It 
 is always safe to cut it back one-third, and if it has grown tall 
 and thin with but few buds or branches, it will often need to be 
 cut back two-thirds of its length. If the tops are not cut back 
 the plant will not grow the first season, and thus^ whole season 
 will be lost. At the time of dressing, the stocks should be 
 divided into two classes, to be planted separately in the nursery 
 rows ; the most vigorous, both in root and stem, will be ready 
 to hud the first season, while the feebler ones will have to wait 
 over until another. Here will be seen the advantage of that 
 thorough preparation of the soil, cultivation, and thinning 
 which produces strong stocks. The work of dressing and 
 selection having been done in the winter, the stocks will be 
 ready for replanting as soon as spring opens. The soil of the 
 nursery should be thoroughly prepared as directed for the 
 nursery. If the soil is pretty clayey it will answer for the apple, 
 pear, quince, and plum stocks ; but for the stone fruits, consider- 
 able sand must be worked into the clay. 
 
 The rows should be three and a half feet apart, and eighteen 
 inches apart in the rows. The plot being ready, and the dis- 
 tances measured, a trench shold be made deep enough and wide 
 enough to hold the roots without crowding. The roots o.? each 
 plant should be dipped in a tub of mud and set in the rows, :ind 
 perfectly pulverized earth pressed tightly about them. But 
 few plants should be taken out of their winter bed at a time, 
 and the roots should be exposed as little as possible. Plants 
 with a single straight tap root may be set with a dibble, 
 or sharp stick two or three inches in diameter ; but care 
 
526 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 must be taken that the earth is pressed compactly about the 
 stem. All the Cultivation necessary in the nursery, is that 
 every weed shall be kept out and the ground between the rows 
 be kept mellow by the cultiva,tor. This should be furnished with 
 a short whiffletree and long traces, so that cultivation may go 
 close to the rows without injuring the stems. The most vigor- 
 ous of these stocks will be ready for Budding the same season, 
 twenty-one months , after planting the seed or putting down the 
 Jayer. 
 
 Budding, is inserting the bud of one tree under the bark 
 of another. It is done most successfully from July to Septem- 
 ber, when the trees are in their most vigorous growth. The 
 buds should be fully developed and the bud on the end of the 
 shoot, called the terminal bud, perfected. In budding the peach 
 the terminal bud is the best. The buds are cut smoothly oft", a 
 very little of the wood being taken with them. (See Figs. 113 
 and 116.) A cut is then made in the stock in the shape of a T, 
 the bark lifted, and the bud slipped under it. {See Figs. 114, 115, 
 and 116.) The tree should then be tied, leaving only the bud 
 exposed. Bass-wood bark makes the best bandage, but husks, or 
 even cloth, will answer the purpose. If in two weeks the bud 
 begins to swell, it has taken, and the bandage may be removed ; 
 if it has not taken, the operation may be tried again the same 
 season, or the stock left over to be grafted in the' spring. - It is 
 usually best to bud near the ground. When a number of buds 
 are cut at once, they should be stripped of their leaves and 
 packed in damp cloths, moss, matting, or sawdust, and in a 'jool 
 cellar, several days. If ordered from a distance, they should be 
 used as soon as received. All suckers, or robbers, as they are 
 termed, being shoots that appear on the stem below the bud, 
 should be removed. The following spring after budding the 
 stock may be cut back, as shown in Fie/. 117. 
 
■ORCHARD CULTURE. 527 
 
 The second method of propagation is by Grafting. This 
 differs only from budding, ia that it is the insertion of a stem 
 with several buds, called a scion, into the wood of the stock. 
 Scions should be cut in the autumn or winter, after the fall of 
 the leaf, from healthy., vigorous trees, and buried in dry sand, 
 on the north side of a wall or building, and a mound made over 
 them to shed the raip. The three common methods of grafting 
 are shown in Figs. 118, 119, and 120. The main points in 
 either are, that the cuts be perfectly smooth, that the inner bark 
 of the scion and the stock fit perfectly on one side, that they be 
 pressed tightly together, and that the whole be covered water 
 tight. The latter is accomplished by the use of grafting clay 
 or wax. Grafting clay is made by mixing one-third clear, fresh 
 horse dung with two-thirds clay and a little hair, thoroughly 
 beaten together. Grafting wax is made of tallow, beeswax, and 
 resin, in equal parts. A larger proportion of tallow makes it 
 more pliable; a larger proportion of resin and less tallow makes 
 a composition in which rags can be soaked and tied around the 
 graft. It is sometimes put on warm with a brush, or, if too 
 stiff for that, worked in with the hands; any way to make it 
 water tight. Grafting can be performed on quite large limbs; and 
 if the farmer has vigorous trees bearing worthless fruit, a few 
 dollars spent in grafting, and a little time in pruning, will prove 
 abundantly profitable. 
 
 EooT Grafting is extensively practised by nurserymen 
 upon apple and quince stocks, as it can be done in the house in 
 the winter. The seedlings, or cuttings that are to be root grafted, 
 are taken from their winter bed, a few at a time, grafted, and at 
 once returned. The stem is cut off at the collar, or the point 
 where it emerges from the ground, and the graft inserted in the 
 same manner as upon the stock. {See Figs. 118 and 120.) When 
 
528 now TO make the farm pay, 
 
 set in the nursery rows only the graft should be. left above 
 ground. 
 
 These trees in the nursery, now require but little, time or 
 nitention ; it is onlj'' important that the ground be kept mellow 
 l)y frequent cultivation, that the weeds be kept down, that shoots 
 that appear on the old stump be rubbed off, and that the tree be 
 kept upright. If exposed to high winds, or inclined to a crooked 
 growth, the new shoot should be trained to a stake. 
 
 Let us now take a note of time. Thejirst year was devoted 
 to the growth of the stock from the seed, layer, or cutting; 
 the second year to the transplanting of the yearlings and the 
 budding of the most vigorous growers. The third year, early 
 in the spring, those trees budded the second year should be 
 relieved of the stocks, (see Fig. 117 ;) those that failed to take 
 the bud should be grafted. The second quality stocks, not 
 vigorous enough to be budded last year, should- be headed 
 down to within three or four inches of the ground. In the 
 autumn of this year the second quality stocks are to be budded. 
 The fourth year we commence a systematic Pkuning, which is 
 to be continued during the life of the tree. Pruning is resorted 
 to for various purposes. 1st. Pruning to direct the growth 
 from one part of the tree to another, as from the top to the 
 base. This is accomplished by pruning the more vigorously 
 growing parts, and thus directing the sap to the other parts. 
 2d. To renew the growth of stunted or feeble trees, by pruning 
 them back to a few buds and throwing the whole vigor of the 
 tree into these few. 3d. To promote fruitfulness, by prujai»g-. 
 afierjhe foliage appears in the spring, thus checking the growth 
 of the wood, wBich promotes the formation of fruit. 4th. To 
 regulate the growth and shape 'of the tree. 5th. Eoot pruning, 
 to lessen the dimensions of trees and promote fruitfulness. We 
 phall give directions for pruning each variety of fruit in future 
 
Fig. 125. Fig. 126. Setting out the Yine. 
 
 Planting the Vine. 
 
 Fig. 127. Pktjning Sheaes. Fig. 128. Grafting Chisel. 
 
 ^^Pffi^B^ 
 
 Fig. 129. Pruning Saw and Chisel. 
 
 Fig. 130. Pole Pruning Shears. Fig. 131. Fruit Ladder. 
 32 "29 
 
ORCHARD CULTURE. 531 
 
 pages, but will here give the gbn:e;bal principles and prac- 
 tice OF PRUNING. 
 
 The time for pruning varies with the climate, variety of fruit, 
 and the object to be attained. Perfectly hardy trees may be 
 pruned at any time between the fall of the leaf in autumn and 
 its reappearance in spring. This may always safely be done ia 
 the South and Southwest. More tender trees, north of the forty- 
 third degree of latitude, should be pruned in the spring, before 
 growth has commenced. Trees that throw out shoots rapidly, 
 like the peach, may be pruned just before midsummer; but if 
 limbs of any size are cut,' the wound should be covered with a 
 preparation of shellac and alcohol,* or with grafting wa.K, 
 thinned and applied with a brush. The exceptions to the 
 above general rules in regard to the time of pruning are, that 
 trees which grow wood and leaves vigorously, without fruit, are 
 pruned back after the leaves are grown; and the pruning of 
 young trees during the summer by pinching, of which we shall 
 speak hereafter. 
 
 The amount to be pruned also varies with circumstances ; bat 
 we are sure that one thousand trees are pruned too little, for 
 every one that is pruned too much. As a general rule, one-half 
 of each year's growth should be cut away before another season's 
 growth commences. This increases the strength and vigor of 
 the tree, induces earlier fruitfulness, and promotes longevity 
 A well pruned fruit tree will bear sooner, more freely, bettei 
 fruit, and for a much longer period than an unpruned one. 
 These are objects worth accomplishing, when frijit is in such 
 great demand and at such remunerative prices. The cut should 
 be made with a very sharp knife. Haggling defeats the objects 
 
 * Mix enough shellac in alcohol to make a preparation of the consist- 
 ency of paint, and apply with a brush. 
 
532 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 of pruning. If the limbs are so large as to need a saw, the cut 
 should afterwards be pared perfectly smooth and covered with 
 the preparation of shellac. The cut surface should be as small 
 as possible, and always in single shoots^ ust beyond a bud. {Fig. 
 121.) The peach and grape should have a little more wood 
 above the bud than represented in this cut. By elaborate 
 systems of pruning and training, a tree may be made to grow in 
 an >' form desired, and the curious specimens in the gardens of 
 many horticulturists of France and England, and a few in this 
 country, are the admiration of all beholders. We speak of this 
 here only to show that the unsightly and ill shaped trees com- 
 monly seen in farmers' orchards are advertisements of either the 
 ignorance or indifference of their owners, as the shape of the 
 tree is entirely in the hand of the cultivator. This shaping 
 should commence in the nursery, according to our plan, the 
 second season after budding, or the fourth year from the seed. 
 The trees have had a whole season of growth and will show 
 very marked differences. All will be too tall and spindling, and 
 the tops must be cut back one-third to one-half, and the other 
 branches trimmed so as to give the desired shape to the tree. 
 The best shapes for each fruit are given in connection with the 
 treatment of that fruit. The shape of the tree during this its 
 last season in the nursery is governed by pinching off the ends 
 of the shoots: a few minutes each week spent among a thousaijd 
 young trees in the nursery will suffice for correcting any bad 
 habits of growth. If the top shoots up, at the expense of the 
 side branches, pinch off the terminal bud, if shoots form too low, 
 pinch them ; if shoots appear in wrong places, pinch them off, 
 keeping in mind always the shape desired. This is usually 
 done with the thumb nail, but a pair of nippers may be used 
 to advantage. The main point in this process is not to let the 
 trees spindle nor develop on one side at the expense of the 
 
ORCHARD CULTURE. 533 
 
 othej. In the autumn of the fourth year, or two years from the 
 bud, the trees should be transplanted to the orchard. This is 
 sometimes done one year from the bud, but the safer and better 
 way is to wait till the second year. 
 
 Orchards should be underdrained, unless very dry. A fruit 
 tree will never be productive with stagnant water about its 
 roots. It should be thoroughly prepared to the depth of twenty 
 inches by subsoiling, manuring, harrowing, and cross plowing, as 
 described in the directions for preparing the nursery. In addi- 
 tion to the compost of muck, manure, leaves, night soil, etc., an 
 application of fifty bushels of ashes or lime to the acre will be 
 advantageous and, if the soil be destitute of lime, necessary. 
 Does this preparation look like too much cost and labor ? Eest 
 assured it is the very cheapest way of producing fine crops of 
 fruit, which will sarely return the outlay many fold. Never set 
 trees in holes without thoroughly preparing the whole- soi'l. If 
 you cannot spare the time and labor to prepare an acre in tnis 
 thorough manner, prepare one-half or one-quarter of an acre, 
 and leave the rest until you can prepare it. The scarcity of 
 fruit is due to the hole system. If the young trees have been 
 properly pinched back, they will not need much pruning when 
 transplanted. Cut back only enough of the head to balance 
 the loss the roots have sustaine'd. When raised in the farmer's 
 own nursery this loss of roots should be small ; when they are 
 transported to him from a distant nursery the roots will be 
 nearly all cut off for convenience in transportation. This is 
 one of the reasons why we advocate the home nursery. The 
 roots of the tree extend as far in each direction as the height of 
 the tree, and where the ground has been kept mellow by culti- 
 vation, there will be but little difficulty in getting them up 
 nearly entire. Every wound should be pared smooth with a 
 sharp knife ; the roots searched for borers, and dipped in mud 
 
534 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 before replanting. A trench should be dug in the already .pre 
 pared ground, of such width and depth as to accommodate all 
 the roots in their natural position. The tap root if long may 
 be considerably shortened, say one-half its length, taking care 
 that enough shall be cut from the top to balance the loss. If 
 transplanting is done while in leaf, the leaves should all be re- 
 moved. The tree should be set at the same depth as before its 
 removal. One person should hold the tree in the required 
 position, while another throws in the finely pulverized earth 
 about the roots and turns in water to settle the earth. It is 
 essential that the earth should be closely packed about each 
 root, and puddling is the surest way to accomplish it. If trans- 
 P'anted in the autumn, a mound of earth should be drawn 
 around the stem, both to stifi'en it against the wind and to pro- 
 tect it from being girdled by mice. Otherwise it should be 
 fastened to an upright stake in such a way as not to chafe the 
 bark. Watering young trees after transplanting, as usually con- 
 ducted, is injurious. 
 
 Watering the tops with a sprinkler or hose at evening, 
 during severe droughts is the most effectual ; but keeping the 
 ground mellow about the roots and MULCHING is usually suffi- 
 cient. Spread a thin coating of hay, straw, or coarse litter 
 about the trees, and it prevents evaporation and the drying of 
 the surface soil. It is also a protection to the roots in winter, 
 and therefore is to be recommended for all trees at all seasons of 
 transplanting, and for tender trees, like the cherry, peach, and 
 apricot, is almost indispensable. 
 
 If the roots become frozen and thawed again in contact with 
 the air they are spoiled, but if well buried, filling all the 
 cavities before thawing, they will be uninjured. In transplant- 
 ing, carefully prepared labels stating the variety should be 
 kept on the trees, and a record made in some book of what 
 
ORCHARD CULTURE. 
 
 53c 
 
 trees are in each row. The following table shows the namber 
 of trees or plants required to the acre at given distances apart: 
 
 40 feet apart 28 
 
 33 " '• 40 
 
 25 " " 70 
 
 20 "' " 108 
 
 15 " " 194 
 
 12 feet apart . 
 10 " '• . 
 
 8 " " . 
 
 6 " " . 
 
 4 " " . 
 
 302 
 
 436 
 
 680 
 
 1208 
 
 2720 
 
 The rule for guidance should be to allow space enough at 
 least on two sides of the tree freely to admit the sun and air. 
 
 Note. The pruning saw and chisel and pole pruning shears [Figs. 129 
 and 130) will be found exceedingly useful' in cutting high limbs, removing 
 the webs of worms, cutting off fruit in the tops and on the outermost 
 branches of large apple trees, etc. They can be had of any dealer in 
 implements. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 APPLES, PEARS, AND QUINCES. 
 
 HE apple will grow upon almost any soil, but, as a pro- 
 perly planted and cultivated apple tree will bear for one 
 hundred years, the selection of soil and situation is wor- 
 thy of careful attention. The soils best suited to the 
 apple are limestone soils, strong clayey loams, and sandy loarris. 
 A too sandy loam may be modified by a dressing of clay. And 
 both clayey and sandy loams, if destitute of limestone, should 
 be liberally dressed with lime, before planting the trees, 
 and occasionally afterwards. Never plant an orchard in wet 
 land, until it is underdrained. 
 
 The northern slope of a hillside is the best position for the 
 apple in the Northern States, and the bottom of a valley is the 
 worst for any fruit in any Section. If it is the intention to cul- 
 tivate grain on the same ground with the apple orchard, the 
 trees should be planted forty feet apart. "We believe the better 
 way to be to plant them twenty to thirty feet apart, according to 
 the natural size of the tree, and cultivate nothing but hoed 
 crops between the rows. Rye should never under any circum- 
 stances be grown among fruit trees; and clover only to be 
 plowed under, or fed on the ground. The ground should 
 always be kept mellow, and for three reasons we recommend 
 high manuring and root crops in the orchard. The cultivation 
 
 of root crops keeps the ground mellow; the manure which es- 
 536 
 
APPLES, PEARS, AND QUINCES. 537 
 
 capes the crop, will be caught by the roots of the trees and thua 
 saved. The crops can be kept from growing near the trunks of 
 the trees. The pinching and pruning process must be kept up 
 to maintain the proper sbape of the tree. For the standard 
 apple tree in the farmer's orchard the lowest limbs must be six 
 feet from tbe ground, and all buds below tbis should-be rubbed 
 off or cut off after they get started. 
 
 The lower limbs should oe the largest and longest on the 
 tree. The tendency of growth is towards the top. If any of 
 the upper limbs outstrip the lower they must be cut back. 
 The better shape for the standard apple is the vase shape, 
 leaving the inside of the tree quite open. A few hours each 
 season will suf35ce to regulate the growth of quite a large or- 
 chard, and this care makes all the difference between a moss 
 covered, scraggy tree, and small, mealj^, crabbed fruit ; and fin-e 
 trees with large, fair, and well ripened fruit. The heads of most 
 apple trees are allowed to become so full of limbs thai the foli- 
 age shades all the inside of the tree, and no fruit ripens except 
 upon the outer branches, while if the surplus branches are kept 
 cut out the whole tree will produce fruit. Eoot pruning in con- 
 nection with manuring is of great importance when there is too 
 vigorous growth of the wood without fruit. Dig a trench around 
 the tree as far from the trunk as the extension of the branches, 
 cutting off the roots with a very sharp spade or a knife, and 
 fill the trench with thoroughly rotted compost. 
 
 We have seen most wonderful effects following this treatment 
 of trees. If repeated every other year, we believe most apple 
 trees can be made to bear every year. We have certainly seen 
 a small orchard treated in this manner bearing one hundred 
 bushels, when every other orchard in the vicinity was nearly 
 barren. To rejuvenate an old apple orchard, prune and graft 
 one-third of the top each year, and apply manure to the roots. 
 
638 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 Scrape off all the coarse bark from the roots to tbe branches, 
 and wash the trunk in strong soapsuds. 
 
 Says E. L. Pell, Esq., of Bsopus, New York, a very successful 
 culturist : " For several years past I have been experimenting on 
 the apple, having an orchard of two thousand bearing Newtown 
 Pippin trees. Three years ago, in April, I scraped all the rough 
 bark from the stems, washed all the trunks and limbs within reach 
 with soft soap, and trimmed out all the branches that crossed 
 each other." In the latter part of June " I slit the bark by 
 running a sharp pointed knife from the ground to the first set 
 of limbs. In July I placed one peck of oyster shell lime under 
 each tree, leaving it piled about the trunk until November, 
 when it was dug in thoroughly. The following year I collected 
 from these trees seventeen hundred barrels of fruit for market, 
 besides the cider apples. The trees were then manured with 
 stable manure, composted, and the succeeding autumn they were 
 again loaded with fruit, while the trees not so treated were quite 
 barren." This is the experience of many others who have tried 
 this process in a less thorough manner. 
 
 Pigs and fowls may be turned into the orchard before the 
 fruit ripens, and after the crop is gathered ; they will eat the 
 windfalls, and destroy thousands of worms by their rooting and 
 picking. 
 
 Sheep are less valuable in the orchard, as they only eat what 
 is on the surface. If tlie orchard is plowed very early and clover 
 sown, when the clover is pretty well grown, a litter of pigs may 
 ■ be turned in, and with a little additional feed will grow fat on the 
 feed and the windfalls while they grub about the roots, destroy 
 the worms, and leave their valuable droppings to enrich the soil. 
 
 We say to every farmer plant an apple orchard ; it will be a 
 source both of pleasure and of profit. Six years from the 
 planting of the seed you may begin to gather enough for your 
 
APPLES, PEAKS,, AND QUINCES. 539 
 
 own consumption, and in ten years a full supply. If properly 
 cared for, for ten years, you may safely calculate on fifty years 
 of productiveness, and we have seen twenty bushels of apples 
 gathered from a tree one hunderd and thirty years old. 
 
 To aid you in the selection of varieties we give a list of the 
 best and most successfully cultivated, as collated from the re- 
 ports of the various Pomological Societies of the country. 
 The month named after each variety shows the average time of 
 ripening. Best varieties for the whole country: Eed Astra- 
 chan, August ; American Summer Pearmain, September ; Early 
 Harvest, July, August; Grravenstein, October, November; 
 Baldwin, late fall; Rhode Island Greening, late fall. {Fig. 135.) 
 
 Select varieties for the North Eastern States in addition to 
 above. Golden Sweet, August ; William's Favorite, Augu.st ; 
 Sops of Wine, August ; Early Joe, August, September ; Porter, 
 September; Fall Pippin, November; Hubbardston Nonesuch, 
 December; Ribston Pippin, Roxbury Russet, late; Fameuse, 
 November ; Tallman's Sweet, November ; Northern Spy, about 
 November; Rambo, late; Westfield Seek No Farther, Novem- 
 ber, December. Select varieties of the Middle States: Early 
 Harvest, Red Astrachan, Early Joe, Primate, August; Sweet 
 Bough, August ; Jersey Sweet, September, October ; Porter, Fall 
 Pippin, Gravenstein, Belmont, November ; Twenty Ounce Pip- 
 pin, (for market,) November ; Rhode Island Greening, King of 
 Tompkins County, November; FameuSe, Mother, November; 
 Talman's Sweet, Ladies' Sweet, Baldwin, Northern Spy, Roxbury 
 Russet, late fall. 
 
 Select varieties of apples for Northern Indiana, Illinois, 
 Northern and Central Ohio, etc. Summer Apples ; Early Har- 
 vest, Carolina Red June, Benoni, Early Pennock, High Too 
 Sweet, Red Astrachan, Keswick Codlin, Hocking. Autumn 
 Apples: Autumn Strawberry, Bailey's Sweet, Dyer, Haskell 
 
540 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 Sweet, Duchess of Oldenburg, Lowell, Maiden's Blush, Eams- 
 dell's Sweet, Fameuse, Fall Pippin, Fulton, Mother, Eambo. 
 Winter Apples : Winesap, Eawles Jannett, Dominie, Jona- 
 than, Carthouse, Westfield Seek No Farther, White Winter 
 Pearmain, Minkler, Tallman Sweet, Northern Spy, Swaar, Bul- 
 lock's Pippin, Eamsdell's Sweet. 
 
 Select varieties for Southern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Ken 
 tucky, and Missouri. Summer : Early Harvest, Eed Astrachan 
 Carolina Eed June, American Summer Pearmain, Large YeL 
 low Bough. Autumn : Maiden's Blush, Buckingham, Eambo 
 Winter: Eawles Janet, Ortly, Yellow Bellflower, Winesap 
 Eome Beauty, Newtown Pippin, Ben Davis, Pryor's Eed, 
 White Pippin, Jonathan, Bullock's Pippin. 
 
 Select list for Virginia and adjacent regions. Carolina Eed 
 June, Gravenstein, Belmont, Fall Pippin, Yellow Bellflower, 
 Smokehouse, Eambo, Smith's Cider, Maiden's Blush, Loudon 
 Pippin, Limber Twig, Fallawater, Pryor's Eed. 
 
 Select list for Georgia and adjacent regions. Early Harvest, 
 Eed June, Horse, Bachelor, Meigs, Disharvon, Green Crank, 
 Mangum, Kentucky Streak, Nickajack, Shockley, Stevenson's 
 Winter. There are many valuable varieties left out from the 
 above lists, the aim having been to give such list as should give 
 a succession of marketable fruit, and productive and hardy trees. 
 
 This omits the Coggswell, highly prized in Maine; the Spitzen- 
 burgh, grown extensively on the line of Ehode Island, Con- 
 necticut, and Southern New York the Early Strawberry, mod. 
 erately good in all localities ; the Late Strawberry, a very pro- 
 ductive early autumn apple of the West ; the Broadwell, a fine 
 winter sweet apple in Ohio; the Pomme Grise, a Canada apple ; 
 and a thousand others that are favorites in small localities. The 
 above lists will however answer the practical purpose of the 
 farmer. 
 
APPLES, PEARS, AND QUINCES. 
 
 541 
 
 It only remains to speak here of gathering and preserving 
 the fruit. The more care that is expended upon these two opera- 
 tions the better the prices that will be obtained. The fruit that is 
 picked bj hand should be kept separate from that shaken from 
 the trees. If the tree has been cut back and not allowed to 
 
 Note. — The subjoined table gives the leading varieties of apples, their 
 season, the special use to which they are best adapted, the localities where 
 their cultivation has been tried and proved successful, and the localities 
 for which they have been especially recommended. While the list of 
 profitable varieties is by no means complete, each of the varieties is, beyond 
 question, safe in the localities for which it is designated. 
 
 Name of Vakiett. 
 
 Am. Summer Pearmain.. 
 
 Astraclian Red 
 
 Baldwin 
 
 Belmont 
 
 Bellefleur Yellow 
 
 Benoiii 
 
 Bullock's Pippin 
 
 Carolina Red June 
 
 Dominie 
 
 Duchess of Oldenburg.... 
 
 Early Harvest 
 
 Karly Joe 
 
 Early Strawberry 
 
 Fallawater 
 
 Fall Pippin 
 
 Fameuse 
 
 Golden Sweet 
 
 Gravenutein 
 
 Unbbardston Nonesuch.. 
 
 Jersey Sweeting 
 
 Jonathan 
 
 King of Tompkins Co...".. 
 
 Large Yellow Bough 
 
 Maiden's Blush 
 
 Monmouth Pippin 
 
 New York Pippin 
 
 Newtown Pippin 
 
 Nortliern Spy 
 
 Peck's Pleasant 
 
 Porter 
 
 Rambo 
 
 Rawles' Janet 
 
 R.I. Greening 
 
 Kibston Pippin 
 
 Roxbury Kusset 
 
 Smith's Cider ■.... 
 
 Spitzenburg Esopus 
 
 Summer Rose 
 
 l^olman's Sweeting 
 
 Vandervere of New York. 
 
 Westfield 
 
 Wine Sap 
 
 ■Williams' Favorite 
 
 E. S. 
 
 W. 
 
 B.W. 
 
 W. 
 
 S. 
 
 W. 
 
 E. S. 
 
 W. 
 
 E^ A. 
 
 B. S. 
 
 S. 
 
 S. 
 
 w. 
 
 L. A. 
 
 B.W. 
 
 E.A. 
 
 E.A. 
 
 B.W. 
 
 E.A. 
 
 W. 
 
 E.W. 
 
 s. 
 
 A. 
 
 L.W. 
 
 L.W. 
 
 L.W. 
 
 L.W. 
 
 W. 
 
 A. 
 
 W. 
 
 L.W. 
 
 W. 
 
 E.W. 
 
 L.W. 
 
 W. 
 
 W. 
 
 s. 
 w. 
 w. 
 w. 
 
 L.W. 
 
 T. 
 
 K.M. 
 
 M. 
 
 M. 
 
 M. 
 
 T. 
 
 T. 
 
 T. 
 
 T. 
 
 K.M. 
 
 M. 
 
 T. 
 
 T. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 M. 
 
 K.M. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 K. 
 
 M. 
 
 M. 
 
 K.M. 
 
 K.M. 
 
 M. 
 
 M. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 M. 
 
 T. 
 
 M. 
 
 K.M, 
 
 M. 
 
 T. 
 
 K.M. 
 
 M. 
 
 M. 
 
 M. 
 
 T.. 
 
 X 
 
 * E. S. — Early Summer. S. — Summer. E. A. — Early Autumn. L. A. — Late Autumn. E. W. — 
 Early Winter. W.— Winter. L. W.— Late Winter. T.—Xable Variety. K.— Kitchen. M.— Market. 
 ^ — Tried and proved successful. — Especially recommended in the locality named. 
 
542 HOW TO MAKE THE FARJL PAY. 
 
 tlirow out long, slender branches, the gathering will be much 
 easier. Do not use the common ladder, placing it against the 
 branches, but have a folding ladder, {Fig. 131 ;) also a long 
 handled picker with a bag attached. {See Fig. 130.) Fruit 
 carefully gathered, and packed without bruising, will keep in 
 a dry place until spring, when it will bring the largest price. 
 Whereas, if it is shaken from the tree and bruised, it must be 
 sold at once when prices are usually at the lowest. We have 
 known this very thing make a difference of twelve hundred 
 dollars in the price obtained for the apples from an orchard of a 
 little short of one acre. 
 
 Pears and Quinces. Pears require nearly the same soils 
 and situations as the apple, but more porous. Different varie- 
 ties require different soils. All require lime, and if it is not 
 naturally in the soil, it should be supplied. The following 
 table shows the soils in which a few of the standard varieties do 
 the best. In clayey soils : 
 
 Andrews, Howell, 
 
 Bartlett, Louise Bonne de Jer'sey, 
 
 Beurrb d'Anjou, Lawrence, 
 
 Beuere Superfin, Merriam, 
 
 Beurre Langelieb, Onondaga, 
 
 Brandywine, Eostieser, 
 
 Belle Lucrative, Seckel, 
 
 BuPFUM, Yicar of Winkfield, 
 
 Doynne Bussock, Winter Nelis. 
 
 All the above varieties, except the latter, Winter Nelis, are 
 benefited by a large admixture of sand in the. soil. The follow- 
 ing varieties grow best in a sandy soil without clay: 
 
 Beubbe d'Arembubg, Duchess d'Angouleme, 
 
 Beurre Bosc, Flemish Beauty, 
 
 Beurre Diel, Glout Moeceu, 
 
 Dearborn's Seedling, Urbaniste. 
 
APPLES, PEAES, AND QUINCES. 543 
 
 Whatever the soil, it should be thoroughly and -well cultiva- 
 ted. The pear on its own roots, will not -well bear transplanting 
 after three or four years of age, unless it is root-pruned every 
 year, or at least the year before transplanting ; but on the quince 
 it may be transplanted at almost toy age. But though in 
 gardens and in market culture the pear is usually grown on the 
 quince as a dwarf tree, for the purposes of the ordinary farmer, 
 to whom we speak, we -advise budding on pear stocks. At three 
 years from the bud they should be removed to the orchard. The 
 early autumn is the best time for this, and if done before the fall 
 of the leaf, the leaves should be stripped off. "When transplanted, 
 great care should be taken to retain as many as possible of the 
 small fibrous rootlets, as these furnish life to the tree. The 
 same directions given for transplanting the apple apply to the 
 pear, except that the trees should not be more than twelve feet 
 apart, which will allow five hundred trees to an acre. Every 
 farmer can find at least one fourth of an acre to devote to the 
 culture of the pear, which will allow for one hundred and 
 twenty-five trees, and will be a source of enjoyment and profit. 
 One need not now wait a lifetime to obtain the fruit, for six 
 years from planting the seed is ample time for the first crops of 
 this delicious fruit, and we know of thousands of pear trees that 
 have borne for over fifty years. We once knew a tree three 
 years from the bud to set over four hundred pears; all but 
 about twenty-five we];e picked off, but this shows how quickly 
 the fruit will mature, if treated properly. Pear trees set twelve 
 feet apart and pruned to the pyramid form, will have plenty 
 of room for a number of years, and as they become too thick 
 the poorest trees can be thinned out. The pyramid form is 
 very easily obtained if the trees are kept down, as the pear 
 should be, to within twelve feet in height. In the pear orchard 
 no calculation should be made for horse cultivation, and the 
 
54;-i HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 lowest branches should not be over three or four feet from the 
 ground. Dwarf pears on quince stocks are cultivated much 
 lower. All agree that the pyramid is the best shape for the 
 pear, and each pruning should have reference to this shape. 
 No grass or grain should ever be allowed in the pear orchard, 
 but all root crops are beneficial as for the apple. A small strip 
 can be plowed by the use of the short whiffletree, but most of 
 the cultivation must be done with the spade, digging fork, and 
 hoe. The pear must not be allowed to bear too early or too 
 profusely. It requires a great deal of courage to pick off half 
 the young fruit from a tree, but that which matures will be the 
 larger and finer, and the exhaustion to the tree not so great, 
 even if the weight of fruit is the same. The tree is exhausted 
 not by the amount in weight of fruit that it bears, but by the 
 number of specimens in which it perfects the seeds. Fruit 
 growers will do well to bear this in mind. For market or 
 kitchen gardens the pear should usually be cultivated on 
 Quince Stocks. The quince is a valuable tree of itself, but as 
 a stock for the pear,-, it is of the greatest importance. It is 
 usually propagated by layers when cultivated for its fruit. [See 
 page 521.) The soil for the quince should be deep, and rich, and 
 well cultivated. The common method of setting the bush and 
 letting it take care of itself is just as ridiculous as for the farmer 
 to leave his corn in the same way. They should be pruned 
 annually, and never allowed to grow bushy. As they are 
 usually near the house, they should be treated to frequent 
 doses of soapsuds, and the soil about their roots kept mellow. 
 Quince trees treated in this way will yield enormous crops i- 
 proportion to the size of the tree. The Orange Quince, of 
 which we have a beautiful illustration in the colored plate, is 
 the favorite for the garden. For stocks for the pear a different 
 mode of propagation is practised, as described and illustrated on 
 a previous page. , 
 
APPLES, PEAKS, AND QUINCES. 545 
 
 The stocks thus obtained are budded just above the collar. 
 Pears on quince stocks will usually have to be obtained from 
 the nursery, and we advise purchasing only of reliable nursery- 
 men, and obtaining assurances that they are not on the common 
 quince, which is worthless for stocks, but on the Angers Quince. 
 Buy the best that are to be had ; a few cents makes but little dif 
 ference here, but will make a vast difference in the final results. 
 If, however, the attempt is made to ' grow your own stocks, 
 select to bud on the quince only such as have proved successful 
 when thus grown. Many pears will not grow on. the quince. 
 The standard varieties that are best adapted for the quince are: 
 Beegamotte, Easter Beueee, 
 
 Beuere d'Anjou, Flemish Beauty, 
 
 Beueee Supeefin, Glout Moeoeau, 
 
 Beuree Diel, Louise Bonne db Jersey, 
 
 Beueee Gifpaed, Eostibzer, 
 
 Beandywine, Uebaniste, 
 
 Belle Luoeative, Vicar of "Winkfield. 
 
 DUCHESSE d'Angoulemb, 
 In the Southern States the Madeleine, Julienne, "White 
 Doynne, Lawrence, Seckel, and Tyson can be added to the 
 above list ; and for the Western States, the Tyson, Seckel, Kirt- 
 land, Noveau Poiteaii, Doynne Btte, and Bloodgood. 
 
 The pear on the quince should be planted with the collar 
 from two to four inches beneath the surface, for the quince 
 serves as a root, never as a stem. Here has been the cause of 
 the failure of tens of thousands of dwarf pears. If the quince 
 stock is above the ground it is more liable to be attacked by 
 insects ; it is liable to be broken off by high winds, at the joint, 
 and the pear, growing more vigorously, produces a deformity ; 
 while if placed from two to four inches below the surface, it is 
 
 strong, healthy and free from borers, while the pear itself will 
 33 
 
54:6 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 in time take root beneath the surface and grow upon its own 
 roots. Under the proper treatment it comes into bearing on the 
 quince in one-half the time needed on its own roots, can be more 
 readily trained to a pyramid form, so desirable in the pear, and 
 we think is just as long lived. "We at least know of trees on 
 quince stocks that have been in bearing over forty years. 
 Twelve feet ,apart is ample space for planting these trees ; and 
 where ground is scarce, if it is sure to be thoroughly cultivated, 
 annually manured, properly pruned, and the young trees thinned 
 of their first crops, six feet apart in the rows, and rows twelve 
 feet apart, will answer. 
 
 Summer pinching of the terminal buds is the best method of 
 pruning these trees. If the leader shoots up too vigorously, 
 pinch it off; if any of the upper shoots get as long as the lower 
 ones, pinch them off; if buds appear where you do not want 
 limbs to grow, pinch them. This is much better than to wait 
 until the wood is matured and pruning must be done with a 
 knife ; but if you leave it until then, be sure your knife is like 
 a razor. Gut just above a bud. Prune in the spring those 
 branches you wish to have grow vigorously, and in the summer 
 those whose growth you wish to check. "Where trees are slow 
 to come into bearing, prune in the spring, pinch through the 
 summer, and root prune early in the autumn. 
 
 The pear, unlike "other fruits, bears from a permanent spur ; 
 after the fruit has been picked, if this spur is cut back new fruit 
 buds will start at its base. The germs of these buds can be seen 
 at the time of gathering the fruit. . The wood buds are readily 
 distinguished from the fruit buds, as the latter are full and 
 plump, while the former are usually pointed. "Wood buds can 
 be converted into fruit buds by bending down or breaking off 
 the shoot just above the bud. This distinction between wood 
 and fruit buds should be kept constantly in mind when pruning 
 
APPLES, PEAES, AXb QUINCES. 547 
 
 the tfee. Old pear trees are reinvigorated by the same process 
 of grafting the tops, already described, for the apple. 
 
 Thinning 'the fruit, as we have hinted, is often necessary. 
 Says Thomas W. Field, a successful cultivator of the pear: 
 " Grood soils, fine cultivation, healthy and vigorous trees, and all 
 the other requisites of pear growing will- often fail of producing 
 fine fruit, if all that sets is allowed to remain on the tree. The 
 fruit of the Bartlett, Dearborn's Seedling, Louise Bonne de 
 Jersey, and many other varieties will set in such quantities 
 that, if thinning is neglected, not one-half will reach the full 
 size or acquire their best flavor. Besides, th6se varieties yield 
 fruit so early that the trees would be ruined by this precocious 
 fruitfulness. Two years after planting, these varieties will com- 
 mence bearing, and not more than a dozen specimens should be 
 allowed to ripen annually the first two years of bearing. The 
 period for thinning is when the pears are from a half to three- 
 • quarters of a'n inch in diameter ; for, as many fall soon after 
 forming, it is not until then the healthy and perfect ones can be 
 distinguished. Not more than one-half the thinning should be 
 done at once, and the others may be allowed to remain until we 
 can ascertain the imperfect fruit to be removed. 
 
 There are bijt few of the finer varieties that are not improved 
 by gathering before they are fally ripe. Not a few have been 
 discarded as unworthy of cultivation, which by early picking 
 improve so as to rank among the first in excellence. Several 
 varieties rot at the core when left upon the tree until fully ripe, 
 which will keep for weeks if picked earlier. Among these are 
 the Flemish Beauty, BeurreDiel, and Louise Bonne de Jersey. 
 The true test of the proper condition for gathering is, the cleav- 
 ing of the stem from the spur when slightly raised. Some 
 varieties indeed should not be left even so long as this. The 
 fruit should never be picked early in tlie morning while the 
 
548 
 
 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAY; 
 
 dew is on, nor in a wet or cloudy day. When it is necessary to 
 pick it in such weather, it should be exposed to light and air 
 until completely dry. Pears picked in the middle of a sunny 
 day are superior in flavor and keep better. Early gathering 
 applies only to the summer and Autumn varieties ; late keeping 
 winter kinds should be allowed to hang as long as the frosts 
 will permit. A dry, cool room should be used for the storage 
 and ripening of fruits, and there should be nothing in the room 
 from which the fruit can absorb flavor. The two beautiful spe- 
 cimens in our colored plate are the Bartlett and Louise Bonne de 
 Jersey. 
 
 The following table gives the varieties of the pear best 
 adapted to the different sections of the country. The abbre- 
 viations are the same as in the table for apples, page 54-1, with 
 the addition of Q, which denotes those proved to be most valu- 
 able on quince stocks, and therefore adapted to the home 
 garden. 
 
 Name op Vakiett. 
 
 Bartlett 
 
 Belle Lucrative 
 
 Beurre Bo«c 
 
 Beurre D'Anjou , 
 
 Beurre Diel 
 
 Beurre Easter 
 
 Beurre Giffard 
 
 Beurre Supei'fin 
 
 Bloodgood 
 
 Brandy wine 
 
 Buffum 
 
 Dearborn's Seedling 
 
 Doynne Boussock 
 
 BoynuG D'Ete 
 
 Doynne White 
 
 Duchess D'Angouleme 
 
 Flemish Beauty 
 
 Glout Morceau. 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 Louise Bonne de Jersey.... 
 
 Madelaine 
 
 Onondaga 
 
 Rostiescr 
 
 Seckel 
 
 Tyson 
 
 Urbaniste 
 
 Vicar of Winkfield 
 
 I Winter Metiji 
 
 B. A. 
 
 B. A. 
 
 A. 
 
 L. A. 
 
 A. 
 
 W. 
 
 E. S. 
 
 A. 
 
 S. 
 
 E.A. 
 
 A. 
 
 S. 
 
 E.A. 
 
 E. S. 
 
 A. 
 
 L. A. 
 
 A. 
 
 E.W. 
 
 E.W. 
 
 E.A. 
 
 B. S. 
 
 A. 
 
 S. 
 
 A. 
 
 s. 
 
 A. 
 
 E.W. 
 
 E.W. 
 
 xlx 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 PEACHES, PLUMS, CHERRIES, AND APRICOTS. 
 
 jLL these fruits are within the reach of, and may be profi- 
 tably cultivated by the farmer. Especially should 
 farmers' boys, not yet fit for the heavy work of the farm, 
 devote much time and attention to the cultivation of 
 these delightful fruits. We will try to make the directions 
 for their cultivation and care so plain that any bright boy can 
 understand it. 
 
 The Stocks for these fruits are easily raised from seeds. 
 Plump, fair, and healthy fruit should be selected, and after the 
 flesh has been used for the table the stones should be washed 
 clean, spread out, and thoroughly dried. "When dry, pack them 
 in sand, in boxes, a layer of sand, then a layer of stones ; this 
 box should then be buried on the north or west side of a wall 
 or building, just below the surface, and a mound made over the 
 top that will shed the rain. Here they will be subjected to the 
 frosts of winter and will germinate. Just before the ground 
 is ready for planting in the spring take them up, and carefully 
 cracking with a wooden mallet on a wooden block such as have 
 not opened, put them back in the ground for a couple of weeks, 
 but not so deep as before, and without the mound, as the 
 warmth and moisture will now assist them to sprout. In two 
 weeks, or as soon after as the ground will admit of planting, take 
 
 549 
 
550 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 them up and plant in ground prepared according to the direc- 
 tions given for preparing the nursery. 
 
 The Peach grows best on its own stocks, but hardy, late 
 growing varieties, like the Gorgas, Crawford's Late, Late Eare- 
 ripe, and other sorts of late varieties make the best stocks, and 
 the stones (or seeds) should be selected from these late varieties. 
 
 When opened the second time, those that have sprouted 
 should be immediately planted in drills from one to three inches 
 deep ; a light tbin soil requiring greater depth. The balance 
 unsprouted should be moistened, and put back for another two 
 weeks. 
 
 As these trees are to remain where planted for two years they 
 should be at least eighteen inches apart in the rows, and the 
 rows three feet apart, to permit cultivation. If cultivated, tha,t 
 is the ground kept mellow, the weeds kept out, and an occa- 
 sional top dressing of liquid manure given, sixteen months* from 
 planting the seed you will have strong, healthy, vigorous young 
 stocks on which you can bud whatever variety you choose of 
 this most delicious fruit the world has ever seen. 
 
 The time for budding, if on some late growing stock, as re- 
 commended, is in September. The process of budding is de- 
 scribed on a previous page. 
 
 In the spring succeeding the budding, the trees should be 
 transplanted to the orchard or garden, the same directions given 
 for transplanting the apple and pear applying to this and all 
 fruits. From eighteen to twenty-four feet apart is the proper 
 distance for peach trees. The same careful after culture, of the 
 
 * Some cultivators have recommended budding the same season the seed 
 is planted, but the stocks are then so small that it is a more difficult ope- 
 ration for the inexperienced. We prefer to cut back ths head of the tree 
 the first season, and thus induce the growth of a vigorous stem before 
 budding. 
 
PEACHES, PLUMS, CHEEEIES, AND APRICOTS. 551 
 
 soil with root crops and top dressings is necessary to the per- 
 fection of all fruits, and to the fruitfulness, health, and longer 
 life of all fruit trees. 
 
 The peach requires a light, sandy, warm soil. If too sandy 
 an occa3io,nal top dressing of peat, clay, muck, or loam will 
 amend it. 
 
 The pruning of the peach is, after the preparation of the soil, 
 the most important part of its culture. 
 
 The sap tends more strongly to the extremities of the shoots 
 than in any other fruit, so that left to itself the peach forms a 
 long stem and long scraggy branches ; while north of Virginia 
 it should never be more than twelve feet high, (eight feet is still 
 better,) with its lower limbs not more than three feet from the 
 ground. 
 
 This height and shape is easily secured by what is termed, 
 shortening in, pruning. For this purpose pruning shears are 
 much better than the knife. The fruit is borne only on wood 
 of the last year's growth, and consequently another great object 
 always to be kept in view, in pruning the peach, is to keep each 
 part of the tree furnished with an equally distributed number 
 of bearing shoots. Take a yearling tree in the spring, and cut 
 it back to within two or three feet of the ground. Below thig 
 cut a number of shoots will spring, of which three (or at 
 the most four) are to be allowed to grow to form the main 
 branches. All other shoots appearing during the season must be 
 rubbed off. The next spring these three shoots should be cut 
 back about half their length. From the shoots that will soon 
 appear upon these shoots select two or three, and rub off all 
 others from both stem and branches. This process is to be con- 
 tinued every year, by cutting off at least half tne growth of the 
 preceding year. Prune just beyond a bud as directed on page 
 532. The fourth year, and often the third, trees thus treated will 
 
552 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 begin to bear. They should, however, be allowed to ripen only 
 a few specimens the first year the fruit sets, an,d at least one- 
 half the fruit should be thinned from even moderately bearing 
 trees. If a tree will ri'i^en two hundred peaches it will surely 
 PERFECT one hundred. One hundred large perfect peaches will 
 bring in the market double the price of two hundred small ones. 
 
 A cultivator of eight acres of peaches employs ten to fifteen 
 men from eight to ten days picking off the fruit, when about 
 the size of a filbert, and gets two dollars a bushel for his 
 peaches, more readily than his neighbors get fifty cents for 
 the same varieties. 
 
 Fig. 122 shows the proper shape for the peach ; and it is as 
 tonishing what a hardy, thrifty, productive, and longlived fruit 
 it becomes under this system of pruning, which is accomplished 
 with great rapidity with sharp shears and a little fruit ladder on 
 the principle of Fig. 131. We have thoroughly pruned a dozen 
 large six years old trees in less than an hour, and are sure that 
 we could prune a hundred average trees a day. Can any intel- 
 ligent nian hesitate to adopt such a system, when so much can 
 be gained by so small yearly outlay. 
 
 Old trees whose vigor has been checked by borers at the 
 ■ffoots should be searched in the spring, and the worms de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 Says the author of " Ten Acres Enough :" " Ten well grown 
 bearing trees which I found in the garden were harboring one 
 hundred and ninety worms among them when I undertook the 
 work of extermination. I bared the collar and roots of each tree 
 as far as I could track a worm, and cut him out. I then scrubbed 
 the whole exposed part with soapsuds and a regular scrubbing- 
 brush; after which I let them remain, exposed for a week. If 
 any worms had been overlooked the chips thrown out by their 
 operations would be plainly visible on the clean surface at the 
 
PEACHES, PLUMS, CHEHBIBS, AND APEICOTS. 553 
 
 week's end. Having tracked and cut tliem out also, I felt sure 
 the enemy was exterminated, and covered up the roots, but first 
 using a swab of common tar, applying it all around the collar, 
 and some distance up." 
 
 These trees were also trimmed, and for years have produced 
 generous crops of luscious fruit. The same operation on nur- 
 sery trees, when transplanted, will deter the worms from taking 
 possession of the tree. Swab the stem from where the roots 
 branch out for about twelve inches up the stem. 
 
 Prevent the borers from getting in, and if they are already in, 
 make all haste to get them out. 
 
 Varieties of Peaches adapted to the latitude of the Northern 
 New England States, Northern New York, etc. : * 
 
 Bergen's Yellow F. T. M. George IV r. W. B. 
 
 Cambridge Belle F. W. M. Grosse Mignonne F. W. B. 
 
 Cooledge's FAVOEITE..F. W. E. Large Barlt,Tork....F. W. B. 
 
 Crawford's Early F. T. E. Morris White F. W. M. 
 
 Crawford's Late F. T. L. Old Mixon Free.. F. W. L. 
 
 Early York F. W. V. B. Old Mixon Cling C. W. L. 
 
 Varieties of the Peach adapted to Southern New England 
 States, Southern New York, New Jersey, etc. : 
 
 Barrington F. W. B. Druid Hill F. W. L^ 
 
 Bellegrade F. W. M. Early Newington F. W. E. 
 
 Cole's Early Red F. W. E. Early York F.W. V. E. 
 
 Cooledge's Favorite...F. W. B. George IV .F. W. B. 
 
 Crawford's Early F. Y. E. Gross Mignonne F. W. E. 
 
 Crawford's Late F. Y. L. Heath Cling C. W. L. 
 
 * Abbkeviations. F. Freestone. C. Clingstone. V. E. Very early. 
 E. Early, or previous to September. M. Medium, or previous to Septem- 
 ber 15th. L. Late. V. L. Very late. W. White flesh. T. Yellow or 
 yellowish. 
 
554 
 
 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT, 
 
 Laege Early York.... P. W. B. 
 
 Morris White F. W. M. 
 
 NOBLESSiE F. W. M. 
 
 For Pennsylvania add : 
 Troth's Early Red....F. W. E. 
 MoiiDEN White F. W. L. 
 
 Old Mixon Free F. W. L. 
 
 Rodman's Cling C. W. V. L. 
 
 Royal George F. W. E. 
 
 Ward's Late Free..F. W. V. L. 
 Red Rareripe F. W. M. 
 
 For Kentucky, Virj 
 
 Cole's Early Red 
 
 Crawford's Early 
 
 Druid Hill 
 
 Cooledge's Favorite.. 
 Crawford's Late....... 
 
 Early Tillottson...F. 
 
 Early York F. 
 
 Grand Admirable 
 
 Haines' Early 
 
 Heath Cling 
 
 Large Early York..., 
 Late Red Rareripe... 
 Old Mixon Free 
 
 For Ohio, Indiana, 
 
 Barnard 
 
 Cooledge's Favorite. 
 
 Crawford's Late 
 
 Early York F, 
 
 Grand Admirable...., 
 
 Heath Cling 
 
 Lemon Clingstone.... 
 
 Malta 
 
 Cole's Early Red 
 
 jinia, Maryland,' Delaware, etc. : 
 
 F. W. E. Rodman's Cling C. W. Y. L. 
 
 .F. Y. E. Scott's Nonpareil F. Y. L. 
 
 ,F. W. E. Troth's Early F. Y. E. 
 
 .F. W. E. George IV F. W. E. 
 
 .F. Y. E. Grosse Mignonne P. W. E. 
 
 W. Y. E. Hale's Early F. W. E 
 
 W. Y. E. Kenrick's Heath... F.W.Y.L. 
 
 .C. W. L. Large White Cling.. .C. W. M. 
 
 .P. W. E. Morris White P. W. M. 
 
 ,C. W. L. Old Mixon Cling C. W. L. 
 
 F. W. E. Royal George P. W. E. 
 
 F. W. M. Smock Freestone P. Y. L. 
 
 P. W. L. Yellow Rareripe P. Y. M. 
 
 Illinois, etc. : 
 
 P. Y. M. Crawford's Early F. Y. E. 
 
 ..P. W. E. Early Tillottson...P. W. Y. E. 
 
 „P. Y. L. George IY P. W. E. 
 
 W. Y. E. Grosse Mignonne E. W. E. 
 
 ,.C. W. L. Large Early York.. ..P. W. E. 
 
 .C. W. L. Leopold Clingstone... 
 
 ..C. Y. L. Morris White F. W. M. 
 
 P^ W. M. Old Mixon Free P. W. L. 
 
 P. W. E. Rodman's Cling C. W. Y. L 
 
PEACHES, PLUMS, CHERRIES, AND APRICOTS. 555 
 
 Troth's Early P. W. E. Smock Feeestone F. T. L. 
 
 Yellow Rareripe F. T. M. Ward's Late Free-.P. M. Y, L. 
 
 Old Mixon Cling C. W. L.. , 
 
 For the Soiltliern States : 
 
 BEST EIGHT VARIETIES. 
 
 Chinese Cling F. W. V. E. Bough F.W. K 
 
 Early Tillottson...F. W. Y. E. Heath Cling C. W. L. 
 
 La Grange F. W. Y. L. Large Early Tork....F. W. E. 
 
 Stump the World F. W. L. Serrate Ispahan 
 
 SECOND BEST. 
 
 Early Chelmsford... .F. W. E. Crawford's Early. 
 
 Crawford's Late F. Y. L. 
 
 Royal George F. W. E. 
 
 Horton's Delicious C. W. L. 
 
 Late Admirable F. W. L. 
 
 Fay's Early Ann.,.F. W. Y. E. 
 
 ....F. Y. E. 
 
 Harker's Seedling 
 
 Georgia Cling 
 
 Large Whitb Chng...C. W. M. 
 Montgomery Late F. W. E. 
 
 The American Pomologioal Society have approved the fol- 
 lowing varieties, in the order named : 
 
 Crawford's. Early, 
 Crawford's Late, 
 Old Mixon Free, 
 Large Early York, 
 Morris White, 
 George IY., 
 Cooledqe's Favorite, 
 Early York, 
 Heath Cling, 
 Grosse Mignonne, 
 Old Mixon Cling, 
 Troth's Early, 
 Stuetevant, 
 Ward's Late. 
 
 Smock Freestone, 
 Cole's Eaely Eed, 
 Haines' Early Red, 
 Lemon Cling, 
 Barnard, 
 Jacques, 
 Rodman's Cling, 
 Stump the World, 
 Yellow Rareripe, 
 Bergen's Yellow, 
 Columbia, 
 Druid Hill, 
 Grand Admirable, 
 Hall's Eaely, 
 
556 how to make the fakm pat. 
 
 Keneiok's Heath, Bellegarde, 
 
 Late Red Raeeeipe, Eaely Tillottson, 
 
 ScqifT's NoNPAEEiL, Hill's Madeira, 
 
 Tippecanoe Cling, Laege White Cling, 
 
 Yellow Albeege, Malta, 
 
 Van Zandt's Perpeot, Royal Geoege. 
 
 (We give representations of Crawford's Early and Early York 
 in our colored Fruit Plate.) 
 
 Surely, from such a list as the above, every mouth should be 
 supplied with this delicious fruit. 
 
 , The Plum is propagated by budding the choice varieties on 
 the common wild Canada Plum or the blue Sorse Plum. Two 
 French plums, the St. Julien and Myrobolan, are also used for 
 stocks. A strong, rich, clayey loam is the best soil for the 
 plum, — a porous or sandy soil harboring so many insect ene- 
 mies. The same rules of careful planting and after cultivation 
 apply to the plum as to the pear. The plum should be budded 
 in August or September. It is a vigorous grower, and each 
 year's shoots should be cut back one-half at the spring pruning, 
 or else should be pinched back through the summer. It bears 
 its fruit on spurs on wood two years old or more, which spurs 
 should be out back, after the fruit is gathered. 
 
 The best plums for general cultivation are: Washington, 
 Coe's Golden Drop, Green Gage, Imperial Gage, Lombard, 
 Smith's Orleans, Prince's Yellow Gage, Jefferson, Bradshaw, 
 Lawrence Gage, and McLaughlin. Several other varieties are 
 successfully grown in New York State, as the Colambia, Dam- 
 son, Duane's Purple, (also successful in New Jersey and Ohio,) 
 Huling's Superb, Monroe, Peach Plum, and White Magnum 
 Bonum or Egg Plum. 
 
 The Imperial Gage Plum is represented in our colored plate. 
 
PEACHES, PLUMS, CHEKRIES, AND APRICOTS. 557 
 
 The Cherry is budded on the Mazzard Cherry for a stock, 
 for about two weeks after midsummer, and is a doubtful opera- 
 tion, if performed at any other time. The fruit grows #n spurs, 
 like the plum, and the tree requires no pruning, save to shape 
 the head. The following is a select list of cherries, in the 
 order of their ripening, the first being about the tenth of June, 
 and the last about the first of August : 
 
 Early Purple Guigne, Early Eichmond, 
 
 Belle d'Oeleans, Elton, 
 
 Governor Wood, Black Eagle, 
 
 Coe's Transparent, Yellow Spanish, 
 
 Black Tartarian, Dormer's Late, 
 
 Mayduke, Belle Magnifique. 
 
 rockport. 
 The Apricot is budded on its own and on peach and plum 
 stocks. The plum is preferred, and is best adapted to heavy 
 soils. The soil should be deep and dry ; the situation should 
 be on the north or west side of a wall fence or building. It is 
 a delicious fruit, that ripens at least a month earlier than the 
 best early peaches, and deserves to be much more generally 
 cultivated. All directions given for planting and pruning the 
 peach apply to this fruit. The best are, the Breda, Early 
 Golden, Moore Park, Peach, Large Early, Eed Masculine, (the 
 latter valuable only for its earliness,) and the Golden Nectarine, 
 represented in our colored fruit plate. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 DISEASES AND INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT. 
 
 ■^HE DISEASES OF FEUIT TEEES are mostly the 
 result of either neglect in cultivation or the ravages 
 of insects. A thrifty, strong, growing tree is but little 
 liable to disease. Thorough drainage, deep cultivation, 
 and such manuring as is given to other crops will prevent nine- 
 tenths of the diseases of the fruit tree. 
 
 The Blight of the pear, apple, and quince has not been 
 traced to its cause ; but the remedy is to cut off at once all dis- 
 eased parts and burn them. This blight spreads rapidly, and it 
 is economy even to cut off the whole head of several valuable 
 trees, rather than incur the loss of the whole orchard. Stag- 
 nation OP THE Sap is mostly caused by barrenness of the soil 
 and water at the roots ; the remedies are therefore underdrain- 
 ing and manuring. Winter Killing is the result of the expo- 
 sure of the stem to the sun. A few warm days in the latter 
 part of the winter starts the sap and the buds, and the succeed- 
 ing cold weather freezes both. A northern exposure is therefore 
 the best for such fruits. The shorter the stem the less liable is 
 the tree to this mishap. Warts on the plum and cherry 
 should be cut off and burned as soon as they are discovered, 
 and the wound covered with the preparation of shellac before 
 recommended. The Mildew will not appear on the peach in a 
 deep dry soil, if they are well mulched, manured, and cultivated 
 
DISEASES AND INSECTS INJUBIOUS TO FRUIT. 
 
 as recommended. Stone fruits are liable to become gummed, 
 which is a troublesome and destructive complaint. When any 
 large limbs are pruned from these trees the wound should be 
 covered with shellac. In the cherry it is often the result of 
 tight bark, and a longitudinal cut in the smooth bark will 
 remedy it. All the diseased parts should be scraped off and 
 the place covered with shellac. The Yellows in the Peach 
 is usually the result of neglect in cultivation. Trees affected 
 with it should be immediately destroyed, and the balance ma- 
 nured and cultivated. 
 
 ^Nearly all other diseases of fruit trees are caused by insects, 
 the study of whose characters and habits is one of the most 
 interesting in which we -have ever engaged. The limits of this 
 book will only allow us to describe those most destractive, and 
 give plain practical directions for their destruction. We do not 
 give the hard scientific names, which, though of utmost import- 
 ance to the naturalist, only confuse the practical farmer. 
 
 The Borer is common to most varieties of fruit. The eggs 
 from which they are hatched are laid by a moth or beetle,* in 
 the tender bark just above the surface of the ground, commen- 
 cing about the last of June. The eggs speedily hatch, and the 
 worm remains for a long time just under the surface of the 
 bark, and then eats its way through ana through the wood. 
 The remedies are three in number, and should all be used, if 
 complete success is desired. It is of the utmost consequence to 
 destroy as many as possible of the original insect that lays the 
 egg. This is done by building fires in the orchard in the early 
 evenings in June. These insects, as also the caterpillar, moth, 
 and many others injurious to vegetation, fly abroad at this time, 
 
 * The apple tree borer by a striped beetle and the peach borer by a 
 wasp-like moth. 
 
560 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 are attracted by the blaze, and fall easy victims. The old bark 
 should be scraped off in the spring for twelve inches above the 
 ground and two inches under, and if there are borers in the tree 
 their holes will be discernible. Eun a needle or a wire into 
 these holes and destroy their occupant. Swab this portion of 
 the stem with tar, or wash it thoroughly with strong soapsuds. 
 Burn the old bark scraped off. Put a peck or two of lime or 
 ashes around the stem of the tree in May, and keep it there 
 until October, when it should be distributed under the tree. 
 
 The Tent Caterpillar is a terrible foe to our apple or- 
 chards. The eggs from which they are hatched are laid in 
 rings around small branches, mostly in July, by a reddish brown 
 moth. Each ring consists of three or four hundred eggs. They 
 are hatched with the unfolding of the leaf the next spring 
 They immediately begin to form a web or tent (whence their 
 name) and to forage on the young leaves. They do not leave 
 their nests until about nine o'clock in the morning, again at 
 noon, and just before night. They increase rapidly in size, and 
 if neglected devour every green thing within their reach. The 
 first thing to be done is to have every wild cherry tree cut down 
 and burned ; as this is the original chosen home and breeding 
 place of this caterpillar. Then this little circle of eggs should 
 be sought for at the time of fall or spring pruning, scraped off, 
 and burned. If any escape this cleaning, as soon as their webs 
 begin to show upon the tree, if where they can be reached, strip 
 them, off at once with the gloved hand, and crush them under 
 foot or burn them. With a long handled mop soaked in strong 
 soapsuds wet the nests that are out of reach of the hand. 
 
 The mop should be thrust into the nest, breaking it open- 
 the soapsuds will kill every worm it touches. This operation 
 is best performed in the morning, before the caterpillars leave 
 their nest, and should be repeated every few days until no more 
 
DISEASES AND INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT. 561 
 
 appear. Lastly, thousands of the moths, and thus hundreds of 
 thousands of eggs, can be destroyed by building fires in the or- 
 chards as before recommended. Kot only use these preventive 
 means yourself, but urge the same upon all your neighbors. 
 
 The Canker Worm is by many confounded with the tejit 
 caterpillar, but is of a different .habit, and requires different pre- 
 ventive measures. The female moth of this species is wingless. 
 They begin to come out of the ground early in the spring, and 
 crawling to the nearest tree deposit their eggs upon the branches, 
 and then die. The eggs hatch about May first to fiiteenth, aad 
 the worm immediately commences its ravages, which are often 
 fearful. When they attain their full growth they are about 
 an inch in length, from whence they are often called inch 
 worms. They attain their .growth in about four weeks, when 
 they drop or crawl to the ground and descend into it until 
 another season. To prevent these operations is more diflicult 
 than with the caterpillar, but an application of melted rubber 
 around the trunk will prevent most of the females from ascend- 
 ing the tree. A band of grafting clay about the trunk and 
 covered with tar will answer the same purpose. The orchard 
 infested with canker worms should be plowed up in the fall, 
 and the pigs and poultry turned into it. Bark Lice are often 
 found on young trees in great quantities; they should be 
 washed off with a, strong solution of soapsuds. If found on 
 old trees, the old dead bark should be all scraped' off and 
 soapsuds scrubbed into every crack and crevice with a brtish, 
 as high up as you can reach. 
 
 The Apple Worm is hatched by a small gray-winged moth 
 which appears in great numbers the first warm evenings in June 
 and lays its eggs in the blossom end of the fruit, where soon 
 hatches the little grub which eats its way into and spoils the 
 apple, causing it to fall prematurely to the ground. Soon after 
 
562 HOW TO MAKE TUB FARM PAT. 
 
 it falls the worm makes its escape, either into the grounder 
 under the bark of the tree, until the following spring, when the 
 young moth again emerges. It will be readily seen that the 
 first thing to be done is to destroy as many as possible of these 
 moths, by building fires in the orchard at the time of their ap- 
 pearance. When convenient, turn the pigs and poultry into the 
 orchard as soon as the apples begin to fall, or pick up the fallen 
 fruit every day, and feed it to the hogs, or burn it. Thus the 
 worms are destroyed before they leave the fruit. An old cloth 
 placed in the crotch of the tree when the fruit is falling will 
 attract many of the worms, and they can be readily destroyed. 
 
 The old bark should bye scraped off every spring, until you 
 are rid of all worms at least. Pear trees are subject to several 
 insects of the bark, which must be removed by scrubbing with 
 a stiff brush and a solution of potash, one pound to two gallons 
 of water, or whale-oil soap, one pound to three gallons of water ; 
 these washes should not be applied so strong when the tree is in 
 full foliage, and may be made stronger after the fall of the leaf. 
 
 The Slug is another enemy of both the pear and cherry 
 It resembles the snail, and eats the leaf. Soapsuds or strong 
 tobaccco water will destroy him. 
 
 The CuBCULio is the great enemy of the plum species, and 
 often attacks other fruits. It is a small brown insect, which 
 laakes a crescent shaped incision in the fruit, and in it deposits 
 its eggs. This is done mostly in May and June. The grub is 
 soon hatched, and eats its way to the stone, when the fruit drops 
 from the tree, and the grub escapes into the ground. These 
 troublesome little insects appropriate to themselves whole or- 
 chards of fruit, first the apricot, plum and cherry, then the 
 'apple, pear, peach, and other fruits. The apricot and plum 
 being first attacked, the work of destruction must commence 
 here. When the Ourculio first makes its appearance in 
 
DISEASES AND INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT. 568 
 
 numbers, place a sheet on the ground under the tree, and strike 
 the trunk with a wooden mallet, (cover the head with cloth so 
 as not to bruise the bark,) and they will fall, all curled up, and 
 apparently lifeless, when they can easily be collected and de- 
 stroyed. Repeat this every morning for a week. When the 
 fruit begins to fall gather it up every day and destroy it, or let 
 the pigs do it for you.* On account of the curculio, the soil for 
 the plum should be heavy clay, and never cultivated; the 
 harder the ground under the tree the less chance is there for the 
 burrowing and hatching of the grub. Paving under the trees 
 or a coating of mortar prevents this. 
 
 In all this work of destroying our insect enemies we are 
 aided by the numerous birds of the orchard and the garden. 
 They should therefore be encouraged in every possible way to 
 take up their abodes with us. The English Sparrows are to 
 be especially recommended for this purpose. If every farmer 
 woiild place one or more pairs of these little friends in his 
 orchard, they and their rapidly increasing progeny would soon 
 save many dollars worth of fruit from the insect destroyer. 
 Their wanton destruction by thoughtless men or boys is not 
 only cruel, but costly. 
 
 *A careful fruit grower informs us that he drives a spike into the tree 
 just under the largest branch, and strikes the spike when he wishes to jar 
 the tree. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 GRAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING. 
 
 ifr'HE COENER STONES OF GRAPE CULTURE are 
 underdraining, deep and thorough preparation of the 
 soil, horizontal training, and renewal pruning. Under- 
 draining has been already fiilly described. The subse- 
 quent operations are treated of in this Chapter. 
 
 ViNEYAED Culture. The soil in which the grape will not 
 grow is hardly to be found. Limestone soils are best, as they 
 need the least preparation. A loose, friable soil, whether it be 
 sand, gravel, or loam, is rather to be chosen, than clay or muck, 
 although even these may be reclaimed. The situation should 
 be one protected from the north winds. This may be secured 
 by planting on the southern, eastern, or southeastern slope of a 
 hill ; or, if this cannot be secured, a belt of woods at the north 
 will answer the purpose; but where neither of these can be 
 had, a belf'of evergreens should be planted across the northern 
 end of the vineyard, at least thirty feet from where the vines 
 are to stand. The valley .of a small stream is unfavorable, 
 while the valley of a large stream, or the vicinity of a large 
 body of water, is desirable. Whatever the situation, the soil 
 must be made perfectly dry and open by underdraining. 
 
 The Preparation of the Soil is a matter of the utmost 
 importancie, and it should be borne in mind that this is not an 
 
 ordinary crop, and does not require an annual preparation, but 
 564 
 
GRAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING. 565 
 
 it is one that requires but one planting in a lifetime, wHle it 
 will reward us with annual harvests. Many of the new soils in 
 our Western States need no manures ; but a soil not naturally 
 adapted to the grape, or partially exhausted, will need various 
 additions. If the soil is not surcharged with lime a liberal 
 dressing of it will always be beneficial. When the soil is 
 sandy or gravelly, it will require an abundant dressing of barn- 
 yard manure, muck, leaf mould, or the plowing under of green 
 crops. Muck and leaf mould are especially valuable on such 
 soils, and thousands of acres of almost barren, sandy soils, 
 in the Eastern States, by the application of leaf mould from 
 the adjoining forest or muck from the neighboring swamp, 
 might be made to bear most luxuriant and profitable crops of 
 the grape. Such soils, thus amended, are easily worked, are 
 already underdrained, and produce the richest quality of fruit. 
 Whatever the soil, it should be plowed and subsoiled to the 
 depth of twenty inches, and manured with a compost of peat 
 or muck and leaf mould, with old well rotted stable manure. 
 This compost should be made several months before it is 
 applied, and thoroughly forked over frequently before tlsing. 
 Ashes, lime, bones, or charcoal will always prove a valuable 
 addition. A few soils will do without any application but a 
 top dressing of lime, harrowed in ; others will require a light 
 dressing of fifty loads to the acre, and from this up to two or 
 three hundred loads. Where the barnyard manure cannot be 
 obtained, the compost may be made without it, adding lime 
 ashes and a bushel of salt to every ten loads. This compost 
 should stand at least six months, and be frequently forked over. 
 Whichever compost is used, it should be applied after the plow- 
 ing and subsoiling, and cross plowed in, then harrowed and 
 cross harrowed, as complete pulverization is of the utmost im- 
 jyortance to the young vines. " "Will all this pay?" We 
 
666 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 answer that there can be no doubt but that it will pay m 3sl 
 abundantly. After the preparation of the soil and planting of 
 the vine, the expense of culture is small, while the crops con- 
 tinue and increase. 
 
 Pedpagation feom Seeds and Layers, but peincipally 
 FEOM Cuttings. The seeds are cleaned and sown exactly as 
 described for the pear. This process is not common, but is 
 both interesting and profitable. Grape Yines are usually 
 bought of the nurserymto, but for several reasons we recom- 
 mend the raising each man of his own. Of course, the first 
 vines must be procured from some other source. Select two or 
 three varieties which you wish to cultivate, and order two or 
 three vines of each kind. Prepare a border three feet deep 
 with leaf mould, etc. Set the vines as described elsewhere, 
 (See Fig. 123.) Only one shoot should be allowed to grow the 
 first season ; all others must be rubbed off. Train this cane to 
 an upright stake six or eight feet high. It is not best to let 
 it grow higher than this ; pinch off the top if it does. In the 
 autumn cut it down to four buds, and in the extreme north 
 protect the vine with straw through the winter. Two of the 
 buds only should be allowed to grow, in the spring. If any 
 fruit clusters appear, pinch them ofi"; also all laterals above the 
 first leaf and all tendrils: the object is strong wood. Pinch 
 the tops as before, if they grow above the stake. In the au- 
 tumn one of these canes should be again cut down to two buds, 
 and the other about one-third its length ; if the cane is six feet 
 this will leave four feet. If it is desirable to protect the vine, 
 it can be bent down and covered with straw or earth. These 
 four feet canes we intend for layering, and the wood cut off for 
 cuttings. The length of wood cut from these ten vines, sup- 
 posing the canes to have been only six feet long, will be forty 
 feet, which will make from one hundred to one hundred and 
 
GEAPE OULTtTEE AND WINE MAKING. 567 
 
 twenty cuttings. Each cutting should have at least two buds. 
 {See Fig. 123.) The cuttings will be from four to six inches in 
 length. These cuttings should be packed in boxes in moist 
 sand or damp moss, and buried out of reach of frost, or put in 
 the cellar. In the South they may be set out in the fall, and 
 we have set them out in Massachusetts in the fall, and protected 
 them until spring with heavy coatings of manure and mulch ; 
 but the safest way, as far north as this, is to pack them away 
 until spring. The cutting bed should be prepared early in the 
 fall. Supposing we have one hundred cuttings, we want a bed 
 two rods long and four feet wide. This should be trenched two 
 feet deep and the compost worked in to the depth of eighteen 
 inches. Six inches of the compost with two pecks of ashes 
 will make a good bed. In all these applications leaf mould is 
 especially valuable. The trenches for the cuttings should be a 
 little deeper than the length of the cutting and nearly perpen- 
 dicular on one side. {See Fig. 123.) The cuttings should be 
 placed from three to four inches apart in the trench, and the 
 trenches two feet apart. Fig. 123 shows the position of the 
 cutting when set. The top of the bud, however, should be 
 about one inch below the level of the surface. The earth 
 should be pressed carefully, but closely, about the cutting at 
 the bottom, and more loosely about the upper bud, which 
 should be just covered. This will leave the trench an inch 
 lower than the surface. After the bud has made a shoot of two 
 or three inches the trench may be filled, covering the bud one 
 inch and mulching the ground on each side the rows. These 
 cuttings will make a growth of from three to six feet, and 
 should be kept tied to stakes to help the ripening of the wood. 
 In the autumn they should be transplanted, but not yet to the 
 vineyard. {See Transplanting) 
 The third method of propagation is by layers. We left a cane 
 
6tj8 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 four feet long on each of our original ten vines, for Layebing. 
 This is the most certain method in use, although the number 
 of plants obtained is not so large. We would say here that un- 
 less the vine makes a very vigorous growth, it is better to delay 
 layering until the third season, cutting loth canes back to two 
 buds instead of one, as recommended above. When, however, it 
 is decided to layer the vine, uncover it, if covered, as soon as the 
 frosts are passed, and when the buds ^et well started dig a 
 trench from the vine six inches wide, from four to six inches 
 deep, and long enough to receive the cane, which should be 
 bent down to the bottom of the trench, and fastened there by 
 hooked pegs or flat stones. The vine should lie flat in the 
 bottom of the trench. {Fig. 124.) Let it remain until the 
 shoots have grown three or four inches, then rub off those not 
 wanted. Four shoots for a four feet vine is a - good rule to 
 follow in this selection. Drive down a stake by the side of each 
 and draw an inch of soil into the trench. In ten days or a fort- 
 night a little more dirt can be drawn in, and so on, until the 
 whole trench is filled. Never fill the trench when the vine is 
 layered in the spring, as it will be likely to cause rot. Bach 
 of the shoots should be trained to a stake, and no one cane al- 
 lowed to take too much of the sap. If one shoot gets the start 
 of the others it must be pinohed ofi". Hoe the ground frequently 
 through the summer, or else mulch it to keep down the weeds, 
 and absorb the moisture. The other cane that was cut down to 
 two buds should be allowed to produce two or three shoots only, 
 and all laterals, tendrils, and fruit clusters taken off, unless you 
 wish to perfect a few bunches to test their quality, when onlv 
 two shoots should be allowed to grow, and a single bunch of 
 fruit allowed to mature on each one. It is not best to make 
 layers and take fruit from the same plant. 
 Layers can be taken from the parent vine in the fall or the 
 
GRAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING. 569 
 
 following spring. Remember in taking up and cutting the 
 layers that the roots should be towards the parent vine, so that 
 the sap will not have to go backwards. The further treatment 
 of these layers will be treated in remarks on transplanting 
 This same process of cutting down' one cane and layering 
 another can be carried on so long as vines are wanted, provided 
 that every year the plant makes a vigorous growth of wood, 
 but if it does not it should have a year of rest. It is now three 
 years since we planted the original ten vines, and we have at 
 least one hundred and fifty vines ready for transplanting. Not 
 only will you have better plants, and at a less cost, than when 
 procured from a nursery, but you will have practical experience 
 of, the habits of the vine that will be of value to you in future 
 cultivation. 
 
 Transplanting should be done in the autumn, after the fall 
 of the leaf, except with tender varieties and extreme northern 
 latitudes. 
 
 The vines, whether layers or cuttings, should be taken up very 
 carefully with a spading fork, preserving all the roots if possi- 
 ble. These roots can then be cut carefully and evenly. A 
 small portion of the roots, if well covered with fine fibrous root- 
 lets, will answer the purposes of the plant. If transplanted in 
 the spring the stem cane should be cut down to two buds, if in 
 the fall four should be left from which to select two in the 
 spring. Whether to be planted in the fall or no, it is better to 
 take up the plants, and cut back the head and roots in the fall, 
 which is also much the best time to get plants from the nursery. 
 These plants should be heeled in for the winter, which consists 
 in covering the roots and most of the stem with mellow earth 
 and straw to protect from frost. In transplanting, the roots 
 should be left exposed to the air as little as possible. 
 
 Thtj trench should be dug before the vines are taken up. 
 
570 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 This trench should be eighteen inches wide, three deep on ona 
 side and five on the other, and the vines set in it, as in Fig. 125, 
 three feet apart. The benefit of this transplanting to the nur- 
 sery a year before the final transplanting to the vineyard will 
 be great and lasting. The soil in tbe nursery should be pre- 
 pared just as directed for the cutting bed. "Well grown layers 
 may sometimes be transplanted at once to the vineyard, but will 
 be permanently benefited by a second transplanting. They 
 should during this season in the nursery be trained to upright 
 stakes, and all laterals and tendrils pinched off. And as we 
 shall have occasion to speak often of laterals and tendrils we 
 will explain what we mean. A lateral is a small branch which 
 grows from the axel or arm pit of the leaf, close between the leaf 
 and the stem of the vine. It will not do to take it out wholly, 
 but when it has made two or three leaves pinch off all but one ; 
 if it starts again, pinch again, leaving one more leaf A tendril 
 is a curling stem which grows opposite a bud or leaf, without 
 fruiting, and should be cut off. 
 
 After standing one season in tbe nursery comes their final 
 transplanting to the vineyard. "We speak of the cutting bed 
 nursery and vineyard, as of three separate places, but the two 
 former may well be in a corner of the latter. The holes for the 
 plants should be dug before they are removed. The rows 
 should run east and west six feet apart, and the plants four feet 
 apart in the rows. If in after years these should be found too 
 close, an arm can be cut off to give the desired room. If the 
 roots upon the vines when taken from the nursery are circular, 
 as is usually the case- with cuttings, the holes should be circular, 
 six inches deep at the edges, and two or three deep in the 
 centre. If the roots are all on one side, as is often the case with 
 layers, the square hole will accommodate them, the tips of tha 
 roots being placed lower than the base. {Figs. 125 and 126.) 
 
GEAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKUS'G, 571 
 
 The same rules for cuttiag back roots and cane apply here 
 as before. The soil should be pressed closely about the roots 
 and protected from the frost by straw. Unless the trellis is set 
 before planting, a stout stake eight feet long should be driven 
 firmly into each hole before the vines are set. The roots should 
 be carefully spread out before covering them. In fall planting 
 a little mound should be raised about the stem to protect the 
 lower buds ; in spring planting this is reversed, and a hollow left 
 about the stem, to collect the rains, which should be filled, and 
 the ground mulched as soon as the vine gets well started into 
 growth. 
 
 Five years have now passed since the purchase of the first 
 vines. Let us review them. The first year we grew a single 
 cane on each vine, which when cut afforded us say thirty cut- 
 tings. The second we grew these thirty cuttings, also twenty 
 canes on the ten vines, which made us say one hundred cuttings. 
 The third year we transplanted the thirty cuttings to the nur- 
 sery, grew one hundred more cuttings and forty plants by layer- 
 ing, and made, if we saved the wood cut from all the vines at 
 transplanting, over six hundred cuttings; the fourth year we 
 transplanted one hundred and forty plants to the nursery, and 
 grew the six hundred cuttings. At the end of the fifth year we 
 have eight hundred plants in the vineyard, (one hundred and 
 seventy of them having been there a year, and borne a sample 
 cluster of fruit each,) an indefinite number of plants in the nur- 
 sery, and several thousands in the cutting bed, if we made all 
 the pruned wood into cuttings. It may be well to do this, for 
 grape growing is contagious, and some of your neighbors will 
 by this time have the fever, and you can supply them with 
 better plants at a less price than the nurseryman. Encourage 
 all your neighbors to go into it and give them such advice as 
 you can, for the business cannot be overdone, and the more 
 
572 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 there are raised in a given locality the more readily will you 
 find a market for them. Parchasers will come where the goods 
 are. 
 
 Pruning and Training. Pruning commences as soon as 
 the vine begins to grow, for the pinching off of the laterals, tops, 
 tendrils, buds, or shoots is pruning. But pruning for the pur- 
 poses of training, only commences with the second year of the 
 vine in the vineyard. We shall give three methods of pruning 
 and training the vine, in the order in which we value them. 
 The best system we have ever seen is the horizontal arm train- 
 ing. The first year in the vineyard the vine is only allowed to 
 grow one upright cane, which is out back in the fall to four 
 buds, two of which are allowed to grow the second year. In 
 both cases they should be kept tied to a stake and all laterals, 
 tendrils, etc., pinched as* before directed. A single cluster of 
 fruit may be allowed to grow on each strong cane the second 
 year, as a sample of .what may be expected in abundance by 
 and by. If the cane makes a strong, vigorous growth of from 
 six to ten feet, cut each cane back to four feet, and bend the 
 ends down to the ground on opposite sides of the stock and 
 fasten them with hooked pegs. The Teellis should now be 
 built, if not already done. If done before planting the vines, it 
 obviates the use of the stake and is ready whenever wanted. 
 The best form of trellis is that with upright instead of horizon- 
 tal wires. A ten or twelve foot post is set in the ground 
 between the vines, which for this purpose should be eight feet 
 apart in the rows. Cross bars are nailed across, one twelve to 
 fourteen inches from the ground and the other at the top, say six 
 to eight feet from the ground. When the vine is taken up in 
 the spring, stretch the arms along the lower bar and make a 
 mark on the bar where each shoot is to grow ; drive a nail into 
 the bar at the mark and one into the upper bar directly above 
 
GBAPK ODLTUKE AND WUSTE MAKING. 573 
 
 it, and stretch number sixteen galvanized wire between the two 
 points. This trellis is cheaper and better than the horizontal 
 wire trellis commonly used. Cheaper, because number sixteen 
 wire can be used instead of number ten, which gives one 
 hundred feet to the pound, while number ten gives only 
 twenty feet lo the pound. Better, because the wires are just 
 where you want them to train the shoots to. "When the vine is 
 taken up in the spring, fasten the two arms along the lower bar 
 and select three or four buds on the upper side of each arm. 
 If the vines have grown strong, the buds will be from four to 
 six inches apart, in which case nearly all the buds on the upper 
 side will be left ; all others should be rubbed off. Where there 
 is a bud missing on the upper side an under bud may be 
 trained up to fill its place. As soon as these shoots get long 
 enough they should be tied to the wires. Bach one of these 
 upright canes will usutilly set a few bunches of fruit. If the vine 
 is very strong and vigorous, each may be allowed to bear three 
 or four bunches. When these upright canes have grown about 
 two feet, they should be stopped, by pinching off their ends, 
 say from two to four leaves beyond the Mst bunch of fruit ; they 
 will soon start again, and after a few inches growth should be 
 stopped again. All the laterals should be pinched the same as 
 on young vines. At the winter pruning, these canes are to be 
 cut down to three buds, two of which are to be allowed to 
 grow the next season. This is the sixth year from the cutting, 
 and the fourth year of the vine in the vineyard, and one of the 
 canes from each spur may be allowed to ripen all the fruit it 
 will. The principle of pruning now is to let one-half the vine 
 bear one year and the other the next. From each spur' on 
 horizontal arms let two canes grow every year, and rub off all 
 others as soon as they appear. The cane that bears this year 
 should be cut clear away, and the other cut down to two buds. 
 
574 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 Never let the same cane bear twice, nor let one cane grow 
 taller than the others and rob them of their nourishment. {Fig. 
 133 explained on page 604,) represents this system of horizontal 
 arm training and alternate renewal. 
 
 The Objections urged against grape culture are, that the 
 preparation of the ground is too expensive ; the cost of the vines 
 too great ; the trellis too expensive ; pruning too complicated ; 
 the life of the vines too uncertain ; the time before the returns 
 come in too long ; and the market too uncertain. Every one 
 of these objections arises from an entire misapprehension. The 
 grape does not require large quantities of barnyard manure or 
 fertilizers ; if it did it would pay to give it all it required to 
 the amount of one thousand dollars per acre ; but its wants are 
 very simple, being confined to a little lime, and plenty of leaf 
 mould and muck, which can usually be had for the drawmg. 
 Can it possibly cost over one dollar per load ? Allow one 
 hundred loads to the acre, and you have a cost of one hundred 
 dollars. Add to this the cost of plowing, subsoiling, cross- 
 plowing after the manure is put on, harrowing and cross- 
 harrowing, and you have an acre prepared for a crop that will 
 bear for fifty years. 
 
 We say nothing about underdraining, because a soil that is 
 too wet should be underdrained, whatever crop you put on it. 
 Again, tens of thousands of acres in every Eastern State which 
 are almost worthless for any other crop, if prepared in this way 
 will at once increase in value tenfold, and will make returns 
 in grapes that will astonish their owners. 
 
 The cost of plants is a heavy item when they are bought at 
 the nursery, but, by the .plan we have recommended, from ten 
 vines you can in four years raise all the plants you will want 
 for an acre, and sell cuttings enough to pay the whole expense 
 The demand for plants is immense and increasing, and must 
 
GEAPE COLTUEK AND WINE MAKING. 575 
 
 increase for years to come. The grape fever is on the country, 
 and nurserymen, to supply the demand, are using everything in 
 the shape of grape wood to make plants from. They are no 
 doubt doing the best they can under the circumstances, but 
 even by their forcing they cannot begin to supply the demand, 
 and we cannot blame them if they get theii own prices. They 
 can make better plants, and cheaper than you can, but they will 
 not do it as long as they can get full prices for everything that 
 has a root to it. You can manage to raise all the plants you 
 need and make the cuttings pay the expense. 
 
 ' The trellis will be the next item of expense, but by the plan 
 we have recommended you get a much better trellis for your 
 money, than by the old plan of horizontal wires, which neces- 
 sitated the use of number ten wire. 
 
 Six hundred posts to the acre wiil be the largest number you 
 can possibly need, even for the moderate growing varieties, and 
 ought to be had for sixty dollars. If the ends are tarred or 
 charred before they are set, they will last a long time. Cedar 
 posts are considered the best when they are to be obtained. 
 This will necessitate twelve hundred cross bars an inch thick 
 by two and a half or three inches wide, and eight feet long. In 
 the Eastern States, where every farmer owns timber land, these 
 can be got out with but little actual outlay. An acre trained 
 and trellised as we have recommended will require three 
 hundred pounds of wire, which at twenty cents per pound (the 
 highest price we have ever paid) will cost sixty dollars. Use 
 galvanized wire, as it lasts much longer than the common 
 annealed wire. 
 
 Pruning is not complicated nor difficult, but as simple as the 
 alphabet, and a boy may do the fall pruning of one hundred 
 full grown vines in a day. Take, for example, a vine with two 
 arms of five feet each, and five spurs on each arm, and two 
 
576 HOW TO MAKE, THE FARM PAY. 
 
 canes to each spur, just twenty cuts witli the pruning shears 
 are required to prune this vine. We allow two minutes to 
 each vine of this size, or thirty an hour. Cut away the cane 
 that has home the previous season, and cut the other down 
 to three or four buds. The vines are free from leaves, 
 and the place to cut is easily discerned. It is the summer 
 pinching of tlie laterals, tendrils, and tops that requires the 
 most trouble, but this is exceedingly simple, as we have already 
 phown. 
 
 In a mild climate, pruning can be done at any time between 
 the fall of the leaf and the starting of the sap ; in the Middle 
 States, either in the fall or spring, and only in the extreme 
 Northern States must be delayed until February or March, 
 Neither is the life of the vine uncertain, unless abused. There 
 are many cases of vines on record that have borne for over 
 one hundred years, and some that have borne for upwards 
 of four hundred years. A selection of hardy varieties and 
 winter protection, while young and tender, will secure fine 
 crops of grapes, in our extreme Northern States, and nothing 
 but the utmost negligence will produce the death of the vine, 
 south of Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Iowa. Excessive bear- 
 ing while young will so weaken the vine that it will be winter 
 killed, north of these boundaries, and winter protection is a 
 decided benefit south of them. A very simple method of pro- 
 tecting the vines, is to bend down the arms after the fall 
 pruning, and shovel on earth enough to hold them down, then 
 run the plow through and throw a furrow slice over them, 
 going through again, and covering any that the plow has failed 
 to cover. This is all work, but all crops require work, and 
 this one will pay more abundantly for every care than almost 
 any other. The time before the returns from actual sales of 
 grapes come in, is longer than for ordinary crops, but the sales 
 
GEAPE CULTURE AND WIKE MAKING. 57V 
 
 of cuttings, if properly managed, will usually more than pay the 
 expenses of cultivation, and the first full crop of grapes often 
 pays the whole cost of preparation, trellises and all. We give 
 below the yield of a vineyard within our knowledge, for ten 
 years after planting. 
 
 1857. 2^ acres cuttings sold $240 
 
 1838. Cuttings planted for an additional 2^ acres, but valued at 400 
 
 185?; Cuttings planted to grow plants for sale. Grapes sold 468 
 
 1860. Plantssold 600 
 
 Grapes " 870 
 
 "Wine " 344 
 
 1861. Plants " 500 
 
 Grapes " 1,120 
 
 1862. Plants " 660 
 
 Grapes " 704 
 
 ' Wine " 980 
 
 1863. Plants " 840 
 
 Grapes " 1,512 
 
 Wine " 730 
 
 1864. Plants " 300 
 
 Grapes " 412 
 
 1865. Plants " 5 acres in bearing , 1,106 
 
 Grapes " 5,120 
 
 Wine " 3,500 
 
 1866. Plants " , 1,100 
 
 Grapes " 600 
 
 Wine " 7,400 
 
 For the ten years $29,506 
 
 or an average of nearly three thousand dollars per year, and 
 
 fourteen thousand two hundred, or over seven thousand 
 
 dollars per year, for the last two years, which yield may be 
 
 Bafely c&,lculated upon for years to come. 
 
 Mr. George Hussman, a large grape grower at Herman, 
 35 
 
578 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 Missouri, has realized from two and a half acres the first five 
 
 years after planting $23;305.80 
 
 The plants and trellis for the 2i acres cost .... 1,277.00 
 
 "Five years labor at $500 per year ....... 2,500.00 
 
 Interest on capital 500.00 
 
 Leaving a clear profit of $19,028,80 
 
 for the first five years. This is a profit of over fifteen hmidred 
 dollars per year per acre. This is large, but we think, with 
 the information we have given, any farmer can clear an average 
 profit of one thousand dollars per acre from his grape crop. 
 
 The last objection, if a real one, would be fatal to the whole 
 scheme. But it is the most absurd of the whole. There is 
 market for one hundred pounds of grapes to every pound that 
 is grown. Even the poorest varieties, picked before they are 
 ripe, bring from fifteen to twenty-five cents per pound, and no 
 one gets enough. As grapes are improved in quality, by the 
 better systems of cultivation, and the introduction of better 
 varieties, the old customers will increase their demands, and 
 thousands of new ones will spring up on every side. Ten years 
 ago, the acres of grapes in this country were not over four 
 thousand, now they are as many million ; but the demand has 
 increased faster than the supply, and never was there such a 
 pressure as now. At the same ratio of increase, ten years from 
 to-da}'- there will be four billion acres of grapes. If such an 
 increase were possible or probable, we say that ten years from 
 now the product of that number of acres would be as surely in 
 demand as the present product;' for if every citizen were 
 glutted' with fruit, we have still the wine to fall back upon, 
 which we can make for home consumption, and even for export 
 at immense profits. The amount paid for imported wines is 
 enormous, and we can make a much better article at home 
 
GRAP5 CULTDEE AS"D WINE MAKING. 579 
 
 Our opinion is, that if pure grape wine could be made as plenty 
 as whiskey, men would drink it instead, and thus the terrible 
 evil of intemperance be very much lessened. We say to every 
 one who has a square rod of ground, plant a vine. 
 
 A second system of training we will call the " Lakeview" 
 system, as it is practised at " Lakeview," Ohio. The post is set 
 before the vine is planted, and for the first two years the vine 
 is trained to the post. Four canes are grown each year, after 
 the first, only two being allowed to bear. The third year, slats 
 are nailed from the top of each post to near the bottom of the 
 next, say one foot from the ground, and the two canes not 
 allowed to bear are trained on these, wnile the bearing canes 
 are trained to the post. The cutting back is the same as in the 
 other system ; the two canes that have borne being cut out, and 
 the two that are to be the beiring canes next year cut back to 
 three or four -buds. The advantages of this system are that 
 vines are saved, and also the stakes on which in the other sys- 
 tem the vines are trained the first two years. But we consider 
 that it has too many disadvantages to come into common use, 
 except as an expedient where capital is scarce. Still another, 
 and the most slovenly and wasteful system that can well be 
 contrived, is that of simply training each vine to a cedar stake. 
 It involves the purchase or growing of three times as many 
 vines, without a corresponding increase of fruit. The system 
 of pruning is the same; two canes bearing each year. There 
 may be an endless number of modifications of the first system, 
 of some of which we shall speak in Garden Culture. 
 
 The cultivation of the, grape in the vineyard consists ih keep- 
 ing the ground mellow and the weeds down. A cultivator 
 should be run through the rows as often as once a fortnight, 
 and the hoe used freely in stirring the earth and killing the 
 weeds, where the cultivator will not reach. The soil should 
 
.580 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM 3?AT. 
 
 not be worked when wet, nor so deeply near the vines as to 
 cut the main roots. The best implement we have ever seen for 
 killing the weeds is a hoe known as Allen's Weed Killer. (See 
 cut elsewhere.) For stirring the soil about the stems, a pronged 
 hoe is used. A good plan for plowing, and at the same time 
 covering the vines, is to prune soon after the fall of the leaf, 
 and then lay down the vines lengthwise of the trellis, and fas- 
 ten them with a peg or stone. Pass down with the plow as 
 near the vine as you can without cutting the roots, and throw 
 a furrow slice over the vine, come back on the other side of the 
 row, and cover the other vine; continue this until all the 
 ground between the rows is plowed, leaving a trench in the 
 middle. Go through and see that the vines were well covered. 
 In the spring, begin at the trench, and turn the earth back and 
 away, from the vines. Manures should not be applied so long 
 as the growth is vigorous, but as soon as it begins to decline 
 apply more manure. A compost, such as we have previously 
 discribed, should be on hand for use, and should be applied 
 after the fall plowing. Ashes and lime in moderate quantities 
 are always beneficial. If you once let your vines run down for 
 lack of food, you can never recover your loss. The food they 
 ask for is plenty and cheap, but they must have it. Bone dust, 
 guano, etc., applied as a top dressing, will soonest reach the 
 plant, but will not make good the lack of the compost. In an 
 exceedingly poor soil, where it is not possible to secure at first,' 
 the requisite amount of compost at once, two quarts of bone 
 dust and a shovel full of manure may be put at the root of. 
 each plant, and one cane allowed to grow ; in the fall cut it 
 back to two buds, and again allow only one cane to grow. If 
 it makes a growth of ten feet, cut it back to four, an^ layer it 
 as before described. W-hen the young plants are a foot high, 
 draw in an inch or two of soil, with a little more bone duat. 
 
GRAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING. 581 
 
 Four canes are allowed to grow from this four foot layer ; they 
 should be staked, and pinched as described for other plants, and 
 no fruit allowed to grow the first year. Cut these canes back 
 to three buds, and allow two canes to grow the next year, one 
 of which may bear a few bunches of fruit ; subsequent pruning 
 is the same as described for horizontal arms. The reader will 
 see that the object of this treatment is to get strong roots 
 before allowing the plant to bear. More time, and double the 
 number of plants are required to obtain the same amount of 
 fruit, which will not be so good ; it is only recommended there- 
 fore for very poor soils, where the compost cannot be secured 
 to begin with. 
 
 Gathering, packing, marketing, and keeping are important 
 matters in grape culture. The grape will only ripen on the 
 vine ; and as the public taste becomes educated on this subject, 
 they will insist on having ripe fruit. When ripe, the stem will 
 shrivel, and soon the grape will begin to shrivel about the stem. 
 The bloom on the grape is a token of its ripeness. In the de- 
 scriptions of varieties we shall give the tokens of each variety. 
 The grape will increase in weight, beauty, and flavor by being 
 allowed to ripen perfectly on the vine, and, even if one or two 
 weeks later in the market, will bring a higher price than the 
 unripe grape. For wine, they should be. left on as long as the 
 frosts will permit. Nearly all the grapes now in cultivation 
 color at least two weeks before they ripen. 
 
 When gathered it should be done as carefully as possible. 
 They can be gathered quickest and best by means of scissors 
 which hold them after they are cut. Cut the stems as long as 
 possible and lay them in a shallow basket. They are packed 
 for market in shallow boxes; the method being to cut out with 
 small sharp scissors imperfect grapes, and spread the bunches 
 out on a table. Turn the box bottom upwards, take off the 
 
582 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 bottom, put in a sheet of thin white paper or a layer of grape 
 leaves ; pack in whole bunches of grapes, as closely as possible 
 without jamming them or rubbing off" the bloom ; fill up the 
 vacant places with parts of bunches, and, lastly, with single 
 grapes, until the whole space is filled ; then put on another 
 layer of paper or leaves, and continue the layers until the box 
 is filled. 
 
 The art of keeping grapes is just beginning to be understood 
 in this country, and we are just learning what varieties will 
 keep. For this purpose they must be thoroughly ripe, care- 
 fully gathered, all unripe, imperfect, or decayed berries picked 
 out, spread out on a dry floor or shelves for a few days, and 
 then packed in boxes, with paper between the layers. The 
 bunches should not be allowed to touch- each other. They 
 should be put away in a cool room. The lids of the boxes may 
 be left up a little, until it gets too cool. In this way some of 
 our grapes may be kept until spring, when their greatly in- 
 creased price will repay the trouble of preservation. A warm, 
 damp atmosphere will spoil the grape, however carefully 
 packed. 
 
 The Gaeden Culture of the grape requires some modifica- 
 tions of the foregoing rules, but in all its essential principles is 
 the same. There are but few gardens in either city or country 
 where there may not be found a sunny spot large enough to 
 accommodate a few vines ; and when the owner gets a grape 
 that suits him, he can reproduce, > modify, and cultivate to suit 
 himself. The first requisite here, as before, is drainage. If it 
 cannot be obtained by draining the garden or yard into a sewer, 
 dig a trench with one end two feet deep and a gradual descent 
 to the other end, into which should be thrown broken bricks, 
 crockery, or stones, to facilitate the drainage. Fill this trench 
 with a mixture of the original soil, old manure, leaves if pos- 
 
GRAPE CULTUEE AND WINE MAKING. 583 
 
 sible, and charcoal. Often the only sunny spot is covered with 
 a pavement; this is just the place for the vine, pig your 
 trench along the side of the walk, or even partly ijnder it, plant 
 your vines outside the walk, grow one good strong cane the 
 first year, and in the fall carry it under the pavement to where 
 it is wanted. The pavement will absorb quantities of heat, and 
 also retain the moisture of the soil. A southern or eastern 
 exposure is best here also ; but a northern exposure, if at the 
 side of a building which has the sun half the day, will answer 
 well. Do not place the roots at any less distance than two feet 
 from the building in any case ; neither train the vine directly 
 against the building, as it will injure both; there should be at 
 least a foot of space between the trellis and the building, to 
 allow a free circulation of air. The pruning is the same here 
 as in the vineyard, one cane bearing this year and another next. 
 The training may be done in a thousand forms, to suit the taste 
 of the owner. The horizontal arms are to be preserved. In 
 the vineyard we commence these arms at one foot from the 
 ground ; but they may be commenced at ten feet as well, only 
 the process must be more gradual. The upright cane may be 
 extended to ten feet in two years, and the two canes for arms 
 grown the third year, the vine meanwhile being allowed to beai 
 moderately, and all summer pinching to be faithfully attended 
 to ; or a single arm may be used, if the vine grows at a corner 
 of the building or trellis, only observing that when the bearing 
 canes are established the alternate pruning -must be done, and 
 no fruit allowed to grow below the arms. If fruit is wanted 
 all the way from the ground to sixty feet high, it may be had, 
 but a number of vines will be necessary. These can be planted 
 at least four feet apart, in different parts of the garden or yard 
 and the canes brought under ground, or under a pavement, to the 
 point where they are wanted. Let the arms of one vine cover 
 
584 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 the first three feet, another the second three, and so on until tlie 
 space is covered, kk, Fig. 133 illustrates our meaning. These 
 three vines are planted four feet apart. Two are not allowed 
 to have any branches until they reach the second trellis ; then 
 they are trained with horizontal arms as before. For the third, 
 fourth, and fifth trellis, if it is desirable to have vines so high 
 up, they should be set four and eight feet from the trellis and 
 brought underground to the point on the trellis where they are 
 to run up. It is better to run them through tile pipe, to pro- 
 vent their taking root all the way. If they should do so, the 
 growth would be likely to be so vigorous as to defy all attempts 
 at training. By this method four vines, covering a space 
 twelve by sixteen feet, have borne an average of eight hundrM 
 bunches annually. The same method applies to arbor culture. 
 Never attempt to cover the top and sides of a grape arbor from 
 the same vine. 
 
 Where there is room for neither trellis nor arbor, there may 
 still be room to put down one or more stakes, to each of whicli 
 a vine may be trained, and good results secured. Either the 
 vine may be allowed to grow two canes the first year, and com- 
 mence fruit bearing the second year, or the stem gradually 
 heightened to eight or ten feet and side canes grown for fruit. 
 In the former case, when the cane bears the second year, at the 
 close of the first season one of the canes is cut to two buds 
 for bearing next year, and the other cane cut entirely away, 
 and vice versa the next year. In the other case, the single 
 cane grown the first season is cut 'back to say three feet, 
 {Fig. 132,) and the topmost bud allowed to grow the second 
 season, all others being rubbed off; this cane is then cut back 
 to within three feet of the former cut. We have now a cane 
 six feet high: the two lowest buds, one on each side, are 
 allowed to grow the third season, and one to bear fruit ; 'these 
 
GEAPB CULTURE AKD "WINE MAKING. 587 
 
 are cut back according to the alternate system we have so fully 
 described, and the main cane is only allowed to lengthen from 
 twelve to eighteen inches. The top should be kept pinched oft" 
 all summer. The fourth season two more side branches may be 
 started about one foot above the others, and treated in the same 
 way. Fig. 132 shows this vine at the end of the fourth season, 
 as it is to remain, and the cross marks (a, z) show where it is to 
 be pruned. Another method of pruning and training is shown 
 at Fig. 134. By some of these methods every on* can have at 
 least one vine, and most can have more. An occasional wash 
 of strong soapsuds will be benelicial, if the soil is kept stirr<^d 
 and mellow. 
 
 Fourteen Cautions. Before treating of varieties, diseases, etc., 
 we wish to caution our readers : 1. Agaiijpt using green manure, 
 either in the preparation of the soil or after culture. 2. Against 
 working the soil when wet, either in preparation or after culture 
 3. Against planting vines too shallow in light or gravelly soils, 
 or too deep in heavy ones. (Let the base of the roots be four 
 inches beneath the heavy, clayey soil, and twice that depth in 
 porous, gravelly soils. Allowance must be made for the settling 
 of the earth, the natural spring of the earth, and the natural 
 spring of the plant. If in a border, it should be higiier than 
 the surrounding level, to which it will sink.) 4. Against 
 allowing secondary roots to grow from the stem above the 
 original roots.- (The earth should be drawn away from about 
 the stem during the second season, and if any of these roots are 
 discovered they must be cut off.) 5. Against cutting any of the 
 maifi roots in any of the operations of culture. 6. Against 
 covering vines in the winter wholly with straw ■ or barnyard 
 litter. (The vines should first be covered with earth, as the 
 straw furnishes a shelter for mice.) 7. Against too late spring 
 pruning after the sap has started. 8. Against putting down 
 
588 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 too long horizontal arms where the plants are not vigorpus. 
 (Extend them gradually.) 9. Against allowing young vines to 
 bear beyond their ability. 10. Against allowing laterals to 
 grow too long before pinching. (Pinch when the first leaf 
 on the lateral is about an inch in diameter.) 11. Against 
 allowing the canes from the horizontal arms to grow too long, 
 (two or three feet is high enough, two being the better.. 
 When at this height, pinch out the top; it will soon start 
 ao^ain, and when grown another six inches, pinch out the top 
 of the new growth.) 12. Against allowing one cane to grow 
 higher than another unless the growth of wood is too rank, 
 when one or two canes may be allowed near the main stem 
 as safety valves. 13» Against tying the vines too tightly. 
 14. Against applying manures, except in the fall. If applied 
 in the spring or summer, it will produce a rank growth of 
 wood which will not ripen before winter. 
 
 Selection of Varieties. We have now much better vari- 
 eties, and more numerous than ever before, but great caution 
 must be exercised in selectmg. We advise every cultivator' 
 to try every new variety that is strongly recommended, by 
 the planting of one or two vines, but never, in vest any large 
 amount of money in planting any new variety, no matter who 
 recommends it. After a grape has been fruited for five or six 
 years in different parts of the country, with nearly uniform 
 success, and has also succeeded well on a small scale in your 
 own hands, the investment will be safe. We hope and believe 
 that the next ten years will give us double the number of ex- 
 cellent varieties. 
 
 List of Yaeieties that are excellent in the localities naihed. 
 Adirondac, color dark purple, with a light bloom ; flesh ten- 
 der, juice sweet, skin thin. If held up to to the light when 
 ripe, the color will be uniformly deep ; if tinged with red, they 
 
GEAPE CULTUEB AND WINE MAKING. 5S9 
 
 are not ripe. Vino hardy and vigorous as far north as Lake 
 Champlain, where it originated. Eipens very early. AUe7i^s Ry- 
 Irid; color amber green, with pearly bloom, and spots of claret 
 when fally ripe; flesh tender; juice sweet, spirited and vinous; 
 vine too tender for general cultivation, but worthy of much 
 care as a garden and table variety. Eipens September. Alvey, 
 color black, with a heavy blue bloom when ripe; flesh ' tender, 
 without pulp; juice sweet and vinous; vine not hardy enough 
 foi open air culture at the North, but good at the South ; ripens 
 in September, and makes a delicious red wiue. 
 
 Concord, black with heavy blue bloom. [See Colored Fruit 
 Plate) Flesh tender; acid at centre; fla^».rfoxy; vine hardy 
 and vigorous over a larger extent of territory than any other 
 grape ; ripens middle of September. Not a grape of the best 
 quality, but its beautiful appearance, hardy growth, and pro- 
 ductiveness render it the most popular and widely cultivated 
 of all our grapes, and the most profitable market variety grown ; 
 better further West and South than in New England ; " grown 
 in Missouri; it makes a fine light red wine."* Cultivators 
 should try to secure a better grape, with the same good qualities 
 in the vine. Clinton, dark purple with pale blue bloom ; flesh 
 juicy, acid until after frost, it then has a spirited vinous flavor ; 
 a very strong grower, hardy and productive ; makes dark red 
 wine of fair quality. If kept late, makes a good table grape 
 Do not plant in a rich soil. Cassady, greenish white, with 
 white bloom; skin thick; flesh pulpy; sweet, of fine flavor; 
 vine hardy, but so late a ripener that it is not very valuable in 
 the northeast; in the southwest very productive; makes a 
 good white wine. Greveling, dark purple, with but little bloom ; 
 flesh tender ; juice sweet, except at centre ; vine hardy, healthy, 
 
 * Huss/nan's " Grapes and Wines.'' 
 
£80 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 aud productive. A fair wine grape. Early. Catawba, deep red, 
 lilac bloom; flesh pulpy; juice sweet, vinous; vine vigorous 
 and productive, but not hardy ; late. This grape has been more 
 extensively used for wine than any other American grape, and 
 will still do well in favorable localities on the shores of Lake 
 Erie, but in the interior is not to be recommended for cultiva- 
 tion. Delaware, beautiful dark red when fully ripe ; skin thin ; 
 flesh tender ; juicy, sweet, brisk, vinous ; vine very hardy and 
 moderately productive ripens first of September. "Wherever 
 the soil is light and warm, it is the best grape ioT extensive culti- 
 vation. It is delightful for the table, and makes a superior 
 white wine, which sells for from five to eight dollars per gallon. 
 Diana, pale red, with but little bloom ; skin thick ; flesh tender, 
 meaty ; juice, sweet, rich vinous ; vine hardy and productive 
 when properly cultivated; ripens last of September. This is 
 one of our best grapes, and deserves careful cultivation for a 
 table and market grape. It requires a deep, dry soil, not" rich, 
 but occasionally dressed with lime. It should not bear until 
 the fourth year, and must be covered north of New York City, 
 and protected somewhat in all the Northern States. It is the 
 iaest keeper of all our grapes, and therefore is valuable ; it will 
 make a good raisin, and also a good wine. Elsinhurg, black, 
 bluish white bloom ; flesh tender and melting ; juice- sweet and 
 vinous; vine hardy and healthy ; last of September.' This is a 
 very nice little grape, the ©nly objection to it being its small 
 size. Hartford Prolific, black or dark purple, with blue bloom ; 
 skin thick; fle.^h tough; juice sweet and somewhat sprightly 
 and vinous; vine hardy, vigorous and productive; first of 
 September. This is the best market grape of the early varieties 
 on account of its earliness and large yield ; makes a fair wine 
 Vines must be kept pinched back through the summer. Ser- 
 hemont, blue black, with light bloom; skin thin ; flesh tender and 
 
Firj 136. 
 
 691 
 
GRAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING. 593 
 
 melting ; juice sweet, refined, sprightly, vinous; vir,o not hardy 
 at the North, but does well in Southern Ohio and farther soutli, 
 being healthy and productive ; ripens late. One of the finest of 
 Southern varieties, both for table, market, and wine, lona, 
 pale red, small, deep red veins at first, but growing dark red 
 when fully ripe {see Colored Fruit Plate) ; skin thin ; flesh tender, 
 with but little pulp ; juice and flavor all that could be asked 
 for in a grape. Not fully tried, but promises well. This is a 
 seedling by that indefatigable cultivator, Dr. C. W. Grant, who 
 claims for it superior hardiness, productiveness, and earliness. It 
 is a fine table grape, makes delightful wine, has the qualities of 
 a long keeper and good raisin erape. We hope for the sake of 
 its worthy cultivator and for the sake of American grape culture 
 that it will prove all that is claimed for it; but we would caution 
 cultivators against investing largely in it until they give it a trial, 
 It has been condemned on short acquaintance by Missouri culti 
 vators. Israella, dark purple, light bloom; skin thin; flesh 
 tender; juice, sweet with pleasant flavor; vine hardy, vigorous, 
 and productive ; ripens early. We do not consider this grape 
 quite as good in any particular as the Hartford Prolific. Isabella; 
 dark purple, light bloom ; skin thick ; flesh tough, acid at the 
 centre; juice sweet and sprightly what there is of it; vine un- 
 certain. Not a good grape, but for a long time was almost the 
 only market grape. Where tbey can be grown to' advantage, it 
 is a profitable market grape. We advise you iieither to destroy 
 or to plant a vineyard of Isabellas. Martha, pale yellow, white 
 bloom ; pulpy, but sweet ; vine hardy, healthy, vigorous, and 
 productive ; early. The best of the white graphs for general 
 cultivation. Makes a fine white wine. N'ortori's Virginia, black, 
 thick light bloom ; skin thin ; flesh tender and melting to the 
 centre; juice sweet, rich, spirited, vinous. Hardy, healthy, and 
 very productive, south of Ohio, but not adapted to Northern 
 
594 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 cultivation. Makes a fine, dark red wine. Will not grow 
 readily from cuttings. Emphatically a wine grape. Union 
 Village^ dark purple, blue bloom ; flesb pulpy, juicy, sweet, but 
 not sprightly ; vine tender v/hen young, but grows hardy, 
 vigorous, and productive ; ripens October. Not a first quality 
 grape, but very large and handsome, and, therefore, a very 
 profitable market grape. 
 
 The following are Southern wine grapes: — Taylor, or Bullitt, 
 Lincoln; Lenoir; Bland; Wilmington; Scuppernong ; Cunningham, 
 Cynthiana. None of them are suitable for Northern cultivation 
 in the open air. The following are well worthy of further trial, 
 and it is more than probable that several of them will yet prove 
 excellent. 
 
 Walter. Ives^ Seedl\ng, Rebecca, York Madeira, To Kalbn, 
 (liable to mildew and rot,) 3£iles, Anna, Rogers Hybrids, numbers 
 one, four, fifteen, and nineteen; Alexander, Diana Hamburgh, 
 Eumelan, Maxtawney, Rulander, (makes a most delicate and 
 valuable wine,) Blood's Black, (one of the most productive,) 
 Arnold's number one. Black Hawk, Dana, Detroit, Hyde's Hliza, 
 Moore's Hybrids. There are many new varieties constantly intro- 
 duced, which should be purchased with great caution. 
 
 Insects injurious to the vine are not so numerous or de- 
 structive as those attacking some other fruits, but they are still, 
 more than plenty, and on the increase. They consist of caterpil- 
 lars, beetles, lice, etc. The first object to be kept in view is the 
 destruction of the moths and other egg-laying insects, before 
 they lay their eggs ; by fires in the vineyard, orchard, or garden 
 about twilight, at the time of their appearance, which is mostly 
 from the middle of June to the middle of July. Vast numbers 
 can thus be destroyed, and with every female are destroyed 
 from fifty to two hundred eggs. The second main point is to 
 oarefully pick oft" at the early summer pruning, all nests, webs, . 
 
GEAPE CULTUEE AND WINE MAKING. S95 
 
 etc, and destroy them by scaldjng or fire. The third is the 
 dusting with sulphur, lime, etc., throughout the season. For 
 this purpose every one who has any considerable number of 
 vines should have a pair of bellows. The rose bug, or "rose- 
 chafer," is the worst enemy of the vine, because it can be de- 
 stroyed by neither of these three contrivances. They show 
 themselves as soon as the blossoms, which they soon destroy, 
 unless checked. The only way with these and several other 
 beetles we shall name, is to have a large cloth stretched on a 
 frame, set it under the vine, and shake it briskly ; they will fall 
 and can be scraped up and scalded or burned. Mead, in his 
 work on the Grape, says : " They are too stupid to know when- 
 they are dead ;" therefore the work must be done thoroughly. 
 ,If repeated daily for a week, this operation will greatly mitigate 
 the pest. 
 
 The May Beetli;, or Oockchaper, must be destroyed in the 
 same way. "Where they are very numerous, a flock of poultry 
 should be permitted to follow the plow and cultivator, and they 
 will devour numbers of the larvae which are turned up from the 
 ground. About daylight is the best time for rapping them from 
 the vines. The vinechafer and steel blue beetle ; threaten to be- 
 come very destructive to the vine, and a determined effort should 
 then be made to exterminate them ; this can be done, both by 
 twilight fires and by. rapping them off the vines- into the sheet. 
 The Vine HappEE, or thrips, appear in June^ and if numerous 
 are very destructive, sucking the juice from the leaves and 
 saasing them to turn yellow ; the remedy is to dust the leaves 
 with a mixture of two parts of sulphur and one of caustic lime. 
 If done early on a still morning it will nearly all adhere to the 
 leaves and kill the insects. Two persons going through the 
 vineyard at night, one with a torch and the other beating the 
 
 vines, will destroy vast numbers. The Eeb Spideb, which 
 3() 
 
596 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 appears on the under side of the leaf, and the Aphis, or hixse, 
 which appears on the ends of the young shoots and tender 
 leaves, must be treated to frequent applications of sulphur and 
 lime while the dew is on the vine. 
 
 The Caterpillaes are the children of the moth, which can 
 be destroyed by the twilight fires. The large queen caterpillars 
 of the sphinges, the procris Americana, which feeds in companies 
 on the leaf, the yellow hear, and other large caterpillars are 
 easily discovered, picked off, and destroyed by the careful culti- 
 vator, but the little leaf rollers are more difElcult to find. We 
 recommend the lime and sulphur for all-these pests. 
 
 The birds are the fast friends of the vine grower, for they 
 destroy muth eggs, larvaa, and grubs. They war Hipon the 
 i\isects at every stage, and the more of them you can encourage 
 to take up their abode upon your premises, the lighter' will be 
 your own labor, and the heavier your crops. Every effort 
 should be made to destroy insects, as their rapid increase would 
 be destructive of all the interests of husbandry. Diseases of the 
 vine are in a remarkable degree under the control of the culti- 
 vator, first, by selecting proper varieties ; second, by selecting 
 only dry soil and thirdly, by proper attention to summer 
 pruning. At the lowest calculation three-fourths of the failures 
 of the vine are owing to over-growth and over-bearing when 
 young, an-d summer pinching and thinning are the remedies ; 
 but owing to sudden changes in the atmosphere, which lessen 
 the vigor of the leaves, they are attacked by a parasitic fungus, 
 which produces, or rather is, the disease known as mildew. Its 
 first appearance is a single small white speck, which soon ex- 
 tends over the whole plant. When first discovered the vine 
 should be thoroughly dusted with the lime and sulphur before 
 recommended. The Black Eot is a much more dangerous 
 disease, as it attacks the fruit, a small black or brown. spot 
 
ORAPB CULTUKE AND WINE MAKING. 507 
 
 appearing on the green berries. As soon as H is disco\ ered, 
 dust with lime, which will in some measure stay its progress. 
 
 "WlNia Making in this country, is yet in its infancy, but ia 
 destined to become an extensive and profitable branch of pro- 
 duction. Grapes for wine should be fully ripe. Grapes that 
 can well be gathered for market the middle or last of August 
 should be left a month longer for wine. A little frost will not 
 injure them. Those that are fully ripe the last of September 
 can be gathered -and made up then, and those bunches not ripe 
 will ripen the sooner if the others are picked off. All unripe 
 berries and all that have begun t'o decay should be cut out. 
 The grape scissors before described, which both cut and hold 
 the bunches, are the best for this purpose. The utmost clean- 
 liness must be observed in gathering and assorting the grapes 
 and .in every operation connected with wine making, as the 
 chief value of the wine is flavor, and a very little negligence 
 will spoil the flavor of a batch. Before giving the process of 
 making wine we will explain the terms used. Bottles should 
 be of very tough glass, and thoroughly cleaned with coarse 
 sand; cleaning with shot is very objectionable. Casks for 
 fermenting wine, should be large, say four hundred gallons, buf 
 the vintner must have all sizes.- The large casks should be of 
 well seasoned oak staves, about five feet long and one and a 
 half or two inches thick, bound with iron bands, perfectly 
 smooth inside, with a door on one end large enough to let in 
 a boy to wash it out. When new they should first be washed 
 in lime water. After the cask is emptied, let in a boy to scrub 
 the side thoroughly before filling again. 
 
 Cellar. Any good cellar, kept free from frost, will keep 
 the wine the first winter, and if it clears well, it can be sold 
 before warm weather ; but a good Cellar is a great convenience 
 where any large quantity is to be made. Three considerations 
 
598 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 are important in building a wine cellar : it should be in a dry 
 spot; it should be sunk in the ground and the walls built 
 hollow, to secure the utmost evenness of temperature ; and it 
 should be provided with means of thorough ventilation. A 
 stove in it is sometimes desirable during fermentation. A side- 
 hill is a desirable location, so that a team may be dri^ven into ' 
 the cellar. 
 
 Crushing may be done in any manner that wiH not break 
 the seed. Where a quantity is to be crushed, two wooden 
 rollers pet in a square frame and turned with a crank and cog . 
 wheel, is the , simplest contrivance. A very good mill with 
 sione rollers, screws, etc., can be purchased for' about fifty 
 dollars, ■ but not large enough for the largest vintners. The 
 crushing and pressing room is usually built directly over the 
 cellar, and holes left in the floors over each cask for drawing 
 off the must to the cellar. This is a much more convenient 
 arrangement than to carry it in buckets. 
 
 CuvAGE, is fermentation on the skins. 
 
 FERMENTATiOiSr, Vinous and Acetous. Vinous fermentation 
 is the first and natural fermentation which produces wine; 
 acetous fermentation commences after vinous fermentation is 
 ceased, and produces vinegar ; it is sometimes caused by the 
 introduction of foreign substances into the must ; great care 
 should therefore be exercised in picking and crushing the 
 fruit. 
 
 Fermenting Vats. These should be proportioned to the siae 
 of your casks. When the must is to ferment long on the husks, 
 a false bottom should be provided to keep down the husks. It 
 should be perforated with holes and fastened in its placfe. 
 There should be an inch tube in the cover of the vat for the 
 escape of gas. 
 
 Fining, or Clarifying. When the wines are not clear it 
 
GRAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING. 599 
 
 may be done by adding the whites of a half dozen eggs beaten 
 to a foam with a little of the wine, to each forty gallons. Stir 
 up well, and close tight- for a week. 
 
 Gallizing, so named from Doctor Gall, who first reduced it 
 to a science, is adding the proper proportions of sugar and water 
 to grapes that from any cause are too acid. See page 601 for 
 a description of the process. 
 
 Grape Mill. {See Crushing.) 
 
 Husks ; the skins. 
 
 Lees ; the sediment after fermentation, adhering to the bottom 
 and sides of the casks. The crust or salt that collects on me 
 side of the cask is cream of tartar in a crude state, and is of 
 value. 
 
 Must; the juice of the grape before fermentation. 
 
 Marc ; the mixture of crushed grapes, skins, seeds, and steins 
 before pressing. 
 
 Racking; the transferring of wing from one cask to anoiher, 
 leaving the lees. See description of process, on next page. 
 
 Sacchaeometer ; an instrument for determining the amount 
 of sugar in the must. 
 
 Stemming; the stems of the grape contain a large amount 
 of acid, and it is often desirable to remove the larger portions 
 of them before crushing. This is done by drawing the bunches 
 through teeth attached to boards, with grooves for conveying 
 the juice flowing during the operation. 
 
 To make light colored wine, the grapes gathered c^n be 
 pressed and put into the casks the following evening. 
 
 Place the crusher above one of the fermenting vats, and 
 crush them as fast as they come in from the vineyard. When 
 not crushing, cover the vat with a stout crash cloth, and par- 
 ticularly as evening comes on, to exclude all insects. In the 
 evening the free juice is drawn off into the cask, and the maro 
 
600 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 immediately pressed and the juice added to it. The press 
 should be large enough to accommodate the day's gathering. 
 A good press, with grooves, hopper, etc., can be purchased for 
 about fifty dollars. While pressing, the edges of the cheese 
 should be cut and put on top, in order that the whole may be 
 pressed fully dry. 
 
 The casks should be filled and refilled, as a portion evapo- 
 rates during fermentation. The must from the press is usually 
 allowed to run into a large funnel filled with oat straw and pass 
 through a hose to the casks in the cellar. 
 
 To make dark wines the must is fermented on the husks. 
 The crushed grapes are in this case put into the fermenting vat 
 with false bottom. After the vat is three-fourths filled, the false 
 bottom is put in, pressed down so as to be covered about eight 
 iuohes, and the cover put on. Two or three days' fermentation 
 at a temperatu.re of 'about sixty degrees is usually sufficient. 
 But here the judgment must be exercised. If a very dark 
 Avine is desired the grapes should be stemmed, and can then be 
 allowed to ferment eight or ten days, when they are pressed and 
 run into the casks as before. If the casks are kept filled during 
 fermentation the yeasty part will flow out at the bung. In 
 what is called, under fermentation, a vacant place is left, and a 
 bag of sand put over the bunghole, the husks sinking to the 
 bottom when fermentation ceases. The wine is then racked. 
 The empty cask being set lower than the full one, a siphon with 
 a long and a short arm is inserted, the finger being held over 
 the hole in the long arm until it is inserted in the cask. There 
 are also various apparatus sold for the purpose', which large 
 vintners will do well to purchase. The lees will, if distilled, 
 make good brandy. The first racking is usually done, not later 
 than January, and a second racking after the second fermenta- 
 tion, which often goes on all summer. 
 
GEAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING. 6U1 
 
 It sometimes occurs, owing to a short or wet season, that the 
 grapes contain too large a proportion of acids, the saccharine 
 matter not having been fully developed; this deficiency is 
 remedied by Gallizing. "When fully ripened and perfected on 
 the vine, the must contains, in five hundred pounds : sugar, one 
 hundred and twenty pounds ; acids, three pounds ; water, three 
 hundred and seventy-seven pounds ; in all, five hundred pounds. 
 But in an inferior season five hundred pounds will contain: 
 sugar, seventy-five pounds ; acids, four and a half pounds ; vater, 
 e f four hundred and twenty and a half pounds ; in all five hundred 
 pounds. To bring this inferior must up to the proper standard, 
 there is to be added one hundred and five pounds of sugar and 
 one hundred and forty-five pounds of water. The amount of sugar 
 in the must is determined by the saccharometer, which is indis- 
 pensable to the vintner, and can be obtained in any of our large 
 cities. The amount of acids is determined by the acidmeter 
 but as this is'not yet common in this country, we here transribe 
 the process of Mr. George Hussman, of Herman, Missouri, one 
 of the largest vintners of the country : — 
 
 " Last year was one of the most unfavorable season;! foi the 
 ripening of grapes we have ever had here, and especially the 
 Catawba lost almost nine-tenths of its crop by mildew and rot ; it 
 also lost its leaves, and the result was that the grapes did not ripen 
 well. When gathering my grapes, upon weighing the must I 
 found that it ranged from fifty-two to sevent;y degrees, whereas, 
 in good seasons, Catawba must weighs from eighty to ninety 
 five degrees. I now calculated thus : if normal must of Catawba 
 should weigh at least eighty degrees, and the must I have to 
 deal with this season will weigh on an average only sixty 
 degrees, I should add to this must about one half a pound of 
 sugar {to the gallon) to bring it up to eighty degrees. But now 
 I had the surplus acid to neutralize yet. To do this I calcu- 
 
602 HOW TO MAKE THE EAEi,I PAT. 
 
 lated thus : if even in a normal must of Catawba, or a must of 
 th'e best seasons, there is yet an excess of acid, I can safely 
 count on there being at least one-third too much acid in a must 
 that weighs but sixty degrees. I therefore added to every one 
 hundred gallons of must forty gallons of soft water, in which I 
 had first dissolved eighty pounds of crushed sugar, (half pound 
 to the gallon,) which brought the water, when weighed after 
 dissolving the sugar in it, up to eighty degrees. Now I had 
 yet to add twenty pounds, or one half pound to each gallon of 
 the original must, to bring this up to eighty degrees. I thus 
 pressed instead of one hundred gallons, one hundred and fifty 
 gallons from the same quantity of grapes ; and the result was a 
 wine which every one who has tasted it declares it to be ex- 
 cellent Catawba. 
 
 " Dr. Gall recommends grape sugar, but I have found crushed 
 loaf sugar answers every purpose. I think this sugar has the 
 advantage over grape sugar that it dissolves more readily, 
 and in cold water. It will take about two pounds to the 
 gallon of water to bring this up to eighty degrees, which will 
 make a wine of sufficient body. The average price of sugar 
 was about twenty-two cents per pound, and the cost of thus 
 producing an additional gallon of wine,' counting in labor, 
 interest on capital, etc. will be about sixty cents. When the 
 wine can be sold at from two to three dollars per gallon, the 
 reader will easily perceive of what immense advantage this 
 method is to the grape grower, if he can thereby not only im- 
 prove the quality, but also increase the quantity of the yield. 
 But this is only the first step ; ' after the most powerful pressure 
 the husks still retain all the ingredients of wine, except sugar 
 and water, which being added, a good quality of wine is pro- 
 duced." Says Mr. Hussman : " I have also practised this method 
 extensively the last season, and the result is that I have fully 
 
GEAPE CULTURE AND WINE MAKING. 603 
 
 doubled the amount of wiue of the Norton's Virginia, and 
 Concord. I have thus made twenty-five hundred gallons of 
 Concord, where I had but one thousand and thirty gallons of 
 original must; and twenty-six hundred gallons of Norton's 
 Virginia, where I had but thirteen hundred gallons of must ; 
 and the result is that many of them are better, and none inferior 
 to the original must. My method in making such wines was 
 very simple. I generally took the game qaantity of water, 
 eighty gallons of water to husks that had produced one hundred 
 gallons of juice, and added two pounds of sugar to the gallon. 
 The husks after the first pressing were put at once into the vat 
 and pulled apart and broken, and the water added. Fermenta- 
 tion commenced at once, and was allowed to go -on for twenty- 
 four hours, when they were pressed again as dry as possible. 
 The must was then treated the same as the original. But let 
 us glance a moment at the probable influeme this discovery 
 will have on American grape culture. It caiiiiot be otherwise 
 than in the highest degree beneficial, for when we simply look at 
 grape culture as it was ten years ago, with the simple product 
 of the Catawba as its basis, yielding an average of two hundred 
 gallons to the acre, of inferior wine, and look at it to-day, with 
 such varieties as the Concord, yielding an average of one thou- 
 sand to fifteen hundred gallons to the acre, and, by gallizing, 
 two thousand five hundred gallons of uniformly good wine, 
 can we be surprised if every body thinks and talks of raising 
 grapes." Mr. Hussman's experiments have proved very success- 
 ful, and we hope the day is not far distant when good wines 
 will take the place of bad brandy and whiskey, and the evils of 
 intemperance be mitigated. 
 
 Gallized wines are treated in the same manner as other wines 
 After the second fermentation is fully over, it can be bottled, 
 for which purpose is needed a small funnel, a small faucet, a 
 
604: HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 cork press, and a mallet. The corks stould be scalded, and 
 afterwards soaked in cold water, and one end compressed to fit 
 the bottle. Fill the bottles so as to leave about an inch of 
 space between the cork and the wine. Drive in the corks with 
 the mallet, and lay the bottles so that the wine will* cover the 
 corks. It is not necessary to bottle the wine; it will keep as 
 well or better in the casks, if they are kept filled. All vacancies 
 made by drawing off wine should be filled within a day or two, 
 or a sulphur match burned in the space. If there is mould on 
 the wine, run a tabe through the mould, and when full remove 
 the mould. The husks are often made into brandy or vinegar, 
 the former by distillation, the latter by adding water and allow- 
 ing it to ferment. Afterwards the husks should be returned 
 to the soil of the vineyard. As we have said before, grape 
 culture is contagious, and it is wise policy for the grape grower 
 to encourage all about him to enter into the business. When a 
 large press-house and cellar are established, small cultivators 
 can there find a market for their crops. Each can learn of the 
 other ; all improvements will come to a grape colony, as well as 
 purchasers. 
 
 NOTE. — EXPLANATION OP FIG. 133, PAGE 585. 
 
 aa. Posts eight feet apart, and eight feet high. hb. Cross- 
 bars, cc. Wires, dd. Shows where the arms were pruned the 
 second year after transplanting, eeee. Canes allowed to grow 
 the third year. ff. Under buds, used in place .of upper buds. 
 gg. Shows where the ten canes grown the third jj-ear were 
 pruned at the winter pruning. The left hand canes were cut 
 wholly away, and the right hand canes cut back to two buds. 
 hh. Canes grown the fourth year. klc. Vines grown to cover 
 the higher part of the trellis. {See Garden Training.) 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 SMALL FRUIT CULTURE. 
 
 ''he STEAWBEERY is the most delicious and w-dely 
 cultivated of the small fruits, and is not only desir- 
 able in every garden, but can be profitably raised for 
 ^Cs market in the vicinity of every village, borough, or 
 city. It flourishes naturally on a sandy loam, but any, soil may 
 be made suitable for it. Muck and peat mixed with a clay soil 
 and enriched with taanure, will make a good soil for most 
 varieties. The soil, whatever it is, should be deeply trenched 
 and manured liberally. The roots of the strawberry are fine, 
 and the soil should be thoroughly pulverized and the manure 
 mingled with the soil. The same manures and composts, 
 recommended for other crops are required for this, and should 
 be applied without stint. 
 
 North of New York, we think spring planting is to he pre- 
 ferred, but where fall planting will succeed, it is better. The 
 time to plant is just after the crop is gathered. If the plants 
 are to be immediately replanted^ and a portion of the earth re- 
 moved with them, the work can be done in the fall. "When 
 plants are taken up in the spring, the dead leaves should be re- 
 moved. Where the roots are bared, it is well to clip off one- 
 half their length with the shears before replanting. It is also 
 well to paddle the roots in such cases. This is do'ne by mixing 
 earth and water, and dipping in the roots. "When the earth is 
 
 605 
 
606 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 taken up -vvitTi tlie plants, of course a hole must be made large 
 enough, to receive earth and all ; the roots are thus left in their 
 natural position; but when the roots are bare, they can be 
 forced into a very small hole, and will often grow in it. But 
 a much more certain and profitable course is to make a hole 
 large enough to spread out the roots. In either case the crown 
 of the plant should never be sec below the level of the surface. 
 A cloudy day is the best for planting. The systems of cultiva- 
 tion and renewal are various. The first is the shiftless system, 
 by which the plants are set out and allowed to grow until the, 
 ground is covered with vines, weeds, and grass, with no fruit. 
 
 The AlteejSTATE Steip System is on some accounts the 
 very best. Strike out rows three feet apart and set the plants 
 about a foot apart in the row. Let all the runners on one side 
 of the rows grow and take root, while all on the other side 
 are cut off. Thus every alternate strip of three feet will be 
 covered with vines which will give a crop of berries, while the 
 bare strip will serve as an alley for the pickers. After the 
 crop is over, dig up this alley, and the next season allow the 
 runners to cover and take root in it. After this season's crop 
 is gathered, dig in the old plants, and so on, digging up one side 
 each year. At the time of setting the plants, and at each 
 annual digging, a liberal coating of manure should be dug in. 
 
 The Biennial System has of late years been popular, and 
 consists in planting in beds, three rows, eighteen inches apart 
 each way, and paths two feet wide. Hoe the plants, weed 
 fkithfuUy, let the runners grow, and aifter the bed has produced 
 two crops, dig or plow it up and plant in a new place. 
 
 The Annual System is the same, except that the plants are 
 put a little nearer together, cultivated the first season, bear the 
 second, and are then plowed or dug under. "When pistillate 
 
small' fruit culture. 607 
 
 varieties* are planted, some other varieties must be plantcil in 
 alternate rows, to fertilize tiiem. One row of staminate to four 
 of pistillate is sufS.cient. In most parts of the country north of 
 New York city, winter protection is beneficial. 
 
 The most> successful cultivators cover their plants. Straw, 
 hay, or leaves to the depth of two inches is suf&cient. Spent 
 hops, pine leaves, and salt meadow hay are still better. A 
 portion of the mulch may be left on in the spring, which will 
 shade the roots, retain the moisture, and keep the fruit clean. 
 
 Mulching of some sort through the fruiting season is a great 
 advantage. 
 
 The Yarieties we recommend for cultivation are, the Ag- 
 EICULTUEIST,-|- Austin or Shaker, Boston Pine, Brighton Pine, 
 Brooklyn Scarlet, Crimson Cone, JJurand, JDoroner^s Prolific, 
 Diadem, P Eclipse, P. Oreen Prolific, HovEY's Seedling, P. 
 Hooker, loiva. Ladies^ Pine, P. Lady Finger, LongwortKs, 
 Lennig's White, McAvoy's Superior, Monitor, Nkw Jersey 
 Scarlet, RusseWs Prolific, P. Scarlet Magnate, P. "Wilson's 
 Albany, Triomphe de Gand, The Wilder. {See Colored Fruit 
 Plate for the AGRICULTURIST and Boston Pine.) 
 
 Easpberries and Blackberries are mostly propagated by 
 suckers t)r shoots growing from the roots. A rich moist soil is 
 best ; if too dry or sandy, apply swamp muck ; but a full crop 
 of the raspberry every season cannot be expected from a grav- 
 elly or sandy soil. If the soil be deeply trenched when first 
 planted, a plantation of either of these berries will continue in 
 bearing five or six years, when they should be renewed, if the 
 crop begins to be diminished. Pruning should be done early iti 
 
 * Pistillate varieties are those having imperfect stamens, and therefore 
 foil to accomplish fertilization, 
 t P. Pistillate. Those in small caps are especially recommended. 
 
608 HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAY. 
 
 the spring, or in the fall immediately after fruiting. It consists 
 in cutting out all the old wood, leaving only last season's growth, 
 and cutting that back to three or four feet, and fastening to stakes 
 or trellis. The suckers should all be taken up, whether wanted 
 for planting or not. When the vines grow vigorously summer 
 pruning becomes necessary. The terminal shoots should be 
 pinched off about the last of August, and if they continue to 
 grow should be pinched off again when they have grown 
 twelve inches more. Winter protection is often given with 
 great advantage ; the method is the same as that described for 
 the grape. Bend down the canes, throw on enough dirt to hold 
 them, then go through with a plow on each side, and turn a 
 furrow slice over them. An acre can be covered at an expense 
 of not more than sixteen dollars. The Philadelphia, Black Oap, 
 American Black, American White Gap, Surprise, Colonel Wilder, 
 and the Antwerp are among the tried varieties of the raspberry ; 
 and the Lawton, Kittanning, Dorchester, New Hochelle, and Wil- 
 son's Early are hardy, productive, and marketable blackberries. 
 
 The cultivation of these fruits in the vicinity of large cities 
 will never fail to be profitable. 
 
 The Currant and Goosebekey are propagated by cuttings 
 so readily, that no other mode will be described. Cuttings 
 should be of ripe wood of recent growth, taken off in the fall. 
 Make the cuttings six inches long, cutting smooth just at the 
 base of a bud, and planting as described for grape cutting-s. 
 The currant had best be planted in the fall, and the gooseberry 
 in the spring. A deep rich soil, deeply trenched and heavily 
 manured, is necessary, if the most profitable crop is desired. 
 The bushes will grow almost anywhere, but will not produce 
 Tegular and abundant crops of the largest and best fruit, unless 
 manured and kept free from weeds, and the ground kept mellow 
 
SMALL FEUIT CULTUEE. 609 
 
 or mulclied througli the summer. These remarks apply equally 
 to the blackberry and raspberry. 
 
 • The most common method of pruning and training, is none 
 at all ; but-a more profitable method is to cut out all dead wood, 
 all wood that has borne for two or three years, and all shoots 
 and suckers that crowd the growth. Six large, vigorous shoots 
 will produce mo^e and larger fruit than double that number of 
 weak and slender ones. The Black Currant is trained as an 
 upright with an open head. The gooseberry is also sometimes 
 trained in this manner ; it is accomplished by rubbing off the 
 lower buds on the stem. The most successful varieties of the 
 currant are, the Deseret, American Blade, Buisfs, . Gherry, Dana's 
 White, Bed Dutch, Victoria, White Grape, White Dutch, and White, 
 Florence. The Cluster, Mountain Seedlin.j, Downing, and Hough- 
 ton's Seedling are the only varieties of the gooseberiy proved to 
 be worthy of cultivation. {See Colored Plate.) 
 
 The Cranberry has of late assumed so much importance, 
 and its cultivation is so little understood, that we shall give 
 more full directions for it. 
 
 Location. The borders of ponds, marshes, and tho sea- 
 shore have proved the best suited to the growth of the cran- 
 berry. In fact ninety-nine one-hundredths of all the cranber- 
 ries grown in the country are in such locations. There are 
 thousands upon thousands of acres of low, wet, swampy, and 
 sandy lands, in all sections of the country, utterly worthless for 
 general cultivation, that are admirably suited to tlie cranberry; 
 and when we remember that they yield from one hundred to 
 four hundred bushels per acre, and sell for from two dollars to 
 six dollars per bushel, it is no wonder that ..iuny owners of such 
 worthless tracts are putting in cranberries. 
 
 Soil. The best soil, if soil it can be called, is beach sand; 
 next to this is common sand, and then peat and sand, which is the 
 
610 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 common soil of bogs and marshes. They will run wholly to 
 vines if the soil is rich. 
 
 Peepaeation of Soil. If. the site selected is the sea-shore, ' 
 or salt-marsh subject to overflow, a dyke niust be built to pre- 
 vent the land being covered with salt water. This can be done 
 by digging a trench about the patch and using the earth thrown 
 out for embanking. After two years' standing to freshen it, it 
 will be ready for planting. If it has not beeh overflowed by 
 salt water, neither the dyke nor the freshening will be neces- 
 sary. If on the shores of a fresh water pond, overflowed in 
 winter and uncovered in summer, you have just the spot needed, 
 without preparation. If on the shores of such a pond, and 'not 
 overflowed, bring it down as nearly to the water level as may 
 be, and if a stream runs through or near it, that may be used to 
 overflow it. liaise an embankment, and keep it covered with 
 water through the winter. {See Flowing.) If the place selected 
 is a swamp or marsh, commence by digging a drain all around 
 the piece when it is driest, using the earth thrown out as an 
 embankment, and providing an outlet, if possible. This will 
 drain the piece so that the top, to the depth of one foot or more, 
 can be cut oft'. This is most valuable manure, and well worth 
 removing from your marshes, even if you do not purpose a cran- 
 berry patch. After this is removed, stop up your outlet and 
 flow your patch, if possible. If there is any sand to be had 
 within hauling distance, haul it onto the ice during the winter, 
 and in the spring your patch will be ready for planting. If the 
 sand is not handy, let it stand a year, and the action of the 
 weather will disintegrate it; otherwise it will not b6 fit for 
 planting. If possible, plow and harrow it. 
 
 Planting. The plants can be set either in the fall or spring. 
 If the ground can be plowed through the winter we prefer fall 
 ])lanting, otherwise we delay until spring; for if not plowed the 
 
SMALL FRUIT CULTURE. 611 
 
 frost will throw out the newly planted vines. There are various 
 methods of planting. The first is the old method of sod planting, 
 that is, the planting of a sod with grass, weeds, vines and all 
 This is a very poor method. Another and much better method 
 is to separate the vines from the sod and plant them in drills or 
 hills, a half dozen spears in a place, with the tips just above the 
 ground. They should be firmly pressed in. Where the vines 
 can be obtained in large quantities they can be cut about two 
 inches long by a common hay cutter, sown on the surface, and 
 well harrowed in ; or they may be sown in drills two feet apart. 
 All these operations must be performed in spring and early 
 summer, unless the ground can be plowed. 
 
 Care should be taken to get fruitful plants, as many that ap- 
 pear vigorous are barren. The better way is to carefully ex- 
 amine the beds from which the plants-are to be taken at the fruit- 
 ing time, and observe what portion bears the be.st crop. 
 
 After Culture. "Where the plants are in hills or in .Irills 
 they can be hoed the first season, after which they will cover 
 the whole ground and mat together so that hoeing will be im- 
 possible. If the weeds and grass are kept down the first year, 
 all that will be necessary in after years will be to go over the 
 patch two or three times during the growing season and pull up 
 the large tufts of grass, briers and weeds, by hand. Nothing 
 else but the cranberry will grow very luxuriantly in clear sand, 
 and if the top has been taken off the marsh as recommended 
 but few weeds or grasses will appear which cannot be eradicated 
 by the first season's warfare, and the vines will soon take pos- 
 session of the whole. 
 
 Flooding, as we have hinted, is the great aid to cranberry 
 
 culture. The power to flood or drain at will insures most 
 
 profitable returns. With an embankment and a water gate at 
 
 the outlet this may be accomplished. Flood before the ground 
 37 
 
612 HOW TO MAKE ^THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 freezes hard in the fall, and leave the water on until all danger 
 of spring frosts is past. North of New York city two feet of 
 water is desirable, south of there, one foot is sufficient. The 
 patch that is flooded is not likely to be attacked by the cran- 
 berry worm; the danger of winter freezing is avoided; the 
 danger from frost after vegetation has commenced in the spring 
 is done away. In a season of extreme drought the water can be 
 set back onto the patch, and the crop saved. If there are indi- 
 cations of frost before the fruit is ripe it can be covered with 
 water until the cold snap has passed. Almost any one of these 
 advantages is sufficient to justify the ordinary expenses of an 
 embankment and a water gate. If the fruit rots, it is probably 
 too wet, and should be raised by an addition of sand to the sur- 
 face. It can be applied on the ice, and the plants will soon 
 grow up through it. 
 
 Gatherins, Packing, and Marketing the small fruits are 
 important items, and can be very much systematized. "Women 
 and children are usually employed as pickers, and if a succes- 
 sion of fruits is raised a better class of help can be secured, as 
 they have employment for three months instead of one. For 
 this and other reasons we recommend a succession of small 
 fruits, rather than that a man's whole capital should be staked 
 on one kind. A good succession can be arranged with straw- 
 berries, raspberries, currants, blackberries, and cranberries. The 
 fruit should be gathered in dry weather, and not until after the 
 dew is off in the morning. The usual course of large growers 
 is to erect a tent or shed in the field, to which each picker 
 brings the fruit and receives a ticket for the number of baskets. 
 Formerly each grower must provide himself with a large 
 number of baskets, in which to send his fruit to market, but this 
 is obviated by the Free Fruit Box of the Burlington Manufac- 
 turing Company of Burlington, New Jersey. [Fig. 137.) 
 
Fig. 135. Rhode Island Greening. 
 
 >« 
 
 
 If) 
 
 o 
 
 
 to 
 
 QQ 
 
 □ 
 
 lU 
 
 1- 
 
 
 d 
 
 3 
 ti. 
 
 Z 
 
 > 
 < 
 
 
 <!. 
 
 -) 
 
 tiJ 
 
 
 7 
 
 bJ 
 
 u. 
 
 
 < 
 
 Mg. 137. Free Fruit Box. 
 
 «13 
 
SMALL FEUIT CULTURE. 615 
 
 This box was invented for tlie purpose of relieving fruit 
 growers of one of the most annoying incidents — of sendi)jg their 
 fruit a long distance to market — ^the necessity of having- their 
 orates and boxes returned to them. It supplies a want which 
 has always existed in the berry trade, and wiJI be sold so cheap 
 that it can be given away with the fruit. In appearance it is 
 remarkably neat, light, but substantial, while the fruit will al- 
 ways go to market in a perfectly clean bojc. Though given away 
 it will save the grower moaey, enable him to get a better price 
 for his fruit, and put an end to the annual loss of boxes, besides 
 saving him the necessity of keeping a vast quantity of the 
 boxes and crates on hand to provide for the de-ay of returning 
 them. 
 
 The box is composed of two pieces of veneer, Figure 1 
 represents a piece which is folded up into four sides i/f the box. 
 It is scored or cut at the dotted lines, so that it c^n be folded up 
 into a shell as readily as a piece of pasteboard. The tongue at 
 the left' hand end buckles into the two slots at the right hand 
 end, just like closing a pocket book. A notch on the end of 
 the tongue catches so effectually, after being buckled in, as to 
 hold the shell firmly together. 
 
 The bottom is shown at Figure 2. The two tongues at the 
 end are also scored or cut at the dotted lines, and being readily 
 turned up, are buckled into the two sets of slots shown on the 
 lower edge of Figure 1. When thus buckled together, the two 
 pieces form a perfect box, as seen in Figure 3, neither nails nor 
 glue being required, and the whole constituting a strong and 
 beautiful box. The bottom being inserted from above, rests 
 upon the strip between the two bottom slots, and cannot possibly 
 fall out. The prominent advantages secured by the use of this 
 box are as follows : 
 
 1. The great desideratum of a box always nice and clean. 
 
616 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 2. The commission agent being relieved from the great 
 annoy^ce of hunting up and returning crates and boxes, as well 
 as escaping the loss of them, will sell the fruit for much less 
 than the usual commission. 
 
 3. The return freight of empty boxes is saved. 
 
 4. Another saving is secured in sending to market, as one 
 hundred of the free boxes, quart measure, weigh only about 
 twelve pounds, while one hundred of the old square quarts 
 weigh fifty pounds. Any one can readily satisfy himself by a 
 calculation of what is thus saved in freight to market, commis- 
 sion, and return of empty crate, that he will really save money 
 by using a box that he can give away. 
 
 5. As these boxes are put together without nails or glue, they 
 can be sent to distant growers, in the shape of flats, to be made 
 up by children at odd times during the winter. The flats are 
 scored and bent, ready for folding up, and as the wood bends at 
 the joint without breaking, a small girl will learn in five 
 minutes how to put them together. Many hundred boxes thus 
 packed as flats can be got into a very small compass, and at a 
 trifling cost of freight. 
 
 The prices for these boxes are : — 
 
 Pints made up per 1000 $8.00 
 
 " " 5000 37.50 
 
 " in flats per 1000 6.50 
 
 " ' 5000 30.00 
 
 Quarts made up per 1000 '. 9.00 
 
 " " " 5000 42.50 
 
 " in flats '"1000 7.50 
 
 ' 5000 35.00 
 
 Other fruit baskets are : " The American, by the Americau 
 Basket Company, New Britain, Connecticut, a very nice basket, 
 costing thirty dollars for one thousand quarts. The Hallock fruit 
 box, manufactured by N. Hallock, Queens, Queens County, New 
 
SMALL FEUIT CULTURE. 617 
 
 York The Gothic free frait box, made of veneer, is sent in flats 
 ready to be put together, for ten dollars per thousand. A very 
 common basket is made by D. Cook, Kew Haven, Connecticut. 
 J. B.'Smith's grape box, made at Ansonia, Connecticut, holding 
 about five pounds of grapes, is also suitable for the small fruits ; 
 price, sixty dollars per thousand. All these, and many more, 
 are patented. 
 
 Floweb Culture will be confined to the farmer's wife and 
 family, but the farmer, if he be a true lover of nature, will be 
 always ready to lend a patch of ground and an occasional hour 
 with the hoe or spade to the flower-garden; himself and his 
 family will be better for the sight of the flowers, and they 
 will be more closely attatched to the home thus beautified. 
 "We can give by,t a few plaia brief directions for flower 
 culture. 
 
 The best soil for the cultivation of flowers, is a mixture of 
 loam, peat, leaf mould, and sand. If peat cannot be had, decayed 
 turf can be used in its stead. Leaf mould can always be had in 
 the country by covering a pile of leaves with earth in the fall, 
 and letting them rot for a year. Prepare a pile every fall, and 
 you will have a constant supply of the most valuable manure 
 for your flower-garden, vineyard, or nursery. The children 
 should be encouraged to gather all the leaves possible in the 
 fall for these purposes. 
 
 So small a space as is occupied by the flower-garden, should 
 be spaded, hoed, and raked until it is thoroughly pulverized to 
 the depth of eighteen to twenty-four inches. Flower seeds 
 should not be planted until the earth begins to be warm. If 
 the soil tends to be too cold and heavy, add sand to it. One 
 great mistake in planting flower seeds is to plant too early and 
 too deep, so tha,t the seeds never feel the warmth of the sun, 
 and decay without germinating. No definite rule can be given 
 
618 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 ifl regard to depth of planting all seeds, but the very small 
 seeds should be sown on the surface, and a little finely pulver- 
 ised earth sifted over them, and pressed gently with a board. 
 Seeds of the size of the cockscomb and amaranth should be 
 planted a little deeper ; balsams, asters, etc., from one quarter 
 to a half an inch in depth ; sweet peas, four o'clocks, lupins, 
 morning glories, etc., from one half to one inch deep. The 
 ground should be kept moist by light sprinklings, and as soon 
 as the tender plants appear they should be shaded from the 
 direct rays of the midday sun until they are well rooted. All 
 plants should be kept clear of weeds, and the ground frequently 
 stirred about their roots. First on the list of flowers stands the 
 rose. To produce the most perfect roses prepare a trench, or, 
 if for one vine, a hole two and a half feet, deep, filling the 
 bottom with broken bricks, crockery, etc., for drainage, and the 
 balance with an even mixture of earth and manure. Eoses 
 are best planted in the fall, but as far north as the New 
 England States the planting of all tender varieties must be 
 delayed until spring. New plants are procured by layering, as 
 directed for the grape, or by cuttings; or, as in many cases, by 
 taking up and dividing the roots of a growing plant. In plant 
 ing the nicest care should be observed in placing the roots. 
 "When planted in the fall they will usually, be benefited by a 
 winter covering of leaves or stable litter. Cut out all old and 
 decaying wood in the spring. One gardener of our acquaintance 
 recommends two hundred different varieties of the rose for 
 general cultivation. The only remark we shall make in regard 
 to selection, is, select a succession of varieties that will bloom 
 through several months, and, as far as may be, select different 
 colors; from that most beautiful of all roses, the white rose, to 
 the dark purple, sometimes called the' black rose. The flowering 
 almond is a hardy shrub, loaded in blossoming time with prettv 
 
SMALL PEUIT CULTURE. 619 
 
 pink flowers ; it is easily cultivated from suckers or layers. . The 
 syringa should be grown in every yard, both for its pure white 
 blossoms and its fragrance. It will grow from cuttings in any 
 good garden soil. The lilac, spirea, woodbine, and honeysuckle 
 are all worthy of a general cultivation, which can readily be 
 done, as they require but little care if properly planted in the be- 
 ginning. The gladiolus, dahlia, tulip, and like flowers require 
 more care, as the bulbs must be taken up in the fall, and re- 
 planted in the spring ; but their beauty warrants the use of 
 some time that might otherwise be wasted. The bulbs are 
 taken up as soon as the frost touches the plant and kept dry on 
 a shelf in a eool place, or by packing in dry sand ; and about the 
 first of May should be brought out and sprouted in a warm 
 spot, when the tubers should be divided. Each tuber that has 
 a bud will bear a plant. They should be planted out in groups 
 three and a half inches deep, and a stake driven beside them, to 
 which they should be trained. 
 
 The peony is hardy, and requires only to be covered with 
 straw through the winter to put forth vigorously on the first 
 approach of spring. The althea or hollyhock, is a neglected 
 but beautiful plant, we think more desirable than- the dahlia. 
 The seed should be sown in May, one-half an inch deep, and 
 when the plants have put out six or eight leaves, transplanted. 
 By saving and planting the seed of the double varieties, a mass 
 of beautiful flowers of many colors is produced every season. 
 China asters are to be highly recommended. The ground for 
 these, as for all flowers, should be dug deep and well manured 
 They are sown in beds from the first to the tenth of May, and 
 come into bloom in August. 
 
 The verbena is the most beautiful of all garden flowers for 
 massing in beds ; it is however difficult to keep through winter. 
 We can only name a few of the many plants included in the 
 
620 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 lists of nurserymen and florists, but it is well not to be de- 
 ceived by high sounding names into buying common and in- 
 ferior plants. There are enough well known plants like those 
 we have mentioned to make a little paradise around every 
 home. We come now to speak of a few indoor plants. If you 
 have a south or east window that you can spare through the 
 winter, you can raise the most beautiful plants. ■ In cities 
 where the light is excluded, and the dry furnace heat chokes 
 the plant by day, and the gas by night, it is dif&cult to raise 
 good house plants, but in the country, if you will, you can have 
 them to perfection. "Whatever they are. the soil should be the 
 compost we have described. Whether in boxes or pots, the 
 bottom should be covered with broken bits of crockery, and 
 there should be a hole for the escape of the water. When the 
 roots fill the box or pot, the plant should be taken out and a 
 part of the roots cut off, or the plant should be transplanted 
 where it will have more room. House plants, and plants in the 
 garden, should be watered only with soft water, and the water 
 should be applied to the leaves rather than the stem. The 
 geranium stands first among house plants ; it is propagated by 
 slips, and the common fault in its cultivation is crowding; 
 Give it light and air on all sides. The same may be said of 
 nearly all indoor plants, which include the cactus, calla, crys- 
 anthemums, verbenas, and the various dwarf roses. 
 
PART FOURTH. 
 
 ETJEAL AECHIIECTUEE-LANDSCAPE eAEDENIHO-MAEKET GAEDEHINQ— 
 PAEMEES' GAEDENS-AND MISOELLANEO0S ITEMS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 rural' architecture. 
 
 'AEM BUILDINGS are, in a sense, the measure of the 
 farmer's thrift ; for the farmer who " makes his farm 
 pay" will see to it that his comfortable house and 
 capacious barns give evidence of his prosperity. The 
 House is often the last object of ihe farmer's care, but it should 
 be the first; for though he is not much in it, his wife and 
 children are, and if he has due regard for them he will see that 
 every thing about the house is as comfortable and convenient 
 as his means will allow him to make it. 
 
 Any thing that will lessen the labors or increase the comfort 
 of his wife, any thing that will increase the attractions of his 
 Home to his children, is worthy of his careful attention. 
 
 The location should be the most convenient, healthful, and 
 pleasant spot on the place, well set back from the road, and if 
 possible near a lake, brook, river, or never failing spring of 
 water. A house near the public highway is subject to many 
 annoyances, which can be avoided only by setting it back three 
 or four hundred yards. 
 
 The Foundation should not be slighted in any respect. Lav- 
 ing the timbers on boards is a miserable practice. Make the 
 foundation strong, going below frost with the excavation for 
 
 G21 
 
622 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEII PAY. 
 
 the wall, and taking special pains to have the corner-stones 
 large and solid. 
 
 Size of Timbers. A small stick of timber of the right shape 
 is better than a big stick. In old houses the amoiant of timber 
 is sufficient to build thi'ee or four just as strong. Much depends 
 also on the form of joints in making a frame stiff. A three inch 
 by four joist would be weak and insufficient, when the same 
 lumber in a joist eight by one and a half inches would be strong 
 enough to support a great weight. 
 
 Make the rooms higii between joists ; ten feet for the lower 
 rooms is none too much, for low, close rooms are a constant soarce 
 of disease. Put two ventilators in each room, about eight feet 
 from the floor ; fresh air will lessen your doctor's bill. The 
 timbers of the frame and all the lumber used should be well 
 seasoned. The farmer cannot be too particular about tTiis. 
 More bad-looking and unsatisfactory jobs are made by neglect- 
 ing this particular than any other. Nothing detracts from the 
 market value or the comfort of a house more than great cracks 
 and shrinkages in the doors and floors. 
 
 We have advocated setting back the house ; this will leave a 
 large plot of ground between the house and the road, which 
 should be filled with trees and shrubs. Nothing looks better 
 here than a variety of well-trimmed fruit trees. In such a space 
 the farmer may raise large and small fruits sufficient for a supply 
 the year round, besides furnishing sauces, jams, preserves, and 
 mild wines. If the walk to the house passes under several grape 
 arbors it will add to the attractiveness of his place. Elsewhere 
 will be found instructions for covering these arbors with luscious 
 fruit. Fig. 138 represents the ground plan of a very conveni- 
 ent farm house. V is the verandah, running across the whole 
 front of the house, h is the hall, with doors opening into both 
 parlor and sitting room. S, front stairs. S, sitting room. P 
 
EURAL ARCHITECTUEE. 
 
 623 
 
 parlor, c, chimney, b, bed room. K, 
 kitchen. A, back stairs. The cellar 
 stairs are directly under these, en- 
 trance at B. The kitchen opens into 
 the sitting room and bed room, and 
 also directly into the pantry, p, and 
 the passage iVay, W, leading to the 
 dairy, d. At o is a side door with a 
 little porch. W. E, is a wash room, 
 and W. S. a wood shed, beyond which 
 can be connected any other build- 
 ings required. There are four good 
 chambers with closets over the main 
 building, and the back buildings can 
 be made one and a half stories, and 
 several more sleeping rooms secured, 
 if desirable. 
 
 Fig. 139 is a Jjitlc more compact, 
 and, in one or two respects, more de- 
 sirable. The verandab is on the side, 
 and a hall, hh, extends the whole dis- 
 tance from the front to the side en- 
 trance. This cuts off the silting room 
 from the kitchen, making it colder in 
 winter time as well as cooler in sum- Fig. 188. 
 
 mer. /, front stairs; c, back and cellar stairs. The main 
 rooms are in the same position as before ; but the wash room, 
 W, and wood house, H, are more compact. This plan gives six 
 chambers. Fig. 140 is a laborer's cottage, such as every farmer 
 would do well to have for his hands. L, is the living room ; B, 
 bed room ; P, pantry ; Sj stairs ; K, kitchen ; W, wood house. 
 Such a house is cheaply built, as follows : Put up a simple 
 
624 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 frame, and nail plank siding on, up and down. TKe planks 
 should be of about equal width. Batten inside and out with 
 inch stuffthree inches wide. To the inside batten nail the lath. 
 
 A good cellar is the most cheaply constructed of any apart- 
 ment in the house, and the others will see little comfort without 
 it. The cellar bottom should be laid in • cement or gravel. 
 Gravel and tar floors are not only good for cellars, but for 
 stables and walks. 
 
 The right way to make these floors is ■ as follows : — Take a 
 Buf&cient quantity of small stones, one or two inches in diame- 
 ter, put them in a pile, and pour over them enough coal tar to 
 coat them all, mixing them meanwhile with a shovel; then 
 spread them over the floor, and rake to a level. They should 
 make the floor about three inches thick. Now a quantity of 
 coarse gravel should be coated with the tar, which can be done 
 by pouring in a pile, making a hole in the top of it, pouring in 
 the tar, and mixing with a shovel. There should be enough 
 coal tar to coat both the stones and gravel, but no more, as it 
 would require more time for the floor to harden. The gravel 
 should be spread over the stones two inches thick. The whole 
 should then be rolled with a heavy stone roller, till the floor is 
 perfectly compact. The corners, where the roller cannot be 
 used, should be beaten down with a mall. While the rolling 
 and mailing is going on the surface should be strewn over 
 broadcast with fine gravel or sand, to take up the surplus tar. 
 This process should continue till the surface is too dry to stick 
 to one's shoes in walking over it. This kind of floor is water 
 proof, frost proof and rat proof, and is, therefore, the best of any. 
 The only objection to it, is that it emits a strong smell for some 
 lime ; but this smell is healthy, and also helps to keep rats clear 
 away from the barn or house. 
 
w 
 
 jC 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 A 
 
 7i 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 J L. 
 
 1=^ 
 
 
 K 
 
 r 
 
 w 
 
 • 
 
 S 
 
 P 
 
 
 L 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 Fig. 139. Plan of Fabm House. Plan of Laborer's Cottage. 
 
 a a a 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 141. GrKOTJiirD Plan of Baen represented in PEONTisprEc:^ 
 
 38 626 
 
EUEAL AECHITECTUEB. 627 
 
 Bj the same process as the above, there can be made the 
 very best door-yard walks, sidewalks, and street crossings. 
 Not even the continual passing of teams over the street cross- 
 ings, nor the heaving and subsiding "of freezing and thawing 
 mud hurt them. It only grows harder and more enduring con- 
 tinually. The smell soon passes away in the open air, and is 
 no more trouble. 
 
 We have given elsewhere plans of a sheep barn, {Fig. 85,) a 
 a piggery, {Fig. 90,) and a poultry house, {Fig. 97.) 
 
 Fig. 141, is a ground plan of the barn represented in our 
 steel engraved frontispiece, a, a, a are the doors seen in the 
 engraving, leading into the barnyard, s, s, the stalls for cows 
 and cattle, r, is the root cellar, g, the grain room, and c, the 
 cooking room. The barn is in a side hill and the root cellar, 
 cooking room, and .granary are nearly all under ground. 
 
 The stable floors are made of gravel and coal tarj as described 
 above, and have gutters running to the yard and connecting 
 with the manure well. There is a cistern under the cooking 
 room which is always kept filled from the roof troughs, and the 
 stables are kept washed down. A large amount of liquid 
 manure is saved, and is used as directed in Chapter III. This 
 cistern also furnishes a supply of water the year round. The 
 roofs of a large barn forty by sixty, will furnish three thousand 
 barrels of water annually, which would require a cistern hold- 
 ing two hundred and forty barrels to be drained monthly. 
 
 Farmers often build small cisterns, and drain a large roof 
 sarface into them, keeping them constantly overflowed. A 
 roof twenty by thirty will average one hundred and twenty 
 barrels of water per month. The following, which we found in 
 a Western paper, exactly expresses a great need at the West. 
 
 " Farmers in the West have not learned to appreciate the im- 
 portance of barns, and the annual loss to them in consequence 
 38 
 
628 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 is immense. But the deficiency of this important farm appen- 
 dage if- the natural result of the circumstances which attend the 
 settler in a now country. The little capital that he sets out 
 with is generally all required to secure his land and erect the 
 humble tenement for himself and family. He may provide a 
 rough shed of poles for his work horses, but his cattle must 
 seek shelter in winter under the trees or behind fences ; and 
 his grain is threshed out in the field, as soon after harvest as 
 circumstances will admit. His hay is stacked up near his sta- 
 . ble, and thus, from what he is at first compelled to submit to 
 from necessity, the habit of neglect is formed, and, in after 
 years, when the circumstances will admit of providing such 
 conveniences, he has arrived at the conclusion that they are 
 not necessary. 
 
 " In travelling through portions of Pennsylvania, we have 
 often been struck with the evidences of the for-esight and 
 economy of the early Dutch settlers, in providing barns of 
 capacity sufficient for the protection of most of their hay and 
 grain, their horses and farm stock, while their dwellings for 
 themselves and families are small and of the most humble style. 
 
 " The loss sustained by the Western farmers for the want of 
 suitable barns, amounts to many millions of dollars annually. 
 Besides the injury to his hay and grain crops, he labors under 
 great inconvenience, and is subject to heavy losses in feeding 
 his stock during winter ; and, besides this, his animals require 
 much more food to maintain them in order through the winter 
 than when they are comfortably sheltered. If they do not re- 
 ceive an extra amount of food, to keep up the animal heat 
 during the long, cold winter, they consume the fat that they 
 have accumulated through the summer, to supply the deficiency 
 of food. Heat is maintained from one of these two sources,- by 
 a sort of combustion, analogous to the fuel in a stove, or the oil 
 
BUEAL AEOHITECTUKE. 629 
 
 in a lamp. If the fat is exhausted to make up for the deficiency 
 of food, the animals are turned out in the spring, poor and 
 emaciated; and if they survive the trying month of March, 
 they will consume one half the summer in restoring the flesh 
 they have lost. This is no fancy picture, but one that may be 
 almost everywhere witnessed around us. 
 
 " Besides these losses and the numerous "inconveniences the 
 farmer is subject to in preparing the food and taking care of 
 his stock, for the want of a well constructed barn, arranged 
 with all the improvements of the present day, he loses an im- 
 mense amount for want of shelter for 'his crops. In 1855 there 
 were millions of bushels of wheat in the United States, either 
 totally lost or greatly injured by exposure in the shock to the 
 rains. This injury was so extensive, that in many sections of 
 the country suf&cient wheat — that had not been sprouted — 
 could not be procured for fall sowing ; and the query was made 
 in almost every agricultural paper, whether sprouted wheat 
 would answer for seed." 
 
 A Eat Proof Corn Ckib may be built by laying pillars of 
 flat stones twelve inches square, two feet high, and capping 
 them with smooth flat stones two feet square. 
 
 An Ice House is not only a great advantage, in connection 
 with the dairy, but there are many ways in which it adds to 
 the comfort and economy of housekeeping. The ice house 
 should be wholly above ground, and never less than twelve feet 
 square on the inside. The walls should be double, with twelve 
 inch space between them, filled with sawdust or tan bark. A 
 double row of posts, ten feet long and set two feet in the 
 ground, answers as well as any thing else for a frame. 
 
 We could wish that more attention was paid to the position 
 of farm buildings as affecting their looks. If they are arranged 
 about a hollow square, and partially hidden from passers by 
 
630 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 fine shade trees, it will be an advance upon the common, bare 
 irregular haphazard appearance usually presented. Such at- 
 tention to looks will pay, if you or yours should ever wish to 
 dispose of the property to a man of taste. 
 
 We have already spoken of trees and arbors intervening 
 between the house and the road. We hope this suggestion will 
 be heeded. An osage orange hedge, in place of a fence, will 
 add to the attractiveness of such a plot. 
 
 To any one who would really like to build a tasty house, or 
 alter an old one with but little extra expense for ornament, we 
 recommend a perusal of Mitchell's, (" Eural Studies,") Wheeler's, 
 Todd's, Woodward's, or Allen's works on Eural Architecture. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 MARKET GARDENING AND FARMERS* GARDENS. 
 
 ' '■ AEKET GARDENING can only be carried on, on a 
 large scale, within a few honrs reach of large cities, but 
 near all villages and incorporated towns there is always 
 a moderate demand which is seldom fully supplied. 
 And even if there were no demand beside that of the farmer's 
 own table, a variety of fresh vegetables is so desirable, so whole- 
 some, and so cheaply secured, that we should say to every 
 farmer, keep a well stocked garden.' 
 
 A good garden well stocked and well tended, in connection 
 with the farm, is acknowledged by all experienced in domestic 
 economy to be the most profitable portion of the farm, accord- 
 ing to the expense and care required. Yet it is a portion which 
 has been, and is, too much neglected by most farmers in this 
 country, much to their loss, in both health and comfort. The 
 time necessary to its successful culture is often wasted or lost 
 in running to the store for articles that might not have been 
 needed, had there been a good garden to go to instead. 
 
 Half an acre devoted to garden purposes will, if properly 
 cultivated, furnish a large family with a considerable portion of 
 their living from spring to midwinter, or till spring conies 
 again ; and instead of the more heating meats, stale bread, and 
 old potatoes, to which so many farmers' families are confined in 
 
 winter and spring, we have a successive and refreshing variety 
 
 631 
 
632 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 of good, wholesome, fresh vegetables, fruits, salads, berries, etc. ; 
 and when the warm weather of spring comes, and the system 
 requires a less stimulating, more cooling diet, we have a variety- 
 offered to tempt the appetite, which can be procured at so little, 
 expense or trouble, in no other way. 
 
 Not only should the garden contain, and- have cultivated in 
 it, the more common vegetables usually grown on the farm, but 
 all~the choice varieties, as also fruits, etc., desirable for family 
 use, that can be grown in the climate. 
 
 The garden spot should, when a choice is to be had, have a 
 gentle descent or slope towards the south, as this exposure is 
 preferable on many accounts to any other. The effects of a slight 
 frost are more readily recovered from, if the air gets gradually 
 a little warmed before the direct rays of the sun strike the 
 plants that may be touched. Protection ought to be afforded a 
 garden from cold northerly winds, if in no other way, by tight 
 high board fences, it is better if protected by woods, high hills, 
 or buildings. 
 
 When the half acre is selected, it should be subsoiled or 
 trenched, and, if at all inclined to hold water, it should be 
 drained. {See Chapter I., for advantages of draining;) Peter 
 Henderson, in a work on market gardening, records an instance 
 of eight acres, the products of which were increased two 
 thousand dollars a year by drainage, which cost five hundred 
 dollars. It would seem as if a word to the wise on this subject 
 ought to be sufficient. 
 
 Nest to the draining and deep plowing is the manuring, 
 which should be liberal. The great advantages to be secured 
 are earliness, large yields, and extra quality ; none of these can 
 be secured without plepty of manure. 
 
 A half acre intended for,a garden should receive ten cords of 
 good compost. Here is just the place for liquid man are, on the 
 
MARKET GARDENING AND FARMERS' GARDENS. (J33 
 
 growing crops. The garden being near the stables and yard, 
 should receive many barrels of liquid manure during the season. 
 
 Each subsequent season this heavy manuring should be con- 
 tinued, but the compost should be varied. If manure from the 
 hog pen is composted this year, use horse manure the next, 
 night soil the third, etc. Eotation of maii;ires is often as essen- 
 tial as rotation of crops. 
 
 Cold Frames. ■ One-half the enjoyment and two-thirds of 
 the profit in raising garden stuff is in having it early in the 
 season. This is accomplished by means of cold frames or hot 
 beds. The cold frame consists simply of plank, set on edge 
 around the garden beds, and covered with sash. Two or three 
 weeks can be gained by the use of these in growing early vege- 
 tables, lettiice, tomatoes, cucumbers, etc. Cold frames and hot 
 beds should face south, or southeast, and be protected on the 
 northeast and northwest by a tight board fence. We would 
 advise every man to have a small hot-bed for forcing a few early 
 plants. Dig a trench four to five feet wide, two feet deep, and 
 ten feet long. Board it up with any old plank to eighteen 
 inches above the level of the ground, making the poriion 
 above ground pretty tight. You can nail slats across the 
 frames in any shape, to receive your sash. The heating mate- 
 rial is fresh horse dung composted with its equal bulk of 
 leaves. Draw them to the vicinity of the hot-bed and mix them 
 in a conical heap, until they heat, which will be shown by the 
 escape of vapors, when the heap should be turned over and left 
 for the second heat. When this takes place fill the trench, 
 treading down the compost till it is even with the surface,. 
 Now put on the soil six inches deep. A portion of the surface 
 soil that was thrown out, mixed with one-third the quantity 
 of old hog manure, will be the best. , 
 
 Market gardeners use straw mats for covering their hot- 
 
634 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 beds, but an old carpet or blanket or coverlid will answer the 
 purpose. There is no part of tbe country where a variety of 
 plants may not be started in March, by the use of the hot-bed. 
 
 Potatoes. A few eady potatoes should be grown in the 
 farmer's garden, as those usually eaten after the first of Jun,e are 
 absolutely unwholesome. The farmer may also use his garden 
 to test the qualities of any new sorts before he invests largely 
 in them. Ashes in the drills, covered with One inch of earth, 
 form a most fertile bed for the potatoes. We recommend the 
 Eaely Eose for garden culture, as the best early potatoe ever 
 grown in this country. 
 
 Beets should be sown only in a deep rich loam. Clay or 
 gravel is not suitable. None but well decomposed manure 
 should be used, with the addition of ashes and a little salt. 
 An ounce of seed will sow over one hundred feet of drill very 
 thickly. Two crops should be sown, one as early as the 
 ground can be worked, and the other six weeks later, for fall 
 and winter use. 
 ' The drills mkj be one foot apart, and when the plants get two 
 nches high, they should be thinned. These little plants make 
 the best of greens, and if a large bed is gradually thinned will 
 furnish a daily dish for two or three weeks. The market 
 gardeners make these small beets and tops pay for the labor of 
 thinning the crop. Six inches apart in the drills is the distance 
 at which they should stand, when the thinning is completed. 
 They should be kept free from weeds, and for this purpose, and 
 'for all the opei'ations of the gai'den, "Allen's weed killer" will 
 be found a very ef&cient implement. The long smooth blood 
 beet for the late crop, and the early blood turnip rooted beet for 
 the early crop, are the two varieties we recommend. The seed 
 is good two years. 
 
 Caeeots will usually pay about double the profit received 
 
MARKET GABDENING AND FAEMERS' GARDENS. 635 
 
 from potatoes as a market crop, and for the farmer's garden a 
 few may well be sown in the poorest spot in the garden, as rich 
 soil is apt to make them rank. Sow the Early Horn for the lirst 
 crop, and thin, the same as directed for beets. The Long Orange 
 is the best for later sowing and winter keeping. 
 
 Turnips for winter use should be sown about the first of 
 August, but a few " purple top strap leaved" sown in May, or 
 the first of June, afford a desirable addition to the summer table. 
 For winter keeping, the White Dutch, Finland, Yellow Dutch, 
 and "White Purple Top are recommended. {See Chapter VII.) 
 
 Onions, though discarded from society, are too good to be 
 banished, and we advise a bed of onions in the farmer's garden, 
 by all means. The mode of cultivation is described on another 
 page. 
 
 The Parsnip is exceedingly desirable, as they may be left in 
 the bed over the winter, and afford fresh vegetables as soon as 
 the frost is out in the spring. The free use of. the parsnip at 
 this time is most beneficial to the system, after the somewhat 
 limited fare of the late winter months. Its cultivation is the 
 same as for the carrot and other vegetables of this class. 
 Plant in rows one foot apart, and thin to four inches. A half 
 ounce of seed is sufficient for a hundred feet of drill. 
 
 The Eadish is much esteemed in cities, and is desirable iu 
 every garden. It gives a relish to other articles of food, other- 
 wise rather insipid. A light rich soil, deep and finely pulverized, 
 will grow radishes in six weeks from the planting. Sow in drills 
 an inch deep and six inches apart. Thin to two inches apart after 
 they are well up. A drill six feet long sown in the hot-bed the 
 first of March, another in the cold frame the first of April, a 
 third in the open garden the first of May, a fourth, fifth, and 
 sixth, at intervals of a month, between the rows of asparagus, 
 will furnish your table daily from April to October. 
 
636 HOW TO MAKE THE PAEM PAT. 
 
 AspAEAGUS. It is SO easy a matter to secure a good bed of 
 asparagus, that we should think every farmer's garden migit 
 be provided with one. The preparation of the bed requires 
 some labor, but when it is remembered that it will last for 
 twenty or thirty years, it seems small indeed. Lay out a bed in 
 the warmest, mellowest part of the garden. Throw out all the 
 soil to a depth of two feet ; throw in a layer of well rotted 
 compost, and then a layer of the soil, forking the two over in 
 the trench. When filled a little above the level, mark rows 
 across the bed an inch deep and twelve inches apart. Soak the 
 seed in milk over night, and drop in the drills an inch apart. 
 When the plants are two or three inches high, thin them out 
 to nine inches apart in the rows. In the fall cut off the stalks 
 and add six inches of compost, half manure and half soil. Add 
 another dressing in the spring, and each succeeding spring. 
 North of New York the bed should have a fall dressing to pro- 
 tect the plants from the frost. No plants should be cut for 
 the first three years. Salt should be put on when the bed is 
 made, and with each spring dressing. 
 
 Celery. Sow in April in the cold frame, or May in the 
 open ground. Thin and weed the plants until July, when they 
 should be transplanted to rows three feet apart. When they 
 attain twelve or fifteen inches in height, bank them up with 
 earth from between the rows, pressing it closely about the 
 stalks. As the stalks increase in height, add more earth. For 
 winter use leave the stalks in the rows until there is danger of 
 freezing, then remove to the cellar, covering all but the tops 
 with dry sand. Never plant any of the large kinds. Incom- 
 parable Dwarf and " Boston Market" are the best in all respects. 
 
 Lettuce. The universal cultivation of this plant leaves 
 little to be said. It may be sown at various times from April 
 
MAIiKET GARDENING AND FARMERS' GARDENS. 637" 
 
 to July. When transplanted or thinned the plants should 
 stand one foot apart. The seed only requires to be covered 
 with one-fourth inch of soil. The Early Curled Simpson for 
 early sowing and the Curled India for late sowing are the best 
 varieties for garden culture. 
 
 Peppers should be sown in the hot-bed in March, or the 
 cold frame in April, and planted out as soon as the ground gets 
 thoroughly warm, in rows two feet apart, and eighteen inches 
 apart in the rows. The Squash Pepper is the most productive 
 and the Sweet Mountain the largest and mildest flavored. 
 
 Ehubarb or Pie Plant is exceedingly convenient for making 
 pies at a time when nothing else is available. Five heads will 
 supply a family of twenty persons. All that is required is to 
 set out a piece of root and it will grow. Dig the soil deeply, 
 manure it richly before putting out the plant, and fork in a 
 quantity of heating manure every spring. Market gardeners 
 apply one hundred tons of manure to the acre, and realize an 
 average profit of three hundred and fifty dollars per acre. 
 
 Tomatoes, in this latitude, may be planted in the cold frame 
 in April, or the hot-bed a month earlier. They are now in uni- 
 versal favor, and an early crop is always in the market at good 
 prices. A few plants will suf&ce for an ordinary family, and 
 these can be started in a box, in some warm, protected spot. 
 The ground, if in good fertility, should not be enriched for the 
 plants, as they will run to tops. The old early smooth red, and 
 the later large red and large yellow, arenas good as the modern 
 varieties. 
 
 Beans are, perhaps, as generally cultivated as any garden 
 crop, and yet but few cultivate them rightly. They contain a 
 larger proportion of nutriment than any other plant or vegeta- 
 ble, and as a garden or field crop deserve more attention than 
 they get. All beans require a light, mellow soil, well enrklied. 
 
638 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 A wet, cold soil, or a barren soil, is no more fit for raising beans 
 than for wheat ; and the product of an acre in beans will sup- 
 port life nearly twice as long as the product of an exactly similar 
 acre of wheat. The Lima is the best garden bean ; but the ill 
 success of many gardeners in raising them has brought it into 
 disrepute. There is no trouble, however, if _rightly managed. 
 Dig the spot intended for Limas the last thing in the fall. Set 
 down your poles as soon as the ground will do to work in the 
 spring, three feet apart each way. Grease your beans, by turn- 
 ing on to them melted fat (not hot) of any kind, and plant six to 
 a hill, with the eye 'down. If all the beans sprout, pull up two, 
 leaving four plants at each pole. The greasing prevents their 
 rotting, which has been the great objection to them. The Dwarf 
 Bean is planted in drills twelve inches apart ; two inches deep 
 and six inches apart is about the right distance to drop the seed. 
 If the drills are directly underlaid with hen manure or night- 
 soil compost, the growth will be rapid and t'he yield large. 
 For string-beans, the Indian Chief is preferred. The Concord 
 and Ehode Island Butter bean are desirable for shelling. Beans 
 should be hoed often, but never when the leaves are wet. It is 
 best not to plant them until the ground is warm, as they are not 
 hardy like peas. A succession may be planted from May to 
 August, and the table constantly supplied with corn and beans. 
 We shall speak of the culture of beans and peas as a field crop 
 in another place. 
 
 Peas may be sown,^as soon as the ground can be worked in 
 the spring, even if it freezes up and is covered with snow after- 
 wards. If the ground is trenched two feet deep in the fall, it 
 will be several days earlier in the spring. Warm, light soils, 
 moderately enriched by stable manure or bone dust, are best 
 adapted to the pea ; but if the ground has been manured the 
 year before, no further manure is desirable. For the early 
 
MAEKET GAEDENING AND FAEMEES' GaEDBNS. 639 
 
 crop SOW tbe Daniel O'Rourke or Tom Thumb. Get some in 
 j ust as early as you can, and then sow a few every two weeks 
 until July. The early kinds will need no brush. The best 
 varieties for later planting are the Champion of England and 
 the Marrowfat. In planting peas, soak the seed in warm water 
 from twelve to fourteen hours before planting. The rows ol 
 the smaller kinds may be six inches apart, but the large kinds 
 should not be less than twelve inches apart, and three inches 
 apart in the rows, for garden culture. 
 
 Sweet Coekt needs no recommendation — every body uses ii , 
 but farmers' gardens usually get but one planting ; whereas if a 
 few hills were planted every two weeks from the first planting, 
 there would be a constant succession of "roasting ears." Stow 
 ell's Evergreen, and Early Darling, are two excellent varieties 
 Pop-corn is also desirable, as it affords, without expense, an 
 evening treat throughout the year. The winter evenings aro 
 made bright and cheerful for the girls and boys by means of 
 pop-corn, molasses candy, and such simple pleasures ; and who 
 can tell what influence these bright home scenes may have in 
 turning the young away from sinful pleasures, the bar room, 
 and the gaming table. 
 
 The Cabbage requires a rich loam, and lime. Pound up 
 your oyster and clam shells as fine as may be with a sledge 
 nammer, and put them into the soil, but, until they are de- 
 cayed, apply lime and barnyard manure Sow the seed in the 
 cold frame, or,- after the ground is warm, m the open garden. 
 Transplant to rows two and a half feet apart, and two feet apart 
 in the rows. The frequent application of liquid manure to 
 these plants will produce an astonishing growth. In the gar- 
 den is a good place to try the value of the liquid manure we 
 recommended in Chapter III. ; and you will soon see that one 
 half your manure has been .going to waste, at a great loss. 
 
64:0 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 The Wakefield and Early York are the best eaily varie- 
 ties, and the Drum Heads and Savoy, the favorite late kinds. 
 These last are not planted until May, and transplanted in July. 
 
 The Cucumber, though tabooed by the Doctors, is still a fa- 
 vorite, and if used for nothing but pickles, is still almOst indis- 
 pensable. Every good housewife appreciates a jar of cucumber 
 pickles. The holes for planting cucumbers should be dug 
 about eighteen inches deep, and filled with a mixture of soil 
 and rotted manure. A shovelful of night soil in the bottom of 
 the hole will do wonders. Fill up the hole to two or three 
 inches above the level, and in this raised mound plant a dozen 
 jeeds, covering them an inch deep with fine dirt, patting it 
 down with the spade. When the plants are up, thin them down 
 gradually to the four strongest ones. The White Spined and 
 Early Frame are the best early varieties, and the Early 
 Cluster where pickles are the main object. 
 
 Squashes and Melons should be planted in the same way 
 as cucumbers. A few early melons might be started in the hot- 
 bed, then transplanted to the cold frame, and finally to the gar- 
 den. After the hot-bed is disused, a hill of cucumbers, melons, 
 or squashes might be planted in it. The Hubbard Squash 
 should have a place in every garden, as most delicious pies can 
 be made from it all winter. A few watermelons and musk- 
 melons can be raised in almost every garden, and are an inex- 
 pensive luxury. If any one is entitled to such luxuries it is 
 the farmer surely. 
 
 Thyme, Sage, Summer Savory, and Sweet Maejorum 
 should also be grown in the farmers' garden for the accommo- 
 dation of the housekeeper in her seasonings. The Thanks- 
 giving turkey or the Christmas goose cannot be just right 
 without them. All stuffed and baked meats are improved by 
 their use. The seed is sown in May, in rich, mellow soil, and 
 
MARKET GARDENING AND FARMERS' GARDENS. 641 
 
 the plant kept entirely free from weeds until they are trans- 
 planted in June or July., Set twelve inches between the rows 
 and eight inches between the plants. Keep down all weeds by 
 the freq[uent use of a rake. In September, cut every other 
 plant. 
 
 Having now given directions for the home garden, we wish 
 to speak of those crops which it will pay the farmer to culti- 
 vate as " field crops" for town or city market. And we would 
 say here, that a wide field is open to Southern cultivators in 
 supplying the Northern markets with early vegetables and 
 fruits, melons, etc. Any crop that will ship and that can be 
 brought to New York City a few days before it can be grown 
 on Long Island or in New Jersey, must pay enormous profits. 
 New York will pay extravagant prices for having an early 
 supply. Nothing will so well pay the Southern people on the 
 coast, or rivers, or railroads, as to devote their energies to the 
 early production of garden crops. 
 
 Market Gardening may be so conducted as to be very 
 profitable, but the cultivator cannot calculate upon extraordi- 
 nary profits with ordinary cultivation. Constant attention and 
 large outlays are required to secure large crops and large 
 profits. Two hundred and fifty dollars per acre is the lowest 
 estimate at which we put the cost of producing the most profita 
 ble crops, and, as a rule, the man who can spare but five 
 hundred dollars on his crops should cultivate but two acres, 
 and in that proportion for a larger working capital. Some few 
 farmers may, perhaps, get good profits from a. few acres with 
 less outlay. 
 
 An average profit of four hundred dollars per acre has been 
 realized, for ten years, by the market gardeners about New 
 York, where competition is greater than anywhere else in the 
 country. If the soil has not been drained the expense will be 
 
642 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAr. 
 
 greater ; but drainage is a permanent investment, more perma- 
 nent axid more certain than any other the farmer can make. 
 
 Seventy-five to one hundred tons of manure per acre is used 
 by the regular market gardener, who raises two or three crops 
 on the land thus manured. Mr. Henderson makes the follow- 
 ing estimate of expenses and receipts per. acre. 
 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 Labor $300, horse labor $35 $335.00 
 
 Seventy-five tons manure 100.00 
 
 Eent, seeds, and tools 70.00 
 
 Cost of selling 100.00 
 
 $605.00 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 12,000 Early cabbages at five cents per head . . $600.00 
 
 14,000 Lettuce at one cent per head 140.00 
 
 30,000 Celery at two cents per head 600.00 
 
 $1340.00 
 Leaving a profit of $735.00. 
 
 " A crop of early beets or onions, followed by sweet herbs 
 or horseradish, would have given about the same results." 
 Three hundred dollars per acre seems a large sum for labor, 
 but it comes back with interest. One half of this amount for 
 labor and fifty tons of manure might serve for the farmer, as 
 he will not be likely to crowd the crop to such good advantage 
 as the regular gardener. 
 
 The manure is prepared by the hogs, as follows: A manure 
 yard is laid out, dug out two feet deep, and enclosed by a board 
 fence six feet high. The green manure is thrown in pretty 
 evenly; also, refuse chips, muck, peat, sods, bone shavings, and 
 all animal and vegetable matter. Enough hogs are kept in it 
 to keep it constantly worked over, and these hogs are fed the 
 
MAEKET GARDENING AND FARMERS' GARDENS. 643 
 
 refee vegetables, tops, etc. Peruvian guano and bone flour are 
 the best fertilizers ; but the farmer can make manure cheaper 
 than to buy it, and we refer him to Chapter III. Henderson 
 relates the following : " It is a grave blunder to attempt to grow 
 vegetable crops without the use of manures of the various kinds 
 in about the proportions I have named. I never yet saw soil 
 of any kind that had borne a crop of vegetables that would pro- 
 duce as good a crop the next season without the use*of manure, 
 n(5 matter how rich the soil may be thought to be. An Illustra- 
 tion of this came under my observation last season. One of my 
 neighbors, a market gardener of twenty years' experience, and 
 whose grounds have always been a model of productiveness, 
 had it in prospect to run a sixty -feet street through his grounds. 
 Thinking his lands sufficiently rich to carry through a crop of 
 cabbages without manure, he thought it uselciss to waste money 
 by using guano on that portion on which the street was to run, 
 but on each side sowed guano at the rate of twelve hundred 
 pounds per acre, and planted the whole with early cabbages. The 
 effect was the most marked 1 ever saw ; that portion on which 
 guano had been used selling off readily at twelve dollars per 
 hundred, or about fourteen hundred dollars per acre, the other 
 hardly averaged three dollars per hundred. The street occu- 
 pied fully an acre of ground, so that my friend actually lost 
 over $1,000 in crop by withholding $60 for manure." Another 
 fact stated by the same gardener is, that head crops, as cabbage, 
 lettuce, etc., should be followed by root crops, and vice versa. 
 
 If our Southern friends will commence careful cultivation 
 and heavy manuring, with a view to bringing large early 
 crops into our Northern markets, they- will find it abun- 
 dantly profitable. The crops to which their attention should 
 be thus devoted are beets, cauliflowers, radishes, cucum-, 
 
 bers, peas, beans, sweet corn, onions, lettuce, tomatoes, early 
 39 
 
644 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 ■squashes, early potatoes, sweet potatoes, cabbage, and melons. 
 To these the Northern farmer can add asparagus, carrots, tur- 
 nips, spinach, rhubarb, horseradish, and watercresses. We shall 
 describe the approved methods of culture adapted to both North 
 and South. The culture of carrots, turnips, beets, potatoes, and 
 sweet potatoes has been given in the Chapter on roots. The 
 main object now being earliness, larger quantities of manure 
 and more thorough and careful cultivation should be given, and 
 two crops taken from the same soil yearly. It is better to cul- 
 tivate five acres thus liberally than to give ten acres ordinary 
 cultivation. The implements required are Allen's cylinder 
 plow ; the subsoil plow, the marker, {see Fig. 66,) as in cotton 
 culture, only with small teeth and but six inches apart ; the har- 
 row, with fine teeth on one side and short coarse ones on the 
 other ; a hand roller for covering the seed ; the digging fork 
 ■with, flat tines ; the scuffle hoe ; Allen's " weed-killer" hoe, 
 {Fig. 50 ;) a steel or iron tooth rake ; a seed sower, {Fig. 48 ;) 
 and a dibbler. The latter is made of a crooked stick, two or 
 three inches in diameter, and the point shod with iron, 
 
 AsPAEAGUS. Sixteen to eighteen thousand plants are set to 
 the acre, requiring five to six pounds of seed. One pound of 
 seed then will produce plants enough for one -sixth of an acre, 
 and you can regulate your sowing accordingly. The plants are 
 first sown in a seed bed, and transplanted the second season. 
 Theground should be thoroughly prepared.* Drop the seed in 
 rows one foot apart. The " marker" makes them only six inches 
 apart, but every other row can be omitted. Keep the plants 
 
 * To avoid repetition, we shall suppose that all ground for vegetables 
 will be plowed deeply and sub-soiled and (unless we state otherwise) 
 heavily manured also. Fifty tons of stable manure per acre, or its 
 equivalent in fertilizers, is the smallest amount we shall designate. Any 
 exceptions to these rules will be noted, as we proceed. 
 
MARKET GARDBliriNG AND FAEMERS' GARDENS. 645 
 
 carefully hoed and clear of weeds all the time during tlie first 
 season's growth, and they will be ready to transplant the second 
 year ; otherwise you must wait till the third year. Transplant 
 as early in the spring as the ground is in working order, setting 
 the plants in two-feet rows, and eight inches apart in the rows. 
 The trench, or drill, in which they are set, should be wide 
 enough so that the roots can be spread out, and deep enough so 
 that the crown of the plant shall be covered about two inches. 
 Sow one hundred pounds of refuse salt per acre on the beds in 
 the spring. Fork in five hundred pounds per acre of super- 
 phosphate of lime. {See Garden Culture.) Do not gather any 
 the first year, and only moderately the second ; after that cut 
 until it begins to spindle. Cut it always below the surface and 
 with a slanting cut. One thousand dollars per acre clear profit 
 is often realized from this crop by the market gardeners. It 
 always meets a sure sale at remunerative prices. 
 
 Beans. As we have before statedj the bean is the most 
 nutritious of all vegetables, and is profitable food for man and 
 beast. They bring a good price, and the market is never full. 
 The common white bean can be grown on any corn land, and 
 needs no more manure and less labor than corn. They should 
 be sown at about the same time as corn, in drills from two to 
 two and a half feet apart, and from three to six inches apart in 
 the drills. If a seed sower is used and the seed distributed 
 evenly, three pecks per acre is sufficient. Cover the seed with 
 the roller.* As soon as the plants get two or three inches 
 high, go through with a cultivator and hand hoes, and clean out 
 every vestige of weeds. When the weeds show again, repeat 
 the process. At the next cultivating turn up a light furrov/ 
 against each side of the row. 
 
 Beans may be harvested by mowing or cradling them when 
 * All seed had best be rolled after planting. 
 
646 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 most of the pods are ripe, and before they begin to open ; they 
 should then be thoroughly dried, and threshed on a clean floor. 
 Care must be taken to avoid loss from scattering during the 
 drying, and they should, if possible, be sheltered from rain 
 during this curing process. Where the crop is small, the pods 
 are usually gathered by hand. In either case they must be 
 very thoroughly dried by exposure to the sun or to the heat 
 of a drying kiln before they are put up in bulk, in bags, barrels 
 or boxes ; for if any moisture remains in them they will be 
 certain to heat and become mouldy and worthless. They 
 should therefore always be kept spread out thin on a dry floor 
 until they are completely cured. 
 
 The White Marrow we consider the best for field culture, 
 although the Eed bean is the one usually cultivated. The White 
 Kidney and China Red Bye make good field crops, although not 
 often so grown. Forty bushels per acre can be raised on good 
 corn land with the same manuring and cultivation required to 
 produce a good corn crop. The bulk of the Southern crop is 
 shipped to New York in the green state for string beans, and 
 meet a rapid sale at high prices. With increased attention to 
 the crop it could be readily doubled and brought into market a 
 few days earlier. 
 
 Cauliflower and Beoccoli are substantially the same 
 thing under ' different names ; the latter being planted for fall 
 use, and the former for the summer market. Any soil that will 
 grow early cabbages, will also grow cauliflower ; but the latter 
 being a more valuable crop will repay extra manuring and 
 preparation. Watering in dry Aveather, even by hand, is ad. 
 vantageous. The gardeners of Charleston, Savannah, and Nor- 
 folk have a great advantage in raising these vegetables. The 
 seeds are sown in September or October. In four or five weeks 
 transplant into cold frames, and plant out in March or April. 
 
MARKET GARDENING AND FARMERS' GARDENS. 647 
 
 The Northern gardeners do not get their crop in market until 
 June. The sale is limited, but it pays fifteen hundred dollars 
 per acre. 
 
 Cabbages. It is a fact not generally known that cabbages 
 are the largest and most profitable crop grown by the market 
 gardeners at the North. The seeds are sown in September and 
 the plants carefully wintered in cold frames, yet they pay a 
 handsome profit. But at the South, where the temperature 
 does not fall twenty degrees below the freezing point, the seed 
 can be sown in the open ground in October, and planied out on 
 the first opening of spring. 
 
 Put out the plants in rows twenty-four inches apart, and 
 sixteen inches apart in the rows. Set the plant down to the 
 first leaf, so that all the stem will be covered. Between the 
 rows, lettuce plants can be set out twelve incnes apart. The 
 lettuce will all be off in six or eight weeks, before the cabbage 
 is large enough to occupy the ground, and the cabbages are off 
 soon enough to plant a second crop. A crop of cabbage and 
 lettuce so raised will often bring one thousand dollars per acre. 
 Late cabbage is a crop the Northern farmer can raise ; the soil 
 and cultivation is not so important. Sow the seed in May, and 
 plant out in July in rows three feet apart, and two feet apart in 
 the row, and work the crop with the cultivator or light plow. 
 On Long Island they are set out after a crop of peas or early 
 potatoes have been removed. Bight to twelve tons of stable 
 manure is put in the rows. As the early cabbages are raised 
 at the South and shipped North, so the late cabbage grown at 
 the North are shipped South. Both early and late varieties 
 are named in " Garden Culture." 
 
 Early Sweet Corn can also be raised to advantage at the 
 South for the Northern market. Where the planting can be 
 commenced in April the crop, if highly manured, can be brought 
 
648 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 foTward at least a month earlier than it can be raised at the 
 North. Plant as soon as the weather is settled, and plant only 
 so much as you can faithfully attend. Earliness is the main point, 
 and faithful cultivation hastens its maturity. We prefer drill 
 sowing in rows four and a half feet apart, and six to eight inches 
 apart in the drill. Northern farmers can realize double the ' 
 profit froi::. sweet corn sold green that they can for ripe corn, 
 besides getting the whole off in time to sow turnips for a 
 second crop. The stalk of the sweet corn is much more nutri- 
 tious than that of the common corn, and it is as fodder that we 
 chiefly recommend it to the farmer. Sow a few acres in drills 
 or broadcast, and it furnishes a fodder excelled by nothing else 
 tbat we know. Early Darling and Stowell's Evergreen are 
 the best market varieties, but any sugar corn will answer for 
 fodder. 
 
 The Cucumber is well fitted for Southern culture, and the 
 profits on an acre in cucumbers, ready for market a month ear- 
 lier than they can be raised near New York, will exceed the 
 average profit on ten acres in cotton. A new method of for- 
 warding the plants, originated by Mr. Henderson, is to plant the 
 seeds on reversed sods, in cold frames, covering them with half 
 an inch of rich mould. The sods are two or three inches thick, 
 and three seeds are planted to each sod of four inches square. 
 The seeds are sprinkled thoroughly with a watering pot, and 
 the sashes kept on until the plants come up, which will be inside 
 of a week. They should now have air daily from nine to three 
 o'clock, for two or three weeks, when they can be planted out 
 in hills, three feet apart each way. In the vicinity of New York 
 this cannot be done before the first of June, while at Charleston 
 it might be done a month or six weeks earlier, the seed being 
 sown early in April. When set out they should be manured 
 vu the hill. {See Garden Culture.) 
 
MAEKET GABDENING AND FAEMEES' GAEDEN3. d49 
 
 Immense quantities of later cucumbers are used for pickling, 
 and we have before us the advertisement of a Chicago house for 
 five hundred acres of cucumbers for pickles. In growing them 
 for this purpose, land from which some early crop has been 
 taken can be used, and the cucumber seed planted at any time 
 from the first of June to the last of July. Mark out the ground 
 as for corn, four feet each way, and add a shovelful of well 
 rotted manure, dug in at each angle where the hills are to be. 
 Sow about a dozen seeds in each hill. The Gherkin and Early 
 Cluster we deem the best for extensive cultivation. 
 
 HoESEEADiSH is One of the most important and most profit- 
 able second crops of the New York gardeners. The average 
 weight of the crop is five tons per acre, and the average price 
 two hundred dollars per ton; and, notwithstanding there are 
 over two hundred acres grown near New York, the price has 
 steadily advanced for twenty years. The following is a sum- 
 mary of Mr. Henderson's method of cultivation : " In prepar- 
 ing the roots for market in winter, all the rootlets are preserved, 
 cut in pieces five inches long, and put away in sand. Tied in 
 small bundles, and a layer of sand between each bundle, they 
 will not heat, if kept in boxes in a cool cellar or buried in the 
 open ground. After the cabbages or cauliflower are set, these 
 rootlets are set between the rows, usually about the first of May. 
 The planting is done with the crowbar ; a hole being made eight 
 inches deep and the root dropped in so as to be two or three 
 inches under the surface. It can be grown between the rows 
 of beets or any other vegetable. It should be dug the same 
 season, just before the frost closes up the ground. Grown in 
 the deep rich soil of our market gardens, horseradish has been, 
 for the past twenty years, one of our most profitable second 
 crops." 
 
 Lettuce may be sown the middle of September, and a month 
 
650 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 later planted in cold frames for winter, or sown in the hot-bed 
 in early spring, February or March, transplanted to the cold 
 frames in April, or in the South to the open ground. If not 
 set between the rows of cabbages as before described, place them 
 in rows, one foot apart each way. For after crops the seed may 
 be sown in the open ground. The Early Curled Silesia is pre- 
 ferable for fall sowing. The Simpson is a trifle earlier, but not 
 so good. The Tennis Ball is the proper variety for early spring 
 sowing in the hot-bed, and the Green "Winter, Curled India, and 
 Ne Plus Ultra for spring and summer sowing. 
 
 Melons are legitimately a farmer's crop. The grounds of 
 the market gardener are too valuable for melon growing. 
 Melons require a sandy loam, and but half the amount of 
 manure required by the vegetable tribe, sfty twenty-five to 
 fifty tons of stable manure to the acre. They should be 
 planted in rows marked out as for corn, with a portion of the 
 manure in each hill, and cultivated the same as for corn. The 
 Southern cultivators will do well to force their crop, planting 
 their seeds on reversed sods, as directed for cucumbers.^ Water- 
 melons received in July can be sold by the million in the New 
 York markets, at from fifty cents to one dollar each. 
 
 The Black Spanish watermelon is one of the earliest and best 
 varieties. The Mountain Sprout is a large, handsome and pro- 
 ductive variety. Skillman's Netted is the earliest of the musk- 
 melons, and the Borneo the largest. The Green Citron, Nutmeg, 
 and White Japan are excellent, and the Persian is a favorite 
 Southern variety. Great care should be observed in selecting 
 melon seeds, as directed in the latter part of this Chapter. 
 
 Onions form one of the few crops that should be grown on 
 the same soil for a succession of years. The early crop of half 
 ripe onions is the crop for the market gardener, and the South- 
 ern cultivator. For producing this crop, seed is sown very 
 
MARKET GARDENING AND FARMERS' GARDENS. 65 i 
 
 thickly in poor soil, early in spring, and taken up about Au- 
 gust, when they will be about the size of a walnut, and smaller ; 
 the smaller the better. These " sets " are dried and housed 
 until the next spring, when they are planted out early, in'highly 
 enriched and thoroughly pulverized ground, three inches apart, 
 in drills nine inches apart. The drill should be deep enough 
 so that the bulb can be covered with earth, which should be 
 rolled over them with the hand roller. Twice hoeing and 
 weeding" is usually sufficient in clean ground, but the weeds 
 should be kept down until the onions are half grown, say in 
 May at the South, and in June at the Worth, when pulling may ~ 
 be commenced. 
 
 Field cultivation is described nearly as follows, by one of the 
 largest onion growers in Fairfield County, Connecticut, Mr. J. B. 
 "W^keman : " Select a deep loam if to be had. Avoid wet clay, 
 stoney land, or side hills. Cultivate the ground for two years 
 with some hoed crop ; I prefer corn one or two years. It snould 
 be highly manured, and not a single weed allowed to go to seed. 
 When the corn crop is gathered, prepare the ground in the fall 
 for the next year's crop of onions, by putting on twenty cart 
 loads of well-rotted manure, fifty bushels to the load, per acre. 
 It should be free from weed seed, and ploughed in deep, and not 
 harrowed in the fall. I have plowed my ground both spring, 
 and fall, manuring at the same time. It is not more than half 
 the work to prepare ground for the seed that was plowed in the 
 fall, and the yield is as good, if not better. Hog manure is the 
 best, but any kind of strong manure will do. All manuro 
 should be free from seed. Manure, either fine or coarse, should 
 be ploughed in deep. If ashes are to be had, put on one to two 
 hundred bushels to the acre. The crop of onions will pay for 
 them the first year, and they will last from five to eight years. 
 Bone dust is a fine manure. The ground in the spring should 
 
652 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 be prepared for the seed as soon as it is dry, by harrowing 
 with tooth and brush until the ground is level. It needs to be 
 very mellow, about an inch deep, and raked off level. It re- 
 quires* from three to four pounds of seed to the acre. I sow 
 them by a machine made very simple, and costing from two to 
 four dollars. It sows two rows at once, twelve inches apart. 
 The first row must be perfectly straight, which will be a guide 
 to the second, and so on. To cover them up, I take a hoe that 
 stands in well, and push it along over the line where "the seed 
 is. When they get up so that I can see the rows, I commence 
 hoeing them, and as soon as there are any weeds to be seen weed 
 them; and continue to hoe and weed as long as there is a weed 
 to be seen. It will not pay to sow a piece of onions if th6y are 
 not taken care of, and no crop pays better if well tended." 
 
 The main points are to prepare the land very thoroughly, to 
 put on a large quantity of manure, and not less than fifty 
 bushels of ashes, and to keep down the weeds. Six bushels of 
 salt to the acre, after the first hoeing, is beneficial. After the 
 crop is gathered, free the land from weeds ; let none go to seed. 
 To keep onions in the winter, store them so that they will have a 
 circulation of air around them, and still not be subject to freezing 
 and thawing. The Danvers Yellow is the best onion, and the 
 Eed Globe, or Wethersfield Red, the most profitable one grown. 
 
 Onions are the most profitable crop that a farmer can raise, 
 and the quantity has been increased from three hundred to nine 
 hundred bushels per acre, and I think one thousand bushels or 
 more can be grown by proper cultivation. Eed onions are 
 now wholesaling at three dollars per barrel, and white ones 
 at four dollars per barrel. One year I sold my onions at one 
 dollar a bushel, and sent them to market in the fall before 
 housing. I have sold red onions as high as five dollars a bar- 
 rel, and white ones at six dollars. There has been no time 
 
MARKET GARDENING AND FARMERS' GARDENS. (553 
 
 within twelve years, but that onions would, bring two dollars a 
 barrel in the course of the year. 
 
 Pe^s. {See Garden GuUwe.) A crop of early peas can be 
 taken off in time, to get in a crop of late cabbages or turnips. 
 It is a good crop to raise, for it benefits the soil, and the tops 
 of both peas and beans are good food for stock, and excellent 
 fertilizers if plowed under green. Peas are good for horses, 
 sheep, or any other stock, and what cannot be sold at good 
 prices in market can be profitably used at home. Early peas 
 bring enormous prices, and if our Norfolk friends can supply 
 the early demand they will find it remunerative. 
 
 Eadishes, grown at Norfolk and received at New York in 
 advance of Northern cultivators, bring an average of ten dollars 
 per barrel, and, as there is no danger of glutting the markets, 
 we advise increased cultivation. The seed is sown broadcast 
 and harrowed in. The ground therefore requires thorough 
 preparation. The crop comes off in time for a second crop of 
 later vegetables. The long Scarlet Short Top, Scarlet Turnip, 
 White Turnip, and Scarlet Olive Shaped, are the best varieties 
 for extensive cultivation. 
 
 Khubarb requires the deepest cultivation and the heaviest 
 manuring. Any piece of a root that has a bud will make a 
 plant. Set either in fall or spring, in rows three feet apart 
 each way. Plow in stable manure in the fall or spring. Three 
 hundred and fifty dollars per acre may be realized from it for a 
 number of years. It is extensively grown in some localities for 
 wine. By setting barrels without heads over the plants in the 
 fall and filling them half full of hay, to be taken out as soon as 
 hard freezing is over in the spring, very early and tender stalks 
 will be secured. Leave the open barrels over them until it is 
 settled warm weather. 
 
 Spinach for early spring use is sown late enough to get half 
 
654 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 grown before winter. (September 15tli, in tlie vicinity of 
 Philadelphia.) Sow in drills one foot apart. That for later 
 use is sown in early spring between the rows of early vegeta- 
 bles ; it, requires little labor, and is readily sold about six weeks 
 after sowing. It pays about three times the profit of potatoes 
 on the same soil, but requires more manure. 
 
 Squashes as a farm crop should be much more largely 
 grown, for none of the large markets North or South have ever 
 been supplied. The Boston market is perhaps more nearly 
 supplied than any other. A light warm soil is best suited to 
 the squash. A clay, if not too heavy, may be so ameliorated by 
 sand, drainage, and high manuring as to be made to produce a 
 fair crop. A drained meadow will produce a large quantity of 
 almost worthless squash, unless large quantities of sand and 
 loam are worked into it. A sandy loam, moderately gravelly, 
 gives the best results. On such lands the squash will do well 
 on freshly broken sod. Manure, not in such large quantities 
 as required for some of the other crops, but at the rate of at 
 least ten cords to the acre, should without fail, be applied. 
 Night soil is the best; hen, pig, and sheep dung next, and barn- 
 yard manure, muck, superphosphate of lime, guano, and wood 
 ashes, about equal in value. Night soil should be thoroughly 
 composted with muck or loam as directed in Chapter III. If -the 
 soil is 'very sandy, the hill should be filled with peat ; excellent 
 crops have been raise'd on sandy plains by this method. Wood 
 ashes should not be mixed with the other manures until just 
 before they are applied.* 
 
 Guano, superphosphates, and other concentrated manures are 
 applied directly in the hill, before planting, but the bulk of the 
 manure should be plowed or harrowed in broadcast; for the 
 
 * See note at close of Chapter III. 
 
MAEKET GARDENING AND FABMEBS' GABDENS. 665 
 
 roots run as far as the vines, and should find food wherever 
 they go. The ground should be mellowed by the harrow, clod 
 crusher, and roller ; then the manure spread and harrowed in, or 
 plowed under with the cultivator. Two great mistakes are usu ■ 
 ally made in planting : the hills are too near, and unnecessary 
 labor is given in preparing them. The hills for the mammoth 
 varieties should not be less than twelve feet apart each way; 
 the Hubbard, Turban, and Yokohama, ten feet; the smaller 
 marrows, eight feet ; and the summer varieties, four to six ieet, 
 A chain dragged across the field each way, at the above dis- 
 tances, will mark the places for the hills, where the lines cross. 
 A small hollow like a plate is made at these crossings, and a 
 handful of guano, or one of the other fertilizers, thrown into it ; 
 a shovel of earth is thrown onto this, and the whole thoroughly 
 worked together with a flat-tined fork. Unless this working of 
 the fertilizers into the soil is thorough, there is danger of heat- 
 ing. Plant four seeds (no more) in the hill, and when the plants 
 are out of danger of destruction from bugs thin to two in each 
 hill. Keep the weeds down with the cultivator until the vines 
 run so as to interfere, when the piece must be let alone. The 
 first of May, in this section, is the time for planting the seed. 
 Hoeing the earth in large quantities about the vines is a waste 
 of labor, as just enough to steady the vine in the wind is suffi- 
 cient. Summer squashes are sold long before ripening, and are 
 of no value after the shell can be felt with the thumb nail ; but 
 winter squashes are to ripen on the vine. Ripeness is indicated 
 both by color and by the drying up of the stem. When the 
 stem is cut from the vine, the squash is turned under side up, 
 and left for a few days to dry, unless there is danger of frost, 
 when they must be brought into piles and protected. A house 
 with double walls, double doors, and double windows, and pro- 
 vided with a stove, is the best for wintering squashes. If some 
 
656 HOW TO MAKE THE PAKM PAY. 
 
 arrangement cannot be readily made for keeping them at an 
 even temperature, they had best be disposed of in the fall. A 
 very dry cellar will keep squashes well. The cellar of a barn 
 on high ground, in dry soil, with double walls above ground, ia 
 a good store-room. The average fall price of the Hubbard 
 squash is thirty-four dollars per ton in the Boston market, 
 while in the spring they bring eighty to one hundred dollars 
 per ton. There is nothing more delicious for a winter pie than 
 the Hubbard squash, and it is as good as sweet potatoe when 
 baked. The Turban and Yokohama stand next, and the Boston 
 or Autumnal Marrow is quite inferior to them. The Summer 
 Grookneck and the white and yellow Bush Scollop are the best 
 summer varieties. 
 
 The Tomato has come to be one of the most important of 
 farm garden produo'ts. If Southern cultivators will force them 
 in hot-beds, commencing the last of January, they may put 
 them in market two or three weeks earlier than now, and 
 realize a large profit from the operation. The following is the 
 proper method of culture ; the only difference in the South 
 being the date from one to two months earlier. Sow the seed 
 in the hot-bed about the middle of March in the locality of 
 Philadelphia. Previous to the last of April the plants will be 
 large enough to reset in the cold frames ; and four weeks later 
 they may be planted out in the open ground, in light soil, three 
 feet apart. A shovelful of the best well rotted stable manure 
 should be thoroughly mixed with the soil in the hill oefore set- 
 ting out the plants. The Early Smooth Eed and Cook's Favorite 
 are the best early market varieties. The Eed and Yellow Plum 
 tomato are grown for pickling and preserving : for a late crop, 
 where large quantities are desired for catsup and canning, the 
 Large Bed and Large Yellow are preferable to any others. 
 
 Water Cress. Many farmers in the vicinity of New York 
 
MARKET GABDENING AND PAEMERS' GAUJENS. 657 
 
 realize more profit during a couple of weeks in spring from 
 water cresses than for their whole year's work in growing farni 
 crops. Any farmer who has water on his farm in the shape of 
 a brook or pond will do well to plant water cresses along the 
 margins. The seed can be had of any seedsman. If some patch 
 suitable for cranberry culture is planted with water cresses 
 instead, and flowed as directed for cranberries, several thousand 
 dollars per acre may be realized from it, we have no doubt. 
 
 The growing. Selection, and Preservation of Seed is a 
 subject on which we have not touched in the preceding pages, 
 bat it is equally important in garden crops as in any of the 
 heavier farm crops. With many of the preceding crops, as 
 the beet, cauliflower, cabbage, carrot, lettuce, onion, and tur- 
 nip, the seed are grown by setting out in the spring a plant of 
 the previous year's growth. In all cases just such plants should 
 be selected for seed plants as it is desirable to raise. If earli- 
 ness is desired, select the earliest specimens that perfect, and let 
 no consideration of price tempt you to part with them. Many 
 of these crops can be made a week earlier by the careful selec- 
 tion of the earliest fine specimens. If size is desired, select the 
 largest and best shape for the seed. The shape of the red onion 
 has been entirely changed within a few years by this selection 
 of seed specimens. With the squashes, melons, and cucumbers 
 the same is true ; select the very best specimens for seed. The 
 seeds of the melon class are not ripe when the plant is, but 
 ripen upon the inside for some time after gathering. The 
 earliest beans, peas, corn, tomatoes, etc., are rushed off to market, 
 but they should in all cases be retained and ripened for seed. 
 
 Purity of seed is a matter of the greatest importance to the 
 gardener, and each had better raise his own. Of course the late 
 ripened specimens will produce later crops than earlier ripened 
 ones. Another point is to have the seed free from other varie- 
 
658 
 
 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 ties ; two varieties grown in close proximity will mix in spite 
 of all you can do. The melon and squash are particularly liable 
 to this. We should never have any crops of these, or in fact of 
 ha.rdly any other vegetables or fruits, were it not for the busy hees, 
 who carry the pollen from one plant to the other ; but they are 
 just as liable to mix two varieties as two plants. Great care 
 should therefore be taken to separate differing varieties of the 
 same species, else a crop of Hubbard squashes' may turn out to 
 be half pumpkins. There are a few regular and reliable seed 
 growers, from whom it is safe to order what you want, but not 
 from the stock of the seedsmen. 
 
 Seeds should be thoroughly dried and kept in a dry, cool place. 
 Thus kept, beans, peas, peppers, carrots, thyme, sage, and rhu- 
 barb are good the second year ; asparagus, lettuce, spinach, and 
 radish for three years ; cauliflower, cabbage, celery, and turnip, 
 four years ; and beets, cucumbers, melons, squashes, &nd toma- 
 toes, five to eight years. The following tables, taken from Mr. 
 Henderson's work, will be exceedingly useful' to the beginner in 
 vegetable gardening. Amount of seed per acre : 
 
 About. 
 
 Beans IJ bushels. 
 
 Beets. 8 pounds. 
 
 Carrots 5 " 
 
 Cucumbers 1 " 
 
 Musk melons 1 " 
 
 Watermelons IJ " 
 
 Onions 6 " 
 
 Parsnips 8 " 
 
 AbouC. 
 
 Eadish, in drill 5 pounds. 
 
 " broadcast 10 
 
 Turnips, in drill 2 
 
 " broadcast 4 
 
 Squashes 1 
 
 Spinach 10 
 
 Peas 1^ bush. 
 
 Number of plants from one ounce of different seeds : 
 
 About. 
 
 Asparagus 500 plants. 
 
 Cabbage 2,000 " 
 
 Caaliflower 2,000 " 
 
 About. 
 
 Celery 4,000 plants. 
 
 Lettuce 3,000 " 
 
 Peppers 1,000 " 
 
MARKET GARDENING AND FARMERS' GARDENS. 
 
 659 
 
 About. About, 
 
 Tomatos 1,000 plants. Sage 1,500 plants. 
 
 Thyme 5,000 " Rhubarb 500 " 
 
 Number of plants required to set an acre at given distances : 
 
 2i feet by 2^ feet 6,970 
 
 3 " 3 " 4,840 
 
 1 footbyl foot 4d,560 
 
 li " li " 19,360 
 
 1 " 3 " 14,520 
 
 2 " 2 " 10,890 
 
 3 '' 2 " 7,200 
 
 4 " i " 2,722 
 
 5 5 " 1,742 
 
 6 " 6 " 1,210 
 
 40 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 
 
 NDBR this head we shall discuss various matters not 
 coming under either of the previous heads, and shall 
 also insert the opinions of several good authorities upon 
 matters not coming within our own personal knowledge. 
 
 Fences. — We build ten times too many fences. The fences 
 on many thrifty farms are a great tax upon the owner. It is a 
 useless custom. No fences are absolutely required, except the 
 fence about the pastures and a few hundred rods of movable fence, 
 that can be set up anywhere at short notice. Highway fences and 
 division fences are an uniAitigated nuisance. The great objection 
 to them is their cost, but they also occupy good land and harbor 
 weeds and briers ; they are in the way in cultivating and harvest- 
 ing our crops ; the sooner we stop building them the better. We 
 do not say tear down good new fences ; but build no more, except 
 extra high and strong ones around the pastures. But, says one, 
 if the highway fences were down the cattle would destroy the 
 crops. So they would, if allowed to run in the streets. But 
 which can be done with the least trouble or expense, keeping 
 stock in the pasture or keeping millions of dollars worth of 
 fences ? But the law requires that I should build highway and 
 division fences. So it does; but in whose hands is the law? 
 Yours. If the farmers demand that this burdensome system be 
 done away, and more stringent laws passed in regard to restrain- 
 ing stock, it will be done. There are now communities ■*here 
 there are no fences, and we say to the new settlers in the West, 
 and to the impoverished land owners of the South, do not let this 
 burdensome tax be settled upon your industry, but repeat' the cry, 
 down with the fences. 
 
 Forest Tree Cclttjee is a matter of vast importance in agri- 
 culture. We have stripped the country of forests, diminishing its 
 productiveness ; and these forests must be in part replaced. 
 660 
 
MISCELLANEOUS IN FOKMATION. 661 
 
 Mr. A. S. Fuller delivered the following address on forest trees, 
 at a late meeting of the Fanners' Club of New York; 
 
 Eight years ago I had the pleasure of reading aii essaj' before 
 this club upon the subject under consideration to-day. I then 
 called your attention to the importance of not only preserving 
 those forests which we still possess,' but to that of rearing others 
 for future need. The hundreds of letters that I have received 
 since that time, asking for further information upon the subject, 
 have convinced me that our people are slowly but surely awaken- 
 ing from that careless indifference which has in many instances not 
 only permitted, but aided in, the destruction of some of our most , 
 noble and valuable forests ; and these, too, on land that is com- 
 paratively worthless for other purposes. Instances are not want- 
 ing to prove that thousands of acres of valuable timber is annually 
 destroyed by men who have no use for the land after the trees are 
 removed ; at least they possessed more acres that are already 
 cleared than they can properly cultivate. I do not now refer to 
 the cutting of timber that is required for building or fuel, but to . 
 the many instances where the sole object in its destruction was 
 for the purpose of allowing the proprietor to obtain a sli.ghtly 
 lengthened view from his dwelling, or that which is more probable, 
 pampering to that foolish weakness which is far too general among 
 land-owners, for having it said that they possess a few more acres 
 of cleared land. The first act of a settler in a timbered country 
 is to clear away the forest, so that he may have land to cultivate 
 and produce the necessaries of life. But he does not stop when 
 he has accomplished this, but continues to cut and hew away at 
 the forests as though it was the only object of his life, and as each 
 monarch of the old woods falls to the earth, making, it tremble 
 with its weight, he imagines that the echoes which come back to 
 him are so many plaudits to his industry. With manj' of our 
 people destruction is synonymous with improvement. And there 
 is no doubt but that the destroying of forests in our Eastern States 
 has become a matter of habit with our people. The grandfathers, 
 and in a few instances the fathers, of the present race of farmers 
 cleared land because it was actually needed for cultivation ; and 
 as each successive generation imagined that it was incumbent uJDon 
 them to make further improvements, they readily followed in the 
 beaten path made by their ancestors, forgetting that an act which 
 might show great wisdom at one time would be foolish imbecility at 
 another. 
 
 The young man builds his dwelling upon elevated ground, and 
 probably clears away the trees because they obstruct his view, 
 for he values prospect more than protection ; but later in life he 
 will sigh for a few of those grand old trees to shield him from the 
 burning sun of summer and the keen blast of winter. Is it not 
 passing strange that a majority of mankind find no useful lesson 
 ta the history of the past, but continue to travel in the channel 
 
662 HOW TO MAEE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 wliicli has been worn wide and deep by previous generations in 
 their downward course to destruction. Entire countries have be- 
 come barren wastes in consequence of the destruction of their 
 forests ; nations have become impoverished, and those beacon 
 lights of greatness, the arts and manufactures, extinguished, and 
 the sole cause was the scarcity of wood ; and yet in regions where 
 it is plentiful, the same improvident waste is going on, as though 
 the supply was inexhaustible, and that no deleterious effects wopld 
 result from a total annihilation. It would be folly for me to at- 
 tempt to estimate the value of forests to any country, for it is be- 
 yond the comprehension of the human mind. The rain and dew 
 that refresh and support vegetation, the rivers and rivulets that 
 pour down from the mountains and hills, often owe their very ex- 
 istence to the great forests. This view of the subject, you may say, 
 is only visionary and theoretical. Be this as it may, I would re- 
 mind you of one simple fact, and that is — all we know of trees, or 
 are likely to know of them, has its origin in the great primeval 
 forests. It is by studying the natural distribution and character- 
 istic of the different species that enables us to cultivate them suc- 
 cessfully. 
 
 Heavy Soil for Oak. — We learn from nature that certain spe- 
 cies of oak flourish far better upon a heavy, moist soil than in one 
 of an opposite character ; and the same is true of almost every 
 other genus. The chestnut prefers the old red sandstone regions, 
 and avoids the limestone, while the reverse is true with the hard 
 ■ maple and beech. The elm and soft maple grow more luxuriantly 
 in .the low alluvial soils near our rivers than elsewhere. By fur- 
 ther investigation we find that the quality of the wood is greatly 
 influenced by the soil upon which it is grown. For instance, 
 nickory that grows upon a sandy soil is far more brittle and less 
 valuable than when grown upon a rich, deep clay; but just the 
 opposite of this is true in regard to the common locust. 
 
 Growing Trees from Seeds. — We also learn from nature some 
 of our most practical lessons in regard to the growing of trees 
 from seeds. A few species ripen their seeds early in the season, 
 and these must be planted very soon thereafter, as they will 
 seldom remain sound until the following spring. This is particu- 
 larly the case with the elm. Swamp and silver maple, or their 
 seeds, ripen about the first of June ; but the sugar and negundo 
 maple do not perfect their seeds until autumn, consequently they 
 may be sown at that time, or preserved in any moist, cool place 
 until spring. The different species of foreign maples, such' as 
 Norway, English, and sycamore, ripen their seeds about the 
 same time as our sugar maple, and may be treated in the same 
 manner. Chestnut, oak, hickory, beech, black walnut, butternut, 
 etc., all ripen their seeds in autumn ; and I believe it is the best 
 plan to sow them soon after being gathered, unless it be in sec- 
 tions of the country wliere the land is liable to be frequently frozen 
 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 663 
 
 and thawed during the winter. In locstlities where the weather in 
 winter is very changeable, all kinds of hardy trees seeds may be 
 safely preserved in the following manner: Select a tight, strong 
 box ; in the bottom of this place a thin layer of sand ; on this put 
 a layer of seed ; then a little more sand, and so on alternately until 
 the box is full ; nail on the cover, and tben bury the box in the 
 open ground, covering it a foot or more deep. A dry, sandy 
 knoll is the best place, if handy ; if not, set the box on the ground, 
 and make a large mound of earth over it. The common sweet 
 chestnut is generally thought to be a difflcnlt seed to keep through 
 winter, but, buried in sand as I have described, it will usually be 
 as fresh and sound in spring as when first gathered from the 
 tree. I have also preserved the chestnut and similar seeds by 
 packing in damp moss, and then placing them in a cool cellar. 
 Rats and mice are very fond of most kind of tree seeds, and they 
 should be placed beyond the reach of these pests of the farm and 
 garden. 
 
 Yalue op Different Kinds of Timbee. — It is scarcely neces- 
 sary for me to call your attention to the fact that forest tree cul- 
 ture can be made a profitable business, even more so, in many lo- 
 calities, than any of our ordinary farm crops. Neither will you 
 expect me at this time to designate the best species of varieties 
 for culture, inasmuch as soils, locations and markets differ very 
 widely, and each may demand a particular kind. For instance, 
 the common white birch is usually considered one of the most 
 worthless species of native trees ; still, near some of our manufac- 
 turing towns, where its wood is used for making spools, it com- 
 mands a much greater price than oak, hickory, chestnut and many 
 similar kinds of timber. Even the much despised alianthus for 
 some locations and soils is a most valuable tree. It grows rapidly 
 even upon poor light soils ; and although it does not attain a very 
 large size, still its wood is well adapted to many other purposes 
 besides that of fuel. There are many other similar instances that 
 might be named where the local valne of a species is far above its 
 general one. But all these things will be learned in time, and the 
 most we can expect at present is to call the attention of the 
 masses to the importance of the subject, for we know full well that 
 when our people become aware that there is a rich field open to 
 them they are ready to occupy, and make it yield a full return. 
 We have to regret that the art of planting forest trees has not re- 
 ceived that attention from our people which its importance de- 
 mands. 
 
 It may be said that, as it is a branch of horticulture, it is en- 
 couraged by nurserymen and all others who are engaged in 
 the cultivation of trees. But I do not believe that arboriculture 
 will ever reach the high position which it deserves until it is stu- 
 died and encouraged as a separate profession. With j'our per- 
 mission, I will at some future time give a few practical hints as to 
 
664: HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 the best methods of growing the different kinds of trees, as well 
 as 'a list of the most valuable species and varieties. 
 
 About Uathering Nuts — Timber Growing, etc. — Black and 
 white walnuts should be gathered as soon as they fall from the 
 trees, and planted at once, as follows : — Draw furrows six feet 
 apart and three or four inches deep, drop the nuts from two to 
 four feet apart in the row, cover them four or five inches deep and 
 step on each one, or what is better, roll with a common two-horse 
 roller; this packs the soil and prevents them from drying out, so 
 that the frosts of winter will burst the shells, and most of them 
 will come up the ensuing spring. Should any of them fail to 
 come the first season, they are very sure to come the second. 
 Besides these, the chestnut, and horse chestnut, and the beech nut 
 may be obtained at a trifling expense from the States east of us, 
 where the timber abounds, and the trees produced without anj' diffi- 
 culty, if you are careful to prevent the nuts from becoming dry, 
 bj'' placing them in moist earth or sand, and keeping them secure 
 from mice and frost till the time for planting in the spring ; then 
 plant tlie same distance apart as other trees, and cultivate two or 
 three seasons so as to keep down all weeds ; or, what is better, as 
 soon as the trees are up a foot or two, mulch thoroughly with 
 straw or slough hay. All trees, fruit, or forest thrive much 
 better for mulching, as all trees in their natural positions, in 
 groves or large tracts of timber, are annually mulched by the 
 falling leaves, which keep the ground moist about their roots, 
 except in long continued droughts. If we imitate nature in this 
 respect, we shall doubtless find trees flourishing just as well in a 
 prairie as a timbered country. 
 
 In addition to the above named, or any other of our deciduous 
 forest trees, every man wants evergreens in proportion to his 
 means to purchase, and the room to be occupied. But, in the 
 second place, where do we want trees ? If our location admits 
 our building on the north or west sides of the road, we want thick 
 belts of timber north and west of our buildings, — evergreens, if 
 we can afford them, as being altogether a better wind-break than 
 deciduous trees ; but, at all events, plant trees, and plant them so 
 close (two or three rows would be better than one) that after a 
 few years they will prove a pretty effectual barrier to the cold 
 blasts of winter, furnishing a grateful- shelter to man and beast. 
 If you have to build on the east or south side of the road you 
 can-not have the same amount of shelter without obstructing the 
 view of the road ; but even in these situations, by no means the 
 most desirable, by setting your buildings farther back from the 
 road, if on the east side, plant north of your buildings a belt of 
 trees as thick as they will grow, with rather more in front of the 
 house than would be admissible if the house faced the east or 
 south ; likewise, if your house is south of the road, plant your 
 trees plentifully on the west, but on the east and south of youi 
 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 665 
 
 buildings plant few or no trees, especially near the buildings, for 
 it is a fact well known to physiologists that all animals, human 
 or brute, require plenty of fresh air aud sunshine in order to a full 
 development of their physical frames and the enjoyment of 
 vigorous health. Indeed there can be no doubt that many an 
 individual has passed away in the morning of life, and now fills a 
 consumptive's grave, who, with plenty of pure air to breathe by 
 night and by day, with suitable exercise every day with nothing to 
 shield them from the sun and the wind but the broad canopy of 
 the skies, might have lived to a good old age in the enjoyment of 
 health and strength. I rather lilce the idea expressed in my hear- 
 ing a few years ago, by a gentleman recently a graduate of one 
 of our Eastern colleges, now pastor of a church in a flourishing 
 town in an adjoining county, who said, if going to build a 
 residence for himself, he should want it to face the northeast, 
 southeast, or southwest, so that the sun might shine some part of 
 each day in every room in the house. This may be considered 
 eccentric or extravagant by some, but the suggestion seems to 
 me worthy of consideration. Pardon this digression. 
 
 Furthermore, we want belts of forest trees, evergreens, (if we 
 can afford it,) to protect our orchards, and if our orchards are 
 large, rows of evergreens interspersed among our apple trees, 
 and every man who has forty acres or more of land, wants a 
 grove more or less for the sake of the fuel and timber it will 
 afford, and for the protection it will give his growing crops as 
 well. Should any object to planting trees as thick as recom- 
 mended, let them remember that after ten or twelve years, if they 
 appear too much crowded, it will be very convenient to cut out 
 from the thickest places occasionally, as needed, and trees planted 
 as thick as they can grow to advantage will be much more valuable 
 for timber, growing taller and straighten If it be true, as we 
 read in the Good Book, that "parents ought to lay up for their 
 children," surely no more impeijative duty rests upon the present 
 inhabitants of our beautiful prairie country than to plant trees 
 for shelter, for fuel, for timber. For, treat the question of timber 
 as we may, it is a fact that should be impressed upon the mind of 
 every man, that as the population and wealth of the country 
 increases, the want of machinery, particularly agricultural imple- 
 ments, increases in a much greater ratio. In the States east of 
 us, where most of the timber is obtained for the manufacture of 
 these articles, I speak advisedly when I say that the quantity is 
 rapidly diminishing, and in many places it has quadrupled in 
 value in the last twenty years. Would it not be well to pause 
 and ask ourselves the question; Where are we to obtain the 
 necessarj"- supply for these purposes, (to say nothing of the 
 amount required for buildings, furniture, etc.,) twenty-five or iifty 
 years hence, when the demand in this Western country shall have 
 increased tenfold? How much better for the rising generation, 
 
616 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 and ''or the State^as well, if someof those seekingaperraanent invest- 
 ment for their surplus wealth, instead of laying it out in railroad 
 stock, bank stock, mining companies, oil companies, in corner lots 
 of paper cities, or in any of the thousand and one schemes invent- 
 ed to relieve people of their money, they should invest it in land 
 on our broad praries, improve it and plant with oak, walnut, ash, 
 hicliory, chestnut, wild cherry, etc. Surely their children and grand- 
 children would rise up and call them blessed, and more certainly 
 than upon him who causes two spears of grass to grow where but 
 one grew before, will future generations look upon them as bene- 
 factors of mankind. — H. G. Neal, Davenport, lovia. 
 
 Raising two or more Crops Together. — Farmers with but 
 little extra trouble can raise two or more crops upon one piece 
 of land by selectihg certain varieties that will not mix or draw 
 the same substances from the soil, and in this way not retard 'iie 
 growth of the main crop, but greatly lessen the expense of pro- 
 ducing it. Squashes, beets, dwarf peas, etc., will thrive finely 
 with potatoes, while beans pumpkins, tomatoes, and turnips do 
 well with corn. Melons, pumpkins, and squashes should never be 
 planted together, or in the immediate vicinity of each other no 
 more than sweet and common corn, for one will partake of the 
 nature and qualities of the other to such an extent as to greatly 
 deteriorate their value for the particular uses to which they are 
 put. 
 
 The kitchen garden is valuable to every family, and should not 
 be neglected by any, but much of the products usually grown 
 there may be raised with tenfold less expense by the farmer in 
 the field. Beans in the corn hill if planted with the corn, are 
 raised abundantly without extra labor ; turnips sown between the 
 rows when cultivating the last time are grown with no trouble, 
 and a tomato plant set beside each hill of corn on the outside 
 rows thrive well, and when the vines are laden with fruit they 
 may be tied up to the corn stalks, where the fruit will ripen to the 
 best possible advantage. 
 
 Thus from a single acre a full crop of corn may be obtained, 
 besides five or six bushels of beans, many loads of pumpkins and 
 turnips, and all the tomatos a dozen families could use. From 
 the potato field a full supply of beets, squashes, peas, etc., are 
 received without incurring extra expense, or adding but little if 
 any labor to the cultivation of the main crop. 
 
 It is true that where land is heavily cropped, an extra amount of 
 manure is required to keep up the fertility of the same ; but every 
 farmer knows that the more a single acre can be made to produce 
 by manuring, or any other means, the greater profit it is to the 
 owner. Where three hundred bushels of corn can be raised from 
 four acres the crop pays, but when six or eight acres are required ' 
 to produce that amount, it is not a paying business. "We do not 
 remember where we found the above extract, but we commend 
 
MISCELLANEOUS INFOEMATION. Q^7 
 
 the view of getting the largest possible amount from every acre 
 bjr heavy and continual manuring. 
 
 The Cultivation op Peanuts. — The extraordinary numbur of 
 peanuts that have been brought to market this fall, says the 
 Southern Farmer, induced ns to make some inquiries concerning 
 their cultivation, and the uses to which they are applied. The 
 crop is one very easily grown, yielding a large product, and com- 
 manding good prices. 
 
 The price this season bas been lower than for several years past, 
 ranging from sixty to eighty cents per bushel, according to quality ; 
 but even at that price there is perhaps no other crop yielding so 
 much profit. The soil best adapted to the ground pea is a 
 moderately rich loam, neither very heavy nor very light. A stiff 
 soil will not admit the stems bearing the fruit to penetrate it with 
 facility, and a sandy soil is too thirsty. Again, if the soil is too 
 rich, the tendency of the plant is to run to vine instead of the 
 formation of fruit. Any soil of the requisite texture, capable of 
 producing five or six barrels of corn to the acre, is well adapted 
 to the growth of the ground pea without the addition of any 
 manure. But should manure be used at all, it should be in small 
 quantities. 
 
 The ground is prepared by laying it off in rows three feet 
 distant, and very slightly ridging, as in culture of cotton. When 
 manure is applied, it should, as in case of coiton, be put in the 
 drill. Through the entire cultivation, the chief object should be to 
 keep the ground clean of grass and as level as possible. The 
 slight ridge on which the seed is planted will be nearly or quite 
 worked down by the first hoeing. As the vines extend over the 
 surface, it is necessary to keep the ground well stirred with a 
 trowel, hoe, or other implement that does not turn it over. A 
 couple of plowings and occasional working with the hoe is re- 
 garded a sufficient amount of cultivation — less than what is 
 required for cotton, and not exceeding that of the corn crop. 
 
 As soon as the vine is killed by frost, the harvesting should 
 commence. The first operation is to run a colter close to the 
 vines on each side, for the purpose of loosening the earth. The 
 plants are then taken up with a hoe, and laid bottom upward on 
 the ground to drJ^ There they are to remain for several days 
 until they are cured — the time being longer or shorter, accordino- 
 to the state of the weather. If it rains, it will do the crop no 
 injury. When sufficiently cured, the vines should be packed away 
 in a barn, or under any good shelter, where the fruit may be picked 
 at leisure, 
 
 A fair crop may be regarded as about seventy-five bushels per 
 acre, and is frequently as much as a hundred. Some of the 
 farmers in the lower counties raise as much as five hundred or a 
 thousand bushels. The crop has, to some extent, taken the place 
 of cotton, requiring much less manure, and- being more profitable. 
 
668 HOW TO MAEE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 A great advantage attending its cultivation consists in the valu<> 
 of the peas remaining in the ground after the crop is gathered. 
 The hogs are turned on the field, where they thrive rapidly. So 
 rich is the nut in nutritious matter, that many farmers tliink the 
 portion remaining in the ground after digging is equal in value, 
 as food for hogs, to the entire crop of corn the land would have 
 produced. ' 
 
 Making the Most op a Farm. — In every neighborhood a 
 striking difference in the productiveness of farms may be noted ; 
 and this variation, when acre is matched against acre, cannot, in 
 most cases, justly be attributed to the diversity of the soil, but 
 rather to tho effect of the methods by which the farming is con- 
 ducted. It is the difference of character in the farmers, and of the 
 objects they aim at, which are illustrated in their labor and its pro- 
 ducts. And various as are these methods and their results, yet 
 we have little doubt but every farmer flatters himself that, consid- 
 ering circumstances, he is making the most of his farm. We will 
 briefl}' sketch' some of the various ways by which farmers strive to 
 reach the same end. 
 
 One adopts the skinning process ; his cultivation is shallow but 
 spreads over a good deal of surface. In measuring land he never 
 considers depth but breadth only ; so he sows as many acres as 
 possible, but slights the work and grudges the expenditure of 
 every dollar in that direction. A rich farm and fine improvements 
 are not so desirable in his eyes as a large farm and money at in; 
 terest. He farms at as little expense as possible, and makes his 
 property, — if he is so fortunate with crops of wheat yielding ten 
 bushels per acre, corn twenty, and grass a ton, — by saving and 
 pinching. If he dies young he dies poor, but if he lives to an old 
 age, by miserly economy he may amass considerable property. 
 Another considers the farm a sort of a mine from which he may 
 draw treasure. He works with skill and patience, and spends 
 freely for necessary or profitable labor. He keeps good breeds of 
 stock, for there is the most profit in such, and builds barns and 
 sheds to shelter them. He sees depth to the soil, as well as 
 breadth, and works accordingly. He underdrains and subsoils, 
 cultivates well, and performs all labor in the best manner. His ob- 
 ject is to get the most from the soil, and he transforits its pro- 
 ducts into other forms of wealth. Such a course may answer for 
 one man's lifetime, but in the end his farm will resemble the 
 " squeezed orange," or the mine whence the ore has been taken 
 and the lodes run out. The majority of what are termed our best 
 farmers in this country are pursuing this plan. It is one that 
 adds little real wealth to the aggregate, for it is substantially but 
 transforming the wealth of the soil into other forms, and as the 
 soil is not inexhaustible the time must come when the supply from 
 l.liat source will diminish. A third, and the smallest of all clas'-es 
 of farmers, adds to thorough and skilful cultivation the raoro iiu- 
 
MISCELIiANEOUS INFORMATION". 
 
 porlant idea of constantly replenishing the soil with the plant ele- 
 ments which crops have extracted from it. The coarse products 
 are consumed on the farm, and more food for stock, or special fer- 
 tilizers, - are bought to replace the fertility carried away in the 
 animals and cereals that are sold. We said there are few farmers 
 of this class, few that have matured and practice a system of farm- 
 ing by which the maximum of products may be produced from the 
 soil, and yet maintain it as fertile and productive for a century. 
 
 But we have not yet arrived to the condition where American 
 farmers will work for the future. The American farmer is not 
 permanent enough in his location ; the abundance of land in pro- 
 portion to the population, the fertility of the soil, the rapid ad- 
 vance in prices, stimulate the restless element in his nature, and ren- 
 der him too migratory to become a scientific agriculturist. It 
 needs an ordinary lifetime to develop, with legitimate means, sci- 
 entific agriculture on American farms ; and not ui^'Jl the young 
 farmer shall come to look upon his domain as his future home cai 
 we hope for this attainment. 
 
 We commend the above view of three systems of farming to our 
 readers. The latter will be found fully illustrated in previous 
 pages of this volume. 
 
 Winter Work on the Farm. — Everybody knows what work to 
 do on the farm during the summer. The different crops in their 
 order require the farmer's attention, and in this way work pro- 
 vides itself; but in the winter there seems to be little to be done, 
 but threshing grain and cutting wood. But to a farmer who is 
 desirous of obtaining the greatest income there will ever be plenty 
 to do in winter. 
 
 Threshing especially, in the Middle and Eastern States, is 
 generally done during the winter season. It should be so arranged 
 that it can be done on stormy days, and fair days devoted to out 
 door work, unless the rise or fall in prices of the grain should 
 render it expedient to do otherwise. 
 
 To those farmers who have had a crop of flax, and pulled it, the 
 cold dry days of the season will be the proper ones to work it 
 out. During a cold dry day the " shives" separate more readily 
 from the lint than at other times. A farmer who has little to do 
 will find working out a crop of flax straw a profitable job, espe- 
 cially at the present high prices. Cutting a stock of firewood suffi- 
 cient for at least a year to come should now be attended to. 
 Secure a good supply of wood, and work it up for the stove^ 
 either by hand or horse po^er, and pile it up in a dry place. 
 Any one who has tried both plans of getting firewood, namely, 
 getting enough prepared in winter for a year, or cutting a few 
 sticks every day through the summer, and that often green, wiU 
 not need much argument on this subject. 
 
 Material for fencing, if any be needed, should be procured and 
 prepared for use Posts should be dressed and holed, ra'ls split, 
 
670 HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAT. 
 
 and spliced, logs taken to the saw-mill for posts, railings, plank, 
 or any other lumber required on the farm during the year; it 
 would be well to have a good, well seasoned white oak, ash or 
 hickory log sawed up for wagon tongues, harrow or plow beams, 
 or other similar purposes, and the farmer, if he be much of a 
 workman, could thus repair many of his own implements, or he 
 could furnish what he knew to be good material for his wheelright 
 to do it. 
 
 Farmers who have manure cellars should secure a supply of 
 muck, leaves, etc., in the early part of the winter, for increasing 
 the manure pile ; leaves can be raked together in great quantities 
 in early winter, and no better material can be had for keeping the 
 stables and pig sty dry and comfortable. 
 
 In time of peace it is well to prepare for war, and so during the 
 leisure of winter is the time to make preparation for the active 
 campaign. of the summer. If any implements, or fixtures are 
 needed on the farm during the summer, the farmer now has time 
 to make them for himself. He can now make a s^ed to mark his 
 ground for corn, boxes for hens' nests, coops for his chickens, 
 traps for varments, or do a dozen things that he may want done 
 when he has not time to do them. But during all his fixing and 
 doing he should allow himself time for* recreation and improve- 
 ment, and for the reading and study of agricultural books and 
 papers. 
 
 The Bird Question. — [From the Germantown Telegraph.] The 
 Western New York Fruit-Grower's Society had a discussion at its 
 last meeting on the question of the value of birds upon the 
 premises of fruit-growers, and the burden of the comments was 
 against them, partidularly the robin. Some of the leading fruit- 
 growers were down on the red-breast, and recommended the 
 shooting of as many as would clear the premises. One of the 
 speakers was a friend to hawks, crows, and owls, but said the 
 robin was very destructive upon cherries, strawberries, etc., etc. 
 
 Another, and a solitary one, advocated birds. He said he had 
 an abundance of birds and an abundance of fruit, etc. Our own 
 premises are full of birds, and we encourage them to take up their 
 abode about us in every possible way. They are rather greedy, 
 it is true, and take much more than their share of the cherries 
 especially the early ones. But is not the robin only ; the black 
 bird, the blue-bird, sparrow, orioles, and particularlj' the cat-bird, 
 all freely help themselves, and, with the exception of the black- 
 bird, are heartily welcome. We lose only a few strawberries, and 
 these among the early ripening ; but the robin here is not the only 
 depredator upon these. The cat-bird is its full match, and a 
 much slyer thief It is especially destructive upon the Delaware 
 and some other small grapes in September. 
 
 But there is a remedy for the depredations of birds upon the 
 early fruit which is very easy to apply. That is, to plant here 
 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATIOIT. tJ7l 
 
 and there a hlach mulberry tree. The birds prefer this fniit, on 
 account of its being free from acidity, to both cherries and straw- 
 berries ; and, as the mulberry is a good fruit of itself and liked by 
 many people, this would add to the inducement to plant it. 
 Therefore, we hope our belligerent fruit-raisers, instead of shoot- 
 ing the robin, will feed it on mulberries, and it will, no doubt, be ' 
 very thankful. 
 
 [We hope the suggestion to plant the black mulberry and 
 " spare the birds" will be heeded by all the friends of these 
 spring and summer warblers. The " wild cherry" would also be 
 the favorite of the "robins," and thus save other fruits.] 
 
 Eggs by the Pound. — One of our exchanges has started this 
 idea : > 
 
 A few days since, while making our purchases of provisions in 
 market, we were forcibly struck with the difference in size between 
 the eggs in the baskets of several farmers, although the price 
 asked was the same for each. So great was the disparity that 
 we purchased a dozen each from three different -baskets, and for 
 the purpose of ascertaining their weights correctly, took them to 
 the warehouse of Fairbanks & Ewing, where they were carefully 
 weighed on Fairbanks' standard scales, with the following re- 
 sults : Number one, one pound ten and a quarter ounces ; number 
 two, one pound seven and a half ounces ; number three, one 
 pound three and a quarter ounces. It will be seen that there 
 was a difference of nearly one-half a pound between number one 
 and three, and j'et the price asked for them by those who had 
 them for sale was the same. It may be said that this is an ex- 
 treme case ; we admit that it may properly be so considered, but 
 if we take the weights of number one and two, we find a differ- 
 ence of nearly three ounces, or a little more than twelve per cent. 
 As great difference is frequently found in the weight of oats, corn, 
 wheat, and other grains, and this disparitj' is largely increased 
 where the measurer is skilful at his business, we should be glad 
 to have the opinion of practical farmers on this subject. 
 
 . Damp Stables. — When I lirst came to the farm which I now 
 hold by purchase, I found the stables built under large trees and 
 near a spring of water, with a northern aspect. My horses were 
 soon in poor condition, with long and rough coats, and almost 
 always lax in their bowels, nor could I get them up by extra food 
 or lighter work; but my cows suffered the most, for they were 
 always sick. Their milk fell off and their butter was poor, and of 
 a bad color and taste, and four of them slipped their calves 
 before time. When the spring came thej^ left their winter quar- 
 ters in a worse state than I had ever seen them, and two of them 
 died from scours on going to pasture. On inquiry I found that 
 the tenant who had left had ahva^-s been what the neighbors 
 termed unfortunate in his horses and cattle, and from that cause 
 
672 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 more than any other he had not been able to make both enclis 
 meet. The truth flashed upon me in an instant, and in a very 
 little longer time than it has taken me to tell my story. I had 
 commenced pulling down the stable, the unhealthiness of which 
 had been, I was convinced, the cause of all the evil and the loss ; 
 and it was no more than two days before there was not left one 
 stone upon another of the whole fabric. I now set to work and 
 erected another on higher ground, removed from watei-, and clear 
 from the shade of trees, with a southeast aspect, and dry capa- 
 cious yard ; and from that day I have had neither sickness nor 
 sorrow in my out door household. My horses live on less food, 
 are always sleek and in good condition, and my cows are a credit 
 to. their keep. Our butter brings two cents a pound more in 
 market, and for the last year our sales are more than doubled 
 from the same number of cows and the same pasturage, and no 
 more premature calves. Instead of watering my cattle as hereto- 
 fore, at the spring under the trees — the water cold, with a deadly 
 taste and bad color — -I sank a well and put in a pump ; and at a 
 long trough in the yard for the summer, and another under 
 shelter for the winter, my cattle slake their thirst without setting 
 up their coats, as they used to do after drinking at the hole under - 
 the trees. Even when the weather was warm they were accus- 
 tomed to shake all over, as if they were in a fit of ague after drink- 
 ing their fill of this water ; and to this, with the bad aspects of the 
 stables, I attribute all the sickness and misery which I have 
 experienced amongst my cattle and horses. 
 
 To PROTECT Horses from Flies. — Take two or three small 
 handfuls of walnut leaves, upon which you pour two or three 
 quarts of cold water ; let it infuse one night, and pour the whole 
 next morning into a kettle and let it boil for a quarter of an 
 hour ; when cold it will be fit for use. No more is require'd than 
 to moisten a sponge, and before the horse goes out of the stable, 
 let those parts which are most irritable be smeared over with the 
 liquor, viz., between and upon the ears, the neck, flank, etc. Not 
 only the lady or gentleman who rides out for pleasure will derive 
 benefit from the walnut leaves thus prepa-red, but the coachman, 
 the wagoner, and all others who use horses during the hot 
 months. 
 
 The Teeth oi? A Horse as an Indication q]? Age At five 
 
 years of age a horse has forty teeth — ^twenty-four molar or jaw 
 teeth, twelve incisors or front teeth, between the molars and 
 incisors ; but usually wanting in the mare. ' 
 
 At birth only two nippers or middle incisors appear. 
 
 At a year old, the incisors are all visible on the first or milk set. 
 
 Before three years, the permanent nippers have come through. 
 
 At four years old, the permanent dividers next to the nippers 
 are cut. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATlOlSr. 678 
 
 A.I Sve, the mouth is perfect, the second set of teeth having 
 lifcen v.V'mpleted. 
 
 At &»x, the noUow under the upper, called the mark, has disap- 
 peared from tne nippers, and diminished in the dividers. 
 
 At sc-ren, tne mark has disappeared from the dividers, and tha 
 next teeth or corners are level, though showing the mark. 
 
 At eigiit, the mark has gone from the corners, and the horse is 
 said to bo aged. After this time — indeed good authorities say 
 that aftei ilve j'ears — ^the -age of the horse can only be conjec- 
 tured. Bab the teeth gradually change their form, the incisors 
 becoming laaud, oval, and triangular. 
 
 How TO I'lT Collars to Horses' Shoulders. — It is very im- 
 portant to have a collar fit nicely and. snugly to the shoulders of 
 the horse. It enables him to work with a great deal more ease, 
 and to apply a great deal more strength. It prevents galling 
 and wounding, as the friction is avoided. Collars are so made, 
 or should be so made, as to throw the chief force on the lower 
 part of the shoulder. The horse can apply but little strength on 
 the upper part, and for this reason breast collars are coming 
 greatly into vogue — as the strength is exerted on the lower part 
 of the shoulder. But we started out to tell our readers how to 
 make a new collar fit the shoulder of the horse. The collar should 
 be purchased of the proper size ; just before putting it on the 
 first time, immerse it in water, letting it remain about a minute, 
 and immediately putting it on the horse, being careful to have 
 the hames so adjusted at top and bottom as to fit the shoulder, 
 and then put the horse to work. The collar, bj' being wet, will 
 adapt itself to the shoulder, and should dry on tie, horse. When 
 taken off it should be left in the same shape it occupied on the 
 horse, and ever after you will have a snug fitting collar and no 
 wounds. — Valley Farmer. 
 
 Devon Cows — Butter Making ^We have said elsewhere that 
 
 the Devons are not a dairy breed, but that they sometimes make 
 excellent dairy stock is proved by the following: D. H. Prest, of 
 Ontario, having seen Mrs. Cragg's statement about her butter pro- 
 duct in the " Hural," sends a communication giving his experi- 
 ence in butter making. Four years ago, having purchased a 
 Devon cow, it was resolved to test the value of the purchase by 
 keeping an account of the butter made from her milk. The first 
 week's cream was churned by itself, and produced fourteen 
 pounds of butter. The milk stood. from morning till night, and 
 from night tiU morning, and was skimmed and fed to the calf, 
 before it got sour. That calf, when a heifer two years old, was 
 milked separately like the dam, and produced in a week ten and 
 three-quarter pounds of excellent butter. Another heifer, from the 
 same mother as the last, came in also at two years old, and in the 
 second week in March produced ten and eleven-sixteenths pounds 
 
674 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 of butter, wMcli was sold at forty-seven cents per pound. Our 
 correspondent adds : " I was not trying to beat any one, but oily 
 testing tlie character of the Devon cows as compared with others 
 I had on hand. I think I could better this by a good many 
 pounds should I make it my study." 
 
 Carrying Milk. — In Prance, milk is packed in small tin cans, 
 easily moved by one man, and by a simple contrivance the stopper 
 screws close down upon the contents of. each can, so the motion 
 of the railway cannot churn the milk in transitu. The cans are 
 then placed in covered wagons, and in summer are wrapped in 
 cloths, which are watered from time to time so as to promote cool- 
 ness by evaporation. The result of this care, which costs but 
 little, is that the milk supply of Paris is proverbially excellent. 
 
 Agricultural Fairs were intended to be and are a good thing 
 when properly conducted, but the prominence now given to fast 
 horses and trotting is disgusting, and injurious to the interests 
 of agriculture. Read the following : 
 
 What proportion the trotting horses bear to the number of 
 horses, or what their proportional value may be, I am unin- 
 formed. Their value is considerable, I am aware, but that their 
 raising and training is proportionally pecuniarily advantageous 
 to the farmer I am unprepared to believe, or that the " horse 
 trot" at our agricultural fairs is of greater advantage to the 
 farmer than all other interests combined, I am equally unpre- 
 pared to admit. 
 
 For farm purposes, a somewhat different style of horse is 
 needed, as also for all general purposes, from the trotting horse. 
 Yet as there is a taste and demand, which will be supplied, for 
 trotting and fast horses, farmers will endeavor to breed those 
 having that quality to recommend them, and with this enterprise 
 I have no fault to find, neither would I desire to be understood 
 as finding fault with the agricultural society or its managers 
 for offering premiums in the aggregate greater for trotting 
 horses than for all other interests, for they have that privilege ; 
 but, as the trotting horse interest is of minor importance to agri- 
 culturists, a corresponding value ought to be attached to it by 
 our agricultural societies. 
 
 If we are to have the inevitable "horse trot," let us have that 
 as a distinct exhibition, not mix it up with exhibitions of farm 
 stock proper and products. 
 
 As to the advantage to the farmer of breeding fast horses, with 
 that object only in view, I might bring the expressed opinion of 
 many eminent agriculturists and writers ; but it is unnecessary, 
 and I refrain, believin^hat the intelligence of the farm commu- 
 nity will eventually regulate this matter, by holding fairs devoted 
 to the true interests of agriculture. "W. H. White. 
 
 AftsiKE Clover. — Allow me to advise my bee-keeping friends 
 
MISCELLANEOUS INFOBMATION. 675 
 
 who are farmers to cultivate the Alsike clover. For while it is, 
 for pasturing or hay purposes, decidedly preferable to red clover, 
 it fully equals it in the secretion of honey, and far surpasses the 
 white. Its cultivation would, therefore, greatly increase the 
 forage for bees, which is very desirable. I have ever contended 
 that no plant can be cultivated with profit for bee-pasturage 
 alone — that bee-keeping is profitable from the fact that bees 
 gather what would otherwise run to waste ; yet the bee-keeper 
 ma,y often cultivate a crop that, while it proves remunerative as 
 such, will, at the same time, increase the pasturage for his bees. 
 
 Perhaps nothing will better meet the wants of the bee-keeper 
 in this respect than the Alsike clover. Not only so, but the 
 farmer who does not keep bees would find it to his advantage to 
 sow Alsike clover instead of red clover, as will be seen from 
 the foUowiiig account of the experience of the Shaker family, near 
 Albany, New York, furnished to the " The Country Gentleman," 
 by Mr. Ohauncy Miller, a member of that family : 
 
 " We find the Alsike clover a very superior grass in the follow- 
 ing points : 
 
 " 1. For its value as a hay crop on a great variety of soils, 
 being of a growth, in. height, varying according to quality of soil, 
 from ten inches to two and a half feet, and yielding from one and 
 a half to three tons per acre ; thus comparing with our best red 
 clovers. 
 
 " 2. For fineness of stalk or haum. 
 
 " 3. For its multitude of sweet flowers, blooming, perhaps, three 
 or four times as much as red clover, making, when in bloom, 
 literally a sea of flowers. 
 
 "4. Its adaptation to heavy soils, clay, or aeavy clay loams, 
 as well as sandy soils, not being so liable to heave out by frosts 
 in winter and spring as red clover, on account of the root being 
 more fibrous, partaking somewhat of the character of the white 
 clover. 
 
 " 5. To all farmers who keep bees largely, the crop would be of 
 great value, for bees can work upon the flowers equally as well as 
 upon white clover, the blossoms being about the same size, and 
 precisely of the same habit as the latter, but much more abundant 
 in honey ; bees are as fond of the flowers as of mignonette, and, 
 in its season of flowering, which lasts about six weeks, are con- 
 tinually upon it, from dewy morn until dusky eve. 
 
 " 6. To those farmers raising clover- seed for market, the 
 Alsike clover, in our opinion, would be of great value, as it 
 seeds enormously, and the seed threshes easily, by flail or 
 machine, leaving a beautiful quality of hay, the stalks retaining 
 their greenness when most of the seed is quite ripe." 
 
 According to the above, it would be advisable for farmers to 
 cultivate it whether they keep bees or not. That the above is not 
 overdrawn is fully proved by those who have tried it in Canada. 
 41 
 
676 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAY. 
 
 H. M. Thomas, of Brooklin, Ontario, had it grown to a much 
 greater height than that mentioned in the above extract, in 
 places measuring four and a half feet. It is abundant in seed, 
 yielding from five to eight bushels to the acre ; after threshing, 
 the haum is equally as good, and is by many considered better 
 for cows than red clover hay. In this county (Ontario) many 
 able and intelligent farmers are ordering seed, being well satisfied 
 that it is, for all purposes, superior to red clover. So great is, 
 the demand in the United States that the seed is retailing at one 
 dollar and ninety cents per pound, at the Rochester seed store, 
 though I believe, with us, it sells at thirty cents a pound, or 
 fifteen dollars a bushel. J. H. Thomas. 
 
 Chinese Yam. — Having fully investigated the character and 
 merits of this yam, I have some positions to announce in regard to 
 it, which I should have much hesitation about advancing, if I were 
 not well assured of their triumphant verification by my country- 
 men. I assert, that this esculent, by its concentration of each 
 useful property, transcends in importance every other edible 
 vegetable of the earth, and that it is destined to supersede the 
 tropical and unreliable potato in all northern climates. The com- 
 bination of its admirable properties as food for man constitute it 
 also the most estimable vegetable boon, and the most nutritious 
 aliment, for man and domestic stock, which God and naturfe, in 
 their all-pervading beneficence and benign provision, have bestowed 
 upon the inhabitants of our globe. I shall discuss all these points 
 on a future occasion in the ample sense to which they are entitled. 
 The present article is intended solely to impart such practical 
 facts and advice in relation to the plant as will aid those who are 
 now commencing its culture. I desire, however, to make known 
 that" there are more than fifty varieties of various colors and forms, 
 and varying in length'from seven inches to two feet. 
 
 Characteristic Points. — This yam is a native of the northern 
 limits of the temperate zone, and will flourish in the coldest 
 regions of our country, and of the British territories, and will 
 endure, everywhere, the winters in the open ground. Its produce 
 is more than double the crop of any potato, and it never rots. It 
 will flourish best on the now useless sandy lands of New Jersey 
 and Long Island, and of the entire coast i-ange, and it will also 
 succeed on any other soil but a stiff clay. It does not require 
 replanting annually, but reproduces abundant crops from the frag- 
 ments and small tubers that are left in the earth. There can be 
 no fragment, however diminutive, that will not vegetate. From 
 tubers, the roots attain ten to twelve inches in length, and weigh 
 four to six ounces. From sections of the root, such as used for 
 the regular crop, the roots attain eighteen to twenty-four inches in 
 length, and weigh from half a pound to one and a half pounds, 
 and often more. A plantation of this yam, is in China termed " a 
 permanent magazine of food," and the roots may be dug fresh for 
 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 677 
 
 use daily, from early spring to winter, thus furnishing' new yams 
 continuously. It is more palatable than the best Mercer or any 
 other potato. Its taste and flavor are intermediate between the 
 finest potato and arrowroot, of an exceedingly delicate farinaceous 
 character, and, like the potato, it is devoid of all insipid sweetness. 
 It is free from any ligneous or fibrous substance, and possesses 
 the peculiar property of not being subject to rot or decay, but will 
 remain perfectly sound and excellent in a dry state for a year, 
 thus rendering it exceedingly valuable for long sea voyages, and 
 for the prevention of scurvy. It is much more nutritious than any 
 other edible vegetable used by man, and more so than wheat or 
 any other grain. It is the only vegetable of all the earth which 
 combines an ample portion of azote, the grand constituent of 
 animal substances which imparts vigor to the muscular power of 
 man and beast ; and it is by the possession of this essential equiva- 
 lent in this esculent that the use of animal food is rendered uti- 
 necessary by the Chinese and Japanese nations, whose immense 
 populations comprise nearly one-half the inhabitants of our globe. 
 
 The culture of this most estimable and productive of all vege- 
 tables, on the sandy soils of the south side of Long Island and 
 throughout the sandy region of the Atlantic portion of New Jersey, 
 which are of a character precisely adapted and congenial to its 
 growth and development, and where the crops will consequently 
 be much greater than in other locations, must impart a value to 
 those lands which no one has yet anticipated ; and they may soon 
 command higher rates than any of the firm soils of the north side 
 of the Island or of the upper section of New Jersey. 
 
 Preparation of the Soil. — The ground for planting tubers 
 should be rendered mellow and permeable to the depth of fifteen 
 inches, and for roots to the depth of twenty inches. Old decayed 
 stable manure, or decayed peat or wood mould, should be mixed 
 moderately throughout. Over-manuring is injurious, and pou- 
 drette is unsuitable. 
 
 Planting. — The season for planting is as soon as the freezing 
 has ceased and the ground has become settled. 
 
 Tubers. — These should be planted in a double row — the rows 
 twelve inches apart, and the tubers ten inches apart in the rows. 
 
 Boots. — The sections of root should be about one and a half 
 inches in diameter. They should be planted in a double row — the 
 rows fifteen inches apart, and the roots at twelve inches a.part in 
 the rows. 
 
 There is no plant whose culture is more simple and easy than 
 that of this yam. 
 
 Its extensive cultivation promises to our country a vast and 
 inexhaustible resource, derived from such soils as have hitherto 
 been most unproductive and unpromising. It will supersede and 
 far more than replace the failing and uncertain crops of the potato, 
 with the addition of this potent and comprehensive fact, that this 
 
678 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 esculent will succeed and yield ample and reliable crops through- 
 out all the northern sections of the country. — Canada Farmer. 
 
 Stacks for Hay and Grain. — In a stack for hay or grain care 
 should be taken, as in the construction of a house, to have a good 
 foundation. Great quantities of both hay and grain are annually 
 lost by lack of attention to this matter. Sometimes the hay or 
 o-rain becomes frozen to the ground ; at other times water is carried 
 lip far into the stack. It is often the case that the stack has no better 
 foundation than some brush, coarse weeds, poles or straw; and 
 not unfrequently the stack rests directly on the ground. It is no 
 wonder that farmers who commence their stacks in this manner 
 complain of great waste of hay or grain in the stack. 
 
 In Enoland great care is taken in- providing a good foundation 
 for stacks. Ordinarily there is a permanent inclosure for a stack- 
 yard. The stack foundations are also permanent. Sometimes 
 stene pillars capped with broad flat stones are used, which not 
 only protect the stack from moisture but from vermin. Iron rails 
 and pillars are also used for the same purpose. 
 
 In this country it is hardly necessarj' to go to so great an 
 expense to secure a good foundation, since lumber is comparatively 
 cheap and plenty here. It would always be well, however, to 
 build the stack on timbers or poles placed on the ends of posts 
 which should project about two feet above ground. A set of such 
 foundations would last for years. 
 
 The shape of a stack for either hay or grain should be nearly 
 that of au egg, the small end up ; the bulge in a rick should 
 occupy the same position. Care should at all times be taken, in 
 stacking grain, to pack the heads of the bundles some inches 
 above the buts, so as to protect the grain from rain. For the 
 better ventilation of stacks some farmers i-ecommend to place a 
 barrel on the foundation, gradually raising it as the stack goes up 
 This will insure a draft through the whole length of the stack. 
 
 An excellent covering to the upper portion of the stack may 
 be made by working in a small amount of long straw or tall grass, 
 letting the ends hang over on the outside. This may be put in at 
 intervals of a few feet apart from where you begin to taper, and it 
 will be of much use in protecting the grain heneixth..— Agri- 
 culturalist. 
 
 The Farmer's Grindstone. — There is no tool so essential to the 
 farmer as a good grindstone ; and a very correct idea maj' e 
 formed of the management of the farm by the appearance of this 
 homely but useful article. If the n,pighboring saw or edge tool 
 factory has furnished one of its cast off " hubs," which is hung on 
 :i wooden shaft and suspended in the crotch of a tree, or in a 
 fence corner, you may rest assured that such a farm will not pro- 
 duce four hundred bushels of potatoes, or forty bushels of wheat 
 to the acre. But such cases are rare now-a-days, as this article 
 has kept pace with the wonderful improvements in mowing 
 
MlSCELIiAJSTEOUS INFOEMATIOK. 679 
 
 inachines and farming implements generally. The old fashioned 
 unfinished stone, with square bole and uncertain grit, has been 
 superseded by the finished stone, with self-adjusting shaft, friction 
 rollers, and treddle ; so that one person can turn the stone, and 
 grind any ordinary tool without assistance. In olden times, the 
 only grindstones in use came from New Castle, in England ; and, 
 although very good for some purposes, they were not suitable for 
 farmers' use, the grit being too coarse. The Nova Scotia stones 
 were next introduced, and found to be a great improvement on the 
 New Castle. The Ohio grindstones are very largely used by the 
 farmers and others throughout the West, although our Penn- 
 sylvania farmers prefer a good blue Nova ScDtia stone ; but 
 recently a miost excellent article has reached us from the shores 
 of Lake Huron, having a fine, sharp grit, leaving a fine edge, and 
 cutting prettj"^ fast. 
 
 Hoping these remarks may induce our farmers to give fhis 
 important tool the attention it deserves, a few hints how to put it 
 in order may not be out of place. 
 
 1st. Always keep your grindstone under cover, as exposure to 
 the sun's rays hardens the grit and injures the frame. 
 
 2d. Don't let the stone run in water, or stand in water when not 
 used, as this causes soft places where none exist ; but allow the 
 water to drip from a water-pot — an old white lead keg will answer 
 — fixed above the stone, and stop it oif when not grinding. 
 
 3d. Clean off all greasy or rusty tools before sharpening, as 
 grease or rust chokes up the grit ; and always keep the stone 
 perfectly round by razeeing it off when necessary; and finally, 
 every farmer should have a good grindstone of his own, always 
 ready for use, and no one should be so improvident as to waste 
 the cost of a stone by running to his neighbors to grind his tools. 
 — Gor. Farm and 'Fireside. 
 
 Farm Laboeers are at present very unsatisfactory and unrelia- 
 ble ; and this is in part the farmer's fault. If the farmer would 
 encourage the hiring of married men, even at*a small increase of 
 wages, and provide these men with comfortable houses at a small 
 rental, keeping them employed the year round, he would find it 
 to his profit. We give elsewhere a plan of a laborer's cottage, 
 {Fig. 140,) which can be built for from four hundred to six hundred 
 dollars, and the farmer can charge the interest of the money for 
 the rental. The better class of labor he would be able to secure 
 by such a course would well pay for the trouble. We heartily 
 commend the following, by L. A. Hine, from The Buralist: 
 
 Farmers are now provided with the necessary hired help and 
 are pushing the work of the season. Probably about half the 
 cultivators of the soil for a business and a livelihood perform 
 their own work without hired hands. The other half have from 
 one to four, and in some cases more, men employed at monthly 
 wages. 
 
680 HOW TO MAKE THE FARH PAY. 
 
 In behalf of these men we now address a few words to their 
 employers. The larger part of them will be worked during the 
 season, and on the approach of winter will be dismissed. They 
 are receiving on an average about seventeen dollars per month 
 and board, which for eight months' time will amount to one hun- 
 dred and forty-five dollars. During the balance of the year they 
 will find but little, and many of them absolutely nothing to do. 
 They must get through as best the^' can until the next spring. 
 Many of them will go to the towns and into the cities hoping to 
 procure an occasional day's work, or at least find a more agreea- 
 ble variety amid which to kill time. Temptations are on every 
 hand, and few of them will have a dollar left or decent clothes in 
 the following March, when they will again be seeking for places 
 on the farms. ' This condition is very discouraging and humili- 
 ating. It is well calculated to break the manl3'- spirit, induce reck- 
 lessness, and increase the vices and the crimes of the country. 
 "What we would suggest, is the obligation on the part of the em- 
 ployer to furnish work for their men the year round. If a profit 
 has been made out of their labor during the summer, they can be 
 worked during the winter at slightly reduced wages without loss 
 to the employer. There is much good time for work during the 
 winter, and considerable labor preparations for the next busy sea- 
 son can be performed. In consequence of a lack of hands, much 
 goes to waste during the winter that might be saved. The manure 
 heap might be largely increased by keeping the stables and yards 
 well cleaned up, and large quantities of muck, leaves, rotten wood, 
 sod, or rich soil from the ravines for composting. A hired man 
 could in this service alone more than make his wages for the intel- 
 ligent farmer, by working no more than half the time. Then there 
 is ditching and underd raining, which can be performed better in 
 the winter than any other season, especially when the ground is 
 not too severely frozen. It would pay to haul leaves or straw and 
 spread along the lines of ditches, to prevent the ground from, 
 freezing, so that digging can go forward at any time. There are 
 very few days too cold to work with comfort. Most farmers can 
 make ditching profitable, and while the ground is soft and water 
 will run is the time to do it. There is plenty of work that a farmer 
 may provide for his men during the winter. It is cruel and de- 
 structive of the public interest to employ men during the summer, 
 and turn them out with nothing to do during the winter. 
 
 It would be a good plan for those who have one hundred acres 
 or more to build one or more cottages, in which laboring men with 
 liunilies can permanently reside. This will be of great benefit to 
 both the employer and the employed. It will give a fair rental to 
 the farmer and afford the laborer something like a home, in which 
 his family can be comfortable, and be encouraged to be respectable. 
 It would give the employer the advantage of the same hands from 
 year to year, and thus avoid the trouble and the risk of trying new 
 men everj- summer. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMAIION. 681 
 
 Indeed we are convinced that the farmer cannot afford to dis- 
 jnjjss his hands in the fall. This practice leaves work undone that 
 should be performed before the spring season opens, in order that 
 the best advantage may be taken of the first days of good weather 
 for getting in oats, spring wheat, and barley. When the winter 
 has been devoted to rest and the " chores," there is such a rush of 
 every thing to be done that much is lost by being behindhand with 
 every thing. 
 
 We hope that all employers will take these hints into serious 
 (K)nsideration, and trace out the argument at length, which we 
 have not now time or space to complete. Even if nothing could 
 be made out of hired help in the winter, moral considerations de- 
 mand provision for the men the year round. But there is no doubt 
 on the subject of profit out of such labor. Those who he -e intel- 
 ligence ought to act on elevated principles, and have some regard 
 for the welfare of others ; they can make it pay, because intelli- 
 gence is the capital that always yields a profit. 
 
 How TO OBTAIN Water on the Peairies. Drive Wells.- -In 
 many instances these have given great satisfaction, in others par 
 tial, and in others have proved a failure. It is certain that these 
 results are accidental ; the mere subjects of chance. 
 
 While we have a high opinion of the value of this system of ob- 
 taining water, we have some suggestions to make on the mode of 
 putting it into practice. In the first place these, pumps have been 
 mostly in the hands of what are known as pump peddlers, who 
 have charged enormous prices for putting in the pumps ; i hough 
 always, to their credit, ready to warrant a supply of water, and, so 
 far as we know, have carried out their contracts faithfully. But 
 the high price charged has been amp'le to protect them against loss. 
 In one extreme case that has come under our observation, the pipe 
 was driven down into the band of blue cla.y to the depth of one 
 kundred feet, without reaching water, when the pipes could neither 
 be driven down nor withdrawn, and the whole proved a loss to the 
 contractors. Some persons have taken the precaution to bore a 
 hole of the size of the pipe and projecting bands. This is cheaply 
 done by welding a two inch, or what is better, a two and a half 
 inch auger to a common square three-fourth inch rod. An iron 
 handle of sixteen inches, with a square hole punched in the centre, 
 a trifle larger than the rod, so that it can be made to slide up or 
 down -readily, will enable one to stand at the surface to turn it. 
 When the auger has been bored down to the top of the rod, say 
 six inches, it must be withdrawn. This is done by taking hold of 
 one end of this handle, which by pressure against the sides Of the 
 rod prevents it slipping, and it can be drawn out, when not at a 
 very great depth. Additional lengths can be welded to the rod as 
 desired, or the rod can be put together by cap joints similar to 
 those in the pipes, always, however, with a key to prevent uncou- 
 pling when under the necessity of turning it back. With this 
 
682 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT, 
 
 latter arrangement a deep hole can be bored without the expense 
 of a high scaffold, which is necessary when the whole is welded 
 together. 
 
 We have several reasons for preferring the use of the auger, the 
 most prominent of which is that of cheapness and certainty of re- 
 sults. We take no risk in this case. Suppose we put down a well, 
 of tweuty-five feet, which may be considered the average depth of 
 what we call shallow wells. We bore down fifteen feet and strike 
 a small stone ; our only remedy is to begin again. If we drive 
 down the rod, we have to do the same. While the driving requires 
 a large amount of labor, the boring is easily done. There is no 
 battering of the threads on the pipe, to be fixed up so they will 
 pass for the time, but really of no value, and in time to disap- 
 point us. 
 
 All know that success with this kind of well depends upon stri- 
 king a strata of sand or gravel. In boring through clay it adheres 
 to the auger, while the sand or gravel will not do so ; but in pass- 
 ing through the strata again into clay, it at once adheres, and we 
 are- at no loss in regard to the result. If we have been careful to 
 note the thickness of the sand or gravel strata, we shall be at no 
 loss in regard to the exact position to locate the perforated poi*it. 
 In fact we do not need this point at all ; the open end of the tube 
 is just as well, for we must pump up the sand and soil that is 
 mixed with the gravel bed, in case of gravel or the sand in the 
 sand strata immediately surrounding the pi|)e. If we pump up a 
 cubic foot of sand we have space for a cubic foot of water, and this 
 forms the reservoir of our water supply. It is not probable that 
 we shall displace a very large quantity of sand, and unless the 
 supply of water is abundant we can only raise the water when the 
 reservoir is filled above the small holes in the pipe. Therefore, if 
 we had the end of the pipe thrust to the bottom of thi^ cavity, it 
 would be better than the long point perforated with holes for six- 
 teen inches of its length. At least so long a space should not be 
 exposed to air. With a limited supply of water, as must be the 
 case in most of these wells, we must wait until they fill up, to 
 renew the pumping ; whereas, if the reservoir was large, we would 
 have an abundant supply. 
 
 In driving down these pipes we may pass the water supply, or 
 thin sheet of sand that contains it, and, driving into the blue clay, 
 cut it oflf completely, and thus make a failure ; but with the auger 
 no such blunder need occur. We therefore recommend, in every 
 case where these pipes are to be used, that they be put down by 
 the aid of an auger. 
 
 When the supply of water is not abundant, or when it is ob- 
 tained in the seams of the clay or from small veins, as is most 
 generally the case, we must have a large reservoir to hold a supply 
 for use; and in this case there is but one way tp obtain it, and that 
 is by sinking a well. But there is no need of walling this well to 
 
MISOBLLANEOUS INFORMATION, 688 
 
 its full depth, but we may complete our reservoir of the desired 
 size, and arch it over and fill all above with clay, after having 
 put in the pipe and coating it with coal tar. Ordinary wells are 
 sunk of the diameter of four feet; the brick work nill occupy 
 eight inches, leaving three feet and four inches, — a very convenient 
 size to get down for the purpose of cleaning out or for repairs. 
 If a well of this size is walled up, say six feet, we shall have a 
 reservoir suflSciently large for all practical purposes, say of fifteen 
 barrels. By enlarging the well at the bottom, which is practicable 
 in a stiff clay, the space could be doubled, if desired. 
 
 In arching over and filling above with clay we have several ad- 
 vantages, which these gas-pipe pumps give us. There is no danger 
 from rats, mice, or rabbits getting into it, nor will autumn fill it 
 with leaves ; consequently it will need no annual cleanings to keep 
 the water pure, but at all times will be reliable. In the next place 
 it will be fiee from surface water, the slops of the kitchen, or, if 
 near the barn, the drippings of the barnyard. These are all de- 
 sirable qualities, but yet there are some others. An iron pump 
 costs little, if any, more than a wooden one, but the cost of brick 
 walls that can be dispensed with is something to consider. To 
 wall up a four foot wall of twenty-five feet will require two thou- 
 sand two hundred and fifty brick ; for six feet with arch, .six hun- 
 dred and fifty, making a difference in favor of the gas-pipe well of 
 one thousand six hundred brick. These brick at the kiln are worth 
 at least sixteen dollars, often more, and, taking the average dis- 
 tance, to haul them would cost not less than nine dollars ; which 
 makes a saving of cash and labor of one dollar a foot, or twenty 
 dollars for a twenty-five foot well. This twenty-five dollars would 
 build a small cistern or do something towards a large one. We 
 may offset the filling in of clay against the walling up of brick, 
 and then we have no trouble about making the platform mouse and 
 frog proof, nor is the water fouled by the rotting of the pump 
 stock. In either case the digging of the well is the same, but the 
 saving of brick is more than sufficient to pay for an iron pump and 
 pipe. Well buckets, well sweeps,. and windlass are thus swept away 
 by this new invention. 
 
 In this case we need no perforated point, and we simply have 
 the pump, which costs from six to eight dollars in Chicago, and 
 twenty feet of pipe, (the pump making five feet,) which will cost 
 thirty cents a foot, if of one and a quarter inch pipe. These pumps 
 and the pipe are sold by large quantities in Chicago, and by several 
 houses, and the prices given are for single pumps and accompany- 
 ing pipe. At wholesale they cost fifteen to thirty per cent, less, 
 according to amount of invoice. 
 
 The pipe is in lengths of from four to seven feet, and to obtain 
 a pipe of the required length one length must be cut and a new 
 thread worked on it by hand. The wholesale men do not fit these 
 pumps ; they simply sell so many pumps and so many bundles of 
 
■(384: HOW TO MAEE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 pipe, containing a given amount of feet, while th^ retailer fits the 
 joints, cuts the pipe to the given length, and packs them in suita- 
 ble condition for shipping by freight or express. 
 
 The pump peddlers purchase at wholesale, deliver and put the 
 pumps in the wells at a given figure per foot. When one of these 
 pumps comes from the city, the farmer must have the tools to put 
 it together. A small iron vice, costing ten or twelve dollars, is 
 almost indispensable on a farm. This, with a good monkey wrench, 
 will be ample for the purpose. A pump of twenty-five feet will cost 
 about as follows : 
 
 Pump $7.50 
 
 Twenty feet of pipe, 30 cents 6.Q0 
 
 partage and package , 50 
 
 $14.00 
 
 To this must be added freight ; and in case one prefers to drive 
 the pipe, he will need in addition a perforated point, costing two 
 to two and a half dollars, and also a d/iving plug, costing two dol- 
 lars, a pair of grappling tongs, and a wrench. 
 
 By comparing the above prices with those of the local pumpman, 
 any person will know how he can best attain the end desired, and 
 the relative Cost. — Prairie Farmer. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY RECIPES 
 
 |P wnat use is a crop of wheat, or potatoes, or a fine piece 
 of beef or mutton unless we know how to cook them ? 
 They may be made in extreme cases to support life, but 
 their value is only known when they are properly cooked. 
 This Chapter then is as important to the farmer as any in 
 the book, and a.lthough he may not read it himself, his wife 
 and daughters will draw from it information that will increase both 
 his comfort and his health. An intelligent domestic economy is 
 that which teaches when to cook, what to cook, and how to cook 
 it. The three objects of food are to supply the lungs with heat, 
 to make muscular power, and to supply bone and brain. About 
 five-sixths of our food goes to furnish heat to the lungs. Constant 
 exposure to cold, then produces a necessity for a large supply 
 of those articles of food which furnish heat for the lungs, while 
 intense and protracted muscular action makes necessary a supply 
 of muscle producing food. The good house wife should know 
 how to adapt food to the various conditions of her household. 
 
 The articles of common food producing the greatest proportion 
 of heat, are hog fat, mutton fat, olive oil, butter, white of eggs, 
 fresh milk, bolted wheat, roast beef, veal, oat meal, peas, potatoes, 
 and beans. The common foods giving the largest amount of 
 muscle and strength producing substance, are eggs, unbolted 
 wheat, animal fibrine or lean meat, animal caseine from beans, 
 rice, milk, venison, dried beef, roast veal, cabbage, oats, barley, 
 and potatoes. Those articles of food which contain in themselves 
 both properties in large proportion are eggs, wheat, rye, corn, 
 and oats, when made into light bread or otherwise prepared for 
 food ; the lean meat of the d'eer, ox, sheep, and hog, and, lastly, 
 milk. Milk contains a large portion of oil, and therefore does not 
 readily digest in some stomachs, but if such persons will let their 
 milk stand for twelve hours and skim off the cream, they can 
 then drink the skimmed milk with impunity. We have placed 
 wheat in this list ; but, as it is at present prepared, nearly all the 
 nutrition is bolted out of it for the sake of making very white flour. 
 This is a grievous mistake, and we are glad to know that the de- 
 mand for unbolted wheat is steadily increasing. A loss of aboyi 
 
 685 
 
686 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 twenty-five per cent, of the cost of fine wheat flour is incurred in 
 separating from it its best and most nutritious 'ingredients. The 
 time required for digestion is anotlier important consideration, 
 for if any nutritious substance takes too' long to digest its value 
 is impaired. It also decides what should be eat at night, as it is 
 injurious to lie down for sleep with undigested food upon the 
 stomach. 
 
 The following articles of food digest in one hour : Boiled rice, 
 boiled pigs' feet, boiled tripe. In one hour and a half, boiled 
 trout, barley soup, sweet apples, venison steak, and sago. In 
 two hours, tapioca, broiled beef liver, boiled salt codfish, sour 
 apples, raw cabbage with vinegar, and skimmed milk. In from 
 two to three hours, poultry, lamb, hashed meat and vegetables, 
 green beans, parsnips, potatoes, and boiled beef In three hours, 
 raw oysters, soft boiled eggs, beefsteak, salt pork, mutton, bean 
 soup, apple dumpling aiid corn cake. In from three to four 
 hours, roast mutton, corn bread, sausage, stewed oysters, roast 
 beef lean, cheese, fresh baked wheat bread, turnips, hard boiled 
 and fried eggs, beets, and boiled corn. In four to five hours, 
 boiled salmon, roasted poultry, beef and 'vegetable soup, fried 
 pork, boiled cabbage, and boiled pork, recently salted. Roast 
 pork and beef suet require over five hours to digest. It will be 
 seen here what a difference is made by the mode of cooking. 
 Pigs' feet soused and boiled digest in one hour, while roast pork 
 requires five hours and a quarter. Raw cabbage and vinegar will 
 digest in two hours, while if the same cabbage is boiled it requires 
 four hours and a half to be digested. The three most desirable 
 general articles of food, in strict accordance with these conclu- 
 sions, are venison, which contains nearly the largest per cent, of 
 strength producing substance and yet digests in one hour and 
 thirty minutes ; rice, "which contains a very large proportion of 
 heat producing substance and digests in one hour; and milk, 
 which contains both and digests in two hours and fifteen minutes. 
 Upon these articles of food, life and health can be maintained as 
 long as upon any other three known. But as venison cannot be 
 supplied in large quantities, beef, mutton, poultry and eggs must 
 supply its place. In addition to the substances named, the systeia 
 requires lirafe, potash, and bone forming material, and it is merci- 
 fully provided that a wide range of both animal and vegetable 
 food is provided for us. The roasi; fresh, pork, of which most of 
 us are so fond, is proven to be an indigestible and unnecessary 
 dish, while salt fat pork is essential to the working man who iu 
 cold weather is exposed to the cold air. Grain, fruit and vegeta- 
 bles, with mutton and beef, are tiiuch better for summer consump- 
 tion than pork in any shape. Wheat bread atid milk are, above, 
 all things else, the proper food for growing children, supply- 
 ing phosphates for the bones, m^iscular power, and brain pro- 
 ducing material. Ripe fruits and berries, eaten with the regular 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY EECIPES. 687 
 
 meals, are most wholesome and useful in the economy of the 
 system. 
 
 CooKiNQ Meats. — Beefsteaks should never be fried, but always 
 broiled' on a gridiron with narrow bars. A bed of coals is easily 
 made by burning round sticks of hard wood. The heat should 
 always be intense when the steak is first put over the fire and 
 be gradually reduced, either by withdrawing the meat or sprink- 
 ling ashes over the coals. Rare done beef is much more nutri- 
 tious and digestible than when the red color is all cooked out of 
 it. The fibre of beef is worthless ; it is only the juice that is of 
 any avail in nourishing the body. Roast beef requires a slow, 
 steady, but not too hot fire. Beef for soup should be cut in small 
 pieces and put over a slow fire in cold water ; let it stand over the 
 fire for four hours without boiling, then add your vegetables and 
 seasoning, and let them boil from half an hour to an hour. 
 
 Stuffed Beefsteak. — Prepare a dressing of bread scalued 
 soft and mixed with plenty of butter, a little pepper, salt, sage, a 
 little onion, and an egg. Lay it upon one side of a round of steak, 
 cover with the other, and baste it down with nuedle and thread. 
 Salt and pepper the other side of the steak and place in a drip- 
 ping pan, with half an inch of water. When baked brown on one 
 side, turn and bake the other. Watch closely that it does not 
 burn. 
 
 A Beep or, Veal Pie. — Take the cold pieces, after baking, and 
 make a light crust, like tea-biscuit, only a little shorter, lay the 
 crust around the dish, not on the bottom ; then season your meat 
 with salt and pepper, and butter between each layer ; add water 
 to make it moist with gravy, then lay on the cover, and bake 
 three-quarters of an hour. It makes a fine dish occasionally. 
 
 Savory Beef.— Take a shin of beef from the hind quarter, saw 
 it into four pieces, put it in a pot, and boil until the meat and 
 ^istle drop from the bones ; chop the meat very fine, put in a 
 * dish and season it with a little salt, pepper, clove, and sage, to 
 your taste ; pour in the liquor in which the meat was boiled, and 
 place it away to harden. Cut in slices and eaten cold. 
 
 To Prepare Mince Meat. — Housekeepers may, if they choose, 
 prepare their meat for mince pies for the winter's use at one 
 tjime, and that time may be when they are making sausage and 
 headcheese, and doing up the other work aftef butchering. 
 
 Boil your meat tender — I think one part of pork to two of 
 beef is a good proportion ; when cold chop fine, and season with 
 nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, and alspice. Put in some boiled cider 
 and molasses, and sugar enough to make it fit for use. Set it on 
 the stove and let it simmer half and hour, stirring it occasion- 
 ally. Then remove from the fire and put it into a stone jar; 
 cover closely and set in a cool place. When wanted for pies 
 
d8S HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAY, 
 
 take one-third of this prepared meat, and two-thirds chopped 
 apples, and water and unboiled cider enough to make the mix- 
 ture as moist as you wishi And chopped suet if you like. 
 
 When your mince meat is thus prepared, it is no more work to 
 make mince pies than any other pies. Mrs. B. S. SANcrouD. 
 
 Roast Mutton requires about an hour and a half to cook 
 well ; it should be basted with the drippings. To boil a leg of 
 mutton, dust it with flour, wrap it in a towel, throw it in boiling 
 water with a little salt, pepper and herbs, and move it occasion- 
 ally while boiling. Broiled chops, should be sprinkled on both 
 sides with pepper and salt, dipped in melted butter, laid on the 
 gridiron over a hot bed of coals, and turned two or three times 
 while cooking. As will be seen by the table on a succeeding 
 page. Mutton is more nutritious than any other flesh, and quite 
 digestible. 
 
 To Fry Chickens. — Cut up the chickens and let them lie in 
 salt and water twenty minutes, drain and season with salt and 
 pepper ; prepare six eggs well beaten, and five crackers, rolled 
 fide, stir well together ; roll each piece in this, and fry brown in 
 hot lard. 
 
 To Roast Turkey. — Wash the turkey very clean, and let it lie 
 in weak salt and water over night. When ready to put to roast, 
 rub it dry in the inside, and sprinkle in a little pepper. Make a 
 stuffing of two-thirds wheat bread and one-third corn bread, 
 rubbed fine, and softened with butter and beaten yolk of egg, 
 and seasoned with salt, pepper, parsley, and celery. Mix the 
 stuffing well together, and fill the turkey. Rub the breast of the 
 turkey with salt, pepper, and butter. Have water and lard in' 
 your dripping pan, and baste often. It will require three hours 
 to roast. Pea fowl and Guinea fowl are roasted and dressed in 
 the same way. Cranberry sauce is almost indispensable with' this 
 dish. Celery, too, usually accompanies it. %», 
 
 Fried Liver and Bacon. — Cut the liver rather thin, sa^^'.* 
 about half an inch thick, but first soak it in warm water about'' 
 one hour ; chop a quantity of parsley, season it with pepper, slxM . 
 lay it thick upon the liver ; cut slices of bacon and fry botW 
 together, but put the bacon first into the pan ; add a little lemnii 
 pickle to the gravy made by pouring the fat out of the paii> 
 flouring, and adding boiling water. 
 
 To Make Sandwiches Rub a teaspoonful of mustard flqiir 
 
 into half a pound of sweet butter ; spread this mixture upon thtii 
 slices of bread. From a boiled ham cut very thin slices, and 
 place a slice of ham between two slices of bread prepared as above ; 
 cut the sandwiches in a convenient form and serve. Some chop 
 the trimmings of the ham or any other cold meat very fine, and 
 lay them between the slices of prepared bread. This is a good 
 Jish for lunch or evening entertainments. 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY RECIPES. 68^ 
 
 Chicken Pie. — Cut up the chickens into joints, and season 
 them with salt, pepper, and parsley. If they are old, paiboil 
 them a few minutes, and save the water to put in the pie. Make 
 rather a rich paste, and cover the bottom and sides of a deep dish 
 with it. Then put in alternate layers of chicken, six hard-boiled 
 eggs cut in slices, butter, pepper, celery, and a little flour from 
 your dredging box. Fill the dish two-thirds full of cold water, 
 and add half a teacup of cream or milk. Put on a top paste, and 
 close the pie around the edge, and make an opening in the middle 
 with a knife. 
 
 Recipes for Cooking Tripe. — "We find in the " Utica Herald" 
 the following recipes for cooking tripe — a dish which is greatly 
 relished in some lamilies. 
 
 1st. Make an egg batter the same as for pancakes, oniy a little 
 thinner ; take some pickled tripe, cut it in pieces four or five inches 
 square; lay it in the batter while you ai'e preparing the spider or 
 griddle with butter or pork fat ; when sufficiently hot, drop the pieces 
 of tripe in ; cook brown on both sides ; season according to taste 
 while cooking ; when mcely browned it is done. Served up hot. 
 
 2d. Take pickled or fresh tripe, roll in Indian meal ; prepare the 
 griddle or spider the same as No. 1 ; brown it nicely on both sides ; 
 season to taste, and serve it up the same as above. 
 
 3d. Broiled Tripe Broil the same as you would beefsteak ; 
 
 season with butter, pepper, salt, etc. You can use either fresh or 
 pickled tripe for this. 
 
 4th. Take fresh tripe, place it in an earthen jar, and pour over 
 it new sour buttermilk ; cover it up ; let it stand twenty-four hours ; 
 taker it out and cook either in batter or Indian meal, or some 
 prefer it fried without either, with the exception of a little butter, 
 seasoning nicefy. 
 
 5th. Tripe Stew. — Take fresh or pickled tripe, cut in small 
 
 4)ieoes, then slice up some onions, potatoes and turnips ; put 
 
 i all in a pot together, with sufllcient water to cover ; boil slow and 
 
 *', isbason to the taste while cooking ; when the vegetables are done 
 
 ;take it out and serve up hot. 
 
 t^ 6th. Spiced Tripe Take fresh tripe, cut it up in pieces four or 
 
 nifeve inches square ; take an earthen jar, put in a layer of tripe, 
 , then sprinkle a few cloves, allspice and peppers (whole) over it; 
 then another layer of tripe, then spice, and so on till the jar is 
 full ; take good cider vinegar, scald it, pour over it, filling the jar 
 full J cover it up and stand it away in a cool place for a few days 
 until it tastes of the spice, then serve it up cold for supper or any 
 other meal you wish. It is an excellent relish. 
 
 Pigs! Feet. — Boil four pigs' feet until the bones drop out. Draw 
 out the long bone and place them in a dish to cool. Split each 
 foot, take the liquor in which it is boiled, add the juice of a lemon 
 and some, salt, and turn over the feet. They may be dipped in 
 batter and fried in salt pork. 
 
690 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 MiJTCED Fowl. — Take the remains of a roast fowl, and cut off all 
 the white meat, which mince finely, without any skin or bone ; but 
 put the bone, skin and et ceteras into a stewpau, with an onion, a 
 blade of sage, and a handful of sweet herbs tied up ; add nearlj' a 
 pint of water ; let it stew for an hour, and then strain and pour off 
 the gravy, putting in a teaspoonful of sauce. Take two hard- 
 boiled eggs and chop them small ; mix them with the fowl; add 
 salt, pepper, and sage, according to taste ; put in the gravy ; also 
 half a teaspoonful of finely-minced lemon peel, one-table spoonful 
 of fiour, made into a smooth paste with a little cold water, and let 
 the whole just boil. To every twelve pounds of meat take three 
 tablespooufuls of salt not much heaped, three tablespoonfuls black 
 pepper, eight tablespoonfuls of sage, and a teaspoon half full of red 
 pepper. 
 
 To Make Sausages. — Thirty pounds of chopped meat ; salt, eight 
 ounces ; pepper, two and a half ounces ; two teacups of sage, and 
 one and three quarter cups of sweet marjoram. Pass the two last 
 through a fine sieve. Thyme and summer savory may be substi- 
 tuted for the latter. 
 
 Preserving Sausage Meat. — Pack the meat in a jar until 
 nearly full, then fill the jar up with melted lard; cover with a 
 linen cloth, then tie a brown paper over the top. 
 
 To Make a Pot-Pie. — Make your sponge as you would for 
 biscuit, only shorter ; when you do it up let it get just light, put- 
 ting into the batter a little saleratus and salt ; when light take it 
 on to the board, and cut it in pieces like biscuit, only let them lie 
 and rise without kneading them at all. When the meat Is tender 
 there should be enough water to come just over the meat. Season 
 it well with salt and pepper, and dissolve flour in cold water, and 
 stir in enough to thicken it well. If the meat is very lean fry it 
 in butter, and when boiling hot lay the crust in over the surface 
 and shut it up close, and not allow it to be opened again in half * 
 an hour, when it will be ready for the table, and as light and nice 
 as sponge. 
 
 Oyster Omelets. — Allow for every six large oysters or twelve 
 small ones, one egg. Remove the hard part, and mince the remain- 
 der of the oyster very fine ; take the yolk of eight and the whites 
 of four eggs, beat them until very light, then mix in the oysters, 
 with a little pepper, and beat all up, thoroughly ; put in the frying- 
 pan a gill of butter, and move it about until it melts ; when the 
 butter boils in the pan skim it and turn in the omelets, stir it un- 
 til it begins to stiffen, fry it a light brown, lift the edge carefully 
 and slip a round-pointed knife under; do not let it be overdone, 
 but as soon as the underside is a light brown turn it on to a very 
 hot plate ; never fold this omelet over, it will make it heavy. If 
 you want to brown it highly you can hold a red-hot shovel over it. 
 
 Eggs And Potatoes. — Remove the skins from some boiled Irish 
 
POMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY RECIPES. 691 
 
 potatoes, and when perfectly cold cut them up in small pieces 
 about the size of a grain of corn, and season with salt and pepper. 
 To a quart of potatoes thus prepared, take the yolks of six eggs, 
 and the whites of three, and beat them well together. Have 
 some butter in a frying-pan, and when it is melted, put in the po- 
 tatoes. When they are quite hot, stir in the eggs, and continue 
 stirring so as to mix them well with the potatoes, and until the 
 eggs are set. Then pepper, and sead them to table in a hot dish. 
 
 A Bengal Omelet ;Take half a dozen fresh eggs, beat the 
 
 whites and yolks up well together in a clean basin; chop half a 
 dozen young onions fine, a little fresh parsley, and add a tea- 
 spoonful of catsup. Mix it all together, and fry them after the 
 form of a pancake. When done brown take a fork, roll them up, 
 and send to table. 
 
 How TO Make Egg Balls. — Boil four eggs hard, take out the 
 yolks and pound them, add to them a few bread crumbs, and pep- 
 per and salt, and the yolk of one raw egg ; mix them all well to- 
 gether, take them out, and with flour on your hands roll them into 
 balls ; boil thera two minutes. 
 
 Egg Toast Soak some slices of stale bread in cream or milk, 
 
 but not long enough to become soft ; then dip them in beaten egg 
 with a little salt, and fry brown. 
 
 Fish gives, generally speaking, about two-thirds as much nutri- 
 ment as meats, but having no juice like meat, is not a muscle pro- 
 ducing diet. It is more appropriate for women, students, and 
 those who waste but little muscle. To cook fish, a wire broiler 
 that folds together is absolutely essential, and such a broiler is 
 much the most convejiient of any for broiling steak or chops, and 
 for toasting bread or crackers. 
 
 To Broil Fresh Fish, rub on them a little butter and salt, and 
 hold them over,a quick bed of coals, as for beefsteak, so as to crisp 
 the outside quickly without burning. Squeeze a few drops of 
 lemon juice over them before eating. The small fresh water fish 
 are best fried. Cut slices of pork, and let them soak over night. 
 When the fish is to be cooked fry the pork ■ crisp, roll the fish in 
 corn meal, wheat flour, or powdered crackers, and lay them in the 
 pan. As'soon as one side is crisp either reduce the fire or sprinkle 
 a little ashes over it. Nothing but the best pork fat is suitable to 
 fry brook fish in. 
 
 Salt Mackerel should be soaked two days in cold water with 
 the flesh side down. Just previous to cooking lay it in a dish, 
 and cover it with hot milk. Rinse it with cold water and wipe 
 dry with a cloth. Broil the same as fresh fish, and squeeze a 
 lemon over it just before eating. 
 
 To Cook Salt Codfish. — Out into pieces two or three inches 
 square, dip the pieces in batter, and fry with butter. The batter 
 is made by mixing two eggs with grated crackers. Another and 
 42 
 
692 , HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT, 
 
 very simple way to cook salt codfish is to pick it up into small 
 pieces at night, and allow it to soak over night. In the morning 
 rinse with fresh water, and set it over the fire just covered with 
 cold water. Just before this water boils turn it off, and put milk 
 in its place. As soon as the milk is hot stir into it wheat flour, 
 or grated cracker and butter. When these have boiled a few min- 
 utes stir in beaten eggs, from one to six, according to the amount 
 of flsh. 
 
 To Make a Chowder Lay four or five slices of salt pork in 
 
 the bottom of the pot ; let it cook slow that it may not burn ; 
 when done brown, take it out, and lay in fish cut in lengthwise 
 slices, then a laj'er of crackers, sliced onions, and very thin sliced 
 potatoes, with some of the pork that was fried, and then a layer 
 of flsh again, and so on. Strew a little salt and pepper over each 
 layer ; over the whole pour a bowl full of flour and water well 
 stirred up, enough to come up even with what you have in the pot. 
 A sliced lemon adds to the flavor. A few clams improve it. Let it 
 be so covered that the steam cannot escape. It must not be opened 
 until cooked, to see if it is well seasoned. — Skilful Housewife. 
 
 To Cook Oysters, take them from the liquor, add to the latter 
 if strong a little water, and season to your taste ; or milk may be 
 added instead of water. Bring this broth to a brisk boil, and then 
 add the oysters, letting the whole boil two or three minutes longer. ' 
 Scalloped Oysters. — Take a quart of oysters, separate them 
 from the liquor, and crush a pound of crackers. Put a layer of 
 crackers on the bottom of a dish, then a layer of oysters, and so 
 on, seasoning each layer with salt, butter, and lemon juice. Pour 
 the oyster liquor over the whole, and bake forty-five minutes. 
 
 Knickerbocker Pickle, for Beep, Hams, etc. — Take six gallons 
 of water, nine pounds of salt, three pounds of coarse brown sugar, 
 one quart of molasses, three ounces of saltpetre, and one of 
 pearlash ; mix and boil the whole well, taking care to skim off" all 
 the impurities which rise to the surface. This constitutes the 
 pickle. When the meat is cut, it should be slightly rubbed with 
 fine salt and suffered to lie a day or two, that the salt may extract 
 the blood ; it may then be packed tight in a cask, and the pickle 
 having become cold, may be turned upon and should cover the 
 meat. A follower, to fit the inside of the cask, should be laid on, 
 and a weight put on it in order to keep the meat at all times 
 covered with pickle. In the spring the pickle must be turned off, 
 boiled with some additional salt and molasses, skimmed, and when 
 cold returned to the cask. 
 
 Corned Beef Put the beef into cold jyater for twentyrfour 
 
 hours, to draw off the blood. Let it drain well before putting it 
 into the brine. Take one gallon of salt to eight gallons of water, 
 one-half a pound of saltpetre, a quart of molasses, a pint of sugar, 
 and one or two pods of red pepper. Boil and skim it, and when 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMT AND FAMILY EEOIPES. 693 
 
 perfectly cold, pour it over the beef. If the weather is warm, add 
 one quart of salt to the above. If the pickle sours, pour it off, 
 boil, let it cool, and pour over the meat again. Keep the meat 
 under the brine by weights. 
 
 To Keep Meat Feesh. — Simply immerse it in buttermilk. This 
 will keep it for several days, when the milk should be changed, and 
 fresh milk substituted. In this way beef, veal, etc., can be kept for 
 several weeks, and it will be as sweet and fresh at the end of that 
 time as when first put in. Our butcher furnished us with the receipt. 
 The whole neighborhood is now saving its meat in this way. It in 
 equally eflflcacious in the hottest weather. — P. G., in Rural World. 
 
 To Keep Meat Fresh. — The following plan is recommended : 
 Cut the meat in slices, pack in a jar in layers, sprinkle with salt 
 and pepper, just enough to make it palatable. Place on the top a 
 thick paper or cloth, with salt half an inch thick. Keep this on all 
 the while. Meat, it is said, can be kept three weeks in the summer 
 in this way, and the last will be as good as the first. 
 
 To Make Tough Beef Tender. — To those who have worn 
 down their teeth masticating poor, tough beef, we will say that 
 carbonate ot soda will be found a remedy for the evil. Cut the 
 steaks the day before using into slices about two inches ttiick, rab 
 over them a small quantitj' of soda, wash the next morning, cut 
 into suitable thicknesses, and cook to notion. The same process 
 will answer for fowls, legs of mutton, etc. 
 
 To Preserve Eggs. — You have only to rub them in lard while 
 fresh, making sure that every portion of the surface has been 
 smeared. This closes the pores of the shell and excludes the air. 
 Eggs will keep all winter if served.in this way. 
 
 Preserving Sweet Corn. — Boil the green ears a minute oi two, 
 just to harden the milk, then cut from the cob and spread on a 
 cloth in the sun for two days, taking it in at night ; it will then 
 keep anywhere. When cooked, it is better to soak it a few hours, 
 and boil in the same water. In cold weather all that is wanted 
 for a week or two may be wet. It cooks quicker and tastes better. 
 A little milk find flour boiled in it is almost as good as cream. 
 
 Cooking Vegetables. — The potato should be steamed rather 
 than boiled. If new and tender brush off the skin with a stiff 
 brush ; if old scrape it off with a knife ; put them into a strainer 
 over a kettle of boiling water. The water must keep a steady boiling 
 for twenty minutes and upwards, until the potatoes are steamed 
 through. If the practice of boiling is still continued, let the 
 potatoes stand a few minutes after turning off the water with a 
 cloth over the top of the kettle. Never put a tight cover over the 
 potatoes to keep them warm ; it condenses the steam in them and 
 makes them soggy. 
 
 Potatoes for Breakfast. — Take the mashed potatoes left from 
 dinner the day before, mix them smooth with a little hot milk and 
 
694 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM I'AY. 
 
 batter, put them by spoonfuls into an iron biscuit pan, previously 
 heated, and brown them in a hot oven. They are very light and 
 nice. 
 
 Fried Potatoes. — Cut in three slices ; have hot lard on a brisk 
 Are and let them be entirely covered by the lard until fried. 
 
 Blots' Potato Cake. — Steam your potatoes and mash them. 
 To every quart of the mashed potato add the yolks of three eggs, 
 three ounces of sugar, and a little grated lemon rind. Stir in three 
 ounces of hot melted butter and the whites of the eggs. Put on 
 the fire long enough to heat the whole through and mix thoroughly, 
 then take it off and bake it for half an hour in a hot oven. 
 
 Good Way to Cook Onions. — It is a good plan to boil onions 
 in milk and water ; it diminishes the strong taste of that vegetable. 
 It is an excellent way of serving up onions, to chop them after 
 they are boiled, and put them in a stew-pan, with a little milk, 
 butter, salt and pepper, and let them' stew about fifteen minutes. 
 This gives them a fine flavor, and they can be served up very hot. 
 
 Fried Asparagus. — Four tablespoonfuls of flour, salt, cold 
 water, stirred together in a bowl to a thick batter. Beat two 
 whites of eggs to a stiff froth, and stir in with the rest. Throw 
 the tops of asparagus in boiling water, with a little suet, till half 
 done. Then throw them in the batter, hook them out and fry with 
 hot fat. 
 
 How to Bake Apples. — Bake without breaking the skin. Bake 
 from three to five hours. When the pulp is perfectly tender break 
 the skin ; if that is silken, like the cuticle of the hand, you have 
 your fruit done. If you break the skin baking, the heat and 
 moisture will escape, and your apple will dry. The peel prevents 
 evaporation, and is a good conductor of heat. Bake on paper and 
 there will be no dishes spoiled or needed to be wasted. 
 
 Caulielowers. — Separate tue green part, cut the stalk close, let 
 it soak a while in cold water, tie it in a cloth, and lay it in boiling 
 milk and water, observing to skim it well. When tender, which 
 will be in an hour and a half or two hours, take it up and drain it 
 well ; send it to the table with melted butter in a boat. Broccoli 
 is cooked in the same manner. 
 
 Aspabagus. — Cut when two or three inches long, wash and 
 place the heads all one way, and tie in bundles with thread or 
 twine. Have your water boiling, with a little salt, and lay it in, 
 keeping it boiling half or three-quarters of an hour, according to 
 its age. Toast two slices of bread, moisten it with the water in 
 which the asparagus is boiling, season with salt, and lay on a 
 small platter or dish. Then drain the asparagifs a moment, and, 
 laying the heads inward, spread it on the toast, pouring over it 
 melted butter and pepper. 
 
 Beets.— Wash them clean with a cloth, rubbing them well. Be 
 careful not to cut them, unless they are very large, and then you 
 
DOMJSSTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY EECIPfiS. rft)5 
 
 may cut them in two, not splitting tiiem. Tbey require, when grown 
 full size, three or four hours, boiling.' When tender all through, 
 scrape off the outside, split or cut them in thin round slices, and 
 pour over melted butter, and sprinkle with pepper. Boiled beets 
 sliced, and put in spiced vinegar until pickled, are good. The 
 tops of beets are good in summer boiled as greens. Beets should 
 be kept in the cellar, covered with earth to keep them fresh. It is 
 said that they are nicer roasted, as potatoes, for the table. 
 
 Spinach. — Pick it clean, and wash in several waters. Drain and 
 put it in boiling waterj and be careful to remove the scum. When 
 tender, drain and press it well. Chop it fine, and put it in a 
 sauce-pan with a piece of butter and a little pepper and salt. Set 
 it on hot coals, and let it stew five minutes, stirring it all the time. 
 It requires about ten minutes to boil. 
 
 Stuffed Cabbage. — Take a large fresh cabbage and cut out the 
 heart. Fill the place with stuffing made of a cooked chicken or 
 veal, which should be chopped very fine and highly, seasoned, 
 rolled in balls with yolk of egg. Then tie the cabbage firmly 
 together, and boil in a covered kettle for two hours. Tt makes 
 a very delicious dish, and is often useful for using up small pieces 
 of cold meat. 
 
 Rhubarb. — The best way of cooking this delicious substitute 
 for fruit is to bake it. Cut up the stalks into a pie dish, sprinkle 
 sugar over, cover with a plate, set in the oven and bake fifteen or 
 twenty minutes, just long enough to be tender and retain its fresh 
 green color, like green apples. It is an excellent supper dish to 
 cat with bread and butter or cream. 
 
 Egg Plant. — Boil them in a good deal of water a few minutes, 
 to take out the bitter taste, then cut in slices, and sprinkle a little 
 salt on them. Then fry them brown on a griddle, with only 
 enough butter to keep them from sticking. 
 
 Broiled Parsnip. — After they are boiled tender, let them be- 
 come perfectly cold ; slice thin lengthwise, and broil until nicely 
 browned ; spread them with butter, and season with pepper and 
 salt. To be served with roast, broiled, or fried meats. 
 
 Bean Soup. — Boil the beans for soup in the usual way, in water 
 only, seasoned with salt and pepper to taste.' Add "savory herbs 
 if desirable. When ready to take up, cut several large slices of 
 light, stale bread into pieces half an inch square ; add a good-sized 
 lump of sweet butter, and fry on the stove or bake in the oven ; 
 when done brown and crisp put it into the soup tureen ; pour the 
 bean soup over and serve hot. 
 
 To Bake ToSiatoes. — Season them with salt and pepper ; flour 
 them over ; put them in a deep plate with a little butter, and bake 
 in a stove. 
 
 To Beoil Tomatoes. — Wash and wipe the uomatoes, and put 
 them on the gridiron over live coals, with the stem down. Whe" 
 
696 HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAY. 
 
 that side is brown, turn them, and let them cools through. Put 
 them on a hot dish, and send them quickly to the table, to be 
 there seasoned to taste. 
 
 Baked Beans — Soak the beans half a day in warm water, then 
 turn off the water and boil until soft. When the beans are put 
 ibto the baking dish bury a piece of, tat salt pork in the middle. 
 
 We give below the average time for boiling the ordinary veget- 
 ables. Cabbage two hours. Green corn half an hour. Turnips 
 and parsnips one hour and a half. Asparagus twenty minutes. 
 Green peas half to three quarters of an hour. Carrots two hours. 
 Beets three hours. Squash one hour. String beans one hour. 
 
 Rice is one of the most edible of all vegetables, and if used in 
 connection with meat, beef or mutton, furpishes the best possible 
 addition to the bill of fare. 
 
 Rice should be put in warm water to swell, on the top of the 
 stove or in a moderate oven, where it will not boil, for an hour or 
 ^o ; then put to boil in salted water for fifteen minutes, afterward 
 .ouiing on rich milk, and a little butter. It is better, at this point, 
 "iiil i1 into a pudding dish, and bake half an hour. The addition 
 if f) lo.'v raisins or English currants will improve it much. 
 
 riiis should be eaten with a thoroughly beaten dressing of butter 
 Mill Hiijjar, flavored with wine and nutmeg or sweetened cream. 
 
 Itii.ic needs to be thoroughly cooked to be palatable or digestible, 
 ()iif if overdone, so that the kernels lose their shape, it becomes a 
 Mi.ickVi unsavory mass. 
 
 Sdine enjoy the old fashioned rice pudding, with the usual con- 
 .limiiuts of spices, fruit, eggs, sugar, etc., but it is really more in- 
 filing without, when cooked according to these suggestions. 
 
 When fruit is scarce, rice can be made a very pretty addition to 
 'lie tea table. Boil in the morning, and tuyn into buttered teacups; 
 when cold, turn out the contents of ihe several cups on to a platter; 
 make a little cavity in the top of each of these beautifully shaped 
 moulds, placing a teaspoonful of sijme kind of jelly in the open- 
 ings, and, with a pitcher of sweetened and flavored cream, you will 
 have a fancy as well as nutritious dish. If more convenient, turn 
 into a good sized bowl, and j'ou will have the same results with 
 less trouble. 
 
 A beautiful dish can be arranged, by putting cold rice on a plate 
 with a layer of jelly, jam, grated apple, fresh strawberries or rasp- 
 berries on the top ; then another layer of rice and fruit, and so on 
 until you have the mound as high as you like, — leaving the rice at 
 the top, and being careful to trim the edges neatly, to show the 
 stripes of fruit. This is delicious cold, for tea, or baked half aE 
 hour for dessert, with a good dressing. ^ 
 
 The rice which may be left from dinner, if pvlt to soak in milk 
 over liight, is nice in griddle cakes. It is also a charming variety 
 !;o the bi-eakfast table, mixed with a little egg and flour, made into 
 patties with the hand, and fried in the skillet. 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY EECIPES, 697 
 
 If you like a rice pie, take care not to use too much rice ; let the 
 solidity consist in the eggs. 
 
 Rice Pie. — Cut up a fat chicken, and boil till tender ; copk one 
 pint of rice in the water in which the chicken was boiled; mix 
 with it six well beaten eggs, (if eggs are .plenty you may put 
 eight,) one cup of milk, one tablfespoonful of butter, salt ard 
 pepper to your taste. Put into a baking dish alternate layers of 
 chicken and rice, having rice last, and bake slightly. 
 
 How TO Hull Corn. — Shell a dozen ears of ripe, dry corn ; put 
 it in an iron kettle and cover with cold water ; put in the corn a 
 bag of two teacupfuls of fresh wood ashes, and boil until the corn 
 looks yellow and tastes strong of the alkali ; then take out the bag 
 and boil the corn in the lye over an hour ; then pour off the lye, 
 add fresh water, and simmer until the corn swells. If the hulls 
 do not couie off by stirring, turn off the water and rub th^m with 
 a towel ; add more water and simmer for three or four hours, often 
 stirring to keep it from burning ; whe'n it swells out, and becomes 
 soft and white, add salt to liking, and let all the water simmer 
 away. Eat warm or cold, with cream or milk. — Co. Gentleman. 
 
 To Cook Cracked Corn or Wheat, Oatmeal or Hominy. — lict 
 the meal be dry and a little warm. Have water boiling briskly ; 
 throw iAto it a small lump of water and a little salt ; add the meal 
 by handfuls until it is thick, keeping it boiling and stirring it con- 
 stantly. After it is thick enough, let it stand for half a day over 
 a slow fire. Cracked wheat and oatmeal require only a half to 
 three quarters of an hour's boiling ; otherwise they are <. ooked the 
 same as the corn These dishes are at once very nutritive, whole- 
 some, and easily digested. Samp, hominy, and mush, made ir^ this 
 way, are much more desirable for suppers than meat. They should 
 be eaten with miik or molasses and cream. 
 
 Bread is the staff of life, or would be, if the best part of it were 
 not bolted out of the flour to make it look white. Making bread 
 is considered the most important acquisition, and to make good, 
 light, sweet t"ead is an accomplishment to be proud of No rule 
 can be set for it, for success depends upon the flour, the rising, the 
 heat, and the moisture. Yeast or yeast cakes should be mixed 
 with potatoes, boiled dry and mealy. If the upper surface of the 
 loaf is moistened with milk just before it is placed in the oven the 
 crust will be itnproved. Dr. Nichols, in hjs Chemical Lectures, 
 gives the following as the method of bread making employee? in 
 his family : 
 
 Sift five pounds of good flour and put it into an earthen pan 
 suitable for mixing and kneading. Have ready a ferment of yeast, 
 prepared as follows: — Take two potatoes the size of the flst, boil 
 them, mash, and mix with half a pint of boiling water. A fresh 
 yeast cake, of the size comnion in the market, is dissolved in water, 
 and the two solutions mixed together and put in a warih place to 
 
H'OW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 ferment. As soon as it commences to rise, or ferment, whicii re- 
 quires a longer or shorter time, as tlie weather is warm or cold, 
 pour it into the flour, and, with the addition of a pint each of milk 
 and water, form a dough at night, and allow it to stand until morn- 
 ing in a moderately warm place ; then mould and put it pans, and 
 let it remain until it has become well raised ; then place it in a 
 hot oven and bake. 
 
 The points needing attention in this process are several. First, 
 the flour must be of the best quality ; second, the potatoes should 
 be sound and mealy ; third, the yeast cake is to be freshly pre- 
 pared ; fourth, the Iferment must be in just the right condition; 
 fifth, the kneading should be thorough and effective ; sixth, the 
 raising of the dough must be watched^ that it does not proceed too 
 far and set up the acetic fermentation, and cause the bread to sour; 
 seventh, after the dough is placed in pans, it should be allowed to 
 rise, or puff up, before placing in the oven ; eighth, the tempera- 
 ture of the oven, and the time consumed in baking, have much to 
 do with the perfection of the process. 
 
 Jennie F. Eazen, a newspaper correspondent, describes the fol- 
 lowing as the method by which her mother made bread ; it is new 
 to us : 
 
 She took an earthen pitcher and put into it a f)int of new milk, 
 a teaspoonful of sugar, one of ginger, a little soda and salt; then 
 poured out of the teakettle into this a half pint of boiling water. 
 When it was cool enough to hold her finger in it comfortably', she 
 stirred in flour enough to make a thick batter, set it "in a kettle of 
 warm water, and put the kettle where it would keep warm. After 
 it had stood two or three hours, she added two large spoonfuls of 
 flour and stirred it rapidly for five minutes. When the rising was 
 up to the top of the pitcher, she warmed three quarts of good sweet 
 milk, turned the rising into it, and stirred in flour to make a sponge. 
 Covering it closely and setting it where it was warm, she left it to 
 rise again, which it proceeded to do in the course of half an hour, 
 at the end of which time she kneaded it into loaves and set it to 
 rise for the last time. When it was baked the crust was of a rich 
 golden brown, and we considered it the treat of treats to have it 
 broken while it was hot, and to 'receive from her hand a great piece, 
 wgll buttjr^l.^ ; L\ -^ i- 
 
 I 3eead bt Steam. — A choice loaf of bread may be made by pre- 
 paring the dough in the usual way, and then setting the loaf to be 
 baked into a steamer, and bake in this manner by steam for fifty 
 minutes. When taken out, dry a few moments in the oven, and it 
 is then as beautiful a loaf of bread as need be eaten, — being with- 
 out crust. We need hardly add that the dough must be good, or 
 the bread will not be. 
 
 Potato Beead. — Sift four pounds of flour into a pan ; boil one 
 pound potatoes, skin, and mash them very carefully through the 
 colander ; mix this with equal quantities of milk and water, stir 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY RECIPES. 
 
 with a knife ; add a tablespoonful of salt, a cup of yeast, and beat 
 well. 
 
 Brown Bread. — Three pints of coarse corn meal scalded with 
 four pints of boiling water ; when cool add two pints of coarse rye 
 meal (not flour); mix thoroughly; put in stone ware pots, cov- 
 ered over, and place in an oven cool enough for the bread to warm 
 slowly for two or three hours ; after which bake slowly for four 
 hours, if made in one loaf; let the bread stand in a cool oven one 
 or two hours. It should be light, moist, and sweet, with a moist, 
 firm crust. It will require experience and skill to perfect the 
 making of this bread, but in health and delicidusness it pays. 
 
 Rye and Indian Bread. — Mrs. Angler, of Wyandot County, 
 Ohio, tells the New York Farmers' Club how her grandmother 
 made rye and Indian bread :-:-Sift the bread tray half full ci Indian 
 meal ; have a teakettle of hot water put in a dipper of boiling water 
 to slack the heat ; then scald the meal, stirring well with the pud- 
 ding stick ; let it stand three hours or more over night, when the 
 weather is cool, then add one-third as much coarse rye flour as 
 there was meal ; put in a quart of light, sweet hop yeast, mix with 
 both hands, using warm water ; have the dough stiff enough to 
 heap a little ; dip the hand in water, and smooth the mass and 
 sprinkle with flour ; let it rise till the surface cracks, then put in 
 iron basins ; smooth again, let it rise for a few minutes, then set it 
 in the brick oven, heat it till you cau only hold your hand and 
 count three, bake four or five hours ; when taken out wet a clean 
 cloth in water and cover each loaf. 
 
 Graham or Coarse Wheat Bread. — Two-thirds unsifted wheat 
 meal, one-third fine flour, a little molasses ; mix with warm water. 
 One large cup of potato yeast will make two good sized loaves. 
 Mix and rise over night, and your bread is ready to mould and 
 put in your pans before breakfast. Do not let it rise too long the 
 second time ; much bread is spoiled by so doing. 
 
 Graham or Brown Flour Bread.— To one cup of light wheat 
 sponge add two tablespoonfuls of molasses, one tablespoonful of 
 melted butter or lard, half a tablespoonful of soda dissolved in a 
 cup of warm milk ; lastly, add sufficient brown flour (sifting only 
 a part) to hold the spoon upright for a moment. Set it in the pans 
 to rise. Just before putting it in the oven wet the top, to keep the 
 crust soft. 
 
 Br^JI Bread. — Two bowls meal, one bowl flour, two bowls 
 sweet n^k, one bowl sour milk, one teaspoonful of soda, three 
 tablespoonfuls of molasses, and a little salt. Bake two or three 
 hours in a moderate oven. This makes a four quart loaf. 
 
 Graham Biscuit. — One pint of sour milk; two tablepoonfuls 
 of butter or lard; one tablespoonful of molasses; an even tea- 
 spoonful of soda, stirred in the milk; half a teaspoonful of salt; 
 
700 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 flour (Graham) enough to make as stiff as can be stirred with a 
 spoon. 
 
 Dr. S. L. Hendrick, in the Western Sural, gives the following : 
 Into a quart of cold water stir enough unbolted or Graham flour 
 to make a batter a very little thicker than for griddle cakes. Have 
 your pan heated quite hot and well buttered ; fill the cups, and let 
 it stand upon the stove a minute or so, before putting it into a very 
 liot oven. They will bake in twenty minutes. These may be eaten 
 while warm, even by the most delicate. 
 
 Rice Bread. — Boil half a pound of rice in three pints of water 
 till the whole becomes thick and pulpy ; with this, and yeast, and 
 six pounds of flour, make your dough. In this way, it is said, as 
 much bread will be made as if eight pounds of flour without rice 
 had been used. 
 
 Good Corn Bread. — One pint of wheat or rye flour, two pints of 
 corn meal, one teaspoonful of soda, one tablespoonful of melted 
 shortening, one egg, and sour milk or buttermilk enough to make 
 it pour easily ; steam three hours, remove, and bake one hour. 
 
 Family Indian Loaf. — Two quarts of scalding hot skim-milk, 
 one tablespoonful of salt, one quart of corn meal stirred in by hand- 
 fnls, two-thirds pint of sifted rye meal ; stir thoroughly, then add 
 one cup of cold milk, stirring smartly. After standing twelve min- 
 utes, bake five hours in a cast iron basin covered with another basin. 
 
 Hard Biscuit. — Two pounds of flour, two pounds of butter, two 
 eggs, half teaspoonful of salt ; rub the flour, batter, and salt, then 
 add the eggs and as much milk as will mix it into a stiff dough ; 
 knead well, roll it out quite thin, cut with a round cutter, prick them 
 with a fork, place them on tins, and bake crisp in a moderate oven. 
 
 Biscuit. — Two quarts of flour, one tablespoonful of butter, one 
 teaspoonful of soda, half teaspoonful of salt; mix with cold water, 
 and beat well. / • '/ '^ / — 
 
 Johnny Cake. — Rub two tablespbonfuls of butter into a quart 
 of corn meal : add a small. teacup of molasses to a teaspoonful of 
 brown ginger ; pour on slowly sufficient water or milk to make a 
 soft dough. Bake in shallow pans, in a hot oven. 
 
 Egg Bread. — Three quarts of milk a little sour, seven eggs, two 
 ounces of butter, a teaspoonful of saleratus ; add corn meal to 
 make a stiff batter. Bake by a brisk fire. 
 
 Corn Batter Bread. — Six tablespoonfuls of flour, three of 
 corn meal, and a little salt ; make it a thin batter, withJE&r eggs 
 and milk. Bake quickly in shallow pans. W^r 
 
 Victoria Buns. — Two ounces of pounded loaf sugar, one egg, 
 one and a half ounces of ground rice, two ounces of butter, one and 
 a half ounces of currants, a few thin slices of candied peel ; floiu'. 
 Whisk the egg, stir in the sugar, and beat these ingredients \vt;ll 
 together ; beat the butter to a cream, stir in the ground rice, cur 
 
DOMESTIC EOONOMT AND FAMILY EECIPES. 701 
 
 rants, and candied peel, and as much flour as will make it of such 
 a consistency that it may be rolled into seven or eight balls. Put 
 these on a buttered tin, and bake from half to three-quarters of an 
 hour. They should be put into the oven immediately, or they 
 will become heavy ; and the oven should be tolerably brisk. 
 
 New England Johnny Cake. — Take one quart of buttermilk, 
 one teacup of flour, two-thirds of a teacupful of molasses, a little 
 salt, one teaspoonful of saleratus, one egg (beat of course). Then 
 stir in Indian meal, but be sure and not put in too much. Leave 
 it thin, so thin that it will almost run. Bake in a tin, in any oven, 
 and tolerably quick. If it is not first rate and light, it will be be- 
 cause you make it too thick with Indian meal. Some prefer it 
 without the molasses. 
 
 Rolls. — Take a pint of milk and scald it, then add half a cup 
 of butter while the milk is hot ; whenthis is cool, add half a cup of 
 sugar, and half a cup of yeast. Pour this mixture on to two quarts 
 of flour, and let it stand until tho next morning, thai knead It 
 and let it stand in the pans until it is risen properly. 
 
 French Rolls or Twist. — One quart of lukewarm milk, a tea- 
 spoonful of salt, a teacupful of yeast, and flour enough to make a 
 stifl' batter. When very light add a beaten egg and two table- 
 spoonfuls of butter, and knead in flour until stiff enough to roll 
 Let it rise again, and when very light roll out and cut in stripo 
 and braid it. Bake thirty minutes on buttered tins. 
 
 How Good Rusks, which we find at first class hotels are made. 
 The recipe is direct from a cook in one of the best hotels in the 
 West. 
 
 Two tea cups of sugar, two-thirds of a cup of butter, two eggs. 
 Beat these well together, add one pint of sweet milk and one of 
 good lively yeast, and flour sufllcient to make a soft sponge. Set 
 it where it will be warm. Next morning knead in more flour and 
 let it rise again, then mould into biscuits, and when light bake 
 them in a moderate oven. 
 
 Rusk. — Three pints of floar, two eggs, one cup of sugar, and a 
 tablespoonful of butter. Beat the eggs and sugar well together, 
 and add the butter ; mix in the flour with warm water, in which a 
 cake of yeast has been dissolved ; put in a place to rise. When 
 well raised, knead in a teacup more of flour and make in small 
 rolls. Bake a light brown. Be careful not to burn them, as the 
 sugar would cause them to burn easily. 
 
 Co^l^lusK. — Take one pint of corn meal and scald it with one 
 quartim^ilk, a half a teacup of lard or butter, a little salt, three 
 eggs, yeast enough to make it raise ; then stiffen it with wheat 
 flour ; let it stand and raise about three hours ; then roll s^nd let it 
 raise again ; bake it and eat warm. 
 
 Corn Meal Rusk. — Take six cupfuls of com meal, four of 
 wheat flour, two of molasses, and one teaspoonful of saleratus ; 
 
702 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 mix the whole together and knead it into dough ; make two cakes, 
 bake three-quarters of an hour. 
 
 Common Doughnuts. — Two cups of sugar, one and a half of 
 milk, two eggs, one nutmeg, two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar, 
 one of soda. 
 
 Plain Corn Cake. — One quart of sweet milk ; three eggs ; tea- 
 spoonful of salt. 
 
 Another Way. — Two cups of sour cream ; two cups of sweet 
 milk or water ; one tablespoonful of sugar ; one teaspoonful of 
 salt ; one teaspoonful of soda ; a handful of flour stirred in with 
 the meal. 
 
 Steamed Corn Bkead. — One pint of sour milk ; one half cup of 
 hard or finely chopped suet ; one cup of molasses ; one teaspoonful 
 of allspice'; one teaspoonful of salt ; one teaspoonful of soda. Leave 
 the batter quite thin. Steam one hour and bake the same. 
 
 Fruit Johnny Cake. — Two cups of sour cream ; two cups of 
 sweet milk ; two tablespoonfuls of sugar ; two eggs ; one teaspoon- 
 ful of salt ; one teaspoonful of soda ; one cup of chopped raisins ; 
 one cup of chopped citron ; a handful of flour stirred in with the 
 meal. 
 
 Sally Lunn. — One quart of flour, four eggs, one gill of yeast, a 
 little salt ; mix with milk to a stifi" batter, and add a piece of melted 
 butter ; pour into a buttered baking pan and let it rise over night. 
 It makes a delicious warm bread for breakfast with plenty of butter. 
 
 Indian Meal Cake foe Breakfast. — Pour enough boiling 
 water in a pint of corn meal, to make a stifi" dough ; dissolve in 
 a little hot water, half a teaspoonful of saleratus, and stir it in 
 the meal with a teaspoonful of salt, two eggs well beaten, a table- 
 spoonful of butter ; stir the materials well together, and bake it in 
 tin pans for half an hour in a quick oven. Serve it hot. 
 
 Parsnip Pkittebs. — Boil six parsnips tender, then skin and 
 mash them; mix them with two eggs well beaten, and two tea- 
 spoonfuls of flour ; make up in small cakes and fry them in a little 
 lard or beef gravy ; make boiling hot before the c,akes are put in ; 
 a little salt should be added. 
 
 Missouri Corn Cakes. — Sift three pints of corn meal, j,dd one 
 tablespoonful of lard, one of salt, and a teaspoonful of soda in a 
 little warm water. Make it to a dowgh with milk, then add 
 gradually a pint of hot water, beating it for half an hour. Bake 
 on a hot griddl*. ' 
 
 Pastry. — Pies are the least desirable articles in our biU'of fare, 
 as the pastry is often indigestible in spite of all the care and skill 
 that may be exercised. 
 
 Aunt Smith's Recipe for Pie Crust. — To a quart of flour a 
 teaspoonful of salt ; measure equal quantities of water and lard.* 
 
 * In all eases butter is preferable to lard in mak'.'-;- ■.--.tv-t- 
 
DOMESTIC BCOJSrOMY AND FAMILY RECIPES. 70S 
 
 Put 1lie butter into the flonr and work it in with the hand, gradu- 
 ally adding the water. Work in the flour slowly, and keep the 
 paste soft. Another rule : One pound and a half of flour, and 
 half a pound of butter wet with cold water till it makes a stiff 
 paste. Work it well and roll it out several times. Another rule : 
 Take equal weights of flour, butter, and sugar ; rub the flour and 
 butter together, mix in the sugar. 
 
 Apple Pie. — Stew the sliced apples in a very little water, when 
 nearly done add butter, sugar, and spice. When cold place them 
 in the paste with an upper crust, and bake till the crust is done. 
 
 Squash and Pumpkin Pies. — Out the squash into pieces the 
 size of two fingers, and stew in just enough water to cover them. 
 When soft strain through a sieve. Add from one to four eggs, 
 (as you have them,) to each quart of milk. Sweeten either with 
 sugar or molasses, and season with ginger, nutmeg, cinnamon, and 
 a little salt. Have your oven hot, and bake till the centre rises 
 up. We consider these about the only pies suitable for daily use, 
 
 Mince Pies. — Three and one half pounds of chopped beef to 
 seven pounds of chopped apples, two pounds of sugar, one pint of 
 best molasses, one ounce of nutmeg, a pound of suet; cider, citron^ 
 raisins or currants to your taste. 
 
 Imitation Apple Pie. — Use raw pumpkin instead of green ap- 
 ples ; slice thin ; add equal parts of vinegar and water, thicken 
 with wheat flour, season to suit the taste, and bake thoroughly. 
 It requires more salt and longer baking than apple pie, bul when 
 done is in no respects inferior. 
 
 Mock Custard Pie. — Take a heaping spoonful of flour, mix 
 smooth with a little water or milk, pour on boiling water, proceed- 
 ing as if making starch, (corn starch may be used instead of flour 
 to good advantage ;) make as much of it, by pouring on more or less 
 water, as will be half enough for your pie ; add a piece of butter 
 the size of a walnut, a half cup of sugar, an egg well beaten, after 
 having cooled the starch by adding a half cup of cold milk or more. 
 Flavor highly with nutmeg or lemon. This 'las the taste of a 
 cream pie to a considerable degree A little practice is needed to 
 enable one to judge as to the quantity of water to use. When 
 eggs and milk are scarce, it is a good deal better than no cus- 
 tard pie. 
 
 Cracker Pie.— Bight crackers pounded fine, on which pour boil- 
 ing water to soften, eight- tablespoonfuls of vinegar, eight of sugar, 
 one lemon ; if too stiff add water. 
 
 A Good Lemon Pie One cupful of boiling water, one cupful 
 
 of sugar, one tablespoonfnl of corn starch, one lemon ; place be- 
 tween a rich paste. 
 
 Crumb Pie.— Mince any cold meat very finely, season it to taste, 
 and put it into " pie dish ; have some finely grated bread crumbs, 
 
704 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 with a little salt, pepper, and nutmeg, and pour into the dish any 
 nice gravy that may be at hand ; then cover it over with a thick 
 lEtyer of the bread crumbs, and put small pieces of butter over the 
 top. Place it in the oven till quite hot, and, should the bread 
 crumbs not be sufficiently brown, hold a salamander over them. 
 
 Washington Pie. — To one tablespoonful of butter add one cup 
 of sugar, half a cup of milk, two cups of flour, one egg, one tea- 
 spoonful, of cream of tartar, half teaspoonful of saleratus. This 
 will make two pies. When cold divide with a thin knife and add 
 .he jelly. 
 
 Lemon Pie. — The juice and grated rind of one lemon, one cup 
 of water, one tablespoonful of corn starch, one cup of sugar, one 
 egg, and a piece of butter the size of a small egg. Boil the water, 
 wet the corn starch with a little cold water, and stir it in ; when 
 It boils up, pour it on the sugar and butter ; after it cools, add the 
 egg and lemon ; bake with under and upper crust. 
 
 To Make Lemon Pies. — Take the yolks of three eggs, one and 
 a half cups of sugar, one cup of water, one tablespoonftil of flour, 
 the juice and rjnd of one lemon ; chop the peel, stir all up toge- 
 ther ; bake as custard ; then beat the whites of the three eggs to 
 a froth ; add four tablespoonfuls of sugar ; put on the top, bake 
 until done. 
 
 Delicious Lemon Pies. — The juice and rind of one lemon, one 
 cup of sugar, the yolk of two eggs, three tablespoonfuls of flour, 
 milk to fill the pie plate ; line the plate with the paste, pour in this 
 custard, and bake until it is done. Beat the whites of two eggs, 
 add four tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar, spread over the pie, 
 and brown lightly in the oven. 
 
 Lemon Pie. — Two teaspoonfuls of flour and one of butter rub- 
 bed together, one cup of sugar, one egg, one tablespoonful of water, 
 and the juice and grated peel of one lemon. This will make the 
 inside of one pie. Bake in a crust of* pastry', either barred across 
 the top or with plain cover. 
 
 Cake The following are Mrs. Laura E. Lyman's general di- 
 rections for making cake : — " First of all, let them aterials be each 
 in their kind first class. Lard is never, at any time, a good sub- 
 stitute for butter ; and good cake cannot be made from poor butter 
 The sugar need not necessarily be crushed loaf or perfectly white 
 a good article of cake can be made of light brown sugar. The 
 quaffty of flour is of chief importance, as flour that will make pal- 
 atable bread will not make good cake. The eggs should be well 
 beaten ; the fruit should be carefully prepared. Raisins should be 
 seeded and chopped fine ; then rubbed in flour and dried, which 
 will prevent their sinking to the bottom. Citron should be cut in 
 small, thin slices. The materials should all be collected in a warm 
 room some time before mixing together. An earthen bowl is the 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY RECIPES. 706 
 
 best article to mix cake in. Generally the butter and sugar are 
 stirred together until white ; then the eggs are added, then the 
 flour, then the spice, then the saleratus is 'dissolved and added. 
 The cream of tartar should be sifted with the flour. Put in fruit 
 last. H^'e .your pans well buttered or, what is much better, lined 
 with white paper buttered. Move the cake as little as possible, 
 SUd n^pr jffif it while baking. Most kinds of cake require a quick 
 oven,mt fiuit cake Is best with a moderate heat. The cake is 
 done whea-a straw may be run into the heart of the loaf without 
 any dough sticking to it." 
 
 Sponge Cake — Two Recipes. — Take ten eggs, — be sure they 
 are fresh,— beat the whites and yolks separately. When the whites 
 are beaten to a froth, add one pound of fine white sugar, three- 
 fourths of a pound of sifted flour, the grated rind of one lemon, 
 and half the juice. Stir rapidly fifteen minutes, pour into buttered 
 pans, and bake in a moderately heated oven. 
 
 Measure Sponge Cake.— Three eggs, two small cups of sugar, 
 half cup of cold water or sweet milk, a teaspoonful of cream of 
 tartar, and half a teaspoonful of soda ; flavor with lemon extract 
 or the grated rind. 
 
 Lemon Sponge Cake. — Take ten eggs, separate them ; a pound 
 "of granulated sugar, half pound of flour, the grated '.^eel of two 
 lemons, and the juice of one; beat the yolks with the jugar, and 
 the whites alone ; then add them, and sift in the flour by degrees ; 
 beat well, and bake with a quick heat. 
 
 Fruit Cake. — One cup of butter, two cups of sugar, three eggs, 
 one cup of sour cream, one teaspoonful of soda, one tablespoonful 
 of ground cloves and cinnamon, half a nutmeg, two cups of raisins 
 and citron, flour to make stiflT enough. 
 
 Tumbler Cake. — One egg, well beaten ; one tumblerful of sugar; 
 half tumblerful of sweet milk, filled up with thick cream ; one tea- 
 spoonful of soda ; twp teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar, rubbed in 
 two tumblerfuls of flour. Add nutmeg or rose water. 
 
 Snow Cake. — The white of ten eggs, one tumbler and one-half 
 of sugar, the same of flour. Mix one teaspoonful of cream of tar- 
 tar in the flour. Flavor with rose. 
 
 White Cake. — One cup of sugar, one-half cup of butter, one-half 
 cup of sweet milk, whites of five eggs, two cups of flour, one tea- 
 spoonful of cream of tartar, and one of soda. 
 
 Tea Cake.— One pint of new milk, two pints of flour, two..^g8, 
 two tablespoonfuls of butter, one tablespoonful of soda, one table- 
 spoonful of cream of tartar. 
 
 Raisin Cake.— One pound of sugar, half pound of butter, one 
 and a half pounds of flour, four eggs, half pint of thick milk, one 
 teaspoonful of soda, saine of cream of tartar, one nutmeg, half 
 pound of raisins, half pound of currants. 
 
706 . HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 Lemon Cake. — One cup of butter, three cups of sugar, four cups 
 of flour, five eggs, one cup of thick milk, one teaspoonful of soda, 
 the rind and juice of two lemons. Bake in bread dishes. 
 
 Molasses Cake. — One quart of molasses, half pint^oflhick milk,_ 
 one teaspoonful of soda, quarter pound of shorteningj^Dutter and 
 lard, ginger and cloves to taste, flour sufficient to roll o&, ' .^^ 
 
 Tea Cake. — Three and a half cups of flour, twos^f s^ar> dha 
 of butter, four eggs, teaspoonful of soda in tablespoonful of milk, 
 grated nutmeg. Bake carefully. 
 
 Coffee Cake. — Five cups of flour, one cup of made coflee, one 
 cup of sugar, half cup of molasses, one cup of butter, teaspoonful 
 of soda;, two teaspoonfuls of cinnamon, one of clove, raisins or 
 currants. 
 
 Puff Cake. — Three cups of flour, two and a half cups of sugar, 
 one of milk, three eggs, piece of butter large as an egg, one tea- 
 spoonful cream of tartar, half a teaspoonful of soda, half a tea- 
 spoonful of salt. 
 
 Ctjp Cake. — One cup of butter, two of sugar, three of sifted 
 flour, and four eggs. Beat the eggs and sugar well together, add 
 the butter, and lastly the flour ; a small teaspoonful of soda dis- 
 solved in a very little of buttermilk. Soft ginger cakes made by 
 the same recipe, only using molasses or syrup instead of sugar, 
 and measuring the flour before sifting instead of after. Add. a 
 tablespoonful of ground ginger. 
 
 Plain Cake. — One cup of sugar, one cup of cream, one egg, one 
 cup of English currants, one teaspoonful of soda, nutmeg ; stir to 
 stiflT dough and bake slowly. 
 
 Pound Cake. — One pound of flour, three-quarters pound of 
 sugar, one-half pound of butter, three eggs, one glass rose water ; 
 bake immediately. 
 
 Graham Tea Cake. — One cup of cream, one egg, one teaspooii 
 ful of salt, one saltspoonful of soda, one cup of sugar ; ^stir to the 
 consistency of soft gingerbread and drop on tins, or in rings. 
 
 Rye Deop Cake. — One cup of cream, one-half cup of sweet milk, 
 one teaspoonful of salt, two eggs, a pinch of soda ; drOp on tins, 
 or in cups. By adding one cup of sugar to the above they are a 
 very nice tea cake. 
 
 Coffee Cake. — One and a half cups of sugar, one' of molasses, 
 one of cold coflee, four of flour, one teaspoonful of cream of tartar, 
 one-half teaspoonful of soda, one of cloves, one of cinnamon, three 
 eggs. 
 
 French Loaf Cake. — Three cups of light bread, two cups of 
 white sugar, one cup of butter, three eggs, one nutmeg, one small 
 teaspoonful of soda ; rub the butter and sugar together, then work 
 in the eggs, and lastly the bread and fruit. Bake in a loaf one 
 hour and a half 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY RECIPES. 707 
 
 Marble Cake. — White. One cup of butter ; three cups of white 
 sugar ; four cups of flour ; half cup of sweet milk ; whites of nine 
 eggs ; flavor with lemon. 
 
 iMakble Cake Dark. Oiie cup of butter; two cups of brown 
 
 gugar; on«^ cup of molasses ; one cup of sour milk; one teaspoon- 
 fuypf sodaj^ five cups of flour; yolks of nine eggs ; one whole one ; 
 Ipicee'bf Jill sorts. Put in pans first a layer of dark cake, then a 
 layer of white, and so on, finishing with a layer of dark. Bake in 
 a moderate oven. 
 
 Plain Cake. — One cup of sour cream ; one cup of sugar ; one 
 teaspoonfal of Salt ; one cup of soda. Form the batter thin, and 
 bake quickly. 
 
 Cream Cake. — Break two eggs in a coffee cup and fill the cup 
 with sour cream ; one cup of sugar, one and a half cups of flour, 
 oAe ■ teaspoonful of soda, one of cream of tartar; to be baked in 
 layers, wliipped cream or frosting to be put between each laj'cr. 
 
 Railroad Cake. — One cup of sugar, one of flour, two table- 
 spoonfuls of melted butter, two tablespoonfuls of milk, three eggs, 
 one teaspoonfnl of cream of tartar, one half a teaspoonful of soda ; 
 flavor with lemon. 
 
 Queen Cake. — Mix one pound of dried flour, the same of sifted 
 sugar^ and of washed currants ; wash one pound of butter in rose 
 water, beat it well, then mix with eight eggs, yolks and whites 
 beaten separately, and put in the dry ingredients by degrees ; beat 
 the whole an hour ; butter little tins, teacups or saucers, filling 
 them only half full ; sift a little fine sugar over just as you put 
 them into the oven. 
 
 Plum Cake. — Five cups of flour, one of butter, two of sugar, 
 one of sour milk, one of molasses, one teaspoonful of soda. Cinna- 
 mon, cloves, allspice, mace, one or all, as j'ou fancy. One half 
 pound of choppefl raisins, or same of Zante currants ; two ounces 
 of citron sliced thin, if you like it, but it is very good without. 
 This is a good cake, and it will keep moist a long time. 
 
 Molasses Pound CAke. — One cup of butter, one of brown 
 sugar, one of molasses, three eggs, one tablespoonful of ginger, 
 two tablespoonfuls of cinnamon, a cup of cream, of tartar, and 
 flour enough to make batter about like pound cake. Bake in a 
 loaf. 
 
 Cottage Cake.— rOne cup of butter, two cups of sugar, three 
 cups of flour, three eggs, one cup of milk, one and a half nutmeg 
 grated, half a teaspoonful of soda, the same of cream of tartar, 
 both of which dissolve in the milk. 
 
 Portugal Cake. — Put one pound of sugar, one pound of fresh 
 butter, flve eggs, and a little mace in a bread pan ; beat it with 
 your hands till it is very light and looks curdling, then put in a 
 pound of flour, and half a pound of currants very dry ; beat them 
 together, fill the pans, and bake them in a slow oven. 
 43 
 
708 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAT. 
 
 o 
 
 Nut Cake. — Beat two pups of sugar and two-thirds of a cup of 
 butter, and two eggs together for fifteen minutes. Mix two tea- 
 spoonfuls of cream, «.f tartar in three cups of flour, and add it to 
 the sugar, butter and eggs. Then dissolve a small teaspoonful of 
 saleratus or soda*in a cup of milk, and stir it all ■vfteJlJogethera 
 Pour it into a broad pan that has been well buttered, ffiift sugar 
 over it, and then cover it with the meats of walnuts!k Bi&ke it 
 twenty minutes. 
 
 CocoANUT Cake. — Peel the cocoanut and cut into thin slices, 
 out these again crosswaj's into threads haff an inch long ; put a 
 pound and a quarter of brown moist sugar, a teacupful of cold water, 
 and the sliced cocoanut into a saucepan, and boil for some time 
 over a slow fire, stirring frequently to prevent it burning. Wring 
 out a coarse kitchen cloth in cold water, and lay it over a large 
 dish, drop a tablespoonful of the mixtui'e at intervals on the damp 
 cloth. This is the way cocoanut cakes are made in Jamaica, and 
 they are extremely nice. 
 
 Chocolate Cake. — One pound of sugar, one of flour, and half 
 a pound of butter ; four eggs beaten separately until very light ; 
 half a pint of milk, one teaspoonful of soda, and two of cream of 
 tartar. Bake in two cakes. Beat three cups of powdered" sugar 
 with tlie whites of three eggs, add chocolate to taste ; spread a 
 layer of this icing between the cakes and on the top and sides. 
 Cocoanut cake can be made in the same manner by substituting 
 half a grated cocoanut for the chocolate in the icing. 
 
 Delicate Cake. — One and one half cups of white sugar, one 
 half cup of butter ; rub these to a cream ; add one half cup of sweet 
 milk, in which dissolve one half teaspoonful of soda, and two cups 
 of flour, in which rub one teaspoonful of cream of tartar ; add a 
 little salt and flavor with vanilla, lemon, or nutmeg. Beat the 
 whites of foui* eggs to a stiff froth, and add last. Bake slowly 
 an ' hour in a moderate oven. The recipe will make a two quart 
 basin loaf, and if the proportions are followed exactly abeautiful 
 cake will be the result. ;. -» 
 
 Cocoanut Cup Cake.^Two cups of rolled white sugai', one and 
 a half cups of butter, one cup of milk, oue teaspoonful of soda 
 dissolved in a little hot water, four eggs. well beaten, nutmeg or 
 rose water, the white part of one cocoanut,' grated ; flour to make a 
 stiff batter ; beat it well, and put it in buttered pans an inch thick 
 in a quick oven. When done frost it, and cut in pieces. 
 
 Ice Cream Cake. — Two cups of white sugar, two cups of flour, 
 six eggs, two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar, one teaspoonful of 
 soda dissolved in two tablespoonfuls of hot water. Stir the flour, 
 sugar, and cream of tartar well together ; break the eggs in this 
 mixture, then the soda and water. Beat them well together about 
 five minutes. 
 
 For the cream, take one pint of milk, one and a half cups of 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY EECIPES. 709 
 
 sugar, half a cup of flour, two eggs. Boil the milk, beat together 
 the sugar, eggs, anrl flour, stir in a little milk, when the milk boils 
 stir in this mixture. Salt a little, and flavor to the taste. 
 
 Let both the cake and cream get perfect^ cold, then cut the 
 cake open and spread the cream between. 
 
 Teicoloeed Cake. — Take one spoonful of finely powdered 
 white sugar, nearly half a cupful of butter, half a cupful of sweet 
 milk, ;the whites of five eggs, a teaspoonful of cream of tartar, half 
 a teaspoonful of soda, and orange-flower water to flavor. Beat 
 the sugar and butter together until it is creamy ; mix the cream 
 of tartar with a cupful of flour, stir it gradually with the mixture, 
 alternately a little flour, then a little milk, (leaving only about a 
 thimbleful of milk to mix the soda in,) until the whole is well 
 mixed ; have the whites beaten to a firm froth ; mix evenly ; at the 
 same time put in the flavor ; and, for the last thing, stir in the 
 soda, dissolved in the reserved milk. The mixture should be as 
 stiff as batter for mufSns. Butter two square tin pans, put paper 
 inside, after they are buttered ; then put in the mixture evenly, 
 and bake as quick as possible without scorching. Take just half 
 of the above measure, substituting brown sugar in the place of 
 white sugar, and flavor with the juice of half a lemon and j;he 
 peel of the half lemon grated, or extract ; bake this in one pan. 
 Now take five yolks, light brown sugar in the same proportion as 
 for the white cake, and have two or three ounces of sweet almonds 
 blanched and chopped fine ; mix smoothly, and bake in two pans 
 the same as above. When all is done, and the cake is cold and 
 firm, shave the tops of the cake smoothly and evenly with a sharp 
 knife, (the bottoms of the cake will not need shaving unless they 
 are too brown to look well without ;) put them together with fine 
 jelly, so that they will stick firm — the pink cake in the centre, and 
 the yellow at the top and bottom — and frost if you like. Cut it 
 in any form ; it is the prettiest cut in finger pieces ; that is, cut it 
 in slices an inch or an inch and a half wide, then in squares. 
 
 Dried Apple CakeS — Three cups of dried apples soaked over 
 night. Chop the apples, and simmer them fifteen minutes in two 
 cups of molasses. Then add one-third of a cup of butter, two 
 eggs, 'half a cup of sugar, five cups of fiour, half a cup of milk, 
 two teaspooufuls of soda — spice Jo your taste. Allow the apples 
 and molasses to cool before adding the rest. 
 
 Rice Cake. — Quarter of a pound of ground rice, quarter of a 
 pound of finely powdered white sugar, five eggs. Beat all well 
 together till it froths ; pour quickly into a tin lined with buttered, 
 paper. Bake three-quarters of an hour in a moderate oven. 
 
 SoTiE Milk Cake. — One cup of butter, two of sugar, two of 
 sour milk, half a cup of molasses, five of flour, one teaspoonful of 
 soda ; raisins and spice. ^^. ^ 
 
"'lO ' HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAS'. 
 
 Tongue Toast. — Tate a cold smoked tongue that has been well 
 boiled, and grate it with a coarse grater, or mince it fine ; mix it 
 with cream and beaten yolk of egg, and give it a simmer over the 
 fire ; having first cut off all the crust, toast very nicely some slices 
 of broad, and then butter them rather slightly ; lay them in a flat 
 dish that has been heated before the fire, and cover each slice of 
 toast thickly with the tongue mixture spread on hot, and send 
 them to the table covered. This is a nice breakfast or supper dish. 
 For tongue you may substitute cold ham finely minced. 
 
 Soft Molasses Gingerbread.' — Dissolve two teaspoonfuls of soda 
 in a half pint of milk, add a teacup of butter or lard ; mix with a 
 pint of molasses, a tablespoonful of ginger, a pint of fiour, and a 
 couple of beaten eggs. Fresh lemon peel, cut very fine, improves it. 
 
 Ginger Cake. — One -"d of molasses, one cup of sugar, two- 
 thirds of a cup of butter, ou<j cup of sweet or sour milk, two eggs, 
 one teaspoonful of soda, ginger to suit your taste. Make j'our 
 batter as thick as a common cup cake. 
 
 Hard Gingerbread -Two cups of flour, one of chopped suet, 
 
 one of raisins or any other dried fruit, one egg, two tablespoonfuls 
 of molasses, one teaspoonful of soda, one cup of new milk, spice 
 to suit the taste. Steam one and a half hours. Eat with liquid 
 sauce. 
 
 Ginger Crackers. — One pint of molasses, one cup of sugar, 
 six ounces of butter, cloves and ginger to taste, flour enough to roll 
 out and cut. 
 
 Rich Gingerbread. — Melt together three-quarters of a pint of 
 molasses and a half pound of butter, and pour them hot on a 
 pound of flour mixed with half a pound of sugar and three-quar- 
 ters of an ounce of ginger. When the paste is quite cold, roll it 
 out with as much more flour as will prevent its adhering to the 
 board, and bake in a slow oven. 
 
 Ginger Cookies. — Two cups of molasses, two-thirds of a cup 
 of butter or lard, one teaspoonful of soda, one teaspoonful of alum, 
 dissolved in two tablespoonfuls of hot water.and one teaspoonful 
 of ginger. Add the alum after stirring in all the other ingredients. 
 
 To Ice a Cake. — For a good-sized cake use eight ounces of 
 finely sifted sugar, put it into a mortar with four spoonfuls of 
 rose-water and the whites of two eggs, beat and strain it well, and 
 whisk it ; then, when the cake iS nearly cold, lay on the icing 
 evenly with a feather. Put it in the oven to harden. 
 
 Hard Molasses Gingerbread. — One cup of molasses, half a 
 cup of butter, a large teaspoonful of saleratus, a little salt, a tea- 
 spoonful of ginger, same of cinnamon ; roll it about an inch thick ; 
 bake quickly. This is not really hard, but it is good. 
 
 Sweet Potato Custard. — One pound of potato mashed and sifted 
 fine, one-half pound of sugar, a small cup of cream, and one-fourth i 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY RECIPES. 711 
 
 pound of butter ; four eggs ; nutmeg and lemon to suit the tastn. 
 If you have no cream, put half pound of butter. This makes two 
 large custards. * 
 
 CpOKiES, No. 1. — One cup of sugar, one egg, one-half cup of but- 
 ter, one half cup of lard, one-half cup of sweet milli, one-fourth 
 teaspoonful of soda, and flour to harden. Roll thin, balte quickly, 
 and sprinkle with sugar. 
 
 Cookies, No. 2. — Three cups of sugar, three and a half cups of 
 cream, one cup of water, three e.ggSj two teaspoonfuls of saleratus; 
 salt and season to taste. 
 
 Cookies, No. 3 — (A superior article.) — One teacup of white su- 
 gar, half a teacup of butter, one egg, two table spoonfuls of butter- 
 milk, one teaspoonful of soda, with nutmeg. 
 
 Soft Gingerbread. — One egg, one cup of cream, one cup of mo- 
 lasses, one, teaspoonful of soda. Mix quite soft. 
 
 Boston Gingerbread. — One pound of butter, one pound of 
 sugar, one pint of molasses, one pound of flour, six eggs, one gill 
 of cold water, one teaspoonful of soda, one quart of fruit — citron 
 and raisins. 
 
 Drop Cake for Breakfast. — Half pint of milk, four eggs, one 
 pound of flour, and add a little salt. 
 
 Apple Cake. — Two cups of stewed dried apples boiled in two 
 cups of molasses. Prain off the molasses (for the cake) from the 
 apples, add two eggs, two teaspoonfuls of soda, four cups of flour, 
 one cup of butter, one cup of sour milk. Spice of all kinds. Then 
 add the apple (which was drained as above). The apples shoulc' ; 
 be soaked the night before stewing for the cake. 
 
 Orange Snow Balls. — Wash well half a pound of Carolina rice, 
 put it in plenty of water, and boil it rather quickly for ten -min- 
 utes, drain, and let it cool. Pare four or five small oranges, and 
 clear from them entirely the thick white inner skin, spread the 
 rice in as many equal portions as there are oranges upon some 
 pudding or dumpling cloths ; tie the fruit separately in these, and 
 boil the SAOW balls for an hour and a half. Turn them carefully 
 on a dish, and strew plenty of sifted sugar on them. 
 
 Cinnamon Cakes.— Beat up six eggs with three tablespoonfuls 
 of rose water, put to it a pound of sifted sugar, a dessertspoonful 
 of powdered cinnamon, and enough flour to form it into a paste ; 
 roll it out thin, and cut it into any shape you please. Place them 
 on paper and bake them. Remove them from the paper when 
 done, and keep dry. 
 
 Peppernxits. — Take four eggs and beat them Jight with one 
 '^und of sugar ; then take half a pound of butter, beat it up with 
 ?pggs and sugar ; one gill of milk, one nutmeg, half an ounce of 
 ■saleratus, and flour enough to make a dough stiff to roll out. 
 
712 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 Marvels. — Dissolve one teaspoonful of soda or saleratus in a 
 cup of milk. Season with nutmeg or cinnamon. Make it stiff 
 with flour. Roll it very thin. Cut them round, as large as a 
 cookey, and fry them. Sift sugar over them while hot. 
 
 Mtjdge Cakes. — Three eggs, half a pound of sugar, one cup of 
 butter, one pint and a half of flour, rolled thin in sugar. 
 
 Doughnuts. — One cup of sugar, two eggs, three teaspoonfuls 
 of melted lard, one cup of sweet milk, two teaspoonfuls of cream 
 of tartar, one teaspoonful of soda, one teaspoonful of salt ; add a 
 Little nutmeg. Knead all together and fry in hot lard. 
 
 Apple Custard. — One pint of good stewed apples, half a pint 
 of cream, the eggs beaten light, sugar and grated nutmeg to taste. 
 Stir the ingredients together, and bake in a stiff paste in a mode- 
 rate oven. 
 
 Bread Cakes. — Break the bread in small pieces and soak in 
 cold milk ; when soft, add one teaspoonful of saleratus, one '^f 
 salt and flour, for a good batter. 
 
 Corn Starch Cake, No. 1. — One cup of corn starch, one of 
 butter, one of sweet milk, two of sugar, the whites of six eggs, 
 one teaspoonful of cream of tartar, and a half teacupful of soda. 
 Flavor with lemon or vanilla. 
 
 CoRiS' Starch Cake, No. 2. — One cup of butter, two of sugar, 
 two of flour, one of cornstarch, one of sweet milk, whites of seven 
 eggs, one teaspoonful of soda, two of cream of tartar. Mix the but- 
 ter and sugar well together, put'the soda in the milk, the cream 
 of tartar in the corn starch, add them to the butter and sugar, then 
 put in the flour and eggs, stir ten minutes, and bake in a moderate 
 oven. 
 
 Strawberry Shortcake, No. 1. — Mix some dough precisely as 
 you would for biscuit. Bake in one cake, on a round tin. When it is 
 baked, split it open and butter it well. Have your berries pre- 
 pared with sugar, and cream also, if you like ; pour them upon 
 the lower crust of j'our cake and place the upper one over them. 
 
 ^Strawberry Shortcake, No. 2. — One cup of sour cream, half a 
 teaspoonful of soda, flour sufficient to make a stiff dough. Roll it 
 out large enough to cover a large pie tin. Bake it in a quick oven. 
 When baked, split it open and spread it with butter ; take a pint 
 of strawberries, cover them with sweet cream, sweeten them to 
 your taste, spread them on the lower crust, and put the upper 
 crust over them — and you have a dish fit for a wedding. 
 
 Waffles. — One quart of sour milk, one cup of cream, two tea- 
 spoonfuls of melted butter, three eggs, and a little salt. Let the 
 irons be well heated before baking. 
 
 Buttermilk Waffles. — One quart of buttermilk, two eggs, one 
 small teaspoonful of cream of tartar, one large teaspoonful of soda, 
 and flour to make a batter. 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY RECIPES. 713 
 
 E.AISED Waffles. — One quart of milk, two eggs, one tablespoon- 
 ful of lard, one tablespoonful of butter (or two of butter), one-half 
 teacup of corn (or of Graham) meal, one-half teacup of yeast, one tea- 
 spoonful of salt, and flour enough to make a batter ; bake when light. 
 
 Another. — One quart of milk, five eggs, one and a quarter pounds 
 of flour, one half pound of butter. Beat well together. If you make 
 before time to bake, put in one spoonful of yeast. Sift on cinnamon 
 and sugar ; one-half teaspoonful of soda, and one teaspoonful of 
 cream of tartar. Bake immediately. Waffles should be wet with 
 milk or sauce as fast as baked. 
 
 Plum Pudding One pound of raisins, one pound of currants, 
 
 one pound of suet, and two and a h.i.lf pounds of flour, with one 
 pound of sugar, three eggs, and a tab»espoonful of ground allspice, 
 one ounce of candied lemon, one ounce of orange ;^eel. Prepare 
 these ingredients as usual, and boil this pudding at least seven 
 hours. Always place an old plate at the bottom of a saucepan 
 in which a pudding is to be boiled, and do not imagine that 
 a plum pudding can be overboiled. We never knew any in- 
 stance of this, but we have known many a pudding perfectly 
 dry in the centre for want of a sufficient quantity of water, or too 
 small a saucepan in which to boil it ; and we have also known a 
 rich plum pudding appear at table in the form of a very thiL,k 
 soup, for lack of being firmly tied when put into the pudding 
 cloth for boiling. Never omit to dip your pudding into a pail of 
 clear, cold water for about three minutes, when taking it up for 
 being dished ; this renders it firm, and prevents the cloth adhering 
 to it. 
 
 Bread Pudding. — Take light white bread and cut in thin 
 slices. Put into a pudding shape a layer of any kind of preserve, 
 then a little slice of bread, and repeat until the mould is almost 
 full. Pour over all a pint of warm milk, in which four well-beaten 
 eggs have been mixed ; cover the mould with a piece of linen, 
 place in a saucepan with a little boiling water, let it boil twenty 
 minutes, and serve with pudding sauce. 
 
 Country Pudding (Easily made.) — Put a layer of stale bread 
 
 crumbs in the bottom of your pudding dish, then a laj-^er of fart 
 apples, sliced thin. Sprinkle a little sugar over the apples, add 
 another layer of bread crumbs, and another of apples, until your 
 dish is full. Crumbs should form the top layer ; pour a custard 
 (made same as for pies) over it, and bake one hour. Eat with 
 sweetened cream. 
 
 Poverty Pudding. — Soak your bread in milk the night before 
 using; when ready, butter your pudding-dish, and place in a 
 layer of the bread. Have a dozen apples pared and sliced, and 
 place a layer of apples on the bread, another layer of bread, then 
 of apples, and so on, till your dish is filled. Let the last layer 
 be bread and bake it an houi. To be eaten with sauce. 
 
714 HOW TO MAKE THE FAKM PAY. 
 
 Minute Pudding One quart of milk, four tablespoonfuls of 
 
 flour, stirred up with a little milk, then stirred into the boiling 
 milk. Take from the fire and pour into a dish ; beat four eggs 
 and stir in while hot. After it becomes a little cool, sprinkle over 
 the top one cup of white sugar, and a little grated nutmeg ; pour 
 over that one cup of wine. 
 
 Blaokberey oe Huoklebeeet Pudding^ — Dissolve a teaspoon- 
 ful of soda in half a teacupful of very warm water, stir in one pint 
 of molasses, a teaspoonful of cinnamon, one of allspice, a quart 
 of huckleberries; then stir in flour, and make it quite thick, 
 about as thick as pound cake. Tie in a pudding bag, and boil 
 two hours and a half ; serve with wine sauce. 
 
 Baked Apple Pudding. — Two ounces of butter, quarter pound 
 of pulverized white sugar, quarter pound of boiled apples, the yolks 
 of three eggs, the whites of two eggs, the rind and juice of one 
 lemon. Mix the whole Well together, and bake it in a puflf paste 
 one hour. 
 
 Sweet Potato Pudding. — One pound of sweet potatoes, boiled 
 and mashed fine, or grated while hot ; six eggs well beaten, three- 
 quarters of a pound of sugar, the same of butter, a grated lemon 
 rind and nutmeg, a wine glass of brandy; line the dish with 
 paste. When baked sprinkle the top with fine sugar. 
 
 Rice Pudding Soak three ounces of rice in' cold water for an 
 
 hour ; then throw away this water. Cover again with fresh water, 
 place on the stove, and let it soak until quite soft ; then add one 
 ounce of sugar, two eggs well beaten, and then gradually mix 
 with three-quarters of a pint of milk and half an ounce of butter. 
 Mix all well together, and bake in a gentle oven. 
 
 Rice Pudding. — Half a pint of rice boiled ; drain off the water, 
 and let the rice get cold ; two ounces of butter, four ounces of 
 sugar, one quart of rich milk, five eggs beaten very light, a table- 
 spodnful of nutmeg and cinnamon. Stir all together. 
 
 Baked Chicken Pudding. — Cut .up two young chickens ; season 
 them with pepper and salt and a little mace and nutmeg. Put 
 them into a saucepan with two large spoonfuls of butter, and 
 water enough to cover them. Stew them gently, and when about 
 half cooked, take them out and set them away to cool. Pour off 
 the gravy, and reserve it to be served up separately. In the 
 mean time make a batter, as if for a pudding, of a pound of flour 
 stirred gradually into a quart of milk, six eggs well beaten, and 
 added by degrees to the mixture, and a very little salt. Put a 
 layer of chicken in the bottom of the pie dish, and pour over it 
 some of the batter ; then another layer of chicken and some batter, 
 and so on, having a cover on the top. Bake it till it is brown. 
 Break an egg into the gravy which you have set away, give it a 
 boil, and send it to the table, in a sauce tureen, to eat with the 
 pudding. This is a rather expensive dish for people of mi>derate 
 
domestic' ECONOMY AND FAMILY EECIPES.. 715 
 
 means to indulge in, but it is presented to all to use or not use, 
 as they may see proper. * 
 
 Baked Indian Pudding. — Boil a quart of milk, stir into it, 
 gradually, three gills of Indian meal and half a pint of molasses, 
 and let it cool. Butter a dish, put into it half a pound of beef 
 suet, chopped, and a spoonful of salt ; then turn in the pudding, 
 and a quart of cold milk. Stir it up well, add a pint of cold milk. 
 Bake four or five hours. 
 
 Lemon Cdstaed The lemons grated, one pound of sugar, 
 
 eight eggs, a piece of butter the size of a walnut. Beat the yolks, 
 sugar, lemons, and butter together, the whites to a froth, which 
 are not to be added until Teady for the oven. Bake on pie crusts. 
 
 Solid Oustaed. — Half a box of gelatine boiled in ope quart of 
 milk, and pour, while boiling, over eight eggs and otght spoonfals 
 of sugar well beaten together. Flavor to taste, and put in moulds 
 in ice. To be eaten with cream and sugar. 
 
 Apple in Jelly. — Peal and quarter some good ^.pples, and 
 take out the core ; cook them with just enough water to cover 
 them, some slices of lemon and clarified sugar, until they are soft. 
 Take out pieces of apple with great care, so as not to break them, 
 and arrange them in the jars ; then boil the sirup until it will 
 jelly, and pour it over the pieces of apple. 
 
 Lemon Bdttee — Finje. — One pound of powdered white sugar; 
 six eggs, leaving out the whites of two ; the juice and grated rind 
 of three lemons ; one quarter of a pound of fresh butter. Boil 
 these together till as thick as honey. One teaspoonful is enough 
 for a tart or cheese. Will keep well if tied up in jars, covered 
 with paper dipped in the white of eggs. 
 
 Canning' Fruit. — This we call a very simple process when 
 rightly understood. We always have an abundance of the small 
 fruits put up in glass jars. We think the trouble less, the fruit 
 better, and less expensive, than by the old process of preserving in 
 sugar, pound for pound. We use the Spencer jar with a japanned 
 cover, and a rubber ring around its edge. We heat the fruit to a 
 boil in a bright tin pan; have the jars filled with quite warm 
 (almost hot) water to warm them ; pour out the water, and dip the 
 boiling fruit rapidly into the jar, until it comes slightly above the 
 shoulder in the inside of the neck of the jar. The end of a string, 
 about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, is dropped inside on the 
 fruit, retaining the other end in the hand. Now crowd in the 
 cover down on to the shoulder, at same time withdrawing string, 
 and the work is done. Any extra juice or air will follow but with 
 the string. 
 
 Those who fail in putting up fruit to keep, do not exclude the 
 air. This is done by having the fruit hot, and by being sure tc 
 fill the jar, so that when the cover is pushed down a little of the 
 juice will be pressed out with the string. You may sweeten the 
 
716 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 fruit or not, just as you please. It is not necessary in order that 
 it may keep. Neither is it necessary to put the fruit into the jars 
 to boil. It necessitates extra trouble, and often loss, by the 
 breakage of the jars. 
 
 Different Methods — Peaches, Apricots, and Pears. — As you 
 peel, halve and seed them — drop them into cold water to prevent 
 discoloration ; then fill your jars as full as they can be filled ; 
 prepare your sirup in the proportion of one pound of white sugar 
 to a quart of water ; boil your sirup five minutes, then pour it on 
 your fruit ; let the jars be filled with the sirup up to the neck ; as 
 soon as each jar is filled, screw on the cap against the rubber, so 
 that all air may be excluded ; then place your jars in the boiler 
 with cold water to the neck of the jars, and then let them boil 
 fifteen or twenty minutes (keep your jars from striking each other 
 when boiling) ; then take them out, screw down the cap firmly 
 with the hand, and as soon as the fruit has cooled, the wrench 
 should be applied ; then put them away in a cool place. 
 
 Another Way to do Peaches. — Place your sirup on the fire, 
 and throw in your fruit, after preparing as above. Let it remain 
 in the hot sirup until it is thoroughly heated through ; then fill 
 your jars ; be sure your jars are warm before putting in the hot 
 fruits ; then pour on the sirup (screw them up immediately, each 
 one as you fill, as firmly as you can with the hand), and as they 
 cool ofl" apply the wrench ; then place them in a cool place. 
 
 Strawberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, and Cherries. — 
 Sirup same as peaches ; let the sirup be cold before pouring it on 
 the fruit ; then fill your jars with berries as full as possible ; pour 
 on the sirup, if cold, to the neck; screw the cap down to the 
 rubber ; place the jars in the boiler with cold water up to the neck, 
 and boil fifteen or twenty minutes ; then take them out ; screw the 
 cap firmly with the hand (as the fruit cools apply the wrench). 
 
 Plums and Currants. — Sirup, two pounds of white sugar to 
 one quart of water ; boil five minutes (plums are best with the 
 skins taken ofl") ; have your jars warm, then fill them up with the 
 fruit ; pour on the hot sirup ; screw on the cap firmly with the 
 hand as soon as you fill each jar, and as they cool off apply the 
 wrench. 
 
 Quinces. — Sirup one and a quarter pound of sugar to one quart 
 of water ; parboil them in water soft enough to run a broom whisk 
 through them ; fill your jars with them ; pour on the sirup while 
 hot ; screw down the cap when cool ; place them in a boiler of cold 
 water up to the neck, and boil fifteen or twenty minutes ; take 
 them out ; screw the cap firmly with the hand ; when cool apply 
 the wrench. The water that the quinces are parboiled in may be 
 used for jelly. 
 
 Tomatoes. — may be prepared as for stewing; let them boil 
 twenty minutes ; fill your jars (have the jars warm before you fill 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMT AND FAMILY RECIPES. 717 
 
 them ; screw on the cap firmly with the hand as you fill each jar ; 
 as they cool apply the wrench. Do not season them until they are 
 used for the table. 
 
 Peeserved Steawberries. — Pick off all the stems, and to every 
 quart of fruit add a quart of sugar ; mix well with the sugar and 
 put them over a slow fire ■ till the sirup commences to form, then 
 pour them over a hot fire, and let them boil quickly for fifteen 
 minutes, skimming it well. Put them boiling hot into stone jars, 
 seal up tightly. 
 
 Peeseeved Apple. — Core and pair a dozen good sized apples 
 and cut into eighths ; make a syrup of a pound of sugar to a half 
 a pint of water ; let it boil, and put in as much apple as can be 
 boiled without breaking; remove them .carefully when tender; 
 after all are done, add a little more sugar, boil up, and flavor with 
 vanilla or lemon, and turn over the apple. 
 
 Preserved Cherries The bright red cherry is the best. Do 
 
 not take off the stems ; wash and drain them, weigh them, and allow 
 three-quarters of a pound of sugar to a pound of cherries ; put them 
 into wide mouthed bottles, cork them tightly, place the bottles in 
 a kettle of water, cold, (keep the bottles apart to prevent them 
 from striking,) put the kettle on the range, and let it boil for 
 nearly three hours. As the water boils away, replenish it ; after 
 the bottles are taken from the water and cooled a little, cement 
 the corks closely and put in a dry place. 
 
 Marblehead Preserved Peach. — Take a peck of ripe peaches, 
 stone and pare them, allow a bowl of white sugar to a bowl of 
 peach ; put a layer of peach into the stone jar, then a layer of 
 sugar, and so on till they are used up. Let them stand for i.wo 
 days ; drain off the sirup, boil and skim and turn over the peach, 
 let them stand for two days ; drain off the sirup, scald and skim, 
 and again return to the peach, and it is fit for use. 
 
 Preserved Quinces. — A pound of sugar to each pound of 
 quince (after paring and quartering) ; take half of the sugar and 
 make a thin sirup ; stewing a few of the quinces at a time till all 
 are finished, make a rich sirup of the remaining sugar and pour 
 over them. 
 
 To Seal Preserves. — Beat the white of an egg; take good 
 white paper (tissue is the best), cut it the size you require, and 
 dip it in the egg, wetting both sides. Cover ydur jars or tumblers, 
 carefully pressing down the edges of the paper. When dry it will 
 be tight as a drumhead. 
 
 Apple Jam. — Weigh equal "quantities of sugar and good sour 
 apples ; pare, core and chop them fine ; make a sirup of the sugar, 
 clarify thoroughly ; then add the apples, the grated peel of two or 
 three lemons, and a few pieces of white ginger. Boil till the 
 apples look clear and yellow. This resembles foreign sweetmeats ; 
 
718 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 the ginger is essential to its peculiar excellence ; it will keep nice 
 for years. 
 
 Apple Sweetmeats. — To twelve pounds of sweet apples add 
 four pounds of sugar, one pint of vinegar. Put the vinegar and 
 sugar together to dissolve, then put in the apples, with lemon, 
 ginger root, cloves, etc. 
 
 Pie Plant. — The pie plant may be dried for winter use like any 
 other fruit. Prepai-e as for cooking, and set in a moderately warm 
 oven or near a fire till thoroughly dried. To prepare for use, scald 
 iu two Winters, and cook the same as dried peaches. 
 
 Apple Sauce. — Let your stock of apples tie picked over several 
 times in the course of the winter, and all the defective ones talieu 
 out. Let the good parts of these be pared, and if not used for 
 pies, be made into apple-sauce. tBoil it in a preserving kettle, and 
 to a pailful of cut apples put one sliced lemon. After the apples 
 are tender, add a pint bowl of brown sugar, and boil them gently 
 fifteen minutes longer. Toward spring, when apples become 
 tasteless, a teaspoonful of tartaric acid, dissolved in a little water, 
 should be added to this quantity of apple. 
 
 Currant Jelly.— Pick fine red, but long-ripe currants from the 
 atems ; bruise them and strain the juice from a quart at a time 
 through a thin muslin : wring it to get all the liquid ; put a pound 
 of white sugar to each pound of juice ; stir it until it is all dissolved ; 
 set it over a gentle fire ; let it become hot, and boil for fifteen 
 minutes ; then try it by taking a teaspoonful into a saucer ; when 
 cold, if it is not quite firm enough, boil it for a few minutes longer. 
 
 Black Currant Jelly. — Boil the currants till the juice flows, 
 then strain through a jelly bag, and set it over the fire for twenty 
 minutes, after whicli add half a pound of sugar to a pound of juice, 
 and boil for about ten minutes. 
 
 'Baspberry Jam. — Picls: them carefully, take equal quantities of 
 berries and sugar, stir it continually ; put tlie fruit first into a 
 sauce-pan, and when the Watery particles are evaporated add the 
 sugar, simmer slowlj' fifteen or twenty minutes. 
 
 Boiled Cider Jelly. — To- each pint of boiled cider add one 
 pound of sugar and boil ten minutes. This will make a beautiful 
 jelly for tarts. 
 
 Currant Wine. — Take perfectly ripe currants, mash and strain ; 
 to each quart put two of water a,nd three of sugar ; stir the whole 
 well together, and let it stand twenty four hours w^ithout stirring ; 
 then sliim and set in a cool place where it will ferment slowly. 
 When it becomes clear it is fit to bottle. This will be good in the 
 course of six months, but is much improved by being kept two or 
 three years. I have currant wine two years old, made according 
 to the above recipe, which is far preferable to Madeira in sickness. 
 
 Raspberry Wine. — Bruise the finest ripe raspberries with the 
 
DOMESTIC ECOJS'OMY AND FAMILY RECIPES. 719 
 
 back of a spoon ; strain them through a flannel bag into a stone 
 jar ; allow one pound of fine powdered loaf sugar to one quart of 
 juice; stir these well together and cover the jar closely. Let it 
 stand three days, stirring up the mixture every day ; then pour off 
 the clear liquid and put two quarts of sherry wine to each quart 
 of juice or liquid. Bottle it off, and it will be fit for use in a 
 fortnight. By adding cognac brandy instead of sherry the mix- 
 ture will be raspberry brandy. — Oermantown Telegraph. 
 
 Blackberry Wine. — To one quart of juice add two quarts of 
 water and three pounds of sugar ; the berries to be mashed cold, 
 and the juice expressed and strained ; the sugar dissolved in the 
 water and strained. The whole then mixed in kegs and placed in ^ 
 a cool cellar; the bung-hole to be left open until fermentation 
 has nearly ceased, then closed tight and left standing until the 
 ensuing April, when it should be carefully drawn and bottled. 
 
 Raspberry Vinegar. — Pick the raspberries and place them in 
 vinegar over night, sufficient to cover them. Then strain through 
 a cloth, adding one pound of sugar to one pint of the juice. Boil 
 and skim until clear; and when cool bottle and coik, setting in a 
 cool place. 
 
 Black Currant Yineqar. — Pour three pints of vinegar on 
 five pounds of very ripe black currants, stir them twice a day for 
 three days, then squeeze and strain off the juice, boil it ten minutes, 
 add one pound of loaf sugar to every pint of juice, boil and drain 
 it about twenty minutes longer, and bottle it when cold. 
 
 To Make Good Vinegar. — One pint of strained honey and two 
 gallons of soft water. Let it stand in a moderately warm place. 
 In three weeks it will be excellent vinegar. 
 
 Pickles. — Mrs. W. T. Warrensville, Ohio, gives the following 
 directions for preserving pickles from scum : Pack the cucumbers, 
 or whatever is to be pickled, in a jar or tub, pour a weak brine 
 upon them, and let it remain three days. Pour off the. brine, and 
 pour on boiling hot vinegar enough to cover the pickles, and let 
 them stand twenty-four hours. Reboil the vinegar, and pour on 
 as before. Do this three times, letting the pickles stand twenty- 
 four hours each time. Then throw this pickle away, and add 
 enough fresh vinegar to cover the cucumbers, or whatever is to be 
 pickled. Add a small lump of alum the size of a marble to a 
 gallon of pickle ; half pound, of sugar and spices to taste. Bring 
 to a boil, skim, and' then turn upon the pickles while hot. Let- 
 them. stand, well covered, for ten days, and they are ready for use. 
 Peaches, pears, sweet apples, etc., are served in the same way, ex- 
 cepting the use of brine. The author of this recipe has pickles 
 two years old, preserved in this way, as free from rot and scum 
 as when first put down. 
 
 Pickled Cabbage. — A correspondent of the Country Gentle- 
 man says : "In response to the inquiry, ' how to pickle cabbage ?' 
 
720 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 I send the following, which my folks have tried several years, and 
 I know to be good, and is liked by those who have eaten it. It 
 keeps well a year, and how much longer it would keep I am unable 
 to say. If one is not over nice in regard to the form in which it 
 is served, I think it will suit the palate of any who are fond of the 
 like pickle. Take any quantity of well formed cabbage heads, and 
 thick-meated squash, or bell-peppers, and chop them fine and mix. 
 Dse about one-third pepper, and two-thirds or more of cabbage 
 after being chopped ; for each gallon take one heaping teaspoonful- 
 of ground cloves, about half the quantity of ground cinnamon, 
 half a teacupful of whole mustard seeds, and two tablespoonfuls 
 of fine salt ; mix thoroughly and place it in a stone jar, and pour 
 over it scalding hot cider vinegar; cover and set in the store 
 room, where it will keep cool and not freeze. It will answer to 
 use after twenty-four hours. Small green tomatoes or other vege^ 
 tables may be added, if desired, and pickled whole. One who 
 does not like to be at the trouble of stufSng peppers will here find 
 an excellent substitute. The vinegar should not rise above the 
 cabbage, only well saturate the mass. 
 
 Sweet Cucumber Pickles. — Take cucumbers when fully ripe, 
 pare them, cut lengthwise, and take out the seed. Put them into 
 weak brine over night. In the morning, drain them, boil till ten- 
 der in weak vinegar and water, drain again, and put into jacs, 
 and turn over them the sirup, hot. For the sirup, or " sweet 
 pickle," allow to each pound of fruit (?) half a pound of sugar; 
 and one pint of vinegar to each four pounds of fruit. Boil the 
 vinegar and sugar a few moments, then add mace, cinnamon, and 
 cloves, to your taste ; let it boil, and skim well. This pickle is as 
 good for cantelopes, peaches, or other fruit as for the above. 
 
 To Pickle Beet Root. — This vegetable makes an excellent 
 pickle, and from the brightness of its color has a very pretty 
 effect in a glass pickle-dish or jar. Wash the beet perfectly; do 
 not cut off any of the fibrous roots, as this would allow the juice 
 to escape, and thus the coloring would be lost. Put into sufficient 
 water to boil it, and when the skin will come off it will be suffi- 
 ciently cooked, and may be taken out and laid upon a cloth to 
 cool. Having rubbed off the skin, cut the beet into thick slices, 
 put it into a jar, and pour over it cold vinegar, prepared as fol- 
 lows : Boil a quart of vinegar with au ounce of whole black pep 
 per and an equal weight of dry ginger, and let it stand until quite 
 cold. The jar should be kept closely corked. 
 
 Cauliflower Pickles. — Break' them into neat branches, put 
 them in a white cloth, (nothing stains more easily ;) boil them 
 very slightly in salt and water. Spread them to cool. Pack them 
 in jars, and pour over them vinegar, prepared as follows, and then 
 seal up tight. Grind three ounces of coriander seed, and one ouface 
 of white mustard seed ; pouncf and then grind one ounce of white 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY EECIPES. 721 
 
 ginger root. Boil the whole in three quarts of the best cider vinegar 
 in a porcelain or bright tin kettle, and strain over the cauliflower. 
 
 Pickled Eggs. — Boil the eggs until done; when cold shell 
 them and cut them in halves lengthwise ; lay them carefully- in 
 large mouthed jars, and pour over them scalding vinegar, well 
 seasoned with whole pepper, allspice, a few pieces of ginger and 
 a few cloves. When cold tie up closely, and let them stand a 
 month. They are then fit for use. With cold meat they are a 
 jnost delicious and delicate pickle. 
 
 Tomatoes For Winter TJse. — After skinning perfectly ripo 
 tomatoes, cut out any green around the base. I think leaving in 
 this hard green core is the immediate cause of the loss of the 
 fruit. Place them in a bell-metal kettle over the fire ; season with 
 salt as if for immediate use ; then allow them to come to a boil ; 
 while hot, put in stone cans or small mouthed gallon jars, cork 
 and seal. If proper judgment be exercised you will never lose 
 one jar. Do not use tin. 
 
 Tomato Catsup. — Scald and peel your tomatoes ; then place 
 them in a kettle to boil. When done, cool and strain' them 
 through a sieve ; then add pepper, salt, and cloves. Scald them 
 again, and add one tablespoonful of brandy to one pint of the 
 catsup ; place in bottles, cork and seal while hot, setting it in a 
 cool place. 
 
 To Pickle Pears. — Steam your pears until quite done ; then to 
 three pounds of pears add one pound of sugar, and vinegar 
 enough to cover them. Put the vinegar on cold. Mace, cloves, 
 and cinnamon to j'our taste. 
 
 Keeping Cider Sweet. — When fermentation begins in a barrel 
 draw off the liquor into another, straining through flannel. Put 
 into the cider three quarters of an ounce of the oil of sassafras 
 and the same of the oil of wintergreen, well shaken up in a pint 
 of alcohol. But one difficulty is found, and that is — that it is so 
 palatable that people will not let it keep long. 
 
 To Make Summer Drinks. — To make root beer, take a quan- 
 tity of sarsaparilla roots and sassafras bark and some hops, and 
 boil till the strength is extracted. To three gallons of liquor, 
 after it is strained, add one quart of molasses and a cup of yeast. 
 Aftei* standing in a warm place eight or ten hours, strain again 
 and bottle. It will be fit for use the following day. 
 
 For Ginger Beer, take one pint of molasses and two spoonfuls 
 of ginger, put into a pail to be half filled with boiling water ; when 
 well stirred together, fill the pail with cold water, leaving room 
 for one pint of j'east, which must not be put in till lukewarm. 
 Place it on the warm hearth for the night, and bottle it in the 
 morning. 
 
 For Spruce Beer, take three pounds of sugar, four gallons of 
 water, one ounce of ginger, a little lemon peel, or essence of lemon, 
 
722 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 and a little essence of spruce to give it a flavor. ,Stir all together 
 warm it a trifle ; add a cupful of good yeast. When fermented, 
 bottle up close. 
 
 Mead is made by dissolving one part of honey in three of boil- 
 ing water, flavoring it with spices, and adding a portion of ground 
 malt, a piece of toast steeped in yeast, allowing the whole to fer- 
 ment. 
 
 Washing Made Easy. — Rub the clothes in two waters, use 
 plenty of soap ; then after wringing dry, place in a tub, and pour 
 on clear boiling water to cover them. Let them remain until cool 
 enough to bear the hand ; wring and put out to dry, using no hard 
 water about them. This saves nearly half the usual work, besides 
 the steam from boiling, which is very unpleasant, especially in 
 winter. 
 
 Bar soap should be cut into pieces of a convenient size, and 
 laid where it will become dry. It is well to keep it several weeks 
 before using, as it spends fast when it is new. 
 
 Good soft soap can be made in the following manner: To one 
 pound of sapohifler (to be had at the groceries or drug store) 
 add three gallons of rain water." Set it boiling and then put in 
 four pounds of soap fat, (any oflfal fat saved in the kitchen,) or 
 tallow. When the solution is clear and the fat all combined, 
 which is seen by the disappearance of all fatty eyes or spots in 
 the liquid, add twelve gallons of soft raiii water, and when cold 
 your soap is ready for use. The " saponifler," being concentrated 
 lye, is better than wood ashes and potash, and is by no means dear. 
 
 Arthur's Home Magazine says that a little alum dissolved in 
 hot water and thrown into a tub of soapsuds, will precipitate the 
 soap and dirt to the bottom, and leave the water clear and soft 
 enough to be used again. Or the alum may be put into boiling 
 suds, permitting the scum to boil over and leave the water clear, 
 soft, and as useful for washing clothes as it had originally been. 
 
 A Thousand Dollar Recife. — ^Take one pound of sal soda and 
 half a pound of unslacked lime, put them in a gallon of water and 
 boil twenty minutes ; let it stand till cool, then drain olT and put 
 it in a stone jug or jar. Soak your dirty clothes over night or 
 till they are well wet through, then wring them out and put on 
 plenty of soap, and to a boiler of clothes well covered with water 
 add one teaspoonful of washing fluid. Boil half an hour briskly ; 
 then wash them thoroughly through one suds and rinse well in 
 water, and your clothes will look better than the old way of wash- 
 ing twice before boiling. This is an invaluable remedy, and we 
 want every poor, tired woman to try it. 
 
 To Remove Stains. — Table linen or any white clothes that have 
 coffee or fruit stains on them, before being put into soapsuds, 
 should have boiling water turned on them, and remain in it till 
 the water is cold. If they are put into soapsuds with the stains 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY RECIPES. 723 
 
 on they will be set by it so that no subsequent washing will re- 
 move them. 
 
 To Wash Calicoes. — Put wheat bran in a bag, boil and take 
 half the water to wash in, half to rinse in ; use no soap. This will 
 cleanse without fading, and stiffen them without starch. Iron on 
 the wrong side and they will look as if just out of the store. 
 
 To Clean Cloth Garments. — Upon the collars and wristbands 
 of coats rub benzine plentifully, and after some ten minutes rub 
 on soap. Have ready some hot water and a sponge ; wash tho- 
 roughly, and rinse in warm water. Then get some clean suds, 
 and with a brush go over the whole garment, brushing it in the 
 right way of the cloth. Pull and stretch them into shape, and 
 hang them up to dry. , 
 
 Washing Scarlet Flannel. — A handful of flour mixed with a 
 quart of cold water and boiled ten minutes. Add it to the water 
 you have ready to wash in. The articles will require many rin- 
 sings in clean water after being washed in this mixture ; but, if 
 carefully done, the most brilliant scarlet will lose none of its 
 brightness. If flannel is soaked in pure cold water before making 
 it up, it never shrinks at all. Get a washing trough filled from 
 the pump, and in this the flannel is placed. As soon as it sinks to 
 the bottom it is taken out and hung up, without any squeezing. 
 It drains itself, and does not lose the appearance of new flannel 
 when dry. 
 
 To Starch Cdpps and Collars. — To make them look glossy as 
 when first bought, add to the starch a little gum arable dissolved 
 in warm water. Iron wet, with'a cloth over them. To prevent 
 the iron from sticking, stir a little salt in the starch while hot. 
 
 A Clothes Line Reel is a great convenience, and easily made. 
 A strong box nailed to the end post, or against the building, with 
 a crank through i.t, is all that'is required. Fasten one end of the 
 line to the crank in the box, and you can always have your line in 
 good shape when washing day comes. 
 
 Preserving Furs. — Ladies are often anxious about keepiug furs 
 free from moths during the summer months. Darkness is all that 
 is necessary. The " miller," from whose eggs, moths are hatched, 
 only moves in light ; the moths themselves work in darkness. 
 Hang the furs in a very dark closet, and keep the door shut ; keep 
 tt always dark and you can have no trouble.- But, as closet doors 
 are sometimes left open, the better way is to enclose the articles 
 loosely in a paper box ; put this in a pillow case, or wrap around 
 with cloth, and hang up in a dark closet. Camphor, spices, or 
 perfumes are of no use ; continual darkness is sufflcierit. And do 
 not take out the furs in June or July to give them an "airing," 
 for even then cometh the enemy, and it may be that in fifteen min- 
 utes after exposure it has deposited a hundred eggs. If you con- 
 44 
 
724: HOW TO MAKE THE PABM PAT. 
 
 sider an airing indispensable, give the furs a good switching and 
 put them quickly back. — Country Gentleman. 
 
 How TO Wash ruRNiTtrRE. — Mahogany may be washed in very 
 weak suds made of hard soap, and immediately rinsed and rubbed 
 dry with a clean cloth. Some think water must never touch fur- 
 niture, but once or twice a year ; this method may be used to ad- 
 vantage ; it makes the articles look as if newly varnished. White 
 spots made by heat, on varnished furniture, may be removed by 
 rubbing with a flannel cloth saturated with coal oil. I have often 
 done so with perfect success. It is much easier than the old hot 
 paper plan. 
 
 How TO Wash White Paint. — As little soap as possible should 
 be used with this» and that in the water and not on the cloth. It 
 not only makes the paint yellow, but, after a little while, removes 
 it altogether. A friend of mine, noted as a housekeeper, would 
 never allow either sgap or hot water to be used on paint, except 
 in case of grease. Cold water and a scrubbing brush were her 
 weapons of offence in waging a warfare with dirt ; but I should 
 rather pay. for painting once in a while, than expend as much 
 strength and time as such a process requires. However, it gives 
 a very fresh look to paint, and saves soap and fire, if one is in- 
 clined to try it. For greasy spots prefer a little soda (6arbonate) 
 in the first water, to be immediately rinsed off and wiped dry* 
 
 Rust on Dinner Knives. — Cover the steel with sweet oil, well 
 rubbing it on ; let it remain forty-eight hours, and then, using un- 
 slacked lime, finely powdered, rub the knife until all the rust has 
 disappeared. 
 
 How TO Clean Tin. — Never use lye to clean tin ; it will soon 
 spoil it. Make it clean with suds, and rub with whiting, and it 
 will look well, and last longer. 
 
 Cleansing Wool. The Maine Farmer gives the following re- 
 cipe for cleansing wool of gummy matter : — Take one pound of 
 saleratus to twelve pounds of wool, dissolve in water not quite 
 boiling hot, then put in the wool and stir occasionally for one 
 hour ; take it out and squeeze it thoroughly, or, what is better, run 
 through a close wringer, rinse in cold water, and spread on grass 
 ground to dry. This process will remove all dirt from any kind 
 of wool, and make it much better for custom work. 
 
 Restoring Color to Silk. — When the color has been taken from 
 silk by acids, it may be restored by applying to the spot a little 
 hartshorn or sal volatile. 
 
 Cleaning Windows. — If the sash are to be cleaned, it is done 
 with a small brush or soft cloth, as you would any other varnished 
 or painted wood. If you wish to clean the glass by washing in 
 water, have a tub of moderate soapsuds and another of clean water 
 lipside you. Wash the window first in the suds, and then rinse 
 
■ DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FA'MILY RECIPES. 725 
 
 thoroughly in the pure water ; set the windows away to drain and 
 dry without wiping. When dry, rub thoroughly with soft paper, 
 and your window will be faultless. If there are any spots of paint 
 or putty on the glass, put strong soft soap, or soda wet into paste, 
 for a few minutes, to remove it. A mixture of whiskey and water 
 will cleanse glass nicely. Whiting spread on the glass wef and 
 rubbed off when dry, will also clean it well, and is easily practised 
 when you do not wish to take out the sash. 
 
 How TO Wash Graining. — Take clear warm water, a clean white 
 cloth, and wash a small place, and wipe dry with another clean 
 white cloth. Do not wet any more space than you can dry imme- 
 diately with your cloth, as it must not be left to dry in the atmo- 
 sphere. It must be rufcbed dry ; hence the necessity for perfectly 
 clean white cloths. If the paint has been neglected until very 
 much soiled with greasy fingers, or specked with a summer's 
 growth of flies, a very little hard soap may be put in the first 
 water, and then rinsed off with clear water ; but avoid soap if you 
 possibly can. 
 
 Family Glue. — I make my glue in the following way : — Crack 
 up the glue and put in a bottle ; add to it common whiskey ; shake 
 up, cork tight, and in three or four days it can be used. It re- 
 quires no beating ; will keep for almost any length of time, and is 
 at all times ready to use, except in the coldest weather, when it 
 will require warming. It must be kept tight, so that the whiskey 
 will not evaporate. The usual corks or stoppers should not be 
 used. They will become clogged. A tin stopper, covering the 
 bottle, but fitting as closely as possible, must be used. 
 
 Coating for Iron. A mixture of three parts of lard and one of 
 rosin, melted together, is one of the best coatings for all steel or 
 iron implements. The lard makes the rosin soft, while the latter is 
 a sure preventive against rusting. The mixture is good for plows, 
 hoes; axes, and implements, as well as knives and forks packed away. 
 
 Preserving Shingles. An " old farmer" recommends sprink- 
 ling shingle roofs once a year, either in spring or fall, with slacked 
 lime. He also says new shingles can be made to last much longer 
 by soaking them for a few days in thick lime water, well stirred up. 
 
 Tooth Powder. — Powdered chalk, half an ounce ; one drachm 
 of powdered myrrh, the same of orris root, two of powdered bark. 
 Mix all together. This dentifrice is good for both the teeth and 
 the breath. 
 
 A Candle to Bdrn all Night. — When, as in casb of sickness, 
 a dull light is wished, or when matches are mislaid, put finely pow- 
 dered salt on the candle till it reaches the black part of the wick. 
 In this way a mild and steady light may be kept through the night 
 by a small piece of candle. 
 
 How TO MAKE Good Butter. — Good butter requires cleanli- 
 ness to the highest degree. One drop of water in a pan of milk 
 
726 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 causes fermentation. It also requires intelligence. The cream 
 must be removed at just such a period of the fermentation of the 
 milk. If taken too soon, before the milk has clabbered, it has a 
 bitter taste ; if allowed to stand until spots form upon it, it loses 
 its sweet flavor; if left until it whej's, it is nearly worthless. So 
 it requires a practised eye to skim it at the exact moment, to re- 
 tain all its sweetness and flavor. A dairy containing three cows 
 •fhould have its milk skimmed morning, noon, and night. 
 
 A stone pot is the best receptacle for the cream, as tin is not 
 easily kept sweet. Everjr time fresh cream is added, stir the 
 whole contents from the bottom. Put a large tablespoonful of salt 
 into the first cream that goes into the pot, and mixing it daily 
 tends to keep it all from moulding. If possible churn twice a 
 week. Churn early in the morning before the kitchen Are is 
 lighted, or, if this is inconvenient, churn down cellar, so that the 
 cream will not become too warm. Cream should be at a tempera- 
 ture below sixty degrees when put into the churn, as beating it 
 always increases its temperature. In the end much time and 
 labor is saved by purchasing a small thermometer, on purpose to 
 test your cream : flfty-six or' flfty-eight degrees to commence with 
 will bring your butter in fifteen minutes. 
 
 Butter making in our familj"^ is a most easy process. Three 
 cows are kept. The butter never fails to come in fifteen, often i;j 
 ten minutes. Churn, cream jar, and pans are all washed before 
 breakfast; and the butter worked over and salted. There is a 
 great dispute with good butter makers upon the question of wash- 
 ing butter in water. I think that water washes out the sugar of 
 milk, which supplies all the sweetness of the butter ;. without it 
 the butter is tasteless. So I use large lumps of ice which do not 
 melt easily. As soon as the butter is thoroughly separated from 
 the buttermilk, reverse the crank, and draw on all the milk, turn- 
 ing the crank slowly ; work it in this way twenty minutes, and 
 the labor of working out the buttermilk is much expedited. Then 
 put in small pieces of ice, which quickly hardens the butter, so it 
 is easily removed from the churn. Have large pieces of ice in the 
 butter-bowl, lay the butter on them, and allow it to remain Until 
 cold enough to work without sticking to the hands. Scald the 
 butter-paddle, then put it on the ice for a while, and work the but- 
 ter thoroughly with it. Work the butter until the little water 
 melted from the ice runs clear ; then add salt to suit the taste. A 
 tablespoonful heaping full of salt to each pound is a good rule ; 
 but tastes difler. 
 
 For keeping butter one year sweet and good, take two pounds 
 best Ashton dairy salt, one pound of white granulated sugar, one 
 pound of saltpetre finely powdered, sifted through a muslin sieve. 
 Mix all these well together, keep in a jar, and put one and a half 
 large tablespoonfuls to one pound of butter ; mix this well with 
 the butter, and it will keep perfectly There is nothing deleteri- 
 
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND FAMILY BECIPES. 727 
 
 ous in this compound. The saltpetre is in too small quantities to 
 prove injurious ; but it prevents the butter from turning rancid. 
 While the sugar supplies the required sweetness, the salt retains 
 its flavor, and the result is the best of butter the following May. 
 
 In the summer season, if it is wished to keep butter perfectly 
 sweet and fresh, make it in balls, print them both sides, (if large,) 
 then put a layer hardened in ice into the butter crock, place over 
 it a clean cloth, dipped in ice water ; then another layer of butter 
 cakes, aiiother cloth wet in ice — so on until the crock is filled. 
 Make a brine of two quarts of water, two pounds of Ashton salt, 
 one pound of granulated sugar, one pound of saltpetre ; dissolve, 
 and strain it through a cloth to remove all impurities. Fill the 
 crock to the brim, put a plate over the upper cloth, and a very 
 clean stone on the plate. Then cover tight, and the butter will 
 be as good in six weeks or two months as the first day. Indeed, 
 if not used daily it will keep till next August. If you do not fill 
 the crock the first time, pour off all your brine, put anot^her layer 
 of cakes, another of cloth, until filled, then strain the brine 
 through a sieve into the crock. It must be kept filled, or moist- 
 ure and mould would gather on the sides. The advantage of the 
 cloth layer is, that each layer of cakes is kept from the air, and 
 not disturbed until the upper layer is removed. Prepare the 
 brine, keep it in a stone jar, — be sure to keep the plate, with a 
 stone for weight, on top of it, — and your butter will keep sweet 
 for weeks. The brine will not need renewing for a long time ; 
 when it does, boil it, and skirn, and it is again ready for use. 
 Large bunches of sweet clover tied up and laid upon the milk 
 shelves, or hung in the windows of thedairy, take away any musti- 
 ness, and give a very sweet odor to the place. 
 
 To put down butter in firkins, be sure to select hard wood 
 firkins, then soak in sour milk or strong brine for several days. 
 When one is to be used, rub it well with fine salt all about the 
 inside of it, and scatter salt on the bottom before putting in the 
 first layer. Then pound it down well, — some use a pestle to pack 
 it tightly, — if little crevices are left the butter will not keep as 
 well. If you cannot fill your firkin at once, fill it to the brim 
 with strong brine, pouring it off when more butter is added, and 
 filling up again, unless the butter fills the firkin. Put a cloth 
 tightly over it, scatter salt over the cloth, and pour on brine. If 
 salted with the saltpetre compound, your butter is good for one 
 year. 
 
 If in winter, when the cows feed chiefly on hay, a little coloring 
 is needed to take away the tallowy look of the butter, carrots will 
 impart it, and they are sweet delicious food. Take two large 
 sized carrots, clean thoroughly, then with a knife scrape off the 
 yellow exterior, leaving the white pith, soak the yellow part in 
 boiling milk for ten or fifteen minutes. Strain boiling hot into 
 
728 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 tjie cream ; this gives the cream the desired temperature, colors it 
 nicely, and adds to the sweetness of the butter. 
 
 Packing Butter in the Summer. — A Vermont butter-maker 
 writes to the New York Farmers' Club, concerning packing butter 
 to keep : Pack it in well soaked tubs or firkins ; put a little damp 
 salt in the bottom and place it in a cool dry cellar, on a bench of 
 wood eighteen inches from the cellar bottom and the same from 
 the wall. Stone or earthenware does not keep butter well, as the 
 moisture from the surrounding atmosphere in warm weather, con- 
 denses on such vessels and soon effects the butter. Put no salt 
 on or between the layers. Fill to within half an inch of the top. 
 Place a clean wet cloth over the butter, pack the edges down with 
 a knife, and then spread thinly wet salt over the cloth. Having 
 made and dealt in butter for some time, I can say the above mode 
 of packing and keeping butter will be useful to many, and cause a 
 smile of delight to the buyer. 
 
 To Deodorize Milk. — It frequently occurs in the Spring, when 
 the farmers are feeding their cows upon ruta-bagas, or turnips, 
 that the milk becomes so strongly impregnated by their disagreea- 
 ble taste and odor as to be unfit for butter making. To obviate 
 this, put a pinch of finely powdered saltpeter into every gallon of 
 cream. A little saltpeter worked into butter that has become 
 sour, or rancid, will render it sweet and palatable. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 THE FAM IL Y P H YS ICIAN. 
 
 I ISB ASE comes alike to all, and many friendly forms are 
 hurried away, tliat with the knowledge of some simple 
 remedies might have been spared to us. 
 
 When first attacked by disease, some simple remedy will 
 accomplish what a few hours later the most powerful medi- 
 cine will fail to effect. 
 
 The treatment therefore prescribed in this chapter will be first, 
 preventive, or such as shall tend to prevent attacks of di8ea,se ; 
 second, arrestive, or such as shall arrest disease in its first stages ; 
 and lastly, curative. 
 
 We consider the first the most important of all. The preven- 
 tion of disease should be the study of the parent and the teacher, 
 as the cure of the disease is the stud.y of the physician. 
 
 The foundations of disease are often laid in infancy, and with 
 infancy we shall commence our instructions. The care of the 
 infant is the loving task of the mother, and we are therefore sure 
 that we have only to show what is the right course to be pursued 
 and.it will be joyfully taken. 
 
 The mother is willing to sacrifice any thing or everything for 
 her children, and yet few mothers take the time and trouble to 
 study the causes, nature and treatment of the simple diseases of 
 infancy and childhood. It is the testimony of every physician 
 with whom we have met that tens of thousands of little ones are 
 lost through the ignorance of the mothers ; mothers, too many of 
 them, who were accomplished in music, languages, literature, and 
 the teachings of the schools, but ignorant in that highest and 
 most sacred trust ever imposed upon woman, the care of children. 
 And it is not so difficult a thing as may be supposed ; there is no 
 unfathomable mystery about the little form, but the laws of its 
 life and well being are so plain that every woman of ordinary in- 
 telligence may master them by a few hours' careful study each 
 week. 
 
 " The young mother falls into that very natural and frequent 
 error of supposing that the first sign of discomfort that a babe 
 
 729 
 
730 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 exhibits, the first wail that comes from the darkened, chamber, is 
 an indication of hunger, and crams the little stomach with food 
 not supplied by nature. Does she in this commit'the simple error 
 of over feeding the child ? Par graver is the mistake. "Within 
 the first three days' when the infant requires scarce any thing 
 but sleep and quiet, she may lay the foundation for an infancy 
 tormented bj' • colic and a mature life cursed with dyspepsia. 
 Every physician who has been much in families will testify that 
 where one has during these first days of life suffered for lack of 
 nourishment, ten have been injured by over feeding." — Lyman's 
 Philosophy. 
 
 Dr. King's twenty-five rules are very simple, minute, and the 
 result of a life-long practice. We therefore introduce them here 
 with very little modification : — 
 
 1. Let the child be put to the breast, if the mother is able to bear 
 the fatigue ; but if it cannot procure any milk it should be with- 
 drawn, and fed very sparingly upon a thin infusion of slippery 
 elm, until milk can be had from the breasts. 
 
 2. Let no mother refuse to nurse her own child, unless the 
 reasons for doing so are insurmountable. 
 
 3. Never permit the babe to be fed so long as you can suppl'y it 
 sufficient nourishment from your own breasts, and to secure this 
 ;point you should pay constant attention to your diet, airing, and 
 exercise. 
 
 4. Dress the neck and arms of the child in fiannel, and make 
 all its clothing subservient to health and comfort, rather than 
 to fashion. 
 
 5. The belly-band is the most important part of the child's dress, 
 and should always be of flannel, cut bias, and tight enough not to 
 compress the stomach. 
 
 6. Protect the child carefully against all unnecessary wet, and 
 when it is discovered to be in this condition, it should be changed 
 as quickly as possible ; and it is desirable that the diaper should 
 be not simply dried, but washed and dried before it is applied 
 again. 
 
 t. Use as few pins as possible. 
 
 8. Exercise in the open air as soon as your health and the 
 weather will permit. 
 
 9. Never subject yourself to partial exposures, but remain in- 
 doors until you can go out or be taken out of the house. 
 
 10. Confine your diet to such things as do not affect you un- 
 favorably, — for when any kind of food perfectly agrees with you, 
 if will seldom or never disagree with your babe. 
 
 11. As soon as you find any articles to disagree with you, stop 
 using them at once, as whatever disagrees with you will surely 
 disagree with your child. 
 
 12. The child in health should sleep in a bed or crib by itself, 
 during the night. 
 
THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 731 
 
 13. In case of illness of the mother, or a failure of the breast 
 milk, feed the child from a bottle rather than a spoon. 
 
 14. To give, Uniform distention to the stomach, and thus to 
 obviate indigestion and gripes, keep the infant in as nearly an up- 
 right position as possible while feeding either from the breast or 
 bottle. 
 
 15. Take the child from the breast frequently while sucking, 
 holding it away for a minute or two. 
 
 16. Expose the child as early as possible to the fresh air ; if 
 properly clothed in flannels the air will only do good. 
 
 17. Do not keep the room at an excessive heat, and then take 
 the infant from it into cold air, but let the air blow freely into an 
 adjoining room, then close it up and take the babe into it. 
 
 18. Wash a strong child in cool water, and a weak one in tepid 
 water. 
 
 19. Keep the child perfectly clean, and as quiet as possible. 
 
 20. Never make the infant laugh heartily. It is very pretty to 
 see the baby laugh and hear its giggle, but it is also dangerous. 
 
 21. Place the infant on its right side when asleep. 
 
 22. Rub a young child all over night and morning with the 
 hand, to promote the circulation. 
 
 23. Encourage the child to stretch, and thrust out its limbs, 
 and to crawl about, thus promoting the circulation and strength. 
 
 24. When the child is in good health, and has cut four teeth, 
 wean it at nine months old, but if after weaning it should be 
 attacked with any serious disease, it may require the breast again. 
 
 25. Avoid frights, tight bandages, patent medicines, frequent 
 feeding in the night, close air, and sudden changes. 
 
 Teething is usually accompanied by more or less inflammation 
 and other troubles. If the bowels are closed, give a little castor 
 oil. Let the diet be lessened and diluted ; if the child is sucking, 
 the mother should take little beside liquids, gruels, etc. If the 
 gums are red, swollen, and painful, lance them. The cut will 
 soon heal, and will in thousands of cases prevent convulsions or 
 other serious consequences. Difficulty in passing water at any 
 time may be overcome by flaxseed tea. For sore eyes, use a 
 wash made of equal parts of slippery elm and peach leaves. 
 
 Thrush. — The symptoms of this disease are, white specks upon 
 the tongue and lips, with dribbling of saliva, hot mouth, disa- 
 greeable breath, etc. These -specks increase, fall off', and show 
 ulcers. The pain often prevents sucking, the child grows emaci- 
 ated, and of course fretful. Wash the mouth with a decoction of 
 golden seal, sweetened with honey, and sprinkled with powdered 
 alum. If the golden seal is not at hand give sage instead. If the 
 bowels are loose give Prescription No. 1. For chafing, wash the 
 parts with Castile soap and dust with powdered starch or 
 slippery elm flour. For stoppages of the nose, rub some animal 
 oD about the roots of the nose. 
 
782 HOW TO MAKE THE FABM PAT. 
 
 Convulsions or Fits. — When the child is in a fit, unfasten the 
 clothes, raise the head, and do not let it lean back or fall forward.; 
 give fi-esh air, rub the body with the hand, place the child in a 
 warm bath, at the same time applying cloths wet in cool water to 
 the head and face. Give an injection of molasses and warm 
 water ; repeat this injection several times at intervals of fifteen 
 minutes. Every family should have a syringe. Elastic syringes 
 are the best, and cost not over one dollar and fifty cents. 
 
 Worms. — The certain evidences of the presence of worms in 
 children are, paleness, itching of the nose, starting and grinding 
 of the teeth during sleep, irregular appetite, fetid breath, hard 
 swelled belly, swollen upper lip, sore mouth and nose, one cheek 
 flushed, itching of the anus, drowsiness, and nervous starts. The 
 treatment should be both to remove the wortns and give vigor to 
 the stomach. The best remedy to have always on- hand is pre- 
 pared as follows : — Take of fresh black alderberries one pint, cedar 
 or juniper apples (recent) one pound, bruise them, and soak in a 
 quart of alcohol for fourteen days, then strain and add one pint 
 of molasses. Give a teaspoonful three times a day to children 
 upwards of one year old. As soon as purging is accomplished, 
 reduce the dose, and continue for two or three weeks as a tonic. 
 
 Summer Complaints are best treated hy "Prescription No, 1 ; 
 but often nothing has been provided beforehand, and this neg- 
 ligence renders other expedients necessary. Pain in the stomach 
 and bowels is evidence of the possibility of some severe attack, 
 and something had best be given the sufferer. Ginger is always 
 at hand. Pour half a pint of boiling water upon two tablespoon- 
 fuls of ginger ; add sugar and milk, and let the patient drink it 
 hot. Or two tablespoonfuls of gin may have a tumblerful of hot 
 water and a little sugar mixed with it. At the same time flannels 
 wrung out in hot water and laid over the stomach and bowels 
 will assist in the relief. The trouble with us as a people is that 
 we let all slight affections go, and think we cannot spend time to 
 be doctored for a cold, a colic, or a diarrhoea. By this foolish 
 course many valuable lives are lost, many hours 'of pain and 
 wretchedness are endured, and injured constitutions and impaired 
 powers are the result. We therefore rank arresfive treatment 
 as next in importance to preventive. To arrest the progress of 
 disease in its first stages is wisdom. A diarrhoea is readily ar- 
 rested in its first stage by a few doses of " chalk mixture," to be 
 obtained of any druggist, or even by a dose of ginger and molasses, 
 but if left to run on, it may soon become dysenterj' and death. 
 The diet should be reduced at once when cholera morbus, colic, 
 or diarrhoea are present. I'ake some simple remedy to check the 
 disorder, reduce the diet sufficient to give the stomach an oppor- 
 tunity to recover, and the .chances are as nine hundred and ninety- 
 nine to one that you will be saved further trouble. Cherry brandy 
 
THE FAMILY PHTSICIAN. 783 
 
 and all decoctions of the black cherry, and also of the blackberry 
 are good in summer complaints. When there is a constant griping 
 in diarrhoea, an injection is better than physic. Make an injec- 
 tion of a tablespoonful of castor oil, two of molasses, and a pint 
 of warm water. 
 
 Infantile Remittent Fever is distinguished by its appearance 
 at night and disappearance during the day. Give the child a little 
 rhubarb and magnesia, bathe the skin in warm water, keep the feet 
 warm and the head cool, and for a regular drink give an infusion 
 of slippery elm and peach leaves. Roast onions for a foot draught 
 is usually better than any other, and always readily obtained. 
 Prescription No. 1 should be given, if the bowels are very much 
 out of order. Give catnip tea when the fever is on, and apply 
 onion poultices to the pit of the stomach for vomiting, giving also 
 parched corn or oatmeal coffee. 
 
 Scarlet Fever/ or ^'Canker Bash," is one of the most fatal of 
 all children's diseases, and all symptoms should be carefully 
 watched, so that the most prompt action can be taken on its first 
 appearance. The mother who gives over the care of her children 
 to another may have this disease in full force before she is aware 
 of it. "It commences with chilliness succeeded by heat, quick 
 pulse, languor, thirst, more or less headache, redness of the eyes, 
 and sore throat, with some difficulty of swallowing. In two or 
 three days numerous specks or patches of a fiery red color appear 
 about the face and neck ; within twenty-four hours this red erup- 
 tion extends over the whole body. In about four days a gentle 
 moisture appears on the skin ; the eruption gradually disappears, 
 and the scales fall off. But often the above symptoms are more 
 violent, and vomiting, pains in the back, wildness, ulcers in the 
 throat, and difficult breathing accompany them. The first thing 
 to be done, when the spmptoms are plainly discovered, is to give 
 an emetic. The eruption cannot be mistaken for measles, on ac- 
 . count of its fiery color. For an emetic for children, we consider 
 nothing equal to Prescription No. 2. A mixture of the sirup of 
 ipecac and the sirup of squills is also effective ; but, if these are 
 not at hand, boneset tea, thoroughwort tea, or any herb tea that 
 will produce nausea and vomiting, should be resorted to at once. 
 The next step is to produce a profuse perspiration. Sometimes 
 the hot drinks given for an emetic will accomplish this ; if not, 
 give sage or catnip tea, or any warm drink that will force out the 
 perspiration. Hot water to the feet, sides, etc., will assist in pro- 
 curing perspiration. After it is secured, and while the patient is 
 still sweating, give a cathartic, — castor oil, senna, mandrake, or 
 any other cathartic, if these are not to be obtained. If these reme- 
 dies do not break up the fevec, they must be repeated the next day. 
 For the sore throat in scarlet fever, use sweet oil and camphor in 
 equal parts, bathing the throat with it three or four times a day. 
 
734 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 wrapping the throat in flannels wrung out in hot water after bath- 
 ing it. The room should be frequently purified with chloride of 
 lime, by turning on a little vinegar. Scarlet fever is infectious, 
 and children should be kept away from the sick-room. 
 
 Measles. — Symptoms. Chills, fever, and other fever symptoms ; 
 quick breathing, hoarseness, dry cough, flushed face, eyes red and 
 watery, sneezing and discharge from the nose. In three or four 
 days red spots appear, usually on the head first, and extend over 
 the body. Give an emetic', and a constant drink of slippery elm 
 tea and honej'. If the eruption does not appear within the time 
 specified, give a gin or whiskey toddy, and apply mustard poultices 
 over the abdomen, feet, ankles, and wrists. If the bowels are 
 very costive, give a mild warm injection of Castile soapsuds, or 
 molasses and water. When there is tightness across the chest, 
 which the slippery elm and honey do not relieve, apply a mustard 
 poultice to the whole chest. Great care must be exercised in regu- 
 lating the diet and preventing exposure until a cure is perfected, 
 for a relapse is attended with great danger. 
 
 Lung Fever. — Symptoms. The usual symptoms of fever, with 
 pains in the chest, constant difficulty in breathing, distressed 
 cough, swollen cheek or lips, etc. Give an emetic, and, if neces- 
 sary, repeat it the second and third diiy. Bathe the bod^- with 
 warm water several times a day. Apply hops to the chest and 
 mustard to the feet ; or, in the case of infants, apply onion poul- 
 tices to the feet, back, and breast. A constant drink of slippery 
 elm or liquorice tea must be given. In severe cases Dr. King 
 recommends the following : Slippery elm, two ounces ; lobelia 
 leaves, one ounce ; bloodroot, two teaspoonfuls. Add to these 
 one quart of boiling water, cover tightly, and allow it to keep for 
 an hour. When cold, strain it and sweeten with honey or mo- 
 lasses. Give a teaspoonful every hour or two. Keep the bowels 
 open. 
 
 Croup is one of the most dangerous of the diseases of early 
 childhood ; and its appearance is usuallj'^ first indicated by the 
 child suddenly waking from sleep with a hoarse, metallic cough, 
 followed by a hissing sound as he draws in his breath. The voice 
 is hoarse, often reduced to a hoarse whisper ; there is a sense of 
 distress in the throat, the child struggles for breath, the head is 
 thrown back, and the hand often put to the throat as if to remove 
 the obstruction. Prompt action is required, as death is the sure 
 termination of the disease, unless checked. Give Prescription 
 A'o. 2 every few minutes, until the child vomits freely. If you 
 have not this prescription at hand, give some other emetic without 
 delay, — sirup of ipecac, onion sirup, almost any thing that will 
 produce instant vomiting. At the same time apply cloths wrung 
 out in hot water to the throat and u'pper part of the chest, renew- 
 ing them before they cool. As soon as the breathing is easier. 
 
TH£ FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 735 
 
 smear a piece of muslin with lard, sprinkle it with snuff, and keep 
 It on the throat and upper part of the chest until all the symptoms 
 are removed, changing it two or three times a day. Keep up an 
 expectoration by giving goose oil on sugar. During an attack of 
 croup a child may be put into a warm bath and kept in it ten or 
 fifteen minutes. Keep the feet and body warm. Through the day 
 let the drink be flaxseed tea, or slippery elm tea, and with a little 
 lemon juice in it. Keep the bowels open. Have every thing ready 
 for an attack the second night, and proceed upon the first symp- 
 toms of its return as directed above. 
 
 Hooping Cough. — Give an emetic, the Prescription No. 2, if pos- 
 sible ; keep the bowels open ; put a plaster between the shoulders. 
 Let the child go out in pleasant weather, during the warm part of 
 the day, and exercise moderately. Let the diet be the most nutri- 
 tious that can be easilj' digested, — boiled chicken, chicken broth, 
 beef tea, etc. Let the sleeping room be ventilated in some way 
 without the air blowing on the bed. If possible, remove the child 
 to some other vicinity, as a change of air often effects a cure with- 
 out other means. 
 
 " The most frequent of all the complaints which the housewife or 
 mother is called upon to relieve is a cold. This affection, if taken 
 in time, can be cured with very little trouble and the most simple 
 medicines ; neglected and allowed to fasten upon any important 
 organ of the body, the most disastrous results ensue. 
 
 " Colds are caused by a check to the insensible perspiration ; 
 therefore the first thing to be done is to restore perspiration." 
 (Here let us caution all our readers against taking cold. We quote 
 from the "American Family Physician.'''') "Gold is undoubtedly 
 the most common cause of disease. To experience the injurious 
 consequences of cold does not require that one should remain in a 
 cold atmosphere until chilled through ; it is equally pernicious to 
 pass suddenly from a very warm apartment to a cold one, espe- 
 cially if the former be dry and the latter damp; to stand for a time, 
 upon a cold pavement or floor, or upon snow or ice, until the feet 
 become cold ; to remain standing in a cold, damp place for a long 
 time ; to remove the coat or vest when in profuse perspiration, 
 even in midsummer, or in winter to toast the feet by a warm fire 
 and then to get into a cold bed." 
 
 One seldom takes cold while in active exercise, even if thinly 
 clad, in cold weather; but a moment's cessation may produce that 
 result. One is not as likely to take cold if the whole person is 
 exposed at once to the cold atmosphere, as when, through some 
 open door, raised window, or insidious crack, a draft comes which 
 cools only one portion of the body. Children take cold by being 
 taken from the chair, crib, or bed and placed on the floor. There 
 is always a cooler current of air near the floor. Young girls lay 
 the foundation of most terrible sufferings, and often death, by ex- 
 posing themselves during the menstrual period. We urge upon 
 
736 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 mothers that, putting aside all objections, they fully instruct theii 
 young daughters as to the^ dangers from cold feet, wet feet, cold 
 baths, and cold draughts at this time. Flannel under garments 
 prove the best possible protection against the evil consequences 
 of the sudden changes we have referred to. When the first symp- 
 toms of a cold are discovered resort may be had to some active 
 and long continued exercise, or the feet may be soaked in warm 
 water, warm herb drinks taken, wet cloths applied to the body, and 
 perspiration thus produced. The two points ,upon which we insist 
 are, that perspiration shall be produced, and that, after having 
 been thus sweated, the patient shall remain for at least twenty-four 
 hours in an even temperature. To " take a sweat" at night and go 
 about one's business in the morning is usually a hazardous pro- 
 ceeding. One would think we might spend at least one day in 
 curing a cold, for, if it be the first day, one will be amply sufficient. 
 We can point to the cases of those who thought they would wait 
 till Sunday, but when Sunday came were beyond the reach of 
 earthly aid, and say. Beware ! 
 
 Fevers. — Symptoms. The general symptoms of all fevers are 
 pretty nearly the same, though they may vary in severity ; . they 
 may be named in the following order : — 
 
 1. Languor or dullness ; perhaps a dull headache and unplea- 
 sant dreams. 
 
 2. Chills more or less severe, with more or less tliirst, small 
 pulse and quick breathing. 
 
 3. White coat on the tongue ; perhaps nausea or vomiting. 4. 
 Fever or quick pulse, with increased heat of the body. 5. 'I'hirst. 
 6. Tongue coated brown or black. T. Bowels costive, urine di- 
 minished and high colored. 
 
 Treatment. As a general rule, all fevers may be successfully 
 treated alike in their diflerent stages. By the following treatment, 
 if promptly and energetically used, nearly all cases of fever will 
 he broken up at their commencement, and the further services of 
 the physician will not be required. 
 
 The first thing to be done is to give an emetic. We have men- 
 tioned several on previous pages. Continue the doses until vom- 
 iting is secured. It will frequently occur that this alone will 
 break up the fever, the pulse will become natural and the skin 
 moist. If not then, resort must be had to profuse sweating, for 
 which also we have given directions ; any one of the warm drinks 
 named with warm wrappings, hot bricks, bottles of water, etc., 
 will bring out the perspiration. As soon as the sweatipg is pro- 
 fuse give Prescription No. 3, or some other cathartic, if this 
 IS not at hand. Senna, castor oil, mandrake, and many other 
 articles may be used to move the bowels. Repeat the dose oncfc 
 m three hours until an operation is secured. Every thing has now 
 been done that is likely to be of service, and the fever is usually 
 
THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 737, 
 
 broken off, but if not, the same course must be pursued the next 
 day. 
 
 Fever and Ague, treated as above, will yield in its first stages, 
 but if long continued. Prescription No. 4 must be given between 
 the sweat and the next chill. Take also the following tonic. 
 To half a pint of strong coffee add two tablespoonfuls of lemon 
 juice and half a gill of good brandy or whiskey. Drink this when 
 the' chill is about to come on; or wild cherry bark one ounce, 
 inner bark of white oak one ounce, fresh horseradish root one 
 ounce, seneca snake root one ounce ; add cinnamon, cloves, and 
 sulphur, each one half an ounce, good cider two quarts ; steep for 
 three hours. Dose when cold a wine glass full three times a day. 
 
 Typhus Fever requires the same treatment as prescribed for 
 fevers in general, the only additional directions being that the 
 bowels be kept regular by mild injections. Only one operation 
 daily is desirable. Give a tonic as follows : Take an ounce each 
 of white oak bark, chamomile flowers, boneset leaves, and scullap 
 leaves ; turn on them a quart of water, boil twenty minutes ; add 
 a pint of vinegar, and sweeten to the taste, allowing the patient 
 to drink freely of it. Buttermilk is a harmless and refreshing 
 drink in this disease. 
 
 Typhoid Fever is treated the .same as the above. 
 
 Brain Fever. — The peculiar symptoms of brain fever whioh 
 distinguish it from other fevers are, confusion of ideas, pain, full- 
 ness and heat in the head, redness of the face and ej^es, light and 
 noise distressing, ringing in the ears, delirium, etc. No delay is 
 admissible when these symptoms are discovered, but a dose of 
 cathartic medicine should be given at once, the patient bathed in 
 warm water, and a perspiration induced. Keep the head cool by 
 healing lotions-, cloths wet in cold water, or vinegar and water, 
 changing them often. Applj"^ mustard poultices to the feet and 
 ankles, and along the lower part of the back bone. Keep the 
 room dark and quiet, no visitors being allowed. 
 
 Infiammation of the Eyes, Weak Eyes, etc., will be relieved 
 the application of the eye wash described on page 336. 
 
 Quinsy Sore Throat. — Symptoms. Flashes of chills and heat, 
 diflSculty in swallowing and breathing, hoarse voice, swelling of 
 the throat and almonds of the ears, swellings in the throat, which 
 burst and discharge. 
 
 Treatment. As soon as the disease shows itself give an emetic ; 
 after it has operated give a cathartic. In severe attacks sweat the 
 patient. Steep some bitter herbs in equal parts, vinegar and 
 water, and allow the patient to inhale the vapor. Take equal 
 parts of hops, mullen leaves, and Saint John's wort leaves, steep 
 them in vinegar and water ; to every quart of the decoction add 
 two tablespoonfuls of salt. Let the patient inhale the vapor from 
 this decoction, apply the herbs as a poultice to the throat, and 
 
738 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 give a tablespoonful of the decoction every two hours. Let the 
 patient drink freely of buttermilk, vinegar and water, lemonade, 
 or orange juice. After the tumors burst gargle the throat with a 
 tea of sage and hyssop sweetened with honey. 
 
 Bronchitis is accompanied by chilliness and fever, a hard, dry, 
 painful cough, pain and soreness at the upper part of the breast 
 bone, more or less raising of phlegm, and pain across the brow, in- 
 creased by coughing. The treatment is the same as for fevers, in 
 addition to which give Prescription No. 5, to relieve the cough 
 Keep the patient warm and on a light diet. A drink of 
 flaxseed or slippery elm tea, with the addition of lemon juice or 
 vinegar is beneficial. 
 
 Catarrh. Influenza. — Symptoms. Sneezing ; weight and pain 
 in the head, especially the forehead ; difficult breathing ; stopping 
 of the nose, and a feeling of pressure at the base of the nose ; eyes 
 red and watery ; sore throat, dry cough, aching limbs, JFever, 
 phlegm and discharges from the nose and eyes. Keep warm, 
 dry, and quiet. Soak the feet daily in warm water, drink warm 
 lemonade, spearmint tea, etc. Reduce your diet to warm gruels, 
 and pursue this course until cured. You may thus escape per- 
 haps those fatal diseases of the throat and lungs which carry so 
 many thousands to their graves. Persons subject to colds and 
 catarrh should bathe the throat and neck, and create a friction by 
 the use of a brush or crash towel, sponging the whole body with 
 salt and water. 
 
 Diseases op the Lungs are the result of neglected colds, 
 catarrh or bronchial, difficulties, and it is a part of wisdom, espe- 
 cially with those who inherit any tendency to consumption, to at- 
 tend scrupulously to any affections of the throat. Of late years 
 we have concluded that medicines poured into the stomach for the 
 healing of the lungs are seldom of any benefit. Pure codliver oil 
 may sometimes be of temporary service ; but modern medical 
 science treats the lungs by inhalation. Of course whatever is in- 
 haled goes directly to the lungs, the seat of the disease. Medi- 
 cated vapors of various kinds are superseding the use of drugs in 
 diseases of the lungs. Among the best of these remedial agents 
 we place that known as " oxygenized air." Oxygen being the food 
 of the lungs, a large proportion of it is inhaled, and the effects in 
 all throat and lung difflulties are speedy and favorable. The 
 writer having both seen and experienced its good effects, confi- 
 dently holds it up to inspire the hopes of those who feelconsump- 
 tion fastening itself upon their systems. OflSces where this " oxy- 
 genized air " is administered have been established in all the 
 larger cities, and we trust will be speedily extended to every town, 
 village, and borough. 
 
 Diphtheria. — Symptoms. Intermittent fever ; sore throat ; de- 
 pression; difficult breathing; tonsils and other parts of the 
 
THE FAMILY PgYSlOIAK. 739 
 
 throat swollen and covered with a white coating ; urine abundant ; 
 bowels constipated at first, followed by diarrheoea. 
 
 Treatment. An even temperature, a well ventilated room, and 
 the most perfect quiet are desirable. If the patient be in full 
 strength when attacked, first give an emetic, but if weak this 
 must be omitted. Move the bowels lightly with mild cathartics. 
 Cleanse the throat and apply nitrate of silver to all the swollen 
 parts in the throat. One drachm of nitrate of silver in an ounce 
 of water is the proper proportion. Apply the solution every day. 
 Sprinkle in the throat often the following mixture one table- 
 spoonful each of salt and vinegar, mixed with a teaspoonful of 
 boiling water; this may also be injected up the nostrils when 
 they are getting filled up. Feed the patient the most 'nourishing 
 drinks as beef or mutton tea, eggs and wine, wine whey, ale, boiled 
 milk, etc. 
 
 Pleurisy. — Symptoms. Ordinary fevei symptoms ; pinching 
 pain on one side, increased by breathing, wnich makes the person 
 breathe quick and short ; often a dry, hacking cough. Sweat the 
 patient profusely, then keep the affected side covered with a hot 
 fomentation of bitter herbs, changing them as soon as they get 
 tepid. Boneset, tansy, catnip, hops, wormwood, hoarhound, or 
 Saint John's wort may be used as they can be procured. Great 
 care should be taken for several days to guard against exposure. 
 If after the sweat pain and difficulty of breathing remain, give an 
 emetic, followed by a cathartic. If the cough remains, give an ex- 
 pectorant of wild cherry and bloodroot, or Prescription No.%. 
 
 Inflammation op the Stomach. — Gastritis. — Symptoms burn 
 ing pain at the pit of the stomach, increased by pressure or by 
 swallowing; nausea and frequent vomiting, thirst, fever, dejection, 
 prostration, and costiveness. Apply mustard poultices to the 
 feet, the pit of the stomach, and along the whole course ot the 
 back bone. When these have produced redness without blister- 
 ing remove them, and apply to the pit of the stomach hot fomen- 
 tations of bitter herbs, hops, and lobelia leaves, or hops and jimson 
 leaves, changing them before they become cool. In addition to 
 this, if the symptoms should still continue severe, bathe the whole 
 body in weak lye-water, drying with considerable friction. If the 
 bowels are constipated, inject molasses and water, or boneset and 
 molasses ; but never give "physic. Let the patient drink freely of 
 gum arable water, or slippery elm and peach leaf tea, or barley 
 water. Quiet, fresh air, and an equal temperature are desirable. 
 As soon as recovery begins give hourly a teaspoonful of French 
 brandy, unless it should prove too stimulating. The diet should 
 be light for some time. 
 
 Inflammation op the Bowels. — Symptoms and treatment same 
 as above, except that the pain is in the bowels, and the poultice 
 must be applied to the bowels instead of to the stomach. Give 
 an injection at once. 
 45 
 
740 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 Dysentery. — Is an inflammation of the lower or large intestines, 
 and the symptoms are different from any other inflammatory dis- 
 ease. Symptoms. Frequent bloody stools with considerable 
 phlegm ; gripings ; bearing down and , a more or less constant 
 desire to stock or strain ; natural excrement in small amount and, 
 when present, in hard, small balls; more or less fever; loss of 
 appetite ; nausea and vomiting ; stools very oflfensive ; urine scanty 
 and high colored ; and great prostration. 
 
 Treatment. In nine cases out of ten dysentery can be cured 
 by injecting a quart of warm water into the bowels, and, as soon as 
 this has passed, immediately injecting again a solution of twenty 
 grains of nitrate of silver to one ounce of water. This course 
 should be repeated immediately after every operation from the 
 bowels ; three or four injections generally effect a cure. If the 
 pain and inflammation are severe apply mustard poultices and hot 
 fomentations, as directed for inflammation of the stomach. 
 
 Injections of slippery elm tea and laudanum, two tablespoonfuls 
 of the former to half a teaspoonful of the latter, should be given, if 
 the nitrate of silver is not at hand, or flaxseed may be used in 
 place of slippery elm. Slippery elm tea flavored with cinnamon 
 may be given for a drink. The juice of ripe fruits, cherries, or 
 blackberries is beneflcial. Dysentery may be cured by taking 
 moderate exercise daily, keeping the skin clean, using nourishing 
 but easily digested food, (see former Chapter,) keeping the bowels 
 regular, keeping out of the damp night air, and using moderately 
 fresh ripe fruits. 
 
 Inflammatory Rheumatism Symptoms. Fever, severe pain, 
 
 swelling of the joints, shifting pains, increased by moving about. 
 The first thing to do is to cause profuse sweating, after which 
 a gentle perspiration should be kept up by the use of warm herb 
 teas. A poultice of bruised jimson leaves or hops and lobelia 
 leaves should be kept on the painful parts. Keep the bowels 
 regular and open by mild injections. 
 
 Apoplexy. — A person struck with apoplexy suddenly falls un- 
 conscious, and breathes slowly and as if snoring. Instantly raise 
 the head ; remove every thing from the neck ; if necessary, remove 
 him to where he will have plenty of fresh air, and while one person 
 pours a stream of cold water upon the head and neck, another 
 should rub salt upon the head and temples. If the patient does 
 not quickly revive under this treatment, whip or rub the soles of 
 the feet so as to produce redness. Give a cathartic injection. 
 
 Sun Stroke should be treated in the same way. Give free 
 fresh air, raise the head, and pour water upon the head and neck. 
 A cloth in the top of the hat, kept wet, is a protection against 
 sun stroke. 
 
 Asthma Phthisic. — Persons subject to asthma should keep on 
 hand jimson leaves which have been soaked in a solution of salt 
 
THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN. 741 
 
 petre and dried. Smoking these in a pipe, and at tho same time 
 toasting the feet at the fire, will almost immediately relieve asth- 
 matic attacks. 
 
 Heartbuen, caused by acidity of the stomach, is relieved by 
 taking a teaspoonful of chalk or saleratus in a tumbler of water. 
 
 Cholera Morbus is usually a sudden attack of griping pains, 
 followed by purging or vomiting, thirst, and heat, succeeded by 
 cold sweat. Apply a mustard poultice over the bowels and the 
 pit of the- stomach. To a tumblerful of water add a teaspoonful 
 of saleratus and twenty drops each of laudanum and spirits of 
 camphor. After a little quiet give a dose of castor oil. 
 
 CosTiVENESS. — Some persons are constantly inclined to costive- 
 ness, which in time is the cause of various diseases. To such 
 persons we must secure a daily discharge from the bowels, even if 
 at times they have to reduce themselves to a liquid diet. Cheese, 
 spices, pickles, and other articles tending lo constipation should be 
 avoided, and ripe fruits, figs, honey, and other laxative articles of 
 food used in their stead. If a day goes by without a passage from 
 the bowels, the next morning inject warm soapsuds. 
 
 Headache is most frequently caused by constipation or indiges- 
 tion. Many persons who now suffer almost constantly from 
 headache would be relieved if they would use the means described 
 under the head of Gostiveness for keeping the bowels regular. Late 
 suppers and also improper food at supper is the potent cause of 
 much pain in the head. We have little sympathy for headaches 
 caused by such foolish indulgences. Every person who can read 
 may know what food it is proper to eat, how to have it cooked, and 
 when it is proper to eat it. An hour of indulgence at the table, 
 followed by a night and a day of sick headache, is a species of 
 enjoyment we do not appreciate. Prescription No. 6, if given as 
 directed, will usually relieve sick headache. Nervous headache 
 requires exercise, cold baths, dieting, regularity in the bowels, and 
 some tonic, as a teaspoonful of French brandy hourly for a week oi 
 ten days. 
 
 Dyspepsia. Indigestion. — Dyspepsia is attended by a great 
 variety of unpleasant symptoms, such as oppression in the stomach, 
 variable appetite, uneasiness, nervousness, low spirits, acidity of 
 the stomach, vomiting, foul mouth in the morning, heartburn, an 
 all gone feeling, even when there is no hunger, a sinking feeling, or 
 fluttaring at the pit of the stomach, etc. 
 
 Dyspepsia renders the person li-able to succumb to the first 
 attack of fever or any acute disease. The best cure for dyspepsia 
 is not to have it, which is accomplished by obeying the plain laws 
 of health in regard to eating, drinking, sleeping, exercise, etc. 
 Eat digestible food at proper times, masticate it thoroughly, 
 exercise regularly in order that it may digest, drink moderately 
 before or after eating, but never while eating, and you will not have 
 
742 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM FAT. 
 
 the clyspe]>sia. To those who already feel its symptoms we say 
 exercise daily in the open air, eat mutton, fowls, and beef, boiled, 
 broiled or roasted, but never fried. Avoid pork, fish, and any food 
 that requires over three hours for digestion, (see table in previous 
 chapter,) eat fresh ripe fruits and vegetables, (baked or stewed 
 preferred,) give up the nse of pastry, tea, coffee, and tobacco ; 
 bathe the surface daily with cold water, seek cheerful society and 
 take either prescription No. 7 or No. 8, as is most convenient for 
 you. If your case is so confirmed as to resist these remedies, 
 take No. 9. 
 
 ScROFTJLA can be successfully treated only by internal remedies. 
 No. 10 is an easily procured and effective remedy. To the tumors 
 that have not discharged, a poultice of yellow dock, or burdock, 
 pounded, and made with corn meal and vinegar, may be a'pplied. 
 After the tumors discharge, wash them in Castile soapsuds, to which 
 a little whiskey has been added. Apply to them an ointment made 
 as follows : Scrape a carrot into fresh cream, beat them together, 
 and strain through a cloth. 
 
 Piles are the result of a constipated condition of the bowels, 
 which must first be removed. (See Gostiveness.) Mild laxatives 
 and injections should be used. If the piles descend into the anus, 
 frequent sitting in cool water will relieve .them. Castile soap, added 
 to the water or used as a w'ash, is beneficial. Sitting over a hot 
 decoction of bitter herbs and steaming the parts will often prove 
 successful where other remedies fail. The ointment prescription, 
 No. 11, it is advisable to keep always on hand, when any person 
 in the family is subject to piles. 
 
 For any of the lesser scratches, bumps, burns, bruises, bites, 
 stings, sprains, swellings, etc., to which members of the family are 
 liable, we consider nothing equal to tincture of arnica, which should 
 be kept in every family, secure from the reach of children. Dilute 
 it with water, half and half In cases of sprains or severe inflam- 
 mation, apply wrappings of cotton cloth and keep them wet with 
 the arnica. 
 
 To Recover Persons when Suffocated, from Drowning, 
 Hanging, Breathing Gas, or any Other Cause. — Treat the 
 person immediately, and in the open air, except in freezing wea- 
 ther. To clear the body of water, place the patient face down, 
 with one arm under the forehead. To excite breathing, turn the 
 body on to the side, and apply hartshorn, snuff, or salts to the nos- 
 trils. Rub the face warm with a towel, then dash cold water in it. 
 To imitate breathing, place the patient again on his face, folding 
 blankets or clothes and placing them under the chest. Now roll 
 the body from the face to the side, repeating these, turnings delib- 
 erately, efficiently, and perseveringly about fifteen times a minute, 
 occasionally varying the side. Every time the body turns upon 
 the face .make quick, earnest pressure on the back, between and 
 
THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN, 7i3 
 
 below the shoulder-blades on each side, ceasing the pressure im- 
 mediately before turning the body on the side. After breathing 
 is restored, apply hot flannels, bottles of hot water, hot bricks, etc., 
 to the pit of the stomach, armpits, thighs, and soles of the feet ; rub 
 the limbs upward energetically with flannels or toweling. As' soon 
 as the power of swallowing returns, give a teaspoonful of warm 
 water, then small quantities of other warm drinks or spirits. Do 
 not give up because signs of life do not at once appear. Persons 
 who have been under water for twenty minutes have often been 
 resuscitated by a vigorous application of these measures, and cases 
 are recorded where no signs of life appeared for three hours. 
 
 To Keep prom Drowning. — It is not necessary tliat a person 
 should know how to swim to be nlile to keep the head above water. 
 Any persons who fall into the water may, when they come to the 
 surface, keep the head above water by the following simple rule. 
 Keep the feet in motion just as if you were going up stairs, and 
 keep the hands under water. You cannot sink if you follow these 
 directions. If you throw your hands out of the water you will be 
 sure to sink. If where there are waves, when the wave comes 
 draw in your breath, shnt your mouth, and keep up the treading 
 until it has passed over. 
 
 The Use of Liqtjors. — Cider, used moderately in connection 
 with the ordinary meals, is a refreshing and beneficial bevera-ge. 
 The same may also be said of the pure juice of the grape ; but the 
 use of whiskey, gin, brandy, and other intoxicating drinks, except, 
 by the aged and feeble, are exceedingly pernicious to health. Many 
 a strong and vigorous man has been brought low by the use of ar- 
 dent spirits. Others have gone safely through life, boasting that the 
 indulgence did not injure them ; but the physician sees the sins of 
 the father reproduced in the diseases of his children to the third 
 and fourth generation. We add our voice to that of those who 
 proclaim "there is death in the cup." 
 
 Exercise. — We have spoken of exercise as being indispensable 
 to good health, for both men and women. No class of men get 
 more or better exercise than farmers ; and if they would attend 
 diligently to the other laws of health, they might be longer lived 
 and happier men. Many farmers are subject to dyspepsia, on ac- 
 count of the improper use of food and drinks. Many are struck 
 down with fevers and inflammatory complaints, caused by check- 
 ing the perspiration too suddenly when engaged in active exercise. 
 But while farmers get plenty of exercise, farmers' wives and daugh- 
 ters are apt to get too little. It is true they get plenty of hard 
 work ; but active out-door exercise is as necessary for their health 
 as for that of their husbands and brothers. Constant confinement 
 over the stove, the wash-tub, and the sewing basket, will ruin the 
 constitution and the spirits of the strongest and best woman liv- 
 ing. We say to farmers' wives and daughters, get out of doors 
 
744 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 daily, if possible. Take upon yourselves the care of the poultry 
 and the bees. Cultivate the kitchen garden. Go to the pastures 
 and the woods, for berries, roots, herbs, and flowers. Take na- 
 ture's invigorator, pure, fresh air. 
 
 We" will give some rules for exercise especially adapted to 
 women, but not inapplicable to the rest of mankind. 
 
 1. Exercise should not be carried to excessive fatigue, or the 
 object will be defeated. Persons not used to active exercise should 
 begin moderately and increase the amount of exercise as it can be 
 borne. 
 
 2. The clothing worn during exercise should be loose and easy; 
 the shoes should be larger than those worn at other times. 
 
 3. Exercise should never be taken upon an empty or full sto- 
 mach. If sotne time has elapsed since eating, take a cracker or a 
 piece of bread. With this precaution, an hour before breakfast is 
 usually the most beneficial time for exercise. Horseback riding is 
 a beneficial exercise for those who enjoy it, but walking is, all 
 things considered, the most natural, complete, and healthful exer- 
 cise. Running, jumping, skating, and swimming, when modera- 
 tion is exercised, are all healthful varieties of exercise. Dancing 
 is one of the most delightful and beneficial modes of exercise, when 
 conducted in well ventilated rooms or out of doors, and at proper 
 hours. It exercises not only every portion of the body, but affords 
 pleasant recreation for the mind, which is often of as much service 
 as the former. But the modern practice of dancing, in closely 
 packed and ill ventilated rooms, far into the night, is hurtful and 
 pernicious in the last degree. 
 
 Gymnastics are a series of exercises so graduated, as to bring 
 in play every portion of the body. Calisthenics are a series of 
 fight gymnastics designed for ladies and children. But women 
 living in the country have no need to resort to these contrivances 
 for exercise. With God's free air about them and the garden, 
 the orchard, the hills, and the woods on the right hand and on 
 the left, they have the means for health within their reach, and 
 great will be their condemnation if they do not present themselves 
 and their children with sound bodies, and vigor unimpaired. 
 
 Sleep. — Rest is required for both mind and body, and sound 
 aleep is the most perfect rest of both. For many reasons night is 
 the only proper time for sleep, for persons in the enjoyment of 
 health. Sleep for such persons during the day, is not only un- 
 necessary but absolutely hurtful. The custom of taking sleep 
 after the mid-day meal, is injurious. A state of quiet ease for an 
 hour after dinner is undoubtedly beneficial, but when ease is 
 allowed to become unconsciousness, positive injury is done. 
 
 There can be no healthy sleep, night or day, with undigested 
 food upon the stomach, consequently no food shofild in any case 
 be taken into the stomach for ail least two hours before retiring to 
 s/«e;j. The violation of this rule has been, as any physician can 
 testify, the cause of an unmeasurable amount of ill health, suffer- 
 
THE FAMILY PHTSIOIAN. 745 
 
 ing and death. The time for sleep is also imporcant, from nine to 
 live being, for adults in health, the most desirable. Whatever time 
 is set for retiring, none but the most urgent considerations should 
 prevent your retiring when that time arrives. Make it a rule, 
 never to be up after ten o'clock, except upon most important busi- 
 ness. Never sleep on the first floor if you can conveniently arrange 
 so as to sleep in the second story. During dry days, whether 
 cold or warm, allow your chamber to be open a good share of 
 the day, and the bed clothes to lie over a chair. Some housekeepers, 
 in their anxiety to have the work done up, make the beds early 
 in the morning, before they hav^ time to air properly. Use 
 every means to keep the air of your room pure at all times, day 
 and night, if you would have sound, healthy, refreshing sleep. 
 
 (Dr. King's) Prescriptions No. 1. Compound' Syrup of Rhit- 
 BABB AND PoTASSA. Rhubarb two ounces. Bicarbonate of pot- 
 tassa, two ounces ; cinnamon, one ounce ; golden seal, one ounce. 
 Best fourth proof brandy one quart. Let stand two days. Press 
 out the juice, and add to it one half drachm oil of peppermint dis- 
 solved in a little alchohol. I'o the residue or cake from which the 
 juice was pressed, add warm water until the strength is exhausted, 
 evaporate this to one quart, and while hot dissolve in it one and 
 a half pounds of refined sugar ; mix the tincture with it. This is 
 useful in all diarrahcea and bowel complaints. Dose — a table- 
 spoonful for an adult, a teaspoonful for a child, and half a tea- 
 spoonful for an infant. To be taken every half hour in severe 
 cases, every hour in ordinary cases, and once in two hours for the 
 first symptoms. 
 
 No. 2. (Dr. King's) Compound Tincture op Lobelia. Lobelia, 
 blood root, skunk cabbage, wild ginger, and pleurisy root, each 
 ' coarsely powdered, one ounce. Cover with one pint boiling water. 
 Cover tightly, and when cold add three pints of alcohol. Let stand 
 two weeks, press out the tincture and filter it. This is an e-xcellcnt 
 emetic in croup, whooping cough, scarlet fever, convulsions, and 
 wherever an emetic is required. Dose — half a teaspoonful for infants, 
 teaspoonful from one to three years old, tablespoonful from three 
 to six years old. Mix in a little molasses and water and give a 
 dose every ten minutes until vomiting is produced. It is often 
 supposed that the emetic is only to throw ofi' the contents of the 
 stomach, but this is not its main purpose. It rouses the system to 
 action in throwing off disease. The above tincture, in small doses, 
 taken in an infusion of slippery elm, will serve as an expectorant 
 in Asthma, Pleurisy, etc. We advise every family to keep a bottle 
 of it on hand tightly corked or sealed. 
 
 No. 3. Compound Powder of Jalap. Senna half an ounce. 
 Jalap two drachms. Ginger half a drachm. A valuable purgative. 
 
 No. 4. Sulphate of quinia and Prussiate of iron each three 
 grains, mix for a dose. Fever and ague remedy to be taken be- 
 tween the sweat and chill. 
 
746 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 No. 5. Mix equal parts of honey, sweet oil, sweet spirits of 
 nitre, and lemon juice or vinegar. This mixture is for the relief 
 of tightness and cough in Bronchitis, Catarrh, Lung fever, etc. 
 Dose — a teaspoonful, to be given as often as required. 
 
 No. 6. For sick headache. Super carbonate of soda, half a 
 drachm, prepared charcoal one drachm, paregoric one fluid drachm, 
 water a fluid ounce ; mix well together and give when the dim- 
 ness of vision comes on, and repeat every fifteen minutes until re- 
 lieved. Rest, darkness, and quiet, are indispensable. 
 
 No. Y. Golden seal, black alder bark, Solomons' seal root, two 
 tablespoonfuls each, boiling water one quart, mix, steep six hours, 
 strain, sweeten to suit the taste. Dose — a tablespoonful every 
 three hours, or four times a day. 
 
 No. 8. Beef gall a gill, golden seal, boneset, prickly ash berries, 
 blue flag root, each a tablespbonful in powder ; mix in one pint of 
 whiskey, and let it stand for ten days, shaking frequently. Dose — 
 tablespoonful three times a day, to be increased if the bowels do 
 not move regularly every day. 
 
 The above prescriptions are for indigestion, the former being 
 intended for its first stages, and the latter for more confirmed 
 Dyspepsia. 
 
 No. 9. Blue flag root, mandrake root, and dog's bane, one 
 ounce each in very fine powder. Blood root fine, half an ounce, 
 red pBpper fine, two drachms, saleratus one ounce. Dose — half a 
 teaspoonful in water three times a day. This is for long standing 
 obstinate cases of Dyspepsia, in which costiveness and distress at 
 the stomach are prominent symptoms. 
 
 No. 10. For Scrofula. Falsegrape, dog's bane, burdock root, 
 and yffllow parilla root, eacli in coarse powder, one ounce ; add 
 three quarts boiling water ; boil slowly down to two quarts, strain, 
 add four pounds sugar, then bring to a boil for a few minutes, and 
 skim off the scum that rises to the top. Keep in a cool place in 
 tightly corked bottles. Dose — half a gill three times a day. 
 
 No. 11. Ointment for Piles. Take fresh horse chestnuts and 
 slice them up flue, steep them one hour in lard just sufficient to 
 cover them. Strain out the lard and when cool it is fit for use. 
 Rub it over the tumors and up the anus at night and morning. 
 
 No. 12. Slippery Elm Poultice. A tablespoonful of powdered 
 slippery elm, to which add hot water enough to thicken. This is 
 a poultice for boils, tumors, etc. Slippery elm makes an excel- 
 lent poultice for burns, bruises, and soreS of all sorts. 
 
 No. 13. Cold Cream for chapped j^ands and lips, cracks and 
 skin diseases. Spermaceti ten drachms, white wax one drachm, 
 oil of almonds two fiuid ounces; add to this four fluid drachms of 
 glycerine, in which three drops oil of roses have been mixed ; stir 
 '".onstantly until cold. 
 
THE FARMER'S CALENDAR OF MONTHLY WORK ON THE FARM. 
 
 JANTJARY WORK. 
 
 Prepare for the coming season by reading and laying out your 
 plans. Determine wtiat implements, seeds, roots, potatoes, trees, 
 etc., you will want for planting and order them in good season. 
 Secure the best seed. A few dollars for wheat or oats, that will 
 yield ten bushels more to the acre than you are now getting, and 
 heavier at that, will prove a good investment in the end. 
 
 Farm Hands. — We have previously advised that farm hands 
 should be kept the year round. A great deal of work is neglected 
 in the winter for want of help. Now is the time to cut fire-wood 
 and get out timber, fence stufi", bean poles, etc. 
 
 A Work Shop, provided with the most important carpenters', 
 painters', and metal workers' tools, is what every farmer should 
 have. Let it contain a bench with vice, nails, screws, a hammer, 
 hatchet and drawing knife, saws, planes. Chisels, centre bits and 
 stock, and other carpenters' tools, paints, pots, and brushes, of 
 two or three sizes ; assortment of files, cold chisels, monkey 
 wrench and other wrenches, a hard-wood block which will do for 
 an anvil, a soldering iron, sheets of tin, wires, rivets, etc. ; besides 
 a good stock of boards and timber of various kinds. Add to this 
 a few simple articles of the harness makers' kit, such as awls, wax, 
 thread, rivets, with " set" punches, and leather. Instruct the boys 
 in the use and care of the tools. It will develop mechanical in- 
 genuity. Thus provided, many a profitable day's work may be 
 done. 
 
 Buildinga. — Lay out all your plans for hew biiildings%nd alter- 
 ations or repairs of old ones, and get out the necessary material 
 to be seasoning. Nothing makes a worse job than unseasoned 
 timber. Remember that manure wintered under sheds is worth 
 double that wintered in the open air, and if you havn't shed room 
 enough calculate to build more in the spring. It is poor policj' to 
 let farm buildings run down ; keep every board nailed tight, 
 foundation stones firm, doors on their hinges, etc. 
 
 Orchard. — See that fences and gates are tight, to keep out all 
 domestic animals. Sprinkle young trees with blood to keep away 
 rabbits, and tramp the snow around the trees to prevent the work- 
 ing of mice. Make surface drains where needed. Cut scions 
 when the trees are not frozen, label carefully, and keep in a cool 
 place ; they are usually packed in sand or damp earth, but saw- 
 dust is much better ; it keeps them equally well, and does not dull 
 the knife used to prepare them for setting. The eggs of the tent 
 caterpillar are readily seen in clusters, near the ends of the twigs ; 
 remove them now at any cost or trouble. 
 
 747 
 
748 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 Slock. — Stables, for economy of fodder, should be warm as pos- 
 sible ; for the health of stock they should be comfortable, clean, 
 and well ventilated. Clean out daily, and sprinkle a mixture of 
 plaster and muck over the floors. Give cows, young cattle, and 
 working oxen a few hours in the yards in the middle of warm days, 
 and a foddering while there. Beeves, that are being fed for 
 market, should be less exposed. Clean the stables, and litter 
 freshly while the cattle are out of them. Sheep should have well 
 littered yards and sheds, water as regularly as any stock, and 
 regularity in feeding. The flocks should be so divided that the 
 strong shall not get more than their share. Oil-cake is a safe and 
 profitable feed for all fattening and miiK stock. Keep all stock 
 well fed and in good condition ; supply with water and salt regu- 
 larly. It is economy to cut and cook all food for stock in the 
 winter. It pays in keeping up the stock better. It pays by sav- 
 ing at least one-third the fodder, and it paj's in the manure. Upon 
 horses, neat cattle of all grades, and swine, the regular use of the 
 curry-comb and card will be found to pay well. Let no stock run 
 down in flesh. Spring poor cattle are a disgrace to any farmer, 
 as well as a loss. Every time a pound of flesh is lost and replaced 
 it costs mon^y. Fowls should be provided with warm, light quar- 
 ters, and furnished with powdered shells or bones. The great 
 difficulty with eggs now-a-days is their thin shells. Hens must 
 have bones in abundance, and then the3' will form thick shells. 
 
 Manures should be deposited with muck or peat under cover. 
 Save all the liquid manure and pump it over the compost. Send 
 your men and teams into the swamp and get out a quantity of 
 peat or muck. 
 
 • FEBRUARY WORK. 
 
 Planning is the great thing now. The diflference between the 
 successful cultivator who makes his farm pay, and the unsuccess- 
 ful one who is always running behind, is, that the one plans care- 
 fully and the other does not. Decide now what crops to plant, 
 and where to plant them. 
 
 Muck. — In many localities peat and swamp muck can be dug 
 out and hauled now better than at any other season of the year. 
 Upon many muck bogS teams cannot go with safety during the 
 summer or fall, on account of their miry character ; but after the 
 ground freezes, teams can go over them anywhere at pleasure. 
 If will pay to get out a large supply now, and haul it to the vicin- 
 ity of the farm yard. 
 
 Sledding out Manure should be attended to before the snows 
 become too deep. The farmer, as well as the cattle, need to work 
 a little every ^aj', and whenever everything is favorable it is 
 better to do unis work. If it can well be done, cover up the 
 heaps so made ; but it is not easy to do so. Some cover with 
 
THE fakmer's oalendae. 749 
 
 poor hay to prevent the constant freezing and thawing of the ma- 
 nure. Sand or loam, if it can be obtained, is very good. Only 
 well composted manure should be hauled out, unless it can be well 
 protected. It is a most excellent time, when there is snow on the 
 ground, to haul such manures on to the meadows where wheels 
 cannot go except in mid-summer. 
 
 Drains can still be dug to good advantage in many places. The 
 ground is seldom frozen more than a few inches in dep'th, and in 
 many situations good work can be done in digging and laying 
 stone or tile drains. It may require some little force to start 
 upon such a job at this season of the year, but force is necessary 
 in carrying on a farm successfully, and the successful farmer takes 
 advantage of all times and opportunities, and knows no season 
 but the best — viz. : now ! 
 
 Gravelling Meadow Land No meadow can be fully reclaimed 
 
 and brought into the very best condition without being thorough)}^ 
 drained and well dressed with gravel or sand. Some prefer gravel 
 to sand, but our experience is in favor of the latter. This work 
 cannot be done at any season of the year so well as in winter, 
 when the ground is tightly frozen, and still better if there comes 
 after such freezing a light snow, just enough to make good 
 slipping. As the sand bank, especially if it has a southern expo- 
 sure, does not freeze hard, it can be worked to great advantage. 
 
 Animals. — Change the diet of all animals, occasionally. Horses, 
 that are scurfy, and whose hair is full of dirt, w^hich the comb only 
 makes worse, usually need roots. Carrots, in small quantities, 
 with a handful of ginger and one of wood-ashes, daily, are as good 
 as any " condition powder." Charcoal dust, mixed with roots or 
 meal, is excellent for all kinds of stock. Make the roots last, you 
 will need them for milch-cows that come in early, and for sows, 
 before farrowing. Feed the cows well. Those, whose calves you 
 mean to raise, should be dried off earlier than those kept for milk, 
 and whose calves go for veal. Take early calves from the dam at 
 birth, and bring them up by hand. Milk is worth too much to be 
 given to calves, when gruel will do. Beeves. — Bullocks and dry 
 cows should be in warm, sunny yards, some hours dailj', and stalled 
 at night ; litter well ; feed freely, that the}' may fatten rapidly. 
 Give all animals sunshine in their stalls or sheds. Keep young 
 stock warm and growing. If the supply of hay is short, look out 
 in timeand buy corn fodder and good bright straw, which, with a 
 little oil cake, roots, or grain will do well enough. Swine. ■ — Keep 
 hogs at work in the manure. Sows, near farrowing, should be put 
 alone ; kept quiet ; fed* raw roots, (potatoes or beets are I5est), 
 and the pens abundantly littered ; do not let them get too fat, 
 and feed no animal food. Sheep. — Provide dry and sheltered 
 yards and sheds. Hemlock, or other evergreen boughs, fed occa- 
 sionally, are gratefully received. A run on the snow in the middle 
 
750 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 of a mild day is exceedingly beneficial. And if the snow is off, an 
 liour's nibble at the grass will do more to keep the S3rstem in good 
 condition than any nostrums, such as tar, alum, etc. Especially 
 on the ewes with lambs this short hour of relaxation, whenever 
 the weather will permit, is of incalculable benefit 
 
 MARCH WORK. 
 
 Head work is better than hand work. Head work often saves 
 hand work. Head work always makes hand work more efficient. 
 The difi'erence between "farmer thrifty'''' and "farmer behind- 
 hand" is nine times out often in head work. Carefully laid plans 
 seldom fail ; hap-hazard plans seldom succeed. 
 
 General Work. — Buildino-s may be repaired and painted inside 
 or out. As soon as settled spring weather comes, cellars should 
 be cleaned out and white-washed, sinks and drains opened and 
 cleaned, foundations examined and repaired if moved by the frost. 
 Replace fences, stone walls, foundations of buildings, gate-posts, 
 etc., heaved by the frost. Set fences, and repair them wherever 
 they need it. Dip posts in gas tar, and roll in sand before setting. 
 Pick up stones loosened by the frost ; blast and haul ofl[' or bury 
 heavy ones out of tJie way of the plow. Plow as soon as the 
 ground is dry. Sow spring grains as soon as it is warm. Put in 
 a crop of peas, or peas and oats. Peas alone, in drills, on good 
 soil, will be off in time to plow for wheat, or for turnips to follow. 
 Cut biennial weeds, docks, thistles, etc. Grub up fence rows and 
 corners where shrubs or briers have got a start. 
 
 If you have never done it before, do not neglect this spring to 
 grade your barn yard to one corner or to the centre, and sink an 
 oil butt or hogshead to save the liquid manure. The urine of your 
 animals is worth just as much as the solid droppings. When you 
 can afford to throw these away then you can afford to allow the 
 urine to run to waste, and not till then. 
 
 Harrowing and Boiling meadows and winter wheat, as soon 
 as the frost is out, is an operation that pays. The ordinary long- 
 toothed harrow should not be used, but a harrow for this especial 
 purpose, with a lai'ge number of short, fine teeth. 
 
 The roots of grains and grasses are raised to the surface by the 
 constant and severe freezings of winter. By passing the roller 
 over the field in the spring, the roots are pressed down into the 
 soil, so that thej' can at once take hold and grow. It is frequently 
 the case that the use of the roller in wheat fields and meadows in 
 the spring will apparently double the number and size of the 
 plants. 
 
 Spring Wheat. — On underdrained land that has been thoroughly 
 plowed in the fall, spring wheat can be sowed, as soon as the frost 
 is out, two or three inches deep. It will only need harrowing and 
 
THE faemee's calendae. 751 
 
 cross harrowing. Clover can be sown even on a light snow. Ashes 
 operate as manure upon the wheat, even in the limited quantity of 
 eight bushels per acre. They push the wheat forward several days, 
 and in time to escape the hot, sultry days which often prevail 
 about the time of the " heading out " of the wheat ; and they 
 strengthen the stem, giving it substance and solidity. 
 
 Roads, Drainings, etc. — March is the month to make and repair 
 farm roads, lay culverts of wood or stone, and change the grade of 
 patiis, yards, etc., while the ground is loose from the coming out of 
 the frost. Prepare channels for surface water; 'and if they will 
 wash into gullies, protect them and spread the streams over tlie 
 surface. Guard against washing in grain fields or fall plowed land. 
 The location of springs may be easily seen hy the thawing of snow 
 in spots in the fields, and the places which most need underdrain- 
 ing are easily determined. Much underdraining may be done 
 while the land is still too wet to plow : and much damage may be 
 done by plowing wet soil. 
 
 Stock. — Increase the feed and exercise of farm horses, and groom 
 well, to prepare them for hard spring work. Keep all horses, but 
 especially mares with foal, sharp shod for fear of slipping on ioe 
 patches. Turn unused horses loose an hour or two daily, one at a 
 time, lest in play they kick each other. Groom oxen and cows 
 and feed well, to prepare the oxen for work. Do not tax them too 
 heavily at first ; if unused during winter their necks and feet will 
 be tender. Look to cows at calving time, giving personal attention 
 and aid if required. Feed some roots daily, both before and after 
 calving. Remove the calf at once if it is to be talfen away, and 
 milk the cow dry; otherwise let the cow lick the calf clean, allow 
 it to suck, and then milk the dam dry at once. See that all cows 
 are milked dry, twice a day, and it is best to milk young cowsthree 
 times a day. It increases the tendency to secrete milk. Increase 
 the amount of meal fed to fattening animals, that they maj- ripen 
 up the faster as soon as they get grass. Throw sods every few 
 days to the hogs and poultr3' if confined ; if possible, let the latter 
 run. Keep sows with young pigs warmly housed. Isolate breed- 
 ing sows, give warm, well strawed pens. Feed raw potatoes or 
 other roots, sprinkled with a little meal, daily, to counteract any 
 tendency to constipation. Charcoal dust promotes good digestion. 
 Clover hay is good, healthy food, and a few sods will be turned 
 over and munched with great relish. Protect all j'oung stock from 
 severe weather, rain, or wind. Separate breeding ewes and all 
 feeble sheep from the others, and give extra grain, or roots. Give 
 early lambs especial care. Provide abundant water and salt for 
 all animals, and watch The health of all, removing those that are in 
 any way ailing, to comfortable but isolated quarters. 
 
 If short of fodder make it up by cutting and cooking what you 
 have with roots and grain. 
 
752 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 APRIL WORK. 
 
 The Plow, the Harrow, the Roller, and the Clod Crusher will 
 be in order this month. The Clod Crusher is an implement no 
 fai-raer would willingly do without after he had once tried it and 
 witnessed its effects. It pulverizes the ground more thoroughly 
 than the harrow can, and its use is often of as much benefit as an 
 extra coating of manure. The most thorough possible pulveriza- 
 tion of the soil is one of the secrets of large crops. In plowing, 
 deepen the soil a little ; turn sod over flat ; move the soil only 
 when dry enough to crumble; prepare the ground thoroughlj' for 
 crops both by manure and tillage. Work no wet . soil. No 
 amount of harrowing will restore land to the condition it should 
 be, if it be plowed while wet, and dries in hard clods. 
 
 Spring Grains. — The earlier the spring grains are put in, the 
 better. Oats and wheat should go into the ground before the 20th, 
 if it is possible to get the land into suitable condition. There are 
 great advantages in drilling in all grain. However good condition 
 the land may be in, it is very useful to give it a top dressing of 
 some concentrated manure, like guano, superphosphate, ashes or 
 line compost. It gives the Seeds an early and lu.xuriant start, 
 causes a larger and stronger growth of root and of stalk. Applj' it 
 after the grain and grass seed are sown, and harrow or roll it in 
 
 We cannot take too great pains in laying down land, to gee a 
 smooth and even surface, in preparation for the mowing machine 
 and other implements. 
 
 Early potatoes on warm mellow land, a sandy or gravelly loam, 
 may be planted now. Manure well with well rotted compost. Do 
 not cut the slices too small, and after being cut let them lie a day 
 or two in the sun for the cut surfaces to harden a little before 
 planting. The potatoes used as seed for the main crop to be 
 planted early in May will bear cutting finer. 
 
 The Garden. — If you expect to sell what you grow, remember 
 that the earlier you can get a good vegetable or fruit ii^to market, 
 the more you will get for it. Let your aim be, therefore, to grow 
 things as early as possible. But do not confine yourself to early 
 things. The garden will furnish more solid comfort and return 
 more money, for what it costs, than any part of the farm. Now 
 is the time to lay the foundation of a good garden to last during 
 the entile season. Deep culture is the specific against drought. 
 Deep culture and thorough drainage are the secrets of premium 
 crops. Remember this now and practice it. 
 
 Sheep. — April is yeaning time, and the ewes and lambs require 
 a great deal of attention. Give ewes, at yeaning time, warm sheds 
 and sunny yards, and be ever on the lookout for chilled or feeble 
 lambs ; wrap such in warm sheep skins, give a few spoonfuls of 
 warm milk-punch, and lay them near the kitchen fire. If far gone- 
 
THE farmer's calendar. 753 
 
 give a warm bath, with brisk but gentle rubbing until dry, warmino- 
 by the fire or with' hot bricks; those apparently nearly dead will 
 usually revive and do well. When fodder is scarce, it is a great 
 temptation to many farmers to turn their sheep out, for they will 
 eat a great deal of the drying grasses that grow among clumps of 
 bushes in hedge-rows and among the stones in the cow pastures. 
 No practice can be worse for the summer pasturage. The only 
 proper pasturage which sheep can have at this season is in bush 
 pastures which were cut over in summer, where the young sprouts 
 of the bush are just starting fresh and green, and in lawns where 
 tussocks of orchard grass or other coarse things disfigure the turf 
 These coarse grasses and weeds start early, and sheep, goats, or 
 horses, tethered where they will crop them close, will destroy 
 many. 
 
 Mulching Fruit Trees. — If a mulching is employed at the time 
 of planting trees they will never need watering. Uniform tem- 
 perature and a constant supply of moisture are the prime elements 
 of success in fruit culture. Mulching enables us to accomplish 
 this. Mulching acts beneficially in other ways. It prevents, to a 
 great degree, the cracking of fruit, and causes those varieties 
 which are generally spotted and defaced, to become clean and 
 covered with a rich bloom. 
 
 MAY WORK. 
 
 Farm Laborers should be hired for the season now, as you will 
 be likely to get much better help than if you wait till latei-. Most 
 farmers employ too little labor and unskilled laborers. The remedy 
 is to employ laborers by the year and build tenant houses for them 
 upon the farm. If every farm had a tenant house upon it, and 
 laborers were employed by the year, the farming communities 
 would be plentifully supplied with reliable resident laborers. A 
 farmer having a tenant house could employ a married man, con- 
 stitute him his foreman, and entrust him with the interests of his 
 farm operations. He would thus have a safe reliance when he 
 was absent, and always a leader and director of his other help. 
 
 Manure should all be worked over and pulverized as much as 
 possible before hauling into the fields. If you apply your manure 
 in the fall, keep the winter made manure under cover, haul dirt 
 and mix with it, let the hogs have constant access to it, if possible, 
 and in tlie fall it will be in prime condition to haul on newly 
 plowed sod and harrowed in. 
 
 Preparing the ground for crops, is the most important work of 
 this month, at the North, and we refer to our remarks of last 
 month on the Roller and Clod Crusher. Give more attention to 
 increasing the yield of your fields. Not one farmer in ten gets 
 the yield he ought. Don't be satisfied to secure the customary' 
 
754 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 yield. Give an extra harrowing and rolling, extra manure, extra 
 care and attention, and you will get extra crops. Extra cultiva- 
 tion pays. Put the same labor on twenty acres that you have 
 been accustomed to put on thirty acres and you will get just as 
 large a crop without going over as much ground. 
 
 Cum should never be planted till the ground is dry and warm. 
 If planted in cold, wet ground it will come up, if it come up at all, 
 yellow and spindling, and will be slow in taking on a thrifty 
 growth. It had better be planted -late than in a soil in an un- 
 suitable state. Much corn is planted on poor land and too far 
 apart, causing- a great waste of time and labor. Much corn is also 
 planted too deeply. The same is true of most other seeds. Seeds 
 must have air and heat to germinate. If they are planted near 
 the surface they get both. Much of the grass seed fails to germi- 
 nate by being covered too deepl^r. 
 
 A single handful of manure put into a hill of corn, will often 
 make the difference between four or five little " nubbins," and six 
 or eight great plump ears that will shell their bulk of sound corn. 
 A thousand handfuls count up heavily in the autumn corn crib. 
 How many handfuls of manure are daily lost in your stockyards 
 that might be saved in nice order by a little care in heaping up, 
 and covering from washing rain ! 
 
 An Experiment with Corn. — The following is the result of an 
 experiment with Indian corn. That which was planted at the 
 depth of 
 
 1 inch, came up in 8 J days. 
 
 IJ " " " 9^ " 
 
 2 " " " 10 " 
 
 2J " " " llj " 
 
 3 " " " 12 " 
 
 3i " " " 13 " 
 
 4 " " " l^ " 
 
 The more shallow the seed was covered with earth, the more 
 rapidly the sprout made its appearance, and the stronger after- 
 ward was the stalk. The deeper the seed lay, the longer it re- 
 mained before it came to the surface. Pour inches was too deep 
 for the maize, and must, therefore, be for yet smaller grain 
 kernels. 
 
 Tomatoes should be transplanted into ground that has been 
 thoroughly plowed and subsoiled. It will do to manure them in 
 the hill. Give generous treatment if you would have an abun- 
 dance of fruit. Let them stand in rows five feet apart each waj'. 
 Place a good stout stake beside each one, and tie them up as they 
 grow. Never let the fruit or vines droop over on the ground. 
 
 Squashes, Gantelopes, Cucumbers, and Watermelons plant about 
 the 15th. Make *ich hills, and be careful to stick the seeds into 
 the ground point downward ; don't put them deep. We advise 
 
THE fabmeb's calendae. 755 
 
 our readers to grow the winter squash. They are nearly as pala- 
 table as sweet potatoes, and are much more ^asily kept during the 
 winter.- Try the Hubbard or Marrow; both are excellent — the 
 former is probably the best. 
 
 To keep bugs from melons, pumpkins, and cucumber vines, 
 mix flour of sulphur and fine coal dust together, sprinkle the vines 
 with water, and dust them with this mixture. It is death to all 
 bugs. 
 
 Beans may be planted by the middle of the month. Add plaster 
 to a generous manuring. Plant in rows thirty inches apart, and 
 let the stalks be two or three inches apart in the drill. The red 
 and brown Valentine are both good. The six weeks' kinds are 
 earlier, but not so good as those mentioned. Beans should be 
 greased before planting, to prevent them from decaying, which 
 they often do, when not greased. Turning any kind of liquid 
 grease on them is suflBcient. 
 
 Fruit Trees. — Prepare the ground thoroughly before trans- 
 planting trees from the nursery. Do not dig a hole and set the 
 tree into it, as is often done ; but dig a mellow bed from one end 
 of the field to the other, or where you expect to plant your row 
 of trees. Now is a good time to scrape off all the old, rough bark 
 from young fruit trees and burn it. You will thus not only im- 
 prove the fruitfulness, growth, and appearance of your trees, but 
 will destroy innumerable eggs and larvae of insects, which will, 
 by and by, attack your fruit, if not destroyed. 
 
 Boot Crops. — Farmers are beginning to see the necessity of 
 growing root crops of various kinds for feeding stock, and also 
 for cleaning and ameliorating the soil, by alternating them with 
 the cereals. The most valuable root crops for the farmer are ruta 
 bagas, mangels, carrots, and beets. The ruta-baga, or Swedish 
 turnip is so valuable for feeding neat cattle and sheep that every 
 farmer should cultivate it extensively. A few acres of well pre- 
 pared soil will yield a large quantity of winter food for animals. 
 Cotswold, Leicester or South Down sheep cannot be properly 
 wintered without ruta-bagas. Carrots are so valuable for horses 
 that every farmer should raise enough to furnish a few pounds 
 daily, to be given to them with other food. Mangel Wurtzel and 
 beets are plants of the same family, possessing similar properties 
 " and requiring the same treatment. Both are long keepers, and 
 they are about equally good for milch cows. They do not possess 
 as good fattening properties as the ruta-baga, but they yield 
 heavier crops per acre. 
 
 The mangels should be sown this month. Carrots the last of 
 May, or first of June. Ruta-bagas in June or July, and turnips 
 not before July. 
 46 
 
756 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 JUNE WORK 
 
 Weeds. — Now is the time to S.gbt the weeds. Every weed takes 
 up room that should be occupied by something else. Every weed 
 draws sustenance that belongs to the growing crops. Take ad- 
 vantage of all dry, hot days, keep the horse among the hoed 
 crops, thoroughly stirring the soil, to kill weeds. With good 
 horse implements, hoeing by hand may be nearly dispensed with 
 after a stand is established. Before this, hoeing must be done so 
 !is to nip the weeds in the seed-leaf, if possible. Soon after corn 
 begins to grow well, the hand hoe must be entirely dispensed with, 
 for wpeds between the rows will be taken care of with the cultiva- 
 tors and horse hoes ; and most of those in the rows will be killed 
 by the earth thrown upon them. The few which escape should be 
 pulled by hand when the corn is about a foot high. 
 
 Keep the potatoes clear of weeds ; it will make a vast difference 
 in the crops. Thorough work in June will tell all the rest of the 
 season, and for years to come. 
 
 Hoeing and weeding may afford constant employment to men 
 and teams during most of the month, when the ground is dry. 
 Stirring wet soil is not only a detriment, but loss of time. Till 
 deep before the roots of the plants occu,pj' the soil, but more shal- 
 lowafterwards. Toward the close of the hoeing season, the effect 
 of running a subsoil plow deeply between the rows of corn, or 
 between alternate rows of root crops, is very beneficial. 
 
 Another word on Boots. — Sow beets, mangels, and carrots early, 
 and ruta-bagas late in the month. Plow, crossplow, and harrow 
 at intervals before sowing ; it does the weeding in advance. A 
 field thus worked before sowing will not only grow more and bet- 
 ter roots, but with one-third the labor of weeding. Carrots can 
 be raised by almost any farmer for six cents a bushel after he 
 learns the most economical ways of doing it. We judge carrots 
 to be, all things considered, the best of all the root crops for the 
 soil and for feeding. 
 
 " Catch Crops." — When failures occur in the hills of corn, rows 
 of potatoes, or elsewhere, put in pumpkins, if the ground is rich 
 with manure, or field beans, if it is only in fair condition. There 
 will be spots, also, here and there, which should be filled with 
 something rather than left to weeds. Ruta-bagas, carrots, white 
 turnips, white beans, and peas offer a choice of good things. 
 
 Haying. — Nothing seems more necessary to the farmer at this 
 season, than to secure his hay crop well, and it is best to begin 
 early : 1st. because clover and some grass is usually flttesb to cut. 
 Grass cut rather green makes sweet, palatable hay, and a good 
 aftermath. Cut a little after the best time, the hay is tough, 
 wiry, and neither so palatable nor nutritious, while the meadows 
 remain bare and brown until the fall rains. 
 
THE farmer's calendar. 757 
 
 2d. Because the roots sustain less of a shock ; 3d. because gentle 
 rains are verj' likely to occur and give the aftermath a good start. 
 See remarks about haj-^-making in notes for July work. 
 
 Save labor by using the best implements. Cut with the mower, 
 when the dew is off; stir constantly with a good Hay Tedder- 
 rake up at three to four o'clock, and get in at once, or cock up 
 before five, and house the next day. 
 
 The true art of hay-making consists in curing the grass just up 
 to the point at which it will do to put into the barn, and no more. 
 Most hay is cured too much. If the barn is properly ventilated, 
 hay may be put in quite green, and will be relished like grass all 
 ■winter. 
 
 On small farms where the horse-fork is not used, much hard 
 labor may be saved by building up one-hajf of the hay-mow at a 
 time. For instance, with the first hay drawn, fill one end of the 
 bay, up as far as the big beam, then rake down the side, and while 
 this part is settling fill the other half. The two parts being filled 
 at different times, will not settle alike, and of course will not unite, 
 so there will be no use of a hay-knife in winter. The principal 
 benefit of this plan is in lessening the hard labor while unloading. 
 One-half of the mow being lower than the other, the top of the 
 load may be thrown on the highest part, and the balance below, 
 which saves pitching over the big beam. There is still another 
 advantage ; the greatest heat caused by foi mentation is always in 
 the centre of the mow, and the seam here gives escape to the 
 gasses. 
 
 Top-Dressing Grass Land. — The best time to apply manure of 
 any kind to grass is just as it is recovering from the shock of 
 cutting. Carting and spreading manure on grass land is the best 
 rainy-day work to set the hands at during the summer months. 
 
 Toads are very useful in the garden. They destroy large 
 numbers of insects. A toad will swallow the largest specimens of 
 tomato worms. Carry every toad you find about your premises 
 into the garden. 
 
 Oreen Fodder. — Sow corn in drills or broad-cast at intervals 
 of two weeks. Millet makes excellent fodder. Sow twelve quarts 
 to the acre about the middle of this month. Rye and oats may 
 be both sown for fodder to good advantage. Sorghum is superior 
 to corn for green fodder. Sow in drills two or three quarts to 
 the acre, and cut jutt before blossoming. It will soon spring up 
 again, and three crops may be cut during the season. Clover, 
 corn or buckwheat can be sown now to turn under for manure. 
 
 Greasing Wheels. — The wheels of all wagons, carts, carriages, 
 mowers, etc., should be oiled, but great damage is often done by 
 oiling too plentifully. Lard should never be used on a wheel, for it 
 will penetrate the hub, and work its way out around the tenons of 
 the spokes, and spoil the wheel. Tallow is the best lubricator for 
 
758 HOW TO MAKE THE FAEM PAY. 
 
 wood axle-trees, and castor oil for iron. Just grease enough 
 should be applied to the spindle of a wagon to give it a light 
 coating ; this is better than more, for the surplus put on will work 
 out at the ends, and be forced by the shoulder-bands and nut 
 washers into the hub around the outside of the boxes. To oil an 
 iron axle-tree, first wipe the spindle clean , with a cloth wet with 
 spirits of turpentine, and then apply a few drops of castor oil near 
 the shoulder and end. One tea-spopnful is sufficient for the whole. 
 
 JULY WORK. 
 
 Watch the Stock at Pasture, and see that they do not have to 
 crop too closely. 
 
 Change their pastur^before the supply gets short, or, feed green 
 fodder. Do not let them suffer for either water or salt. Lumps 
 of rock salt in sheltered troughs we consider better than fine salt. 
 If the cattle drink from a pond with a mud bottom, dump in a 
 few loads of gravel at some accessible point, and thus make a 
 good drinking place. Cattle often suck up leeches from the mud. 
 
 We approve of yarding all stock at night for the sake of saving 
 the manure. Compost the manure with earth, under cover. ' 
 
 Cows should be supplied with abundant and succulent, food if 
 we would keep up the flow of milk. 
 
 Hay-making is the steady work for the month on most farms. 
 Use machinery as far as possible. Cut hay where orchard grass 
 and clover prevails, first ; if Timothy predominates, that usually 
 comes next. Rep-Top is later, and should never be associated 
 with the other grasses or with clover, except to come in as a pas- 
 ture grass. Cut all common grass before the seed ripens, and if 
 possible, when just passing out of blossom. Clover for hay is best 
 cut in full bloom. 
 
 Alsike clover is much better adapted for sowing with Timothy 
 for hay than Red clover, because It matures at the same time as 
 Timothy. Large quantities of hay are spoiled ever3'' year by ex- 
 posure to rain after being cured. Where a mowing machine and 
 tedder are used, the hay can often be got in the same day it is cut. 
 No thrifty farmer should be without hay and grain caps. 
 
 There is very little use in raising a fine crop of grass or clover, 
 cutting it at the right time and curing it in the best condition, if 
 it is not put out of the way of damage from rain, by housing or 
 stacking it as soon as possible. Stacks of hay should be thatched 
 with straw or coarse grass to protect them from damage from rain. 
 
 Manure grass land with fine muck compost as soon as the crop 
 is off. 
 
 The Wheat Crop is so important that everything should be 
 ready for harvesting it, and the moment it is fit to cut everything 
 else should give way for this work. Plow land for winter wheat 
 
THE farmer's calendab. 759 
 
 as soon as the time can be spared, turning under fine manure, or 
 muck that has been saturated with liquid manure in the bam 
 yard. 
 
 Buckwheat. — Sow about the middle of the month, or a week 
 earlier or later. It is an excellent, paying crop, if it can be used 
 as a second crop, following early potatoes, peas, or some early 
 grain crop. 
 
 Turnips — Sow Strap-leaf, Purple-top, or Cowhorn, or other 
 good varieties, any time during the month. If your corn land is 
 in as good condition as it ought to be, beans or turnips can be 
 put in between the rows to good advantage. In such cases, the 
 corn should be cut up at the ground as soon as it is glazed, to 
 let them have the sun. 
 
 Cabbages may be set out for the main crop both in the garden, 
 and in the field. They are excellent winter food for milch cows, 
 if perfectly sound. 
 
 Soiling crops. — Continue to sow corn for succession, and feed 
 the cows daily at evening, the stalks having been cut one, or even 
 two days, to wilt. Millet and any kind of grain or sorghum may 
 be sown for fall feed, and red clover for feed next June. 
 
 Hoed crops. — Avoid disturbing the soil very close to the roots 
 of corn, and root crops. Work more in the middle, between 
 rows, with the plow, but do the weeding thoroughly among the 
 plants by hand. Collect the weeds and gleanings from among 
 hoed crops, if abundant, and give to the swine, if thej^ have not 
 gone to seed. 
 
 Hogs will make a vast deal of manure this month, if kept in 
 pens, and well supplied with weeds and other litter, muck, etc. 
 
 Thinning fruit, is a work too much neglected, and the conse- 
 quence is the degeneracy of the fruit, and the failure of the tree to 
 bear regular crops. 
 
 When the tree sets a large quantity of fruit, one-half should be 
 picked off by hand. 
 
 That remaining will be larger, firmer, and often nearly as great 
 in bulk, and will usually bring more money, and will not exhaust 
 the tree. 
 
 Care of Implements. — In buying agricultural machines and 
 implements, farmers should endeavor to get the best, and then to 
 take proper care of them. Some persons, after investing a large 
 sum in agricultural machines and implements, take very little care 
 of them, leaving them "under the weather" when not in use, 
 bleaching and cracking in the sun, or rotting and rusting in the 
 rain. Every farmer should have a suitable building for housing 
 machines and implements, and they should always be kept under 
 cover when not in use. A machine housed and painted will last 
 twice as long as one that is left out under the weather without 
 
760 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAT. 
 
 even the protection of paint. " A place for everything and every- 
 thing in its place " should be the motto of every farmer. Habits 
 of order should be enforced, and nothing allowed to go to loss 
 through carelessness or neglect. Machines, implements, tools, 
 harness, etc., should be kept in their proper places in perfect re- 
 ])air, ready for use the moment they are needed. 
 
 Timothy. — The Timothy crop should be harvested with all the 
 dispatch which may be commanded, as after it reaches the point 
 of sufficient maturity it degenerates rapidly in quality and loses in 
 weight. The proper time is after the seed is formed and is full 
 in the milk. It will then give about twenty per cent, more weight 
 than when it is just coming into blossom, and the cattle will eat 
 twenty per cent, less, and keep in their flesh. The roots also will 
 be better able to withsiaud the drought. It should be cut four 
 inches from the ground, as most of the Timothy is killed by 
 mowing close and earlj', before it has come to maturity. 
 
 Pruning Trees. — There is no period in the whole 5'ear so suitable 
 for pruning gum fruit trees, such as peaches, plums, etc., as the 
 present — up to say the 25th of the month. It is the period when 
 the tree is at rest after its first growth and before the second begins. 
 Wounds made at this time bj' the cutting of branches, nicely heal 
 over and present a neat appearance, instead of producing dead 
 wood and perhaps a diseased spot, as is often the case when pruned 
 in winter and early spring. 
 
 AUGUST WORK. 
 
 Animals at pasture must not lack an abundance of pure water. 
 A light dressing of plaster and bone-dust applied before the feed 
 gets very short in the pastures, will revive them surprisingly after 
 the first rain. If the feed is scant, drive home the cattle and give 
 green fodder at evening. Hogs intended for early fattening, 
 should be penned, and will fatten as fast on peas as anything we 
 have ever tried. 
 
 Sow your Grass Seed. — It is the best plan to sow grass seed 
 early. Any time in August will do well, if it is not too dry. The 
 grass will get well set before winter, so that it will not freeze out, 
 aijd will make a good crop for mowing next year. Some of the 
 best seeding we have known has been upon oat stubble, in August 
 or early September. If the ground is moist the seed may be sown 
 on the stubble and lightly harrowed, or brushed over and rolled. 
 Oats generally leave the ground comparatively clean and mellow. 
 Put on plenty of seed. If the gi-ass does not occupy the ground 
 entirely, the weeds will fill the vacancies. 
 
 Manuring Grass Land. — There is probably no time of the year 
 when top-dressings produce nearly so good effect upon grass as 
 just after haying. The roots revive from the discouragement 
 caused by the sj'the and hot sun, and the result is very satisfectory. 
 
THE FABMEB'S CALEKTDAB. 761 
 
 Grass seed may be sown at the same time on spots where good 
 grasses are failing, and it is useful to go over the field with a brush 
 harrow to work in the manure and seed with it. 
 
 Grass. — On permanent grass land, a good top-dressing every 
 two or three years is most desirable ; have fine muck and manure 
 compost prepared, mingled if you please with ashes, plaster, and 
 •bone-dust, and applj' this at the rate of fifteen to twenty loads to 
 the acre as soon as the grass is cut. Timothy, Orchard Gr^ss, 
 Blue Grass, etc., do well, sowed alone on well-prepared land, and 
 make a sward much quicker than if sowed with grain. 
 
 Plowing. — August is the best month in the year for plowing for 
 any crop except Indian corn, sorghum, or some such rank, gross 
 feeder. Any sward plowed now will rot before winter sets im, and 
 once or twice harrowing in autumn will kill hosts of weeds. This 
 is doing spring work, if thereby we prepare mellow, clean seed 
 beds for spring grains, flax, and roots, or for a potato crop. For 
 these crops it is always best to compromise between fall-plowed 
 sod and summer fallow. There remains just that desirable 
 quantity of vegetable mold in the soil, which, except on very rich 
 loams, is most desirable. Plowing and preparation of the ground 
 should be done now. 
 
 , Boot crops need weeding, but, except turnips, none ought to 
 need thinning. On spots where turnips or ruta-bagas do not look 
 well, sprinkle superphosphate of lime close to the rows, and 
 scratch it in with the little weeding hoe. A small subsoil plow 
 run midway between the rows of any kind of roots will almost 
 uniformly be found of decided benefit. 
 
 How Turnips can be raised cheaply. — By sowing the Purple- 
 top turnip seed at the last dressing of the corn, and covering with 
 a light harrow, a couple hundred bushels of the best turnips can be 
 raised with very little trouble. The early sowing will be compen- 
 sated for by the shade afforded by the growing corn. This crop 
 will take the place of the weeds and will not be in the way of har- 
 vesting the corn, as it will do the turnips little harm to treat them 
 as though you did not know the crop was there. There will be 
 enough left uninjured to pay all the expenses a dozen times over. 
 
 Winter Wlieat. — Turn a clover sod well under, plowing say six 
 inches deep and laying the sod perfectly flat; top-dress with lime, 
 and harrow ; after three weeks put on a heavy dressing of well- 
 rotted compost, and harrow it thoroughly, drilling in the seed as 
 soon thereafter as convenient, before the middle of September. 
 Always pickle seed wheat. 
 
 Oats. Cut before they get over ripe ; the straw is worth much 
 
 m'ore for feeding and the grain is not lighter ; if lodged or very 
 short, mow early and cure as hay. 
 
762 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY 
 
 Potatoes. — Dig, when ripe ; dry, and keep dry. The dry rot is 
 much preferable to the wet rot, and dr3'-ness checks the extension 
 of both. 
 
 Fruit. — Fallen fruit generally contains the larva of an insect 
 that should not be allowed to perfect itself; gather up the fruit 
 every day, and feed it to swine, or let the hogs have the run of the 
 orchard. Have a good supply of self-supporting ladders to facilir 
 tate picking. Remove late caterpillars' nests and look out for the 
 borer.. 
 
 Grass seed may often be saved in sufficient quantity for one's 
 own use, by observing where any variety grows unmixed and al- 
 lowing such to become ripe, cutting with a sickle, binding in bun- 
 dles threshed or rubbed out at leisure. Seeds of many of our best 
 pasture and meadow grasses can only be bought at very high 
 prices, while a little care in gathering them would afford an abun- 
 dant supply for home use, if not for sale. 
 
 Huckleberry pastures, or similar land overgrown with bushes, 
 should be torn all to pieces with a heavy iron tooth harrow well 
 loaded. This is work for oxen. The roots and brush maj' be 
 piled together and burnt, and the surface again harrowed. Seeding 
 will hardly be necessary except on barren spots, which will need 
 manure also. The natural grasses will soon assert their rights, 
 the sooner if the stones are picked oflf and the land rolled. 
 
 Weeds and Bushes. — Cut all that have blossomed first, put them 
 in piles and burn when dry. Give others to the hogs, also all 
 growths of wet land that will soon decay. The bush hook and 
 scythe should keep the hedge rows clean, and the young growth 
 that starts after this will be very likely to winter kill. When 
 opportunity serves, the roots may be torn out with a pair of cattle 
 and a plow, or with a strong iron hook aided by the mattock or 
 grubbing hoe. 
 
 Swamps and Low Lands. — If the low lands can be worked in, 
 improve the time by digging open ditches, cutting bogs, and 
 throwing out muck, clearing stumps, etc. If the swamps are dry 
 enough for teams to work, alders and other bushes and trees may 
 be hauled out by the roots, the surface grubbed, roots laid up 
 ^o dry, and when dry burned. If the season be favorable for 
 ditching in low grounds, lay out the drains and have the men at 
 work every spare half day ; get out as much muck and peat as 
 possible as you progress, throwing it out on one side only of the 
 ditch. Even if the weather be wet the ditch will most likely dry 
 the ground in the immediate vicinity, so that the muck can be 
 hauled out as soon as dry. The drying of peaty land may be 
 sometimes facilitated by thrusting smooth poles obliquely into 
 the peaty mass on either side as far as possible, and at a level not 
 much above the bottom of the ditch. Roots, brush, and tussocEs 
 of grass or brakes, may be laid up in piles to dry for burning by 
 and by. The ashes will be an excellent dressing for the soil. 
 
THE fahmer's oalendab. 763 
 
 SEPTEMBER WORK. 
 
 WJieat. — Finish the preparation of your land for wheat and sow 
 as early in the month as possible. 
 
 Bye. — Sow an acre or two after the wheat is in, the last of this 
 month, or in October. This grain, though it does not demand so 
 good soil as wheat, is grateful for good culture, and is very re- 
 munerative, especially if the grain be consumed in the family. It 
 is often desirable for long straw, if for nothing else. Hence al- 
 ways aim to sow at least sufficient rye for your own use. 
 
 Grass. — Sow alone on well prepared land, using plenty of seed. 
 Clover may be sowed now or in the spring, the latter period being 
 preferred usually. Grass seed may be sown, of course, with wheat 
 or rye, but on well prepared land we prefer sowing it alone and 
 in the spring. The grain detracts from its growth, and on all 
 small patches it is much better to sow grass seed by itself On 
 land subject to heaving by frost a few oats may be sown as a mulch 
 and winter protection. The land should be prepared with care, 
 top-dressed with fine compost, guano, bone dust, fish manure, or 
 other similar fine fertilizer, thoroughly harrowed in, and a liberal 
 variety of seeds should be used. 
 
 Meadows and pastures. — If pasturage is short, do not feed down 
 the aftermath, before it is well grown, at any rate ; if possible, rely 
 upon green crops, sowed corn in particular. Top-dressings of 
 pasture grounds prove the best at this season. Pastures should 
 be dressed with fine manure, lime, ashes, bone-dust, plaster or 
 guano, just before the fall rains — not during a drouth. Sow grass 
 and clover seeds on meadows and pastures, and give a thorough 
 harrowing, especially to thin spots, using a light one-horse iron- 
 tooth harrow. 
 
 Fodder. — If it will ,be necessary to purchase fodder, do so in 
 early autumn. Many farmers are glad to sell straw at threshing 
 time at a very low price, or will almost give it away. If wheat is 
 cut as it should be when the stalk begins to turn yellow at both 
 top and bottom, the straw will be relished by stock all winter 
 equally with the best hay. Corn Stalks may often be bought very 
 low, and if well cured, are worth nearly as much as good hay — 
 that is, if cut up, soaked, and properly prepared for feeding. 
 
 Wheat and Rye may be sown this month for early feed in spring. 
 Sow both crops at the same time ; the rye will be cut first, then th,e 
 wheat, and this should be followed, by late-sowed rye, etc. 
 
 iioot Crops. — Beets, mangels, ruta-bagas, and carrots, are mak- 
 ing their best growth this month, and should be thoroughly clear 
 of weeds, and the ground between the rows kept open. Thin out 
 with an unsparing hand, using the thinnings for cow fodder. 
 
 Digging Potatoes — Many farmers still continue the custom of 
 planting potatoes in hills instead of drills, thereby greatly in- 
 
764 HOW TO MAKB THE FAKM PAY 
 
 creasing the labor of digging them. When planted in drills, they 
 are readily thrown out by the plow. Only every other row should 
 be plowed out the first time, and after these are picked up, plow 
 the intervening rows. Of course, two horses should be used, 
 walking one on each side the rows. Some simple machine for 
 this purpose is very much needed. 
 
 Threshing The grain threshing should be done as early after 
 
 harvest as may be practicable, in order that advantage may be 
 taken of the market, to sell when it is likely to bring the best 
 price. Let special care be taken to guard against the mmiy dan- 
 gerous accidents which frequently occur in threshing. Let the 
 platform for the driver be made perfectly secure, and see that the 
 feeder runs in no danger of having his hands mangled by the teeth 
 of the machine. The master's eye should give this work the 
 closest inspection. 
 
 Animals. — Do not leave horses in the field by day to be tor- 
 mented by flies and covered with bott's eggs, but put in cool 
 stables. Cows that come in this fall should be kept on good pas- 
 turage, but not allowed to get too fat. It is a good plan to let 
 them have rock salt in the pasture ; if not, salt regularly once a 
 week. 
 
 Swine. — Feed soft corn, or that which is broken down, or old 
 corn if on hand, ground and cooked ; feed regularly, giving a few 
 nandfuls of fine charcoal as a regulator, about twice a week. A 
 good supply of grass for breeding hogs is of great value. They 
 should be put on pasture two or three weeks before breeding time, 
 as it increases the milk greatly. Breeders, on a good supply of 
 grass, with some corn, will not only retain their flesh, but grow 
 continually, and be easily fattened in the fall or winter, while the 
 pigs will be large and healthy, and their growth will not be 
 checked during the winter. 
 
 Poultry, ought to have the range of stubble and grass fields, to 
 feed upon the myriads of insects which abound at this season. 
 The more quiet kinds, Brahmas, Cochins, and Dorkings, as well as 
 turkeys, may be driven off to the fields after laying time, like a 
 fiock of sheep. They will thus be carried rapidly through moulting, 
 and soon begin to lay freely.- Chickens weighing three or four 
 pounds will usually sell, if sent to market alive, at higher prices 
 than they will bring fatted, killed and dressed at Thanksgiving or 
 Christmas time. If confined, feed fowls with animal food.- They 
 require it to form their new plumage, and before the hens have 
 moulted they will not lay. 
 
 The Orchard is now yielding its harvest, and all fruit should 
 be carefully picked and honestly packed. Apples intended for 
 cider may be shaken from the tree, but when intended for keep- 
 ing or for market, never. All such fruit should be carefully 
 picked by hand and carefully Md, not thrown, into a basket. The 
 
THE fabmek's calendar. 765 
 
 best for this purpose is a small round basket, holding not over one 
 or two pecks, and provided with a hook for hanging it on the 
 limbs or on the round of the ladder. Step ladders and folding 
 ladders are much better for this purpose than those which rest 
 against the limbs of the tree, often breaking, bruising, and injuiv- 
 ing them. Those on the high limbs which cannot be reached from 
 a ladder, should be picked with a "fruit picker" attached to a 
 long pole. The pole pruning shears may be made to answer the 
 purpose by attaching a small bag to them. The fruit should be 
 lifted till the stem separates from the limb, and not pulled off. 
 
 Assorting and packing fruit, for market, is a matter which re- 
 ceives altogether too little attention from ordinary cultivators. A 
 crop of apples assorted into three different varieties will bring 
 nearly twice as much money in market as the same crop without 
 assorting. A very few small or defective apples in an otherwise 
 first class crop will often spoil its sale. 
 
 This month and next are the months for fairs. The farmer's 
 leisure days are not many, but he should make sure of some, both 
 for himself and his hands to attend the fairs. The recreation is 
 worth a great deal, and one always gets valuable hints and ideas 
 that he would not part with, and be as if he knew them not, for a 
 great deal. Every farm might send something, and it gives a 
 great pleasure to be a contributor, even if no prize be taken. 
 
 OCTOBER WORK. 
 
 Draining. — As fast as hands can be spared from the essential 
 labors of the farm, set them at draining, A few acres should be 
 drained every fall. There are few farms in the country on which 
 this cannot be done with profit, and where needed, no labor pays 
 half so well. 
 
 Animals. — This is the fattening time of the year. Beeves, pigs 
 and poultry take on fiesh well at any other season, but this month 
 and next, especially before the very cold weathei of December 
 comes, they fatten rapidly. All stock should be put in good or- 
 der for winter. Soft corn, nubbins, grown grain, green pumpkins, 
 and such fruits as are liable to decay, ought to be fed out to the 
 cattle to get them in good condition before cold weather comes on. 
 Beeves should have full feeds of scalded corn meal and oil-cake, on 
 corn stalks or chopped hay. Sheep should have their allowance 
 of grain increased, especially those that are fattening, though so 
 long as pasturage is fair, they should be kept upon it. Swine must 
 have the small potatoes, boiled and mixed with meal ; all their 
 food ought to be cooked. Oil meal is excellent and economical 
 food used with other things ; so is beef, or even pork scraps. Mix 
 finely powdered charcoal, and a little wood ashes occasionally with 
 the food of hogs, especially if they do not come to the soil ; their 
 fattening and growth is much promoted by it. 
 
766 ■ HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 Select such breeding sows as are wanted for furnishing a sup 
 ply of pigs for next spring, and keep them in good growing order, 
 but not fat. 
 
 The Bams may be put with the ewes for early market lambs 
 Select good long wool or Southdown rams, for the lambs of such 
 will reward best the care which early lambs demand. It is not 
 best to rear many February lambs. 
 
 Corn. — Cut up and put in stooks, if not already done, and as 
 soon as ripe, husk, selecting seed ears. Take medium-sized ones, 
 of perfect shape, close rowed, well tipped out and uniform, from 
 stalks producing two or more ears. Sort out all soft ears and put 
 the rest in well ventilated bins. Bind the stalks in small bundles 
 for curing. 
 
 Boot Crops. — Dig potatoes when they have done growing, and 
 preserve in cellars or pits, covering lightly at first. 
 
 Pumpkins. — Gather in open sheds, or cover with litter before 
 hard frosts ; feed to cows after removing the seeds — the green ones 
 first. The seeds are said to check the milk secretion, but do no 
 harm to other stock. 
 
 Winter Grain. — Rye may usually be sown during this month, 
 but north of lat. 41°, it is risky to delay sowing to the close. It is 
 a good plan to top dress winter grains where they are thin, with 
 some fine rich compost or hand manure, as this causes them to 
 tiller freely. 
 
 Manure. — The barnyards and manure pits should be thoroughly 
 cleared out, and the manure either applied to the land and 
 plowed under for spring crops, or laid up with muck in compost 
 heaps, making alternate layers of muck and manure. Lay in a 
 good stock of swamp muck for composting with manure. If fine, 
 it may be used by itself as a top dressing for grass. 
 
 Plowing. — Plow^ heavy soils, and those which cannot be plowed 
 early in the spring, especially those which are very weedy-or wet, 
 so as to expose them to the action of frost daring winter. Lay 
 sod land over flat ; the destruction of weeds and insects is more 
 thorough. Land not in' grass may be plowed rough, or in 
 ridges back and forth, laying two furrows together. The press 
 of other work should not cause fall plowing to be neglected. 
 Extra hands should be hired and the work pushed on. It saves 
 so much time and labor in the spring. Potato ground should 
 be thus prepared, and on very stiff soil corn does better on fall- 
 plowed land. All land on which spring grains are to be sowed 
 should be plowed in the fall. Fall plowing makes most lands a 
 week or two earlier in the spring. 
 
 Implements. — Clean thoroughly all implements not needed again 
 this season ; coat the steel and iron parts with boiled linseed oil, 
 and put away. 
 
THE fabmeb'3 calendab. 767 
 
 Weeds. — Out in wet weather, and bring into heaps for burning 
 when so wet that the seed will not shell out. It does more harm 
 than good to remove dry weeds. 
 
 Leaves. — If thej' are needed for bedding for horses or other 
 stock, there is no better mode of using of them. But, when dry, 
 under cover, they make good bedding, and, thrown out with the 
 manure, speedily decay, through its action upon them. When 
 not required as litter for stock, they should be put into the com- 
 post heap in alternate layers of manure, leaves and sods. — The 
 fermentation will soon commence, and if the pile is built up some 
 four feet high, the internal heat will be sufficient to keep out the 
 frost for the most of the winter, and on shovelling over in the 
 spring the whole will be found one rich mass, good for the garden, 
 good for the lawn, good everywhere. 
 
 NOVEMBER WORK. 
 
 Manure. — Collect your stores of muck, leaves, and litter of all 
 kinds, and put under cover. Clear up the yards frequently, 
 throwing all manure and litter into heaps, over which spread 
 muck or soil. Bring into the hog yards all sorts of litter and 
 muck. Dust gypsum over stable floors and on fermenting manure 
 wherever it is. Cut and stack salt marsh hay and similar coarse 
 hay which is produced upon upland swamps ; it is of great value 
 as litter and manure. Lay up the manure in compact heaps, 
 which can have liquids pumped over them as often as they get 
 dry, and keep all manure under cover so far as possible. Nine- 
 tenths of the food of well fed animals comes into the manure, as a 
 general rule. Hence the great value of fattening animals. Read 
 the remarks in Chapter III. on the value of liquid manure, and do 
 not let another month pass until you have provided for saving it 
 and pumping it over the solid manure every week. It will double 
 the value of your manure from the same stOck. 
 
 Weeds. — Continue the slaughter of weeds as directed last month. 
 Every weed allowed to go to seed re-produces thousands. 
 
 Root Crops. — If not already gathered in our latitude, they 
 should be left no longer. Carrots will bear freezing in the ground 
 less than any. Gather them first, and take them to the barn or 
 house-cellar ;" Mangels and Sugar Beets next ; they may be kept 
 in pits or the cellar. White turnips and ruta-bagas bear most 
 frost, but hard freezing is injurious to them. Protect in pits, 
 well covered with straw and earth to turn water. If work presses, 
 the roots may be dug and laid in long heaps as compactly as 
 possible, and covered with five or six inches of earth, and when 
 more leisure comes, the pits may be made systematically ; provide 
 ventilation by using drain tiles, loosely filled with straw. 
 
768 HOW TO MAKE THE FARM PAY. 
 
 Animals should all be housed before this month is out. Attend 
 to ventilation. Close stables are especially injurious to horses. 
 A very large proportion of the diseases of horses are' caused by 
 filthy and ill-ventilated stables. The fumes of the manure are 
 destructive to the eyes and lungs of the horse. Young stock if 
 put into warm stables, will improve in flesh, growth and constitu- 
 tion. Colts need good care and warm stables, if yon would see 
 them grow rapidly. Cows having rich feed will make much butter 
 of excellent quality, even though the quantity of milk falls oflF. 
 
 Beeves should be pushed forward now in cool weather, with 
 full feeds of roots, meal and oil-cake, with care not to overfeed. 
 Keep salt before them, and water regularly ; if possible, steam the 
 food and give variety. 
 
 Eogs should be gaining in weight very fast ; cook everything 
 fed to them. Watch the market and kill early, if situated so that 
 you can do so, and thus take advantage of the higher prices which 
 usually prevail before the general killing time. 
 
 ■ Sheep should come in from the pastures in good condition ; 
 if not, begin at once to bring them up with corn and oil-cake in 
 small quantities. This is the coupling season. Do not let the 
 ram run with the flock, but keep him by himself and let him into 
 the flock an hour or so everj- morning. Keep him in good condi- 
 tion, but hot fat, and do not tax his powers too severely. 
 
 Fruit. — Pick all market and winter fruit by hand. In picking 
 and marketing apples, too much care cannot be exercised in hand- 
 ling and assorting the fruit. A lot that opens well and runs 
 through evenly, brings a much better price than one that has been 
 picked and barreled carelessly. The old rule that apples should 
 be handled as carefully as if they were eggs ought to be always 
 observed. Instead of having but two market grades, make at 
 least three. Gather windfalls for cider. Apples keep best ■ in 
 lime-barrels. 
 
 DECEMBER WORK. 
 
 The careful preparation made for winter tells now. Now the 
 well-banked cellars, well-covered root-pits, and warm buildings, 
 stand the test of severe cold and winds. Now the grain, roots, 
 and steamed food liberally fed during the last three months, make 
 their show on the account for pork and beef. 
 
 Animals should have special care and attention. Peed steamed 
 or cooked food to all your animals. Feed the beeves bountifully 
 Give the calves a little meal daily with other good feed, and keep 
 them warmly sheltered in all inclement weather. Hogs will stop 
 fattening if they are too cold to be comfortable, no matter how 
 well they may be fed, and if you cannot keep them warm, you had 
 better kill them early ; steamed food is of great advantage in such 
 cases. 
 
THE faesibr's oalbndab. 769 
 
 Horses should be made comfortable. Don't shut up several 
 horses in a low, close, dark stable unless you wish to breed dis- 
 eases of the lungs. The horse should have a stable high enough 
 for the circulation of the air over him ; there should be no cracks 
 through which the cold air can blow on him. Rub the horses well 
 when they come warm to the stable. (See article on " Construc- 
 tion OP Stables," — page 276.) 
 
 Sheep should be housed by this time, and coupled with the rams, 
 for April and May lambs. Allowing the ram to run with the sheep 
 is a miserable practice, but if it is followed, no ram should be al- 
 lowed to run with more than fifty sheep, but if kept apart and 
 allowed but a single or once repeated service, a full grown ram 
 may serve double that number. Obtain a fujl-blooded ram of the 
 breed you desire to raise, if possible. Poor sheep are poor prop- 
 erty ; good sheep, of either the wool or mutton breeds are good 
 property. , 
 
 Brood Mares should be kept in loose boxes, or roomy stalls," so 
 that they may lie at ease, and change their position at will. Have 
 them, and all horses, sharp shod, so that they shall be in no dan- 
 ger of slipping upon the ice. Give regular exercise in a sunny 
 j'ard or on the road. 
 
 Gows giving milk or dry, should be well fed and kept gaining. 
 If the cow is in good condition, she may be milked to within four 
 or five weeks of calving, without injury either to herself or her 
 calf. If in poor flesh, and kept on dry hay and stalks, she should 
 go dry two, three, or four months. A cow that has a hard time in 
 calving should be well fed, to give her strength, and milked until 
 the new milk springs, that the calf shall not be too large. Throw 
 no fodder upon the ground, but feed in boxes or racks. Fodder 
 left by the horses and cows, should be sprinkled with salt and 
 water and fed to the sheep. Have water convenient to the j'ard, 
 or in it, and protect the pipes, now, against freezing. 
 
 Manure. — Well composted manures may well be hauled on the 
 fields whenever there is good sledding, but ordinary barnyard 
 manure should be kept under cover. Spread out all the manure 
 from the stables and yard under the sheds, and do not leave it ex- 
 posed to the air, the freezing, thawing, and the bleaching which it 
 will get if left out. Never keep the manure of the horse stables 
 by itself, but always mix it with the other manures. Horse 
 tianure loses its ammonia more readily than any other manure, 
 and becomes heated, th.e.n fire fanged, then dry and almost worth- 
 less. Nearly one half the value of stable manure is lost by leaving 
 it unprotected through the winter. 
 
 Implements. — Now is the time to have a thorough overhauling 
 of all tools. They should all be hunted up, cleaned, and put 
 under cover. The ploughs, spades, hoes, and all iron implements 
 should be rubbed over with an oiled rag to prevent rust. There 
 
770 HOW TO MAKE THE PABM PAT. 
 
 should be a tool room on every farm. Before tools are put up for 
 the winter, all those needing repair^ of any sort should be 
 attended to. Large machines needing any repairs that cannot 
 be made on the farm, should be sent to the repair shop now, and 
 the work done. A nut can be replaced, a plough point sharpened, 
 or a handle set much more conveniently now, than if left until it is 
 wanted again during the hurry of the working season. 
 
 An Ice House is a great convenience on every farm, and almost 
 indispensible where butter is made for market. A cheap ice house 
 can be constructed as follows: Draw sawdust and spread upon 
 the ground at least a foot deep. Build up the cakes of ice upon 
 this foundation seven to ten feet high, and eight to ten feet square, 
 filling the space between the cakes with pounded ice. Set up 
 scantling and board it up about two feet from the ice. Fill in 
 this space with sawdust, and put two or three feet of sawdust on 
 top, covering with boards and slabs. Itvwill keep all summer. 
 
DEFINITION OF WORDS AS USED IN THIS YOLUME. 
 
 Arable — Pit for tillage. 
 
 Ammonia — The alkali of manures. 
 
 Abscess — A cavity in the flesh containing pus, caused by inflam- 
 
 Abate — To lessen ; to moderate. [mation. 
 
 Afpeotion — A disease or disturbance of the system. 
 
 Alimentary Canal — The whole passage through which the food 
 passes. 
 
 Amateur — A person who cultivates any art or science from taste 
 
 Acetous — Sour; acid. [and not as a business. 
 
 Alternate — By turns or in succession. 
 
 Biennial — Once in two years. 
 
 Bronchial — Belonging to the windpipe. 
 
 Cranium — The bones which enclose the brains. 
 
 Coronet — The upper part of the hoof of the horse. 
 
 Contagious — Capable of being communicated by touch. 
 
 Congestion— An unnatural accummulation of blood in any part 
 
 Clyster — An injection. [of the body. 
 
 Cutaneous — Pertaining to the skin. 
 
 Caseine — The cheesy portion of milk, almost identical with legu- 
 raen in plants. 
 
 Decoction — A fluid in which herbs or other substance has been 
 
 Desideratum — That which is desired but not possessed, [boiled. 
 
 Degenerate — To grow worse or inferior. 
 
 Deodorize — To remove offensive smells. 
 
 Disinfect — To purifj' from contagious matter. 
 
 Entomology — That part of zoology which treats of insects. 
 
 Excrescence — A swelling, tumor or other enlargement. 
 
 ExuDE^The flowing of juices from the pores of animals or plants. 
 
 Pebrile — Pertaining to or indicating fever. 
 
 Fumigate — Smoking for the purpose of cleansing infected apart- 
 ments, clothing, etc. 
 
 Pomentation— The act of applying warm liquids to the body by 
 
 PiBRBS — Fine slender threads. [means of flannels. 
 
 Fibrin — Tough, elastic fibres formed in animal and vegetable 
 
 Fungus — A vegetable growth upon plants. [matter. 
 
 Uestation — Carrying young in the womb. 
 
 47 (771) 
 
772 DEFINITION' OF WOBDS AS USED IN THIS VOLUME. 
 
 V 
 
 Generated — Begotten ; engendered ; produced ; forme,l. 
 
 Glands — Small, fleshy tubes for the passage of fluids. 
 
 Glandular — Consisting of, or pertaining to glands. 
 
 Gnarly — Crabbed ; misshapen ; as a gnarly apple. 
 
 Grade — An animal having a portion of the blood of some distinct 
 
 Immutable — Unaltering. [breed. 
 
 Infection — That which taints or corrupts by communication from 
 
 Jugular — A large vein of the neck. [one to another. 
 
 Lubricate — To make smooth or slippery. 
 
 Ligament — A strong, compact substance serving to bind one 
 
 bone to another. 
 Larynx — The enlarged upper part of the windpipe extending 
 Larvae — Insects in the grub state. [into the throat. 
 
 Luscious — Very sweet ; delicious. 
 Longitudinal — Lengthwise. 
 Laxative — Loosening ; mildly purgative. 
 Miniature — Small ; on a small scale. 
 Neurotomy — The dissection of a nerve. 
 Normal — According to rule. 
 Neutralize — To destroy or limit the eflfect of 
 Ovaries — The depository of the eggs in the female body. 
 Phosphate — A salt. 
 
 Purgative — Having the power of cleansing the intestines. 
 Pustules — An inflamed spot on the skin underneath which is pus. 
 Pus — Matter coming from the blood in consequence of inflammation. 
 PROGBNY-^i^Offspring ; descendants. 
 Parturition — The act of bringing forth young. 
 Purulent — Consisting of pus or matter. 
 Pupa — The third state of the insect or grub. 
 Propaoation — The increase by generation. 
 Pomology — The art of raising fruit. 
 PoMOLOGiCAL — Pertaining to fruit culture. 
 Parasitic — Growing from or living upon some other body. 
 Pistillate — Blossoms having no stamens, and therefore incapa- 
 RuMiNATiNG — Chewing the cud. [ble of fertilization 
 
 Rejuvenate — To make young again. 
 Remittant — Having an increase and then diminishing. 
 Sulphate — A salt. 
 
 Sinuses — Long cavities containjng pus. 
 Saccharine — Having the qualities of sugar. 
 Stamens — Organs of fruitfulness in plants. 
 
 Technical — Pertaining to the arts. [abdomen. 
 
 Thorax — The chest or part of the body between the neck and 
 Terminal — Growing at the end of a branch or stem. 
 Vice Versa — The circumstances reversed. 
 Virulent — Extremely active in doing injury. 
 Vinous — Having the sparkling qualities of wine. 
 Veneer — A thinleaf of superior wood for overlaying an inferior one. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Agricnltural fairs, 674. 
 Apples, 619, 636-541. 
 Apricots, 519, 667. 
 Anatomy of the horse, 292, 
 Animals, dead, use for, 62, 
 Asparagus, 636, 644, 
 
 Barley, 170. 
 
 Beets, 242, 634. 
 
 Beet root sugar, 242-262. 
 
 Beans, 637, 645. 
 
 Bees, 487-516. 
 
 Beefcattle, 386, 386. 
 
 Birds, 670. 
 
 Blackberries, 607. 
 
 Bone manure, 59-61. 
 
 Breeding, 22, 262, 340, 369-376, 389, 400, 448. 
 
 Breaking and training colts, 273. 
 
 Broom corn, 181. 
 
 Bread, 697. 
 
 Br,eakfast cak^, 702. 
 
 Buckwheat, 62, 170. 
 
 Butter dairy, 843. 
 
 Bulls, 390, 391. 
 
 Budding, 625, 660. 
 
 Butter, 343, 673, 725. 
 
 Biscuits, rusks, etc., 700. 
 
 0. 
 
 Cabbage, 639, 647. 
 
 Calves, 376-381, 392. 
 
 Caulillower, 646. 
 
 Canning fruit, 715. 
 
 Carrots, 199, 634. 
 
 Cuttle, 340, 384-399. 
 
 Cattle, diseases of, 399-405. 
 
 Cake, 704. 
 
 Celtry, 636. 
 
 Cherries, 557. 
 
 Children, diseases of, 731. 
 
 Cider mills, 142. 
 
 Clover, 59, 165, 187. 
 
 Clover, ftlsike, 674. 
 
 Clod crusher, 98. 
 
 Cleaning garments, 723. 
 
 Cleaning paint, 724. 
 
 Corn, 33, 62, 176-181, 196. 
 
 Corn eheller, 138. 
 
 Compost, 68, 165, 213, 246, 565, 632. 
 
 Cotton, 209-224. 
 
 Cooking meats, 6S7 
 
 Cooking fish, 691. 
 
 Cooking vegetables, 693. \ 
 
 Cookies, 701 
 
 Cows, 340, 384-389, 073. 
 
 Crops, two together, 667. 
 
 Crops, rotation of, 261-262. 
 
 Cranberry culture, 600. 
 
 Cultivators, 97. 
 
 Cutting and cooking food for stock, 897. 
 
 Currauts, 608. 
 
 Custards, 715. 
 
 Cucumbers, 639, 648. 
 
 Dairy stock, 340-381. 
 
 Diseases of fruit, 668. 
 
 Diaenaes of the horse, 294-!iS4. 
 
 Diseases of the horse, remedies for, 834-33& 
 
 Dogs, 461. 
 
 Drills and drilling, 101, 161. 
 
 Draining swamps, 34, 43. 
 
 Drains, 32, 44. 
 
 Drainage, 31-46, 50, 163. 
 
 Drowning, 742. 
 
 Ducks, 487. 
 
 Eggs by the pound, 671. ■,' 
 
 Exercise, 742. 
 
 V. 
 
 Farm, makiog the most of, 068. 
 
 Farm, winter work on, 669. 
 
 Farm buildings, 276, 424, 465, 478, 621-1 
 
 Fertilizers, fl, 64, 176, 654. 
 
 Fevers, 736, 737. 
 
 Fences, 660. 
 
 Flower culture, 617. 
 
 Flax, 236. 
 
 Forest tree culture, 660. 
 
 Food, 685. 
 
 Food for horses, 281. 
 
 Food for dairy stock, 381-384. 
 
 Food for cattle, 392. 
 
 Food for sheep, 427. 
 
 Food for hogs, 462. 
 
 Food for poultry, 476, 484. 
 
 Fruit culture, 619-620. 
 
 Fruit boxes, 612. 
 
 Gardens, farmers', 631-641. 
 
 Gardens, market, 641-669. 
 
 Geese, 487.- 
 
 Goats, 458. 
 
 Gooseberries, 608. 
 
 Grindstones, 678. 
 
 Grain crops, 33, 163-182. 
 
 Grain caps (see hay caps). 
 
 Grasses, 33, 183-195. 
 
 Grafting, 627. 
 
 Grape culture, pages 5&lr-697. 
 
 Grape culture, objections answered, 67i. 
 
 Gtftpe culture, profits o^ 577. 
 
 (773) 
 
774 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Grape culture in the garden, 582. 
 Grape culture iu the vineyard, 564-582, 
 Grape culture, training, 572, 584. 
 Gingerbread, 710. 
 Guano, 64, 65. 
 Gypaum, 67, 165. 
 
 Harrowing, 61, 56, 161 
 Harrows, 93. 
 Hay tedder, 118. 
 Hay cutter, 138. 
 Hay caps, 165. 
 Hemp, 234. 
 Hens, 475-483. 
 Hen manure, 55, 62. 
 Horse manure, 54. , 
 
 Hog manure, 55. 
 Hoes, 105. 
 
 Horses, 262-339, 672. 
 How to use a horse, 289. 
 Hogs, 447^58. 
 Hogs, diseases of^ 456. 
 Horse rakes, 121. 
 Horseradish, 649. 
 Hops, 231. . 
 Hives, 496, 513. 
 
 H. 
 
 Implements, 70-152. 
 
 I. 
 
 [594. 
 
 Insects injul-ioua to regetation, 222, 952, 659, 663, 
 
 Jellies, 719. 
 
 J. 
 
 L. 
 
 Laborers, 679. 
 
 Laborers' cottages, 628, 679. 
 
 Leaves, 59, 565. 
 
 Lettuce, 636, 649. 
 
 Lime, 59, 62, 65, 98. 
 
 Lupine, 63; 
 
 Lambs, 413. 
 
 M. 
 Manures, 52-69. 
 
 Manure, liquid, 52, 55, 58, 64, 155, 254, 632. 
 Mahures, application of, 56, 155, 642, 664. 
 Maple sugar, 240. 
 Melons, 650. 
 Milk dairy, 353. 
 Mowing machines, 105-119. 
 Mules, 3S7. 
 Mutton sheep, 409, 674. 
 
 Oats, 170. 
 Orchards, 519-5S5. 
 Onions, 635, 65U. 
 Oxen, 384. 
 
 O. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pasture, 190, 193. 
 
 Pastry, 702. 
 
 Parsnip, 635. 
 
 Peppers, 637. 
 
 Peas, 638, 653. 
 
 Peanuts, 667. 
 
 Peaches, 619, 650-556. 
 
 Pears, 519, 642-548. 
 
 Peat, 32, 41, 53, 64, 57, 64. 
 
 Pickles, 719. 
 
 Pies, 703. 
 
 Plums, 619, 666. 
 
 Plaster of Paris (see gypsum). 
 
 Plowing, 37, 47-51, 56, 76, 210. 
 
 Plowing deep, 47, 159. 
 
 Plowing under green crops, 59, ( 
 
 Plows, 37, 43, 49, 72, 75-93. 
 
 Potatoes, 203, 634. 
 
 Poultry, 471-487. 
 
 i, 155. 
 
 Prairies, 154, 193, 681. 
 Pruning, 528, 552, 672. 
 Preserving meats, etc., 693. 
 Preserving fruits, 717. 
 Preserving furs, etc, 723. 
 Pudding, 713. 
 
 Quince, 644. 
 
 B. 
 
 Raspberries, 607. 
 Eadish, 635, 653. 
 Kams, 413: 421. 
 Reapers, 106, 126-134. 
 Bice, 224. 
 
 Roots, 33, 48, 196-206. 
 Root cutter, 142. 
 Rotation of crops, 262-282. 
 Rhubarb, 637, 663. 
 Rollers, 61. 
 
 Rural architecture, 621-630. 
 Rye, 170. 
 
 S. 
 
 Salt, 69. 
 
 Sawdust, tan bark, shavings, chip dirt, eto., t 
 
 Salads, 694. 
 
 Seeds, garden, 657. 
 
 Shocking grain, 164. 
 
 Sheep, 406-447. 
 
 Sheep, diseases of, 432-447. 
 
 Sleep, 742. 
 
 Soiling cattle, 64, S94-399. 
 
 Soap Buds, 59. 
 
 Sorghum, 239. 
 
 Sowing wheat, 160, 168. 
 
 Sowing grass seed, 139. 
 
 Smut, 170. 
 
 Spurry, 63. 
 
 Spader, rotary, 90. 
 
 Spinach, 653. 
 
 Squash, 610, 654. 
 
 Stables, 64, 230, 671. 
 
 Stone lifter, 75. 
 
 Steam plow, 90. 
 
 Stump B»Mer, 74. 
 
 Stomac^'diseases of, 739. 
 
 Strawberry culture, 605, 607. 
 
 Stacks for hay and grain, 678, 
 
 Summer drinks, 721. 
 
 Sweet potatoes, 206. 
 
 Swamps, 32, 34, 41, 43. 
 
 Sweet corn,'639, 647. 
 
 T. 
 
 Timber growing, 660-666. 
 Threshers, 134-138. 
 Tobacco, 225-231. ' 
 Tomatoes, 637, 656. 
 Turnips, 198,635. 
 Turkeys, 483. 
 
 Vetch, 62. 
 
 Vineyard culture, 564. 
 
 Water cress, 650. 
 
 Waffles, 712. 
 
 Washing receipts, 722. 
 
 Wells, 681. 
 
 Wheat, 163-170. 
 
 Wine making, 597-604, 718. 
 
 Yam, 676.