BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 FROM THE 
 
 SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 Henrg W. Sage 
 
 1891 
 
A text-book of materia medica 
 
 ,. 3 1924 031 257 243 
 olin.anx 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031257243 
 
A TEXT-BOOK 
 
 ■^' 
 
 y. 
 
 OF 
 
 MATERIA MEDICA 
 
 INCLUDING LABORATORY EXERCISES IN THE 
 HISTOLOGIC AND CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF DRUGS 
 
 PHARMACEUTIC AND MEDICAL SCHOOLS AND FOR 
 HOME STUDY 
 
 ROBERT A. HATCHER, PH.G., M.D. 
 
 a 
 
 Instructor in Pharmacology, Cornell University Medical School, New York; Formerly 
 Professor of Materia Medica and Vegetable Histology, Cleveland School of Phar- 
 macy ; and Demonstrator of Pharmacology, Western Reserve University 
 
 TORALD SOLLMANN, M.D. 
 
 Associate Professor of Pharmacology and Materia Medica in the Medical 
 Department of Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 IfllusttatcJ) 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, NE'W YORK, LONDON 
 
 W.^B. SAUNDERS AND COMPANY 
 
 J904 
 
 T 
 
Copyright, 1904, by W. B. Saunders & Company. 
 
 Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England. 
 
 ELECTROTYPED BY PRESS OF 
 
 WESTCOTT & THOMSON, PHILADA. W. B, SAUNDERS & COMPANY. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following pages were written with the object of 
 popularizing the " Laboratory Method " in the study of 
 Organic Materia Medica. There can no longer be any 
 doubt as to the general superiority of the objective method 
 over the didactic in the teaching of natural sciences. Ac- 
 quaintance at first-hand has innumerable advantages over 
 that acquired at second-hand from a teacher or text-book. 
 In many cases it is absolutely impossible to evoke a correct 
 picture of the object or phenomenon by these second-hand 
 methods ; but, even when this can be done, a personal ac- 
 quaintance is much more impressive and interesting. 
 
 Whilst these remarks apply to the study of all natural 
 science, they have a special force in the case of Materia 
 Medica. The almost proverbial dryness of this subject can 
 be traced directly to the neglect of objective study. Materia 
 Medica cannot help but become interesting when the student 
 leaves the monotonous descriptions of the text, and goes 
 directly to the specimens of the drugs ; when he observes 
 the underlying simplicity and the endless variety of adapta- 
 tions in the gross and microscopic structures ; and when, by 
 the application of chemic tests, he sees before him the won- 
 derfully numerous and complex products of the activity of 
 those tiny laboratories, the cells. 
 
 As the experiment of basing the instruction in Materia 
 Medica entirely on laboratory work had never been tried, as 
 far as Ave know, we introduced it gradually and tentatively 
 at the Cleveland School of Pharmacy. The result was most 
 
10 PREFACE. 
 
 gratifying from the start. The students not only showed a 
 greater interest, but they obtained a very much better grasp 
 of the subject ; so that they could apply their knowledge to 
 the allied subjects of pharmacy and chemistry. 
 
 It would, therefore, seem that the desirability of labora- 
 tory instruction is limited only by its practicability. In 
 this respect, we found the difficulties much less than we had 
 anticipated. We were rather surprised to learn that an 
 overwhelming proportion of the essential facts of Materia 
 Medica can be covered by experiments so simple that they 
 can be tried by students without other help than the written 
 directions, and with the simple apparatus to be found in every 
 chemical laboratory or drug store. By carefully eliminating 
 non-essentials, it was also found that the new method of in- 
 struction demanded but little more time than the old. 
 
 The only real difficulties which we encountered were due 
 to the novelty of the work. In elaborating this method 
 of teaching, we have felt at times as if we were treading 
 virgin soil. We found no single book which gave the 
 necessary information in convenient compass ; and none at 
 all which gave the exercises adapted to students. This 
 is true particularly of the chemic work. The facts were 
 scattered promiscuously through many books, and we were 
 obliged to collect them, to construct from them sufficiently 
 simple experiments, and to test these. In some cases we 
 were obliged to invent new methods and reactions. We sin- 
 cerely hope that these pages, by saving this labor to others, 
 will hasten the introduction of the laboratory method. 
 
 Laboratory Instruction in Materia Medica will naturally 
 be divided into Gross, Microscopic, and Chemic Study, and 
 we have accordingly divided the book into these three parts. 
 When the subject is to be studied independently of a teacher, 
 we would advise taking up the three branches separately, and 
 
PREFACE. 11 
 
 in the reverse order to that just given. In class-work, how- 
 ever, it will be found better to pursue all branches at once, as 
 their relation can then be pointed out by the instructor. 
 There is also a considerable amount of information which 
 cannot be acquired by the direct observation of the student. 
 This has been inserted in the first part, which also contains a 
 summary of all the essential data regarding each drug. 
 
 The pharmacopoeial ' description of the drugs is also given. 
 This should be used only for comparison and reference. 
 Every drug should be studied and described from the speci- 
 men, according to the directions, before the official description 
 is consulted. The student's notebook is, therefore, a very 
 important part of his work. We would also emphasize the 
 absolute necessity of making accurate, if not artistic, drawings. 
 
 The arrangement within each part of the book is that 
 which our experience has shown most useful. When indi- 
 vidual drugs are studied, they follow each other in the order 
 of their relative importance. 
 
 In the selection of the exercises and other matter we have 
 felt ourselves limited by the time and training at the dis- 
 posal of the average student of pharmacy or medicine. We 
 have, therefore, introduced only the most important and the 
 most typical experiments, and these in the simplest form in 
 which they would give reliable results. For example, the 
 identification of drugs has been considered only so far as to 
 enable the student to ascertain whether or not a given sample 
 is or is not, let us say, cinchona ; and whether it is adulter- 
 ated. To those who wish to delve deeper into the subject the 
 book will serve as an introduction which will enable them to 
 work intelligently through the larger compendiums. 
 
 New Yokk and Clkveland, August, 1904. 
 
 1 United States Phai-macopoeia. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF CRUDE DRUGS. 
 
 CHAPTER p^^j, 
 
 I. Roots ..... . ly 
 
 II. TUBEES, CORMS, BuLBS, AND KhIZOMES . ... 36 
 
 Tubei-s, 36— Ehizomes, 40. 
 
 III. Woods and Barks ... 53 
 
 Woods, 53— Barks, 56. 
 
 IV. Leaves, Herbs, and Flowers . . . 72 
 
 Leaves, 72— Herbs, 86— Flowers, 97. 
 V. Pbuits and Seeds 103 
 
 Fi-uits, 103— Seeds, 117. 
 VI. Drugs other than Plant Organs 130 
 
 Miscellaneous Cellular Drugs other than Distinct Plant 
 Organs, 130 — Extracts and Inspissated Juices, 135 — Sugare, 
 144 — Gums, 146 — Gum Resins, 147 — Resins, 150 — Balsams, 
 153— Oleoresins, 154— Camphora, 158— Volatile Oils, 160— 
 Fixed Oils, Fats, and Waxes, 161 — Cellular Drugs of Ani- 
 mal Origin, 165 — Animal Secretions and Excretions, 167. 
 
 PART II. 
 PLANT HISTOLOGY. 
 
 I. Introduction and General Technic . . 174 
 
 II. The Cell and its Contents . . . . 187 
 
 HI. Special Morphology of Cells : Parenchymatous Cells . 200 
 IV. Special Morphology of Cells (continued) : Prosenchyma- 
 
 Tous Cells and Tubes . 221 
 
 V. Tissues and Organs . . . . . ... ... 239 
 
 VI. Histology of Some Important Drugs 247 
 
 Roots, 247 — Stems (Ehizomes), 252 — Barks, 259 — Leaves, 
 261— Fruits and Seeds, 263. 
 
 VII. HisTOLOQTC Study of Powdered Drugs 267 
 
 Introductory, 267— General Study of Powders, 268 — Identi- 
 fication of Powdera in Groups of Three, 270 — Adultera- 
 tions, 272 — Scheme for the Identification of Unknown 
 Powders, 274— Exercises, 277. 
 
 13 
 
14 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART III. 
 CHEMIC EXERCISES IN MATERIA MEDICA. 
 
 CHAPTER PAfiE 
 
 I. Intkoductory . . . . . 287 
 
 Introduction, 281 — Classification, 282 — Apparatus and Eea- 
 gents, 283 — Determination of Moisture and Ash, 284. 
 II. Constituents for the Most Paet Soluble in Water, but 
 
 Insoluble in Alcohol and Similar Solvents 287 
 
 Carbohydrates, 287— Saponins, 295 — Proteids, 296— Fer- 
 ments, 298 
 
 III. Constituents for the Most Part Soluble in Water and 
 
 Alcohol, but Insoluble in Fat Solvents . . . 302 
 Allcaloids, 302— Neutral Principles, 307— Tannins, 308— Or- 
 ganic Acids, 310 — Coloring-inatter, 314. 
 
 IV. Constituents Soluble in Alcohol, Insoluble in Water . 323 
 
 Eesins, 323 — Cathartic Kesins, 324 — Phlobaphenes, 325— Bal- 
 sams, 326 — Oleoresins, 327 — Gum Eesins, 328 — Volatile 
 Oils, 328— Camphoi's, 331. 
 V. Constituents Mostly Insoluble in Alcohol and Water . 333 
 Waxes, 333— Fixed Oils or Fats, 334. 
 VI. Examination of an Unknown Drug for its Proximate 
 
 Constituents . ... . . 339 
 
 VII. Chemic Examination of Some Important Alkaloidal 
 
 Drugs .... . . . 345 
 
 Cinchona, 345 — Opium, 348 — N ux Vomica, 350 — Drugs Con- 
 taining Cafleine, 351 — Ipecac, 352 — Aconite, 353 — Hy- 
 drastis, 353 — Belladonna, 354 — Coca, 355. 
 
 VIII. Drugs Containing Glucosids 357 
 
 Digitalis, 357 — Strophanthus, 358 — Uva Ursi, 358 — Santon- 
 ica, 359 — Cantharides, 359 — Glycyrrhiza, 360. 
 
 IX. Drugs Containing Resinous Principles 362 
 
 Indian Cannabis, 362— Guaiac, 362— Aloes, 363— Jalap, 364— 
 Rhubarb, 365 — Senna-emodin Principles, 367 — Frangula 
 and Ehamnus Purshiana, 368. 
 X. Drugs Containing Aromatic Acids, Volatile Oils, Resins, 
 
 or Fats 369 
 
 Balsam of Peru, 369— Balsam of Tolu, 369— Copaiba, 370— 
 Capsicum, 370 — Benzoin, 371 — Cinnamon, 372 — Cubeb, 
 372— Buchu, 373— Cod-liver Oil, 373. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Reagents for Histology . . 375 
 
 Posological Table .... . 381 
 
 Glossary of Medical Terms . . 393 
 
 Index . . . . . ... 395 
 
A TEXT-BOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 MATERIA MEDICA 
 
PART I. 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF CRUDE DRUGS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ROOTS. 
 
 The root is most concisely defined as that part of the 
 plant axis (the stem being the other part) which bears 
 neither leaves nor any leaf modifications. It usually con- 
 stitutes the underground portion, its office being to absorb 
 moisture and salts from the earth and to conduct them 
 toward the leaves ; and, further, to maintain the plant in a 
 fixed position. In addition to this it may, in special cases, 
 perform other functions, such as serving as a storehouse for 
 reserve material. This is especially conspicuous with tuber- 
 ous roots, but occurs to a lesser degree with many ordinary 
 roots. On the other hand, rhizomes — which are really 
 underground stems — often perform a part of the office of 
 roots in that they serve to maintain the plant in a fixed 
 position. 
 
 In describing roots ^ the following points for observation 
 will be noticed, as a rule ; additional points may be of impor- 
 tance in special cases : The macroscopic examination of 
 roots will show that they branch irregularly ; that they vary 
 greatly, not only in size, but in shape ; in color, both exter- 
 nally and internally ; in texture, as is shown by density and 
 fracture — the latter varying from brittle and sharp to fibrous 
 and elastic ; in taste, being bitter, sweet, acid, or insipid, 
 etc. ; in odor. Even the macroscopic examination shows 
 much which the microscopic brings out in detail ; thus we 
 
 • The blank form given on p. 18 is strongly recommended to be used by 
 the student with the drug in hand. 
 
 2 It 
 
1 18 
 
 BOOTS. 
 
 
 
 <S eq &ii 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 8 
 S 
 
 Is 
 ■Si 
 
 e 
 
 1.2 '^ 
 
 ft. 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 ■to 
 
 8 
 
 
 =0 
 
 3 
 
 =0 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
BELLADONNA RADIX. 
 
 19 
 
 see by naked-eye observation whether the bark is thick or 
 thin, whether the central cylinder is woody or composed of 
 soft tissue. The naicroscope shows the nature of cells com- 
 posing these parts. (For histology see p. 242.) 
 The following roots are official : 
 
 Belladonna. 
 
 Pyrethrum. Calumba. 
 
 Rhubarb. 
 
 Lappa. Gelsemium. 
 
 Ipecac. 
 
 Apocynum. Pareira. 
 
 Glycyrrhiza. 
 
 Stillingia. Krameria. 
 
 Senega. 
 
 Sumbul. Inula. 
 
 Gentian. 
 
 Phytolacca. Asclepias. 
 
 Taraxacum. 
 
 Althaea. Bryony. 
 
 Rumex. 
 
 Sarsaparilla. 
 
 he following medicinal roots are not official : 
 
 Abrus. 
 
 Hydrangea. 
 
 Alkanna. 
 
 Imperatoria. 
 
 Angelica. 
 
 Ipomoea pandurata. 
 
 Apocynum androssemifolium. Laserpitium. 
 
 Baptisia. 
 
 Levisticum. 
 
 Berberis. 
 
 Methysticum. 
 
 Ceanothus. 
 
 Petroselinum. 
 
 Chicory. 
 
 Pimpinella. 
 
 Euphorbia. 
 
 Rhapontic rhubarb. 
 
 Frasera. 
 
 Rubia. 
 
 German pyrethrum. 
 
 Saponaria. 
 
 Ginseng. 
 
 Scopola. 
 
 Hemidesmus. 
 
 Statice. 
 
 Heuchera. 
 
 Symphytum. 
 
 Horseradish. 
 
 Vetiver. 
 
 BELLADONNAE RADIX.— Befladonna Root. 
 
 The root of Atropa Belladonna Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Solanacse). 
 Habitat. — .Central and southern Europe, the name (" beau- 
 tiful woman ") indicating its cosmetic employment in Italy. 
 
 Description. — " In cylindric pieces, somewhat tapering, longitudinally 
 wrinkled, 10 to 25 mm. or more in thickness ; externally, brownish-gray ; in- 
 ternally, whitish ; fracture nearly smooth and mealy, not radiating nor show- 
 
20 ROOTS. 
 
 ing medullary rays in the thicker roots, except in the layer near the bark ; 
 nearly inodorous ; taste sweetish, afterward bitterish and strongly acrid. 
 
 " Boots which are tough and woody, breaking with a splintery fracture, 
 should be rejected ; likewise the hollow stem-bases which are sometimes 
 present."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and desoribe as suggested on p. 17. Particularly 
 note that it should not be woody (absence of bast-fibers in 
 bark). 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Atropine, hyoscyamine, a little bella- 
 donniae, hyoscine, and other alkaloids. The alkaloids are 
 found mostly in the bark. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The isolated alkaloids are much more 
 frequently employed than are preparations of the root. 
 Atropine internally or locally dilates the pupil, — i. e., is a 
 mydriatic, — the dilatation persisting for some days ; hence the 
 derivative homatropine is often preferred, because of its briefer 
 action. Also used to stimulate the higher nerve-centers ; in 
 asthma, to suppress sweating, salivation, or catarrhal dis- 
 charges, and to quicken the pulse. Commonly used in con- 
 nection with morphine as a corrective.' Locally in various 
 neuralgias. As a corrective with various vegetable purga- 
 tives. 
 
 Hyoscine and hyoscyamine are employed occasionally in 
 the excitement of insanity. Liniment of belladonna is also 
 used externally for pain. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.06-0.2 gm.^ (1-3 gr.) of belladonna 
 root, always in liquid form or extract. Owing to its varia- 
 bility, only assayed preparations should be used internally. 
 
 Of atropine or hyoscyamine, 0.0005—0.002 gm. (tyo~F2 §^-)' 
 
 Of hyoscine, 0;'0004-0.0006 gm. (yfo-y-J-^ gr.). 
 
 Of fluid extract, 0.06-0.12 c.c. (1-2 min.). 
 
 Of tincture, 0.6 c.c. (10 min.). 
 
 Symptoms of Poisoning and First Aid. — Dryness of the 
 throat is apt to occur early, with consequent difficulty in 
 swallowing and speaking ; thirst and burning in the throat ; 
 pupils widely dilated and not contracted by exposure to 
 
 ' A "Glossaiy of Medical Terms" is appended to the end of this vol- 
 ume ; it should be freely consulted by the student. 
 
 ^ Since the dosage is usually approximate, the exact equivalent of metric 
 quantities is not always given. 
 
RHEUM. 21 
 
 strong light ; the vision is impaired, as if a film which one 
 attempts to wipe away were over the eyes ; skin very red ; 
 there may be nausea ; the patient becomes excited and passes 
 into delirium, but tliis stage will hardly have been reached 
 before a physician can be summoned if the case is seen early, 
 and pharmacists have to do with emergencies rather than with 
 subsequent treatment ; giddiness, stupor, and paralytic symp- 
 toms succeed if a fatal termination is impending. The inter- 
 ference by pharmacists is usually limited to reassuring the 
 attendants and giving an emetic and an alkaloidal precipi- 
 tant (tannin) if discovered before the onset of symptoms. 
 Small doses of pilocarpine — 0.01 gm. (^ gr.) — may be given, 
 and the further treatment turned over to a physician, since 
 there is little danger of any immediate fatal ending. In the 
 eye, physostigmine counteracts the action of atropine. In 
 suspected belladonna or atropine poisoning it should not be 
 forgotten that a drop of the urine placed in the eye of a cat 
 affords a ready and simple means of detection through the 
 ensuing dilatation of the pupil. 
 
 RHEUM.-Rhobatfa, 
 
 The root of Eheum officinale Baillon (Nat. Ord. Polygo- 
 nacese). 
 
 The botanic source of rhubarb was long a matter of specu- 
 lation, and even up to the present time no one competent to 
 describe the plant has ever seen it growing in its native 
 region. 
 
 Habitat. — Rhubarb is indigenous to the central and west- 
 ern portions of the Chinese Empire, in Thibet, and in Chinese 
 Tartary. The variety known as Russian rhubarb, formerly 
 found in commerce, also called crown rluibarb, came over- 
 land through Russia, and was subjected to governmental 
 inspection in the latter country, which maintained a monopoly 
 of the trade. The high reputation gained in this way caused 
 the name to remain in use long after the importation by that 
 route ceased. Turkish rhubarb was also designated as such 
 because it came into commerce through Turkey. East India 
 (shipped through Indian ports) or Chinese rhubarb is the 
 kind now generally seen in commerce. Attempts to cultivate 
 
22 ROOTS. 
 
 the plant in Europe have not resulted in producing a good 
 quality of the root. 
 
 Description. — " In cylindric, conic, or flattish segments, deprived of the 
 dark-brown corky layer, smoothish or somewhat wrinkled, exteiTially cov- 
 ered with a bright yellowish-brown powder, marked with white, elongated 
 meshes, containing a white, rather spongy tissue, and a number of short, 
 reddish-brown or brownish-yellow striae ; compact, hard ; fracture uneven ; 
 internally white, with numerous red, irregularly curved and interrupted 
 medullary rays, which are radially pai-allel only near the cambium line ; 
 odor somewhat peculiar, aromatic; taste bitter, somewhat astringent." — 
 U, S. P. 
 
 Stxidy and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 odor and color. 
 
 Adulteration. — The rhubarb found in cubes, fingers, or 
 transverse slices is usually genuine, and good uncut roots are 
 readily obtainable ; but the powder is very often adulterated. 
 The microscope is the best means of detecting this sophistica- 
 tion. Turmeric may be detected by percolating the powder 
 with chloroform, dropping the percolate upon borax and dry- 
 ing, then moistening w'ith hydrochloric acid ; an orange color 
 results if turmeric is present. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Chrysophanic acid, emodin, rhein (all 
 closely related chemically and constituting the cathartic prin- 
 ciples of the root), bitter resins, erythroretin, phaeoretin, and 
 aporetin, tannin (rheotannic acid), starch, etc., calcium oxalate 
 (in notable quantities), etc. (see p. 365). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Rhubarb belongs to the group of drugs 
 which produce catharsis by reason of the irritation which 
 they cause in the intestine, a fact which should be borne in 
 mind when inflammation already exists. Rhubarb is also 
 astringent because of its rheotannic acid ; this principle is 
 said to be destroyed by torrefaction. The purgative action 
 is exhibited in about eight hours. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3-1.5 gm. (5-22 gr.). The official 
 preparations of rhubarb are more numerous than those of any 
 other vegetable drug, affiarding a wide range of choice for 
 administration. 
 
 IPECACUANHA-Ipecac. 
 
 The root of Cephaelis Ipecacuanha (Brotero), A. Richard 
 (Nat. Ord. Rubiacese). 
 
OLYGYRRHIZA. 23 
 
 Habitat. — Northern part of South America. 
 
 Desaiption. — " About 10 cm. long and 4 or 5 mm. thick ; mostly simple, 
 contorted, dull grayish-brown or blackish, finely wrinkled ; closely and 
 irregularly annulated, and often transversely Assured ; bark thick, brittle, 
 brownish, easily separated from the thin, whitish, tough, ligneous portion ; 
 odor slight, peculiar, nauseous ; taste bitterish, acrid, nauseating." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the very thick bark, no medullary rays, no bast-fibers, no 
 vessels. 
 
 Striated ipecac is longitudinally wrinkled but not annu- 
 lated ; undulated ipecac does not show the close annulation ; 
 white ipecac has a porous wood (vessels). The stems are 
 sometimes found to constitute nearly 10 per cent, of the root. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — The alkaloids, emetine and cephaeline, 
 are the active principles ; a third alkaloid, psychotrine, is 
 present in small amounts ; ipecacuanhic acid (related to the 
 tannin of coflPee), resin, much starch, and a few bundles of 
 raphides of calcium oxalate. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Emetic in large doses ; stomachic, nau- 
 seant, and expectorant in smaller doses. Very minute doses 
 combined with calomel lessen the nausea caused by that drug. 
 Also used in dy.sentery. 
 
 Average Dose. — As emetic, 0.05—0.10 gm. (-f— l-^- gr.); in 
 the form of syrup, 0.3—2 c.c. (5-30 min.), frequently re- 
 peated, for children ; for an adult, 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.) of 
 powder or the fluid extract in warm water ; as nauseant, 
 0.01-0.05 gm. (^—1 gr.), repeated as required ; as expectorant, 
 same as preceding, less frequently repeated. 
 
 GLYCYRRHIZ A,- Glycyrrhiza— Liquorice Root. 
 
 The root of Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn6, and of the variety 
 glandulifera (Waldstein et Kittaibel), Regel et Herder (Nat. 
 Ord. Leguminosse). 
 
 Habitat. — Southern Europe, also cultivated to some extent 
 in the United States. 
 
 Description. — " In long, cylindric pieces, from 5 to 25 mm. thick, longitu- 
 dinally wrinkled, externally grayish-brown, warty ; internally tawny-yellow ; 
 pliable, tough ; fracture coai-sely fibrous ; bark rather thick ; wood porous, 
 but dense, in narrow wedges ; medullary i-ays linear ; taste sweet, somewhat 
 acrid."— U. S. P. 
 
24 ROOTS. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. The under- 
 ground stem has a pith, but otherwise resembles the root. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Glycyrrhizin, glycyramarin (bitter), 
 starch. 
 
 Ther-apeutia Use. — Flavor, demulcent and expectorant. 
 Its preparations, the syrup and the fluid extract, are exten- 
 sively used for masking the taste of quinine. 
 
 Note that the compound liquorice powder does not owe its 
 laxative properties to liquorice. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-3 gm. (30—45 gr.) in syrup or fluid 
 extract. 
 
 SENEGA,— Senega. 
 
 The root of Polygala Senega Linu6 (Nat. Ord. Polygaleae). 
 
 Habitat. — Its name indicates its use by the Seneca In- 
 dians, hence indigenous to the United States, rather widely 
 distributed. Southern senega (the ofiicial variety) comes from 
 the region south of Lake Erie and east of the Mississippi 
 River and Missouri. 
 
 Description. — " About 10 cm. long, witli a very knotty crown, and spread- 
 ing, tortuous branches, keeled when dry, fleshy and round after having been 
 soaked in water ; externally yellowish-gray or brownish-yellow ; bark thick, 
 whitish within, inclosing an irregular, porous, yellowish wood ; odor slight, 
 but unpleasant ; taste sweetish, afterward acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 knotty crown, keel, color, and taste. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — A glucosidal saponin called polygalic 
 acid and senegin by different investigators ; true polygalic 
 acid is present and differs slightly from senegin ; a little vola- 
 tile oil ; neither starch nor tannin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Nauseant, expectorant, emetic (in large 
 doses). 
 
 Average Dose. — ^While the dose of senega is usually stated 
 as 0.3-1 gm. (5-15 gr.), it is usually employed in smaller 
 amounts for its expectorant action ; given in syrup. Various 
 species of polygala have been substituted. 
 
 A number of roots and rhizomes, including ginseng, cypri- 
 pedium, valerian, and others have been found admixed, due 
 to carelessness in collecting. 
 
GENTIAN A- TARAXACUM. 25 
 
 GENTIANA.— Gentian. 
 
 Tlie root of Gentiana lutea Linn^ (Nat. Ord. Gentianese). 
 
 Habitat. — Central and southern Europe, especially in the 
 
 mountainous portions. 
 
 Description. — " In nearly cylindric pieces or longitudinal slices, about 
 25 mm. thick, the upper portion closely annulate, the lower portion 
 longitudinally wrinkled ; externally deep yellowish-brown ; internally 
 lighter; somewhat flexible and tough when damp; rather brittle when 
 dry ; fracture uneven ; the bark rather thick, separated from the somewhat 
 spongy meditullium by a black cambium line ; odor peculiar, faint, more prom- 
 inent when moistened ; taste sweetish and persistently bitter." — TJ. S. P. 
 
 Study and descrihe as suggested on p. 1 7. Especially note 
 the odor, taste, and irregular dark circle, corresponding to 
 the junction of bark and central cylinder (cambium). 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Gentiopicrin (bitter principle of the 
 root) and gentisin (resembling tannin in its reaction with 
 ferric chlorid). No starch. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Belongs to the simple bitters, mainly 
 useful for stimulating digestion and improving the appetite. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—2 gm. (15—30 gr.). Mostly used in the 
 form of the solid or "fluid extract. 
 
 TARAXACUM.— Taraxac«m.— Dandelion. 
 
 The root of Taraxacum officinale Weber (Nat. Ord. Com- 
 positse), gathered in autumn. 
 
 Habitat. — Growing widely in Europe and naturalized in 
 
 North America. 
 
 Description.—" Slightly conical, about 30 cm. long and 1 or 2 cm. thick 
 above, crowned with several short, thickish heads, somewhat branched, dark 
 brown, longitudinally wrinkled ; when dry breaking with a short fracture, 
 showing a yellowish, porous central axis, suiTOunded by a thick, white bark, 
 containing numerous milk-vessels arranged in concentric circles ; inodorous, 
 bitter."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 thickness of bark, dark circles due to lacticiferous vessels in 
 bark. Absence of medullary rays. - 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Taraxacin (crystalline, bitter, soluble 
 in water and alcohol). In the spring the root contains uncry- 
 stallizable sugar, which is largely replaced in autumn by 
 inulin (more than 20 per cent.). (For extraction of inulin, 
 see p. 288.) No starch. 
 
26 ROOTS. 
 
 Therapeutio Use. — To improve the digestion, which it 
 deranges if its use be prolonged. 
 
 Average Dose. — 5 gm. (75 gr.), usually given in liquid 
 form or as solid extract. 
 
 PYRETHRUM.— Pyrethmm— Pellitofy. 
 The root of Anacyclus Pyrethrum (Linn6) De Candolle 
 (Nat. Ord. Compositse). 
 
 Habitat. — Neighborhood of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Description. — " From 5 to 10 cm. long, and 1 to 2 cm. thick, somewhat fusi- 
 form, nearly simple, annulate above, wrinkled below ; externally dark gray- 
 ish-brown ; internally brownish- white ; fracture short ; bark rather thick, con- 
 taining two circles of resin-cells, and surrounding the slender wood-bundles 
 and medullary rays, the latter having about four circles of shining resin- 
 cells ; inodorous, pungent, and very acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 two circles in the bark and four in the central cylinder, 
 formed by resin receptacles. Medullary rays and wood 
 bundles about equal. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Acrid resins and fixed oils ; very large 
 percentage of inulin. No starch. 
 
 T/ierapeutio Use. — Sialagogue, irritant. Little used by 
 educated physicians. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2—4 gm. (30-60 gr.), 
 
 LAPPA.— Burdock. 
 
 The root of Arctium Lappa Linn6, and of some other spe- 
 cies of Arctium (Nat. Ord. Compositse). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe, and widely scattered as a troublesome 
 weed in North America. 
 
 Description. — " About 30 cm. or more long and, in its thickest portion, 
 from 1 to 2 cm. thick ; nearly simple, fusiform, fleshy, longitudinally wrinkled, 
 crowned with a tuft of whitish, soft, hairy leaf-stalks ; gi'ayish-brown, inter- 
 nally paler ; fmcture somewhat horny ; bark rather thick, the inner part 
 and the wood radially striate, the parenchyma free from starch — ^often with 
 cavities lined with white remains of tissue ; odor feeble and unpleasant ; 
 taste mucilaginous, sweetish, and somewhat bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 Chief Constituents. — Mucilage, inulin, etc. Practically all 
 soluble in hot water. 
 
APOCYNUM—STILLINGIA. 27 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Very little action ; used in domestic 
 practice as an addition to purgative mixtures. 
 Average Dose. — 4 gm. (60 gr.), in liquid form. 
 
 APOCYNUM.— Canadian Hemp. 
 
 The root of Apocynum cannabinum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Apo- 
 cynacese). 
 
 Habitat. — The United States. 
 
 Desci-ipti-on. — "Long, cylindric, somewhat branched, 5 to 10 mm. thick, 
 gray or brownish-gray, longitudinally wrinkled and transvereely fissured ; 
 brittle ; fracture short, white ; the bark rather thick ; the wood porous, 
 spongy, with delicate, medullary ravs ; inodorous ; taste bitter, disagree- 
 able."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Note. — Apocynum androssemifolium is very commonly sold 
 in place of the above. For detection, see microscopic exami- 
 nation. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Resin, apocynin, apocynein (probably 
 representing the activities of the root), tannin, and starch. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — As a cardiac tonic and diuretic (like dig- 
 italis). 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.25 gm. (4 gr.). As emetic, 1-2 gm. 
 (15—30 gr.) in warm water. 
 
 STILLINGIA.—Staimgia.— Queen's Root. 
 
 The root of Stillingia sylvatica Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Euphor- 
 biacese). 
 
 Habitat. — The southern part of the United States. 
 
 Description.—" About 30 cm. long, and nearly 5 cm. thick, subcylindric, 
 slightly branched, compact, wrinkled, tough, grayish-brown, breaking with 
 a fibrous fracture, showing a thick bark and porous wood, the inner bark 
 and medullary rays having numerous yellowish-brown resin-cells ; odor 
 peculiar, unpleasant ; taste bitter, acrid, and pungent." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Pungent resin ; fixed and volatile oils, 
 gum, tannin, and starch. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Used, particularly in domestic medi- 
 cine, as an addition to purgative mixtures ; also as a nau- 
 seant and emetic. 
 
28 BOOTS. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1 gm. (15 gr.); as emetic, 2—5 gm. (30— 
 75 gr.), but not often employed for this purpose. 
 
 SUMBUL— Sumbal. 
 Tiie root of Ferula Sumbul (Kauffmann) Hooker filius 
 (Nat. Ord. UmbelliferEe). 
 
 Habitat. — Eastern Siberia and central Asia. 
 
 Descnption. — " In transverse segments, varying in diameter from about 
 2 to 7 cm. , and in length from 15 to 30 mm. ; light, spongy, annulate or lon- 
 gitudinally wrinkled ; bark thin, brown, more or less bristly fibrous ; the 
 interior whitish, with numerous brownish-yellow resin-dots and irregu- 
 lar easily separated fibers ; odor strong, musk-like ; taste bitter and bal- 
 samic."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 spongy texture and odor. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Resin, to which the musk-like odor 
 is due ; very little bluish volatile oil, several acids, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — As a nerve-stimulant and in hysteric 
 conditions. Name of " musk root " from its odor, and use 
 as a substitute for that drug. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1 gm. (15 gr.) preferably in extract or fluid 
 extract. 
 
 PHYTOLACCAE RADIX.— Phytolacca Root —Poke Root. 
 
 The root of Phytolacca decandra Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Phyto- 
 laccacese). 
 
 Habitat. — North America, very widely distributed ; also 
 introduced into Europe. 
 
 Description. — " Large, conic, biunched, and fleshy ; mostly in transverse 
 or longitudinal slices, wrinkled, grayish, hard ; fracture fibrous, the wood- 
 bundles in seveiul distinct, concentric circles ; inodorous ; taste sweetish and 
 acrid."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the numerous concentric layers of wood-wedges. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — E,esin, a volatile acid, starch, tannin, 
 and mucilage. The active principle is not known. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Popularly used in rheumatism. Large 
 doses are emetic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
ALTH^A—CALUMBA. 29 
 
 ALTHAEA.— Althaea.— Marshmallow. 
 
 The root of Althaea officinalis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Malvaceae). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe, and naturalized in the United States ; 
 
 found occasionally in the salt marshes of the Atlantic sea-coast. 
 
 Description. — " In cylindric or somewhat conic pieces, from 10 to 15 cm. 
 long, 10 to 15 mm. in diameter, deeply wrinkled ; deprived of the brown, 
 corky layer and small roots ; externally white, marked with a number of cir- 
 cular spots, and of a somewhat hairy appearance from the loosened bast- 
 fibers ; internally whitish and fleshy. It breaks with a short, granular, and 
 mealy fracture, has a faint, aromatic odor, and a sweetish, mucilaginous 
 taste."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Young bella- 
 donna root may be accidentall}' admixed, but lacks the 
 numerous bast-fibers found in marshmallow. Especially note 
 the hairy-looking bast-fiber groups on the surface of the 
 peeled root ; very mucilaginous taste ; and mass of bast- 
 fibers left in mouth after chewing. 
 
 Chief Constituents, — Mucilage and starch, both very abun- 
 dant, together constituting two-thirds of the dried root; 
 sugar, pectin, and small amount of asparagin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Demulcent. Used in confectionery. 
 
 Average Dose. — Ad libitum, preferably used in syrup. 
 
 CALUMBA.— Calumfaa.— Colamfao. 
 
 The root of Jateorhiza palmata (Lamarck) Miers (Nat. 
 Ord. Menispermacese). 
 Habitat. — East Africa. 
 
 Description. — " In nearly circular disks, 3 to 6 cm. in diameter, externally 
 greenish-brown and wrinkled ; internally yellowish or grayish-yellow, 
 depressed in the center, with a few interrupted circles of projecting wood- 
 bundles, distinctly radiate in the outer portion ; fracture short, mealy ; odor 
 slight ; taste mucilaginous, slightly aromatic, very bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 yellowish color of clean pieces (due t« berberine) ; also the 
 projecting' points of wood-fibers in the central portion. 
 
 Chief ConMituents. — Berberine (yellow alkaloid), columbin 
 (white), starch, etc. No tannin. Alcohol extracts medicinal 
 properties and leaves the inert constituents behind. 
 
 Therapeutic Uae. — One of the simple bitters, the value 
 being enhanced by the absence of tannin. 
 
30 BOOTS. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.), best in form of 
 tincture. 
 
 GELSEMIUM.—Gebemiam.— Yellow Jasmine. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Gelsemium sempervirens (Linn6) 
 
 Persoon (Nat. Ord. Loganiacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Southern part of the United States. 
 
 Description. — " Cylindric, long, or cut in sections, mostly from 5 to 15 mm. 
 and occasionally 3 cm. thick, the roots much thinner ; externally light yel- 
 lowish-brown, with purplish-brown, longitudinal lines ; tough ; fracture 
 splintery ; bark thin, with silky bast-fibers, closely adhering to the pale 
 yellowish, porous wood, which has fine, meduUaiy rays, and in the rhizome 
 a thin pith ; odor aromatic, heavy ; taste bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the hard yellow wood, wedge-shaped medullary rays ; jessa- 
 mine odor ; wiry rootlets. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — A volatile oil ; several alkaloids, of 
 which the most important is gelseminine ; resin, and starch. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The action of gelseminine very closely 
 resembles that of eoniine and nicotine ; applied locally to the 
 eye, it causes dilatation of the pupil. Gelsemine somewhat 
 resembles strychnine in its action, though very much weaker. 
 Gelseminine acts as an antipyretic, depressing the action of 
 the heart. It has been recommended in a very great variety 
 of complaints, but is not used extensively by physicians. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3—0.6 gm. (5-10 gr.), as fluid extract 
 or tincture. Gelseminine, 0.0005—0.002 gm. {yyts~t^ S^O" 
 
 PAREIRA.— Pareira.— Pareira Brava. 
 
 The root of Chondodendron tomentosum, Ruiz et Pavon 
 
 (Nat. Ord. Menispermacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Brazil. 
 
 Description. — " In subcylindric, somewhat tortuous, pieces, about 10 to 15 
 cm. long, vaiTing in thickness from 2 to 10 cm. ; externally dark brownish- 
 gray, with transverse ridges and fissures and longitudinal furrows ; internally 
 pale brown, and, when freshly cut, having a waxy luster ; bark thin ; wood 
 porous, in two or more somewhat irregularly concentric circles, with rather 
 large medullary rays, and no distinct central pith ; inodorous; taste bitter." 
 — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the exceedingly hard wood ; waxy luster when cut ; con- 
 
KRAMEBIA — INULA. 31 
 
 centric circles in the wood ; vessels distinctly visible to the 
 naked eye. One false pareira was found to yield much less 
 fat than the official (8 per cent, in the latter). The micro- 
 scopic examination and the pharmacopeial descriptions suffice 
 to exclude sophistications. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — An alkaloid, fat, starch, and tannin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Pareira is classed among the simple 
 bitters and is also used as a diuretic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.) in infusion or fluid 
 extract. 
 
 KRAMERIA.— Krametia.— Riatany. 
 
 The root of Krameria triandra Ruiz et Pavon, and of 
 Krameria Ixina Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Polygalese). 
 
 Habitat. — Northern and northwestern part of South 
 America. 
 
 Description. — " From 1 to 3 cm. thick, knotty and several-headed above, 
 branched below, the branches long ; bark smooth or, in the thinner pieces, 
 scaly, deep rust-brown, 1 to 2 mm. thick ; very astringent, inodorous ; wood 
 pale brownish-red, tough, with fine medullary rays, nearly tasteless. 
 
 "The root of Krameria Ixina (Savanilla rhatany) is less knotty and 
 more slender, and has a dark purplish-brown bark, about 3 mm. thick." — 
 U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 color and marked astringency and toughness of root. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Tannin (20 per cent, krameriotannic 
 acid — differing somewhat in their reactions for the two 
 species), coloring-matter (somewhat reddish), and starch. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Astringent, especially in diarrhea. 
 
 Average Dose. — ^0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.), in liquid form or 
 extract. 
 
 EMULA. — Inula.— Elecampane. 
 
 The root of Inula Helenium Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Compositse). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and extensively in the United States. 
 
 Deseription. — " In transverse, concave slices or longitudinal sections, with 
 overlapping bark, externally wrinkled and brown ; flexible in damp weather ; 
 when dry, breaking with a short fracture ; internally grayish, fleshy, slightly 
 radiate, and dotted with numerous shining, yellowish-brown resin-cells ; free 
 from starch ; odor peculiar, aromatic ; taste bitter and pungent." — TJ. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 1 7. Especially note 
 odor, camphoraceous and orris-like. 
 
32 BOOTS. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Little vqlatile oil, resin, and bitter 
 principle. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Irritant. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-8 gm. (30-120 gr.). 
 
 ASCLEPIAS.—Asclepia5.— Pleurisy Root. 
 
 The root of Asclepias tuberosa Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Asclepi- 
 adeae). 
 
 Habitat. — The eastern part of the United States. 
 
 Description. — "Root large and fusifom, dried in longitudinal or trans- 
 verse sections, from 2 to 15 cm. long, and about 2 cm. or more in thickness ; 
 the head knotty, and slightly but distinctly annulate, the remainder longi- 
 tudinally wrinkled ; externally orange-brown, internally whitish ; tough, 
 and having an uneven fracture ; bark thin and in two distinct layers, the 
 inner one whitish ; wood yellowish, with large, white medullary rays. It 
 is inodorous, and has a bitterLsh, somewhat acrid taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the dense, thin outer portion of bark of orange color, and 
 the white inner bark. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Resin, bitter principle. 
 
 TherapeuliG Use. — One of its synonyms indicates its popu- 
 lar employment for pleurisy. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.). 
 
 BRYONIA.— Bryonia.— Bryony. 
 
 The root of Bryonia alba, and of Bryonia dioica Linn4 
 (Nat. Ord. Cucurbitacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Central and southern Europe. 
 
 Description. — "In transveree sections about 5 cm. in diameter, the bark 
 gray-brown, rough, thin, the central portion whitish or grayish, with nu- 
 merous, small, projecting wood-bundles arranged in circles and radiating 
 lines ; fracture short ; inodorous ; taste disagreeably bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the thin sections of very white, or yellowish, root of large 
 diameter. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Bryonin, a bitter glucosid. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Emmenagogue and drastic cathartic, 
 used with other purgatives. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5—4 gm. (8-60 gr.). 
 
RUMEX—SARSAPARILLA. -33 
 
 RU]VffiX.—Romex.— Yellow Dock. 
 
 The root of Rumex crispus Linii6, aud of some other 
 species of Rumex (Nat. Ord. Polygonacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and abundant in the United States. 
 
 Description. — "From 20 to 30 cm. long, about 10 to 15 mm. thick, some- 
 what fusiform, flesby, nearly simple, annulate above, deeply wrinkled 
 below ; externally rusty brown, internally whitish, with fine, sti-aight, in- 
 terrupted, leddlsb, medullary luys, and a rather thick bark ; fracture short ; 
 odor slight, peculiar ; taste bitter and astringent." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 Chief Gonstituentn. — Tannin, chrysophanic acid. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Astringent and laxative, somewhat re- 
 sembling rhubarb, to which, however, it is inferior. 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15—60 gr.). 
 
 S ARSAPARILLA.- Sar saparilla. 
 
 The root of Smilax officinalis Kunth ; Smilax medica 
 Chamisso et Schlechtendal ; Smilax papyracea Duhamel ; 
 and of other undetermined species, of Smilax (Nat. Ord. 
 Liliacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Mexico, Central America, northern part of 
 South America, and the West Indies. The different com- 
 mercial varieties are packed in characteristic bundles. 
 
 Description. — " About 4 or 5 mm. thick, very long, cylindrical, longitudi- 
 nally wrinkled, externally grayish-brown or orange-brown ; interaally show- 
 ing a whitish and mealy, or somewhat horny, cortical layer, surrounding a 
 circular wood-zone, the latter inclosing a broad pith ; nearly inodorous ; 
 taste mucilaginous, bitterish, and acrid. 
 
 " The thick, woody, knotty, ihizome, if present, should be removed." — 
 U. S. P. 
 
 8tudy and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Saponins (glucosids), considerable con- 
 fusion existing in regard to their nomenclature ; the least 
 active is termed smilacin or parillin ; starch, and raphides 
 of calcium oxalate. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — It is very little employed by intelligent 
 physicians, but popularly regarded as a remedy in conditions 
 attended with eruptions of the skin. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2 c.c. (30 min.) of the fluid extract or its 
 equivalent in syrup. 
 
34 
 
 ROOTS. 
 UNOFFICIAL ROOTS.' 
 
 Name. 
 
 Where 
 Found. 
 
 Chief 
 Constituent. 
 
 Tlierapeutio 
 Use. 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Abrus 
 
 (A. precatorius). 
 Alkanna (Alkanet) 
 
 {A. tinctoria). 
 Angelica 
 
 (Archangelica offici- 
 nalis). 
 Angelica 
 
 Atropurpurea. 
 Apocynum 
 
 Audrosaemifolium. 
 
 Armoraeia (Horserad- 
 ish) 
 
 (Cochlearia). 
 Baptisia (Wild Indigo) 
 
 (B. tinctoria). 
 Berberis (Barberry) 
 
 (B. vulgaris). 
 Ceanothus 
 
 (C. Americanus). 
 Cichoria (Chicory) 
 
 (C. iutybus). 
 Euphorbia 
 
 Ipecacuanha. 
 
 Euphorbia corallata. 
 
 Frasera (American Co- 
 lumbo) 
 (P. Walteri) 
 (F. Carolinensis). 
 Pyrethrum Germani- 
 cum 
 (Anacyclus offici- 
 nalis). 
 Hemidesmus (Indian 
 Sarsaparilla) 
 (H. Indicus). 
 Heuchera (Alum Root) 
 
 (H. Americana). 
 Hydrangea 
 
 (H. arboreacens). 
 Imperatoria (Master- 
 wort) 
 (I. Ostruthium). 
 Ipomcea pandurata 
 
 (Wild Jalap). 
 Laserpitium (White Gen- 
 tian) 
 jL. officinale). 
 Levisticum 
 
 (L. officinale). 
 Methysticum 
 
 (Piper M.). 
 
 India. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 Northern 
 United 
 
 States. 
 Europe. 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 Europe. 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 Europe. 
 
 Eastern 
 United 
 
 States. 
 United 
 
 States. 
 United 
 
 States. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 East India, 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 United 
 
 States. 
 Europe. 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 Central 
 Europe. 
 
 Southern 
 Europe. 
 
 South Sea 
 Islands. 
 
 Glycyrrhizin. 
 
 Coloring- 
 matter. 
 
 Resin, volatile 
 oil. 
 
 Resin, volatile 
 oil. 
 
 Resin and bit- 
 ter principle. 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Acrid prin- 
 ciple. 
 Berberine. 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 Resins. 
 
 Resins. 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 Acrid resin 
 and bitter 
 principle. 
 
 Sapotoxin. 
 
 Tannin. 
 Resin. 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 acrid prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 Resm. 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Acrid resin. 
 
 Demulcent. 
 
 To color prep- 
 arations. 
 
 Carminative, 
 stomachic . 
 
 Carminative, 
 stomachic. 
 Cathartic. 
 
 Irritant. 
 
 Cathartic. 
 Simple bitter. 
 Astringent. 
 Simple bitter. 
 Emetic. 
 
 Emetic. 
 Simple bitter. 
 
 Irritant. 
 
 Alterative. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 Diuretic. 
 
 Stimulant. 
 
 Cathartic. 
 Simple bitter. 
 
 Carminative. 
 Stimulant. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 2gm. (SOgr.). 
 Igm. (1,5 gr.). 
 
 Externally. 
 
 1 gm. (l.'i gr.). 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 1 gm. (15 gr.). 
 
 1 gm. (15 gr.). 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 2 gm, (30 gr.). 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 ' The unimportant drugs given in the tables following the official are 
 considered very briefly, and certain facts should be borne in mind : thus, 
 the dose given is the' ordinary maximum dose, though not necessarily near 
 the poisonous ; further, it should be remembered that emetic drugs in gen- 
 eral may be used as expectorants, irritants for diuretics, astringents for 
 tonics, etc. 
 
UNOFFICIAL ROOTS. 
 
 35 
 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituent. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Dose. 
 
 PlmpincUa 
 
 (P. saxifraga). 
 
 Central 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Stimulant. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 Europe. 
 
 resin. 
 
 
 
 Petrosellnum (Parsley) 
 
 Southern 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Emmena- 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (P. sativum). 
 
 Europe. 
 
 
 gogue. 
 
 
 Ehaponticum 
 
 (Rheum rhapontl- 
 
 Europe 
 
 Tannin and 
 
 Astringent 
 
 3 gm. (45 gr.). 
 
 and Asia. 
 
 resins. 
 
 and laxative. 
 
 
 cum). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eubia (Madder) 
 
 Levant. 
 
 Coloring- 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (R. tinctoriim). 
 
 
 matter. 
 
 
 
 Saponaria (Soapwort) 
 
 Southern 
 
 Saponin, mu- 
 
 Alterative, 
 
 
 (S. officinalis). 
 
 Europe. 
 
 cilage. 
 
 detergent. 
 
 
 Scopola 
 
 Closely re- 
 
 
 
 
 (S. carniolica). 
 
 sembles 
 bella- 
 donna. 
 
 
 
 
 Statice 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (S. limoulum). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 Symphytum rComfrey) 
 (S. officinale). 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Mucilage, tan- 
 
 Demulcent. 
 
 16 gm. 04 oz.). 
 
 
 nin. 
 
 
 
 Vetiver 
 
 East 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Mostly as per- 
 
 
 (Andropogon muri- 
 oatus). 
 
 India. 
 
 resin. 
 
 fume. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTEK II. 
 TUBERS, CORMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES. 
 
 Tubers are underground stems, devoid of leaves, and serv- 
 ing as storage receptacles. The terms tuber and tuberous 
 root are so often used indiscriminately that either term may 
 be employed. Jalap and aconite, the only official tubers, are 
 sometimes called roots (jalap being defined as a tuberous 
 root by the United States Pharmacopoeia, aconite as a root 
 by the British). Tubers and corms are likewise closely re- 
 lated morphologically. A corm is defined as a thickened 
 underground stem partaking of the characters of both a 
 tuber and a bulb. This, too, is often inaccurately termed 
 root ; colchicum, the only official example, being called col- 
 chici radix. A bulb consists of very fleshy leaves, closely 
 crowded together, and infolding the base of the stem. 
 
 TUBERS. 
 
 JALAPA.— Jalapa. 
 
 The tuberous root of Ipomoea Jalapa Nuttall (Nat. Ord. 
 Con vol vulacese) . 
 
 Much confusion has existed with regard to the generic 
 name of the plant yielding this drug ; it has been variously 
 attributed to Convolvulus, Mirabilis, Exogonium, and, finally, 
 Ipomoea. 
 
 Habitat. — Eastern Mexico. 
 
 Desa-iption. — " Napiform, pyriforra, or oblong, varying in size ; the large 
 roots incised, more or less wrinkled, dark brown, with lighter-colored spots 
 and shoi't, transverse lidges ; hard, compact, internally pale grayish-bi-own, 
 with numerous concentric circles, composed of small resin-cells ; fracture 
 resinous, not fibrous ; odor slight, but peculiar — smoky and sweetish ; taste 
 sweetish and acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 
 36 
 
ACONITUM. 37 
 
 the dense, hard, dark, globular tubers, not collapsed nor 
 light in weight ; smoky odor. 
 
 Tampico jalap often closely resembles the genuine in ap- 
 pearance, but is usually longer, smaller, somewhat collapsed, 
 and lacks the transverse scars always found upon the official. 
 Mirabilis Jalapa is detected by microscopic examination (see 
 p. -256). Fusiform jalap yields a resin wholly soluble in 
 ether. Other false jalaps or substitutions are different in 
 shape, lighter of weight, or have less resin, or more which is 
 ether-soluble. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Two resins — jalapin, soluljle in ether ; 
 and convolvulin, insoluble in ether ; the latter is present in 
 much the larger proportion ; both are found in the official 
 resin of jalap. The two resins are present in quantities vary- 
 ing from 12 per cent, to more than 20 percent. Much sugar, 
 some starch etc., are also present. 
 
 " On exhausting 100 parts of jalap with alcohol, concentrating the tinc- 
 ture to 40 parts, and pouring it into water, a precipitate of resin should be 
 obtained which, when washed with water and dried, should weigh not less 
 than 12 parts, and of which not over 10 per cent, should be soluble in 
 ether."— tJ. S. P. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Hydragogue cathartic ; its action is 
 greatly increased by being combined with potassium bitar- 
 trate. Considerable nausea attends its use, which may be 
 obviated by treating the powder or resin with ether (remov- 
 ing the jaiapin) without impairing its cathartic action. It 
 forms an efficient purgative to be used after oleoresin of 
 aspidium, the copious stool helping to sweep away the loos- 
 ened parasite. Jalap acts in about three hours ; this should 
 be taken into account in timing its administration. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.), in the compound 
 jalap powder (jalap and potassium bitartrate [1-4 gm. 
 (15-60 gr.)]). It is often given with calomel. Of the 
 resin, 0.06-0.3 gm. (1-5 gr.). The extract is somewhat 
 weaker, and is given in doses of from 0.12-0.5 gm. (2-8 gr.). 
 
 ACONITUM.— Aconite. 
 
 The tuber of Aconitum Napellus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Ran- 
 unculacese). 
 
38 TUBERS, CORMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES. 
 
 Habitat. — Central and southwestern Europe, the Himalaya 
 Mountains, and Siberia. Cultivated as an ornamental plant 
 in Europe and the United States. 
 
 Description. — ^"Frora 10 to 20 mm. thick at the crown; conically con- 
 tracted below ; from 50 to 75 mm. long, with scare or fragments of radicles ; 
 dark brown externally ; whitish internally ; with a rather thick bark, the 
 central axis about seven-rayed ; without odor ; taste at first sweetish, soon 
 becoming acrid, and producing a sensation of tingling and numbness, which 
 lasts for some time." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the conical tubers, very hard, dense ; tingling sensation upon 
 chewing (cautiously) ; the seven rays or points in the pith. 
 
 Substitutions. — A European aconite has but five rays in the 
 pith and is globular-ovate in shape. Japanese and Chinese 
 aconites often show a circular or elliptic pith (may be seven- 
 rayed), napiform or elongated tubers. An Indian aconite is 
 not acrid when chewed, pith and shape of tuber differing 
 from the official. Another Indian species is exceedingly 
 acrid and poisonous, containing principally pseudaconitine. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Aconite owes its action to a number 
 of alkaloids, of which aconitine is the most important. Com- 
 mercial aconitiue consists of true aconitine, pseudaconitine, 
 aconine, pseudaconine, and picraconitine, in such variable 
 proportions that its strength varies enormously. Even the 
 so-called pure aconitines are not identical. Crystalline aconi- 
 tine is exceedingly poisonous, the maximal dose being 0.0003 
 gm. (-j^Tj- gi"-)- None of these alkaloids are suited for in- 
 ternal use. The total alkaloids present in the tuber consti- 
 tute about 0.07 per cent. Resin and sugar are present. 
 Aconitine and pseudaconitine are regarded by F. Mandelin 
 as the most virulent of all vegetable or mineral poisons. All 
 parts of the aconite plant are poisonous. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Aconite is used in certain fevers, as in 
 colds and in facial neuralgia. Locally in neuralgias and in 
 rheumatism, producing local irritation followed by anesthesia. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.06—0.12 gm. (1—2 gr.), preferably in 
 tincture (U. S. P., 0.03 to 0.3 c.c. = i to 5 min.) diluted 
 largely with water. Of the extract, 0.006—0.015 gm. (y^^- 
 ^ gr.). As previously stated, the alkaloids should not be 
 
COLCHICI RADIX. 39 
 
 used internally, and, indeed, have no advantage over the 
 fluid extract or liniment for external use. So many fatalities 
 have occurred through the use of aconite, and its action is 
 so rapid, that pharmacists should know the more prominent 
 symptoms of poisoning by it and the first aid to be extended. 
 Very large doses have proved almost instantly fatal. In dan- 
 gerous doses, tingling in the mouth and throat is first noticed, 
 becoming more extended ; saliva flows freely ; burning pain 
 in the stomach, with nausea and attempts to vomit ; or vomit- 
 ing and diarrhea. The pulse at different stages is slow and 
 feeble, or exceedingly rapid and irregular; anesthesia suc- 
 ceeds the burning pain ; the pupils are usually dilated ; the 
 skiu becomes cold ; convulsions often occur. This train of 
 symptoms may begin at once and rarely after an hour, death 
 occuring in from two to six hours. 
 
 The first aid, pending the arrival of the physician, consists 
 in the administration of emetics and strong tea and brandy, 
 and in the local application of heat, hot-water bags, etc. 
 
 COLCHia RADIX.— Colchicam Root. 
 
 The corm of Colchicum autumnale Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Lili- 
 acese. 
 
 Habitat. — Europe. 
 
 Description. — '• About 25 mm. long, ovoid, flatfish, and with a groove on 
 one side ; externally brownish and wrinkled; interaally, white and solid ; 
 often in transverse slices, reniform in shape, and breaking with a short, 
 mealy fracture ; inodorous ; taste sweetish, bitter, and somewhat acrid." — 
 U. S. P. 
 
 tStudy and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 CAte/" Constituents. — Colchicine (not crystallizable) 0.5 per 
 cent. ; colchiceine (crystalline) ; the latter is obtained from 
 the former by heating with dilute mineral acids ; starch, 
 resin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Mainly in gout and rheumatism. Its 
 action resembles that of aconite, but it produces, in addition, 
 violent intestinal irritability. It is dangerous because of 
 its uncertain toxicity. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.1-0.5 gm. (2-8 gr.) in tincture, wine, 
 or extract ; of colchicine, 0.0005 gm. (yig gr.), but of no 
 
40 TUBERS, CORMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES. 
 
 advantage over the preparation of the conn. The symptoms 
 of poisoning by colchicum are slow to appear and cannot be 
 controlled. Unless the poisoning is discovered before the 
 advent of the symptoms, the pharmacist is not called upon to 
 interfere ; in the former event prompt emesis and alkaloidal 
 precipitants are useful. Pains in the abdomen, vomiting, and 
 diarrhea occur. 
 
 SCILLA.— SquilL 
 
 The bulb of Urginea maritiraa (Linn6) Baker (Nat. Ord. 
 Liliacese), deprived of its dry, membranaceous outer scales, 
 and cut into thin slices, the central portions being rejected. 
 
 Habitat — Southern Europe. 
 
 Description. — " In narrow segments, about 5 cm. long, slightly trans- 
 lucent, yeUowish-white or reddish, brittle and pulvei-izable when diy, 
 tough and flexible after exposure to damp air ; inodorous ; taste mucilagin- 
 ous, bitter and acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Scillitoxin, scillain, and scillipicrin 
 (acting upon the heart), scillin, sinistrin, mucilage, raphides 
 of calcium oxalate. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Squill iu large doses resembles digitalis 
 in its action upon the heart, but it is much more frequently 
 used as a nauseant, expectorant, and diuretic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3 gm. (5 gr.) in syrup as an expectorant 
 or up to 0.6 gm. (10 gr.) as a nauseant. 
 
 RHIZOMES, 
 
 Rhizomes, often incorrectly called roots, are stems which 
 have come to simulate roots to some degree in that they are 
 partly or wholly subterranean. Monocotyledenous rhizomes 
 present a diiFerent histologic structure from that of their 
 roots ; but in Dicotyledons there is less difference between 
 them. In either case they may be recognized as stems by 
 the presence of leaf bases or by their remaining scars. 
 Among the rhizomes are classed a number of drugs consist- 
 ing of the rhizome, together with a number of rootlets, the 
 latter at times even predominating over the former in actual 
 
RHIZOMES. 41 
 
 weight (cypripedium). Several of the rhizomes are charac- 
 terized by few or many saucer-shaped depressions or scars, 
 marking the site from which overground stems had sprung. 
 These may occur only near the nodes, or they may be so 
 crowded as nearly to cover that surface of the organ. Occa- 
 sionally the rootlets spring from the entire surface of the 
 rhizome, but they are usually much more numerous upon the 
 under side, and often most dense near the nodes. The rhi- 
 zome of but one fern is official. All the official rhizomes 
 excepting ginger are found growing in the United States. 
 Rhizomes are to be studied very much after the manner in- 
 dicated on p. 17 for describing roots. Particularly notice 
 the rootlets, whether they are few or numerous, very small or 
 medium in size, whether wiry or not ; their distribution, 
 equally about the rhizome or mostly upon the lower surface, 
 whether along its entire length, as in cypripedium, or aggre- 
 gated mainly at the nodes, as in podophyllum. The sheath- 
 ing leaf-bases and the saucer-shaped depressions marking the 
 point from which the overground stem rose are also to be con- 
 sidered ; the latter may be very numerous or few. 
 The following rhizomes are official : 
 
 Podophyllum. Caulophyllum. 
 
 Valerian. Menispermum. 
 
 Sanguinaria. Leptandra. 
 
 Geranium. Ginger. 
 
 Serpentaria. Calamus. 
 
 Spigelia. Triticum. 
 
 Hydrastis. Veratrum viride. 
 
 Cimicifuga. Cypripedium. 
 
 Arnica. Convallaria. 
 Aspidium. 
 
 The following medicinal rhizomes are not official : 
 
 Aletris. Asclepias incarnata. 
 
 Aralia nudicaulis. Bistort. 
 
 Aralia racemosa.. Black hellebore. 
 
 Asarum. Carex arenaria. 
 
 Asclepias cornuti. Chamselirium. 
 
42 TUBERS, CORMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES. 
 
 Collinsonia. Nymphsea. 
 
 Curcuma. Polygonatum. 
 
 Dioscorea. Skunk cabbage. 
 
 Florentine iris. Smilax China. 
 
 Galanga. Tormentilla. 
 
 Geum rivale. Trillium. 
 
 Geum urbanum. Triosteum. 
 
 Gillenia. Xanthorrhiza. 
 Zedoary. 
 
 PODOPHYLLUM.-PodophyIIam— May Apple. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Podophyllum peltatum Linn6 
 (Nat. Ord. Berberidese). 
 
 Habitat. — North America pretty generally ; also reported 
 as growing in Japan. 
 
 Description. — " Of horizontal growth, consisting of joints about 5 cm. long, 
 flattish cyUndric, about 5 mm. thick, but somewhat enlarged at the end, 
 which has a circular scar on the upper side, a tuft of about ten, nearly simple, 
 fragile roots on the lower side, and is somewhat branched laterally ; smooth 
 or somewhat wrinkled, oi'ange brown, internally white and mealy, with a 
 circle of small wood bundles ; pith large ; nearly inodorous : taste sweetish, 
 somewhat bitter and acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the saucer-shaped scars at nodes ; orange color. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Podophyllotoxin and picropodophyllin 
 (found in the official resin), a green oil, and a resin ; starch. 
 
 Therapeutic. Use. — Hydragogue cathartic (should be com- 
 bined with other cathartics). 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3-1.2 gm. (5—20 gr.) ; of the extract, 
 0.12-0.6 gm. (2-10 gr.) ; of the official resin, 0.008-0.03 
 gm. (f4 gr.). 
 
 VALERIANA.— Valerian. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Valeriana officinalis Linn6 (Nat. 
 Ord. Valerianese). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and naturalized in the United States, 
 growing in damp woods and yielding a larger rhizome with 
 many large rootlets, or in high dry land, yielding a smaller 
 rhizome and few rootlets. Authorities differ as to their rela- 
 tive value. 
 
SANGUINARIA—OEBANIUM. 43 
 
 Description.—" Ehizome from 2 to 4 cm. long and 1 to 2 cm. thick, 
 upright,_subglobular or obconic, truncate at both ends, brown or yellowish- 
 brown, internally whitish or pale brownish, with a narrow circle" of white 
 wood under the thin bark. Roots numerous, slender, brittle, brown, with a 
 thick bark, and slender, ligneous cord. Odor peculiar, becoming stronger 
 and unpleasant on keeping ; taste caraphoraceous and somewhat bitter." — 
 U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Chief Constituents.— Yohtile oil, several acids (the prin- 
 cipal one is valerianic), tannin, resin, a glucosid, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Sedative in hysteria (prohably associ- 
 ated with the odor). 
 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.), in elixir or tincture. 
 
 SANGUINARIA.— Sanguinarla.— Bloodroot. 
 
 The rhizome of Sanguinaria canadensis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Papaveracese), collected in the autumn. 
 Habitat. — United States. 
 
 Description. — "Of horizontal growth, about -5 cm. long and 1 cm. thick, 
 cylindric, somewhat branched, faintly annulate, wrinkled, reddish-brown ; 
 fracture short, somewhat waxy, whitish, ^^'ith numerous small, red resin- 
 cells, or of a nearly uniform, brownish-red color ; bark thin ; odor slight ; 
 taste persistently bitter and acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the red color. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Sanguinarine, chelerythrine, protopine, 
 berberine. Sanguinarine is white, but yields red salts ; resins 
 are also present. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Nauseant expectorant. Sanguinarine 
 resembles opium somewhat in its action. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.06-0.3 gm. (1-5 gr.) in form of tinct- 
 ure or syrup. 
 
 GERANIUM.— Geranium.— CranesfailL 
 
 The rhizome of Geranium maculatum Linne (Nat. Ord. 
 Geraniacese). 
 
 Habitat. — North America. 
 
 Description. — " Of horizontal growth, cylindric, 5 to 7 cm. long; about 
 1 cm. thick ; rather sharply tuberculated, longitudinally wrinkled, dark 
 brown ; fracture short, pale reddish-brown ; bark thin ; wood-wedges yel- 
 
44 TUBERS, COBMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES. 
 
 lowish, small, forming a circle near the cambium line ; medullary rays 
 broad ; central pith large ; roots thin, fragile ; inodorous ; taste strongly 
 astringent."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the tuberculated appearance ; astringent taste. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Tannin (very abundantly in April), 
 col or i n g-matter. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Astringent. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 SERPENTARIA.—Sefpentaria.— Virginia Snafceroot. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Aristolochia Serpentaria Linng 
 and of Aristolochia reticulata Nuttall (Nat. Ord. Aristolochi- 
 aceje). 
 
 Habitat. — Rather widely in the United States, the two 
 species having a somewhat different range. 
 
 Description. — " The rhizome is about 25 mm. long, thin, bent ; on the 
 upper side with approximate, short stem-bases ; on the lower side with 
 numerous, thin, branching roots about 10 cm. long ; dull yellowish-brown, 
 internally whitish ; the wood-i-ays of the rhizome longest on the lower side ; 
 odor aromatic, camphoraceous ; taste warm, bitterish, and caraphoraceous. 
 
 " The roots of Aristolochia reticiUata are coarser, longer, and less inter- 
 laced than those of Aristolochia Serpentaria." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Chief CoThstituents. — Volatile oil, resin, aristolochine (bit- 
 ter), and usual inert constituents. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Belongs to the astringent bitters ; tonic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—2 gm. (15-30 gr.) as tincture or fluid 
 extract. 
 
 SPIGELIA.— Spigelia.— Pinfcroot. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Spigelia marilandica Linn6 
 (Nat. Ord. Loganiacese). 
 
 Habitat. — The" official name and the' synonym, Carolina 
 pink, indicate the region to which it is indigenous, growing 
 south westward to Texas. 
 
 Note. — Phlox Carolina is also known as Carolina pink. 
 
 Description. — " Of horizontal growth, about 5 cm. or more long, 2 or 3 
 mm. thick, dark purplish-brown, bent, somewhat branched, on the upper 
 side with cup-shaped scare ; on the lower side with numerous, thin, brittle, 
 lighter-colored roots, about 10 cm. long; the rhizome internally with a 
 whitish wood and a pith which is usually dark-colored or decayed ; odor 
 somewhat aromatic, taste .sweetish, bitter, and pungent." — U. S. P. 
 
HYDRASTIS— CIMICIFUG A. 45 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, resins, a volatile alka- 
 loid, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Vermicide. Also somewhat poisonous, 
 causing dilatation of the pupil. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-6 gm. (30-90 gr.) as fluid extract or in 
 syrup. 
 
 HYDRASTIS— Hydrastis.— Golden Seal. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Hydrastis canadensis Linn6 
 (Nat. Ord. Eanunculacese). 
 
 Habitat. — The United States, more abundantly in the 
 North and West. 
 
 Description. — " Rhizome about 4 cm. long and 6 mm. thick ; oblique, 
 with short branches, somewhat annulate and longitudinally wrinkled ; ex- 
 ternally brownish-gray ; fracture short, waxy, bright reddish-yellow, with a 
 thickish bark, about ten narrow wood-wedges, broad medullary rays, and 
 large pith. Eoots thin, brittle, with a thick, yellow bark and subquadiun- 
 gular, woody center. Odor slight ; taste bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 the yellow color ; powder still brighter yellow. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Berberine (with its salts, bright yel- 
 low), hydrastine (white, yielding hydrastinine by oxidation), 
 canadine (resembling morphine in its action, but present in 
 too small amount to be of use), resin, and starch. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Useful internally in hemorrhage, locally 
 fn catarrhal conditions, hydra.stinine being preferable. Bitter 
 stomachic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-6 gm. (30-90 gr.) as fluid extract or 
 tincture. Hydrastine or hydrastinine, 0.02o gm. (|- gr.). 
 
 CIMiaFUGA.—Cimicifoga.— Black Snakeroot. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Cimicifuga racemosa (Linne), 
 Nuttall (Nat. Ord. Ranunculacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Canada, southward to Florida, and through the 
 Middle "West of the United States. 
 
 Description. — " The rhizome is of horizontal growth, hard, 5 cm. or more 
 long, about 2.5 mm. thick, with numerous stout, upright or curved branches, 
 terminated by a cnp-shaped scar, and with numerous wiry, brittle, obtusely 
 quadrangular roots, about 2 ram. thick ; the whole brownish-black, of a 
 slight but heavy odor, and of a bitter, acrid taste. 
 
46 TUBERS, COBMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES 
 
 " Ehizome and branches have a smooth fmcture, with a rather large _pith, 
 surrounded by numerous sublinear, whitish wood-rays, and a thin, firm bark. 
 The roots break with a short fiucture, have a thick bark, and contain a lig- 
 neous cord expanding into about four rays." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Cliief Constituents. — Tannin and bitter principle, probably 
 a glucosid, resins, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — It is classed among the astringent bitters. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3-2 gm. (5-30 gr.) as tincture or fluid 
 extract. 
 
 ARNICAE RADIX- Arnica Root. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Arnica montana Linn6 (Nat. 
 Ord. Compositse). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and in the mountainous parts of the 
 northwestern United States. 
 
 Description. — " Ehizome about 5 cm. long, and 3 or 4 mm. thick ; ex- 
 ternally brown, rough from leaf-scars ; internally whitish, with a rather 
 thick bark, containing a circle of resin-cells, suiTounding the short, yellow- 
 ish wood-wedges, and large, spongy pith. The roots numerous, thin, fragile, 
 grayish-brown, with a thick bark containing a circle of resin-cells. Odor 
 somewhat aromatic ; taste pungently aromatic and bitter."^ — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil ; acrid resin. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Irritant, vulnerary. 
 Average Dose. — 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 CAULOPHYLLUM.—CattIophyllum.—BIae Cohosh. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Caulophyllum thalictroides 
 (Linn6) Michaux (Nat. Ord. Berberidacese). 
 
 Habitat. — The eastern part of the United States. 
 
 Desmption.—" Ehizome of horizontal growth, about 10 cm. long, and 
 about 6 to 10 mm. thick, bent ; on the upper side with broad, concave stem- 
 scare and short, knotty branches; externally grayish-brown, internally 
 whitish, tough, and woody. Eoots numerous, matted, about 10 cm.^ long, 
 and 1 mm. thick, rather tough ; nearly inodorous ; taste sweetish, slightly 
 bitter and somewhat acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Sttidy ajid describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 Chidf Constituents. — Resins, saponin. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Emmenagogue. 
 Average Dose. — 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
MENISPERMUM^ZINGIBER. 47 
 
 MENISPERMUM.—Menispefmum.— Yellow PariHa— Canadian 
 Moonseed. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Menispermuni canadense Linne 
 (Nat. Ord. Menispermacese). 
 Habitat. — United States. 
 
 Description. — " Ehizome several feet long, about 5 mm. thick, brown or 
 yellowish-brown, somewhat knotty, finely wrinkled longitudinally and beset 
 with numerous thin, rather brittle roots ; fracture tough, woody ; internally 
 yellowish, the bark rather thick, the wood-rays broad, porous, and longest 
 on the lower side ; pith distinct. Nearly inodorous ; taste bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 Chief Constituents. — Berberine, menispine. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Alterative. 
 Average Dose. — 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 LEPT ANDRA. —Leptandra.— Culver's Root. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Veronica virginica Linn§ (Nat. 
 Ord. Scrophuiarinese). 
 
 Habitat. — Eastern and middle western parts of the United 
 States. 
 
 Description. — "Of horizontal growth, from 10 to 15 cm. long, and about 
 5 mm. thick, somewhat flattened, bent, and branched, deep blackish-brown, 
 with cup-shaped scars on the upper side, hard, of a woody fracture, with a 
 thin, blackish bark, a, hard, yellowish wood, and a large, purplish-brown, 
 about six-rayed pith ; i-oots thin, wrinkled, very fragile ; inodorous ; taste 
 bitter and'feebly acrid."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Leptandrin (not the leptandrin of the 
 eclectics), resin, saponin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Cathartic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15—60 gr.) as extract. Of the 
 impure resin (the leptandrin of the eclectics), 0.1-0.25 gm. 
 (2-4 gr.). 
 
 ZINGIBER.— Ginger. 
 
 The rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Nat. Ord. Sci- 
 taminese). 
 
 Habitat. — Hindustan and cultivated widely in tropic and 
 subtropic countries, as in the West Indies. 
 
 Description. — "About 5 to 10 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad, and 4 to 8 
 mm. thick, flattish, on one side lobed or clavately branched ; deprived of 
 
48 TUBERS, CORMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES. 
 
 the corky layer ; pale buff-colored, striate, breaking with a mealy, rather 
 fibrous fracture, showing numerous small, scattered resin-cells and fibro- 
 vascular bundles, the latter enclosed by a nucleus sheath ; agreeably aro- 
 matic, and of a pungent and warm taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Varieties. — Jamaica, often covei-ed with a white powder 
 (lime), usually in handsomer pieces, yielding a yellowish 
 powder and a lighter tincture ; African, from which the 
 corky layer has not been removed, hence called " coated," 
 externally brownish in color ; East India, scraped upon the 
 flat surface, the lobes not rounded as the Jamaica. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — A pungent and volatile oil and resin 
 (found in the oleoresin). These and starch are more abun- 
 dant in the East Indian ginger, in which Konig found more 
 than 45 per cent, of starch. Alcohol or ether extracts the 
 medicinal constituents. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Flavor, carminative, and stimulant; it 
 also produces sneezing when the powder is snuffed up the 
 nostrils. Used also in confectionery. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5-2 gm. (8—30 gr.) ; usually as tincture, 
 2-4 C.C. (30 min. to 1 fl. dr.) ; of the oleoresin, 0.1-0.3 c.c. 
 (2-5 min.), properly diluted. 
 
 CALAMUS.— Calamos.— Sweet Flag. 
 
 The rhizome of Acorus Calamus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Aroi- 
 dese). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and North America in swampy or wet 
 places. A variety is found in India, where it is ver'y highly 
 esteemed. Collected after or before the growing season. 
 
 Description. — "In sections of various lengths, unpeeled, about 2 cm. 
 broad, subcylindric, longitudinally wrinkled ; on the upper surface iliarked 
 with leaf-scars forming triangles, and on the lower surface with the cii'cular 
 scars of the rootlets in wavy lines ; externally reddish-brown, somewhat 
 annulate from remnants of leaf-sheaths ; internally whitish, of a spongy 
 texture, breaking with a short, corky fracture, showing numerous oil-cells 
 and scattered wood-bundles, the latter crowded within the subcircular endo- 
 derm. It has an aromatic odor and a strongly bitter taste." — TJ. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially note 
 that the corky external covering should be present. 
 
TBITICUM—VERATBUM VIRIDE. 49 
 
 Cliief Constituents. — Volatile oil, resin, acorin (bitter), and 
 starch. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Aromatic flavor, stimulant, and carmin- 
 ative. Treated with syrup, it forms an agreeable confection. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.). 
 
 TRmCUM.—Triticum.— Couch-grass. 
 
 The rhizome of Agropyrum repens (Linn6) Beauvois 
 (Nat. Ord. Gramineee), gathered in the spring and deprived 
 of the roots. 
 
 Habitat. — Europe, widely in the northern part of the 
 United States. 
 
 Description. — " Very long and creeping, about 2 mm. thick ; as met with 
 in the shops, cut into sections about 1 cm. long ; smooth, but wrinkled ; 
 hollow in the center, straw-yellow ; inodorous; taste sweetish." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 Chief Constituents. — Several sugars, mucilage. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Diuretic. 
 
 Average i)ose.— Of the fluid extract, 2-4 c.c. (30-60 min.) ; 
 of the decoction, ad libitum. 
 
 VERATRUM VIRIDE.— Veratrum Viride.— American Hellebore. 
 The rhizome and roots of Veratrum viride Solander (Nat. 
 Ord. Liliacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Georgia, northward in swamps and wet ground. 
 
 Description. — " Rhizome upright, obconic, simple or divided, from 3 to 8 
 cm. long, and 2 to 4 or 5 cm. thick, externally blackish-gi-ay, internally 
 grayish-white, showing numerous short, irregular wood-bundles. Roots 
 emanating from all sides of the rhizome, numerous, shriveled, light yellow- 
 ish-brown, about 10 to 20 cm. long, and 2 mm. thick. Inodorous, but 
 strongly sternutatory when powdered; taste bitterish and very acrid." — 
 U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Several alkaloids, jervine, rubijervine, 
 veratroidine, pseudojervine, cevadine, and proto-veratrine, 
 differing in color reactions with the strong acids. (Commer- 
 cial (the official) veratrine consists of a mixture of alkaloids, 
 usually obtained from cevadilla seed.) Resin and starch are 
 also present. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Emetic and cardiac depressant, reduces 
 
50 TUBERS, CORMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES. 
 
 temperature (slows the heart and reduces blood-pressure, 
 closely resembling aconite in the main). 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.05—0.1 gm. (1—2 gr.) usually in tincture. 
 The alkaloid veratrine or cevadine is not fitted for internal 
 use ; the oleate (2 per cent.) and the ointment (4 per cent.) 
 are used externally in neuralgia for their local irritant action. 
 
 Symptoms of poisonincf resemble those of aconite, and the 
 first aid is such as would be used in the case of aconite poi- 
 soning — i. c, external application of heat, and stimulating 
 and diuretic drinks. 
 
 CYPRIPEDIUM.—Cypripedium.— Ladies Slipper. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Cypripedium pubescens Swartz, 
 and of Cypripedium parviflorum Salisbury (Nat. Ord. Or- 
 chidese). 
 
 Habitat. — The several species of Cypripedium are indige- 
 nous to the swampy regions of the United States. 
 
 Description. — "Of horizontal growth, bent, 10 cm., or less, long; from 3 
 to 5 mm. thick ; on the upper side beset with numerous circular, cup-shaped 
 scars ; closely covered below with simple, wiry roots, varying from 10 to 15 
 cm. in length ; brittle, dark-brown, or orange-brown ; fracture short, white ; 
 odor peculiar, heavy : taste sweetish, bitter, and somewhat pungent." — 
 U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggessed on p. 17. 
 
 Chief Constituents.— T^o resins, a little volatile oil, bitter 
 principle, which is probably a glucosid, and in which the 
 medicinal properties probably reside. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Antispasmodic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5—1 gm. (8-15 gr.). 
 
 CONVALLARIA— Convallaria. 
 
 The rhizome and roots of Convallaria majalis Linn6 (Nat. 
 Ord. Liliacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and probably the United States. In 
 this country it is cultivated, and grows wild where it has 
 escaped from cultivation. 
 
 Deaeription. — " Of horizontal growth and somewhat branched, about 3 
 mm. thick, cylindric, wrinkled, whitish, marked with few circular scars ; at 
 the annulate joint with about eight or ten long, thin roots ; fracture some- 
 
ASPIDIUM. 51 
 
 what fibrous, white ; odor peculiar, pleasant ; taste sweetish, bitter, and 
 somewhat acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Convallamarin, convallarin (glucosids, 
 the latter possessiug saponin-like properties (foams), repre- 
 senting the medical properties of the drug). 
 
 Therapeutio Use. — Resembles digitalis in its action upon 
 the heart — slows and strengthens the beat. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3 gm. (5 gr.) in tincture. 
 
 ASPIDIUM— Aspidium— Male-fern. 
 The rhizome of Dryopteris Filix-mas Schott, and of Dry- 
 opteris marginalis Asa Gray (Nat. Ord. Filices). 
 
 Habitat. — Widely distributed in the north temperate zone. 
 
 Description. — " From 5 to 1 5 cm. long, 10 to 25 mm. in thickness, and, 
 together with the closely imbricated, dark-brown, roundish, and slightly 
 curved stipe-remnants, 50 to 75 mm. in diameter ; densely covered with 
 brown, glossy, transparent, and soft, chaffy scales ; internally pale-green, 
 rather spongy; vascular bundles, about ten (Dryopteris Filix-mas) or six 
 (Dryopteris marginalis) in number, arranged in an interrupted circle; 
 odor slight, but disagreeable ; taste sweetish, acrid, somewhat bitter, astrin- 
 gent, and nauseous. 
 
 " The chaffj together with the dead portions of the rhizome and stipes, 
 should be removed, and only such portions as have retained their green 
 color should be used." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 17. Especially 
 note the greenish color and peculiar odor and taste. 
 
 Aspidium rigidum is larger and thinner and has but ^ix 
 vascular bundles. 
 
 Aspidium athamanticuin is thicker and more dense than 
 the oificial. The rhizomes of otlier indigenous forms are often 
 substituted. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile and fixed oils, resin, filicic 
 acid (all found in the oleoresin, which represents the medic- 
 inal action of the drug) ; little starch. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Teniafuge. 
 
 Average Dose. — The oleoresin is almost universally used ; 
 this should be shaken before dispensing. Of the oleoresin, 
 2—4 c.c. (30-60 niin.), taken after fasting or a carefully regu- 
 lated diet, and to be followed by a brisk cathartic. A dose 
 of 25 c.c. of the oleoresin has proved fatal. 
 
52 TUBERS, CO RMS, BULBS, AND RHIZOMES. 
 
 UNOFFICIAL RHIZOMES. 
 
 
 Whore 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituent. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Aletris 
 
 United 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 
 Emetic, laxa- 
 
 0.6 gm. (8 gr.). 
 
 (A. farinosal. 
 
 States. 
 
 ciple. 
 
 tive. 
 
 
 Aralia nudicaulis. 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 United 
 
 States. 
 United 
 
 Resm. 
 
 Alterative. 
 
 4gm. (60gr.). 
 
 Aralia raeemosa. 
 
 Eesin. 
 
 Alterative. 
 
 4gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 Asarum (Wild Ginger) 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Carminative. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (A. canadense). 
 
 States, 
 Canada. 
 
 resin. 
 
 
 
 Asclepias cornuti (Milk- 
 
 United 
 
 Resin, bitter 
 
 Diuretic, 
 
 3 gm. (46 gr.). 
 
 weed). 
 
 States. 
 
 principle. 
 
 emetic. 
 
 
 Asolepias incarnata 
 
 United 
 
 Resins. 
 
 Emetic, 
 
 3 gm. (45 gr.). 
 
 (Millc-weed). 
 
 States. 
 
 
 cathartic. 
 
 
 Bistorta 
 
 North 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 2gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (Polygonum B.). 
 
 Temper- 
 ate Zone. 
 
 
 
 
 Helleboris (Black Helle- 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Resin, poison- 
 
 Emmena- 
 
 Igm. (15 gr.). 
 
 bore) 
 
 
 ous hellebo- 
 
 gogue. 
 
 
 (H. niger). 
 
 
 rein. 
 
 
 
 Carex areuaria. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Acrid bitter 
 
 principle. 
 
 Saponin-like 
 
 Alterative. 
 
 
 Chamselirium 
 
 United 
 
 Diuretic. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (C. luteum). 
 
 States. 
 
 glucosid. 
 
 
 
 CoUmsonia (Stoneroot) 
 
 United 
 
 Resin. 
 
 Irritant. 
 
 
 (C. canadensis). 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 Curcuma (Turmeric) 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Stimulant. 
 
 
 (C. longa). 
 
 
 resin, color- 
 
 
 
 Dioseorea (Colic Boot) 
 
 United 
 
 ing. 
 Resin, acid 
 
 Emetic. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (U. yillosa). 
 
 States. 
 
 principle. 
 V61atile oil, 
 
 
 
 Iris florentina (Orris) 
 
 Italy. 
 
 As sachet and 
 
 
 (Iris Sp.), 
 
 
 resin. 
 
 dentifrice. 
 
 
 Galanga 
 
 China. 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Carminative. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (Alpinia oflBcinarum). 
 
 
 resin. 
 
 
 
 Geum rivale (Avens). 
 
 North 
 Temper- 
 ate Zone. 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 3 gm. (45 gr.). 
 
 Geum urbanum. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 3 gm. (45 gr.). 
 
 Gillenia 
 
 United 
 
 Resin, tannin. 
 
 Demulcent, 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (G. stipulacea and 
 
 States. 
 
 
 astringent. 
 
 
 G. trifoliata). • 
 Nymphsea (Water-lily) 
 
 United 
 
 Mucilage. 
 
 Demulcent, 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (N. odorata). 
 
 States. 
 
 
 astringent. 
 
 
 Polygonatum 
 
 United 
 
 
 Emetic, 
 
 
 (P. bifloruml. 
 
 States. 
 
 
 cathartic. 
 
 
 Symplocarpus (Skunk- 
 
 United 
 
 Resin, acrid 
 
 Emetic. 
 
 1 gm. (15 gr.). 
 
 cabbage) 
 
 States. 
 
 principle. 
 
 
 
 (S. foetidus). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Smilax China. 
 
 China. 
 
 Eesin, smila- 
 
 cln. 
 Tannin. 
 
 Alterative. 
 
 
 Tormentilla 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 fPotentilla T.). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trillium (Wake Robin) 
 
 United 
 
 Acrid prin- 
 
 Emetic. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (T. erectum). 
 
 States. 
 
 ciple, resin. 
 
 
 
 Triosteura 
 
 United 
 
 
 
 
 (T. perfoliatum). 
 Veratrum album. 
 
 States. 
 Europe. 
 
 Much like 
 veratrum 
 viride. 
 
 Berberin. 
 
 Emetic, 
 poisonous. 
 
 0.12gm.(2gr.). 
 
 Xanthorrhiza (Yellow 
 
 United 
 
 Simple bitter. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 Root) 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 (X. Apiifolia). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Zedoaria (Zedoary) 
 
 India. 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Carminative. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (Curcuma Z.). 
 
 
 resin. 
 
 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 WOODS AND BARKS. 
 
 The official woods usually occur in commerce in fragments, 
 chips, or coarse powder. The macroscopic description will 
 embrace the shape and size of the pieces, odor, taste, and color, 
 with any other readily noticeable properties, such as tinging 
 the saliva, great density (as in case of guaiac), etc. 
 The following woods are official : 
 
 Quassia. Guaiacum. 
 
 Hsematoxylon. Dulcamara. 
 
 Red Saunders. 
 Among the unofficial woods are Gouania and Sandalwood. 
 
 QUASSIA.— Quassia. 
 
 The wood of Picrsena excelsa (Swartz) Lindley (Nat. Ord. 
 Simarubese). 
 
 Habitat. — Jamaica. 
 
 Description. — "In billets of various sizes, dense, tough, of medium hard- 
 ness, porous, with a minute pith and narrow, medullaiy rays ; inodorous 
 and intensely bitter. In the shops it is usually met with in the form of 
 chips or raspings of a yellowish-white color. — U. S. P." 
 
 Study and describe as suggested above. Especially note 
 that Surinam quassia is distinguished microscopally (see p. 
 257) by having narrower medullary rays. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Quassin (bitter principle) represents 
 the medicinal virtues of the wood, mucilage, resin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Tonic, belongs to the simple bitters. 
 Its continued use deranges the digestion. 
 
 Average Dose. — Turned wood cups of quassia have been 
 used ; they are filled with cold water, which rapidly acquires 
 an intensely bitter taste ; after standing half an hour, 100 to 
 200 c.c. of the water are taken. Dose, 0.15-0.3 gm. (3-5 
 gr.), in infusion or tincture; of the extract, 0.1 gm. (2 gr.). 
 
 5.S 
 
54 WOODS AND BARKS. 
 
 HAEMATOXYLON.—Haematoxylon.— Logwood. 
 
 The heart-wood of Hsematoxylon campechianum Linn6 
 (Nat. Ord. Leguminosae). 
 
 Habitat. — Central America, introduced into the West 
 Indies. 
 
 Description. — " Heavy, hard, externally purplish-black, internally brown- 
 ish-red, and marked with iiTegular, concentric circles, splitting irregularly ; 
 odor faint, agreeable ; taste sweetish, astringent. When chewed, it colors 
 the saliva dark pink. 
 
 " Logwood is generally met with in the form of small chips or coarse 
 powder of a dark brownish-red color, often with a greenish luster." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 53. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Tannin, hsematoxylin, or heematin 
 (note that hsematin of blood is wholly different). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Astringent, but almost exclusively as a 
 dyewood. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-4 gm. (30—60 gr.). 
 
 SANTALUM RUBRUM .— Red Saunders. 
 
 The wood of Pterocarpus santalinus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Leguminosse). 
 
 Habitat. — Ceylon and southern India. 
 
 Desaription. — "A hard, heavy, dark reddish-brown, coaraely splintery 
 wood, deprived of the light-colored sap-wood ; usually met with in chips, 
 or as a coaree, iiTegular, brownish-red powder, nearly inodorous and nearly 
 
 " Red saundere does not impart any red color to water when macerated 
 with it."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 53. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Santalin or santalic acid is the red 
 coloring principle. 
 
 Not used medicinally. Used in pharmacy for coloring 
 tinctures. 
 
 GUAIAa LIGNUM.— Guaiacam Wood. 
 
 The heart-wood of Guaiacum officinale LinnS and of 
 Guaiacum sanctum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Zygophyllese). 
 Habitat. — West Indies and northern South America. 
 
DVLCAMABA — IIKOFFICIAL WOODS. 55 
 
 Description. — " Heavier than water, hard, brown or greenish-brown, resin- 
 ous, marked with irregular, concentric circles, surrounded by a yellowish 
 alburnum, splitting irregularly ; when heated, emitting a balsamic odor ; 
 taste slightly acrid. 
 
 " Guaiacum wood is geneiuUy used in the form of raspings or turnings, 
 which should be gi-eenish-brown, containing few particles of a whitish color, 
 and should acquire a dark bluish-green color on the addition of nitric acid." 
 — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 53. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Resin (U. S. P.), 20 to 25 per cent., 
 consisting of a number of resin acids. The resin exudes 
 through inci.sions in the bark, but the wood is usually heated 
 and the exuding resin absorbed in rags. Impurities often 
 amount to 30 per cent., consisting of vegetable tissues. 
 According to recent investigations, the wood owes its action 
 to a saponin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Has long had a reputation as an altera- 
 tive in syphilis and rheumatism, but is now but little used. 
 
 Average Dose. — Of the resin, 0.5—2.0 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 DULCAMARA.— Dalcamara.— Bittersweet. 
 
 The young branches of Solanum Dulcamara Linn§ (Nat. 
 Ord. Solanacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe, naturalized in the United States. 
 
 Descriptinn.—" About 5 mm. or less, thick, cylindric, somewhat angular, 
 longitudinally striate, more or less warty, usually hollow in the center, cut 
 into short sections. The thin bark is externally pale greenish or light 
 greenish-brown, marked with alternate leaf-scars, and internally green ; the 
 greenish or yellowish wood forms one or two concentric rings. Odor slight ; 
 taste bitter, afterward sweet." — U. S. P. 
 
 Stud}/ and describe as suggested on p. 53. 
 Chief Constituents. — Resin, dulcamarin, a glucosid, and an 
 alkaloid. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Alterative. 
 Average Dose. — 4-8 gm. (1-2 dr.). 
 
 UNOFFICIAL WOODS. 
 
 Gouania, a native of the West Indies, contains a bitter 
 principle but is little used. 
 
 Sandalwood, obtained from India, is mainly important be- 
 
56 WOODS AND BARKS. 
 
 cause of the volatile oil obtained from it. The oil is much 
 used in the treatment of gonorrhea. 
 
 BARKS. 
 
 The term bark has been defined botanically as that portion 
 of a root or stem lying outside of the cambium circle. Since 
 Monocotyledons have no such cambium as that found in 
 Dicotyledons, they have no true bark (see p. 242). Official 
 barks may comprise all or any of the layers of the true bark ; 
 thus the official elm bark is limited to the inner portion of the 
 true bark ; hence we shall see that the official descriptions do 
 not always correspond to the botanic descriptions of the same 
 barks. Externally the color depends upon the presence or 
 absence of lichens or upon what portion may actually consti- 
 tute the outer surface ; similarly the inner surface may have 
 portions of the outer wood adherent, as is often seen in aspido- 
 sperma and in viburnum. 
 
 Most of the official barks are found growing in the United 
 States, but several of the more important, such as cinchona, 
 mezereum, quillaja, and cinnamon are imported. 
 
 The macroscopic description of barks embraces the follow- 
 ing points : Whether the whole bark or only the inner part 
 is present ; shape and size of pieces, more especially thickness, 
 and whether flat or quilled ; color of outer and inner sur- 
 faces and of the surface shown upon breaking ; nature of 
 fracture ; odor ; taste. 
 
 The following barks are official : 
 
 Cinchona. Cotton-root bark. 
 
 Cascara sagrada. Euonymus. 
 
 Frangula. Quillaja. 
 
 Pomegranate. Elm. 
 
 Wild cherry. Ceylon cinnamon. 
 
 Viburnum opulus. Cassia cinnamon. 
 
 Viburnum prunifolium. Saigon cinnamon. 
 
 Xanthoxylum. Sassafras. 
 
 White oak. Juglans. 
 
 Rubus. Cascarilla. 
 
 Mezereum. Aspidosperma. 
 
CINCHONA — CINCHONA RUBRA. bl 
 
 The following medicinal barks are not official : 
 
 Angustura. Liriodendron. 
 
 Azedarach. Magnolia. 
 
 Berberis. Myrica. 
 
 Black oak. Nectandra. 
 
 Canella. Piscidium. 
 
 Cinnamodendron. Prinos. 
 
 Condurango. Simaruba. 
 
 Cornus. White ash. 
 
 Goto. Willow. 
 
 Erythrophlceum. Wintera. 
 
 CINCHONA.— Cinchona. 
 
 The bark of Cinchona Calisaya Weddell ; Cinchona offici- 
 nalis Linn6 ; and of hybrids of these and of other species of 
 Cinchona (Nat. Ord. Rubiacese), yielding, when assayed by 
 the process given in United States Pharmacopoeia, not less 
 than 5 per cent, of total alkaloids and at least 2.5 per cent, 
 of quinine. 
 
 CINCHONA RUBRA— Red Cinchona. 
 
 The bark of Cinchona Succirubra Pavon (Nat. Ord. 
 Rubiacese), containing not less than 5 per cent of its peculiar 
 alkaloids. 
 
 More than thirty species of cinchona are usually recog- 
 nized, and nearly twenty yield their peculiar alkaloids in suf- 
 ficient amounts to be of importance. 
 
 Besides those specifically mentioned under the name Cin- 
 chona, — viz., Cinchona Calisaya and Cinchona officinalis, and 
 the red cinchona under the title of Cinchona rubra, the phar- 
 macopoeia recognizes under the former title (not under the 
 latter) any species of cinchona yielding by the method of 
 assay there prescribed not less than 5 per cent, of its pecu- 
 liar alkaloids, and not less than 2.5 per cent, of quinine. 
 
 Habitat. — The various species of cinchona are indigenous 
 to South America, the genus showing a much wider distri- 
 bution than do most of the species. They are found upon 
 the slopes of the Andes Mountains, in fairly high altitudes. 
 
58 WOODS AND BARKS. 
 
 from Bolivia in the south, through the entire length of Peru, 
 across Ecuador, the United States of Columbia, and into 
 Venezuela, through nearly thirty degrees of latitude, or about 
 2000 miles. They are usually confined to the eastern slopes 
 of the mountains, owing to a much greater rainfall upon that 
 side or to too low a temperature upon the western. Though 
 much moisture is necessary, free drainage is equally essential 
 for the best development of the alkaloids. The Calisaya 
 bark, according to Markham, was originally limited to the 
 region of northern Bolivia, while the equally valuable red 
 bark was found only near Quito, in a more restricted terri- 
 tory- 
 While the habitat of cinchona is of great historic interest, 
 and the student will find the articles upon this subject in the 
 dispensatories very entertaining, almost all the cinchona bark 
 now used comes from cultivated trees. Space forbids more 
 than the mention of thrilling adventures and self-sacrificing 
 experienced by those who sought to secure seeds and cuttings 
 for cultivation elsewhere, but great honor is due the men to 
 whose efforts we owe the cinchona plantations in India, 
 Ceylon, Java, West Africa, and elsewhere. Some years since 
 it was estimated that there were in the world some 75,000,000 
 cultivated cinchona trees, of which India and Ceylon had 
 about half of the total, and Java about 30,000,000. 
 
 Collection. — The natives of the South American countries, 
 where the cinchona flourished, collected the bark with an 
 utter disregard of the future, so that at the present time the 
 bark would be practically unobtainable but for the cultivated 
 sources. The native collectors were organized into small 
 companies for the long and hazardous journey across the 
 mountains. The trees were cut down, and even the roots 
 taken up, every portion of the bark being removed ; this was 
 dried and transported on the backs of animals to the sea- 
 shore. 
 
 Several methods of collection are in vogue in the cinchona 
 plantations of India and Java, dependent upon the richness 
 of the yield, the age of the trees, etc. " Mossing " consists 
 in removing vertical strips of bark and covering the denuded 
 surface to exclude the light ; this causes an increased alka- 
 
CIXCHONA RUBRA. 59 
 
 loidal richness in the bark, which is quickly renewed. After 
 the removal of mossed bark, that which develops in its 
 place is called renewed bark. "Coppicing" is practised 
 where the alkaloidal yield is poor ; this consists in cutting 
 the trees down, but leaving a stump from which shoots spring 
 up ; later the whole plant is uprooted. " Shaving " consists 
 in removing only a portion of the bark, leaving the vitality 
 of the tree unimpaired. Mossing requires skilled labor, 
 whereas coppicing does not. 
 
 Description. — '' In quills or incurved pieces, varying in length, and usu- 
 ally 2 or 3, or sometimes 5 ram. thick ; the outer surface covered with a gray 
 or brownish-gray cork, usually slightly wrinkled, marked with transverse, and 
 also with intersecting, longitudinal fissures (C. Calisaya), and sometimes 
 with scattered wai-ts and slight longitudinal ridges ; inner surface light 
 cinnamon-brown, very finely striate ; fracture short and granular in the 
 outer layer, and finely fibrous in the inner layer ; powder light brown or 
 yellowish-brown ; odor slight, somewhat aromatic ; taste bitter and some- 
 what astringent." — U. S. P. 
 
 Red Cinchona : 
 
 Description. — '' In quills or incurved pieces, varying in length, and from 
 2 to 4 or 5 mm. thick ; the outer surface covered with a grayish-brown 
 cork, more or less rough from warts and longitudinal warty ridges, and 
 from few, mostly short transverse fissures ; inner surface more or less deep 
 reddish-brown and. distinctly striate; fracture short fibrous in the inner 
 layer ; powder reddish-brown ; odor slight ; taste bitter and astringent." — 
 U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. Formerly the 
 high price of cinchona bark led to its very frequent adul- 
 teration, but at the present time cinchona bark, far richer in 
 its peculiar alkaloids than is required by the pharmacopoeia, 
 is easily obtainable from all reputable dealers, hence the sub- 
 ject of assaying is more important than the gross character- 
 istics. Cuprea bark obtained from various species of Remijia 
 has been largely substituted for cinchona ; it contains quinine, 
 but no cinchonidine ; its fracture does not present the pro- 
 jecting fibers seen in the true ; it sinks in water and presents 
 histologic characters by which it may be distinguished from 
 the true cinchona. 
 
 Chief Constituent'i. — Quinine is by far the most important 
 coustituent of cinchona, of which it exceptionally constitutes 
 as much as 13 per cent, under cultivation (obtained from 
 Cinchona Ledgeriana). The important constituents of cin- 
 
60 WOODS AND BARKS. 
 
 chona are considered on page 345. It may be here remarked 
 that three other of its alkaloids — cinchonidine, cinchonine, 
 and quinidine — are official as alkaloids or salts. Including 
 these, various investigators name some forty-three alkaloids 
 as existing in the bark, of which thirty-five are regarded as 
 actually existing preformed and the remaining eight due to 
 decomposition of some of those preexisting. In addition to 
 the alkaloids, kinic, kinovic, and cinchotannic acids are 
 present, mostly combined with the alkaloids. Cinchotannic 
 acid is a combination of tannin and the red coloring-matter 
 of the bark. Upon heating a little bark containing the cin- 
 chona alkaloids in a sealed tube, a red, tarry distillate forms 
 in the upper part (Grahe's test). A large number of the 
 alkaloids are isomeres of quinine, of quinamine, or of cin- 
 chonine. The evaporated mother liquid is a brown, amor- 
 phous extract, still containing some alkaloids, and is called 
 chinoidine. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Except for its astringent action, cin- 
 chona is very nearly represented by its alkaloids. Individual 
 cases may require the use of one in preference to another, but 
 in the main, quinine represents the medicinal virtues of the 
 bark, hence its uses will be detailed. The other alkaloids 
 possess similar properties to a somewhat less degree. 
 
 Fever: — Quinine is a powerful antipyretic in very large 
 doses, but, owing to its disagreeable effects in such quantities, 
 it has been almost entirely superseded as a mere antipyretic 
 by the coal-tar preparations, acetanilid, etc. In malarial 
 fever, however, quinine is recognized as a specific, destroying 
 the parasites if given about two hours previous to the time 
 of sporulation, which is known by the onset of the chill. 
 
 Colds. — In their incipiency colds are often treated success- 
 fully with quinine combined with other agencies. 
 
 Tonic. — Since quinine acts as a simple bitter, it may be 
 given as a tonic and stomachic, being inferior in this respect, 
 however, to some others, since it impairs digestion on con- 
 tinued use. 
 
 It has been used in a great variety of complaints, — neu- 
 ralgia, enlargement of the spleen, etc., — its effectiveness bieing 
 often due to the condition to which the complaints are secon- 
 
RHAMNUS PURSHIANA—FBANQULA. 61 
 
 dary. Large doses of cinchona or its alkaloids produce the 
 condition termed cinchonism, characterized by headache, ring- 
 ing in the ears, etc. Cinchona may be deprived of its astrin- 
 gency by detannation with iron or albumin. Powdered cin- 
 chona is often used in tooth-powders. 
 
 Average Dose. — Of the bark, 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.), in 
 tincture, fluid extract, infusion, elixir, or extract. These 
 have very seldom any advantage over the alkaloids, which 
 are more conveniently taken. Of quinine, as an antipyretic, 
 1 gm. (15 gr.) or more; as malarial fever antidote, 0.6 gm. 
 (10 gr.), repeated once two hours before time of anticipated 
 chill; for colds, 0.1-0.3 gm. (2-5 gr.); as tonic, 0.1-0.2 
 gm. (2-3 gr.). 
 
 RHAMNUS PURSHIANA.-CascaraSagfada. 
 
 The bark of Rhamnus Purshiana De Candolle (Nat. Ord. 
 Rhamnacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Pacific coast of the United States and south- 
 eastern British Columbia, and eastward to Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Description. — "In quills or curved pieces, about 3 to 10 era. long, and 
 about 2 mm. thick ; outer surface brownish-gray and whitish ; the young 
 bark having numerous, rather broad, pale-colored warts; inner surface 
 yellowish to light brownish, becoming dark brown by age; smooth or finely 
 striate ; fracture short, yellowishj in the inner layer of thick bark some- 
 what fibrous ; inodorous ; taste bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Cascai-in (emodin principle), bitter 
 resins, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Cathartic. Should be kept two years 
 before being used, since the fresh bark is emetic. 
 
 Average I)ose.—2-S gm. (30-120 gr.) as fluid extract, or 
 preferably as bitterless (so-called tasteless) liquid preparation. 
 
 FRANGULA.— Frangda.— Bacfcthorn. 
 
 The bark of Rhamnus Frangula Linng (Nat. Ord. Rham- 
 ne£e), collected at least one year before being used. 
 
 Habitat. — Europe, northern Asia, and northern Africa. 
 
 /)escn)o((om.— "Quilled, about 1 mm. thick; outer surface giuyish-brown, 
 or blaokisk-brown, with numerous small, whitish, transveraely elongated 
 
62 WOODS AND BARKS. 
 
 lenticels ; inner surface smooth, pale brownish-yellow ; fracture in the 
 outer layer short, of a pui-plish tint; in the inner layer fibrous and pale 
 yellow; when masticated, coloring the saliva yellow; nearly inodorous; 
 taste sweetish and bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Frangulin (rhamnoxanthiii) is taste- 
 less when pure ; it belongs to the emodin compounds. Tannin 
 and a bitter principle are also found. If frangula has been 
 kept less than a year, it produces nausea and vomiting. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Cathartic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15—60 gr.) as fluid extract or 
 extract. 
 
 GRANATUM.— Pomegranate. 
 
 The bark of the stem and of the root of Punica Granatum 
 Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Lythrariese). 
 
 Habitat. — India, China, and southwestern Asia ; cultivated 
 in West Indies and other tropic or subtropic countries. 
 
 Description. — " In thin quills or fragments, from 5 to 10 cm. long, and 
 from 1 to 3 mm. thick ; outer surface yellowish-gray, somewhat warty, or 
 longitudinally and reticulately ridged ; the stem-bark often partly covered 
 with blackish lichens ; the thicker pieces of the root-bark more or less scaly 
 externally ; inner surface smooth, finely striate, grayish-yellow ; fracture 
 short, granular, greenish-yellow ; indistinctly radiate ; inodorous ; taste 
 astringent, very slightly bitter." — U. S. P-. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. The barks 
 of Berberis vulgaris and of Buxus sempervirens are some- 
 times substituted ; neither contains tannin. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Pelletierine (volatile oily alkaloid), 
 tannin (punicotannic acid), and several alkaloids allied to 
 pelletierine. Pelletierine may disappear from the bark, owing 
 to its volatility, upon long keeping. About 15 per cent, of 
 ash is present. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Used against tapeworm. 
 
 Average Dose. — As in the case of other taeniafuges, fasting 
 or limited diet precedes the administration of the drug, and 
 it should be used in connection with a purgative. Dose 15 
 gm. (225 gr.) of the bark in an emulsion or other liquid 
 form. Pelletierine is equally eifective, but it is stated that 
 the dose usually given is too small — 0.5—1.0 gm. (8—15 gr.) 
 
FRUNUS VIRQINIANA— VIBURNUM OPULUS. 63 
 
 of the sulphate or tannate may be given. The tannate 
 causes less nausea than the sulphate. 
 
 PRUNUS VIRGINIANA. -Wild Cherry. 
 
 The bark of Prunus serotina Ehrhart (Nat. Ord. Eosaceae), 
 collected in autumn. 
 
 Habitat. — Widely distributed through the United States. 
 
 Description. — " In curved pieces or irregular fragments, 2 mm. or more 
 thick, outer surface greenish-brown or yellowish-brown, smooth, and some- 
 what glossy, marked with transverse scars ; if the bark is collected from old 
 wood and deprived of the corky layer, the outer surface is nut-brown and 
 uneven ; inner surface somewhat striate or fissured. Upon maceration in 
 water it develops a distinct bitter-almond odor ; its taste is astringent, aro- 
 matic, and bitter. 
 
 " The bark of the very large and of the very small branches is to be 
 rejected."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. Especially 
 note the odor and taste of hydrocyanic acid upon chewing. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Hydrocyanic acid (about 0.14 per 
 cent, in October, — at which time it should be collected, — 
 (one-third as much in the spring), tannin, bitter principle. 
 The hydrocyanic acid does not exist preformed in the bark, 
 but is developed when moistened, through the action of a 
 ferment similar to, if not identical with, emulsin, acting upon 
 a glucosid-amygdalin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Wild cherry is mainly used as a flavor, 
 and in cough, for which its virtues depend upon the hydro- 
 cyanic acid. It is also a tonic. Heat should be avoided in 
 all preparations or mixtures containing wild cherry. 
 • Average Dose. — 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.) in syrup or fluid 
 extract. Prussic acid is more employed medicinally ; the 
 dilute (the official), (2 per cent.) is used in doses of 0.6-0.2 
 c.c. (1—4 min.). 
 
 VIBURNUM OPULUS.— Vifaornom Opoltis.- Viburnum (Pharm. 1880). 
 — Cramp Bark. 
 
 The bark of Viburnum opulus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Capri- 
 foliacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Canada and northern part of the United States. 
 
64 WOODS AND BARKS. 
 
 Description. — "In flattish or curved bands, or occasionally in quills, 
 sometimes 30 cm. long, and from 1 to 1.5 mm. thick ; outer surface ash- 
 gray, marked with scattered, somewhat transversely elongated warts of a 
 brownish color, due to abrasion, and more or less marked with blackish dots, 
 and chiefly in a longitudinal direction with black, irregular lines or thin 
 ridges ; underneath the easily removed corky layer of a pale brownish or 
 somewhat reddish-brown color ; the inner surface dingy white or brownish ; 
 fi-acture tough, the tissue separating in layera ; inodorous ; taste somewhat 
 astringent and bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 
 Chief GonstUumts. — Valerianic acid, viburnin (bitter), and 
 tannin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The name cramp bark indicates one of 
 the uses to which the bark has been put. Used in uterine 
 disorders attended with pain and in threatened abortion. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.). 
 
 VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM.— Black Haw. 
 
 The bark of Viburnum prunifolium Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Caprifoliaceae). 
 
 Habitat. — United States. 
 
 Description. — " In thin pieces or quills, glossy purplish-brown, with scat- 
 tered warts, and minute black dots ; when collected from old wood, grayish- 
 brown ; the thin, corky layer easily removed from the green layer ; inner 
 surface whitish, smooth ; fracture short ; inodorous, somewhat astringent and 
 bitter."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 Chi^ Constituents. — Valerianic acid, resins (one identical 
 with viburnin), tannin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Used much like viburnum opulus. 
 Average Dose. — 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.). 
 
 XANTHOXYLUM. -Xanthoxylum.— Pricfcly Ash. 
 
 The bark of Xanthoxylum americanum Miller, and of 
 Xanthoxylum Clava-Herculis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Rutacese). 
 
 Habitat. — The northern prickly ash grows in the eastern 
 part of the United States and northward to Canada ; the 
 southern prickly ash having a somewhat more southerly range. 
 
 Description. — " Xanthoxylum americanum (northern prickly ash) is in 
 curved or quilled fragments about 1 mm. thick ; outer surface brownish- 
 
qUERCUS ALBA. 65 
 
 gray, with whitish patches and minute, black dots, faintly furrowed, with 
 some brown, glossy, straight, two-edged spines, linear at the base, and about 
 5 mm. long ; inner surface whitish, smooth ; fracture short, non-fibrous, 
 green in the outer and yellowish in the inner layer; inodorous; taste bit- 
 terish, very pungent. 
 
 " Xanthoxylum Oiava-JSercvMs (Southern Prickly Ash) resembles the 
 preceding, but is about 2 mm. thick, and is marked by many conical, corky 
 projections, sometimes 2 cm. high, and by stout, brown spines, rising from 
 a corky base. 
 
 " Xanthoxylum should not be confounded with the bark of Aralia spinosa 
 Linn^ (Nat. Ord. Araliacece), which is nearly smooth externally, and beset 
 with slender prickles in transverse rows." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. The bark of 
 Aralia spinosa, which is occasionally admixed, is nearly 
 smooth, but shows transverse rows of prickles. 
 
 Chief Constituent. — An acrid resin, acrid green oil, and 
 berberine. 
 
 Thei-apeutie Use. — Diuretic, sialagogue, and simple bitter. 
 The name " toothache tree " indicates its employment in that 
 aifection. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5—1.0 gm. (8—15 gr.) as fluid extract. 
 The powdered bark is sometimes placed in carious teeth. 
 
 QUERCUS ALBA.— White Oafc. 
 
 The bark of Quercus alba Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Cupuliferse). 
 Habitat. — North America, more abundantly in the middle 
 United States. 
 
 Description. — " In nearly flat pieces, deprived of the corky layer, about 
 5 mm. thick ; pale brown ; inner surface with short sharp, longitudinal 
 ridges ; tough ; of a coaree, fibrous fracture, a faint, tan-like odor, and a 
 strongly astringent taste. 
 
 " As met with in the shops it is usually an irregularly, coarse, fibrous 
 powder, which does not tinge the saliva yellow.'" — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. Especially 
 note that the strong odor of tan develops on moistening. 
 
 .Chief Constituents. — Tannin (quercitannic acid, only about 
 7 per cent, in the spring) and several ether soluble substances 
 of little importance. 
 
 Therapeidic Use. — Astringent. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.). 
 5 
 
66 WOODS AND BARKS. 
 
 RUBUS.-Rubus.— Blackberry. 
 
 The bark of the I'oot of Rubus villosus Aiton, Riib.us 
 canadensis Liun6, and Rubus trivialis Michaux (Nat. Ord. 
 Rosacefe). 
 
 Habitat. — Rubus trivialis in the southern States, the others 
 widely in the United States. 
 
 Description. — " In thin, tough, flexible bands, outer surface blackish or 
 blackish-gray, inner surface pale brownish, sometimes with strips of whitish, 
 tasteless wood adhering ; inodorous ; tasie strongly astringent, somewhat 
 bitter."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 Chi^ Constituents. — Tannin (nearly 20 per cent.), villosin 
 (bitter glucosid). 
 
 Therapeutic- Use. — Astringent. 
 Average Dose. — 2 gm. (.30 gr.). 
 
 MEZEREUM.— Mea;ereum. 
 
 The bark of Daphne Mezereum Linne and of other species 
 of Daphne (Nat. Ord. Thymel£eacege). 
 
 Habitat. — Daphne Mezereum in northern Europe ; Daphne 
 Gnidium in France, in the Pyrenees. 
 
 Description. — " In long, thin bands, usually folded or rolled into disks ; 
 outer surface yellowish or brownish-yellow, with transverse scare, and minute, 
 blackish dots, underneath of a light greenish color ; inner surface whitish, 
 silky ; bast in transverse layers, very tough ; inodorous ; taste very acrid." 
 — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Acrid resin, representing the activi- 
 ties of the bark ; daphnin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Irritant, sialagogue ; externally rubefa- 
 cient. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.2 gm. (3 gr.). 
 
 GOSSYPn RADICIS CORTEX.— Cotton-root Barfc. 
 
 The bark of the root of Gossypium herbaceum Linn6 and 
 of other species of Gossypium (Nat. Ord. Malvaceae). 
 
 Habitat. — Subtropic portions of Asia and Africa ; culti- 
 vated in the southern United States, Egypt, and India, 
 
EUOMWrS—QUTLLAJA. 67 
 
 Description. — " In thin, flexible bands or quilled pieces ; outer surface 
 brownish-yellow, with slight, longitudinal ridges or meshes, small, black, 
 circular dots, or short, transverse lines, and dull, brownish-orange patches, 
 from the abrasion of the thin cork ; inner surface whitish, of a silky luster, 
 finely striate ; bast-Abel's long, tough, and separable into papery layers ; 
 inodorous ; taste very slightly acrid and faintly astringent." — IJ. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 
 Chief Constituents, — Several resins, tannin, etc. Deterio- 
 rates on keeping. 
 
 Oleum Gossypii Semiuis (U. S. P.) : This is expressed 
 from the seeds, but may be mentioned here. It is of pale- 
 yellowish color, without odor, of a bland taste. Upon 
 exposure to the air it becomes gummy ; if deprived of 
 the substance producing this, it is said to form an excellent 
 substitute for linseed oil in the arts. Cotton-seed oil is 
 mainly used for the adulteration of, or in place of, olive oil. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — (Of the root-bark), emmenagogue and 
 ecbolic, though of uncertain efficiency. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2—4 gm. (30—60 gr.) as fluid extract. 
 
 EUONYMUS.— Euonymus.— Wahoo. 
 
 The bark of the root of Euonymus atropurpureus Jaquin 
 (Nat. Ord. Celastrinese). 
 
 Habitat. — The United States. 
 
 Description. — " In quilled or curved pieces, from 2 to 5 mm. thick ; outer 
 surface ash-gray, with blackish patches, detached in thin and small scales ; 
 inner surface whitish or slightly tawny, smooth ; fracture smooth, whitish, 
 the inner layere of a laminated appearance ; nearly inodorous ; taste sweet- 
 ish, somewhat bitter and acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 Chief Constituents. — Resins, euonymin (not the euonymin 
 of the eclectics, bitter), starch, acids, etc. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Laxative and diuretic. 
 ■ Average Dose. — 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.). 
 
 QUILLAJA.— Q«aiaja.— QdiUaia (Pharm. 1880)— Soap Bark. 
 
 The inner bark of Quillaja Saponaria Molina (Nat. Ord. 
 Rosaceae). 
 
 Habitat. — ^Western part of South America. 
 
68 WOODS AND BARKS. 
 
 Description. — " Flat, large pieces, about 5 mm. thick ; outer surface 
 brownish-white, often with small patches of brown cork attached, otherwise 
 smooth; inner surface whitish, smooth; fracture splintery, checkered with 
 pale-brownish bast-fibers imbedded in white tissue ; inodorous ; taste per- 
 sistently acrid ; the dust very sternutatoi'y. The infusion of Quillaja foams 
 like soap-water." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 Ohief Constituents. — Sapotoxin, saponin (2 per cent.), etc. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Almost exclusively as a detergent. 
 Useful in washing silks. Irritant ; sternutatory. 
 
 ULMUS.— Elm.— Slippery Elm. 
 
 The inner bark of Ulmus fulva Michaux (Nat. Ord. Urti- 
 cacese). 
 
 Habitat. — North America, especially abundant in the west- 
 ern United States. 
 
 Description. — " In flat pieces, varying in length and width, about 3 mm. 
 thick, tough, pale, brownish-white, the inner surface finely ridged ; fracture 
 fibrous and mealy ; the transverae section delicately checkered ; odor slight, 
 peculiar; taste mucilaginous, insipid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 Chief Constituents. — Mucilage, only traces of starch. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Demulcent and emollient. 
 Average Dose. — Ad libitum, mostly externally. 
 
 ONNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM.— Ceylon Qnnamon.— 
 Cinnamomum (Phartn. 1880). 
 
 The inner bark of the shoots of Cinnamomum zeylanicum 
 Breyne (Nat. Ord. Laurineae). 
 
 Habitat. — Cultivated in Ceylon. 
 
 Description. — " Long, closely rolled quills, composed of eight or more 
 layers of bark of the thickness of paper ; pale yellowish-brown ; outer sur- 
 face smooth, marked with wavy lines of basl>-bundles ; inner surface striate ; 
 fracture short-splintery ; odor fragrant ; taste sweet and warmly aromatic." 
 — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, mucilage, and only traces 
 of starch. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative. 
 Average Dose. — 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
GINNAMOMUM SAIOONICUM—JUGLANS. 69 
 
 CEMNAMOMUM SAIGONICUM— Saigon Cinnamon. 
 
 The bark of an undetermined species of Cinnamomum 
 
 (Nat. Ord. Laurinese). 
 
 Habitat. — China. 
 
 Description. — " In quills about 15 cm. long, and 10 to 15 mm. in diam- 
 eter, the bark 2 or 3 mm. thiclc ; outer surface gray or light grayish-brown 
 with whitish patches, more or less rough from numerous warts and 
 some transvei-se ridges and fine longitudinal wrinkles ; the inner surface 
 cinnamon-brown or dark brown, granular and slightly striate ; fracture 
 short, granular, in the outer layer cinnamon-colored, having near the cork 
 numerous whitish striae forming an almost uninterrupted line ; odor fi'ar 
 grant; taste' sweet, waimly aromatic, somewhat astringent." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, little starch, much mu- 
 cilage. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative ; mostly used in flavoring. 
 Average Dose. — 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.) as tincture. 
 Cassia cinnamon resembles the above in all essentials. 
 
 SASSAFRAS.— Sassafras. 
 
 The bark of the root of Sassafras variifolium (Salisbury) 
 
 O. Kuntze (Nat. Ord. Laurinese). 
 
 Habitat. — North America, from Canada southward. 
 
 T>escription. — " In irregular fragments, deprived of the gray, corky layer; 
 bright rust-brown, soft, fragile, with a sliort, corl^y fracture ; the inner sur- 
 face smooth ; strongly fragrant ; taste sweetish, aromatic, and somewhat 
 astringent."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, tannin, sassafrid, etc. 
 Oleum Sassafras (U. S. P.), a volatile oil distilled from sassa- 
 fras, a yellowish to reddish liquid with the characteristic odor 
 of sassafras. Specific gravity, 1.07 to 1.09. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — It has been recommended for a variety 
 of complaints. Useful as a carminative. The oil may be 
 employed in carious teeth, to cauterize the nerve. The hot 
 infusion is employed as a diaphoretic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2—4 gm. (30—60 gr.). 
 
 JUGLANS.— Joglans.— Butternat. 
 The bark of the root of Juglans cinerea Linne (Nat. Ord. 
 Juglandacese), collected in autumn. 
 
70 WOODS AND BARKS. 
 
 Habitat. — United States. 
 
 Description. — "In flat or curved pieces, about 5 mm. thick; the outer 
 surface darlc gray and nearly smooth, or deprived of the soft cork and deep 
 brown ; the inner surface smooth and striate ; transverse fracture short, 
 delicately checkered, whitish and brown ; odor feeble ; taste bitter and 
 somewhat acrid." — ij. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 Chief Constituents. — Niicin, fixed oil. 
 Tlier'apeut'w Use. — Cathartic. 
 Average Dose. — 4-8 gm. (60-120 gr.). 
 
 CASCARILLA.— Cascarilla. 
 
 The bark of Croton Eluteria Bennett (Nat. Ord. Euphor- 
 biacese). 
 
 Habitat. — The Bahama Islands. 
 
 Description. — " In quills or curved pieces about 2 mm. thick, having a 
 grayish, somewhat fissured, easily detached, corky layer, moi'e or less coated 
 with a white lichen, the uncoated surface being dull brown, and the inner 
 surface smooth. It breaks with a short fracture, having a resinous and 
 radially striate appeai-ance. When burned, it emits a strong, aromatic, 
 somewhat musk-like odor ; its taste is warm and very bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, cascarillin (bitter), resin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — It was believed to possess virtues re- 
 sembling those of cinchona ; while it may be a febrifuge, it 
 has no specific action upon the malarial fever parasite. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 ASPIDOSPERMA.—Aspidosperma.— Quebracho. 
 
 The bark of Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco Schlechtendal 
 (Nat. Ord. Apocynacese). 
 
 Habitat. — The Argentine Republic. 
 
 Description. — " In nearly flat pieces, about 1 to 3 cm. thick ; the outer 
 surface yellowish-gi'ay or brownish, deeply iissured ; inner surface yellowish- 
 brown or reddish-brown, distinctly striate ; fracture displaying two sharply 
 defined strata, of about equal thickness, and both marked with numerous 
 whitish dots and striiK arranged in tangential lines ; the fracture of the 
 outer, lighter colored layer rather coareely granular, and that of the darker 
 colored, inner layer short-splintery ; inodorous ; taste very bitter and slightly 
 aromatic." — U. S. P. 
 
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL BARKS. 
 
 71 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 56. 
 Chief Constituents. — A number of alkaloids, tannin. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Bitter and used in Asthma. 
 Average Dose. — 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 TAE 
 
 LE OF UNOi-l-iaAL 
 
 BARKS. 
 
 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituent. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Angustura 
 
 South 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 
 Febrifuge. 
 
 2gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (Cusparia tebrifuga). 
 Azedarach 
 
 America. 
 
 ciple, resins. 
 
 
 
 Southern 
 
 Bitter resin. 
 
 Anthelmintic, 
 
 4gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Melia A.). 
 
 Asia; abun- 
 dant in 
 United 
 States. 
 
 
 poisonous. 
 
 
 Berberis 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Tannin, ber- 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 0.5 gm. ( Sgr.). 
 
 (B. vulgaris). 
 
 
 beriiie. 
 
 
 
 Quercus tiiictoria 
 
 United 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 
 iQ. coccitiea, var. 
 tinct.). 
 Canella 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 West 
 
 Resin, bitter 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 2gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (C. alba). 
 
 Indies. 
 
 principle. 
 
 
 
 Ciniiamodcndron 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Resin. 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 2gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (C. corticosum). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Condurango 
 
 South 
 
 Tannin, bitter 
 
 Alterative. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (Gonolobus C). 
 
 America. 
 
 principle. 
 
 
 
 Cortius (Doe-wood) 
 (C. florida). 
 
 United 
 
 Tannin, bitter 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 4gm, (60 gr.). 
 
 States. 
 
 principle. 
 
 
 
 Goto 
 
 South 
 
 Acrid prin- 
 
 Anti-diar- 
 
 0.5 gm. ( 8gr.). 
 
 (origin unknown!. 
 
 America. 
 
 ciple. 
 
 rhcea. 
 
 
 Erythroplilceum (Sassy 
 Bark) 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Tannin, Ery- 
 throphloeine. 
 
 Astringent 
 and like 
 
 
 (E. guineense). 
 
 
 
 digitalis. 
 
 
 Liriodendron (Tulip 
 
 United 
 
 Resins, tan- 
 
 Febrifuge, 
 
 8gm. (120 gr.). 
 
 Tree) 
 
 States. 
 
 nin. 
 
 vermifuge. 
 
 
 (L. Tulipifera). 
 Magnolia (M. glauca. 
 M. acuminata, 
 
 United 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Tonic, febri- 
 
 4gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 States. 
 
 resins. 
 
 fuge. 
 
 
 M. tripetala). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Myrica (Wax Myrtle) 
 
 United 
 
 Resin, sapo- 
 
 Sialagogue. 
 
 0.5 gm. ( 8 gr.). 
 
 (M. cerifera). 
 
 States. 
 
 nin. 
 
 
 
 Nectandra (Bebeeru) 
 
 Guiana. 
 
 Beberine. 
 
 Febrifuge. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (N. rodifei). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Piscidia (Jamaica Dog- 
 
 West 
 
 Resin, bitter 
 
 Sudorific. 
 
 3gm. (45 gr.). 
 
 wood) 
 
 Indies. 
 
 principle. 
 
 
 
 (P. erythrina). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prinos 
 
 United 
 
 Tannin, resin. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 4gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Ilex vertieillata). 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 Simaruba 
 
 Northern 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 2gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (S. officinalis). 
 
 South 
 
 ciple, resin. 
 
 
 
 (S. medicinalis). 
 
 America. 
 
 
 
 
 Fraxinus (While Ash) 
 
 United 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Diuretic. 
 
 Igm. (15 gr.). 
 
 (F. americana). 
 
 States, 
 
 resin. 
 
 
 
 Salix (Willow) 
 
 Europe ; 
 
 Tannin, sali- 
 
 Astringent, 
 
 4gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (S. alba and other 
 
 native in 
 
 cin. 
 
 febrifuge. 
 
 
 species). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 Wintera 
 
 South 
 
 Tannin, resin. 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (Drimys Winteri). 
 
 America. 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 Leaa'es are defined as stem appendages, mere expansions 
 of stem tissues. All the official leaves are obtained from 
 Dicotyledons (as are also those leaves included in official 
 herbs). 
 
 They are macroscopically considered with reference to 
 whether they are simple or compound/ whether petiolate or 
 sessile, shape (outline), and size ; their margins (entire, toothed 
 or lobed) ; texture (thin and fragile or thick and leathery) ; 
 surface (smooth or hairy and nature of hairs, when present) ; 
 shape of apex and base ; venation in all its bearings ; color, 
 above and beneath (often lighter beneath) ; whether dotted 
 or not (pilocarpus, with pellucid dots) ; besides these points 
 there are to be noted odor and taste. (See blank on p. 73.) 
 
 The following leaves are official : 
 
 Digitalis. Sage. 
 
 Uva ursi. Hamamelis. 
 Pilocarpus. ~ Chimaphila. 
 
 Eucalyptus. Eriodictyon. 
 
 Coca. Rhus toxicodendron. 
 
 Belladonna. Buchu. 
 
 Stramonium. Senna. 
 
 Hyoscyamus. Matico. 
 
 Tobacco. Chestnut. 
 The following medicinal leaves are not official : 
 
 Aconite. Boldo. 
 
 American senna. Chekan. 
 
 Bay. Cherry laurel. 
 
 Benne. Coltsfoot. 
 
 ' Compound leaves appear to be simple, since their leaflets become sepa- 
 rated in handling. 
 
 72 
 
LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 73 
 
 
 
 E^i 
 
 I a o 
 
 8 ?i4 
 
 
 ->H IS Srj 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 g^g^ ^i^^l-^^|: 
 
 2 
 
 
 ^„^ 
 
 s 
 
 ? 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 ? 
 
 B> 
 
 Cb 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■K 
 
 <3 
 
 Oj 
 g 
 
 g 
 
 
 P 
 
 05 
 
 (5. 
 
 IS 
 
 
 O 8 
 a == <» 
 <?-. — • 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 <s 
 
 IK. 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 8 
 
 8. 
 
74 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 Comptonia. 
 Conium. 
 
 Menyanthes. 
 Mountain laurel, 
 
 Damiana. 
 
 Oleander. 
 
 Duboisia. 
 Hepatica. 
 Holly. 
 Laurel. 
 
 Orange. 
 Peach. 
 Rosemary. 
 Rue. 
 
 Ledum. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Manzanita. 
 Mat6. 
 
 Thyme. 
 Trailing arbutus. 
 
 DIGITALIS.— Di 
 
 igitaiis. — Foxglove. 
 
 The leaves of Digitalis purpurea Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Scro- 
 phularinese, collected from plants of the second year's growth. 
 
 Habitat. — Indigenous to central Europe ; cultivated in 
 England for the leaves, and in the United States as an orna- 
 mental plant. The best digitalis obtainable is the English, 
 the American showing very wide variation in activity. 
 
 Description. — " Simple blade, tapering into petiole, ovate, or oblong ovate 
 (those of first yeai-'s growth being narrower) ; margins cuneate, rather thin 
 and brittle ; finely pubescent, with simple hairs ; apex acute ; base gradu- 
 ally narrowed ; midrib is broad and prominent near base, the smaller veins 
 forming fine reticulations, more prominent beneath ; dull green above, paler 
 beneath ; not dotted ; odor faint, somewhat resembling that of tea ; taste 
 nauseous and bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. Especially 
 note the shape of the second year's growth of leaves which 
 are broader than those of first ; only the former should be 
 collected. 
 
 Oiief Constituents. — The following active glucosidal prin- 
 ciples occur in the leaf. (The composition of the commer- 
 cial articles does not usually correspond to their names.) Digi- 
 toxin and digitophyllin, largest amount; digitalin and digi- 
 talein, small amount. These four are the active principles. 
 Digitalein is readily soluble in water ; digitoxin, digitophyllin, 
 and digitalin are almost insoluble in water, when pure, but 
 dissolve readily in alcohol. They are, however, present in 
 quite large quantities in infusions or decoctions, being rend- 
 ered soluble by a saponin-like principle, digitonin, which is 
 also contained in the leaf. Digitonin is much more soluble 
 
DIGITALIS. 75 
 
 in water than in alcohol. It dilates the blood-vessels. Two 
 other glucosids, digitin and digitoflavon, have little action. 
 Digitalin, digitalein, and digitoxin yield decomposition prod- 
 ucts differing in action from themselves. Digitoxin thus 
 yields toxiresin, and digitalein and digitalin yield digitali- 
 resin, both of the decomposition products acting like picro- 
 toxin. This change occurs if the leaves be stored damp ; it 
 also occurs in old infusions, hence only fresh infusions should 
 be used (see p. 357). 
 
 Two distinct substances have been sold under the name of 
 digitalin — French digitalin, prepared by Homolle, soluble in 
 2000 parts of water, and German digitalin, fairly soluble in 
 water. The leaves also contain about 5 per cent, of fat (re- 
 moved by percolation with petroleum ether) ; and a little of a 
 principle blackening with ferric chlorid. 
 
 Therapeutic Use, — Used in heart affections as "cardiac 
 tonic " and vasoconstrictor, for slowing and strengthening the 
 heart-beat and constricting the blood-vessels. Through these 
 actions it causes in suitable cases an absorption of dropsical 
 fluids and an increased flow of urine. The infusion is pre- 
 ferred for the diuretic, the tincture for the cardiac, effects. 
 (It is absolutely criminal to make the infusion by diluting 
 the fluid extract or tincture, since alcoholic and watery solu- 
 tions contain the active principles in quite different relative 
 proportions). 
 
 If digitalis is injected into a frog, the heart is slowed and 
 finally stops, being contracted into a small white mass ; this 
 action is utilized in identifying the poison and in the physio- 
 logic assay. 
 
 Poisoning by digitalis is shown by nausea, vomiting, diar- 
 rhea, and a hard, rapid pulse. It may occur from small 
 doses if these are long continued. The treatment pending the 
 arrival of a physician consists in emetics. 
 
 It may not be amiss to state that there are few drugs more 
 potent for harm unless used under the direction of an intelli- 
 gent physician. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.06-0.15 gm. (1-2 gr.) in fluid extract or 
 infusion. Of the extract, 0.015 gm. {\ gr.). Defatted tinc- 
 ture, made from leaves previously percolated with petroleum 
 
76 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 ether, is preferable. The digitalis principles are but little 
 used in pure state. Of digitoxiu, 0.0003-0.0006 gm. {■^^— 
 yj-g- gr.) ; digitalein and digitalin in about three times that 
 amount. 
 
 UVA URSI.— Uva Ursi.— Bearterry. 
 
 The leaves of Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi (Linn6) Sprengel 
 (Nat. Ord. Ericaceae). 
 
 Habitat. — North America and northern Europe, in sandy, 
 dry places. 
 
 Description. — " Very short-stalked, obovate or oblong-spatulate, coriaceous, 
 from 15 to 20 mm. long, and 5 to 8 mm. broad, obtuse, slightly revolute on 
 the margin, upper surface with depressed veins ; lower surface distinctly 
 reticulate ; odor faint, hay-like ; taste strongly astringent, and somewhat 
 bitter.— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. Especially 
 note the thick, tough epidermis, preventing exhaustion by 
 decoction unless thoroughly bruised. 
 
 CJiief Constituents. — Tannin, ursone, arbutin, ericolin, etc. 
 (see p. 358). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Astringent, diuretic, and antiseptic to 
 the urinary passages. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.) in decoction or fluid 
 extract. 
 
 PILOCARPUS.— Pilocarpus.— JaborandJ. 
 
 The leaflets of Pilocarpus Selloanus Engler (Rio Janeiro 
 jaborandi), and of Pilocarpus Jaborandi Holmes (Pernam- 
 buco jaborandi) (Nat. Ord. Eutacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Brazil. 
 
 Description.—" About 10 to 15 cm. long, and 4 to 6 cm. broad, short- 
 stalked, oval or ovate-oblong, entire and slightly revolute at the margin, 
 obtuse and emarginate, unequal at the base ; dull green, coriaceous, pellucid- 
 punctate, mostly smooth ; when bruised, slightly aromatic ; taste somewhat 
 bitter and pungent." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. 
 
 Chi^ Constituents. — The alkaloids pilocarpine and pilo- 
 carpidine represent the medicinal activities of the drug ; 
 jaborine and jaboridiue resemble atropine in their action. 
 Pilocarpidine is an oxidation product of pilocarpine, and 
 jaboridine that of jaborine. Various investigators have found 
 
EUCALYPTUS— COCA. 77 
 
 widely varying amounts of pilocarpine in the leaves, but the 
 average is about 0.5 per cent. A volatile oil is also present. 
 
 Therapeutio Use. — Pilocarpus, or the alkaloid pilocarpine, 
 is a powerful diaphoretic and sialagogue, hence the drug is 
 used in a variety of complaints demanding sweating, in 
 dropsy, fevers, etc. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3-2 gm. (5-30 gr.) in fluid extract; 
 owing to the nauseous taste and the uncertain strength of 
 fluid extract the alkaloid is greatly to be preferred. Of the 
 pilocarpine, 0.005-0.02 gm. (yV" s" S^-)- 
 
 EUCALYPTUS-Eacalyptas. 
 
 The leaves of Eucalyptus globulus Labillardiere (Nat. Ord. 
 Myrtacese), collected from the older parts of the tree. 
 
 Habitat. — Australia ; introduced into many subtropic 
 regions. 
 
 Description. — " Petiolate, lanoeolately scythe-shaped, from 15 tx) 30 cm. 
 long, rounded below, tapering above, entire, leathery, grayish-green, glan- 
 dular, feather-veined between the mid-rib and marginal veins ; odor strongly 
 oamphoraceous ; taste pungently aromatic and somewhat cooling, bitter, and 
 astringent."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. Especially 
 note the scythe shape ; not heart-shaped at base. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil (mainly eucalyptol), 6 per 
 cent., much tannin, resin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Recommended in treatment of malarial 
 fevers, but testimony in regard to its value is very conflicting. 
 Carminative. The volatile oil is useful as an antiseptic spray 
 in the throat and nose. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-8 gm. (30-120 gr.) as fluid extract or 
 elixir for carminative ; of the oil, 0.6—2 c.c. (8—30 min.) 
 for inhalation or spray. 
 
 COCA.— Coca.— Erythrorylon (Pharm. 1880). 
 
 The leaves of Erythroxylon Coca Lamarck (Nat. Ord. 
 Linese). 
 
 Habitat. — Eastern slopes of Andes, from Peru southward. 
 
 Description. — " N'arying between ovate, lanceolate, and obovate-oblong, 
 and from 2 to 5 or 7 cm. in length ; shortrpetiolate, entire, rather obtuse or 
 
78 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 emarginate at the apex, slightly reticulate on both sides, with a prominent 
 midrib, and on each side of it a curved line running from base to apex ; 
 odor slight and tea-like ; taste somewhat aromatic and bitter. When chewed, 
 it temporarily benumbs the lips and tongue." — U. ci. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. Especially 
 note the two lines parallel to mid-rib (not always easily seen) ; 
 benumbing sensation when chewed. 
 
 Ohief Constituents. — The alkaloid cocaine represents the 
 activities of the drug. Hygrine, tannin (cocatannic acid). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Coca is cultivated and used by the 
 natives much as tea, coiFee, and other similar stimulants are 
 taken in civilized countries. Cocaine is a local anesthetic of 
 great value. It dilates the pupil, but not so widely as atro- 
 pine. Internally, it is a stimulant. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.) in infusion (little 
 used) ; of cocaine, 0.008-0.06 gm. (-i— 1 gr.). Hypodermi- 
 cally, 1 to 2 per cent, solutions are employed ; locally, upon 
 mucous surfaces, 2 to 10 per cent, solutions. 
 
 BELLADONNAE FOLIA.— Belladonna Leaves. 
 
 The leaves of Atropa Belladonna Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Sola- 
 nacese). 
 
 Habitat, chief constituents, and therapeutic use same as root 
 (see page 19). 
 
 Desaipticm. — " Leaves from 10 to 15 cm. long, from 5 to 10 cm. broad, 
 broadly ovate, equilaterally narrowed into a petiole, tapering at the apex, 
 entire on the margin, smooth, thin, the upper surface brownish-green, the 
 lower surface gi-ayish-gi-een, both surfaces whitish-punctate ; odor slight ; 
 taste bitterish, disagreeable." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. 
 Average Dose. — 0.03-0.2 gm. (J-3 gr.). 
 
 STRAMONH FOLIA.— Stramonium Leaves. 
 
 The leaves of Datura Stramonium Linu6 (Nat. Ord. Sola- 
 nacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Asia ; distributed very widely through the world. 
 
 Description. — " About 1-5 cm. long, petiolate, dark gi-e_en, smooth, ovate, 
 pointed, unequal, especially at the base, coarsely and sinuately toothed ; 
 thin, brittle, and nearly inodorous ; taste unpleasant, bitter, and nauseous," 
 — U. S. P. 
 
HYOSCYAIIUS- TAB A CUM. 79 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. 
 Chief Constituents. — Daturine (a mixture of alkaloids, 
 mainly hyoscyamine), atropine, and hyoscine. 
 
 Therapeutic use and average dose similar to belladonna. 
 
 HYOSCYAMUS—Hyoscyamus.— Henbane. 
 
 The leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger Linn6 
 (Nat. Ord. Solauacese), collected from plants of the second 
 year's growth. 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and Asia, widely in the United States. 
 
 Desci-ipHon. — " Leaves ovate, or ovate-oblong, up to 25 cm. long and 10 
 cm. broad ; sinuate-toothed, the teeth large, oblong, or triangular ; grayish- 
 green, and, particularly on the lower surface, glandulai--hairy ; midrib 
 prominent ; nowera nearly sessile, with an um-shaped, five-toothed calyx, 
 and a light yellow, pui'ple-veined corolla ; odor heavy, narcotic ; taste bitter 
 and somewhat acrid." — TJ. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Hyoscyamine, hyoscine. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Resembles belladonna, but weaker. 
 Preferable to belladonna in insomnia. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.1-0.5 gm. (2-8 gr.) ; hyoscine (dose, 
 0.0003 gm. (^-i-j^ gr.) as somnifacient and antispasmodic in 
 nervous diseases. 
 
 TABACUM.— Tobacco. 
 
 The commercial, dried leaves of Nicotiana Tabacum Linn6 
 (Nat. Ord. Solanacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Tropic America ; widely cultivated. 
 
 Description.—" Up to 50 cm. long, oval or ovate-lanceolate, acute, entire, 
 brown, friable, glandulai^hairy, of a heavy, peculiar odor, and a nauseous, 
 bitter, and acrid taste."— TJ. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Nicotine alone interests us here. This 
 is a volatile, liquid, oxygen-free alkaloid. It is colorless and 
 nearly odorless when fresh, but acquires a brown color and 
 disagreeable odor upon exposure to the air. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Tobacco is mainly of interest through 
 its popular use, and the poisoning to which this has given 
 rise. It was formerly used as a parasiticide and in intestinal 
 
80 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 obstructions ; these uses have been abandoned on account of 
 the toxicity of the alkaloid, which is much greater than is 
 popularly supposed. 
 
 GAULTHERIA— Gaoltfaeria.— 'Wintergreen. 
 
 Leaves of Gaultheria procumbens Linn§ (Nat. Ord. Eri- 
 caceae) ; (unofficial, yields Oil of Gaultheria, IJ. S. P.). 
 
 Habitat. — North America. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 0.5 per cent. ; arbutin, 
 ericolin, ursone, resins, tannin. 
 
 Oleum OaulthericB (U. S. P.) is distilled from the leaves. 
 It consists almost entirely of methyl salicylate (CHjC^HjOj), 
 and cannot be distinguished from oil of betula. Specific 
 gravity, 1.175 to 1.185. 
 
 Oleum Betulce Volatile (U. S. P.) is obtained by distillation 
 from the bark Betula lenta (sweet birch). It does not require 
 separate consideration, being practically identical with oil of 
 gaultheria. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The oil of gaultheria and the oil of 
 betula yield natural salicylic acid and are used in the treat- 
 ment of rheumatism, etc. They are also used for flavoring. 
 
 SALVIA.— Salvia.— Sage. 
 
 The leaves of Salvia officinalis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Labiatse). 
 Habitat. — Southern Europe, extensively cultivated. 
 
 Description. — '' About 5 cm. long, petiolate, ovate-oblong, obtuse or sub- 
 acute at the apex, rounded or somewhat heart-shaped at the base, finely 
 crenulate, thickish, wrinkled, grayish-green, soft-hairy, and glandular 
 beneath, odor aromatic ; taste aromatic, bitterish, and somewhat astrin- 
 gent."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on page 72. 
 Chief Constituents. — Tannin, volatile oil. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Astringent. Used as a seasoning agent 
 in cookery. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (1 5-60 gr.). 
 
 HAMAMELIS.—Hamamelis.— Witch-hazel. 
 
 The leaves of Haraamelis virginiana Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Hamamelacese), collected in autumn. 
 
CHIMAPRILA — ERIOmCTYON. 81 
 
 Habitat. — Throughout the United States. 
 
 -Desmpfebn.— " Short-petiolate, about ]0 cm. long, obovate or oval, 
 Bhghtly heait-shaped and oblique at the base, sinuate-toothed, thickish, 
 nearly smooth ; inodorous ; taste astringent and bitter."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on page 72. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Tannin, trace of volatile oil. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Astringent, externally in skin-diseases. 
 The distilled extract of witch-hazel is used as a mild counter- 
 irritant in bruises, sprains, etc. It owes a large part of its 
 action to the alcohol. 
 
 Average Dose. — 4 gm. (60 gr.) in fluid extract or decoction. 
 
 CHIMAPHILA.— Chimaphila.— Pipsissewa. 
 
 The leaves of Chimaphila umbellata (Linn6) ISTuttall (Nat. 
 Ord. Ericaceae). 
 
 Habitat. — North temperate zone in both hemispheres. 
 
 Description. — "About 5 cm. long, oblanceolate, sharply sen-ate above, 
 wedge-shaped, and nearly entire toward the base ; coriaceous, smooth, and 
 dark green on the upper surface. It is nearly inodorous, and has an astrin- 
 gent and bitterish taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on page 72. 
 Chief constituents, therapeutic use, and average dose are 
 much like uva ursi. 
 
 ERIODICTYON.— Eriodictyon. 
 
 The leaves of Eriodictyon glutinosiim Bentham (Nat. Ord. 
 Hydrophyllacese). 
 Habitat. — California. 
 
 Description. — " Oblong-lanceolate, 5-10 cm. long, acute at the apex, and 
 below narrowed into a short petiole, the margin sinuately toothed to nearly 
 entire ; upper surface green, smooth, and covered with a brownish resin ; 
 lower surface reticulate and minutely white-tomentose ; odor somewhat aro- 
 matic ; taste balsamic and sweetish." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — ^An acid resin (forms insoluble com- 
 pounds with quinine), little volatile oil, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Useful in masking taste of bitter sub- 
 stances for which an aromatic syrup is employed. Has been 
 recommended in coughs, but the testimony is conflicting. 
 
82 LEAVES, BEJRBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-4 gm. (30—60 gi\) as fluid extract or 
 syrup. 
 
 RHUS TOXICODENDRON —Rhus Toxicodendron— Poison Ivy. 
 
 The fresh leaves of Rhus radicans Lmii6 (Nat. Ord. Ana- 
 cardiese). 
 
 Habitat. — North America. 
 
 Desa-iption. — " Long-petiolate, trifoliate ; the lateral leaflets sessile or 
 nearly so, about 10 cm. long, obliq uely ovate, pointed ; the terminal leaflets 
 stalked, ovate or oval, pointed, with a wedge-shaped or rounded base ; the 
 leaflets entire and glabrous, or variously notched, coarsely toothed or 
 lobed, more or less downy ; when dry, papery and brittle ; inodorous ; 
 taste somewhat astringent and acrid. 
 
 " The fresh leaves abound with an acrid juice, which darkens when 
 exposed to the air, and, when applied to the skin, produces inflammation 
 and swelling. The leaves should, therefore, not be touched with bare hands. 
 
 "Rhus Toxicodendron should not be confounded with the leaves of 
 Ptelea trifoliata Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Rutaceae), which are similar in appear- 
 ance, but have all the leaflets sessile." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on page 72. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Toxicodendrol (fixed oil, exceedingly 
 irritant), toxicodendric acid (volatile, formerly erroneously 
 thought to be the active principle), tannin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Formerly used in paralysis. Irritant 
 and rubefacient. Little used. Mainly of toxicologic interest. 
 Local poisoning is treated with a plaster of Castile soap or 
 by washing with a saturated alcoholic solution of lead acetate. 
 Avoid ointments, which spread the poison. 
 
 BUCHU— Bttcha. 
 
 The leaves of Barosma betulina (Thunberg) Bartling et 
 Wendland, and Barosma crenulata (Linn6) Hooker (Nat. Ord. 
 Eutacese). 
 
 Habitat. — South Africa. 
 
 Desa-iption. — "About 15 mm. long, roundish-obovate with a rather 
 wedge-shaped base, or varying between oval and obovate, obtuse, crenat* 
 or serrate, with a gland at the base of each tooth, dull yellowish-green, 
 thickish, pellucid-punctate ; odor and taste strongly aromatic, somewhat 
 mint-like, pungent, and bitterish." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on page 72. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 1.5 per cent, from short 
 
SENNA. 83 
 
 buchu, 0.5 per cent, from the long ; resin and considerable 
 mucilage. Diosphenol (Cj^Hj^O^) gives a black-green color 
 with ferric chlorid. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stimulant, diuretic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—2 gm. (15-30 gr.), best as infusion. 
 
 SENNA.— Senna. 
 
 The leaflets of Cassia acutifolia Delile (Alexandria senna) 
 and of Cassia angustifolia Vahl (India senna) (Nat. Ord. 
 Leguminossa). 
 
 Habitnt. — The Alexandria senna is indigenous to the 
 country south of that city (Egypt, etc.) ; the India senna, 
 to India, Arabia, and parts of Africa. 
 
 Description. — " Alexandria senna consists of leaflets about 25 mm. long, 
 and 10 mm. broad, lanceolate, or lance-oval, subcoriaceous, brittle, i-ather 
 pointed, unequally oblique at the base, entire, grayish-green, somewhat 
 pubescent, of a pecular odor, and a nauseous, bitter taste. 
 
 " It should be free from stalks, and from Argel leaves (the leaves of 
 Solenostemma Argel Hayne, nat. ord. Asclepiadeai), which are frequently 
 present ; these leaves are thicker, one-veined, wrinkled, glaucous, and even 
 at the base. 
 
 " India senna consists of leaflets from 3 to 5 cm. long, and 10 to 15 mm. 
 broad ; lanceolate, acute, unequally oblique at the base, entire, thin, yellow- 
 ish-green or dull green, nearly smooth ; odor peculiar, somewhat tea-like ; 
 taste, mucilaginous, bitter, and nauseous. 
 
 " It should be free from stalks, discolored leaves, and other admixtures." 
 — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. The East India 
 or Tinnevelly (long senna) is much longer than the Alexan- 
 dria (short senna). Especially note the uneven base, and the 
 anastomosis of veins near margin. 
 
 Argel leaf is often added fraudulently to the Alexandria 
 senna at the port of shipment ; it resembles senna somewhat, 
 but is easily distinguished by having an even base and a less 
 distinct and different venation. 
 
 Coriaria is poisonous ; it shows three veins running from 
 base to apex (rarely mixed with senna). 
 
 Tephrosia is emarginate at the apex. 
 
 Chief Con.stifueiits. — Cathartic acid (a glucosid, purgative), 
 chrysophanic acid, emodin, a bitter resin causing griping — 
 
84 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 may be removed by percolating the powdered leaves with 
 alcohol (see p. 367). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Cathartic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 5—15 gm. (1-4 dr.) in infusion. Much 
 used in the compound infusion of senna (senna, manna, mag- 
 nesium sulphate, and fennel) — of this infusion, 30-60 c.c. 
 (1-2 fl. oz.) repeated until effective. 
 
 MATICO.— Matico. 
 
 The leaves of Piper angustifolium Ruiz et Pavon (Nat. 
 Ord. Piperacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Central America. 
 
 Description. — " From 10 to 15 cm. long, shorfr-petiolate, oblong-lanceolate, 
 apex pointed, base unequally heart-shaped, margin very finely crenulate, 
 tessellated above, reticulate beneath, the meshes small, and the veins densely 
 brownish-hairy ; aromatic, spicy, and bitterish." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. Especially note 
 the tessellated appearance of upper surface, the veins appear- 
 ing as if embedded in the parenchyma. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — ^Volatile oil, tannin, resin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — "Vulnerary, styptic, and in gonorrhea. 
 
 Average Dose. — 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 CASTANEA.—Castanea.— Chestnut. 
 
 The leaves of Castanea dentata (Marshall) Sudworth (Nat. 
 Ord. Cupuliferse), collected in September or October, while 
 still green. 
 
 Habitat. — Found widely in the north temperate zone. 
 
 Description. — " From 15 to 25 cm. long, about 5 cm. wide, petiolate, 
 oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, mucronate, feather-veined, sinuate-serrate, 
 smooth ; odor slight ; taste somewhat astringent." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 72. 
 
 Chief Constituent. — Tannin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Astringent ; it has also attained consid- 
 erable popularity in domestic practice in the treatment of 
 whooping-cough, for which the infusion is commonly em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Average Dose. — 4-8 gm. (60 to 120 gr.). 
 
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL LEAVES. 
 
 ■ 85 
 
 TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL LEAVES. 
 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Aconiti Folia 
 
 
 
 
 
 (see root). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cassia marilandica 
 
 United 
 
 Much like 
 
 
 50 gm. (IJ oz.). 
 
 (American Senna) 
 
 States. 
 
 senna. 
 
 
 
 Myrcia (Bay) 
 
 West 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Mainly for 
 
 
 (M. acris). 
 
 Indies. 
 
 
 the spirit. 
 
 
 Sesamum (Benne) 
 
 India. 
 
 Mucilage. 
 
 Demulcent. 
 
 
 (S. indlcum). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Boldus 
 
 Western 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Stimulant. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Peumus B.). 
 
 South 
 America. 
 
 resin, tan- 
 nin. 
 
 
 
 Chekan 
 
 Chile. 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Diuretic. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Eugenia Chekan). 
 
 
 tannin. 
 
 
 
 Laurocerasus (Cherry- 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Principle 
 
 Sedative. 
 
 
 laurel) 
 
 
 yielding hy- 
 
 
 
 (Prunus L.). 
 
 
 drocyanic 
 acid. 
 Mucilage, bit- 
 
 
 
 Tussilago (Coltsfoot) 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Demulcent. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (T. Parfara). 
 
 
 ter principle. 
 
 
 
 Comptonia 
 
 United 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 2 gm. (80 gr.). 
 
 (C. asplenifolia). 
 
 States. 
 
 tannin. 
 
 
 
 Conii Folia 
 
 
 
 
 
 (see fruit). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turnera (Damiana) 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Stimulant. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 T. dififusa). 
 
 
 resin. 
 
 
 
 Duboisia 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Much like bel- 
 
 
 
 (D. myoporoides). 
 
 
 ladonna. 
 
 
 
 Hepatica 
 
 United 
 
 Mucilage. 
 
 Demulcent. 
 
 8gm. (120gr.). 
 
 (Anemone H.). 
 
 States, 
 Europe. 
 
 
 
 
 Laurus (Laurel) 
 
 Southern 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Astringent 
 
 
 (L. nobilis). 
 
 Europe. 
 
 tannin. 
 
 bitter. 
 
 
 Ilex Opaca (Holly). 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 North- 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 Tannin, vola- 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 Ledum (Marsh Tea> 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (L. latifolium). 
 
 western 
 
 North 
 
 America. 
 
 tile oil. 
 
 
 
 Arctostaphylos (Manza- 
 
 California. 
 
 Tannin, 
 
 Astringent, 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 nita) 
 
 
 Ursonc. 
 
 urinary an- 
 
 
 (A. glauca). 
 
 
 
 tiseptic. 
 
 
 Ilex Paraguayensis 
 
 South 
 
 Tannin, 
 
 Beverage. 
 
 
 (Mate). 
 
 America. 
 
 Caffeine. 
 
 
 
 Menyanthes 
 
 North 
 
 Menyanthin 
 
 Tonic, emme- 
 
 3 gm. (45 gr.). 
 
 (M. trifoliata). 
 
 Temper- 
 ate Zone. 
 
 (glueosid). 
 
 nagogue. 
 
 
 Kalmia (Mountain 
 Laurel) 
 
 United 
 
 Tannin, arbu- 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 
 States. 
 
 tin. 
 
 
 
 (K. latifolia). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oleander 
 
 Southern 
 
 Alkaloids and 
 
 Sedative, 
 
 
 (Nerium 0.). 
 
 Europe ; 
 widely 
 culti- 
 vated. 
 
 glycosids. 
 
 poisonous. 
 
 
 Aurantii Folia (Orange) 
 
 Subtropic 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Aromatic 
 
 
 (Citrus vulgaris). 
 
 regions. 
 
 bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 Tannin, 
 
 bitter. 
 
 
 Pereica (Peach) 
 
 Widely 
 
 Sedative. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (Prunus P.). 
 
 culti- 
 vated. 
 
 amygdalin- 
 like, glu- 
 eosid. 
 
 
 
 Rosmarinus (Rosemary) 
 
 Southern 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Carminative, 
 
 1 gm. (15 gr.). 
 
 (R. officinalis). 
 
 Europe. 
 
 resin, tannin. 
 
 diuretic. 
 
 
86 
 
 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLO WEBS. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Where 
 Found. 
 
 Chief 
 Constituents. 
 
 Therapeutic 
 Ose. 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Euta (Eue) 
 
 (R. graveolens). 
 Thea (Tea) 
 
 (T. ohinensia). 
 Thymus (Thyme) 
 
 (T. vulgaris). 
 
 Epigaea (Trailing Arbu- 
 tus) 
 (E. repens). 
 
 Europe. 
 
 China. 
 
 Southern 
 Europe. 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 glucosld. 
 
 Caffeine, 
 Tannin. 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Emmena- 
 
 gogue. 
 Mainly as 
 
 beverage. 
 Carminative, 
 
 Emmena- 
 
 gogue. 
 Astringent. 
 
 1 gm. (15 gr.) 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.) 
 4 gm (60 gr.). 
 
 HERBS. 
 
 Under this heading are included those drugs comprising 
 the smaller leafy and flowering or fruiting stems. They are 
 all from Dicotyledons, except chondrus, one of the Algte, and 
 cetraria, a Lichen. 
 
 Their macroscopic description * embraces the parts found in 
 each case ; the nature of the stems, shape, branching, etc. ; the 
 leaves are considered according to the outline previously given 
 (see p. 72). Any peculiarities of form of flower or fruit are to be 
 noted. In addition to these the odor, taste, and color are observed. 
 
 All the official herbs, excepting cetraria, chirata, and canna- 
 bis indica (the last two from India, cetraria from Central 
 Europe) are grown in the United States, or in the case of 
 chondrus, obtained upon the coast. 
 
 Herbs are very much used in domestic practice, especially 
 in the form of infusions or " teas," but most of them are 
 but little employed by educated physicians, though some of 
 their isolated principles are widely used (volatile oils). 
 
 The following herbs are official : 
 
 Peppermint. 
 
 Spearmint. 
 
 Lobelia. 
 
 Melissa. 
 
 Hedeoma. 
 
 Marrubium. 
 
 Scutellaria. 
 
 Eupatorium. 
 
 Absinthium. 
 
 Grindelia. 
 
 Tansy. 
 
 Chirata. 
 
 Indian cannabis. 
 
 Scoparius. 
 
 Pulsatilla. 
 
 Chelidonium. 
 
 Chondrus. 
 
 Cetraria. 
 
 ' The blank form given on p. 18 or that on p. 73 may be used in de- 
 scribing herbs. 
 
MENTHA PIPERITA. 
 
 The following medicinal herbs are not official 
 
 Agrimony. 
 
 Balmony. 
 
 Beech drop. 
 
 Bitter polygala. 
 
 Blessed thistle. 
 
 Bugle weed. 
 
 Buttercup. 
 
 Cactus. 
 
 Catnip. 
 
 Ditany. 
 
 Drosera. 
 
 Erigeron. 
 
 Evening primrose. 
 
 Figwort. 
 
 Frostwort. 
 
 Galium. 
 
 Golden-rod. 
 
 Gold thread. 
 
 Ground ivy. 
 
 Hardback. 
 
 Helenium. 
 
 Red 
 
 Hyssop. 
 
 Life-everlasting. 
 Mayweed. 
 Mitchella. 
 Monarda. 
 Motherwort. 
 Origanum. 
 Pansy. 
 Partbenium. 
 Plantain. 
 Potentilla. 
 Sabbatia. 
 St. John's-wort. 
 Serpyllum. 
 Sweet clover. 
 Willow herb. 
 Wormwood. 
 Yarrow. 
 Bladderwrack. 
 Maiden-hair. 
 Arbor vitae. 
 cedar. 
 
 MENTHA PIPERITA-Peppermint. 
 
 The leaves and tops of Mentha piperita Smith (Nat. Ord. 
 Labiatse). 
 
 Habitat. — Cultivated in ancient times by Egyptians, now 
 widely scattered and cultivated. 
 
 Description. — " Leaves about 5 cm. long, petiolate, ovate-lanceolate, 
 acute, sharply serrate, glandular, nearly smooth, the few haire containing 
 crystals of menthol in one or more thin cells ; branches quadrangular, often 
 purplish ; flowers in terminal, conical spikes, with a tubular, fine-toothed, 
 often purplish calyx, a purplish four-lobed corolla, and four short stamens ; 
 odor aromatic ; taste pungent and cooling." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 Chief Constituents. — ^Volatile oil (1 per cent., variable), 
 yields menthol. Menthol, called solid oil of peppermint. 
 
88 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLO WEBS. 
 
 occurs as white needles, having somewhat the odor of pepper- 
 mint, and a sliarp taste. It is liquefied by chloral hydrate, 
 forming a syrupy liquid. Tannin, etc., are also present. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative, stimulant, flavor. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15-60 gr.). The oil is some- 
 times employed dropped upon sugar in drop doses ; of the 
 spirit (10 per cent, of the oil) 1 c.c. (15 min.) diluted ; of 
 the water, 20 c.c. (J oz.) or more. 
 
 MENTHA VIRIDIS -Spearmint. 
 
 The leaves and tops of Mentha viridis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Labiatte). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and Asia, cultivated, and wild in Canada 
 and the United States. 
 
 Deseriptwn. — " Leaves about 5 cm. long, subsessile, lance-ovate, acute, 
 serrate, glandular, nearly smooth ; branches quadrangular, mostly light- 
 green ; flowers in terminal, interrupted, narrow, acute spikes, with a tubular, 
 sharply five-toothed calyx, a light purplish, four-lobed corolla, and four 
 rather long stamens ; odor aromatic ; taste pungent." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, resin, etc. 
 Therapeutic use and average dose much like peppermint. 
 
 LOBELIA.— Lobelia. 
 
 The leaves and tops of Lobelia inflata Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Lobeliacese), collected after a portion of the capsules have 
 become inflated. 
 
 Habitat. — United States and Canada. 
 
 Description. — " Leaves alternate, petiolate, the upper ones sessile, ovate or 
 oblong, about 5 cm. long, irregularly toothed, pubescent, pale green; 
 branches hairy, terminating in long racemes of small, pale blue flowers, 
 having an adherent flve-toothed calyx, which is inflated in fruit, a bilabiate 
 corolla, and five united stamens ; odor slight, irritating ; taste mild, aftei^ 
 ward burning and acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on page 86. Especially 
 note the presence of inflated capsules (should be gathered 
 after their development). 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Lobeline (acrid volatile alkaloid), 
 lobelic acid, resin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Emetic, — but not so good as apomor- 
 
MELISSA— EBDEOMA. 89 
 
 phine or ipecac, — expectorant. The action of lobeline closely 
 resembles that of nicotine. Poisonous. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.05-0.5 gm. (1-8 gr.) as fluid extract or 
 tincture. Fatal poisoning by lobelia, though rare, has 
 occurred. Treatment consists in stimulation and application 
 of warmth, much like that of aconite-poisoning. 
 
 MELISSA.— Melissa.— Balm. 
 
 The leaves and tops of Melissa officinalis Linn6 (Nat. 
 Ord. Labiatse). 
 
 Habitat. — Neighborhood of the Mediterranean ; natural- 
 ized in the United States. 
 
 Description. — " Leaves about 5 cm. long, petiolate, ovate, obtuse, rounded, 
 or subcordate at the base, crenate, somewhat hairy, glandular; branches 
 quadrangular ; flowers in about four-flowered cymules, with a tubular, bell- 
 shaped, five-toothed calyx, a whitish or purplish bilabiate corolla, and four 
 stamens ; fragrant, aromatic ; somewhat astringent and bitterish." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, J per cent. ; bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 Therapeutic use and average dose are like those of pepper- 
 mint. 
 
 HEDEOMA.—Hedeoma.— Pennyroyal. 
 
 The leaves and tops of Hedeoma pulegioides (Linn6) Per- 
 soon (Nat. Ord. Labiatse). 
 
 Habitat. — United States, growing widely. 
 
 Description, — " Leaves opposite, short-petioled, about 12 mm. long, 
 oblong-ovate, obscurely serrate, glandular beneath ; branches roundish- 
 quadrangular, hairy ; flowers in small, axillary cymules, with a tubular- 
 ovoid, bilabiate and five-toothed calyx, and a pale blue, spotted, bilabiate 
 corolla, containing two sterile and two fertile, exserted stamens; odor 
 strong, mint^like ; taste warm and pungent." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on page 86. 
 
 Chief Constituent. — ^Volatile oil (the active emmenagogue 
 principle). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Diaphoretic, emmenagogue (action of 
 volatile oil similar to that of tansy, but milder), carminative. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gra. (15-60 gr.). Of the volatile oil, 
 0.06-0.3 c.c. (1-5 min.). 
 
90 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLO WEBS 
 
 MARRUBIUM— Marrubiom.- Horehound. 
 
 The leaves and tops of Marrubium vulgare Linn6 (Nat. 
 Ord. Labiatse). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and Asia; naturalized in the United 
 States. 
 
 Description. — " Leaves about 25 mm. long, opposite, petiolate, roundish- 
 ovate, obtuse, coarsely crenate, strongly rugose, downy above, white-hairy 
 beneath ; branches quadrangular, white, tomentoae ; flowers in dense, axil- 
 lary, woolly whorls, with a stiffly ten-toothed calyx, a whitish, bilabiate 
 corolla, and foui- included stamens ; aromatic and bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 Chief Constituents. — Marrubiin (bitter principle), little 
 volatile oil, tannin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stimulant, tonic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—2 gm. (15-30 gr.) in infusion. 
 
 SCUTELLARIA.— Scutellaria.— ScwIIcap. 
 
 The herb of Scutellaria lateriflora Linn6 (Nat. Ord. La- 
 biatse). 
 
 Habitat. — United States, widely distributed. 
 
 Description. — "About 50 cm. long, smooth ; stem quadrangular, branched ; 
 leaves opposite, petiolate, about 5 cm. long, ovate-lanceolate or ovate-oblong, 
 seiTate ; flowei-s in axillary, one-sided racemes, with a pale-blue corolla and 
 bilabiate calyx, closed in fruit, the upper lip helmet-shaped ; odor slight; 
 taste bitterish."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 Chief Constituent. — Bitter principle (glucosid). 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stomachic, tonic. 
 Average Dose. — 0.5-4 gm. (8—60 gr.). 
 
 EUPATORIUM.— Eopatoriom.— Thoroughwoft. 
 The leaves and flowering-tops of Eupatorium perfoliatum 
 LinnS (Nat. Ord. Compositse). 
 
 Habitat. — Widely through the United States and Canada. 
 
 Description. — " Leaves opposite, united at the base, lanceolate, from 10 to 
 15 cm. long, tapering, crenately serrate, rugosely veined, rough above, 
 downy and resinous-dotted beneath ; flower-heads corymbed, numerous, 
 with an oblong involucre of lance-linear scales, and with from ten to fifteen 
 white florets, having a bristly pappus in a single row ; odor weak and aro- 
 matic ; taste astringent and bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
QRJNDELIA — TANACETUM. 91 
 
 Study and describe a.s suggested on p. 86. 
 Chief Constituents. — Eupatorin (bittei-), volatile oil, etc. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Simple bitter, stomachic. 
 Average Dose. — 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.). 
 
 GRINDELIA.-Grin(felia. 
 
 The leaves and flowering tops of Grindelia robusta Nuttall, 
 and of Grindelia squarrosa Dunal (Nat. Ord. Compositse). 
 
 Habitat. — Widely in the United States, the two species 
 (not perfectly characterized) somewhat diifering in their range. 
 
 Description. — " Leaves about 5 cm. or less long, varying from broadly 
 spatulate or oblong to lanceolate, sessile or clasping, obtuse, more or less 
 sharply serrate, often spinosely toothed, or even lanciniate-pinnatifid, pale 
 green, smooth, finely dotted, thickish, brittle ; heads many-flowered, sub- 
 globular or somewhat conical ; the involucre hemispheric, about 10 mm. 
 broad, composed of numerous imbricated, squarrosely tipped or spreading 
 scales ; i-ay-florets yellow, ligulate, pistillate ; disk-florets yellow, tubular, 
 perfect ; pappus consisting of two or three awns of the lengths of the disk- 
 florets ; odor balsamic ; taste pungently aromatic and bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 (7/iief Constituents. — Resin, volatile oil. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stimulant to bronchial and respiratory 
 tract (coughs, asthma). Also as a lotion in ivy-poisoning. 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.) as fluid extract. 
 
 TANACETUM.— Tansy. 
 
 The leaves and tops of Tanacetum vulgare Linng (Nat. 
 Ord. Compositse). 
 
 Habitat. — Asia and Europe, naturalized in the United 
 
 States. 
 
 Description. — " Leaves about 15 era. long, bipinnatifid, the segments 
 oblong, obtuse, serrate or incised, smooth, dark green, and glandular ; flower- 
 heads corymbose, with an imbricated involucre, a convex, naked receptacle, 
 and numerous yellow, tubular florets ; odor strongly aromatic ; taste pun- 
 gent and bitter."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 Cliief Constituents. — Volatile oil (active principle), tanacetin 
 (bitter), resin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Emmenagogue (not safe), stimulant. 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.) in infusion. 
 
92 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 CHIRATA.— Chsrata. 
 
 The entire plant Swertia Chirata Hamilton (Nat. Ord. 
 
 Gentianefe). 
 
 Habitat. — Northern India in mountainous regions. 
 
 Description. — " Boots nearly simple, about 7 cm. long ; stem branched, 
 nearly 1 meter long, slightly quandrangalar above ; containing a nari-ow 
 wood-circle and a large yellowish pith. Leaves opposite, sessile, ovate, 
 entire, flve-nerved. Flowers numerous, small, with a foui'-lobed calyx and 
 corolla. The whole plant smooth, pale brown, modorous, and intensely 
 bitter."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Ophelic acid (bitter), chiratin, nearly 
 or quite free from tannin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Simple bitter. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-4 gm. (30-60 gr.) in fluid extract or 
 tincture. 
 
 CANNABIS INDICA.— Indian Cannabis.— Indian Hemp. 
 
 The flowering tops of the female plant of Cannabis sativa 
 Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Urticacese), grown in the East Indies. 
 
 Habitat. — Asia ; only that collected in India is recognized. 
 Only that grown at an altitude of 6000 feet or more exudes 
 the resin considered as most valuable ; the domestic plant is 
 practically devoid of activity. 
 
 Description. — " Branching, compressed, brittle, about 5 cm. or more long, 
 with a few digitate leaves, having linear-lanceolate leaflets, and numerous, 
 sheathing, pointed bracts, each containing two small, pistillate flowers, 
 sometimes with the nearly ripe fruit, the whole more or less agglutinated 
 with a resinous exudation. It has a brownish-green color, a peculiar, nar- 
 cotic odor, and a slightly acrid taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, resins (cannabinol). The 
 latter is the active part of the drug. It has an oily consist- 
 ence and reddish color. By exposure to the air it is oxidized 
 to a black, inactive pitch. This deterioration occurs in the 
 plant on keeping. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Narcotic ; little used by educated physi- 
 cians ; produces greater hallucination than any other narcotic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.06—0.6 gm. (1—10 min.) in fluid extract 
 or tincture. Of the extract, 0.015—0.03 gm. (j^ gr.). 
 
8C0PARIUS—CHELID0NIVM. 93 
 
 SCOPARIUS.—Scoparfos.— Broom. 
 
 The tops of Cytisiis Scoparius (Linn6) Link (Nat. Ord. 
 Leguminosse). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe, western Asia ; naturalized in the United 
 States. 
 
 Description. — "In thin, flexible, branched twigs, pentangular, winged, 
 dark green, nearly smooth, tough, usually free from leaves ; odor peculiar 
 when bruised ; taste disagreeably bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Sparteine (liquid alkaloid), scoparin 
 (neutral principle), volatile oil, tannin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Scoparius and its alkaloid have been 
 used like digitalis, from which, however, they differ in that, 
 while they slow the heart, they weaken it, causing slower 
 circulation. The diuretic action of broom is due to scoparin, 
 and not to sparteine. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15-60 gr.). Of sparteine sul- 
 phate, 0.006-0.12 gm. (^2 gr.). 
 
 PULSATILLA— PuIsaUfla. 
 
 The herb of Anemone Pulsatilla and of Anemone pratensis 
 Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Ranunculacese), collected soon after flow- 
 ering. 
 
 It should be carefully preserved, and not be kept longer 
 than one year. 
 
 Habitat. — Europe, western. United States. 
 
 Description. — " Leaves radical, petiolate, silky-villous, twice or thrice 
 deeply three-parted or pinnately cleft, with linear, acute lobes, appearing 
 after the large, purple flowers; inodorous, very acrid." — U. 8. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. Especially 
 note that it should not be kept longer than one year. 
 
 Chief Constituent. — Acrid substance from which anemonin 
 is obtainable. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Irritant, mydriatic, poisonous. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5 gm. (8 gr.). 
 
 CHELIDONIUM.—CheIidonium.— Celandine. 
 
 The entire plant, Chelidonium majus Linne (Nat. Ord. 
 Papaveracese). 
 
94 
 
 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL HERBS. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 Dose. 
 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituent. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Agrlmonia 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Tannin, bitter 
 
 Astringent 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (A. Eupatoria). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 United 
 
 •principle. 
 
 bitter. 
 
 
 Chelone (Balmony) 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 
 Anthelmintic. 
 
 8 gm. (120 gr.). 
 
 (C. glabral. 
 
 States. 
 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 Epiphegus (Beeehdrop) 
 
 Upon the 
 
 Bitter princi- 
 
 Astringent 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (E. virginiana). 
 
 roots of 
 
 the 
 
 beech. 
 
 ple, tannin: 
 
 bitter. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Polygala 
 
 (P. polygama). 
 
 United 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 
 Simple bitter. 
 
 
 States. 
 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 Carduus benedictus 
 
 Southern 
 
 Bitter princi- 
 
 Astringent 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Blessed Thistle) 
 
 Europe. 
 
 ple, tannin. 
 
 bitter. 
 
 
 (Cnicus b.). 
 Lycopus (Bugle Weed) 
 
 
 
 
 
 United 
 
 Bitter princi- 
 
 Astringent 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (L. virginicus). 
 
 States. 
 
 ple, tannin. 
 
 bitter. 
 
 
 Ranunculus (Buttercup) 
 
 Europe, 
 
 
 Much like Pul- 
 
 
 (R. bulbosus). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 
 satilla. 
 
 
 Cactus 
 
 Mexico, 
 
 No analysis. 
 
 Cardiac stim- 
 
 0.3 gm. (5 gr.). 
 
 (C. grandiflorus). 
 
 Central 
 America. 
 
 
 ulant. 
 
 
 Ca'.aria (Catnip) 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Carminative 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Nepeta C). 
 
 United 
 
 tannin, bitter 
 
 emmena- 
 
 
 
 States. 
 
 principle. 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 gogue. 
 
 
 Cunila (Ditany) 
 
 United 
 
 Carminative. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.) 
 
 (C. Mariana). 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 Drosera (Sundew) 
 
 United 
 
 Acrid resin. 
 
 Rubefacient. 
 
 
 (D. rotundifolia). 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 Erigeron (Fleabane) 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (E. philadelphicus 
 
 United 
 
 tannin. 
 
 
 
 and E. canadense) 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 CEnothera (Evening 
 
 United 
 
 Mucilage, 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 Primrose) 
 
 States. 
 
 tannin. 
 
 
 
 (0. biennis) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scropbularia 
 
 United 
 
 Bitter princi- 
 
 Vulnerary. 
 
 
 (S. nodosa). 
 
 States, 
 Europe. 
 
 ple, tannin. 
 
 
 
 Helianthemum (Frost- 
 
 United 
 
 Tannin, bitter 
 
 Astringent 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 wort) 
 (H. canadense). 
 Galium (Bedstraw) 
 
 States. 
 
 principle. 
 
 tonic. 
 
 
 United 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Diuretic. 
 
 4gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (G. Aparine). 
 
 States, 
 Europe. 
 
 
 
 
 Solidago (Golden Rod) 
 
 (S. odora). 
 Coptis (Gold Thread) 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 Europe 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Carminative. 
 
 8 gm. (120 gr.). 
 
 Much like 
 
 
 
 (C. trifolla). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 Europe, 
 
 hydrastis. 
 
 
 
 Glechoma (Ground Ivy) 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Nepeta G.). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 Spiraea (Hardback) 
 
 United 
 
 Tannin, bitter 
 
 Astringent 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (S. tomentosa). 
 
 States. 
 
 principle. 
 
 bitter. 
 
 
 Helenium 
 
 United 
 
 Resin, bitter 
 
 Errhine. 
 
 
 (H. antumnale). 
 
 States. 
 
 principle. 
 
 
 
 Hyssopus 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Carminative. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (H. officinalis). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 Gnaphalium (Life Ever- 
 
 United 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 lasting) 
 
 States. 
 
 bitter prin- 
 
 
 
 (G. polycephalum). 
 
 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
USUALLY CLASSED AS LEAFY TOPS. 
 
 95 
 
 Name. 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 Dose. 
 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituent, 
 
 Use. 
 
 Cotula (Mayweed) 
 
 Europe, 
 United 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Sudorific. 
 
 8 gm. (120 gr.). 
 
 (Anthemis C). 
 
 bitter prin- 
 
 
 
 
 States. 
 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 Mitchella (Squawvine) 
 
 United 
 
 Keain, sapo- 
 nin-likebody. 
 
 Diuretic. 
 
 1 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (M. repens). 
 Munarda (Horsemint) 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 United 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Carminative, 
 
 4gm. (OOgr.). 
 
 (M. punctata). 
 
 States. 
 
 
 emmena- 
 gogue. 
 
 
 Leonurus (Motherwort) 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.), 
 
 (L. cardiaca). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 Origanum 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Carminative. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (0. vulgare). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 Viola Tricolor 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Mucilage, sali- 
 
 Used in rheu- 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Pansy) 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 cylic acid. 
 
 matism. 
 
 
 Parthenium 
 
 Europe, 
 Southern 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Bitter. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Chrysanthemum P.). 
 
 bitter prin- 
 
 
 
 
 United 
 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 Plantago (Plantain) 
 
 United 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 
 (P. lanceolata and 
 
 States. 
 
 ciple, resin, 
 
 
 
 P. major). 
 
 
 citrates. 
 
 
 
 Potentilla 
 
 United 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (P. canadensis). 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 Sabbatia 
 
 United 
 
 Bitter prin- 
 
 Febrifuge. 
 
 4gm. (60gr.). 
 
 (S. angiilaris). 
 
 States. 
 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 Hypericum (St. John's 
 Wort) 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Eesm, tannin. 
 
 Mostly exter- 
 
 
 United 
 
 
 nally. 
 
 
 (H. perforatum). 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 Serpyllum 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Carminative, 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Thymus S.). 
 
 United 
 
 tannin, bitter 
 
 emmena- 
 
 
 
 States. 
 
 principle. 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 gogue. 
 Mostly exter- 
 
 
 Melilotus (Sweet Clover) 
 
 Europe, 
 
 
 (M. altissimus). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 coumarin. 
 
 nally. 
 
 
 Epilobium (Willow 
 
 United 
 
 Mucilage, 
 
 Demulcent, 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 Herb) 
 
 States. 
 
 tannin. 
 
 astringent. 
 
 
 (E. angusti folium). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Absinthium (Worm- 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Febrifuge. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 wood; 
 
 United 
 
 bitter prin- 
 
 
 
 (Artemisia A.). 
 
 States. 
 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 Achillea (Yarrow) 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Emmena- 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (A. Millefolium). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 bitter prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 gogue. 
 
 
 Fucus vesieulosus 
 
 North 
 
 Mucilage. 
 
 Used in 
 
 8gm. (120gr.). 
 
 (Bladder Wrack). 
 
 Atlantic 
 Ocean. 
 
 
 obesity. 
 
 
 Adiantum (Maidenhair 
 
 United 
 
 Mucilage, 
 
 Demulcent. 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 Fern) 
 
 States. 
 
 bitter prin- 
 
 
 
 (A. pedatum). 
 
 
 ciple. 
 
 
 
 USUALLY CLASSED AS LEAFY TOPS. 
 
 Thuia (Arbor Vitaj) 
 (T. occldentalis). 
 
 Juniperus juniper) 
 (J. virginiana). 
 
 Canada, 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Irritant. 
 
 United 
 
 resin. 
 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 United 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Emmena 
 
 States. 
 
 resin. 
 
 gogue. 
 
 1 gm. (15 gr.). 
 
96 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 Habitat. — Europe, naturalized in the United States. 
 
 Description. — "Koot several-headed, branching, reddish-brown; stem 
 about 50 cm. long, light green, hairy ; leaves about 15 cm. long, thin, peti- 
 olate, the upper ones smaller and sessile, light green, on the lower side 
 glaucous, lyrate-pinnatifid, the pinnaa ovate-oblong, obtuse, coarsely crenate 
 or incised, and the terminal one often three-lobed ; flowers in small, long- 
 peduncled umbels with two sepals and four yellow petals ; capsule linear, 
 two-valved and many-seeded. The fresh plant contains a saffron-colored 
 milk-juice, and has an unpleasant odor and acrid taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe a,s suggested on p. 86. Especially 
 note tHe unpleasant odor of the fresh plant. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Chelerythrine (sanguinarine), chelido- 
 nine, chelidoxanthine, berberine. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Cathartic, narcotic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.). 
 
 CHONDRUS. — Chondr«s. — Irish Moss. — Carragheen. 
 
 Chondrus crispiis Stackhouse, and Gigartina mamillosa — 
 J. Agardh (class Algse). 
 
 Habitat. — ^Atlantic Ocean, collected from the coast of Ire- 
 land and of Massachusetts. 
 
 Description. — "Yellowish or whitish, homy, translucent, many-times 
 forked ; when softened in water cartilaginous ; shape of the segments vary- 
 ing from wedge-shaped to linear ; at the apex emarginate or two-lobed. It 
 has a slight seaweed odor and a mucilaginous, somewhat saline taste. 
 
 " One part of it boiled for ten minutes with 30 pai-ts of water yields a 
 solution which gelatinizes on cooling, and is not colored blue by iodine T. 
 S."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. Especially 
 note the spore vessels embedded in frond or somewhat raised 
 in Chondrus mamillo.sus. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Gummy substances, forming a jelly 
 upon boiling and cooling ; and sea-salts. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Demulcent, nutrient (always used as a 
 decoction). 
 
 Average Dose. — 5 gm. (75 gr.). 
 
 CETRARIA.—Cetfaria.— Iceland Moss. 
 
 Cetraria islandica (Linn6) Acharius (class Lichens). 
 Habitat. — High latitudes, or high altitudes of central 
 Europe. 
 
SABINA. 97 
 
 Description. — " From 5 to 10 cm. long, foliaceous, irregularly branched 
 into fringed and channeled lobes, brownisli above, whitish beneath, and 
 marked with small, depressed spots ; brittle and inodorous ; when softened 
 in water, cartilaginous, and having a slight odor ; its taste is mucilaginous 
 and bitter. 
 
 " It should be freed from pine leaves, mosses, and other lichens, wliich 
 are frequently found mixed with it." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested ou p. 86. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Lichenin, 70 per centr., resembling 
 starch, forming mucilage with water, cetraric acid, bitter 
 principle. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Demulcent, slightly nutritive. 
 
 Average Dose. — Ad libitum. 
 
 SABINA.— Savine. 
 
 The tops of Juniperus Sabiua Linn§ (Nat. Ord. Coniferse). 
 
 Habitat. — Grows extensively in the north temperate zone. 
 
 Description. — " Short, thin subquadrangular branchlets ; leaves rather 
 dark green, in four rows, opposite, scale-like, [about 2 mm. (j'j inch) long], 
 appressed, imbricated, ovate-lanceolate, more or less acute, on the back with 
 a shallow groove containing an oblong or roundish gland ; odor peculiar 
 terebinthinate ; taste nauseous, resinous, and bitter."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. Especially note 
 the exceedingly minute leaves, and that the branchlets are 
 four-sided (compare with Arbor Vitse). 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, resin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Irritant, emmenagogue. 
 
 Ave^-age Dose. — 0.5-1 gm. (8-15 gr.). 
 
 FLOWERS. 
 
 A flower normally consists of four sets of phyllomes : the 
 calyx, composed of sepals ; the corolla, composed of petals ; 
 the male organs, the stamens, composing the androecium, and 
 the female organs, the pistils, composing the gynseciura. 
 
 The sepals are usually green, and more nearly approach 
 ordinary leaves than do the other sets. The petals are usually 
 bright colored but not green ; the stamens and pistils are not 
 usually conspicuous, and in the dried official flowers are of 
 little macroscopic importance, as a rule. 
 
 In describing flowers,^ the following points are considered : 
 
 ' The blank form given on p. 104 may be used to describe floweiB. 
 
 7 
 
98 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 Whether fully opened or only buds (cloves unexpanded) ; 
 what parts are present ; the size, shape, and color of petals 
 and sepals. In crocus only the stigmas are official, and in 
 such a case the smaller organs are, of course, taken more 
 into account. Some of the flowers are so broken that little, 
 except general size, odor, color, and taste can be observed 
 without a magnifying-glass. 
 
 The following flowers are official : 
 
 Santonica. Calendula. 
 
 Kousso. Matricaria. 
 
 Pale rose. Anthemis. 
 
 Eed rose. Arnica. 
 
 Cloves. Sambucus. 
 
 The following medicinal flowers are not official : 
 
 Hollyhock. Mullein. 
 
 Lavender^ Orange. 
 
 Linden. Pyrethrum. 
 
 Mallow. Red poppy. 
 
 Safflower. 
 
 SANTONICA.— Santonica.— Levant Wormseed. 
 
 The unexpanded flower-heads of Artemisia paucifiora 
 Weber (Nat. Ord. Compositse). 
 Habitat. — Turkestan. 
 
 Desa-iption. — "From 2 to 4 mm. long, oblong-ovoid, obtuse, smooth, 
 somewhat glossy, grayish-green, after exposure to light brownisli-green, 
 consisting of an involucre of about 12 to 18 closely imbricated, glandular 
 scales with a broad midrib, inclosing four or five rudimentary florets ; odor 
 strong, peculiar, somewhat camphoraceous ; taste aromatic and bitter." — 
 U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested above. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Santonin (active constituent), 2 per 
 cent., volatile oil, 2 per cent. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Anthelmintic. Santonin produces yel- 
 lowness of vision and may produce carmine-red urine if 
 alkaline. Overdoses have proved fatal. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15-60 gr.). Of Santonin, 
 0.03—0.12 gm. (J to 2 gr.) for children, in lozenges, often 
 combined with calomel. 
 
CUSSO-CAB YOPHYLL US. 99 
 
 Treatment for Poisoning : Emetic and stimulants, as in 
 aconite poisoning. 
 
 CUSSO.— Kousso— Brayera (Pharm. J880). 
 
 The female inflorescence of Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) 
 Gmelin (Nat. Ord. Rosacese). 
 liubilat. — Abyssinia. 
 
 Description. — "In bundles, rolls, or compressed clustei's, consisting of 
 panicles about 25 cm. long, with a sheathing bract at the base of each 
 branch ; the two roundish bracts at the base of each flower, and the four or five 
 obovate, outer sepals are of a reddish color, membranous, and veiny; calyx 
 top-shaped, hairy, inclosing two carpels or nutlets; odor slight, fragrant, 
 and tea-like ; taste bitte-r, acrid, and nauseous." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 98. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Kosotoxin (active principle, neutral), 
 resin, much tannin. 
 
 Thei-apeutiG Use. — Taenifuge, less as vermifuge. Male 
 flowers are emetic and useless as taenifuge. 
 
 Average Dose. — 10—20 gm. (2J— 5 dr.). 
 
 CARYOPHYLLUS. -Cloves. 
 
 The unexpanded flowers of Eugenia aromatica (Linn6) 
 O. Kuntze (Nat. Ord. Myrtaceae). 
 
 Habitat. — The Molucca Islands ; cultivated in the West 
 Indies, Sumatra, and Cayenne. 
 
 Description. — "About 15 mm. long, dark brown, consisting of asubcylin- 
 dric, solid, and glandular calyx-tube, terminated by four teeth, and sur- 
 mounted by a globular head, formed by four jictals, which cover numerous 
 curved stamens, and one style. Gloves emit oil, when scratched, and have 
 a strong aromatic odor and a pungent, spicy taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Studi/ and describe as suggested on p. 98. 
 
 Chief ConstituenU. — Volatile oil (mostly eugenol and eu- 
 genic acid), 18 per cent, tannin, gum, caryophyllin (tasteless), 
 eugenin, vanillin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stimulant, carminative, flavor. The 
 oil is used iu carious teeth to cauterize the nerve. 
 
 Average Dose.— 0.3-0.5 gm. (5-8 gr.). Of the oil, 0.06- 
 0.3 c.c. (1-5 mm.). 
 
 Cloves, which have been subjected to distillation are often 
 sold ; they float upon water, whereas the official will sink. 
 
100 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLOWERS. 
 
 CALENDULA.— Calendala.— Marigold. 
 
 The florets of Calendula officinalis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Com- 
 
 positse). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe ; cultivated. 
 
 Deseription. — " Florets about 12 mm. long, linear and strap-shaped, deli- 
 cately veined in a longitudinal direction, yellow or orange-colored, three- 
 toothed above, the short hairy tube inclosing the remnants of a filiform 
 style terminating in two elongated branches ; odor slight and somewhat 
 heavy ; taste somewhat bitter and faintly saline." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 98. 
 
 Chief Constituents.^ — Bitter principle, calendulin, volatile 
 
 oil, resin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use:- — Stomachic. 
 
 ROSA CENTIFOLIA.-PaIe Rose. 
 
 The petals of Eosa centifolia Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Rosacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Western Asia. The cultivated rose is used. 
 
 Description. — " Boundish-obovate and retuse, or obcordate, pink, fragrant, 
 sweetish, slightly bitter, and faintly astringent." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 98. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Mucilage, tannin, very little volatile 
 
 oil (none of the official oil of rose). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative and as perfume. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2—4 gm. (30—60 gr.). 
 
 ROSA GALLICA.— Red Rose. 
 The petals of Rosa gallica Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Rosacese), 
 collected before expanding. 
 
 Habitat. — Western Asia ; extensively cultivated. 
 
 Deseription. — "Usually in small cones, consisting of numerous imbri- 
 cated, roundish, retuse, deep purple-colored, yellow-clawed petals, having a 
 roseate odor and a. bitterish, slightly acidulous, and distinctly astringent 
 taste."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 98. 
 
 Chi^ Constituents. — Mucilage, trace of volatile oil, tannin. 
 
 Tlierapeutic Use — Tonic and astringent ; perfume. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.). 
 
 MATRICARIA.— Matricaria.— German Chamomile. 
 The flower-heads of Matricaria Chamomilla Linn6 (Nat. 
 Ord. Corapositse). 
 
ANTHEMIS—ARNICJi: FLORES. 101 
 
 Habitat. — Europe, extensively cultivated. 
 
 Description. — " About 15 to 20 mm. broad, composed of a flattish, imbri- 
 cate involucre, a conic, hollow, naked receptacle, which is about 5 mm. 
 high, about lifteen white, ligulate, reflexed ray-florets, and numerous yellow, 
 tubular, perfect disk-floi-ets without pappus ; strongly aromatic and bitter. 
 
 " The similar flower-heads of Anthemis arvensis Linne, and Maruta 
 Cotula De Candolle (Nat. Ord. Compositse), have conic, solid, and chafly 
 receptacles." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 98. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Anthemic acid (bitter), antheraidin 
 (tasteless), | per cent, of a blue volatile oil, becoming greeu 
 with age. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative, stimulant, emmenagogue. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.). 
 
 ANTHEMIS.— Anthemis.— Chamomile. 
 
 The flower-heads of Anthemis nobilis LinnI (Nat. Ord. 
 
 Compositse), collected from cultivated plants. 
 
 Habitat. — -Europe, cultivated. 
 
 Descnplion. — " Heads subglobular, about 2 cm. broad, consisting of an 
 imbi'icated involucre, and numerous white, strap-shaped, three-toothed 
 florets, and few or no yellow tubular disk-florets, insei-ted upon a chafTy, 
 conic, solid receptacle. It has a strong, agreeable odor, and an aromatic, 
 bitter taste."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 98. 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, blue or green, about 1 
 per cent. ; bitter principle, anthemene (tasteless). 
 Therapeutic use and average dose like matricaria. 
 
 ARNICAE FLORES.— Arnica Flowers. 
 
 The flower-heads of Arnica montana Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Compositse). 
 
 Habitat. — Mountainous districts of Europe and the United 
 States and in Siberia. 
 
 Description. — "Heads about 3 cm. broad, depressed-roundish, consisting 
 of a scaly involucre in two rows, and a small, nearly flat, haiiy receptacle, 
 bearing about sixteen yellow, .strap-shaped, ten-nerved ray-florets, and nu- 
 merous yellow, five-toothed, tubular disk-florets, having slender, spindle- 
 shaped achenes, crowned by a hairy pappus. Odor feeble, aromatic ; taste 
 bitterandacrid."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 98. 
 Chief Constituents. — Arnicin (acrid), resin. 
 
102 
 
 LEAVES, HERBS, AND FLO WEBS. 
 
 Therapeutic -Use. — Irritant and vulnerary ; little used in- 
 ternally. 
 
 Average Dose. — Mostly externally as tincture. 
 
 SAMBUaJS.-Sambocas.— Elder. 
 The flowers of Sambucus canadensis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Caprifoliacese). 
 
 Habitat. — United States. 
 
 Description. — " The flowers, when fresh, about 5 mm. broad, and after 
 drying shriveled ; calyx superior, minutely five-toothed ; corolla originally 
 cream-colored, after drying pale brownish-yellow, wheel-shaped and five- 
 lobed, with five stamens on the short tube ; odor peculiar ; taste sweetish, 
 somewhat aromatic and bitterish. 
 
 " The peduncles and pedicels of the inflorescence should be reiected."— 
 U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 98. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, resin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative and as perfume in soaps. 
 
 Average Dose. — 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL FLOWERS. 
 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Althiea (Hollyhock) 
 
 Cultivated 
 
 Mucilage. 
 
 Demulcent. 
 
 
 (A. rosea). 
 
 exten- 
 sively. 
 
 
 
 
 Lavandula (Lavender) 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Mostly for 
 
 
 (L. vera). 
 
 
 resin. 
 
 perfume. 
 
 
 Tilia (Linden) 
 
 United 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Lenitive. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (T. amerioana and 
 
 states. 
 
 mucilage. 
 
 
 
 T. heterophylla). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Malva (M. sylvestris). 
 
 Europe, 
 United 
 States. 
 
 Mucilage. 
 
 Demulcent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Verbascnm (Mullein) 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Pectoral 
 
 4gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (Verbascumsp.). 
 
 United 
 states. 
 Sub- 
 
 mucilage. 
 
 demulcent. 
 
 
 Aurantii Flores (Orange 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Sedative, 
 
 
 Flowers) 
 
 tropics. 
 
 bitter prin- 
 
 mostlv as 
 
 
 (Citrus A. and 
 
 
 ciple. 
 
 0. F. water. 
 
 
 C. vnlgaris). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pyrethri Flores (Insect 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Resin. 
 
 Insecticide. 
 
 
 powder) 
 
 Asia. 
 
 
 
 
 (Chrysanthemum 
 
 
 
 
 
 sp.). 
 Rhoeas (Poppy) 
 
 Asia, 
 
 Trace of alka- 
 
 Mainly for 
 
 
 (Papaver R.). 
 
 Europe. 
 
 loid, color- 
 ing matter. 
 
 coloring. 
 
 
 Carthamus (Safflower) 
 
 Asia, 
 
 Coloring- 
 
 Diaphoretic 
 
 Igm. (15 gr.). 
 
 (C. tinetoris). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 matter. 
 
 (often sub- 
 stituted for 
 .saffron). 
 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 FRUITS. 
 
 The fruit consists of the ripened ovary, together with what- 
 ever parts of the flower persist and share in its development. 
 In describing a fruit ' there should be noted : its classifica- 
 tion (berry, etc.) ; whether the ripe or unripe fruit is collected ; 
 its size and shape ; presence or absence of the stem base ; 
 texture of outer layers and of the inner portion (exocarp, 
 mesocarp, etc.) ; seed contents ; color, odor, and taste. 
 The following fruits are official : 
 
 Cubeb. Vanilla. 
 
 Pepper. Coriander. 
 
 Hops. Conium. 
 
 Phytolacca. Fennel. 
 
 Rhus glabra. Caraway. 
 
 Prune. Anise. 
 
 Raspberry. Lemon (peel). 
 
 Pimenta. Bitter orange (peel). 
 
 Capsicum. Sweet orange (peel). 
 
 Colocynth. Tamarind. 
 
 Cassia fistula. Fig. 
 
 Cardamon. Chenopodium. 
 
 Illiciiim. 
 The following medicinal fruits are not official : 
 Bael. Cumin. 
 
 Buckthorn. Dill. 
 
 Cashew. Mulberry. 
 
 Carrot. Myrobalan. 
 
 Celery. Parsley. 
 
 Ceratonia. Rose. 
 
 Cocculus Indicus. Saw-palmetto. 
 
 Juniper. 
 1 See blank p. 104. 
 
 103 
 
1104 
 
 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 •ri 
 
 I 
 
 =0 
 
 CO 
 
 e 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 Si 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^1- 
 
 ^ O 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 !S1 
 
 «i 
 ■+i 
 
 =0 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 ^ 
 
 *JO 
 
 III 
 
 ti 
 
 Co 
 
 O 
 f 
 ^'^ 
 
 
 
CUBESA—HUMULUS. 105 
 
 CUBEBA— Cufaeb. 
 The unripe fruit of Piper Cubeba Linne (Nat. Ord. Piper- 
 acese). 
 
 Hahikvt. — Java, Sumatra, Borneo ; cultivated. 
 
 Description. — " Globular, about 4 or 5 mm. in diameter, contracted at 
 the base into a rounded stipe about 6 or 8 mm. long, reticulately wrinkled, 
 blackish-gray, internally whitish and hollow ; odor strong, spicy ; taste aro- 
 matic and pungent." — U. S. P. 
 
 Cubeb should not be mixed with the nearly inodorous luchis or stalks. 
 
 Study and desaribe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, resin, eubebic acid (act- 
 ive), cubebin (inactive). The oleoresin represents the medic- 
 inal activities of the drug. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — ^Urinary disinfectant, stimulant, also in 
 bronchitis. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2—4 gm. (J— 1 dr.). Of the oleoresin or 
 oil, 0.3-1.2 c.c. (5-20 min.). 
 
 PIPER.— Pepper.— Black Pepper. 
 
 The unripe fruit of Piper nigrum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Piper- 
 acese). 
 
 Habitat. — East Indies, particularly the Malabar or west- 
 ern coast of the Madras presidency of India; cultivated in 
 tropic countries. 
 
 Description. — " Globular, about 4 ram. in diameter, reticulately wrinkled, 
 brownish-black or grayish-black, internally lighter, hollow, with an unde- 
 veloped embryo ; odor aromatic; taste pungently spicy." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil (devoid of pungency), 
 piperine, 6 per cent, (nearly tasteless, but developing pun- 
 gency when dissolved), chavicin (pungent resin). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Irritant, stimulant, carminative. Used 
 mostly as a condiment. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.1—1 gm. (1—15 gr.). Of the oleoresin 
 0.05-0.1 cc. (1-2 min.). 
 
 HUMULUS.— Hops. 
 
 The strobiles of Humulus Lupulus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Ur- 
 ticacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Widely distributed in the north temperate zone ; 
 cultivated. 
 
106 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 Description. — " Ovate, about 3 cm. long, consisting of a thin, hairy, un- 
 dulated axis, and many obliquely ovate, membranous scales, in the upper 
 part reticulately veined, and toward the base parallel-veined, glandulai', and 
 surrounding a subglobular achene ; color of the scales greenish, free from 
 reddish or brownish spots ; odor aromatic ; taste bitter and slightly astrin- 
 gent."— U. a P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Much resin, little volatile oil, choline, 
 asparagin, tannin, etc. The glandular powder, lupulin, rep- 
 resents the activities of the hops and is almost exclusively 
 employed. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Tonic and hypnotic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2—20 gm. (J— 5 dr.). 
 
 PHYTOLACCA.E FRUCTUS.— Phytolacca Fruit.— Phytolaccae Bacca 
 (Pharm. J880) ; Poke Berry. 
 
 The fruit of Phytolacca decandra Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Phy- 
 tolaccacese). 
 
 Habitat. — United States and Canada; naturalized in 
 Europe. 
 
 Description. — "A depressed-globular, dark-purple, compound berry, 
 about 8 mm. in diameter, composed of ten carpels, each containing one 
 lenticular, black seed ; juice purplish-red ; inodorous ; taste sweet, slightly 
 acrid."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Coloring-matter, sugar, gum, etc. 
 The active principle is not well known. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — It is only used in domestic medicine. 
 In moderate doses it acts as an emetic and cathartic. It is 
 further said to have a marked action upon the glandular 
 structures. Used in obesity. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5—1 gm. (8—15 gr.). 
 
 RHUS GLABRA.— Rhus Glabra. 
 
 The fruit of Rhus glabra Linne (Nat. Ord. Anacardiese). 
 Habitat. — United States and Canada. 
 
 Description. — " Subglobular, about 3 mm. in diameter, drupaceous, crim- 
 son, densely hairy, containing a roundish-oblong, smooth putamen ; inodor- 
 ous ; taste acidulous.". — U. S. P. 
 
ANAMIRTA—PIMENTA. 107 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Condituents. — Malic acid (acid malates), tannin. 
 
 Therapeutio Use. — Refrigerant, astringent. 
 
 Average Dose. — 1-4 gm. (15-60 gr.). 
 
 ANAMIRTA.— Coccultis Indicas.— Fish Berry. 
 
 The fruit of Anamirta paniculata (unofficial ; considered 
 here because it yields picrotoxin). 
 
 Habitat. — India. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Picrotoxin is found in the seeds. Two 
 inert alkaloids, menispermine and paramenispermiue. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Decoction used externally to kill ver- 
 min. Rarely used internally. Convulsant. 
 
 Average dose of picrotoxin, 0.001 gm. (gL gr.) or less. 
 
 PRUNUM.— Prune. 
 
 The dried fruit of Prunus domestica Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Rosacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Asia ; extensively cultivated. 
 
 Description. — "Oblong or subglobular, about 3 cm. long, shrivelled, 
 blackish-blue, glaucous ; the sarcocarp brownish-yellow, sweet, and acidu- 
 lous ; putamen hard, smooth, or irregularly ridged ; the seed almond-like 
 in shape, but smaller, and of a bittei--almond taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Much sugar, pectin, malic acid. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Laxative and nutritive. 
 
 RUBUS IDAEUS.— Raspberry. 
 
 The fruit of Rubus idreus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Rosacete). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and Asia ; cultivated and wild in many 
 countries. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Sugar, pectin, and citric and malic 
 acid. 
 
 Therapeutic ZTse. — Refrigerant, nutritive, flavor. 
 
 Needs no description. 
 
 PEVIENTA.—Pimenta.— Allspice. 
 The nearly ripe fruit of Pimenta officinalis Lindley (Nat. 
 Ord. Myrtacese). 
 
108 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 Habitat. — Northern part of South America and some of 
 the West Indies, particularly Jamaica. 
 
 Description.—" About 5 mm. in diameter, nearly globular, crowned with 
 the short, four-parted calyx or its remnants, and a short style ; brownish or 
 brownish-gray, granular and glandular, two-celled ; each cell containing one 
 brown, plano-convex, roundish-reniform seed ; odor and taste pungently 
 aromatic, clove-like." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on page 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — ^Volatile oil (contains eugenol), 3 to 4 
 per cent., resin, tannin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stomachic, carminative. Seldom used 
 in medicine, but frequently as a spice. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.). 
 
 CAPSICUM.— Capsicttm.— Cayenne Pepper.— African Pepper. 
 
 The fruit of Capsicum fastigiatum Blume (Nat. Ord. Solan- 
 acese). 
 
 Habitat. — Probably indigenous to Central America ; cul- 
 tivated extensively. 
 
 Description. — " Oblong-conic, from 10 to 20 mm. long, supported by a 
 flattish, cup-shaped, five-toothed calyx, with a red, shining, membranous, 
 and tiunslucent pericarp, inclosing two cells, and containing flat, reniform, 
 yellowish seeds attached to a thick, central placenta. It has a peculiar 
 odor and an intensely sharp taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Cov.stituents. -^Capssiicm (pungent), volatile oil, and 
 resins. The oleoresin represents its activities. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stimulant," rubefacient, carminative, 
 condiment. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.05—0.5 gm. (1-8 gr.). Of the oleoresin, 
 0.015-0.05 c.c. (i-1 min.). 
 
 COLOCYNTmS.— Colqcynth. 
 
 The fruit of CitruUus Colocynthis Shrader (Nat. Ord. 
 Cucurbitacese), deprived of its rind. 
 
 Habitat. — Indigenous to Turkey and neighboring coast, 
 also found elsewhere in Europe and in South Africa. 
 
 Description. — " From 5 to 10 cm. in diameter ; globular ; white or yel- 
 lowish-white ; light, spongy; readily breaking into three wedge-shaped 
 
CASSIA FISTULA — CARDAMOMUM. 109 
 
 pieces, each containing, near the rounded surface, many fiat, ovate, brown 
 seeds ; inodorous ; taste intensely bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 The pulp only should be used, the seeds being separated and rejected. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Colocynthin (bitter, active principle), 
 0.6 per cent., yields colocynthein by decomposition, also 
 active ; resin ; no starch. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Hydragogue, cathartic. Overdoses are 
 poisonous. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.1-0.5 gm. (2—8 gr.). 
 
 CASSIA FISTULA.— Cassia Fistula.— Purging Cassia. 
 
 The fruit of Cassia Fistula Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Leguminosse). 
 Habitat. — East India ; naturalized elsewhere in tropics. 
 
 Description. — "Cylindric, 40 to 60 cm. long, nearly 25 mm. in diameter, 
 blackish-brown, somewhat veined, the sutures smooth, forming two longitu- 
 dinal bands; indehiscent, internally divided tiunsversely into numerous 
 cells, each containing a reddish-brown, glossy, flattish-ovate seed imbedded 
 in a blackish-brown sweet pulp ; odor resembling that of prunes." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 Chief Constituents. — Consists of one-third pulp, of which 
 more than half is sugar ; pectin, mucilage. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Laxative. 
 Average Dose. — 5-10 gm. (1-2 J dr.). 
 
 CARDAMOMUM.— Cardamom. 
 
 The fruit of Elettaria repens (Sonnerat) Baillon (Nat. Ord. 
 Scitaminese). 
 
 Habitat. — Malabar cgast of India ; cultivated. 
 
 Description.—" Ovoid or oblong, from 10 to 15 mm. long, obtusely tri- 
 angular, rounded at the base, beaked, longitudinally striate ; of a pale buff 
 color, three-celled, with a thin, leathery, nearly tasteless pericarp and a 
 central placenta. The seeds are about 4 mm. long, reddish-brown, angular, 
 rugose, depressed at the hilum, surrounded by a thin, membranous arillus, 
 and have an agreeable odoi-and a pungent, aromatic taste." — TJ. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 4 to 5 per cent, fixed 
 oil, starch, ash, 6 per cent. The seeds constitute nearly four- 
 fifths of the fruit. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative, stomachic. 
 
110 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3-1.5 gm. (5-25 gr.) in tincture or 
 compound tincture. 
 
 The Malabar alone appears to answer the official require- 
 ments. Ceylon cardamom is longer, yields more than twice 
 as much ash. Siam and Java cardamom are nearly globular. 
 Other varieties are variously winged. 
 
 VANILLA— Vanifla. 
 
 The fruit of Vanilla planifolia Andrews (Nat. Ord. Or- 
 chidese). ' 
 
 Habitat. — Eastern Mexico. 
 
 Description.—" From 15 to 25 cm. long, and about 8 mm. thick, linear, 
 narrowed and bent or hooked at the base, rather oblique at the apex, 
 wrinkled, somewhat warty, dark-brown, glossy-leathery, one-celled, and con- 
 taining a blackish-brown pulp, with numerous minute seeds, and more or 
 less acicular crystals ; odor and taste peculiar, fragrant."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Vanillin, 1.7 to 2.7 per cent., volatile 
 oil, fixed oil, resin, sugar, mucilage (more abundant in cheaper 
 beans). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative, aphrodisiac, but not much 
 used medicinally ; mostly as a flavoring. 
 
 Avei-age Dose. — 0.3-2 gm. (5-30 gr.). 
 
 The fruit is collected before ripening, the color and aroma 
 are developed by fermentation (sweating). 
 
 CORIANDRUM.— Coriander. 
 
 The fruit of Coriandrum sativum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Um- 
 belliferse). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and Asia ; naturalized in the United 
 States ; cultivated. 
 
 Description. — Globular ; about 4 mm. in diameter ; crowned with the 
 calyx-teeth and stylopod ; brownish-yellow, with slight, longitudinal ridges ; 
 the two mericarps cohering, inclosing a lenticular cavity, and each furnished 
 on the face with two oil-tubes ; odor and taste agreeably aromatic. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, yellowish, J to 1 per 
 cent., fixed oil, etc. 
 
CONIUM. IJl 
 
 Oleum Coriandri (U. S. P.) is a volatile oil distilled from 
 coriander. It has the characteristic odor of the fruit. Specific 
 gravity, 0.870 to 0.885. All the aromatic Umbelliferse yield 
 votatile oils which scarcely require separate extended con- 
 sideration. Oil of anise has a specific gravity of 0.980 to 
 0.990 ; oil of fennel not less than 0.960 ; oil of caraway, 
 0.910 to 0.920. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Aromatic, carminative. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.6-2 gm. (10—30 gr.). 
 
 CONIUM.— Coniam— Hemlock. 
 
 The full-grown fruit of Conium maculatum Linne (Nat. 
 Ord. Umbelliferse), gathered while yet green. 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and Asia ; naturalized in the United 
 States. 
 
 Description. — " About 3 mm. long ; broadly ovate ; laterally compressed ; 
 grayish-green ; often divided into the two mericarps, each with five crenate 
 ribs, without oil-tubes, and containing a seed which is grooved on the face : 
 odor and taste slight. 
 
 " When triturated with solution of potassium or sodium hydrate, conium 
 gives off a strong, disagreeable, mouse-like odor." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, coniine ^ per cent, 
 (liquid alkaloid, colorless, becoming brown), several other 
 alkaloidal principles. The odor of coniine is very charac- 
 teristic. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Narcotic, sedative, antispasmodic. Con- 
 iine reseml)le8 nicotine both physically and chemically, as 
 as well as in its action. Conium is celebrated as being the 
 poison by which Socrates was put to death. Plato has accu- 
 rately described the symptoms of the poison exhibited by 
 Socrates. It causes incoordination of the muscles, with anes- 
 thesia, death being sometimes preceded by convulsions. , The 
 action of pure coniine in fatal doses is very rapid, but less so 
 than that of nicotine. The treatment of coniine poisoning 
 consists in giving alkaloidal antidotes with stimulation. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.06-0.3 gm. (1—5 gr.). as fluid extract. 
 Of Coniine, 0.002-0.005 gm. (^Vr? gi"-)- 
 
112 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 FOENICULUM.— Fennel. 
 
 The fruit of Fceuiculuni capillaceum Gilibert (Nat. Ord. 
 Umbelliferse). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe and Asia, in the neighborhood of the 
 Mediterranean Sea, and in Germany ; cultivated. 
 
 Descnplion. — " Oblong, nearly cylindric, slightly curved, from 4 to 8 
 nun. long, brownish or greenish-brown ; readily separable into the two 
 prominent mericarps, each with five light brown, obtuse ribs, four oil-tubes 
 on the back, and two or four oil-tubes upon the flat face; odor and taste 
 aromatic, anise-like." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 The German is smaller than the Roman. Bitter fennel 
 collected from the wild plant grown in France is smaller than 
 the official. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 2 to 6 per cent. ; fixed 
 oil. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative, stimulant. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5—2 gm. (8—30 gr.). 
 
 CARUM.— Caraway. 
 
 The fruit of Carum Carvi Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Umbelliferse). 
 
 Habitat. — Asia ; cultivated. 
 
 Description. — " Oblong, laterally compressed, about 4 or 5 mm. long, usu- 
 ally separated into the two mericarps, which are curved, narrower at both 
 ends, brown, with five yellowish, filiform ribs, and with six oil-tubes. Cara- 
 way has an agreeable odor, and a sweetish, spicy taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 5 per cent. ; fixed oil, 
 resin. 
 
 Therapeutic ?7se.^Carminative, stimulant, flavor. 
 Average Dose. — 0.5—2 gm. (8—30 gr.). 
 
 ANISUM.— Anise. 
 The fruit of Pimpinella Anisum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Um- 
 belliferse). 
 
 Habitat. — Asia and southern Europe. 
 
 Description. — " About 4 or 5 ram. long, ovate, compressed at the sides, 
 grayish, finely haiiy, and consisting of two mericarps, each with a flat face, 
 and five light brownish, filiform ridges, and about fifteen thin oil-tubes, 
 which can be seen in a transverse section by the microscope. It has an 
 agreeable, aromatic odor, and a sweet, spicy taste." — U. S. P. 
 
LIMONIS CORTEX. 113 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. Especially note 
 that the mericarps are united. Italian anise is often con- 
 taminated with conium, which has its mericarps commonly 
 separated. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 2 to 3 per cent. ; fixed oil. 
 
 Therapeutio ?7se.— Carminative, stimulant, flavor. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.). 
 
 LIMONIS CORTEX.— Lemon-Peel. 
 
 The rind of the recent fruit of Citrus Limonum Risso 
 (Nat. Ord. Rutaceaj). 
 
 Habitat. — Asia; .extensively cultivated in subtropic and 
 tropic countries. 
 
 Description. — " In narrow, thin bands or in elliptic segments, with very 
 little of a spongy, white, inner layer adhering to them ; outer surface deep 
 lemon-yellow and ruggedly glandular ; odor fragrant ; taste aromatic and 
 bitterish. 
 
 The spongy inner layer usually present in the segments should be re- 
 moved before the lemon-peel is used." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil. 
 
 Oleum lAmonis (U. S. P.) is obtained by expression from 
 the fresh lemon-peel. It should be kept in well-stoppered 
 bottles in a cool place, protected from light. This is a pale- 
 yellow, limpid liquid, of the odor of lemon-peel, and of an 
 aromatic, bitter taste. Specific gravity, 0.858 to 0.859, 
 soluble in alcohol and fat solvents. Oil of lemon is often 
 mixed with an equal volume of alcohol, which leaves a 
 stratum above, protecting it against becoming terebinthinate. 
 Where this is used it should be shaken vigorously and twice 
 as much of the mixture taken as of the volatile oil required. 
 The lower layer consists partly of alcohol. 
 
 Oleum Bergamotlce (U. S. P.) is similarly obtained from 
 the fresh rind of Citrus Bergamia. It is a green oil, used in 
 perfuming. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The peel and volatile oil are used for 
 flavoring. 
 
 Turpentine may be detected by method given in Part III., 
 p. 330, 
 
114 FBUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 AURANTn AMARA CORTEX.— Bitter Orange-Peel. 
 
 The rind of the fruit of Citrus vulgaris Eisso (Nat. Ord. 
 Kutacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Asia ; cultivated about the Mediterranean Sea, 
 the southern United States, California, and elsewhere. 
 
 Description. — "In narrow, thin bands, or in quarters; epidermis of a 
 dark brownish-green color, glandular, and with very little of the spongy, 
 white, inner layer adheiing to it ; it has a fragrant odor, and an aromatic, 
 bitter taste."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Cliief Constituents. — Volatile oil, hesperidin (bitter), resin, 
 etc. 
 
 Oleum Aurantii Cortiois (U. S. P.) is obtained by expres- 
 sion from the fresh peel of either the bitter or the sweet 
 orange. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in a 
 cool place. Pale yellowish liquid, of the odor of orange- 
 peel, and bitter taste if from the bitter orange-peel. Specific 
 gravity, 0.850. 
 
 Oleum Aurantii Florum (U. S. P.) may be considered in 
 this place. It is obtained by distillation from the fresh 
 flowers of the bitter orange. It should be kept in well- 
 stoppered bottles, protected from the light. Specific gravity, 
 0.875 to 0.890. In contact with a saturated solution of 
 sodium bisulphite it assumes a handsome and permanent pur- 
 plish-red color. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Orange-peel is an aromatic bitter. The 
 peel and the oil of the peel are used in flavoring. Oil of 
 orange-flower (oil of neroli) is mainly used in perfumery. 
 
 AURANTn DULQS CORTEX.-Sweet Orange-Peel. 
 
 The rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus Aurantium Linn6 
 (Nat. Ord. Eutacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Subtropic countries. 
 
 Description. — "Closely resembling bitter orange-peel, but having an 
 orange-yellow color. It has a sweetish, fiugi'ant odor, and an aromatic, 
 slightly bitter taste."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
TAMAEINDUS^FICUS. 115 
 
 Chief Constituent. — Volatile oil. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Aromatic. 
 
 TAMARINDUS— Tamarind. 
 
 The preserved pulp of the fruit of Tamarindus indica 
 Linu§ (Nat. Ord. Leguminosse). 
 
 Habitat. — East Indies and other tropic regions ; natural- 
 ized in the West Indies. 
 
 Description. — " A reddish-brown, sweet, subacid, pulpy mass, containing 
 strong, somewhat branching fibers, and polished, brown, flattish-quadran- 
 gular seeds, each inclosed in a tough membi-ane ; taste sweet and refresh- 
 ingly acidulous." — U. S. P. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Citric acid, 9 per cent.; tartaric, 1 .5 
 per cent. ; malic acid : sugar or molasses is added to the pulp 
 usually. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Refrigerant, laxative. 
 
 Average Dose. — 20 gm. (5 dr.). 
 
 West Indian tamarinds are usually found in our market. 
 A bright iron surface (clean spatula or needle) left in contact 
 with tamarind pulp for thirty minutes should show no red- 
 dish coating (absence of copper). 
 
 FICUS.— Fig. 
 
 The fleshy receptacle of Ficus Carica Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Urticacese), bearing fruits upon its inner surface. 
 
 Habitat. — Western Asia ; extensively cultivated in sub- 
 tropic countries. 
 
 Description. — " Compressed, of irregular shape, fleshy, brownish or yel- 
 lowish, covered with an efiiorescence of sugar ; of a sweet, fruity odor, and 
 a very sweet, mucilaginous taste. When softened in water, figs are pear- 
 shaped, with a scar or short stalk at the base, and a small, scaly orifice at 
 the apex ; hollow internally ; the inner surface covered with numerous 
 yellowish, hard achenes." — U. S. P. 
 
 The real (botanic) fruit constitutes but a small part of the 
 official fig. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Sugar, 60 per cent. ; cellular tissue, 
 15 per cent. ; water, 15 per cent. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Demulcent, laxative, dietetic. 
 
116 FJiUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 CHENOPODIUM.—Chenopodium.— American Wownseed. 
 
 The fruit of Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn6, var. an- 
 thelminticum, Gray (Nat. Ord. Chenopodiacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Tropic North America, naturalized in the United 
 States. 
 
 Description. — " Nearly 2 mm. in diameter, depressed-globular, glandular, 
 dull greenish or brownish, the integuments friable, and containing a lenticu- 
 lar, obtusely-edged, glossy, black seed. It has a peculiar, somewhat terebin- 
 thinate odor, and a bitterish, pungent taste." — tJ. S. P. 
 
 Stridy and describe as suggested on p. 103. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, wholly representing the 
 medicinal virtues of the drug. 
 
 Therapeutio Use. — Anthelmintic. The oil is to be pre- 
 ferred usually mixed with castor oil. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-3 gm. (30-45 gr.). Of the oil, 0.3- 
 1 c.c. (5-15 min.). 
 
 ILLICIUM.— Illiciam.— Star Anise. 
 
 The fruit of Illicium verum. Hooker filius (Nat. Ord. 
 Magnoliacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Chinese Empire. A closely allied species is 
 found in the southern United States. 
 
 Description. — " The fruit is pedunculate and consists of eight stellately 
 arranged cai-pels, which are boat-shaped, about 10 mm. long, rather woody, 
 wrinkled, straight-beaked, brown, dehiscent on the upper suture, internally 
 reddish-brown, glossy, and containing a single, flattish, oval, glossy, brown- 
 ish-yellow seed ; odor anise-like ; taste of the carpels sweet and aromatic, 
 and of the seeds oily. 
 
 " Star-anise should not be confounded with the very similar but poi- 
 sonous fruit of Illicium anisatum Linn^ (Illicium religiosum Siebold), 
 the carpels of which are more woody, shriveled, and have a thin, mostly 
 curved beak, a faint, clove-like odor, and an unpleasant taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 103. Especially note 
 the boat-shaped capsules, each with its glossy seed. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil (20 per cent, of seeds, 
 very little in capsules), resin. The volatile oil is very simi- 
 lar to the official oil of anise. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative and stimulant. Mostly 
 for flavoring. Fruit rarely used, the oil being employed. 
 
SEEDS. 
 TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL FRUITS. 
 
 117 
 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituent. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Bela (Bael) 
 
 Southern 
 
 Tannin, 
 mucilage. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 3 gm. (45 gr.). 
 
 (jEgle Marmelos), 
 
 Asia. 
 
 
 
 Ehamnus (Buckthorn) 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Emodin, 
 
 Cathartic. 
 
 1 gm. (15 gr.). 
 
 (R. cathartica). 
 
 United 
 States. 
 Tropics. 
 
 principles. 
 
 
 
 Anacardium (Cashew) 
 
 Pungent 
 
 Irritant. 
 
 Externally. 
 
 (A. occidentale). 
 
 
 principle. 
 
 
 
 Carota (Wild Carrot) 
 
 Widely 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Diuretic. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (Dauous C). 
 
 distrib- 
 uted. 
 
 
 
 
 Apium (Celery) 
 
 (A. eraveolens). 
 Ceratonia 
 
 Southern 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Southern 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Carminative. 
 
 
 Sugar, ' 
 
 Demulcent. 
 
 
 (C. siliqua). 
 
 Europe. 
 
 mucilage. 
 
 
 
 Cumlnnm (Cumin) 
 
 Culti- 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Carminative. 
 
 2gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (C. cyminum). 
 
 vated. 
 
 
 
 
 Anethum (Dill) 
 
 Southern 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Carminative. 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (A. graveolens). 
 Morus (Mulberry) 
 
 Europe. 
 
 
 
 
 United 
 
 Acid salts. 
 
 Refrigerant, 
 
 Ad libitum. 
 
 (M. rubra). 
 
 States. 
 
 
 flavoring. 
 
 
 Myrobalans, 
 
 Southern 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 3 gm. (45 gr.). 
 
 (Terminalia speeies). 
 
 Asia. 
 
 
 
 
 Petroselinum (Parsley) 
 
 Widely 
 
 Apiol. 
 
 Emmena- 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.). 
 
 (Apium P.). 
 
 culti- 
 vated. 
 
 
 gogue. 
 
 
 Rosa Canina (Wild 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Acid salts. 
 
 Refrigerant. 
 
 
 Rose). 
 
 culti- 
 vated. 
 
 
 
 
 Serenoa (Saw Palmetto) 
 
 South- 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 For catarrhal 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (S. serrulata). 
 
 eastern 
 United 
 States. 
 
 
 conditions. 
 
 
 Juniperus (Juniper) 
 
 North 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Diuretic 
 
 4 gm. (60 gr.). 
 
 (J. communis). 
 
 Temperate 
 Zone. 
 
 resins. 
 
 stimulant. 
 
 
 SEEDS. 
 
 The seed is the product of the fertilized and developed 
 ovule. It contains the embryo. It is invested with one or 
 two coats or integuments ; when both are distinguishable, the 
 outer one is called the testa and the inner, the tegmen. Vari- 
 ous degrees of coherence occur between the integuments and the 
 inner portion of the seed or kernel. The seed separates from 
 the stalk and the latter is not seen in the official seed, but the 
 scar marking the attachment is noticed ; this is sometimes 
 prolonged into a groove, as in physostigma, in which case it 
 is called a raph6. The macroscopic description of a seed 
 varies with its size and is dependent upon how much may be 
 readily observed. The following points are to be noticed 
 when practicable : Shape and size ; integuments (one or both), 
 
118 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 their thickness, texture, covering (hairy or smooth), mark- 
 ings, raph^. The embryo, its size and position ; the albumin, 
 its texture and nature (oily, mealy, etc.). Besides this, the 
 odor, taste, and color should be observed.' 
 The following seeds are official : 
 
 Nux vomica. White mustard. 
 
 Strophanthus. Black mustard. 
 
 Bitter almond. Staphisagria. 
 
 Sweet almond. Linseed. 
 
 Physostigma. Nutmeg. 
 
 Pumpkin-seed. Stramonium. 
 
 Cacao. Colchicum. 
 
 The following medicinal seeds are not official : 
 
 Abrus. Hyoscyamus. 
 
 Areca. Ignatia. 
 
 Benne. 
 
 Melon. 
 
 Cola. 
 
 Poppy. 
 
 Cucumber. 
 
 Quince. 
 
 Curcas. 
 
 Sabadilla. 
 
 Foenugreek. 
 
 Tonka. 
 
 Gynocardia. 
 
 Watermelon. 
 
 NUX VOMICA.- 
 
 —Nux Vomica. 
 
 The seed of Strychnos Nux vomica Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Loganiacese). 
 
 Habitat. — India to Australia. 
 
 Descriptinn. — " About 25 mm. in diameter, orbicular, gi'ayish, or greenish- 
 gray ; softrhairy, of a silky luster, with a slight lidge extending from the 
 center of one side to the edge ; internally homy, somewhat translucent, 
 very tough, with a large circular cavity, into which the heart-shaped, 
 nerved cotyledons project. It is inodorous and persistently bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 117. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Strychnine, brucine, the two alkaloids 
 varying in total quantity from 0.25 to 5.33 per cent., or an 
 average of 2.5 per cent., of which strychnine constitutes some- 
 what less than half. They are combined with igasuric acid. 
 Only brucine is found in the embryo, whereas both alkaloids 
 
 ' The blank form given on p. 104 may be used in describing seeds. 
 
NVX VOMICA. 119 
 
 occur in the endosperm. Loganin (glucosid), fat, and proteid 
 are also present (see p. 351). Strychnine is obtained princi- 
 pally from ignatia bean. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Strychnine may be taken as represent- 
 ing the medicinal action of nux vomica ; brucine resembles 
 strychnine, but is weaker. Strychnine exerts its principal 
 action upon the spinal centers, leading to its employment in 
 a variety of complaints. It is often spoken of as a nerve 
 stimulant, since it tones up the nervous system. It is useful 
 in paralysis due to functional disorders, not where due to 
 organic disease of the cord. It raises the pressure of the 
 blood when that is abnormally low, hence it is employed in 
 shock. It may be used as a simple bitter. 
 
 Fatal poisoning by strychnine is by no means rare. If 
 taken by the mouth, the length of time which will elapse 
 before the symptoms occur depends largely upon the condi- 
 tion of the stomach (quickly if it be empty, slowly if it be 
 full) — usually in from fifteen minutes to half an hour. The 
 most noticeable symptoms are nervousness, with muscular 
 twitchings, or in very large doses the first symptom may be a 
 convulsion with a cry, not of pain, but due to spasmodic 
 contraction of the muscles of respiration. The patient has 
 characteristic convulsions, which are at first clonic (jerking), 
 then tonic (rigid) ; the head will be drawn backward and the 
 body raised, the patient resting on head and heels ; clonic 
 spasms again occur and then an intermission. This is re- 
 peated until recovery or death takes place. Consciousness is 
 preserved, and much pain is felt during the convulsions. 
 The greatest immediate danger in strychnine-poisoning con- 
 sists in the spasms of the respiratory muscles and fixation of 
 the chest, with stoppage of breathing. 
 
 Treatment must be prompt to be effective, and perhaps in 
 no case is the pharmacist more apt to be called upon than in 
 cases of strychnine-poisoning, and upon his promptness may 
 depend the life of the patient. From 20 to 30 C.c. (5 dr. 
 to 1 oz.) of 0.5 per cent, solution of potassium perman- 
 ganate, largely diluted, may be given if the patient is seen 
 in time ; this will be more effective if the stomach is nearly 
 empty than if full. Ten drops of compound solution of 
 
120 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 iodine diluted with a half-glass of water may be used to form 
 the insoluble strychnine iodid. Emetics may be used before 
 the convulsions appear, including alkaloidal precipitants, 
 tannin, or iodine in the water given in the emetic. Tea and 
 coffee must not be used, though they contain tannin, since 
 they also contain caffeine. Chloral seems to lessen the con- 
 vulsions, as does chloroform, but these may prove more dan- 
 gerous than the strychnine in the hands of the unskilful. 
 During convulsions artificial respiration may be employed. 
 In the intermission, noise, jarring, or any exciting influence 
 should be avoided, as the slightest disturbance serves to bring 
 on a convulsion. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.03-0.3 gm. (J-5 gr.) in tincture; of 
 strychnine, 0.001-0.003 gm. (-g-V-^tr S''-)- 
 
 STROPHANTHUS.— Strophanthtis. 
 
 The seed of Strophanthus hispidus De CandoUe (Nat. Ord. 
 Apocynacese), deprived of its long awn. 
 
 Habitat. — Tropic portions of Africa, Seuegambia, and 
 Guinea. 
 
 Description. — " About 15 mm. long and 4 or 5 mm. broad, oblong^lan- 
 ceolate, flattened and obtusely edged, grayish-green, covered with appressed, 
 silky hairs, one side with a ridge extending into the attenuated, pointed 
 end ; kernel white and oily, consisting of a straight embryo, having two thin 
 cotyledons, and surrounded by a thin layer of perisperm ; nearly inodorous ; 
 taste very bitter. 
 
 " A decoction prepared with 1 part of the seed and 10 parts of water has 
 a brownish color, and is not changed in appearance on the addition of 
 iodine T. S., ferric chlorid T. S., or potassium mercuric iodid T. S." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 117. Inert seeds of 
 other species of Strophanthus were formerly often substituted, 
 containing no strophanthin or other glucosid. 
 
 (Jiief Constituents. — Strophanthin (glucosid), kombic acid. 
 Most of the commercial strophanthin consists of pseudo- 
 strophanthin, which is much more active than strophanthin ; 
 it is found in the seeds of Strophanthus komb6. Strophan- 
 thin is seldom used. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Resembles digitalis in its action. 
 
 Average Dose. — Of the tincture (5 per cent.), 0.3-0.6 C.c. 
 (5—10 min.). 
 
AMYGDALA AMABA. 121 
 
 AMYGDALA AMARA— Bitter Almond. 
 
 The seed of Primus Amygdalus, var. amara, DeCandolle 
 (Nat. Ord. Kosacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Western Asia; naturalized about the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea. 
 
 Description.' — ''About 25 mm. long, oblong-lanceolate, flattish, covered 
 with a cinnamon-brown, scurfy testa, marked by about sixteen lines emana- 
 ting from a broad soa-r at the blunt end. The embryo has the shape of the 
 seed, is white, oily, consists of two plano-convex cotyledons, a short radicle 
 at the pointed end, and has a bitter taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on page 117. 
 
 Chief Coyistituents. — Fixed oil, 45 per cent. ; proteid, 25 
 per cent. ; amygdalin, 2 to 3 per cent. ; emulsin (ferment). 
 
 Oleum AmygdalcB Expressum (U. S. P.) is obtained by 
 expression from bitter or sweet almond. It should be kept in 
 well-stoppered bottles in a cool place. This is a clear, pale 
 straw-colored, or colorless oil, little odor and of a mild nutty 
 taste. Specific gravity 0.915 to 0.920. Slightly soluble in 
 alcohol, soluble in usual solvents of fixed oils. It solidifies 
 with nitric acid and water. Expressed oil of almond is used 
 in the official ointment of rose-water. 
 
 Oleum AmyffdalcB Amarce (U. S. P.) is obtained from the 
 bitter almond (not from the sweet) by maceration with water 
 and subsequent distillation. About 1 per cent, of volatile 
 oil is obtained from the seeds. The glucosid amygdalin 
 is split up by the ferment emulsin, in the presence of mois- 
 ture, into glucose, oil of bitter almond, hydrocyanic acid, and 
 benzaldehyde. About one-fourth as much hydrocyanic acid as 
 oil of bitter almond is formed. This oil depends for its medic- 
 inal virtues principally upon the contained hydrocyanic acid. 
 Poisoning by the oil produces symptoms of hydrocyanic- 
 poisoning, /. e., vertigo, mental dimness, headache, and palpi- 
 tation ; convulsion and coma coming on with extreme quick- 
 ness. Treatment consists in prompt evacuation of the stomach, 
 emetics or tickling the throat with feather, mustard, etc., and 
 hydrogen peroxide, stimulation with caffeine (coffee and tea), 
 artificial respiration maintained as long as the heart beats. 
 
 Artificial oil of bitter almond is often substituted for the 
 genuine. It is free from hydrocyanic acid. 
 
122 FRVrm AND SEEDS. 
 
 Acidum Hydrocyanicwn Bilutum (U. S. P.) is usually ob- 
 tained from its combination as a cyanide. It has been suffi- 
 ciently considered under oil of bitter almond, except for the 
 use and dose. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The seeds are sedative. The volatile 
 oil is sedative and largely used as a flavoring in the bitter 
 almond water. The fixed oil is demulcent and emollient. 
 
 Average Dose. — The seeds are not used in this state. Of 
 the volatile oil, 0.035 C.c. (0.5 min.). Of 2 per cent, hydro- 
 cyanic acid, 0.06-0.2 C.c. (1-3 min.). 
 
 AMYGDALA DULCIS.— Sweet Almond. 
 The seed of Prunus amygdalus, var. dulcis, De Candolle- 
 (Nat. Ord. Rosacese). 
 
 Description. — "Closely resembling the bitter almond (see Amygdala 
 Amara), but having a bland, sweetish taste, free from rancidity. 
 
 " When triturated with water, it yields a milk-white emulsion, free from 
 the odor of hydrocyanic acid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 11 7. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Fixed oil, 50 per cent. ; proteid, 25 
 per cent. ; emulsin ; no amygdalin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Demulcent ; used in emulsion flavored 
 with bitter almond. 
 
 PHYSOSTIGMA.—P{iysostigma.— Calabar Bean. 
 
 The seed of Physostigma venenosum Balfour (Nat. Ord. 
 
 Leguminosse). 
 
 Habitat. — Western Africa. 
 
 Description. — '' About 25 to 30 mm. long, 15 to 20 mm. broad, and 10 to 
 15 mm. thick ; oblong, and somewhat reniform ; testa granular, chocolate- 
 brown, with a broad, black groove extending over the entire length of the 
 convex edge ; embryo with a shoi't, curved radicle, and two large, white, 
 concavo-convex cotyledons ; inodorous; taste bean-like." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 11 7. 
 
 Chief Constituent'!. — Eserine or physostigmine, 0.1 per 
 cent. ; calabarine, eseridine. Aqueous solutions of physostig- 
 mine readily decompose and turn red. The alkaloid should 
 not be exposed to the air. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The action of calabarine resembles 
 strychnine. The action of physostigma depends upon physos- 
 
PEPO— THEOBR OMA. 123 
 
 tigmine and less upon eseridine, which is similar but weaker. 
 The principal use of physostigmine is in ophthalmic prac- 
 tice, causing contraction of the pupil. Not only in this but in 
 its systemic action physostigmine is antagonistic to atropine. 
 
 Symptoms of poisoning by physostigma or its alkaloids 
 show contracted pupil (pin-head size), there is nausea and 
 vomiting, palpitation, slow pulse, death preceded by convul- 
 sions. Antidote, usual alkaloidal precipitants, and bella- 
 donna or atropine. 
 
 Average Base. — 0.06-0.12 gm. (1-2 gr.) in tincture. Of 
 physostigmine 0.0005-0.002 gm. (yio-^V g""-)- 
 
 PEPO.— Pumpkin Seed. 
 
 The seed of Cucurbita Pepo, Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Cucurbi- 
 
 tacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Probably America, widely cultivated. 
 
 Description. — " About 2 cm. long, broadly-ovate, flat, white or whitish, 
 nearly smooth, with u, shallow groove parallel to the edge ; containing a 
 short, conical radicle and two flat cotyledons ; inodorous ; taste bland and 
 oily."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 117. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Fixed oil, 20 to 40 per cent. ; pro- 
 teids, starch. 
 
 Tlierapeutic Use. — Tsenifuge, not used alone, but in con- 
 junction with other tsenifuges. 
 
 Average Dose. — 15-30 gm. (|-1 oz.). 
 
 THEOBROMA. - Cacao. 
 
 (Unofficial, yields oil of theobroma and theobromine). 
 
 Seeds of Theobroma Cacao Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Sterculiacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Mexico and Central America. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Fixed oil, 50 per cent, (cacao butter), 
 starch and proteids, little caffeine; a glucosid, yielding 1.5 
 to 4:. 5 per cent, of theobromine. 
 
 Oleum Theobromatis (U. S. P.) is obtained from the seeds 
 by expression, is a yellowish-white solid, of faint agreeable 
 odor. Specific gravity 0.970 to 0.980. Soluble in usual fat 
 solvents. Oil of theobroma is sometimes adulterated with 
 paraffin. If 1 gra. of the oil be dissolved in 3 C.c. of ether 
 
12-t FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 at 17° C, the tube placed in water at 0° C, it should not 
 become turbid nor deposit a granular mass in less than three 
 minutes, and melts again to clear liquid at 15° C. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The ground seed when flavored and 
 sweetened constitutes chocolate ; cacao consists of the pow- 
 dered seeds deprived of part of this oil. The fixed oil, the 
 official oil of theobroma, is used as emollient, and is impor- 
 tant pharmaeeutically as the base for suppositories, since it 
 melts at about the body-temperature. Theobromine resem- 
 bles caffeine in its action. The salicylate is used as an effec- 
 tive diuretic. 
 
 Average Dose. — Of theobromine, 0.5-1.5 gm. (8-22 gr.). 
 
 SESJAPIS ALBA.— WUte Mustard. 
 
 The seed of Brassica alba (Linn4) Hooker filius et Thomp- 
 son (Nat. Ord. Cruciferse). 
 
 Habitat. — Asia and southern Europe ; cultivated. 
 
 Description. — " About 2 mm. in diameter, almost globular, witb a circu- 
 lar hilum ; testa yellowish, finely pitted, hard ; embi70 oily, with a cui'ved 
 radicle and two cotyledons one folded over the other ; free from starch ; 
 inodorous ; taste pungent and acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 117. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Fixed oil, 25 per cent. ; mucilage (in 
 the testa), proteids, sinalbin (by decomposition yields an 
 acrid volatile oil), sinapin sulphocyanid. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Emetic, rubefacient, condiment. 
 
 Average Dose. — 4 gm. (60 gr.) in warm water as emetic. 
 
 SINAPIS NIGRA.— Black Mustard. 
 
 The seed of Brassica nigra (Linn6) Koch (Nat. Ord. Cru- 
 ciferse). 
 
 Habitat. — Same as white mustard. 
 
 Description. — " About 1 mm. in diameter, almost globular, with a circu- 
 lar hilum ; testa blackish-brown or grayish-brown, finely pitted, hard ; em- 
 bryo oily, with a. cuiTed radicle and two cotyledons, one folded over the 
 other ; free from starch ; inodorous when dry, but when triturated with 
 water, of a pungent, penetrating, irritating odor ; taste pungent and acrid." 
 — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 117. Turnip- and 
 
STAPHISA GRIA. 1 25 
 
 rape-seed are larger and darker in color than black mustard- 
 seed. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Fixed oil, 25 per cent. ; mucilage, 
 proteids, sinapin sulphocyanid, sinigrin, or potassium myron- 
 ate. Sinigrin is a glucosid, splitting into volatile oil of mus- 
 tard, potassium salt, and sugar. 
 
 Oleum Sinapis Volatile (U. S. P.), formed when the ground 
 seeds are brought into contact with water, is exceedingly pun- 
 gent and determines the activity of the seed. The oil is too 
 irritating to be used pure, but is a valuable addition to lini- 
 ments and is used as the spirit (2 per cent.). 
 
 Therapeutic use and average dose similar to white mustard. 
 
 Mustard-paper or Mustard-plaster is made from the black 
 mustard seeds which have been previously exhausted of the 
 fixed oil by benzin, made into a paste, and spread upon 
 paper ; this is used after dipping it in lukewarm water by 
 applying to the surface for from fifteen minutes to one hour. 
 Mustard-Poultice is made by forming a paste of equal parts 
 of mustard and flour with water, spreading on linen, and 
 applying warm. The plaster secures a deeper action than 
 the paper. 
 
 STAPHISAGRIA.— Staphisagria.— Stavesacre. 
 
 The seed of Delphinium Staphisagria Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Ran unculacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Neighborhood of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Description. — " About 5 mm. long, 3 or 4 mm. broad, flattish-tetrahedralj 
 one side convex, brown or brownish-gray, with reticulate ridges, containing 
 a whitish, oily albumin and a straight embryo ; nearly inodorous ; taste 
 bitter and aci-id."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe "zs suggested on p. 117. 
 
 Chi^ Constituents. — Alkaloids, 1 per cent., including del- 
 phinine (very poisonous), delphinoidine, delphisine. Staph- 
 isagrin is a mixture of amorphous bases ; delphinine and 
 delphisine are crystalline. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Emetic and poisonous, resembling aco- 
 nite in its action. Not used internally by educated physicians. 
 Externally in tincture or ointment for pediculi. 
 
126 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 LINUM.— Linseed.— Flaxseed. 
 
 The seed of Linum usitatissimum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Liuese). 
 Habitat. — Probably in the Caucasus; widely cultivated 
 since prehistoric times. 
 
 Description. — " About 4 or 5 mm. long, oblong-ovate, flattened, obliquely 
 pointed at one end, brown, glossy, covered with a transparent, mucilaginous 
 epithelium, which swells considerably in water ; the embryo whitish or pale 
 greenish, with two large, oily, planoconvex cotyledons, and a thin peri- 
 sperm; inodorous; taste mucilaginous, oily and bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 117. 
 
 Chief Gonsfituents. — Fixed oil, 35 per cent, (from the 
 endosperm and embryo); mucilage, 15 per cent, (from the 
 testa), proteids, linamarin (resembling amygdalin), resin, etc. 
 Linseed oil is of great commercial importance. It has a 
 specific gravity of 0.930 to 0.940. It is a yellow, limpid 
 liquid of bland taste. Soluble in alcohol. It should be ob- 
 tained by expressing the seed cold ; when expressed with 
 heat the oil is darker in color and has a strong odor and 
 acrid taste. By exposure in thin layers it dries to a glass- 
 like solid. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The unbroken seed, macerated in water, 
 yields a mucilage which is used as a demulcent. The oil is 
 used as a purgative in veterinary medicine ; in man it is used 
 only externally. The liniment (lime liniment), known as 
 Carron oil, is frequently used for minor burns. The ground 
 seeds are often used as a poultice, the " meal " being formed 
 into a soft mass with hot water and this spread between layers 
 of cheese-cloth. 
 
 MYRISTICA.— Nutmeg. 
 
 The seed of Myristica fragrans Houttuyn (Nat. Ord. My- 
 risticaceae), deprived of its testa. 
 
 Habitat. — Molucca Islands ; cultivated in Sumatra and the 
 West Indies. 
 
 Description. — " Oval or roundish-ovate, about 25 mm. long, light brown, 
 reticulately furrowed, with a circular scar on the broad end ; internally pale 
 brownish, with dark oiunge-brown veins and a fatty luster ; odor strongly 
 aromatic ; taste aromatic, warm, and somewhat bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
RICINUS—CROTON TIOLIUM. 127 
 
 Wild nutmeg is longer, less aromatic. A false nutmeg 
 from Torreya californica, is smooth and terebinthinate. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 2 to 8 per cent. ; fixed 
 oil (solid), 25 per cent. ; starch, proteids. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stimulant, stomachic, mainly as condi- 
 ment. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5-1.5 gm. (8-25 gr.). 
 
 RICDMUS.— Castor Bean (Unofficial). 
 
 The seed of Eicinus communis Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Euphor- 
 biacese). 
 
 Habitat. — India ; widely cultivated. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Fixed oil, 50 per cent. ; ricin (poison- 
 ous, not present in castor oil). 
 
 Oleum Ricini (U. S. P.) is obtained by cold expression of 
 the seeds. Colorless, slight but disagreeable odor. Soluble 
 in an equal volume of alcohol and in 3 volumes of a mixture 
 of 19 volumes of alcohol and 1 volume of water. Specific 
 gravity of 0.950 to 0.970. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Seeds are dangerously poisonous. The 
 oil is a valuable purgative. 
 
 Average dose of the oil, 8—30 c.c. (J— 1 fl. oz.). This disa- 
 greeable oil may be conveniently given to children if poured 
 into soda-water having an abundant stiff foam. It should 
 not be poured down the side of the glass, nor should the child 
 know it is being administered. 
 
 CROTON TIGLIUM.— Croton Bean (Unofficial). 
 
 The seeds of Croton Tigllum LinnS (Nat. Ord. Euphor- 
 biacese). 
 
 Habitat. — India and Philippine Islands. 
 
 Chief Constituent. — Fixed oil, 50 per cent, of the kernels. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The seeds are poisonous. 
 
 Oleum Tiglii (U. S. P.) is a powerful purgative ; externally, 
 rubefacient. Overdoses are dangerous. 
 
 Average dose of the oil, 0.01—0.15 c.c. (^2 drops), in 
 bland oil or emulsion. Externally in liniments. 
 
128 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 STRAMONn SEMEN.— Stramoniam Seed. 
 
 The seed of Datura Stramonium Linii6 (Nat. Ord. Sola- 
 nacese). 
 
 Description. — "About 4 ram. long, reniform, flattened, pitted, and wrinkled ; 
 testa dull brownish-black, hard, inclosing a cylindric, curved embryo, im- 
 bedded in a whitish, oily, perisperm ; of an unpleasant odor when bruised, 
 and of an oily and bitter taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 117. 
 Chi^ Coristituents. — Fixed oil, 25 per cent. ; resin. Al- 
 kaloids similar to those of leaves. 
 
 Therapeutic wse and average dose as in leaves. 
 
 COLCHia SEMEN.— Colchicum Seed. 
 
 The seed of Colchicum autumnale Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Lilia- 
 cese). 
 
 Description. — " Subglobular, about 2 mm. thick, very slightly pointed at 
 the hilum ; reddish-brown, finely pitted, internally whitish ; very hard and 
 tough ; inodorous ; taste bitter and somewhat acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 117. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Fixed oil, 6 per cent. Medicinal con- 
 stituents as in corm, except the seed are somewhat poorer in 
 colchicine. 
 
 Therapeutic use and average dose as in the corm. 
 
TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL SEEDS. 
 
 129 
 
 TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL SEEDS. 
 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituent. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Abrus (Jequirity) 
 
 India. 
 
 Abrin. 
 
 In ophthal- 
 
 
 (A. precatorius). 
 
 
 
 mic practice. 
 
 
 Areca 
 
 East 
 
 Arecoline, 
 
 Astringent, 
 tSEnifuge. 
 
 10 gm. 04 oz.). 
 
 (A. Catechiu). 
 
 Indies. 
 
 tannin. 
 
 
 Sesamura (Benne) 
 
 Cultivated 
 
 Fixed oil. 
 
 Laxative (oil 
 
 
 (S. orientale and 
 
 in sub- 
 
 
 in culinary 
 
 
 S. indioum). 
 
 tropics. 
 
 
 use). 
 
 
 Cola 
 
 Guinea, 
 
 Caffeine. 
 
 Employed as 
 
 0.3-2 gm. (5-30 
 
 (Cola acuminata). 
 
 culti- 
 vated in 
 West 
 Indies. 
 
 
 a beverage. 
 
 gr.). 
 
 Cucumis (Cucumber) 
 
 Widely 
 
 Fixed oil. 
 
 Anthelmintic. 
 
 60 gm. (2 oz.). 
 
 (C. sativus). 
 
 culti- 
 vated. 
 
 
 
 
 Curcas 
 
 Tropic 
 
 Fixed oil, 
 
 Resembles 
 
 
 (Jatropha C). 
 
 parts of 
 America. 
 
 poisonous 
 
 croton, but 
 
 
 
 principle. 
 
 milder. 
 
 
 Foenum Graecum (Fcenu- 
 
 Cultivated 
 
 Mucilage. 
 
 Demulcent, 
 
 
 greek) 
 
 widely. 
 
 
 mainly in 
 
 
 (Trigonella F. g.). 
 
 
 
 veterinary 
 practice. 
 Alterative, oil 
 
 
 Gynoeardia (Cliaul- 
 
 South- 
 
 Fixed oil. 
 
 Of oil 0.3 c.c. 
 
 moogra) 
 
 eastern 
 
 
 specific in 
 
 (5 min.). 
 
 (G. odorata). 
 
 Asia. 
 
 
 leprosy. 
 
 
 Hyoscyamus 
 
 (as in 
 
 hyoscyamus 
 
 leaves). 
 
 
 Ignatia 
 
 Philip- 
 
 Strychnin, 
 
 Similar to 
 
 Barely used 
 
 (Strychnos I.). 
 
 pines. 
 
 brucin. 
 
 nux vomica. 
 
 internally. 
 
 Melo (Melon) 
 
 Culti- 
 
 Fixed oil. 
 
 Anthelmintic. 
 
 60 gm. (2 oz.). 
 
 (Cucumis M.). 
 
 vated. 
 
 
 
 
 Papaver (Poppy) 
 
 Asia 
 
 Fixed oil. 
 
 Demulcent (oil 
 
 4gm. (60gr.). 
 
 (P. somniterumj. 
 
 Minor. 
 
 
 in the arts). 
 
 
 Cydonium (Quince) 
 
 Culti- 
 
 Mucilage. 
 
 Demulcent. 
 
 
 (Pyrus C). 
 
 vated. 
 
 
 
 
 Sabadilla 
 
 Tropic 
 
 Veratrine and 
 
 Vermicide 
 
 Externally. 
 
 (Asagrsea officinalis). 
 
 parts of 
 
 allied alka- 
 
 (chief source 
 
 
 
 America. 
 
 loids. 
 
 of veratrin). 
 
 
 Dipteryx (Tonka) 
 
 Guiana. 
 
 Coumarin. 
 
 Flavoring. 
 
 
 (D. odorata and 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. oppositifolia). 
 Citrullus (Watermelon) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Culti-' 
 
 Fixed oil. 
 
 Diuretic. 
 
 60 gm. ^2oz.). 
 
 (Cucumis C). 
 
 vated. 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTEE YI. 
 
 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 Miscellaneous Cellalat Drugs other than Distinct Plant 
 Organs. 
 
 Under this head may be classed the following official drugs : 
 
 Ergot. Lupulin. 
 
 Nutgall. Lycopodium. 
 
 Sassafras pith. Starch. 
 
 Corn silk. Mace. 
 
 Purified cotton. Saffron. 
 Kamala. 
 The following medicinal drugs of this class are not official : 
 
 Agaric, surgeon's. Laminaria. 
 
 Agaric, white. Penghawar Djambi. 
 
 Cornsmut. Sago. 
 
 Cowage. Tapioca. 
 
 Goa-powder. Yeast. 
 
 ERGOTA.— Efgot.— Efgot of Rye. 
 
 The sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea (Fries) Tulasne (class 
 Fungi), replacing the grain of rye, Secale cereale Linn§ (Nat. 
 Ord. Graminese). The drug is sometimes called Secale cor- 
 nutum. 
 
 Ergot should be only moderately dried. It should be 
 preserved in a closed vessel, and a few drops of chloroform 
 should be dropped upon it from time to time to prevent the 
 development of insects. 
 
 When more than one year old it is unfit for use. 
 
 Habitat. — In the inflorescence of rye and other grains. 
 
 Description. — " Somewhat fusifomi, obtusely triangular, usually cuiTsd, 
 about 2 or 3 cm. long and 3 mm. thick ; three-furrowed, obtuse at both ends, 
 purplish-black, internally whitish with some purplish striae, breaking with 
 a short fracture ; odor peculiar, heavy, increased by trituration with potas- 
 sium or sodium hydrate T. S. ; taste oily and disagi-eeable, 
 130 
 
OALLA. 131 
 
 " Old ergot, which breaks with a shaip snap, is almost or entirely devoid 
 of a pinkish tinge upon the fracture, is hard and brittle between the teeth, 
 and is comparatively odorless and tasteless, should be rejected." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe its physical characters. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — The constituents of ergot have been 
 the subject of many investigations. Kobert and Jacoby 
 agree upon the presence of ergotinic acid (nitrogenous glu- 
 cosid, with a sapotoxin action) and cornutine (alkaloidal, 
 probably a mixture having a convulsaut action). Kobert 
 attributes the gangrene action to sphacelinic acid (non-nitro- 
 genous, resinous), which is, according to Jacoby, a mixture 
 of chrysotoxin and secalintoxin. Chrysotoxin is a com- 
 pound of the resin, sphacelotoxin, the real active constituent, 
 with another resin, ergochrysin ; secalintoxin is composed of 
 sphacelotoxin and an inactive alkaloid, secaline. These prin- 
 ciples are very unstable, and powdered ergot spoils rapidly, 
 while even the entire drug should not be used when more 
 than a year old. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Ergot is an ecbolic, and constricts the 
 blood-vessels. It finds its greatest usefulness in controlling 
 the hemorrhage occurring at child-birth, but it is also used in 
 other forms of internal hemorrhage, for instance, that of the 
 lungs. It should be used only under the supervision of a 
 physician. Overdoses cause dangerous symptoms — ^gangrene, 
 among others. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2-4 gra. (30-60 gr.), in fluid extract. 
 
 GALLA.-NutgaII. 
 
 An excrescence on Quercus lusitanica Lamarck (Nat. Ord. 
 Cupuliferse), caused by the punctures and deposited ova of 
 Cynips Gallse tinctorise Olivier (class Insecta ; order Hymen- 
 op tera). 
 
 Habitat. — Basin of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Description. — " Subglobular, 1 or 2 cm. in diameter, more or less tuber- 
 culated above, otherwise smooth, heavy, hard ; often with a cii-cukr hole 
 near the middle, communicating with the central cavity ; blackish olive- 
 green or blackish-gray ; fracture granular, gi'ayish ; in the center a cavity 
 containing either the partly developed insect, or pulverulent remains left by 
 it ; neatly inodorous, taste strongly astringent. 
 
 " Light, spongy, and whitish-colored nutgall should be rejected."— U. S. P. 
 
132 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT OEOANS. 
 
 Study and describe its physical characters. 
 
 Especially note the color, weight, tubercles, and the smooth 
 surface between tubercles. 
 
 Chief GoTistituents. — Tannin, 50 per cent, (gallotannic acid); 
 mucilage, resin, etc. (see p. 308). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Astringent, but little used medicinally, 
 tannin and gallic acid being employed instead. 
 
 SASSAFRAS MEDULLA.— Sassafras Pith. 
 
 The pith of Sassafras variifolium (Salisbury) O. Kuntze 
 
 (Nat. Ord. Laurinese). 
 
 Habitat. — (See bark of sassafras). 
 
 Description. — " In slender, cylindric pieces, often curved or coiled, light, 
 spongy, white, inodorous, and insipid." — TJ. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe its physical characters. 
 Chief Constituent. — Mucilage. 
 Therapeutic Action. — Demulcent. 
 
 ZEA. — Zea. — G)m-5ilk. 
 
 The styles and stigmas of Zea Mays Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 
 Graminese). 
 
 Habitat. — America ; widely cultivated. 
 
 Description. — " Thread-like ; about 15 cm. long and 0.5 mm. broad, 
 yellowish or greenish, soffr«ilky, finely hairy, and delicately veined longi- 
 tudinally ; inodorous ; taste sweetish." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe its physical characters. 
 Chief Constituents. — Sugar, mucilage, oil, resin, maizenic 
 acid, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Diuretic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 2 gm. (30 gr.) in fluid extract. 
 
 GOSSYPIUM PURIFICATUM.— Purified Cotton.— Gossypittm (Phatm. 
 J880).— Absorbent Cotton. 
 
 The hairs of the seed of Gossypiura herbaceum Linn6 and 
 of other species of Gossypium (Nat. Ord. Malvaceae), freed 
 from adhering impurities, and deprived of fatty matter. 
 
 Habitat. — Cultivated in warm countries. 
 
 Description. — Sufiiciently well known ; examine micro- 
 scopically. 
 
LVPTJLINVM—AMYLUM. 133 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Consists of nearly pure cellulose, 
 fixed oil and salts having been removed in the process of 
 purification ; not more than 0.8 per cent. ash. Soluble in 
 ammoniated oxid of copper. 
 
 LUPULINUM.— Lupalin. 
 
 The glandular powder separated from the strobiles of 
 Humulus Lupulus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Urticacese). 
 
 Description. — " Bright brownish-yellow, becoming yellowish-brown, resin- 
 ous, consisting of minute gi-anules, which, as seen under the microscope, 
 are subglobular, or rather hood-shaped, and reticulate ; aromatic and bitter." 
 — U. 8. P. 
 
 For habitat, chief constituents, therapeutic use, and average 
 dose see Humulus, p. 105. 
 See histology, p. 206. 
 
 LYCOPODIUM.— Lycopodium. 
 
 The spores of Lycopodium clavatum Linn6 and of other 
 species of Lycopodium (Nat. Ord. LycopodiaceEe). 
 Habitat. — In northern latitudes. 
 
 Desmption.—" A fine powder, pale yellowish, very mobile, inodorous, 
 tasteless, floating upon water and not wetted by it, but sinking on being 
 boiled with it, and burning quickly when thrown into a flame. Under the 
 microscope the spores are seen to be spbero-tetrahedral, the surfaces marked 
 with reticulated ridges, and the edges beset with short projections." — U. S. P. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Fixed oil, nearly 50 per cent, (only 
 obtained by rupturing the spores) ; other constituents unim- 
 portant. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Externally as dusting-powder. Phar- 
 maceutically as dusting-powder for pills and suppositories. 
 
 See histology, p. 269. 
 
 AMYLUM.— Starch. 
 
 The fecula of the seed of Zea Mays Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Graminese). 
 
 Description. — "In irregular, angular masses, which are easily reduced to 
 a fine powder ; white, inodorous, and tasteless ; insoluble in ether, alcohol, 
 or cold water. Under the microscope appearing as granules, nearly uni- 
 form in size, more or less angular in outline, with indistinct striae and with 
 a distinct hilum near the center." — U. S. P. 
 
134 DEUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 In addition to the official, starches obtained from wheat, 
 barley, and other grains are important as food. Sago is a 
 globular, pearly grain obtained from Metroxylon Sagu, a 
 palm ; tapioca is from the rhizome of Manihot utilissima ; 
 arrowroot is obtained from several species of Maranta. 
 
 Starch will be considered in Part III., p. 294. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Nutrient and as dusting-powder. 
 
 See histology, p. 192. 
 
 MACIS— Mace. 
 
 The arillode of the seed of Myristica fragrans Houttuyn 
 
 (Nat. Ord. Myristicaceae). 
 
 Habitat. — Molucca Islands ; cultivated. 
 
 Description. — " In narrow bands, 25 mm. or more long, somewhat branched 
 and lobed above, united into broader bands below ; brownish-orange ; fatty 
 when scratched or pressed ; odor fragrant, taste waim and aromatic." — 
 U.S. P. 
 
 Study and describe its physical characters. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — ^Volatile oil, fixed oil. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stimulant, mainly as flavoring. 
 
 CROCUS.— Saffron. 
 The stigmas of Crocus sativus Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Iridese). 
 Habitat. — Asia ; the best comes from cultivation in south- 
 western Europe. 
 
 Description. — " Separate stigmas, or three, attached to the top of the 
 style, about 3 cm. long, flattish-tubular, almost thread-like, broader and 
 notched above ; orange-brown ; odor strong, peculiar, aromatic ; taste bittei^ 
 ish and aromatic." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe its physical characters. Especially 
 note the notched upper surface and the orange-red color. 
 
 The yellowish styles should not be present. For detection 
 of adulteration see page 273. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Coloring-matter, mucilage, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Diaphoretic and very mild sedative ; its 
 main use is as a coloring agent in pharmacy and cookery. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5—2 gm. (8-30 gr.). 
 
 KAMALA.— Kamala.— Rottlefa (Ptiarm. J870). 
 The glands and hairs from the capsules of Mallotus philip- 
 pinensis (Lamarck) Mueller Arg. (Nat. Ord. Euphorbiacese). 
 
EXTRACTS AND INSPrSSATED JUICES. 
 
 135 
 
 Habitat. — Southeastern Asia. 
 
 Description. — " A granular, mobile, brick-red or brownisb-red powder, in- 
 odorous and nearly tasteless, imparting a deep red color to alkaline liquids, 
 alcohol, ether, or chloroform, and a pale-yellow tinge to boiling water. 
 Under the microscope it is seen to consist of stellately arranged, colorless 
 hairs, mixed with depressed-globidar glands containing numerous red, club- 
 shaped vesicles." — U. S. P. 
 
 Examine microscopically and describe. 
 Chief Constituents. — Resins of different physical characters ; 
 red coloring matter. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Tsenifuge. 
 
 Average Dose. — 4-8 gm. (60-120 gr.). 
 
 TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL CELLULAR DRUGS. 
 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Fungus Chirurgorum 
 
 Fungus 
 
 
 Hemostatic. 
 
 Externally. 
 
 (Surgeon's Agaric) 
 
 upon 
 
 
 
 
 (Polyporus fomen- 
 
 beech 
 
 
 
 
 tarms). 
 
 and oak. 
 
 
 
 
 Agaricus Albus 
 
 Fungus 
 
 Agaricin, 
 
 Against 
 
 0.5 gm. (8 gr.). 
 
 (White Agaric) 
 
 growth 
 
 resin. 
 
 sweating. 
 
 
 (Polyporus offici- 
 nafis). 
 
 upon the 
 larch. 
 
 
 
 
 Ustilago (Corn-smut) 
 
 Fungus 
 
 Probably 
 
 Emmena- 
 
 1-2 gm. (15-30 
 
 (U. Maydis). 
 
 upon 
 corn. 
 
 similar to 
 ergot. 
 
 gogue. 
 
 gr.). 
 
 Mucuna (Cowage) 
 
 West 
 
 Unimportant. 
 
 Irritant ex- 
 
 Little used. 
 
 (M. Pruriens). 
 
 Indies. 
 
 
 ternally. 
 
 
 Araroba (Goa-powder) 
 
 South 
 
 Chrysarobin. 
 
 Irritant ex- 
 
 
 (Andira A.). 
 
 America. 
 
 
 ternally. 
 
 
 Laminaria 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Unimportant. 
 
 Absorbent, 
 
 
 (L. Cloustoni). 
 
 Coast. 
 
 
 used to dilate 
 cavities. 
 
 
 Cibotium (Penghawar 
 
 Austral- 
 
 Unimportant. 
 
 Hemostatic. 
 
 60 gm. (2 oz.). 
 
 Djambi) 
 
 asia. 
 
 
 
 
 (C. Baromez). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fermentum (Yeastl 
 
 In fer- 
 
 
 Tonic. 
 
 60 gm. (3-oz.). 
 
 (Torula Cerevisise). 
 
 menting 
 liquids. 
 
 
 
 
 EXTRACTS AND INSPISSATED JUICES. 
 
 The following extracts and inspissated juices are official : 
 
 Opium. Socotrine aloes. 
 
 Guarana. Extract of glycyrrhiza. 
 
 Lactucarium. Catechu. 
 
 Barbadoes aloes. Kino. 
 India-rubber. 
 
136 DBUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 The following are not official': 
 
 Curare. Gutta-percha. 
 
 Eucalyptus gum. Mouesia. 
 
 OPIUM.— Opium. 
 
 The concrete, milky exudation obtained by incising the 
 unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Papaveracese), and yielding, in its normal, moist condition, 
 not less than 9 per cent, of crystallized morphine when assayed 
 by the process given in the United States Pharmacopoeia. 
 
 Habitat. — Western Asia ; cultivated. 
 
 Description. — " In irregulai- or subglobular cakes, with the remnants of 
 poppy leaves and fruits of a species of Eumex adhering to the surface ; 
 plastic or of a harder consistence ; chestnut-brown or darker, and somewhat 
 shining ; internally showing some teare and fragments of vegetable tissue. 
 It has a shai'p, narcotic odor and a peculiar, bitter taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Especially note the odor and taste, presence of fragments 
 of poppy leaves and many fruits,- and the consistence. The 
 line made by drawing a fragment across paper is interrupted. 
 
 Opium is extremely liable to adulteration with a great 
 variety of substances, including extracts (leaves an uninter- 
 rupted line on paper) ; sand (falls to the bottom if the pow- 
 dered opium is shaken with chloroform) ; starch or starchy 
 substances (iodine reaction and microscopic examination) ; 
 shot, fragments of metal, etc. 
 
 The following test, adapted from Hager, will detect the 
 commoner sophistications. Take a thin slice through the 
 middle of the cake, knead it well, and take from this a few 
 grams, dry on water-bath until pulverizable (loss of weight 
 shows moisture, should not be more than 16 per cent.). Of 
 this powdered opium take 2 gm., heat with 25 C.c. of distilled 
 water with agitation, and set aside ; brownish-yellow, muci- 
 laginous, but not thick, supernatant liquid (absence of gums 
 and starch). Dilute the solution with four volumes of dis- 
 tilled water and filter through weighed iilter (filtrate sherry 
 colored ; extracts would render it darker), filtrate has an acid 
 
 ' In order that a number of short tables may be avoided, the unofficial 
 extracts, sugare, i-esins, etc., will be considered in one table (p. 172). 
 
OPIUM. 137 
 
 reaction (chalk or basic substances would render it neutral or 
 alkaline). To 40 C.c. of this filtrate evaporated to 4 Co. 
 add 10 C.c. of 90 per cent, alcohol (at once or after an hour 
 a copious precipitate would indicate dextrin, gums, or salts). 
 Another portion of the filtrate (not concentrated) should not 
 give a precipitate nor change of color with solution of potas- 
 sium ferrocyanid (salts of metals). The undissolved portion 
 remaining upon the filter, washed and dried (at 110° F.) 
 should weigh not more than 0.9 gm'. The ash from crude 
 opium should not exceed 4.5 per cent., or 6 per cent, from 
 powdered opium. The powdered opium placed upon chloro- 
 form floats, but sinks in carbon disulphid, coloring the liquids 
 but little when shaken ; impurities, sand, and starch will fall 
 to the bottom of the chloroform. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Opium contains a number of alkaloids, 
 of which by far the most important is morphine. Crude 
 opium is required to yield, by the pharmacopoeial method of 
 assay, not less than 9 per cent, of morphine, powdered and 
 deodorized opium from 13 to 15 per cent. Should a given 
 opium exceed or fall below these figures, it may be made to 
 conform to the requirements by the admixture of a corre- 
 sponding amount of another specimen which is poorer or 
 richer in morphine. Morphine is soluble in 4350 parts of 
 water ; the sulphate is soluble in 21 parts. The amount of 
 codeine present in opium varies from 0.1 to 0.7 per cent., and 
 the amount of narceine is equally variable ; in addition, opium 
 contains thebaine, narcotine, papaverine, and other alkaloids, 
 meconic and lactic acids, gums, resins, fats. Neither starch 
 nor tannin is present. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — The action of opium may be regarded 
 as that of its most important alkaloid, morphine, which will 
 be considered in this place. The typical effect of morphine 
 upon man is to produce quiet, drowsiness, and then sleep, and 
 coma if the dose be sufficient, or only the first if it be small. 
 Sometimes almost pure excitement results, and frequently it 
 precedes the narcotic action. In the frog large doses of mor- 
 phine produce convulsions, but these art not seen in man, 
 since death results from the narcotic action before the con- 
 vulsant action has had time to occur. Respiration is dimin- 
 
138 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 ished in frequency, but increased in the volume of individual 
 respirations with small doses, but rendered "shallow" and 
 irregular in overdoses. The pupil is contracted (of import- 
 ance only in the diagnosis of morphine-poisoning). It acts 
 as an aphrodisiac because of its effects upon the imagination. 
 Nausea and vomiting are common results of the action of 
 morphine. Moderate doses cause constipation, but very large 
 doses cause bloody stools. 
 
 Upon the foregoing effects of morphine is based its use in 
 a great variety of conditions, among which may be noted : 
 The relief of pain — in this morphine holds a position which 
 is unique ; for this purpose the local application is without 
 effect : it should be given internally or hypodermatically. 
 Insomnia : if the wakefulness be due to pain, morphine acts 
 by relieving pain ; but if insomnia is due to nervousness, 
 little good will result from morphine. • Diarrhea : most forms 
 of diarrhea are promptly benefited, and, upon the other hand, 
 the constipation of lead colic is cme of the few instances 
 where it may be used in such a condition. Cough : it should 
 not be used when the secretion is abundant; it quickly 
 affords relief in acute attacks of asthma, combined with 
 ipecac in the official powder of ipecac and opium ; it is 
 useful as a diaphoretic in the beginnings of colds. It is 
 used in diabetes, for which codeine long enjoyed a special 
 reputation. 
 
 Repeated use of morphine or opium is certain to induce 
 the terrible condition of chronic opium-poisoning. Prescrip- 
 tions containing these drugs should never be refilled without 
 the order of the physician. (The same holds for cocaine, 
 cannabis indica, chloral, or the hypnotics.) 
 
 Codeine is used for the same conditions as morphine. 
 
 It should be borne in mind that the usual rules for com- 
 puting the dose for children, based upon that for adults, does 
 not hold in the case of opium and its alkaloids, for the very 
 young and the old are very susceptible to its action. Denarco- 
 tized opium has the advantage of causing less nausea. This 
 is often said to be due to the removal of the narcotine, but 
 this is rather doubtful. Apomorphine may be considered 
 
OMUM. 139 
 
 here, though not a coDstituent of opium ; it is obtained by 
 heating morphine with hydrochloric acid in sealed tubes. It 
 is a most efficient emetic, in tlie dose of 5—10 milligrams 
 {y2 — g- gr.) hypodermically. Solutions of apomorphine rap- 
 idly undergo decomposition, with the development of a green 
 color. 
 
 Fatal poisoning by opium or morphine is of such frequent 
 occurrence that pharmacists should be familiar with the more 
 characteristic symptoms and the first aid. The first symp- 
 toms noticed are giddiness, confusion, and stupor, terminating 
 in complete insensibility. The respiration is slow, the eyes 
 are closed, the pupils are small and do not expand when 
 the eyes are closed ; the face is red. The face later becomes 
 pale and clammy, the lips livid, and the breathing noisy, 
 or stertorous and slow, and the pulse weak. Convulsions 
 may precede death. The symptoms usually appear within a 
 few minutes after taking the poison, and death occurs in 
 from two to twelve hours. Symptoms more or less resemb- 
 ling the above may result from alcoholism, but the breath 
 will usually smell of the liquor ; in case of opium (but not 
 of morphine), the characteristic odor of opium may be de- 
 tected in the breath. Where but one pupil is small, the 
 other being normal, apoplexy is to be suspected. Alcoholism 
 will show dilated pupils, which occurs with opium-poisoning 
 only just before death. 
 
 The fir-st aid consists in evacuating the poison by emetic 
 or stomach-pump, regardless of whether or not it was given 
 by the mouth, since it is excreted into the stomach. The 
 patient must be kept awake at all hazards and in motion if 
 possible ; electric shocks, dashing cold water upon the face, 
 strong tea, coffee, or caffeine ; keep the patient warm (rub 
 after using cold water) ; use artificial respiration if the breath- 
 ing ceases or the patient becomes blue about the lips ; potas- 
 sium permanganate should be given in doses of 1 gm. (15 
 gr.) dissolved in water. 
 
 Average Dose. — For an adult the dose of powdered opium 
 is 0.015-0.12 gm. (J-2 gr.), in powder, pill, or tincture. 
 Of morphine, 0.008-0.015 gm. (i-i gr.) Of codeine, 0.015- 
 
140 DRUOS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 0.1 2 gm. (^-2 gr.). The following preparations are used, 
 with dose given : 
 
 Tincture of opium, 1 C.c. (15 min.). 
 
 Paregoric, 8 C.c. (2 dr.). 
 
 Dover's powder, 0.8 gm. (10 gr.). 
 
 Apomorphine (emetic only), 0.006 gm. (^ gr.). 
 
 GUARANA.— Gaatana. 
 
 A dried paste chiefly consisting of the crushed or pounded 
 seeds of Paullinia Cupaua Kunth (Paullinia sorbilis Martius ; 
 Nat. Ord. Sapindacese). 
 
 Habitat. — Brazil. 
 
 Descnption. — "Subglobular or elliptic cakes, or cylindric sticks, hard, 
 dark reddish-brown ; fracture uneven, somewhat glossy, pale reddish-brown, 
 showing fragments of seeds invested with blackish-brown integuments ; odor 
 slight, peculiar, resembling that of chocolate ; taste astringent and bitter. 
 
 " It is partly soluble in water, and in alcohol." — U. 8. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Caffeine, 5 per cent. ; tannin, gum, 
 resin, volatile oil. Caffeine occupies a sort of intermediate 
 position chemically between alkaloids and neutral principles, 
 being feebly basic (see p. 351). 
 
 Therapeutio Use. — Guarana is useful mainly because of its 
 caffeine, which is widely used in the shape of tea, coffee, 
 mat6 (Paraguay tea), guarana, cola, and the nearly allied 
 theobromine in cacao, by many races of people. Caffeine will 
 be considered here somewhat in detail. It is the type of a 
 group of convulsant drugs nearly related in their action to 
 strychnine. Caffeine specially acts upon that part of the 
 brain concerned with the intellect, so that thoughts flow more 
 freely and the mind acts more quickly. Wakefulness is a 
 conspicuous symptom. Small doses strengthen the respira- 
 tion and heart and raise the blood-pressure, but not so much 
 as does strychnine. Small doses increase the capacity for 
 muscular exercise, while larger doses diminish it, the latter 
 also causing palpitation (weakening) of the heart. A very 
 large dose will produce convulsions. Caffeine acts as a diu- 
 retic, increasing the amount of urine and the total quantity 
 of its solid constituents by a stimulation of the cells of the 
 
LACTUCARIUM—ALOE BARBADENSIS. 141 
 
 kidney, not by any effect it may have upon the circulation. 
 In tea and coffee the action of the caffeine is supported by 
 the volatile products (oil or empyreumatic substances). Both 
 tea and coffee contain tannin, but of different kinds. That 
 of tea is a strong precipitant of many metals and alkaloids, 
 and is, therefore, a good chemic antidote for many poisons. 
 The tannin of coffee lacks this action almost completely. 
 Caffeine, in the shape of tea and coffee, is a ready and efficient 
 antidote in cases of poisoning by opium (morphine) and other 
 narcotics, or whenever stimulation is required. Too much 
 stress cannot be laid upon its value in such cases. 
 
 Average Dose. — Of guarana, 1—4 gm. (15—60 gr.) in fluid 
 extract. Of caffeine, 0.15-0.25 gm. (3-5 gr.), or of the 
 citrated (50 per cent, caffeine), 0.3—0.5 gm. (5—8 gr.). 
 
 LACTUCA.RIUM.— Lactacariom. 
 
 The concrete milk-juice of Lactaca virosa Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Compositfe). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe ; cultivated. 
 
 Description. — " In sections of planoconvex, circular cakes, or in irregular, 
 angular pieces, externally grayish-brown or dull reddish-brown, internally 
 \i(hitish or yellowish, of a waxy lustre; odor heavy, somewhat narcotic; 
 taste bitter."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note the odor and taste. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Resin, gum, a principle the nature of 
 which has not been determined, and a waxy substance consti- 
 tuting about 50 per cent. ; precipitates upon addition of water 
 to alcoholic tincture. Removed by macerating with benzin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Mildly narcotic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.6—4 gm. (10-60 gr.) in syrup. (Maisch 
 gives up to 8 gm.). 
 
 ALOE BARBADENSIS.— Barbadoes Aloes.— Curagao Aloes. 
 
 The inspissated juice of the leaves of Aloe vera (Linn6) 
 Webb (Nat. Ord. Liliacea). 
 
 Habitat. — Aloe vera grown in the island of Barbadoes.' 
 
 ' No aloes is now exported from the island of Barbadoes. This aloes is 
 probably grown in the island of St. Vincent. 
 
142 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 Description. — " In hard masses, orange-brown, opaque, ti-anslucent on the 
 edges ; fracture waxy or resinous, somewhat conchoidal ; odor safFron-iike ; 
 taste strongly bitter. 
 
 " Mixed with alcohol and examined under the microscope it exhibits 
 numerous crystals. Mixed with nitric acid it acquires a red color. 
 
 " Barbadoes aloes is not colored, or acquires only a light bluish-green 
 tint on being mixed with sulphuric acid and blowing the vapor of nitric 
 acid over the mixture (difference from Natal aloes)." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Barbaloin, 12 per cent. ; resin, emodin, 
 etc. (see p. 363). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Laxative or drastic purgative, according 
 to the dose. Emmenagogue. 
 
 Average Dose. — As a laxative, 0.12-0.3 gm. (2-5 gr.) ; 
 as purgative, 0.5—1 gm. (8-15 gr.), in pills, preferably with 
 soap as excipient. 
 
 ALOE SOCOTRINA.— Socotrine Aloes. 
 
 The inspissated juice of the leaves of Aloe Perryi Baker 
 (Nat. Ord. Liliacese). 
 
 It is probable that other species of aloes than that men- 
 tioned in the pharmacopoeial definition yield much of the aloes 
 found upon the market. 
 
 Habitat. — Island of Socotra, East Africa. 
 
 So much doubt exists in regard to the various species 
 yielding aloes and their habitat that it may be sufficient to 
 remember that South Africa, East Africa, and the West 
 Indies supply most of the various kinds of aloes. 
 
 Description. — " In hard masses, occasionally soft in the interior, opaque, 
 yellowish-brown, orange-brown, or dark ruby-red, not greenish, translucent 
 on the edges; fracture resinous, somewhat conchoidal. When breathed 
 upon, it emits a fragrant, saffron-like odor. Taste peculiar, strongly bitter." 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Socaloin, differing somewhat from bar- 
 baloin ; constituents otherwise much as in case of Barbadoes 
 aloes. 
 
 Therapeutic use and average dose similar to Barbadoes aloes. 
 
EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZM—ELASTICA. 143 
 
 EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZAE-Extract of Glycyrrhiza — 
 
 (See Glycyn-hiza. ) 
 
 This is an aqueous extract in which ammonia-water is used 
 in extracting. Usually found in commerce, in sticks about 
 six inches in length and half an inch in diameter. Too well 
 known to require further description. 
 
 CATECHU.— Catechu. 
 
 An extract prepared from the wood of Acacia Catechu 
 (Liun6 fil.) Willdenow (Nat. Ord. Leguminosse). 
 Habitat. — India and Farther India. 
 
 Description. — " In irregular masses, containing fragments of leaves, dark 
 brown, brittle, somewhat porous and glossy when freshly broken. It is 
 nearly inodorous, and has a strongly astringent and sweetish taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Tannin (catechu-tannic acid), 40 per 
 cent. ; catechin in variable amount, little quercitin, and much 
 mucilage, catechu red, 2 per cent, of ash. 
 
 Ther-apeutio Use. — Astringent, mostly externally. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.1-0.3 gm. (2-3 gr.). 
 
 KINO.— Kino. 
 
 The inspissated juice of Pterocarpus Marsupium Roxburgh 
 (Nat. Ord. Leguminosse). 
 Habitat. — East Indies. 
 
 Description.—" Small; angular, dark brownish-red, shining pieces, brittle, 
 in thin layers, ruby-red and transparent, inodorous, very astringent and 
 sweetish, tinging the saliva deep red. 
 
 " Soluble in alcohol, nearly insoluble in ether, and only slightly soluble 
 in cold water."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note the adhesiveness on 
 chewing, tinges saliva. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Kino-red, tannin (kino-tannic acid). 
 Therapeutic Use. — Astringent. 
 Average Dose. — 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.). 
 
 ELASTICA,— India-mfabef.— Caoatchouc 
 
 The prepared milk-juice of various species of Hevea (Nat. 
 Ord. Euphorbiaceae), known in commerce as Para rubber. 
 
144 BBUOS OTHER THAN PLANT OBQANS. 
 
 Habitat. — Caoutchouc is principally obtained from Bi'azil 
 (Para rubber) and India. 
 
 Description. — " In cakes, balls, or hollow, bottle-shaped pieces, exter- 
 ternally brown to brownish-black, internally brownish or of lighter tint ; 
 very elastic ; insoluble in water, diluted acids, or diluted solutions of 
 alkalies ; soluble in chloroform, carbon disulphid, oil of turpentine, benzin, 
 and benzol."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Consists mainly of a hydrocarbon, 
 CjuHg^. Combined with 10 per cent, of sulphur it yields 
 vulcanized rubber, used in various instruments (syringe bulbs, 
 etc.) ; with 50 per cent, of sulphur it constitutes the well- 
 known hard rubber so extensively used in the arts. 
 
 Pharmaceutic Use. — Rubber is used in making the official 
 mustard-paper and in the commer'cial manufacture of plasters. 
 
 SUGARS. 
 
 The following Saccharine substances are official : 
 
 Sugar. Sugar of milk. 
 
 Manna. Honey. 
 
 The following are not official. 
 
 Grape-sugar. Molasses. 
 
 SACCHARUM.— Sugar.— Cane-sogar. 
 
 The refined sugar (CjjH^jOjj = 341.2) obtained from Sac- 
 charum officinarum Linn6 and from various species or varie- 
 ties of Sorghum (Nat. Ord. Graminese) ; also from one or 
 more varieties of Beta vulgaris (beet) Linn6 (Nat. Ord. 
 Ch enopodiacese) . 
 
 Habitat. — Sugar-cane, Saccharum officinarum, is indige- 
 nous to southern Asia ; cultivated extensively in Cuba, Louis- 
 iana, and Hawaii. 
 
 Sorghum is produced in considerable amounts in Kansas. 
 
 Sugar beet is raised in enormous quantities in Germany 
 and in France, and to some extent in the United States. 
 
 The uses of sugar are too well known to require descrip- 
 tion (see p. 290). 
 
MANNA— SACCHARVM LACTIS. 145 
 
 Ultramarine blue is sometimes added to whiten sugar in the 
 presence of traces of brownish, uncrystallizable substance. 
 The syrup deposits an unsightly precipitate upon standing 
 if ultramarine be present. It is said to favor fermentation. 
 
 MANNA. -Manna. 
 
 The concrete, saccharine exudation of Fraxinus Ornus 
 Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Oleacese). 
 
 Habitat. — From Turkistan through southern Europe. 
 
 DescripUon. — The United States Dispentaitoiy luentions the following 
 varieties : Flake manna, the purest, said to come from the upper incisions 
 upon the trunk, the lower incisions, yielding inferior varieties, is in irregular, 
 unequal pieces, often several inches long, resembling stalactites ; rough, 
 light, porous, brittle, wliitish or yellowish-white, and frequently conforming 
 to the shape of the trunk, that surface being soiled with impurities or with 
 bark fragments ; show a crystalline or granular fi-acture. 
 
 Common manna : The juice concretes more slowly, falling to the ground, 
 becomes more or less mixed with impurities ; whitish or yellowish frag- 
 ments, similar to the preceding, but much smaller ; mixed with a soft, vis- 
 cid, non-crystalline, brownish matter, identical with fat manna. 
 
 Fat manna: The juice concretes still more slowly, falling down the 
 trunk into excavations at its base. A soft, viscid mass, few crystalline 
 fragments, and of a brown or yellowish-brown color, full of impurities. 
 The Pharmacopoeia directs that this manna should be rejected. 
 
 Study and describe. Large flake, the finest ; small flake, 
 smaller pieces. Sorts, brownish, sticky, agglutinated, small 
 tears. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Mannite (CgHj^O,.) up to 90 per cent, 
 for the best large flake manna ; obtained in prismatic crystals 
 if the manna be dissolved in boiling alcohol and allowed to 
 cool. Glucose and mucilage abundant in the poorer kinds or 
 " sorts." 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Laxative. 
 
 Average Dose. — 10—25 gm. (J-1 oz.). 
 
 SACCHARUM LACTIS. -Sugar of Milk. 
 
 A peculiar, crystalline sugar {G^^^-fi^^ + H2O = 359.16), 
 obtained from the whey of cow's milk by evaporation, and 
 purified by recrystallization. 
 
 Habitat. — Mainly obtained as a by-product in the dairies 
 of Switzerland and the United States. 
 10 
 
146 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 Study and dcucrihe. Note fine, gritty particles, sweetish 
 taste, solubility. 
 
 It reduces alkaline solution of copper tartrate ; soluble in 
 6 parts of water, producing a non-syrupy liquid. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Largely used in pharmacy as a diluent 
 in triturates, etc. Also somewhat laxative and diui-etic. 
 
 MEL.— Honey. 
 
 A saccharine secretion deposited in the honey-comb by the 
 bee. Apis mellifica Linn6 (class Insecta ; order Hymeuoptera). 
 
 Habitat. — The honey-bee is extensively raised and is often 
 found wild. 
 
 Description. — " A syrupy liquid of a light yellowish to a pale yellowish- 
 brown color, translucent when fresh, but gradually becoming opaque and 
 crystalline, having a characteristic, aromatic odor and a sweet, faintly acrid 
 taiite."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — It consists of a syrupy solution of 
 dextrose and levulose, with traces of cane-sugar and dextrin- 
 like substances, with particles of wax accidentally present. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Used in preparation of official honeys, 
 confections, etc. 
 
 GUMS. 
 
 Acacia and Tragacanth are official. 
 
 ACACIA. — Acacia. — Gam Arabic. 
 
 A gummy exudation from Acacia Senegal, Willdenow 
 (Nat. Ord. Leguminosse). 
 
 Habitat. — Eastern and western Africa. 
 
 Description. — " In roundish tears of various sizes, or broken into angular 
 fi'agments, with a glass-like, sometimes iridescent fi'actui'e, opaque (from 
 numerous fissures, but transparent and nearly colorless in thin pieces ; 
 nearly inodorous ; taste insipid, mucilaginous ; insoluble in alcohol, but 
 soluble in water, forming a thick, mucilaginous liquid. 
 
 "Acacia should be slowly but completely soluble in 2 parts of water. 
 This solution shows an acid reaction with litmus-paper, yields a gelatinous 
 precipitate with basic lead acetate T. S., ferric chlorid T. S., or concen- 
 trated solution of sodium borate, and does not reduce alkaline cupric tar- 
 trate V. S. 
 
 " The powder is not colored blue (absence of starch) or red (absence of 
 dextrin) by iodine T. S."— U. S. P. 
 
GUM-RESINS. 147 
 
 Study and describe. The best variety is the Kordofan gum. 
 
 Senegal gum is in larger and more transparent pieces of a 
 brownish tint. A gum obtained from Texas resembles acacia, 
 but its solution is not precipitated by ferric chlorid, borax, 
 or lead acetate. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Arabates of calcium, magnesium, and 
 potassium. Arabic acid is insoluble in water, but swells 
 with it; on the addition of an alkali, solution occurs (see p. 
 292). 
 
 ITierapeutlc Use. — Demulcent, largely used in preparing 
 emulsions. 
 
 TRAGACANTHA. -Tragacanth. 
 
 A gummy exudation from Astragalus gummifer Labillar- 
 diere and from other species of Astragalus (Nat. Ord. Legu- 
 minosse). 
 
 Habitat. — Western Asia. 
 
 Description. — " In narrow or broad bands, more or less curved or con- 
 torted, marked by parallel lines or ridges, white or faintly yellowish, trans- 
 lucent, horn-like, tough, and rendered more easily pulverized by a heat of 
 50° C. (122° F.)."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Gummate of calcium (not identical 
 with the arabate), bassorin (swells with water, but does not 
 dissolve). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Demulcent and emollient. 
 
 
 GUM-RESESrS. 
 
 The following are 
 
 official : 
 
 
 Asafetida. 
 Ammoniac- 
 
 Scammony. 
 
 Myrrh. 
 Gamboge. 
 
 The following are 
 
 not official : 
 
 
 Bdellium. 
 
 Euphorbiui 
 
 Galbanum. 
 
 u. 
 
 Olibanum. 
 Opoponax. 
 Sagapenum. 
 
148 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 ASAFOETIDA— Asafetida. 
 A gum-resin obtained from the root of Ferula foetida 
 (Bunge) Regel (Nat. Ord.) Umbelliferse). 
 Habitat. — Southwestern Asia. 
 
 Description. — " In irregular masses composed of whitish tears, which are 
 imbedded in a yellowish-gray or brownish-gray, sticky mass. The tears, 
 when hard, break with a conchoidal fracture, showing a milk-white color, 
 which changes gradually, on exposure, to pink, and finally to brown. It 
 has a persistent, alliaceous odor, and a bitter alliaceous acrid taste. 
 
 " When triturated with water it yields a milk-white emulsion, which be- 
 comes yellow on the addition of ammonia-water. 
 
 " It is partly soluble in ether, and at least 60 per cent, of it should dis- 
 solve in alcohol."— U.S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil ; gum, 25 per cent. ; resin, 
 65 per cent. 
 
 Iherapeutie Use. — Antispasmodic (mainly useful in hys- 
 teria), carminative. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3—1.5 gm. (5-25 gr.), in pill, emulsion, 
 or tincture. 
 
 AMMONIACUM.— Ammoniac. 
 
 A gum-resin obtained from Dorema Ammoniacum Don 
 (Nat. Ord. Umbellifer£e). 
 Habitat. — Western Asia. 
 
 Description. — " In roundish tears, from 2 to 6 mm. or more in diameter ; 
 externally pale yellowish-brown, internally milk-white, brittle when cold, 
 and breaking with. a flat, conchoidal, and waxy fracture; or the tears are 
 superficially united into irregular masses without any intervening, dark- 
 colored substance. It has a peculiar odor, and a bitter, acrid, and nauseous 
 taste. "-D. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil (variable amount) ; resin, 
 70 per cent. ; gum, 20 per cent. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stimulant. 
 Average Dose. — 0.3—1.5 gm. (5—25 gr.). 
 
 MYRRHA.-Myrrh. 
 
 A gum-resin obtained from Commiphora Myrrha (Nees) 
 Engler (Nat. Ord. Burseracese). Exuding spontaneously 
 from the bark. 
 
CAMBOGIA. 149 
 
 Habitat. — Southwestern Arabia and neigb boring parts of 
 Africa. 
 
 Description. — " In roundish or irregular tears or masses, dusty, brownish- 
 yellow or reddish-brown ; fracture waxy, somewhat splintery, translucent 
 on the edges, sometimes marked with whitish veins ; odor balsamic ; taste 
 aromatic, bitter, and acrid." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 2 to 4 per cent. ; resin, 
 35 per cent. ; gum, 50 per cent. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Carminative. Much used as an addi- 
 tion to mouth-washes. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3-2 gm. (5-30 gr.) 
 
 CAMBOGIA.— Gamboge. 
 
 A gum-resin obtained from Garcinia Hanburii Hooker 
 filius (Nat. Ord Guttiferse). 
 Habitat. — Farther India. 
 
 Descri-ption. — " In cylindrio pieces, sometimes hollow in the center, 2 to 
 5 cm. in diameter, longitudinally striate on the surface ; fracture flattish- 
 conchoidal, of a waxy luster, orange-red ; in powder, bright yellow ; inodor- 
 ous ; taste very acrid ; the powder sternutatory. 
 
 " Gamboge is partly soluble in alcohol and in ether. When triturated 
 with water, it yields a yellow emulsion and foi-ms with solution of potassium 
 or sodium hydrate an orange-red solution, from which, on the addition of 
 hydrochloric acid, a yellow resin is precipitated. 
 
 " Boiled with water, gamboge yields a liquid which, after cooling, does ' 
 not become blue with iodine T. S. (absence of starch)." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Pipe gamboge is in cylindric sticks, 
 since the milk-juice from which it is obtained is allowed to 
 run into bamboo tubes to harden. 
 
 Especially note the orange-yellow masses become intensely 
 yellow when finely pulverized ; they break with shiny sur- 
 faces and are brittle. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Gum, 18 per cent. ; resin (cambogic 
 acid), 80 per cent, (darker with ferric chlorid, red solution in 
 alkalies). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Hydragogue cathartic ; always given in 
 combination with other less drastic cathartics. Also used as 
 a pigment. 
 
 Average Dose. — Up to 0.3 gm. (5 gr.), but usually much 
 less. 
 
150 DMUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 SCAMMONIUM— Scammony. 
 
 A resinous exudation from the living root of Convolvulus 
 Scammonia Linne (Nat. Ord. Convolvulaceae). 
 Habitat. — Western Asia. 
 
 Description. — " In irregular angular pieces or circular cakes, greenish- 
 gray or blackish, intei'nally porous, and breaking with an angular fracture, 
 of a resinous luster ; odor peculiar, somewhat cheese-like ; taste slightly 
 acrid ; powder gray or greenish-gray." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. The best is known as Smyrna scam- 
 mony. Especially note the greenish color and cheesy odor. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Resin, up to 95 per cent, (consists of 
 scammonin, identical with jalapin of Ipomoea orizabensis) ; 
 gum and usually considerable impurities. 
 
 2'herapeutio Use. — Hydragogue cathartic, always combined 
 ■with other cathartics. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.06-0.5 gm. (1-8 gr.). 
 
 Impurities. — Calcium carbonate (should not effervesce when 
 drug is rubbed with acids), starch (the decoction should not 
 turn blue with iodine). If the drug is treated with alcohol 
 and the residue with water, solid impurities, such as vegetable 
 tissue, etc., remain. 
 
 A factitious scammony made in France and sold as Smyrna 
 is said to consist of the expressed juice of a plant mixed with 
 resin and various purgative principles. 
 
 RESINS. 
 
 The following resins are official : 
 
 
 Mastic. 
 
 Guaiac. 
 
 Benzoin. 
 
 Eesin. 
 
 The following are not official : 
 
 
 Copal. 
 
 Elaterium 
 
 Dammar. 
 
 Lac. 
 
 Dragon's blood. 
 
 Sandarac. 
 
 MASTICHE.-Mastic. 
 
 A concrete resinous exudation from Pistaeia Lentiscus 
 Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Anacardiese). 
 Habitat. — Mediterranean basin. 
 
BENZOIN UM. 151 
 
 Description. — " Grlobular or elongated tears, about the size of a pea, 
 sometimes covered with a whitish dust, pale-yellow, transparent, having a 
 glass-like luster, and an opalescent refraction ; brittle, becoming plastic 
 when chewed ; of a weak, somewhat balsamic, resinous odor, and a mild 
 terebinthinate taste. 
 
 " Ma-stic is completely soluble in ether, and, for the most part, soluble in 
 alcohol."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note : Though brittle, it 
 becomes plastic when chewed. This sometimes serves to 
 detect spurious resins. 
 
 (Jhief Constitiients. — Besides the resin, it contains about 
 2 per cent, of a volatile oil. The resin consists of an alcohol- 
 soluble portion and an insoluble. 
 
 Tlierapeutie Use. — Carminative. It enters iiito the well- 
 known dinner pill, combined with aloes. Mostly used as a 
 varnish. 
 
 BENZODMUM.— Benzoin. 
 A balsamic resin obtained from Styrax Benzoin Dryander 
 (Nat. Ord. Styracese). 
 
 Habitat — Java, Borneo, and Farther India. 
 
 Description. — " In lumps consisting of agglutinated, yellowish-brown teara, 
 which are internally milk-white or in the form of a reddish-brown mass, 
 more or less mottled from whitish teai-s embedded in it. It is almost wholly 
 soluble in 5 parts of moderately warm alcohol and in solutions of the fixed 
 alkalies. When heated, it gives off fumes of benzoic acid. It has an agi-ee- 
 able balsamic odor and a slight aromatic taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study avd desaribe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Resins, 75 per cent. ; benzoic acid, 
 18 per cent. Little volatile oil and sometimes cinnamic acid 
 (see p. 371) are also present. 
 
 Benzoic Acid (U. S. P.) is usually fragrant from the pres- 
 ence of traces of volatile oil (absent if made from urine), sub- 
 limable, condensing in needle-shaped crystals or in scales ; 
 soluble in about 500 parts of water, very soluble in alcohol 
 and the solvents of fats, except benzin. It melts at 121.4° C. 
 when prepared from toluol. It has a lower melting-point 
 and greater solubility when prepared from benzoin. 
 
 Tlierapeutie Use. — (Benzoin.) Used externally as vulnerary, 
 antiseptic, and also as expectorant. 
 
 Average Dose. — Of benzoin, 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.). 
 
152 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 GUAIACUM. 
 Previously mentioned under guaiacum wood, the medical 
 properties of which it fully represents. 
 
 Description. — " In irregular masses, or subglobular pieces, externally 
 gi'eenish-brown, internally of a glassy luster, and, in recent Guaiac, usually 
 reddish-brown, transparent in thin splinters, fusible, feebly ai'omatic, the 
 odor becoming stronger on heating ; taste somewhat acrid ; powder grayish, 
 turning green on exposure to air. 
 
 Soluble in potassium or sodium hydrate T. S. and in alcohol ; the alco- 
 holic solution is colored blue on the addition of tincture of ferric 
 chloride."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 RESINA. — Resin. — Colophony. — Rosin. 
 
 The residue left after distilling off the volatile oil from tur- 
 pentine. 
 
 Its source will be considered under the oleoresin (turpen- 
 tine). 
 
 Description. — " A transparent, amber-colored substance, hard, brittle,^ pul- 
 verizable ; fracture glossy and shallow-conchoidal ; odor and taste faintly 
 terebinthinate. Specific gravity 1.070 to 1.080."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Mild irritant; its chief pharmaceutic 
 use is in the preparation of plasters, cerates, and ointments. 
 
 ELATERIUM.— Elateriom. 
 
 A substance deposited by the juice of the fruit of Ecbal- 
 lium Elaterium (Linn6) A. Eichard (Nat. Ord. Cucurbitaceae) 
 (unofficial, yields elaterin). 
 
 Habitat— Southern Europe ; cultivated. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Elaterin (U. S. P.), 44 per cent., and 
 unimportant constituents. Elaterin is a crystalline, odorless, 
 bitter principle, slightly soluble in water, but readily so in 
 alkalies; precipitated by acids. It wholly represents the 
 activities of elaterium. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Hydragogue cathartic ; large doses also 
 cause diuresis. Overdoses cause griping and vomiting and 
 are very dangerous. 
 
 Average Dose. — Of elaterium, 0.008 gm. (^ gr.) ; of ela- 
 terin, 0.004 gm. (^ gr.). 
 
BALSAMS. 153 
 
 BALSAMS. 
 
 Some confusion exists as to the precise meaning of the term 
 balsam ; in common usage it is applied to a variety of prepa- 
 rations intended for external use. In the United States 
 Pharmacopoeia it designates plastic or liquid substances con- 
 taining aromatic acids and fragrant principles with resins. 
 
 The following balsams are official : 
 
 Peru. Tolu. Storax. 
 
 Sweet gum is not official. 
 
 BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM— Balsam of Peru. 
 
 A balsam obtained from Toluifera Pereirse (Royle) Baillon 
 (Nat. Ord. Leguminosse). 
 
 Habitat. — Central America. The bark of the tree is beaten 
 and scorched to cause the balsam to exude ; it is absorbed by 
 rags, from which it is separated by hot water and expression. 
 
 Description. — ' ' A liquid iiaving a syrupy consistence, free from stringi- 
 ness or sticlfiness, of a brownish-black color in bulk, reddish-brown and 
 tiunsparent in thin lay era, of an agreeable vanilla-like, somewhat smoky 
 odor, and a bitter taste, leaving a peraistent after-taste. On exposure to air 
 it does not become hard." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Note odor, taste, color, and consist- 
 ence. Specific gravity, 1.135 to 1.150. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Cinnamein, 60 per cent. ; resin, 30 
 per cent. ; benzoic and cinnamic acids ; vanillin, etc. (see p. 
 369). 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5-2 C.c. (8-30 min.). 
 
 BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM.— Balsam of Tolu. 
 
 A balsam obtained from Toluifera Balsamum Linn6 (Nat. 
 Ord. Leguminosse). 
 
 Habitat. — Northern part of Sonth America. Some bot- 
 anists maintain that the same species which yields balsam of 
 Peru furnishes the balsam of tolu. 
 
 Description. — ''A yellowish-brown, semifluid or nearly solid mass, becom- 
 ing more brittle when exposed to cold, transparent in thin layers, having an 
 agreeable odor, recalling that of vanilla, but distinct from it, and a mild 
 aromatic taste. Readily and completely soluble in alcohol." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note that it is brittle 
 
154 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 when cold, but can be readily molded with the hand ; odor, 
 taste. 
 
 Chief Constitttcnts. — Resin, containing benzoic acid and 
 cinnamic acid, free benzoic and cinnamic acids, little volatile 
 oil. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Flavor, stimulant, mainly in coughs ; 
 syrup of tolu furnishes a very popular vehicle for other 
 expectorants. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.5-2 gm. (8-30 gr.). 
 
 STYRAX.-Stotax. 
 
 A balsam prepared from the inner bark of Liquidambar 
 orientalis Miller (Nat. Ord. Hamamelacese). 
 Habitat. — Asia Minor. 
 
 Beseripiion. — "A semiliquid, gray, sticky, opaque ma.ss, depositing on 
 standing a heavier, dark-brown stratum ; transparent in thin layere, and 
 having an agreeable odor and a balsamic taste. Insoluble in water, but 
 completely soluble (with the exception of accidental impurities) in an 
 equal weight of warm alcohol." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note the consistence, color 
 of surface and of lower layers after standing ; alcohol dis- 
 solves out the storax, leaving impurities which may be 
 strained out. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Styrol, CgHg, benzoic and cinnamic 
 acids. Impurities amount to- 30 per cent, in many cases. 
 
 Therapeutic use and average dose like those of balsam of 
 Peru. 
 
 OLEORESINS. 
 
 Oleoresins resemble balsams, but may consist of volatile 
 oil and resin alone (natural oleoresins), or they may consist 
 of all the ether-soluble constituents of the drug from which 
 they are obtained (artificial oleoresins). 
 
 The following natural oleoresins are official : 
 Copaiba. Burgundy pitch. 
 
 Canada turpentine. Tar. 
 
 Turpentine. Oil of cade. 
 
 The following are not oificial : 
 
 Canada pitch. Elemi. Gurjun. 
 
COPAIBA. 155 
 
 COPAIBA. — Copaiba. — Balsam of Copaiba. 
 
 The oleoresin of" Copaiba Langsdorffii (Desfontaines) O. 
 Kuntze and of other species of Copaiba (Xat. Ord. Legumi- 
 nosse). 
 
 Habitat. — Brazil and the northern part of South America 
 yield the various oleoresins of copaiba recognized by the 
 Pharmacopceia. Obtained from the enormous lysigenous ducts 
 by boriug the trees. 
 
 Desci-iption.—" A transparent or translucent, more or less viscid, liquid, 
 of a pale-yellow to brownish-yellow color, having a peculiar, aromatic odor 
 and a bitter and acrid taste. When copaiba is heated, it should not evolve 
 the odor of turpentine." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note odor, color, taste. 
 Copaiba appearing in the urine may be mistaken for 
 albumen. 
 
 Adulteration. — Oil of turpentine (odor on warming), fixed 
 oils (insoluble in alcohol), gurjnn balsam (warmed to 130° C. 
 becomes permanently gelatinous). 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Oil of Copaiba (U. S. P.), Resin of 
 Copaiba (U. S. P.), copaivic and other acids, and bitter prin- 
 ciple. Oil of copaiba constitutes about 80 per cent, of Para 
 copaiba, the amount varying widely in the same and different 
 kinds (40 to 80 per cent, in some of the other Brazilian 
 kinds, and as low as 20 per cent, in Maracaibo). The last 
 most easily forms the mass of copaiba with magnesia. The 
 oil has a specific gravity of 0.890 to 0.910, increasing with 
 age, pale-yellow, characteristic odor, pungent and bitterish 
 taste. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in a cool 
 place. Resin of copaiba remains after distilling the oil of the 
 oleoresin; it is yellowish, brittle, has little odor, and 'taste 
 of copaiba (see page 370). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Urinary disinfectant, hence used in 
 gonorrhea. Since it is not known which of the principles is 
 responsible, but a:ll probably contributing, the oleoresin, 
 rather than the resin or oil, should be used. Also used as an 
 application to indolent ulcers for stimulating effect. 
 
 Average Dose. — 4-8 C.c. (2-4 dr.). 
 
156 DBUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 TEREBINTHINA CANADENSIS— Canada Turpentine— Canada 
 Balsam ; Balsam of Fir. 
 
 A liquid oleoresin obtained from Abies balsamea (Linn6) 
 Miller (Nat. Ord. Coniferae). 
 
 Habitat. — Canada and northern United States, obtained by 
 puncturing the oil receptacles in the bark. 
 
 Defci-iption. — " A yellowish or faintly greenish, transparent, viscid liquid 
 of an agreeable, terebinthinate odor, and a bitterish, slightly acrid taste." — 
 
 u. a P. 
 
 Study and desmnbe. Especially note the yellowish or 
 greenish color ; consistence ; slowly dries to a transparent 
 mass upon exposure. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, 30 per cent. ; resin, bit- 
 ter principle. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Mostly externally as stimulant. Much 
 used in microscopy for permanent mounting. 
 
 TEREBINTHINA.— Turpentine. 
 
 A concrete oleoresin obtained from Finns palustris Miller 
 and from other species of Pinus (Nat. Ord. Coniferfse). 
 
 Habitat. — The Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United 
 States, particularly in North Carolina. 
 
 Description. — "In yellowish, opaque, tough masses, brittle in the cold, 
 crumbly crystalline in the interior, of a terebinthinate odor and taste." — 
 
 u. s. p. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note that old oleoresin of 
 turpentine is quite brittle from evaporation of the volatile 
 oil ; in some ca.ses the fresh is nearly liquid. 
 
 Production. — Recesses are cut into the outer part of the 
 tree, in which the crude turpentine collects ; this is dipped 
 out and distilled in alembic stills ; a small amount is also 
 sent into the markets as the oleoresin. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Oil of turpentine (U. S. P.), 25 per 
 cent, (sometimes more) ; resin (U. S. P.), 70 per cent, or 
 more. The volatile oil evaporates spontaneously, leaving 
 the resin. Oil of turpentine, Cj^Hj^, is a thin liquid, color- 
 less, and of characteristic odor and taste, both increasing 
 upon exposure. Specific gravity, 0.855 to 0.870 j boils at 
 
FIX BURGUNDICA—PIX LIQUID A. 157 
 
 155° to 170° C. Reacts with explosive violence with iodiue 
 or bromine. It should be kept from exposure to air and 
 sunlight, as it becomes ozonized and resinous. Redn is the 
 residue left after distilling oil of turpentine from the oleo- 
 resin. It is of an amber color, hard, and brittle. Odor and 
 taste slightly terebinthinate. Specific gravity, 1.070 to 1.080. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Oleoresin of turpentine is but little em- 
 ployed in medicine, but is a strong stimulant and is used 
 externally in felons, etc. Oil of turpentine is used as an 
 inhalation in bronchial affections ; but for this purpose tere- 
 bene (prepared from oil of turpentine) is preferable. Exter- 
 nally it is much used as a counterirritant, undiluted or as an 
 addition to liniments. It is sometimes used like copaiba as 
 a urinary disinfectant. Ozonized, by long exposure to air 
 aud light, it is useful as an antidote in phosphorus-poisoning. 
 Resin is very important pharmaceutically as a base for oint- 
 ments, cerates, and plasters. Its medicinal use depends upon 
 the little volatile oil which it usually contains (see p. 327). 
 
 FIX BURGUNDICA.-Borgandy Pitch. 
 
 The prepared resinous exudation of Abies excelsa Poiret 
 (Nat. Ord. Coniferse). 
 
 Habitat. — Mountainous regions of southern Europe. 
 
 Description. — " Hard, yet gradually taking the form of the vessel in 
 which it is kept ; brittle, with a shining, conchoidal fracture, opaque or 
 translucent, reddish-brown or yellowish-brown, odor agreeably terebinthi- 
 nate ; taste aromatic, sweetish, not bitter." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil and resin, amounts vari- 
 able. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Resembles turpentine and used as a 
 plaster base. 
 
 FIX LIQUIDA.-Tar. 
 
 An empyreumatic oleoresin obtained by the destructive 
 distillation of the wood of Pinus palustris Miller and of 
 other species of Pinus (Nat. Ord. Coniferse). 
 
 Description. — "Thick, viscid, semifluid, blackish-brown, heavier than 
 
lo8 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 water, transparent in thin la yere, becoming granular and opaque with age ; 
 odor ernpyreumatic, terebinthinate ; taste sharp, empyreumatie. 
 
 " Tar is slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, fixed or volatile oils, 
 and solution of potassium or sodium hydrate." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note : heavier thar. water, 
 odor, and taste. Birch tar, prepared from the wood of 
 Betuia alba, has the well-known odor of Russian leather. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Tar is an empyreumatie oleoresin con- 
 taining a great number of substances, including acetic and 
 other acids, acetone, methylic alcohol, pyrocatechin, naph- 
 thalin (the official naphthalin is obtained from coal-tar), creo- 
 sote, and carbolic acids. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Tar is a stimulant used in bronchial 
 affections as water or syrup. Also used as an antiseptic and 
 irritant in more concentrated form in skin-diseases, and is 
 an insecticide. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.3-1.5 gm. (6-26 gr.). Externally in 
 ointment or plaster. 
 
 OLEUM CADINUM.-OiI of Cade.— Oleum Joniperi Empyreomaticum. 
 
 A product of the dry distillation of the wood of Juniperus 
 Oxycedrus Linne (Nat. Ord. Coniferas). 
 
 Habitat. — The Juniperus Oxycedrus is indigenous to the 
 Mediterranean basin. Though official under the name of oil, 
 this product closely resembles tar. 
 
 Description. — " A brownish or dark-brown, clear, thick liquid, having a 
 tarry odor, and an empyreumatie, burning, somewhat bitter taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Phenols, resin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic use and average dose are the same as for tar. 
 
 CAMPHORS. 
 
 This term embraces a number of solid volatile substances 
 rot strictly characterized chemically. It includes the official 
 "camphor," having the nature of a ketone, menthol, that 
 of a secondary alcohol, and thymol, a phenol. 
 
CAMPHORA— THYMOL. 159 
 
 CAMPHORA.— Camphor. 
 
 (CioHieO = 151.66.) 
 
 A stearopten (having the nature of a ketone) obtained from 
 Cinnamomum Camphora (Linn6) Nees et Ebermaier (Nat. 
 Ord. Laurinese), and purified by sublimation. 
 
 Camphor should be kept in well-closed vessels in a cool 
 place. 
 
 Habitat. — China and Japan, largely from the island of 
 Formosa. 
 
 Description. — " White, translucent masses, of a tough consistence and a 
 crystalline structure, readily pulverizable in the presence of a little alcohol, 
 ether, or chloroform ; having a penetrating, characteristic odor and a pun- 
 gently aromatic taste. 
 
 " On exposure to the air it evaporates more or less rapidly at ordinary 
 temperatures, and, when moderately heated, it sublimes without leaving a 
 residue."— U. 8. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note that it is little lighter 
 than water ; readily sublimable ; burns with a sooty flame. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Antispasmodic and stimulant, diapho- 
 retic, carminative, and intestinal antiseptic. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.2—1.2 gm. (3—20 gr.), in spirit or water ; 
 externally in liniments. 
 
 THYMOL— ThymoL 
 
 (C,„H„0 = 149.66.) 
 
 A phenol occurring in the volatile oils of Thymus vulgaris 
 Linne, Monarda punctata Linn§ (Nat. Ord. Labiatge), and 
 Carum Ajowan (Roxburgh) Bentham et Hooker (Nat. Ord. 
 Umbelliferse). 
 
 It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles. 
 
 Obtained by fractional distillation. 
 
 Description. — " Large, colorless, translucent crystals of the hexagonal 
 system, having an aromatic, thyme-like odor, and a pungent, aromatic taste, 
 with a very slight caustic effect upon the lips." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Wholly volatile ; specific gravity, 1.069; melts at 50° to 
 
160 DRUGS (JT1IE& THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 51° C. Slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol 
 and most fat solvents, alkalies, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Antiseptic, mainly used externally. 
 
 MENTHOL— Menthol. 
 (C,oH,90H = 155.66). 
 
 A stearopten (having the character of a secondary alcohol) 
 obtained from the ofKcial oil of peppermint (from Mentha 
 piperita Smith), or from Japanese or Chinese oil of pepper- 
 mint (from Mentha arvensis Linu6, var. piperascens. Holmes, 
 and Mentha canadensis Linne, var. glabrata, Holmes ; Nat. 
 Ord. Labiatse). 
 
 Description. — " Colorless, acicular or prismatic crystals, having a strong 
 and pure odor of peppermint, and a warm, aromatic taste, followed by a sen- 
 sation of cold when air is drawn into the mouth." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note the cooling sensa- 
 tion when inhaled. 
 
 Menthol should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in a cool 
 place. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Locally as anesthetic in neuralgias. 
 Rubefacient. Not often internally. 
 
 VOLATILE OILS. 
 
 These are the odorous principles of flowers. Their char- 
 acteristics are sufficiently considered in Part III., page 328. 
 Most of the volatile oils have been considered in connection 
 with the drugs yielding them. Their individual considera- 
 tion belongs to the department of chemistry equally with that 
 of materia medica. 
 
 OLEUM CAJUPUTI .— Oil of Cajuptrt. 
 
 A volatile oil distilled from the leaves of Melaleuca Leu- 
 
 cadendron Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Myrtacese). 
 
 It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in a cool place. 
 
 Habitat. — East India Islands. 
 
 Description. — " A light, thin, bluish-green, or, after rectification, colorless 
 liquid, having a peculiar, agreeable, distinctly camphoraceous odor, and an 
 aromatic, bitterish taste." — U. S. P. 
 
FIXED OILS, FATS, AND WAXES. 161 
 
 Study and denciibe. 
 
 Chief Coiwtitumh. — Cajuputol and hydrocarbons of the 
 formula C;|,Hjg. A trace of copper is often present ; this 
 may be detected by shaking with dilute hydrochloric acid and 
 testing the acid layer with potassium ferrocyanid. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Eubefacient. Seldom internally. 
 
 OLEUM ROSAE — Oil of Rose. 
 
 A volatile oil distilled from the fresh flowers of Rosa 
 damascena Miller (Nat. Ord. Rosacese). 
 
 It should be kept in well-stoppered vials, in a cool place, 
 protected from light. When dispensed, it should be com- 
 pletely liquefied by warming, if necessary, and well mixed by 
 agitation. 
 
 Habitat. — From roses cultivated in the Balkan Mountains. 
 
 DescHption. — '' A pale yellowish, transparent liquid, having the strong, 
 fragrant odor of rose, and a raild, slightly sweetish taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. (See U. S. P. for tests for purity.) 
 Oiief Constituents. — Volatile oil and a stearopten. 
 Therapeutic Use. — As perfume. 
 
 FIXED OILS, FATS, AND WAXES. 
 
 These may be properly grouped together, since they diifer 
 in consistence more than they do chemically. It has been 
 deemed expedient to consider some of them in connection with 
 the crude drugs from which they are obtained (almond, cas- 
 tor); a few are here considered individually. Some of the 
 unofficial are included in the table. 
 
 OLEUM AMYGDALAE EXPRESSUM. (See Almond.) 
 OLEUM OLIVAE.— Olive Oil. 
 A fixed oil expressed from the ripe fruit of Olea europsea 
 Linn6 (Nat. Ord. Oleacese). 
 
 It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles in a cool place. 
 Habitat. — The olive is' indigenous to Asia and southern 
 Europe, most of the olive oil of commerce coming from Italy 
 and Spain. 
 
 The best quality of oil, called virgin oil, is obtained by 
 n 
 
162 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 cold expression, while an inferior grade is gotten by mixing 
 the pressed cake from this with hot water and again express- 
 ing. A very poor quality is obtained by treatment with a 
 solvent such as carbon disulphid. Olive oil is very fre- 
 quently adulterated with cotton-seed oil. 
 
 Description. — " A pale-yellow or light greenish-yellow, oily liquid, having 
 a slight, peculiar odor, and a nutty, oleaginous "taste, with a faintly acrid 
 after-taste."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Besides olein, the liquid portion, it 
 contains palinitin, cholesterin, etc. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — It is principally used in cooking, also as 
 laxative and emollient ; externally in liniments. 
 
 OLEUiW MORRHUAE— Cod-liver Oil— Oleum Jecoris Aselli. 
 
 A fixed oil obtained from the fresh livers of Gadus Mor- 
 rhuse Linn§ and of other species of Gadus (class Pisces ; 
 order Teleostia ; family Gadida). 
 
 It should be kept in well-stoppered and perfectly dry bot- 
 tles. 
 
 Habitat. — North Atlantic Ocean. Obtained on the Nor- 
 wegian and on the Newfoundland coasts. 
 
 Description. — " A pale-yellow, thin oily liquid, having a peculiar, slightly 
 fishy, but not rancid odor, and a bland, slightly fishy taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Olein, with little palmitin and stearin, 
 with traces of bromids, iodids, cholesterin, and alkaloids. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Demulcent, nutritive in wasting dis- 
 eases. 
 
 Average Dose. — 4-16 Co. (1-4 fl. dr.). 
 
 ADEPS LANAE HYDROSUS— Hydrous Wool-fat. 
 
 The purified fat of the wool of sheep (Ovis Aries Linn6 ; 
 class Mammalia ; order Ruminantia), mixed with not more 
 than 30 per cent, of water. 
 
 Description. — " A yellowish-white or nearly white, ointment-like mass, 
 having a faint peculiar odor. Insoluble in watei-, hut miscible with twice 
 its weight of the latter without losing its ointment-like character. With 
 ether or chloroform it yields turbid solutions which are neutral to litmus- 
 paper." — U, S. P. 
 
ADEPS-SEVUM. ] 63 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note that it is insoluble in 
 water, and forms a turbid mixture with ether or chloroform. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Consists for the most part of fatty 
 acids combined with cholesterin instead of with glycerin. It 
 can be mixed with a large amount of water (see Part III., 
 p. 337). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — As an emollient and ointment base. 
 
 ADEPS.— Lard. 
 
 The prepared internal fat of the abdomen of the pig, Sus 
 Scrofa Linn6 (class Mammalia ; order Pachydermata), puri- 
 fied by washing with water, melting, and straining. 
 
 Lard should be kept in well-closed vessels, impervious to 
 fat, and in a cool place. 
 
 Habitat, — The hog has been domesticated in many coun- 
 tries. 
 
 Description. — " A soft wljite, unctuous solid, having a faint odor, free 
 from rancidity, and a bland taste. Insoluble in water ; very slightly soluble 
 in alcohol ; readily soluble in ether, chlorofoiTn, carbon disulphid, or ben- 
 zin."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Olein, palmitin, and stearin. 
 
 Oleum Adipis (U. S. P.) is obtained by cooling the lard to 
 low temperature and expressing, whereby a much larger pro- 
 portion of the liquid portion, olein, and correspondingly 
 smaller portions of the solids, palmitin and stearin, are 
 obtained. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Lard and lard oil are mainly useful as 
 ointment bases. 
 
 SEVUM.— Suet.— Mutton Suet. 
 
 The internal fat of the abdomen of sheep, Ovis Aries Linn6 
 (class Mammalia ; order Ruminantia), purified by melting 
 and straining). 
 
 Suet should be kept in well-closed vessels, impervious to 
 fat. It should not be used after it has become rancid. 
 
 Habitat. — Domesticated in many regions. 
 
164 DRUGS OTHER THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 Descriplion. — " A white solid fat, nearly inodorous, and having a bland 
 taste when fresh, but becoming rancid on prolonged exposure to the air." — 
 U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Mostly stearin and palmitin, little 
 olein. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Used in cerates. 
 
 GET ACEUM— Spermaceti. 
 
 A peculiar, concrete, fatty substance, obtained from Phy- 
 seter macrocephalus Linn6 (class Mammalia ; order Cetacea). 
 
 Habitat. — The sperm-whale abounds in the Pacific and 
 Indian Oceans. The fat from the head is boiled, and when 
 cooled, spermaceti crystallizes ; remaining traces of oil are 
 removed by expression. It is then purified. 
 
 Description. — " White, somewhat translucent, slightly unctuous masses of 
 a scaly-crystalline fracture and a pearly luster ; odorless, and having a bland, 
 mild taste. It becomes yellowish and rancid by exposure to air." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Mostly cetyl palmitate. On saponi- 
 fication spermaceti yields a monobasic alcohol, cetyl alcohol, 
 CigHgPH, instead of glycerin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Used in ointments and cerates. 
 
 CERA FLA VA.— Yellow Wax. 
 
 A peculiar, concrete substance, prepared by Apis Mel- 
 lifica Linng (class Insecta ; order Hymenoptera). 
 
 The honey is obtained from the comb, which is then melted 
 in water. White wax is prepared by exposing thin layers to 
 sunlight. 
 
 Description. — " A yellowish to brownish-yellow solid, having an agreeable, 
 honey-like odor, and a faint, balsamic taste." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Often adulterated (see Part III., p. 334). 
 Chief Constituent.'i. — Cerin, C^yHg^Oj, 15 per cent.; myricin 
 (myricyl palmitate), 80 per cent. 
 
 Tlierapeutic Use. — In ointments, cerates, and plasters. 
 
CELLULAR DRUGS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. lOo 
 
 CELLULAR DRUGS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN. 
 
 CANTHARIS.— Cantharides.-Spanish FUes. 
 
 Cantharis vesicatoria De Geer (class Insecta ; order Cole- 
 optera). 
 
 Cantharides should be thoroughly dried at a temperature 
 not exceeduig 40° C. (104° F.), and kept in well-closed ves- 
 sels). 
 
 Habitat. — Spain and other parts of southern Europe ; 
 Russia. They are collected by shaking the trees upon which 
 they feed, mostly belonging to the Oleacese and Caprifoliacese, 
 in the early morning, and catching the insects as they fall, 
 upon sheets. They are killed by exposure to the vapors of 
 boiling dilute vinegar or plunged into the vinegar and quickly 
 dried. 
 
 Description. — "About 25 mm. long and 6 mm. broad ; flattish-cylindric, 
 with filiform antennae, black in the upper part, and with long wing-cases and 
 ample, membiunous, transparent, brownish wings; elsewhere of a shining, 
 coppery-green color. The powder is grayish-brown, and contains green, 
 shining particles. Odor strong and disagreeable ; taste slight, afterward 
 acrid."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. Especially note the green wing cases. 
 
 Mylabris cichorii has transverse, orange-colored bands. 
 Cantharis vittata has longitudinal stripes. They both possess 
 vesicating powers, equal, or nearly so, to that of the official 
 cantharides. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Cantharidin (the vesicating principle), 
 0.7 to 0.9 per cent. ; a gum, fixed oil, chlorophyll. Pure 
 cantharidin is volatile, slightly soluble in the usual solvents, 
 except chloroform, and alkalies ; with the latter it forms 
 cantharidates, but water and alcohol extract it from the insect, 
 in which it exists in a more soluble combination. It is some- 
 times difficult to obtain crystallized cantharidin from old 
 cantharides (see p. 360). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — While cantharides possesses aphrodisiac 
 properties, it is almost exclusively employed for its vesicating 
 action. It is an acrid poison. Antidote., mucilaginous de- 
 mulcents, but not fixed oils. 
 
166 DRUGS OTHER 'THAN PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 COCCUS.— Cochineal. 
 
 The dried female of Coccus cacti Linn6 (class Insecta ; 
 order Hemiptera). 
 
 Habitat. — Mexico, Central America, and probably West 
 Indies, reared upon Nopalea coccinellifera and other species 
 of Nopalea. Cultivated. The females, which are said to be 
 several hundred times as numerous as the . males, increase 
 greatly in size after fecundation ; they are removed from the 
 plant and killed by heat. 
 
 Descnption. — ''About 5 mm. long; of a purplish-gray or pmplish-black 
 color ; somewhat oblong and angular in outline ; flat or concave beneath ; 
 convex above ; transveraely wrinkled, easily pulverizable, yielding a dark- 
 red powder. Odor faint ; taste slightly bitterish. 
 
 " On macerating cochineal in water it swells up, but no insoluble powder 
 should be separated." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Adulteration. — Inorganic salts (increase of ash) fall to 
 bottom when insects are placed in water. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Carminic acid, 1 per cent. ; wax and 
 fat, 20 per cent. Not over 5 per cent, of ash, which is 
 unduly high, is permitted by the United States Pharmacopoeia 
 (see Part III., p. 320). 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Of little medicinal value; pharmaceu- 
 tically as a coloring-matter. 
 
 OVUM (Unofficial). 
 
 Egg of Gallus Bankiva, var. Domestica Temminck (class 
 Aves ; order Gallinse). 
 
 The shell is antacid, containing calcium carbonate and 
 phosphate. The white contains about 12 per cent, of albu- 
 min. The yolk (official) contains vitellin (resembling casein), 
 16 per cent., and salts, used in glycerite of yolk of egg. 
 
 ICHTHYOCOLLA. -Isinglass. 
 
 The swimming-bladder of Acipenser Huso Linn6 and of 
 other species of Acipenser (class Pisces ; order Sturiones). 
 Habitat. — Caspian and Black Sea, Volga and other rivers. 
 
 Description. — " In separate sheets, sometimes rolled, of a horny or pearly 
 appearance ; whitish or yellowish, semitransparent, iridescent, inodorous, 
 
ANIMAL SECRETIONS AND EXCRETIONS. 167 
 
 insipid ; almost entirely soluble in boiling water and in boiling diluted 
 alcohol. 
 
 " A solution of isinglass in 24 parts of boiling water forms, on cooling, a 
 transparent jelly."— U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Numerous forms of gelatine, or isinglass, are found in 
 commerce. The best Eus.sian isinglass is known as "long 
 staple," from the size and shape of the swim-bladders, which 
 have been simply cut open, washed, and dried. American 
 isinglass is made in New England, and is found in thin rib- 
 bons of considerable length. Chinese and Japanese isinglass 
 are prepared from species of Algse. Much of the commercial 
 gelatine is made from bones, skin, and tendons of cattle. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Gelatin and about 0.5 per cent, of 
 ash. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Protective, used in plasters. 
 
 ANIMAL SECRETIONS AND EXCRETIONS. 
 
 MOSCHUS.-Musfc. 
 
 The dried secretion from the preputial follicles of Moschus 
 moschiferus Linn6 (class Mammalia ; order Ruminantia). 
 
 Habitat. — The musk deer inhabits the mountains of north- 
 ern India, Thibet, and is also found in Siberia. 
 
 Description. — " In irregular, crumbly, somewhat unctuous grains, dark 
 reddish-brown, having a peculiar penetrating and persistent odor and a 
 bitterish taste. It is contained in oval or roundish sacs, about 4 to 5 cm. 
 in diameter, on one side invested with a smoothish membrane, on the other 
 side covered with stiff, appressed, grayish haire, concentrically ari-anged 
 around two orifices near the center." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chinese or Tonquin musk commands the highest price. 
 Numerous adulterations and sophistications are practised ; in- 
 organic matter, sand, lead, etc., are added ; wholly artificial 
 (except for a little genuine to give odor), and consisting of 
 dried blood mainly (best detected microscopically). Partly 
 exhausted musk is often sold. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Ammonia, an acid, cholesterin, fat, 
 and wax. The principle to which it owes its odor is not 
 known. 
 
168 ANIMAL SECRETIONS AND EXCRETIONS. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Stimulant, aphrodisiac. Very little 
 used medicinally. Mainly in perfumery. 
 Average Dose. — 0.06-0.6 gm. (1-10 gr.). 
 
 PEPSINUM.— Pepsin. 
 
 A proteolytic ferment or enzyme obtained from the glandu- 
 lar layer of fresh stomachs of healthy pigs, and capable of 
 digesting not less than 3000 times its own weight of freshly 
 coagulated and disintegrated egg-albumen when tested by 
 the process given in the Pharmacopoeia. 
 
 If it is desired to use a diluent for reducing pepsin of a 
 higher digestive power to that required by the Pharmacopoeia, 
 sugar of milk should be employed for this purpose. 
 
 Obtained by macerating the cut and finely chopped mucous 
 membrane in hydrochloric acid, straining and clarified by 
 standing. From the clear liquid the pepsin is precipitated 
 with sodium chlorid ; the pepsin rises and is skimmed off 
 and purified by redissolving and precipitating. 
 
 Description. — " A fine, white, or yellowish- white, amorphous powder, or 
 thin, pale-yellow or yellowish, transparent or translucent grains or scales, 
 free from any oflensive odor, and having a mildly acidulous or slightly 
 saline taste, usually followed by a suggestion of bitterness. It slowly attracts 
 moisture when exposed to the air." — U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Cliief Constituent. — The true proteolytic (digesting) fer- 
 ment of pepsin is not known ; it seems to be present in very 
 small amounts. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — As an aid to digestion. For the solu- 
 tion of diphtheritic or croupous membranes. 
 
 Average Dose. — 0.06—0.3 gm. (1-5 gr.) of the pure pepsin. 
 
 PANCREATINUM.— Pancreatin. 
 A mixture of the enzymes naturally existing in the pan- 
 creas of warm-blooded animals, usually obtained from the 
 fresh pancreas of the hog (Sus scrofa Linn6 ; class Mam- 
 malia ; order Pachydermata). 
 
 Description. — " A yellowish, yellowish-white, or grayish, amorphous 
 powder, odorless, or having a faint, peculiar, not unpleasant odor, and a 
 somewhat meat-like taste," — U. S. P. 
 
THYROWUM SICCUM. 169 
 
 Study and describe. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — There are present in the pancreatic 
 juice and in the official pancreatin several distinct ferments, 
 including trypsin, which acts upon albuminous substances in 
 an alkaline medium, converting them into peptones (a form 
 of proteid resulting from digestion) ; arajlopsin, which con- 
 verts gelatinized starch into sugar (maltose) ; steapsin, which 
 separates fats into their component acids and glycerin. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — As an aid to intestinal digestion. For 
 peptonizing milk (see U. S. P. test below). Trypsin has 
 been used to digest the membrane in diphtheria and mem- 
 branous croup. 
 
 Avemge Dose. — 0.3—1 gm. (5—15 gr.). 
 
 Test. — " If there be added to 100 C.c. of tepid water 
 contained in a flask 0.28 gm. of pancreatin and 1.5 gm. of 
 sodium bicarbonate, and afterward 400 C.c. of fresh cow's 
 milk previously heated to 38° C. (100.4° F.), and if this 
 mixture be maintained at the same temperature for thirty 
 minutes, the milk should be so completely peptonized that if 
 a small portion of it be transferred to a test-tube and mixed 
 with some nitric acid, no coagulation should occur." — U. S. P. 
 
 THYROIDUM SICCUM (Unofficial). 
 
 The gland found in the neck of the sheep, dried and pow- 
 dered. 
 
 Description. — Slightly brownish powder, odor and taste meat-like, but 
 free from putridity ; deteriorates upon exposure. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Thyroiodin or iodothyrin constitutes 
 the active principle ; it contains iodin, Oswald having 
 prepared an iodothyrin containing 14 per cent. Commercial 
 iodothyrin contains 0.03 per cent, of iodin. (The thyroiodin 
 does not exist in the gland as such, but combined with a 
 proteid. 
 
 Therapeutic Use. — Thyroid or iodothyrin is used after the 
 removal of that gland or in cases where its action is defective. 
 It has been employed in certain forms of goiter, in obesity, 
 and in the condition known as cretinism. 
 
 Average dose of the dried gland, 0.3—0.6 gm. (5—10 gr.). 
 
170 ANIMAL SECRETIONS AND EXCRETIONS. 
 
 SUPRARENAL (Unoffidal). 
 
 The dried glands may be macerated in glycerin and the 
 resulting glycerin extract sterilized by heat, but this is of 
 very uncertain strength. Preparations of the active prin- 
 ciple under various trade names — adrenalin, suprarenin, and 
 epinephrin — are found upon the market. The active con- 
 stituent is an alkaloid possessing the characters of alkaloids 
 in general, but not precipitating with many of their precipi- 
 tants. It is not aifected by boiling, but its solutions are said 
 readily to decompose upon exposure to the air. 
 
 Tlierapeutic Use. — Suprarenal extract is useful whenever it 
 becomes necessary to secure a quick rise of blood-pressure, 
 as in shock. Its effects are temporary, and since it is effec- 
 tive (for this purpose) only when injected intravenously, it is 
 useful to tide over a temporary depression, but not in chronic 
 heart affections. It is used locally in the nose and throat in 
 inflammation of the mucous membranes (colds) and as a 
 hemostatic. 
 
 Average Dose. — Considerable amounts of a solution of 1 
 part of the active principle in 100,000 parts of water are 
 employed. Stronger solutions are employed locally as vaso- 
 constrictors. 
 
 FEL BOVIS.— OxgalL— Fel Taari. 
 
 The fresh bile of Bos Taurus Linn6 (class Mammalia; 
 order Ruminantia). 
 
 Description. — " A browish-green or dark green, somewhat viscid liquid, 
 having a peculiar, unpleasant odor, and a disagreeable, bitter taste." — 
 
 u. a P. 
 
 Especially note the greenish color and bitter taste. 
 
 Chief Constituents. — Water, 85 per cent. ; solids, 10 per 
 cent. ; consisting of mucin, bile salts and pigments, and 
 cholesterine. Evaporated to the consistence of an extract, it 
 constitutes inspissated bile. 
 
 Thefapeutic Use. — Laxative and cholagogue ; but little 
 used medicinally. 
 
 Average dose of the inspissated, 0.3—1 gm. (5—15 gr.). 
 
ANTITOXINS- VACCINE VIRUS. 171 
 
 ANTITOXINS. 
 
 These are substances generated in the serum of animals 
 infected with certain diseases, the particular antitoxin gene- 
 rated in a given case being specific, or neutralizing the toxin 
 found in the blood during that disease. Thus a horse inocu- 
 lated with the toxin of diphtheria bacilli develops in its 
 serum an antitoxin for diphtheria toxin. The disease known 
 as diphtheria being the result of the presence of this toxin 
 in the blood, it follows, if the toxin can be destroyed as soon 
 as generated, the patient is saved from the attack. 
 
 Not precisely similar, but analogous to this, would be the 
 case if we could put into the blood a harmless substance 
 capable of instantly destroying strychnine ; the person so 
 treated would then escape injury from an ordinarily fatal 
 dose of strychnine. 
 
 The strength of antitoxins is measured in immunity units, 
 an immunity unit meaning " the times that quantity of anti- 
 toxin which will completely protect a two hundred and fifty 
 gram guinea-pig against ten times the least fatal dose of the 
 corresponding toxin." 
 
 Antitoxin, or, correctly, antitoxic serum, is, like the ordi- 
 nary serum of blood, a slightly turbid liquid, without odor. 
 It must be preserved in a cool place and kept carefully sealed 
 to prevent contamination. The latest date at which the 
 serum may be used is usually marked upon the label by the 
 manufacturer. 
 
 Diphtheria, pneumonia, tetanus, snake-bite, and bubonic- 
 plague antitoxins are now prepared. Antitoxins must be 
 injected subcutaneously, since they are destroyed in the 
 stomach. 
 
 VACCINE VIRUS (Unofficial). 
 
 This is a virus obtained from the sores upon a heifer after 
 inoculation with vaccinia. 
 
 Vaccine virus is a slightly turbid liquid, or when this is 
 spread upon ivory points and dried, it forms a thin glaze or 
 coating. It is used by scarifying the skin and rubbing the 
 moistened point upon the scarified surface or the liquid 
 virus is placed upon it. It is now usually sold in sealed 
 
172 
 
 ANIMAL SECRETIONS AND EXCRETIONS. 
 
 capillary glass tubes, each tube coutaiuing enough for one 
 inoculation. 
 
 Vaccine virus confers immunity against small-pox for a 
 variable length of time (-4 to 10 years). Formerly the virus 
 was often taken from the vaccination sores upon human 
 beings, but this is no longer practised by physicians. 
 
 Virus should be kept in a cool place, carefully protected 
 against infection. 
 
 TABLE OF UNOFFICIAL EXTRACTS AND INSPISSATED 
 
 JUICES. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Curara 
 
 South 
 
 Curarine. 
 
 Mostly in lab- 
 
 
 (Stryeliuos Sp.). 
 
 America. 
 
 
 oratory ex- 
 periments. 
 Astringent. 
 
 
 Eucalypti Gummi (Bed 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 2 gm. (.30 gr.). 
 
 Gum) 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Eucalyptus Sp.). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gutta-pereba 
 
 South- 
 
 Gutta resins. 
 
 Protective. 
 
 
 (Isonandra G.). 
 
 eastern 
 Asia. 
 
 
 
 
 Monesia 
 
 South 
 
 Tannin. 
 
 Astringent. 
 
 2gm. (30gr.). 
 
 (Chrysophyllum 
 
 America. 
 
 
 
 
 glyciphloeum). 
 
 
 
 
 
 SACCHARINE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Saecharum Uyeum (Glu- 
 
 
 CsHioOe. 
 
 Mostly in 
 
 
 cose) 
 
 
 
 cheap can- 
 
 
 (from corn-starch). 
 
 
 
 dies. 
 
 
 Syrupus Fuscus 
 
 
 Impure syrup. 
 
 As food and 
 
 
 (Molasses) 
 
 
 
 confections. 
 
 
 (residue of cane- 
 
 
 
 
 
 sugar manufacture). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GUM-RESINS. 
 
 
 
 Bdellium 
 
 Orient. 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 In plasters. 
 
 
 (Commiphora Sp.). 
 
 
 gum-resin. 
 
 
 
 Euphorbium 
 
 Northern 
 
 Gum-resin. 
 
 Drastic vesi- 
 
 Externally. 
 
 (E. resinifera). 
 
 Africa. 
 
 
 cant. 
 
 
 Galbanum 
 
 Western 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Expectorant, 
 
 2 gm. (30 gr.) 
 
 (Ferula Sp.). 
 
 Asia. 
 
 gum-resin. 
 
 antispas- ;, 
 modic. 
 Stimulant. In 
 
 
 Olibanum (Frankin- 
 
 South- 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 
 cense) 
 
 western 
 
 gum-resin. 
 
 plasters and 
 
 
 (Boswellia Sp ). 
 
 Asia. 
 
 
 as incense. 
 
 
 Opopanax 
 
 Southern 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Little used 
 
 
 (0. chironium). 
 
 Europe. 
 
 gum-resin. 
 
 medicinally. 
 
 
 Sagapenum 
 
 Persia. 
 
 Volatile oil. 
 
 Little used 
 
 
 (unknown). 
 
 
 gum-resin. 
 
 medicinally. 
 
 
LL\ OFFICIAL EXTRACTS AND INSPISSATED JUICES. 173 
 
 RESINS. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Where 
 
 Chief 
 
 Therapeutic 
 
 Dose. 
 
 Found. 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 Use. 
 
 Copal 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Eesins. 
 
 In varnish. 
 
 
 (Fossil). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dammara 
 
 Islands of 
 
 Resins. 
 
 Varnish. 
 
 
 (AgathisSp.). 
 
 Indian 
 Ocean. 
 
 
 
 
 Draconis Eesina 
 
 Borneo, 
 
 Eesins, ben- 
 
 Plasters. 
 
 
 (Dragon's Blood) 
 
 Samatra. 
 
 zoic acid. 
 
 
 
 (Calamus Draco). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lacca (Lac) 
 
 East 
 
 Eesins, color- 
 
 Varnish and 
 
 
 (from Euphorbiaceae 
 
 Indies. 
 
 ing-matter. 
 
 sealing-wax. 
 
 
 and Artocarpeae). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sandaraca 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Eesins. 
 
 Varnish, 
 
 
 iCallitris quadri- 
 valis) . 
 
 
 
 stimulant. 
 
 
 
 BALSAM. 
 
 
 
 Liquidambar 
 
 United 
 
 Cinnamic acid. 
 
 Expectorant. 
 
 ■2 gm. (SO gr.). 
 
 (L. Slyraciflua). 
 
 States. 
 
 volatile oil, 
 resin. 
 
 
 
 
 OLEORESINS. 
 
 
 
 Plx Canadensis (Hem- 
 
 North 
 
 
 Stimulant in 
 
 
 lock Pitch) 
 
 America. 
 
 
 plasters. 
 
 
 (Tsugac). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elemi 
 
 Philip- 
 
 
 Stimulant 
 
 
 (uncertain). 
 
 pines. 
 
 
 externally. 
 
 
 Gurjun (Gurjuu Bal- 
 
 South- 
 
 
 Similar to 
 
 
 sam) 
 
 eastern 
 
 
 copaiba. 
 
 
 (Dipterocarpus tur- 
 
 Asia. 
 
 
 
 
 binatus). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FIXED OILS AND FAT 
 
 S. 
 
 
 Oleum Bubulum 
 
 Domesti- 
 
 Liquid and 
 
 Externally. 
 
 
 (Neat's foot oil) 
 
 cated. 
 
 solid fats. 
 
 
 
 (from neat cattle). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oleum Cocos (Cocoanut) 
 
 Tropics. 
 
 Glycerids of 
 
 Mainly for 
 
 
 oil) (Cocos nucifera). 
 
 
 numerous 
 acids. 
 
 soap, used 
 with "hard" 
 water. 
 
 
 Oleum Myristicae Ex- 
 
 Culti- 
 
 Volatile oil, 
 
 Carminative, 
 
 Igm. (15 gr.) 
 
 pressum (expressed 
 
 vated. 
 
 fat myristin 
 
 externally. 
 
 
 oil of nutmeg) 
 
 
 
 
 
 (M. fragrans). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oleum Palmse 
 
 Guinea, Palmitin. 
 
 Ointments. 
 
 
 (Elseis guineensis). 
 
 culti- 
 vated. 
 
 
 
PART II. 
 PLANT HISTOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIC 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 With the constantly increasing importance of the micro- 
 scope in the examination of vegetable drugs, and particularly 
 that of powders, it becomes absolutely necessary that the stu- 
 dent of pharmacy should have an understanding of vegetable 
 histology. There are many voluminous works treating of mi- 
 crotechnic and the structure of plants, but, owing to the lim- 
 ited time which may be devoted to the subject in schools of 
 pharmacy, these larger works are not suitable for text-books. 
 It is with the hope of supplying an elementary text-book that 
 this section has been compiled, with special reference to the 
 needs of students of pharmacy. The directions which are 
 given are concise and simple, but sufficient to enable the 
 student to obtain a working knowledge of vegetable histology. 
 
 Those who wish to pursue the subject further will find the 
 works of Sachs, Zimmerman, Strassburger, Frank, and more 
 especially the Angewand.ete Pflanzenanatomie, of Tschirch, 
 as also Kraemer's Botany and Pharmacognosy, of great 
 assistance. 
 
 The student is cautioned against the error of attempting to 
 use the microscope to the exclusion of other methods, which 
 for some purposes are to be preferred ; but to use it in con- 
 nection with other measures for the identification of crude 
 drugs and powders, sometimes for estimating their approxi- 
 mate value, for detecting substitutions, and, to a certain 
 extent, their reactions. 
 
 174 
 
lyTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIC. 175 
 
 In addition to these purposes microscopy aifords much 
 pleasure in the study of the manifold beauties of plant and 
 other structures ; at the same time, by giving the student an 
 added interest in the drugs he handles, it enables him to 
 acquire other necessary knowledge of them with far greater 
 ease than is usually possible to the one who sees in his drugs 
 only so many articles of which he must, perforce, learn certain 
 facts. 
 
 In each of the practical exercises at the beginning of the 
 course it has been found better to supply the student with 
 material prepared for that particular exercise, thus, in sec- 
 tioning, he should have a drug just right for sectioning, since 
 bis own preparation may be too hard or too soft. Then he 
 should be supplied with sections already cut of proper thin- 
 ness for the exercise of bleaching. The reason for this being 
 that the beginner is apt to get better results in each exercise 
 if he starts right than if he must depend upon the faulty 
 products of previous experiments. When his skill is suf- 
 ficient to carry out a series of operations he should, of course, 
 be exercised in doing so. 
 
 As a rule, official English names of drugs are used ; there- 
 fore, aspidosperma, ipecac, etc., refer to that part of the plant 
 which is official ; thus aspidosperma means the bark of Aspi- 
 dosperma quebracho. In a few instances it has been deemed 
 expedient to give the botanic name instead of the official 
 English. 
 
 There is naturally some lack of agreement among authors 
 as to the significance of certain histologic terms, since some 
 will limit them more than will others, or a comprehensive 
 term of an older author will be restricted to certain ele- 
 ments by a later one. Various classifications of plant tis- 
 sues have been made ; that based upon the physiologic func- 
 tion being the more frequently employed, since it leads to 
 a readier understanding of plant life ; but tlie main fact 
 for pharmacists to know is the microscopic appearance of 
 a given drug, so that he may recognize it or detect a sub- 
 stitution or adulteration. Forms of cells are therefore con- 
 sidered primarily and function secondarily in the following 
 pages. 
 
176 JNTMODUCTTOX AXD GENERAL TECHNIC. 
 
 THE MICROSCOPE. 
 
 While the study of vegetable histology may be said to 
 begin with a consideration of the cell, brief directions con- 
 cerning the use of the compound microscope will first be 
 
 Kack and pinion 
 for coarse ad- 
 justment. 
 
 Micrometer 
 screw for fine 
 adjustment. 
 
 Iris diaphragm 
 and Abb6 con- 
 denser. 
 
 Screw for focus- 
 ing condenser. 
 
 Pillar. 
 
 - Stand. 
 
 Fig. 1.— Microscope. 
 
 given, since we shall employ it throughout the work. The 
 accompanying diagram (Fig. 1) will enable the student to 
 learn the names of the various parts of the microscope, and 
 with these he should at once become thoroughly familiar. 
 
THE MICROSCOPE. 177 
 
 The author of a \'()luminous work upon plant anatomy ' 
 has said that the only apparatus necessary for this branch of 
 study are a compound microscope, some needles, a few small 
 dishes, a scalpel, and two good razors (one hollow ground, 
 for soft tissues, and one flat, for harder substances). The 
 microscope should be from a reliable manufacturer and tested 
 by a competent authority. It should, if possible, include a 
 good substage condenser and two objectives, giving magnifica- 
 tions of about 100 and 500 diameters respectively. 
 
 While those are the first essentials, we shall find occasion to 
 use a few other accessories, including reagents, etc., but the 
 fact remains that when one has a good microscope the other 
 expenses are trifling. 
 
 An ordinary table ^ provided with two or three small drawers 
 serves best for microscopic work ; it should be low enough to 
 enable the student to look down into the microscope while 
 seated without inclining the instrument. Upon the table, or 
 within easy reach, should "be a stand for reagents ; these 
 should be few, and kept in small containers, since it is desira- 
 ble to have only the essential articles upon the worktable, 
 those less frequently used and all reserve stock being kept in 
 a locker or other convenient place. 
 
 Objects are mounted upon glass "slides" 76 mm. long by 
 25 mm. wide, and covered with thin discs or cover-glasses. 
 
 ' Alexander Tsohii'ch, Angewandte PJUmzenanatomie. 
 
 ^ An ordinary table-top, sand-papered after planing, is given two coats of 
 the following solution, No. 1, applied hot, the second as soon as the first is 
 dry. This is followed by two coats of solution No. 2 ; this is allowed to dry 
 thoroughly (one to two days), sand-papered lightly, and a thin coat of raw 
 linseed oil is applied, rubbing thoroughly. The table is then washed with 
 soap and water. 
 
 Solution No. 1 : 
 
 Copper sulphate ... . . 1 part. 
 
 Potassium chlorate . . .... 1 " 
 
 Water 8 parts. 
 
 BoU for five minutes. 
 Solution No. 2 : 
 
 Anilin hydrochloi'ate 3 parts. 
 
 Water 20 " 
 
 or, 
 
 Anilin (liquid) 6 parts. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid 9 " 
 
 Water 50 " 
 
 X2 
 
178 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIC. 
 
 No. 2, circular, 18 mm. in diameter, will be most generally 
 useful. 
 
 The selection of the microscope must depend some- 
 what upon the means of the purchaser, but true economy 
 demands a good instrument, even at the cost of greater econ- 
 omy in accessories. For ordinary work the Continental BA 
 or AC Microscope, made by Bausch and Lomb, will prove 
 satisfactory for most purposes, but since the field of microscopy 
 is practically unlimited, the finer the microscope, the more com- 
 plete in its appointments, the greater will be its usefulness to 
 one skilled in its employment and the less to the unskilled. 
 The prospective purchaser will, therefore, be wise to consider 
 the extent to which he may reasonably expect to employ the 
 instrument and the sum he can afford to pay, and be guided 
 accordingly. Since this work is for beginners, the microscope 
 mentioned above will suffice. This has a range of magnifica- 
 tion from about 100 to 500 diameters. 
 
 Focusing. — A mounted section for this experiment is 
 furnished by the instructor. Having placed the section on 
 the slide directly over the center of the opening in the stage, 
 secure the slide with the spring clips, turn the mirror below 
 so that a pencil of light is thrown upward upon the section 
 and through the tube ; with the eye looking through the 
 tube, this shows as a flood of light replacing semidarkness. 
 Turn the low-power objective into position, and with the eye 
 at one side nearly on a level with the stage lower the tube by 
 means of the coarse adjustment until the front lens is about 
 one-eighth of an inch from the object; now, with the eye 
 looking into the microscope, raise the tube with the coarse 
 adjustment slowly until the object comes into view, then with 
 the fine adjustment focus more sharply upon the various parts 
 of the section. Never use the fine adjustment except when the 
 specimen is already in view. Should the section not come into 
 view when the objective has been raised a half-inch, the 
 process should be repeated. Never lower the tube with the 
 eye to the eye-piece, for fear of injury to the objective or to 
 the section. The use of the various sizes of diaphragm will 
 come with practice, transparent specimens requiring less light 
 than dark ones, high powers more than low. 
 
HISTOLOGIC TECHNIC. 179 
 
 Having carefully observed the specimen with the low 
 power, the tube is raised, the high-power objective placed in 
 position, and, with the eye to one side, the objective is brought 
 down until it almost touches the cover-glass ; then with the 
 eye at the ocular, focus upward with the fine adjustment. 
 Never focus downward while looking into the microscope. 
 
 Beginners invariably seek the greatest possible magnification, 
 but the lowest power should be used which will give an 
 intelligible presentation, since high magnification is at the cost 
 of clearness. 
 
 The student should remember that the use of the micro- 
 scope consists largely in the interpretation of what is seen, 
 and the capacity for this comes only with practice. He 
 should, therefore, begin by getting the best idea possible of 
 the object to be studied and strive to interpret correctly what 
 he sees ; for this purpose accurate descriptions with illustra- 
 tions and the use of a good simple microscope or magnifying- 
 glass will prove invaluable. 
 
 The substage condenser is often useful, but may be dis- 
 pensed with in the work given in this course. 
 
 A fiber of cotton or a human hair may be used for the 
 next exercise in focusing. Put a fragment an inch in length 
 upon the slide, add a drop of water, put the cover-glass upon 
 it, and examine first with the low power, then with the high. 
 A fiber of cotton appears as a twisted band with thickened 
 edges, but even this simple structure is not always apparent 
 to the beginner. By rotating the fine adjustment slowly 
 back and forth, various levels of the hair or fiber will be 
 brought successively more sharply into view. Keep both 
 eyes open when using the microscope. Draw the specimen 
 under observation. The first attempt may be unsatisfactory, 
 but improvement is sure to come with successive efforts. 
 
 HISTOLOGIC TECHNIC. 
 
 Softening or hardening tissues may be necessary 
 for section-cutting. Fresh succulent substances require little 
 preparation, but many roots, stems, and barks require soften- 
 ing ; for this purpose mixtures of water, alcohol, and glycerin 
 
180 
 
 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIC. 
 
 are useful. In general, hard substances, such as jalap, aco- 
 nite, and most of the barks, are best soaked for some weeks 
 in a mixture of equal parts of 70 per cent, alcohol and glyc- 
 erin ; belladouna, gentian, and such roots in dilute alcohol. 
 It must be borne in mind that various menstrua remove some 
 of the contents of the cells. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Let each student select a piece of drug 
 and put it into a one-ounce wide-mouthed bottle with the 
 appropriate menstruum, properly labeled, and examine it 
 from time to time to note whether its condition is suitable for 
 section-cutting or not. 
 
 A transverse section is one made across the organ, i. e., at 
 right angles to the direction of growth (Fig. 2, a). 
 
 Fig. 2.— Directions of section : (a) Transverse ; (6) longitudinal ; (c) tangential. 
 
 A longitudinal section is one made in the direction of 
 growth and may be radial or tangential. A radial longitudi- 
 nal section (Fig. 2, b) passes through the center and the cir- 
 cumference of the organ in a direction parallel to that of 
 its growth. A tangential section (Fig. 2, c) passes through 
 the outer portion only. It follows that these three forms of 
 sections must give one a view of all sides of cells. These 
 terms must be borne in mind, since they are constantly used, 
 a correct interpretation of cell structure often requiring 
 examination of the three aspects. 
 
 Section-cutting' is the process of cutting specimens into 
 slices suitable for examination. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — A specimen of aspidium, iris, or one 
 of the roots which has been softened will be furnished by the 
 
HISTOLOGIC TECHNIC. 181 
 
 instructor. Hold the specimen between the thumb and fore- 
 finger of the left hand, and having dropped as much alcohol 
 on the blade of the razor as it will hold, with the right hand 
 draw the blade from heel to toe, or push it in the reverse 
 direction, through the specimen, letting the forefinger support 
 and guide the blade. The forearms should rest against a 
 support. The section remains upon the blade, and should 
 be removed at once to alcohol or water to prevent air from 
 getting into the cells. 
 
 Very soft substances, such as the pulp of fresh leaves, 
 may be sectioned by placing them between pieces of pith or 
 cork. 
 
 It requires some practice for one to become expert in sec- 
 tion-cutting. In this connection it may be remarked that 
 microtomes are used when large numbers of thin sections are 
 to be made. 
 
 Bleacllitig' sections renders their structure more readily 
 discernible. Many tissues are so filled with 'cellular contents 
 or so colored as to render their examination difficult, and in 
 that case they require bleaching or clearing — i. e., rendering 
 them transparent. 
 
 These processes deprive the cells of certain contents, a fact 
 which must be borne in mind when examining for these con- 
 stituents. If the section is to be stained, it may be placed 
 in the dye after washing in water. (See p. 185.) Bleaching 
 does not affisct starch or calcium oxalate. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — A thin section of glycyrrhiza, aspid- 
 ium, or other drug furnished by the instructor is put into a 
 few cubic centimeters of solution of chlorinated soda for a 
 few moments, or until it is seen to become white ; it is then 
 quickly removed to clear water, and rinsed about for some 
 minutes to remove the bleaching agent and the gas evolved 
 in the process ; the latter often remains in the cells for some 
 time unless the sections are placed in alcohol or hot water. 
 Prolonged standing in alcohol will remove certain constitu- 
 ents, and boiling water removes starch. 
 
 It will be found that some students will have left their 
 sections too long in the bleaching fluid, with the result that 
 they have been partially dissolved ; in such cases the experi- 
 
182 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIO. 
 
 ment is repeated after diluting the solution with an equal 
 bulk of water. Examine the bleached sections at once, after 
 mounting in water, for gas-bubbles, and again after clearing 
 of gas. 
 
 Mounting' the specimen consists in placing it upon the 
 slide in a suitable way for examination. It may be a tem- 
 porary mount only, intended for immediate examination, or 
 it may be permanent, for preservation. 
 
 Temporary mounts are either dry, by simply placing a 
 specimen upon the slide, or made with water, glycerin, or oil. 
 
 Permanent dry mounts may be made by inclosing the speci- 
 men with a ring of asphalt varnish upon which the cover- 
 glass is laid ; this is useful in the case of crystals and objects 
 which would be injured by liquids. Permanevi wet mounts 
 are very much more commonly made in glycerin jelly or in 
 balsam, sometimes in glycerin by simply ringing the ordinary 
 glycerin mount with asphalt after removal of all excess of 
 glycerin. 
 
 Glycerin-jelly will be found by far the most useful and the 
 simplest in pharmacognosy. The mounts are usually good 
 for some years, and if ringed with asphalt or shellac varnish, 
 last for a considerable time. A specimen mounted in 
 glycerin-jelly may be remounted if, after several years, the 
 jelly has dried up. 
 
 Canada balsam dissolved in chloroform or xylol affords a 
 permanent mount, good for an indefinite number of years, 
 but it has the disadvantage of being more troublesome, and 
 that of rendering very thin sections nearly invisible. 
 
 Practical Exercises. — For Dry Permanent Mounts. — ^With a 
 camel's-hair brush put a ring of asphalt or shellac varnish in 
 the center of the slide, of such size that it will coincide with 
 the margin of a circular cover-glass. In the center of a 
 cover-glass put a small drop of alcoholic solution of salicylic 
 acid and allow the alcohol to evaporate, leaving crystals of 
 salicylic acid upon the cover-glass ; place this, specimen side 
 down, upon the ring, and see that the ring is everywhere in 
 contact with the glass, so that the cell is hermetically sealed. 
 
 For Glycerin-jelly Mount. — Drop with ' a medicine-dropper 
 a little melted but not too hot glycerin-jelly in the center of 
 
HISTOLOGIC TECHNIC. 183 
 
 the slide, avoiding air-bubbles. Put the specimen furnished 
 by instructor in water, and holding the cover-glass in a pair 
 of forceps, pass it under the specimen, at the same time 
 spreading the latter upon the cover by means of a needle or 
 camel' s-hair pencil ; lift the cover-glass, touch its edge to a 
 piece of filter-paper to absorb the excess of water, and place 
 the cover, specimen side down, upon the jelly ; warm gently 
 to melt the latter, but avoid too much heat ; the cover-glass 
 settles down as the jelly spreads out beneath it. If the right 
 amount of jelly was used, it will just fill the space beneath the 
 cover-glass ; any excess may be scraped off the following day. 
 
 Canada balsam mounts may be practised or simply dem- 
 onstrated by the instructor. If the specimen furnished has 
 been in water, place it in alcohol for some minutes to remove 
 the water, then in xylol or creosote to remove the alcohol, ' 
 and after a few minutes it may be mounted in the drop of 
 balsam placed upon the slide, the rest of the procedure being 
 similar to that for mounting in jelly ; after a day or so the 
 balsam hardens. If the section appears white or opaque, it 
 shows that water or alcohol remained in the section. 
 
 Mounted sections should be labeled with any data desired, 
 and may be conveniently stored in " Pillsbury " boxes. 
 
 Micrometry is the measuring of microscopic objects. 
 The unit of measurement is the micron (Greek micros = 
 small, minute, generally abbreviated to the Greek letter mu, /«), 
 which is the one-millionth part of a meter, or the one-thous- 
 andth part of a millimeter (^-g-^TS" i°^^)- ^^ ^^ often written 
 micromillimeter, but that term should be avoided. 
 
 Measurements are made by means of an ocular microm- 
 eter, which consists of a disk of glass upon which a gradu- 
 ated scale is ruled. This micrometer is placed inside of the 
 ocular, between the lenses. The value of these lines varies 
 with the magnification, hence with the objectives and with 
 the change of tube-length, but not with the change of ocular. 
 The micrometer must, therefore, be standardized for the con- 
 ditions under which it is to be used and a card kept at hand 
 showing the value of the lines under the several conditions. 
 Standardization requires the use of a stage micrometer and is 
 performed in the following manner : 
 
184 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TEOHNIG. 
 
 Place the ocular micrometer in position, note the tube 
 length, focus upon the stage micrometer, which has a gradu- 
 ated scale measuring six millimeters, divided into millimeters, 
 one space being divided by lines into tenths of a millimeter 
 (100 microns), and a space beyond this one is divided by 
 finer lines into hundredths of a millimeter (1 microns each). 
 When in focus, the lines upon the ocular micrometer appear 
 above or beneath those upon the stage micrometer. A com- 
 parison is made of the two scales, from which the value of 
 those upon the ocular is fixed. Example : A number 7 
 objective, 192 mm. tube length (with No. 2 ocular), shows 
 that ten of the finest lines on the stage micrometer (10 microns 
 each) correspond to 47 lines upon the ocular micrometer ; 
 since the ten lines equal 100 microns, it follows that the 47 
 lines of the ocular have the same value, or 2.127 microns 
 each (100 -^ 47 = 2.127). 
 
 The ocular micrometer may be standardized less accu- 
 rately, if the magnification is known, by placing a sheet of 
 paper upon a level, with the stage, when, with both eyes 
 open, the lines are seen as if upon the paper ; two of them 
 may be traced with a pencil and the actual distance measured 
 with a rule or tape. 
 
 Example : Twenty lines upon, the ocular appear upon the 
 paper to measure 18 mm. (No. 3 objective, No. 2 ocular, 
 192 mm. tube length) or one line upon ocular, to equal 0.9 
 mm. (18 H- 20 = 0.9). If we know that the magnification, 
 under above conditions, is 90 diameters, we have 0.9 mm., 
 or 900 microns, divided by 90, equal 10. The value, there- 
 fore, of a line upon the ocular micrometer above is 10 
 microns. 
 
 The above explanation may appear confusing to the begin- 
 ner, but in practice it will be found easy to follow and the 
 student should learn early to measure objects. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Standardize a micrometer for the tube 
 lengths given with degree of magnification found upon. card 
 accompanying microscope. Write out a card giving value 
 of lines with different tube lengths and different objectives. 
 Keep for future reference. If time is limited, the value of 
 the lines is given by the instructor. 
 
STAINING OF THE CELL-WALL. 185 
 
 Measure the diameter of isolated cells, fibers, or crystals 
 furnished by the instructoT. Measure some of the paren- 
 chyma cells in podophyllum or aspidium. 
 
 STAINING OF THE CELL- WALL. 
 
 Constant reference will be made to cellulose and its modi- 
 fications, cutin, suberin, and lignin, of which cell-walls are 
 composed. In order that the student may be able to identify 
 these readily a few simple methods of staining are given here. 
 The subject is treated somewhat less briefly under the sub- 
 ject of Reagents. (See p. 376.) 
 
 A cell-wall is said to be cutinized, suberized, or lignified 
 when cutin, suberin, or lignin is combined with its cellidose. 
 A cell-wall may be slightly or strongly lignified, containing 
 little or much lignin (walnut shell is strongly lignified — 65 
 per cent.). 
 
 I. Cellulose. — (Use a section of sassafras pith). Piit a 
 few cubic centimeters of iodin solution (No. 19 ^) into a watch- 
 glass and transfer the section to it for a few minutes ; then 
 remove it to sulphuric acid (No. 14). The walls are colored 
 purple. Put another section into chloro-iodid of zinc (No. 
 16); this also stains it purple. Repeat these experiments, 
 using sections of any official root, and note that all parts are 
 not colored alike. 
 
 3. IVignin,^ cutin, and suberin have certain staining prop- 
 erties in common. For lignin (or lignified tissue) use any 
 \voody substance, such as a common match-stick ; place in a 
 very little water, and add a drop of green anilin (No. 5) or 
 fuchsin (No. 5, a) ; if stirred about, the specimen rapidly 
 absorbs the color, and if too much has not been added, in a 
 few moments will leave the water colorless. (For a list of 
 reagents, staining fluids, and mounting media, with directions 
 for their use, see p. 375.) 
 
 Since the student will frequently find it necessary to sep- 
 
 ' See List of Eeagents, p. 375. 
 
 * Lignin contains a combination of unknown substances, and is not 
 merely an isomer of starch. It seems probable that a nitroso-compoiind of 
 an insoluble albumin derivative is responsible for some of its chemic prop- 
 erties. 
 
186 INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL TECHNIC. / 
 
 arate cells, the use of Schultze's maceration fluid wiji be given 
 at once. Into a small vial put h few cubic ceptimeters of 
 Schultze's maceration fluid (No. 23) and a longitudinal sec- 
 tion of any official bark or root (cinchona) ; after some hours 
 (or days) add a large excess of water, rinse, and mount in a 
 drop of water ; upon pressing upon the cover-glass with a 
 sliding motion or gently tapping the slide the cells are sepa- 
 rated. The process may be hastened by diluting the fluid 
 with a little water and boiling. 
 
 For cutin and suberin, which for the moment may be con- 
 sidered together, a thin section of common cork (bottle stop- 
 per) may be treated as for lignin. Cutinized, suberized, and 
 lignified tissues may usually be recognized in sections without 
 staining. 
 
 Lignified tissues may be stained with phloroglucin solution 
 (No. 21) and hydrochloric acid. Place the section in the 
 solution of phloroglucin until thoroughly permeated; then 
 apply a drop of hydrochloric acid; lignified tissue becomes 
 cherry red. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 THE CELL AND ITS CONTENTS. 
 
 All plants — from the invisible disease-germs to the gigan- 
 tic forest trees — are composed of microscopic units which 
 have somewhat the same relation to the entire plants as bricks 
 have to the building which they form. These " bricks " are, 
 however, endowed with life, at least in the early stages of 
 their existence. They have received the name of " cells," 
 because the most easily distinguishable specimens consist of 
 a sac whose walls resemble the cells in a honeycomb. The 
 name is, however, misleading in the light of our present 
 knowledge, for it would perhaps imply that the sac is the 
 really essential part of the cell. This is by no means the 
 case. Many cells may be found (especially in animals, which 
 are made up of cells, just as are plants) which do not contain 
 any visible cell-wall. The latter is formed by the cell-con- 
 tents, just as the shell of the snail is formed by the snail. 
 When the snail dies, the empty shell remains. As the plant- 
 cells age they also die, leaving behind the empty cell-wall. 
 This occurs also in drying, so that what is seen in ordinary 
 drugs is usually the shell, and it is this cell-wall which will 
 usually be meant by " cell " in this book. 
 
 The living and the really essential part of the cell is the 
 substance inclosed by the wall. It consists mainly of a 
 viscid, semifluid substance, rich in proteids, called protoplasm. 
 By careful observation, and particularly by the action of 
 reagents, it may be seen that it is not homogeneous, but that 
 it incloses a small, more or less globular body. This is 
 called the nucleus. Sometimes several of these are present. 
 The nucleus incloses, in its turn, one or more smaller bodies, 
 the nucleoli (singular nucleolus). That portion of the proto- 
 plasm which lies outside of the nucleus is called " cyto- 
 
 1S7 
 
188 THE CELL AND ITS CONTENTS. 
 
 plasm " ; the main structures of the cell are, therefore, from 
 within outward : nucleolus, nucleus, cytoplasm, cell-wall. 
 
 THE CELL-WALL. 
 
 Since we shall come to regard the wall as the cell, we may 
 consider it at once and then proceed with the protoplasm and 
 other cell-contents. The wall is developed from the outer 
 portion of the protoplasm through a transformation of some 
 of its substances into cellulose and other kindred matter. 
 Since its formation belongs rather to plant physiology, we 
 need not consider it further at this time. The wall of young 
 cells is composed of cellulose, which we may readily distin- 
 guish from its modifications, lignin and suberin, by its 
 remaining unstained by very dilute anilin solution. In fully 
 developed cells which have lost their protoplasm, becoming 
 what are termed permanent cells, the wall undergoes certain 
 further modifications, such as cutinization or suberization and 
 lignificatio'n. Directions have been given for staining (p. 
 185). Cellulose and its modifications will be considered 
 somewhat more in detail when we come to consider the cells 
 in which they occur. 
 
 CELL-CONTENTS. 
 
 The protoplasm or plasma is a slightly turbid mass, per- 
 haps an emulsion or containing a spongy network, and occur- 
 ring always in semiliquid form while actively functionating ; 
 at first it completely fills the cavity of the cell (if we under- 
 stand by that the space inclosed by the cell-wall), but later 
 spaces occur in the protoplasmic mass — the so-called vacuoles 
 — into which sap gathers, the protoplasm continuing to con- 
 tract until it forms threads from the inner cell-wall to the 
 interior. These threads have certain proteid bodies imbedded 
 in their substance. That portion of the protoplasm outside 
 the nucleus is sometimes designated as cytoplasm, to distin- 
 guish it from the portion within the nucleus — i]xe, nucleoplasm; 
 though they have many properties in common, a marked dif- 
 ference in staining properties is their most familiar point of 
 dissimilarity. 
 
CELL- CONTENTS.- 
 
 189 
 
 The nucleus has been shown to consist of a delicate mem- 
 brane, inclosing the protoplasm or nucleoplasm, which incloses 
 one or more bodies called nucleoli, or phsmosomes. To the 
 substance of which they are composed the name pyrenin has 
 been given. 
 
 Centrosomes are extremely minute bodies, not readily de- 
 monstrable, existing in cells either in the protoplasm outside 
 the nucleus or within that body. Their physiologic import- 
 ance is considerable. When it has been said that the proto- 
 plasm is the most important part of the cell, the term includes 
 
 Fig. 3.— Parenchyma cells from the epidermis of the onion: N, Nucleus; m, nucle- 
 olus; P, protoplasm; S, space left by contraction of protoplasm: W, cell-wall. 
 
 the nucleus, which is essential in cell-division, whereas cell 
 life may exist without cytoplasm. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Remove a fragment of the skin (epi- 
 dermis) of an inner scale, of the onion and place it in an 
 alcoholic solution of iodin (1 per cent.) for a few minutes ; 
 then remove it to a little water and rinse it free of the excess 
 of iodin and mount it in glycerin or water. Examine it with 
 the low power, then with the high. The membrane is seen 
 to consist of a number of cells with cellulose walls inclosing 
 a granular substance ; the protoplasm stained yellowish or 
 brown ; while near the center of each cell is a small round 
 body, the nucleus, more deeply stained than the rest. Within 
 the nucleus are seen several roundish, shining bodies, the 
 nucleoli. The cell-wall remains unstained and nearly trans- 
 
190 
 
 THE CELL AND ITS CONTENTS. 
 
 parent. Note that the cells are separated by single walls 
 common to both cells (Fig. 3). 
 
 Aleurone grains consist of albuminous substances closely 
 allied to protoplasm, which are often found in seeds. They 
 comprise a ground substance and its inclosures, the latter 
 usually including a roundish body called a globoid, consisting 
 of calcium and magnesium phosphates ; and a crystalloid, 
 composed of proteid matter. Aleurone bodies vary greatly 
 in size, some bemg no more than a single micron in diameter, 
 while others are as much as sixty ; for the most part, how- 
 ever, they are quite small — five to ten microns. While they 
 are very characteristic for the different seeds and in the hands 
 of the, expert are useful as a means of identification, their 
 employment for this purpose requires considerable practice. 
 However, the student may easily perceive a difference in the 
 
 Fig. 4.— Aleurone grains : 1, From nutmeg ; 2, from castor bean (after Tsehirch). 
 
 typical forms of such as may be found in nutmeg and the 
 castor bean. The ground substance of most aleurone grains 
 is soluble in water, the globoid and crystalloid being insoluble. 
 Proteid matter is considered chemically (p. 296). The amount 
 is estimated from its nitrogen contents, which constitutes 
 approximately 16 per cent, of it. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Eemove a very little of the inner por- 
 tion (^endosperm) of the castor bean with the point of a knife, 
 and smear upon a slide and add a drop of 50 per cent, glyc- 
 erin ; the globoid and the crystalloid may be seen inclosed in 
 the aleurone grain, but if any difficulty is experienced, a small 
 drop of compound solution of iodin (No. 19) is added, 
 whereby the proteid is stained brown, the globoid remaining 
 nnstnined, or the grains may be stained with an alcoholic 
 solution of eosin (No. 8). 
 
CELL-COifTENTS. 1 9 ] 
 
 Scrape off a very little of the inner portion of nutmeg 
 upon a slide, add a few drops of olive oil, and place the cover- 
 glass upon it with a particle of grit under one side so that a 
 little pressure at one point will cause a movement in the oil ; 
 this will cause the grains to roll about as they float in the 
 liquid ; the crystalloids can often be seen with great distinct- 
 ness, appearing almost transparent (Fig. 4). 
 
 Chlorophyll (Gr. chloros = green ; phyllon = leaf ) and 
 a chemically allied coloring substance, xanthophyll (Gr. 
 xanthos = yellow), are found in the parenchyme of foliage 
 and floral leaves ; reference to the presence of chlorophyll 
 bodies will be made under the subject of Epidermal Cells. 
 
 By its presence chlorophyll enables the plant to employ 
 sunlight in the manufacture of starch from water and carbon 
 dioxid obtained from the air. These coloring substances are 
 more appropriately considered spectroscopically (p. 316). 
 
 Fixed oils and fats occur in the protoplasm or as 
 droplets lying free in the cell ; beyond the fact of their pres- 
 ence or absence they need not be considered microscopically. 
 They are particularly abundant in seeds, where they serve as 
 reserve material. They are considered on p. 334. They 
 may be detected microscopically by the brown or black color 
 formed with osmic acid (1 per cent, solution) ; tannic sub- 
 stances show a similar reaction with this reagent. 
 
 Starcli occurs very widely distributed in the vegetable king- 
 dom ; without concerning ourselves with its physiologic im- 
 portance it may be mentioned here that the reserve starch is 
 that which is of such moment in the identification of drugs 
 and the detection of adulteration. It is formed in the sun- 
 light only in the presence of chlorophyll, converted into a 
 soluble form (dextrose) and transferred through the conduct- 
 ing system to the storage reservoirs. 
 
 Starch-grains vary in size, shape, and state of aggregation 
 according to their source, but they are so typical for a given 
 plant that they often serve as one of the surest means of 
 identification. In point of size they vary from an average 
 diameter of five microns in rice, to nearly a hundred microns in 
 the larger ones found in potato, and more than half that diam- 
 eter in calumba. Fig. 5 shows a number of diiferent forms. 
 

 
 
 Fig. 5.— Microscopic appearance of different starches (uniform magnification) 
 (Noel) : 1, Arrowroot ; 2, raw tapioca ; 8, tapioca ; 4, potato ; 5, galanga ; 6, East 
 Indian arrowroot ; 7, sago ; 8, beans ; 9, rye ; 10, wheat ; 11, barley ; 12, Indian corn ; 
 13, rice ; 14, oats. 
 
 192 
 
CELL-CONTENTS. 193 
 
 Tschirch lays great stress upon the value of measurements, 
 not alone of the length, but of th& breadth as well, in the 
 identification of the grains, expressing it as follows : If a 
 grain is 9 microns long and 5 broad, it is expressed as ^ 
 microns, the average of 50 to 100 measurements being taken 
 for the size of the grain, including the minimal, maximal, 
 and that occurring most abundantly. 
 
 The shape of the granules may be oval, roundish, with 
 sharp angles, variously elongated, kidney-shaped (in physos- 
 tigma) globular, or flattened, besides many other forms ; the 
 shape in a given case being best determined by causing the 
 grains to roll over and over in a current of liquid ; this may 
 be done by mounting in water and adding a drop of water to 
 the edge of a cover-glass, or by applying a drop of water to 
 the edge while holding a piece of filter-paper to the opposite 
 side to absorb the excess. Flattened starch-grains will ap- 
 pear very different if seen edgewise from those seen upon the 
 flat surface. 
 
 Many starch-grains consist of concentric or excentric layers 
 surrounding a hilum. This can be seen in potato-starch 
 without treatment, but is made plainer if a drop of dilute 
 solution of potassa (No. 22) be made to flow under the cover- 
 glass ; the grains swell rapidly and dissolve, but the layers 
 are momentarily rendered more distinct. "When the grains 
 occur separately, the more or less roundish forms predominate, 
 but when they are densely packed together, mutual pressure 
 causes them to assume angular shapes, as in rice (Fig. 5). 
 
 Starch swells and finally dissolves in boiling water, but is 
 insoluble in cold alcohol, glycerin, and water. 
 
 Iodine is the best reagent for its identification ; it assumes a 
 violet color ; very dilute solution (J^ per cent.) is preferred, 
 since stronger solutions turn the grains nearly black. 
 
 The importance of starch in pharmacognosy is second to 
 no other cell-content or tissue element, and in this connection 
 it is of importance to remember the drugs in which it is 
 absent or present only to an insignificant extent. Occasion- 
 ally an approximate idea of the amount present is of value ; 
 belladonna root is rich in its peculiar alkaloids, almost pro- 
 portionately to the abundance of starch ; or the adulteration 
 
 13 
 
194 THE CELL AND ITS CONTENTS. 
 
 of a drug, such as elm bark, with any starchy substance is 
 instantly detected, since that bark is extremely poor in starch. 
 
 Naturally the size and the shape of the grains are the 
 readiest means of identification, but in the numerous drugs 
 it is not always possible for the student to become familiar 
 with every form of starch-grain ; in such cases the relative 
 amounts may also be useful. The state of aggregation is 
 frequently important, whether the grains are simple or com- 
 pound (i. e., with one hilum or more than one in a single grain), 
 and whether the grains are densely packed in certain cells only 
 or pretty evenly distributed. It will be mentioned under 
 Medullary Eays what significance may attach to their contain- 
 ing starch. 
 
 Those drugs which are dried by a rather high heat may 
 have their starch rendered pasty, hence no granules will be 
 seen, even though starch may be abundantly present (curcuma, 
 sarsaparilla). 
 
 The following measurements of the greatest diameter of 
 starch-grains from various sources are taken mainly from 
 Tschirch : 
 
 Endosperm of rice ... 4.5- 6 microns. 
 Com endosperm . . . 10-18 '' 
 
 Bean cotyledon .... 20-40 " 
 Wheat endospeim (large) 28-33 " (average) 
 (small) 6- 7 
 
 Jalap tuber 10-55 
 
 Glycyrrhiza root. . . . 1.5, 7-29 " 
 Althsea root . . . 6-20, average, 16 microns. 
 
 Potato tuber . . 5-145, average of larger, 
 
 70 to 100 microns. 
 
 The following measurenaents are approximate (Hatcher) : 
 
 Physostigma . . 
 
 . . . 60-75 microns. 
 
 Podophyllum . 
 
 . . 10-12 
 
 
 Asclepias .... 
 
 . 10-12 
 
 
 Stillingia, small 5, large 
 
 . -50 
 
 
 Biyony (mostly small, few) . • 
 
 . . 40-50 
 
 
 Belladonna (very variable) . . 
 
 . . 5-20 
 
 
 Ipecac, few 20-25, most . . 
 
 . . 5-10 
 
 
 Krameria, few 5-50, most . 
 
 . 20-30 
 
 
 For partial list of important drugs containing starch and 
 those in which it is wanting, see p. 294. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Scrape a little of the potato (inner por- 
 
CELL-CONTENTS. 195 
 
 tion) upon a slide, add a drop of water, and examine ; while 
 observing it add a few drops of very dilute solution of po- 
 tassa (1 per cent.) to one edge, and apply a piece of filter- 
 paper to the opposite edge of cover-glass to draw the alkali 
 underneath. The starch-grains swell rapidly, losing their 
 shape. Mouut another specimen, and apply a drop of very 
 dilute solution of iodin (1 : 4000), using the same technic as 
 in the case of potassa ; grain colored blue. In the same way 
 examine powdered Jamaica ginger, physostigma, and some 
 other drugs, ipecac, podophyllum, etc. Measure some of the 
 largest and some of the smallest grains. 
 
 Inulin, which is closely allied to starch, occurs abun- 
 dantly in the underground portions of the herbs of the Com- 
 positse. Its consideration belongs rather to the chemic than 
 to the histologic part of this work. It may be obtained in 
 
 Fig. 6.— Inulin. 
 
 handsome stellate crystals by putting small pieces of fresh 
 taraxacum, inula, or pyrethrum root, preferably of the second 
 year's growth, gathered in autumn, into strong alcohol for 
 from some days to some months. 
 
 An illustration of inulin, which is often copied from Sachs, 
 represents crystals which were obtained from an aqueous 
 solution upon standing two months and a half. Fig. 6 is 
 from taraxacum root gathered in October and kept several 
 months in alcohol. 
 
 Inulin is of wholly secondary importance in the micro- 
 scopic examination of drugs, since it is not possible to iden- 
 tify it microscopically except in the rare cases when it is 
 found in crystals. Iodin has no eifect upon it. 
 
 Calcium oxalate is, next to starch, the most widely 
 distributed solid substance found in the cells of vegetable 
 
196 THE CELL AND ITS CONTENTS. 
 
 drugs. It may occur in any organ or part ; the vessels, sieve 
 tubes, and epidermis being almost the only tissues in which 
 they are not found. 
 
 The crystals occur singly as the large, needle-shaped crys- 
 tals, " raphides," of squill ; or in groups, as dense bundles 
 of small crystals of equal length lying parallel, or in looser 
 clusters, scattered at random in the cell. 
 
 While the typical forms of crystals are easily recognized — 
 e. g. the stellate clusters in rhubarb — the proof of their identity 
 in case of doubt lies in their chemic and physical behavior. 
 They are insoluble in water, acetic acid, or dilute solution of 
 potassa (the latter causes starch to swell rapidly), soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid without eifervescence (calcium carbonate is 
 soluble with effervescence in acetic and hydrochloric acid). 
 
 The crystals ' occur in the greatest variety of form and 
 size. The leaf of belladonna, some of the cinchonas, and 
 other drugs show cells densely packed with exceedingly small 
 crystals, recognizable as calcium oxalate only by their chemic 
 behavior, or as crystals by means of the polariscope. These 
 may measure but a single micron, and the mass appears black 
 instead of transparent under the microscope, because of the 
 air-spaces between the crystals, which also interfere with their 
 recognition. To these dense groups the name crystal-meal is 
 given ; they are not of frequent importance in pharmacog- 
 nosy. At the other extreme are the acicular (needle-shaped) 
 crystals or raphides (Gr. raphis = a needle), often half a mil- 
 limeter in length. This shape of crystal, but usually much 
 smaller (60 to 125 microns in squill), is very much more 
 frequently found in the Monocotyledons than in the Dicotyl- 
 edons, though there are numerous instances among the drugs 
 of the latter (particularly ipecac and Ceylon cinnamon). 
 Ipecac, because of its high price, is frequently adulterated ; 
 the crystals are found in the cortical parenchyma (sparingly) 
 in bundles of parallel crystals of equal length — from 40 to 
 50 microns. In Ceylon cinnamon, on the other hand, they 
 are isolated and exceedingly small. 
 
 Typical crystals (Fig. 7) are very abundant in the bark of 
 
 ^ The consideration of the various systems of crystals belongs to the 
 science of crystallography, and is beyond the scope of the present work. 
 
CELL-CONTENTS. 197 
 
 quillaja (soap-bark), where they may be seen to glitter (with 
 the naked eye) if a smooth piece of the inner bark be held in 
 the sunHght. The longitudinal sections show these very 
 typically arranged in rows, the crystals mostly varying from 
 75 to 175 microns in length and from 5 to 15 microns in 
 diameter. 
 
 Elm bark shows many small crystals, appearing nearly 
 brick shaped, and in such abundance that one is apt to 
 marvel that this drug should yield but little ash. 
 
 In many barks the bast-fibers are lined with rows of iso- 
 lated crystals, each occupying a crystal cell which may indent 
 the wall of the fiber; this is seen very notably in aspido- 
 sperma, also occasionally in cinchona. 
 
 A B 
 
 /r=S=^==.-= 
 
 ^-^s^ 
 
 
 <^~=^ 
 
 •^!=^^.*> 
 
 
 
 
 W^C—--; 
 
 ^^^Ml 
 
 Fig. 7.— Crystals of calcium oxalate : A, From rhubarb ; B, from quillaja. 
 
 The most striking appearance is presented by the great 
 numbers of stellate crystals found in rhubarb root. 
 
 The presence of one form of crystal in a drug does not 
 preclude the possibility of other forms, but in examining 
 Monocotyledons the student will do well to bear in mind 
 that the easily recognized needle-shaped crystals or raphides 
 often constitute the only form present. The examination of 
 known specimens of the given drug will afford a better idea 
 of the form and distribution of crystals than can be gotten 
 by description. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Examine a section of squill for bun- 
 dles of small raphides and occasional isolated or small 
 groups of very large ones. Split a piece of quillaja tangen- 
 tially (i. e., parallel to its flat surface), and examine its fresh 
 surface in strong gaslight or sunlight, then with a magni- 
 fying-glass. Examine a tangential section of this bark in 
 
198 THE CELL AND ITS CONTENTS. 
 
 dilute glycerin or glycerin-jelly. Aspidosperma is not easily 
 sectioned, but a little of the bark may be grated (filed upon 
 a slide) and examined in dilute glycerin (much better by 
 diffused sunlight) ; the long (700 microns) narrow cells are 
 bast-fibers ; these are seen to be covered with rows of cells, 
 each containing a small crystal that looks to be almost 
 square. Examine a transverse section of rhubarb for the 
 numerous stellate groups of crystals — present more abun- 
 dantly than in any other official drug. 
 
 Calcium carbonate is of very much less importance 
 than the calcium oxalate. It is found occasionally in the 
 form of " cystoliths," somewhat resembling in form a bunch 
 of grapes. Calcium carbonate dissolves in acetic and other 
 acids with the liberation of carbon-dioxid gas. 
 
 Cell-contents found in the sap are usually more ap- 
 propriately considered chemically ; they will, therefore, be 
 very briefly touched upon here. 
 
 Inulin occurs mostly in solution, but its microscopic detec- 
 tion depends upon its deposition in crystalline form. (See 
 p. 195.) 
 
 Sugar in different forms, but especially as dextrose or 
 glucose, is extremely widely distributed. Its recognition in 
 aqueous infusions or decoctions is extremely easy. (See 
 Part III., p. 285.) Sugar is seen rarely in crystals in drugs. 
 
 Mucilage is recognized by its avidity for water, with which 
 it swells with great rapidity. A section of the leaf of buchu 
 or of the testa of flax-seed placed under the microscope, to 
 which a drop of water is added, illustrates this. (See Part 
 III., p. 292.) 
 
 Tannin reacts so characteristically with ferric salts that 
 traces of it may be detected in aqueous infusions or de- 
 coctions of the drug. (See Part III., p. 308.) Occasion- 
 ally globular masses of tannin are found ; a drop of dilute 
 solution of ferric chlorid causes a black color. 
 , Alkaloids are with difficulty detected microchemically in 
 the majority of cases, and they practically never occur in 
 crystalline form in the drug. The alkaloids of cinchona may 
 be seen by warming sections in dilute solution of potassium 
 
CELL-CONTENTS. 199 
 
 hydrate for a short time and then rinsing quickly in water. 
 The alkaloids are then seen in crystalline form. 
 
 A few alkaloids give color-reactions, but these are usually 
 obtained more satisfactorily by extraction and treatment of 
 the tincture. (See Part III., p. 302.) 
 
 Coloring-matters often afford valuable clues, either by their 
 presence or by their chemic behavior. These are often visible 
 microscopically as the bright yellow of berberine in golden 
 seal and the red coloring-matter in sanguinaria. 
 
 Resins are widely ditributed, often occurring dissolved in 
 essential oil, or as oleoresins or mixed with gums as gum- 
 resins. Resin cells are often lined with cork. Resin is 
 easily recognized in drugs by its characteristic yellowish to 
 brown color. 
 
 Concentrated aqueous solution of copper acetate colors 
 resin green after some days. 
 
 Organic acids are considered chemically in Part III, p. 310. 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 SPEC3AL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 
 
 Vegetable cells are grouped into two general classes, the 
 parenchymatous and the prosenchymatous cells. This classi- 
 fication is convenient, but not easily defined. Parenchymat- 
 ous cells are in general as broad as long, have blunt ends and 
 thin walls. Prosenchymatous cells, on the other hand, are 
 generally longer than broad, have pointed, overlapping ends, 
 and thick cell-walls. 
 
 The cells will be considered in the following order : 
 
 Parenchyma (proper). 
 
 EpideiTual, including the epidermis and its 
 
 appendages, trichomes, stomata, etc. ; cork. 
 Cambium. 
 Medullaiy rays. 
 Collenchyma. 
 Stone. 
 
 Endodei-mal. 
 Wood parenchyma. 
 Bast>-fibers. 
 Prosenchymatous . . | :^-^f-. 
 
 Ti-acheids. 
 Sieve tubes and companion cells. 
 Laticiferous tubes. 
 Secretion receptacles. 
 
 Parenchymatous tissues^ are composed of cells 
 usually having thin walls, very often composed of cellulose. 
 In shape they are roundish or polyhedral, their length, as a 
 rule, not greatly exceeding their breadth — although we shall 
 find exceptions to the foregoing. Elongated parenchymatous 
 cells have blunt ends, not pointed nor overlapping. 
 
 Parenchyma. — The typical parenchyma cell has just 
 
 ' Tissues are collections of cells serving a similar function. 
 200 
 
 Parenchymatous . 
 
PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 201 
 
 been described, but there are a number of different forms. 
 The roundish or somewhat compressed twelve-sided cells are 
 the most abundant form — they commonly measure about 
 100 to 300 microns in diameter. They constitute the greater 
 part of succulent tissues and the great bulk of many roots 
 and rhizomes, as podophyllum and ipecac ; here they are some- 
 what elongated in the direction of the length of the organ, 
 but retain their nearly circular form when seen in transverse 
 sections. In the interior of many leaves they are nearly 
 typically isodiametric (all diameters alike), but near one or 
 both surfaces they are often somewhat elongated toward the 
 center of the leaf and are then called "palisade paren- 
 chyma." 
 
 The walls of parenchyma cells are always thin and com- 
 posed of cellulose, which is an isomer of starch (C^Hj^Oj). 
 It will be remembered that this does not stain with anilin ; it 
 is further characterized by the following properties : If treated 
 with iodin and then with sulphuric acid, it is colored purple. 
 Chloro-iodid of zinc also colors it purple. It is soluble in 
 concentrated sulphuric acid. 
 
 In addition to protoplasm the contents of parenchyma cells 
 are varied. In the leaf chlorophyll is often present ; in fleshy 
 roots the protoplasm may have disappeared, and the cell 
 becomes filled with starch or other carbohydrates. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Put a thin section of sassafras pith 
 into a little compound solution of iodin for a few minutes ; 
 then remove it to 60 per cent, sulphuric acid ; the section is 
 colored purple. Put another fragment into freshly prepared 
 solution of chloro-iodid of zinc and note that it also becomes 
 purple. 
 
 The middle lamella or intercellular substance 
 is a jiart of the cell-wall which soon develops between cells by 
 a modification of the cellulose, from which it differs in certain 
 particulars. "We have already seen that two young cells of the 
 onion epidermis are separated by a wall common to both, the 
 wall separating their parallel sides showing no middle line of 
 division to indicate that a part of the wall belongs to one cell 
 and the rest to the other, but the dividing wall is common to 
 both ; soon, however, a modification of the cellulose takes 
 
202 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 place, resulting in the development of the middle lamella, or 
 plate. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Mount a thin section of sassafras pith 
 or of white pine in a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, put 
 on the cover-glass, and, taking care that none of the acid gets 
 upon the microscope, examine it with the low power ; the cell- 
 walls are seen to dissolve rapidly, leaving a network consist- 
 ing of the middle lamellae — a similar section should be pre- 
 viously examined in water or glycerin for comparison. 
 
 Epidermal cells include the epidermis, which covers 
 the green parts of plants and cork cells, which later replace 
 the epidermis on roots and stems. 
 
 The cells of the epidermis are so arranged that they com- 
 pletely cover the organ upon which they are situated without 
 leaving any intercellular spaces, except the stomata and water 
 pores, to be mentioned later. This is important in view of 
 the function of the epidermis — i. e., the protection of the 
 underlying tissue against undue loss of moisture and against 
 the entrance of bacteria or other harmful agents. 
 
 The outer wall is covered with a layer called the cuticle, a 
 modification of cellulose caused by the deposition of cutin in 
 it. This cutin closely resembles suberin, if indeed they are 
 not identical. The main difference between the cuticle and 
 cork is that the cuticle is somewhat richer in another sub- 
 stance, called cerin, a wax-like body deposited with the 
 cutin. When the outer wall of the epidermis is greatly 
 thickened, that portion toward the cuticle (if we i-egard the 
 latter as added to, not a part of, the cell-wall) is itself 
 usually cuticularized — that is, it has some cutin deposited in 
 the cellulose. The formation of this layer of cuticle is the 
 principal function of the cells of the epidermis. Some- 
 times a colorless protoplasm and nucleus may be seen in the 
 cell, but in those drugs which are of pharmaceutic interest 
 these have usually disappeared. The typical epidermal cell 
 is nearly isodiametrie and quadratic in form ; but in many 
 stems it is somewhat elongated in the direction of stem 
 growth, while in many leaves the walls are wavy in outline 
 and the cells very irregular in shape. In the seed of hyos- 
 cyamus the epidermal cells have their inner and lateral 
 
PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 203 
 
 walls thickened, whereas the outer is formed by a delicate 
 cuticle ; while in jequirity and other seeds, very long, narrow 
 (palisade) cells constitute the epidermis. These are but a few 
 of the many forms which may be seen, but the typical forms 
 and those mentioned as occurring in leaves principally interest 
 us in pharmacognosy. 
 
 In the epidermal cells of leaves the nucleus may be fre- 
 quently seen, but not chlorophyll. In official roots and 
 rhizomes they usually appear empty. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Examine a cross-section of a eucalyptus 
 leaf in glycerin ; the cuticle is seen as the thick layer at the 
 edge of the section (surface of the leaf) ; mount another sec- 
 tion in air, and while observing it, let a companion drop 
 a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid upon the slide at 
 the edge of the cover-glass in such a way as to cause it to 
 flow underneath. The section rapidly dissolves, with the 
 exception of the cuticle and that part of the wall which is 
 cuticularized. (The distinction between the cuticle and 
 cuticularizcd portion of the wall is perhaps a useless one in 
 this place.) 
 
 Trichomes or Hairs are appendages or outgrowths of 
 the epidermis (spines, allied formations which have their 
 origin in sublying tissues, such, for instance, as the prickles 
 of the rose, etc., belong to a different system). Glandular 
 hairs, while belonging also to another system, may be con- 
 veniently included here. Some true trichomes have a ter- 
 minal cell converted into a secreting organ. 
 
 Hairs assume a great variety of form, and since they are 
 of considerable importance in pharmacognosy, will be con- 
 sidered somewhat in detail. They are not confined to any 
 surface, but different plants afford examples of their growing, 
 even internallv. They occur very abundantly on the sur- 
 faces of many leaves, stems, and seeds, near the tips of roots, 
 upon various floral organs, and on fruits ; as examples of in- 
 ternal hairs may be mentioned the nuphar. The juice of the 
 orange and lemon is contained in modified hairs. 
 
 Trichomes may be one-celled or many-celled ; they may 
 be simple straight or curved tubes, or branching and as- 
 suming an endless variety of forms. They may contain 
 
204 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 protoplasm or be filled with air, and in a few cases, as 
 previously mentioned, they may have secretions formed in 
 the terminal cells. In other cases they may become strongly 
 silicified (acquire a glass-like consistence due to the presence 
 of silica). 
 
 They consist of a base, which is usually of a different 
 form from that of the surrounding epidermal cells — some- 
 times larger, but usually smaller ; and of a body, the latter 
 constituting the hair-like portion. Occasionally the epi- 
 dermal cells immediately surrounding the base of the hair 
 form radiating lines and differ in shape from those more 
 remote from it. 
 
 Cotton furnishes us with the most familiar example of 
 vegetable hairs ; if we observe a single strand under the 
 
 Fig. 8. —Hairs from various leaves : S, Sage ; M, matico ; D, digitalis. 
 
 microscope, it presents the appearance of a twisted band 
 with thickened edges. With these the student should at 
 once become familiar, because of the frequency with which 
 he will accidentally encounter them. 
 
 Hairs vary widely, not only in size and shape, but also in 
 the direction of their growth ; usually they are inclined more 
 or less toward the surface upon which they grow, but they 
 may stand erect. Several forms of hairs are seen in Fig. 8. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — A transverse section of sarsaparilla 
 root will often show unicellular root-hairs, being the only 
 official root upon which they will be found except near the 
 tips. A section of digitalis shows several-celled hairs, and 
 
PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 205 
 
 if these be compared with the scrapiugs from a mullein 
 leaf, it will be seen at once how easily the least adulteration 
 of the former with the latter may be detected. In the case 
 of the mullein leaf the hairs are larger and freely branching. 
 
 Glandular hairs present a somewhat more complicated 
 structure. The simplest have a superficial resemblance to 
 the ordinary hair ; but the terminal cell (it may be unicell- 
 ular) pours its secretion between its outer wall and the 
 cuticle ; the latter, being raised up, forms a cavity or reser- 
 voir for the secretion. The substance of the cuticle grows 
 in extent or suffers a rupture by increased tension ; in the 
 latter event it has the power of repairing the damage. This 
 form of hair is found widely — in belladonna, hyoscyamus, 
 sage, etc. 
 
 In the second case we have a glandular organ consisting 
 of a number of secreting cells (more accurately speaking, 
 secerning, from Latin se, aside, and cernere, to separate ; to 
 sift) supported on a pedicle. Since these become broken in 
 the course of grinding or even handling drugs, it may be 
 better to describe their structure in somewhat greater 
 detail. 
 
 The student is again reminded that these hairs are devel- 
 oped from ordinary epidermal cells. In this case one of the 
 cells becomes divided by a transverse wall into an upper '■ 
 and a lower, the latter remaining on a level (or nearly so) 
 with the remainder of the epidermis, and becomes the basal 
 cell of the glandular hair ; the upper cell now becomes 
 arched above the level of the epidermis, and in turn is di- 
 vided transversely, forming a new cell even as it was formed ; 
 that immediately above the basal cell constitutes the 
 pedicle or stalk, while the uppermost is now divided by per- 
 pendicular walls into a number of secreting cells arranged in 
 a circle or in two circles, and usually numbering from eight 
 to twenty. The secretion from these secreting cells, being 
 poured between their outer walls and the cuticle, separates 
 the latter, so that it remains attached only at the sides ; 
 seen from above it has no markings to indicate the number 
 of underlying cells (Fig. 9). This structure of the glandular 
 
 ' " Up," in this description, meaning away from the leaf. 
 
206 
 
 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OP CELLS. 
 
 portion is very clearly seen in the kamala (see practical 
 exercise following). 
 
 This or somewhat modified forms of glandular hairs will 
 be found almost universally on the herbaceous drugs derived 
 
 Fig. 9.— Oil-gland from peppermint : b, Basal cell ; S, secreting cells ; C, cuticle ; 
 E, epidermis (after Tschircli). 
 
 from the labiatse ; they may be intact, or, as previously 
 mentioned, with the glands separated. A very thin trans- 
 verse section of a peppermint leaf mounted in glycerin 
 shows this form of glandular hairs. 
 
 Fig. 10.— The successive stages in the development of lupulin (gland) : a, The 
 epidermal cell slightly elevated; 6, the same cell elongated and divided into two; 
 c, the upper portion has increased in size laterally and divided transversely ; d, the 
 cells have merely enlarged ; e, further division ; /, the cuticle has separated more 
 than in e; g, the gland (minus its stalk) (Eauter). 
 
 Lupulin consists of somewhat similar glandular structures ; 
 the upper glandular portion is usually seen separated from 
 the pedicle, and resembles somewhat the shell of a tortoise, 
 
PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 207 
 
 assuming the oval shape by pressure. In this case we see 
 the division of the gland into its component cells. The 
 separated or intact pedicle also shows a somewhat diiFerent 
 structure from that already described, consisting of several 
 cells instead of one. 
 
 Kamala also consists of simple hairs, together with the 
 glands of glandular hairs, the pedicles being absent. 
 
 The glands may be borne upon the summit of an out- 
 growth of the epidermis. 
 
 Sections of aspidium show glandular structures protruding 
 into internal cavities, but the beginner may not be able to 
 recognize these. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — With a medicine-dropper remove a 
 little lupulin which has lain for some time in alcohol, and 
 mount in glycerin ; compare with the description and 
 Fig. 10, ^. 
 
 Examine a very little kamala in alcoholic solution of 
 potassa. The picture presented is one of great beauty. 
 The liquid is brightly colored, and in it float the glands, 
 usually bottom up, so that the secerning cells are distinctly 
 seen. In those which lie on their sides the cuticle is seen 
 greatly distended, like a bag, with a nearly clear secretion. 
 Other forms of hairs are also seen in the field. 
 
 Stotnata are properly considered with the epidermal 
 cells. They are openings (Gr. stoma ^= mouth) through the 
 epidermis into intercellular spaces beneath. They are usually 
 oval in shape, and are formed by two cells, called "guard 
 cells," having convex sides facing each other. Their function 
 consists in regulating the interchange of air between the inter- 
 cellular space beneath and the external air, and thus to a certain 
 extent controlling the amount of moisture lost by evapora- 
 tion. When seen from above (the leaf lying flat), they are 
 nearly always of more or less oval shape, but vary somewhat 
 in size and very greatly in relative number. They occur 
 on all overground surfaces covered by epidermis, with occa- 
 sional exceptions in individual cases. They are usually much 
 more abundant on the lower surfaces of leaves than on the 
 upper. They are also found on green stems, seeds, etc. 
 
 While they present but little variation when seen from 
 
208 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 above, they are much more complicated on transverse sections. 
 Tschirch ' has classified them mainly according to whether 
 they are raised above or depressed below the level of the 
 epidermis ; whether the cutinization is strongly or weakly 
 developed ;, form of outer opening, etc., together with means 
 of communication with surrounding medium — a classification 
 requiring more than an elementary knowledge of histology 
 for its practical application. Nevertheless, stomata are of 
 considerable importance in pharmacognosy, their relative 
 number alone having considerable significance at times, since 
 their number may be comparable to the number of epidermal 
 cells on the surface bearing them, or less than a hundredth 
 part as numerous. (Leaf of Brassica Rapa, 716 per sq. 
 mm. — nearly half million per sq. inch.) 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Remove a very thin fragment of the 
 lower surface of any oificial leaf, and examine in dilute glycerin 
 with a magnification of 500 diameters. If any difficulty 
 occurs in finding them, examine another piece mounted in 
 solution of chlorinated soda, or, 'still better, use such a frag- 
 ment from a leaf which has been lying for some days in a 
 clearing solution, such as glycerin and alcohol, or solution of 
 potassa. 
 
 In order to form an approximate idea of relative numbers 
 in different positions compare a fragment of the lower surface 
 of a leaf — ^hyoscyamus or belladonna — with a fragment taken 
 from a green stem — that of a potato if convenient. 
 
 Water-pores resemble ordinary stomata, but they have 
 no means of regulating the size of the opening, which, to- 
 gether with the underlying intercellular space, is filled with 
 liquid (usually a considerable amount of calcium salt being 
 held in solution). They differ further from ordinary stomata 
 in that they occur at the terminations of veinlets — more abun- 
 dant at theedges, terminating the teeth. They are usually some- 
 what larger than the stomata occurring on the same organ. 
 
 Cork-cells, when present, have replaced, or soon will 
 replace, the cells of the epidermis which are unfitted for per- 
 manent protection and do not usually persist on growing 
 plants much beyond a year. 
 
 ^ Angewandte PfianzeTianatomie, p. 434, 
 
PABEXCBYMATOUS CELLS. 209 
 
 Just as the cell-walls of the epidermis are in part cutinized 
 by the deposition of cutin in the interstices of the cellulose, 
 cork-cells have their walls suberized by the deposition of the 
 suberin. We may speak of these suberized walls as if they 
 consisted wholly of suberin, and, in fact, do apply suberin 
 tests when wishing to examine cells for that modification. 
 Such cell-walls stain readily with anilin dyes (cellulose does 
 not) and are liquefied by caustic potassa on heating to boiling. 
 
 Typical cork-cells are very easily recognized when occur- 
 ring in the place of the epidermis, without applying chemic 
 tests, but, since they are sometimes found in the interior of 
 barks and in powders, it often becomes necessary to apply 
 tests for their identity. Since an understanding of the na- 
 ture of cork-cell formation will often render its recognition 
 easier, a brief description of it will be found in the histology 
 of bark. 
 
 Cork-cells of pharmaceutic interest are usually thin-walled 
 and filled with air ; sometimes with coloring-matter or resin ; 
 while they may have their outer or inner or both walls thick- 
 ened ; and when seen in radial sections, they may appear as 
 parallelograms (approximately) tangentially longer than 
 broad. They may form a layer from without inward of 
 many cells in thickness — usually from two to twenty in offi- 
 cial roots and rhizomes. A very important function of cork 
 is the closure of wounds, made in the tissues of plants by 
 insects, etc. 
 
 Cork cambium or phellogen (Gr., pheUos= cork, and gennao= 
 I produce), the cells from which cork-cells are formed, should 
 be considered here, but since they can be more conveniently 
 treated under the subject of meristematic tissues, it need only 
 be said for the present that they are actively growing 
 parenchyma cells destined to produce cork-cells and some- 
 times other bark-cells. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Place a thin section of cork in water, 
 add a few drops of green anilin solution, and after five min- 
 utes rinse in water and examine. Mount another section in 
 solution of potassa without the cover-glass, and heat over a 
 flame ; note that it turns yellow and that drops of liquefied 
 suberin exude. 
 
 14 
 
210 
 
 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 Cambium cells (Fig. 11) are simply actively growing 
 and dividing parenchyma cells ; the accompanying figure 
 explains their mode of division with the formation of new 
 tissue. Cambium cells have cellulose walls. 
 
 In Dicotyledonous roots and stems a thin layer of cam- 
 bium cells is often seen separating the wood from the bark, 
 being easily recognized by their position and the extreme 
 thinness and transparency of their walls, together with their 
 shape, which approximates that shown in Fig. 1 1 . 
 
 In the living plant cambium cells contain protoplasm, a 
 
 Pig. 11.— Cells in process of division : C, Cambium cell ; X, xylem (wood) ; P, 
 phloem (bark-cells) ; 1 represents a simple cambium cell which in 2 has increased 
 in width preparatory to dividing into two cells in 3 — one becoming a xylem cell, 
 the other remaining a cambium ; these again increase in width in 4, and the cam- 
 bium divides in 5, producing a phloem cell ; increasing again in thickness in 6 and 
 splitting off another xylem in 7 and another phloem in 8 (partly schematic, after 
 Tschirch). 
 
 nucleus, and nucleoli, but these contents are not seen in the 
 dried roots and stems. 
 
 That cambium which produces cork-cells is mentioned as 
 cork cambium in connection with cork. Fig. 25 shows the 
 cambium layer in belladonna. 
 
 The so-called cambiform tissues of some authors are com- 
 posed of certain elements of the phloem, which have been 
 thus named because of their resemblance to cambium cells ; 
 this tissue is found in the inner bark of Dicotyledons, and is 
 not limited to any one cell form. The cambiform cells of 
 Nageli and other German authors are elongated, thin-walled, 
 taper-pointed cells found in the neighborhood of sieve cells 
 and containing plasma. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Examine a thin transverse section of 
 
PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 211 
 
 gentian : the cambium is distinctly seen as a brownish, wavy 
 line separating the bark from the wood. Then examine a 
 section of glycyrrhiza or belladonna, in which the cambium 
 occupies a similar position ; but the cells are transparent and 
 have very delicate thin walls. 
 
 The pith cells are composed of typical parenchyma, 
 nearly round or isodiametric, their walls liaving openings or 
 pores for the passage from cell to cell of the dissolved carbo- 
 hydrates. Their walls may become thickened or they may 
 become stored with starch. 
 
 Pith is found only in Dicotyledons, though similar cells 
 occur throughout the roots and stems of Ferns and Mono- 
 cotyledons. It frequently tends to decay. 
 
 Medullary-ray cells serve as a means of commmiica- 
 tion between the pith (central) and the outer portion of Di- 
 cotyledonous stems and some roots, forming rows of cells 
 passing among the woody parts of the plant in straight lines 
 toward the bark, which they usually penetrate for variable 
 distances. They may terminate at the cambium line, and 
 they sometimes occur in the absence of pith. 
 
 The cells are usually somewhat elongated in the direction 
 which the ray takes — i. e., from the center toward the circum- 
 ference. In a transverse section of a stem they usually 
 appear slightly elongated (parallelograms), thin-walled, and 
 forming narrow, straight lines radiating like the spokes of a 
 wheel. Since their function is to afford means of transmit- 
 ting dissolved material from the pith to the circumference, it 
 follows they will be absent when the organ is composed almost 
 wholly of parenchyma through which the material passes easily. 
 This is often the case in roots. Sometimes they are scarcely 
 distinguishable from the parenchyma cells about them. This 
 is especially true where they terminate in the bark. Thus a 
 cell of a ray at its origin in apocynum measured 10 microns 
 in diameter and 44 in length, while another at about its ter- 
 mination in the bark measured nearly 100 microns in diam- 
 eter by approximately 135 in length. This gives an idea 
 of the transitional form. 
 
 The medullary rays themselves are of more diagnostic 
 importance than are the individual cells composing them ; 
 
212 
 
 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 hence they will be considered more fully than the individual 
 cells. 
 
 The walls of the cells are composed of cellulose and show 
 numerous pores ; when they are seen in a longitudinal tan- 
 
 FiG. 12.— Jamaica quassia. Longitudinal tangential section showing a medul- 
 lary ray cut across, wood parenchyma separating it from part of another ray: A, 
 showing the perforated end of a medullary-ray cell ; B, medullary-ray cell near its 
 middle ; C, wood parenchyma. Note that the ray is five cells in width at B. 
 
 gential section (endwise of the cells), the end partitions show 
 these pores as numerous shining dots, often beautiful by strong 
 illumination (Fig. 12). 
 
PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 213 
 
 Ordinarily the contents of the cells in actively growing 
 plants consist of dissolved carbohydrates, but on the cessa- 
 tion of vegetative activity they become storage receptacles. 
 In a specimen of asclepias the medullary-ray cells were 
 so densely packed with starch that they could be more easily 
 traced by this than by the individual cells, which were, in 
 fact, almost invisible amid the mass of starch. Obviously 
 the specimen was not collected in the summer ; and in certain 
 cases the contents of these cells may furnish a clue as to 
 whether a drug has been collected at the season of its greatest 
 medicinal activity or not. 
 
 It has been said that the medullary rays grow at right 
 angles to the direction of the growth of the organ (root 
 or stem), hence when the transverse section of the ray is 
 desired, a longitudinal tangential section of the organ is 
 made. 
 
 The height of the medullary rays of the very young stem 
 equals the length of the internode. They separate the primary 
 bundles (the woody and fibrous or parenchyma tissues, which 
 are separated by the primary rays) from each other and con- 
 nect the pith with the bark. In a longitudinal tangential 
 section of the stem they are seen to be of equal width at 
 various levels. These are called primary rays. As the stem 
 increases in circumference it is obvious that the primary rays 
 must be carried further and further apart ; to compensate for 
 this new medullary rays are usually added. These are called 
 secondary rays. They diifer in shape from the primary rays, 
 and may be distinguished by the fact that their transverse 
 section (longitudinal tangential of the stem) presents the ap- 
 pearance of a pointed ellipse ; or, approximately, that of a 
 large, thin-walled, broad, and pointed wood-fiber with its 
 lumen filled with roundish, thin-walled cells. 
 
 Such a section shows the number of rows of cells in the ray, 
 this being very variable ; but for a given plant the limits are 
 usually sufficiently defined to render the observation important. 
 In a section of Jamaica quassia (Fig. 12) there were counted 
 in one ray 5 rows of cells at the center and 18 from top to 
 bottom, numbering in all 67, and measuring half a millimeter 
 in length by nearly one-tenth of a millimeter in diameter ; 
 
214 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 while another ray nearby was but a single row in width and 
 5 in length, measuring 175 by 30 microns. 
 
 Despite this irregularity these rays serve to distinguish the 
 Jamaica from the Surinam quassia, in which the rays are 
 nearly always one or two rows in width. 
 
 In some instances the medullary rays increase in width 
 toward the circumference of the organ. In a specimen of 
 gelsemium root a ray at one point near its origin measured 
 less than 50 microns in width, having but 3 rows of cells, 
 while about 2J millimeters toward the circumference it meas- 
 ured more than 225 microns and had increased to 18 cells in 
 width. 
 
 In moderately thin radial longitudinal sections of the outer 
 portion of stems and the inner part of the bark medullary 
 rays appear as nearly quadrangular plates composed of more 
 or less parallelogram-shaped cells overlying other tissues 
 (Fig. 36). 
 
 The rays penetrate the bark to very variable distances in 
 different plants ; in red and yellow cinchona they terminate 
 about the middle of the bark. Their course in the bark may 
 be important ; in wild cherry they turn almost at right angles 
 to their original course, and become lost after running for 
 some distance tangentially ; in the bark of cascara sagrada 
 they converge in the outer bark, while those of frangula tend 
 to curve somewhat, but do not converge. 
 
 In the stems, barks, and some roots of Dicotyledons the 
 medullary rays are of great importance in pharmacognosy. 
 The points to be particularly noted are their presence or ab- 
 sence, whether lignified or not, cell-contents, number of rays, 
 average and maximum number of rows of cells in rays, their 
 width and height in longitudinal tangential* sections of the 
 organ, distance to which they penetrate into the bark, and their 
 direction at the point of termination, their comparative width, 
 origin and termination. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Examine a transverse section of gelse- 
 mium ; count the number of cells in width in the medullary 
 ray near the center and those in the same ray near the cir- 
 cumference ; compare with the medullary rays in a transverse 
 section of lappa, or pyrethrum. 
 
PAHENCBYMATOVS CELLS. 215 
 
 Examine a tangential longitudinal section of quassia or 
 other wood, count the cells in the ray. Examine transverse 
 sections of frangula, cascara sagrada and pomegranate root 
 bark, noting particularly the number of rays crossing the 
 field, their direction, and where they terminate. 
 
 CoUenchyma (Gr. colkt = glue, and egchyma = infusion ; 
 the thickening in the angles of the cells is of a glue-like 
 substance) cells closely resemble ordinary parenchyma, hav- 
 ing cellulose walls with slit-like pores, which are directed 
 parallel to the length of the cell ; whereas in bast and wood- 
 fibers these opeqiiigs or pores are oblique. The distinguish- 
 ing feature of collenchyma cells consists in a considerable 
 thickening of the cell- walls at their angles. 
 
 They serve as a strengthening layer in many growing Dico- 
 tyledonous stems. This function is furthered by thickening 
 in their corners.' Since they occur in growing tissues they 
 must be able to keep pace with this growth. This they do 
 by increasing in number (by cell-division) as well as by in- 
 crease in their own dimensions. To enable them to grow 
 actively they contain protoplasm. They are considerably 
 elongated, and have tapering ends which fit into one another 
 with few or no intercellular spaces. These characters give 
 them some resemblance to prosenchymatous cells. Collen- 
 chyma cells are found in the corners of some quadrangular 
 stems (many of the Labiatse), and they form a layer beneath 
 the epidermis of many herbaceous stems (not in Monocotyle- 
 dons) and petioles and midribs of leaves. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Make thin transverse and longitudinal 
 sections of the stem of peppermint. In the corners of the 
 stem collenchyma cells are seen to form isolated masses of a 
 yellowish color. 
 
 The beginner is cautioned not to mistake the wood-cells, 
 which lie near the epidermis, except in the comers, for the 
 collenchyma. In longitudinal section collenchyma cells are 
 seen as narrow tubes averaging 15 to 30 microns in diameter 
 by some ten times that in length. Unless the transverse 
 sections are cut squarely across or extremely thin, the cells 
 
 ' Ambi'own found their stability to be little inferior to true bast, but they 
 are much less elastic than the latter. 
 
216 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 will appear to have their walls thickened on all sides. The 
 petiole of the common grape, in which a layer of about 
 seven cells in thickness is found, affords an easier demon- 
 stration. 
 
 Collenchyma cells are of minor importance in pharmacog- 
 nosy, since they show but little diversity of characteristics. 
 Their presence or absence in a given case may be significant. 
 
 Stone-cells (variously termed stone dements, selereids, 
 solerotio cells, solerenchyma, etc.) tend more to remain of the 
 approximate shape of ordinary parenchyma than do those 
 of any other permanent tissue. Nevertheless, they are ex- 
 ceedingly diversified, and, therefore, afford excellent means 
 of identifying drugs and detecting adulterations. In general, 
 stone-cells, as seen in official drugs, are nearly isodiametric, 
 with walls very much thickened — often so much so as to 
 form an almost solid body. The walls are penetrated by 
 openings called pore-canals. 
 
 In addition to the typical, nearly isodiametric stone-cells 
 (which DeBary called short stone sclerenchym), Tschirch 
 classifies those of other shapes as macrosclereids (elongated 
 with blunt ends, seen in seed-coats, etc.) ; osteosclereids (hav- 
 ing bone-like (rounded) ends) ; and astrosclereids (the many- 
 branched stone sclerenchym of DeBary) (having star-shaped 
 formation with cone-like ends). Tea-leaves show some of 
 these grotesque forms. 
 
 The walls are lignified, or infiltrated with another modifi- 
 cation of cellulose, lignin, in a manner analogous to that of 
 the formation of cork-cells by subereous infiltration. They 
 often show a number of concentric rings, as though the walls 
 were composed of layers. The walls are yellowish, unless 
 stained by their contents, and are highly refractive to light. 
 
 The stone-cells found in official drugs are usually filled 
 with air, sometimes with resinous matter ; occasionally they 
 contain starch-grains. 
 
 Stone-cells are very widely distributed in mature Dicotyle- 
 donous plants ; they occur rarely in Monocotyledonous, and 
 never in Cryptogams. They are particularly abundant in 
 many barks (wild cherry, asclepias, cinchona), in the coats of 
 seeds, and in the rinds of fruits. 
 
PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 
 
 217 
 
 In the asclepias root they form a dense layer of about a 
 millimeter in thickness, replacing the epidermis, no other 
 official root having such a layer. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Typical^ stone-cells may be easily de- 
 monstrated by rubbing the outer surface of the official ascle- 
 pias root with a fine file (nail-file of penknife), mounting the 
 resulting powder in dilute glycerin, warming to expel air 
 before placing the cover-glass ; a thin section of pomegran- 
 ate-root bark will show isolated stone-cells. A little powder 
 of wild-cherry bark, heated for a few minutes with Schultze's 
 maceration fluid diluted with several times as much water, 
 shows a variety of ceils which might be classed as either 
 stone-cells or branching bast-fibers, both being actually pre- 
 
 FiG. 13.— stone-cells isolated from asclepias. 
 
 sent in more typical form in addition to these intermediate 
 types. When first examined, the powder presents a puz- 
 zling confusion of cells, but if one has examined the isolated 
 cells of asclepias and those of pomegranate-root bark in situ 
 as previously suggested, he will soon be able to distinguish 
 the stone-cells. The powder is suggested in this case, owing 
 to the difficulty in making thin sections of the bark even 
 after prolonged maceration in the usual softening menstrua 
 (Fig. 13). 
 
 Hudodermis, nucleus sheath, protecting sheath, bundle 
 sheath are some of the names (none of them accurately de- 
 scriptive) given to a layer of cells found in some of the offi- 
 cial roots and rhizomes separating the central cylinder from 
 the cortical portion (sarsaparilla) or inclosing that portion in 
 
218 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 which the greater nuQiber of fibrovascular bundles are found 
 (Monocotyledonous rhizomes). 
 
 The cells of the endodermis are usually somewhat elon- 
 gated in the direction of growth of the root or rhizome.; if 
 seen in transverse sections, they appear approximately quad- 
 rangular or isodiametric. 
 
 The walls are either cellulose, partly lignified, or partly 
 suberized, usually thickened on one or more sides. The outer 
 walls (toward the epidermis) may alone remain thin (ti'iticum, 
 Fig. 14). 
 
 The contents of the cells consist largely of starch or only 
 of air. Where the walls are thickened, they serve as a me- 
 chanical support for the central cylinder, and, according to 
 
 Fig. 14.— Part of rootlet of triticum, showing Sh, nucleus sheath with thin outer 
 and thick inner and side walls ; F, fibers ; V, vessel. 
 
 Frank, as an epidermal tissue in reserve against the destruc- 
 tion of the primary bark. 
 
 These cells are sometimes of importance in pharmacog- 
 nosy. The thickening of the walls is then of a special 
 importance, whether it be the inner wall only or this with 
 the side walls, or uniform on all sides, as in Honduras 
 sarsaparilla. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Stain with anilin and examine trans- 
 verse sections of sarsaparilla root and the rhizomes of cal- 
 amus or iris, and of triticum. Note the thickening of the 
 walls of the nucleus sheaths — whether all walls or only 
 certain ones are affected. Examine a longitudinal section 
 of sarsaparilla, noting the length of the cells of the endo- 
 dermis. Compare those of the nucleus sheath with those 
 lying just within the epidermis (Fig. 24). 
 
PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 219 
 
 Wood parenchyma belongs rather to the parenchy- 
 matous than to the prosenchymatous tissues, though they 
 occasionally terminate in a pointed end, after the manner 
 of wood-fibers. The wood parenchyma cells are somewhat 
 elongated, but their lateral diameters are nearly equal, their 
 walls remaining thin and showing dotted markings similar 
 to those of dotted vessels (see p. 225). 
 
 While the plant is actively growing these cells convey car- 
 bohydrates in solution, but in winter they serve for the 
 storage of starch and other substances. Their contents may 
 serve to indicate approximately the time at which the drug 
 was collected. 
 
 Wood parenchyma cells may be demonstrated in quassia. 
 A tangential longitudinal section (Fig. 12) shows them about 
 20 microns in width by from 40 to 100 or more in length. 
 Here they present the appearance of a thin-walled, flattened 
 wood-fiber subdivided by transverse walls, the end-cells re- 
 maining pointed ; this will be understood by reference to the 
 figure. 
 
 Laterally their walls show very thin places whereby the 
 fluids pass from cell to cell, thus forming a line of commu- 
 nication between the medullary rays, the cells of which they 
 resemble in general appearance ; that is, when the inter- 
 mediate (not the pointed) wood parenchyma cells are seen in 
 longitudinal sections they resemble those of the medullary 
 ray seen in a transverse section of the wood. 
 
 It has been said that these cells present the appearance of 
 a thin-walled wood-fiber divided by transverse walls ; occa- 
 sionally the fiber-like form is retained by similar cells which 
 do not have the cross-walls. These have the function of 
 wood parenchyma, but the shape of wood-fiber, and have 
 been designated by the Germans as "substitution cells"; 
 but for our purpose we shall include them under Wood 
 Parenchyma. 
 
 The student may find it difficult at times to distinguish 
 wood-fiber from wood parenchyma, on the one hand, and 
 from tracheids on the other ; but the name is of little con- 
 sequence if he understands the form in any given case. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Examine a tangential longitudinal 
 
220 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 section of quassia (mounted in glycerin or glycerin-jelly). 
 Note the presence here and there of pointed cells which 
 resemble in appearance the wood-fibers, but have transverse 
 walls, dividing them into parallelograms (or the end ones 
 triangular). Note that the walls are frequently perforated, 
 the openings appearing as slits or interruptions in the cell- 
 walls, best seen by strong illumination. 
 
CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS (Continoed). 
 
 PROSENCHYMATOUS CELLS AND TUBES. 
 
 Peosenchymatous tissues (Gr. pros = to or toward, 
 egchyma = an infusion) include in general those cells which 
 are greatly elongated, with pointed ends, usually overlapping, 
 and possessing greatly thickened walls. The truth of the 
 following quotation will appeal to the student : " How ap- 
 parent and convenient oft the distinction between paren- 
 chyma and prosenchyma appears, yet how little it can be 
 sharply drawn." But for the greater part we shall have little 
 trouble in distinguishing between them. 
 
 Prosenchymatous tissues include bast-fibers, wood-fibers, 
 vessels, and tracheids. 
 
 Bast-fibers (bast-cells, hard bast, sclerenchyma fibers, 
 liber fibers, stereids) are the most elongated of all vegetable 
 cells, their length in some instances being 4000 times their 
 width. They are cone-pointed, or taper very gradually to an 
 exceedingly fine point (flax) ; sometimes they have more or 
 less rounded ends (mezereon) ; they sometimes fork or branch 
 at the end. Their walls are usually very much thickened, 
 so that the lumen is reduced to a fine line (cinchona, glycyr- 
 rhiza) ; frequently they show canals or pores running from 
 the lumen to the circumference. 
 
 The lumen may extend uninterruptedly from end to end, 
 as in the silky bast-fibers of mezereon, where it shows a 
 slight expansion at the ends ; or it may be interrupted by the 
 extreme thickening of the walls, causing occlusion. 
 
 When the fibers occur in dense groups, as in cotton-root 
 bark and in glycyrrhiza, they are more or less compressed 
 laterally by mutual pressure, a transverse section showing 
 them to be somewhat quadrangular or polyhedral. 
 
 221 
 
222 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 Frequently they are strongly lignified, as in glycyrrhiza ; 
 but sometimes they have cellulose walls (mezereon, stillingia), 
 or they may be slightly lignified, as in hemp. 
 
 Some fibers show node-like appearances, easily seen in 
 flax (linen) ; others have analogous formations which appear 
 as bright cross-lines with rather high magnification and strong 
 illumination. They are seen in those fibers which are slightly 
 or not at all lignified. When boiled in Schultze's macera- 
 tion fluid and then rinsed in water, elm and mezereon fibers 
 tend to break up at these points. The inexperienced student 
 will hardly find these markings of great aid in pharma- 
 cognosy. 
 
 Immature bast-fibers may contain the usual cell-contents ; 
 but those found in official roots, rhizomes, and barks are 
 empty. 
 
 True bast-fibers (see Libriform Fibers, p. 223) occur in 
 the barks of Dicotyledonous roots and stems, and associated 
 with the woody portion of Monocotyledons. They are of 
 great importance in pharmacognosy by virtue of their pres- 
 ence or absence in a given specimen ; the ease with which 
 their presence is recognized ; their length ; the shape of their 
 ends ; the presence or absence of markings, such as pore 
 canals, nodes, or dislocations ; the thickness of their walls 
 and the nature of their composition ; together with their 
 occurrence singly or in groups and their relative numbers. 
 Unfortunately, these data are not always easily accessible to 
 the student for each drug, hence we must compare a given 
 specimen under examination with one of known identity 
 along the lines indicated. 
 
 Cinchona may be identified by the shape of its fibers, 
 which are some ten times as long as broad, and by their 
 occurrence in radial lines. Young belladonna root resembles 
 althsea, but the latter contains numerous bast-fibers and the 
 former few or none. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Tease apart, in a drop of water, a 
 fragment of elm, using two needles. If the tissue is teased 
 in water, the individual fibers tend to separate more readily 
 than if the tissue is merely wetted and laid upon the slide. 
 Examine in water. Similarly tease apart and examine a frag- 
 
PROSEJSCHYMATOUS CELLS AND TUBES. 223 
 
 ment of mezereon, and of the outer part of althaea. Take a 
 flue thread from a linen handkerchief and tease apart in 
 water. Observe the " nodes " and the very loug tapering 
 ends. Place a cotton hair beside the linen (flax) fiber for 
 comparison. Finally stain a fragment of each with very 
 dilute solution of green anilin, and examine after rinsing in 
 \\'ater, to see which are lignified (deeply stained). Examine 
 a longitudinal section of cinchona. Note the pore canals in 
 the bast-fibers. 
 
 Wood-fibers (libriform fibers ; wood-cells) have been 
 termed by Haberlandt the bast-cells of the wood, because of 
 their close resemblance to bast-fibers. 
 
 In general they are shorter, less flexible, and more fre- 
 quently branched at the end, and are more strongly lignified 
 than are the bast. In Dicotyledonous roots and stems they 
 are found in the woody portion, while the bast is found in 
 the bark ; but in Monocotyledons the bast and wood are more 
 intimately associated. 
 
 Sarsaparilla (the only official Monocotyledonous root) is 
 said to contain no bast-fibers, since none occur in the cortical 
 portion, but its wood-fibers are indistinguishable from bast- 
 fibers, and, as has been said, may be indifferently called by 
 either name. The wood-cells of official drugs are usually 
 empty, or at least contain nothing of interest. What has 
 been said of the importance of bast-fibers in pharmacognosy 
 applies to the wood-fibers in a somewhat lesser degree. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Take a fragment of guaiac wood, tease 
 apart the fibers in water, preferably after they have been 
 macerated in a mixture of alcohol, water, and glycerin ; 
 mount in dilute glycerin and examine. The isolated fibers 
 are about half a millimeter in length by some 18 microns in 
 thickness when mounted in dilute glycerin.' They taper 
 toward either end. 
 
 A fragment of quassia teased apart will show fibers very 
 similar in general appearance, but longer (more than one 
 
 ' Measurements made in aqueous media may not exactly agree with those 
 made in such media as cause the tissues to contract, or with those made 
 upon the intact tissues ; but in pharmacognosy we nearly always examine 
 tissues in such media. 
 
224 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 millimeter — 1050 microns), the diameter being about the 
 same as that of guaiac. Boil a fragment of guaiao or quassia 
 in water for a few moments, and make a small section (it 
 need not be very thin). Stain it with solution of anilin, ac- 
 cording to previous directions ; note with what avidity it 
 takes up anilin from the water, leaving the latter colorless. 
 
 Vessels (ducts) are formed by rows of cells which be- 
 come confluent, either by the free perforation or the disappear- 
 ance of their intervening walls. A continuous tube is thus 
 formed. The number of cells which may enter into the forma- 
 tion of a single vessel is very considerable ; but for the sake 
 of convenience we shall consider them as single elements. 
 They serve for the transmission of watery solution from the 
 roots to the leaves and other remote parts of the plant. They 
 are found in every part of flowering plants, though they may 
 be replaced in individual cases by tracheids. Tschirch would 
 limit the term "vessel "to those in which coalescence has 
 actually occurred ; but Sachs considers the otherwise identical 
 elements found in the young part of leaves as properly 
 included in the term. 
 
 The individual cells composing a vessel are usually of 
 nearly uniform diameter, giving to the latter a cylindric 
 shape, as in apocynum and aspidium ; but sometimes they 
 appear constricted at the point of union, the intermediate parts 
 being expanded much like a barrel (as in glycyrrhiza, Fig. 
 15, A). 
 
 The vessels, when present, are very conspicuous, both in 
 transverse and in longitudinal sections. In the former they 
 appear mostly as large circular openings ; in the latter their 
 length, breadth, and peculiar marking attract the attention. 
 Sometimes they may be distinctly seen with the naked eye ; 
 this is the case in pareira, in which they are found measuring 
 260 microns in diameter ; in calumba they are nearly as large. 
 These drugs are both derived from long climbing plants, in 
 which the vessels are frequently found even exceeding the 
 figures given. 
 
 In other cases the diameter of the vessels may approximate; 
 that of the neighboring cells ; thus, in apocynum there are 
 primary vessels of but 20 microns, and others of more than 
 
PROSENCIIYMATOVS CELLS AND TUBES. 
 
 225 
 
 100 microns, in diameter. The individual segments of a vessel 
 are sometimes notably longer than broad. This is generally 
 the case in apocynum. In other cases their length and diam- 
 eter are approximately equal. 
 
 The component parts of a vessel are usually joined in such 
 a way that the partition is at right angles to the length of the 
 vessels, but sometimes the parts unite by oblique ends. While 
 the length and diameter of vessels render them so conspicu- 
 ous, their value in pliarmacognosy depends not less upon the 
 sculpturings of their \valls, which give rise to appearances by 
 which the vessels are known, as spiral, pitted, reticulated, or 
 
 Fig. 15.— Vessels : A, Pitted ; B, spiral ; C, double spiral ; D, scalariform. 
 
 scalariform. Owing to the importance of these sculpturings, 
 they will be described somewhat in detail. 
 
 Spiral and annular vessels have the thickening in the shape 
 of spirals and rings deposited upon the inner surface of the 
 original cellulose of their walls, the deposit being strongly 
 lignified. There may be a single continuous spiral (Fig. 16, b), 
 or the spirals may be double, in which case they appear to 
 cross each other at right angles when both upj^er and under 
 surfaces are in view at once (Fig. 15, c). In some cases there 
 are an even greater number of spirals, but they do not interest 
 us here. Annular vessels have these thickenings deposited 
 as rings. 
 
 By maceration in nitric acid and potassium chlorate the 
 more delicate ground substance of the original cell-wall may 
 
226 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 be dissolved, the spirals and rings remaining. The former 
 are often seen in sections, pulled out to some length, owing 
 to the fact that they are caught by the razor and pulled away 
 from the more delicate groundwork of the cell (Fig. 16). 
 
 Pitted or dotted vessels have minute thin places which 
 appear as short narrow slits (5 microns in glycyrrhiza). 
 These look like perforations, but are in reality spaces where 
 no thickening has appeared ; and since so much more light 
 penetrates them, they shine by contrast. In glycyrrhiza 
 (Fig. 15, a) these are quite regularly disposed. 
 
 The formation of reticulated and scalariform vessels is simi- 
 lar to that of the pitted, except that in the scalariform the 
 thin spaces are longer and are arranged side by side, with great 
 regularity in aspidium (Fig. 15, t>); hence the name scalari- 
 form (from L. scalere, a ladder or stair-steps). When these 
 
 I 
 
 ¥ia. 16.— Section of podophyllum, showing spiral drawn out. 
 
 thin places are irregular in length and arrangement, variously 
 overlapping, the vessels are called reticulated. Obviously 
 there is no sharp distinction among the last three. 
 
 In mature tissues vessels are always strongly lignified, and 
 lignification takes place very early in most cases ; even the 
 vessels of the delicate stigmas of crocus show this lignifica- 
 tion. 
 
 The vessels in official drugs ordinarily appear empty, con- 
 taining at most a watery solution ; occasionally they are found 
 with starch or other substance. In dense woods they often 
 become entirely filled with resin or other matter. 
 
 "Vessels are of the utmost importance in pharmacognosy, 
 because of the ease with which they are usually recognized 
 (but it should be remembered that a fragment of a vessel may 
 not always be distinguishable from a traoheid). In powders 
 their significant points are : their size and the character of 
 
FROSENCEYMATOVS CELLS AND TUBES. 227 
 
 markings, whether they are united into cylindric tubes or 
 have their components barrel-shaped ; whether they unite by 
 right angles or oblique surfaces ; their relative abundance is 
 of great importance. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Examine a longitudinal section of any 
 official root except ipecac, after staining with anilin. Exam- 
 ine a fragment of a thin leaf, such as coca, after heating for a 
 few moments in saturated alcoholic solution of potassa and 
 rinsing in water ; if the vessels are not distinctly visible in the 
 smaller veins, scrape off the epidermis and then examine. 
 Stain a thin section of squill and compare its vessels with 
 those found in a longitudinal section of glycyrrhiza, meni- 
 spermum, or pareira. 
 
 Tracheids diifer from vessels in that the individual cells 
 remain separated and do not fuse. Their walls show mark- 
 ings and sculpturings like those of vessels. This serves to 
 distinguish them from wood-fibers, which they resemble 
 closely in shape. Their ends are usually pointed and over- 
 lapping. 
 
 In some cases, however, the ends are flattened and placed in apposition, 
 so as to resemble a tube. The resemblance is only supei-ficial, for the parti- 
 tions persist, communication existing only by means of the openings to be 
 shortly described or by the thin places which remain when thickening occui-s 
 over the greater part of the cell-wall. While these formations are there- 
 fore strictly tracheids, according to the classification of Tschirch their mor- 
 phologic resemblance to vessels is so close that we shall consider them as 
 vessels in this work. The so-called spiral vessels of aspidium are an 
 example. 
 
 The length of tracheids, though variable, is comparable to 
 that of the wood-fibers. In ipecac root, where they replace 
 both vessels and wood-fibers, they average about half a milli- 
 meter in length (400 to 500 microns). . 
 
 In the Coniferous woods — pine, spruce, etc. — they not only 
 attain to a considerable length (up to four millimeters), but 
 they have peculiar markings, to which the name "bordered 
 pits " has been given. These appear as openings surrounded 
 by rings and consist of flattened or hemispheric thickenings 
 with an opening in the center (Fig. 17). Two of these occur- 
 ring in contiguous cells form a hollow sphere with the oppo- 
 site openings separated by the thin film (torus) of the 
 
228 
 
 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 original dividing cellulose wall, which is ordinarily invis- 
 ible, so that the two cells seem to have uninterrupted com- 
 munication. This dividing septum permits watery solutions 
 to pass freely. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Take several thin longitudinal sections 
 of a match-stick, boil for a moment in water, or let them lie 
 in water to expel air-bubbles ; ex- 
 amine in water or dilute glycerin. 
 The tracheids with their circular 
 markings are very easily seen (any 
 Coniferous wood answers equally 
 well). The central woody part of 
 ipecac root is not easily cut longi- 
 tudinally, but if sections are at hand, 
 examine them and notice the differ- 
 ence in the markings of those tra- 
 cheids and the ones seen in the pine. 
 Draw a tracheid and its bordered 
 pits. 
 
 Sieve-tissues or sieve-cells 
 are closely allied to vessels in that 
 they, like the former, are composed 
 of a series or row of cells placed end 
 
 B 
 
 m: 
 
 Fig. 17. — Tracheids, show- 
 ing the bordered pits: ^,Two 
 apposed openings, showing 
 P, torus, and L, middle 
 lamella; B, numerous pits 
 upon surface of a tracheid. 
 
 to end and forming tubes of consid- 
 
 erable length. The partitions or walls 
 separating the cells of the sieve-tubes are not absorbed, how- 
 ever, but are perforated with a great number of minute open- 
 ings, through which the cell-contents pass from member to 
 member or through the tube. 
 
 Sometimes the partitions separating the parts of the tube 
 are nearly at a right angle to the direction of the tube (as in 
 the pumpkin. Fig. 18), but sometimes they are oblique, or 
 the plates may be upon the sides of adjoining cells. These 
 openings or sieve-plates never communicate with other neigh- 
 boring tissues. 
 
 Sieve-tubes also differ from vessels in that they never have 
 the peculiar thickenings (sculpturings) found upon the latter; 
 nor do their walls become lignified — ^they further never attain 
 the conspicuous diameter of ducts ; rarely, in official drugs, 
 
PROSENCHYMATOUS CELLS AND TUBES. 
 
 229 
 
 /, 
 
 having a diameter exceeding 10 to 20 microns (indeed, as 
 usually seen, they are the collapsed remains of tubes which 
 are no longer active). 
 
 Since sieve-cells serve to conduct certain albuminoid sub- 
 stances which never traverse the vessels, they 
 are the essential parts of the phloem (p. 242). 
 
 With the coming of winter the pores or 
 openings in the sieve-plates are partially or 
 completely closed by a deposition of callus 
 which is reabsorbed in the spring. In older 
 tubes solution of the callus fails to occur, and 
 the tubes become obliterated by pressure of 
 surrounding tissue. 
 
 Sieve-tubes traverse every organ of the 
 plant. In the roots and stems of Dicotyle- 
 dons they occur in the bark, but in Mono- 
 cotyledons they are found associated with 
 the vessels in masses which may be sepa- 
 rated in the form of strings ; these are the 
 fibrovascular bundles, in which their distri- 
 bution will be further considered. Excep- 
 tionally in official Dicotyledonous roots (gen- 
 tian) they occur in the central woody part, 
 where they may be seen as collapsed cells. 
 Careful search will show some of the sieve- 
 plates, by which they may be recognized, in 
 the neighborhood of some of the vessels. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — To demonstrate them, 
 a longitudinal section of fresh pumpkin stem 
 is placed in alcohol for a day to kill the proto- 
 plasm, which is then stained by placing the 
 section in eosin (No. 8). The stained pro- 
 toplasm is found in masses near the sieve- 
 plates, and sometimes tlie fine threads may 
 be traced through the pores. 
 
 Sieve-tubes show so little variation in different drugs that 
 they are unimportant in pharmacognosy. In glycyrrhiza the 
 collapsed cells may be seen abundantly in the bast region, 
 but in the powder of this drug they become so broken as to 
 
 Fig. 18.— Sieve- 
 tnbes from pump- 
 kin stem. 
 
230 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 be almost or quite unrecognizable. Indeed, sieve-tubes are 
 so inconspicuous that they long escaped observation. 
 
 When advisable these may simply be demonstrated by the 
 instructor. 
 
 Companion cells, so named because they occur inti- 
 mately associated with sieve-tubes (being formed at the same 
 time from the same mother-cell or cambium) and communi- 
 cate with them by means of minute openings or pores. They 
 are somewhat narrower than the sieve-tubes, and are not 
 joined by the sieve-plates into tubes, but remain independent 
 cells. 
 
 Their walls consist of cellulose and remain thin. Their 
 contents are similar to those of the sieve-tubes, which they 
 further resemble in function. They may be seen in the sec- 
 tion of pumpkin stem with the sieve-tubes, but it is not 
 always easy to distinguish them except in very thin sections. 
 When the thickened plates are seen in the tubes, they are 
 easily distinguished by that characteristic and by the greater 
 diameter of the sieve-tubes. 
 
 What has been said of the lack of importance of the 
 sieve-tubes in pharmacognosy applies with even greater force 
 to the companion cells, which are mentioned here that the 
 student may understand, rather than employ, them in the 
 identification of drugs. 
 
 The name companion cells was given the application just 
 mentioned by Wilhelm, and generally applies to them. Eus- 
 sow applied the name to wood parenchyma cells associated 
 with tracheids. Of course, the term is not a scientific one, 
 but is sanctioned by usage in connection with the cells 
 accompanying sieve-tubes. 
 
 I/aticiferous ^ tissues comprise several kinds of cells or 
 vegetable elements, principal among them being those in 
 which a number of cells unite to form tubes, or in some cases 
 a mesh of communicating cells or tubes. These are called 
 laticiferous vessels or tubes. Their walls consist of cellulose, 
 and are never lignified. They are usually very thin, but may 
 occasionally be very much thickened. In these vessels the 
 
 'Variously written "laticiferous" (L. fato = liquid, and /erre = tobear) ; 
 "lactiferous" (L. /ac = niilk) ; and " lacticiferous." 
 
PR08ENCHYMAT0VS CELLS AND TUBES. 231 
 
 formation of tubes is analogous to that of spiral and other 
 vessels of the wood ; but they have the peculiar property of 
 forming a very free communication (anastomosis) or network 
 by means of branches sent out in every direction. 
 
 Another variety is formed by the extraordinary tubular 
 development of a cell which freely branches but forms no 
 anastomosis. 
 
 A formation analogous in many respects to laticiferous 
 vessels consists of cells containing milk-juice, occurring in 
 rows, but not forming tubes ; such, for instance, are found 
 among Monocotyledons, in which true laticiferous vessels are 
 wanting. They may also be seen in the tuber of jalap. 
 ■ Laticiferous vessels occur in plants of but a few natural 
 orders, in which they seem to take the place of sieve-tubes. 
 Though the precise function of the milk-vessels is not known, 
 Tschirch inclines to the belief that it is partly excretory, 
 partly conducting or for the carrying of reserve material ; 
 and in those plants where they are very well developed the 
 sieve-tubes, whose function is purely conducting, are either 
 few or absent. 
 
 The laticiferous vessels penetrate to all organs of the plants 
 in which they are found, intimately associated with or re- 
 placing sieve-tubes. In the genus Acer (maple), according 
 to Sachs, the sieve-tubes are transformed into laticiferous ves- 
 sels, while the same author regards the laticiferous vessels 
 found in the woody part of arum as metamorphosed spiral 
 vessels. Since they are usually found in or near the sieve 
 portion, we look for them in the bark of roots and stems. 
 
 The latex is usually white in color, becoming brownish 
 upon drying. It is an emulsion and consists of a great 
 variety of substances, very commonly caoutchouc, gums, 
 resins, sometimes starch, etc. Opium is the latex of the 
 unripe capsule of Papaver somniferum. 
 
 Laticiferous vessels are not very important in pharmacog- 
 nosy, since they occur in comparatively few official drugs, and 
 in most of these there are other and more important means 
 of identification. 
 
 A transverse section of taraxacum shows to the naked eye 
 a number of irregular dark circles in the bark, due to the 
 
232 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 system of latieiferous vessels. If a freshly gathered speci- 
 men of this root be cut into small pieces and put into alcohol 
 containing a little iodin, the juice is coagulated by the alcohol 
 and stained brown by the iodin. If sections are made from 
 these pieces after some time, the tubes appear very distinctly. 
 
 Simple latieiferous vessels, not anastomosing, may be seen 
 in the bark of the official apocynum root or in that of the 
 very closely allied Apocynum androssemifolium, which is 
 very commonly sold in place of the official. 
 
 Longitudinal sections show their long tubular character 
 and granular contents. In the transverse sections they may 
 be recognized by their diameter, which exceeds that of the 
 parenchyma cells surrounding them ; here their walls are . 
 somewhat thickened. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Boil for a few minutes a tangential 
 longitudinal section of taraxacum root (or one of the smaller 
 rootlets of lobelia, the official, or any other species may be 
 used entire) in very dilute solution of potassa, one-half per 
 cent, approximately ; mount the section of taraxacum, or 
 only of the easily separable bark of the rootlet, in glycerin. 
 The alkaline solution renders the other tissues clear, and the 
 latieiferous tubes are seen as irregularly branching brownish 
 tubes containing granular matter. 
 
 Receptacles for secretions and excretions are of more 
 importance from the physiologic than the anatomic point of 
 view. In some cases they are of importance in pharmacog- 
 nosy, such as the oil-spaces in the different fruits of the 
 Umbellifera, in orange- and lemon-peel, in clove and mace, 
 in the leaves of eucalyptus and buchu, and in many roots 
 of the Compositse (see also Cell-contents, pp. 188—199). 
 
 They are of considerable interest in connection with the 
 substances derived from them, as in the case of many vola- 
 tile oils and oleoresin of copaiba. The latter is contained in 
 tubes sometimes an inch in diameter and extending the entire 
 length of the trunk of the tree. In an elementary work of 
 this character mention can be made of but a few of the many 
 kinds. 
 
 Secretion receptacles and those for excretion may be here 
 considered together. The term " secretion " is applied to 
 
PROSENCHYMATOVS CELLS AND TUBES. 233 
 
 those substances separated by means of certain cells (glands) 
 from the general mass of cell-contents, and intended for 
 future use by the plant; and "excretion" to substances 
 similarly separated, but to be cast off, or at least excluded, 
 from any part in active processes. But no sharp distinction 
 can be drawn between them, much less between the cells con- 
 cerned in their separation as excretory or secretory cells. 
 
 Inasmuch as the same tissue may perform different func- 
 tions, any classification must include tissues which can equally 
 well be included under more than one head. 
 
 Epidermal glands were mentioned in connection with the 
 epidermis (see p. 202), because they consist of modified epi- 
 dermal cells ; it is only necessary in this place to call atten- 
 tion to the fact that they form a part of the system of recep- 
 tacles for excretion and secretion. 
 
 Excretion receptacles are very widely distributed ; most 
 of the official drugs or other parts of the plants yielding them 
 have these receptacles in greater or less abundance. 
 
 Volatile oil, resin, and mucilage cells usually show the 
 typical parenchyma form, being more or less roundish in 
 shape, having cellulose and cork-walls ; or they may con- 
 sist of pure or nearly pure cellulose, as is the case in the 
 rhizome of calamus (Fig. 21). They may be distinguished 
 from the parenchyma surrounding them by being more trans- 
 parent and notably larger, as in those of calamus just men- 
 tioned ; or they may be smaller, as in the shell of cardamom ; 
 in other cases they may show no difference in point of size. 
 
 They occur either as isolated cells, in which case they are 
 usually distributed without order through the tissue of the 
 organ (as in the rhizome of iris) ; or they may be found in 
 rows, somewhat resembling laticiferous tubes, but remaining 
 independent (for example, those occurring in the fruit of 
 conium). 
 
 Certain mucilage cells may be mentioned in this place. 
 Gums and the nearly related mucilages are either produced 
 by a transformation of all or a part of the cell-wall into those 
 substances ; or rarely they may be secreted into special cells, 
 as in the case of cusso. In most cases mucilage occurs as a 
 secondary thickening or deposit upon the inner cell-wall or 
 
234 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 as the product of the metamorphosis of a part of the wall. 
 This is seen in the large mucilage cells of elm bark. Secre- 
 tions and excretions may also be contained in tubes or pas- 
 sages. These may be formed by the fusion of cells, or they 
 may be true intercellular spaces. In some cases it is quite 
 easy to determine by which of these methods they have 
 arisen. In other cases it is very difficult. 
 
 Oil-spaces due to cell fusion and cd^ed lysigenic (Gr. lyo 
 = to dissolve ; gennao = I produce) are formed by the dis- 
 appearance (solution^ of groups of associated cells which had 
 previously contained, drops of oil. These were in some in- 
 stances similar to the surrounding cells, in other cases dis- 
 similar. They may occur in the deep-lying tissues, or the 
 epidermis may participate. In the latter circumstance they 
 are sometimes called internal glands, in contradistinction to 
 those formed externally and mentioned in connection with 
 the cells of the epidermis (p. 205). Such spaces may be 
 found in the peel of orange and lemon, where they attain 
 great size (one millimeter diameter, Fliickiger ; 400 to 500 
 microns, Tschirch; 600 microns, Hatcher). They are in- 
 closed by a special form of cells, which, however, do not 
 secrete oil into the spaces. 
 
 Oil-spaces or balsam passages due to the formation of 
 intercellular spaces (see also Intercellular Spaces, p. 236) and 
 called sohizogenio (Grr. schizo = to cleave ; gennao = I pro- 
 duce) are formed by the forcing asunder of four adjoining 
 cells and their subsequent division into daughter-cells, which 
 secrete the oil or balsam and pour it into the space so formed. 
 Reference to Fig. 19 will- make the formation easily under- 
 stood. By the prolongation of this space long tubes or oil- 
 passages are formed. Sach are the oil-spaces in most of the 
 Umbelliferous fruits, fennel, etc. (conium, previously men- 
 tioned, p. 234, being an exception), in clove, pimenta, savin 
 (leaf), inula, pyrethrum, arnica. Important products ob- 
 tained from schizogenic passages include oleoresins from the 
 Coniferse and many gum-resins (ammoniac and asafetida). 
 
 While the individual receptacles are not usually sufficiently 
 characterized to render them useful in the identification of 
 vegetable powders, their relative numbers and distribution 
 
PBOSENOHYMATOUS CELLS AND TUBES. 
 
 235 
 
 may be of greater importance in the recognition of the sec- 
 tioned drugs. Thus in arnica rhizome they are usually found 
 one opposite to each fibrovascalar bundle in the bark; in 
 inula they are freely distributed throughout the root, and in 
 
 '^'^Lji 
 
 
 y^ 
 
 OcprtJ 
 
 Fig. 19.— Showing the development of an oil nr balsam receptacle, or ' 
 from an intercellular space ; A, Shows four cells, ff, q, g, q, which in B have sepa- 
 rated, the walls being convex toward the space, but in C and V becoming concave ; 
 in JTthe space has become elongated. The boundary-cells divide (as do the older 
 cells in some cases) in 7? and G, when the space is fully formed and surrounded by 
 the secreting cells (Muller). 
 
 pyrethrum they are even more numerous and equally dis- 
 tributed. In the fruits of the Umbelliferffi the number of 
 the oil-tubes is very characteristic for each fruit : Coriander, 
 2 in each mericarp ; anise, about 15; fennel and caraway, 
 each 6. 
 
236 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 Sachs states that laticiferous vessels are usually absent in 
 those plants which have secretion canals, exceptions men- 
 tioned include lappa and some other Compositse, and in these 
 cases they are found in different tissue systems. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Examine transverse sections of arnica 
 (rhizome), inula, pyrethrum, and lappa, and approximately 
 estimate the relative numbers of oil-spaces. Note their dis- 
 tribution, whether more numerous in bark or wood. Make 
 a section of lemon- or orange-peel and note the large size of 
 the oil-spaces and whether they are connected with the epi- 
 dermis or not. Examine transverse sections of fennel or 
 other Umbelliferous fruit (except conium), and of cloves. 
 
 Fig 20. — Parenchyma from aconite, showing intercellular spaces (i). 
 
 Intercellular spaces should be considered here, since 
 they present, in sections of organs, appearances often no less 
 typical than are many of the cells. Mention has been pre- 
 viously made of these spaces (p. 207), and in this place 
 reference will be made only to a few of the more typical 
 forms. They may be very minute, as in the parenchyma of 
 ipecac and other roots, where they are usually nearly trian- 
 gular spaces left at the angles of cells (Fig. 20), or they 
 rriay be much larger than the cells which surround them, as 
 in the parenchyma of calamus (Fig. 21, /), and to a less 
 extent in iris. In the former they appear nearly circular, 
 
PBUSENCHYMATOUS CELLS AND TUBES. 237 
 
 separated from each other by a network composed of single 
 rows of cells. Between these there are all gradations of 
 shape and size. They play a very important role in the 
 leaves in connection with the stomata previously mentioned, 
 and in water and marsh plants. They are less important but 
 widely distributed in nearly all organs. If we except the 
 openings of the stomata, they do not occur in the epidermis 
 (though so important beneath it) nor in the endosperm of 
 
 Fig. 21. — Calamus (transverse section) : B, Fibrovascular bundle of the concen- 
 tric type (vessels surrounding the phloem) within the nucleus sheath ; C, B, iibro- 
 vascular bundle of collateral type, outside of the nucleus sheath, going to a leaf; 
 /, large intercellular space; I', intercellular space in the bundle; S, nucleus 
 sheath ; V, vessel. 
 
 seeds, few in medullary rays, nor do they separate the cells 
 of the endodermis sheath, and are usually insignificant in 
 dense woody tissues. 
 
 In general, plants growing in dry places have small inter- 
 cellular spaces, while those in moist places have large ones. 
 
 Intercellular spaces illustrate the diversity of uses to which 
 similar or analogous structures are put by the plant. They 
 enable the air to come into intimate contact with the starch- 
 forming parenchyma of the leaf; in other instances they are 
 
238 SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF CELLS. 
 
 utilized as storage receptacles or may be made especially for 
 that purpose. 
 
 Practical Exercise. — Examine sections of calamus, showing 
 large intercellular spaces of marsh plant (Fig. 21), aspidium, 
 and a transverse section of any official leaf. Note that these 
 latter permit the air to come into contact with most of the 
 interior parenchyma cells of the leaf. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 TISSUES AND ORGANS. 
 
 TISSUES. 
 
 Tissues are groups of cells, alike or unlike, united for the 
 performance of a definite function. Ndgeli classified all the 
 tissues as meristem, or that which gives rise to new cells by 
 division ; and permanent, or that which is incapable of cell- 
 division. 
 
 Meristetn is the name given to the cells which, by their 
 active division, give birth to new cells. 
 
 Primary meristem is that found at the growing points of 
 organs, and, in fact, the whole of the embryonic organ is 
 meristematic ; as the organ enlarges the meristem becomes 
 separated by permanent cells. Thus in Dicotyledons that 
 portion of meristem situated beneath the cork and giving rise 
 to cork and phloem parenchyma is called phellogen, or cork 
 cambium .5 that portion between wood and bark is called cam- 
 bium ; if between the two masses of a fibrovascular bundle, 
 it may be termed fascicular cambium ; that portion separat- 
 ing bark parenchyma from the central mass of parenchyma 
 is called interfascicular cambium. The fascicular cambium, 
 by subdivision of its cells, gives rise to new cells to form 
 additional vessel masses toward the center and new sieve- 
 masses toward the circumference. The interfascicular cam- 
 bium gives off parenchyma in both directions. 
 
 Tissues have been variously grouped by different authors, 
 but the groupings are of minor importance from the purely 
 pharmacognostic point of view, hence but brief mention. will 
 be made of them here. 
 
 Sachs' morphologic classification, which is frequently em- 
 ployed, groups them into three systems : 
 
 1. The epidermal system corresponding to those already 
 
 239 
 
240 
 
 TISSUES AND ORGANS. 
 
 mentioned under that head ; tlie epidermis and its append- 
 ages ; and cork ; this system has a fairly well-defined phys- 
 iologic function — i. e., protection of the inner tissues. 
 
 2. The jibrovascular system comprises very dissimilar ele- 
 ments, such as vessels, sieve-cells, and bast-fibers with 
 
 Fig. 22. — Transverse section of aspidiura : cp., Epidermis ; m, an intercellular 
 space into which projects a gland, g (not usually seen easily). One entire and part 
 of a second fibrovascular bundle are seen, consisting of E, endoderm ; 6, the 
 phloem, and V, vessels (Godfrin and Noel). 
 
 equally dissimilar functions, forming a skeleton framework 
 and serving for conduction. The fibrovascular bundles or 
 strings of Monocotyledons and Ferns form well-characterized 
 groups or bundles, but the average student seems to find it 
 more difiicult to comprehend the wedge-like masses of tissues 
 in Dicotyledons as forming definite groups. 
 
TISSUES. 241 
 
 A transverse section of aspidium (Fig. 22) illustrates the 
 Fern type of arrangement of these bundles in the stem. They 
 form an interrupted circle of about ten principal bundles, each 
 of them roundish or oval in outline, composed of an outer 
 circle of cells with thickened walls inclosing two masses — 
 the central mass, composed of wide, thick-walled cells — the 
 vessels (or vessel-like tracheids) — the lateral or outer mass 
 partially or completely surrounding the inner, composed of 
 thin-walled cells — the sieve portion. Though no bast or 
 other fibers are present, it retains the name of iibrovascular 
 bundle. 
 
 The Monocotyledonous type of arrangement is seen in cala- 
 mus and iris. The individual bundles resemble rather closely 
 those of the Fern, with the diiference in most cases that while 
 Ferns have the vessels in the center, Monocotyledons have the 
 masses lying side by side (collateral bundles), or they have 
 the vessels surrounding the sieve portion (Fig. 21, E). In 
 the distribution of the bundles there is a great difference, how- 
 ever ; instead of the few well-developed in the Fern, we find 
 great numbers in the Monocotyledon, not grouped in a circle, 
 but scattered without any apparent order, save that they are 
 massed more thickly near the endodermal sheath. Those upon 
 the outside of the sheath, on their way to enter leaves (where 
 they form veins), have their parts rearranged into the collat- 
 eral form, which is the one found in the leaf (Fig. 21, C, B). 
 Where either mass surrounds the other it is called a concentric 
 bundle ; when the vessels and other constituents lie side by 
 side, collateral. This distinction is made whether the bundle 
 is surrounded by an endodermal sheath or not. 
 
 Bicollateral bundles (one mass between two others) are of 
 no interest here. 
 
 Dicotyledons have collateral bundles in roots and stems, 
 the vessel portion usually forming a more or less wedge-like 
 mass, constituting the woody part, and the sieve portion, 
 separated from it by the layer of cambium, lying in the bark 
 — raenispermum (Fig. 29). 
 
 Those fibrovascular bundles which have a cambium layer 
 are called open or growing; those without are called closed. 
 
 The masses of the vessel portion (which includes wood- 
 
 16 
 
242 TISSUES AND ORGANS. 
 
 fiber, parenchyma, and vessels in many cases) are separated 
 from each other by medullary rays or by masses of paren- 
 chyma cells. 
 
 Eadial fibrovascular bundles are of minor importance in 
 pharmacognosy, being found in very young roots, as in sarsa- 
 parilla. In this form the masses alternate like the spokes of 
 a wheel and the spaces between them (Fig. 24). 
 
 The vessel-masses are sometimes called xylem (Gr. xylon 
 = wood) and the sieve-masses, ■ phloem (Gr. phloios = bark), 
 even though they are found in Monocotyledons which have 
 no bark. 
 
 3. The fundamental system, the third system of Sachs, in- 
 cludes those tissues in which the fibrovascular tissue is dis- 
 tributed. 
 
 Haberlandt, whose classification is followed by Tschirch, 
 divides the tissues into the following systems : 
 
 1. Meristem, corresponding to the meristem of Sachs. 
 
 2. Protective, embracing the epidermal and the mechanically 
 supporting (fibers, etc.). 
 
 3. One including the absorbing system of the roots (hairs) ; 
 the assimilating system of the leaves (leaf parenchyma, the 
 conducting system through which dissolved material is trans- 
 mitted (vessels, sieve-tubes, etc.) ; the storage system, where 
 reserve material for food is stored ; the respiratory system, in- 
 cluding air-spaces and passages, and the system for secretion 
 and excretion with their storage reservoirs. 
 
 4. The reproductive system. 
 
 HISTOLOGY OF PLANT ORGANS. 
 
 General Histology of the Root. — The extreme tip 
 or growing part of a root has a root-cap for the protection of 
 the younger cells. It may be seen if any growing rootlet tip 
 be examined — as, for instance, that of grass. It is of no 
 interest in pharmacognosy. The very young root has an epi- 
 dermis similar to that already described, but lacking the 
 stomata ; near the tip it bears numerous hairs which soon 
 wither except in sarsaparilla, the only official root showing 
 them in considerable numbers. 
 
 The root consists at this stage of the cortex and central 
 
HISTOLOGY OF PLANT ORGANS. 243 
 
 cylinder separated by an endoderniis sheatli. The cortex is 
 very variable, consisting of few or many of the tissues, as 
 hitherto mentioned. The central cylinder consists of a radial 
 fibrovascular bundle with a variable number of masses (4 in 
 the Cruciferse to 100 in Indian corn). Since but one Mono- 
 cotyledonous root — sarsaparilla — is official, beside the rootlets 
 attached to the Monocotyledonous rliizomes it will serve as 
 an example of the development of that type (Fig- 24). 
 
 The epidermis persists, showing numerous short, straight 
 hairs. Within the epidermis is a layer of rather thick-walled 
 endodermal cells, the remainder of the cortex forming a broad 
 zone of ordinary parenchyma. The cortex is separated from 
 the central cylinder by an endodermis consisting of but a 
 single row or circle of cells having characteristically thickened 
 walls. Next to the endodermis is a woody zone, consisting 
 of numerous masses of xylem and phloem (vessel and sieve 
 portions). The center of the root is occupied by the pith, 
 composed of thin-walled parenchyma, or these may be lignified. 
 
 Dicotyledonous roots usually show considerably greater 
 changes from the type of the very young root. In these 
 cork usually di'splaces the epidermis, and the remainder of 
 the bark and the central cylinder resemble the stem in struct- 
 ure, save that the pith is more frequently wanting in the 
 roots. 
 
 Practical Exercises. — Examine transverse section of sar- 
 saparilla and of the rootlets of cyprcpedium, veratrum viride, 
 and convallaria according to the outline given above. 
 
 General Histology of the Stem.— The very young 
 stem has no cap covering its growing point, and for the rest 
 resembles a very young root in its tissue arrangement, but it 
 is the developed stem with which we are really concerned. 
 
 The Fern type of stem is the simplest of the three found 
 among official drugs. Aspidium, the only official example, 
 may be taken for the type (Fig. 22). 
 
 The outermost layer of cells have rather thickened walls, 
 differing somewhat from the endodermal layer beneath the 
 epidermis of sarsaparilla ; the remainder of the entire rhi- 
 zome consists of thin-wall parenchyma, except for the fibro- 
 vascular bundles. 
 
244 
 
 TISSUES AND ORGANS. 
 
 Fig. 23.— rurcuma (transverse sec- 
 tion) : iS, Cork (subereous) : I, liber or bast ; 
 V, vessels, these latter two forming the 
 concentric fibrovascular bundles (God- 
 I'rin and Noel). 
 
 This commonlv occurs in old 
 
 The Monocotyledonous 
 type of stem (Fig. 23) con- 
 sists of the epidermis, or 
 corky layer, with a cortical 
 zone of parenchyma sepa- 
 rated from the central pa- 
 renchyma by the endoder- 
 mis, with many fibrovas- 
 cular bundles scattered 
 through both zones, much 
 more numerous within the 
 endodermis ; these bundles 
 being " closed " (having no 
 cambium zone), soon cease 
 to grow in diameter, hence 
 such stems soon reach their 
 maximum size. 
 
 The Dicotyledonous type 
 of stem has an epidermis if 
 young and green, or an outer 
 cork layer if some years old; 
 beneath this is a layer either 
 of cork or of parenchyma, 
 or both, in the order named, 
 and then the innermost layer 
 of the bark, the bast-fiber re- 
 gion. A layer of cork may 
 be formed in any of these re- 
 gions, and since this is im- 
 pervious to liquids, every- 
 thing outside of it soon 
 dies, so that even a portion 
 of the bast layer may be 
 separated ; in which case 
 there would remain only 
 the outer cork and the re- 
 mainder of the bast region, 
 and woody Dicotyledons. 
 
 The next layer, separating the bark from the wood, is 
 
HISTOLOGY OF PLANT ORGANS. 245 
 
 the cambium, inclosing the central cylinder or woody por- 
 tion. 
 
 The central cylinder consists of a circle of wedge-shaped 
 vessel-masses separated by medullary rays or parenchyma and 
 inclosing a pith of parenchyma. 
 
 The type is well illustrated by the rhizome of Menisper- 
 mum (Fig. 29), in which, however, the epidermis persists 
 and there is no cork layer, even in the second year. It must 
 be remembered that while these types are given, there are 
 many variations. 
 
 Practical Exercises. — Examine transverse sections of as- 
 pidium, calamus, and menispermum. Compare the latter, a 
 Dicotyledonous stem, with glycyrrhiza, a root of the same 
 class. 
 
 General Histology of the I/caf. — All the official 
 leaves are Dicotyledonous. Both surfaces of the leaf are 
 covered Avith the epidermis, and the remainder consists of 
 parenchyma through which run the veins. These consist of 
 fibrovascular bundles. The arrangement of the parenchyma 
 varies, forming two types. The " centric," as seen in pine 
 leaf (never in official leaves), having the parenchyma nearly 
 evenly distributed through the entire leaf; the -''bifacial," 
 having the palisade cells compactly arranged near the surface 
 and loose ordinary parenchyma toward the interior. The 
 latter type is very much more commonly seen. The petiole 
 consists usually of a closed collateral hurdle covered by the 
 epidermis ; as this bundle repeatedly divides to form the 
 smallest veinlets, it becomes depauperated (/. e., loses some 
 of its parts) until the smallest veinlet consists merely of a 
 vessel or two, really trachei'ds. 
 
 Practical Exercises. — Examine a tranverse section of a 
 portion of any official leaf taken across the midrib. 
 
 FlowefS con.sist of modified leaves, or rather they are 
 phyllomes, a kind of leaf. Their individual peculiarities 
 form the principal means of identification (stigmas of crocus 
 and various forms of pollen grain). 
 
 Fruits show too great variation in histology to permit of 
 useful generalization. 
 
 Seeds consist of two coats, frequently blended, and of 
 
246 TISSUES AND ORGANS. 
 
 the albumin and the cotyledons. One or both coats are very 
 often adherent to the albumin. The outer surface, or epi- 
 dermis, shows a considerable variety of structure, examj^les 
 of which are seen in flax-seed and in nux vomica. 
 
 The following drugs have been selected for illustrating the study of his- 
 tology. These illustrations should be carefully compared with sections of 
 the drugs in order to familiarize the student with the vai-ious forms of cells 
 and tissues. When these have been carefully studied and drawn from the 
 sections, the student is ready to proceed with the consideration of others, as 
 may be deemed important, at the discretion of the teacher. 
 
 Too great stress cannot be placed upon the value of carefully made 
 drawings, since, as before stated, this compels a close attention to detail, and 
 points which would otherwise escape the attention are observed. 
 
 Good histologic descriptions of most of the official as well as many un- 
 official drugs may be found in the dispensatories, and more especially scat- 
 tered through the volumes of the Proceedings of the American Pharma^evr 
 ' tical Associati'in, not to mention numerous text-books. 
 
 The instructor may have the following blank printed and used in the 
 histologic descriptions of drugs, or it may be used merely as a guide. It is 
 not complete, but is intended merely to suggest some of the points to be 
 observed in certain cases. Under Remarks or after the various elements is 
 to be mentioned anything of interest or importance. 
 
 Drawing-paper of suitable sizes may be had of dealers in artists' mate- 
 rials and of stationer's, and should be used, since the drawings can be made 
 much better upon it than upon ordinary paper. An ordinary pencil may 
 be used, and the drawing traced in ink, or HHHH pencils may be used for 
 permanent drawings. 
 
 SpBCiMEsr Blank. 
 
 Official name . . 
 
 Epidermis ... 
 
 Cork . . . .... 
 
 Bast-fiber (length, etc. ) . . . . . 
 
 " (arrangement) ... . . . 
 
 Sieve-tissue . . . * 
 
 Cambium . . . 
 
 Vessels (size) . . . ... 
 
 " (sculpturings) . . . . 
 
 Tracheids .... 
 
 Wood-fibei-s . 
 
 Medullary rays (width) . . .... 
 
 Pith .... 
 
 Crystals 
 
 Starch ... . . 
 
 Bemarks (anything relating to above, peculiarities, distribution, 
 
 contents, etc. ) . . .... 
 
CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 ROOTS. 
 
 Sarsaparilla. — The epidermis is rather thick-walled, 
 and usually shows a number of simple hairs. Beneath the 
 epidermis is an endodermal layer of thick angled cells. 
 Within the endodermis is a rather broad zone of parenchyma 
 cells, containing starch and occasionally raphides of calcium 
 oxalate. Separating the cortical portion just described from 
 the central woody portion is a single row or circle of cells, 
 the endodermis or sheath, the cells of which differ slightly in 
 shape for the different varieties of sarsaparilla. The central 
 portion of the root is composed of parenchyma, in some 
 cases lignified, with a radial fibrovascular bundle. The ves- 
 sels are sometimes of considerable diameter ; associated with 
 them are the fibers, and separating these masses of lignified 
 tissue are regions of sieve. 
 
 Belladonna Root. — The epidermis is one or two layers 
 in thickness (corky in older roots). Within this lies the 
 bark parenchyma, containing starch and occasionally crystal 
 meal (cryptocrystalline calcium oxalate), the bark measuring 
 a millimeter or more in thickness ; there are no bast-fibers in 
 the bark ; this is separated from the central cylinder by the 
 cambium zone, usually very distinct, composed of thin-walled 
 brick-shaped cells. The masses of lignified tissue are sepa- 
 rated from each other by rather irregular medullary rays and 
 alternate (from center toward the circumference) with paren- 
 chyma, while plates of parenchyma are found at right angles 
 to the medullary rays penetrating the vessel-masses. 
 
 Ipecac. — The structure of ipecac is very unlike that of 
 other official roots. The outermost layer consists of cork 
 three or four cells in thickness, stained brown ; interior to 
 this is a thick zone of parenchyma tissue, comprising about 
 
 247 
 
248 
 
 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 three-fourths of the radius of the root ; many of the cells are 
 closely filled with starch (not shown in drawing), and occa- 
 
 " Fig. 24. — Transverse section of sarsaparilla ront ; Ej>., Epidermis; End., endo- 
 dermis; P., pareneliyraa (containing starcli and sometimes rapliides— not shown 
 here) ; E. S, endodermal slieatli ; i", sieve-tissue (tlie cell-walls have collapsed) ; V, 
 vessels ; F^ fibers. 
 
 sionally there are seen raphides of calcium oxalate (the latter 
 are not common in Dicotyledons). The central cylinder (the 
 
ROOTS. 
 
 249 
 
 white portion) consists 
 almost entirely of tra- 
 cheids, vessels wholly 
 wanting. In the region 
 where the central cyl- 
 inder is joined by the 
 parenchyma spurs of 
 sieve - tissue may be 
 seen extending into the 
 parenchyma, the cells 
 being commonly more 
 or less collapsed. 
 
 Fig. 25.— Transverse section of belladonna, root : .Ep., Epidermis ; B, paren- 
 chyma of the bark (containing starch-grains and occasionally minute packed 
 crystals of calcium oxalate— not shown in illustration); C, cambium layer; V, 
 vessels; F, wiod-fibers; M, medullary ray; P, parenchyma of the central cylinder 
 or woody portion. 
 
250 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 Inula. — Inula shows the following structure : Corky 
 layer, some six or eight cells in thickness, broad zone of 
 parenchyma separated from the central cylinder by a cam- 
 bium layer, the central cylinder consisting of parenchyma, 
 vessels, and other cells more or less lignified ; the medullary 
 
 Fig. 26.— Ipecac root : C, Cork; Pam, parencliyma ; S, sieve tubes ; T, tracheMs. 
 
 rays, about one cell in width, extending some distance into 
 the bark. In the cortex as well as in the central cylinder 
 are numerous large oil-tubes. 
 
 Taraxacum has a narrow corky layer with a very broad 
 zone of parenchyma, which is separated from the central 
 
ROOTS. 
 
 251 
 
 Fig. 27.— Transverse section of inula: 
 S, Cork : g, secretion receptacles ; r, 
 medullary ray ; v, i/, vessels (Godfrin 
 and Noel). 
 
 Fig. 28. — Transverse section of tar- 
 axacum : ,S, Cork ; p c, parenchyma of 
 cortex; It, laticiferous tubes or ves- 
 sels ; c, cambium ; v, vessels (Godfrin 
 and Noel). 
 
 cylinder by a prominent cambium line. In tlie cortical por- 
 tion are circles of laticiferous vessels, which even to the 
 
252 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 naked eye appear as brownish circles, due to tiie drying of 
 the latex. Inasmuch as these laticiferous vessels pursue a 
 very irregular course, they are not very sharply marked off 
 from the surrounding tissue and are best recognized by their 
 brownish appearance. 
 
 STEMS (RHIZOMES). 
 
 Menispermum. — The rhizome of menispermum serves 
 to illustrate the typical structure of the stem of Dicotyledons. 
 The cells of the outer layer have a thickened cuticle. Within 
 this layer is found a moderately thick zone of parenchyma 
 tissue, the inner layer of bark showing crescent-shaped masses 
 of bast ; the cambium is indistinct. Interior to the mass of 
 bast lies a wedge of woody tissue consisting of wood-fibers 
 interspersed with large vessels. Broad medullary rays sepa- 
 rate the wood wedges, which number about fourteen, those 
 upon the lower side being somewhat longer than the upper. 
 The diameter of the central pith is nearly equal to the length 
 of the shorter wood wedges. 
 
 Althaea. — Althaea shows an outer layer of cork which is 
 commonly absent in commercial specimens, in which case the 
 silky bast-fibers occupy the outermost space. The cortical 
 zone of parenchyma forms about half the radius of the root ; 
 this is separated from the central cylinder by a rather promi- 
 nent cambium line, and is interspersed with numerous muci- 
 lage cells and shows a number of medullary rays extending 
 variable distances. Many of the cells are filled with starch, 
 while others show stellate crystals of calcium oxalate. In 
 this region groups of bast-fibers are numerous ; in the central 
 portion are found vessels, wood-fibers, and parenchyma. 
 
 Pareira illustrates a structure unlike those which we have 
 been considering ; here we find that the fibrovascular bundles 
 are ranged in a number of concentric circles which show both 
 vascular and sieve portions. A corky layer of moderate 
 thickness covers the root ; the medullary rays are broad, 
 becoming broader toward the circumference. 
 
 Rtiubafb. — In this the cork is conmionly wanting ; a 
 section in the outer portion would present a different appear- 
 
STEMS. 
 
 253 
 
 ance from one toward the center. Since the root is of con- 
 siderable size, it is rarely practicable to make a single section 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 29.— Menisperinnm (transverse section) : A, Epidermis ; B, parenchyma of the 
 barl; ; C, vessel ; D, bast-iibers ; E, wood-fibers. 
 
 from the entire organ. In the cortical portion particidarly 
 will be found parenchyma tissue containing some starch, many 
 crystals of calcium oxalate, and traversed by a number of 
 
254 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 irregular medullary rays. The cambium line is rather prom- 
 inent ; the central cylinder presents a number of vessels and 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 30.— Althsea: &', Cork; pc. Fig. 31.— Pareira: s, Cork; v, vessels; I, 
 
 cortical parenchyma, in which are liber or bast terminating each wood-bundle 
 
 seen large mucilage cells; I, bast peripherally;/^, wood-fibers; r, medullary 
 
 region, constituting the outer layer ray (Godfrin and Noel), 
 of the peeled root ; e, cambium ; v, 
 Tessels (Godfrin and Noel). 
 
 some lignified tissues ; medullary rays, starch, and calcium 
 
 oxalate being also present. A very characteristic appearance 
 
STEMS. 
 
 255 
 
 Fig. 32.— Rhubarb (transverse section through a portion) ; I. A stellate spot ; c, 
 cambium ring in stellate spot ; b, wood zones (numerous crystals of calcium oxalate) 
 (Godfrin and Noel). 
 
 is that of the stellate spots, which are the origin of the fibro- 
 vascular bundles extending into the leaves. Fig. 33 shows 
 
 
 Fig. 33.— European rhubarb : c, Cambium ; b, wood zone ; r, medullary ray ; v, 
 vessels (Godfrin and Nuel). 
 
 a transverse section of European rhubarb, occasionally, though 
 not often, met with as an adulterant or substitution for the 
 
256 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 
 a 
 
 ©' 
 
 
 'U 
 
 ■©^ 
 
 :C 
 
 genuine rhubarb. Fig. 23, p. 244, shows a transverse section 
 of curcuma, which is often used, particularly in powdered 
 form, to adulterate rhubarb, but, as elsewhere mentioned, the 
 form of starch masses and the chemic tests usually furnish 
 
 an easier means of de- 
 tecting this adulteration 
 than do the histologic 
 characters. 
 
 Calamus (see Fig. 
 21, p. 237) may serve 
 as a type of Monocoty- 
 ledonous stem. It has 
 a thin corky layer 
 (brown resin), a thick 
 cortical zone, consist- 
 ing of parenchyma in- 
 terspersed with a few 
 fibrovascular bundles, 
 which here often pre- 
 sent the collateral type, 
 since, as mentioned 
 
 elsewhere, they are on 
 the way to the leaves 
 in which that type of 
 bundle is found. The 
 central portion, con- 
 sisting of parenchyma 
 with numerous con- 
 centric fibrovascular 
 bundles, is separated 
 from the cortical zone 
 by a nucleus sheath. 
 This nucleus sheath 
 may be continuous for 
 a considerable distance, 
 or portions of it may 
 embrace but a few bun- 
 dles. The parenchyma consists of numerous oil- and resin- 
 cells situated at the angles of the large intercellular spaces, 
 
 
 
 Fig. 34.— Jalap: s, Coik ; p c, cortical paren- 
 chyma; It, laticiferous vessels; c, cambium; 
 z <7, zones of growing tissue with cambium sur- 
 rounding one or more vessels (Godfrin and Noel). 
 
STEMS. 
 
 257 
 
 and of smaller cells which seem to serve as a chain connect- 
 ing these larger cells together. 
 
 Note. — The larger intercellular spaces may be mistaken for 
 the cells themselves. The fibrovascular bundles are very 
 
 Pig. 35.— a. Jamacia quassia: 6, Surinam quassia : r. Vessels; r, medullary rays 
 (note the difference in the width of the medullary rays in the two woods) ;/(, 
 wood-fibers ; p I, wood parenchyma (Godfrin and Noel). 
 
 much more numerous immediately within the nucleus sheath 
 than toward the center of the rhizome. 
 
 Jalap. — What has been said as to the size of rhubarb 
 
 applies also to Jalap, the appearance of the section varying 
 
 as to the part which is taken. The outermost layer consists 
 
 of cork ; much of the tuber is composted of parenchyma. A 
 
 n 
 
258 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 rather prominent cambium line separates the central cylinder 
 from the cortex ; some sections show modified laticiferous 
 vessels, previously mentioned (see p. 231). The illustration 
 
 Fio. 36.-Cinchona (radial section): C, Cork; P, parenchyma; M, medullary ray; 
 
 B, bast-flbers. 
 
 is sufficiently explicit so that no further comment is necesary. 
 Quassia.— This represents only the woody portion of the 
 stem; Fig. 35, a, represents the Jamaica or official quassia; 
 b, the Surinam. Note the difference in the width of the 
 medullary rays. 
 
BARKS. 
 BARKS. 
 
 259 
 
 Cinchona. — While the different species of cinchona show 
 sufficient peculiarities of structure to enable the expert to 
 distinguish between them, this requires more experience than 
 
 Fig. 37.— Cinchona (transver.<!e 
 section) : s. Secondary cork (the 
 outer bark having been reinovedl : 
 r, medullary ray: /, bast-fibers 
 (Godfrin and Noel). 
 
 Fin. 38.— Cascara Sagrada (transverse 
 section) : S, Cork ; //, group of bast- 
 flbers: s c, stone-cells; r. medullary ray 
 (note their gradual merging into cortical 
 parenchmya), (Godfrin and Noel). 
 
260 JirSTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 is practical for the average pharmacist ; it being sufficient, 
 however, for his purpose in most cases to be able to identify 
 a given specimen as true cinchona or a spurious bark ; the 
 
 value of an individual specimen 
 being determined by an assay 
 rather than by structural differ- 
 ences, inasmuch as the same 
 species often present the widest 
 variation in alkaloidal contents. 
 The outermost layer will show 
 a corky surface, varying up to 
 twenty cells in thickness ; or, 
 if only the middle and inner 
 bark is present, the outermost 
 portion will be parenchyma. 
 When the whole bark is used, 
 secondary layers of cork will 
 
 e-9 
 
 -f 
 
 Fig. 39.— Chinese cinnamon ; ep, 
 Epidermis; s, cork; (7, resin and oil 
 receptacles; f, fibers; r, medullary 
 rav : m, mucilage cell (Godfrin anJi 
 Noel)- 
 
 Fig. 40.— Ceylon cinnamon ; 
 The structure is similar to the 
 Chinese; observe the oil-spaces, 
 and the minute starch granules 
 (not shown in the figure) (Godfrin 
 and Noel). 
 
 often be found, as in Fig. 37. A number of stone-cells are 
 present, which may be distinguished from the bast-fibers by 
 the relatively thicker walls of the latter and by their more 
 
LEA VES. 
 
 2G1 
 
 irregular arrangement. The typical form of the bast-fibers 
 and the wall-like form of the medullary rays are best seen 
 on longitudinal section (Fig. 36). 
 
 Cascara Sagrada. — Rhamnus purshiana shows a broad 
 corky layer, beneath which is a zone of parenchyma with 
 groups of stone-cells and nuraerons crystals of calcium 
 oxalate. The bast-fibers are formed in more or less irregu- 
 lar tangential lines, the medullary rays, usually narrow in 
 the inner portion, becoming broader and less sharply distin- 
 guished from the parenchyma in the outer region, where their 
 direction becomes somewhat tangential, this being a charac- 
 
 FiG. 41. — Eucalyptus: epi, etie, Epidermis of upper and lower surfaces: pp, pali- 
 sade parenchyma occupying entire tliickness of leaf, except the epidermis: .(7, gland 
 containing essential oil; s c. tliicked-walled cells of leaf margin; M, lenticel; v, 
 vessels ; fi, bast (Godfrin and Noel). 
 
 teristic of this bark. The shape of the bast-fibers can be 
 studied when isolated or upon longitudinal section. 
 
 The bark of frangula should be studied in connection with 
 that of rhamnus purshiana that their similarity and difference 
 may be noted, especially with regard to the medullary rays. 
 
 Cinnamon. — Chinese and Ceylon cinnamons show certain 
 minor differences of structure, but their macroscopic and cliemi- 
 cal characters are of more importance than the microscopic. 
 
 LEAVES. 
 
 The structure of the various leaves will scarcely require 
 separate consideration. Attention is here called to a few of 
 
262 
 
 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMP'ORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 the more salient points. In this connection it is well to bear 
 in mind that the various forms of hairs furnish one of the 
 
 Fig. 42.— Buchu : eps, Epidermis of the upper surface ; ept, of lower ; cm, gum- 
 bearing tissue swelling with water ; pp, palisade parenchyma, here separated from 
 the cuticle by the action of water upon the tissue just mentioned ; p s, spongy 
 parenchyma iGodfrin and Noel). 
 
 readiest means of detecting adulterations of powdered leaves ; 
 hence special attention should be given to the consideration 
 of their forms. 
 
 Fig. 43. — Digitalis (across a smaller vein) : eps. ITpper epidermis ; epi, lower epi- 
 dermis; pp, palisade parenchyma; pi, loose parenchyma; p, hair; b, vascular 
 bundles constituting the vein (Godfrin and Noel). 
 
 Eucalyptus is seen to consist almost entirely of palisade 
 cells, in which are found oil-spaces j beneath the epidermis 
 
FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 263 
 
 of the margin of the leaf are found crescentic masses of 
 thick-walled cells. 
 
 Buchu is examined by taking a fresh section made in 
 alcohol, mounting in water, and observing the separation of 
 the epidermis from the palisade cells, owing to the rapid swell- 
 ing of the mucilage-bearing cells between them. — (Note the 
 oil-cells). 
 
 Digitalis is characterized mainly by the shape and dis- 
 tribution of its simple hairs. 
 
 FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 Black pepper and cubeb have their structure suf- 
 ficiently explained by the illustrations and require no further 
 comment in this place. 
 
 Fig 44 —Blaok pepper : pr. Pericarp, Fig. 4">.— Cubeb: The letters have 
 
 embracing ep, epidermis ; se, stone-cells same significance as m Fig. 44 (Godfrin 
 (the epidermis in this layer constitnt- and Noel), 
 ing the epicarpl; p, parenchmya and 
 e'p', the epidermis of the ovary (note U- 
 shaped appearance of cells^ ; prs. peri- 
 sperm of parenchyma cells (Godfrin and 
 Noel). 
 
 Anise illustrates the structure of the Umbelliferous fruit. 
 In connection with this will be studied the other aromatic 
 
264 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 Fig. 46.— Anise: cp, Epidermis of fruit; st, stoma; p, hair; al, parenchyma with 
 proteid; Jv, flbrovascular bundle (Goafrin and Noel). 
 
 Umbelliferse, including fennel, conium, coriander, and cara- 
 way. The explanation accompanying Fig. 46 is sufficient. 
 Nux Vomica. — The outermost layer shows the hairy 
 
 Fig. 47.— Nux vomica: p, Hairs covering the surface ; (, tegument ; al, proteid 
 (Godfriu and Noel). 
 
FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 265 
 
 covering ; beneath this are found cells with thin walls which 
 become progressively thicker toward the center. 
 
 Flaxseed. — The mucilage-bearing epidermis is best ob- 
 served by mounting a fragment of the tegument in water and 
 watching the rapid swelling of this portion, due to -the absorp- 
 tion of water. Beneath the epidermis is found a single layer 
 
 Fig, 48.— Flaxseed : (, Tegument, embracing c, cuticle; m, mucilage-bearing 
 cells; ep, epidermis with underlying cells d and /; al, albumin surrounding the 
 cotyledon, Co iGodfrin and Noel); 
 
 of thick-walled cells, the remainder of the seed being com- 
 posed of parenchyma. 
 
 Nutgall. — The central portion is occupied by a cavity 
 which may have pulverulent remains left by the insect ; sur- 
 rounding this cavity is a compact layer of small stone-cells 
 which graduate toward the exterior into ordinary paren- 
 chyma. In the latter are found tannin and occasionally 
 lignified tissue. 
 
 The above illustrations do not by any means exhaust the 
 list of drugs which should be studied microscopically; in 
 fact, these have been chosen as representing various types of 
 structure rather than because of their thei^apeutie importance. 
 
266 HISTOLOGY OF SOME IMPORTANT DRUGS. 
 
 A familiarity with these will make the study of any other 
 
 Fig. 49.— Nutgall: d. Tannin in parenchyma cells, a; h, cells becoming i>ro- 
 gressively thicker-walled as they approach center ; /, starch in the cell c limiting 
 the central cavity (Godfrin and Noel). 
 
 easy, and the student should examine and draw as many dif- 
 ferent specimens as time will permit. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DRUGS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF POWDERS. 
 
 The frequency %\'ith which powdered drugs are employed 
 makes it necessary that the pharmacist should be capable of 
 detecting adulterations, and in some cases, perhaps, of identi- 
 fying unknown powders ; but it is to be understood that the 
 exercises given in this work are intended to familiarize the 
 student with the histologic characteristics of the various drugs, 
 rather than to train him in the general practice of identifying 
 unknown powders by this means. 
 
 The student is again cautioned to employ all the various 
 means at his command in guarding against inferior or adulter- 
 ated drugs, and to remember that the microscope is but one 
 of these means. The sense of taste may serve to direct sus- 
 picion toward strychnin, or the sense of smell may be the 
 first indication of the presence of opium in a given case ; so 
 we may classify powders according to their colors and sub- 
 divide these according to their taste and odor. 
 
 Before examining any powder with a view to deciding 
 upon its genuineness or the presence of adulteration, the 
 student should become familiar with the structure of an 
 authentic specimen of the drug, using a verified powder, 
 which should be kept on hand as a standard. When pos- 
 sible, he should have transverse and longitudinal sections of 
 the whole drug. These should be used for comparison at 
 the time of examining the powder. 
 
 The appearance, taste, or other circumstances, as has been 
 said, often leads one to suspect that a powder is adulterated. 
 "When suspicion points to a definite substance, such as flour in 
 elm bark, its detection is usually easy ; but in many cases it 
 
 267 
 
268 HISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DBU6S. 
 
 is extremely difficult or impossible to detect a sophistication 
 by the use of the microscope alone. 
 
 One of the commonest forms of adulteration consists in 
 the admixture of starchy substances ; therefore the student 
 cannot become too familiar with various forms of starch- 
 grains, such as those in corn, potato, wheat, rice, oat and 
 bean. 
 
 The chapter is arranged according to the following 
 plan : 
 
 I. The study of powders, with practical exercises upon 
 some of the more important ones. 
 
 II. Practical exercises in the identification of powders in 
 groups of three. 
 
 III. Practical exercises in the detection of adulterg,tion of 
 known powders. 
 
 IV. Scheme for identification of unknown powders with 
 practical exercises. 
 
 THE STUDY OF POWDERS. 
 
 When a powder is examined with the microscope by one 
 . who has never before attempted it, a very confusing picture 
 is presented to him, and he finds himself utterly unable to 
 distinguish anything familiar amid the mass ; with experience 
 he learns to disregard that which does not present anything 
 characteristic, and to devote his attention to that which is 
 recognizable. 
 
 Certain powders will require special treatment, but for 
 general practice temporary mounts are made either in glycerin 
 or in a saturated solution of chloral hydrate. Both of these 
 media have the property of rendering powders transparent, 
 the solution of chloral hydrate to a greater degree than the 
 glycerin ; but it has the disadvantage of dissolving certain 
 cell-contents, notably starch-grains, very readily. 
 
 Powders may be bleached, stained, and either temporarily 
 or permanently mounted, as in the case of sections. 
 
 Practical Exercises. — The purpose of these exercises is to 
 familiarize the student with the general methods used in 
 examining powders ; and in selecting and recognizing the 
 important elements. 
 
THE STUDY OF POWDERS. 269 
 
 1. Put a very small knife-pointful of lycopodium upon a 
 slide ; distribute it evenly over the space of a cover-glass, and 
 examine. The particles appear black and their structure 
 cannot be distinguished. 
 
 Put some of the powder into alcohol, and when thoroughly 
 wetted, drop a little upon the slide and add a drop of gly- 
 cerin ; place upon it a cover-glass and examine ; the charac- 
 teristic shape and markings of the spores are now readily 
 seen. 
 
 Examine some pine or other pollen grains in the same way. 
 
 2. Examine a number of the starches in this way : Mount 
 a little starch in water, add a drop of very dilute solution of 
 iodin, and study the concentric markings. Mount some 
 wheat starch or a little scraped potato in saturated solution 
 of chloral hydrate, and watch some of the grains as they lose 
 their shape and gradually dissolve. 
 
 Mount some wheat starch in dilute solution of potassa and 
 watch some of the grains swell and dissolve, the markings 
 becoming prominent for an instant. 
 
 3. Put a very small knife-pointful of finely powdered 
 cinchona upon a slide and add from a pipet a drop of satu- 
 rated solution of chloral hydrate ; cover with cover-glass and 
 examine at once. If too much of the powder has not been 
 used, fragments of tissues will be seen pretty evenly dis- 
 tributed. The bast-fibers and other cellular elements have 
 been rendered so transparent as to be easily observable. 
 Notice particularly the shape of the bast-fibers ; though many 
 of them will be broken in pieces, some are unbroken, and 
 even the fragments show what the original shape was. A 
 careful search will show a few stone-cells and possibly some 
 starch-grains ; but most of these, which are few at best, have 
 been dissolved by the solution of chloral hydrate. In addi- 
 tion to the elements just mentioned, fragments of medullary 
 rays, parenchyma, and cork-cells may be distinguished amid 
 the general d6bris — disregard all the rest for the present. 
 
 Mount another sample of the same in glycerin and ex- 
 amine for starch-grains — a very few may be found ; the bast- 
 fibers are easily distinguished ; but the remaining tissues are 
 not seen so clearly as in the solution of chloral hydrate. 
 
270 HISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DRUGS. 
 
 4. Put some powdered ctuassia in a watch-glass with 1 C.c. 
 of alcohol (just enough to wet it) ; add about 10 C.c. of 
 water and a few drops of anilin. If the water remains col- 
 ored, wash the powder by decantation and mount some of 
 the powder in saturated solution of chloral, and another 
 specimen of it in glycerin-jelly. Note the preponderance of 
 lignified tissues. 
 
 5. Put a knife-pointful of finely powdered belladonna into 
 a watch-glass ; add a few cubic centimeters of water and as 
 much solution of chlorinated soda ; stir the mixture by means 
 of a small pipet, and, when the powder is sufficiently bleached, 
 allow it to settle and pour off the supernatant liquid ; wash 
 several times with distilled water (for this purpose it is often 
 preferable to put the powder into a test-tube or bottle in 
 order that a much larger quantity of water may be used at 
 a time in washing). Transfer the washed powder to a watch- 
 glass with a few cubic centimeters of water, add a few drops 
 of aniliu ; when stained sufficiently, wash out the excess, as 
 in the case of the bleaching fluid ; draw the powder up into 
 the pipet and allow it to collect near the orifice ; place a drop 
 of the water containing the powder upon a slide, absorb the 
 water by means of a bit of filter-paper, leaving the powder 
 upon the slide ; mount in glycerin or water for temporary 
 use, or mount permanently in glycerin-jelly or Canada bal- 
 sam. Care must be exercised in washing powders by decan- 
 tation to avoid too great a loss of the finer particles, since 
 they settle so much more slowly, whereby the appearance of 
 the powder would be materially changed. 
 
 Many powders do not readily absorb water, and a few 
 drops of alcohol dropped upon them before the water is 
 added greatly hastens the process. 
 
 Practical :Kxercises in the Study and Identifica- 
 tion of Powders, Presented in Groups of Three. — 
 The purpose of these exercises is to bring into prominence 
 the characteristic elements of various important powders by 
 contrasting these with other powders. The specimens are to 
 be submitted unlabeled, by groups ; the student being required 
 to recognize the powders within each group, according to the 
 directions. 
 
THE STUDY OF POWDERS. 21 i 
 
 Podophyllum, Quassia, and Digitalis. — 
 
 (a) Spiral vessels are present, while quassia has 
 large porous vessels ; most of this specimen 
 consists of thin-walled parenchyma, which is 
 absent in quassia. Neither hairs nor stomata 
 are present, hence it cannot be digitalis — it is 
 podophyllum. 
 
 (6) Since there is no thin-walled parenchyma, it 
 cannot be either podophyllum or digitalis, but 
 the large preponderance of wood-fibers shows 
 that the specimen is a woody substance — it is 
 quassia. 
 
 (c) The hairs are typical of digitalis ; the great 
 number of stomata indicate that we have a leaf 
 under observation — it is digitalis. 
 Cincliona, Pomegranate, and Wild Cherry. — 
 
 (a) The bast-iibers are characteristic for cinchona. 
 
 (6) The variety of forms of stone-cells and bast- 
 fibers, simple and branched, distinguishes the 
 specimen from both cinchona and pomegranate 
 — it is wild cherry. 
 
 (o) This lacks bast^fibers and the typical branching 
 stone-cells of wild cherry. The arrangement of 
 the very numerous roset-shaped crystals of cal- 
 cium oxalate in rows is typical of pomegranate. 
 Sarsaparilla, Gentian, and Khubarb. — 
 
 (a) Contains starch, which is not found in gentian, 
 and large roset-shaped crystals of calcium 
 oxalate, which are not found in sarsaparilla, 
 and is, therefore, rhubarb. 
 
 (6) Contains starch, acicular but no roset-shaped 
 crystals, and is sarsaparilla. 
 
 (c) Contains no starch, which is found in both 
 rhubarb and sarsaparilla. It is, therefore, 
 gentian. 
 Ginger, Squill, and Mustard. — 
 
 (a) Numerous large starch-grains, and is ginger, 
 since neither squill nor mustard contains more 
 than a very few. 
 
272 ITISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DJRUGS. 
 
 (6) Shows large and small acicular crystals of cal- 
 cium oxalate ; since these are not found in 
 mustard or in ginger, the specimen is squill. 
 
 (c) Shows neither large starch-granules of ginger 
 nor acicular crystals of squill, and is, there- 
 fore, mustard. 
 Ipecac, Belladonna, and Glyc3nThiza. — 
 
 (a) Neither bast-fibers nor vessels present, since 
 both are found in glycyrrhiza, and vessels are 
 found in belladonna — specimen must be ipecac. 
 
 (6) Contains numerous vessels, hence cannot be 
 ipecac ; bast-fibers numerous (wood-fibers few 
 in belladonna), with many cells containing 
 prismatic crystals lining the fibers ; these are 
 not seen in belladonna ; vessels are large ; some 
 with reticulated markings (scalariform or 
 porous in belladonna) — hence the specimen is 
 glycyrrhiza. 
 
 (o) Shows vessels — is not ipecac ; shows few bast- 
 or wood-fibers, calcium oxalate as fine dark 
 powder (cryptocrystalline), no crystal cells ; 
 vessels porous or scalariform, not reticulated 
 as in glycyrrhiza ; specimen is belladonna. 
 
 PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN THE DETECTION OF ADUL- 
 TERATION OF POWDERS.' 
 
 Nature of Sophistication is Suspected. 
 
 I/ycopodium. — The powder is of too light a color and 
 somewhat mucilaginous when mixed with water, leading one 
 to suspect the presence of flour. Upon examination starch- 
 grains are seen which are identified as those of corn. 
 
 Digitalis. — It is stated that mullein is sometimes used to 
 adulterate digitalis. The powder shows large branching hairs 
 (characteristic of mullein), Avhile those of digitalis are simple. 
 
 Cinchona. — A decoction of the powder gives the starch 
 reaction with iodin somewhat too strongly, cinchona being 
 
 ' The student is furnished with a pure and with an adulterated specimen 
 of each number. He is to recognize which of the two is adulterated. 
 
DETECTION OF ADULTERATION OF POWDERS. 273 
 
 practically free from starch, leading to the suspicion that some 
 other drug, having a greater abundance of starch, has been 
 used to adulterate it. 
 
 The powder shows numerous bast-fibers of a different shape 
 from those of cinchona, and numerous starch-grains. The 
 powder is evidently adulterated, even though the adulterant 
 is not identified. (It contains cotton-root bark.) 
 
 Ceylon Cinnamon. — The powders of various barks are 
 commonly used to adulterate this drug. 
 
 In addition to a variety of forms of bast-fibers, large 
 prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate are found, those of the 
 cinnamon bark being very small. The powder is adulterated 
 with that of other barks (elm and sassafras). 
 
 Senega. — Owing to carelessness in collecting, cypripe- 
 dium is very often present. Cypripedium (and most Mono- 
 cotyledons) have acicular crystals, whereas senega has no 
 crystals. 
 
 Nature of Sophistication not Strspected. 
 
 ApOCynum. — The powder presents very little that is ab- 
 normal, excepting that we find groups of stone-cells ; since 
 the official apocynum has no stone-cells, we conclude that we 
 are dealing with an admixture or substitution of the closely 
 related Apocynum androscemifolium. (This substitution is 
 very common and it is not generally regarded as being fraudu- 
 lent.) 
 
 Belladonna. — ^While the powder shows no foreign ele- 
 ments, a marked deficiency of starch and a superabundance 
 of lignified {issues are seen. The root is, therefore, unfit for 
 use, even though no actual adulteration with a foreign sub- 
 stance has occurred, unless we regard woody roots of bella- 
 donna,, which the pharmacopoeia expressly forbids, as foreign. 
 
 Crocus. — The extreme cost of this powder offers constant 
 inducement to the unscrupulous for sophistication, a very 
 great variety of substances being used. 
 
 The microscopic examination shows particles which effer- 
 versce with acids (chalk), or upon treating the specimen with 
 concentrated sulphhuric acid, we find the proportion giving a 
 blue color much less than in an authentic specimen. 
 
 18 
 
274 HISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DRUGS. 
 
 Cloves. — The value of cloves mainly depends upon its 
 volatile oil, and this may be absent by oi'dinary deterioration 
 or by fraudulent exhaustion ; this is best detected by the 
 diminution of specific gravity ; hence the microscopic exami- 
 nation alone should not be depended upon, except when it 
 gives positive evidence of adulteration. 
 
 The powder shows starch-grains, probably derived from 
 the clove fruit, a not uncommon sophistication. 
 
 Cubeb. — What has been said in regard to cloves applies 
 also to cubeb, since its main constituent is also a volatile oil. 
 
 The powder shows a number of vessels, and we conclude 
 that parts of the stem were included with the fruit. 
 
 SCHEIVIE FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN 
 POWDERS. 
 
 In the hands of an expert the microscopic examination of 
 a powder suffices in itself, in many cases, for its identifica- 
 tion. This is, however, needlessly difficult. Important 
 hints and aids may be derived from the physical and chemic 
 characters of the powder. By utilizing these, as has been 
 done in the present scheme, a very little practice suffices to 
 identify the more important drugs. Since the powders which 
 may be obtained from the vegetable kingdom are practically 
 unlimited in number, only some fifty of the more important 
 and most frequently used are considered in this scheme. 
 
 The student should practise on unknown powders by the 
 use of this scheme, until he is able to identify some half- 
 dozen consecutive specimens. A few examples are given, 
 following the scheme, to illustrate its use. 
 
 The powders are grouped into classes according to their 
 color, as follows : 
 
 Class I. — Greenish. 
 
 " II. — White or grayish. 
 " III.— Yellowish. 
 " IV. — Brownish. 
 
 Class I.— Greenish Powdees. 
 (A) Characteristic taste : 
 
 (a) Very astringent. 
 
 Neither hail's nor stomata present . . . Galls. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN POWDERS. 275 
 
 (B) Bitter: 
 
 (a) Crystals of calcium oxalate absent. 
 
 Characteristic hairs . ... Digitalis. 
 
 (6) Crystals of calcium oxalate present. 
 
 1. Crystals roset-shaped Stramonium. 
 
 2. Crystals not roset-shaped Hyoscyamus. 
 
 (c) Calcium oxalate, amorphous . • • • { ^f^v^°^ 
 
 (C) Astringent: 
 
 (a) Little odor. 
 
 1. Hairs and stomata present Uva ui-si. 
 
 2. Haire and stomata absent ; crystals in 
 
 rows of cells . . ... Pomegranate. 
 
 (D) Bitterish: 
 
 (a) Odor tea-like. 
 
 Hairs and stomata present. Reset crystals. Senna. 
 
 (E) Characteristic odor : 
 
 (a) Pollen grains present. 
 
 Glandular haiiB present Peppei-mint. 
 
 (6) Pollen grains absent. 
 
 Hairs few or wanting. Eoset-crystals . Buchu. 
 
 Class II. — White oe Grayish Powdees. 
 
 (A) Characteristic Microscopic Appeararux : 
 
 White Various starches 
 
 (B) Starch Absent or Nearly so: 
 
 (a) Intensely bitter. 
 
 Giuyish ; chamcteristic hairs Nux vomica. 
 
 (6) White or nearly so. 
 
 1. Acrid taste. Acicular crystals . . . Squill. 
 
 2. Mucilaginous. 
 
 Soluble in water Acacia. 
 
 Swells only in water Tragacanth. 
 
 Class III.— Yellowish Powdees. 
 
 (A) Characteristic Microscopic Appearance : 
 
 (a) Simple cell-spores Lycopodium. 
 
 (b) Aggregated cell-glands Lupulin. 
 
 (B) Characteristic Taste: 
 
 (a) Very astringent. 
 
 Tannin masses present. Starch sparingly 
 
 present Galls. 
 
 (6) Very bitter. 
 
 1. Mainly lignified tissues. Wood-fibers 
 
 abundant Quassia. 
 
 2. No lignified tissues present Aloes. 
 
 (c) Bitter and astringent. 
 
 1. Large roset-shaped ciystals Ehubarb. 
 
 2. Eoset-shaped crystals wanting .... Hydrastis. 
 
 (d) Pungent. 
 
 1. Starch-grains abundant, large .... Ginger. 
 
 2. Starch-grains wanting Mustard. 
 
 (e) Sweet-bitter. 
 
 Numerous bast-fibers Glycyrrhiza. 
 
276 HISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DRUGS. 
 
 Class III. — Yellowish Powdebs. {Continued). 
 
 (C) Bitter: 
 
 (a) Large reticulated vessels. 
 
 Large simple starcli-grains . . Calumba. 
 
 (6) Vessels small. 
 
 Pollen grains present Crocus. 
 
 (c) Vessels absent. 
 
 1. Bast-libel's with crystal cells . ... Fi-angula. 
 
 2. Bast-fibei-s absent. Acicular ciystals . Ipecac. 
 
 (D) Pungent: 
 
 (a) Bitterish ; bright yellow. 
 
 Starch in pasty masses (chemic test pref- 
 erable) Curcuma. 
 
 (6) Sweetish. 
 
 Laticiferous vessels characteristic .... Jalap. 
 
 (E) Acrid: 
 
 (a) Large and small acicular crystals. Few 
 
 spii-al vessels Squill. 
 
 (F) MncitagiTums: 
 
 (a) Very few starch-grains. 
 
 Bast-fibers numerous ; vessels wanting . Elm. 
 
 Class IV. — Brownish Powdees. 
 
 (A) Characteristic Taste: 
 (a) Very bitter. 
 
 Vegetable tissues wanting Aloes. 
 
 (6) Bitter; characteristic odor. 
 
 1. Very little vegetable tissue present . .Opium. 
 
 2. Starch wanting ; few fibers Gentian. 
 
 3. Starch present ; rosetrshaped crystals . Bhubarb, 
 
 (c) Bitter and astringent. 
 
 1. Bast-fibers characteristic . . . . Cinchona. 
 
 2. Hydrocyanic acid develops upon 
 
 chewing. Characteristic variation 
 
 of stone-cells Wild cherry. 
 
 (d) Nauseous bitter. 
 
 Fibere with crystal cells . . .... Cascara sagrada 
 
 (e) Very astringent. 
 
 Tannin masses present Galls. 
 
 (/) Extremely acrid; tingling of tongue 
 characteristic. 
 
 Few lignified cells . . Aconite. 
 
 (jf) Pungent ; starch-grains few or none. 
 
 1. Odor characteristic ; large oil-reser- 
 
 voirs . Cloves. 
 
 2. Stone-cells numerous; oil-drops in 
 
 cells . . Cubeb. 
 
 3. Starch-gi-ains present ; large oil reser- 
 
 voirs . . . .... Pimenta. 
 
 4. Starch present; stone-cells character- 
 
 istic Pepper. 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN POWDERS. 277 
 
 (B) BUter : _ 
 
 (a) Saliva tinged bright yellow. 
 
 Vessels small and few Crocus. 
 
 (6) Sweetish. 
 
 1. Large porous vessels, calcium oxalate, 
 
 amorphous powder . . . Belladonna. 
 
 2. Spiral and reticulated vessels ; consists 
 
 mainly of parenchyma Podophyllum. 
 
 3. Vessels wanting ; fibers with crystal 
 
 cells Fi-angula. 
 
 (c) Aromatic. 
 
 Characteristic air-spaces (intercellular) . Calamus. 
 
 (d) Astringent. 
 
 Vessels few ; starch usually in pasty 
 
 masses . . ..... Guarana. 
 
 (C) Aarid: 
 
 (a) Thick-walled endodermal cells. Starch 
 (sometimes in pasty masses) ; acicular 
 crystals . . Sareaparilla. 
 
 (D) Oily and Disagremble: 
 
 (a) Consists of interwoven hyphas . ... Ergot. 
 
 (E) Tasteless or Nearly so : 
 
 (a) Contains inulin ; anastomosing laticif- 
 
 erous vessels . Taraxacum. 
 
 (6) Whitish ; starch-grains large ; ves.sels 
 
 wanting ; stone-cells numerous .... Physostigma. 
 
 (F) Characteristic Odor: 
 
 (a) Stone-cells characteristic Valerian. 
 
 Practical Bxercises in Identification of TTn- 
 known Powders. — 1. The powder is yellowish, odorless, 
 and nearly tasteless. The student should be able to identify 
 it by inspection or microscopically. If not, he may turn to 
 Yellowish Pov/ders. Under (A) he finds two of characteris- 
 tic microscopic appearance — (1) of simple cells and (2) glan- 
 dular ; this is obviously Lycopodium, which may be confirmed 
 by comparing with an authentic specimen of that powder. 
 
 Examples of Identification of Unknown Powders Selected 
 from Preceding Scheme. — 2. The specimen is of greenish 
 color. These are all classified as having a characteristic 
 taste (A), bitter (B), astringent (C), bitterish (D), or of a 
 characteristic odor (E). We find it has a moderately astrin- 
 gent taste, hence we should look for it under (C) rather than 
 under (A). This section (C) embraces but two drugs : in one 
 of them stomata and hairs are present, in the other absent. 
 They are absent in the specimen, hence we classify it under 
 (C), (a) 2. 
 
278 inSTOLOQIC STUDY OF POWDERED DRUGS. 
 
 The crystals in rows of cells identify it as Pomegranate. 
 If we are in doubt about the intensity of the astringency, 
 these rows of crystal cells exclude galls from further consid- 
 eration. Confirm by comparison with authentic sections or 
 powder. 
 
 3. The powder is grayish, very bitter, contains no starch, 
 but numerous characteristic hairs ; if these are not recog- 
 nized, we proceed to the analysis. 
 
 Section (A) embraces starches, and we pass to (B) — (a) in- 
 tensely bitter ; 1, grayish, and under this we find Nux Vom- 
 ica, with characteristic hairs. Since (6) and (c) have noth- 
 ing at all corresponding to this description, we conclude that 
 we are dealing with the drug mentioned. Confirm by com- 
 parison with authentic sections or powder. 
 
 4. The powder is very light yellowish, and of mucilagi- 
 nous taste. Consists of vegetable tissues, starch being 
 absent. 
 
 This excludes section (A). All the members of (B), (C), 
 (D), and (E) are bitter, astringent, pungent, or acrid, so we 
 pass on to (F) ; this is mucilaginous, having little or no 
 starch (a) ; bast-fibers present and vessels wanting ; this 
 corresponds to our specimen, which we therefore conclude is 
 Elm. Confirm by comparing with authentic sections. 
 
 5. The powder is of a yellowish color, has a very bitter 
 taste, and upon microscopic examination is seen to consist of 
 vessels and wood-fibers with oval-shaped medullary rays (tan- 
 gential view). Starch not very abundant. 
 
 Since there are various forms of cells, it cannot be lyco- 
 podium, nor is it glandular, hence not lupulin. It evidently 
 belongs under Section (B), characteristic taste. We find in 
 this section (a) astringent, (h) very bitter, and the latter is 
 true of our specimen. 1 we find to consist mainly of lignified 
 tissues, which is true of our specimen. The only other 
 simple-bitter of intense bitterness among yellowish powders 
 is aloes, but we find this (2) contains no lignified tissue, 
 hence it cannot be aloe and must be Quassia, 
 
 Continuing down the list we find other bitter drugs — (C) 
 to embrace (a) calumba, having large simple starch-grains ; 
 (6) crocus, with pollen grains present ; and frangula and 
 
IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN POWDERS. 279 
 
 ipecac, both wanting in vessels — obviously the powder must 
 be Quassia. Comfirm by comparing with authentic sections 
 of the drug. 
 
 6. The powder is brownish ; upon chewing, it causes tingling 
 of the tongue and irritation of the throat. Since it is neither 
 bitter nor astringent it cannot be included in (a) to (e) of 
 section (A) of brownish powders ; (/), extremely acrid — 
 answers the description and we proceed to the microscopic 
 examination. We find that it consists mainly of parenchyma, 
 again agreeing with (/), Aconite, and we compare it with 
 authentic sections of that drug. 
 
 7. This is also brown, and has a markedly bitter and as- 
 tringent taste. The only ones answering to that description 
 are found in section (A), (c). It must be — 1, cinchona, or 
 2, wild cherry. There is no hydrocyanic acid taste upon 
 chewing, and we are able to identify the characteristic bast- 
 fibers as those of Cinchona. Confirm by comparison with 
 authentic sections. 
 
 8. The powder is light brownish, decidedly bitter, and 
 somewhat sweetish ; the presence of vegetable tissues excludes 
 aloe, even if we did not know that it is not that powder. 
 The absence of a characteristic odor excludes all of (6), ab- 
 scence of astringency (c) and (e), the lack of crystals cells 
 and fibers excludes (d) ; there is no extreme acidity nor pun- 
 gency, hence we pass to section (B) (a), is not sweetish, and 
 further we recognize that this cannot be the delicate stigma 
 of crocus when we examine it microscopically, nor does it 
 show any intense coloration of the saliva when chewed, (b) 
 includes three powders. 1 has large porous vessels and cal- 
 cium oxalate in powder, while 3 has no vessels, whereas our 
 specimen has mostly small vessels and we suspect that it is 
 Podophyllum ; this is confirmed by comparison with authen- 
 tic sections of that drug. 
 
 9. The powder has a characteristic odor and taste, which 
 every pharmacist and physician should be able to identify 
 readily as that of Opium. Turning to the brownish powders 
 (A) (6), we find that opium has very little vegetable tissue, 
 that present being accidental or derived from the leaves in 
 which it is wrapped. Upon examination we find numerous 
 
280 HISTOLOGIC STUDY OF POWDERED DRUGS. 
 
 starch-grains, showing that the powder has been adulterated 
 (corn-starch). (The value of opium depends upon its mor- 
 phine content, which is determined by assay.) 
 
 10. The powder is of a bright yellow color. The taste 
 and odor are both characteristic, and passing to section (B) 
 we may at once exclude (a), (6), (d), and (e) ; we find it cor- 
 responds to (c), bitter and astringent ; 1 has large roset-shaped 
 crystals, and 2 has not. The specimen has large roset-shaped 
 crystals, and we conclude that it is Rhtjbaeb, but upon 
 comparing it with authentic sections of rhubarb we find that 
 it has prismatic in addition to the roset-shaped crysta,ls, and 
 that numerous irregular-shaped masses are found, giving a 
 a blue color with iodin, the starch-grains of rhubarb being 
 rather small. We conclude the specimen is adulterated, and 
 upon testing for curcuma (see p. 318), we find that test 
 positive. 
 
PART III. 
 
 CHEMIC EXERCISES IN MATERIA MEDICA. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 In their study of pharmaceutic chemistry, students gen- 
 erally become familiar with the principal reactions of the con- 
 stituents of drugs. It is also important, however, that they 
 should be familiar with those constituents in the form in 
 which they occur in the crude drugs and extracts ; how they 
 may be isolated ; and how their reactions are modified by 
 impurities. This establishes an essential connection between 
 materia medica and chemistry. A further benefit of these 
 exercises is that they will familiarize the student witli 
 manipulative methods and train him in overcoming difficul- 
 ties. The use of home-made and inexpensive apparatus has 
 been introduced wherever possible, partly for the latter pur- 
 pose. 
 
 In Chapters II. to IV. the reactions are studied, first, on 
 isolated constituents, then on drugs containing these. Chapter 
 V. gives an outline for the analysis of unknown drugs. 
 Chapters VI. to IX. apply these methods to the study of 
 some of the more important drugs. 
 
 Supplementary experiments are appended to one or more 
 of the paragraphs, not for the class, but for extra work, and 
 in order to bring in methods and special apparatus, etc., and 
 calling for greater independence of action and judgment upon 
 the part of the student, the directions being less detailed and 
 the experiments usually more intricate. 
 
 The authors suggest that those teachers who employ the 
 
 281 
 
282 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 book will find it convenient to provide certain reagents in 
 concentrated form, with label indicating percentage strength 
 of the substance, in order to facilitate the extemporaneous 
 preparation of various strengths of dilution, thus obviating 
 the necessity of keeping a great number of reagents on hand. 
 
 When preparations such as decoctions are to be made by 
 the class, time may be saved by having one student make 
 sufficient of any one preparation for the entire class. 
 
 For convenience in the systematic study of plant constitu- 
 ents the following classification will be followed : 
 
 Class I. — Constituents for the most part soluble in water, 
 but insoluble in alcohol and similar solvents. This class pom- 
 prises : 
 
 Carbohydrates. Proteids. 
 
 Saponins. Ferments. 
 
 Carbohydrates. 
 
 (A) Reduce Fehling's solution directly : glucose. 
 
 (B) Reduce Fehling's solution only after inversion. 
 
 1. Soluble in hot water : inulin. 
 
 2. Soluble in water not precipitated by alcohol : 
 
 cane sugar ; glucosids. 
 
 3. Soluble in water, precipitated by alcohol : gums, 
 
 dextrin, and pectin. 
 
 4. Insoluble in water : starch. 
 
 Class II. — Constituents for the inost part soluble in alcohol 
 and in water, insoluble in ether, chloroform, benzol, petroleum 
 ether ^ {(jasolin), and amyl-alcohol : Alkaloidal salts (gluco- 
 sids) ; bitter and neutral principles ; tannins ; organic acids ; 
 coloring-matter. 
 
 Class III. — Constituents solvable in alcohol, insoluble in 
 water: Resins, cathartic resins, phlobaphenes, balsams, oleo- 
 resins, gum-resins, volatile oils, and camphors. 
 
 Class IV-. — Constituents mostly insoluble in alcohol and in 
 water : 
 
 Waxes. Fixed oils. 
 
 ^ Commercial gasolin is much less volatile than the official petroleum 
 ether or henzin. 
 
APPARATUS AND REAGENTS. 283 
 
 APPARATUS AND REAGENTS. 
 
 Each student should have the following appaiutus and reagents (the 
 lists which are given after each paragraph are for additional apparatus and 
 materials exclusive of the following list) : 
 
 1 porcelain crucible. 1 mortar and pestle. 
 
 1 Bunsen burner. 3 pipets.' 
 
 2 feet rubber tubing. 1 percolator.^ 
 
 1 testrtube brush. 1 sand-bath.' 
 
 2 dozen test-tubes. Nitric acid. 
 1 test-tube rack. Acetic acid. 
 
 1 2J-inch glass funnel. Hydrochloric acid. 
 
 1 4-inch glass funnel. Sulphuric acid. 
 
 1 4-inch tin funnel. 5 per cent, solution of soda. 
 
 1 100-C.c. cylindric graduate. 5 per cent, solution of potassa. 
 
 1 50-C.c, cylindric graduate. Aqua ammonia. 
 
 1 250-C.c. flask. Alcohol. 
 
 1 500-C.c. wash-bottle. _ Fehling's solution (A). 
 
 1 100-C.c. porcelain evapoiuting dish. Fehling's solution (B). 
 1 200 C. c. porcelain evaporating dish. Compound solution of iodin. 
 1 100-C.c. beaker. 10 per cent, solution of ferric chlorid. 
 
 1 water-bath and tripod. Solution mercuric potassium iodid. 
 
 1 piece wire gauze. Litmus-paper. 
 
 1 thermometer. Solution of lead subacetate. 
 
 5 per cent, solution of cupric sulphate. 
 U. S. P. test-solutions are commonly employed in this work. 
 
 t 
 
 Fig. 50.— Glass tube drawn out to be divided into two pipets. 
 
 To avoid the repetition of terms, the words " solution " or 
 " aqueous solution " will be understood in such cases where 
 it is evident that they are intended, thus : 1 per cent, sodium 
 hydrate evidently means a 1 per cent, solution. 
 
 In the directions to use given quantities for testing quali- 
 tatively, such as put 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, sodium hydrate 
 into test-tube, etc., it is understood that the quantities are to 
 be used approximately unless given in italics, or it is other- 
 
 ' Pipets are economically made by heating a 30 cm. piece of Hnch glass 
 tubing in the middle, drawing out to a capillary tube, and cutting with a 
 file (Fig. 50) ; scratch the levels of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 C.c. 
 
 ^ A simple form of percolator is made by heating the bottom of a test- 
 tube to redness and blowing a hole in it ; a plug of cotton is placed below 
 the drug and one above, menstruum being supplied from a tube through 
 a perforated cork in an inverted flask. 
 
 * Sand-baths are economically made by using tin pie-plates filled with 
 sand. 
 
284 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 wise indicated that exactness is desired — for instance, if a 
 pipet or graduate is directed to be used. 
 
 When such terms as " dilute hydrochloric acid " are used, 
 the official is meant ; if hydrochloric acid, then the strong is 
 intended. When practical, the reagents used are the official 
 preparations ; thus 5 per cent, sodium hydrate is the official 
 solution of soda. 
 
 The following pieces of apparatus will be required in the 
 laboratory for a class of twelve students for all experiments 
 exclusive of the supplemental. Since all crude vegetable 
 drugs should be kept on hand for study, they will not here 
 be enumerated in every case : 
 
 1 drying oven. Files. 
 
 3 glass desiccatoi's. Assorted bottles. 
 
 1 analytic balance. Filter-paper. 
 
 2 direct-vision spectroscopes. Glass rods. 
 Corks. Absorbent cotton. 
 Cork-borers. Microscope. 
 
 Glass-tubing. 
 
 DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE AND ASH. 
 
 Undried (fresh) drugs contain a very large percentage of 
 moisture, and those which have been dried by the sun or at a 
 low artificial heat usually contain a considerable amount. 
 The amount of moisture often varies greatly for the same 
 drug, and the percentage of active constituents is consequently 
 more nearly uniform in dried specimens. 
 
 All crude vegetable drugs contain ash, but the percentage 
 is subject to very wide variations, sometimes even in different 
 samples of the same species ; thus, imperfectly cleaned roots 
 give a high percentage. Nevertheless, the amount for a given 
 drug is usually fairly constant. Perhaps no constituent is 
 more frequently altered in amount by adulteration than is the 
 ash, hence the method of determining it is important. 
 
 A very high percentage of ash is sometimes found in rhu- 
 barb (40 per cent.), while starch contains very little. Pow- 
 dered drugs adulterated with starchy substances usually show 
 a diminution of ash. 
 
 The color of the ash often furnishes a clue to its composi- 
 tion, iron giving a reddish, and manganese a purple ash. 
 
DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE AND ASH. 285 
 
 Experiment 1. — A porcelain crucible of about 10 Co. 
 capacity is heated in a Bunsen flame for a moment to expel 
 adherent moisture, cooled in a glass desiccator (Fig. 51), and 
 weighed on an analytic balance. Into the crucible is put 
 1 gm. of the drug reduced to coarse powder. The cru- 
 cible and its contents are heated in a drying oven (Fig. 52) at 
 110° C. for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, and, after cool- 
 ing ia a glass desiccator over calcium chlorid, weighed ; the 
 loss in weight represents the moisture.' 
 
 Experiment 2. — The crucible and dry drug are now heated 
 
 Fig. 51.— Desiccator. 
 
 Fig. 52. — Drying oven with thermo-regulator. 
 
 in a Bunsen flame until nothing but a white ash remains — 
 this requires from a few minutes to an hour or more.^ After 
 
 ' The heating should really be continued until two successive weighings, 
 made four houre apart, give the same result. AVith drugs which are rich 
 in volatile oil this must be determined by a separate analysis, and sub.stracted 
 from the apparent moisture, to give a correct result. 
 
 '^ During the ignition, the carbon may conglomerate into masses which 
 resist combustion. This may make it necessary to powder the contents of 
 the crucible and then repeat the ignition. The same object may be attained 
 by adding a few crystals of ammonium nitrate. The heat must then be 
 continued until all the excess of the ammonium salt is expelled — i. e., 
 until the crucible ceases to loose weight. 
 
 In exact analysis it may be necessary to estimate the carbonic acid of the 
 ash (which is not usually present in the plant, butfonned by the combus- 
 tion), and to substract it from the apparent ash. 
 
286 INTROD UCTOB Y. 
 
 cooling in desiccator the crucible and ash are weighed : from 
 the total the weight of the crucible is subtracted, the differ- 
 ence being the weight of the ash. 
 
 Example : Crucible weighs ... 10 gm. 
 Drug weighs .... 1 " 
 
 Total . . . . 11 gm. 
 
 After drying, crucible and contents weigh . . 10.95 " 
 Loss of weight (moisture) .... 0.05 " or 5 per cent. 
 
 Crucible and ash weigh . . .... 10.05 " 
 
 Crucible weighs 10.00 " 
 
 Ash weighs 0.05 " or 5 per cent, of un- 
 
 dried drug. 
 
 In practice it is better to make both of these determina- 
 tions the same day, using two crucibles for each student, or, 
 dividing the class into sets of two men, one makes the ash 
 determination while the other makes that of moisture, each 
 keeping notes of both experiments. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to state that in practice the experi- 
 ments are made in duplicate ; should the results fail to agree, 
 it would show that an error has been made, in which case the 
 experiment must be repeated. 
 
 For these determinations use rhubarb for moisture and ash. 
 
 Experiment 3. — Test a part of the ash for carbonates by 
 addition of dilute hydrochloric acid (effervescence) ; oxalic 
 acid or oxalates and other organic acids are reduced to carbon- 
 ates by incineration. 
 
 Experiment 4. — To test for calcium dissolve the remainder 
 of the ash in dilute hydrochloric acid ; add sodium hydrate 
 in excess ; collect the precipitate, dissolve in acetic acid, add 
 ammonium oxalate — gives a precipitate of calcium oxalate 
 insoluble in acetic acid, soluble in hydrochloric. 
 
 Material required for determination of moisture and ash : 
 rhubarb and solution of ammonium oxalate. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 CLASS L— CONSTITUENTS FOR THE MOST PART 
 SOLUBLE IN WATER, BUT INSOLUBLE IN 
 ALCOHOL AND SIMILAR SOLVENTS. 
 
 This class comprises the carbohydrates, glucosids, saponins, 
 proteids, and ferments. 
 
 CARBOHYDRATES. 
 
 Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen, the last two elements being present in the proportion 
 to form water (two atoms of H for each atom of O). They 
 also have certain other properties in common (not every com- 
 pound which contains two atoms of H to one of O is classed 
 as a carbohydrate). 
 
 Glucose, dextrose, or grape-sugar has the formula CjH,jj 
 Og. It is widely distributed in the vegetable kingdom, being 
 abundant in sweet fruits and present in various parts of many 
 plants. It is quite soluble in water ; less so in alcohol. It re- 
 duces copper tartrate in alkaline solution to cuprous oxid upon 
 being boiled, and gives a brown color to solution of soda or 
 potassa when heated. These tests are also given by maltose 
 and some other sugars which are not easily distinguished from 
 glucose except by the polarimeter or some other tests. 
 
 Fehling's solution not being applicable to acid solutions, 
 when these are used they must first be neutralized with solu- 
 lution of soda or potassa. 
 
 Experiment 1.— Take 1 or 2 C.c. of Fehling's solution, 
 dilute with 10 C.c. of water, and boil (it should remain 
 clear) ; add at once a few drops of glucose — the mixture be- 
 comes yellow or red at once and a brick-dust-colored precipi- 
 tate forms. 
 
 287 
 
288 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 Experiment 2 — Heat a few cubic centimeters of solution 
 of soda with a little glucose solution — it becomes yellow, 
 brown, or nearly black, dependent upon amount of glucose 
 used. This is known as Moore's test. 
 
 Experiment 3. — To 2 C.c. of 5 per cent, solution of potassa 
 add a drop of glucose solution and drop by drop a 1 per cent, 
 solution of cupric sulphate as long as the precipitate formed 
 redissolves ; then boil. A yellow, orange, or red color results, 
 dependent upon the amount of glucose used. This is known 
 as Trommer's test for glucose. This test and Fehling's are 
 not applicable when proteids are present. When insufficient 
 alkali is used, a dirty, blackish precipitate forms even in the 
 absence of glucose. This must not be confused with the 
 reaction described. 
 
 Experiment 4. — Use honey instead of glucose and repeat 
 these three tests. 
 
 Experiment 5. — Make a 2 per cent, decoction of each of 
 the following drugs, filter, and apply Fehling's test for glu- 
 cose-: Triticuni, squill, cassia fistula. 
 
 Glucose is an abundant constituent of the following drugs : 
 Cassia fistula (60 per cent.) ; fig (60 per cent.) ; tamarind ; 
 juniper berry (unofficial) ; phytolacca fruit ; prune ; rasp- 
 berry ; and other sweet fruits, and in manna and honey ; it 
 occurs in varying proportions in the larger number of vege- 
 table drugs. 
 
 Apparatus and Material Necessary. — Glucose, honey, triti- 
 cum, squill, cassia fistula. 
 
 Inulin is an isomer of starch, from which it differs, how- 
 ever, in important characteristics. It occurs abundantly in 
 many roots, particularly those of the natural order of Com- 
 positse, where it replaces starch. It has been observed in 
 small quantities in some other plants. 
 
 It is insoluble in cold water and alcohol, soluble in water 
 at 55°' to 60° C. 
 
 Inulin is a constituent of the following drugs : Taraxacum, 
 chicory, pyrethrum (50 per cent.), inula, lappa, arnica, and 
 others. (Compare the following experiments with those 
 given under Starch :) 
 
 Experiment 1. — Inulin may be prepared by percolating the 
 
CARBOHYDRATES. 
 
 289 
 
 drug with cold water after macerating for twenty-four hours, 
 throwing away this percolate, and then percolating with water 
 at 60° C, usiug a hot filtration funnel.' Upon cooling, the 
 inulin slowly separates, or this may be hastened by the addi- 
 tion of alcohol, which, after filtration, may be recovered by 
 distillation. Take 15 gm. of ground pyrethrum and mace- 
 rate with a liter of water, with occasional shaking for forty- 
 eight hours ; decant as much of the water as possible and 
 throw it away ; collect the powder upon a filter, return it to 
 
 Fig. 53.— Funnel for hot filtration: g. Glass funnel ; (, tin funnel; w, water; c, cork. 
 
 a suitable vessel, and pour upon it 100 C.c. of water ; heat 
 upon a water-bath to 60° C, allowing it to macerate at that 
 temperature for two hours ; filter while still warm, and set 
 aside to precipitate (twenty-four to seventy-two hours) ; or 
 add 300 C.c. of alcohol, which causes the precipitation of the 
 
 ' An inexpensive hot-filtration funnel is made by inserting a perforated 
 cork into the throat of a tin funnel of four inches diameter and passing the 
 stem of a three-inch glass funnel through the perforated cork (Fig. 53). 
 See that this fits tightly ; pour water into the tin funnel and heat to the 
 required temperature with a small Bunsen flame. 
 
 19 
 
290 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 inulin much more promptly. After twenty-four hours most 
 of the liquid is decanted and the inulin collected upon a filter. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Having dissolved the inulin upon the 
 filter in 30 C.c. of warm water (60° C), divide it into sev- 
 eral portions ; to the first portion apply Fehling's test for 
 glucose (negative). 
 
 Experiment 3. — To the second portion of the solution add 
 an equal bulk of 2 per cent, sulphuric acid, heat to boiling 
 on water-bath for ten minutes, neutralize with sodium hydrate, 
 and apply Fehling's test (positive, showing that the inulin 
 has been converted into glucose — " inversion "). 
 
 Experiment 4. — Cool the third portion of inulin solution 
 and add a drop of iodin (no reaction ; difference from starch). 
 (See also under Histology, p. 195.) 
 
 For lecture-table demonstration the end of the cold perco- 
 lation and beginning of warm may be shown, the students 
 being supplied with portions of the warm filtrate for subse- 
 quent use in the remaining experiments. 
 
 For the sake of comparison this experiment and the corre- 
 sponding one under Cane-sugar and tha't under Starch (p. 294) 
 may be made simultaneously. 
 
 Materials Necessary. — Inulin, pyrethrum. 
 
 Cane-sugar has the formula CjjHjjOjj. Its physical 
 properties are so well known that they need not be recounted 
 here. It is found in the sugax'-cane and other grasses, 
 and in several varieties of beets, also in small quantity in 
 many plants. 
 
 It is not an important constituent of any official crude drug. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Test a little freshly prepared syrup for 
 glucose with Fehling's solution : negative result. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Test some old syrup for glucose, as in the 
 preceding experiment (positive ; showing that inversion occurs 
 upon exposure of the syrup). 
 
 Experiment 3. — To 5 C.c. of the freshly made syrup add 
 5 C.c. of 2 per cent, sulphuric acid and place in boiling-water 
 bath for ten minutes or longer; neutralize with sodium 
 hydrate and apply Fehling's test (positive ; showing inversion 
 by heating with dilute mineral acid). 
 
 Materials Necessarj''. — Cane-sugar, old weak syrup. 
 
CARBOHYDRATES. 291 
 
 Clucosids are characterized by yielding glucose and 
 some other substance upon decomposition by dilute miueral 
 acids or ferments. The term embraces a great number of 
 substances differing widely in other respects. It includes 
 the tannins, which have many properties in common ; the 
 saponins ; cathartic acid from senna ; and amygdalin from 
 bitter almond, which, by its decomposition, yields hydro- 
 cyanic acid. 
 
 Some glucosids reduce Fehling's solution without inver- 
 sion, in which case the fermentation test (see Ferments, Ex- 
 periment 5) is necessary for their determination. Most 
 glucosids are insoluble in ether and benzol, and are precipi- 
 tated by tannin, but not by other alkaloidal reagents. The 
 ferments are usually specific for a limited number. Some 
 glucosids are resinous, but most of them are crystalline. 
 
 Two glucosids, glycyrrhizin and salicin, are official. 
 
 The following glucosids, among the very great number 
 existing, may be mentioned : Amygdalin in bitter almond ; 
 quercitrin in oak and other barks ; convolvulin and jalapin 
 in jalap ; digitalin and digitoxin in digitalis, sinigrin in black 
 and sinalbin in white mustard ; picrocrocin in saffron ; conif- 
 erin in various species of Coniferse ; scillain and scillin in 
 squill ; and numerous saponins from different sources. 
 
 Experiment 1. — To a few cubic centimeters of a 1 per cent, 
 aqueous solution of salicin apply Fehling's test : negative. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Heat 0.1 gm. of salicin with 10 C.c. of 1 
 per cent, sulphuric acid to boiling-point on water-bath for 
 ten minutes ; neutralize with sodium hydrate and apply 
 Fehling's test (positive, showing inversion of the glucosid by 
 acids). 
 
 Experiment 3. — To 0.1 gm. of salicin add 5 C.c. of saliva 
 and warm to 40°C. on water-bath for half an hour ; then 
 apply Moore's test for glucose (positive, showing inversion 
 by ferments). 
 
 Experiment 4. — Into each of three test-tubes put 5 C.c. of 
 1 per cent, solution of salicin ; to the first add a few drops 
 of solution of tannin ; to the second, Mayer's reagent ; to 
 the third, picric acid ; noting that all are negative. 
 
 Experiment 5. — Some difficulty may be encountered in 
 
292 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 demonstrating the presence of a glucosid in the crude drug, 
 owing to the fact that nearly all drugs contain glucose or 
 other reducing substance, and because many drugs give a 
 brown color with the alkali in Fehling's solution. 
 
 Since the glucosids are not usually so readily soluble in 
 water as is glucose, this difficulty can often be avoided by 
 dissolving out the glucose with water and inverting the glu- 
 cosid in the marc by boiling with dilute mineral acid, when 
 glucose is formed and goes into solution. Starch and inulin 
 must be absent. A control-experiment must always be 
 made. This method is illustrated in the following experi- 
 ment : 
 
 Experiment 6. — Moisten 5 gm. of powdered digitalis with 
 water and percolate with warm water until a cubic centimeter 
 of percolate gives no reaction with well-diluted Fehling's 
 solution (showing that the drug has been exhausted of sugar). 
 Divide the marc into two equal portions ; boil one part with 
 50 C.c. of 2 per cent, sulphuric acid for fifteen minutes (to 
 invert the glucosids present) ; boil the other portion of the 
 marc with 50 C.c. of water. Filter the two, and neutralize 
 the acidulated decoction with a few drops of solution of 
 soda. Now take 1 C.c. of Fehling's solution, dilute with 
 20 C.c. of water, and divide into equal portions in two test- 
 tubes. After boiling them, add to the first 1 C.c. of the 
 filtrate from the inversion process ; to the second, 1 C.c. of 
 that from the' simple decoction ; boil each for a minute or 
 two, and put aside to cool ; it will be found that the first 
 shows a much greater reduction than the second. 
 
 Gums are colloidal ^ vegetable substances formed by con- 
 version of the cell-walls. They are either soluble in water 
 (true gums) or swell with it (bassorins). All gums are in- 
 soluble in alcohol. Acacia (a true gum) and tragacanth 
 (bassorin) are official. 
 
 A great many plants contain gum in varying quantities ; 
 
 ' Soluble solids were divided into two classes by Graham : The o-j/stat- 
 loids, which diffuse readily through parchment, and which may assume 
 crystalline shape ; and the colloids, which do not diffuse readily through 
 parchment, which do not i-eadily form crystals, and the solutions of which 
 are usually viscid. It will be seen that the classification is by no means a 
 sharp one, but it is very convenient. 
 
CARBOHYDRATES. 293 
 
 in the following drugs it is an important constituent : in all 
 gum resins ; flax- and quince-seed (latter unofficial) ; sassa- 
 fras pith ; elm bark ; althaea ; opium ; senna, and in many 
 leaves, herbs, and flowers. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Heat 1 gm. of powdered acacia and 1 gm. 
 of powdered tragacanth, each with 5 C.c. of water. Note 
 that the acacia is readily soluble, but that only a part of the 
 tragacanth dissolves, the remainder forming a jelly. 
 
 Experiment 2, — Put into each of five test-tubes about 5 
 C.c. of a 25 per cent, mucilage of acacia ; to the first add 
 2 C.c. of alcoh ol ; to the second, a few drops of Ipad sub- 
 apetate ; to the third, some saturated solution of borax ; to 
 the fourth, a few drops of solution of fi^rrip. nhjnrid ; and to 
 the fifth, some 10 per cent, solution of tannin. Note the 
 character of the precipitate in each case. 
 
 . Experiment 3. — Repeat the preceding experiment, using a 
 10 per cent, decoction of elm in place of the mucilage of 
 acacia. 
 
 Experiment 4. — To 5 C.c. each of mucilage of acacia and 
 mucilage of tragacanth, in separate test-tubes, add a drop of 
 compound solution of iodin ; the tragacanth is colored violet 
 at the point of contact ; in the other there is no reaction. 
 
 Experiment 5. — Test 5 C.c. of the mucilage of acacia with 
 Fehling's solution (does not reduce it). Commercial acacia 
 may give a slight amount of reduction. Apply Moore's test 
 to 5 C.c. (turns brown). 
 
 Experiment 6. — Heat 10 C.c. of mucilage of acacia and 
 2 C.c. of 10 per cent, sulphuric acid to boiling and continue 
 the heat for twenty minutes ; neutralize with sodium hydrate 
 and test with Fehling's solution : positive (compare with 
 Experiment 5). 
 
 Demonstration. — To 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, solution of com- 
 mercial dextrin add a drop of compound solution of iodin 
 (reddish violet). 
 
 Materials. — Powdered acacia, elm bark, dextrin, powdered 
 tragacanth, 25 per cent, mucilage of acacia, solution of lead 
 subacetate, saturated solution of borax, 10 per cent, solution 
 of tannin. 
 
 Starch (C^Hj^OJ is the chief constituent of many well- 
 
294 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 known cereals and tubers (potato). It is widely distributed 
 in the vegetable kingdom, being found in by far the greater 
 number of such official drugs as roots, rhizomes, and seeds. 
 
 Starch-granules from different sources can be identified by 
 the microscope (see p. 192). 
 
 Of the many in which it occurs, the following drugs have 
 it in large percentage : Belladonna root (in which its abun- 
 dance roughly indicates the relative alkaloidal contents), 
 ipecac, althaea (35 per cent.), glycyrrhiza, ginger (20 per cent.) ; 
 physostigma (48 per cent.). 
 
 The absence of starch is often of importance, since its 
 presence in those powders, which should not contain it, affords 
 a means of detecting adulteration. The following drugs are 
 free from starch or have but traces of it : Drugs of the Com- 
 positse ; senega, gentian, cinchona, elm, the cinnamons, many 
 flowers or parts of flowers, particularly cloves and saffron, 
 mustard, opium, lactucarium, aloe, and, of course, such iso- 
 lated principles as sugars, gums, camphors, and oils. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Triturate 1 gm. of starch with 10 Co. of 
 water (it does not dissolve) ; heat to the boiling-point (it 
 becomes gelatinous), add about 90 C.c. of water, and warm 
 (it forms an opalescent solution, a little precipitate falling later). 
 
 Experiment 2. — Into each of three test-tubes put 5 C.c. of 
 the starch solution from Experiment 1. To the first add 
 5 C.c. of 2 per cent, sulphuric acid ; to the second, 10 C.c. 
 of saliva ; and to the third nothing ; put the first in the 
 water-bath at the boiling-point ; the second in the water-bath 
 at 40° C. ; and the third is kept at room-temperature ; after 
 an hour test all three with Fehling's solution for glucose : the 
 starch will prove negative, but the other two will be positive, 
 showing that the ferment, ptyalin, of the saliva and the 
 sulphuric acid have each converted the starch into sugar. 
 
 Experiment 3. — To one drop of starch solution add half 
 the test-tubeful of water and a drop of compound solution of 
 iodin (violet color). Warm the test-tube (color disappears) ; 
 cool under tap (color reappears) (applicable to 1 part of starch 
 in 500,000 parts of cold water). Add 1 C.c. 5 per cent, 
 solution of soda (color disappears), then 2 C.c. 5 per cent, 
 hydrochloric acid (color reappears). 
 
SAPONINS. 295 
 
 Experiment 4. — Intxj test-tubes put a few drops of 5 per 
 cent, decoctions of the following drugs : Ginger, belladonna, 
 cassia, and Saigon cinnamon ; dilute all equally, and to each 
 add a drop of compound tincture of iodin. If no color ap- 
 pears, add to each a drop of hydrochloric acid ^ to neutralize 
 the alkaline salts usually present in drugs ; if no color then 
 appears, add another drop or two of iodin solution. Notice 
 the difference in intensity of reaction, roughly corresponding 
 to the relative percentages of starch contained, if all have 
 been equally exhausted. 
 
 Materials. — Starch, ginger, belladonna, cassia, Saigon cin- 
 namon. 
 
 SAPONINS. 
 
 Saponins are amorphous, glucosidal substances, free from 
 nitrogen, soluble in water, the solutions foaming when shaken ; 
 they are strong emulsifying agents and cause the solution of 
 red blood-corpuscles. Some saponins are precipitated by lead 
 acetate. 
 
 Those which are physiologically inactive are called Sapo- 
 nins ; those which are active, Sapotoxins. 
 
 Most saponins or sapotoxins give the sulphuric-acid reac- 
 tion mentioned below in Experiment 3. There are no official 
 saponins, but in the following drugs they are important con- 
 stituents : Digitalis, quillaja, sarsaparilla, senega, and squill 
 among the official, and soap-root among the unofficial. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Make a 5 per cent, decoction of quillaja, 
 using a 0.9 per cent, solution of sodium chlorid^ instead of 
 water ; to a drop of blood upon a glass slide add a drop of 
 the decoction and a few drops of the 0.9 per cent, solution 
 of sodium chlorid : it causes laking — i. e., forms a clear 
 solution. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Take 10 C.c. of 5 per cent, decoction of the 
 following drugs ; shake them, and notice the frothing of those 
 containing saponin ; then add 10 minims of cotton-seed oil 
 
 ^ Iodin may be added in excess instead of using the acid. 
 
 ^ TUs solution of 0.9 per cent, sodium chlorid in water behaves indiffo 
 ently toward the tissues and blood of warm-blooded animals. 
 
 It is the " normal saline solution " of physiologists and physicians. Note 
 that it is not a " normal " solution in the sense in which the word is used by 
 chemists. 
 
296 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 and note their relative emulsifying powers : Quillaja, senega, 
 sarsaparilla, cinchona (last negative). 
 
 Experiment 3. — Place 0.01 gm. of saponin (crude saponin 
 consists for the most part of sapotoxin) on a chip of white 
 porcelain and add two drops of sulphuric acid (strong) ; 
 canary color. Add trace of water ; gradual development of 
 purple color, which fades after a time. 
 
 Materials. — Quillaja, senega, sarsaparilla, cinchona, 0.9 per 
 cent, solution of sodium chlorid, cotton-seed oil. 
 
 PROTEIDS. 
 
 Proteids are very complex substances, universally dis- 
 tributed in living animal and vegetable tissues, but not found 
 abundantly in most of the official drugs other than seeds ; of 
 which, however, they often constitute more than 25 per cent, 
 of their weight. They are of very great physiologic import- 
 ance, since they are intimately connected with the life of 
 cells. 
 
 Proteids contain from 15 to 18 per cent, of nitrogen, com- 
 bined with carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, and oxygen, the latter 
 element being in much smaller proportion in these compounds 
 than in the carbohydrates. 
 
 The class of proteids includes a number of substances dif- 
 fering more or less, but having certain characteristics in com- 
 mon. Their separate treatment belongs to the more advanced 
 study of chemistry. Their molecules readily undergo decom- 
 position by the action of ferments, acids, alkalies, and other 
 agencies. Probably because of the size of the molecules, they 
 do not pass through animal membranes nor vegetable parch- 
 ment, and they are not readily crystallizable. 
 
 For our purpose none of the official drugs except seeds 
 need be considered in connection with this class of com- 
 pounds. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Egg-albumen (white of egg) may be con- 
 veniently studied for the characteristic proteid reactions. 
 Take the white of an egg and mix with 500 C.c. of water : a 
 white, cloudy precipitate of globulin (another proteid) forms ; 
 filter and use the clear filtrate for the following tests : 
 
PR0TEW8. 297 
 
 Experiment 2. — To 5 C.c. of the solution of albumen add 
 5 C.c. of solution of potassa or soda, and drop by drop a 1 
 per cent, solution of cupric sulphate : a violet or pink color 
 results. Biuret test. 
 
 When the amount of proteids is small, the cupric sulphate 
 gives a blue precipitate, which dissolves with a purple color. 
 The beginnner must be careful to avoid excess of the cupric 
 sulphate, which would remain imdissolved and give a blue 
 color to the liquid. 
 
 Experiment 3. — To 5 C.c. of the solution of albumen add 
 a drop or two of 5 per cent, acetic acid and boil ; the proteid 
 is coagulated ; after coagulation it cannot be again dissolved 
 except by decomposing the molecule. If strong acids are 
 used, especially hydrocholoric, a soluble compound may be 
 formed. 
 
 Experiment 4. — To a little pure (undissolved) egg-albumen 
 add an equal amount of strong nitric acid : a yellow color 
 develops ; now add an excess of ammonia water or sodium 
 hydrate ; the color becomes orange, and if a large excess of 
 alkali is used, the albumen will become soluble. This test 
 may be made upon the solution by boiling 5 C.c. with as 
 much strong nitric acid, in which case a yellow solution is 
 obtained, which becomes orange on the addition of the alkali 
 (xanthoproteic test). 
 
 Experiment 5. — To 5 C.c. of the solution of albumen add 
 a few drops of acetic acid and some mercuric potassium iodid 
 (Mayer's reagent). A white precipitate occurs. This is also 
 a general alkaloidal precipitant (see p. 303). 
 
 Experiment 6. — Rub a kernel of bitter almond to a paste 
 and add 25 C.c. of water, stirring for a few minutes, and 
 filter through a previously wetted filter. 
 
 Apply the biuret, xanthoproteic, and Mayer's tests (see 
 Experiments 2, 4, and 5) to portions of the filtrate, demon- 
 strating that the proteid found in seeds responds to the char- 
 acteristic tests for egg-albumen. Physostigma or other seeds 
 may be similarly tested, but note that the alkaloid physo- 
 stigmine is also precipitated by Mayer's reagent. 
 
 Materials. — Egg-albumen, bitter almond, physostiguia. 
 
298 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 FERMENTS. 
 
 Ferments are organic bodies which induce definite changes 
 in the chemic composition of certain substances without com- 
 mensurate change in the ferment. They are of comparatively 
 little pharmaceutic interest (if we except the fermentation of 
 syrups), despite the fact that they play a very important part 
 in the processes of health and disease. 
 
 The digestive ferments : ptyalin, found in saliva, and pep- 
 sin and pancreatin, secreted by certain glands of the stomach 
 and pancreas, convert the food into substances capable of 
 absorption into the blood and assimilation by the tissues. 
 The ferment emulsin in bitter almond decomposes amygdalin 
 into oil of bitter almonds, hydrocyanic acid, and dextrose. 
 Similar ferments are found in many other plants which con- 
 tain glucosids. 
 
 The conversion of glucose into alcohol and finally into 
 acetic acid by the action of the yeast ferment is a familiar 
 instance of a fermentation process. 
 
 The action of a given ferment is usually exerted only on 
 a very small number of closely allied substances, and only 
 imder favorable conditions of temperature, moisture, etc. 
 
 In addition to the emulsin and the digestive ferments pre- 
 viously mentioned the following drugs contain important 
 ferments : White and black mustard contain myrosin ; ex- 
 tract of malt contains diastase. 
 
 Yeast plays an important r6le pharmaceutically, since to it 
 is due much of the troublesome fermentation (syrups, etc.) 
 which causes so much annoyance to pharmacists. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Dissolve 0.1 gm. of pepsin in 100 C.c. 
 of water ; add 1 C.c. hydrochloric acid (this approximately 
 represents the gastric juice of the stomach, though certain 
 salts and mucus are present in that organ). Put 10 C.c. of 
 this solution into a test-tube; add about 0.1 gm. of fibrin,' 
 
 ' Fibrin is prepared by briskly whipping fresh blood with a glass rod for 
 fifteen minutes, straining out the fibrin, and washing with water. It may 
 be preserved in alcohol or in solution of common salt. 
 
 The U. S. P. uses coagulated egg-albumen in estimating the digestive 
 power of pepsin. The reaction is the same with that proteid, but the fibrin 
 is acted upon more rapidly and is, therefore, preferred in this experiment. 
 
FERMENTS. 299 
 
 which has been thoroughly washed to remove alcohol or salt, 
 and stand the tube in water at 40° C. for half an hour. 
 
 The pepsin causes the digestion of the fibrin, the decom- 
 position products being soluble, and if the biuret test (p. 297) 
 is now made, it will be found that proteids, albumose, and 
 peptone are in solution — in other words, the insoluble fibrin 
 has been converted by the ferment pepsin into soluble sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Put 10 C.c. of this acid solution of pep- 
 sin into a test-tube and boil for five minutes ; this destroys 
 the pepsin. Now add 0.1 gm. of fibrin and place the tube 
 in a water-bath at 40° C. for half an hour, after which 
 apply the biuret test ; this will now prove negative, since 
 the fibrin remains unchanged and insoluble. 
 
 Experiment 3. — Put 10 C.c. of the acid solution of pepsin 
 into a test-tube with 0.1 gm. of fibrin, and add 10 C.c. of 
 solution of soda (5 per cent.) ; place in water-bath at 40°C. 
 for half an hour, and apply the biuret test. This will also 
 prove negative, showing that the ferment is not active in 
 alkaline medium. 
 
 Experiment 4. — Dissolve 0.1 gm. of pancreatin' in 100 
 C.c. of water and add 1 C.c. of concentrated solution of 
 sodium carbonate (this approximately represents the pan- 
 creatic juice in the intestine). Into each of three test- 
 tubes put 10 C.c. of this solution ; boil the first one for 
 five minutes ; render the second strongly acid with hydro- 
 chloric acid, and use the third as it is ; to each add 0.1 gm. 
 of fibrin ; place the three test-tubes in the water-bath at 
 40° C. for half an hour, and then apply the biuret test. It 
 will be found that boiling has destroyed the ferment ; that it 
 has been inactive in an acid medium, and that the third alone 
 gives the biuret reaction, since pancreatin (or trypsin) requires 
 a neutral or an alkaline medium for its digestive action. 
 
 Experiment 5. — Take a piece of compressed yeast of the 
 size of a pea and shake it in a test-tube with a little 5 per 
 cent, solution of glucose until a smooth mixture is obtained ; 
 then fill the tube with the glucose solution and invert it in a 
 
 ' Pancreatin is a mixture of ferments, one of which (trypsin) is con- 
 cerned in the above experiment. 
 
3U0 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 r^ 
 
 ^;=^^ 
 
 4r .;n> 
 
 fes' 
 
 beaker containing some of the liquid, avoiding the escape of 
 the solution by covering the tube with the thumb.' 
 
 Put in a warm place for a day or 
 longer. The yeast will decompose the 
 glucose with formation of CO^ (which 
 collects in the test-tube). This may be 
 tested by introducing a small piece (1 
 gm.) of sodium hydrate into the tube : 
 the carbon dioxid combines with it to 
 form sodium carbonate, the gas being 
 replaced by water. Alcohol is also 
 formed, which may be detected in the 
 jj r\\ liquid in the beaker by adding a few 
 
 ■^ "^^ cubic centimeters of solution of potassa 
 
 and then a few drops of compound 
 solution of iodin ; a yellow precipitate 
 of iodoform occurs either at once or after 
 a time, and the well-known odor can be 
 detected. 
 
 When the amount of alcohol formed 
 by the fermentation is small, it may 
 be necessary to distil oflF a few cubic 
 centimeters of the liquid ; alcohol, being 
 more volatile than water, will be found in a larger proportion 
 in the first distillate than in the undistilled portion. 
 
 Experiment 6. — Extract of malt contains the ferment 
 diastase, which is capable of converting starch into dextrin 
 and glucose. 
 
 To 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, starch solution add 1 C.c. extract 
 of malt and 4 C.c. of water ; put in water-bath at 60° C. 
 for a few hours. When the conversion is complete, the starch 
 will have been completely decomposed, which may be proved 
 by adding a drop of solution of iodin to a little of the mix- 
 ture, no blue color resulting. If the conversion is not 
 
 ^ Instead of mounting the test-tube in the beaker, the method illustrated 
 in Fig. 54 may be used. This consists of a bent tube which passes up 
 through a perforated cork into a testrtube. After filling as described in the 
 above experiment, the apparatus is inverted in a tumbler and put aside in 
 a warm place. The carbon dioxid evolved forces the liquid out through 
 the tube while the gas collects in the test-tube. 
 
 Fig. 54.— Fermentation 
 tube with exit, for use 
 with small quantities of 
 liquid. 
 
FERMESTS. 301 
 
 completed, the reaction may be compared with a control as 
 follows : 
 
 Take 2 C.c. of the mixture and dilute with a liter of cold 
 water ; then take 1 C.c. of the 1 per cent, starch solution 
 and dilute with a liter of cold water. Test 5 C.c. of each in 
 test-tubes of the same diameter, adding one drop of iodin 
 solution to each, and note the diminished intensity of color 
 in the partially converted solution. 
 
 Materials. — Pepsin, pancreatin, yeast (fresh), extract of 
 malt, fibrin, 5 per cent, glucose, starch. 
 
CHAPTEK III. 
 
 CLASS n.— CONSTITUENTS FOR THE MOST PART 
 SOLUBLE IN ALCOHOL AND WATER, INSOL- 
 UBLE IN ETHER, CHLOROFORM. BENZOL. PE- 
 TROLEUM ETHER (GASOLIN), AND AMYLIC 
 ALCOHOL. 
 
 ALKALOIDS. 
 
 Alkaloids are organic bases whose watery solutions 
 turn reddened litmus blue. The United States Pharmacopoeia 
 distinguishes alkaloids from other compounds by the termi- 
 nation of their names in -ine — thus, strychnine. They com- 
 bine with acids to form salts without, however, liberating 
 hydrogen ; their combinations with hydrochloric and hydro- 
 bromic acids are, therefore, called hydrochlorates and hydro- 
 bromates by the U. S. P., though some authorities prefer to 
 call them hydrochlorids, hydrobromids, etc. They all contain 
 nitrogen. • The greater number of pharmaceutic interest con- 
 tain oxygen, are solid, and non-volatile at the ordinary tem- 
 perature ; a few are oxygen-free liquids and are readily volatil- 
 izable. The free alkaloids ^ are usually soluble in alcohol, 
 ethei", and chloroform, slightly so in water, while their salts 
 are soluble in water, less so in alcohol, and nearly insoluble 
 in chloroform and ether ; advantage being taken of the readi- 
 ness with which they form salts and the differences in solu- 
 bility of salt and free alkaloid to separate them from other 
 plant constituents. 
 
 A number of alkaloids give characteristic, usually evanes- 
 cent, color-reactions with certain concentrated mineral acids. 
 A number of reagents precipitate both alkaloids and proteids 
 (hence it may become necessary to isolate an alkaloid before 
 applying identity tests). The following alkaloids or one or 
 more of their salts are official : 
 
 ^ A few free alkaloids are fairly soluble in water. 
 302 
 
ALKALOIDS. 303 
 
 Apomorphine, atropine, caffeine,^ cinchonidine, cinchonine, 
 cocaine, codeine, morphine, physostigmine, pilocarpine, quini- 
 dine, quinine, strychnine, and veratrine, the last-mentioned 
 being a mixture of alkaloids. 
 
 Of some importance are : Aconitiue, brucine, coniine, col- 
 chicine, emetine, narceine, narcotine, nicotine, solanine, and 
 theobromine. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Add one drop of dilute sulphuric acid (10 
 per cent.) to 10 C.c. of distilled water and test its reaction 
 with litmus-paper (acid). Then add to it 0.1 gm. of quinine 
 (alkaloid) and again test with litmus ; it is now neutral, 
 showing that the alkaloid has neutralized the acid, and upon 
 shaking vigorously, enough of the quinine will dissolve to 
 render the solution alkaline. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Shake 0.2 gm. of quinine with 100 C.c. 
 of water and note that only a small part is dissolved ; add 
 10 C.c. of 1 per cent, sulphuric acid ; agitate the flask until 
 solution occurs. (The insoluble ^ alkaloid has been converted 
 into a soluble salt, the sulphate.) Note the fluorescence 
 (bluish color) of this solution, rendered more intense by fur- 
 ther dilution with dilute sulphuric acid, but destroyed by 
 adding sodium chlorid. 
 
 Experiment 3. — Use the solution of quinine sulphate made 
 in Experiment 2 for the following general tests : 
 
 Put 5 C.c. of the solution into each of five test-tubes ; to 
 the first add a few drops of Mayer's reagent (mercuric potas- 
 sium iodid) ; to the second, solution of picric acid ; to the 
 third, solution of tannin ; to the fourth, solution of iodin 
 with potassium iodid ; and to the fifth, enough solution of 
 sodium or potassium hydrate (five to ten drops) to render it 
 alkaline (or until an abundant precipitate falls). With the 
 first four insoluble compounds have been formed, while the 
 alkaline hydrate has precipitated the alkaloid by combining 
 with its acid ; this may be demonstrated by nearly filling 
 all the test-tubes with water (or adding 20 C.c. to each), 
 
 ^ Caffeine and theobromine, while classed, for convenience, with the 
 alkaloids, show the alkaloidal reactions only to a minor degree and are very 
 feebly basic. 
 
 '■' The terms soluble and insoluble are given in this work relative values — 
 quinine is soluble in about 1700 parts of cold water. 
 
304 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS 
 
 when the free alkaloid may be dissolved by shaking, but 
 the first four precii^itates remain undissolved (see Experi- 
 ment 5). 
 
 Experiment 4. — This will serve to illustate the method of 
 isolating alkaloids by reason of differences in solubility when 
 more than one is present in solution. To 5 Co. of the solu- 
 tion of quinine sulphate add 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, solution of 
 morphine sulphate. To the mixed solutions add 1 C.c. of 1 
 per cent, solution of soda or until the mixture is decidedly 
 alkaline to litmus, but avoiding a large excess. This precipi- 
 tates the free alkaloids from solution ; add 10 C.c. of ether, 
 and shake gently with a sort of rotary motion, which causes 
 the quinine to be dissolved by the ether without its mixing 
 with the water; the morphine being but slightly soluble 
 (1 in 4000), remains in the watery layer ; the ethereal solu- 
 tion .of quinine is drawn off in a pipet, and 5 C.c: of fresh 
 ether again gently shaken with the mixture in order to 
 remove the last traces of quinine. The two portions of ether 
 are mixed and 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, sulphuric acid added, 
 when, upon gently shaking them, the quinine again becomes 
 the sulphate and passes out of the ether into the weak acid, 
 as is evidenced by the fluorescence which it has acquired. 
 Further proof may be had by applying the thalleioquin test 
 (see Experiment 3 under Cinchona, p. 347). 
 
 The morphine may be removed by adding 10 C.c. of acetic 
 ether to the mixture (after the second portion of ether has 
 been removed) and gently shaking for a few minutes. Re- 
 move the acetic ether layer (which now contains the mor- 
 phine) with a pipet. The acetic ether may be evaporated off 
 and tests applied to the residue ; or the acetic ether solution 
 may be agitated with 10 C.c. of 1 per cent, sulphuric acid, 
 which converts the morphine into the sulphate, and this dis- 
 solves in the weak acid. The fact that neutral principles do 
 not form salts with acids is taken advantage of in separating 
 them from alkaloids (see Neutral Principles, Experiment 1). 
 
 Experiment 5. — Keller's method of estimating the alka- 
 loidal contents of a drug consists in extracting it with a 
 mixture of chloroform and ether in the presence of ammonia 
 water (the latter is added to insure the alkaloids being free) 
 
ALKALOIDS. 305 
 
 from a weighed amount of drug, purifying, and then weigh- 
 ing. The following process, modified for the present pur- 
 pose, will serve to illustrate the method. The product will 
 not be sufficiently pure to enable one to determine the quan- 
 tity present, but serves readily for the identity test. 
 
 Into a flask of about 250 Co. capacity put 12 gm. of 
 powdered nux vomica and pour upon it a mixture of 80 C.c. 
 of ether and 40 C.c. of chloroform ; shake occasionally for 
 half an hour (to give time for the mixture to penetrate thor- 
 oughly into the cells of the drug) ; then add 10 C.c. of 
 ammonia water and shake well and frequently during an 
 hour (half-hour suffices to extract a part of the alkaloid) ; 
 then add 5 C.c. of water and shake the mixture ; keep add- 
 ing portions of 5 C.c. of water and shaking after each addi- 
 tion at intervals of two minutes until the drug separates, 
 leaving a nearly clear layer above, when it is allowed to 
 stand for a minute or two (not more than about 25 C.c. of 
 water in all should be used). When the ether-chloroform 
 separates into a clear layer and the drug tends to remain 
 agglutinated at the bottom, pour off the clear liquid (the 
 water remains in the drug) into a flask, add 50 C.c. of 1 
 per cent, hydrochloric acid, and shake (rotate) gently for ten 
 minutes. Separate the chloroform-ether layer, or it may be 
 easier to remove the greater part of the acidulated solution 
 from the bottom. The acid watery layer now contains the 
 alkaloids as the hydrochlorates. For the following test the 
 solution should be rendered nearly neutral by the addition 
 of sodium carbonate. Half a cubic centimeter of the solu- 
 tion injected into a frog ^ gives typical strychnine convulsions. 
 The intensely bitter taste, even on dilution, is characteristic 
 of strychnine. 
 
 If the remainder of the solution is now rendered alkaline 
 by adding ammonia water, and a mixture of 40 gm. ether 
 and 20 gm. of chloroform is added, and the mixture is shaken 
 occasionally with a gentle rotary motion (to avoid emulsifi- 
 cation"), the ether-chloroform layer (containing free alkaloid) 
 
 ' To inject into frog, cut a small hole in the skin of the abdomen with a 
 knife or scissors and drop the fluid into the space between the skin and 
 the S-bdpinen, with a fine pointed pipet. 
 
 20 
 
306 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 can be separated and evaporated (or distilled) ; the alka- 
 loids, strychnine and brucine, are left behind (see Experi- 
 ment 6). 
 
 Experiment 6. — The success of this experiment will depend 
 somewhat upon the care with which the preceding one has 
 been conducted. Use the end-product of Experiment 5, and 
 to a part add nitric acid — a red color fading to yellow is due 
 to brucine ; to another part add a drop of sulphuric acid, 
 then a very small crystal of potassium bichromate, when a 
 a play of colors — blue, violet, and red — will be seen, due to 
 strychnine. 
 
 Experiment 7. — To demonstrate the presence of a volatile 
 alkaloid, mix 1 gm. powdered tobacco with an equal bulk of 
 freshly slaked lime ; put into a test-tube and pour enough 
 water in to cover the powder. Stopper the tube with a per- 
 forated cork having a bent tube extending into the upper 
 part of the test-tube, the other end dipping into slightly 
 acidulated water in a small beaker ; heat the test-tube, caus- 
 ing the volatile alkaloid, nicotine, to vaporize, and be con- 
 densed in the water in the beaker. Should the nicotine con- 
 dense on the walls of the upper part of the test-tube and the 
 bent tube, these may be heated. 
 
 To the water in the beaker apply several of the alkaloidal 
 tests given in Experiment 3, p. 303, after dividing it into 
 several portions. 
 
 iVbfe.^When operating upon a drug containing a small 
 quantity of a volatile alkaloid, it is better to exhaust the dry 
 mixture of drug and calcium hydrate with ether, evaporate 
 the latter at a temperature of the room or little higher, and 
 then distil the residue as in Experiment 7. The distilla- 
 tion may be carried on in a stream of CO^ to avoid oxida- 
 tion. 
 
 Materials, — Quinine (alkaloid), saturated solution of picric 
 acid, 10 per cent, solution of tannin, 1 per cent, solution of 
 morphine sulphate, ether, acetic ether, chloroform, powdered 
 nux vomica, frog, potassium bichromate, powdered tobacco, 
 unslaked lime, bent glass tube, and cork with two perforations 
 for distillation. 
 
NEUTRAL PRINCIPLES. 307 
 
 NEUTRAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 Neutral principles form a class which is not strictly scien- 
 tific, since they constitute a heterogeneous collection, some 
 being soluble in water, others in alcohol ; some are glucosids ; 
 some contain nitrogen. 
 
 They are characterized by bitter or sharp taste and by the 
 absence of most of the other properties of alkaloids. They 
 are usually crystalline, and are possessed of marked physio- 
 logic action, usually shown by the bitter taste. 
 
 Picrotoxin, piperin, salicin, and santonin are mentioned by 
 the Pharmacopoeia as neutral principles ; of these salicin, has 
 been considered among the glucosids. 
 
 Experiment 1. — The following will demonstrate the non- 
 alkaloidal character of picrotoxin : Take 0.05 gm. of this 
 neutral principle, rub it with 5 C.c. of water ; a part remains 
 tjudissolved, and the mixture is neutral to litmus-paper. Add 
 a drop or two of 1 per cent, sulphuric acid, and note that 
 no appreciable amount is dissolved thereby, showing that 
 no soluble salt is formed (compare with Experiment 2, p. 303). 
 Now add 10 C.c. of water and triturate until solution is 
 effected. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Divide the solution of picrotoxin made in 
 Experiment 1 into three portions in three test-tubes ; to the 
 first add Mayer's reagent ; to the second, solution of picric 
 acid ; to the third, compound solutiop of iodin, noting that 
 these alkaloidal precipitants give no precipitates. 
 
 Experiment 3. — To about 0.1 gm. of santonin add 5 C.c. 
 of solution of soda, heat, and when dissolved, neutralize the 
 solution with 5 C.c. of dilute hydrochloric acid. The san- 
 toninate of soda formed in effecting solution is decomposed 
 by the acid, and the santonin is precipitated. The mixture 
 now having an excess of acid, the non-glucosidal character 
 of santonin may be shown by boiling the acid mixture, and, 
 after neutralizing with sodium hydrate, testing with Fehling's 
 solution : the result is negative. 
 
 A distinct class of neutral principles embraces the purgative 
 DEEIVATIVES OF ANTHKAQUINONE ; these include chryso- 
 phanic acid (found in chrysorobin, senna, rhubarb, and cas- 
 
308 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 cara sagrada), emodin (fouDd in rhubarb, frangula, and aloes), 
 and the aloins (found in the various aloes). 
 
 They are only slightly soluble in pure or acidulated water, 
 but readily so in alkali, with which they combine, with the 
 development of a red color. 
 
 Experiment 4. — Anthraquinone derivatives : Moisten 1 
 gm. of powdered cascara sagrada with 1 C.c. of alcohol ; 
 macerate a few minutes and percolate with 5 C.c. of alcohol ; 
 to the percolate add 2 per cent, sodium hydrate (red color). 
 
 (In class some students may use senna, others rhubarb, etc., 
 in this and the next experiment, comparing results.) 
 
 Experiment 5. — Moisten 1 gm. of coarsely powdered cas- 
 cara sagrada with 1 C.c. of 5 per cent, sodium hydrate ; 
 macerate a few minutes and percolate with 10 C.c. of 5 per cent, 
 sodium hydrate ; to the percolate add a slight excess of hydro- 
 chloric acid : precipitate of resinous substance. 
 
 Experiment 6. — Dissolve 0.1 gm. of chrysophanic acid^ 
 in 2 C.c. 5 per cent, sodium hydrate (beautiful red color). 
 Add slight excess of dilute hydrochloric acid. Precipitate : 
 mixture becomes milky. 
 
 Materials. — Picrotoxin, santonin, cascara sagrada, and 
 chrysophanic acid. 
 
 TANNINS. 
 
 Tannins constitute another heterogeneous group, distin- 
 guished by an astringent taste, by giving a blue-black or 
 green-black color with ferric salts, and by being amorphous. 
 They do not contain nitrogen ; some are glucosids. 
 
 Pathologic tannins, so named because they are pro- 
 duced in the course of disease processes, in general give in 
 neutral solutions a bluish-black color with ferric salts, while 
 physiologic tannins, or those produced in normal tissues, give 
 a greenish-black with those salts. 
 
 Most tannins form precipitates with alkaloids, albumin, 
 and most of the metallic salts. 
 
 Tannins are soluble in water, alcohol, and glycerin ; less 
 soluble in ether. 
 
 Gallic and gallotannic acids are the only official tannins, 
 ' " Chrysophanic acid " is not an acid, but a neuti-al substance. 
 
TANwms. 309 
 
 but not only is tannin an important constituent in the drugs 
 in the subjoined list, but it is very widely distributed, par- 
 ticularly in barks and leaves. 
 
 Nut-galls contain gallotannic and gallic acids, but the latter 
 is principally obtained as a derivative of the fornjer. Oak -bark 
 C(mtains quercitannic acid, and the following barks contain 
 their peculiar tannins : Cinchona, coruus, pomegranate, black- 
 berry root and others, and the leaves of uva ursi, chestnut, 
 coca, matico, and hamamelis ; krameria and a number of 
 other roots and rhizomes contain minor quantities, but still 
 sufficient to form a black mixture when ferric salts are added 
 to their preparations. Calumba is a notable instance of a 
 root free from tannin. 
 
 Catechu and kino are notably rich in their peculiar tannins. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Put 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, solution of tan- 
 nin (the official tannic acid) ' into each of five test-tubes ; to 
 the first add a drop of solution of ferric chlorid ; a blue-black 
 color — ink — occurs ; add 1 C.c. oxalic acid (5 per cent.) — 
 it is decolorized ; then add an excess of solution of soda : it 
 becomes a port-wine color. 
 
 To the second tube add a little albumin ; to the third, a 
 solution of quinine sulphate ; to the fourth, solution of lead 
 subacetate ; and to the fifth, sodium hydrate. The last gives 
 a reddish-brown color and the preceding three give white 
 precipitates. 
 
 Experiment 2. — (Demonstration — U. S. P. Test.)— "To a 
 1 per cent, solution of tannin add a small quantity of calcium 
 hydrate T. S.^ A pale, bluish-white, flocculent precipitate 
 is produced, which is not dissolved on shaking (difference 
 from gallic acid), and which becomes more copious and of a 
 deeper blue by the addition of a moderate excess of calcium 
 hydrate T. S., while a large excess of the latter imparts a 
 pale pinkish tint to the solution." 
 
 Experiment 3. — To 5 C.c. of each of the following in- 
 fi,isions in test-tubes add a drop of solution of ferric chlorid. 
 
 ' This is pathologic tannin, being found in galls produced by the sting 
 of an insect. Ink-stains in cloth maybe removed (as shown by tliis experi- 
 ment) by addition of oxalic acid, which should then be washed out in water. 
 
 ^ Test solution. 
 
310 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 Note the color formed in each case; then to each add an 
 excess of hydrochloric acid (note bleaching) ; then to each an 
 excess of sodium hydrate (note garnet or sherry-wine color). 
 Infusion of oak bark and of uva ursi. 
 
 Demonstration. — To 5 C.c. of each, decoction of quassia 
 and of calumba, add a drop of ferric chlorid — no black color. 
 
 Materials. — 1 per cent, solution tannic acid ; oak-bark ; 
 uva ursi ; nut-galls ; 5 per cent, solution oxalic acid ; solution 
 of albumin ; ' 1 per cent, solution of quinine sulphate ; calcium 
 hydrate T. S. 
 
 ORGANIC ACIDS. 
 
 Organic acids exist in plants, both free and in combination, 
 as salts. The fatty acids — oleic, palmitic, and stearic — are 
 constituents of fat, and will be considered with them. The 
 aromatic acids — benzoic, cinnamic, salicylic, etc. — are found 
 in balsams and other drugs ; the three acids just mentioned 
 are the most important of this class pharmaceutically ; of 
 these, benzoic and cinnamic occur abundantly in benzoin, 
 tolu, and Peru balsams, storax, etc., while oils of wintergreen 
 and sweet birch are composed of methyl-salicylate, from which 
 salicylic acid is easily obtained. 
 
 Perhaps no other acid is so widely found in the vegetable 
 kingdom as is oxalic, which usually exists as calcium oxalate, 
 needle-shaped or sphere crystals of which are usually recog- 
 nized with ease microscopically (see Histology, p. 196). 
 Calcium oxalate may be further identified, when in doubt, 
 by the fact that it is insoluble in acetic acid (calcium car- 
 bonate dissolving with efifer\'escence). Soluble oxalates give 
 a white precipitate with calcium chlorid, insoluble in acetic, 
 soluble in hydrochloric, acid. 
 
 Acetic and fruit acids — malic, citric, and tartaric — occur 
 free or combined in the juices of many fruits. Acetic acid or 
 acetates give a red color with ferric chloric. Soluble tar- 
 trates with potassium hydrate and an excess of hydrochloric 
 acid give a white precipitate of potassium bitartrate (cream 
 of tartar), soluble in a large amount of water. 
 
 ' Where small quantities of albumin are wanted from time to time, it 
 will be found convenient to keep the following mixture on hand and dilute 
 as required : White of one egg ; water, 190 C.c. ; sodium chlorid, 10 gm. 
 
OEOANIC ACIDS. 311 
 
 Soluble citrates in neutral solutions give with calcium 
 chlorid no change in the cold ; upon boiling, a precipitate 
 falls ; this is insoluble in sodium hydrate. 
 
 Valerianic acid occurs in valerian and in the viburnums ; 
 but it is now mainly prepared synthetically through the oxi- 
 dation of amylic alcohol. The study of these acids belongs 
 rather to the department of chemistry than to that of materia 
 medica, hence no experiments with them are given in this 
 book. 
 
 Hydrocyanic acid usually exists in amygdalin, from 
 which it is split off by the ferment emulsin (see p. 298). 
 
 Amygdalin exists in the following drugs : Bitter almond, 
 wild cherry, and peach leaves. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Use a 1 per cent, solution of potassium 
 cyanid for the following hydrocyanic-acid tests : Into a test- 
 tube put 5 C.c. of the solution of potassium cyanid and add a 
 drop of solution of silver nitrate (white precipitate, dissolved 
 by adding excess of potassium cyanid). Potassium cyanid is 
 used for the sake of convenience, since it responds to the 
 tests for hydrocyanic acid. 
 
 Experiment 2. — To 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, solution of potas- 
 sium cyanid add a drop of 1 per cent, ferrous sulphate, a 
 drop of solution of ferric chlorid and a little sodium hydrate; 
 heat gently and add an excess of hydrochloric acid, when a 
 deep green or blue color or a blue precipitate of Prussian 
 blue is seen (a blue color may appear when the ferrous sul- 
 phate is added at the beginning of the experiment). 
 
 Experiment 3. — Moisten a piece of filter-paper with 0.5 
 per cent, copper sulphate, and when dry, moisten with a 
 recently prepared tincture of guaiac.^ Dry this in a warm 
 place — beside the Bunsen flame if necessary, but not above 
 it, since this heat may cause it to turn blue. Expose one 
 portion of the paper to the hydrocyanic-acid vapor by press- 
 ing it over the mouth of a bottle containing that acid : it 
 becomes dark blue ; press another portion over the mouth of 
 a bottle of ammonia water : it becomes greenish. 
 
 Experiment 4. — Put 5 gm. of coarsely powdered wild- 
 
 ' This is best prepared fresh by taking a small piece of clean guaiac 
 resin (0.1 gm.) and adding 5 C.c. alcohol in a test-tube, warming slightly. 
 
312 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 cherry bark into a test-lube and moisten with water ; warm 
 very gently (60° C.) ; the amygdalin present is decomposed 
 by emulsin, and liydrocyanic acid is formed ; press a third 
 portion of the previously mentioned copper-guaiac paper over 
 the test-tube while warming ; it becomes dark blue from the 
 hydrocyanic acid generated. 
 
 Experiment 5. — Rub a kernel of bitter almond in a mor- 
 tar to a pasty mass ; put into a test-tube ; add 6 C.c. of 
 water ; shake and warm gently while holding a piece of the 
 guaiac and copper sulphate pressed over the tube, as in the 
 previous experiment (dark blue, showing presence of hydro- 
 cyanic acid). 
 
 Benzoic Acid. — ^Experiment 6. — To 5 C.c. of 5 per 
 cent, sodium benzoate add ten drops of hydrochloric acid : 
 benzoic acid is precipitated ; warm, the acid is dissolved ; if 
 the test-tube is cooled under the hydrant, the acid again cry- 
 stallizes out of solution, the contents of the tube becoming a 
 semitransparent solid, so that the tube may be inverted with 
 little or no loss of liquid. Now add 5 C.c. of ether and 
 shake : the ether dissolves out the benzoic acid. 
 
 Experiment 7. — To 0.1 gm. of benzoic acid (or sodium 
 benzoate) in a small evaporating dish add a few drops of 
 nitric acid and evaporate to dryness on a water-bath ; when 
 the vapor of nitric acid has disappeared, the odor of oil of 
 bitter almond will be detected. 
 
 Experiment 8. — To 5 C.c. sodium benzoate add two drops 
 of ferric chlorid : flesh-colored precipitate of ferric benzoate. 
 
 Experiment 9. — To 1 gm. benzoic acid add 5 C.c. of milk of 
 lime and boil a few minutes ; filter while hot through a wetted 
 filter ; add to filtrate a slight excess of hydrochloric acid. 
 This illustrates Schuh's wet method of preparing benzoic 
 acid. By boiling the milk of lime with benzoin the acid 
 present combines with the lime to form calcium benzoate, 
 which is soluble ; by filtration resinous matter is left behind ; 
 after precipitating the acid it may be collected upon a filter 
 and further purified by sublimation. Its identity may be 
 established by the tests previously given. 
 
 Cinnamic Acid. — Experiment 10. — To 5 C.c. of balsam 
 of Peru add 19 C.c. of 5 per cent, sodium hydrate and heat 
 
OROANIC ACIDS. 313 
 
 a few minutes. Filter through a wetted filter and add a 
 slight excess of hydrochloric acid ; cool, add 10 C.c. of ether ; 
 shake for a few minutes and remove half of the ether with a 
 pipet to small evaporating dish ; evaporate the ether at a low 
 temperature (avoiding vaporization of the cinnamic acid), 
 and test as follows : 
 
 To the dry residue add a few drops of concentrated solu- 
 tion of potassium permanganate ; benzaldehyd is formed by 
 oxidation and can be detected by the odor of oil of bitter 
 almond. This test serves to distinguish cinnamic from ben- 
 zoic acid. Benzoic acid is also present in the balsam of Peru. 
 If the remainder of the ether be evaporated, the residue dis- 
 solved in 5 C.c. of 1 per cent, sodium hydrate, and the solu- 
 tion rendered practically neutral by the addition of very 
 dilute hydrochloric acid and a few drops of ferric chlorid be 
 added, the flesh-colored precipitate of ferric benzoate is seen. 
 If the solution is strongly acid, no precipitate occurs ; if 
 alkaline, reddish ferric hydrate is precipitated. 
 
 Salicylic Acid. — Experiment 11. — To 5 C.c. of 5 per 
 cent, sodium salicylate add 1 C.c. of dilute hydrochloric acid ; 
 sodium chlorid is formed, and salicylic acid is liberated as a 
 white precipitate ; heat to boiling ; the salicylic acid dissolves 
 and recrystallizes on cooling, as in case of benzoic acid ; when 
 cool, add 2 C.c. of ether and shake gently ; the salicylic acid 
 dissolves in the ethereal layer. With pipet remove the ethe- 
 real layer to another test-tube and add 1 C.c. of 5 per cent, 
 sodium hydrate ; shake gently, and evaporate off the ether, 
 leaving salicylate of soda in solution. This may be neutral- 
 ized and diluted for the next experiment, or a fresh solution 
 employed. 
 
 Experiment 12. — To one drop of 5 per cent, sodium salic- 
 ylate add 5 C.c. of water and a drop of ferric chlorid : violet 
 color. 
 
 Experiment 13. — To 5 C.c. of 5 per cent, sodium salic- 
 ylate in a test-tube add a little bromin water : crystalline pre- 
 cipitate. 
 
 Experiment 14. — On adding to a small portion of salic- 
 ylic acid in a test-tube about 1 C.c. of concentrated sulphuric 
 acid ; then, cautiously, about 1 C.c. of raethylic alcohol in 
 
314 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 drops, and heating the mixture to boiling : the odor of 
 methyl salicylate will be evolved. — (U. S. P.) 
 
 The odor of methyl salicylate is well known as that of oil 
 of wintergreen or oil of sweet birch. 
 
 Experiment 15. — Heat 2 C.c. of oil of sweet birch (me- 
 thyl salicylate) with 20 C.c. of 5 per cent, sodium hydrate 
 (whereby sodium salicylate is formed) ; then add 60 C.c. of 
 water and 10 C.c. of dilute hydrochloric acid to the mixture 
 in order to precipitate the salicylic acid ; collect this on a 
 filter and dissolve in a few cubic centimeters of hot water ; 
 and to the solution add ferric chlorid : violet color. 
 
 Carbolic Acid. — Although this substance, which is not 
 a true acid, does not occur free in plants, its reactions resem- 
 ble those of salicylic acid so closely that they may be con- 
 sidered in this place in order that they may be conveniently 
 compared. 
 
 Experiment 16. — To 6 C.c. of 1 per cent, solution of car- 
 bolic acid add a drop of ferric chlorid : bluish color (compare 
 with the violet color given with salicylates). 
 
 Experiment 17. — To 5 C.c. of concentrated carbolic acid 
 add 1 C.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid, and then, cautiously, 
 1 C.c. of methyl alcohol in drops and heat to boiling. No 
 odor of oil of wintergreen will be evolved. Contrast with 
 Experiment 14. 
 
 Materials. — 1 per cent, solution potassium cyanid, pow- 
 dered wild-cherry bark, bitter almonds, 5 per cent, solution 
 sodium benzoate, benzoic acid, balsam of Peru, 5 per cent, 
 solution sodium salicylate, oil of sweet birch, 1 per cent, 
 solution of carbolic acid, 5 per cent, solution silver nitrate, 
 1 per cent, solution ferrous sulphate, guaiac, 2 per cent, 
 hydrocyanic acid, ether, milk of lime, saturated solution potas- 
 sium permanganate, bromin water, methylic alcohol. 
 
 COLORING-MATTER. 
 
 Coloring-matter is very prevalent in the vegetable king- 
 dom, as a moment's reflection will confirm. The most widely 
 distributed, at least in flowering plants, is the green coloring- 
 matter — " chlorophyll " — which serves for the assimilation of 
 
COL ORINO-MA TTER. 3 1 5 
 
 carbon dioxid and liberation of oxygen. The substances 
 which constitute the brilliant coloring of flowers are mostly 
 unknown, as they exist only in small quantities and are 
 readily altered. Larger quantities of coloring-matter exist 
 in some plants, in which they- may occur in any part. These, 
 in so far as their composition is known, are benzol derivatives, 
 this being true of the widely distributed brown coloring-sub- 
 stances particularly abundant in barks, which are closely 
 allied to tannins and phlobaphenes. It is of interest to note 
 that the advanced products of the decomposition of chlo- 
 rophyll are identical with the decomposition-products formed 
 from the red coloring-matter of blood-hemoglobin. 
 
 A very interesting and important property of most vege- 
 table colors is that most of them show different colors in acid 
 and alkaline media. 
 
 Only a few of the more important can find a place here, 
 and since the composition of many is so imperfectly known, 
 no strictly scientific classification is possible ; hence the fol- 
 lowing will be adopted : 
 
 (A) Green color. 
 
 (B) Yellowish in all media. 
 
 (C) Reddish in all media. 
 
 (D) Reddish in acid, bluish in alkaline, media. 
 
 (E) Bluish in all media. 
 
 Class A. — Green Color. 
 
 Chlorophyll. — When fresh green plants are examined 
 microscopically, the cells are found to be charged with green 
 granules called chloroplasts. These consist of a spongy, 
 colorless network of protoplasm in which the chlorophyll is 
 inclosed. This " crude chlorophyll " consists of two sub- 
 stances — the bluish-green " chlorophyll proper " and the yel- 
 lowish " xanthophyll." Both of these give characteristic 
 absorption spectra, the crude chlorophyll giving a " mixed " 
 spectrum. 
 
 These substances are insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, 
 ether, chloroform, etc. Chlorophyll is readily changed by 
 acids and by alkalies — more especially by the former. To 
 
316 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 this is due the yellow or brown color which leaves acquire 
 after drying. If leaves dry very slowly, organic acids are 
 formed, causing the leaves to becoQie blackish, but if they 
 dry quickly, the acid formation does not occur, hence the 
 leaves remain green. 
 
 Experiment A 1. — Having moistened 2 gm. of powdered 
 digitalis (preferably the English), percolate it with 25 C.c. 
 of tepid water, and throw away the percolate ; then with 20 
 C.c. of alcohol, rejecting the first 2 C.c, which are mostly 
 water : a beautiful green percolate is obtained if the leaves 
 have been properly dried. Put 10 C.c. of this percolate in a 
 test-tube and examine spectroscopically.' It may be neces- 
 sary to dilute with alcohol to obtain best results. Three 
 lines will be seen — a dark one in the red, a lighter one about 
 
 ' On looking through a spectroscope at a yellow gas-flame a continuous 
 band of colore is seen. These are, from left to right : Bed, orange, yellow, 
 green, blue, indigo, and violet. When the spectroscope is held toward the 
 sunlight (daylight), the same band of colore is seen, but crossed by a num- 
 ber of fine vertical lines, due to gases in the sun, and called " Fraunhofer's 
 lines" (Fig. 55). Their positions being unvarying, they are useful in de- 
 
 1*10. 55. — Solar spectrum fof smaller spectroscope) : A, B, C, D, E, and F, Lines of 
 Frauuhofer, divisions above showing approximate positions of colors. 
 
 scribing the position of other bands. They have been given numbers, 
 though letters are still frequently used to designate them. The band of 
 colore, together with its peculiar lines, seen upon examining any substance 
 spectroscopically is called the spectrum of that substance. The solar spec- 
 trum is the band of colors with the Fi-aunhofer lines. Artificial light does 
 not show these lines. When a colored solution is intei-posed between the 
 light and the spectroscope, certain portions of the band of colors are 
 "absorbed" and are replaced by black lines or dark bands in the spectrum, 
 and this is spoken of as the " absorption of the spectrum " of that substance 
 or simply as its spectrum. When the solution contains two coloring agents, 
 the spectrum shows the bands of both and is called a " mixed spectrum." 
 For absorption spectra a spectroscope of small dispersion — !. e., one giving 
 a short band of colors — is the more useful. 
 
 To use the spectroscope: Look through it toward the daylight and 
 adjust the aperture by turning the milled head and varying the tube 
 length so that the Fraunhofei^'s lines are sharply seen (compare with Fig. 
 
COLORINQ-MATTER. 317 
 
 the middle of the green, and one in the orange, while all tjie 
 spectrum to the right of the green appears dark. This mixed 
 spectrum is that of chlorophyll and phylloxanthin. 
 
 Experiment A 2. — To half of the alcoholic percolate used 
 in the spectroscopic examination add an equal bulk of dilute 
 hydrochloric acid : the mixture becomes yellowish ; to the 
 other half of the percolate add an equal bulk of 5 per cent, 
 sodium hydrate : the color becomes an old-gold green with a 
 blood-red fluorescence (seen on looking down upon the tube 
 held slantingly). 
 
 Experiment A 3. — A characteristic test for chlorophyll is 
 performed as follows : To 5 C.c. of the clear green alcoholic 
 percolate obtained from the digitalis add 1 C.c. of concen- 
 trated hydrochloric acid and dilute with 5 C.c. of water ; 
 when the effervescence has ceased (in a minute), add 5 C.c. 
 of ether, shake gently, and allow the mixture to separate into 
 two layers : the lower (acid) layer becomes bluish-green, the 
 ethereal layer, yellowish. If these are examined spectro- 
 scopically, four bands will be seen in the ethereal layer, the 
 intensity dependent upon dilution ; these are : a very dark 
 one in the red, a faint one in the orange, a very dark one 
 about the middle of the green, and a very faint one a little to 
 the left of the last, while all to the right of the green is some- 
 what darker. In the acid layer a very dark band is seen in 
 the red. 
 
 If the alcoholic percolate be evaporated on a water-bath 
 and the residue taken up in concentrated hydrochloric acid, a 
 heavy dark band is seen in the red, another in the yellow, a 
 faint one between, and a faint one in the green, with a dark- 
 ening of the right side of the spectrum. 
 
 55) until the principal ones are recognized at sight and their location 
 known when looking at gas-light ; then interpose the substance to be ex- 
 amined in a testrtube and examine, when certain lines or bands of varying 
 intensity will be seen. 
 
 When looking at gas-light (no lines) the position of D may be very 
 nearly located by dusting a bit of powdered borax or other sodium salt into 
 the flame : the bright-yellow line appearing suddenly very nearly corre- 
 sponds to D. If horizontal lines are seen, they are due to imperfections in 
 the spectroscope and are disregarded. 
 
318 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 Class B.— Colors Yellowish in Both Acid and Alkaline Media. 
 
 Curcuma. — Experiment B 1. — Percolate 0.1 gm. of cur- 
 cuma with 10 C.c. of alcohol (or use tincture of curcuma). 
 To 5 drops of the percolate add 5 C.c. of water and 1 drop 
 of 5 per cent, sodium hydrate (reddish-brown color), then an 
 excess of dilute hydrochloric acid (yellow color is restored). 
 
 Curcuma contains the pigment called curcumin ; it is in- 
 soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol. 
 
 Experiment B 2. — Dip a piece of filter-paper into the re- 
 mainder of the percolate, allow to dry, dip it into 5 per cent, 
 boric acid ; let it dry (orange color). At one place touch it 
 with a drop of 1 per cent, hydrochloric acid (deeper red) ; 
 at another touch with a drop of 0.5 per cent, sodium hydrate 
 (it becomes blue or nearly black). 
 
 Saffron. — ^Experiment B 2. — Triturate 0.01 gra. of 
 saffron ' with water gradually added and then dilute with a 
 liter of water ; a yellow tint is discernible even in this 
 dilution (1 : 100,000). 
 
 Compare with safflower after treating an equal amount of 
 safflower in the same way. 
 
 Saffron contains a pigment called crocin or polychroit, a 
 glucosid, the principal characteristic of which is the intense 
 coloring-power. 
 
 Experiment B 4. — Triturate 0.01 gm. of saffron with 0.1 
 gm. of sugar ^ thoroughly, then with water gradually added, 
 dilute with a liter of clear water ; this gives a dilution of 
 1 : 100,000 ; take 5 C.c. of this dilution, put into a test- 
 tube, and add water until the color is just visible after shak- 
 ing ; then measure the contents of the tube ; the number of 
 cubic centimeters multiplied by 20,000 will give the amount 
 of dilution of the saffron. 
 
 Example. — If to 5 C.c. of the 1 : 100,000 enough water 
 is added to make the contents of the tube measure 30 C.c, 
 
 ' It may be found more convenient to have a 1 per cent, alcoholic 
 tincture prepared, of which 1 C.c. is used for diluting. 
 
 ^ For this experiment it is well to have a triturate of saffron and sugar 
 in above proportion prepared, to avoid weighing such small quantities as 
 0.01 gm. 
 
COLORING-MATTER. 319 
 
 we have 30 X 20,000=600,000 as the dilution in which the 
 color is visible. 
 
 Saffron should give with this method a color visible in a 
 dilution of 1 : 700,000. 
 
 Supplementary to this experiment two powders may be 
 furnished the student, for him to determine which is true 
 saffron. 
 
 Experiment B 5. — Eub a single stigma of saifron in a 
 mortar ; add a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid : deep 
 blue color. By making this test under the microscope the 
 proportion of true- saffron in an adulterated sample may be 
 roughly estimated. 
 
 Carthataus, or safflower, so-called "American saffron," 
 contains two coloring-principles: safflower yellow is soluble 
 in water, the other, carthamin (red), is insoluble in water but 
 soluble in alcohol and in alkaline solutions. 
 
 Experiment B 6. — Triturate 0.1 gm. of safflower with 10 
 C.c. of water gradually added (yellow solution of safflower 
 yellow) ; filter, and to part of the filtrate add 1 C.c. dilute 
 hydrochloric acid ; to the other, 1 C.c. solution of soda ; 
 note that little change of color occurs with either acid or 
 alkali, the latter becoming reddish. Save the exhausted drug 
 for next experiment. 
 
 Experiment B 7. — Return the undissolved portion of saf- 
 flower remaining upon the filter in the preceding experiment 
 to the mortar, and triturate with 19 C.c. of 1 per cent, sodium 
 carbonate ; the liquid when filtered is of an orange color 
 (compare with the filtrate in the preceding experiment) ; now 
 add an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid ; when the efferves- 
 cense ceases, the liquid portion will be yellow, with a reddish, 
 flocculent precipitate suspended in it. 
 
 Annotto contains two pigments : bixin, which is bright 
 red and sparingly soluble in water but quite soluble in alco- 
 hol, ether, alkali, oils, etc., to which it imparts a yellow color ; 
 and orellin, yellow, soluble in water. 
 
 Experiment B 8. — Triturate 0.1 gm. of annotto with 10 
 C.c. of alcohol (yellow color). Divide into two parts : to 
 one add 1 C.c. of dilute hydrochloric acid; to the other, 1 
 C.c. of solution of soda (no material change of color). 
 
320 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 Experiment B 9. — Triturate 0.1 gm. of annotto in a mor- 
 tar and add a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid (blue color, 
 changing to yellowish upon addition of water). 
 
 Class C. — Pigments Reddish in Both Acids and Alkalies. 
 
 Cochineal consists of the impregnated female insects and 
 contains the pigment, carmine, or carminic acid. Commer- 
 cial carmines are impure compounds of this acid. 
 
 Experiment C 1: — Triturat;e a single insect with 10 C.c. 
 of water ; notice the tint ; add 1 C.c. of ammonia water and 
 note depth of color. To 5 C.c. of this add water gradually 
 and notice the various tints caused by various degrees of dilu- 
 tion — with high dilution almost pure violet tint. 
 
 Experiment C 2. — Powder 0.1 gm. of cochineal and warm 
 for a few moments with 5 C.c. of water and 1 C.c. of water 
 of ammonia ; cool and filter ; to the filtrate add an excess of 
 dilute hydrochloric acid : red, precipitate of carminic acid.' 
 Note change of color. 
 
 Qass D.— Pigments Reddish in Acids, Bluish in Alkaline Media. 
 
 The most familiar of this class, since it is used as an indi- 
 cator, is litmus. 
 
 I^ittnus is the product of a lichen which contains two 
 coloring principles : azolitmin (blue), soluble in warm water, 
 insoluble in alcohol, the principle which gives value to litmus, 
 and erythrolitmin (red), soluble in alcohol, but almost insol- 
 uble in water. In addition to these are two other coloring- 
 principles of minor importance. (See U. S. P. for prepara- 
 tion of litmus-paper). 
 
 Experiment D 1. — To 1 C.c. of the official test solution 
 of litmus (which has been deprived of erythrolitmin) add a 
 drop of dilute sulphuric (or other) acid (red color) ; then a 
 slight excess (three or four drops) of solution of soda : the 
 blue color is restored. 
 
 Experiment D 2. — Put a small lump of litmus into a dry 
 test-tube with 10 C.c. of alcohol and boil for a few moments : 
 
 ' Carmine is prepared by precipitating the filtered decoction of cochineal 
 with Kochelle salt or alum and purifying the precipitates. 
 
COL OBING-MA TTER. 321 
 
 a bluish solution is obtained which shows very little change 
 when a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is added, and if 
 afterward a slight excess of sodium hydrate is added, the 
 blue is changed to yellowish. This substance, erythrolitmin, 
 is directed to be removed with boiling alcohol before the 
 official test solution of litmus is made. If the boiling be 
 long continued, it removes enough of the azolitmin to give a 
 slight red with acids and blue with alkalies. 
 
 Cudbear, like litmus, is the product of a lichen. Tinc- 
 ture of cudbear (N. F.) may be used to illustrate the char- 
 acter of its pigments. 
 
 Experiment D 3. — To 5 C.c. of water add 5 drops of 
 tincture of cudbear, then a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid 
 (note shades of color). Now add a slight excess of solution 
 of soda (bluish-violet color). 
 
 Alkauet, the root of Alkanna tinctoria, contains the red 
 coloring substance alkanet red or anchusin, which is insol- 
 uble in water but soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils ; hence it 
 is used in coloring-tinctures, oily liniments, etc. 
 
 Experiment D 4. — Take a very small fragment of the 
 root (0.1 gm.) and add in a test-tube 5 C.c. of alcohol ; 
 shake a few minutes (bright-red color), add a drop of dilute 
 hydrochloric acid (remains red), then a slight excess of solu- 
 tion of soda (it turns blue). 
 
 Hematoxylon, the heartwood of HEematoxylon cam- 
 pechianum, contains the principle hematoxylin, which is much 
 more soluble in hot water than in cold ; also soluble in alco- 
 hol and in solutions of alkaline salts. This principle is also 
 called hematin, but it must not be confused with the con- 
 stituent of that name in the blood. 
 
 Experiment D 5. — Boil a small piece of hematoxylon 
 (0.1 gm.) with 5 C.c. of water (reddish color). Add a drop 
 of dilute hydrochloric acid (color changes t9 yellow), then a 
 slight excess of solution of soda (bluish purple). 
 
 Hematoxylin furnishes an exceedingly delicate test for 
 ammonia — 1 : 1,000,000 parts of water. To apply, saturate 
 a piece of blotting-paper with alcoholic solution of hema- 
 toxylin ; dry, and hold over the solution to be tested : warm, 
 the ammonia turns the paper blue. 
 21 
 
322 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 CLASS E -BLUE IN ALL MEDIA. 
 
 ItldigfO is a pigment resulting from the fermentation de- 
 composition of a colorless glncosid (indican) existing in a 
 number of plants. Indigo is also prepared synthetically. 
 Traces of indican exist in urine. 
 
 As seen in commerce indigo contains a number of coloring 
 principles, including indigo blue or indigotiu, upon which its 
 value depends ; indigo red and indigo brown. The following 
 characteristic tests refer mainly to indigotiu. 
 
 Experiment E 1. — E.ub a piece of indigo upon a hard sur- 
 face, such as the thumb nail (the better qualities take on a 
 metallic coppery lustre), then carefully place the piece upon 
 water to see if it will float (the better qualities do so, though 
 the specific gravity of the powder is 1.32 to 1.45, and if 
 wetted it sinks). 
 
 Experiment E 2. — This test is employed in estimating the 
 quality of indigo. Place a small piece of indigo (0.1 gm.) 
 in a test-tube, and heat strongly (300° C). Violet-purple 
 vapors are given off, which condense upon the cooler parts 
 of the tube, forming a blue deposit ; at the same time decom- 
 position occurs and a disagreeable odor is evolved. 
 
 Experiment E 3. — Dissolve a small fragment (0.1 gm.) of 
 indigo in nitric acid (a yellow solution of isatin is formed). 
 
 Experiment E 4. — ^Dissolve a very small fragment (0.01 
 gm.) of indigo in 1 C.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid (green- 
 blue color), add two or three drops of solution of chlorinated 
 soda (generates free chlorin which decolorizes the solution). 
 
 Materials. — A. Digitalis (English), borax or other sodium 
 salt, ether. B. Curcuma, saffron, sugar, 1 per cent, solution 
 of sodium carbonate, safflower, 1 per cent, triturate of saffron, 
 annotto. C. Cochineal. D. Litmus T. S., litmus in lumps, 
 tincture of cudbear (N. F.), alkanet root, hematoxylon. E. 
 Indigo. 
 
CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 CLASS in— CONSTITUENTS SOLUBLE IN ALCO- 
 HOL, INSOLUBLE IN WATER. 
 
 RESINS. 
 
 Resins constitute another heterogeneous collection. They 
 may be defined as amorphous, usftally non-nitrogenous, sub- 
 stances, soluble in alcohol, strong alkalies, ether, chloroform, 
 and oils, and insoluble in water, petroleum-ether, and weak 
 ammonia (distinction from resinoids). While these solubili- 
 ties are true for most resins, there are numerous exceptions ; 
 thus, some are soluble in boiling water, others dissolve in 
 boiling weak alkali ; some are neutral, others are acid, while 
 still others are anhydrids of acids. Neutral resins and 
 stable anhydrids are insoluble in weak alkalies ; those with 
 acid characters and the unstable anhydrids are soluble. 
 
 The following true resins are official : Mastic, guaiac, ben- 
 zoin, resin of copaiba, and (common) resin. 
 
 In addition the following, in more or less impure form, are 
 official : jalap, podophyllum, and scammony resins. 
 
 Oleoresins, balsams, and gum-resins are considered inde- 
 pendently. In addition to those previously mentioned, the 
 following official drugs contain resins as important constitu- 
 ents : pyrcthrum, sumbul, stillingia, rhubarb, sanguinaria, 
 leptandra, frangula, cascara sagrada, xanthoxylum, mezereum, 
 eriodictyon, pepper, and senna. 
 
 Experiment 1. — In order to demonstrate its solubility ' in 
 
 ' Solubility Detebminations. — The rough method described in the 
 above suffices for most qualitative work. For quantitative estimations one 
 of the following methods may be used : 
 
 1. To a weighed quantity of the substance add the solvent, a little at a 
 time, with vigorous shaking, until complete solution has occurred. This will 
 give the approximate solubility. 
 
 2. Heat the above solution to about 50° C. and add a weighed quantity 
 of the substance, a little at a time, until no more can be dissolved. Let the 
 
 323 
 
324 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 various solvents put about 0.1 gm. of common resin into 
 each of seven test-tubes ; to each add 5 C.c. of one of the 
 following substances, and note in which it dissolves : To the 
 first, alcohol ; to the second, water ; to the third, ether ; to 
 the fourth, chloroform ; to the fifth, gasolin ; to the sixth, 
 cotton-seed oil, and to the seventh, boiling solution of soda 
 0.5 per cent. — not the strong. To the last-mentioned, when 
 solution is effected, add an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid : 
 precipitate of the resin. (This represents the pharmacopoeial 
 test for common resin as an adulterant of beeswax.) 
 
 Divide the last into two test-tubes ; overlay one with 2 
 C.c. gasolin, the other with 2 C.c. ether ; shake ; the ether 
 clears up — the gasolin does not. 
 
 Experiment 2. — To the alcoholic solution of resin made in 
 the last experiment add 20 C.c. of water (it precipitates) ; 
 divide into two portions ; to one part add 5 drops of solution 
 of soda, to the other 5 drops of 5 per cent, ammonia water ; 
 shake the two mixtures and note that while the one with 
 soda dissolves, that with ammonia does not (compare with 
 phlobaphenes, p. 325). With just enough sodium hydrate, 
 resin soap is formed ; a large excess of the alkali causes its 
 reprecipitation, not dissolved, even upon heating. With 
 the ammonia a part dissolves, but it does not become clear, 
 as in the case of the soda. 
 
 Materials. — Resin, ether, chloroform, gasolin, cotton-seed 
 oil. 
 
 Cathartic resins are for the most part anhydrids of 
 resin acids ; they present similar physicochemic properties to 
 other resins, from which they are distinguished only by their 
 physiologic actions. The same general tests which are applied 
 
 solution cool, filter through a weighed filter, dry, and subtract the weighed 
 undissolved residue from the total quantity of the substance used. This 
 divided into the quantity of fluid used gives the amount of solvent required 
 to dissolve one part of the substance. Or evapoiute the filtered solution 
 and weigh the dried residue. 
 
 3. Alkaloids which are almost insoluble in water cannot be accurately 
 estimated by these methods. In this case a weighed amount of the alkaloid 
 can be dissolved in water by the addition of a known amount of sulphuric 
 acid. The solution can then be diluted to various degrees, and the acid 
 exactly neuti-alized by alkali. The dilution which is just greater than that 
 in which precipitation begins indicates the limit of solubility. 
 
BESINS. 325 
 
 to resins will, therefore, be employed here. A number of 
 drugs containing cathartic resins have been mentioned under 
 the subject of resins, notably, rhubarb, senna, and cascara 
 sagrada. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Moisten 10 gm. of powdered jalap with 
 alcohol and pack into a percolator ; pour upon it enough 
 alcohol to leave a stratum above the powder when the latter 
 is fully penetrated by the menstruum ; allow this to macerate 
 a day ^ (or until the next laboratory exercise) and proceed 
 with the percolation, using alcohol for the menstruum, until 
 the drug is exhausted ; distil or evaporate the tincture on a 
 water-bath until it measures 4 C.c. ; cool and pour slowly 
 with constant stirring into about 50 C.c. of water ; collect 
 the precipitate upon a double filter (the outer exactly counter- 
 balancing the inner one), wash it with water once or twice, 
 dry in a desiccator at 100° C, and weigh, using the outer 
 filter as a counterpoise for the inner one. The dried resin 
 should weigh 1.2 gm. (12 per cent, of the weight of the 
 jalap), and upon shaking it with a few cubic centimeters of 
 ether ^ not more than 0.12 gm. (10 per cent, of the dried 
 resin) should dissolve in the ether. This is the United States 
 Pharmacopoeia test in detail for the qualitative and quantita- 
 tive estimation of the resin in jalap. 
 
 It may be found advantageous to use one of the weighed 
 resins for a demonstration by the instructor for the latter 
 part of the experiment. 
 
 Materials. — Powdered jalap, ether. 
 
 Phlobaphenes are substances which differ from resin in 
 dissolving in dilute ammonia water. They are for the most 
 part derived from tannins by boiling with acids. They are 
 also characterized by a brown color, and are often the col- 
 oring principle of extracts. Phlobaphenes are troublesome 
 compounds formed in many pharmaceutic preparations where 
 heat is employed. They have no other importance. 
 
 ' When inconvenient to macerate for a day, percolation may be begun 
 at once, but a larger quantity of menstruum will be required. 
 
 ^ The ethei^oluble resin may be removed from the filter by placing it in 
 the funnel and pouring ether upon it so long as any is dissolved ; to esti- 
 nate it, put the ethereal solution into a tared flask, distil off the ether, dry 
 in a desiccator at 100° C, and weigh. 
 
326 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 Experiment. — To 5 drops of fluid extract of cinchona add 
 10 C.c. of water ; this causes a reddish precipitate ; then add, 
 drop by drop, water of ammonia until a clear solution is 
 obtained. When the first drop of ammonia water is added, 
 it will be noticed that the upper portion becomes transparent 
 in contrast to the muddy mixture below. 
 
 Material. — Fluid extract of cinchona. 
 
 BALSAMS. 
 
 Balsams are soft or liquid substances containing resin and 
 benzoic or cinnamic acid and an odorous principle ; the official 
 balsams contain varying amounts of volatile oils. According 
 to some authors, resins containing aromatic acids are classed 
 as solid balsams ; so-called balsam of copaiba is an oleoresin. 
 
 Fig. 56.— still, Liebig condenser, and receiver. 
 
 since it contains neither benzoic nor cinnamic acid. The defi- 
 nition here given is in accordance with the restrictions of the 
 British and United States Pharmacopoeias. 
 
 Tests for resins have been given on p. 324 ; for aromatic 
 acids, on p. 312. 
 
 The official balsams are Peru, tolu, and storax. Sweet 
 gum is not official. 
 
 Experiment. — Put 10 gm. of tolu balsam into a flask 
 
OLEORESINS. 327 
 
 fitted to a condenser^ (F'g- 56) which connects with a vessel 
 (test-tube) containing a few cubic centimeters of 1 per cent, 
 sodium hydrate. Heat the flask on a sand-bath until no fur- 
 ther distillate is received, but avoiding a heat high enough to 
 char the residue. When the distillation is complete, put the 
 test-tube aside, loosely corked, for the oil to rise to the surface 
 (preferably until the next laboratory day) ; test the watery 
 layer for benzoates by the method on p. 312, after filtering it 
 through a wetted filter and rendering it neutral by the addi- 
 tion of a few drops of hydrochloric acid : Ferric chlorid gives 
 a flesh-colored precipitate. 
 
 Materials and Reagents. — Balsam of tolu, sand-bath, still. 
 
 OLEORESINS. 
 
 Oleoresins are mixtures of resins and oils (usually volatile) 
 and they may contain other substances. They are of varying 
 degrees of consistence from solid to fluid. They are either 
 natural or artificial. Distinctive tests are for oil and resin. 
 
 The following oleoresins are official : Natural — Copaiba, 
 Canada turpentine. Burgundy pitch, tar, and turpentine. 
 Artificial — Aspidium, capsicum, cubeb, lupulin, pepper, and 
 ginger. The following unofficial are important : Elemi and 
 Canada pitch. 
 
 Experiment. — Put 10 gm. of turpentine (the oleoresin, not 
 the oil) into a flask connected with a condenser, as in the dis- 
 tillation of tolu balsam. Heat upon a sand-bath ; collect the 
 distillate in a test-tube containing some distilled water ; when 
 oil ceases to distil over, disconnect the receiver, taking care 
 to remove it before withdrawing the heat, lest some of the 
 water in the test-tube be drawn back into the flask ; put the 
 test-tube aside for the oil to collect on the surface ; this may 
 be easily recognized by its odor and other physical properties ; 
 pour the melted resin from the flask into a warmed porcelain 
 dish and put aside to cool. The transparent mass is easily 
 recognized as common resin. 
 
 ' Several flasks may be connected with one Liebig condenser, or an indi- 
 vidual condenser may be improvised by taking a piece of glass tubing 
 50 cm. in length, bending it at one end, and connecting it with the flask 
 through a perforated stopper. 
 
328 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 If the oleoresin is fresh, the volatile oil may be distilled in 
 the presence of water, but if too high a heat is avoided, the 
 sand-bath is found more satisfactory. 
 
 Materials. — Turpentine (oleoresin), sand-bath, still. 
 
 GUM-RESINS. 
 
 Gum-resins are natural mixtures of gums and resins, the 
 gums acting as emulsifiers so that emulsions result from their 
 being rubbed with water. Gums have been considered on 
 p. 292, and resins on p. 323. The components of a gum- 
 resin, when separated, respond to their repective tests. 
 
 The following gum-resins are of importance (the official in 
 italics) : Asafdida, galbanum, ammoniac, olibanum, myrrh, 
 gamboge, euphorbium, and scammony. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Triturate 1 gm. of ammoniac in a warmed 
 mortar with 22 C.c. of water, at first very gradually added. 
 This, when strained, together with enough water to wash the 
 mortar and strainer, makes the official emulsion of ammoniac ; 
 emulsion of asafetida is similarly prepared. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Triturate 1 gm. of powdered myrrh with 
 10 C.c. of alcohol (resin dissolves ; gum remains insoluble) ; 
 filter or decant into a test-tube ; add 20 C.c. of water (milky 
 mixture of precipitated resin). 
 
 Experiment 3.: — To the residue left from Experiment 2, add 
 10 C.c. of water and warm (most of the residue dissolves, 
 but the mixture remains milky from the traces of resin pres- 
 sent) ; filter through a wetted filter and divide the filtrate 
 into two parts ; to the first add solution of lead subacetate ; 
 to the second, solution of ferric chlorid ; precipitates ; second 
 slowly formed. 
 
 Materials. — ^Ammoniac ; myrrh. 
 
 VOLATILE OILS. 
 
 Volatile oils are liquids of oily consistence, volatile at 
 moderate heat without change. They share the oily char- 
 acter of fats, but are more soluble in alcohol. They are 
 slightly soluble in water, merely giving to it their odor and 
 flavor. They usually possess characteristic odors, and are 
 
VOLATILE OILS. 329 
 
 generally mixtures consisting mainly of terpenes and sesqui- 
 terpenes. Most of the odorous volatile oils contain oxygen ; 
 a few contain nitrogen and a few sulphur. 
 
 Volatile oils occur as constituents in a great many drugs. 
 The following volatile oils ^ are official : Bitter almond, anise, 
 orange-peel, orange flowers, bergamot, betula volatile, cade,^ 
 cajuput, caraway, cloves, chenopodium, cinnamon, copaiba, 
 coriander, cTibebs, erigeron, eucalyptus, fennel, gaultheria, 
 hedeoma, juniper, lavender flowers, lemon, peppermint, spear- 
 mint, myrcia, nutmeg, pimenta, tar, rose, rosemary, savine, 
 santal, sassafras, mustard, turpentine, rectified turpentine, and 
 thyme. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Oil of turpentine may be taken as a type ; 
 into each of seven test-tubes put 1 C.c. of oil of turpentine ; 
 then add 5 C.c. of each of the following : To the first, water ; 
 second, alcohol ; third, ether ; fourth, glycerin ; fifth, chloro- 
 form ; sixth, cotton-seed oil, and to the seventh gasolin, noting 
 the degree of solubility in each case. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Apply a drop of oil of turpentine to glazed 
 paper (greasy stain) ; heat gently in a test-tube (stain disap- 
 pears or loses its greasy appearance). 
 
 Experiment 3. — Heat 5 drops strongly in a test-tube (it 
 volatilizes or may ignite, but no acrolein odor). 
 
 Experiment 4. — A crude drug well suited for the study of 
 volatile oils and illustrating some of the tests for their char- 
 acterization is clove. Place half a dozen cloves in a dry 
 test-tube and heat moderately in a Bunsen flame (heavy 
 white vapors of the volatile oil are given ofl^ and condense 
 in small drops on the sides of the tube). Pour some of the 
 heavy vapors into another test-tube, add a cubic centimeter 
 of alcohol, shake, and add a drop of solution of ferric chlorid 
 (blue to green color). 
 
 Into the tube containing the cloves, upon the sides of which 
 oil-drops have condensed, pour some bromin vapor by tilting 
 an open bromin bottle over the test-tube (the drops of oil 
 become yellow and turbid. 
 
 ^ Ethereal oil is a mixture of equal parts of heavy oil of wine (chiefly 
 ethyl sulphate), with ether, hence is omitted from this list. 
 '^ Oil of cade is a tarry product, not a true volatile oil. 
 
330 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 Experiments. — Test^ for Adulterations. — In each case use 
 a sample as pure as obtainable and compare with the results 
 gotten from an adulterated specimen, the latter being pre- 
 pared for the occasion. 
 
 Test for Alcohol. — Put 5 C.c. of pure oil of turpentine into 
 a small, graduated cylindric vessel,* and 5 C.c. of a mixture 
 of oil of turpentine and alcohol into another similar vessel ; 
 to each add 5 C.c. of water ; then shake them gently, care- 
 fully avoiding any loss, and allow them to stand until the 
 liquids separate into layers. In the pure oil the watery 
 layer will show no increase and the oily layer no decrease ; 
 but in the adulterated specimen the increase in the watery 
 layer and decrease in the oily layer will correspond to the 
 amount of alcohol used, because the afBuity between the 
 alcohol and water is stronger than that between the alcohol 
 and the oil. 
 
 Experiment 6. — For adulteration with fatty or mineral oils : 
 Put 2 C.c. of pure oil of turpentine in a small cylindric 
 vessel, and 2 C.c. of a mixture of oil of turpentine and either 
 cotton-seed oil or liquid petrolatum into another. To each 
 add 5 C.c. of alcohol and shake gently. The pure oil of 
 turpentine dissolves in or mixes with the alcohol ; the fatty 
 or mineral oil remains undissolved. 
 
 Experiment 7. — To detect oil of turpentine ^ in other essen- 
 tial oils : Put 5 drops of oil of sweet birch upon a clean por- 
 celain surface, and 5 drops of old oil of lemon or of a mix- 
 ture of oil of sweet birch and oil of turpentine upon another 
 porcelain surface ; to each add a drop of concentrated sul- 
 phuric acid ; no change of color occurs in the pure oil, but a 
 red to nearly black is seen in the other, dependent somewhat 
 upon the amount of oil of turpentine present. 
 
 Supplemental Experiment. — Nitrogen may be tested for according to 
 Lassaigne's test as follows : Put 1 C.c. of the oil, such as volatile oil of mus- 
 
 ' A 10-C.c. cylindric graduate is used, or a small test-tube may be gradu- 
 ated by marking the graduations upon a strip of paper pasted upon it, 
 measuring with a pipet or graduate. 
 
 '^ Since most of the volatile oils tend to become terebinthinate upon ex- 
 posure to light and air, this test does not prove fraudulent adulteration in 
 most cases, l)ut merely shows that the oil has become terebinthinate. Oil 
 of sweet birch does not so change ; hence this test would show fraudulent 
 adulteration should it be positive. 
 
CAMPHORS OR STEAR0PTEN8. 331 
 
 tard 01' oil of bitter almond containing hydrocyanic acid, into a dry test- 
 tube ; take a piece of metallic sodium, dry upon blotting-paper, and drop 
 into the oil ; heat rapidly in Bunsen flame to redness and plunge into 50 
 C.c. of water in a beaker ; this water contains the nitrogen in solution as 
 sodium nitrite ; add a few drops of 5 per cent, solution of ferrous sulphate ; 
 allow it to stand five minutes ; acidulate with hydrochloric acid (concen- 
 trated) and heat ; blue color or precipitate of Prussian blue. 
 
 Materials. — Oil of turpentine, cloves, oil of sweet birch, 
 ether, glycerLa, chloroform, gasolin, cotton-seed oil, glazed 
 paper, metallic sodium, bromin, old oil of lemon (or other 
 terebinthinate volatile oil). 
 
 CAMPHORS OR STEAROPTENS. 
 
 Camphors or stearoptens are closely related to the volatile 
 oils, both chemically and physically. Many of the volatile 
 oils consist of two portions, which may be separated : one, a 
 liquid at ordinary temperatures, called eleoptea ; the other a 
 solid at ordinary temperatures, but melting easily and being 
 sublimable, called a stearopten or camphor. 
 
 A characteristic of stearoptens, applicable to most of them, 
 is their liquefaction when triturated in molecular proportions 
 with chloral hydrate. 
 
 The official camphor is obtained by boiling the chips from 
 the camphor tree in water, and condensing the camphor with 
 the aqueous vapor — the camphor is then purified by sublima- 
 tion. 
 
 Most of the volatile oils may be made to yield stearoptens 
 by cooling them sufficiently. 
 
 Menthol is an official stearopten obtained in this way from 
 oil of peppermint ; thymol from several species of Labiat«e ; 
 the latter is a phenol. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Into the bottom of a clean dry test-tube 
 put 0.1 gm. of camphor ; warm rapidly over Bunsen flame, 
 inclining the tube so that crystals are condensed upon the 
 sides of the upper part. Examine the crystals under the 
 lower power of the microscope. Now continue the heat 
 until all of the camphor has been sublimed, leaving no 
 residue. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Rub 0.5 gm. of camphor with 0.5 gm. of 
 
332 SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 chloral hydrate (it slowly liquefies). This is the camphorated 
 chloral of the National Formulary. 
 
 Experiment 3. — Into each of four test-tubes put 0.1 gm. 
 of camphor ; to the first add 2 C.c. of alcohol ; to the sec- 
 ond, 2 C.c. of water ; third, chloroform ; fourth, ether, and 
 note solubilities upon shaking. 
 
 Experiment 4. — Rub 1 gm. of camphor in a dry mortar 
 and note its tendency to form a mass ; then add three or four 
 drops of alcohol or ether and rub lightly, when it will be 
 easily pulverized ; the alcohol or ether being quickly lost by 
 evaporation, leaves an impalpable powder. 
 
 Materials. — Camphor, chloroform, ether, chloral hydrate, 
 microscope. 
 
CHAPTER Y. 
 
 CLASS IV —CONSTITUENTS INSOLUBLE IN 
 ALCOHOL AND IN WATER. 
 
 WAXES. 
 
 Waxes are compounds of fatty acids with alcohols other 
 than glycerin ; for instance, common yellow wax is mainly 
 melissyl palmitate, and spermaceti is principally cetyl pal- 
 mitate. Waxes are soluble in fat solvents and in boiling 
 alcohol. They are not saponified by boiling with alkalies, nor 
 do they produce acrolein on heating. 
 
 White and yellow wax and spermaceti are the only official 
 waxes. While many plants contain small amounts of wax, 
 in none of them is it of pharmaceutic interest. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Heat 0.1 gm. of wax strongly in a test- 
 tube. No acrolein odor (that is, that of burning grease) is 
 evolved. Should acrolein odors be strongly developed, it 
 shows that some fat has been used as an adulterant ; it may 
 be removed (and its presence confirmed) by boiling 1 gm. of 
 the wax with 20 C.c. of 1 per cent, sodium hydrate for fifteen 
 minutes, which converts the fat other than petroleum into 
 soap ; filter and wash the wax ; add an excess of hydro- 
 chloric acid to the filtrate ; this causes a precipitate with the 
 soap. The washed wax is then strongly heated, when no 
 pungent acrolein odor is evolved. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Into each of seven test-tubes put 0.1 gm. 
 of wax and add 5 C.c. of each of the following solvents : To 
 the first, water ; second, cold alcohol ; third, boiling alcohol ; 
 fourth, ether ; fifth, chloroform ; sixth, cotton-seed oil, and 
 seventh, oil of turpentine. Gentle warming may hasten solu- 
 tion. If a somewhat smaller proportion of cotton-seed oil 
 is used, it may be solidified upon cooling, and if the boiling 
 alcohol be cooled, solidification will occur. 
 
 333 
 
334 INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 Experiment 3. — Put 5 gm. of yellow wax into a flask with 
 25 C.c. of sulphuric acid (concentrated) and heat to 160° C. 
 for fifteen minutes; then pour into a large excess (150 C.c.) 
 of water in a large vessel, avoiding any loss of the mixture. 
 The wax is completely charred, and no waxy substance sepa- 
 rates. This is substantially the pharmacopceial test to detect 
 the presence of paraffin in beeswax, paraffin under similar 
 conditions separating unchanged. 
 
 Materials. — Wax, ether, chloroform, cotton-seed oil, oil of 
 turpentine. 
 
 FIXED OILS OR FATS. 
 
 Fixed oils or fats are esters produced by replacing three 
 hydroxyl groups in glycerin by the radicles of higher fatty 
 acids, commonly by those of stearic, oleic, palmitic, and mar- 
 garic, the compounds being called stearin, olein, etc. Of 
 these, olein is liquid at ordinary temperatures ; the others 
 solid, though they melt below 100° C. All fats are in the 
 main mixtures df these. 
 
 Fats are characterized by a greasy feel and by leaving a 
 permanent oily stain upon paper. They are decomposed by 
 heat with the evolution of sharp, unpleasant irritating vapors, 
 particularly with the formation of acrolein. They are lighter 
 than water, and insoluble in it ; almost insoluble in alcohol ; 
 easily soluble in those substances commonly termed fat sol- 
 vents — viz., chloroform, ether, and petroleum-ether (benzin). 
 When treated with osmic acid, they yield a black color ; by 
 treatment with an alkali they can be split into glycerin and 
 an alkaline salt of their acid ; these compounds are called 
 soaps ; from these the fatty acids may be liberated by hydro- 
 chloric acid. These acids diiFer from fats in being acid to 
 litmus and in being soluble in alcohol, their other characters 
 being similar. They may also be liberated by rancidity. 
 
 Fats are contained in various animal tissues, but in the 
 vegetable kingdom they occur mainly as constituents of 
 seeds. 
 
 According to their behavior upon exposure to air, they are 
 classified as drying or non-drying oils, the former containing 
 glycerid of linolic acid. 
 
FIXED OILS OB FATS. 335 
 
 The following fixed oils are official : Expressed oil of 
 almond, cotton-seed, linseed, olive, castor, sesamum, theo- 
 broma, croton, cod-liver, and lard oil ; lard, suet, and 
 hydrous wool-fat may be included, being usually spoken of 
 as fats (solid fixed oils). 
 
 Castor oil, though a drying oil, forms solid ricinelaidin 
 with nitric acid. 
 
 Experiment 1. — Into each of seven test-tubes put 2 C.c. 
 of cotton-seed oil and add 10 C.c. of each of the following 
 substances, namely : To the first, water ; second, alcohol ; 
 third, ether ; fourth, gasolin ; fifth, oil of turpentine ; sixth, 
 chloroform ; seventh, carbon disulphid ; shake and note in 
 which the solution is complete, in which incomplete, and in 
 which the oily layer remains undiminished. 
 
 Experiment 2. — Place a drop of cotton-seed oil upon a 
 piece of glazed paper ; it leaves a greasy stain which does 
 not disappear upon heating the paper in a test-tube at a 
 temperature too low to cause charring. 
 
 Experiment 3. — Put 5 drops of cotton-seed oil into a test- 
 tube and heat strongly (pungent vapors of acrolein are given 
 off). 
 
 Experiment 4. — Into a small crucible put enough mercury 
 so that it may have the bulb of a thermometer immersed in 
 it when the thermometer is suspended above it. Upon the 
 surface of the mercury place a few very small fragments 
 (0.01 gm.) of oil of theobroma. Having placed the crucible 
 upon a water-bath with cold water, heat very slowly, ob- 
 serving the temperature at which the edges of the fragments 
 begin to lose their sharpness by melting — this is the melting- 
 point of the substance. If the specimen is pure, it will be 
 found to melt at from 30° to 33° C. Admixture with other 
 substances either raises or lowers the melting-point. 
 
 Somewhat greater accuracy may be had by the following 
 process : Draw a piece of glass tubing to a capillary tube, 
 and having melted the oil of theobroma, draw it into the 
 tube by suction and cool. Take a short section (1 cm.) of 
 the tube and fasten to the bulb of a thermometer with a 
 thread or rubber band, and warm very slowly by immersing 
 the bulb in the water, which is heated gradually ; the point 
 
336 INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 at which the opaque (solid) contents of the tube become 
 transparent (liquid) is the melting-point. The heating must 
 be done so slowly that the mercury in the bulb is practically 
 of the same temperature as the liquid in which it is immersed 
 — the warming may be rapid up to 25° or 26° C. and very 
 slow after that. 
 
 Experiment 5. — ^Put 10 C.c. of olive oil into an evaporating 
 dish with 20 C.c. of solution of soda (5 per cent.) and 50 
 C.c. of water ; heat upon a water-bath until a sample of the 
 mixture added to warm water does not separate any oil ; this 
 requires an hour or several hours ; the time may be short- 
 ened by boiling over a wire gauze, but there is danger of 
 burning the product. The fact that no oil separates upon 
 mixing with water shows that saponification is complete; 
 this occurs in the case of olive oil with greater facility when 
 the soda is diluted than when it is used in a concentrated 
 form. Now dissolve the soap by adding 100 C.c. of water 
 and heating. Dissolve 15 gm. of sodium chlorid in 100 C.c. 
 of water and add the solution to that of the soap slowly, 
 with constant stirring. Soap being insoluble in a 5 per cent, 
 solution (or stronger) of sodium chlorid rises to the surface 
 (this is termed "salting out" the soap) ; after fifteen min- 
 utes it may be skimmed from the surface of the salt solution ; 
 then dissolve a small portion of it in ten times as much 
 water, add an excess of dilute sulphuric acid ; the fatty acids 
 (oleic, etc.) are precipitated ; shake and pour 2 C.c. of the 
 mixture into a test-tube ; add 10 C.c. of alcohol and shake 
 (the fatty acids dissolve). 
 
 Glycerin is formed in small amount and remains in the 
 solution when the soap is " salted out " (see below). 
 
 Experiment 6. — To 10 gm. of cocoanut oil (liquefied if 
 cold) add 5 gm. of 32 per cent, sodium hydrate.' Warm 
 gently with vigorous stirring and put aside for one day (or 
 longer). This soap contains glycerin and lathers with sea- 
 water. Cocoanut oil differs from olive oil in containing less 
 oleic acid and in its much readier saponification at a low 
 temperature. 
 
 ^ Solution of soda, of specific gravity 1.35, is made as follows : Take of 
 sodium hydrate 32 gm. and dissolve it in 68 C.c. of distilled water. 
 
FIXED OILS OR FATS. 337 
 
 Wool-fat, combined with not more than 30 per cent, of 
 water (which is official as Hydrous Wool Fat), has choles- 
 teriu and isocholesterin, instead of glycerin, combined with 
 fatty acids ; it will mix with a much larger proportion of 
 water than will the true fats. 
 
 Experiment 7. — Triturate 5 gm. of hydrous wool-fat with 
 5 C.c. of water (it forms a white mixture). The anhydrous 
 may be combined with a correspondingly greater amount of 
 water. 
 
 Experiment 8. — Pour 2 C.c. of a 2 per cent, chloroformic 
 solution of hydrous wool-fat upon 5 C.c. of pure concentrated 
 sulphuric acid in a test-tube (develops brown color). 
 
 Supplementary Experiment 8. — After salting out the soap 
 in Experiment 5 the clear fluid remaining is evaporated 
 almost to dryness upon a water-bath, cooled, and treated 
 with 20 C.c. of alcohol ; this removes the glycerin, which 
 may be obtained by filtering off the alcohol carrying the 
 glycerin and evaporating upon a water-bath. 
 
 The following tests will serve to identify it : Add carbolic 
 acid and concentrated sulphuric acid in a test-tube and heat 
 cautiously (a deep-red, syrupy mass results) ; cool, dilute 
 with water, and pour over it a layer of ammonia water ; the 
 latter acquires a red-violet color. 
 
 Experiment 9. — The elai'din test is made as follows : Into 
 each of two evaporating dishes put 5 C.c. of nitric acid of 
 specific gravity 1.185 ' ; to the first add 5 C.c. of olive-oil or 
 cotton-seed oil ; to the second add 5 C.c. of linseed oil which 
 is fairly fresh (not too gummy) ; after stirring the two mix- 
 tures thoroughly with a glass rod, but carefully avoiding loss 
 of the liquids, add to each a very small globule of mercury 
 (0.1 gm.) and put them aside where the temperature will be 
 at 15° or 20° C. until the next day (or until the following 
 laboratory exercise), examining in the course of a few hours 
 if convenient. Tlie olive or cotton-seed oil being a non- 
 drying oil, will yield with the nitric acid solid elaidin in a 
 time varying from a few hours to a day or longer, but the 
 
 ' Nitric acid of specific gravity 1.185 contains 54 per cent, of absolute 
 HNOg, and is made by mixing 15 C.c. of the official acid with 5 C.c. of 
 water, 
 
 22 
 
338 INSOLUBLE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 linseed oil, being a drying oil, does not yield solid elaidin, the 
 mixture separating into two liquids. 
 
 Materials. — Olive oil, cotton-seed oil, oil of theobroma, 
 cocoanut oil, hydrous wool-fat, 2 per cent, chloroformic solu- 
 tion of hydrous wool-fat, metallic mercury, ether, chloroform, 
 gasolin, oil of turpentine, carbon disulphid, sodium chlorid, 
 carbolic acid. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE EXAMINATION OF AN UNKNOWN DRUG 
 FOR ITS PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 The exhaustive study and identification of the constituents 
 of an unknown drug are very difficult tasks, even when the 
 drug or its constituents have been examined and described, 
 and are unknown only in the sense that the analyst is not 
 informed of their nature in advance. The subject is still 
 more difficult if the substance is really new and is being ex- 
 amined for the first time. It requires a great deal more of 
 practice than could be given in the present course, and an 
 extensive acquaintance with the reactions and characters of 
 organic substance. An examination of this kind can scarcely 
 be undertaken without the personal guidance of a competent 
 investigator, although such books as Dragendorfi^'s Pflanzen- 
 analyse and Toxicologie may, with advanced students, take 
 the place of the instructor. This detailed and advanced 
 study would in every case be preceded by a preliminary 
 study, intended to show the presence or absence of the difier- 
 ent classes of constituents and their approximate quantity. 
 These preliminary tests yield results which are of interest in 
 many ways, and which often answer sufficiently the questions 
 for which the examination is undertaken. They are so 
 simple that a student who has conscientiously performed the 
 foregoing exercises will have no difficulty in obtaining reliable 
 results. Indeed, he will be merely applying to the unknown 
 substance the tests which he has practised on known sub- 
 stances. A system in the application of the tests will be of 
 great assistance. In this connection it is well to remember 
 that, the more we know about a substance, the easier it is to 
 test for unknown constituents. Consequently no hint which 
 the odor, etc., of a substance may furnish should be neglected ; 
 and the easiest and quickest tests should be applied first. 
 
 339 
 
340 FINDING CONSTITUENTS OF AN UNKNOWN DRUG. 
 
 This has been the guiding principle of the following scheme. 
 When the quantity is not specifically stated, the smallest 
 amount should be used which will give the reaction. If it 
 is said that a reaction " indicates " a constituent, the infor- 
 mation is fairly definite ; if it " points to " a constituent, this 
 means that the constituent may be present. In either case it 
 is often necessary to confirm the test by those given in the 
 preceding chapters (see Index). 
 
 SYSTEMATIC MARCH OF ANALYSIS.^ 
 
 Preliminary Tests. — 1. Note whether the substance 
 has any odor ; this may indicate volatile oils, esters, aromatic 
 acids or hydrocyanic acid, vanillin, etc., and, of course, often 
 gives positive guide as to what substance to look for. If so, 
 this should at once be tested for directly. 
 
 2. Note the solubility in water, alcohol, ether, and gasolin 
 by placing a gram of substance in 15 C.c. of solvent in test- 
 tube, shaking frequently during ten minutes, and then heating 
 in water-bath if necessary. 
 
 Soluble in water, insoluble in other solvents : Gum, proteids. 
 " " alcohol, or ether : Volatile oils, resins, fatty acids. 
 " " ether, insoluble in alcohol : Fats, waxes. 
 " " ether, insoluble in gasolin ; Resins, waxes. 
 " " ether and in gasolin : Volatile oils, fats. 
 
 3. Note the odor of these solutions : These show same as 
 No. 1. If HON odor is present in aqueous, not in alcoholic, 
 solution it shows this is present as a glucosid in conjunction 
 with a ferment. 
 
 4. Note the color of the solutions in acid and alkaline re- 
 actions. A brown color unchanged by reaction, seen especially 
 in the alcoholic and ether solutions, points to phlobaphenes. 
 If the brown color is also present in the aqueous solution and 
 it is changed to deep-red or violet by alkalis, it points to 
 emodin. A green color points to chlorophyll ; yellow color, 
 with alkaloid reactions, to berberine. 
 
 5. Note the taste on placing a drop of«the alcoholic solution 
 on the tip of the tongue . A bitter taste indicates alkaloids or 
 
 ' Use the finely powdered drug. 
 
SYSTEMATIC MARCH OF ANALYSIS. 341 
 
 bitter principles ; a sharp taste, volatile oils or neutral prin- 
 ciple ; a tingling sensation, aconite ; anesthesia, cocain. A 
 sweet taste of the aqueous solution indicates sugars or glycyr- 
 rhizin. 
 
 6. Note the reaction to litmus paper : An acid reaction in 
 the aqueous solution may come from any organic acid or acid 
 salt (see p. 310). If the substance is resinous, test for ben- 
 zoic and cinnamic acid. If the alcoholic, l)ut not the aqueous, 
 solution is acid, this points to free fatty acids. 
 
 Tests to be Made with the Aqueous Infusion. — 
 7. Add alcohol : a precipitate indicates gum, pectin, or pro- 
 teid ; collect the precipitate, boil with 5 per cent. HjSO^, 
 neutralize, and try Fehling's : reduction, gum or pectin ; on 
 other one-half make biuret test : positive, proteid. 
 
 8. Add drop of compound tincture iodin : Blue color 
 shows starch ; port^wine color, dextrin ; a reddish precipitate 
 points to alkaloids. 
 
 9. Add drop Fe2Clg : Greenish-black color, physiologic 
 tannin ; bluish-black color, pathologic tannin ; violet points 
 to salicylic acid. 
 
 10. Extract some crude drug with cold water ; acidify 
 with acetic acid and heat to boiling : precipitate : coagulable 
 proteid. (Use rest of this solution for No. 17-20.) 
 
 11. Extract the marc left from Experiment 10 with water 
 warmed to 60° C. Cool and collect precipitate after a day 
 or two and test for inulin (see p. 290). 
 
 12. To some of infusion add drop HjSO^ diluted, then 
 Mayer's reagent : precipitate indicates alkaloids, especially if 
 No. 10 was negative. If No. 10 was positive, the conclu- 
 sion is not final until No. 25 has been made. 
 
 13. Apply Fehling's test : reduction, sugar.^ 
 
 14. If No. 13 is negative, boil for ten minutes with equal 
 volume dilute H^SO^, neutralize, and apply Fehling's; if 
 positive : gums, starch, glucosid, or cane-sugar, inosite, man- 
 nite, etc. 
 
 15. If No. 12 was negative, add a little tannin ; precipi- 
 tate : neutral principle or glucosid. 
 
 16. Add some amygdalin, let stand : if odor of HON 
 appears, emulsin was present. 
 
342 FINDING CONSTITUENTS OF AN UNKNOWN DRUG. 
 
 17. To the solution made with cold water add a drop of 
 tincture guaiac, and, if necessary, of H^O^ ; blue color : pres- 
 ence of oxidizing ferment. 
 
 18. Inject 1 C.c. of the solution into a frog : this will 
 show whether the substance is very poisonous, if the animal 
 goes into tetanus, this shows strychnine. 
 
 19. Pith a frog, expose its heart, and apply some of the 
 solution ; if the heart first quickens, then becomes slow, weak, 
 and irregular, then quickens again, this points to aconite 
 (p. 353) ; if it slows gradually but steadily and becomes 
 small and white, this points to a drug resembling digitalis. 
 
 20. Instil a few drops into one eye of a cat and compare 
 with other eye : a dilatation points to atropine, a constriction 
 to physostigmine or pilocarpine. 
 
 The last three need be done only if the animals are ac- 
 cessible. 
 
 Tests Made with the Alcoholic Solution. — 21. 
 Add water : a precipitate indicates volatile oils, fatty acids, 
 resins, or phlobaphenes. Use for Nos. 22 and 23. 
 
 22. Shake some of the turbid mixture of No. 21 with 
 gasolin ; if the turbidity does not disappear, this indicates 
 resins or phlobaphenes. 
 
 23. Add a drop of ammonia ; if the turbidity clears, this 
 indicates phlobaphenes. 
 
 24 Place a drop of the alcoholic solution on glazed paper 
 and let it dry in the air. A greasy stain indicates volatile 
 oil or fatty acid. Heat on a water-bath ; if the stain disap- 
 pears, it is due to volatile oil, otherwise to a fatty acid. 
 
 25. To the alcoholic solution add a few drops of dilute 
 HjSO^ and of Mayer's reagent. A precipitate indicates alka- 
 loids. 
 
 26. Try Fehling's test on some of the alcoholic solution 
 before and after inversion (see p. 291). A marked difference 
 indicates a glucosid. 
 
 Tests Made with the :ethereal Solution.— 27. Let 
 the solution evaporate on a water-bath : The deposition of 
 crystals indicates an alkaloid, glucosid, or neutral principle. 
 Test by Nos. 25 and 26. Use the residue in the further tests. 
 
 28. Treat the residue with alcohol. Treat the insoluble 
 
SYSTEMATIC MARCH OF ANALYSIS. 343 
 
 part by No. 29. If any reactions of the previous tests were 
 doubtful, these may be repeated ou their alcoholic solutions. 
 
 29. Treat the insoluble residue with hot solution NaOH : 
 solution indicates fat ; insolubility, wax or caoutchouc. 
 
 Tests Made with the Gasolin Solution. — 30. 
 Evaporate the solution and look for the deposition of crys- 
 tals as in No. 27. 
 
 31. Treat as in No. 28. 
 
 32. The insoluble residue will be principally fat. 
 Separation of Alkaloids, Glucosids, and Neutral 
 
 Principles. — It would take us too far to enter ink) the 
 identification of the separated principles. This may be done 
 according to methods given in text-books of pharmaceutic 
 chemistry or toxicology. The practice acquired in this book 
 would not be sufficient if no data as to the nature of the sub- 
 stance are at hand. If, however, a substance is suspected, it 
 can be separated in sufficient purity for identification tests 
 by the following method : This is to be undertaken only if 
 Nos. 5, 12, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 25, 27, or 30 gave posi'tive 
 results : 
 
 33. Extract the principles by Keller's method (seep. 304). 
 
 34. Shake out the solution with 1 per cent. HCl in sepa- 
 rating funnel and separate. The watery portion will contain 
 most of the alkaloids ; proceed by No. 35 ; the ethereal, most 
 of the glucosids, neutral principles, fats, resins, and coloring ; 
 proceed by No. 36. 
 
 35. Make the watery solution just alkakine with ammonia 
 and shake out with ether, separate, and evaporate the ether. 
 The residue represents the alkaloids. 
 
 36. Evaporate the ethereal layer of No. 34. Treat the 
 residue with alcohol. Filter ; evaporate the alcoholic solu- 
 tion ; treat the residue with petroleum ether. Filter, evapo- 
 rate the petroleum-ether solution. The residue represents 
 the glucosids and neutral principles. 
 
 Quantitative Determination. — The following simple 
 methods give some general idea of the quantitative composi- 
 tion of the material. 
 
 37. On 5 gm. of the substance determine the moisture 
 (p. 285) and ash (p. 286). 
 
344 FINDING CONSTITUENTS OF AN UNKNOWN DRUG. 
 
 38. If alkaloids are present, determine their quantity by 
 drying and weighing the residue of 35. 
 
 39. Part soluble in petroleum-ethei' (mainly fats and vola- 
 tile oils). — Place 6 gm. of the finely powdered drug in an 
 oval bottle of about 75 C.c. capacity ; add 60 C.c. of petro- 
 leum-ether ; mark the bottle at the level of the liquid. 
 Stopper well, lay on side, with frequent shaking, during 
 twenty-four hours. Let subside. Replace any evaporated 
 petroleum-ether to the original mark. Decant 50 C.c. of the 
 petroleum-ether as clear as possible, and filter through a small 
 filter into a tared capsule (rinsing the filter with petroleum- 
 ether). Evaporate at 50° C. to practically constant weight 
 (not over 24 hours). The weight multiplied by 20 equals 
 the percentage of petroleum extract. 
 
 40. Ether Extract. — Proceed as in No. 39, using ether in 
 place of petroleum-ether. The difference between No. 39 
 and 40 corresponds to resins, wax, alkaloids, and glucosids. 
 
 41. Alcohol Extract. — Proceed as in No. 39, using alcohol 
 in place of petroleum-ether and drying at 100° C. The 
 difference between Nos. 40 and 41 is mainly fat and wax ; 
 the difference between this and No. 39 is mainly volatile oil. 
 
 42. Water Extract; Cold. — Proceed as in No. 39, using 
 water and drying at 110° C. The extract represent mainly 
 gum, sugar, proteids, tannin, and soluble salts. Proceed 
 with the marc by No. 43. 
 
 43. Fiber and Starch. — Dry the marc of No. 42 at 1 1 0° C. 
 Exhaust with ether in a Soxhlet. Dry again at 110° C. 
 Weigh, incinerate, subtract the ash from the dry weight. The 
 difference mtiltiplied by 16f equals fiber and starch in 100 
 gnis. of the drug. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF SOME IMPORTANT 
 ALKALOIDAL DRUGS. 
 
 CINCHONA. 
 
 There are some thirty or more alkaloids found in cinchona, 
 of which but four are of suificient importance to have found 
 a place in the Pharmacopoeia ; these are cinchonidine, cincho- 
 nine, quinidine, and quinine, the last mentioned being by far 
 the most important. 
 
 The proportions in which these alkaloids are found vary 
 enormously, some of the cultivated varieties (Ledgeriana) 
 yielding 13 per cent, of quinine alone, the percentage depend- 
 ing upon many different conditions, such as climate ; part of 
 plant from which the bark is taken ; age, etc. 
 
 In combination with the alkaloids there are several acids — 
 cincho-tannic, kinic, and kinovic. 
 
 Cinchona-red has been considered under the subject of 
 Phlobaphenes (p. 325). Very little starch is present. 
 
 Separation of Alkaloids. — Take 25 gm. of cinchona 
 in moderately fine powder, moisten with about 60 C.c. of 
 water, then add 100 C.c. of 5 per cent, sulphuric acid, and 
 heat to boiling ; continue the boiling for about twenty minutes, 
 decant or filter, and boil again for twenty minutes with a fresh 
 portion of 100 C.c. of 5 per cent, sulphuric acid, decant or 
 filter, mix the liquids, and evaporate to dryness with a slight 
 excess of lime; put this into a small flask and extract 
 with 50 C.c. of boiling alcohol ; filter through animal char- 
 coal and again extract with 50 C.c. of boiling alcohol, filter, 
 and mix the filtrates, which should contain all the alkaloids 
 which are of interest here. The sulphate of calcium and the 
 charcoal are thrown away. 
 
 Evaporate the mixed alcoholic filtrates in a capsule upon a 
 water-bath until a pellicle begins to form, — or to about 5 C.c, 
 
 343 
 
/ 
 346 CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF ALRALOIDAL DRUGS./ 
 
 — and put aside tightly stoppered and properly labelled until 
 the next laboratory day. 
 
 Cinchonine being slightly soluble in alcohol, crystallizes out; 
 filter : precipitate is cinchonine ; dry, label, and preserve for 
 future test ; filti'ate contains cinchonidine, quinidine, and 
 quinine. To this add 25 C.c. water and 1 per cent, sulphuric 
 acid, until exactly neutral ; the alcohol is evaporated off, and 
 the liquid allowed to cool ; some quinine sulphate may crys- 
 tallize out ; if so, it is collected, but some remains in solution. 
 To the cooled liquid add a little saturated solution of Rochelle 
 salt. An abundant precipitate of mixed tartrates of quinine 
 and cinchonidine falls, the quinidine remaining in solution. 
 Filter, and to the filtrate add solution of potassium iodid and 
 set aside labelled " quinidine iodid "; the crystals will be found 
 upon the following laboratory day. The precipitated tartrates 
 of quinine and cinchonidine remaining upon the filter are 
 washed with a little water, and then dissolved in 1 per cent, 
 hydrochloric acid, about 10 C.c. being used. This is made 
 alkaline with a slight excess of ammonia or soda, and shaken 
 gently with ether, the latter decanted, and the mixture again 
 treated with ether. The two portions of ethereal extract 
 containing quinine are mixed, labelled, and put aside for sub- 
 sequent tests. The cinchonidine remains in the alkaline 
 mixture undissolved, and is collected upon a filter and washed 
 with a little water, then dried upon the filter ; it is next dis- 
 solved in a small quantity of 0.1 per cent, sulphuric acid and 
 labelled " solution of cinchonidine." 
 
 Having separated these four alkaloids in a more or less 
 impure state, the following tests may be applied to them, at 
 the same time applying the tests to pure alkaloids for com- 
 parison. 
 
 Tests. — Cinchonine. — Dissolve the alkaloid in a little 
 1 per cent, sulphuric acid, avoiding an excess, and then 
 add test-solution of potassium ferrocyanid until the precipitate 
 at first formed redissolves ; then add a little sulphuric or 
 other acid ; this gives a golden-yellow precipitate which 
 redissolves upon warming and gives minute needles or scales 
 on cooling. 
 
 Note that cinchonine requires more than 20,000 parts of 
 
CINCHONA. 
 
 347 
 
 water to dissolve it. (Compare with solubility given in Phar- 
 macopoeia.) 
 
 Cinclionidine. — The sulphate is official. No distinctive 
 tests are given in the Pharmacopoeia, but those for solubility 
 may be tried (approximately) (see p. ?>2?j). Place a drop of 
 the fairly concentrated solution upon a slide, and add a drop 
 of sulphocyanid of potassium and examine the precipitate 
 microscopically. 
 
 Quinine. — Shake the ethereal solution of quinine (obtained 
 in the separation of the alkaloids) with 15 C.c. of 2 per cent, 
 sulphuric acid ; quinine sulphate is formed and goes into solu- 
 tion in the acid layer ; remove with a pipet to several test- 
 tubes. 
 
 Dilute 2 C.c. of this solution until it contains approximately 
 one part of quinine in 1000 or 1500 parts of solution ; to 
 5 C.c. of this dilution add a drop of bromin water, then an 
 excess of ammonia water : an emerald-green color is devel- 
 oped (known as the thalleioquin test). If a little hydrochloric 
 acid is added, the green is changed to red. If this experi- 
 ment fails, it should be repeated upon weaker or stronger 
 solutions until successful, since it is simple and characteristic. 
 Solution of chlorinated soda may be used instead of bromin 
 water in the thalleioquin test. 
 
 Note the bluish fluorescence of acid solution of quinine 
 sulphate increased, up to a certain point, by diluting with 
 5 per cent, or 10 per cent, sulphuric acid. Quinine does not 
 form the insoluble hydriodate so readily as quinidine does. 
 
 Quinidine. — This alkaloid responds to most of the tests for 
 quinine, thalleioquin, fluorescence, nearly similar solubility in 
 water, etc., but it differs in the following : 
 
 Quinine . 
 Quinidine 
 
 Hydriodate 
 . Soluble. 
 
 Neutral 
 Tartrate. 
 
 Insoluble. 
 Insoluble. Soluble. 
 
 Oxalate. 
 
 Insoluble. 
 (1:1446) 
 Soluble. 
 (1:151) 
 
 Ammonia 
 Water. 
 
 Soluble. 
 
 Slightly 
 soluble. 
 
 Tannin. — To a neutral decoction of cinchona add solution 
 of ferric chlorid (green-black). 
 
348 CHEMIQ EXAMINATION OF ALKALOID A L DRUGS. 
 
 Note.'- — The assaying of cinchona by the method given in 
 the United States Pharmacopoeia on page 91 constitutes an 
 excellent exercise. When time permits, it may be included. 
 It consists in the extraction of the alkaloids with a mixture 
 of alcohol, chloroform, and ammonia water, evaporating a 
 portion to dryness, taking up the alkaloid with weak sul- 
 phuric acid, rendering alkaline with potassa, extracting with 
 chloroform, and evaporating ; this gives the total alkaloids. 
 
 Quinine is estimated by using a portion of the above 
 extraction with alcohol, chloroform, and ammonia water, rep- 
 resenting 5 gm. of cinchona, dissolving in dilute sulphuric 
 acid, precipitating with potassa, taking up the residue with 
 chloroform, and evaporating this with broken glass. If this 
 is now treated with 10 C.c. of ether by percolation, nearly all 
 the quinine and some of the other alkaloids will be dissolved, 
 a second 10 C.c. of ether dissolving as much of the other 
 alkaloids as the first, the difference in their evaporated resi- 
 dues being the amount of quinine in 5 gm. of the bark. 
 
 OPIUM. 
 
 The main constituent of opium is morphine, which occurs 
 in combination with meconic acid. Though there are about 
 twenty alkaloids present, codeine is the only one beside mor- 
 phine which is of sufficient medicinal importance to merit a 
 place in the Pharmacopoeia. These are present in the milk 
 juice of the poppy capsules. Like many others, this con- 
 tains a caoutchouc-like substance abundantly. The quantity 
 of alkaloids diminishes in the ripening of the capsules. 
 
 Tests. — 1. To a filtered decoction add solution of mer- 
 curic potassium iodid (abundant precipitate of alkaloids). 
 
 2. To another portion of decoction add solution of ferric 
 chlorid ; a deep-red color is produced which is not destroyed 
 by hydrochloric acid. The reaction is due to meconic acid. 
 
 3. To an alcoholic percolate or solution prepared by 
 decoction add an excess of water. (Milky precipitate of 
 resin). 
 
 4. Test the decoction for sugar with Fehling's solution. 
 
 5. Separation of Principal Alkaloids. — This process is based 
 
OPIUM. 349 
 
 essentially upon the pharmacopoeial method of assaying opium 
 for morphine. 
 
 To 20 C.c. of a 50 per cent, aqueous extract of opium in 
 an Erlenmeyer flask add a mixture of 25 C.c. ether and 10 
 C.c. alcohol ; then add 3.5 C.c. of ammonia water (10 per 
 cent.), shake, and set aside (stoppered) overnight or longer. 
 The ammonia precipitates the alkaloids, which are redissolved 
 in the ether-alcohol layer, excepting the morphine, which is 
 seen in crystals. The aqueous layer is nearly free from alka- 
 loids. Decant the alcohol-ether layer upon a plain filter, 
 collect the filtrate, and label ; put aside for subsequent test. 
 Now pass the aqueous layer through the iilter, collecting the 
 filtrate, and put aside after labelling for future testing. Rinse 
 out the crystals of morphine and wash the filter with a very 
 little cold alcohol, throwing the washings away — do not let 
 any of the alcohol from washing get into the filtrates. 
 
 6. To the crystals of morphine apply the following tests : 
 To a small crystal of morphine upon a porcelain surface add 
 a drop of Marquis' reagent (concentrated sulphuric acid, 100 
 C.c; 40 per cent, formaldehyd, 5 C.c.) — -a play of colors, 
 purple-red to violet. Sprinkle a few of the crystals of mor- 
 phine upon nitric acid of specific gravity of 1.250 to 1.300 
 (made by mixing 40 gm. of the official acid with 29 C.c. of 
 water, or 47 gra. of acid with 22 C.c. of water) ; an orange- 
 red solution follows, changing to yellow. 
 
 Dissolve some of the crystals in just enough 0.1 per cent, 
 sulphuric acid (avoiding an excess of acid), and dilute so that 
 the solution contains 1 per cent, of morphine ; to this add a 
 few drops of solution of ferric chlorid ; a blue color is pro- 
 duced which is destroyed by alcohol, heat, or acids. 
 
 7. Shake the ether-alcohol filtrate from No. 5 with dilute 
 sulphuric acid for a few minutes, and decant the former ; 
 evaporate the acid layer, which contains the alkaloids, until 
 it becomes reddish ; add sodium nitrite (violet color). 
 
 8. Acidulate the watery filtrate gotten in test No. 5 and 
 add a drop or two of solution of mercuric potassium iodid. 
 If that test was made with due care, this should show little 
 or no precipitate. 
 
 9. Codeine. — This alkaloid often contains notable amounts 
 
350 CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF ALKALOWAL DRUGS. 
 
 of morphine : the latter is detected by this test : " On sprink- 
 ling 0.05 gm. of codeine upon 2 C.c. of nitric acid (sp. gr, 
 1.200, made by mixing equal volumes of nitric acid (U. S. 
 P.) and water, the crystals will turn red, but the acid, even 
 when warmed, will acquire only a yellow color (difference 
 from and absence of morphine) " (U. S. P.). 
 
 NUX VOMICA. 
 
 The principal constituents of the seed are two alkaloids, 
 strychnine and brucine. There are also present a fat, a glu- 
 cosid, and a sugar. 
 
 Prepare a 5 per cent, decoction for the first four tests, 
 using 0.5 per cent, hydrochloric acid, taking care to exhaust 
 the drug thoroughly. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Alkaloids. — Apply any two of the general 
 alkaloidal tests given on p. 303. 
 
 2. Tannins. — Solution of ferric chlorid gives a black color. 
 
 3. Sugar. — Neutralize with a few drops of 1 per cent, 
 solution of soda before using Fehling's test. 
 
 4. Intensity of bitterness : Strychnine can be tasted when 
 one part is dissolved in more than half a million parts of 
 water. Dilute 4 C.c. of the infusion with a liter of water, 
 mixing well. This gives a dilution equal to 1 part of nux 
 vomica in 5000 (5 per cent, of 4 C.c. in 1000 C.c. =: 1 : 
 5000). If the bitterness cannot be detected in this,' it shows 
 that the nux vomica contains less than 1 per cent, of strych- 
 nine. (The brucine is disregarded.) . 
 
 5. If frogs are obtainable, inject 1 C.c. of the decoction for 
 a frog of 40 gm. into the space beneath the skin of the ab- 
 domen (by snipping the skin with a pair of scissors the 
 liquid may be injected with a pipet, while holding the frog 
 with a towel laid over the hand) ; in three to ten minutes 
 typical strychnine convulsions ensue — stiffening of the legs, 
 rigidity (tonic convulsions), followed by jerking (clonic con- 
 vulsions), followed by relaxation (paralysis). Tapping the 
 table upon which the frog lies or pricking the animal with a 
 pin induces convulsions. After death the heart is usually 
 found beating — for some hours if kept moist. 
 
DRUGS CONTAINING CAFFEINE. 351 
 
 This demonstrates typically the action of poisoning by 
 strychnine in man. 
 
 6. To a little powdered nux vomica add a few drops of 
 strong nitric acid (orange color, due to brucine). 
 
 7. To tincture of nux vomica in a capsule add equal volume 
 of concentrated sulphuric acid (purple color, due to loganin). 
 
 Isolation of Alkaloids. — 8. A modification of Keller's 
 method of isolating alkaloids has been given (p. 304). The 
 mixed alkaloids may be gotten by this method, or the pure 
 alkaloids may be used for the two tests following. 
 
 9. Strychnine. — To a very small crystal of the alkaloid 
 upon a glass slide add a drop of concentrated sulphuric and a 
 very small crystal (0.005 gm. or less) of potassium bichro- 
 mate. No change is observed upon the addition of the acid, 
 but the potassium bichromate causes a play of colors (blue, 
 violet, red). 
 
 10. Brucine. — Add concentrated nitric acid (red color). 
 
 DRUGS CONTAINING CAFETEINE. 
 
 The only official drug containing caffeine is guarana, but 
 coffee, tea, and kola also contain notable amounts of it. They 
 also contain tannins, differing in the various plants. These 
 are of importance in view of the frequent employment of tea 
 and coffee as alkaloidal antidotes, and will be considered with 
 reference to their value in that respect. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Caffeine. — The murexid test is given by caf- 
 feine and also by uric acid, to which caffeine is chemically 
 related. To 0.01 gm. caffeine add a drop of nitric acid and 
 evaporate upon a water-bath. Then cause the fumes of am- 
 monia to come into contact with the residue, when a brilliant 
 purple results. 
 
 2. Extraction of Caffeine. — Powder 1 gm. of tea and 
 exhaust with gasolin (20 to 25 C.c), rejecting this percolate ; 
 dry the powder and exhaust with alcohol, or add a few di'ops 
 of ammonia water and shake out with chloroform. Evap- 
 orate upon a water-bath and heat the resulting extract 
 strongly in the Bunsen flame ; the caffeine sublimes and con- 
 denses upon the walls of the tube higlier up. If to the 
 
352 CHEMIG EXAMINATION OF ALKALOWAL DRUGS. 
 
 crystals a drop of nitric acid be added (holding the tube 
 horizontally), and this carefully evaporated and a drop of 
 ammonia water be placed beside the residue, the purple color 
 will appear (murexid). 
 
 3. Tannins. — To 5 per cent, infusions of tea and coifee add 
 the following reagents and note results : Solution of ferric 
 chlorid (greenish) ; solution of lead acetate (copious) ; 1 per 
 cent, corrosive sublimate and 1 per cent, morphine sulphate 
 (precipitate with tea, not with coffee) ; both infusions pre- 
 cipitate strychnine ; neither precipitates arsenious acid. 
 
 Note. — Milk neutralizes the tannin in part, hence should 
 not be added when tea is used as an alkaloidal precipitant. 
 Tea-tannin precipitates more substances and more completely 
 than coffee-tannin, including alkaloids, glucosids, metals, and 
 proteids, but there are great individual differences in the 
 members of each class. 
 
 IPECAC. 
 
 This root owes its therapeutic action mainly to two alka- 
 loids, emetine and cephaeline. A third alkaloid, psychotrine, 
 occurs in very small amounts, but it is not concerned in the 
 medicinal action. There is also a glucosidal tannin resem- 
 bling ooffee-tannic acid. The processes for separating the 
 alkaloids are rather toQ complicated for class experiments. 
 Cephaeline possesses some characteristic color reactions, in 
 which emetine does not share. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Alkaloids. — Exhaust 0.1 gm. of powdered 
 ipecac with 5 C.c. of alcohol and apply several alkaloidal 
 tests (picric acid, mercuric potassium iodid). 
 
 2. Tannin. — To the decoction add solution of ferric chlorid 
 (small amount of tannin). 
 
 ^.Cephaeline. — To 0.2 to 1 gm. of powdered ipecac add 10 
 C.c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid, shake, and sprinkle 
 upon the surface a little chlorinated lime : the cephaeline gives 
 an orange to red color. 
 
 4. Starch. — This is abundantly present, as may be shown 
 by using a very dilute decoction (dilute the ordinary 5 per 
 cent, decoction with 100 times as much water). 
 
ACOyil'E-HYDRASTIS. 353 
 
 ACONITE. 
 
 Aconite contains a number of allialoids which are prone to 
 decomposition by heat and by reagents. For this reason the 
 commercial alkaloids vary enormously in their activity. Since 
 their toxicity is so great, this variability precludes their in- 
 ternal use, and the fluid extract or tincture of aconite servos 
 equally well for external application. There are no satisfac- 
 tory chemic tests for these alkaloids, but the physiologic tests 
 are very characteristic. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Resin. — To an alcoholic tincture (or the official) 
 add water (milky precipitate of resin). 
 
 2. Alkaloids. — Dilute the above mixture with a little 
 1 per cent, sulphuric acid, and add solution of mercuric 
 potassium iodid (precipitation of alkaloids with increased 
 cloudiness). 
 
 3. Three drops of the official tincture of aconite (or one 
 prepared extemporaneously) placed upon the tongue causes a 
 tingling which persists for some time. 
 
 Demonstration. — If frogs are obtainable, pith one by in- 
 serting a knife-point through the depression at the base of 
 the skull and pushing a pointed match or wire upward into 
 the brain and downward through the spinal column. Then 
 slit open the abdomen with a pair of sharp-pointed scissors, 
 push aside the organs concealing the heart, and slit open the 
 membrane inclosing the heart (the pericardium). Count the 
 rate of the heart, then drop upon it a few drops of a 5 
 per cent, infusion. Every five minutes count the rate and 
 drop upon it more of the infusion until stoppage occurs. At 
 first there will be seen an increase, then a diminution, then 
 an increase, the character of the pulsation often changing and 
 becoming very irregular. 
 
 HYDRASTIS. 
 
 The therapeutic action of this rhizome is mainly due to the 
 colorless alkaloid hydrastine. The intensely yellow and bitter 
 berberine is also present in large amount. A third alkaloid, 
 canadine, exists in small quantity, but is not concerned in the 
 medicinal action. Berberine may be separated from its solu- 
 
 23 
 
354 CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF ALKALOWAL DRUGS. 
 
 tion with hydrastine by reason of the slight solubility of the 
 berbei'ine salts. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Tannin. — An infusion of the powder gives 
 but a slight reaction with solution of ferric chlorid. 
 
 2. Preparation of Crude Berberine and Hydrastine : extract 
 5 gm. of powdered hydrastis with dilute acetic acid with 
 heat, filter, and evaporate upon a water-bath to a syrupy 
 consistence (2 C.c.) ; pour into 6 C.c. of 20 per cent, sulphuric 
 acid and allow to stand a day or longer. A yellow pre- 
 cipitate of berberine sulphate falls. Preserve for identity 
 tests. Decant the mother liquor. Add an excess of am- 
 monia water ; this causes the precipitation of hydrastine ; 
 collect upon filter and preserve for identity tests. 
 
 3. Berberine. — Dissolve a little of the precipitated berber- 
 ine in dilute hydrochloric acid and add bromin water (blood- 
 red color). This test may be applied direct to the acetic 
 extract employed in the foregoing experiment. 
 
 4. Hydrastine. — Dissolve some of the hydrastine in dilute 
 sulphuric acid and add a few drops of solution of potassium 
 permanganate ; blue fluorescence, due to formation of hydras- 
 tinine. 
 
 5. Hydrastinine. — This is an artificial alkaloid obtained 
 by acting upon hydrastine with oxidizing agents. The hydro- 
 chlorate is official. The following pharmacopoeial test may be 
 applied to a pure salt : 
 
 " To a 1 per cent, aqueous solution add an excess of bro- 
 min water (yellow precipitate) ; the addition of ammonia 
 water dissolves this to a nearly colorless solution (hydrastine 
 giving brick-red precipitate)." 
 
 BELLADONNA. 
 
 The active principles of this plant are alkaloids, the princi- 
 pal ones being atropine and hyoscyamine. 
 
 Make a few cubic centimeters of 5 per cent, infusion of 
 belladonna root and apply the following tests : 
 
 1. To a few cubic centimeters add mercuric potassium 
 iodid (precipitate of the alkaloids). 
 
 2. Put 1 gm. of powdered belladonna root into a small 
 
COCA. 355 
 
 flask and add 15 C.c. of ether and 2 C.c. of chloroform ; 
 shake for two or three minutes and add 1 C.c. of ammonia 
 water ; continue the shaking for five to ten minutes and add 
 1.5 C.c. of water, shaking until the powder begins to sepa- 
 rate out ; let it stand a few minutes and pour off the clear 
 liquid (chloroform-ether mixture) ; filter if not clear and evap- 
 orate in a capsule upon a water-bath. To the residue in which 
 the impure alkaloids are contained add 10 drops of concen- 
 trated sulphuric acid ; transfer to test-tube, and heat until it 
 becomes brown ; cool, then add about 1 C.c. of water. A 
 pleasant odor of tuberose or heliotrope (due to atropine) ; may 
 be strengthened by adding a few drops of solution of potas- 
 sium permanganate. 
 
 3. When animals are available, the following physiologic 
 test may be applied ; it is exceedingly characteristic : 
 
 Put three drops of the infusion of belladonna root into the 
 eye of a cat or white rabbit (entirely painless). In a short 
 time dilatation of the pupil occurs. The cat reacts most sat- 
 isfactorily, though rabbits also illustrate the action well. 
 
 Note. — Any of the ofiicial atropine tests may be applied as 
 supplementary experiments. 
 
 COCA. 
 
 These leaves contain a number of alkaloids, of which cocaine 
 is much the most important. The tannin present is called 
 cocatannic acid. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Cocaine. — Rub a little of cocaine hydrochlorate 
 with an equal bulk of calomel upon a porcelain surface with 
 a glass rod, then breathe upon the mixture (becomes gray or 
 dark). 
 
 2. The alkaloids of coca may be obtained by Keller's 
 method (see p. 305). The yield is about 1 per cent. 
 
 The following drugs are only important because of the 
 alkaloids or neutral principles which they yield, the latter 
 being used almost entirely in place of the crude drug : 
 
 Pilocarpus, yielding pilocarpine, the hydrochlorate being 
 official ; the Pharmacopoeia gives no distinctive test. If 
 
356 CHEMIC EXAMINATION OF ALKALOIDAL DRUGS. 
 
 rubbed with an equal volume of calomel with a glass rod 
 upon a porcelain surface, when breathed upon, it becomes 
 gray or dark, as in case of cocaine hydrochlorate. 
 
 Physostigma, yielding physostigmine, the salicylate and 
 sulphate being official. Either of these salts may be used 
 for the following test : Dissolve a minute quantity (0.01 gm.) 
 in a few cubic centimeters of ammonia water ; becomes yel- 
 lowish-red ; upon evaporation on water-bath a blue or bluish- 
 gray residue is left, yielding a blue solution with Alcohol, and 
 becoming violet-red upon the addition of acetic acid, showing 
 a strong reddish fluorescence. 
 
 Cocculus indicus (unofficial), yielding the neutral prin- 
 ciple picrotoxin (see p. 307). To concentrated sulphuric acid 
 (a few drops) add a little picrotoxin ; it dissolves with golden- 
 yellow color, changing to reddish-brown and showing brown 
 fluorescence. 
 
 Asag^rsea officinalis (unofficial), yielding veratrine (a 
 mixture of alkaloids). To 0.005 of veratrine, or to residue 
 after evaporating a little alcoholic solution, upon a slide add 
 a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid and note play of colors 
 — green, brown, red, and yellow. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 DRUGS CONTAINING GLUCOSIDS. 
 
 DIGITALIS. 
 
 Prepare a 5 per cent, infusion and strain. 
 Tests. — 1. Reaction. — Test with litmus (acid). 
 
 2. Tannin. — Ferric chlorid solution (black-green). 
 
 3. Qluoosids. — Add solution of tannin (precipitate forms, 
 increases on standing). 
 
 4. Absence of Alkaloids. — Add solution of mercuric potas- 
 sium iodid (no precipitate). 
 
 5. Saponin Principle (jyigitonin). — Upon shaking the infu- 
 sion it froths ; another portion shaken with cotton-seed oil 
 emulsifies it, and if to a few drops of blood a drop of the 
 infusion containing 0.9 per cent, salt be added, it causes 
 laking. 
 
 6. Fehling's test shows the presence of reducing sugar, and 
 if this be removed by percolation with water, a glucosid 
 remains which can be inverted by boiling with a dilute acid. 
 (See Experiment 6, p. 292). 
 
 7. Physiologic test to be applied when frogs are obtainable : 
 Slit the skin on the chest, cut through the bone, and slit the 
 thin membrane which envelops the heart (the pericardium) ; 
 a drop of the infusion upon the heart every minute causes 
 slowing, and the heart to stop in contraction (systole), appear- 
 ing white and small. 
 
 The valuable principles of digitalis are the glucosids, digi- 
 toxin, digitophyllin, digitalin, and digitalein. 
 
 8. Digitoxin. — To a solution of 0.001 gm. of digitoxin in 
 5 C.c. of glacial acetic acid add one drop of twenty times 
 diluted solution of ferric chlorid ; pour this without mixing 
 upon an equal volume of concentrated sulphuric acid ; the 
 contact zone shows a broad band, first bluish-green, soon 
 becoming dark blue. Toward the sulphuric acid there is a 
 
 357 
 
358 DRUGS CONTAINING GLUOOSWS. 
 
 narrow red-brown ring ; the acetic acid gradually becomes 
 green. 
 
 9. Digitalin (^Commercial). — Evaporate a few drops of 
 1 per cent, alcoholic solution of commercial digitalin with a 
 drop of concentrated sulphuric acid ; a reddish-brown color 
 Jesuits ; if it is then exposed to the vapors of bromin (by 
 opening a bottle and permitting the vapor to run into the 
 tube), it changes to violet and cherry. 
 
 10. Digitoxin. — Boil 0.5 gm. of digitalis with 5 C.c. of 
 glacial acetic acid ; filter, and add a drop of the very dilute 
 (1 : 20) solution of ferric chlorid, and lay upon sulphuric 
 acid, as directed above. 
 
 STROPHANTHUS. 
 
 These seeds owe their activity to glucosidal principles 
 (strophanthin). These differ in the various species of the 
 plant. The official seeds are distinguished by giving a green 
 color to 80 per cent, sulphuric acid or stronger. The test 
 may be applied directly to seed or to the tincture as follows : 
 
 Tests. — 1. Upon Seeds. — Powder the seed or make thin 
 sections and add a drop of sulphuric acid, preferably 80 per 
 cent. ; a green color must develop, at least in the endoderm ; 
 this color is often preceded by a blue. The green fades 
 gradually through blue to red. A bright red may be imme- 
 diately seen at times. 
 
 2. Upon Tincture. — To 6 drops of tincture of strophan- 
 thus add a drop of solution of ferric chlorid and 6 drops of 
 concentrated sulphuric acid ; a brown precipitate is formed 
 (floats), which becomes distinctly greenish after some time 
 and should retain that color for at least three hours. 
 
 UVA URSI. 
 
 This leaf contains a glucosid (arbutin), a resin, tannin, 
 gum, fat, and some volatile oil. Under the influence of acids 
 or ferments arbutin yields glucose and hydroquinon. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Tannin. — Solution of ferric chlorid gives a 
 bluish-black color. 
 
SANTONICA—CANTHARWES. 359 
 
 2. To an alcoholic tincture add water (precipitate of resin, 
 insoluble in gasolin). 
 
 3. Gum. — To an aqueous infusion add an excess of alcohol 
 or solution of borax (precipitate of gum). 
 
 4. Arbutin. — This process may be followed in a few indi- 
 vidual cases, but is hardly adapted for class work. 
 
 Precipitate a decoction of the powdered drag with lead 
 subacetate, filter, and through the filtrate pass sulphuretted 
 hydrogen to remove the lead ; filter, evaporate filtrate to 
 small bulk, and put aside ; impure arbutin will crystallize 
 out. 
 
 5. Impure arbutin is soluble in alcohol and in water, gives 
 an olive color with ferric chlorid, does not reduce Fehling's 
 solution until boiled with dilute mineral acid (hence a glu- 
 cosid). 
 
 SANTONICA- 
 
 The active principle is santonin, an anhydrid of santonic 
 acid. The latter forms soluble salts from which santonic 
 acid is separated by the addition of an acid, the liberated acid 
 readily passing into tlie anhydrid again. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Test fw Santonin. — Boil 1 gm. of santonin 
 with lO.C.c. of alcohol for a few minutes; to 1 or 2 C.c. 
 add a little solid potassium hydrate and warm ; red color 
 fading gradually. 
 
 2. Concentrate the remainder of the filtrate to about 1 C.c. 
 and add slight excess of acetic acid (santonin crystallizes 
 out). 
 
 3. To these crystals the following test may be applied : 
 Dissolve in concentrated sulphuric acid and add a few 
 
 drops of verj' dilute solution of ferric chlorid ; upon warm- 
 ing in the Bunsen flame a beautiful violet color is developed. 
 
 CANTHARIDES. 
 
 The active principle of cantharides is generally conceded 
 to be cantharidin, though there may be some other vesicating 
 substances present. In addition to this there is a green oil, 
 from which it is difficult, under certain conditions, to free the 
 cantharidin. The flies should be kept whole, in a dry place, 
 
360 DRUGS CONTAINING GLVCOSIDS. 
 
 well stoppered and free from insects, using carbon disulphid 
 or chloroform in the container occasionally. They should be 
 powdered as needed. In this or any test where heat is em- 
 ployed with cantharides care should be taken to avoid the 
 irritating effects upon the eyes. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Cantharidin. — Powder a little of the canthar- 
 ides which are nearly free from injury by insects and perco- 
 late 1 gm. of the powder with 10 C.c. of chloroform, return- 
 ing the percolate once or twice to the percolator ; evaporate 
 the chloroform upon the water-bath and heat the residue 
 quickly, but not to a high heat, in the flame, keeping the 
 upper part of the tube cooled. Cantharidin is deposited in 
 prisms which can be seen with low magnification or as a 
 white sublimate with the naked eye. 
 
 Put a single drop of olive oil upon the sublimate and re- 
 move to the arm ; keep protected ; a blister forms without 
 pain in six to eight hours. 
 
 Cantharides is extremely liable to deterioration, and can- 
 tharidin is often unobtainable in such cases. 
 
 GLYCYRRHIZA. 
 
 The most important constituent of the root is glycyrrhizin. 
 Gum, starch, tannin, albumin, and a bitter principle are also 
 present, but no alkaloid. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Glycyrrhizin. — The ammoniated glycyrrhizin 
 being official, its preparation belongs rather to the pharma- 
 ceutic laboratory than to that of materia medica, but the follow- 
 ing, adapted from the official process, may be employed, where 
 time permits, in this course : 
 
 Moisten 10 gm. of coarsely powdered glycyrrhiza with 10 
 C.c. of water and half a cubic centimeter of ammonia water 
 and warm to about 60° C. for half an hour ; then percolate 
 with water and ammonia water mixed in above proportions 
 until 15 C.c. of percolate are obtained. Add 1 per cent, 
 sulphuric acid with constant stirring until all the glycyrrhizin 
 is precipitated (a few drops only) ; collect the precipitate and 
 wash with a little cold water. 
 
 Try the solubility of small portions in the following sub- 
 
GLYCYRRHIZA. 361 
 
 stances : alcohol, ether, petroleum-ether, 1 per cent, solution 
 of potassa (note taste of solution), hot water (gelatinizes 
 upon cooling), and in 1 per cent, ammonia water. The latter 
 solution spread upon glass and scaled forms the official ammo- 
 niated glycyrrhizin. 
 
 The precipitation by sulphuric acid in the above experi- 
 ments demonstrates the oft-forgotton fact that preparations 
 of glycyrrhiza intended to mask the taste of quinine should 
 not have that alkaloid dissolved in an excess of acid. 
 
 2. Starch. — To a 5 per cent, decoction (not the percolate 
 prepared in the preceding test) add compound solution of 
 iodin (abundant reaction). 
 
 3. Tannin. — To a 5 per cent, decoction add solution of 
 ferric chlorid (moderate reaction). 
 
 4. Gum. — To a 5 per cent, decoction add usual precipi- 
 tants for gum — i. e., alcohol, lead acetate, etc. (precipitate). 
 
 5. Absence of Alkaloids. — Use an alcoholic tincture (not 
 the decoction) with usual alkaloidal precipitants (no reaction). 
 The decoction contains small amounts of proteid matter giving 
 precipitate with most alkaloidal precipitants. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 DRUGS CONTAINING RESINOUS PRINOPLES. 
 
 INDIAN CANNABIS. 
 
 Very little is known about the constituents of this plant ; 
 it contains resin, some volatile oil, and chlorophyll. 
 
 Tests. — 1. iJesin.-^Exhaust 1 gm. of the drug with 10 
 C.c. of alcohol and evaporate to an extract upon the water- 
 bath. 
 
 2. With a glass stirring rod remove a little of this extract 
 to a test-tube containing ether, and note its solubility. 
 
 3. Add water to some of the alcoholic tincture (prepared 
 above) : precipitates. 
 
 4. To the extract prepared above add a few cubic centi- 
 meters of strong nitric acid and heat gently ; the mass becomes 
 bright orange-red. 
 
 GUAIAC (RESIN) AND GUAIAC WOOD. 
 
 The wood contains a large amount of the resin, which 
 consists mainly of peculiar resin acids. These give a num- 
 ber of striking color reactions ; upon these are based the 
 following color tests : 
 
 Tests. — 1. Moisten a piece of the wood with concen- 
 trated nitric acid (a bluish green, if an excess of the acid is 
 used, passing to red). 
 
 2. Moisten a piece of the wood with solution of mercuric 
 cblorid and heat (bluish green). 
 
 3. Solubility of Mesin. — Boil a fragment of the resin with 
 water ; a little goes into solution, forming a greenish-yellow 
 decoction. With alcohol and ether the pure resin goes into 
 solution, the impurities falling to the bottom. 
 
 To 0.1, gm. of the powdered resin add 5 C.c. of solution 
 of soda or of potassa ; when solution is effected, add an 
 excess of dilute hydrochloric acid : resin is precipitated. 
 
 362 
 
ALOES. 363 
 
 To 0.01 gm. of the powdered resin add 5 C.c. of concen- 
 trated sulphuric acid ; it forms a claret-red color ; upon the 
 addition of water this becomes lilac or purple. 
 
 4. To a little alcoholic solution of the resin in test-tubes 
 add the following : To the first, nitric acid (blue rapidly 
 passing to red) ; to the second, solution of ferric chlorid 
 (blue) ; to the third, dilute hydrocyanic acid and very dilute 
 solution of copper sulphate (0.5 per cent.) (deep blue, fading 
 to greenish). 
 
 5. The following is used as a delicate test for blood, even 
 in case of old stains, but other things give it. To a drop of 
 blood add some water and a little of the freshly made alco- 
 holic tincture of guaiac resin (no blue color should result) ; 
 then add a few drops of solution of hydrogen dioxid (deep- 
 blue color). 
 
 ALOES. 
 
 The different varieties of aloes, of which two, Barbadoes 
 or Curagao, and Socotrine or Zanzibar, are ofiicial, are the 
 inspissated juices of the leaves of various species of aloe. 
 They contain as their main active constituents neutral bitter 
 principles (non-glucosidal), derivatives of anthraquinon, which 
 are calfed aloins. They differ in the various species (barba- 
 loin, socaloin, nataloin, and capaloin), a fact which makes it 
 possible to differentiate chemically between them. Further 
 constituents are resin and small quantities of emodin and of 
 a volatile oil. 
 
 The aloins are soluble in water and alcohol, but not readily 
 soluble in fatty solvents. They form yellow crystals, give a 
 greenish-black color with ferric chlorid, and give insoluble 
 compounds with bromin ; they are slowly precipitated by 
 basic lead acetate. They have an intensely bitter taste. 
 
 Tests. — 1. SoluhiUties^. — To 5 C.c. of each of the follow- 
 ing substances add a little (0.5 gm.) powdered aloes (any 
 kind), and note the solubility : alcohol, readily, except im- 
 purities ; acetic acid, slowly in the cold ; solution of soda, 
 readily in the cold ; boiling water, except impurities, resin 
 precipitates upon cooling; chloroform, ether, and gasolin, 
 slightly soluble. 
 
364 BBUGS CONTAINING RESINOUS PRINCIPLES. 
 
 2. Aloin {^Common to All). — To an aqueous solution of any- 
 kind of aloes add water until but slightly colored ; then add 
 solution of copper sulphate (few drops) ; yellowish color 
 ensues ; then add to half of this, a little sodium chlorid, and 
 warm (pink to red) ; to the other half add dilute hydrocyanic 
 acid (chei'ry-red color). 
 
 To aqueous solutions add the following reagents and note 
 results : solution of ferric chlorid, greenish-black color ; solu- 
 tion of lead subacetate, precipitate forms slowly ; -bromin 
 water (saturated), precipitates. 
 
 3. Aloin {To Distinguish Varieties). — To 5 per cent, alcoholic 
 solutions of the different aloes add ammonia water and com- 
 pare the colors produced : Natal, carmin red ; Socotrine and 
 Barbadoes, brownish-red ; note fluorescence. 
 
 To 10 drops of nitric acid of specific gravity of 1.200 
 (made by mixing the official with an equal volume of water) 
 upon porcelain surfaces add 0.05 gm. of the various aloins 
 and compare colors formed : Socotrine, little change ; Natal 
 and Barbadoes, carmin red ; Cape, green. 
 
 Dissolve the various aloins in concentrated sulphuric acid 
 and cause the fumes of nitric acid to come in contact with 
 them (hold a glass rod moistened with the acid near to them) : 
 Natal, blue ; others, no change. Solution of Natal is said 
 to give no fluorescence with saturated solution of borax ; the 
 others do. Barbaloin is the kind frequently found in com- 
 merce simply labelled " aloin." 
 
 4. Barbaloin. — To 0.5 gm. of barbaloin add 5 C.c. of 
 water and 5 drops of dilute sulphuric acid ; boil, cool, filter, 
 evaporate to 1 C.c. ; crystals separate upon cooling. 
 
 JALAP. 
 
 The active constituents of jalap are resins, soluble in alco- 
 hol but insoluble in water, and petroleum-ether (Resina 
 Jalapse, U. S. P.). There are two of these resins : convol- 
 vulin, the most important, insoluble in ether ; and jalapin, 
 soluble in ether. Convolvulin is -an anhydrid yielding a 
 resin acid (convolvulinic acid) with alkalies. This acid is a 
 glucosid, yielding glucose when boiled with a dilute mineral acid. 
 
RHUBARB. 365 
 
 Tests. — 1. Estimation of Convolvulin and Jalapin. — Ex- 
 haust 10 gm. of powdered jalap with alcohol ; concentrate 
 to 4 Co. and pour into water ; after standing, collect and 
 dry the precipitate, which should weigh 1.2 gm. This con- 
 stitutes the official resin. Triturate this with ether, remove 
 the ether to a watch-glass, evaporate, and weigh. Should 
 not weigh more than 0.12 gm. (jalapin). The insoluble 
 residue after treating with ether is mostly convolvulin. (If 
 desired, resin of jalap may be used instead of the crude drug 
 for the separation of these two.) 
 
 2. Convolvulin. — Dissolve 0.01 gm. in 1 C.c. of concen- 
 trated sulphuric acid (a bright-red color), add very small 
 crystal of potassium dichromate ; explosive ! olive-green 
 color. 
 
 Dissolve 0.1 gm. of the convolvulin in solution of soda 
 (odor of whisky on warming). If the solutions of convol- 
 vulin and jalapin in concentrated sulphuric acid be cautiously 
 neutralized, the jalapin is precipitated, 'but convolvulin re- 
 mains in solution. 
 
 3. Jalapin. — Dissolve a little (0.01 gm.) in concentrated 
 sulphuric acid (maroon color) ; add a very small crystal of ' 
 potassium dichromate ; odor of rancid butter, reddish color. 
 
 Dissolve 0.01 gm. in solution of soda (reddish color). 
 
 4. GluGOsid. — Boil 0.1 gm. of the resin or convolvulin 
 with 2 per cent, sulphuric acid for ten minutes ; neutralize 
 and test for glucose (positive). 
 
 RHUBARB. 
 
 Tests. — 1. JEmodin Principles. — Rhubarb, like senna and 
 cascara sagrada, contains a number of these substances. The 
 most important are chrysophanic acid, emodin, and rhein, all 
 giving similar reactions. Chrysophanic acid does not pre- 
 exist in the drug, but is formed from a glucosid, chrysophan, 
 in the presence of water, alcoholic extracts being free from it. 
 
 The following tests are applicable to the urine of one who 
 has taken rhubarb : To a few cubic centimeters of an aqueous 
 decoction and to an alcoholic percolate and a chloroformic 
 percolate from rhubarb add solution of soda : all give red to 
 
366 DRUGS COSTAININO RESINOUS PRINCIPLES. 
 
 purple. (The emodins are soluble in boiling water, in alcohol, 
 and in chloroform.) 
 
 2. Tannin. — Rhubarb contains a peculiar tannin, rheo- 
 taunic acid, a glucosid, which upon boiling with dilute mineral 
 acid yields a phlobaphene and sugar. 
 
 To a decoction add ferric chlorid (greenish black) phloba- 
 phene. Boil an aqueous decoction with a little dilute hydro- 
 chloric acid for ten minutes ; the mixture becomes somewhat 
 turbid ; to one-half add alcohol and to the other solution of 
 soda; in each case the precipitated phlobaphene dissolves, 
 the mixture becoming clear. 
 
 3. Starch. — To a decoction add a drop or two of dilute 
 hydrochloric acid and a drop of compound solution of iodin. 
 
 4. Reducing Sugar. — This exists in rhubarb partly pre- 
 formed, partly from the decomposition of glucosids. Test 
 with Fehling's solution, depending upon the brick-dust pre- 
 cipitate which falls after a time. The red color gotten at 
 once is due to alkaline solution acting upon the emodiu 
 principles. 
 
 5. Destructive Distillation. — Heat 0.1 gm. of powdered 
 rhubarb in a test-tube ; note the odor of yellow fumes which 
 arise. 
 
 6. Ash. — Rhubarb occasionally yields considerable ash, 45 
 per cent, having been found, but usually between 10 and 20 
 per cent. Incinerate 5 gm. on platinum foil and weigh. 
 Dissolve in hydrochloric acid (eifervesces, oxalate having 
 been reduced to carbonate by heat), neutralize the solution 
 with 1 per cent, solution of soda, acidulate with acetic acid, 
 and add ammonium oxalate (precipitate of calcium oxalate). 
 
 7. Calcium Oxalate. — (See p. 196.) 
 
 8. Sophistication. — Curcuma is very frequently employed 
 for this purpose. Percolate 0.1 gm. of powder adulterated 
 with curcuma with 2 C.c. of chloroform, letting the percolate 
 fall upon 0.1 gm. of powdered borax ; dry, and drop upon it 
 a drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid ; an orange color is 
 due to the coloring-matter,. curcumin. Ammonia produces a 
 blue black if dropped upon the filter moistened with the 
 chloroformic percolate. 
 
8ENNA-EM0DIN PRINCIPLES. 367 
 
 SENNA.— EMODBM PRINCIPLES. 
 
 Senna contains active principles similar to those in rhubarb, 
 giving a red color with alkaline hydrates. Since these prin- 
 ciples are excreted in the urine of those taking the cathartic, 
 alkalies added to it will produce the same color. They are 
 soluble in water and dilute alcohol, but very sparingly so in 
 strong alcohol ; hence percolation with that menstruum re- 
 moves little of the active purgative constituents, while it 
 extracts resinous substances which are responsible for much 
 of the unpleasant odor and taste. Senna which has been per- 
 colated with alcohol therefore yields better preparations than 
 those made directly from the natural leaf. The alcoholic 
 percolate is greenish ; the hydro-alcoholic and aqueous are 
 reddish-brown. Prolonged boiling in presence of alkalies 
 diminishes the activity. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Percolate 1 gm. of powdered senna with hot 
 alcohol. To the first cubic centimeter (concentrated) of perco- 
 late add solution of soda : green, changes to red ; continue 
 percolation to exhaustion (saving second portion of percolate 
 for Test No. 2), and from the marc prepare an aqueous in- 
 fusion ; add solution of soda. 
 
 To a few cubic centimeters of infusion prepared from the 
 powdered senna (untreated) add solution of soda (red to 
 purple). Save 10 C.c. of this infusion for the following' 
 tests : 
 
 2. Resins. — Concentrate the alcoholic percolate saved from 
 the previous test upon a water-bath, and add a large excess 
 of water (precipitate of the resin). 
 
 3. Gums and Cathartic Acid. — To a few cubic centimeters 
 of the infusion (of untreated leaves) add large excess of alco- 
 hol : precipitate of gum and cathartic acid ; collect precipitate 
 upon filter, wash with alcohol, and treat with solution of 
 soda (no red color or but traces). 
 
 4. Tannin. — To a few cubic centimeters of the infusion 
 add solution of ferric chlorid (greenish-black color). 
 
 5. fliigar. — Test a few cubic centimeters of the infusion 
 with Fehlinti's solution ; at first a deep-red color is produced 
 by the alkali acting upon the emodin principles, but precipi- 
 
368 DRUGS CONTAINING RESINOUS PRINCIPLES. 
 
 tation may not occur ; if, however, the mixture is boiled, the 
 characteristic brick-dust precipitate soon forms. 
 
 FRANGULA AND RHAMNUS PURSHIANA. 
 
 These barks coutaiu cathartic principles similar to those 
 existing in senna and rhubarb (emodins). Ehamnus purshiana 
 also contains other resins, a bitter principle, glucose, etc. 
 When fresh, they contain a very irritant substance, which is 
 a ferment acid and which can be destroyed by heating to 
 110° C. for three hours. It mostly disappears upon keeping 
 frangula one year and rhamnus purshiana two years. It 
 has been stated that the objectionable principle is a ferment, 
 but this seems doubtful. Boiling with an alkali lessens the 
 bitter taste. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Emodin Principles. — Make a 5 per cent, in- 
 fusion and add sodium or other alkaline hydrate : a red to 
 violet color is produced. 
 
 2. Resins. — Boil a little of the coarse powder with alcohol, 
 allowing to stand a few minutes on water-bath ; cool, and to 
 half the tincture add four volumes of water — the resin is pre- 
 cipitated ; to the other half of the tincture add ether — not 
 precipitated. 
 
 3. Prepare an infusion of the bark by boiling with 10 per 
 cent, sodium carbonate for some time ; dilute with five times 
 as much water and compare the taste with that of ordinary 
 infusion similarly diluted (bitterness greatly diminished). 
 
CHAPTEE X. 
 
 DRUGS CONTAINING AROMATIC AQDS, VOLA- 
 TILE OILS, RESINS, AND FATS. 
 
 BALSAM OF PERU. 
 
 This consists of a mixture of" a resin with benzylic benzoate 
 and benzylic cinnamate, with some free cinnaraic acid and 
 vanillin. Upon treating the balsam with petroleum-ether 
 the resin is left undissolved, the other constituents going into 
 solution, and upon evaporating the petroleum-ether there 
 remains the "oil of balsam of Peru," or cinnamein. 
 
 Tests. — 1 . Cinnamein. — Shake 1 C.c. of balsam of Peru 
 with 10 C.c. of petroleum-ether and allow the mixture to 
 separate ; filter through paper moistened with petroleum- 
 ether, and evaporate the filtrate upon a water-bath. An oily 
 liquid (cinnamein) remains ; note that it leaves an oily stain 
 upon paper that volatilizes only at a rather higb temperature. 
 
 2. Purity. — Shake 1 C.c. of balsam of Peru with 3 C.c. 
 of carbon disulphid (clear mixture) ; then add 8 C.c. of the 
 carbon disulphid and shake (the resin adheres to the walls of 
 the tube, and the liquid is clear and light brownish and not 
 more than faintly fluorescent) ; absence of Gurjun balsam. 
 Peru balsam mixed with water and subjected to distillation 
 at 100° C. should yield no volatile oil — copaiba does. 
 
 BALSAM OF TOLU. 
 
 This balsam consists of a mixture of resin with free cin- 
 namic and benzoic acids, benzyl benzoate and cinnamate, 
 vanillin, and a little volatile oil. 
 
 Tests. — 1 . Resin. — Treat four portions of the balsam with 
 alcohol, ether, gasolin, and solution of soda respectively. It 
 dissolves in all except the gasolin ; impurities insoluble. 
 
 2. ArornQtio Acid^,-' — Boil with water (the latter becomes 
 
 2i 369 
 
370 DBUOS CONTAINING AROMATIC ACIDS, ETC. 
 
 acid to litmus). Boil 5 gm. of the balsam with a little milk 
 of lime, cool, filter, and add slight excess of dilute hydro- 
 chloric acid (few drops) ; a precipitate of aromatic acids 
 forms ; dissolve in a little 1 per cent, solution of soda and 
 apply tests for benzoic and cinnamic acids (see p. 312). 
 
 COPAIBA. 
 
 This is a typical oleoresin (see p. 326), though it is often 
 termed " balsam." 
 
 Tests. — 1. Volatile Oil. — Distil some of the copaiba in 
 a small flask with water and note that the distilled oil leaves 
 a greasy stain upon paper which disappears upon heating. 
 
 2. Itesin. — To alcohol, ether, and gasoline add 1 Co. of 
 copaiba ; in the alcohol it dissolves with slight opalescence 
 (clear in absolute alcohol) ; in the ether wholly insoluble, not 
 soluble in gasolin ; if to the last-named (gasolin) mixture 
 one-third its volume of ammonia water be added, a clear 
 solution is obtained, the gasolin separating into an upper 
 layer. Add a slight excess of dilute hydrochloric acid (the 
 resin is precipitated). Solution of soda or potassa may be 
 used instead of ammonia to demonstrate the acid character 
 of the resin. 
 
 3. Bitter Principle. — Boil 2 C.c. of copaiba with an equal 
 volume of water and filter through a previously wetted filter ; 
 the filtrate has a bitter taste; add solution of mercuric potas- 
 sium iodid (precipitate or opalescence). 
 
 4. Sophistications and their Detection (U. S. P.). — Turperv- 
 tine : Odor upon heating. Fixed Oils : Only an amorphous, 
 brittle, transparent, solid (resin) residue after volatilization of 
 oil if pure. Ghirjun Balsam : Copaiba should not show 
 fluorescence nor become gelatinous when heated to 130° C. 
 
 Copaiba forms with one-tenth its weight of magnesia which 
 has been moistened with water a mass of pilular consistence. 
 The copaiba containing a high percentage of volatile oil (some 
 of the Para) will not readily form a mass. 
 
 CAPSICUM. 
 Our knowledge of the chemic composition of capsicum is 
 very incomplete ; the active constituents comprise a number 
 
BENZOIN. 37 1 
 
 of neutral crystalline principles, of which capsaicin is the most 
 important. Some volatile oil, resin, and fat are also present. 
 The official oleoresin is an ethereal extract containing the act- 
 ive constituents, fat, resins, volatile oil, etc. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Capsaicin. — Exhaust 2 gm. of freshly pow- 
 dered capsicum (the powder rapidly deteriorates) with 10 Cc. 
 of gasolin or petroleum-ether and evaporate on water-bath or 
 spontaneously to 1 C.c. ; long crystals are deposited. 
 
 2. Resin. — Exhaust 1 gm. of the powdered capsicum with 
 alcohol and filter, add water (precipitate of resin and oil ; 
 resin insoluble when shaken with gasolin). 
 
 3. A decoction made with dilute sulphuric acid, filtered, 
 made alkaline with ammonia water, extracted with ether, and 
 the ethereal solution shaken with dilute sulphuric acid gives 
 no precipitate with alkaloidal reagents. 
 
 BENZOIN. 
 
 This is a solid balsam consisting of several resins and 
 aromatic acids, some vanillin, etc., the several varieties dif- 
 fering in composition. Several resins are always present ; 
 they have the structure of alcohols, and exist, in part, as 
 esters of the aromatic acids. The latter exist partly in this 
 combination and partly free. Some varieties — e. g., Sumatra 
 — contain both benzoic and cinnamic acids; others (Siam) 
 only the benzoic. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Solubility of Resins. — To a few centigrams of 
 benzoin in test-tubes add 1 or 2 C.c. of each of the follow- 
 ing : Alcohol, ether, gasolin, and water : solubility in the 
 order named ; gasolin and water precipitate it from alcoholic 
 solution. 
 
 Boil a few centigrams with 2 C.c. of solution of soda (red 
 solution) ; acidulate with hydrochloric acid (precipitate). 
 
 Warm a few centigrams with 2 C.c. of concentrated sul- 
 phuric acid — the Siam dissolves with a red color ; add alco- 
 hol — violet or reddish, according to variety. 
 
 2. Free Aromatic Acids. — Boil with water and test the 
 reaction with litmus-paper (acid). 
 
 3. Sublimation of Benzoic Acid. — Heat a few centigrams in 
 
372 DRUGS CONTAINING AROMATIC ACIDS, ETC. 
 
 a test-tube ; dense white irritating fumes of benzoic acid are 
 given off.' The method formerly official for preparing this 
 acid is very commonly employed in the pharmaceutic labor- 
 atory as an exercise in the process of sublimation. 
 
 4. Test for Cinnalnio Acid. — Boil a few centigrams of 
 benzoin with solution of soda, cool (decant if necessary), and 
 acidulate with dilute sulphuric acid ; upon adding a little 
 concentrated solution of potassium permanganate the odor of 
 oil of bitter almond (benzaldehyd) is gotten if cinnamic acid 
 is present (Sumatra). 
 
 CINNAMON. 
 
 Chemic tests are of but little importance. The bark con- 
 tains small amounts of starch and tannin and a large amount 
 of mucilage. The volatile oil represents its valuable prop- 
 erties. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Tannin. — To 5 C.c. of a decoction add a few 
 drops of solution of ferric chlorid (greenish black). 
 
 2. Starch. — To 5 C.c. of a decoction add a little compound 
 solution of iodin. (The degree of dilution in which this re- 
 action is visible gives an approximate idea of the amount of 
 starch present.) 
 
 3. Ash. — Incinerate 1 gm. of the powder upon a platinum 
 foil, or in a crucible (0.025 to 0.04 gm. of brownish ash). 
 
 4. Cinnamon Oil — Apply to pure and adulterated speci- 
 mens. Dissolve 1 C.c. of the oil in 10 C.c. of alcohol and 
 add a drop of solution of ferric chlorid : brownish color ; oil 
 of cloves or carbolic acid gives greenish. 
 
 CUBEB. 
 
 This fruit contains a large percentage of volatile oil, a 
 neutral crystalline principle (cubebin, waxy), cubebic acid, 
 resin, and fat. These principles are soluble in ether, and to- 
 gether they constitute the official oleoresin. The deposit 
 which occurs is chiefly cubebin, which is inert and should 
 be removed before dispensing. 
 
 1 Dr. H. V. Arny states that the annoyance of these irritating fumes may. 
 be avoided in the sublimation of benzoic acid if the temperature is kept at 
 120° C. or lower. 
 
BUCHU—COD-LIVEB OIL. 373 
 
 Tests. — 1. Resin and Volatile Oil. — Exhaust 1 gm. of 
 powdered cubeb with 10 C.c. alcohol or less ; filter, and to 5 
 C.c. add water ; resin and oil are precipitated ; the oil may 
 be dissolved by adding gasolin and shaking ; the precipitate 
 of resin remains. 
 
 2. Cubebin and Cubebic Acid. — To the remaining 5 C.c. 
 of alcoholic extract add concentrated sulphuric or phosphoric 
 acid : a red or salmon color is caused by cubebin and cubebic 
 acid. 
 
 3. Powder one or two of the berries and press strongly 
 between folds of white paper ; oily spots result, which can be 
 dissipated by volatilizing the oil over a flame, leaving brown 
 stains due to resin. 
 
 4. Ash. — Incinerate 0.1 gm. of the powder upon a platinum 
 foil ; the resulting ash is grayish to greenish, containing man- 
 ganese and sometimes copper. 
 
 BUCHU. 
 
 These leaves contain some volatile oil, resin, much mucil- 
 age, salicylic acid, and a principle called diosmin, of which 
 but little is known. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Resin and Volatile Oil. — Exhaust the powder 
 with a little hot alcohol, add an equal volume of water, which 
 precipitates resin and volatile oil ; shake the mixture gently 
 for some time with gasolin, which redissolves the volatile oil 
 but leaves the precipitated resin. 
 
 2. Gum. or Mucilage. — Add an excess of alcohol to an 
 aqueous infusion : milky precipitate of mucilage. 
 
 3. Tannin absent; diosphenol present. To a cold infusion 
 and to the alcoholic extract add solution of ferric chlorid, 
 
 COD-LIVER OIL. 
 
 This oil contains free acids, fat bases, lipochrome, choles- 
 terin, and traces of alkaloids. 
 
 Tests. — 1. Fatty Acid. — Shake 2 C.c. of cod-liver oil 
 Avith an equal measure of alcohol ; allow them to separate 
 into layers ; if a blue litmus-paper be moistened with water. 
 
374 DRUGS CONTAINING AROMATIC ACIDS, ETC. 
 
 it is reddened by the alcoholic layer. Pour a few drops of 
 the alcohlolic soution upon filter-paper and dry : permanent 
 greasy stain. 
 
 2. lApochrome and Cholesterin. — Dissolve a drop of the 
 oil in 1 C.c. of chloroform and add a drop of concentrated 
 sulphuric acid : violet color changing to brown. 
 
 3. Identity. — Put 1 C.c. of cod-liver oil into a small porce- 
 lain capsule and add 5 drops of concentrated nitric acid. On 
 stirring, the mixture becomes red, slowly changing to brown 
 yellow. 
 
 4. The alkaloids may be detected by shaking the oil for 
 some time with 1 per cent, sulphuric acid, allowing them to 
 separate, filtering the latter through a wetted filter, and testing 
 with solution of mercuric potassium iodid. Only traces of 
 alkaloids are present. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 REAGENTS FOR HISTOLOGY. 
 
 MOUNTING MEDIA. 
 
 1. Glycerin -jelly. — The most useful by far for the 
 student is glycerin-jelly, although it must not be forgotten 
 that sections may need remounting after a few years. They 
 will last much longer, however, if they are ringed with 
 varnish some time after mounting. The jelly may be made 
 as follows: 
 
 Soak 30 gm. of white French gelatin in 90 C.c. of dis- 
 tilled water for an hour (to render it gelatinous at a low 
 temperature) ; filter, if necessary, and raise the temperature 
 to near the boiling-point, and add 120 Co. of glycerin ; filter 
 while hot, and add four drops of carbolic acid. Put into a 
 number of small tubes so that the whole will not be heated 
 each time it is used. 
 
 2. Canada balsam is much used for permanent mounts, 
 but has two great disadvantages — viz., the trouble of using 
 and the fact that it often renders very thin sections so trans- 
 parent as to be almost invisible. Canada balsam is a very 
 'thick oleoresin, and, when used, it dissolves in oil of turpentine, 
 chloroform, or benzol, making a moderately thin fluid. 
 
 3. Glycerin may be used for temporary or even perma- 
 nent mounting when ringed with varnish, but the glycerin- 
 jelly is usually to be preferred. 
 
 4. Hoyer'S fluid for carmin-stained sections is made as 
 follows : First dissolve chloral hydrate in about its own 
 weight of water, and to 90 C.c. of the solution add 10 C.c. 
 of glycerin. Saturate 50 C.c. of this mixture with selected 
 pieces of acacia. Sections stained with carmin are transferred 
 to glycerin and then mounted. 
 
 375 
 
376 APPENDIX:. 
 
 STAINING FLUIDS. 
 
 Staining fluids are used very much as some of the chemic 
 reagents, such as zinc chloriodid, but they are merely absorbed 
 by the tissue instead of forming color compounds 
 
 5. Anilin stains lignified and suberous tissues very 
 readily ; cellulose, scarcely at all. Anilin chlorid or com- 
 mercial green anilin (No. 5) may be used ; the latter is .dis- 
 solved to saturation in alcohol for a stock solution, and when 
 employed, a few drops are- added to some water (15 drops to 
 10 or 20 Co.). 
 
 Fuchsin is merely a red anilin and may be used as other 
 anilin stains. 
 
 6. Grenacher's alum=carmm stains cellulose red, thus 
 differentiating it from lignified, which it stains much less, 
 and from cork, which it does not affect. It is prepared by 
 adding powdered carmin to solution of ammonia alum in dis- 
 tilled water (2 per cent.) and boiling for about twenty min- 
 utes ; cool and filter, and add about J per cent, of carbolic 
 acid as a preservative. It may be used to demonstrate proto- 
 plasm by placing the section for a time in alcohol ; wash with 
 water and place in the stain for a day. These sections cannot 
 be mounted in glycerin-jelly, but may be mounted in Hoyer's 
 mounting fluid for carmin. 
 
 7. Grenacher's hematoxylin solution is especially 
 useful as a stain for nuclei, as well as for cellulose and 
 lignin. It is prepared as follows : Dissolve hematoxylin in 
 5 C.c. of alcohol to saturation ; then saturate 40 C.c. of water 
 with ammonia alum ; finally mix the solution of ammonia 
 with J-j^ its volume of the hematoxylin solution ; allow it 
 to stand for about a week ; filter, and add to 50 C.c. of the 
 filtrate, 7 C.c. of glycerin, and 7 C.c. of wood alcohol. 
 
 Specimens should be allowed to stand in water for a time 
 before being placed in this stain ; they may be mounted later 
 in glycerin jelly. 
 
 8. Bosin in alcohol stains dead proteid ; this renders it 
 useful in studying sieve-cells, their proteid contents being 
 stained more deeply than the cellulose walls of the cells. 
 
REAGENTS. 377 
 
 REAGENTS. 
 
 9. Acetic acid dissolves calcium carbonate but not calcium 
 oxalate, the latter being soluble in hydrochloric acid without 
 effervescence. Globoids are soluble in dilute acetic acid. 
 
 10. Hydrochloric acid is used with phloroglucin in 
 staining lignified tissues (see Phloroglucin). 
 
 11. Nitric acid concentrated may be used because of its 
 property of preci])itating proteid in stiiining protoplasm. The 
 section is placed for a short time in the acid, then treated with 
 an alkaline hydrate. Xanthoproteic acid is formed, the dead 
 protoplasm assuming a yellow color. The middle lamella of 
 thick cell-walls may be stained yellow by placing the section 
 in hot nitric acid and then in ammonia water. 
 
 12. Picric acid in saturated solution (1 : 6) hardens 
 protoplasm, but the reagent is completely removed only with 
 some difficulty. 
 
 1 3. Osmic acid in 1 per cent, solution is used to detect oils 
 and fats, with which, as well as with tannin, it gives a black 
 or brown color. The acid is kept in sealed glass tubes, the 
 solution being made by putting the perfectly clean tube into 
 an amber bottle, shaking to break the tube, and adding 100 
 parts of distilled water. 
 
 14. Sulphuric acid containing 92.5 per cent, of absolute 
 H^SO^ or the 80 per cent, acid dissolves cellulose quickly, 
 lignin more slowly, and the intercellular substance scarcely 
 at all. See also iodin and sulphuric acid for cellulose, with 
 which amyloid is formed. 
 
 15. Alcohol, both the pure and dilute, is of wide applica- 
 tion in hardening tissues, dissolving resins, etc. 
 
 16. Chloriodid of «inc solution gives a variety of 
 colors with diiferent tissues and contents. The concentrated 
 solution with cellulose gives a purple, with lignin brown, and 
 with cutin and suberin a yellowish-bro\vn color. Starch- 
 grains appear blue-black and then dissolve. The solution is 
 prepared as follows : Saturate 100 C.c. of hydrochloric acid 
 with pure metallic zinc and then, concentrate to a syrupy 
 state ; in this dissolve potassium iodid and iodin successively 
 to saturation. 
 
378 APPENDIX. 
 
 17. Cuprammonia is prepared by dissolving about 10 
 gm. cupric sulphate in enough water to make 100 C.c. and 
 precipitating this with sodium hydrate, allowing the precipitate 
 to collect, decanting, and washing with water. The precipi- 
 tate is dissolved in ammonia water. This is the only sub- 
 stance which forms a simple solution of cellulose. The reagent 
 does not keep well, hence must be prepared as wanted for use. 
 
 18. Ferric Chlorid and Fehling's solution may be 
 used with the microscope, as they are used in test-tubes for 
 tannin and sugar respectively. 
 
 18 a. Glycerin has numerous applications as a solvent 
 and as a mounting medium. 
 
 19. lodin. — The official compound solution is used as a 
 test for aleuron grains, staining their proteid yellowish-brown 
 when a drop of the solution is added to a specimen immersed 
 in glycerin. 
 
 Cellulose immersed in the solution for a few minutes and then 
 transferred to sulphuric acid shows a purple color. lodin is the 
 readiest test for starch, for which purpose the solution should be 
 so dilute as to be nearly colorless or but slightly yellowish. 
 
 20. Mercuric chlorid in 2 per cent, solution is useful 
 in fixing proteid, such as aleuron grains, rendering them in- 
 soluble in water. After treatment with this reagent they 
 may be stained with eosin. 
 
 21. Phloroglucin in 2 per cent, alcoholic solution is 
 used with hydrochloric acid for staining lignified tissue. The 
 section is placed in the solution until thoroughly permeated 
 (few minutes for ordinary sections), and then in hydrochloric 
 acid (10 per cent.) for a few minutes. The lignified parts 
 are stained red — deeply if highly lignified (middle lamella), 
 less deeply for less lignified. 
 
 22. Potassium hydrate dissolves proteids and starch 
 very readily. A very dilute solution (1 per cent.) is useful in 
 observing the markings upon starch-grains, a stronger solution 
 (5 per cent.) is employed as a clearing agent, dissolving many 
 cell contents and rendering the cell-wall more transparent. It 
 will destroy delicate sections if allowed to act upon them too 
 long. Solution of potassa dissolves or liquefies cork. 
 
 23. Schul^'s maceration fluid is made by dissolving 
 
REAGENTS. 379 
 
 potassium chlorate in strong nitric acid to saturation (easier to 
 add slight excess of the potassium chlorate and shake occa- 
 sionally). This fluid readily dissolves lignified tissue and has 
 but little action upon cellulose, hence cells may often be sepa- 
 rated from each other by placing the section in a drop of the 
 fluid upon a slide, and, after some minutes, the middle lamella 
 having dissolved, by tapping gently upon the side of the 
 slide, thus shaking the cells apart. It may be used hot and 
 concentrated, in which case it acts quickly, but in practice it 
 is often better to dilute it with water (1:3) and allow to 
 stand an hour or more. 
 
 24. Solution of sodium hypochlorite is used for 
 bleaching sections, rendering them transparent — it removes 
 many cell contents. It may be used of full strength, but 
 this is apt to cause complete disintegration of thin sections ; 
 hence, it is best diluted with several volumes of water. 
 
 25. Solution of chloral hydrate renders sections 
 readily transparent if they are not too thick ; it dissolves 
 certain cell contents, notably starch, for the study of which 
 it is not suited. It is particularly useful in the examination 
 of powders. The solution in water dries out in a short time ; 
 it may be uiade with glycerin. 
 
380 APPENDIX. 
 
 ADDENDUM TO PART I. 
 
 ABSINTHIUM.— Absinthium.— 'Wormwood. 
 
 The leaves and tops of Artemisia Absinthium Linn6 
 
 (Nat. Ord. Compositse). 
 
 Habitat. — Europe. 
 
 Description. — " Leaves about 5 cm. long, hoary, silky-pubescent, petiolate, 
 roundisb-triangular in outline ; pinnately two- or three-cleft, with the seg- 
 ments lanceolate, the terminal one spatulate ; bracts three-cleft or entire ; 
 heads numerous, about 3 mm. long, subglobose, with numerous small, pale- 
 yellow florets, all tubular and without pappus ; odor aromatic ; taste per- 
 sistently bitter."- U. S. P. 
 
 Study and describe as suggested on p. 86. 
 Chief Constituents. — Volatile oil, absinthin (bitter), tannin. 
 Therapeutic Use. — Tonic, but more frequently employed 
 as an external application to ulcers. 
 Average Dose. — 1—2 gm. (15—30 gr.). 
 
POSOLOOICAL TABLE. 
 
 381 
 
 POSOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 The Latin names of crude drugs are given in bold face ; the names of 
 pharmaceutical preparations following are in English. For unofficial drugs 
 see the table following each morphologic class. 
 
 The average therapeutic dose is given. 
 
 The accent is placed after the vowel of the accented syllable of Latin 
 
 Absi^nthium 
 Aca'cia ■ ■ . 
 
 Mucilage . 
 
 Syrup . . 
 A'cidum Benzo'icum 
 
 Ci'tricum 
 
 Ga'Uicum 
 
 Hydrocya'nicum Dilu'tum 
 
 Lac^ticum 
 
 Salicy'licum 
 
 Ta''niiicum • • 
 
 Tarta'ricum . . 
 Aconi'tum . . . 
 
 Extract 
 
 Fluid extract . . . 
 
 Tincture^ . .... 
 
 A'Uium .... 
 
 Syrup (for children) 
 A'loe Barbade^usis 
 
 Socotrina . 
 
 Extract 
 Purified 
 
 Pills. . . 
 
 And asafetida pills 
 " iron 
 
 " mastic " 
 " myrrh " 
 Tincture (laxative or purgative' 
 And myrrh tincture 
 Aloi^num . . 
 Althse'a ... 
 
 Syrup . 
 
 Ammonfacum 
 
 Emulsion 
 Amy'gdala Ama'ra .... 
 Du'lcis . . 
 
 Emulsion 
 
 Syrup . 
 
 2-4 gm. 
 
 30-60 gr. 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 a 
 
 
 0.6-2.0,gm. 
 
 10-30 gr. 
 
 0.6-2.0 gm. 
 
 10-30 gr. 
 
 0.3-2.0 gm. 
 
 5-30 gr. 
 
 0.06-0.2 c.c. 
 
 1-3 min. 
 
 2-7 c.c. 
 
 ^2 f. dr. 
 
 0.6-1.5 gm. 
 
 10-20 gr. 
 
 0.2-0.6 gm. 
 
 3-10 gr. 
 
 0.6-2 gm. 
 
 10-30 gr. 
 
 0.03-0.1 gm. 
 
 ^•2gr. 
 
 0.006-0.015 gm. 
 
 tVt gr- 
 
 0.03-0.1 c.c. 
 
 J-2 min. 
 
 0.03-0.3 o.e. 
 
 J-5 min. 
 
 2gm. 
 
 30 gr. 
 
 4 c.c. 
 
 60 min 
 
 0.3-0.6 gm. 
 
 5-10 gr. 
 
 0.3-0.6 gm. 
 
 5-10 gr. 
 
 0.06-0.4 gm. 
 
 1-6 gr. 
 
 0.3-0.6 gm. 
 
 5-10 gr. 
 
 0.3-0.6 gm. 
 
 (5-lOgr. 
 1 2-3 pills. 
 
 2-5 pills. 
 
 
 2-3 " 
 
 
 2-3 " 
 
 
 3-6 " 
 
 
 4-16 C.C. 
 
 2-8 f. dr. 
 
 - 4-8 C.C. 
 
 1-2 f. dr. 
 
 0.03-0.1 gm. 
 
 ^2gr. 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 
 0.6-2 gm. 
 
 10-30 gr. 
 
 15-30 C.C. 
 
 \-l oz. 
 
 rarely in substance. 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 
 vehicle. 
 
 
 flavoring. 
 
 
 ' Tincture of aconite, U. S. P., 1890, is of 35 per cent, strength ; that of the 
 Pharmacopoeia of 1900 will be 10 per cent., in conformity with the rule mak- 
 ing all poisonous tinctures 10 per cent. Its dose will therefore be 0.1-1.0 c.c. 
 or 2-15 min. Tincture of veratriim viride (1890) is 40 per cent., most of the 
 other poisonous tinctures being 15 per cent. 
 
382 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 A'mylum 
 
 Ani'sum 
 
 A'ntliemis 
 
 Apo'cynum 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 Apomorphi'nee Hydrochlo'ras 
 A'rnicse Flo'res . 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Ra'dix .... 
 
 Extract 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Asafce'tida ■ . . 
 
 Emulsion 
 
 Pills 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Ascle'pias . . 
 
 Fluid extract . . ... 
 Aspi'dium 
 
 Oleoresin 
 
 Aspidospe'rma 
 
 Fluid extract . .... 
 
 Atropi'na .... 
 
 Atropi^nae Su'lphas 
 
 Aura'ntii AmaM Co'rtez . . . 
 
 Fluid extract . . ... 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Du'lcis Co'rtex • • . 
 
 Syrap .... 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Ba'lsamum Penivia^num 
 
 Tolnta^num . . 
 
 Syrup ... 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Bellado'nnsB Fo'lia 
 
 Alcoholic extract 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Ba''dix . 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 Benzoi'num 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Compound tincture ... 
 
 Bruci'na (unofficial) . , . 
 Bryo'nia . . , . 
 
 Tincture .... 
 Bu'chu 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 Caffei'iia 
 
 Citrated .... 
 
 Eflervescent citrated . . 
 Ca'lamus 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 
 Cale^ndnla . ... 
 
 Tincture 
 
 extei-nally. 
 
 0.6-2 gm. 10-30 gr. 
 
 30-60 gm. 1-2 oz. 
 
 0.3-1.3 gm. 5-20 gr. 
 
 0.3-1 c.c. 5-15 min. 
 
 . 0.004-0.008 gm. tW gr- 
 not taken in substance, 
 externally. 
 
 0.3-2 gm. 5-30 gr. 
 
 0.2-0.3 gm. 3-5 gr. 
 
 0.3-2 C.C. 5-30 min. 
 
 0.6-4 CO. 10-60 min. 
 
 0.2-0.8 gm. 3-12 gr. 
 
 15-30 C.C. \-l oz. 
 1-3 pills. 
 
 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min. 
 
 0.2-4 gm. 3-60 gr. 
 
 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min. 
 
 2-6 gm. 30-90 gr. 
 
 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min. 
 
 1-4 gm. 15-60 min. 
 
 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min. 
 
 0.0006-0.001 gm. t^^jV gr- 
 
 0.0006-0.001 gm. ^J^V gr. 
 
 4 gm. 60 gr. 
 
 4 c.c. 60 min. 
 
 1-4 CO. 15-60 min. 
 
 flavoring. 
 
 u 
 
 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min. 
 
 0.5-2 gm. 8-30 gr. 
 rarely used in substance. 
 
 2-8 C.C. J-2 f. dr. 
 
 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min. 
 
 0.06-0.2 gm. 1-3 gr. 
 
 0.008-0.03 gm. \-\ gr. 
 
 0.3-2 C.C. 5-30 min. 
 
 0.06-0.2 gm. 1-3 gi: 
 
 0.06-0.2 C.C. 1-3 min. 
 not taken in substance. 
 
 1-4 c.c. 15-60 min. 
 
 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min. 
 
 0.05 gm. 1 gr. . 
 
 0.6-4 gm. 10-60 gi-. 
 
 8-15 C.C. 2-4 f. dr. 
 
 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr. 
 
 1-2 ex. 15-30 min. 
 
 0.06-0.2 gm. 1-3 gr. 
 
 0.12-0.3 gra. 2-5 gr. 
 
 10 gm. 2J dr. 
 
 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr. 
 
 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min. 
 
 0.5-1 gm. 8-15 gi-. 
 externally. 
 
POSOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 383 
 
 Calu'mba ... 
 
 0.5-4 gm. 
 
 8-60 gr. 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 0.3-2 C.C. 
 
 5-30 min. 
 
 Tincture 
 
 4-15 C.C. 
 
 1-4 f. dr. 
 
 Cambo'gia .... ... 
 
 0.06-0.3 gra. 
 
 1-5 gr. 
 
 Ca'mphora . .... 
 
 0.2-1.2 gm. 
 
 3-18 gi% 
 
 Spirit 
 
 1-4 C.C. 
 
 15-60 min. 
 
 Water 
 
 4-15 C.C. 
 
 1-4 f. dr. 
 
 Monobromated 
 
 0.12-0.6 gm. 
 
 2-10 gi-. 
 
 Ca'nnabis I'ndica . .... 
 
 0.5-1 gm. 
 
 8-15 gr. 
 
 Extract ... . .... 
 
 0.015-0.03 gm. 
 
 i-Jgi-. 
 
 Fluid extract . . . .... 
 
 0.06-0.6 C.C. 
 
 1-10 min. 
 
 Tincture 
 
 1-2 o.c. 
 
 15-30 min. 
 
 Ca'ntharis ... 
 
 0.03-0.06 gm. 
 
 ^Igi-.. 
 
 Tincture . . 
 
 0.05-1 C.C. 
 
 1-15 min. 
 
 Oa'psicum 
 
 0.1-0.5 gm. 
 
 2-8 gr. 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 0.05-0.5 C.C. 
 
 1-8 min. 
 
 Oleoresin . . 
 
 0.015-0.05 C.C. 
 
 J-1 min. 
 
 Tincture 
 
 0.5-4 C.C. 
 
 8-60 min. 
 
 Ca'rbo Li'gni 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 Cardamo'muin 
 
 0.3-1.5 gm. 
 
 5-22 gr. 
 
 Compound tincture 
 
 8-15 C.C. 
 
 2-4 f. dr. 
 
 Tincture 
 
 4^8 C.C. 
 
 1-2 f. dr. 
 
 Ca'rum 
 
 0.6-2 gm. 
 
 10-30 gr. 
 
 Caryophy'llus 
 
 0.3-1.5 gm. 
 
 5-22 gr. 
 
 Cascari'lla 
 
 2gm. 
 
 30 gr. 
 
 Ca'ssia Fi'sttila 
 
 4-10 gm. 
 
 1-2J dr. 
 
 Casta'nea 
 
 2-8 gm. 
 
 J-2 dr. 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 2-8 C.C. 
 
 J-2 f. dr. 
 
 Ca'techu 
 
 0.5-2 gm. 
 
 8-30 gi-. 
 
 Compound tincture . . . 
 
 2-8 C.C. 
 
 i-2 f. dr. 
 
 Ti-oches . . ... 
 
 1 repeated occasionally. 
 
 Caulophy'llum 
 
 0.3-2 gm. 
 
 5-30 gr. 
 
 Cetra'ria 
 
 4-8 gm, 
 
 1-2 dr. 
 
 Decoction 
 
 60-120 C.C. 
 
 2-4 oz. 
 
 Chelido'nium 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 Chenopo'dium 
 
 1-2 gm. 
 
 15-30 gr. 
 
 Chima'phila 
 
 2-8 gm. 
 
 i-2 dr. 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 2-8 C.C. 
 
 ^2 f. dr. 
 
 Cbira'ta 
 
 1-3 gm. 
 
 15-45 gr. 
 
 Fluid extract . . . ... 
 
 2-4 C.C. 
 
 30-60 min. 
 
 Tincture 
 
 2-8 C.C. 
 
 ^2 f. dr. 
 
 Cho'ndrus 
 
 4-8 gm. 
 
 1-2 dr. 
 
 Cimici'fuga 
 
 0.3-2 gm. 
 
 5-30 gr. 
 
 Extract. . 
 
 . 0.06-0.3 gm. 
 
 1-5 gr. 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 2-4c.c. 
 
 30-60 min. 
 
 Tincture 
 
 2-8 C.C. 
 
 f-2 f. dr. 
 
 Cincho'na . 
 
 1-4 gra. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 Extract 
 
 0.3-2 gm. 
 
 5-30 gr. 
 
 Fluid extract . . . 
 
 0.5-4 c.c. 
 
 8-60 min. 
 
 Infusion 
 
 60 C.C. 
 
 2oz. 
 
 Tincture . . 
 
 2-8 C.C. 
 
 k-l f. dr. 
 
 Ru'bra 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 Compound tincture . . 
 
 Cinchonidi'nse Sulphas 
 
 2-8 C.C. 
 
 J-2 f. dr. 
 
 0.2-2 gm. 
 
 3-30 gr. 
 
384 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Cinchoni'na 
 
 Cinclioni'nee Sulphas . 
 Cinnamo'mum Ca'ssia 
 
 Saigo'nicum . . . 
 
 Zeyla'nicum . . 
 Tincture . . . 
 Aromatic powder . 
 Co'ca 
 
 Fluid extract .... 
 Cocai'ns Hydrochlo'ras 
 
 Co'ccus 
 
 Codei'na 
 
 Colchici Ra dix . 
 
 Extract . . . 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 
 Wine . . 
 
 Se'men . 
 Fluid extract . 
 Tincture . . . 
 Wine 
 Colocy'nthis . • 
 
 Extract . 
 
 Compound extract . . . 
 
 Compound cathartic pill 
 
 Vegetable cathartic pill 
 Coni'um . . 
 
 Extract . . 
 
 Fluid extract 
 Convalla'ria ■ 
 
 Fluid extract 
 Copai'ba . 
 
 'ly) 
 
 Besin . 
 Coria'ndrum . 
 Cro'cus (coloring main 
 
 Tincture .... 
 Cube'ba . 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 
 Oleoresin . . . 
 
 Kesin (unofficial) 
 
 Tincture . . . 
 Cu'sso 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 Cyprepe'dium . . 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Digita'lis 
 
 Extract .... 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 
 Infusion . . . 
 
 Tincture , . 
 Digitoxin (unofficial) 
 Dulcama'ra ■ 
 
 Fluid exti-act . . 
 
 0.06-2 gm. 
 0.06-2 gm. 
 0.3-1.5 gm. 
 0.3-1.5 gm. 
 0.3-1.5 gm. 
 
 4-8 C.C. 
 0.6-2 gm. 
 8gm. 
 1-4 c.c. 
 0.008-0.12 gra. 
 for coloring. 
 0.02-0.2 gm. 
 0.1-0.5 gm. 
 0.03-0.12 gm. 
 0.1-0.5 C.C. 
 0.6 C.C. 
 0.1-0.5 gm. 
 0.05-0.3 C.C. 
 0.5-2 C.C. 
 0.3-1 C.C. 
 0.1-0.5 gm. 
 0.03-0.1 gm. 
 0.3-1 gm. 
 1-3 pills. 
 1-3 pills. 
 0.06-0.3 gm. 
 0.015-0.06 gm. 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 0.1-0.4 gm. 
 0.3-1 C.C. 
 1-4 C.C. 
 0.6-1 gm. 
 0.3-1.2 gm. 
 0.6-2 gm. 
 0.3-2 gm. 
 4-8 C.C. 
 2-4 gm. 
 2-4 C.C. 
 0.3-1.2 C.C. 
 0.3-1.2 gm. 
 2-12 C.C. 
 10-20 gm. 
 4-15 C.C. 
 0.5-1 gm. 
 0.5-1 C.C. 
 0.1-0.2 gm. 
 0.015 gm. 
 0.06-0.15 C.C. 
 15-30 CO. 
 0.3-1.5 O.C. 
 0.0003-0.0006 gm. 
 4gm. 
 4 c.c. 
 
 1-30 gr. 
 
 1-30 gr. 
 
 5-20 gi-. 
 
 5-20 gr. 
 
 5-20 gr. 
 
 1-2 f. dr. 
 10-36 g]-. 
 2 dr. 
 15-60 min. 
 
 i-2 gr. 
 
 J-3 gr. 
 2-8 gr. 
 ^2gr. 
 2-8 min. 
 
 10 min. 
 2-8 g^^ 
 1-5 min. 
 8-30 min. 
 5-15 min. 
 2-8 gr. 
 i-2 gr. 
 5-15 gi-. 
 
 1-5 gr. 
 
 4-1 gl^ 
 
 1-5 min. 
 
 2-6 gr. 
 
 5—15 min. 
 15-60 min. 
 10-15 gr. 
 
 5-20 gr. 
 10-30 gr. 
 
 5-30 gr. 
 
 1-2 dr. 
 30-60 gr. 
 30-60 min. 
 
 5-20 min. 
 
 5-20 gr. 
 
 J-3 f. dr. 
 
 aoz. 
 f. oz. 
 8-15 gr. 
 8-15 min. 
 2-3 gr. 
 
 1-2 min. 
 ^1 f. oz. 
 5-22 min. 
 
 ■JtfTS^Tirir gr. 
 Idr. 
 
 1 f. dr. 
 
POSOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 385 
 
 Elateri^num . . . 
 
 Triturate (10%) 
 E'rgota 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 
 Wine .... 
 Eriodi'ctyon ... 
 
 Fluid extract 
 Eucaly'ptol . . 
 Eucaly'ptus. . . . 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Euo'nymus . . 
 
 Extract . . . 
 Euonymin (unofficial) 
 Eupato'rium . . 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 FelBo'yis. . 
 
 Purified . . 
 Fi'cus ... 
 Fceni'culum . 
 Fra'ngula . 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Ga'Ua 
 
 Tincture . 
 Gelse'mium . 
 
 Fluid extiuct . 
 
 Tinctui-e . . 
 Gentia'na .... 
 
 Extract 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 Tincture . . . 
 Gera'nium . . 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Glycyrrhi'za . . 
 
 Ammoniated glycyrrhizin 
 
 Compound powder . . .• . 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 
 Pure " . . . 
 
 Gossy'pii Radi'cis Co'rtex 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 
 Grana'tum 
 
 Grinde'lia 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Guai'aci Lignum 
 
 Besi'na . . 
 
 Ammoniated tincture 
 
 Tincture . . 
 Guara'na 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Haemato'zylon 
 
 Extract 
 Hamame'lis . . 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Hedeo'ma. . . . 
 
 0.003-0.005 gm. jVtV Sr- 
 0.03-0.05 gm. i-^ g?. 
 
 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr. 
 
 2-4 c.c. 30-60 min. 
 
 4-12 c.c. 1-3 f. dr. 
 
 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr. 
 
 0.6-2 c.c. 10-30 min. 
 0.3-2 c.c. 5-30 min. 
 
 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr. 
 
 2-8 c.c. ^2 f. dr. 
 
 2-4 gm. 30-60 gr. 
 0.1-0.3 gm. 2-3 gr. 
 
 0.03-0.2 gm. ^-3 gr. 
 
 2-4 gm. 30-60" gi-. 
 
 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min. 
 0.3 gra. 5 gr. 
 
 0.25 gm. 4 gi-. 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 0.6-2 gm. 10-30 gr. 
 
 2-8 gm. i-2 dr. 
 
 2-8 C.C. i-2 f. dr. 
 
 externally. 
 
 4-8 C.C. 1-2 f. dr. 
 
 0.3-0.6 gm. 5-10 gr. 
 
 0.3-0.6 C.C. 5-10 min. 
 
 1-2 C.C. 15-30 min. 
 0.3-2 gm. 5-30 gr. 
 
 0.1-0.5 gm. 2-8 gr. 
 
 0.3-2 C.C. 5-30 min, 
 
 1-4 C.c. 15-60 min. 
 
 1-3 gm. 15^5 gr. 
 
 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min. 
 
 1^ gm. 15-60 gr. 
 
 0.3-0.6 gm. 5-10 gr. 
 
 2-8 gm. J-2 dr. 
 
 2-15 C.C. 1-8 f. dr. 
 
 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr. 
 
 2-4 gm. 30-60 gi-. 
 
 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min. 
 
 2-6 gm. 30-90 gi-. 
 
 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr. 
 
 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min. 
 
 not used in substance. 
 
 0.5-2 gm. 8-30 gr. 
 
 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min. 
 
 2-4 c.c. 30-60 min. 
 
 0.5-4 gm. 8-60 gr. 
 
 2-8 C.C. i-2 dr. 
 not taken in substance. 
 
 0.3-1 gm. 5-15 gr. 
 rarely used in substance. 
 
 2-8 CO. ^2 f. dr. 
 
 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr. 
 
 25 
 
386 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Hu'mnlns . . 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Hydrastiiu'nse Hydrochlo'ras - 
 Hydra'stis 
 
 Fluid extract .... 
 
 Glycerite 
 
 Tincture ... 
 
 Hyosci'nse Hydrobro'mas 
 
 Hyoscyami^nse Hydrobro'mas . . 
 
 Hyoscyami'nae Su'lphas 
 
 Hyoscy'amus 
 
 Extract 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Ichthyoco'lla . . • 
 
 Illi'cium 
 
 I'nula 
 
 Ipecacua'nha . - {3^^'' 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 as emetic 
 
 and opium powder (diaphoretic) 
 
 Troches . . ... 
 I'ris 
 
 Extract 
 
 Fluid extract . . . 
 
 Jala'pa 
 
 Alcoholic extract . . . . . . 
 
 Compound powder 
 
 Eesin 
 
 Ju'glans 
 
 Extract 
 
 Eama'la 
 
 Ki'no 
 
 Tincture .... 
 Krame'ria 
 
 Extract .... 
 
 Fluid extract .... 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Lactuca^'rium . 
 
 Tinctui-e . . ' . 
 La'ppa • • 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Lepta''ndra 
 
 Extract ... 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Limo'nis Co'rtex 
 
 Spirit .... 
 Limo'nis Su'ccus .... 
 Li'num . . 
 
 Lobe'lia 
 
 Fluid extract . ... 
 Tincture 
 
 2-20 gm. 
 
 J-5 dr. 
 
 8-30 c.c. 
 
 -1 f. oz. 
 
 0.025 gm. 
 
 ^gi-- 
 
 2-8 gm. 
 
 J-2dr. 
 
 2-8 c.c 
 
 -2 f. dr. 
 
 2-8 c.c. 
 
 -2 f. dr. 
 
 8-20 CO. 
 
 2-5 f. dr. 
 
 0.0002-0.0006 gm. 
 
 T^TT-rk gr. 
 
 0.0005 gm. 
 
 TTff gr. 
 
 0.001-0.002 gm. 
 
 ir-h gr- 
 
 0.3-1.5 gm. 
 
 5-22 gr. 
 
 0.03-0.1 gm. 
 
 f-H gr. 
 
 0.3-1 C.C. 
 
 5-15 min. 
 
 1-4 C.c. 
 
 15-60 min. 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 
 0.6-2 gm. 
 
 10-30 gr. 
 
 2-8 gm. 
 
 ^2 dr. 
 
 0.05-0.3 gm. 
 
 1-5 gr. 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 0.05-0.3 c-c. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 
 1^ c.c. 
 
 15-60 min. 
 
 0.3-1 gm. 
 
 5-15 gi-. 
 
 one, frequently repeated. 
 
 0.3-1 gm. 
 
 5-15 gr. 
 
 0.06-0.2 gm. 
 
 1-3 gr. 
 
 0.6-2 c.c. 
 
 10-30 min. 
 
 0.3-1 gm 
 
 5-15 gr. 
 
 0.12-0.5 gm. 
 
 2-8 gr. 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 0.06-0.3 gm. 
 
 1-5 gr. 
 
 4-8 gm. 
 
 ^2dr. 
 
 1-2 gm. 
 
 15-30 gr. 
 
 4^12 gm. 
 
 1-3 dr. 
 
 0.5-2 gia. 
 
 8-30 gr. 
 
 ■ 1-8 CO. 
 
 i-2 f. dr. 
 
 0.5-2 gm. 
 
 8-30 gr. 
 
 0.3-6 gm. 
 
 5-10 gi-. 
 
 0.3-2 c.c. 
 
 5-30 min. 
 
 2-3 c.c. 
 
 30-45 min. 
 
 0.6-4 gm. 
 
 10-60 gr. 
 
 1-2 CO. 
 
 15-30 min. 
 
 2-8 gm. 
 
 J-2 dr. 
 
 2-8 c.c. 
 
 i-2 f. dr. 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 0.06-0.2 gm. 
 
 1-3 gi-. 
 
 1-4 c.c. 
 
 15-60 min. 
 
 flavor. 
 
 11 
 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 
 not used internally in sub- 
 
 stance — hai-mless. 
 
 0.12-2 gm. 
 
 2-30 gr. 
 
 0.05-0.5 C.C. 
 
 1-8 min. 
 
 0.3-2 C.C. 
 
 5-30 min. 
 
POSOLOOICAL TABLE. 
 
 387 
 
 Lupuli'num . . 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 Oleoresin 
 Lycopo'dium ■ 
 Ma'cis .... 
 Ma''ima . 
 Marru'bium 
 Ma'stiche . ■ . 
 Ma'tico .... 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 Tincture . . 
 Mel 
 
 Purified . 
 Meli'ssa ■ . . 
 Menispe'rmmn 
 
 Fluid extract 
 Me'ntha Fiperi'ta 
 
 Vi'ridis 
 Menthol .... 
 Me'thyl Salicy'las 
 Meze^reum ■ . . 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 Morplii'na .... 
 Morphi'nse Ace'tas 
 
 Hydrochlo'ras 
 
 Su'lphas ■ 
 Compound powder 
 and ipecac troches 
 Mo'schus . . 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Mjrri^stica ... 
 My'rrha 
 
 Compound iron mixture 
 
 Tincture . . 
 Nux Vo'mica . . . 
 
 Extract . . ... 
 
 Fluid extract ... 
 
 Tincture .... 
 0''leum A'dipis 
 
 Am^'gdalse Ama''rse 
 
 Spirit 
 
 Water 
 
 Amy'gdalse Expre''ssum 
 
 Ani'si 
 
 Water . . 
 
 Aura'ntii Cor'ticis . 
 Compound spirit . 
 Spirit 
 
 Aura'ntii Flo'min . 
 
 Bergamo'ttse . . 
 
 Be'tulae Vola'tile 
 
 Cadi^num .... 
 
 Cajupu'ti . • . 
 
 Ca'ri 
 
 0.2-1 gm. 
 
 3-15 gr. 
 
 2-8 CO. 
 
 i-2 f. dr. 
 
 0.3-2 c.c. 
 
 5-30 min 
 
 dusting-powder. 
 
 
 0.3-1.5 gm. 
 
 5-22 gi-. 
 
 15-60 gm. 
 
 i-2 oz. 
 
 1-2 gm. 
 
 15-30 gi-. 
 
 little used internally. 
 
 2-8 gm. 
 
 ^-2 dr. 
 
 2-8 C.C. 
 
 J-2 f. dr. 
 
 15-30 C.C. 
 
 ^1 oz. 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 1-4 C.C. 
 
 15-60 min. 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gi-. 
 
 2-4 gm. 
 
 30-60 gr. 
 
 0.06-0.3 gm. 
 
 1-5 gr. 
 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 
 not used in substance, 
 mostly externally. 
 
 0.004-0.016 gm. ^\-i gr. 
 
 0.004-0.02 gm. t^-J gr. 
 
 0.005-0.03 gm. j^j-J gr. 
 
 0.005-0.03 gm. yVl gr. 
 
 0.3-0.6 gm. 5-10 gr. 
 
 (each 0.0016 gm. <^gr.) 
 
 0.3-0.6 gm. 5-10 gr. 
 
 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min. 
 
 0.3-1.5 gm. 5-22 gr. 
 
 0.3-2 gm. 5-30 gr. 
 
 16-30 C.C. ^1 oz. 
 
 1-4 C.C. 15-60 min. 
 
 0.03-0.3 gm. f-5 gr. 
 
 0.01-0.06 gm. f-l gr. 
 
 0.05-0.25 C.C. 1-4 min. 
 
 0.3-1.2 C.C. 5-18 min. 
 externally. 
 
 0.015-0.05 C.C. J-1 min. 
 
 2-4 C.C. 30-60 min. 
 
 4-15 C.C. 1-4 f. dr. 
 
 4-15 C.C. 1^ f. dr. 
 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 1-5 min. 
 
 4-15 C.C. 1-4 f. dr. 
 flavor. 
 
 4 C.C. 1 f. dr. 
 flavor, 
 perfume. 
 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 externally. 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 1-5 min. 
 
388 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 O'leum Caryophy'lli . 
 Chenopo'dii ■ 
 Cinnamo'mi . 
 
 Spirit ... 
 
 Water ... 
 Copai'bse . 
 Coria'niM. 
 Cube'bae • 
 Erigero'ntis . . . 
 Eucaly'pti . 
 Foeni'culi . . 
 
 Water . . 
 Gaulthe'riaB . . 
 
 Spirit 
 Gossy'ppii Se'minis 
 Hedeo'mae 
 Juni'peri • . ■ 
 
 Compound spirit . 
 
 Spirit 
 
 Lava'adulsB Flo 'rum 
 
 Compound tincture 
 
 Spirit . 
 Limo'nis 
 
 Spirit . . 
 
 Li'ni 
 
 Me'nthse Piperi'tse 
 
 Spirit . 
 
 Troclies . . 
 
 Water 
 
 Me'nthse Vi'ridis . 
 
 Spirit . ... 
 
 Water . . 
 Mo'rrhuse . 
 My'rcise 
 Myri'sticae . . 
 
 Spirit . . 
 Oli'vae (as laxative) 
 Pi'cis Li'quidse . . 
 Pime'ntae . . . 
 Ri'cini ... 
 
 Eo'sse 
 
 Bosmari'm . . . 
 
 Sabi'nse 
 
 Sa'ntali. . . 
 
 Sa^ssafras 
 
 Se'sami (as laxative) 
 Sina'pis Vola'tile ■ 
 Terebi'ntliinse . . 
 
 Rectified .... 
 Theobro'matis . 
 Ti'glii .... 
 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 
 0.1-0.6 O.C. 
 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 
 0.6-2 C.C. 
 flavoring. 
 0.06-0.3 CO. 
 0.06-0.3 c.c. 
 0.3-1.2 c.c. 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 0.3-2 C.C. 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 flavor. 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 0.3-0.6 C.C. 
 ad libitum. 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 0.1-0.6 C.C. 
 4-15 C.C. 
 2-4 C.C. 
 
 0.3 CO. 
 2-4 c.c 
 2-4 C.C. 
 flavor, 
 flavor, 
 externally. 
 0.05-0.15 cc 
 0.3-1 cc 
 one occasionally. 
 
 4-15 cc. 
 
 0.1-0.3 cc. 
 
 1-2 cc 
 
 4-15 cc 
 
 8-15 c.c. 
 
 perfume. 
 
 0.1-0.15 cc 
 
 2-4 cc 
 30-60 c.c. 
 0.06-0.3 cc. 
 0.06-0.3 cc 
 8-60 cc. 
 as perfume. 
 0.06-0.3 cc 
 0.06-0.3 cc. 
 0.1-0.6 cc. 
 0.06-0.3 cc 
 30-60 cc 
 externally. 
 0.06-0.3 cc 
 0.06-0.3 cc. 
 externally. 
 0.015-0.12 cc 
 
 1-5 min. 
 
 2-10 min. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 
 10-30 min. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 1-5 min. 
 5-18 min. 
 1-5 min. 
 5-30 min. 
 1-5 min. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 5-10 min. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 
 2-10 min. 
 
 2-4 f. dr. 
 30-60 min. 
 
 5 min. 
 30-60 min. 
 30-60 min. 
 
 1-3 min. 
 5-15 min. 
 
 1-4 f. dr. 
 2-5 min. 
 15-30 min. 
 1-4 f. dr. 
 2-4 f. dr. 
 
 2 min. 
 30-60 min. 
 1-2 f. _oz. 
 1-5 min. 
 1-5 min. 
 i-2 f. oz. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 1—5 min. 
 2-10 min. 
 1-5 min. 
 1-2 f. oz. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 1-5 min. 
 
 J— 2 min. 
 
POSOLOOIGAL TABLE. 
 
 389 
 
 O'pii Pu'lvis 0.015-0.12 gm. 
 
 Deodorized powder 0.015-0.12 gm. 
 
 Extract . . 0.008-0.06 gm. 
 
 Pills . . .... one pill. 
 
 Tincture . . . 0.2-1.2 c.c. 
 
 '' camphorated . . . . 4-8 c.c. 
 
 " deodorized . ... 0.2-1.2 c.c. 
 
 Vinegar . ... 0.2-1.2 c.c. 
 
 Wine . . . 0.2-1.2 c.c. 
 
 O'pium ... 0.02-0.15 gm. 
 
 Pancreati'num . . ... 0.3-1 gm. 
 
 Parei'ra ... • 2-4 gm. 
 
 Fluid extract . . . . 2-4 c.c. 
 
 Pe'po . . 30-60 gm. 
 
 Pepsi'num • 0.2-1 gm. 
 
 Saccharated .... . . 0.3-4 gm. 
 
 Physosti'gma 0.06-0.25 gm. 
 
 Extract . . . 0.006-0.03 gm. 
 
 Tincture . . 0.6-2 c.c. 
 
 Physostigmi'nse Salicy'las Sulphas . 0.0006-0.002 gm. 
 
 Phytola'cca Fru'ctus . 0.3-2 gm. 
 
 Fluid extract . 0.3-2 c.c. 
 
 Ra'dix . . . 0.3-2 gm. 
 
 Picrotoxi'num 0.0005-0.001 gm. 
 
 Pilocarpi'nse HydrocMo'ras ■ 0.008-0.03 gm. 
 
 Piloca'rpus .... . 0.3-2 gm. 
 
 Fluid extract . . .... 0.3-2 c.c. 
 
 Pime'nta ... . 0.3-1. 5,gm. 
 
 Pi'per 0.3-1.5 gm. 
 
 Oleoi-esin . 0.015-0.06 c.c. 
 
 Piperi'num . . . . 06-0.6 gm. 
 
 Pix Burgu'ndica plaster base 
 
 Pix Li'ciuida l-A gm. 
 
 Syrup . . 2-8 c.c. 
 
 Podophyllum . 0.3-1.2 gm. 
 
 Extract . 0.1-0.6 gm. 
 
 Fluid extract . 0.3-1.2 c.c. 
 
 Eesin . . 0.008-0.03 gm. 
 
 Podophyllin (unofficial) . . 0.008-0.03 gm. 
 
 Pru'num ..... ad libitum. 
 
 Pru'nus Virginia'na . ■ 2-4 gm. 
 
 Fluid extract . . . 2-4 c.c. 
 
 Infusion . . . 60-90 c.c. 
 
 Syrap .... . . 4-8 c.c. 
 
 Pulsati'lla ... . . 0.12-0.6 gm. 
 
 Pyre'thrum ... ... 2-4 gm. 
 
 Tincture . used in carious 
 
 Qua'ssia • 1-4 gm. 
 
 Extract ... . 0.03-0.2 gm. 
 
 Fluid extract . ... . . 1-4 c.c. 
 
 Tincture .... 2-8 c.c. 
 
 Quilla'ja 1-2 gm. 
 
 Tincture . 2-8 c.c. 
 
 Quinidi'nae Su'lphas . 0.06-2 gm. 
 
 i-2 gr. 
 J-2gr. 
 4-1 gi-. 
 
 3-18 min. 
 1-2 dr. 
 3-18 min. 
 3-18 min. 
 3-18 min. 
 
 5-15 gr. 
 30-60 gr. 
 30-GO min. 
 
 1-2 oz. 
 
 3-15 gr. 
 
 5-60 gr. 
 
 1-4 gr. 
 
 tV-J gi-- 
 10-30 min. 
 
 TffTnV gr- 
 
 5-30 gr. 
 
 5-30 min. 
 
 5-30 gr. 
 xiiT-^V gr- 
 
 i-Jgr- 
 
 5-30 gr. 
 
 5-30 min. 
 
 5-22 gr. 
 
 5-22 gr. 
 
 J-1 gr. 
 
 1-10 gr. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 J-2 f. dr. 
 5-20 gr. 
 2-10 gr. 
 5-20 min. 
 i-J gr- 
 4-igr. 
 
 30-60 gr. 
 30-60 min. 
 
 2-3 oz. 
 
 1-2 f. dr. 
 
 2-10 gr. 
 30-60 gr. 
 teeth. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 i-3gr. 
 15-60 min. 
 
 h^ dr. 
 15-30 gr. 
 
 i-2dr. 
 
 1-30 gr. 
 
390 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Quini'na 
 
 Quini'nae Bisu^lpbas 
 
 Hydrobro'mas 
 
 Hydrochlo'ras 
 
 Sa''lphas . . 
 
 Valeria'nas 
 
 Eesi'na 
 
 Eha'nmus Fursliia'na 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 Rhe'um ...... 
 
 Compound pills . . 
 powder 
 
 Exti-act . . 
 
 Fluid extract . . . 
 
 Pills. . . . 
 
 Tincture . . . 
 
 " aromatic . 
 " sweet 
 Rhus Gla'bra ■ ■ . 
 
 Fluid exti-act . . . 
 
 Tozicode'ndxon . 
 Ko''sa Centifo'lia . . 
 
 Ga'llica .... 
 Confection . . 
 Fluid extract . . 
 
 Honey 
 
 Eu'bus 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 
 Idse'us . ■ 
 Syrup . 
 Ru-'mex . ... 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Sabi'na 
 
 Fluid extiuct . 
 Sa^ccbarum . . . 
 
 Sjrrup . . 
 Salici'num . . . 
 
 Sa'lvia 
 
 Sambu'cus ■ ■ 
 Sanguina'ria (emetic) 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 
 Tincture . . 
 Sa'ntalum Bu'brum 
 Santo'nica .... 
 Santoni'num - . . 
 
 Troches . . 
 Sarsapari'Ua . 
 
 Compound decoction 
 
 " fluid exti-act 
 u 
 
 Sa''ssafras . . 
 Medu''lla 
 
 Mucilage . 
 
 0.06-1.5 gm. 
 0.06-1.5 gm. 
 0.06-1.5 gm. 
 0.06-1.5 gm. 
 0.06-1.5 gm. 
 0.06-1.5 gm. 
 externally. 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 1-i C.C. 
 
 0.2-1 gm. 
 
 1-4 pills. 
 
 2-4 gm. 
 0.2-1 gm. 
 
 1-4 c.c. 
 
 1-3 pills. 
 
 2-15 c.c. 
 
 4-12 C.C. 
 15-30 C.C. 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 1-A c.c. 
 0.3-4 gm. 
 perfume. 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 excipient. 
 vehicle. 
 
 1-22 gr. 
 1-22 gr. 
 1-22 gr. 
 1-22 gr. 
 1-22 gi'. 
 1-22 gr. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 15-60 min. 
 3-15 gr. 
 
 30-60 gr. 
 3-15 gr. 
 15-60 min. 
 
 i-4 f. dr. 
 
 1-3 f. dr. 
 
 J-1 f. oz. 
 15-60 gr. 
 15-60 min. 
 
 5-60 gr. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 4-8 C.C. 
 
 1-2 f. dr. 
 
 2-8 gm. 
 
 ^2 dr. 
 
 2-8 C.C. 
 
 : -2 f . dr. 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 
 flavoring. 
 
 
 l^gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 1-4 c.c. 
 
 15-60 gi-. 
 
 0.3-0.4 gra. 
 
 5-6 gr. 
 
 0.3-1 C.C. 
 
 5-15 min 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 
 0.6 -2 gm. 
 
 10-30 gr. 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 2-4 gm. 
 
 30-60 gr. 
 
 0.6-4 gra. 
 
 10-60 gr. 
 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 
 1-2 C.C. 
 
 15-30 min 
 
 coloring. 
 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 0.06-0.2 gm. 
 
 1-3 gr. 
 
 (each 0.03 gm.- 
 
 -I gr.) 2-5troch 
 
 3-6 gm. 
 
 %-H dr. 
 
 30-120 c.c. 
 
 1-4 f. oz. 
 
 2-4 c.c. 
 
 30-60 min 
 
 2-4C.C. 
 
 30-60 min 
 
 2-4 gm. 
 
 30-60 gr. 
 
 mucilage. 
 
 
 externally. 
 
 
POSOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 391 
 
 Scammo'nium . ■ 
 
 Resin . . . 
 Sci'Ua 
 
 Compound syrup 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 
 Syrup . . . 
 
 Tincture . . 
 
 Vinegar . . . 
 Scopa'rius . 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 Scutella'ria 
 
 Fluid extract . . 
 Se'nega 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 
 Syrup . . 
 Se'nna 
 
 Compound infusion 
 
 Confection .... 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 
 Syrup 
 
 Serpenta'rise . . 
 
 Fluid extract . . . 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Sina'pis Alba . . . 
 
 Ni'gra 
 
 Spartei'nae Sulphas 
 Spige'lia 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Staphysa'gria . 
 Stilli'n^ia 
 
 Fluid exti-act . 
 Stramo'nii Fo'lia . 
 
 Se'men ■ ... 
 Extract . . 
 Fluid extract . . 
 Tincture .... 
 Stropha'nthus . 
 
 Tincture .... 
 
 Strychni'na . . . 
 
 and iron citrate . . 
 Stryclmi'iis Sulphas 
 Sty'rax . . 
 Su'mbul . 
 
 Tincture . 
 Taba'cum. . 
 Tamari'ndus 
 Tanace'tum 
 Tara'zacum 
 
 Extract . 
 
 Fluid extract 
 Terebi''nthiiia . 
 
 Canade'nsis 
 Thymol .... 
 
 0.3-1 gm. 
 
 0.0(>-0.3 gm. 
 
 0.03-0.6 gm. 
 
 0.6-2 c.c. 
 
 0.06-0.3 C.C. 
 
 2-4 C.C. 
 0.3-2 C.C. 
 0.6-3 C.C. 
 1-4 gm. 
 1-4 C.C. 
 2-8 gm. 
 2-8 C.C. 
 0.5-1.5 gm. 
 0.5-1 C.C. 
 4-8 C.C. 
 5-15 gm. 
 15-30 cc, 
 4-8 gm. ' 
 
 Sec. 
 4-16 C.C. 
 0.3-2 gm. 
 0.6-2 C.C. 
 2-8 CO. 
 1-4 gm. 
 1-4 gm. 
 0.008-0.06 gm. 
 2-8 gm. 
 2-8 C.C. 
 externallv. 
 1-2 gm." 
 2c.c. 
 0.06-0.2 gm. 
 0.06-0.2 gm. 
 0.015-0.03 gm. 
 0.06-0.2 C.C. 
 0.3-1.2 C.C. 
 
 5-15 gr. 
 
 1-5 gr. 
 
 i-10 gr. 
 10-30 min. 
 
 1-5 min. 
 30-60 min. 
 
 5-30 min. 
 10-45 min. 
 15-60 gr. 
 15-60 min. 
 
 f-2 dr. 
 
 1-2 f. dr. 
 
 8-22 gr. 
 
 8-15 min. 
 
 1-2 f. dr. 
 
 1-4 dr. 
 
 ^-1 f. oz. 
 
 1-2 dr. 
 2 f. dr. 
 
 1-4 f. dr. 
 
 5-30 gr. 
 10-30 min. 
 
 M f- dr. 
 15-60 gr. 
 15-60 gr. 
 
 i-lgr. 
 
 ^2 dr. 
 
 i-2 f. dr. 
 
 15-30 gr. 
 30 min. 
 1-3 gr. 
 1-3 g,-. 
 h-i gr- 
 1-3 min. 
 5-20 min. 
 
 not used in substance. 
 
 n Q n fi „ « / 5-10 min 
 
 0.3-0.6 C.C. I (5^„ tincture) 
 
 0.001-0.003 gm. ^1,-^V gr. 
 
 0.05-0.1 gm. 1-lJ gr. 
 
 0.001-0.004 gm. ^5-rV gr. 
 
 0.5-2 c.c. 8-30 min. 
 
 0.2-0.6 gm. 3-10 gi-. 
 
 4-15 c.c. " 1-4 f. dr. 
 
 0.5 gm. 8 gr. 
 
 2-20 gm. i-5 dr. 
 
 1-4 gm. 15-60 gr. 
 
 2-8 gm. f-2 dr. 
 
 0.1-0.5 gm. 2-8 gr. 
 
 4-15 c.c. 1-4 f. dr. 
 externally. 
 
 0.03-0.12 gm. 
 
 ^2gr. 
 
392 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Tragaca'ntha 
 
 Mucilage. . . 
 Tri'ticum 
 
 Fluid extract . . . 
 TJ'lmus 
 
 Mucilage . . . 
 U'vaU'rsi 
 
 Extract . .... 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 Valeria'na .... 
 
 Ammoniated tincture 
 
 Fluid extract . .• . . 
 
 Tinctui'e 
 
 Vani'Ua 
 
 Tincture 
 
 Veratri'na (mostly externally) 
 Vera'trum Vi'ride . 
 
 Fluid extract . ... 
 
 Tincture' 
 Vibu'mum O'pulus 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 
 Prunifo'lium 
 Fluid extract 
 Vite'Uus . •■ • ■ 
 
 Glycerite . . . 
 Xantho^xylum . 
 
 Fluid extract 
 
 Ze'a 
 
 Zi'ngiber . . . 
 
 Fluid extract . 
 
 Oleoresin . . 
 
 Tincture . . 
 
 Troches 
 
 ad libit utD. 
 
 
 2-8 gm. 
 
 J-2dr. 
 
 2-8 c.c. 
 
 ^2 f. dr. 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 
 1-4 gm. 
 
 16-60 gr. 
 
 0.6 gm. 
 
 10 gr. 
 
 1-A C.C. 
 
 15-60 min 
 
 1-6 gm. 
 
 15-90 gr. 
 
 2-8 CO. 
 
 i-2 f. dr. 
 
 0.6-2 C.C. 
 
 10-30 min. 
 
 2-8 C.C. 
 
 ^2 f. dr. 
 
 flavor. 
 
 
 0.002-0.006 gm. 
 
 s'b-tV gr- 
 
 0.06-0.12 gm. 
 
 1-2 gr. 
 
 0.05-0.15 C.C. 
 
 1-3 min. 
 
 0.1-0.5 C.C. 
 
 2-8 min. 
 
 2-4 gm. 
 
 30-60 gr. 
 
 4-8 C.C. 
 
 1-2 f. dr. 
 
 2-4 gm. 
 
 30-60 gr. 
 
 2-4 C.C. 
 
 J-1 dr. 
 
 ad libitum. 
 
 
 externally. 
 
 
 0.5-1 gm. 
 
 8-15 gi-. 
 
 0.5-2 C.C. 
 
 8-30 min. 
 
 2gm. 
 
 30 gr. 
 
 0.3-1.5 gm. 
 
 5-22 gr. 
 
 0.3-1 c.e. 
 
 5-15 min. 
 
 0.03-0.12 C.C. 
 
 ^-2 min. 
 
 1-4 c.c. 
 
 15-60 min 
 
 each 0.2 gm.-3 gr 
 
 . ) ad libitum. 
 
 ' Eefers to 40 per cent, tincture. 
 
OLOSSABY. 393 
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 OF COMMONLY USED MEDICAL TERMS EMPLOYED IN THIS 
 VOLUME. 
 
 Abortifacient. Synonym for ecbolic. 
 
 Alterative. Altering the nutritive functions of the body ; used in a 
 class of diseases the nature of which is obscure and which were formerly 
 referred to faulty conditions of the blood (syphilis, skin eruptions, malnu- 
 trition). 
 
 Anesthetic. Abolishing sensation ; used in operations. A drug which 
 is used to abolish sensation over the entire body (and also consciousness) 
 is called a general anesthetic ; one which acts only where it is applied is a 
 local anesthetic. 
 
 Analgesia. Abolishing pain. 
 
 Anodyne. Abolishing pain. 
 
 Antacid. Diminishing acidity. 
 
 Anti-. Prefix denoting opposed to. 
 
 Antipyretic. Lowering the temperature in fever. 
 
 Antiseptic. Preventing the development of putrefaction and disease- 
 producing bacteria. 
 
 Antispasmodic. Diminishing spasms, convulsions ; sometimes hysteria. 
 
 Aphrodisiac. Increasing the sexual powers. 
 
 Astringent. " Drawing together " tissues ; used internally, especially 
 against diarrhea ; externally on wounds and to check bleeding. 
 
 Bitter. Possessing a bitter taste and used to increase appetite and in 
 certain forms of dyspepsia. Simple bitters contain as active ingredients 
 only bitter principles, while aromatic bittere and astringent bittere contain, 
 in addition, aromatic or astringent constituents. 
 
 Cardiac. Eefeiring to acting on the heart. 
 
 Carminative. Stimulating the intestine to expulsion of gas. 
 
 Cathartic. Producing evacuation of the bowels. 
 
 Caustic, Cauterizant. — Destroying tissues. 
 
 CholagOgue. Increasing the flow of bile and giving a green color to 
 the stools. 
 
 Coma. A condition of profound and dangerous depression of the ner- 
 vous functions with unconsciousness. 
 
 Convulsant. Producing convulsions. 
 
 Corrective. Favorably modifying the taste or action of another drug 
 with which it is prescribed. 
 
 Corrosive. Synonym for caustic. 
 
 Counterirritant. An irritant applied externally to abolish pain, to 
 change the circulation in remote parts of the body, or as a general stimu- 
 lant. 
 
394 APPENDIX. 
 
 Demulcent. A mucilaginous drug, moistening, soothing, and softening 
 the parts to which it is applied ; used especially against coughs. 
 Depressant. Lowering the functions. 
 Diaphoretic, Producing an increase of sweat. 
 Disinfectant. Killing putrefactive or disease-producing bacteria. 
 Diuretic. Increasing the amount of urine. 
 
 Ecbolic. Causing premature child-birth. 
 Emetic. Causing vomiting (emesis). 
 EnunenagOgue. Increasing the menstrual flow. 
 Emmollient. Softening the skin (usually an oily substance). 
 Epispastic. Producing blisters. 
 
 Expectorant. Altering (usually increasing) the bronchial mucus; 
 used in cough. 
 
 Germicide. Disinfectant. 
 
 Hemostatic. Synonym for styptic. 
 
 Hydragogue. A cathartic causing very profuse and watery stools. 
 
 Irritant. Irritating and inflaming the parts to which it is applied. 
 
 Laxative. A mild cathartic 
 
 Local. Acting only at the place where it is applied (in most cases ex- 
 ternally). 
 
 Narcotic. Disturbing consciousness. 
 
 Nauseant. Producing nausea (feeling of sickness, etc.), generally used 
 against cough. 
 
 Nutrient. Serving as food. 
 
 Oxytocic. Ecbolic. 
 
 Parasiticide. Killing parasites (usually on the skin). 
 Protective. Forming a protective covering (on wounds, etc.). 
 Purgative. A fairly powerful cathartic. 
 
 Refrigerant. Cooling ; used in fevers. 
 Rubefacient. Irritating the skin to redness. 
 
 Sedative. Calming ; counteracting stimulation or irritation. 
 SialagOgue. Increasing the flow of saliva. 
 Sternutatory. Producing sneezing. 
 
 Stimulant. Increasing the normal functions (nei'vous, cardiac, muscu- 
 lar, etc.) ; externally, promoting the healing of wounds. 
 Stomachic. Useful in diseases of the stomach. 
 Styptic. Having the property of checking hemorrhage. 
 
 Taeniafuge. Causing the expulsion of tape-worms. 
 Tonic. Increasing the strength of the patient (usually acting as .stom- 
 achics). 
 
 Vermicide. Killing the intestinal wonns. 
 
 Vermifuge. Causing the expulsion of these worms. 
 
 Vesicant. Producing blisters. 
 
 Vulnerary. Used externally in the treatment of wounds and bruises. 
 
INDEX, 
 
 Abies balsamea, 156 
 
 excelsa, 157 
 Abrin, 129 
 Abrus, 34 
 
 preoatorius, 34, 129 
 Absinthium, 95, 380 
 Absorbent cotton, 132 
 Acacia, 146 
 
 catechu, 143 
 
 Senegal, 146 
 Achillea, 95 
 
 millefolium, 95 
 Acid, acetic, 377 
 
 antheraic, 101 
 
 ai-abic, 147 
 
 benzoic, 151 
 
 chemistry of, 312 
 
 cambogic, 149 
 
 carbolic, 314 
 
 camiinic, 166 
 
 catechu-tannie, 143 
 
 cathartic, 83 
 
 chemistry of, 367 
 
 ceti-aric, 97 
 
 chrysophanic, 22 
 
 cinchotannic, 60 
 
 cinnamic, 151 
 chemistry of, 312 
 
 coca-tannic, 78 
 
 copaivio, 155 
 
 cubebic, 105 
 
 chemistry of, 373 
 
 ergotinic, 131 
 
 eugenic, 99 
 
 hydrochloric, 377 
 
 hydrocyanic, 311 
 dilute, 122 
 
 igasuric, 118 
 
 ipecacuanhic, 23 
 
 kinic, 60 
 
 kinovic, 60 
 
 kombic, 120 
 
 krameriotannic, 31 
 
 Acid, lobelic, 78 
 
 maizenic, 132 
 
 malic, 107 
 
 meconic, 137 
 
 nitric, 377 
 
 ophelic, 92 
 
 osmic, 377 
 
 picric, 377 
 
 polygallic, 24 
 
 prussic, 63 
 
 punico-tannic, 62 
 
 quercitannic, 65 
 
 rheotannic, 212 
 chemistry of, 313 
 
 salicylic, natuiul, 80 
 
 santalic, 54 
 
 sphacelinic, 131 
 
 sulphuric, 377 
 
 toxicodendric, 82 
 
 valerianic, 43, 64 
 Acipenser Huso, 166 
 Aconine, 38 
 Aconite, 37 
 
 chemistry of, 353 
 
 leaves, 85 
 Aconiti folia, 85 
 Aconitine, 38 
 Aconitum, 37 
 
 napellus, 37 
 Acorin, 49 
 Acoi-us calamus, 48 
 Adeps, 163 
 
 lanse hydrosus, 162 
 Adiantum, 95 
 
 pedatum, 95 
 Adrenalin, 170 
 Adulteration, 272 
 jEgle Marmelos, 117 
 African ginger, 48 
 
 pepper, 108 
 Agaricin, 135 
 Agaricus albus, 135 
 Agi'imonia, 94 
 
 395 
 
396 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Agi'imonia Eupatoria, 94 
 Agropyrum lepens, 49 
 Akanet, 34 
 
 Albumen, chemistry of, 296 
 Alcohol, 377 
 Aletris farinosa, 52 
 Aleurone grains, 190 
 Alexandria senna, 83 
 Alkailoids, histology of, 198 
 
 chemistry of, 302 
 Alkanet, 321 
 
 red, 321 
 Alkanna, 34 
 
 tinctoria, 34 
 
 chemistry of, 321 
 Allspice, 107 
 Aloes, 363 
 Aloe barbadensis, 141 
 
 Peri-yi, 142 
 
 Socotrina, 142 
 
 vera, 141 
 Aloin, 364 
 
 Alpinia officinarum, 52 
 Althsea, 29 
 
 histology of, 252 
 
 ofiScinalis, 29 
 
 rosea, 102 
 Alum root, 34 
 American columbo, 34 
 
 hellebore, 49 
 
 isinglass, 167 
 
 safffon, 319 
 
 senna, 85 
 
 wormseed, 116 
 Ammoniac, 148 
 Ammoniacum, 148 
 Amygdala amara, 121 
 
 dulcis, 122 
 Amygdalin, 121 
 Amylopsin, 169 
 Amylum, 133 
 
 Anacardium occidentale, 117 
 Anacyclus officinalis, 34 
 
 pyrethrum, 26 
 Analysis of unknown drugs, 340 
 Anarairta paniculata, 107 
 Anchusin, 321 
 Andira Araroba, 135 
 Andropogon muricatus, 35 
 Anemone Hepatica, 85 
 
 prateusis, 93 
 
 Pulsatilla, 93 
 Anethum giuveolens, 117 
 Angelica, 34 
 
 Angelica atropurpurea, 34 
 Angustura, 71 
 Anilin, 376 
 Animal drugs, 165 
 
 secretions, 167 
 Anise, 112 
 
 histology of, 263 
 Anisum, 112 
 Anuotto, 319 
 Anthemene, 101 
 Anthemidin, 101 
 Anthemis nobilis, 101 
 Anthraquinone derivatives, 307 
 Antitoxins, 171 
 Apiol, 117 
 Apis mellifica, 146 
 Apium gi-aveolens, 117 
 
 Petroselinum, 117 
 Apocynein, 27 ' 
 Apocynum, 27, 34 
 
 androssemifolium, 27, 34 
 
 canhabinum, 27 
 Apomorphine, 137 
 Aporetin, 22 
 Apocynin, 27 
 
 Apparatus, list of, 283, 284 
 Ai-alia nudioaulis, 52 
 
 racemosa, 52 
 
 spinosa, 65 
 Ai-aroba, 135 
 Arbor vitse, 95 
 Arbutiu, 76 
 
 chemistry of, 359 
 Archangelica officinalis, 34 
 Arctium lappa, 26 
 Arctostaphylos glauca, 85 
 
 Uva-ursi, 76 
 Areca catechu, 129 
 Arecoline, 129 
 Argel, 83 
 Aristolochia reticulata, 44 
 
 sei'pentaria, 44 
 Aristolochine, 44 
 Armoracia, 34 
 Arnica flowei's, 101 
 
 montana, 46, 101 
 
 root, 46 
 Arnicse flores, 101 
 
 radix, 46 
 Amicin, 101 
 A.rrowi-oot, 134 
 Artemisia Absinthium, 95 
 
 pauciflora, 98 
 Asafetida, 148 
 
INDEX. 
 
 397 
 
 Asafcetida, 148 
 Asagrsea ofiBcinalis, 1 29 
 
 chemistry of, 350 
 Asarum canadensej 52 
 Asclepias, 32 
 
 cornuti, 52 
 
 incarnata, 52 
 
 tuberosa, 32 
 Ash, detei'mination, 284 
 Asparagin, 29 
 Aspidium, 51 
 
 athamanticum, 51 
 
 rigidum, 51 
 Aspidosperma quebiucho-blanco, 70 
 Astragalus gummifer, 147 
 Atropa belladonna, 19, 78 
 Atropine, 20 
 Auiantii amara cortex, 114 
 
 dulcis cortex, 114 
 
 flores, 102 
 
 folia, 85 
 Avens, 52 
 Azedarach, 71 
 Azolitmin, 321 
 
 Babl, 117 
 
 Balm, 89 
 
 Balmony, 94 
 
 Balsam of copaiba, 155 
 
 of fir, 156 
 
 of Peru, 153 
 
 chemistry of, 369 
 
 of Tolu, 153 
 
 chemistry of, 369 
 Balsams, 153 
 
 chemistry of, 326 
 Baptisia, 34 
 
 tinctoria, 34 
 Barbadoes aloes, 141 
 
 chemistry of, 363 
 Barbaloin, 142 
 
 chemistiy of, 364 
 Barberry, 34 
 Barosma crenulata, 82 
 
 betulina, 182 
 Bassorin, 147 
 
 Bassorins, chemistry of, 292 
 Bast fibers, 221 
 Bay, 85 
 Bdellium, 172 
 Bearberry, 76 
 Bebeeni, 71 
 Beberine, 71 
 Bedstiuw, 94 
 
 Beechdrop, 94 
 Bela, 117 
 Belladonna, 354 
 
 chemistry of, 354 
 
 leaves, 78 
 
 root, 19 
 histology of, 247 
 Belladonnae folia, 78 
 
 radix, 19 
 Belladonnine, 20 
 Benne, 85, 129 
 Benzoin, 151 
 
 chemistry of, 371 
 Benzoinum, 151 
 Berberine, 29, 45 
 
 chemistry of, 354 
 Berberis, 34 
 
 vulgaris, 34, 62, 71 
 Beta vulgaris, 144 
 Betula lenta, 80 
 Birch tar, 158 
 Bistorta, 52 
 Bitter almond, 121 
 
 orange peel, 114 
 Bittersweet, 55 
 Biuret test, 297 
 Black haw, 64 
 
 hellebore, 52 
 
 mustard, 124 
 
 pepper, 105 
 
 histology of, 263 
 
 snake-root, 44 
 Blackberry, 66 
 Bladder wrack, 95 
 Bleaching sections, 181 
 Blessed thistle, 94 
 Bloodroot, 43 
 Blue cohosh, 46 
 Bolders, 83 
 Bi-assica alba, 124 
 
 nigi'a, 124 
 Brayera, 99 
 Broom, 93 
 Brucine, 118 
 
 chemistry of, 351 
 Bryonia, 32 
 
 alba, 32 
 
 dioica, 32 
 Bryonin, 32 
 Bryony, 32 
 Buchu, 82 
 
 chemistry of, 373 
 
 histology of, 263 
 Buckthorn, 61, 117 
 
398 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bugle weed, 94 
 Bundle sheath, 217 
 Burdock, 26 
 Burgundy pitch, 157 
 Buttercup, 94 
 Butternut, 69 
 Buxus sempervirens, 62 
 
 Cacao, 123 
 
 butter, 123 
 Cactus grandiflorus, 94 
 Caffeine, 140 
 
 chemistry of, 351 
 
 citrated, 141 
 Cajuputol, 161 
 Calabar bean, 122 
 Calabarine, 122 
 Calamus, 48 
 
 histology of, 256 
 
 Draco, 173 
 Calcium arabate, 147 
 
 carbonate, 198 
 
 gummate, 147 
 
 oxalate crystals, 195 
 Calendula, 100 
 
 oflGicinalis, 100 
 Calendulin, 100 
 Calisaya bark, 58 
 Callitris quadrivalis, 173 
 Calumba, 29 
 Calumbin, 29 
 Cambiform tissues, 210 
 Cambium cells, 210 
 Camphor, 159 
 
 chemistry of, 331 
 Camphora, 159 
 Camphoi-ated chloral, 332 
 Camphors, 158 
 
 chemistiy of, 331 
 Canada balsam, 156 
 histology of, 375 
 
 turpentine, 156 
 Canadian hemp, 27 
 
 moonseed, 47 
 Canella alba, 71 
 Cane-sugar, 144 
 Cannabinol, 92 
 Cannabis indica, 92 
 
 sativa, 92 
 Canthai-ides, 165 
 
 chemistry of, 359 
 Cantharidin, 165 
 
 chemistry of, 360 
 CanthaiTS, 165 
 
 Cantharis vesicatoria, 165 
 
 vittala, 165 
 Caoutchouc, 143 
 Capsaicin, 108 
 Capsicum, 370 
 
 fastigiatum, 108 
 Caraway, 112 
 
 Carbohydrates, chemistry of, 287 
 Cardajnom, 109 
 Cardamomum, 109 
 Carduus benedictus, 94 
 Carex arenaria, 52 
 Carolina pink, 44 
 Carota, 117 
 Carragheen, 96 
 Cartliamus, chemistry of, 319 
 
 tiflctoris, 102 
 Carum Ajowan, 159 
 
 Carui, 112 
 Caiyophyllin, 99 
 Caryophyllus, 99 
 Cascara sagrada, 61 
 
 histology of, 261 
 Cascarilla, 70 
 Cascarillin, 70 
 Cascarin, 61 
 Cashew, 117 
 Cassia acutifolia, 83 
 
 angustifolia, 83 
 
 Fistula, 109 
 
 marilandica, 85 
 Castanea, 84 
 
 dentata, 84 
 Castor bean, 127 
 Cataria, 94 
 Catechin, 143 
 Catechu, 143 
 
 red, 143 ~7 
 Cathartic resins, 324 
 Catnip, 94 
 
 Caulophyllum thalictroides, 46 
 Cayenne pepper, 108 
 Ceanothus, 34 
 Celandine, 93 
 Celery, 117 
 Cell-contents, 188 
 Cell-wall, 188 
 Centrosomes, 189 
 Cephaeline, 23 
 
 chemistry of, 352 
 Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, 22 
 Cera alba, 164 
 
 flava, 164 
 Ceratonia siliqua, 117 
 
INDEX. 
 
 399 9 
 
 Cerin, 164 
 Cetaceum, 164 
 Cetraria islandica, 96 
 Cetyl alcohol, 164 
 
 palmitate, 164 
 Cevadilla seed, 49 
 Cevadine, 49 
 Ceylon cardamom, 110 
 
 cinnamon, 68 
 Chamselirium liiteum, 52 
 Chamomile, 101 
 Chaulmoogra, 129 
 Chavicin, 105 
 Chekan, 85 
 Chelerythrine, 43, 96 
 Chelidonine, 96 
 Chelidoxanthine, 96 
 Chelidonium, 93 
 
 majus, 93 
 Chelone, 94 
 
 glabra, 94 
 Chenopodium ambrosioides, 116 
 Chen-y-laurel, 85 
 Chestnut, 84 
 Chicory, 34 
 
 Chimaphila umbellata, 81 
 Chinese aconite, 38 
 
 isinglass, 167 
 
 musk, 167 
 
 rhubarb, 21 
 Chinoidine, 60 
 Chirata, 92 
 Chii-atin, 92 
 
 Chloiiodid of zinc solution, 377 
 Chlorophyll, 191 
 
 chemistry of, 315 
 Cholesterin, 370 
 
 chemistry of, 374 
 Chondrodendron tomentosum, 30 
 Chondrus crispus, 96 
 Chrysanthemum, 102 
 
 Parthenium, 95 
 Chrysarobin, 135 
 
 Chi-ysophyllum glyciphloeum, 172 
 Chi-ysotoxin, 131 
 Cibotium, 135 
 
 Baromez, 135 
 Cichoria, 34 
 
 intybus, 34 
 Cimicifuga racemosa, 45 
 Cinchona, 57 
 
 caUsaya, 57 
 
 chemistry of, 345 
 
 histology of, 259 
 
 Cinchona Ledgeriana, 57 
 
 officinalis, 57 
 
 rubra, 57 
 Cinchonidine, 60 
 Cinchonine, 60 
 Cinnamein, 153 
 
 chemistry of, 369 
 Cinnamodendron corticosum, 71 
 Cinnamomum, 68 
 
 camphora, 159 
 
 saigonicum, 69 
 
 zeylanicum, 68 
 Cinnamon, chemistry of, 372 
 Citrullus, 129 
 
 Colocynthis, 108 
 Citrus Aurantii, 102 
 
 Aurantium, 114 
 
 Bergamia, 113 
 
 Limonum, 113 
 
 vulgaris, 85, 102, 114 
 Claviceps purpurea, 130 
 Cloves, 99 
 
 Cnicus benedictus, 94 
 Coca, 77 
 
 chemistry of, 355 
 Cocaine, 78 
 
 chemistry of, 355 
 Cocculus indicus, 107 
 chemistiy of, 356 
 Coccus cacti, 166 
 Cochineal, 166 
 
 chemistiy of, 320 
 Cochlearia Armoracia, 34 
 Cocus nucifera, 173 
 Codeine, 137, 138 
 
 chemistry of, 349 
 Cola acuminata, 129 
 Colchiceine, 39 
 Colchici radix, 39 
 
 semen, 128 
 Colchicine, 39 
 Colchicum autumnale, 39, 128 
 
 root, 39 
 
 seed, 128 
 Colic root, 52 
 Collenchyma, 215 
 Collinsonia canadensis, 52 
 Colocynth, 108 
 Colocynthis, 108 
 Colocynthein, 109 
 Colocynthin, 109 
 Colophony, 152 
 
 Coloring-matter, chemistry of, 214 
 Coltsfoot, 85 
 
4U0 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Columbo, 39 
 Comfrey, 35 
 
 Commiphora Myrrha, 148 
 Companion-cells, 230 
 Compound infusion of senna, 84 
 
 jalap powder, 37 
 Comptonia asplenifolia, 85 
 Condnrango, 71 
 Conii folia, 85 
 Coniine, ill 
 Conium leaves, 85 
 
 maculatum. 111 
 Convallaria, 50 
 
 majalis, 50 
 Convallamarin, 51 
 Convallarin, 51 
 Convolvulin, 37 
 
 chemistry of, 365 
 Convolvulus Scanimonia, 1 50 
 Copaiba, 155 
 
 chemistry, 370 
 
 Langsdorffii, 155 
 Copal, "173 
 Coptis trifolia, 94 
 Coriander, 110 
 Coriandrum sativun), 110 
 Coriaria, 83 
 Cork cambium, 209 
 Cork-cells, 208 
 Com-silk, 132 
 Corn-smut, 135 
 Cornus florida, 71 
 Comutine, 131 
 Coto, 71 
 
 Cotton-root bark, 66 
 Cotula Anthemis, 95 
 Couch-gi-ass, 49 
 Coumarin, 129 
 Cowage, 135 
 Cramp bark, 63 
 Cranesbill, 43 
 Crocus, 134 
 
 sativus, 134 
 Croton bean, 127 
 
 Eluteria, 70 
 
 Tiglium, 127 
 Cubeb, 105 
 
 chemistry, 272 
 
 histology, 263 
 Cubeba, 105 
 Cubebin, 105 
 
 chemistiy of, 373 
 Cucumber, 129 
 Cucumis Citrullus, 129 
 
 Cucumis Melo, 129 
 
 sativa, 129 
 Cucurbita Pepo, 123 
 Cudbear, 321 
 Culver's root, 47 
 Cumin, 117 
 
 Cuminum cyminum, 117 
 Cunila, 94 
 
 Mariana, 94 
 Cuprammonia as a reagent, 378 
 Cuprea bark, 59 
 Curapao aloes, 141 
 chemistry, 363 
 Curara, 172 
 Curarine, 172 
 Curcas, 129 
 Curcuma, chemistry of 318 
 
 in rhubarb, 366 
 
 longa, 52 
 
 Zedoaria, 52 
 Cuspai-ia febrifuga, 71 
 Cusso, 99 
 Cydonium, 129 
 Cypripedium, 50 
 
 parviflorum, 50 
 
 pubescens, 50 
 Cystoliths, 198 
 Cytisus Sooparius, 93 
 Cytoplasm, 188 
 
 Damtana, S5 
 Dammara, 173 
 Dandelion, 25 
 Daphne Gnidium, 66 
 
 Mezereum, 66 
 Daphnin, 66 
 
 Datura Stramonium, 78, 128 
 Daturine, 79 
 Dancus Carota, 117 
 Defatted tincture of digitalis, 75 
 Delphinine, 125 
 Delphinoidine, 125 
 Delphisine, 125 
 Delphinium Staphisagria, 125 
 Deodorized opium, 137 
 Dextrose, chemistry of, 287 
 Diastase, chemistry of, 300 
 Dicotyledonous stem, 244 
 Digitalein, 74 
 Digitalin, 74 
 
 chemistry of, 357 
 Digitaliresin, 75 
 Digitalis, 74 
 
 chemistry of, 263 
 
INDEX. 
 
 401 
 
 Digitalis, histology of, 357 
 
 puipurea, 74 
 Digitin, 75 
 Digitoilavon, 75 
 Digitonin, 74 
 
 chemistry of, 357 
 Digitophyllin, 74 
 Digitoxin, 74 
 
 chemistry of, 357 
 Dill, 117 
 
 Dioscorea villosa, 52 
 Diosphenol, S3 
 
 Dipterocarpus turbinatus, 173 
 Dipteryx, 129 
 
 odorata, 129 
 
 oppositifolia, 129 
 Distilled extract of witch-hazel, 81 
 Ditany, 94 
 Dog-wood, 71 
 
 Dorema Ammoniacum, 148 
 Dovei-'s powder, 140 
 Draconis resina, 173 
 Dragon's blood, 173 
 Drimys Winteri, 71 
 Drosera rotundifolia, 94 
 Dryopteris Filix-mas, 51 
 
 marginalis, 51 
 Duboisia, 85 
 
 myoporoides, 85 
 Ducts, 224 
 Dulcamara, 55 
 Dulcaraarin, 55 
 
 East India ginger, 48 
 
 rhubarb, 21 
 Ecballiuiii Elaterium, 152 
 Egg-shell, 166 
 Elseis guineensis, 173 
 Elastica, 143 
 Elaterin, 152 
 Elaterium, 152 
 Elder, 102 
 Elecampane, 31 
 Elemi, 173 
 Elettaria repens, 109 
 Elm, 68 
 Emetine, 23 
 Emodin, 22, 142 
 
 principles, 308, 367 
 Emulsin, 121 
 Endodermis, 217 
 Eosin stain, 376 
 Epidermal cells, 202 
 
 system, 239 
 
 Epigaea repens, 86 
 Epilobiura, 95 
 
 angustifolium, 95 
 Epinephrin, 170 
 Epiphegus, 94 
 
 virginiana, 94 
 Ergochrvsin, 131 
 Ergot, 130 
 Ergota, 130 
 Ericolin, 76 
 Erigeron, 94 
 
 canadense, 94 
 
 ])biladelphicus, 94 
 Eriodictyon glutinosum, 81 
 Erytliroetin, 22 
 Erythrolitmin, 321 
 Erytbrophloeine, 71 
 Erythrophl(£um guineense, 71 
 Ei-ythroxylon, 77 
 
 coca, 77 
 Eseridine, 122 
 Eserine, 122 
 Eucalyptol, 77 
 Eucalyptus, 77 
 
 histology of, 262 
 
 globulus, 77 
 Eucalypti gummi, 172 
 Eugenia aromatica, 99 
 
 Chekan, 85 
 Eugenin, 99 
 Eugenol,_ 99 
 Euonymin, 67 
 
 Euonymus atropurpureus, 67 
 Eupatorin, 91 
 Eupatorium, 90 
 
 perfoliatum, 90 
 Euphorbia, 34 
 
 corollata, 34 
 Euphorbium, 172 
 
 resinifera, 171 
 Evening primrose, 94 
 Excretion receptacles, 232 
 Extract of glycyrrhiza, 143 
 
 Fats, 161 
 
 chemistry of, 334 
 
 histology of, 191 
 Fehling's solution, 378 
 
 test. 287 
 Felbovis, 170 
 
 tauri, 170 
 Fennel, 112 
 Fermentation test, 300 
 Ferments, chemistry of, 298 
 
402 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Fermentum, 135 
 Fern type of stem, 243 
 Ferric chloride, 378 
 Ferula foetida, 148 
 
 sumbul, 28 
 Fibrin, 298 
 
 Fibrovascular system, 240 
 Ficus carica, 115 
 Fig 115 
 Fish berry, 107 
 Fixed oils, 161 
 
 chemistry of, 234 
 histology of, 191 
 Flake manna, 145 
 Flax seed, 126 
 
 histology of, 265 
 Focusing, 178 
 
 Foeniculura capillaceum, 112 
 Foenugreek, 129 
 Foenura Gi'secum, 129 
 Foxglove, 74 
 Frangula, 61 
 
 chemistry of, 368 
 Frangulin, 62 
 Frankincense, 172 
 Frasera, 34 
 
 carolinensis, 34 
 
 Walteri, 34 
 Fi-axinus americana, 71 
 
 Omus, 145 
 Frostwort, 94 
 
 Fuchsin, staining with, 376 
 Fucus vesiculosus, 95 
 Fundamental system of tissues, 242 
 Fungus chirurgorum, 135 
 Fusiform jalap, 37 
 
 Gadus Morrhuae, 162 
 Galanga, 52 
 Galbanum, 172 
 Galium Aparine, 94 
 Galla, 131 
 Gamboge, 149 
 Gambogia, 149 
 Gareinia Hanburii, 149 
 Gaullheria procumbens, 80 
 Gelseminine, 30 
 Gelsemium, 30 
 
 sempervirens, 30 
 Gelsimine, 30 
 General histology of leaves, 245 
 
 of roots, 242 
 
 of stems, 243 
 Gentian, 25 
 
 Gentiana, 25 
 
 lutea, 25 
 Gentiopicrin, 25 
 Gentisin, 25 
 
 Geranium maculatum, 43 
 German chamomile, 100_ 
 German fennel, 112 
 Geum rivale, 52 
 
 urbanum, 52 
 Gigartina mamillosa, 96 
 Glllenia, 52 
 
 stipulacea, 52 
 
 trifoliata, 52 
 Ginger, 47 
 Glandular hairs, 205 
 Glechoma, 94 
 Glucose, 172 
 
 chemistry of, 287 
 Gluoosids, chemistry of, 291 
 Glycerin, 375 
 
 -jelly, 375 
 Glycyramarin, 24 
 Glycyrrhiza, 23 
 
 chemistry of, 360 
 
 glabra, 23 
 Glycyrrhizin, 24 
 
 chemistry of, 360 
 Gnaphalium polycephalum, 94 
 Goa-powder, 135 
 Gold thread, 94 
 Golden seal, 45 
 
 rod, 94 
 Gonolobus condurango, 71 
 Gossypii radicis cortex, 66 
 Gossypium, 132 
 
 herbaceum, 66, 132 
 
 purificatum, 132 
 Gouania, 55 
 
 Grahe's test for cinchona, 60 
 Granatum, 62 
 
 Grape sugar, chemistry of, 287 
 Grenaoher's alum-carmin,^376 
 
 hematoxylin solution, 376 
 Grindelia, 91 
 
 robusta, 91 
 
 squari'osa, 91 
 Ground ivy, 94 
 Guaiac resin, 55 
 
 chemistry of, 362 
 Guaiaci lignum, 54 
 Guaiacum, 152 
 
 officinale, 54 
 
 sanctum, 54 
 
 wood, 54 
 
INDEX. 
 
 403 
 
 Guaiacum wood, chemistry of, 362 
 Guarana, 140 
 Gum ambic, 146 
 Gum-resins, 147 
 
 chemistry of, 328 
 Gums, 146 
 
 chemistry of, 292 
 Guijun balsam, 173 
 Gutta-percha, 172 
 Gynocai-dia odorata, 129 
 
 HiEMATIN, 54 
 
 Haematoxylin, 54 
 
 Hfematoxylon campechianum, 54 
 
 Hagenia abyssinica, 99 
 
 Hager's test, 136 
 
 Hairs, 203 
 
 Hamamelis virginiana, 80 
 
 Hard bast, 221 
 
 Hardback, 94 
 
 Hedeoma 89 
 
 pulegioides, 89 
 Helenium autumnale, 94 
 Helianthemum canadense, 94 
 Helleboris niger, 52 
 Hematin, 321 
 Hematoxylon, 321 
 Hemidesmus, 34 
 
 indious, 34 
 Hemlock, 111 
 
 pitch, 173 
 Henbane, 79 
 Hepatica, 85 
 Heuchera, 34 
 
 americana, 34 
 Hevea, 143 
 
 Histologic technic, 179 
 Histological reagents, 377 
 Histology of leaves, 245 
 
 of roots, 242 
 
 of stems, 243 
 Holly, 85 
 Hollyhock, 102 
 Honey, 146 
 Hops, 105 
 Horehound, 90 
 Horeemint, 95 
 Horseradish, 34 
 Hoyei-'s fluid, 375 
 Humulus, 105 
 
 Liipulus, 105 
 Hydrangea, 34 
 
 arborescens, 34 
 Hydrastine, 45 
 
 Hydrastine, chemistry of, 354 
 Hyditistinine, 45 
 Hydrastis canadensis, 45 
 
 chemistry of, 337 
 Hydrous wool-fat, 162 
 
 chemistry of, 337 
 Hygrine, 78 
 Hyoscine, 20 
 Hyoscyamine, 20 
 Hyoscyamus,--79' 
 
 niger, 79 
 
 seed, 129 
 Hypericum, 95 
 
 perforatum,. 95 
 Hyssopus officinalis, 94 
 
 Iceland moss, 96 
 Ichthyocolla, 166 
 Identification of unknown powders, 
 
 274 
 Ignatia, 129 
 
 bean, 119 
 Ilex opaca, 85 
 
 paraguayensis, 85 
 
 verticillata, 71 
 Illicium verum, 116 
 Imperatoria, 34 
 
 Ostruthium, 34 
 India senna, 83 
 Indian cannabis, 92 
 
 chemistry of, 362 
 
 hemp, 92 
 
 sarsaparilla, 34 
 India-rubber, 143 
 Indican, chemistry of, 322 
 Indigo, chemistry of, 322 
 
 -blue, 322»' 
 
 -brown, 322 
 
 -red, 322 
 Indigotin, chemistry of, 322 
 Insect powder, 102 
 Intercellular spaces, 233 
 
 substance, 201 
 Inula, 31 
 
 histology of, 25 
 
 Helenium, 31 
 Inulin, chemistry of, 28S 
 
 histology of, 195 
 Invereion of glucosids, 291 
 lodin as a reagent, 378 
 lodothyrin, 169 
 Ipecac, 22 
 
 chemistry of, 352 
 
 histology of, 247 
 
404 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ipecacuanha, 22, 34 
 Ipomcea Jalapa, 30 
 
 pandurata, 34 
 Iris florentina, 52 
 Irish moss, 96 
 Isinglass, 166 
 Isonandra Gutta, 172 
 Italian anise, 113 
 
 Jaboeandi, 76 
 Jaboridine, 76 
 Jaborine, 76 
 Jalap, 36 
 
 chemistry of, 325, 364 
 
 histolosy of, 257 
 
 resin, 37 
 Jalapa, 36 
 Jalapin, 37 
 
 chemistry of, 365 
 Jamaica dogwood, 71 
 
 ginger, 48 
 Japanese aconite, 38 
 
 isinglass, 167 
 Jateorhiza palmata, 29 
 Jatropha Curcas, 129 
 Java cardamom, 11 
 Jequirity, 129 ' 
 
 Jervine, 49 
 Juglans cinerea, 69 
 Juniper, 95, 117 
 Juniperus communis, 117 
 
 Oxycedrus, 158 
 
 Sabina, 97 
 
 virginiana, 95 
 
 Kalmia latifolia, 85 
 
 Kamala, 134 
 
 Keller's alkaloidal assay (modified), 
 
 304 
 Kino, 143 
 Kino-red, 143 
 Kinotannic acid, 143 
 Kordofan gum, 147 
 Kosotoxin, 99 
 Kousso, 99 
 Ki-ameria, 31 
 
 Ixina, 31 
 
 triandra, 31 
 
 Lac, 173 
 Lacca, 173 
 Lactuca virosa, 141 
 Lactucariiim, 141 
 Ladies slipper, 50 
 
 Laminaria Cloustoni, 135 
 Lappa, 26 
 Lard, 163 
 Laserpitium, 34 
 
 officinale, 34 
 Laticiferous tissues, 230 
 Laurel, 85 
 Laurocerasns, 85 
 Laurus nobilis, 85 
 Lavandula vera, 102 
 Lavender, 102 
 Leaves, histology of, 215 
 Ledum latifoliura, 85 
 Lemon peel, 113 
 Leonurus, 95 
 
 oardiaca, 95 
 Leptandra, 47 
 Leptandrin, 47 
 Levistioum, 34 
 
 officinale, 34 
 Liber fibere, 221 
 Libriform fibers, 223 
 Lichenin, 97 
 Life everlasting, 94 
 Lime liniment, 126 
 Limonis cortex, 113 
 Linamarin, 126 
 Linden, 102 
 Linseed, 126 
 
 Linum usitatissimum, 126 
 Lipochrome, 374 
 Liquidambar, 173 
 
 orientalis, 154 
 
 Styraciflua, 173 
 Liquorice root, 23 
 Liriodendron Tulipifem, 71 
 Litmus, 320 
 Lobelia, 88 
 
 inflata, 88 
 Lobeline, 88 
 Loganin, 119 
 Logwood, 54 
 
 Longitudinal section, 180 
 Lupulin, 133 
 Lupulinum, 133 
 Lycopodium, 133 
 
 clavatum, 133 
 
 histology of, 272 
 Lycopns, 94 
 
 virginicus, 94 
 Lysegenic spaces, 234 
 
 Mace, 134 
 Macis, 134 
 
INDEX. 
 
 405 
 
 Madder, 35 
 
 Magnesium arabate, 147 
 Magnolia, 71 
 
 acuminata, 71 
 
 glauca, 71 
 
 tripetala, 71 
 Maidenhair fern, 95 
 Malabar cardamom, 110 
 Male-fern, 51 
 
 Maltatus philippinensis, 134 
 Malva sylvestris, 102 
 Manihot utilissima, 134 
 Manna, 145 
 
 sorts, 145 
 Mannite, 145 
 Manzanita, 85 
 Maracaibo copaiba, 155 
 Maranta, 134 
 Marigold, 100 
 Marquis' reagent, 349 
 Marrubiin, 90 
 Marrubium, 90 
 
 vulgare, 90 
 Marsh Tea, 85 
 Marshmallow, 29 
 Mass of copaiba, 155 
 Masterwort, 34 
 Mastic, 150 
 Mastiche, 150 
 Mate, 85 
 Matico, 84 
 Matricaria, 100 
 
 Chamomilla, 100 
 May-apple, 42 
 Mayefs test, 303 
 Mayweed, 95 
 Medullary-rays, 211 
 Mel, 146 
 
 Melaleuca Leucadendron, 160 
 Melia Azedaracb, 71 
 Melilotus, 95 
 
 altissimus, 95 
 Melissa, 89 
 
 officinalis, 89 
 Melo, 129 
 Melon, 129 
 Menispermine, 107 
 Menispermum canadense, 47 
 
 histology of, 252 
 Menispine, 47 
 Mentha arvensis, 160 
 
 canadensis, 160 
 
 piperita, 87 
 
 viridis, 88 
 
 Menthol, 87, 160 
 
 Menyanthes trifoliata, 85 
 
 Menyanthin, 85 
 
 Mercuric chloride as a reagent, 378 
 
 Meristem, 239 
 
 Methyl salicylate, 80 
 
 Methysticum, 34 
 
 Metroxylon Sagu, 134 
 
 Mezereum, 66 
 
 Micrometiy, 183 
 
 Microscope, 176 
 
 selection, 178 
 Middle lamella, 201 
 Milk-weed, 52 
 Mirabilis Jalapa, 37 
 Mitchella, 95 
 
 repens, 95 
 Moisture determination, 284 
 Molasses, 172 
 Moore's test, 288 
 Monarda, 95 
 
 punctata, 95, 159 
 Monesia, 172 
 
 Monocotyledonous stem, 244 
 Morphine, 137 
 
 chemistry of, 349 
 Morus rubra, 117 
 Moschus moschiferous, 167 
 Motherwort, 95 
 Mountain laurel, 85 
 Mounting in Canada balsam, 183 
 
 in glycerin-jelly, 182 
 
 media, 375 
 
 sections, 182 
 Mucilage, histology of, 198 
 
 cells, 233 
 Mucuna, 135 
 
 Pruriens, 135 
 Mulberry, 117 
 Mullein, 102 
 Musk, 167 
 
 root, 28 
 Mustard paper, 125 
 
 plaster, 125 
 
 poultice, 125 
 Mutton suet, 163 
 Mylabris cichorii, 165 
 Myrcia acris, 85 
 
 cerifera, 71 
 Myricin, 164 
 Myricyl palmitate, 164 
 Myristica, 126 
 
 fragrans, 126, 134, 173 
 Myrobalans, 117 
 
406 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Myrrh, 148 
 Myrrha, 148 
 
 Nabceine, 137 
 Narcotine, 137 
 Nectandra rodiaei, 71 
 Nepeta Ca.taria, 94 
 
 Glechoma, 94 
 Neriura Oleander, 85 
 Neucleolus, 189 
 Neutral priniciples, 307 
 Nicotiana Tabacum, 79 
 Nicotine, 79 
 
 Northern prickly ash, 64 
 Nucin, 70 
 Nucleoplasm, 188 
 Nucleus sheath, 217 
 Nutgal], 131 
 
 histology of, 265 
 Nutmeg, 126 
 Nux vomica, 118 
 
 chemistry of, 350 
 
 histology of, 264 
 Nymphffia odorata, 52 
 
 OInotheea, 94 
 
 biennis, 94 
 Oil, Carron, 126 
 
 castor, 127 
 
 cocoanut,. 173 
 
 cod-liver, 373 
 
 chemistry of, 373 
 
 cotton-seed, 67 
 
 croton, 127 
 
 lard, 163 
 
 linseed, 126 
 
 neat's-foot, 173 
 
 of almond, expressed, 121 
 
 of bergamot, 113 
 
 of betula, 80 
 
 of bitter almond, 121 
 artificial, 121 
 
 of cade, 158 
 
 of cajuput, 160 
 
 of copaiba, 155 
 
 of coriander, 111 
 
 of gaultheria, 80 
 
 of lemon, 113 
 
 of mustard, volatile, 125 
 
 of nutmeg, expressed, 173 
 
 of orange flowers, 114 
 peel, 114 
 
 of peppermint, Chinese, 160 
 Japanese, 160 
 
 Oil of peppermint, solid, 87 
 
 of rose, 161 
 
 sassafras, 69 
 
 of theobroma, 123 
 
 of turpentine, 156 
 
 palm, 173 
 Olea europsea, 161 
 Oleander, 85 
 Oleoresin of aspidium, 51 
 
 of capsicum, 108 
 
 of cubeb, 105 
 
 of ginger, 48 
 
 of pepper, 105 
 
 of turpentine, 156 
 Oleoresins, 154 
 Olibanum, 172 
 Opium, 136 
 
 chemistry of, 348 
 Opopanax, 172 
 
 chironium, 172 
 Orange flowei-s, 102 
 
 leaves, 85 
 Organic acids, chemistry of, 310 
 Origanum, 95 
 
 vnlgare, 95 
 Ori-is, 52 
 Ovum, 166 
 Oxgall, 170 
 
 Pale rose, 1 00 
 Palmitin, 173 
 Pancreatin, 168 
 
 chemistry of, 299 
 Pancreatinum, 168 
 Pansy, 95 
 Papaver Khoeas, 102 
 
 somniferum, 129, 136 
 Papaverine, 137 
 Para copaiba, 155 
 
 rubber, 143 
 Paramenispermine, 107 
 Paregoric, 140 
 Pareira, 30 
 
 brava, 30 
 
 histology of, 252 
 Parenchyma, 200 
 Parenchymatous tissues, 200 
 Parillin, 33 
 Parsley, 35, 117 
 Parthenium, 95 
 Pathologic tannins, 308 
 Paullinia Cupana, 140 
 Peach, 85 
 Pelletierine, 62 
 
INDEX. 
 
 407 
 
 Pellitory, 26 
 Penghawar Djambi, 135 
 Pennyroyal, 89 
 Pepo, 123 
 Pepper, 105 
 Peppermint, 87 
 Pepsin, 168 
 
 chemistry of, 298 
 Pepsinum, 168 
 Permanent mounting, 182 
 Pernambuco jaborandi, 76 
 Persica, 85 
 Petroselinum, 35, 117 
 
 sativum, 35 
 Peumus Boldus, 85 
 Phaioretin, 22 
 Phellogen, 209 
 Phlobaphenes, 325 
 Phloroglucin as a leagent, 378 
 Phlox Carolina, 44 
 Physeter macrocephalus, 164 
 Physiologic tannins, 308 
 Physostigma, chemistry of, 356 
 
 venenosum, 122 
 Physostigraine, 122 
 Phytolacca decandra, 28, 106 
 
 fruit, 101 
 
 root, 28 
 Phytolaccse bacca, 106 
 
 fructus, 106 
 
 radix, 28 
 Picraconitine, 38 
 Picrtena excelsa, 53 
 Picropodophyllin, 42 
 Picrotoxin, 107 
 
 chemistry of, 356 
 Pilocarpidine, 76 
 Pilocarpine, 76 
 Pilocarpus, chemistry of, 355 
 
 Jaborandi, 76 
 
 Selloanus, 76 
 Pimenta officinalis. 107 
 Pimpinella, 35 
 
 Anisum, 112 
 
 saxifraga, 35 
 Pink root, 44 
 Pinus palustris, 156 
 Pipe gamboge, 149 
 Piper angustifolium, 1 84 
 
 cubeba, 105 
 
 nigrum, 105 
 Piperine, 105 
 Pipsissewa, 81 
 Piscidia erythrina, 71 
 
 Pistacia Lentiscus, 150 
 
 Pith, 211 
 
 Pix burgundica, 157 
 
 canadensis, 173 
 
 liquida, 157 
 Plantago, 95 
 
 lanceolata, 95 
 
 major, 95 
 Plantain, 95 
 Plasmasomes, 189 
 Pleurisy root, 32 
 Podophyllotoxin, 42 
 Podophyllum, 42 
 
 peltatum, 42 
 Poison ivy, 82 
 Poke beriT, 106 
 
 root, 28" 
 Polygala, 94 
 
 polygama, 94 
 
 Senega, 24 
 Polygonatum biflorum, 52 
 Polygonum Bistorta, 52 
 Polyporus fomentarius, 135 
 
 officinalis, 135 
 Pomegranate, 62 
 Poppy, 102, 129 
 Potassium arabate, 147 
 
 hydrate, 378 
 
 myronate, 125 
 Potentilla, 95 
 
 canadensis, 95 
 
 Tormentilla, 52 
 Powdered cinchona, histology of, 272 
 
 cinnamon, histology of, 273 
 
 digitalis, histology of, 272 
 
 opium, 137 
 
 senega, histology of, 273 
 Powders, histology of, 268 
 Prickly ash, 64 
 Primary meristem, 239 
 Prinos, 71 
 
 Prosenchymatous tissues, 221 
 Proteids, chemistry of, 296 
 Protopine, 43 
 Proto-veratrine, 140 
 Prune, 107 
 Prunum, 107 
 Prunus Amygdalus, 121 
 var. amara, 121 
 var. dulcis, 122 
 
 domestica, 107 
 
 Laurocerasus, 85 
 
 Pereica, 85 
 
 serotina, 63 
 
408 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Prunus vii'giniana, 63 
 Pseudaconine, 38 
 Pseudaconitine, 38 
 Pseudojervine, 49 
 Psychotrine, 23 
 Pterocarpus Mai-supium, 143 
 
 santalinus, 54 
 Pulsatilla, 93 
 Pumpkin seed, 123 
 Punica Gianatum, 62 
 Purging cassia, 109 
 Pui-ifled cotton, 132 
 Pyretliri flores, 102 
 Pyretliium, 26 
 
 germanicum, 34 
 Pyrus cydonium, 129 
 
 Quassia, 53 
 
 histology of, 258 
 Quassin, 53 
 Quebracho, 70 
 Queen's root, 27 
 Quercitin, 143 
 Quercus alba, 65 ^ 
 
 coccinea, vai'. tinctoria, 71 
 
 tinctoria, 71 
 Quillaja, 67 
 
 Saponaria, 67 
 Quince, 129 
 Quinine, 59 
 Quinidine, 60 
 
 Ranttnculus, 94 
 
 bulbosus, 94 
 Raphides, 196 
 Easpberry, 107 
 Eed cinchona, 57 
 
 gum, 172 
 
 rose, 100 
 
 Saunders, 54 
 Eesin, 152 
 
 of capaiba, 155 
 
 of podophyllum, 42 
 Eesina, 152, 156 
 Eesin-cells, 233 
 Eesins, chemistry of, 323 
 
 histology of, 199 
 Rhamnoxanthin, 61 
 Ehamnus cathartica, 117 
 
 Frangula, 61 
 
 Purshiana, 61 
 chemistry of, 368 
 Ehaponticum, 35 
 Rhatany, 31 
 
 Ehein, 22 
 Eheum, 21 
 
 officinale, 21 
 
 rhaponticum, 35 
 Rhizomes, 40 
 Rhoeas, 102 
 Rhubarb, 21 
 
 chemistry of, 365 
 
 histology of, 252 
 Rhus glabra 106 
 
 radicans, 82 
 
 Toxicodendron, 82 
 Eicin, 127 
 
 Ricinus communis, 127 
 Rio Janeiro jaborandi, 76 
 Roman fennel, 112 
 Roots, 17 
 
 histology of, 242 
 Rosa canina, 117 
 
 centifolia, 100 
 
 damascena, 161 
 
 gallica, 100 
 Rosemary, 85 
 Rosin, 152 
 
 Rosmarinus officinalis, 85 
 Rottlera, 134 
 Rubia, 35 
 
 tinctorum, 35 
 Rubijervine, 49 
 Eubus, 66 
 
 trivialis, 66 
 
 villosus, 66 
 Eubus idseus, 107 
 Rue, 86 
 Rumex, 33 
 
 crispus, 33 
 Russian isinglass, 167 
 
 rhubarb, 21 
 Rata graveolens, 86 
 
 Sabadilla, 95 
 Sabbatia angnlaris, 95 
 Sabina, 97 
 Saccharum, 144 
 
 lactis, 145 
 
 officinarum, 144 
 
 uveum, 172 
 SaiBower, 102 
 Saffron, 134 
 
 chemistry of, 318 
 Sagapenum, l72 
 Sage, 80 
 
 Saigon cinnamon, 69 
 Salicin, 71 
 
INDEX. 
 
 409 
 
 Salix alba, 71 
 Salvia officinalis, 80 
 Sambucus canadensis, 102 
 Sandalwood, 55 
 Sandaraca, 173 
 Sanguinaria, 43 
 
 canadensis, 43 
 Sanguinarine, 43, 96 
 Santalin, 54 
 Santalum rubrum, 54 
 Santonica, 98 
 
 ■ chemistry of, 359 
 Santonin, 98 
 
 chemistry of, 359 
 Saponaria, 35 
 
 officinalis, 35 
 Saponins, chemistry of, 295 
 Sarsaparilla, 33 
 
 histology of, 247 
 Sassafras, 69 
 
 medulla, 132 
 
 pith, 132 
 
 varufolium, 69, 132 
 Sassafrid, 69 
 Sassy bark, 71 
 Savanilla rhatany, 31 
 Savine, 97 
 Saw palmetto, 117 
 Scammonin, 150 
 Scammonium, 150 
 Scammony, 150 
 
 Smyrna, 150 
 Schizogenic spaces, 234 
 Sohulze's maceiation fluid, 378 
 Scilla, 40 
 Scillain, 40 
 Scillin, 40 
 Scillipicrin, 40 
 Scillitoxin, 40 
 Sclereids, 216 
 Sclerenchyma, 216 
 
 fibers, 221 
 Scoparin, 93 
 Scoparius, 93 
 Scopola, 35 
 
 carniolica, 35 
 Scrophularia nodosa, 94 
 Scullcap, 90 
 Scutellaria, 90 
 
 lalerifloiu, 90 
 Secale cornutum, 130 
 Secaline, 131 
 Seealintoxin, 131 
 Section-cutting, 180 
 
 Secretion receptacles, 232 
 Senega, 24 
 Senegal gum, 147 
 Senegin, 24 
 Senna, 83 
 
 chemistry of, 367 
 Serenoa serrulata, 117 
 Serpentaria, 44 
 Serpyllum, 95 
 Sesamum indicum, 85, 129 
 
 orientale, 129 
 Sevum, 163 
 Siam benzoin, 371 
 
 cardamom, 110 
 Sieve-cells, 228 
 Simaruba, 71 
 
 medicinalis, 71 
 
 officinalis, 71 
 Sinalbin, 124 
 Sinapis alba, 124 
 
 nigi-a, 124 
 
 sulphocyanid, 125 
 Sinigrin, 125 
 Sinistrin, 40 
 Skunk-cabbage, 52 
 Slippery elm, 68 
 Smilacin, 33 
 Smilax, China, 52 
 
 medica, 33 
 
 officinalis, 33 
 
 papyracea, 33 
 Soap bark, 67 
 Soapwort, 35 
 Socaloin, 142 
 Socotrine aloes, 142 
 
 chemistry of, 363 
 Solanum Dulcamara, 55 
 Solidago odora, 94 
 Solution of chloral hydmte, 378 
 
 sodium hypochlorite, 378 
 Sorghum, 144 
 Southern senega, 24 
 
 prickly-ash, 65 
 Spanish flies, 165 
 Sparteine, 93 
 
 sulphate, 93 
 Spearmint, 88 
 Spennaceti, 164 
 Sphacelotoxin, 131 
 Spigelia marilandica, 44 
 Spiraea tomentosa, 94 
 Squawvine, 95 
 Squill, 40 
 St. John's wort, 95 
 
410 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Staining, 185 
 fluids, 376 
 Standardization of ocular 
 
 meter, 184 
 Staphisagria, 125 
 Staphisagrin, 125 
 Star anise, 1 1 6 
 Starch, 133 
 
 chemistry of, 293 
 
 giains, 192 
 
 histology of, 191 
 Statice, 35 
 
 limonium, 35 
 Stavesacre, 125 
 Steapsin, 169 
 Stearoptens, 331 
 Stereids, 221 
 Stillingia, 27 
 
 sylvatica, 27 
 Stomata, 207 
 Stone cells, 216 
 Stoneroot, 52 - 
 Storax, 154 
 Stramonii folia, 78 
 
 semen, 128 
 Stramonium leaves, 78 
 . seed, 128 
 Striated ipecac, 23 
 Strophanthin, 120 
 
 chemistry of, 358 
 
 hispidus, 120 
 
 komb^, 120 
 Strychnin, 118 
 
 chemistry of, 350 
 Strychnos Ignatia, 129 
 
 nux vomica, 118 
 Styrax, 154 
 
 benzoin, 151 
 Suet, 163 
 Sugar, 144 
 
 histology of, 198 
 
 of milk, 145 
 Sugar-cane, 144 
 Sugara, 144 
 Sumatra benzoin, 371 
 Surabul, 28 
 Sundew, 94 
 Supiurenal, 170 
 Suprarenin, 170 
 Surgeon's agaric, 135 
 Sweet almond, 122 
 
 birch, 80 
 
 clover, 95 
 
 flag, 48 
 
 Sweet orange peel, 114 
 Swertia Chirata, 92 
 Symphitum ofiicinale, 35 
 Symplocarpus foetidus, 52 
 Syrupus fuscus, 172 
 
 TABAcrM, 79 
 Tamarind, 115 
 Tamarindus indica, 115 
 Tampico jalap, 37 
 Tanacetin, 91 
 Tanacetum vulgare, 91 
 Tangential section, 180 
 Tatinin, histology of, 198 
 Tannins, chemistry of, 308 
 Tansy, 91 
 Tapioca, 134 
 Tar, 157 
 Taiuxacin, 25 
 Taraxacum, 25 
 
 histology of, 250 
 
 officinale, 25 
 Tea, 86 
 
 Temporary mgunting, 182 
 Tephrosia, 83 
 Terebinthina, 156 
 
 canadensis, 156 
 Tei'minalia, 117 
 Thea chinensis, 86 
 Thebaine, 137 
 Theobroma cacao, 123 
 Theobromine, 123 
 Thoroughwort, 90 
 Thuja occidentalis, 95 
 Thyme, 86 
 Thymol, 159 
 Thymus Serpyllum, 95 
 
 vulgaris, 86, 159 
 Thyroidura siccum, 169 
 Thyroiodin, 169 
 Tilia americana, 102 
 
 heterophylla, 102 
 Tinnevelly senna, 83 
 Tobacco, 79 
 Toluifei-a Balsamum, 153 
 
 Pereiiue, 153 
 Tonka, 129 
 Tonquin musk, 167 
 Tormentilla, 52 
 ToiTeya califomica, 127 
 Toi-ula Cerevisise, 135 
 Toxicodendral, 82 
 Toxiresin, 75 
 Tracheids, 227 
 
INDEX. 
 
 411 
 
 Titigacanth, 147 
 
 Tragacantha, 147 
 
 Trailing arbutus, 86 
 
 Transverse section, 180 
 
 Trichomes, 203 
 
 Trigonella Foenum-graecum, 129 
 
 Trillium erectum, 52 
 
 Triticum, 49 
 
 Troramei-'s test, 288 
 
 Trosteum perfoliatum, 52 
 
 Trypsin, 169 
 
 Tsuga canadensis, 173 
 
 Tulip tree bark, 71 
 
 Turkish rhubarb, 21 
 
 Turmeric, 52 
 
 Turnera diffusa, 85 
 
 Turpentine, 156 
 
 Tussilago Farfara, 85 
 
 Ulmits fulva, 68 
 Undulated ipecac, 23 
 Urginea maritima, 40 
 Ui'sone, 76 
 Ustilago, 135 
 
 Maydis, 135 
 Uva ursi, 76 
 
 chemistry of, 358 
 
 .Vaccine virus, 171 
 Vacuoles, 188 
 Valerian, 42 
 Valeriana officinalis, 42 
 Vanilla planifolia, 110 
 Vanillin, 110 
 Veratrine, 49 
 
 chemistry of, 356 
 Veratroidine, 49 
 Veratrum album, 52 
 
 viride, 49 
 Verbascum, 102 
 Veronica virginica, 47 
 Vessels, 224 
 Vetiver, 35 
 Viburnin, 64 
 Viburnum, 63 
 
 opulus, 63 
 
 prunifolium, 64 
 Villosin, 66 
 Viola tricolor, 95 
 Virginia snakeroot, 44 
 Vitellin, 166 
 Volatile alkaloids, 306 
 
 oil cells, 233 
 
 oils, 160 
 
 Volatile oils, chemistry of, 323 
 Vulcanized rubber, 144 
 
 Wahoo, 67 
 Wake robin, 52 
 Water-lily, 52 
 Watermelon seed, 129 
 Water-pores, 208 
 Wax myrtle, 71 
 Waxes, 161 
 
 chemistry of, 333 
 West Indian tamarind, 115 
 White agaric, 135 
 
 ash, 71 
 
 gentian, 34 
 
 mustard, 124 
 
 oak, 65 
 
 wax, 164 
 Wild carrot, 117 
 
 cherry, 63 
 
 ginger, 52 
 
 indigo, 34 
 
 jalap, 184 
 
 nutmeg, 127 
 
 rose, 117 
 Willow, 71 
 
 herb, 95 
 Wintera, 71 
 Wintergreen, 80 
 Witch-hazel, 80 
 Wood-fibei-s, 223 
 
 parenchyma, 219 
 Wool-fat, chemistry of, 337 
 Wormwood, 95 
 
 Xanthophyil, 315 
 Xanthoproteic test, 297 
 Xanthorrhiza Apiifolia, 52 
 Xanthoxylum americanum, 64 
 Clava-Herculis, 64 
 
 Yakeow, 95 
 Yeast, 135 
 Yellow dock, 33 
 
 jasmine, 30 
 
 parilla, 47 
 
 root, 52 
 
 wax, 164 
 
 Zanzibar aloes, 363 
 Zea, 132 
 
 Mays, 132 
 Zedoaria, 52 
 Zedoary, 52 
 Zingiber officinale, 47 
 
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THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. 
 
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14 SAUNDERS' BOOKS ON 
 
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 Dose-Book and Manual of Prescription-Writing. By 
 
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MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS 15 
 
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