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A 
 SHORT HISTORICAL 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR 
 
 LINDSAY 
 
BY THE SAME AUTHOR 
 8vo, cloth, price 2ij. 
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE 
 
 AN HISTORICAL ACCOUNT 
 
 OF 
 
 LATIN SOUNDS, STEMS, AND FLEXIONS 
 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 1894 
 
'''UN 
 
 \\\ m \ 
 
 SHORT HISTORICAL ' * ' f^^' 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR 
 
 W. M. LINDSAY, M.A. 
 
 FELLOW OF JESUS COLLEGE, OXFORD 
 
 O;cfo»b 
 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 1895 
 
£ottbon 
 
 HENRY FROWDE 
 
 Oxford University Peess Warehouse 
 Amen Corner, E.G. 
 
 (Pew ©otft 
 
 MACMILLA.N & CO., B6 FIFTH AVENUE 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Teachers of Latin Grammar have for a long time 
 felt the need of a book which will exhibit the his- 
 torical development of Latin Accidence and explain 
 the anomalies of Latin Declension and Conjugation, 
 which will explain, for example, how itineris became the 
 Genitive of iter, how volo, vis, vult differ from lego, legis, 
 legit, why the Comparative of magnificus should be 
 magnificentior', why the Preposition circum should have 
 a by-form circa. In this Short Historical Latin Grammar, 
 designed for the Universities and the Higher Forms of 
 Schools, I have tried to present this information in an 
 intelligible and, if possible, interesting form. While 
 making full use of the discoveries of Comparative Philo- 
 logy, which have in recent years added so much to our 
 knowledge of Latin, I have avoided the technical 
 vocabulary of that science, and in quoting parallels to 
 Latin words have restricted myself to the Greek, to 
 the exclusion of Sanscrit, Gothic, and the other Indo- 
 European languages. It is true that each and every 
 problem of the Latin language has not yet been solved, 
 but for all that the stability of most of the results 
 reached by the methods of Comparative Philology, is 
 beyond question; and every one who has studied the 
 
 A3 
 
vi Preface. 
 
 subject with any minuteness knows whicli results are 
 certain and which may have to be modified by subsequent 
 research. I have endeavoured to steer a middle course 
 between leaving difficulties untouched and offering ex- 
 planations which may have to be discarded later. For 
 a discussion of questions which are stiU sub judiee, and for 
 a detailed account of the evidence on which judgements in 
 this book are grounded, I refer the reader to my larger 
 work, Tke Latin, LangvMge (Clarendon Press, 1894). 
 
 W. M. LINDSAY. 
 
 OxFOKD : 
 
 Sep<e»i6e»-, 1895. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Introduction . 
 Chap. I. Alphabet 
 
 II. Pkonunoiation, Accentuation, and Changes 
 OF Sound 
 
 III. Noun . 
 
 IV. Adjective 
 V. Pbonoun 
 
 VI. Verb . 
 
 VII. Advekbs 
 VIII. Peepositions 
 
 IX. Conjunctions and Interjections 
 X. Histoky of Latin Sounds . 
 
 XI. PoKMATiON OP Words . 
 Appendix A. Specimens op Early Latin . 
 
 „ B. List of Spellings . 
 
 „ C. List of Hidden Quantities 
 Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ix 
 
 8 
 
 37 
 
 63 
 
 69 
 
 86 
 
 118 
 
 126 
 
 136 
 
 148 
 
 160 
 
 175 
 179 
 181 
 185 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Latin was the language of the Latini, who inhabited 
 ancient Latium, the plain at the mouth of the Tiber. 
 The subsequent greatness of Rome, the chief town of 
 Latium, made the Latin language in time the language, 
 not only of the whole of Italy, but also of the Roman 
 provinces, Gaul, Spain, and the like. The languages of 
 modern Italy and these other countries where Latin was 
 formerly spoken are called 'Romance languages'; and 
 it is possible with the help of inscriptions and parchments 
 to trace step by step the way by which, after the fall of 
 the Western Roman Empire (476 a.d.), the 'Vulgar 
 Latin' of Italy, France, Spain, &c., passed into the form 
 of modern Italian, French, and Spanish ; how, for 
 example, Latin cahallus, a horse, became Italian eavallo, 
 Spanish caballo, Portuguese eavallo, Proven9al cavals, 
 French cheval, Roumanian cal. 
 
 A language is never stationary ; and if what may be 
 called the ' modern Latin ' of the Romance languages 
 has developed in this way, we may be sure that ancient 
 Latin had a corresponding development. Of this we 
 may mark several stages : (i) Prehistoric Latin, the 
 language in its earliest form, (a) Preliterary Latin, till 
 the beginnings of literature at Rome in the latter part 
 
X Introduction. 
 
 of the third century B.C., (3) Early or Old Latin, as 
 used by the earliest writers, Livius Andronicus,Naevius, 
 Plautus, Ennius, and the like, (4) Republican Latin, till 
 Cicero's time, (5) Classical Latin, the Latin of the 
 ' Golden Age ' from Cicero to Augusttis, (6) Silver Age 
 Latin, of the earlier writers of the Empire, (7) Late 
 Latin, till the fall of the Western Empire. 
 
 The Romans took at all times a keen interest in their 
 ]angua,ge. Some of the greatest names of Roman 
 History are connected with reforms of spelling or 
 grammar, statesmen like Appius Claudius Caeeus, Scipio 
 Africanus Minor, Julius Caesar, and the Emperors 
 Augustus and Claudius. The earlier writers, e.g. Ennius, 
 Accius, Lucilius, were Grammarians as well as Poets. 
 The studies of Grammar and Phonetics, imported from 
 Greece in the last century of the Republic, were prose- 
 cuted with the utmost zest for many centuries, the most 
 famous names being, in the time of Cicero, M. Terentius 
 Tarro; in the first century a.d., Probus, the elder 
 Pliny, Velius Longns ; in the second century, Aulus 
 Gellius ; in the third, Marius Plotius Sacerdos ; in the 
 fourth, Nonius Marcellus, Donatus, Charisius, Diomedes, 
 Macrobius, Martianus Capella; and in the sixth, Priscian. 
 
 Their writings, such as have been preserved to us, 
 give us a great deal of information, not only about the 
 language of their own time, but also of the earlier 
 stages of Latin. For these earlier stages we have further 
 the help of the old inscriptions, few of which however 
 are prior to the second century B.C. Our materials 
 therefore for a Historical Grammar of Latin from 
 c. 350 B.C. onwards are fairly complete. 
 
 For the still earlier periods we have the help of the 
 kindred languages of Italy, the Oscan, Umbrian, &c. 
 
Introduction. xi 
 
 They are closely connected with Latin and throw 
 a great deal of light on the origin o£ Latin forms and 
 constructions. In fact, if we had enough of these 
 'dialectal' inscriptions there would be few problems of 
 the language which remained unsolved. But unfortu- 
 nately there has not yet been any systematic and 
 thorough search for the records of these kindred stocks, 
 and the inscriptions that have been discovered are 
 tantalizingly meagre. 
 
 For the earliest history of all we must fall back on 
 the Science of Comparative Philology. The discovery in 
 recent years that some Asiatic languages (Indian, 
 Persian) and most European are so closely connected 
 that they must have sprung from a common parent 
 language, usually called the 'Indo-European,' has 
 brought into existence a n^w study, the comparison of 
 these languages with each other in order to find what 
 this parent language was. By comparing the various 
 Romance words for ' horse,' just mentioned, it would be 
 possible to conjecture the form of the Latin prototype 
 from which they have all descended, caiallus. In the 
 same way we can guess at the early form, what is 
 called the ' Indo-European ' form, underlying any 
 cognate group of words in the various Indo-European 
 "languages; e.g. Lat. mater, Dor. Gk. ixdrrip, Sanscrit 
 matar-, Old Irish mathir, Old Slavonic mater-, Armenian 
 mair, Old English modor, point to something like 
 mater as their prototype. We may similarly trace back 
 inflexions to an ' Indo-European ' form, and may out of 
 these conjectured words and inflexions construct an 
 ' Indo-European •" alphabet. 
 
 Of the various members of the I.-Eur. family the 
 most closely related to Latin and the Italian languages 
 
xii Introduction. 
 
 seems to be the Celtic group (Irish, Welsh, and in 
 ancient times Gaulish). Thus in Celtic as in Latin we 
 have a Passive in -R (ch. vi. § 6), a Dat. PI. of the 
 Third Declension in -bhos (e.g. Gaulish matrebos, O. Ir. 
 matrib, Lat. mdtribus), a Future in -BH- (e.g. O. Ir. 
 earub, ' I wUl love,' quasi ' carabo,' Lat. amaho) ; and 
 Irish Nouns iu -tiu, e.g. mitiu (ancient stem mention-) 
 correspond to Latin in -tid, e.g. mentio (ch. xi. § la). 
 
 For our knowledge of the relationship of Latin to the 
 other Indo-European languages we are most indebted to 
 Corssen, and to the three great Comparative Philologists 
 of the day, Brugmann, Osthoff, and Johannes Schmidt ; 
 for the history of Early Latin to Ritschl and Buecheler. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 Paragraphs in small type may be omitted by all but advanced 
 students. An asterisk prefixed to a word indicates that the word 
 does not occur in the extant literature. Italic type is, as a rule, 
 used for Latin words, stems, and inflexions. 
 
A SHORT 
 HISTORICAL LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 § 1. The Greeks of Chalcis in Euboea had at an early 
 time founded colonies at Cumae and other spots on the 
 coast of Campania — colonies which took a leading place 
 among those mercantile centres of Southern Italy which 
 played so great a part in Italian civilisation. It was 
 from these Chalcidic neighbours of theirs that the Latins 
 first learnt the art of writing. 
 
 The connexion of the Latin with the Greek Alphabet 
 is seen plainly enough, even when we look at the later 
 forms of the two, the forms which we are in the habit 
 of using in editions of the classical authors : — 
 
 (iaifiw) ABCDEFGH IKLMN OP 
 
 (Greek) ABTAE ZH((»)©IKAMNa(«)On 
 
 (latin) QRSTV X [YZ] 
 
 (Greek) P 2 T T * X (ck) * 12. 
 
 But when we go farther back and compare the forms 
 of the letters on the earliest Latin inscriptions with 
 those on the earliest Euboean inscriptions, we see that 
 the two alphabets are one and the same : — 
 
 B 
 
2 The Alphabet. [ch. i 
 
 {Early Latin) A&C(<)>^ P^ZB IKU 
 
 {larly Euboean) A B C (<) > & (I) t* Z B (/j) | 1< U 
 (^ar^y Latin) f^ ^ o r9l*$TVX 
 (^ar^y Euboean) A" H o (o) P 9 1^ $ T V X («) CD V (c/«), 
 the fact being that the Latins took over bodily 
 from the Greeks of Campania the written signs by 
 which these Greeks expressed the various words and 
 sounds of their language. Now it is clear that the 
 sounds of the Latin language were not in every ease 
 the same as the sounds formed by Greek lips, so that 
 a Greek alphabet could not be a perfectly suitable means 
 of expressing Latin words and syllables ; and, in fact, 
 we find that it took a great number of years before the 
 borrowed alphabet was altered and unproved to the 
 satisfaction of the borrowers. 
 
 § 2. One of the first alterations made was the disuse 
 of the signs for the three Greek aspirates, 6, <p, x- 
 These were written in the Chalcidic alphabet O (©), ? 
 {(D), "f (V) ^, and expressed sounds unknown to the 
 Latins, (i) the sound of t followed by an ^-sound (some- 
 thing like our tA in 'an<-^eap^), (a) the sound of p 
 followed by an ^-sound (cf . our ' ujo-Ml ■"), (3) the sound 
 of & followed by an A-sound (cf. our 'in^-^om '). Since 
 these sounds never occurred in any Latin word, the three 
 signs were never, used in writing Latin, and dropped out 
 of the Latin alphabet ". This then was the first departure 
 of the borrowed alphabet from its original. 
 
 ' The use of X for x, ^ for eft, and the order X, $, Vf are features 
 of what are called the ' "Western ' Greek Alphabets, as opposed to 
 the Ionian, &c. 
 
 " Though they were not used to indicate sounds, they were put to 
 another function, that of numerical signs. © was employed as the 
 sign of 100, and hecame in time adapted in form to the initial of 
 
§§2-4] C, F. 3 
 
 § 3. Again the k- and ^-sounds of the Greeks had not 
 the same sharp distinction as the corresponding sounds 
 had from Roman lips^ so that when a Greek pronounced 
 his letter k, he often seemed to a Roman to be pro- 
 nouncing a ^-sound ^ and not a ^-sound. This led to 
 the use of the third letter of the borrowed alphabet, 
 written sometimes circularly, C , sometimes with an angle, 
 {, in a promiscuous fashion, now for a ^-sound, now 
 for a /5:-sound, so that the written signs AC or A( 
 might express either the syllable aff or the syllable ac. 
 This encroachment of the sign C or { on the sphere of the 
 sign K was aided by the custom of writing K in two I 
 parts 1{, with the upright part I separate from the / 
 angular part (, a custom which led to K. being re- 
 garded as an awkward double symbol, of which { (appa- 
 rently the right-hand half of the symbol) was a short 
 and convenient expression; and the result of all this 
 was that the letter K practically went out of use, C or < 
 being retained in the double capacity of a /^-sign and 
 a ^-sign^. 
 
 § 4. Another double sign was reduced in the same way, 
 namely f H. This f H was a letter, or rather a lettei'- 
 group, which expressed in early Greek words a sound 
 that came nearest to the sound of early Latin f (ch. ii. 
 § 6 ».), and was at first used by the Latins as a sign for 
 this sound. In time it too was simplified by the dropping 
 
 centum and written C ; was made the sign of looo, and eame to be 
 written GO, OC, and finally M, like the initial of mille ; while D, the 
 half of 0, became the sign of 500, just as V, 5, is the upper half of 
 X, 10 ; V indicated 50 and came to be written X and finally L. 
 
 ' Gi-eek Kojifu, gum, was written by the Eomans gvmmi ; Greek 
 KvPepuSi is in Eoman spelling gubemo. 
 
 ^ Thus on a very old inscription, called the Dvenos inscription, 
 we have VI R(0 {virgo) and (OJ M I ^ (comis) side by side. 
 
 B 3 
 
4 The Alphabet. [ch. i 
 
 of one of its parts, and was written without the H as 
 a single sign, f. Thus/ec- oi. fecit would be first written 
 fHEI< (or fHE<), then f Ek, The sign for /became in 
 this way identical with the sixth letter of the borrowed 
 alphabet, and opened the way to a further change. For 
 this sixth letter, the Digamma, was used in the Chalcidic 
 alphabet to express the w-sound heard in the beginning 
 of such early Greek words as Foiivos, the same as in the 
 Latin vinnm or the English wine. After a while the 
 sound was dropt by the Greeks and became quite un- 
 familiar to them, so that we hear of Greek visitors to 
 Italy finding the greatest difficulty in pronouncing 
 Latin words like vinum, venij The nearest they could 
 come to the proper pronunciation was the use of the 
 vowel u instead of the consonantal w-sound, u-i-num, 
 w-e-ni. It was perhaps through Greek influence that 
 the Romans came to use the sign of the vowel ««, V, for 
 this w-consonant as well as for the vowel, so that for 
 a time V and F were employed promiscuously to express 
 the w-sound, in precisely the same way as we found 
 K and C or ( to have been used promiscuously for the 
 ^-sound. The result in both cases was the same. The 
 sign that had encroached on the province of the other 
 sign ousted its rival ; and for the future F held exclusively 
 the function of representing the /-sound, while the 
 w-sound was expressed by V, the same sign as did duty 
 for the vowel «. 
 
 § 5. Of the first six letters of the borrowed alphabet 
 two have thus in course of time come to express quite 
 different sounds from the sounds which they expressed 
 in the original^ alphabet. C or (, which in the original 
 expressed the ^-sound, has come to express the ii-sound ; 
 F, originally the sign of the w-sound, has become the 
 
§•5] Z, G. 5. 
 
 sign of the /-sound. The seventh letter was likewise 
 affected. Greek Z was the letter for the soft s-sound 
 (' voiced' «) of our ' as/ &c., a sound in use among the 
 Latins at the time when they borrowed their alphabet. But 
 as centuries went on, this soft «-sound assumed in 
 Roman lips the sound of r (ch. x. § 19), so that the 
 Gen. Plur. termination of the First Declension (ch. iii. 
 § 4), at first pronounced -asom with soft s, and written 
 A Z O M , came to be pronounced and written -arom (later 
 -arum) ; and the sign Z fell out of use in writing. This 
 is a change in the Roman alphabet to which we can 
 give a date. We are told that it was Appius Claudius 
 Caecus, the famous censor of 31a B. c, who was the 
 author of this reform; and Roman tradition preserves 
 a curious story that one of his arguments against the 
 letter was, that the sound which it properly expressed, 
 the soft «-sound, gave the mouth the appearance of the 
 grinning teeth of a skull. In its place in the alphabet 
 he put a new letter, G, which was coming into use as 
 a symbol of the (7-sound, and was employed, for example, 
 by Sp. Garvilius Ruga (consul in 293 B. 0.) in the 
 writing of his name (i^VGA, instead of the older 
 I^VC A), just as L. Papirius Crassus, dictator in 339 b. c, 
 was the first of his family to write his name PAPII?- 
 instead of PAPI Z -. This new letter G was nothing 
 but the letter C slightly altered by the addition of 
 a small stroke to show that the y-sound and not 
 the yi-sound was meant. The expression of the ^-sound 
 had thus a curious history in Latin. First the symbol 
 C was used ; then this symbol come to be used also for 
 the A-sound j finally this later use ousted the older 
 use altogether, and a new symbol was devised for the 
 y-sound. 
 
6 The Alphabet. [ch. i 
 
 § 6. The alphabet of Appins Claudius remained the 
 official Roman alphabet of twenty-one letters : — 
 ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTVX. 
 
 The letters Y and Z are sometimes addedj but are not 
 strictly speaking Roman letters. They are nothing but 
 the Gtxeek Upsilon and Zeta^ which came to be used in 
 Cicero's time in writing Greek loan-words, e. g. cymha, 
 zona, gaza, where previously u and « {ss) had been used, 
 e. g. cumba, sona (Plant.) (so classical bwoous, cupressus, 
 guberno, massa, &c.), just as we use the Spanish letter fi 
 in writing the Spanish loan-word ' canon/ or the French 
 letter 5 ia writing the French loan-word ' f agade." They 
 were never used in writing Latin words, except occa- 
 sionally in a few words which were wrongly believed to 
 be Greek loan-words, e. g. lacryma, inelytus ; much as we 
 write ' rhyme ' instead of ' rime,' owing to an idea that 
 it represents the Greek pvdij.6^. And though the Latin 
 writers on Grammar usually include them in the Roman 
 alphabet, they are careful to make a distinction between 
 them and the other letters. Similarly tA, ph, ch, rh were 
 at the end of the Republic used for the more exact ex- 
 pression of Greek loan-words like Corintkus, FMUppug, 
 Achilles, Bhodus, words which were earlier written with 
 t,p, c, r(cf. tus, paentcla, a coat, calx,lime, from Gk. 6vos, 
 <f>atj;o'A.7js, xa\i^), and found their way even into genuine 
 Latin words like pulcer, from polio, wrongly referred to 
 Gk. iroKv\poos and written pulcher (cf . ch. ii. § 6). 
 
 § 7. Traces of tie Older Alphabet. So conservative -were the 
 Romans that the old forms and significations of the letters were 
 often retained in isolated cases. C retained its old signification of the 
 y-sound in C, Cn., the contractions for the proper names Gmus (older 
 Qavios, connected with gaudeo, gaiiisus) and Qnams (older Gnaiuos, 
 connected with (g)noscor, (g)naius). K was retained in the proper 
 name Kaeso, written shortly K. ; and there were old-fashioned 
 
l§6-8] Y. Z. 7 
 
 people even in Imperial times who in their correspoijdence always 
 spelt karissime with k, not c (ef. the spellings Kalendae, interkcUaris, 
 kalumnia, and other words where the guttural precedes a). The 
 old five-stroked form of M was retained as symbol of the proper 
 name Mdniiis, and came to be written M^ while the ordinary form 
 of the letter was used as symbol of Marcus. Legal phraseology was 
 especially retentive of old forms ; thus the -e of jure dicundo, solvendo 
 aere alieno is a relic of the very early usage of denoting the d- 
 diphthong by E as in the early Greek writing. 
 
 § 8. Other modifications of the Alphabet. Some changes of the 
 original form of writing were permanent, others lasted only for 
 a time. To the first class belongs the practice of writing double 
 a consonant which was pronounced double (ch. ii. § 9), a practice 
 introduced by the poet Ennius. Thus buca was the old spelling of 
 bucca. To the second belong such changes as : — (i) writing double 
 a long vowel, (a, e, u, and 0?)^, e.g. paastokes, a practice introduced 
 by the poet Accius, but soon dropped ; (a) writing EI for long i. 
 This practice came in about the middle of the second century B.C., 
 when the diphthong ei (ch. x. § 11) had come to be pronounced like 
 long i, and remained till the beginning of the Empire ; (3) 
 indicating a long vowel (a, e, 0, u) by a stroke above, called the 
 apex, e. g. pIstokes (first two centuries of the Empire) ; (4) indicating 
 a long i by the tall form of the letter, e. g. mIlia. This tall form 
 was also used to denote the !/-sound and also for initial i ; (5) 
 indicating a doubled consonant by a curve above, called the sidlicus, 
 e. g. osA (time of Augustus). Many, or most, of these practices were 
 borrowed from Oscan ' orthography. Another change introduced, 
 but without much success, by the poet Accius, was bon-owed from 
 Greek, viz. the use of g for « before g, c, e.g. aggulus, agcora (cf. 
 Gk. ay«iipa). Equally short-lived were the additions to the 
 Eoman alphabet by the Emperor Claudius, viz. \- for the it-sound of 
 optimus, &c. (ch. ii. § i) ; 3 for ps ; J for v (Tac. Ann. xi. 14). The 
 byforms of E and F, which found favour with the uneducated 
 classes, viz. || (often confused on inscriptions with I) and ||, are 
 interesting, because they must have originated from writing on 
 wood, where the scratching of horizontal lines was not easy to read. 
 
 ' II indicated the double !/-sound of words like aio, Maia, written 
 by Cicero aiio, Maiia (eh. ii. § 3). 
 
 ' Oscan is the name given to the language of the Samnites, who 
 lived in Samnium and Campania. So that Campania, the birth- 
 place of the Eoman alphabet (§ i), continued to influence Soman 
 writing for many centuries. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION, ACCENTUATION, AND CHANGE OF SOUND. 
 
 § 1. Vowels. The rule for the pronunciation o£ the 
 Latin Vowels is simple enough. Give the vowels the 
 same sound as in Italian, letting the long vowels have what 
 is called the ' close ' sound, the short vowels the ' open,.' The 
 ' open ■" sound is precisely what is given to short vowels 
 in English ; e. g. the e o£ ' led ' is open e, and Latin sed 
 should be pronounced with exactly the same vowel ; the 
 of 'not' is open o, and so was the o of Lat. noia. 
 The short Latin vowels accordingly ofEer little difficulty 
 to English lips. But though the 'close' sound is in 
 English, as it was in Latin, associated with the long 
 vowels, our long vowels, e. g. the long e- vowel ^ in ' they/ 
 ' say ' ' fate,' ' fail,' the long o-vowel in ' know/ ' no,' are 
 reallynot simple vowels but diphthongs ; for ' they,' ' say,' 
 ' fate,' ' fail,' are in reality pronounced with the close 
 e-sound followed by y, ' know,' ' no,' with the close o- 
 sound, followed by w. So, if we would pronounce the 
 long vowels of Latin with exactness, we must take care 
 to give them the simple sounds of the French or Italian 
 vowels, pronouncing, for example, the e of se-des like the 
 
 ' By ' the e- vowel ' is meant the Continental e-vowel, the sound 
 of Germ. 'See' (cf. Engl, 'say'), not of Engl, 'see,' which has 
 rather the ' i-vowel ' (Germ. ' sie,' Fr. ' si ') ; by the ' o-vowel ' the 
 Continental o-vowel of Germ. ' sah,' Engl. ' father,' not of Engl, 
 'say.' 
 
§ i] Pronunciation of Vowels. 9 
 
 e-soTind of Pr. ' 6tl/ and not like the ey- or ei-sound of 
 Engl, 'say.' 
 
 Latin a had however the same quality, when long and 
 when short, the only difference being in quantity. The 
 a of pater is the same sound as the a of mater, only 
 uttered more rapidly. Here too, if we aim at exactness, 
 we must not give the short Latin a the same sound as 
 our ' short a-vowel,' though we may give the long 
 Latin a the sound of our a in ' father.' For our ' short 
 a ' is really a different sound from our ' long a,' standing 
 in fact halfway between an a and an e, as we see, if we 
 compare our pronunciation of words like ' man,' ' hat ' 
 with the German of ' Mann,' ' er hat.' The German 
 vowel is the same as the a of Engl. ' father ' or Germ. 
 ' Vater,' while our ' man,' ' hat,' ' bat ' have in them 
 something of the sound of ' men,' ' bet.' Latin pater 
 then should. not be pronounced like our ' patter,' '^ but 
 with the ffl-sound of ' father ' rapidly uttered. 
 
 Another exception to this rule of the different quality 
 of long and short Latin vowels is fui-nished by the -it of 
 the 3 Sg. Pres. Ind. of the Fourth Conjugation. This i 
 was a long vowel till the second century b. c, when it 
 was shortened owing to the diflBculty found by the 
 Romans in keeping up the long sound of a vowel before 
 a final -t (§i6). But this -it, when it became a 
 short syllable, retained the quality, though not the 
 quantity, of long i, so that the -it of, let us say procUt, 
 from prodeo, or vincit from vincio, or condit from condio, 
 had the close «-sound (Fr. si, Ital. si), unlike the -it of 
 prodit, vincit, condit from prodo, vinco, condo, which had the 
 
 ' This was a Koman 'oockueyism' of the fourth or fifth cent, a.d., 
 for we hear of a mispronunciation at that time by the lower classes 
 at Bome of stSMm so that it sounded like sUtvm. 
 
lo Pronunciation [ch. h 
 
 open i- sound of our ' it,' ' bit.' And it is probable that some 
 other short Latin vowels also, which were originally long, 
 continued to retain the close sound of the long vowel (see 
 § 1 6). In dies, where it stood before a vowel, * had the 
 close sound, like our sound of ' the ' before an initial vowel. 
 The short i of opiimus, which took the place of it in 
 the spelling of Julius Caesar's time, had a sound ' between 
 u and i,' the sound of German modified u (writen «) or 
 the w of Fr. lune ; and a preceding v seems to have 
 given any short i this sound in the time of the Empire, 
 e. g. vtr, Virgo, virtus ^. 
 
 Here is a scheme of the pronunciation of the Latin 
 vowels : — 
 
 A Engl, a in 'father." 
 
 A. the same more rapidly uttered. 
 
 E Fr. ein'ete.' 
 
 £ Engl, e in 'led.' 
 
 I Fr. i of ' fini.' 
 
 1 Engl. ^ of ' in.' 
 
 Fr. ail in ' chaud.' 
 
 Engl. in ' not.' 
 
 IJ Germ, u in ' gut.' (Plautus compares the repetition 
 of the pron. tu to the hooting of an owl. 
 The y-sound which we insert before u in 
 ' tune,' &c. was unknown in Latin.) 
 
 U Engl, u in ' full,' oo in ' good/ (What we often 
 
 ' The sound of a Latin vowel was often affected by a neighbouring 
 consonant. Thus jajumus, the older form, became jejvams, the a 
 having assumed the sound of e (open e) under the influence of the 
 repeated j (cf Vulg. Lat. Jenuarms for Jwnuarius, Ital. &ennaio, 
 with open e) ; o took the close sound (a sound approaching to u) 
 before m and other consonant-groups, such as nd (cf. the spellings 
 turnus for tm'wus, frv/ndes for frondes) ; e took the close sound (a sound 
 approaching to i) before rg (cf. the spelling Yirgilius for Yergilius). 
 
§ 1, 2] of Vowels. II 
 
 call ' short u' e. g. the vowel-sound in ' but,' 
 is not a w-sound at all, but is properly 
 called ' the obscure vowel/) 
 Care should be taken to give long vowels their correct 
 soundj both as regards quantity and quality, in what- 
 ever position they stand in the word. Thus the i of 
 nobis must be pronounced with the same length and 
 with the same close sound as the i of s%; the e of lex 
 must be the same as the e of legis ; illex, ' lawless,' must 
 be pronounced differently from illex, ' alluring ' ; non 
 must have the o-sound of noirns ; bellus and stella should 
 differ as Ital. ' bello/ which has open e, and ' stella, 
 which has close e, and this close e should be pronounced 
 long ; similarly mollis and corolla (from corona), and so 
 on. The long sound was always given to a vowel before 
 ns, nf. Thus the preposition m, pronounced like our 
 'in,' became in- (more like our 'e'en') in compounds 
 like inficio, insilio ; con- (Engl. ' con ') became con- (more 
 like Engl. ' cone ') in consul, &c. ; and the n eventually 
 disappeared in pronunciation, as it disappeared in O. Engl, 
 fif 'five' (Germ, fiinf), gos 'goose' (Germ. Gans). 
 
 It will be found that the rhythm of Latin poetry will 
 be much improved by giving the Latin vowels their 
 proper sounds, instead of the English sounds, as we may 
 see, if we reflect how a Prenxih or Italian line would 
 suffer if we were to pronounce the vowels in it like 
 English vowels. But the full appreciation of Latin 
 poetical rhythm can only be attained, when we learn to 
 assign the proper difference of duration to the long and 
 short vowels, by dwelling, for example, on the first 
 syllable of mater double the time that the voice rested 
 on the first syllable oi pater. 
 
 § 2. Diphthongs, The rule for the pronunciation of 
 
12 Pronunciation [ch, h 
 
 Latin Diphthongs is also an easy one : — Give loth vowels 
 of the diphthong their own vowel-sounds, and combine the 
 two sounds in one syllable. Thus the diphthong of neu, 
 the shortened form of ne-ve, combines in one syllable the 
 e-sound and the w-sound : ain (a monosyllable) of ain 
 vero ? has the a-sound and the «-sound of disyllabic ais in 
 close combination. 
 
 The diphthong ae had originally the ordinary a-sound 
 followed by the e-sound, just as ae is pronounced in 
 Welsh (e. g. maen ' a stone '), although by the end of the 
 Republic and the beginning of the Empire the first part 
 must have begun to degenerate into the sound of our 'short 
 a ' in ' man,' ' bat,' a sound which, as we saw, approaches 
 the open e-sound of ' men/ ' bet ; ' for at a later period ^ 
 we find ae pronounced as a simple vowel exactly like 
 a lengthened open e ; the first syllable of aeqwus, ^asi, and 
 equvs, a horse, difEering merely in duration of utterance, 
 and in no other respect. Ge, which is found in a few 
 legal and poetic words like foedus, amoemis, as well as 
 the Greek loan-word poena (ch. x. § 1 1 ) , must have had its 
 first element similarly affected, the o having the sound of 
 German modified o (written o), for we find oe sometimes 
 used to express the long Greek v, which had a sound 
 like German modified u. The a of au was influenced too 
 by the accompanying w in the direction of the sound of 
 our a in ' water/ ' wall/ with the result that au ultimately 
 reached the sound of long o (open o). Thus the first 
 element in these diphthongs was affected by the second 
 in the same way as we have seen the Latin vowels to be 
 affected by a neighbouring consonant (p. io«.). 
 
 ' The pronunciation of ae as e (open e) and of au as o (open o) was 
 a feature of country dialects (cf. phslrum, otta) much earlier. 
 Cicero himself in his letters often uses the more homely forms with 
 
§ 3] of Diphthongs. 13 
 
 Scheme of Latin Diphthongs. 
 
 AE Pronounce with the vowel of 'man' rapidly 
 followed by the e-vowel. 
 
 AU Pronounce with the vowel of ' water ^ rapidly 
 followed by the w-vowel. 
 
 EU as in Ital. ' neutro '(e followed by %). 
 
 OE Pronounce with Germ, o rapidly followed by the 
 e-vowel. 
 
 UI as in Ital ' colui ' (m followed by i), 
 
 § 3. Consonants. The Latin Consonants do not offer 
 much difficulty. We may give b, p, d, t, g, c, the 
 English pronunciation, being careful however always to 
 give the two last the ' hard ' sound which we are in the 
 habit of giving to Greek y and k, and never the 'soft' 
 (palatalized) sound, which the letters have in English 
 words before vowels like e, i. We must pronounce the c 
 of civitas, as of cavitas, and the g of agito, as of ago, like 
 the of our ' cavity ' and the g of our ' ago,' not like the c 
 of our ' city ' and the g of our ' agitate,' ' age.' 
 
 V had the sound of our w, j the sound of our 1/ ; and 
 if we give these letters their proper sound, we shall not 
 have much difficulty in seeing the etymological relation 
 of ne-re and neu (with the final e dropt, § 13), ca-vi-tum 
 and cautum, jam and ettam, &c., nor in understanding how' 
 
 0, e. g. Iweola for laureola, and his rival Clodius was the first of the 
 gens to change the name Claudius to its plebeian form Clodivs, with 
 the view of conciliating the mob. There is a story of Vespasian 
 being reproved by a certain Florus for using the pronunciation 
 plostmm and turning the tables on his critic by addressing him as 
 'Flaurus.' Cicero's contemporary, Varro, found this 'rustic' ae 
 a convenient expression of the open e-sound of 6k. 17 in tncr/v^, &c., 
 which he wrote scaena; but an attempt to change the name Caecilius 
 to the rustic form CecUius (like Claudius to Clodius) was successfully 
 laughed down by Lucilius in the century before (Lucil. ix. 10 M.) : 
 'Cecilius pretor" ne rusticu' fiat.' 
 
14 Pronunciation [ch. ii 
 
 the caw of a crow could be mistaken for a cry of ave, ave 
 (Phaedrus). Between vowels ^ j was doubled in pronun- 
 ciation; ejus,ioT example, was pronounced 'e^-^uft,' (with 
 open e) and was often written EIIVS (p. 7 n.). R, called 
 the ' Kttera canina,' because its sound resembled the growl 
 of a dog (cf. hirrio, to growl), must be given the trilled 
 sound of French and Italian r. 
 
 Pinal m should not be sounded, but the preceding 
 vowel should be pronounced as a nasal vowel, so that, 
 e. g., -om will sound like Fr. ' on/ In poetry when the 
 next word begins with a vowel the a of, e. g. illam 
 igitur is elided like the a of ilia igitur, the only difEerence 
 being that the a of illam is nasal. Before g the letter n 
 (as in angulus) had the same sound as our nm' angle.' S 
 must always have the ' hard ■" sound that it has in our 
 noun 'use,' never the 'soft'' sound of our verb 'to use'; 
 so pronounce usus like our noun, not like our verb. 
 Scheme of Latin Consonants. 
 
 B as Engl. 
 
 C as Engl. h. 
 
 D as Engl. 
 
 F as Engl. 
 
 G as Engl, y in ' ago/ not as ^ in ' age.' 
 
 H as Engl. 
 
 J as Engl. y. 
 
 K as Engl. 
 
 L as Engl. 
 
 M as Engl., but when final Lat. -m should be dropped 
 and a nasal pronunciation given to the pre- 
 ceding vowel, e. g. Lat. -om like Fr. on. 
 
 ' r was often dropped between vowels, especially similar vowels ; 
 e. g. Idvabrum (the old form) became labrum, a bath, st iMs became sis, 
 ' if you please.' Cf. our ' Hawarden ' pronounced with loss of «i. 
 
§§ 4» 5] of Consonants. 15 
 
 N as Engl. 
 P as Engl. 
 Q as Engl. 
 R as Scotch or Continental r, stronger than r in 
 
 ' opera.' 
 S as Engl, s of the noun ' use,' never as s of the verb 
 
 ' use.' 
 T as Engl. 
 V as Engl. w. 
 X as Engl. 
 
 § 4. Greek Iietters. To these we may add the Greek 
 letters, y, z, th, ph, eh, which, as we have seen, occur 
 only in Greek loan-words (eh. i. § 6). 7 (Greek Upsilon) 
 had the same modified «-sound as the i of optimim ; z had 
 the soft «- sound of our verb 'to use'; th, ph, eh, were 
 pronounced as in our ' ant-heap/ ' up-hill/ ' ink-horn.' 
 
 S 5. The Pronunciation of V. The use of the sign v, which 
 suggests to us a sound like that of Engl, v for Lat. vos, &c., is of 
 quite a late date. V and u were not distinguished in Latin 
 inscriptions or early MSS., the discrimination in MSS. of the capital 
 form V for consonantal u, and of the Uncial form U for vocalic «. 
 being of a late date. Even now we generally print the texts of the 
 older Latin writers, Plautus, Terence, ko., with u (and i), not with 
 V (and j), partly to give their language an archaic appearance, but 
 mainly because a large number of words which in the Classical 
 period, or the Empire, had the w- (and y-) sound, had in earlier 
 times the sound of the vowel ; lama, a spectre, mask, for example, 
 is a trisyllable in Plautus, never a disyllable ; cf. Plautine miluos, 
 a kite, reliems {grattis), for class, mibms, reliquus {gratis). The sound 
 of our V (labiodental) is indeed the sound to which Latin v 
 (bilabial) ultimately developed (e. g. Ital. ' vostro,' from Lat. vaster, 
 has our s-sound, as Ital. ' giurare,' from Lat. jurare, our j-sound) 
 and the change probably began vrith vnitial v ; but whether Cicero's 
 preference of am- to com- in compounds like convocat, conveUescit, can 
 be taken as evidence that vocai, valescii, had already in his time 
 a labiodental sound is very doubtful. Intervocalic v certainly 
 retained its bilabial sound till much later, as we see from mispro- 
 
i6 Pronunciation. [ch. h 
 
 nunciations of the Empire like paimemtum for paummtwm} B, 
 which from a bilabial mute (our 6) had between vowels become 
 a bilabial spirant (our w), is regularly used for intervocalic » in the 
 third century a.d., and it was probably not till the fifth century that 
 Latin » came to be sounded like our v. After r, the bilabial spirant 
 V came in Imperial Latin to be sounded like the bilabial mute 
 b, whence spellings like corhus (Fr. corbeau) for corvus, and the 
 classical ferbui, Perf . oiferveo. 
 
 I 6. The Pronunciation of H, TH, PH, CH. Greek 9, <p, x had 
 been in loan-words expressed by t, p, c in the Latin of the Eepublic. 
 Flautus puns on ChryscUus {Crusalus) and crudsalvs, from erwc and 
 salio (Bacch. 362), on Chai^nus {Carinus) and careo (Paeud. 736), on 
 Thalem Ace. {Talem) and taUnium (fiapt. 274). We find also 6 for tj> 
 in old spellings like Ennius' Bruges for ipvyfs, and in ialla^na for 
 (paXKuiva, a whale, and the Vulgar Greek pronunciation of x as h-kh 
 has left traces of itself in the conversational Latin of Flautus 
 {Acc{li)enms for 'k-xipaiv), and in the form admitted into classical 
 usage, bracc{h)mm for Ppaxioiv. But at the time of Cicero, when the 
 Greek study of Phonetics was introduced into Kome by Tyrannic, 
 the teacher of Cicero's friend Atticus, it was felt necessary to 
 express the Greek Aspirates more accurately by th, ph, ch ; and this 
 pronunciation was carefully followed in polite circles. The struggle 
 to attain the new shibboleth of fashion led to ludicrous misappli- 
 cations of the ft-sound by the imeducated classes, which have 
 been satirized by Catullus in his famous epigram on Arrius (84) : — 
 ' Chommoda ' dicebat, siquando commoda vellet 
 dicere, et ' hinsidias ' Arrius insidias. 
 
 Nigidius, a Grammarian of Cicero's time, emphasized the 
 importance of correctness in the use of the letter h : rusticus fit 
 sermo si adspires perperam ; and the dropping of h seems to have 
 been even in the time of St. Augustine an unpardonable breach of 
 manners (^Confess. 1. 18 : si contra disoiplinami grammaticam sine 
 adspiratione primae syllabae ' ominem ' dixerit, displiceat magis 
 hominibus, quam si contra tua praecepta hominem oderit, quum 
 sit ' homo '). Cicero {Orator 48. 160) tells us that he was forced in 
 spite of his convictions to yield so far to popular usage as to 
 pronounce pulcher, Ceihegus, triumphus, Karthago, though he still 
 adhered to Orcivius, Mato, Oto, Caepio, sepulcrum, corona, laorima. 
 Quintilian (i. 5. 20) says : diu delude servatum ne consonantibus 
 
 ' There was at all times a tendency to drop " before the accent. 
 The conversational form ot avunculus in Plautua' time was aunciiius, 
 (cf. French ' oncle '), a trisyllable. 
 
§§ 6,7] Of H, TH, PH, CH; of TI, CI. 17 
 
 [veteres] adspirarent, ut in 'Graecis' et in 'triumpis.' Empit 
 brevi tempore nimius usus, ut 'choronae,' 'chenturiones,' 
 'praechones' adhuc quibusdam in iusoriptionibus maneant, qua de 
 re CatuUi nobile epigramma est. By the fifth century a. d. Greek <p 
 had become a spirant, differing from Lat. / only in being bilabial, 
 while / was labiodental ' ; and from this time onward / is the 
 normal equivalent of (f> in Greek loan-words, e. g. slrofa (Gk. arpixpfi) ; 
 cf. Ital. filosofia, &c. The difference between the two sounds in 
 Cicero's time is seen from Quintilian's story of Cicero ridiculing 
 a Greek witness who could not pronounce the first letter of the 
 name Fundanius (Quint, i. 4. 14). 
 
 Between vowels the omission of h was sanctioned by current 
 usage in a number of words, such as nSmo (for *nS-hSmo), debeo 
 {dekibeo), praebeo {praehibeo), praeda (for *prae-Mda, from prehendo). 
 By the first century a.d. prendo and nil had established themselves 
 in current usage, also deprendo, though reprehensus was heard as 
 well as reprensus. 
 
 § 7. The Pronunciation of TI, CI, &o. The same wave of Syn- 
 cope that passed over later Latin, reducing vetvlus to vedus (cf. Ital. 
 vecehio), &c. (§ 13), made 'Tityus' out of Titius, 'hodye' out of 
 hodie, ' uncya' out of unda, &c. Through this combination of y with 
 a preceding consonant in unaccented syllables, a new series of 
 sounds, unknown in Latin, has arisen in Bomance. Latin ^mia, 
 a, monkey, has become Fr. singe (through ' simya '), Lat. dpium, 
 parsley, Fr. ache (through ' apyum '), Lat. rabies Fr. rage (through 
 'rabyes'), Lat. eambiare, Fr. changer (through 'cambyare'). Dy 
 became identified with gi, ge, and Latin j (our y), and has assumed 
 in Italian the sound of our j, e. g. Ital. giomo from Lat. diumus ; 
 while ty has developed in Italian into the sound of ts, a sound reduced 
 in French to an s-sound, in Spanish to a sound like our th in ' thin ' 
 (written in Spanish z), e. g. Ital. ■piazza,, Fr. place, Span, plaza, all 
 from Lat. plcUla through ' platya.' The grammarians of the later 
 Empire have fortunately left us a good many remarks on this 
 change of sound, so that we can trace pretty clearly the course of its 
 development in Latin. The palatalization of t seems from their 
 account to have begun in the fourth cent. a. d., and to have been 
 fairly established by the fifth. About the same time cy became 
 assibilated ; and so confusions of -ci- and -ii- before a vowel are 
 common in late inscriptions and in MSS. (§ 10). 
 
 The palatalization of c before e, i, e. g. decern, was much later than 
 
 ' Latin / was originally bilabial, but became labiodental in the 
 last centuries of the Republic. Its bilabial character is seen from 
 old spellings like imfronte, corrifluant (class, confluunt). 
 
 C 
 
i8 Pronunciation. [ch. n 
 
 the palatalization of ey, e. g. decies, certainly not before the sixth or 
 seventh centuries A. d. For no grammarian hints at a difference of 
 sound in c before a broad and before a narrow vowel, although the 
 assibilation of ti, ci, before a vowel is mentioned again and again. 
 Greek transcriptions of Latin words with c Invariably reproduce it by 
 K, in cases like KHN20N for censwm, KPHSKHN2 for Orescens ; Latin 
 loan-words in Welsh (first to fifth centuries) show that Latin c was 
 hard in all positions, e. g. Welsh cwyr (Lat. cera), ciwdawd (Lat. cim- 
 tatem), and similarly German Keller (Lat. ceUanum), Kiste (Lat. cista), 
 &c. ; it is not till the seventh century that spellings like pose for pcux 
 assert themselves on inscriptions. G before e, i may have assumed 
 the sound t^ at a somewhat earlier period. But the dropping of 
 g between two vowels in late spellings like vinti for mginii (jihe pre- 
 cursor of Ital. venti), Menta for iriginia, cannot be dissociated from 
 spellings likefmalitas for frugalitas, where it is dropt before a broad 
 vowel, and points merely to intervocalic g having become, when 
 pretonic, a spirant, like g of German Tage, just as intervocalic 
 b became a w-sound in the third cent. a. n. ( § 5). 
 
 § 8. The Pronunciation of Ii, B. The Latin writers on Grammar 
 tell us that J had a 'pinguis' or 'plenus sonus' in two cases, (i) 
 when it ended a word or when it was followed by another consonant, 
 e. g. sol, silva, aibus, (2) in combinations like fl, d, e. g. JlS/mis, cldrus ; 
 and an ' exilis ' or ' tenuis sonus,' (i) at the beginning of a word, 
 K. g. ledus, lana, lupus, and especially (2) double I, e. g. iUe, MeteUus, 
 AUia. The development of Lat. Z in the Romance languages points to 
 post-consonantal I having been pronounced with what phoneticians 
 call an 'off-glide,' e.g. (flarus (Ital. chiaro from clyaro), and pre- 
 consonantal I vrith an ' onglide,' e. g. ctUer (Fr. autre from aultre). 
 I.-Eur. i in Latin became before I, e. g. nolo, but remained before II 
 and before I followed by the vowels e or i, e. g. mile, velim, which points 
 to n, fe, li, having had more the palatal Z-sound. So in Spanish the 
 sound known as ' 1 mouilUe ' is given to Latin 11, e. g. caballo, 
 ' a horse,' the sound given by Italian to Lat. li before a vowel (ly), 
 e. g. miglia (cf. our 'million'), bigliardo (our 'billiards'). 
 
 The repetition of Hn a word was avoided by the substitijtion of 
 r for one I. The I.-Eur. suffix -tlo- (ch. xi. § 9), Lat. -do-, became 
 -cro- after a stem with I, e. g. fulcrum from/wte'o, symlcrum from sepdio, 
 lamcrum from too, sinaMemm from simulo ; and the Latin Grammar- 
 ians prescribed the use of the suffix -ris when the stem contained an 
 I, of -lis when it contained an r, e. g. auguralis, mUlaris. The reluctance 
 of the Romans to begin two successive syllables with a consonant 
 followed by r is seen in forma like praestlgiae for praestrigiae, legerde- 
 main, incrlbui for ivcrebrui. 
 
 Metathesis of r (aud 2) was as common in bad Latin as in had 
 
§§8,9] Of L, R; of Syllables. 19 
 
 English, and mispronunciations of the kind are often censured by 
 the Latin Grammarians. We have in Plautus, e. g. Phyrgio (Aul. 
 508) for Phrygio, carcotarii (Aid. 521) for crocotarii. Columns is the 
 Adjective from coriiZus, a hazel. 
 
 At the end of the third century b. c. the (dialectal ?) substitution 
 of I for d found its way into the literary language in a few words, 
 where it seemed to be sanctioned by etymology. Dinffua (cf. Engl. 
 ' tongue ') became lingua (by analogy of lingo, I lick), daeruma (cf. Gk. 
 Sa/cpv) became laeruma (by analogy of tacgr?), dautia, the enter- 
 tainment of ambassadors, became lautia (by analogy of lautus), *odeo 
 (cf. Gk. oftu) became oleo. 
 
 Another temporary pronunciation, which did not however leave 
 a permanent mark on the language, was the substitution of an r- 
 sound for d before/ and p about the same period. This is seen in old 
 spellings like arvena for adv^na, arfari for adfari, and is preserved 
 in the legal formula scriiieniJo arfuerunt (written SCR. ARE.). 
 
 § 9. SyUable-Divisioii. A caution too must be given 
 about the pronunciation of Latin Syllables, which 
 should follow the Italian more than the English fashion. 
 Each syllable should be pronounced distinctly, with its 
 due share of utterance ; it should never end in a conso- 
 nant, if the consonant can possibly be pronounced at the 
 beginning of the next syllable. And double consonants 
 must be pronounced double, as in Italian, with one at the 
 end of the first syllable and the other at the beginning of 
 the second. So pronounce pro-fu-gus, not 'prof'gus,' be- ne, 
 not ' ben-e,' ma-gnus, rather than ' mag-nus,^ hueca and 
 jpenna like our ' book-case,' ' pen-knife,' and so on ^. 
 
 Double * and double I passed in certain circumstances 
 into the lengthened sound, hardly distinguishable in 
 the case of these consonants from the repeated sound; 
 and were reduced to single s and single l\ ss, after 
 a diphthong or long vowel, II, after a diphthong. Thus 
 causisa, glossa, ' a difficult word,' or ' the explanation of 
 
 ' A mispronunciation like ' jusit ' for jussit, ' ile ' for iSe was, we 
 are told, one to which the Greeks were especially liable. 
 
 c a 
 
20 Pronunciation. [ch. h 
 
 a difficult word ' (Gk. yXSxTtra), formossus, pauUum, the 
 spellings of Cicero's time, became at the beginning of 
 the Imperial Age causa, glosa, formosus, paulum. So 
 with U between long i and another i, e. g. milia, Plur. of 
 mille, vilicus, a farm-bailiff, from villa, and with nn in 
 eonulium, conecto, conitor for connulium, &c. 
 
 A double consonant at the end of a word is not found 
 in Latin. Thus we have miles for *miless from the stem 
 milU- with the.Nom. Sg. suffix -s (ch. iii. ^ 8) ; es, thou 
 art, for *esg from the root es-, to be, with the 2 Sg. suffix 
 -s (ch. vi. § 19); koc for *Aocc (cf . hoc-ci-ne) from the 
 Neut. Pron. *hod with the particle c{e) (ch. v. § 3). 
 Before a word beginning with a consonant these would at 
 all times have their double s, c reduced to single *, c, 
 and this pronunciation gradually came into fashion before 
 a vowel also. But in the time of Plautus we find the last 
 syllable of such words always a long syllable, and even in 
 the classical time /wo (and after its example Mc, ch. v. § 3) 
 is found as a syllable long by position, pronounced, 
 though not spelt, Aocc before an initial vowel, with short 
 and double c. 
 
 ' Doublet ■'-forms like these, es before an initial con- 
 sonant, *ess before an initial vowel (cf . our ' a ' before 
 a consonant, ' an ' before a vowel) are common in Latin, 
 On ac (for *ato) and alque, nee and neque, proin and proinde, 
 see § I a. Final d, which was at an early period dropt in 
 pronunciation after a long vowel, passed through this 
 ' doublet ' stage, the ^-less forms having been originally 
 confined to c£ises when an initial consonant followed. In 
 the time of Plautus the only relics of -d after a long vowel 
 are the monosyllables med, ted, sed, hand. They have the d- 
 less form before a consonant, e. g. me tamen, Jiau scio, and 
 the first three often before a vowel too, e. g. me enim as 
 
§ lo] Orthography, 21 
 
 well as med enim. By the classical time the <^-less 
 formSj me, te, se, have driven the r/-forms off the field,, 
 but the form Aaud continued to assert itself. 
 
 § 10. Orthography. Latin spelling was phonetic, 
 representing the actual sounds uttered in pronouncing 
 the word, the cases where a spelling was due to Gram- 
 marians^ theories being few and exceptional. Such a 
 ' grammarians' spelling ' was the bs of urbs, which was 
 pronounced (and often spelt) ps, it being impossible to 
 pronounce b along with the Latin s, which had the hard 
 (unvoiced) sound of our noun 'use ■" (§ 3). The spelling 
 with b is due to the analogy of the Gen., Dat., &c., urbis, 
 urbi. A variety of spelling may generally be taken 
 to represent a variety of pronunciation. For example 
 spellings like /lospicium for /lospitium (from hospes,-itk), 
 concio for co?itio (from co{n)uentio), nwicius for nuntius 
 (from noventius) are spellings not earlier than the fifth 
 cent. A.D., when ti and ci had both, before a vowel, come 
 to be sounded with an «-sound (§ 7) ; spellings like hereo 
 for haereo are later than the fourth cent, a.d., by which 
 time ae and e (open e) had become indistinguishable in 
 pronunciation (§ 2) : spellings like autor for auctor are also 
 late and point to the pronunciation of ct as tl (cf . Ital. otto 
 from Lat. octo). On the other hand optumus, maxumiis, &c. 
 are early spellings, before the time of Augustus (see § i) ; 
 so are the double-consonant forms, caussa,formossus, &e. 
 (see § 9); equos, &e., loquontur, &c., are the oldest spellings, 
 then ecus, locuntur, then in Trajan's time equus, loquuntur 
 (see p. 31). The uncertainty about the pronunciation of 
 h (§ 6) is reflected in spellings like arena for harena, olus 
 for holus, vegetable, arioliis for hariolus, a soothsayer, 
 humeo and humidus for umeo and umidus. Often a wrong 
 spelling is due to a perverted etymology; thus deliro 
 
22 Accentuation. {ch. n 
 
 was written delero, as if connected with Gk. A7;p&> ; 
 letum was written letlium (cf, Engl, lethal) and referred 
 to Gk. \r\9r] ; sepulcrum from sepelio (§ 8) was fantastically 
 derived from se, without, and pulcer, misspelt j>ulcAer, and 
 was written sepulchrum {on pulcher, »ylva, &c. tax pulcer, 
 silva see ch. i. § 6 ; ef . Engl. ' sepulchre,' ' sylvan ') ; eena 
 appears at a very early time as coena, through confusion 
 with Gk. Kowos ; comminus {cum and manus) was wrongly 
 written cominus on the analogy of e minus and so on. 
 
 § 11. Accentuation. The rules of the Latin Accent 
 are so simple that it was never found necessary to 
 indicate by accent-marks the syllable on which the 
 accent was to fall, as was done in Greek. In Latin 
 the quantity of the penultimate syllable regulates ac- 
 centuation, as the quantity of the final in Greek. 
 When the penultimate syllable is long, the accent rests 
 upon it; when short, on the antepenultimate, e.g. 
 decores, decores. This is also the natural English 
 practice. There are however a few points of diflBculty. 
 Monosyllables with a long vowel, like jlos, mos, res, 
 had a ' Circumflex ■" Accent, the voice rising first and 
 then falling slightly, and so had long final syllables 
 of words whose last vowel has been dropt by Apocope 
 or Syncope, e. g. iUic, ' there,^ from *iUlce, nostras, ' of 
 our country,' from nostrdtis (Plant.), audU for audwil, 
 adduc for adduce, while monosyllables or apocopated 
 finals with a naturally short vowel had the ordinary 
 ' Acute ' Accent, e. g. niie {nwis Gen.), pars, illmc from 
 *illim-ce. Again the Voc. and Gen. Sg. in -i of Nouns 
 in -ius, -ium, were from the beginning of the Empire, or 
 earlier, pronounced with the accent on the paenultima, 
 even when the paenultima was short, e.g. VaUri, 
 VergUi, tuguri. This accentuation, introduced by Latin 
 
§ ii] Of Word; of Sentence. 23 
 
 writers on Grammar under the mistaken idea that these 
 forms were contractions of an earlier Valerii, Tergilii, 
 tngurii, &e. (ch. iii. § 6), was observed in the speech of 
 the educated classes (cf . § i a on nostras). Further some 
 of the usages of what is called ' Sentence- Accentuation ' 
 must be noticed, for the accent which a word would bear, 
 if uttered separately, may be different from the accent 
 assigned to it, when standing with other words in 
 a sentence. The Greek Preposition irpo'sj for example, 
 had, if mentioned by itself, an acute accent. But in the 
 sentence its accent was obscured by the Noun which it 
 governed, e. g. irpos -noXiv, and this by the Greek system 
 was expressed by replacing its acute with a grave accent. 
 Similarly in Latin a Preposition, say supra, or a Relative, 
 say qudlis, were in sentences like supra moenia stat, talis 
 est qualis Cicero fuit, united with the following word 
 into a word-group which took the ordinary accent of 
 a single word, supra-moenia, qualis-Cioero. The Adverb 
 supra and the Interrogative qualis were not subordinated, 
 but retained their independent accent, supra Jiabitat, 
 qualis fuit Cicero ? Other words which became subor- 
 dinate or enclitic in the ordinary utterance of the 
 sentence were : — (i) the various parts of the Substantive 
 Verb, e.g. amdtus-est (often written by the Romans 
 amdtust), (a) the Personal and Possessive Pronouns, 
 unless specially emphasized, e. g. in-me, dd-me (cf . Gk. 
 ■j7/)os fj.(, Trpos are, or our ' for him,'' ' with him,' with the 
 stress of the voice on ' for,' ' with,' unless the Pronoun 
 is emphasized, as in 'for me, but not for thee'), meus- 
 dominus, mea-domina (Ital. Madonna), (3) the Demon- 
 strative Pronouns, when unemphatic, e.g. ille-dominus 
 (pronounced with Syncope of -e, iU'-dominus). From 
 this unemphatic use of the Demonstrative Pronoun has 
 
24 Accentuation. [ch. n 
 
 sprung the Romance Definite Article, e.g. Ital. 'il 
 padre/ Span. ' el padre,' (4) Conjunctions like et, sed, 
 (5) Auxiliary Verbs, such as volo in volo-scire, cave in 
 cave-fdcias. Such Auxiliaries have in the languages 
 derived from Latin' been reduced to mere Tense-signs, 
 e. g. Fr. ' i'aimerai ' from Lat. amare-ha{be)o, ' j'ai fait ' 
 from Lat, ka{be)o-factum. The subordination of many 
 of these words was indicated by the Roman way of 
 writing ; the Preposition was often written along with 
 its Noun in one word, just as it was along with its Verb 
 in a Compound Verb, incurrum, like incurro (cf. imprimu, 
 dbviam, ddmodum, denuo, for de novo, § 1 5), while Auxi- 
 liaries like luhet, volo, were in certain cases similarly 
 treated, e. g., qudlibet, qudmvis, quantumvis. And spell- 
 ings like quomodo, quare, postridie (iov posteri die), decem- 
 viri show that these Nouns, modus, res, dies, vir, were 
 subordinated in Latin speech, just as in English ' thing,' 
 ' kind,'' ' part,' &c., are used without stress iji phrases 
 like ' something (nothing) of that kind,'J«)me parts of 
 England.' The Enclitics -que, -ve are examples of I.- 
 Eur. Enclitics (cf. Gk. re, *Fi in 7j-e from *^-f e). 
 
 We saw above (§ 9) that the Latin pronunciation, like 
 modern Italian, gave each syllable its due share of utter- 
 ance, while the English slurs the unaccented syllables, 
 and so has, for example, reduced ' fantasy ' to ' fancy ■' 
 and has given 'minute' (Lat. minutum) the sound of 
 ' minit'. But this difference between Latin and English 
 is not more than one of degree. For the Latin Accent 
 was like ours a stress-accent; at all events it was an 
 accent mainly of stress, though this stress was probably 
 accompanied by a slightly higher tone than the tone of 
 the unstressed syllables. And like all languages with 
 stress-accent Latin had, though not to the same extent as 
 
§ 12] The Early Accent Law. 25 
 
 English, the tendency to weaken the unstressed syllable, 
 a tendency still seen in its modern representative, the 
 Italian language (e£. Ital. ' gridare ' from Lat. quwUdre 
 ' to shout,' ' shout for protection,' ' balsimo ' from Lat. 
 balsamum, 'albero' from arbSrem). The Latin stress-accent 
 left traces of itself at all periods of the language in the 
 Syncope, the Weakening, and the Shortening of unac- 
 cented vowels, three processes which have so materially 
 altered the appearance of the language that they must 
 be treated in detail in separate paragraphs. 
 
 § 12. Syncope ofUnaccented Vowels. For a century 
 or two before the literary period the law of accentuation 
 which was mentioned in the last paragraph, the ' Paenul- 
 tima Law,' as it is called, did not prevail. Every word 
 was at that time accented on the first syllable. Long 
 words had, of course, as they had at all periods of the 
 language, a secondary accent as well as the main accent ^, 
 but in them, as well as in shorter words, the main 
 accent rested on the first syllable. vThe change to the 
 Paenultima Law of Accentuation began in these long 
 words with the substitution of the main accent for the 
 secondary, the secondary for the main ; e. g. fempesiatibus 
 became tempe«tdtibus, elemertlum became elementum (like 
 our 'elemental'). The change to the Paenultima Law 
 was not wholly completed at the beginning of the literary 
 period, for the accent was still on the first syllable of 
 words like fdcilius, bdlineum (later balneum), that is to 
 say words of the scansion w w w — , in the time of Plautus. 
 Instances of Syncope under the Early Accent Law are : 
 (i) of Prepositions in Compounds, e.g. anculus, an 
 
 ' Cf. any English long word, say ' characteristical,' which has 
 the main accent {') on the antepenultimate, the secondary (') on the 
 first syllable. 
 
26 Change of Sound. [ch. h 
 
 old word for ' servant ' (whence andlla), for *amhi-qiiolus 
 (Gk. a.ix(f>L-Tio\os). By Syncope of this kind the old 
 Preposition amid was reduced to am- in Compounds ; 
 similarly the old Preposition endo,ind^,oT indu was reduced 
 to ind-, in-, and became confused with the Preposition iti; 
 e.g. indttperator came to be pronounced as imperator, 
 indugredi as ingredi ; (3) of the second syllable of the 
 first member of a Compflund, fi.g. i,<mpes for *kosti-j)et-s, 
 from i^ostis in its old sense of ' a stranger ' ; princeps for 
 *pnmi-ceps i/orceps, the smith'stongs,for''yorM*-cep*from 
 formws, hot, connected with Greek Oepjxos (ch. x. § 18) j 
 guindecim from quinque and <?ece»? ; undecim, from «m«* 
 and rZecew? ; vindemia, vintage, for *mm-demia, from demo; 
 (3) of the first syllable of the Reduplicated Perfect 
 of a Compoimd Verb, e.g. rettuli for re-tetuli (eh. vi. 
 § 10), repperi for re-peperi, recctdi for re-cecidi, where the 
 double consonant preserves a trace of the Syncope. 
 
 When a short vowel following r was syncopated, the 
 pronimciation of r without a vowel (as in the final syllable 
 of Fr. ' sacre,' &c.) led to the form er. Thus *sacro-dos, 
 *sacn-dos became sacerdos ; *sacro-lom became *sacerlom, 
 sacellum. Similarly -l^- appears in the syllable after the 
 accent as iil (older SI) infacultas, &c. A syllable like v% 
 ve became after Syncope 11 in autumo for ^am-tumo (cf . Gk. 
 010) for 6F-lcm>), auceps for *avi-ceps. But forms like Iddrum 
 for the older lavdbrum, d^nus for dlvinug, audissem for 
 avdivissem, and the like, are not due to Syncope, but to 
 the habit of dropping v in pronunciation between two 
 vowels, especially similar vowels (§ 3 «.). Nor should 
 we refer to Syncope such a change as dixti for dixisti, 
 misse for misisse, debilitare for delilitatare, idolatria for 
 idololatria, where, owing to the unpleasant effect of tv^o 
 neighbouring syllables having the same sound, one has 
 
§ 12] Syncope. 2-] 
 
 been suppressed. Saeclum is not a syncopated form of 
 saeculwm, for saeclum is the older^ while in saeculum a vowel 
 has been inserted between the c and the I to aid pronuncia- 
 "tion, like the parasitic » of mina, a Greek loan-word, jnwa, 
 with which we may compare Fr. ' canif,' a German loan- 
 word, ' Knif / or the parasitic u of Tecumessa [TiK^r\aa-o),iov 
 which Tecmessa was first used in Cieero''s tijae-L On this 
 ending -cuius, -culum, and -clus, -clum, see ch. xi. § 9. 
 
 Later instances of Syncope, after the time when the 
 Paenultima Law had come in, are calfacio, for cale-facio, 
 originally cale-facio (§ 16), lamna, a bar of metal, from 
 lamniina (Plant.), oljurgo, to scold, from objurigo (Plant.). 
 Soldus (Hor. Sat. ii. 5. 65 metuentis reddere soldum), 
 for solulus, is the form that represented the ordinary 
 pronunciation of every-day life, and caldtcs, we are told, 
 was the form approved by the Emperor Augustus ; 
 though it was only in a few words that Syncope after a 
 short syllable under the Paenultima Law was admitted 
 into the literary language, e.g. valde, of which the full 
 form valide is still found in Plautus. 
 
 Syncope of the final syllable was a great feature of 
 the Oscan and other Italic languages, but not of Latin. 
 The Oscan word for 'Campanian,^ for example, was 
 Campans, while the Latin was Campanus ; and Plautus 
 mimics this Oscan pronunciation in his cruel sneer at 
 the conquered Campanians {Trin. 545): 
 
 Oampans genus 
 Mulio Surorum iam antidit patiSntia, 
 ' friend Campans is now far ahead of the Syrian race in 
 endurance.'' Final -ris is syncopated in Adjs. like acer, 
 Masc. of the stem dcri-, but this Syncope, like that of -ros 
 in agar (Gk. aypds), &c. (ch. iii. § 6), is pre-Latin, earlier 
 '■ Other examples of the Parasitic Vowel in the early forms of 
 Greek loan-words are the Plautine tSchma, drachuma, Alcumena. 
 
28 Change of Sound. [ch. u 
 
 tban the separate existence of the Latin dialect of the 
 Italic language. The -tls of words like nostrdtis, ' our 
 countryman/ of which the full forms only are known to 
 Plautus, is usually said to have been reduced to -{t)g in 
 nostras, &c. by Syncope ; but the new Nominative may 
 rather be due to the analogy of a declension like amans 
 Nom., amantis Gen., where -* in the Nom. case corresponds 
 to -tis in the Gen. case. A Gen. PL like deum is sometimes 
 called a 'contracted^ form of deorum, but most mistakenly; 
 for -um (Gk. -uv) is the earlier suffix of the Gen. PI. of the 
 Second Declension, while -drum, formed on the analogy 
 of -drum of the First Declension, was an innovation 
 introduced about the beginning of the literary period 
 (see eh. iii. § 6). But a final -e (-1) was dropped in pro- 
 nunciation, especially in words closely joined with the 
 word that followed them, e.g. nee for neque, ac (i. e. *atc) for 
 atque, neu for neve, seu for sive, qu'm for qulne (ch. ix. § 15), 
 tot for *tot'i (ef. tSfi-dem). Three Imperatives, which 
 were much iised in word-groups, lost their final -e in the 
 second century B.C., die, due, and/ac. In Plautus the 
 full forms are still used, when there is anything of a 
 pause after the word ; ef . Mil. 256 dice, monstra, praecipe, 
 and especially Rud. 134: 
 
 tu, siquid opus est, dice. Die quod t6 rogo. 
 {On fer see ch. vi. § 14.) ■ 
 
 § 13. Details of Xiatin Syncope. The conditions under which 
 Vowel-syncope was carried out differed at different periods. A 
 vowel between « and m was not syncopated, because the consonant- 
 group nm was difficult to pronounce, e. g. anima not anma, though 
 in the Eomance development of the Latin language we find that 
 Syncope has been pushed a stage further, e. g. Old Fr. anme, alme, 
 arme, Fr. &nie. Span, alma, Ital. alma (in poetry). (So frigidus 
 appears in all the Boraance languages in a syncopated shape, 
 e. g. Ital. freddo, Fr. froid, &c.). Analogy also may often prevent 
 Syncope, or, after words have been syncopated, may restore them 
 
§ 13] Syncope. 29 
 
 to their original form. Thus pargo, for example, was restored to 
 porrigo by the analogy of the Perfect porrexi ; and the analogy of other 
 Adjectives in -idus, where this termination was preceded by some 
 uneombinable consonant, e. g. frigidus, may account for the exist- 
 ence of unsyncopated Adjeotiyes like calidus ; for the consonants 
 in calidus, I and d, are of a kind that would easily combine. 
 There are then two cases in which Latin vowels resisted Syncope ; 
 (i) when they stood between consonants which did not easily 
 combine, (2) when in whole classes of words Syncope was 
 prevented or effaced by the analogy of unsyncopated forms. With 
 these exceptions it seems to have been the rule in Early Latin 
 that S, i in the syllable after the accent always suffered syncope, 
 unless they were long by ' position.' This l, ?, might be original 
 S, i, or the reduced (posttonio) form of original a, (0). The Early 
 Latin accent fell, as we have seen, on the first syllable of each 
 word, so that every i, iin a second syllable, not long by position, 
 must have suffered Syncope. 
 
 The new law of accentuation, the Paenultima Law, brought with 
 it the possibility of a new variety, namely, suppression of the 
 syllable preceding the accent, Pretonie Syncope. It is often 
 difficult to say whether a case of Syncope is pretonie or posttonic. 
 In words like ardere, drdorem, for example, we say that the Syncope 
 of { of aridere, aridorem is due to the new accent on the penult, 
 aridire, aridorem ; but it might possibly be referred to the influence 
 of the old accent on the first syllable, aridere, aridorem. Forms 
 like artcetia (Gk. d/wraiva), persiroma (Gk. wfpiiTTpana), both used by 
 Luciliua, and both borrowed no doubt after the old Accent Law 
 had ceased to operate, are clearer cases of Pretonie Syncope. And 
 the influence of the following accent, rather than the mere addition 
 of extra syllables, seems to be the real factor in the Syncope in 
 the literary period of such words as frigddria (Lucil.) TaeaiAe frigidus, 
 calddrius beside calidus, poriorium beside portitor, postridie beside posteri, 
 altrinseeus beside dlteri. The unaccented -vi- of amdus, which resisted 
 Syncope in the simple adjective-form, succumbed to the influence 
 of the following accent in the lengthened Derivative *amdere, audere, 
 to dare, properly ' to have a mind for ' ; ct. si avdes, if you please 
 (Plaut.), class, sodes. 
 
 The analogy of these lengthened Derivatives, e. g. ardere, ardorem, 
 caused or aided the Syncope of the simple Adjective, e.g. ardus 
 (Lucil.). Similarly aet- for aeoit- in aeias may have come into use 
 first in the lengthened cases aetdHs, aetdti, aetdtem, or in Derivatives 
 like aeiemus. But in the literary period, as in the earlier, there 
 was always the tendency to Syncope, and a word like aridus would, 
 we may be sure, in the careless utterance of every-day speech 
 
30 Change of Sound. [ch, n 
 
 be pronounced ar'dus, though circumstances might operate in 
 preventing this form from being accepted in literary Latin. Quin- 
 tilian (i. 6. 19) tells us that Augustus stigmatized as a piece of 
 affectation the use of calidus for caMus : non quia id non sit latinum, 
 sedquia sit odiosum, et, ut ipse Graeeo verbo significavit, irepiepyov, 
 and yet a Grammarian some centuries after (Appendix Probi 198. 
 3. K.) puts ccdda under the same condemnation aafrigda, mrdis. 
 
 Posttonic Syncope, under the new accent-law, seems, during the 
 Republic and Early Empire, to occur only when the accented 
 vowel is long, e. g. idrca (our ' barque '), from *'barica, a word 
 introduced at the time of Caesar's naval displays in the Circus, 
 although we find it in the period of the Early Literature in words 
 of four or more syllables where three short syllables preceded 
 the final, e. g. halinhim (Plaut. and Ter.), a spelling which did not 
 yield for some time to later hdlnmm. Opiiumus was the form in 
 use about the beginning of the literary period, but soon became 
 optumus. These words, as we saw above (§ 12), had in the time 
 of Plautus and Terence the accent on the first syllable, bdlinmm 
 producing balneum, &c. Similarly opificina (Plaut.), accented 
 bpijicina, produced offieina ; pueritia, accented pueritia, produced the 
 puertia of Horace (C. i. 36. 8). But forms like caldus from ccUidiis, 
 virdis from mridis, domnus for dominus, vedus for vetulus, are a feature 
 of colloquial or Vulgar Latin, and were not as a rule established 
 in the language till the later Empire ; though vaide, older valide 
 (Plaut.), and a few other words were current at a much earlier time. 
 
 The same wave of Syncope that reduced mridis, dominvs, vetulus, 
 &c., to disyllabic forms attacked «, i in hiatus (before a vowel). As 
 early as the latter half of the first century a.d. tenuis varied between 
 a disyllable and a trisyllable ; cardus, for carduus, a thistle, mortus, 
 for mortuus, &c., are the precursors of the Romance forms (Ital., 
 Span, cardo ; Ital. morto. Span, muerto, Pr. mort) ; while the 
 similar reduction of i (e) led to that palatalization of consonants 
 which has so transformed the whole appearance of the Romance 
 languages, e. g. Ital. piazza, Span, plaza, Pr. place from Yulg. Lat. 
 *platya, Lat. plcitea, &c. (see § 7). 
 
 § 14. Weakening of Unaccented Vowels. The a o£ 
 affo remains unchanged in the simple Verb, where it has 
 the accentj but in a compound like abiffo it has by the 
 classical period become *. This change is not known in 
 Greek (e.g. dsraya) like &y<o), and is an effect of the 
 Latin Stress-accent. In the period of the Early Literature 
 
§14] Weakening of Unaccented Vowels. 31 
 
 we find e instead of i, e.g. aiego (Plant.), and before 
 a labial v,, e. g, surrupui, surruptus (Plant.) from sub and 
 rapio; e is the vowel still found in the classical age 
 before r, e. g. peperi from pario, but meminiixom. the root 
 men.-, or before a consonant-group, e. g. remex from 
 remus and ago, prinoeps from primus and ca/iw. Even 
 diphthongs were changed through loss of stress, their 
 first element being affected, ai became * (through ei), au 
 became u (through eu), e. g. occido (earlier occeido) from 
 caido (class, caedo), occludo from claudo. But not long 
 vowels, e.g. invddo from vddo, irrepo from repo, impldro 
 from plow. Unaccented became u about the same time 
 that e passed in the unaccented syllable to * ; and %, 
 especially when an i followed in the next syllable, passed 
 into \ or into that «-sound which was written i (§ i) ; 
 e. g. exsoles is the old Latin form of exules, from which 
 comes exilium ; quercuhus became qiiercibus (cf . optumus 
 andoptimns, § j). Bute, when not before a Labial, remains, 
 e. g. in Compounds like invoco, advooo, and even before a 
 Labial when a vowel precedes, e. g.Jlliolns ^. In the final 
 syllable it was invariably reduced ^, e. g. vicus, older -0* 
 (cf. Gk. oiKos), although after tt or v the spelling with 
 was long retained to avoid the awkward collocation uu, 
 e. g. vivos, divos, eqtios (written ecus in the Augustan 
 Age, later equus, § 10). In the Imperial Age the 
 fashion of preserving in Compounds the vowel of the 
 Simple Verb came in, so that consacro, for example, 
 
 ' So ? remains after i, e. g. ehrietas, s^detas, parietem. 
 
 ' So S became t, e. g. matris Gen. from *matrSs, legis a Sg. from *leges, 
 legit 3 Sg. from *legSt. But as a final vowel S took the place of i, e. g. 
 mare for 'mart, triste for *tristl (ch. iii. § 8), and perhaps of any short 
 vowel. If a consonant is added, -S becomes i again, e. g. UK but iUic 
 (used for iUe in the Dramatists). Hence sidne, hoccine, &c., for S5-c(^ 
 Aoc-(cS) with the Interrogative -ne added, quippini for qiiippe with »», 
 and the like. 
 
32 Change of Sound. [ch. h 
 
 was now written for consecro, the older spelling ; and at 
 the same time the Accent was, at least in the vulgar 
 speech, shifted from the Preposition to the Verb ; e. g. 
 demdrat is the Vulgar Latin form of demoratur, whence 
 Ital. dim6raj Fr. demeure ; from renegat, Ital. reniega 
 (cf . Shakespeare's ' renege'). 
 
 §15. Details of Latin Vowel-weakening. These changes of short 
 vowels and diphthongs are proper to the syllable next the accent, 
 the weakest syllable in every language with Stress-accentuation, that 
 is to say to the second syllable of every word under the Early Accent 
 Law (512). A syllable with a secondary accent, like the paenultima 
 of *pdrricmda (so accented under this law), would not be liable to 
 change, but often did in fact change its vowel after the analogy of 
 kindred words, ■where the same vowel followed immediately on the 
 accent, e. g. *6o-caido ; whence O. Lat. paricidas (ch. iii. § 4). On the 
 other hand, the analogy of the simple word with accented root- vowel 
 would often save the vowel of the Compound from being changed, 
 e. g. vades et subvades (XII Tab.), where the a of vades is not 
 weakened as it is in praevides (on an early inscr.), later praedes. And 
 at any period in the history of the language the sense of the relation 
 of a Compound to a simple word might lead to the restoration of 
 a vowel to its accented quality. This ' Eecomposition ' was 
 stimulated by the grammatical studies imported from Greece 
 towards the close of the Bepublic, and /prosecuted with zest for 
 many centuries, so that in the period of the Early Literature, 
 the change of unaccented vowels is more the rule than it is later, 
 e. g. the weakening of the diphthong ae (ai) in 0. Lat. forms like 
 carmptum, ob^ptwm. The analogy of the Nominative preserved from 
 change the vowel in the Oblique Cases of arborem, fidguris, &c., 
 as on the other hand the analogy of the Oblique Cases has sub- 
 stituted ^ for i in the Nom. integer ; and the analogy of the Compound 
 Verb has changed the spelling of the little used Simple Verb in 
 spicio, plico. Compounds, too, which were made for the occasion, 
 or were rarely employed, like 0. Lat. hosiicapas, a conqueror of 
 the enemy (eh. iii. § 4), urbi-eapus (Plaut.), would escape the 
 change which befel a word established in use, like prin-ceps, 
 muni-ceps. But with these exceptions the change of the short 
 vowels, and the diphthongs of the second syllable is very regular 
 in Latin ; though the oldest inscription extant, Manias med flaked ' 
 
 ' The letter/ is written fH (eh. i. § 4). 
 
■§15] Weakening of Unaccented Vowels. 33 
 
 Numasioi, ' Manius me fecit Numerio,' belongs to an epoch when 
 this law was not in operation, and when Latin was less removed 
 from the state of the other Italic languages, which do not change 
 the unaccented vowel (cf. Umbr. ProparUo-, Lat. Propertius). 
 
 The usual course taken by the weakened vowel might be altered 
 by other Phonetic Laws. It is, for example, a Phonetic Law of 
 Latin that g became ? before ng, e. g. Ungo from *tengo (Gk. riyya) 
 (ch. X. § 4). Hence we have infringo, amfringo, and not Hnfrengo, 
 *confrengo, &c., as compounds of frango. The same law of the 
 influence of J on a preceding vowel that leaves velim, velle beside 
 volo, volt (§ 8), gives us 0. Lat. famelia as the earlier stage oifamilia, 
 the Collective of famulus, 0. Lat. *famolos. The Latin tendency 
 to assimilate the vowel of neighbouring syllables (cf. mormrdi, 
 from earlier mmwrdi, ch. vi. § lo) was especially antagonistic to 
 the Law of Weakening in Compounds like exemo, elego, neglego, the 
 better spellings, and explains why we have surripio beside surrupui 
 in MSS. of Plautus, and in class. Lat. incolumis {incolomis Plant., &c.), 
 monumentum (as well as monimentum), elementum, sepelio, coluber, segetis 
 Gen., Seneca, tremebundus, cdouiris, aicaupis Gen. 
 
 Examples of the older spelling of weakened vowels are : — in 
 medial syllables (i) o for u : on early inscriptions, cmisoluerunt, 
 consoleretur, consoltu, eonsol, consolibus, pocolom, concUidbol^is, in MSS. of 
 Plautus exsolatum, incolomis, (2) « for i : on early inscriptions, 
 Oinumama ('Unimamma,' an Amazon), tesiumonium, in MSS. of 
 Plautus magnuflce, sa^uficem, camufex. Manufestus, dissupo, victuma 
 are the anteclassical, manifestus, dissipo, irictima, the classical 
 spellings, like optumus and opUmus (§ 7), (3) e for i : on early 
 inscriptions, meretod ' merito,' qppedeis ' oppidis,' in MSS. of Plautus 
 ablgit, of Lucretius accSdo. We have in final syllables, e. g. 0. Lat. 
 cosentiont ' consentiunt,' dederont, nequinont ' nequeunt,' opos, Venos, 
 fllios, iMciom, donom, Salutes Gen. Sg. 
 
 Other examples of the change in classical forms are : — (i) e 
 before a consonant-group : inlSx from O. Lat. lacio, I allure, genetrix 
 (beside genitor), obstetrix (cf. constiiuo), condemno (older condumtio) ; 
 expers from pars ; perennis from annus ; incestus from castus ; fejelli from 
 JaUo ; miles (older miless, § 9) from stem milH- ; remex Nom. from ago, (2) 
 i before r : aequipero, impero, pauper, all from paro ; cineris Gen., 
 (beside dnis Nom.), (3) «, i before a Labial : indpio, decipio, and 
 other Compoimds of capio, surripui (also surpu4). U remains in 
 nuncupo, occupo, contubemium, which seem to be old forms preserved, 
 while the of vinolentus, somnolentus (cf. sanguinolentus) may be due 
 to the analogy of vitu> lenius, &c., (4) t in other short syllables : 
 dimidius from medius, Jupiter (better spelt Juppiter) from pater, sistite 
 (cf. Gk. tarare), compitum 'ubi viae competunt,' dimico from maco 
 
 Tl 
 
34 Change of Sound. [ch. n 
 
 {cf. macto), in (earlier m) used enclitically (§ ii). U has become 
 i in saiira (and satmra), inditus (and indutiis), supereUmm (fit 6k. 
 iti\a, the part under the eyes), but remains in tutudi, pemdem, 
 contumax, &c. has become « in venustms from Fewus, older Yerms, 
 a/ngustus, vetustus, and the like, alumnus (cf. 6k. Tpeip6iievos), homvZlus 
 from hmnan-lo; &c., s«m (earlier sowi), an enclitic (§ ii). 
 
 Examples in 6reek loan-words are -.—tessera (reaaapa), Agrigemtvm, 
 (^'AicpiyavTa Ace.), Seeuba, 0. Lat. Hecoha ('Ek&Pi]), machina (Dor. 
 imxava), episMa and epistola (imaroXi]), Achivi I'Axaioi), olivum {iXaiov), 
 trutina (rpurdi/ij), ialenium {Ta^avTOv),phalerae (^dAopo), ialineum (Plaut.) 
 and halnmm (0a\avuov), 
 
 Long Vowels, as we have seen, did not suffer change. BeBro is 
 the correct form, from Ura, a furrow, not delBro (§ lo). The change 
 of S to I in delinio (beside ddsnio), suspido (Noun) is found also in the 
 case of accented S when the following syllable has an i in hiatus, 
 e. g. PUnius from plenus, Jllius, lit. ' a suckling,' from fHo. Anhllus 
 (older anhellus) has come from *an-&nslus, the a of halo, from *anslo, 
 having been changed to e while its quantity was still short. Profestus 
 is a compound of fisius (fif.firiae), not of fastus, fas (cf. nefastus). 
 
 Compounds with per, ' very,' are Separable Compounds ' (like 
 tene facio, are/ado ; cf. Lucr. facit are), and do not change the vowel, 
 e. g. p^salsus ^beside insulsus), persapiens (beside insipiens), perfacUis 
 (beside difflcilis), so that Lucilius was right in his objection to the 
 use of perRsvs by Scipio Africanus Minor : 
 
 Quo facetidr uideare et scire, plus quam cfiteri, 
 ' P6rtisum ' hominem, n6n pertaesum, dicis. 
 
 Jfi), 01) become u, e. g. eluo from too, denu^ for de novo. 
 
 § 16. Shortening of Unaccented Vowels. So sensitive 
 was the Roman ear to the difference between a long and 
 a short vowel (§ i) that a long vowel was shortened 
 through loss of stress only in special positions, 
 namely in the final syllables of disyllabic words whose 
 first syllable was short. In such a word as cave the 
 Romans found themselves unable to maintain the length 
 of the final e, especially when the main stress of the 
 voice rested on the initial syllable of the following word, 
 e. g. in phrases like cave-fdciaa (§ ii). We ourselves, if 
 we pronounce a phrase of this kind, feel that the short 
 ' Cf. per pol saepe peccas, Flaut. 
 
§ i6] Shortening of Unaccented Vowels. 35 
 
 syllable ca- exercises a shortening influence in this 
 position upon the following long syllable -ve. The name 
 usually now given to this law of shortening of Latin 
 Vowels is the 'Law of the Breves Breviantes/ i.e. 
 the law of the short (syllables) shortening (a follow- 
 ing long syllable) ; and this law plays a great part in 
 the prosody of the Republican Dramatists, whose verses 
 reflect the pronunciation of every-day life, and so ex- 
 hibit forms like cave-facias, volo-scire, as well as volitp- 
 tdtem, egestdtem, where the syllable scanned as a short 
 syllable is long, not by nature, but by 'position.' It is 
 this Law of Breves Breviantes which has effected the 
 shortening of the final vowel of iambic words used in 
 close connection with or subordination to other words, 
 e. g. bene, male (cf . bene-fddio, male-f&cio, male-sdnus), cito, 
 modo, miM, tibl, sibi. The finals of these words, though 
 in poetical diction they often appear with the long 
 quantity, were no doubt in ordinary speech by Cicero's 
 time short or at least half -long vowels. Quintilian tells 
 us that the -e of the salutation have (ave) was in his time 
 pronounced long only by pedants, and the reduction of cale 
 facio (properly written as two words) to calfacio points to 
 an intervening stage when only cale/acio was heard. From 
 Auxiliaries like volo the shortening of the final -o spread 
 to other iambic Verbs, and finally, by analogy, to all 
 Verbs in the first few centuries of the Empire, and the 
 shortening of final -a of Nouns (e. g. ierra, originally 
 * terra), which was fully effected before the literary period 
 (ch. iii. § 4), had taken the same course. 
 
 In the absence of stress, certain final consonants 
 caused in the second century b. c. the shortening of 
 preceding long vowels, viz. (i) -I, e. g. tribunal Ovid, but 
 baccliandl Plaut., both from earlier -die (§ I a), (a) -r, e. g. 
 
 D a 
 
36 Change of Sound. [ch. ii 
 
 exemplar Hor, from earlier exempldre, class, mittar, mittor, 
 stridor, carer, but -dr, -or, -er in Plautus, (3) -t,^ e. g. class. 
 mittat, mittet, curat, audit, dixit, but -at, -et, -U in Plautus. 
 Before final -m too, which was in pronunciation dropped *, 
 giving the preceding vowel a nasal sound (§ 3), we know 
 that the short quantity was used, e. g. rem (stem re-). 
 
 Knj long vowel or diphthong, even when accented, 
 which preceded another vowel was reduced in quantity in 
 Latin pronunciation, e. g. ilhus became ilHus, prae/iendo 
 became prehendo. So in the utterance of the sentence 
 a final long vowel would be reduced before an initial 
 vowel. This tendency is often reflected in poetry, e.g. qm 
 amant Virg., especially in the older poetry, and no doubt 
 contributed its share to the shortening of final -d, -5, which 
 has just been mentioned. This explains why the Law of 
 Breves Breviantes affected long vowels when final, but less 
 frequently when preceding a final -s, -n, &c. (e. g. mden). 
 
 One other ease of the shortening of long vowels calls 
 for mention, namely the shortening of the long mono- 
 syllable m in giquidem, and (in the older poetry) of me, te, 
 tu, in mSquidem, tSquidem t&quidem, which has been com- 
 pared to our shortening of ' sheep,' ' know,' &c., when a syl- 
 lable is added, e. g. ' shep-herd,' ' know-ledge.' Probably 
 the vowel did not, strictly speaking, become a short vowel, 
 but changed its accent from a circumflex to an acute (§11). 
 
 ' We find a similar difficulty in giving the of ' note ' as long 
 a sound as the of, let us say, ' node.' 
 
 ' The dropping or weakening of final consonants in Latin was 
 another result of the Stress-Accentuation. We find on plebeian 
 inscriptions ama for amat, fecerun for fecerunt, &,o. In the earlier 
 poetry it is the rule, not the exception, that final s. before an initial 
 consonant does not lengthen a preceding short vowel by ' position,' 
 but Cicero (Orator 48. 161) tells us that this pronunciation was 
 in his time considered ' subrustieum.' It occurs only once in 
 Catullus (cxvi. 8) : tu dabi' supplicium. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE NOTJN. 
 
 § 1. Declension. The I.-Eur. Noun had three Genders, 
 Masc, Pem., and Neuter ; three Numbers, Sing., Dual, 
 and Plural ; and at least eight cases, Nom., Gen., Dat., 
 Ace, Voc, Abl., Instrumental, and Locative. The Dat., 
 Abl., Instr., and Loc. were not always distinguished in the 
 Plural (c£. Athenia, ' for A.', ' from A.', ' with A.', ' at A.'). 
 
 The three Genders are retained in Latin, but of the 
 Numbers the Dual has disappeared. Traces of it remain 
 in the Numeral duo Nom., duobw Dat., duo, afterwards 
 dms, Ace. (on octo see ch. iv. § 5), and in the Pronoun 
 amid Nom., amhobus Dat., ambo, afterwards ambos, Ace. 
 (cf. Greek hvo, older hvco, and afjicjsco, both of which are 
 Duals). 
 
 Of the Cases the Voc. hardly survives, except in the 
 Singular of the Second Declension (e, g. domine Voc, 
 dominus Nom.), for elsewhere the Nom. is used instead ; 
 and even in the Second Declension we find, e. g. puer 
 Nom. used- as Voc. in classical Latin, though in the . 
 Latin of Plautus' time the Voc. \sj)uere (on deus, &c., Voc. J 
 see § 6). The Instrumental may survive in some Adverbs 
 like modo, cito, though this is doubtful (ch. vii. § i). 
 The Locative Sing, of the First Declension, ending in 
 -ai (a long diphthong) which passed in time into -ae, 
 
38 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 was identical in form with the Gen. and Dat. Sing., and 
 came to be looked upon as a Genitive ease (e. g. Romae, 
 at £,ome, had the same form as Romae, of Rome, and was 
 called a Genitive) ; in the Second Declension it ended 
 originally in -ei, later -i, and was used as a Genitive as 
 well as a Locative, passing under the name of Genitive 
 (e. g. Cormthl, at Corinth, had also the sense ' of Corintih'); 
 in the Third Declension it ended originally in -I, later -e, 
 and was used as an Ablative, as well as a Loc, under the 
 name of Ablative (e. g. Carthagine, at Carthage, had also 
 the sense ' from Carthage '). (On these and other traces 
 of the Locative see §§ 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13.) 
 
 The I.-Eur. Cases were indicated sometimes by the 
 addition of suffixes, e. g. -s for Nom. Sg. Masc, -m for 
 Ace. Sg., sometimes by a modification of the stem ', 
 e. g. pater, Nom. Sg. of the stem pater-, 'a, father,' 
 sometimes by both, e. g. pair-os or patr-es Gen. Sg., 
 patr-om Gen. PI. of the same stem. In these Geni- 
 tives we see not merely the addition of the suffix -os or 
 -e* (Gen. Sg.) and the suffix -om (Gen. PI.), but also the 
 modification of the stem from pater- to pair-. This 
 modification of the stem played a great part in the I.- 
 Eur. Declension, but has been effaced in Latin by the 
 natural tendency to make one case like another in every- 
 thing but the suffix. Thus the Ace. Sg. of pater was 
 originally *paterem, but has become patrem on the 
 analogy of patr-is, patr-i, patr-e, as in Homer we find 
 the Gen. Sg. maTipos on the analogy of isaTepa. Ace. 
 
 By ' Heteroclite ' Declension is meant the appropriation 
 of difierent stems to different cases. An example. of I.- 
 Eur. Heteroclite Declension is the declension of certain 
 
 ^ By 'stem' is meant that part to which the case-suffixes are 
 added to form the different cases. 
 
§ i] Declension. 39 
 
 Neuter Nouns ^, which had an R-stem in the Nom. and 
 Ace. Sg.j but an N-stem in the Gen., Dat., &c. j and Latin 
 femwr Nom., feminis Gen. retains this ancient type. 
 Examples of Latin Heteroclite Declension are the declen- 
 sion of (i) iter, a journey, where the stem iter- is used 
 in the Nom. and Ace. Sg., but the stem itiner- for the other 
 cases, e. g. itineris Gen., itineri Dat. ^, (a) senex, an old 
 man, with the stem senec- (cf. senec-io, an old man, 
 Senec-a, ch. xi. § ii) in the Nom. Sg. and the stem seni- 
 (or sen-) in the other cases *, (3) gupelleoo, furniture, a Fem. 
 Noun (or rather an Adjective agreeing with res) derived 
 from mpei- and lego, I lay, with the stem supelleg- (for 
 super-leg-, ch. xi. § 19) in the Nom. Sg. and the stemsw^oe^- 
 lecUli- (for super-ledili-, this lectilis being Verbal Adj . from 
 lego as coctilis, cookable, from coquo) in the other cases. 
 The rarity of I-stems caused the I-stem ins to be declined 
 like the numerous S-stems (ch. xi. § 19) in the Plural, 
 vires,&c.,ih.oagh we have vis, the older Nom., Ace. PL even 
 in Lucretius (iii. 265 multae vis ; ii. 586 vis multas). 
 
 'Defective' Nouns are for the most part obsolete 
 Nouns, isolated cases of which have been preserved in 
 adverbial phrases, e. g. dwis causa, fot form's sake, secus 
 (ch. vii.), forte, by chance (cf. forsitan, ch. viii. § 35), 
 sponte, willingly. Instar, an equivalent (e. g. instar 
 
 ' Sanguis, M. may be a relic of a Neuter I-stem with -i in the Nom. 
 and -n- in the other cases. Hence the confusion between its I- and 
 its N-stem. In Lucr. we have sanguen Neut. (i. 837, &c.) and sanguts 
 (for sanguin-s) Nom. (iv. 1050) ; sangui Abl. in Ennius. 
 
 " The stem itiner- seems to be a patchwork of the E-stem of the 
 Nom. iter- and the N-stem of the Gen. itm-. So jednaris, beside 
 jea/ris, irom jecur. In the older poetry we find that the classical 
 usage has not yet established itself, e. g. ignoti iteris sumus, 'we 
 do not know the road,' Naev. ; and even Lucretius has concussos 
 itere (v. 653) auditinerque sequatur (tI. 339). 
 
 ' Priseian quotes from Plautus a Gen. Sg. senicis. 
 
40 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 montis equus ' a horse as large as a hill '), connected with 
 insto, to be steady, in equipoise, — of a balance, is perhaps 
 an Inf., instar{e) (cf. exemplar{e) ch. ii. § i6), used as 
 a Noun. 
 
 § 2. Gender. The reason why certain nouns are mas- 
 culine, others feminine, and others neuter in Latin, is 
 not always to be found. In I.-Eur. the names of fruits 
 were neuter, and so in Latin, e. g. malum, an apple (Gk. 
 fxrjKov), while the name of the mother-tree, that bears 
 the fruit, is feminine in Latin, e. g. mahis, an apple-tree 
 (Gk. \k.-\\Kia). The names of the months and winds are 
 masculine in Latin, because they are really Adjectives 
 agreeing with merms or ventm, e. g. Jantuirius (mensis), 
 Fehruarius {mensis), Martins {mensis), Auster {ventus), 
 Caurus {ventus), Favonms {ventus). The reason why the 
 names of rivers are masculine in Latin seems to be that 
 fluvius (cf . amnis) is masculine, just as they are masculine 
 in Greek because irorafio's, a river, is masculine. 
 
 But the proneness of Nouns to take a new Gender by 
 analogy of a Noun, which had the same termination or 
 a kindred meaning, or with which they were often joined 
 in speech, made great confusion among the original 
 Genders of Latin. Thus the occasional feminine Gender 
 of dies may be due to the analogy of nox, a word with 
 which it is frequently joined, e. g. dies noxgue maesta, 
 dies noxque longa, or to the fact that most Nouns with 
 the termination -ies are feminine. 
 
 The Fem. Gender was originally associated with 
 Abstract Nouns, e.g. Lat. optio, choice. But if an 
 Abstract Noun came to be used as a Concrete, it would 
 change its gender ; and so optio, in the sense of ' a cen- 
 turion's assistant,' was masculine. Similarly agrieola, 
 literally ' field-tillage ' (from ager, a field, and colo, I till). 
 
§§ 2, 3] Gender and Number. 41 
 
 became masculine in the sense o£ 'a field- tiller ; ■" (and 
 this is the reason why A-stems (i. e. First Declension 
 ^ounsjj which were associated with the Fern. Gender 
 in I.-Eur., are often masculine in Latin. 0-stems (i. e. 
 Second Declension Nouns) were similarly associated with 
 the Masculine (with Nom. Sg. in -6s, classical Lat. -us) 
 and the Neuter Gender (with Nom., Ace. Sg. in -om, 
 class. Lat. -um) ; but we have a few feminine 0-stems 
 in Latin, e.g. names of trees like mains. In Latin 
 these feminine 0-stems show a tendency to pass into 
 the Fourth Declension, e. g. domus, a Second Decl. 
 Noun till Sulla's time (§ 6). The confusion of mas- 
 culine and neuter 0-stems may be illustrated by the 
 words collum, the neck, which in Plautus is eoUus, and 
 which was masculine in I.-Eur. (cf. Germ. Hals, 'the 
 neck,' Masc), and uterus, which in Plautus as in I.-Eur. 
 is neuter, ulerura. The heteroelite declension of mas- 
 culine nouns like locus,^ with Neuter Plural loca, is 
 usually the result of a primitive practice of using a Fem. 
 Sg. Collective A-stem as a Plural of a masculine O- 
 stem. Thus loca, originally a Fem. Sg. meaning ' a col- 
 lection of spots,' ' a district,' was used as the Plural of 
 locus, ' a single spot,' and received the declension of 
 a plural, locorum Gen., locis Dat., &c. A good parallel 
 is supplied by the Greek [iripa, meaning 'a mass of 
 thigh-bones', which was originally a Fem. Sg. Col- 
 lective, but was treated in common use as if it were 
 a Plural of jurjpo's, ' a single thigh-bone.' The origin of 
 the Neut. PI. in -a from a Collective Fem. Sg. explains 
 the use in Greek (and the earliest Sanscrit) of a Sin- 
 gular Verb with a Neuter Plural Noun, e. g. ^^.r\pa 
 KaUrai. 
 § 3. Number. Some nouns are from their nature confined 
 
42 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 to the Singular or to the Plural Number. Abstract 
 Nouns are naturally Singular^ though the Plural is 
 often found in a concrete sense (e. g. opera, work, exertion, 
 operae, workmen ; aumilium, help, auxilia, auxiliary 
 troops), occasionally with transference of this concrete 
 sense to the Singular (e. g. accedes opera agro nona 
 Sabino, ' you will be thrown in as ninth hand on my 
 Sabine farm/ Hor. Sat. ii. 7. 118). The use of the Plur. 
 in certain words dates from Indo-European times, e. g. 
 tenehrae, and in names of parts of the body, e. g.praecordia 
 (cf. Gk. ^pevss), cervices {cervix was a poetic innovation). 
 Often a Noun has a different sense in the Singular and in 
 the Plural, e. g. aedes, Sg. a single room, hence ' a temple,' 
 PI. a house (cf . Homer's 80/ios and 80/iot). Liberi is Plur. 
 of the Adj. liber, 'the freeborn children of the house,' as 
 opposed to the vernae. 
 
 § 4. The First Declension. The Latin First Declension 
 consists of A-stems. These A-stems were, as we saw 
 in the last paragraph, originally feminine, but sometimes 
 became masculine, when they changed their meaning 
 from an abstract to a concrete sense. Agricola, from ager 
 and culo, indicated originally the abstract idea of ' field- 
 tillage,' and in this sense was feminine, like fuga, flight 
 (Greek <l)vyrj), or any other Abstract Noun. It became 
 masculine when it passed to the concrete sense of ' a 
 man who tills the fields,' by the same transition as is seen 
 in our words ' relation ', ' youth,' which meant originally 
 ' relationship,' ' youthhood,' then secondly ' a related 
 person,' ' a youthful person.' In Greek these Masc. 
 Concrete A-stems took an -« in the Nom. Sg. like O- 
 stems, e. g. i^eai/ias, ayouth (from a lost vtavia, the period 
 of youth), with the same ending as vio^, young ; and in 
 two very early Latin words we seem to have a trace of 
 
§4] First Declension. 43 
 
 a similar usage^ viz. Aosticapas, a capturer of the enemy, A 
 and paricidas, or parricidas ^, a mm-derer. 
 
 But if Masc. A-stem Nominatives in -as ever existed 
 beside Fem. A-stem Nominatives in -a in Latin, they 
 had dropt out of use as early as the time of Plautus, for 
 with him, as with all subsequent writers, the Nom. Sg. 
 ending of masculine and feminine A-stems alike is -a. 
 This -a must have been originally long (ef. Gk. x<ipd), 
 but had been shortened at a very early period, first in 
 iambic words like fuffa, mora (see ch. ii. § i6), then by 
 their analogy in all words. Even in the earliest 
 poetry there is no trace of -d ^. 
 
 The Gen. Sg. ended originally in -as, an ending which 
 is common in feminine Nouns in the early poetical lan- 
 guage ^, and which, owing to the conservative spirit of 
 Roman Law, was retained in the legal phrase pater- 
 familias, lit. 'head of the household.' Masculine 
 A-stems, following the analogy of 0-stems (a Decl.), 
 took the ending -4, an ending which they added 
 to the final -a of their stem, e. g. agricold-i, and this 
 ending came to be assumed by feminine A-stems too 
 as early as the time of Plautus (cf. § 5). Through the 
 Roman habit of shortening a long vowel before another 
 vowel (ch. ii. § 16), -dl became -ai, and the two vowels 
 were united into a diphthong -ai, class, ae (ch. x. § 11). 
 
 ' The word is spelt with one r in the ancient spelling, in which 
 a double consonant was never written double (ch. i. § 8). 
 
 - Enuius' ' Et densis aquila pinnis obnixa uolabat ' is a case of 
 lengthening in arsi like his ' Sic expectabat populus atque ora 
 tenebat.' This lengthening in arsi was an imitation of Homer's 
 prosody. 
 
 ' Examples are iaitmas, escos, MonUas, Liv. Andronicus ; Terras, 1 
 fortimas, Naev. ; vias Enn. Even in Virgil the commentator Servius ! 
 favours the readulg^ros for aurae in Aen. xi. 801. 
 
44 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 The full ending -al did not quite disappear from use in 
 speech till the time of Terence j and poets like Lucretius 
 and Virgil, who love to insert archaic forms in their lines 
 for the sake of poetic effect, offer many examples of this 
 form, e. g. aulai Aen. iii. 354 ; aurai, vi. 747 ; aquai, vii. 
 464. Notice the dignity which it lends to a famous 
 passage of Lucretius (i. 84-6) : 
 
 Aulide quo pacto Trivial Virginia aram 
 Iphianassai turparuut sanguine foede 
 Ductores Danaum delecti, prima virorum. 
 
 To Martial it seemed typical of the uncouth, early 
 Latin poetry (xi. 90. 5) : 
 
 Attonituaque legis ' terrai frugiferai,' 
 Acoius et quicquid Pacuviusque vomunt. 
 
 The Dative Sg. ending was originally -ai (a long 
 diphthong; cf. Gk. X'^Pl)- This ending, according to 
 its position in the sentence, would assume the forms -a 
 or -ai (the ordinary diphthong, with the first element 
 short) ; and in early inscriptions we find both these . 
 forms, e. g. ivnonei lovcina and lovcinai, ' to Juno 
 Lucina,' peosepnai, ' to Proserpine ' ^. In time, however, 
 the second form, -ai, was preferred to the other and 
 developed into the classical -ae. 
 
 The Locative Sg. ending was likewise -ai, which became 
 -ae at the same time as Gen. -ai (originally-ai) became 
 -ae. Examples of Locatives (called Genitives by the 
 Latin writers on Grammar and their modern imitators) 
 are Romae, at Rome, militiae, at warfare, on the field, 
 and Plautus' phrase for ' next door,' ' at the next house,' 
 viz. proxwmae viciniae. 
 
 In the Ace. Sg. ending, -am, the a was originally long 
 
 ' This vfas at first wrongly read pkosepnais, and supposed to be 
 a Genitive. An early Latin ' Genitive in -ais ' is a fiction. 
 
§ 4] First Declension. 45 
 
 (cf. Gk. )(Mpai'), but, like all long vowels before final -m 
 in Latin (eh. ii. § i6), became short. 
 
 The Abl. Sg. had originally -ad. This final -d, like 
 every final d after a long vowel (eh. ii. § 9), was 
 dropt in pronunciation before the time of Plautus, 
 though we find it used by Naevius in his Epic : 
 
 Noctu Troiad exibant capitibus opertis, 
 'cloaking their heads they passed at night-time from Troy.' 
 
 The Nom. PL in Latin, as in Greek, discarded the 
 original ending -as for an ending modelled after the 
 Second Declension, viz. the diphthong -ai, written and 
 pronounced in the classical period -ae. But -as re- 
 mained in dialects of Italy, and some think that a dia- 
 lectal Nom. Plur. of this type is found in a play of 
 Pomponius, descriptive of life in an Italian country town : 
 Qu(3t laetitias insperatas m<Sdo mi inrepsere in sinum. 
 
 The Gen. PL ending in I.-Eur. was -asom, which by the 
 Latin laws of sound became -drom, classical -arum, e. g. 
 dearum (see ch. x. § 19 ; ch. ii. §§ 9, 14), by the Greek, 
 first -daiv, e. g. Homeric deAoov, then -&v, e. g. Att. 6e&v. 
 
 The Dat., Abl., Loc, or Instr. Plur. (these cases, as we 
 have seen, are not always to be distinguished in the 
 Plural) had originally the ending -ais (one syllable), which 
 beeame-eM(ch.ii.§ 14), then-M(eh. x. § 11). In old Latin 
 we find another ending -dbus (cf . the ending of the Third, 
 Fourth, and Fifth Declensions) ; and in legal language 
 this was kept up in a few nouns for the sake of distin- 
 guishing them from cognate O-stems, e. g. jiltalms (bu-tf 
 filiis Masc), deainis (but dels Masc), lihertabus (but lihertis 
 Masc), just as we, without the same justification, keep up 
 the old Plural suffix in a few words like ' oxen,^ but have 
 dropped it in the rest, e. g. ' shoes * (earlier ' shoon '). 
 
 The Ace. Plur. had -as from -dns. 
 
46 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 § 5. Thus the scheme for the First Declension 
 will be: — 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. -d, which became -a. 
 
 Gen. (i) -«», retained in familias. 
 
 (2) -di, which became -ai, -ae. 
 
 Dat. -m, which became -ai, -ae. 
 
 Loc. same as Dat. 
 
 Ace. -dm, which became -am. 
 
 Abl. -dd, which became -d. 
 
 Plur. 
 Nom. -ai, -ae. 
 
 Gen. -a«6»2, which became -anim. 
 
 Dat. 1(1) -a3M«(from-abhos), retained in_/?JM!iM«,&e. 
 Loc. J (a) -ais, which became -eis, then -Is. 
 Ace. -ds. 
 
 Abl. same as Dat., Loc. 
 
 Greek Proper Names sometimes retain their Greek 
 declension in poetry, e. g. Pelldes, Ace. Peliden, Gen. PL 
 Atrldum (of. amphorum, drachmumY, though Cicero gives 
 these Masculine names the 0-stem Gen. in -«, e.g. 
 Aristidi, thus repeating the early formation of the Gen. 
 Sing, in -d-l (see above § 4). And in epitaphs of slaves, 
 freedwomen, and the like, we often find the Greek Gen. 
 Sg. in -7JS expressed in Latin characters by -aes, e. g. 
 Faustinaes, Anniaes (Greek rj had the long, open vowel- 
 sound of later Latin ae ; see ch. ii. § 3). 
 
 § 6. The Second Declension. The Latin Second 
 Declension consists of 0-stems, which are either Mascu- 
 line (with Nom. Sg. in -Ss, class. Lat, -«*), or Neuter 
 ' The poetic caelicolum is a G^raecism. 
 
§§ 5> 6] Second Declension. 47 
 
 (with Nom., Ace. Sg. in -dm, class. Lat. -um). The few 
 Fern. 0-stemSj e. g. domus, a house (Gk. ho^ioi Masc.) ; 
 coins, a distafB (Gk. iroAoy Masc), nurm, a daughter-in- 
 law (Gk. vvos), and names of trees (§ 2) like mdhis, an 
 apple-tree, laurus, a laurel-tree, tend to pass into the 
 Fourth Declension (Nom. PI. laurus and lauri, &c.). 
 Pelagus, a Greek loan-word (ireAayos^-eos) is curiously 
 treated as a Second Declension Noun in Latin, much as 
 words likejioema in the Plural, e. g. Dat., Abl. poematis. 
 
 In the Nom. Sg., masculine no-stems'^ dropped at 
 a very early period the final -<^s, when a short vowel pre- 
 ceded the r, e. g. vir, not *vvros {^virus), satur, not 
 *saiuros (*saturtis), ager (cf. Gk. ayfios); but not when 
 a long vowel preceded the r, e. g. severws, amdrvs. PlautusJ 
 however, uses socerus for socer and Ennius volturus foif 
 class. vuUur, -uris Gen., and in classical Latin we have 
 uterus (older uferum, § 2). Compounds of ^ero,/e?-o show 
 usually -ger, -fer, but not morigerus (Plant.), from mos and 
 gero, 'complying with a man's humour,' 'complaisant.' 
 Other exceptional Adjectives SbTefertis (but semifer) and 
 pro-perus (the latter, like pauper, from paro). Nnmerus, 
 humerus, ertts,pnrus {ci. jum-pirus, lit. 'Juno's pear,' like 
 ju-glans ' Jove's acorn ') are not RO-stems, for their 
 r was originally s. lO-stems took in familiar language 
 the ending -Is, as well as -ios (class, -ius), in the Nom. 
 and in the Gen. -I, in the Ace. -im, in the Voc. -l. For 
 example, in an early law of Plautus' time, the Decree of 
 the Senate against Bacchanalian orgies (the S. C. Bacch.), 
 the consuls' names are written in the ceremonious form, 
 Marcius, Postumius, while the secretaries' names have the 
 
 ' Not LO-stems. Lucretius' famul infimus (iii. 1035) is a direct 
 imitation of Ennius' famul oltirmts, ' famulus ultimus.' Ennius 
 seems to have borrowed the form from his native Oscan. 
 
48 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 other ending, Claudi(s), Valeri{i), Minuci{s) (p. ^6 n.). 
 (On equog, ecus, eqwis, &c., see ch. ii. § 10.) 
 
 For the Gen. Sg. the Locative was used with the 
 ■ending -ei (which would become in classical Latin -l), 
 but in the lO-stems with the ending -4. This -« of 10- 
 stems seems to have encroached at an early period on the 
 other. In the Augustan age it became the fashion to use 
 -il as the ending of the Gen. Sg. of lO-Noun-stems, 
 e. g. praedii, eonsilii, Virgilii, as -w had been at a pre- 
 vious period used in Adjectives, e. g. patrii sermonis 
 egestag Lucr. Varro, in his edition of the plays of 
 PlautuSj found that the plays of another dramatist, 
 Plautius, had been confused with them, owing to the 
 similarity of the Gen. Case, Plauti fabulae. 
 
 TheDat. Sg. ending was -oi (the long diphthong; cf. 
 Gk. oXkui), which, according to its position in the 
 sentence, would assume the forms -0 or -oi (the ordinary 
 diphthong). These two ' doublets ' are both found in 
 very early Latin (cf. Ntimasioi ' Numerio/ p. 33), but 
 the contest between them was decided before the literary 
 period in favour of the first. (Contrast the history of 
 the Dat. Sg. of the First Declension, § 4). 
 
 The Voe. Sg. had -e, an ending which remained un- 
 changed, e. g. domine, though we find the Nom. 
 occasionally, e. g. deus (always), vos O PompUius 
 sanguis (Hor. A. P. 39a). (On the variation of § with 
 o in I.-Eur. declension and conjugation see ch. x. § 12.) 
 
 The Abl.Sg. ended originally in -o<^, class. -0 (ch. x. § 17) 
 e.g. Gnaiuod ' Gnsieo' on a Scipio epitaph. A byform 
 in -ed (class, e) was reserved for Adverbial Ablatives, e. g. 
 facilumed ' isMiWime' on the S. C. Bacch. (see ch. vii. § 4). 
 
 The Nom. Plur. Masc, of 0-stems borrowed the 
 ending of the Pronoun Declension, viz. -oi (e. g. Gk. uTkoi 
 
§ 6] Second Declension. 49 
 
 like ovToC), which ip Latin became first -ei, then -i (ch. 
 ii. § 14). The o-diphthong is seen in a very early phrase, 
 pilumnoi poploi (i. e. pilumni pqpuli), ' the tribes armed 
 with the pilum,' a description of the Romans in the 
 Carmen Saliare, the ancient hymn of the leaping priests 
 of Mars. In the Latin of Plautus' time we find an -s 
 added to this ending for Pronouns, e. g. heia or Ms 
 (class, hi) illeis or ilhs (class, illi), bat not for Nouns ; 
 although, on inscriptions of a century later, we find the 
 irregular Nom. PL magistreis or magistris for magistn, &c. 
 
 The Nom. Ace. Neut. Plur. in -a had originally -d., 
 which like the -a of the Nom. Sg. of the First Declen- 
 sion (§ 4) had become short before the literary period. 
 (On the origin of the Neut. Plur. in -a from a Fern. 
 Collective Sing., see § a). 
 
 The proper Gen. PI. ending -dm, which became -om (ch. 
 ii. § 16), then-MM(ch.ii. § I4)in Latin, was retained in a few 
 Genitives like deum, nummum, triumvirum. But an ending 
 -orom (class, -drum), originating in the Pronoun Declension, 
 where it followed the analogy of the -drum of A-stems 
 (§ 4) (e. g. illorum like illarum), spread from Pronouns 
 to Adjectives, where it was found useful in the discrimi- 
 nation of Gender (e. g. honorum ^ beside bonarum), and 
 ultimately to Nouns (e. g.filiorum hesiie JUiarum). In 
 Nouns it did not succeed in fully asserting itself against 
 the proper ending -um till the time of Cicero, who tells 
 us that he yielded to the new fashion in certain words, 
 but not in others. He allowed pro deorum jidem ! or pro 
 deumfidem ! but only triumvirum, sestertium, nummum, &e. 
 ( Orat. 46. 155). One of these Genitives Plural, sesieriiufn 
 
 ^ We have diionoro(m) , the old form of bonorum, in an early epitaph of 
 one of the Scipio family in thephxaseduanorooplumouiro, i. e. 'bonoriun 
 optimum virum,' where the last word may be Gen. PI. or Ace. Sg. 
 
50 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 (sc. mille), ' a thousand (of) sesterces,' came to be regarded 
 as a Neuter Singular and formed a Plural sestertia. 
 
 The Dat., Abl., Loc, Instr. Plural ending was -ois (ef . 
 Gk. olKots), which became -eis (ch. ii. § 14), then -is (ch. x. 
 § 11). Theoldestform of the ending appears in the ancient 
 Carmen Saliare, in the word privicloM,i. e. prmculis, with 
 the sense of singulis. The Ace. PI. ending is -os, from -ons. 
 
 § 7. Scheme 
 
 of the Second Declension. 
 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom M. 
 
 
 -OS, which became -us. 
 (dropped in RO-stems^ e. g. ager). 
 
 N. 
 
 
 -om, which became -um. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 -i, properly the Gen. suffix of 10- 
 stems. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 
 -oi, which became -0. 
 
 Loc. 
 
 
 -ei, which became -i. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 -om, which became -um. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 
 -e. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 
 -od, which became -0. 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. M. 
 
 
 -oi, which became -ei, then -*. 
 
 N. 
 
 
 -d, which became -a. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 (0 
 
 -dm, which became -om, then -um. 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 -or«»«, originally proper to Pronouns, 
 then to Adjectives also. 
 
 Dat. 1 
 Loc. J 
 
 
 -ois, which became -eis, then -«*. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 -Gs (from -ons). 
 
 Voc. 
 
 
 same as Nom. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 
 same as Dat., Loc. 
 
 § 8. The Third Declension. This should properly be 
 
d 
 
 §§ 7, 8] Third Declension. 51 
 
 divided into two declensions, (i) Consonant-stems, (2) 
 I-stems, but these two are so similar and so intermixed in 
 certain eases, that the Latin writers on Grammar joined 
 them into one. I-stems have a Gen. PI. in -ium, an Ace. 
 Sg. in -im, and an Abl. Sg. in -* (earlier -lA') ; Cons. Stems 
 have a Gen. PL in -v,m, an Ace. Sg. in -em, and an ' Abl.' 
 (properly Locative) Singular in -e (earlier -*). But, e. g., 
 vdti-, an I-stem, has vatum Gen. PI., and most I-stems 
 assumed in time the Cons.-stem Ace. Sg. and ' Abl.' Sg., 
 although Neuter I-stems kept the Abl. in -I for the 
 sake of distinction from their Nominative Case (e. g. mari 
 Abl., mare Nom.). And Consonant-stems sometimes show 
 the I-stem endings. The Gen. Plur. is the case where the 
 distinction between Consonant and I-stems has been best 
 retained. In the Nom. Sing, some I-stems retain their 
 i, e. g. vest-is, but it is lost in son (sortis Plant.), Arpinas 
 [Arpinaiis, Plsmt.), imber (stem imhri-), %cc. (see ch. ii. § i a). 
 The Consonant- stems consist of (i) Guttural-stems, 
 e. g. dux (stem due-, the weak form of the root deuc-, to 
 lead), rex (stem reg-, the lengthened form of the root retj-, 
 ' to stretch,' ' to govern '), mx (stem ntg-, the weak form of 
 a root meaning ' to be wet/ ' to snow ') ^. (2) Labial- 
 stems, e. g. jprinceps, caelebs'^. (3) Dental-stems, e. g. pes 
 (stem ped-), heres (stem Jiered-), anas (stem anat-), comes 
 (stem com-U- from cum and eo). The numerous NT-stems 
 are mostly Present Participles, e.g. serpens (stem serpent-), 
 lit. ' crawling,' cUens, lit. ' hearing,' ' obeying,' rudens, lit. 
 * rattling,' oriens (sc. Sol) ^. (4) S-stems, e. g. cinis (stem 
 
 ^ The g of this root was a ' Labiovelar ' guttural (see eh. x. § 18), 1 
 like gw (of. ninguit). Between vowels a g of this kind became v in 
 Latin (ch. x. § 18) ; so we have in the Genitive nm-is. 
 
 '' A word of uncertain derivation. The etymology of the Soman 
 Grammarians 'quasi caelestiura yitam ducens' will not do 1 
 
 ' Gens, mens, &c. are I-stems, g'n-ti-, m'n-H- (ch. xi. § la). ? 
 
52 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 cima-), tellus (stem tellus-), honor, older Jionoa (stem honos-. 
 The r has found its way into the Nom. from the Oblique 
 Cases, where s stood between vowels and so became r by the 
 Latin phonetic law), opus, earlier opos (stem opos-, opes-), 
 Venus, earlier Venos (stem vends-, venes-, originally neuter 
 and meaning 'glamour,' whence venenum ior *venes-num, 
 lit. ' a love-philtre '). (5) N-stems, e.g. homo, -mis, sermo, 
 -onis, caro, -nis, with the M-stem hiems, -mis. (6) B-stems, 
 e. g./rater, -tris, conditor, -toris,fur,fv.ris. (7) A few L- 
 stems, e. g. sal, sol. 
 
 The Nom. Sg. of Masc. and Fem. Nouns adds -s to 
 the Stem, but in Neuter Nouns the bare Stem is used. 
 Examples are of Masc. and Fem. I-stems, _/«?-*, clvi-s, 
 vesti-s, sorg (sorti-s Plant.), pars, and of Masc. and Fem. 
 Cons. -stems, princep-s, dux for *dt6c-s, heres for *hered-s ; 
 of Neuter I-stems, mare (originally *mar'i, eh. ii. § 14 n.), 
 triste, Neut. of trutis, originally *tristi (cf . Gk. iS/Dts, ibpis, 
 Ihpi with Lat. tristis, tristis, triste), of Neuter Cons.-stems, 
 allec, caput, aes (I.-Eur. S,yes- ; cf. aenns for *ayes-nos), 
 crus, opus, carmen, ver. (On Fem. Noms. in -es, see § 13). 
 
 The -e of Neut. I-stems was often dropped (cf. ch. ii. 
 § I a), so that animdle (properly the Neuter of the Adj. 
 animalis) became animal with consequent shortening of 
 the a before final I (ch. ii. § 16) ; calcdre [scferriim), a spur, 
 lit. ' the (iron) fastened on the heel (calx),' became calcar ; 
 lacte, the form found in Plautus, became lact and then lac, 
 owing to the difiiculty of pronouncing -ct at the end of 
 a word, the same difiiculty as we have with a group like 
 -ml in ' lamb ' ; *corde (Gen. PI. cordium) in the same way 
 became cord, a fonn that should perhaps be written in , 
 lines of Plautus where the word is scanned as a long 
 syllable, then cor. 
 
 Masc. and Fem. K.- and N-stems formed their Nom. 
 
§ 8] Third Declension. 53 
 
 Sg, in a different way, R-stems in (i) -or, e. g. dator 
 (class, dator), (a) -er, e. g. mater (class, mater) (cf. Gk. 
 Swrwp, 7roTijp)j N-stems in -o (Gk. -uv), e. g. caro, flesh, 
 originally 'a. portion of anything,' then 'a portion of flesh ' 
 (connected with Gk. KsCpui, to cut), Aomo, connected with 
 humus, the ground ^. (On this e and see ch. x. § la.) 
 
 The Gen. Sg. ending of Cons.-stems was (i) -es, (a) -6s. 
 Of these the former was adopted in Latin, and became 
 in class. Lat. -u (ch. ii. § 14), e.g. reg-%s. There are traces 
 of the latter in early spellings on inscriptions li ke nomin us jf 
 for class. ■ nominis, hominus for class, hondnis ^. I-stems 
 properly took -eis, which would be in class. Lat. -Is, but 
 there is no instance of a Latin I-stem using any other 
 than the Cons.-stem ending, e. g. turrts, parlis (on an 
 inser. of the second cent. B. c. we ¥itA partus). 
 
 The Dat. Sg. ending of Cons.-stems was -ai, which 
 became -ei and in class. Lat. -I, e. g. regi, and Latin 
 I-stems show the same ending, e. g. turn. (On the -e of 
 jure diaundo, &c., see ch. i. § 7). 
 
 In the Ace. Sg. m was added to the stem, making in 
 Latin Cons.-stems -em (ch. x. § 14), e. g. reg-em, and in 
 I-stems -%m, e. g. turrim. But the I-stems came almost 
 all in time to take the Cons.-stem ending, e. g. turrem, 
 partem. When an I-stem Ace. was used as Adverb 
 however the older ending was retained, e. g. partim (but 
 saltem with -tem by analogy of au-tem) \ and -im is in- 
 variable in vim (an I-stem, § 10). 
 
 The Abl. Sg. ending of I-stems was -id, which became 
 -I in the latter part of the third cent. b. c. (eh. x. § 17), 
 
 ' In Old Latin we have a by-form khno (cf. nSmo for *nS-hlmo) and 
 a by-deolension in -5nis, -oni, &o., e. g. Enn. : Volturus in spinia 
 miserum mandebat hemonem. 
 
 ^ On a leaden bullet (glans) used in the aiege of Perusia is carved 
 the ' Trochaic ' line : Antoni calve, peristi Caesarus victoria. 
 
54 The Noun, [ch. m 
 
 e. g. twrl. Cons.-stems used their Locative, ending in -» 
 (class. Lat. -e), instead of an Ablative, 'e. g. reg-e, Cartha- 
 gin-e, as the Gk. Loc. was used as DsLt., e.g. yipovT-X. 
 These two endings are often exchanged, e. g. for I-stems 
 turre, parte, for Cons.-stems majori and in early Latin miliVi 
 Plant., coiientiomd (i. e. ' contione ') on the S. C. Bacch. 
 
 The Loc. Sg. ending of I-stems was -eyi (Gk. T>oKi[y)C), 
 which in Latin would become -ei, class. -?, e. g. luci, in day- 
 light, of Cons.-stems -^(sometimes omitted in I. -Eur. Loca- 
 tives), class. Lat. -e. The use of the Cons.-stem Loc. as an 
 Ablative, e. g. Carthagine, from Carthage, had this result, 
 that Cons.-stems- sometimes took the I-stem ending for 
 the sake of distinction ; e. g. rttri, in the country, might 
 be contrasted with rure, from the country. I-stems often 
 show the Cons.-stem ending, e. g. mane, in the morning. 
 
 The Nom. Plur. ending of Masc. and Fern. Cons.-stems 
 was properly -es, which would be in class. Lat.-M(ch.ii.§i4), 
 and of I-stems -eyes (Gk. 77oAe(_y)es), in Latin -es (ch. x. 
 § 13). But there is no trace of a Latin Cons.-stem with 
 any but the I-stem ending ' . I-stems sometimes show -eis, 
 class, -ig, properly the ending of their Ace. PI. (see below). 
 
 In the Gen. PI. -6m (Lat. -om, then -um, ch. ii. §§ 16, 
 14) was added to the stem, so that reg-um, turri-um are 
 correctly formed examples of a Cons.-stem and an I-stem. 
 But the usual interchange is found. We have vdtum 
 from the I-stem vati-,ferentium Masc. from the NT-stem 
 ferent- (cf. Gk. (pepofr-av), and the like ^ ; though as a rule 
 the formation of the Gen. PI. is the best test whether 
 a Third Decl. Noun is an I-stem or a Cons.-stem. The 
 distinction was better preserved in this case than in the 
 Ace. and Abl. Sg. 
 
 ' Plautus' canSs is a mere shortening like vidSs, avS (ch. ii. § 16). 
 ! Caesar used |)(im'Mm,VeiTiu3^a««>»; CaesaT parium, Vlmj partium. 
 
§ 9] Third Declension. 55 
 
 In the Dat., Abl., Instr., Loc. Plur. the I.-Eur. ending 
 was -bhos, Lat. -bos, class, -lus. An I-stem Dat. like 
 turri-hus is regular j but the Cons.-stems borrowed the 
 i of the I-stems to form their Dat., e. g. reg-i-bus instead 
 of *reg-hus, milit-i-bus instead of *milii-i'us. 
 
 The Ace. PL was formed by adding -ns to the stem. 
 Latin Cons.-stems show -es from -ens, Lat. I-stems -is 
 from -ins, e. g. reges, turns. By the end of the Re- 
 public and the beginning of the Empire this distinction 
 came to be lost sight of, and turres, partes, and the like, were 
 allowed instead of turris, partis. (Gn the occasional use of 
 -is in the Nom. PI. by confusion with the Ace, see above.) 
 
 § 9. Scheme of the Third Declension. 
 I. Consonant-stems. 
 
 Sing. 
 Nom. M.i P. (1) -«. 
 
 (a) Vowel lengthened in R- and N-Stems, 
 e. g. dator (class, dator), homo. 
 N. The bare stem. 
 Gen. -es, which became -Is. 
 
 Dat. -ai, which became -ei, then -«. 
 
 Loc. -?, used also as Abl. 
 
 Ace. -em (from an original -°m). 
 
 Abl. (see Loc.). 
 
 Plur. 
 Nom. M., P. (the I-stem ending was used). 
 
 N. -a. 
 Gen. -om, which became -om, then -um. 
 
 I (the I-stem ending was used). 
 Loc. J 
 
 Ace. -es (from -ens from an original -*ns). 
 
 Abl. (same as Dat., Loc). 
 
56 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 II. I-stems. 
 
 Sing. 
 Norn. M., F. -i». 
 
 N. -I, which became -e (dropped in animal, &c.). 
 Gen. (the Cons.-stem ending was used). 
 
 Dat. (the Cons.-stem ending was used). 
 
 Loc. -ei (from -eyi), which became -i. 
 
 Ace. -*»?. 
 
 Abl. -id, which became -i. 
 
 Plur. 
 Nom. M., F. -es (from -eyes). 
 
 N. -ia. 
 Gen. -ium. 
 
 -. ' I -ilos (from -i-bhos)j which became -ibus. 
 
 Ace. -Is (from -ins). 
 
 Abl. (same as Dat., Loc). 
 
 § 10. Other Third Decl. Stems. Nouns hke hog, 
 Jupiter (better spelt Juppiter) must be treated separately. 
 They are Diphthong-stems 5ow-j!7o»-(I.-Eur.g^ou-,dyeu-)j 
 the latter being the same stem as is found in dies (§ 13). 
 Bos is probably not a true Latin word, I.-Eur. g'" being 
 represented by v, not b, in Latin (ch. x. § 18), but 
 a word of some country dialect. Its Gen. PI. bourn 
 stands for hov-um with loss of v before u (ch. x. § 13) ; 
 its Dat. PI. luhus, hobus (from g^oubhos) shows 0, u, the 
 long vowels to which the original diphthong ov, developed 
 in Latin (ch. x. § 1 1). Ju-pHer (cf . Biespiter) is, of course, 
 a compound, like Mars pater, its first part showing u 
 (older ou), the sound to which the original diphthong eu 
 developed in Latin (ch. x. § 11). In early Latin we find 
 the spelling Biovem, Biove, &c. (see ch. x. § 13). On vis 
 
§§ lo, ii] Fourth Declension. 57 
 
 (Gk. IS, 1-^C), an I-stem (Ace. vini), and its wrong declension 
 as an S-stem in the Plural, vires, virium, &c., see § i. 
 Sub (Gk. S$) was originally a tj-stem, with stem su- 
 before Consonants (e. g. su-bus ; cf. Gk. v-v), su{v)- before 
 vowels (e.g. su-is, su-i, su-em). Navis was an I.-Eur. 
 Diphthong-stem nau- (Gk. vavs), but has passed in 
 Latin, like I.-Eur. U-stem Adjectives, e. g. levis (Gk. 
 e\a-)(yi) (ch. iv. § I ; ch. xi. § 13), into the I-declension. 
 
 § 11. The Fourth Declension. The Foui-th and 
 Fifth Declensions do not preserve their individuality so 
 well as the others. The Fourth, consisting of U-stems, 
 does not always keep itself separate from the Second, 
 while the Fifth is closely connected with the First. In the 
 ordinary Laiin of every-day life it is doubtful to what 
 extent of their declension U-stems would show a different 
 treatment from 0-stems ; and even the most careful 
 writers decline only a few Fifth Declension Nouns, e. g. 
 (lies, res, throughout in what may be called a Fifth 
 Declension form. The U-stems of the Fourth Declension 
 are Masculine or Neuter. There are a few Feminines, e. g. 
 domus, laurus, which seem to have been originally O- stems 
 (see § 6) ; but it is possible that at an earlier period there 
 were more, for there are traces of Abstract U-stems like 
 metus, fear (cf. Ion. Gk. dpTvs, a fitting, F., but Lat. 
 artus, a limb, M.), having been Feminine in early Latin, 
 e. g. nee metus ulla tenet, Ennius. 
 
 The U-declension being in a manner the property of 
 the educated section of the Roman world, was greatly 
 subjected to the theories of Grammarians. The proper 
 Nora. Sg. Masc. ending -us was by some Grammarians 
 pronounced -us, just as some made the -u of Nom, Sg. 
 Neut. long, others short ; the I.-Eur. Gen. Sg. ending 
 -euE, in Latin -ous, then -us (ch. x. § 11), was by many 
 
58 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 discarded for the Gen. Sg. ending o£ tj-stems (§ 10), -uis, 
 e.g. senatuis, domuis (of. Ter. Haut. 287 eius anuis causa, 
 ' to oblige that old woman ■"), an ending which suited the 
 Dat. Sg. ending -wi, older -uei (from I.-Eur. -ewai). The 
 Emperor Augustus, who like his great predecessor, 
 Julius Caesar, paid great attention to matters of Gram- 
 mar, and once cashiered an officer for using the vulgarism 
 is»e instead of ipse, always made the Gen. Sg. of domus 
 domos. This domos, if it be anything more than a coinage 
 of Augustus to suit some theory of his own, may be 
 a genuine relic of another I.-Eur. ending -ous, which 
 would be in Latin -ous, then -os (ch. x. § 11}. But the 
 Second Declension form of the Genitive, used in popular 
 Latin, steadily maintained itself against all these rules 
 and theories of the Grammarians, and Quintilian in the 
 first century A. D. declares senail to be as good a Genitive 
 as senaius. In the Dative, beside -ul, there is an 
 occasional use of -u, which seems to be the Locative end- 
 ing (of. noctu, in the night), from I.-Eur. -eu (ch. x. § 1 1). 
 (On the use of this Locative in the Second Supine, see 
 ch. vi. § 16). 
 
 In the Nom. Plur. we should expect -ues,-uU, from 
 I.-Eur. -ewes (Gk. (■ni7j(*(f )es), but the Ace. ending is used 
 instead, -its, from -tins. The Gen. PI. often shows -um 
 (the Second Declension ending) as well as the U-stem 
 ending -uum, older -mm, from -mm (ch. ii. §§ 14, 16) 
 (I.-Eur. -ewom, Gk. ■i!r\\i{F)a>v) e. g. mille passum or mille 
 jMSSuum, a mile, lit. 'a thousand (of) paces."" In the 
 Dat. PI. -uhus became by the Latin laws of sound -ihus 
 (ch. ii. § 14), but the older form was kept up for the sake 
 of distinction in words like arcubus, ' to bows ' (cf . arcibus, 
 ' to citadels '). 
 
 As regards Neuter U-stems the Latin Grammarians 
 
§§ 12, 13] Fourth Declension. 59 
 
 disputed, as we have seen, whether the -u of the Nom. Sg. 
 was short or long. The Augustan poets certainly show 
 the scansion cornu, &c., though the length of the u is 
 difficult to justify. There was usually a Second Declen- 
 sion by-form in -um, e. g. cornum, Lucr. ii. 388 : 
 Praeterea lumen per comum transit. 
 § 12. Scheme of the Fourth Declension. 
 
 Sing. 
 Nom. M. -us. 
 
 N.-«. 
 Gen. (1) -m from -eus. 
 
 (3) -uis from -liwes, the U-stem suffix. 
 
 (3) -%, the 0-stem suffix. 
 Dat. -ui, older -uei, from -ewai. 
 Loc. -M from -eu (used also as Dat.). 
 Ace. -um. 
 Abl. -ltd, which became -u. 
 
 Plur. 
 Nom. M. (see Ace). 
 
 N. -ua. 
 Gen. (1) -uum from -ewom. 
 
 (a) -um from -om, the 0-stem suffix. 
 
 ^ " \ -ubug, older -iibos, later -ibus from -ubhos. 
 Loc. ) 
 
 Ace. -«#(from -iins). 
 
 Abl. (same as Dat., Loc). 
 
 § 13. The Fifth Declension. This may be called the 
 E-declension, for all the Nouns that belong to it end their 
 Nom. Sg. in -es and show the long vowel e in at least 
 some cases. But it is a veritable medley of most widely 
 differing stems. We have (i) Verbal Noun-stems in -e, 
 e.g. sorde- (cf. sorde-re Inf., sorde-faeio, &c.), with Abl. 
 
6o The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 9orde and Gen. PI. sorderum (in Plautus^ but in late Latin 
 sordium) ; similarly from facio, fades, and from specio, 
 species. (2) Verbal Nouns in -ies derived from Third 
 Conj. Verbs whose Present has -0, not -io, e.g. rallies ivora. 
 rabo, scabies from scabo, pernicies from a lost 3 Conj. 
 Verb neco, along with its synonym permities. (3) Nouns 
 in -ies, which are not Verbal Nouns, e. g. temperies, derived 
 from tempus, especially Nouns in -ties from Adjs., e. g. 
 vastities, from vastus, moUities from mollis, segnities from 
 segnis, amicities from amicus. (4) dies, with stem dyew-, 
 a by-form of dyew-, meaning ' sky,' ' day.' The stem 
 dyew- is the stem of Jovis Gen.j Jovi Dat., &c. (§ 10), 
 (5) res, with stem rey-^ and spes, with stem sphey-. 
 
 Dies and res are the most consistently declined accord- 
 ing to what is called the ' Fifth Declension/ e. g. Abl. 
 die, re, Gen. PI. dierum, rerun, Dat. PI. diebus, rebus. Next 
 comes spes, which however is given by Ennius a Nom. 
 PI. speres, as if it were an S-stem (cf. vires Nom. PI. of 
 the I-stem vis, §1). But the Verbal and other Nouns 
 in -ies belong as much to the First Declension as to the 
 Fifth, for they have by-forms in -ia, e. g. vastitia, temperia, 
 effigia, and the farther back we go in the literature the 
 more does this side of their nature show itself. In 
 Plautus the ie-iorms are generally confined' to the Nom., 
 Ace. Sg., while he prefers -iae in the Nom. PL, e. g. 
 intemperiae, and in the Dat. Sg., e. g. materiae, -id in the 
 Abl. Sg., e. g. barbarid, -its in the Abl. PL, e. g. mollitiis, 
 and so on (but facie Abl., specie Abl.). After his time 
 the number of Nouns in -ies and the number of cases to 
 which this E-declension is extended steadily increases, 
 though the Plural is always reserved by good writers 
 for the a-forms. All this points to those IE-stems 
 having been originally lA-stems ; and as we know that 
 
§ 13] Fifth Declension. 6i 
 
 the presence of i had in certain circumstances the effect 
 of giving a the sound of e (open e) in Latin i, it seems 
 likely that the greater part of the Fifth Declension 
 Nouns are due to this change of sound. Verbal Nouns 
 in -es, on the other hand, have affinity with I-stems (of. 
 plebes and plebs), and most of them show the E-deelension 
 to a very limited extent only, e. g. tdbe Abl.^ Requie 
 Abl. (for requiet^), requiem Aec. (for requietem), may be 
 due to the false analogy of the Nom. Sg. requies (for 
 *requiet[i)s). 
 
 The formation of the Cases is closely modelled on the 
 First Declension, e being substituted everywhere for a. 
 The Gen. Sg. has -ei, which was allowed to keep its long 
 e when an i preceded, e. g. faciei, but shortened it in other 
 circumstances, ficlei (in early Latin fidei, e. g. plenu' 
 fidei at the end of a hexameter line of Ennius). This 
 shortening was in accordance with the Latin custom of 
 shortening a long vowel before another vowel (eh. ii. § 1 6), 
 and in point of fact affected the ending -iei as well, chang- 
 ing it to -iei, then to -il ; for the Republican writers have 
 facii, pernicii, progenii, &c. Some Grammarians changed 
 this ending -il to -ie, in order that the Genitive might 
 show the (?- vowel, which was the distinguishing mark of 
 the Fifth Declension ; and Julius Caesar, we are told, 
 stamped with his approval forms like specie and die. 
 Others preferred the old Gen. in -ies (like -as, the old 
 Gen. of the First Declension, § 4); and we hear of 
 
 ' Jajumis became jBjurms, and Jinuarius was the vulgar form of 
 Jdnuarius (cf. Italian Gennaio) (p. 10 n.). 
 
 ^ Many so-called Nominatives in -Ss are really Nominatives Plural 
 of I-stems, e. g. ambages, nubls (■with a by-form nubis), saepss (with 
 a by- form saeps). Some feminine animal-names seem to be dialectal, 
 e. g. files, palumbes. They take the I-stem declension. 
 
62 The Noun. [ch. m 
 
 a great controversy as to whether dies or dii or die was 
 the form used by Virgil in a line of the Georgics (i. 208) : 
 
 Libra dies somnique pares ubi feoerit horas, 
 and whether the same poet wrote dii ' of the day ' or dei 
 ' of the god' in Aen. i. 6^6 : 
 
 Munera laetitiamqne dei. 
 The -el of _fidel, and the like, also appears as -i, e. g. 
 /ami (Lucilius), tribunus plebi, with a by-form in -e, e. g. 
 Jide in Horace [C. iii. 7. 4) : 
 
 Constantis juvenem fide. 
 The Genitive of res, spes is as a rule a monosyllable, that 
 of Jides a disyllable in Plautus and Terence, writers who 
 follow the conversational language of their time. 
 
 The Dat. Sg. has also by-forms, possibly due to the 
 theorizing of Grammarians, possibly genuine relics of an 
 ancient divergence of declension, e.g. faciei, fidei (the 
 forms generally accepted), facil, facie. In Plautus and 
 Terence the treatment of the Dat. Sg. is the same as that 
 of the Genitive. The grammarian Aulus Gellius tells 
 us that purists preferred /ac?'e to faciei. 
 
 Of the other cases we need mention only the Dat. Abl. 
 PI. in -ebus, found in rebus, diebus. 
 
 § 14. Scheme of the Tifth Declension. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Nom. -es. -es. 
 
 -drum). 
 
 -dbus). 
 
 Gen. 
 
 (0 
 
 -.ei, -ei, -ei, -?. 
 
 
 -erum (cf . i Decl. 
 
 
 (a) 
 
 -e (changed from ■ 
 
 •I). 
 
 
 (3) 
 
 -e«(cf;iDecl. 
 
 -as). 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 (I) 
 
 -ei, -Si, f-ei, -I. 
 -e. 
 
 
 -ebus (cf. I Decl. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 -em from -em. 
 
 
 -es (from -ens). 
 
 Abl. 
 
 
 -e from -ed. 
 
 
 (same as Dat.). 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE ADJECTITE. 
 
 § 1. pistinction of Gender. It is impossible to draw 
 a hard and fast line between the Adjective and the 
 Noun. Words like veteranus, veteran, tiro, recruit, are 
 as much Adjectives as Nouns, e.g. veteranus exerciius, 
 tiro exercilus ; and the declension of the Adjective was the 
 same as that of the Noun, though it occasionally trended 
 on the Pronoun Declension^, e. g. totius, Gen. of totus, like 
 illius, Gen. of ille (ch. v. § 8). A distinguishing feature 
 of the Adjective is its distinction of the three Genders ; 
 thus veteranus, -a, -urn is an Adjective, veteranus M. a 
 Noun. To indicate these the Adjective Declension took 
 advantage of the connexion of 0-stems with the masculine 
 and neuter and of A-stems with the feminine (ch. iii. § a), 
 e.g. I.-Eur. newos M., newa F., newom N., Lat. novus, 
 nova, novum. (On Nom. Sing. Masc. -er for -rus, see 
 ch. iii. § 6). Besides the vowel a the vowel i was associated 
 with the feminine gender (cf. Lat. neptis beside nepos), 
 and U-stem Adjectives, for example, formed their Fem. 
 in this way, so that e.g. tenuis is properly the feminine 
 form. The ending -ia (e.g. Gk. <pepov<Ta for *(t>epovT^a) 
 may have been an old Latin formation of the feminine 
 
 ' In German the ' Strong ' Declension of the Adjective (where the 
 Adj. is not preceded by the Def. Article) is a trace of the Pronoun 
 Declension, 
 
64 The Adjective. [ch. iv 
 
 Pres. Part., but was early relegated to the function of 
 forming Abstract Nouns, e.g. pollentia, abundantia (cf. 
 repulm, an Abstr. Noun, beside repulsus, -a, -urn ; textura 
 beside texturus, -a, -urn). In Latin the distinctions of 
 gender in the Adjective have been greatly effaced \ 
 lenuis was used as Masc. as well as Fern., and all the 
 U-stem Adjectives show the same treatment, e. g. brevig 
 (Gk. flpaxvs), pinguis (Gk. Traxf's) ; ferens, &c. became the 
 Fem. form too, though an earlier stage of the language 
 probably had *ferentis, See. (ch. ii. § 12) ; and, since final 
 -nt became by a phonetic law of Latin ns (eh. x. § 17), 
 ferens is also the Latin representative of *ferent Neut. 
 (Gk. <p€pov for *<f>epovTy Similarly Neuters like dupleo 
 (cf. the Neut. Noun allec) became assimilated to the 
 Masc. form duplex. The distinction, however, is kept 
 up in 0-stem Adjectives in Latin even better than in 
 Greek, for the Greek usage of the Masc. form of Com- 
 pound 0-stem Adjs. as a Fem., e.g. poSofiaKTvAos 'Hms ^, is 
 unknown in Latin, and in Rl-stems the fashion came in 
 of distinguishing the Masc. in -er from the Fem. in -m, 
 e.g. acer M., dcris P. 0-stems lost their distinction be- 
 tween Masc. and Fem. only when they passed into I-stems. 
 
 This was a course often taken by Latin 0-stem 
 Adjectives. Thus O. Lat. inermus, -a, -urn, is class. Lat. 
 inermis, -ig, -e, and the word Mlarus, a word which the 
 Romans borrowed from the Greek (Gk. iXapoi), just as 
 we borrow terms of the finer nuances of feeling from 
 the French (e.g. triste), soon became hilaria. 
 
 § 2. Comparison. The I.-Eur. suflSxes used to form 
 the Comparative and Superlative of Adjectives were 
 
 • TeiMs M., F., N. was originally a noun (Gk. (f)iTos, a year), 
 s 'PoSoSaKTvKos was really a noun in apposition to 'His, 'Dawn 
 Hose-finger.' This is the origin of this curious Greek usage. 
 
§§ 2, 3] Comparison. 65 
 
 -yes- (weak grade -is-, eh. x. § 13), -isto- (e.g. Gk. ^8ito 
 
 Acc.for *riUo<Ta, Engl, sweeter, with r from «; Gk. rjbia-Tns, 
 
 Engl, sweetest), and to some extent also -tero- (-ero-) 
 
 and -tem5- (-emo-) (Gk. fibvTipos). In Latin the sufiBx 
 
 -yes- (-is-) was used for the Comparative, e.g. suavioriioxa 
 
 suavios with ending -yos, the 0-grade of -yes- (ch. x. § i a), 
 
 but -temo- is found only in ' Superlatives ' like intimm, 
 
 uliimus, and -tero- is used to form Adverbs, e. g. Ireviter 
 
 (Gk. ^pa\{iTepos) and local Adjectives, e.g. dexter (Gk. 
 
 be^iTfpos has this suffix in the same function ; see ch. xi. 
 
 § 8), as we have -temo- in the local Adjectives finitimm, 
 
 maritimus (ch. xi. § 7)- ^^^ -mo- and -emo- appear as 
 
 Superlative suffixes in summus for *sup-mus (ch. x. § 16), 
 
 infimus and imus, and (appended to the Comparative 
 
 suffix -IS-) in maximtis for *maffisimus (ch. ii. § 1 2), sacer- 
 
 rimus for *sa- crisimus (ch. ii. § 12), Jhcillimus ior *facili- 
 
 simtis (ch. X. § T9). Neither the origin of the usual 
 
 Superlative ending -Msimus nor the date of its introduction 
 
 are clear, e. g. pwrissimus, Old Lat. pwrimus. 
 
 § 3. Irregular Comparison. The irregular Comparison 
 
 of simple Adjectives like 'good,' 'bad' is -a relic of a 
 
 very early time when different roots were used to express 
 
 a Positive, a Comparative, and a Superlative (Gk. aya66i, 
 
 ap-dvoiv ; Engl, good, better), e. g. Lat. bonus (older 
 
 duonus^), melior, optimus (older opUumus from the root 
 
 op- of opto, opes, &c.). The coexistence of such forms as 
 
 benevolus and lenevolens produced a type of Comparison 
 
 like magnificus, magnificentior , magnifieentissimus ; while 
 
 frugl, which was a Dative Case of a noun, ' for fruit/ 
 
 ' Thus on a Soipio epitaph : 
 
 Hone oino ploirume cosentiont Eomai 
 Duonoro optumo fuise uiro, 
 ' hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Eomae bonorum optimum fuisse 
 
66 The Adjective. [ch. iv 
 
 ' fit for bearing good fruit ' (ef , Plaut. tamen ero frugi 
 bonae), had recourse for its Comparative and Superlative 
 to the Adj. frUffdlig. The retention of v in the Positive, 
 with its suppression (ch. ii. § 12) in the other Degrees, 
 causes the anomaly in the Comparison of dives (but 
 of. Ter. Adelpk, 770 dis quidem esses, Demea), ditior, 
 ditissimus ; Juvenis, junior. Plus, plurimus, older *plois, 
 *ploisomos, come from plo-, a grade (ch. x. § it) of ple- 
 (ch. vi. § 3), which is a development of the root pel-, ' to 
 fill'' (Gk. 7rX^pj/«, -nXiiatv from *Tr\.r]-yo)i', TtXe'iirros from 
 *i:kr]i.a-Tos, Lat. ple-nus, plerique). Major comes from 
 *maMor from a root magh-, while magis, masoimus show 
 another form of the root, viz. mag-. Nequior and 
 nequissimus are curious coinages for the Comp. and 
 Superl. of the indeclinable Adj. ne-quam, lit. ' a no-how ' 
 (ef. O. Lat. nequalia, nuisances, drawbacks). Odor 
 (Gk. iiniav), lacks a Positive in Latin, though it has 
 one in Greek, u>k6s. Potis, the Positive of potior, 
 desirable, has the sense of ' able,' e. g. potis sum (class. 
 possum, ch. vi. § 23), and is in Greek the Noun noais, 
 a master, lord. 
 
 § 4. Numerals. Of the Latin Cardinal Numbers 
 1-3 are inflected: unus, -a, -urn; duo (a Dual form, 
 ch. iii. §1), -ae, -0 ; tres, -es, -ia (Plur. of an I-stem, tri-) ; 
 not 4, as Gk. rea-a-apfi, -es, -a. The Numeral Adverbs 
 from 5 upwards end in -tens or -ies, the I.-Eur. ending 
 -yent (ch. x. § 17). For the fraction 'half we have 
 semi- (I.-Eur. semi-, Gk. ij^i-, O. Engl, sam-, whence 
 our ' sand-blind '), while as an Adjective dimMius 
 (from dis and medius) was used. 'One and a half is 
 sesqul-, for *semisque, with the same syncope as is seen in 
 sestertius, ' two and a half,' for *semis-terfivs (cf . Germ, 
 drittehalb). 
 
§§ 4. 5] 
 
 Numerals. 
 
 67 
 
 5. Scheme of the Latin Nnmerals. 
 
 Card. 
 
 Ord. 
 
 Adv. 
 
 1. 
 
 unus, older oinos (I.-Eur. 
 
 primus, older 
 
 sSmd (from sem- 
 
 
 oinos, Eng. one ; cf. Gk. 
 
 *prismos (cf. 
 
 'one,' Gk. e?s 
 
 
 oTos, alone, for oifos). 
 
 pris-ciis, &.O.). 
 
 for sems ; Lat. 
 
 singidi, sim- 
 plex, &c.). 
 Us from duis. 
 
 o_ 
 
 duo (I.-Eur. duo, Gk. Svta 
 
 seaindus (lit. 
 
 
 and BiJo) (in Compounds 
 
 ' following '). 
 
 
 
 bi-, older dui-, e.g. hidms). 
 
 aUer (lit. 'other 
 of two') (so in 
 0. Eng. 'other' 
 is used for 
 'second'). 
 
 
 8. 
 
 ires (I. -Eur. trSygs, Gk . rpeU) 
 (in Compounds tri-, e. g. 
 tri-pes). 
 
 ter-tius. 
 
 ter from *ters. 
 
 4. 
 
 quattuor from *quoti>or{S)s 
 
 guartus. 
 
 quater from qofi- 
 
 
 (I.-Eur. q°etwor-, Dor. 
 
 
 trus. 
 
 
 Gk. TfTopes). 
 
 
 
 5. 
 
 guingue from *qMnque (I.- 
 Eur, pfinq^e, Gk. wivrt). 
 
 quin{c)ius. 
 
 qmnquie(n)s. 
 
 6. 
 
 six (I.-Eur. sSks and sw6ks, 
 Gk. ?f). 
 
 sextus. 
 
 sexie(n)s. 
 
 7. 
 
 septem (I.-Eur. s6pt«m, Gk. 
 
 septirmis. 
 
 seph'e(n)s. 
 
 8. 
 
 octo, a Dual-form, lit. 'two 
 
 octavus for *odS- 
 
 ociie(.m)s. 
 
 
 sets of four' (I.-Eur. 6kto, 
 
 vus (ch. X. 
 
 
 
 Gk. 6«Ti,). 
 
 18). 
 
 
 9. 
 
 novem (I.-Eur. nSwn, Gk. 
 Iv-yca). 
 
 nomis. 
 
 nome(n)s. 
 
 10. 
 
 ctScem (I.-Eur. dSk'm, Gk. 
 Siiea). 
 
 decimus. 
 
 decie(n)s. 
 
 20. 
 
 mginU (I.-Eur. ■wi-(d)k°mti. 
 
 ncisimus, older 
 
 vicie{n)s. 
 
 
 a Dual-form, lit. 'two 
 
 vicmsurmis for 
 
 
 
 decades,' Dor. Gk. fti- 
 
 *vicent-tumus. 
 
 
 
 KOTi, Att. Gk.ei-Koo-i). 
 
 
 
 80. 
 
 tr'igmta, lit. ' three decades,' 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 100. 
 
 cenlMm (I.-Eur. (d)k»mtom, 
 lit. ' a decade ' [sc. of 
 decades], Gk. c-KarSv). 
 
 
 
 1000. 
 
 mlUe, originally a Neut. 
 Sing. I-stem ', e. g. mille 
 peditum, with Plur., e.g. 
 tria milia peditum. 
 
 
 
 ' Plautus has the AW. mHU. So in Old Latin ducentum, trecentum, 
 &e. are used as Nouns with the Gen. of the thing specified, e. g. 
 argenti sescentum, Lucilius. 
 
68 The Adjective. [ch. iv 
 
 Distributive Numerals have the suffix -no-, e. g. hl-ni, 
 ter-ni and trl-mi, but the Distributive of wnus is formed 
 difEerently, singuli (from the root sem-, 'one/ whence 
 semel). Multiplicative Namerals have -plex, from the 
 root plek-, 'to fold' (Lat. im-pUco, Gk. itXiK-Tot), e.g. 
 simplex, and Proportional -plus (from the root pel-, ' to 
 fill'), e. g. simplus. (On quotus, see ch. v. § 8.) 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 1. Personal. Bgo represents an I.-Eur. ego (Gk. eyw). 
 This was the I.-Eur. form used for the i Pers. Sing. 
 Pronoun when subject to the verb, while another stem 
 was employed for the same Pronoun when considered as 
 object, viz. me-. This me- is the stem of the Latin Dat. 
 mthi (often pronounced as one syllable, ml, like niZ from 
 nihil, eh. ii. § 6), which was in older Latin me-hei, and 
 of the Abl. me, older med (ch. ii. § 9). The use of dif- 
 ferent stems in the Nom. and in the other cases is one of 
 the peculiar features of the I.-Eur. Pronoun Declension, 
 about which more information will be found below (§ 3). 
 For the Accusative we find exactly the same form used 
 in Latin as for the Abl., viz. me, older med, so that the 
 Abl. seems to have taken the place of the Ace. in Latin 
 in much the same way as the Dat. ' him ' took the place 
 of the Ace. iu English. For the Gen. the Gen. Sing. Neut. 
 of the Possessive Pronoun is used, mei, e. g. amicus mei, 
 lit. 'sk friend of mine ; ' but in older Latin we find occasion- 
 ally a Gen. formed with -es, the Gen. Sing. SuflSx of Nouns 
 (ch. iii. § 1), viz. mU, as in this line of Ennius : 
 
 Ingens cura mis cum concordibus aequiperare, 
 ' My earnest care to match with men like-hearted to me.' 
 
70 The Pronouns. [ch. v 
 
 We have thus : 
 
 Nom. ego (originally ego, then shortened to eg^, ch. ii. 
 § i6). 
 
 Gen. mei (Gen. Sg. Neut. of mens). 
 
 Dat. mihi (from me-hei, ch. ii. § 14. On the second 
 part -hei, see below on tibi). 
 
 Ace. me (really Abl.). 
 
 Abl. me (from med, with the Abl. Sing. Sufl&x -d, 
 ch. iii. §1). 
 
 Tu represents an I.-Eur. tu, seen in the Homeric form 
 Tv-vT], while the ordinary Greek <tu, older tv, represents 
 an I.-Eur. tu. This is another feature of the I.-Eur. 
 Pronoun Declension that forms with short and with long 
 Towel are found side by side (ef. ch. ix. § i). For the 
 oblique cases the I.-Eur. stem was twe- and (when unem- 
 phatic) te- Lat. Ubt was earlier *fe-liei. The b which 
 appears here and in the Dat. of the Reflexive Pronoun, gibi, 
 may be a relic of a Pronoun-stem bhe-, so that ti-bi 
 would be originally a Compound ; and the A of mi-M has 
 been similarly referred to the Pronoun-stem ghe-, the 
 same as appears in the Demonstrative Aic (§ 3). The 
 other cases have the same formation as the i Pers. Sing. 
 Pronoun ; and like Gen. mh beside mei, we have in the 
 older literature a Gen. tis beside tm. 
 
 Nom. til (the I.-Eur. form, unchanged). 
 
 Gen. tui (Gen. Sg. Neut. of tuus, meaning literally 
 'of thine'). 
 
 Dat. tibi (from *te-bei), with the same change of 
 te- to tl-, through the unaccented use of the 
 word, ch. ii. § 14, as of me- to m- in mihi). 
 
 Ace. te (really Abl.). 
 
 Abl. te (from ted). 
 
 In the First Plural Pronoun the one I.-Eur. stem ne- 
 
■§ i] Personal. 71 
 
 (no-) (Gk. v5)i Dual, ^jneiy from I.-Eur. nVme-, Engl, us 
 from I.-Eur. n*s), is used in Latin to the exclusion of 
 the other stem we- (wo-) (Engl. we). Nos is perhaps 
 properly Ace. and not Nom. No-Us, older no-beis, adds 
 to *nohei (cf. *te-bei, *se-bei) the plural suffix -*. Eor 
 the Genitive, besides the Gen. Sing. Neut. of the Posses- 
 sive, nostri, e. g. amicus nostri, lit. ' a friend of ours,' the 
 Gen. Plur. was used, nostrum or nostrorum ; and it came 
 to be the rule that the latter form should be employed 
 whenever the idea of plurality was strongly present. 
 This we have omnium nostrum (in Plautus omnium, nos- 
 trorum) ' of all of us,' pars nostrum (jiars nostrorum) ' a part 
 of us,' &c. Obsolete forms are (i) of the Dat. Abl. nis, 
 with -is of Second Declension Nouns (ch. iii. § 6), (a) of 
 the Ace. enos, in the Hymn of the Arval Brothers : 
 
 Enos, Lases, iuuate ; 
 Enos, Marmor, iuuato, 
 ' Nos, Lares, juvate ; nos. Mars, juvato.' 
 
 Nom. nos (perhaps properly Ace). 
 
 Gen. nostri, nostrum (really Gen. Sing. Neut. and 
 Gen. Plur. of the Possessive). 
 
 Dat. Abl. nobis (older no-bei-s, with the suffix -bei of 
 ti-bi, si-bi increased by the plural suffix -s). 
 
 Ace. nos. 
 
 Fos shows the I.-Eur. a Plur. stem we- (wo-), for the 
 other I.-Eur. stem yu- (Gk. v-ixtli, Engl, you) was, like 
 the I.-Eur. i Plur. stem we- (wo-), discarded in Latin. 
 Its declension is similar to that of nos. 
 
 Nom. vos (perhaps properly Ace). 
 
 Gen. vestri,vestrum{Gien.. Sing.Neut. and Gen.Plui*. 
 of the Possessive). 
 
 Dat.Abl.wS/a (older vo-bei-s). 
 
 Ace. vos. 
 
72 The Pronouns. [ch. v 
 
 The Reflexive Pronoun (I.-Eur. stem swS- and, when 
 unaccented, se-) is similarly declined ; but we have no 
 Old Lat. Gen. bib, like miB and Ub, and (a common feature 
 of the I.-Eur. Pronoun Declension) the same forms are 
 used for the Singular and for the Plural. 
 
 Gen. Bui (Gen. Sg. Neut. of buub, lit. ' ' of his/ * of 
 
 theirs '). 
 Dat. Bibi (from *se-bei, as tibi from *te-bei, on which 
 
 see above). 
 Ace. Be (really Abl.). 
 Abl. Be (from Bed). 
 
 § 2. Possessive. Meus'is I.-Eur. meyos (ch. x. § 13; ch. 
 xi. § 3), tuus, older *touoB, I.-Eur. tewos (ch. x. § 4 ; ch. ii. 
 § i5)j BUUB, older bouos, I.-Eur. sewos. From the Re- 
 lative and Interrogative Pronoun was formed after the 
 same type cujus, older *quoiioB, a form which was avoided 
 by purists under the idea that it was nothing but the 
 Gen. Sg. cujus used by vulgar error as an Adjective, 
 cujus, -a, -urn. Virgil however stamped the form with 
 his approval in the line {Eel. iii. 1) : 
 
 Die mihi, Damoeta, cujum pecus? An Meliboei? 
 
 a line which his critics parodied : 
 
 Die mihi, Damoeta, 'cujum peeus' anne Latinum? 
 ' Tell me, Damoetas, is ' cujum pecus ' good Latin ? ' 
 
 Beside I.-Eur. sewos (Gk. eo's) there was another I.-Eur. 
 form swos (Gk. os for *o-fus), which appears in O. Lat. 
 forms like sas, sis, as in a line of Ennius (imitated by 
 Lucretius iii. 1025): 
 
 Postquam lumina sis oculis bonus Ancu' reliquit. 
 
 These must not be confused on the one hand with 
 O. Lat. sas, sob for eas, eos (§ 3), nor on the other with 
 
§§ 2, 3] Possessive. 73 
 
 the monosyllabic pronunciation of suas, suis, &c., as in 
 
 this line of Lucretius (v. 430) : 
 
 Ordiue se suo quaeque sagaci mente locaruut. 
 
 In this Hne the u of suo was pronounced like Lat. v (our 
 
 w), and similarly the e of meo, meos, &c.j was pronounced 
 
 like Lat. j (our y) in such a line as that of the old Scipio 
 
 epitaph : 
 
 Virtutes generis mieis moribus accumulaui, 
 ' I made my character crown the merits of our race.' 
 
 For the Possessive of the Plural Pronouns the suffix 
 used was -tero- (Gk. ^jne'-Te/ios) ; so i PI. nos-ter, 2 PI. 
 ves-ter, older vos-ter (ch. x. § 8). 
 
 These Possessives are really Adjectives^ not Pronouns, 
 and properly belong to chapter iv. They have the 
 ordinary Adjective declension, the only point that calls 
 for mention being the Voc. Sing. Masc. of mens, which is 
 ml, a contraction of *ime ^. On the use of their Gen. Neut. 
 as Gen. of the Personal Pronouns see the last paragraph. 
 
 Both the Possessive Adjectives and the Personal Pro- 
 nouns are often strengthened by the addition of the 
 Particles -met, -pte (on which see § 3), e. g. ego-met, tibi-met, 
 sibi-met, nos-met, vos-met, mea-met, suis-met, mihi-pte, med- 
 pte, suo-pte. Tu often adds the Particle -te, and becomes 
 tu-te- (cf. tu-ti-met, ch. ii. § 13), a form not to be con- 
 founded with Aec. ie-te ; for this Ace. form is merely the 
 Ace. te doubled for the sake of emphasis (cf. se-se). 
 
 § 3. Demonstrative. There was a great variety of 
 Demonstrative Pronoun-stems in I.-Eur., some of which 
 appear in some languages as Adverbs, Conjunctions and 
 Particles only, but as Pronouns in others. Thus the stem 
 
 ' Plautus uses meus with a Second Decl. Noun whose Nom. is used 
 for a Vocative, e. g. Asin. 664 da, m6us ocellus, mea rosa, mi anime, 
 mea uoluptas. 
 
74 The Pronouns. [ch. v 
 
 ke- (ko-) appears in Latin in the Adverb ce- of ee-do, 
 ' give here/ and in the Particle -ce of hujns-ce, illig- ce, 
 &e., but in English it supplies the ordinary Third Sing. 
 Pronoun ' he ' ; and on the other hand the stem ghe- 
 (gho-) of Lat. M-c (O, Lat. he-c), ho-c appears as a 
 Particle in Greek ov-xl, vai-^C. Latin Conjunctions like 
 nam, nem-pe, e-nim, dum are all descendants of I.-Enr. 
 Pronoun-stems which in other I.-Eur. languages appear 
 as actual Pronouns ; and so are Latin Particles like -pe 
 of nem-pe, quippe, -dem of ejus-dem, ibi-dem, -tern of au-tem, 
 i-tem, &c., as well as the Pronominal Particles mentioned 
 in the preceding paragraph -pte, -met, and the like. 
 
 The stems used in Latin for Demonstrative Pronouns 
 are: 
 
 (i) I.-Eur. se- (sS-)j which seems to have been origin- 
 ally confined to Nom. Sg. Masc. and Fem.j a stem te- 
 (to-) being used elsewhere (Gk. 6 and os, for *(to, *(t6s, 
 Masc. if, for *<Ta, Fem., to, for *Toh, Neut., rov Ace. Sg. 
 Masc, &c.). This stem is found independently in the 
 Old Latin Demonstrative sam ' eam,' sos ' eos,' sum ' eum,' 
 as in this line of Ennius : 
 
 Constitit inde loci propter sos dia dearum. 
 ' Then {inde loci) the heavenly goddess took her stand beside them.' 
 
 But in classical Latin it appears in independent form 
 only as an Adverb or Conjunction, ium, tarn, &c. ; while 
 in Pronouns it is always a pendant to some other stem, 
 e. g. ille for *ol-se, where it is a pendant to the stem ol- 
 (see below), is-te, &c. 
 
 (3) I.-Eur. ghe- (gho-) supplies Lat. Mc Masc, from 
 O. Lat. M-c ■', haec Fem., for hai-c, hoc Neut., for *hod-c, 
 
 ' This form is found on a Scipio epitaph : 
 
 Hec cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe, 
 ' hie cepit Corsicam Aleriamque ui-bem.' 
 
§ 3] Demonstrative. 75 
 
 all augmented by the Particle -ce. The scansion of hie 
 as a long syllable, e. g. Virg. 
 
 Manibusque meis Mezeutius hie est, 
 represents a pronunciation ' hicc/ which followed the 
 lead of ' hocc ' (cf . hocci-ne) for *hod-c. BXcc and lioec 
 would be the pronunciation before vowels, hic and hoc 
 before consonants (cf. ch. ii. § 9 on these doublets). 
 But hic with a long i was an Adverb^ ' here/ and hoc 
 with long was the Ablative. The unaccented, use of 
 the Demonstrative (ch. ii. § 11) led to the change of 
 O. Lat. hec to class. Lat. Jvic (ch. ii. § 14), and similarly of 
 the Neut. hoc (hocc) to hue [hwcc), though the last form 
 came to be reserved for the Adverbial sense of ' to this 
 place,'' ' hither/ e. g. hue venio, in Plautus hoc uenio 
 (ch. ix. § 5). The i of hai-c is a peculiarity of the I.- 
 Eur. Pronoun Declension (cf. quae, O. Lat. qual, Fem. 
 Sg. of the Pron. stem q"o-, § 6). 
 
 (3) I.-Eur. 61- (Lat. ul-tra, ul-timus ; see eh. viii. § 41), 
 a grade of the root al- of Lat, al-ius, Grk. &\kos, appears 
 with the L-Eur. stem se- (so-) appended in Lat. ille from 
 *ol-se. (On the change of Is to U, as in velle for *vel-se, 
 see eh. x. § 19.) The Neuter we should expect to be 
 *ultu(i from *ol-tod; but this form was adapted to the 
 pattern of the Masc. and Fem. and became ollud, class. 
 illud. The change of to i must be referred to the 
 unaccented use of this Pronoun, which culminated in its 
 reduction io a mere Definite Article in late Latin (ch. ii. 
 § 11). Ille, older olle, seems to stand for an original 
 61-so, with weakening of final otoe (ch. ii. § 14), so being 
 one form of the Nom. Sing. Masc. in I.-Eur. (Gk. for 
 *(ro). The other form sos (Gk. os for *iros, 'he') appears 
 in O. Lat. ollug for 61-sos, but *il7us was discarded in 
 the classical language (cf. below on ipse and ipsus). 
 
^6 The Pronouns. [ch. v 
 
 (4) From I.-Eur. i- (ei-) and eyo- (Engl, it) comes 
 the Latin 'Anaphoric' Pronoun (i. e. the pronoun which 
 refers to something previously mentioned) ** Masc, ea 
 Fern., from eya (ch. x. § \'^, M Neut. Augmented by 
 a combination of the Particle -pe with the Pronoun-stem 
 se- (s6-)j a combination which expresses ' self,' it forms the 
 Latin Pronoun of Identity, ipse M. for i-p(e)-so, ipsa F., 
 ipsum} N. In class. Latin the first part of this com- 
 bination remains undeclined in its bare stem-form i-psa, 
 i-psum, &c., but in the earlier literature we have declen- 
 sion of the first part with or without declension of the 
 second, e.g. ea-pse (and«a-jo*fl?), eum-pse (and eum-psum'>). 
 Augmented by the Particle -dem it expresses ' the same,' 
 tdem, older M-dem, Masc. (eh. x. § 19), ea-dem Fern., idem, 
 (not *id-dem) Neut. 
 
 The Declension of these stems followed the I.-Eur. 
 Pronoun Declension, which, as we have seen, was very 
 difEerent from the Noun or Adj. Declension, though it 
 became more and more assimilated to this in course of 
 time, and in Greek had come to be almost identical. It 
 is this Greek assimilation of the Pronoun- to the Noun- 
 Declension which makes the Greek Pronouns easier to 
 learn than the Latin. The Nom. Ace. Sg. Neut. was 
 formed, not like O-stem Nouns in -m, e. g. donum, but in 
 -d, e. g. is-tud (I.-Eur. tod, Gk. t6 for *to8), illud ; the 
 Nom. Sing. Fem. (with which went the Nom. Ace. Plur. 
 Neut. ; see ch. iii. § 2) ended in -ai, e. g. O. Lat. iai-ce, 
 class. Aaec; while for the Nom. Sing. Masc. the bare 
 stem was used, e. g. Lat. Aic, for ghS- with Particle -ce, 
 ille (0. Lat. olle) for ol-so (Gk. 6 for *(ro). But the Noun- 
 
 ' We should expect Hptud. Like 0. Lat. oUus beside oMe (class. 
 nie) is O. Lat. ipsus beside ipse. Flautus seems to use the form ipsus 
 Trhere special emphasis is intended. 
 
§ 3] IXemonstratwe. 77 
 
 endings were used side by side with these from a very- 
 early time, e. g. I.-Eur. SOS M. (Gk. 6s 'he 'for *aos), sa 
 F. (Gk. ri for *crd), and so we find in Latin ilia, for ol-sa, 
 beside O. Lat. illaec, for ol-sai with Particle -ce, and 
 along with O. Lat. olle we have O. Lat. ollus, forol-sos. 
 (Cf. O. Lat. ipsus beside ipse, class, ista beside O. Lat. 
 istaec, ip-sum Neut., &c.) The suffix -oi, -ei (the Loc. 
 Sing, suffix of Noun 0-stems, ch. iii. § 6) was in the I.- 
 Eur. Pronoun Declension used in a case which seems to 
 have acted not only as a Locative but also as a Dative and 
 as a Genitive. Thus Greek juot, which we call a Dative, 
 has the function of a Genitive in such a phrase as txrjTepi 
 (loi ' to my mother.* In Latin ilh, older ol-lei from 
 ol-soi or ol-sei (ch. ii. § 14), was both Dative 'to him ' 
 and Locative ' in that place,' ' there,' and though by the 
 classical period it had been found convenient to distin- 
 guish the two uses by restricting illi to the Dat. sense, 
 and the form with the Particle -ce, illlc, to the Loc, 
 this distinction is unknown to Plautus, who uses illi and 
 illic equally as Dat. and as Loc. The Genitive received 
 a distinguishing mark in Latin by the addition of the 
 Noun Gen. Sing, suffix -6s (ch. iii. §1) to this Dat.-Loc- 
 Gen. form, Atyus (pronounced hflyyus, ch. ii. § 3), older 
 */ioioa, from *Aoi with an appended -os ; so ejus (pro- 
 nounced eyyus) from ei, illius ^ from illi, &c. In the rapid 
 utterance of ordinary speech these new Genitives assumed, 
 when unaccented (ch. ii. § 11), the pronunciation illls, 
 isfis, ipsis, Jiuis, Sis. Thus we have illi(w)s modi (four 
 syllables) Ter. Ad. 441, or in one word illimodi (cf. cui- 
 
 ' Originally ilRus, then through the Latin shortening of a long 
 vowel before another vowel, illms. Altenus is found in dramatic 
 verse as well as altervas, though the long penult could not appear in 
 dactylic poetry. 
 
78 
 
 The Pronouns. 
 
 [CH. V 
 
 cuimodi), with s dropped before m as in primus for *j3rig- 
 mus (ch. X. § 19). The Nom. Plur. Maec. suffix of O- 
 stem pronouns, viz. -oi, was in Latin (as in Greek) 
 borrowed by 0-stem Nouns (see ch, iii. § 6). 
 
 Scheme of the Demonstrative Pronoun Beclension. 
 
 (Stem ghS-, gh6-) 
 
 (Compound of Stems 
 61- and s6-) 
 
 (Stem ei-, i-) 
 
 Nom 
 
 . M. 
 
 hw, 0. Lat. Mc 
 
 me, 0. Lat. offie (from 
 
 is (1 with Noun 
 
 
 
 (for ghS with 
 
 ol-s6) (also 0. Lat. 
 
 Nom. Sg. suffix 
 
 
 
 Particle -ce). 
 
 ♦oZtos, alius from 
 ol-sOs). 
 
 -s). 
 
 
 P. 
 
 haec, 0. Lat. haic 
 (from ghai with 
 -ce). 
 
 jBa.O. Lat. oHo (from 
 ol-sa) (also iUaec, 
 0. Lat. *oUaic like 
 
 . Aoic). 
 
 mvd, 0. Lat. *oZio(i 
 
 ea (from ey-a). 
 
 
 N. 
 
 hoc (from *MA 
 
 id (the I.-Eur. 
 
 
 
 with -ce). 
 
 oKwd (from ol- 
 s6d). 
 
 form unchang- 
 ed). 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 hujm, 0. Lat. 
 
 mius (from Dat. iffif 
 
 ejus (from Dat. 
 
 
 
 *hoios (with 
 
 with -6s). 
 
 ej with -6s). 
 
 
 
 addition of (Jen. 
 
 
 
 
 
 suffix-OS to Dat.). 
 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 
 huie, 0. Lat. haic 
 
 «!j, 0. Lat. *oBoi,oHei 
 
 ei, 0. Lat. eei 
 
 
 
 (from *hoi with 
 -ce). 
 hunc, 0. Lat. home 
 
 (from ol-soi). 
 
 (from eyoi). 
 
 Ace. 
 
 M. 
 
 iaum, 0. Lat. *ottom 
 
 eum, 0. Lat. eom 
 
 
 
 (from *hom 
 
 (from ol-som). 
 
 (from eyom). 
 
 
 
 with -ce). 
 
 
 
 
 F. 
 
 hanc (from *ham 
 with -ce). 
 
 iJZam. 
 
 cam. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 M. 
 
 Aoc (from *hod 
 
 i;to, 0. Lat. *oHSd 
 
 CO, 0. Lat. eo<2 
 
 
 
 with -ce). 
 
 (from ol-s5d). 
 
 (fi-om eyed). 
 
 
 F. 
 
 Aac (from *had 
 with -cc). 
 
 ilia. 
 
 ea. 
 
 Loc. 
 
 
 Aic, 0. Lat. heic 
 (from *Ae» with 
 -ce). 
 
 mc, 0. Lat. o!W, 
 oHeic (from ol-sei). 
 
 
U] 
 
 Demonstrative. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 79 
 
 (Stem ghS-, gh«-) 
 
 (Compound of Stems 
 51- and s6-) 
 
 (Stem ei-, i-) 
 
 Kom 
 
 . M. hi, 0. Lat. *hoi and 
 
 ilU 0. Lat. *oUoi, 
 
 ei (from ey-oi). 
 
 
 (unaccented) hei. 
 
 ollei (from ol-soi). 
 
 
 
 V.hae, 0. Lat. *hai 
 
 iUae. 
 
 eae. 
 
 
 and haic. 
 
 
 
 
 N. haec, 0. Lat. *hai 
 
 ilia (with Noun 
 
 ea. 
 
 
 and Afflic. 
 
 Neut. PI. ending). 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 M. AoTMm (from gho- 
 
 illorum, 0. Lat. oUo- 
 
 eorum. 
 
 
 som). 
 
 (romch.viii.§28). 
 
 
 
 P. harum (from gha- 
 
 iUarum, 0. Lat. otta- 
 
 eamm. 
 
 
 som). 
 
 rum. 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Abl. M. his, 0. Lat. 
 
 mis, 0. Lat. ollois. 
 
 eis. 
 
 
 *hois and (un- 
 
 which became 
 
 
 
 accented) heis. 
 
 olleis. 
 
 
 
 F. his, 0. Lat. *hms 
 
 illis, 0. Lat. *onais. 
 
 eis., 
 
 
 and (unaccent- 
 
 olleis. 
 
 
 
 ed) heis. 
 
 
 
 Aco. 
 
 M. Aos (from gho^s). 
 
 aus. 
 
 eos. 
 
 
 F. Ms (from gha"s;. 
 
 illas. 
 
 ecus. 
 
 § 4. The Particle -oe. This Particle, as we have seen, belongs 
 to the stem kS-, k6- (Gk. IxeT, a Locative Adverb, Lat. citer, cS-do, 
 Engl, he, him). It is employed as an enclitic Particle in other 
 languages of the I.-Eur. family beside Latin ; for example, the gh of 
 our ' though ' is nothing but this appended -kS. It conveyed the 
 sense of ' here,' so that hosce beside has in Latin is much like 
 'these here' beside 'these' in English, and the addition of the 
 particle would not make any perceptible difference in the sense. 
 In the earlier authoi-s we find -ce added or withheld at will ; ills 
 and iUic (ch. ii. § 14), Slum and iUunc, illud and iUuc, &c., stand side 
 by side in the pages of Plautus and Terence, as turn and tunc in 
 classical Latin. But by Cicero's time the forms with -ce have been 
 made use of to distinguish synonyms. To Plautus iUi and iMic 
 were synonyms in the senses 'to him' or 'in that place.' The 
 classical writers reserve ffi for the first, HBc for the second sense. 
 Similarly iUud 'that thing' was distinguished from iUuc 'to that 
 place,' hoe 'these women' from ha^c 'these things'.' The particle 
 clung closest, as was natural, to the Demonstrative hie 'this,' of 
 
 ' Virgil has the old form in Georg. iii. 305 : 
 
 Haec quoque non cura nobis leviore tuendae. 
 
8o The Pronouns. [ch. v 
 
 which only the ce-forms are found in the Nom. Sing. Mase. He 
 (never AS), Fern, haec (never Aae or Aa), Neut. hoc (never Aod), Dat. 
 Sing, fewic, Ace. Sing. Masc. hums (never hum), hanc (never ham), and 
 so on. The tendency of Latin pronunciation to syncope of final -S 
 (ch. ii. § 12) reduced -ce to -c, but the full form of the Particle is 
 seen, for example, when the Interrogative -ne is added, hici-ne, 
 hoea-ne (on the change of -i to -i- see ch. ii. § 14 n). 
 
 § 5. O. liat. forms of the Demonstratives. A Nom. Flur. Masc. 
 his, older Jieis {hisce, heisce) is found on inscriptions and in Flautus 
 and even, according to the Grammarians, in Virgil, Ed. iii. loa : 
 
 His certe, neque amor causa est, vix ossibus haerent. 
 A Dat.- Abl. hibus occurs in Plautus Ourc. 506 : parissumi estis hibus, 
 like ilrus, from is, in Plant. Mil. 74 ibua dinumerem stipendium. 
 
 The old form vUus was still used in Cicero's time in the announce- 
 ment of a public funeral : alius leto dolus est, QuirUes ; and when the 
 herald made his proclamation afthe elections he used the phrase 
 oUa centuria and not ' ilia centuria,' just as we keep up the old 
 Norman French ' oyez, oyez' in Eoyal Proelainations. Virgil and the 
 later Epic poets are fond of the forms Mi, oUis, e. g. Virg. A. i. 254 : 
 
 OUi subridens hominum sator atque deorum, 
 a line in which some of the Latin commentators understood 
 oUi as an Adverb with the sense of 'at that time,' 'then.' Olim, 
 an Adverb derived from a by-stem 0I-, had originally this meaning, 
 ' at that time,' e. g. Plant. True. 65 olim quom caletur maxime ' at 
 the hottest time of the year.' 
 
 An early Ace. Sg. Masc. of is, viz. im or em, is preserved in that 
 clause of the Twelve Tables which gives directions how to subpoena 
 a witness ; si in ius uocat, ni it, antestamino ; igitur em capito, ' If 
 A summon B and B refuses to go, A must first take a bystander 
 to witness, then lay hands on B.' 
 
 § 6. Relative, Indefinite, and Interrogative. 
 
 The I.-Eur. Relative-stem yo- (Gk. os for *yos) does not 
 supply the Latin Relative, which shows the stem q'o-, 
 a stem originally proper (with q"i-, q^u-) to the Interro- 
 gative and Indefinite Pronouns (Gk. tIs ; and ns, irov ; 
 and T!ov, Engl, who ?) but used also as a Relative (Engl, 
 who). I.-Eur. q^o-, q"i-, q"u- appear in the Latin qui ?, 
 quig ?, si-quia, ali-culi, &c. We may roughly distinguish 
 qm- (stem q'o-) as the Relative, quis (stem q"i-) as the 
 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronoun, though the stems 
 
§ 6] Relative, Interrog., Indef. 8i 
 
 frequently overlap ; e. g. in the Latin of Cato and the 
 earliest inscriptions ques is the Nom. PI. of the Indefinite, 
 qui {quel) of the Relative ^ ; but in class. Lat. both are qui. 
 In the Dramatists quia is the Fem. of the Interrog., quae 
 of the Relative, but qui, the I-stena. Abl., which probably 
 was originally confined to the Interrog. -Indef. use, is 
 also Relative, e. g. Ter. Arl. 477 psaltriam parauit, quicum 
 uiuat, and queiB, also written quls (ch. x. § i.i), which 
 was originally Rel. only, is also Interrog.-Indef. The 
 I-deelension Neuter PI. quia survives only as a Con- 
 junction (ch. ix. § 12). In the Italic languages (as in 
 Celtic and elsewhere) a curious declension of the Relative 
 (and Interrogative) was in vogue, a case-form of the 
 Relative-stem being prefixed to a Demonstrative, like 
 modern Greek ttoC t6v for oi" in such a sentence as airoy 
 Avi 6 avbpas vov tov etba, ' that is the man whom I saw.'' 
 The old spelling of the Dat. Sg. of qui, viz. quoiei, shows 
 it to be a compound of this kind, having for its second 
 element the Dat. Sg. of ia (O. Lat. eiei), so that quoiei 
 represents quo-eiei; and Gen. Sg. quoiios, then quoius 
 (class, cujus) will consequently represent quo-eius. 
 Whether this method of declension was used in other 
 instances in Latin does not appear. Another feature of 
 the Italic Relative is its tendency to append the Pro- 
 nominal Particle i, (of Gk. oiros-f, &c.) j and this is utilized 
 in Latin as the discriminating mark of the Nom. Sg. 
 Mase. of the Relative, qui (0, Lat. quoi) from quo-i. On 
 the Possessive cujus, -a, -um, older quoius, -a, -urn, with 
 
 ' Cato began his Origines with the woi'ds : siques homines sunt, 
 quos deleotat populi Eomani gesta discribere ; and on the Seuatus 
 Consultum de Bacohanalibus, an inscr. of Plautus' time, \ye have : 
 sei ques esent, quei sibel deioerent neeesus ese Bacanal habere, 
 ' siqui essent, qui sibi dicerent necesse esse Bacchanal habere.' 
 
 G 
 
82 The Pronouns. [ch. iv 
 
 stem q"o-yo- formed by means of the Adjective-suffix 
 yo- (eh. xi, § 3) from the stem q"o-, see above (§ a). 
 
 Belative. Interrogative-Indefinite. 
 
 Nom. M. gwt', 0. Lat. qmi (from grn's (from stem f^i- with Noun 
 q°o, the bare stem, Nom. Sing, suffix -s) and as an 
 with the Particle I). Adj. gvii '. 
 F. guoe, O. Lat. qvai (from quae, and as an Adj. qua (with 
 q°ai). the Nom. Sing, ending of the 
 
 Adj. Deol.) [in 0. Lat. 9«is 
 (stem q^i-)]. 
 N. qmi (Pronominal Neu- quid (Pronominal Neuter of 
 ter of stem q°o-). stem q°i-). 
 
 Gen. cmjus, O. Lat. qmios (from guo Instr. with appended *eios 
 
 Gen. of is), 
 Dat. euA, 0. Lat. qmiei (from quo Instr. with appended eiei Dat. 
 
 of is). Qmot was still the spelling in Quintilian's youth. 
 Aoc. M. qiwn (stem q^i-). 
 
 P. qvtam. 
 Abl. M. g«o (stem q^o-) ) .^^^ ^ q ^at. qui. (stem q-i-)]. 
 F. qua ) 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. M. qui, 0. Lat. qmi and (in unaccented ) [in 0. Lat. qms 
 use) quei (stem q''o-). > (stem q"i-) for In- 
 
 F. g«ae, O. Lat. quai (same as Sing.). J terrog.-Indef.only], 
 N. gttae, O. Lat. qum (same as Fem. Sing.). 
 Gen. M. qmrnum (stem q°o-). 
 F. quarum (stem q^o-). 
 Dat. Abl. quilms (stem q^i-) [0. Lat. *qfixAs, and in unaccented use 
 queis, also spelt qvRs, comes &om stem q''o-, and was 
 originally Eel. only]. 
 Ace. M. quoa (stem q°o-) ) [0. Lat. quas (stem qM-) for Interrog.- 
 F. quas (stem q'o-) ) Indef. only]. 
 
 § 7. Derivatives of the Eel. and Interrog.-Indef. Pro- 
 nouns are : 
 
 ali-quis, a compound of the stem ali-, some (connected 
 
 'The distinction of qui Adj. (e. g. qui homo venit ?) and quis Pron. 
 (e. g. quis venit ?) is later than Plautus. 
 
§§ 7, 8] Pronominal Adjectives. 83 
 
 with alio-, other), and the Indef . Pron. ; ec-quis, which pre- 
 fixes *ece (connected with ecce) to guis; quig-nam, which 
 appends the Interrogative Particle nam (ch. ix. § 6) to the 
 Interrog., as qm-dam (for *quis-dam, like idem for is-dem) 
 appends a similar Particle from the Pronoun-stem do- (§ 3) 
 to the Indefinite ; qul-vis adds vis, you wish, and qui-libet 
 adds luiet (liiet), it pleases ; on the appendage -cumque of 
 quicumque, see ch. ix. § a j quisque, each, has in Old Latin 
 the sense of quicumque^, e. g. Plant. Capt. 798 quemque 
 offendero ' whomever I come across ' ; quis-quam, any, lit. 
 ' anyhow,'' was used especially in negative sentences, its 
 I-stem Abl. being employed as an Adv. in ne-qmquam, 
 in vain, lit. ' not anyhow ' ; quis-piam is a Compomid of 
 *quispe (the I-stem Abl. of which is the Adverb quippe, for 
 quipe) -vriQxjam, as nunciam of nunc with Jam. 
 § 8. The Pronominal Adjectives. These are : 
 (i) alius from I.-Eur. Slyo- (Gk. aWo ) with by-forms ^ 
 alis in Nom. Sg. Masc. and alid in Nom. Sg. Neut. (cf . 
 Cornelis for Cornelius, ch. iii. § 6). The derivative Adj. 
 alienus is for ali-mo- (by Dissimilation) with the suffix 
 -%no- (ch. xi. § 5). 
 
 (2) alter is formed from the root al-, seen in alyo-, by 
 the addition of the suffix -tero- (ch. xi. § 8), while other 
 I.-Eur. languages show a similar formation from the root 
 an- (Germ, an-der, Engl, o-ther, from ' on-ther '). It is 
 often used (like O. Engl. 6der) as an Ordinal Numeral, 
 ' second.' A stem altro- appears in altrin-secus, altro- 
 vorsus (Plant., later altrorsus). 
 
 ' So had the simple Indefinite guts, e. g. in an old plebiscitum : 
 eum quia uolet magistratus multare, dum minore parti familiaa 
 taxsat, liceto, ' what magistrate soever desires to fine him, may do 
 so up to leas than half of his belonginga.' 
 
 ^ e. g. Catullus Ixvi. 28 : quod nou fortior ixusit alia. 
 
 Lucretius i. 263 : quando alid ex alio reficit natnra, 
 G 3 
 
84 The Pronouns. [ch. v 
 
 (3) ullui is formed with the LO-suflBx (eh. xi. § 9) from 
 unus (see ch. iv. § 4), which also belongs to the Pronoun 
 Declension, Gen. uniug, Dat. uni. The opposite of ullus 
 is nullus with the negative prefix ne- of n-usquam., n{e)- 
 utiquam (ch. ix. § 1 7) ; and ullus was coined on the type of 
 nuUus, *ne-ullus, ' not a little one/ ' not even one/ so that 
 there was a time in Latin when mdlus was in use but not 
 7illus. Like nullus, but used properly of persons, while 
 nullms was used normally of things, is nemo from *ne-hemo. 
 (On hemo, a by-form of homo, see ch. iii. § 8 n.) N ullus 
 is scarcely used as a substantive till late Latin, but 
 nulliug and nulla take the place of neminis and nemine in 
 class. Latin. As the Neuter of nullus nWil (usually pro- 
 nounced nit) is employed, a compound of the negative 
 ne- and kilum. (On the scansion nihU, earlier nihil, see 
 ch. iii. § 16.) 
 
 (4) solus is connected with the Adverb se, sed-, apart 
 (e. g. sed-itio, lit. ' a going apart '), and is formed from 
 so-, a grade of se- (see ch. x. § 12) with the suffix -lo (ch. 
 xi. § 9). 
 
 (5) totus may be connected with the L-Eur. teuta, ' a 
 community,'' whence the name Teuton, and be derived 
 from the root teu-, ' to swell/ ' be large ' (cf. Lat. tumeo). 
 
 (6) Mer is one of those Latin Relative (Interrog.-Indef .) 
 forms beginning with u- (cf . uli, ut) which seem to come 
 from the stem q"u- (§ 6). "With the addition of -que, 
 ever (cf. O. Lat. quisque, § 7), it becomes uterque and in 
 Plautus we find a rare form sed-utraque Nom. Sg. Fem., 
 ' each separately ' {Stick. 106). The opposite of uter is 
 neuter (a trisyllable) with the negative prefix ne- of 
 nequeo, &c. Alteruter is a compound of alter and uter, 
 sometimes with both elements declined, sometimes with 
 the second only (cf . § 3 on ipse). 
 
§8] Pronominal Adjectives. 85 
 
 All o£ these take the Pronominal Gen. and Dat. Sg. 
 
 in -iws and -i, but only alius takes the Neut. Sg. (Nom.- 
 Acc.) in -cl, aliud (cf. Gk. aXAo for *a\Ao6). True to their 
 Adjectival character however they admitted more readily 
 than ille, iste and the other Demonstrative Pronouns, the 
 Noun Declension forms in these cases, e.g. unae rei 
 (Gen.), Cic. ; tam mdli consili, Ter. ; colons ulli, Plaut. ; 
 alterae legioni, Caes. For the Gen. Sing, of alius the 
 Romans discarded alius, which was liable to confusion 
 with the Nom.j and used the G.en. Sing, of alter instead, 
 altenus. (On the scansion see § 3 «.) 
 
 There are other Adjectives called ' Pronominal ' Adjec- 
 tives, because they are derived from Pronoun-stems. 
 These like the Possessives (§ 2) belong to the Adjective 
 Declension. From the stem to-, te- comes Lat. talis 
 (I.- Eur. tali- ; cf . Gk. tij\C-kos ), tan-tus, tot, older toti-, 
 preserved in toti-dem (I.-Eur. toti-j cf. Gk. Tdrf(o-)i)s 
 for *70Tios), and (with 0-suffix, eh. xi. § a) totus (e. g. 
 Manilius iii. 430 : detrahitur summae tota pars, quota 
 demitur). From the Relative (Interrog.-Indef.) stem 
 comes Lat. qudlis (Gk. ttjjXi-kos), quantus, quot, older 
 quot^- (I.-Eur. q"5ti- ; cf . Gk- 7rd(r(a-)os from *7rortos), 
 and (with 0-sufiBx) quotus (e. g. Horace Epp. i. 5. 30 : tu 
 quotus esse velis . rescribe, 'write back how many other 
 guests you wish to meet you,' lit. ' which number in the 
 series you wish to be '). Cottidie may come from *qitotUug, 
 a by-form, and stand for quot{i)ti-die, with Syncope of i. 
 (On ce-teri, see ch. ix. § 4, and on ambo, a Dual like 
 the Numeral duo, ch. iii. §1.) 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE TEEB. 
 
 § 1. Thematic and Athematic. The I.-Eur. Verb 
 had two Conjugations, (i) the Thematic, in which the 
 Person-suflSxes were attached to the Verb-root by means 
 of a connecting Vowel, e or o (ch. x. § ii), called the 
 Thematic Vowel,' e.g. Gk. Xey/-o-ii€v,\ey-e-Tf, where the 
 suffix of the First Person Plural, -jxtv, and the suffix of 
 the Second Person Plural, -re, are attached to the root 
 of the Verb, Aey-, by means of the Vowels o and e ; 
 (2) the Athematic, in which the Person-suffixes were 
 attached directly to the Verb-root without the help 
 of this connecting vowel, e. g. Gk. l-jxev, T-re. The 
 Thematic Conjugation had its i Sg. Pres. Ind. in -6, and 
 used the diphthong oi in its Optative, e. g. Gk. Aey-w, 
 Ae'y-ot-re. The 1 Sg. Pres. Ind. of the Athematic Con- 
 jugation had the suffix -mi, and in the Optative ie was 
 used in the Sing. Act., elsewhere i, e.g. Gk. €i);xt, lara-hi-v, 
 LTTa-l-nfv (ioTaijoier). The so-called 'irregularity' of 
 Latin Verbs like sum, eo, volo, is mainly due to the fact 
 V that they belonged to the I.-Eur. Athematic Conjugation. 
 The root of the Verb sum is es- (cf . Inf. esse), and es-t, 
 es-tis, differ from leg-i-t, leg-i-tis merely in the absence 
 of the connecting vowel e (class. Lat. ?, ch. ii. § 14). 
 So i-s (older *ei-s), l-tls (older *ei-tis) from the root ei-, 
 ' to go ' } vul-t (older vol-t), vul-tis (older vol-tis) from the 
 root wel-, 'to wish' (eh. ii. § 8; on wsee § 23). The -m^ 
 of sum is the Athematic -mi of the i Sg. Pres. Ind. ; 
 
§§ 1, 2] First Conjugation. 87 
 
 and the ie (i) of the Optative appears in the so-called 
 ' Subjunctive/ s-ie-s (class, m), g-l-tis. But in Latin 
 a great many thematic forms are mixed with these Athe- 
 matic Verbs. Thus their First Singular Pres. Ind. is 
 usually thematic, e-o from ey-6 (ch. x. § 13), vol-o, and 
 their Third Plural of the same tense, e. g. eunt^ from ey-ort 
 (ch. ii. § 14). And throughout the Latin Verb we shall 
 find a strange mixture of thematic with athematic forms. 
 
 § 2. The First Conjugation. To this Conjugation 
 belongs the large number of Derivative Verbsfrom A-stem 
 Nounsj e. g. from planta, a plant, plantare, to plant, ' to 
 make into a plant,' from fuga, flight, fugare, to put to 
 flight. This form of Verb became associated with 
 a Transitive sense, ' to make,' ' reduce anything to a 
 certain state or condition,' and was extended to Verbs 
 derived from other stems, if these Verbs had this transi- 
 tive meaning, e. g. colorare, to make coloured, from color, 
 scelerare, to make guilty, from scelus, ptilverare, to turn 
 into dust, to cover with dust, from pulvis. A section of the 
 First Conjugation Verbs belongs to a very ancient type, 
 such as std-re from the root sta-, 'to stand,' m-^ra-re, where 
 tra- is a Verb-root, a derivative of the root ter-, ' to go 
 through,' ' pierce.' This ancient type belonged properly 
 to the Athematic Conjugation, while Derivatives like 
 fugare were thematic and used the sufiix -yo- to form 
 their Present Tense. The two types have been blended 
 in Latin in such a way that both form their i Sg. Pres. 
 Ind. thematically, with the addition of this suffix -yo-, 
 and the rest of their Persons athematically ; and so we 
 have: iniro (from -tra-yo) \\k&fugo (from -gd-i/o); fugd-s 
 like intra-s,fugd-tis like intrd-tis. 
 
 ' The athematic form would be i-nt, a form which seems actually 
 to have been in use. 
 
88 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 The First Conjugation was the favourite Latin Con- 
 jugation, and verbs taken from other languages were 
 impressed into it^, e.g. proj^nare, to drink a person's 
 health, from Greek ■npovivnv, atticissare, to ape the 
 Athenian fashion, from Greek aTTidCtiv. It includes 
 the numerous class of Iteratives or Frequentatives, e.g. 
 pulso, I strike frequently, the Frequentative of pello, 
 formed from Perf. Part. Pass.-stems or rather from the 
 Fem. of these used as a Noun (of. offensa beside offensus, 
 repulsa beside repuhu-s). They sometimes double the 
 TO-suffix, &.g.fae-U-to, ven-U-to. 
 
 O. Lat. sonere, e.g. Lucr. iii. 156 : 
 
 Galigare oculos, sonere auris, succidere arius, 
 
 comes directly from the root swen- (Lat. son-, ch. x. § 13) 
 as legere from the root leg- (see § 4), and formed its 
 Perfect and Supine regularly, sonui, sonitum. Sondre, a 
 Derivative from a lost Verbal Noun sona, existed side by 
 side with sonere and in time ousted the Third Conj. form, 
 though the Third Conj. Perf. and Supine were retained. 
 Hence the irregular conjugation : sono, sonui, sonitum, 
 sonare. Similarly the coexistence of im-plico (3 Conj.) 
 from the root plek-, 'to fold' (cf. Gk. TrAeKco) and 
 im-plico (i Conj.) from a lost Verbal Noun of the First 
 Decl. (cf. Gk. ttAok^) gave rise to the blended con- 
 jugation : implico, impUcui and impUcavi, implicitum and 
 implicatum, implicare. In the ease of celo from a lost 
 Verbal Noun cela, concealment, from the root eel-, the 
 Third Conj. form celo is found only in Compounds, e. g. 
 oc-culo (irom'ob and celo); while mprofligare hesidie Jligere, 
 oecupare beside eapere, &c., it is the First Conj. form 
 which appears in the Compounds, and the Third Conj. 
 
 'So in German loan-verbs take the ending-!eJ"e»,e.g.commandieren. 
 
i 
 
 § 3] Second Conjugation. 89 
 
 form in the Simple Verb. (On dare, with da-, the weak 
 grade of the root do-, ' to give/ and on stare from the root 
 sta-, ' to stand/ see § i^))- 
 
 § 3. The Second Conjugation. Here too we may 
 discriminate an ancient type of Athematic Verbs, e. g. / 
 im-ple-reW ith. the root pie- (of . P. P. P. imple-tus), a by-form 
 of the root pel-, ' to fill,' from the great mass of Deriva- 
 tive Verbs, e. g. claude-re, to be lame, derived from the 
 0-stem Adjective claudug, lame. These Derivatives of 
 the Second Conjugation contrast with the Derivatives 
 of the First in that they are derived not from A-stems 
 but from 0-stems and have not a transitive but an intran- 
 sitive meaning. Clarere, for example, means ' to be clear,' 
 while clarare means ' to make clear.' Like the Derivative 
 Verbs of the First Conjugation these Derivatives of the 
 Second formed their Present Tense stem originally with 
 the sufiix -yo- and belonged properly to the Thematic 
 Conjugation. In Latin the intermixture of the thematic 
 and athematic forms has had the same result as in the 
 First Conjugation, namely that the First Sing. Pres. Ind. 
 was formed thematically with the YO-suffix, the other 
 Persons athematically, e. g. impleo (f rom-e-y6)like claudeo; 
 claude-s, claude-tis, like imple-s, imple-tis. 
 
 But there is a further element of confusion in the 
 Second Conjugation. Thel.-Eur. Causative and Intensive 
 Verbs, whose Present-stem was formed in -eyo- with the 
 0-grade of the root (ch. x. § 1 2), were attracted into this 
 Conjugation in Latin ; and so, e. g. moneo, I remind, cause 
 to remember (with Present-stem moneyo-) the Causa- 
 tive of the Verb-root men-, 'to remember,' is a Second 
 Conjugation Verb. . Another verb of this form with 
 Causative meaning is torreo, I cause to become dry, 
 from the root ters-, ' to be dry.' Another with Causative 
 
go The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 or Intensive meaning is noeeo from the root nee- (Lat. 
 nex). The absorption of these verbs into the Second 
 Conjugation brought about the strange result that 
 though the Second Conjugation type is associated with 
 an intransitive sense, a small body of verbs of this Con- 
 jugation have a decidedly transitive meaning. 
 
 The intransitive character of these Second Conj. 
 Verbs, the E- Verbs as they may be called, is due to 
 the fact that the Verb-stem with this suffix -e- had an 
 intransitive sense. In Greek the Verb-stem with the 
 E-suffix was used as a Passive, e. g. l-Tmr\-v, I was 
 struck, or merely an Intransitive, e.g. -\).a.vr\-v, I was 
 in a state of madness. In Latin this intransitive 
 Verb-stem in e appears in cale-facio, to put into a state 
 of warmth, cale-fio, to be put into a state of warmth, 
 closely connected with it are Verbal Noun- stems in e, 
 e. g. sordes Plur. (cf. sorde-facio), the declension of which 
 varies between the Fifth and the Third Declension (see 
 ch. iii. § 1 3). There are a large number of these Verbs 
 in -€0 indicating state or condition in Latin, e. g. caleo, 
 timeo, paveo, each with a corresponding Noun in -or 
 (an S-stem, ch. iii. § 8 ; ch. xi. § 18), e. g. calor, timor, 
 pavor, and an Adj . in -t-dus, e. g. calidus, timidws, 
 pavidus. ' Inceptive ' Verbs, which denote the passing 
 into a state or condition, e. g. caleseo, to pass into the 
 state of warmth, liquesco, to pass into a liquid state, 
 are so closely associated with Intransitive E- Verbs that 
 they are often used as their Present Tense, e. g. inardesco 
 (inardeo is not found), convaleseo (not eonvaleo). In 
 fact it is a law of Latin that in composition with the 
 Prepositions cum, ex, in. Prepositions which convey 
 the idea of 'becoming,' these E- Verbs must form 
 their Present Tense in -esco, unless the Preposition 
 
§4l Third Conjugation. 91 
 
 retains its separate force, e. g. e-luceo, to shine out (not 
 ' to pass into a shining state '), co-haereo, to be united 
 with (not ' to pass into a united state ■*). So remote 
 are these Verbs from a transitive sense that a con- 
 struction like horrere aliquem, paver e aliquem is not found 
 before Cicero's time. To make Transitives of them 
 the Auxiliary Verb_/acio was brought into requisition, 
 e. g. joave-facio, cale-facio. 
 
 Third Conj. Verbs which had an intransitive mean- 
 ing tended to pass into the Second Conjugation. Thus 
 fervo, the older form, e. g. Virg. Aen. iv. 567 : 
 
 Jam fery^re litora flammis, 
 became in class. 'L&t.feneo. {Ci..fulgeo ivovafulgo, scateo 
 from scato, intueor from intuor.) 
 
 § 4. The Third Conjugation. This is the common 
 receptacle for Verbs of all kinds but the Derivative YO- 
 Verbs, derived from Nouns or Adjectives, which belong 
 to the First, Second, and Fourth. Such Derivatives 
 from U-stems however are included in this Conjugation, 
 e. g. statuo from *statuyo, derived from status. Verbs 
 in -io not derived from Nouns or Adjectives, which for 
 a time wavered between the Third and Fourth Conju- 
 gations, have been mostly absorbed by the Third, such as 
 facio (a Sg./am 3 Conj., but olAer fa&is 4 Conj.), /)fl/io 
 (Inf. parere, but in Plautus panre). The Derivatives 
 from Nouns and Adjectives are distinguishable from 
 them by their Perfect in -ivi and P. P. P. in -Uus, e. g. 
 finivijfiiiitus, though even this form of the Perf. Ind. and 
 Part. Pass, occurs in a few Third Conj. Verbs like lacesso, 
 which had by-forms in -io, *lacessio, *eapessio. The types 
 of Verb which it contains are therefore very numerous. 
 We have (i) the common type of Thematic Verb., with 
 the ordinary form of the root, e. g. leg-o from the root 
 
92 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 leg-, dico (older deico) from the root deic-, dOco (older 
 douco with ou for I.-Eur. eu, ch. x. § ii) from the root 
 deuc-. (a) with Reduplicated Root, e. g. gi-gn-o (Gk. 
 yi-yv-o}xai) from the root gen-. (3) with Nasalized Root, the 
 nasal being either inserted in the root, e. g. ju-n-g-o from 
 the root jug- (I.-Etir. yeng-, weak form yiig-), to join, 
 li-n-quo from the root liq-, leiq-, to leave, or appended, 
 e. g. demo from the root ster-, to strew, lin-o from the 
 root li-, lei-, to smear. Sometimes a syllable is appended, 
 e.g. sternuo, I sneeze, minuo, a type of Verb which cor- 
 responds to Greek Verbs in -vvii.i or -vi:a>, e. g. -nrap-vv-ixai. 
 (ci. fiL-iv-dui). (4) with Y6-sufl5x, e.g. *?)ecfo\ These 
 wavered between the Fourth and Third Conjugations, 
 unlike the Derivatives from I-stems with i Sg Pres. in 
 -io from*-iy6, e.g. Jinio, which belong exclusively to the 
 Fourth (see below, § 5). (5) 'Inceptives' with the SKO- 
 suffixj which are not rightly called ' Inceptives,' since 
 they denote the passing into a state or condition, 'becom- 
 ing' rather than 'beginning,' e. g. ca/ij«co, I become warm, 
 liquesco, I pass into a liquid state (§ 3), and the archaic 
 ' Inceptive ■" of sutn, esco (used by Lucretius). These 
 modifications of the Root by Reduplication, Nasalization, 
 addition of YO- and SKO-suflBxes were made with the 
 object of forming a Present-Tense Stem, and were 
 properly discarded in the Perfect and the tenses related 
 to the Perfect. The stem gigno- of gigno had the idea of 
 ' continued production,'' so that gigno meant ' I continue 
 to produce,' ' I am in the state of producing.' To form 
 the Tenses expressing momentary, past action such a 
 stem could not be used; so we find the Perfect genui 
 exhibiting the root in the form gen-, not in the form 
 
 ' Y in Greek after a consonant became t, so Gk. aKiirroimi, for 
 amn-yo-iuu, corresponds to Lat. specio. 
 
§5] Fourth Conjugation. 93 
 
 ffign- (ef. Gk. k-yev-6-^.r\v a Aor., beside yiyr-o-nai Pres.). 
 These Tense-stems will be discussed afterwards (§§ 7-1 2); 
 but meanwhile we may point out that by a not unnatural 
 confusion a stem which properly belonged only to the 
 Present Tense was often retained throughout theVerb (e. g. 
 junxi, junctus retain the n of the Pres. -stem), or a stem 
 was used in the Present which properly belonged to other 
 Tenses, e. g. mdo, beside rudo (older *reudo), geno Lucr. 
 (On the use of ' Inceptives ' in -sco as Present of Intransi- 
 tive E-verbSj e. g. incalesco, not *incaleo, see above, § 3 ) 
 
 § 5. The Fourth Conjugation. This like the First and 
 Second, consists mainly of Derivative Verbs. These are 
 not merely Derivatives from I-stems, e.g. flnio (Pres.- 
 ni/em fivi-yb-) derived from the l-stem finis, but Deriva- 
 tives of various origin, all showing the usual Derivative 
 Present-stem suffix -yo-, e.g. cmtodio, I am a guard, 
 from custds. As the First Conj. Derivatives had a transi- 
 tive, the Second Conj. Derivatives an intransitive sense, 
 so the Fourth Conj. Derivatives are to some extent asso- 
 ciated with the idea of a mental or bodily state, especially 
 a state of disease, e. g. rancio, I am hoarse, dentio, I am 
 teething. Desiderative Verbs (which were used more in 
 conversational Latin than in the literary language) be- 
 long to the Fourth Conjugation, e.g. emrio, I am hungry, 
 I desire to eBAi,empturio, I desire to buy. They are formed 
 with the YO-suffix from Verbal Noun-stems in -tor-, e. g. 
 emrio (older *esorio) from esor (ed-tor-), an eater, empturio 
 (older *empt6rio) from emptor, a buyer, and must be dis- 
 tinguished from a small class of Verbs in -urio (also 
 written -wrrio), e. g. ligurrio, I lick, scaiurio, I gush, which 
 are Derivatives from Verbal Nouns in -uris, e. g. securis, 
 an axe (from seco), or -iira, e.g.figura (ivom fingo). 
 
 The Fourth Conjugation is connected with the Third 
 
94 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 by the accident that a large number of Verbs of the 
 Third Conjugation had by-forms made with the YO- 
 suffix, e.g. jpinsio beside pinso (of. lacessivi, &c., from 
 *lacessio, a by-form of lacesso), and that several of the 
 YO-verbs did not retain this suffix throughout their Con- 
 jugation, e. g./acio has ln£. facere, cupio has Inf. cupere. 
 Facio and cupio are by the classical period entirely sepa- 
 
 I rated from any connexion with the Fourth Conj., though 
 Plautus has facts, cupis like audis, and a hexameter line 
 of Ennius ends with corde cupifus ; and the same is true 
 of adgredior (but adgredimur Plant), adorior (but adorltur 
 Lucr.), morior (but worlmur Enn.), and the like. It is 
 perhaps to the connecting-link furnished by these Verbs 
 in -io of the Third Conjugation that we should refer the 
 remodelling of the Imperf . and Fut. Ind. of the Fourth 
 Conj. on the type of the Third, which was fully effected 
 before the classical period ; finieham replacing the older 
 ■finilam, finiam the older j^^i&o (see §§ 8, 9). 
 
 § 6. The Voices. The three Voices of Greek, Active, 
 Middle, and Passive, are in Latin Grammars reduced to 
 two. Active and Passive. The Latin Deponents how- 
 ever take to some extent the place of the Greek Middle, 
 and sequor is an example of an I.-Eur. Middle which 
 appears in the I.-Eur. languages with the Middle or 
 Passive endings (e. g. Gk. iito-ixai, Early Irish sechur). 
 These endings are explained in § ai. In the Italic and 
 Celtic languages their distinguishing feature is the letter 
 r (e. g. Lat. sequor, sequitur ; O. Ir. sechur, sechethar), 
 and there are traces that the passive R-forms were 
 originally restricted to an Impersonal use in which this 
 r was added immediately to the root of the verb. If this 
 be so, a supposed form ama-r would in very early times 
 mean ' there is loving ' and would govern an Accusative 
 
§ 6] Passive, Deponent. 95 
 
 Case ; later it would receive a Personal suffix, *ama-tb-r 
 (class. Lat. amatur, ch. ii. § 14), and gradually take the 
 Noun as a Subject not as an Object. Amar hominem 
 would become amatur hominem, then amatur homo. This 
 Impersonal use of the Passive was a great feature of 
 Latin, e. g. itur in antiquam silvam, Virg. ; peivatvm. 
 PEECAEio ADEiTVE, ' No Admittance,' on an inscription. 
 (On the Fut. Inf. Pass, amatum iri see § 15.) In the 
 early literature we find occasionally the Noun in the 
 Accusative, e. g. vitam vivitur Enn. 
 
 Another trace of the I.-Eur. Middle in Latin is the 
 Perfect Active, whose ending -? (older -ei) shows it to be 
 a Middle and not an Active form (see § 10), so that 
 a Perfect like reverti goes naturally with a present 
 revertor. On the other hand the earlier Perfects gavisi ^, 
 solui, ausi were in classical Latin replaced by the usual 
 Deponent type of Perfect, gavisus sum, solitus sum, ausus 
 sum ; and, by a curious attraction, coeptus sum, desitus sum 
 were used when a Pass. Inf. followed, e. g. urbs coepta est 
 aedificari ^. 
 
 The I.-Eur. Middle was associated with Verbs indi- 
 cating states of feeling, operations of the senses, 
 condition of life, &c. ; and the Latin Deponents are still 
 true to this type, e. g. reor, vereor, irascor, contemplor, 
 poetor, clominor, auguror, aemulor^. Like the Reflexive 
 use of the Greek Middle is Lat. cingor for cingo me, &c. 
 Examples of Frequentative Middles are Aortor (Frequen- 
 tative of O. Lat. horior), meditor (from a lost medor, Gk. 
 fiibo)xai), imitor (from a lost imor; cf. imd-go), nitor for 
 
 ' e. g. Liv. Andronicus : quoniam audiui paucis gauisi. 
 
 ' So in the early writers potestur, poteratur, possetur, neguitur, nequi- 
 tum, e. g. Lucr. iii. loio : quod tameu expleri nulla ratione potestur. 
 
 ' Lat. -ari corresponds to Greek -tvuv, e. g. Lat. dominari to Greek 
 Tvpayveieiv, 'to be a tyrant,' ' to play the part of a tyrant.' 
 
96 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 *mvitor (from a root with a Guttural ; cf . nixus, and see 
 ch. X. § 18). 
 
 As in Greek diroflvjjTKai — a Verb of Active form — is 
 used as the Passive of wnoKreivw, so in Latin vapuh is 
 the Passive of caerlo, to beat, veneo {venum eo) of vendo, 
 to se]l,/o oifacio,ioTotake. The older \ai.fiere^ was in 
 classical Latin changed to suit the form of the ordinary 
 Passive Inf. and became fieri, much as Plautus uses 
 veniri for venire. 
 
 § 7. Tenses. The Present. The various Tenses of the 
 Verb had each their Tense-stem, formed from the root of 
 the Verb by the addition of some suflBx or by some other 
 modification (e. g. Reduplication, § 10). In addition, the 
 Past Tenses might be distinguished by the Prefix of the 
 Augment e-, a Demonstrative Particle signifying ' then/ 
 'there;' but in the earliest Greek and Sanscrit literature 
 this Particle is often omitted and in Latin there seems 
 to be no trace of it. The formation of the Present-stem 
 has already been treated in the account of the Latin 
 Conjugations. To indicate the idea of present or con- 
 tinued Action we have seen that the root of the Verb 
 was modified in the First, Second, and Fourth Conju- 
 gations by the addition of a YO-sufiix ; e. g. amd-yo-, 
 is the Present-stem of the Verb amare, to love, whence 
 1 Sg. Pres. Ind. *amd-t/d, which became amo ; so pleo for 
 *ple-yo (stem ple-yo-), &c. Third Conjugation Verbs 
 show various modes of forming the Present-stem, such as 
 ( I ) Reduplication, e. g.gigno (stem gi-gno- ; cf. Gk. yLyvo- 
 fxai) from the Root gen-, (a) N-sufiix, e. g. ster-n-o from 
 the root skr-, tt-n-o from the root lei-, or N-infix, e. g. 
 pa-n-g-o from the root pag-, this n disappearing usually 
 
 ' Enniua in the description of Homer's Metempsychosis has : 
 memini me fiere pauom, ' I remember becoming a peacock.' 
 
§§ 7-9] Present, Imperfect, Future. 97 
 
 in the Perfect, &c., e. g. stra-vi, 1%-vi, pt-pig-i or peg-i. 
 A common Third Conjugation type however shows the 
 ordinary form of the root with no addition but the thematic 
 vowel (e. g. leg-o from the root leg- ; dico, originally <?«c-o, 
 from the root deic-). The SKO-suffix gave the notion of 
 becoming, and so was adapted to the Present Tense, e. g. 
 incalesco, I become warm, Perf. incalui (see § 3). 
 
 § 8. The Imperfect. This Tense belongs to the Present- 
 system, being really the Preterite of the Present Tenses. 
 Its Preterite sense is given to it in La,tin by the addi- 
 tion in the First Pers. Sing, of -ham. The -bam of this 
 Tense is really an Auxiliary Verb, a Preterite of the 
 I.-Eur. root bheu-, ' to be ' (Lat._/«z', O. 'La.t.fuo ; cf. ch. x. 
 § 16), appended to a Verb-stem, e. g. amd-bam, vide-bam, 
 lege-bam, audi-bam (class, audie-bam, remodelled after the 
 Third Conjugation, § 5). Eram stands alone in dispens- 
 ing with this Auxiliary. It is a Preterite from the root es-, 
 'to be/ of the same formation as -batn from the root bheu-. 
 
 § 9. Future. Like the -ham of the Imperfect, the 
 -bo of the Future conceals an Auxiliary Verb, a Future, 
 or rather Subjunctive of the root bheu-, ' to be.' Ero, 
 which corresponds to the Homeric ew, Att. £ (from *e(ra>), 
 is a corresponding Subjunctive from the root es-, 'to be,' 
 with that future sense which belonged to the Subjunctive 
 in early times (p. 100 n.). This formation of the Future in 
 -bo is peculiar to the three Conjugations, which are especi- 
 ally the Conjugations of Derivative Verbs, that is to say 
 to the First, Second, and Fourth, e.g. ama-bo, vide-bo, and 
 in Early Latin audl-bo, though by the classical period the 
 Fourth Conj. Future was remodelled on the pattern 
 of the Third Conjugation, audiam like legam (§ 5). This 
 so-called Future of the Third and Fourth Conjugations 
 lis nothing but the Subjunctive (§ 13), the A-Subjunc- 
 
g8 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 tive form being used in the First Person Singular, the 
 E-Subjunetive forms in the other Persons, e.g. legam 
 (originally legw-m, eh. ii. § 6), leges, lege-t (originally 
 lege-t, ch. ii. § 1 6). (On these Subjunctive forms see § 1 3.) 
 
 § 10. Perfect. The completeness with which the 
 Verb-system has been preserved in Greek in contrast 
 with Latin is nowhere more clearly seen than in the 
 Preterite Tenses. While Greek preserves separately 
 (1) a First Aorist, better called the S-Aorist, e.g. t-hei^-a 
 for *e-buK-<T-a, from the root 8etK-, (3) a Second Aorist, 
 better called the Weak-root Aorist, because it shows the 
 weak root (ch. x. § 12) of the verb, e.g. e-mO-ov from md-, 
 the weak form of the root irei6-, I. -Eur. bheidh-, (3) a 
 Perfect, showing the Reduplicated Verb-root, e. g. ixefxova, 
 we find in Latin all three mixed up together into a 
 single Preterite, which we call the Perfect Tense, and 
 all driven into the same groove of declension. The 
 S-Perfect, which corresponds to the Greek First Aorist 
 e. g. dixi, earlier deiai-ei (like e-8etf-a), the true Perfect, 
 e. g. memin-i (like Gk. ixe/jLov-a), and Perfects like fitii, 
 scidi, which some compare with the Greek Second' 
 Aorist, are all declined in the same way: dixi, dixisti, 
 dixit; memini, meministi, meminit; scidi, scidisti, scidit. 
 On the other hand we have in Latin a type of Preterite 
 which is not found in Greek, the V-Perfect, e.g. amd-v^, 
 mon-u-l, audl-v-i, the origin of which is not known. 
 
 The declension too of the Perfect shows traces of hav- 
 ing been pieced together from various materials. The 
 ending i (older ei) of the First Person Singular is I.-Eur. 
 -ai, the ending of the Middle Voice. The Third Sing, 
 of the Perfect Middle had the same ending in I.-Eur., 
 but in Latin -t (the usual 3 Sg. suffix, § 30) has been 
 added to distinguish the Third from the First Person, 
 
§ lo] Perfect. 99 
 
 -ei-t becoming -it, then -it (eh. ii. § 16). The Third 
 Person Plural in -rvmt, older -ront (ch. ii. § 14), shows 
 the same r that appears often in the 3 PL o£ the I.-Eur. 
 Verb. The First Person Plural is an Active form, e. g. 
 meminimus (cf. Gk. nejxovafxiv). 
 
 Although the I.-Eur. Perfect had as a rule a Redupli- 
 cated stem, there were a few Unreduplicated Perfects, 
 e. g. woid-, "the Perfect-stem from the root weid-, ' to 
 see, know '' (Greek oi8a represents the Active, Lat. vidl 
 the Middle), sed-, the Perfect-stem from the root sed-, 
 ' to sit ' (Lat. sedi). In the second example the raising 
 of the root-vowel from e to e seems to take the place of 
 Reduplication, parallel to which we find in Latin pegi 
 {hesiie pepigi), legi (root leg-), egi (root ag-) and the like. 
 But undoubtedly the original Perfect-type had Redu- 
 plication, and most apparently Unreduplicated Perfects 
 in Latin like tuli, scidi were Reduplicated at an earlier 
 period of the language ^, and lost their Reduplication" 
 first in Compounds under the Early Accent Law (ch. ii. 
 § 12), then by analogy in the Simple Verb also. Re-tetuli 
 became ret{e)tuli (hence always spelt with double i) 
 with Syncope of e, at-tetuli became attuU, and so on, 
 until at last the use of -tuli in Compounds led to the use 
 of tuli in the Simple Verb. Similarly we have cucurri 
 but concurri, incurri, &c. 
 
 The Vowel of the Reduplication Syllable was origin- 
 ally e, but owing to the Latin tendency to Assimilation 
 (ch. ii. § 15) adapted itself to the vowel of the following 
 syllable, e. g. cucurri, momordi. This was the formation 
 in vogue at the classical period, but in the earlier litera- 
 ture we find cecum, memordi, &c. ; and even Cicero and 
 Caesar seem to have allowed the older forms, 
 
 ' TetiM is the only form known to Plautus ; ef O. Lat. sciaM. 
 H 2 
 
lOO 
 
 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 The shortened forms of the V- and S -Perfects, e. g. 
 audisti for audivisti, dixti for dixisti, are produced by 
 two tendencies of the language, (i) the tendency to 
 drop V between two vowels, especially between two 
 similar vowels, such as i-i (cf. obliscor an old by-fopm 
 of obliviscor, I forget, sis for si vis, ' if you please,' dinus, 
 an old by-form of divinus) (ch. ii. § 13), {2) the tendency 
 to drop one of two similar neighbouring syllables (ef. 
 semodiits for *semir-modius, idoiatria for *idolo-latria, &c., 
 ch. ii. § 1 2).. We have dixti for dix-isii, misti for mi-si- 
 sti, where the two syllables are similar, but not, e.g. 
 *cepsti for ce-pi-sti, where the two syllables have not 
 similarity of sound. 
 
 § 11. Pluperfect. Like the Imperfect in -ham, and 
 Future in -bo, the Pluperfect in -eram is an Auxiliary 
 formation, -eram being the Preterite of the root es-, ' to 
 be ' (§ 8), which is added to the Perfect-stem, e. g. amdv- 
 •eram, monu-eram, dlx-eram, memin-eram, andlv-eram. 
 
 § 12. Puture-Perfect. This Tense adds to the 
 Perfect-stem the Auxiliary ero (§ 9), as the Pluperfect 
 adds eram, e. g. amdv-ero, monu-ero, dlx-ero, memin-ero, 
 audiv-ero. In Early Latin there were forms in -sso, 
 which are replaced in classical Latin by Fut.-Perf. forms, 
 but which are of an entirely different origin, e.g. amasso. 
 They seem to have been originally Subjunctives of some 
 S-tense, like the Greek S-Aorist, and are in fact the 
 exact equivalents of Greek Futures like Ttfxrjfrco, which 
 stands for Tiixdcra-io, and is properly the Subjunctive ^ of 
 
 * I.e. the Athematic Subjunctive, which had o, « where the 
 Thematic had a;, jj. Thus Tiiiricro/iev (cf. Teiao/itv Subj. in Homer) 
 is Athematic, Tturjaiufifv Thematic. The I. -Eur. Subj. had often 
 a Fut. sense, a feature of the old language which is still retained 
 in the Greek of Homer, «. g. Od. xri. 437 oiS' laatrai oiii yiptjTai. ' 
 
§§ II-I3] Pluperf., Fut. Per/. The Subj. loi 
 
 hiijn]cTa. Similarly dixo {ci.faxo) may be compared with 
 Gk. Seifci). (On the Optative of this Latin S-Aorist^ 
 amamm, &e., see § 13.) 
 
 § 13. Moods. The Subjunctive. As the Latin 
 Perfect Tense combines Perfect- and Aorist-forms (§ 10), 
 so the Latin Subjunctive Mood includes the relics of 
 the Optative along with the genuine Subjunctive forms. 
 Optative are all the so-called ' Subjunctives ' in -im. 
 They show the Athematic Optative, which properly 
 had -ie- in the Singular, -i- in the Plural (§ i), a type 
 preserved only in Old Latin stem, sies, siet, simus, •siiig 
 [sieni) ; and even that has by the classical period been 
 reduced like the rest to the uniform use of the i-f orms, 
 sim, sis, sit. So edim, edis, edit ; velim, velis, velit, and 
 in the older language duim, duis, duit. 
 
 Of the two Subjunctive-types, the A-Subjunctive and 
 the E-Subjunctive, the former is used by the Second, 
 Third, and Fourth Conjugations, e.g. cale-am, cale-ds, 
 cale-at ; leg-am, leg-as, legal ; audi-am, audi-ds, audi-at, 
 the latter by the First, e. g. am-em, am-es, am-et. The 
 reason for the use of the E-type in the First Conjuga- 
 tion is that the A-type must have been confused with 
 Pres. Indicative forms, e.g. amds, amat. The E-type 
 was also pressed into the service of the Third and after 
 its model (§ 5) of the Fourth Conjugation in the capacity 
 of a Future Indicative (§12 «.), this type being chosen 
 for the sake of distinction from the Pres. Subjunctive ; 
 though curiously enough in the First Person Singular 
 of the Future, the A-form was used, e.g. legam, leges, 
 leget ; audiam, aiidies, audiet. The reason for the re- 
 tention of the A-form in this Person was that this 
 single Person had been in use as a Future long before 
 the fashion was introduced of dropping the proper 
 
I02 
 
 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 Puture-tense (§ 9) and using Subjunctive-forms in its 
 place. Audiam had established, itself in use before audies, 
 audiet replaced audibis, audibit, &cc., and though we 
 find traces of a temporary effort at uniformity by the 
 substitution of audiem, faciem, &c.j the old-established 
 form maintained its ground. 
 
 The E-type was adopted by the true Subjunctive of 
 gum, if we may infer this from the fact that sem and 
 not sam is the Auxiliary used in the formation of the 
 Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, e. g. amorrem, 
 ama-res, amd-ret, with r from an older * (ch. x. § 19); 
 atnavii-sem , amavis-ses, amavis-set. Tellem comes from 
 *vel-ee'm (ch. x. § i^),ferrem from *fer-sem. (ch. x. § 19). 
 But h:ovo.fuo, an obsolete Pres. of which fui is the Per- 
 fect, we have fuiam in Old Latin ; cf. Virg. Aen. x. 108 
 Tros Rutulusve fuat nuUo diserimine habebo. Forem 
 seems to stand for *fuerem, as Marcipor, an Old Latin 
 slave-name, for *Marci2mer. Edim and edam, duim and 
 duam are the last examples of the coexistence of rival Op- 
 tative and Subjunctive forms in Latin. They illustrate 
 how, the Opt. and Subj. having become identical in 
 meaning (both edim and edam, have the meanings ' Oh that 
 . I may eat,' ' let me eat,'' ' [that] I may eat'), one of the 
 forms (usually the Optative) was dropped as superfluous. 
 The old Optative sense is preserved in the ante-clas- 
 sical Optative-forms in -ssim, e.g. amassim, which occur 
 in early Latin prayers, e. g. Juppiter prohibessis scelus ; 
 di mactassint, and the Augural formula : bene sponsis 
 beneque uolueris. These forms in -ssim, often called 
 Perfect Subjunctives, are the Optative Mood of the 
 forms in -sso, e. g. amasso, mentioned in § 1 o ; they are 
 better called Precatives. 
 
 § 14. Imperative. In the 2 Sg. Act. of the Present 
 
§§ 14, 15] Imperative. 103 
 
 Imperative the bare stem o£ the Verb was used, e.g. 
 
 Athematic ei (class. Lat. ?) from the root ei-, to go, 
 
 Thematic lege from the root leg-, to gather. But 
 
 a particle was often added, e. g. -5t in Gk. l-Qi, &e. ; 
 
 and so -tod (which became -to, ch. x. § 17) (Abl. Sing. 
 
 of the Demonstr. Pronoun stem to-, ch. v. § 3) to the 3, 
 
 3 Sg.j e. g. es-to, older estod (Gk. Itr-rco). The addition of 
 
 -lod ' from that/ ' thereupon,' to the 2 Sg. Pres. Imperat. 
 
 gives it a Future Imperat. sense, e. g. Hor. C. iii. 14. 23 : 
 
 Si per invisum mora janltorem 
 Fiet, abito, 
 
 ' if the surly porter detain you, go away,' lit. ' go away 
 
 thereupon.' Memento is I. -Eur. mem^ntod (Gk. jj.ti/.dTo)'). 
 
 The a Plur; of the Future Imperative adds -te (the a Plur. 
 
 suffix, e. g. abi-te) to the Sing, form, e. g. abito-te. 
 
 Fer, vel (used as a Conjunction, ch. ix. § 3), es are 
 regularly formed Athematic Imperatives from the roots 
 fer- (I.-Eur. bher-), vel- (I.-Eur. wel-), es-. Another is 
 -do (originally -do, ch. ii. § i6)-of fd-i^o,' give here,' from 
 ce-, the Demonstr. Particle (ch. v. § 4) and the root do-, 
 ' to give ' (cf. Gk. 6i-8(i>, Imperat. of St'-Sw-jut). The 
 genuine Imperat. of dare has been preserved in this 
 Compound only, for da follows the Analogy of the 
 First Declension. But die, due, fae are Thematic 
 Imperatives, representing an earlier dice, diiee, face 
 (ch. ii. § I a), and so is em (used as an Interjection, 
 ch. ix. § 18), properly the Imperat. of emo, I take. 
 (Cf. Catullus xxvii. 3 : inger mi calices amariores, instead 
 of ' ingere mi.') 
 
 § 15. Infinitive. The I.-Eur. Infinitive was merely 
 a Case (usually Dat. or Loc. Sg.) of a Verbal Noun. 
 Thus Lat. da-fi (O. Lat. da-sei) is Dat. of an S-stem 
 like the Noun generi, Dat. of the S-stem genus (ch. xi. 
 
I04 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 § i8) ; Lat. da-re (earlier da-^ is Loc. of the same 
 stem (on genere, Loc. used as Abl., see ch. iii. § 8) ; 
 similarly ease from the root es-, to be, dedisrse, fer-re 
 for *fer-se (ch. x. § 19), vel-le for *vel-se (ibid.). For 
 Inf. Pass, of the Third Conjugation we have the Dat. 
 not of an S-stem but of a Root-stem (ch. xi. § 19), 
 e.g. leg-l (not leger-i). Thus the Latin Inf. Pass, differed 
 from the Inf. Act. only conventionally, the Dat. ease 
 being reserved for the one use, the Loc. for the other, 
 and had no distinctive Passive suffix. Whether this is 
 present in the O. Lat. by-forms legier, darier, &e., is not 
 certain. » 
 
 For the Perfect Inf. Passive the Perf . Part. Pass, was 
 used with the Auxiliary Verb esse, e. g. constat id factum 
 esse, constat ea facta esse; for the Fut. Pass, the 1st 
 Supine with m. Inf. Pass, of eo, to go, e. g. constat id 
 factum iri, constat ea factum iri ^. The Put. Act., e. g. 
 constat id eventurum (esse), is most naturally explained 
 as a combination of the Fut. Part. Act. with esse ; though 
 its Old Latin indeclinable use, e. g. credo inimieos meos 
 dieturum (from a speech of C. Gracchus), has suggested 
 the theory that it is a compound of the^ and Supine in 
 -tu with a supposed old Inf. of sum, viz. *erum (from 
 *esdm), dieturum for *dici'S-erttm. being in time made 
 personal dicturus, -a, -um (the Fut. Part. Act.) in the 
 same way as 0. Lat. ' dicendum est orationem ' changed 
 to class. Lat. 'dicenda est oratio' (§ 18). 
 
 § 16. The Supines. The First Supine, used after 
 
 ' Iri is Impersonal Passive like Virgil's ituY in antiquam silvam 
 (§ 6), so that the sentence literally means ' it is agreed that there 
 is a going to do these things.' A quotation from a speech of Gate : 
 contumelia mihi factum itur, shows the same tendency to make this 
 Impersonal Passive personal as produced vita vivitu/r out of 0. Lat. 
 vitam vivitu/r (§ 6). 
 
§ i6] Infinitive, Supine. 105 
 
 a Verb oE motion, is the Ace. Sg. of a Verbal Noun, 
 a TU-stem (ch. xi. § 1 3), e. g. zVe spectatum, lit. ' to go 
 to the seeing,'' like ire domum, to go to the house, ire 
 Romam, to go to Rome. 
 
 The Second Supine, used after an Adjective, is the 
 Loe. Sg. (eh. iii. § 11) of the same Verbal Noun, e. g. 
 agilis oursu, nimble in running. This Loc. Sg. in -u of 
 U-stems often played the part of a Dat. (cf. curru for 
 currui in Virgil) ; and we find the Second Supine used 
 ,not only as a Locative, but as a Dative, e. g. {fabula) 
 lepida memoratu, pleasant for telling, where in the older 
 language the Dative proper in -ni is used, e. g. lepida 
 memoratui (Plaut.), aS well as the Locative, e. g. 
 ridicula auditu (Plaut.) ^. 
 
 This TU-stem bulks largely in the language of 
 Plautus and the older Dramatists, e. g. obsonatii redeo, 
 I return from buying food for dinner, essum vocare, to 
 invite to dinner, nuptum dare, to give in marriage. In 
 Aul. J 2^6 perditum ire is used almost like perdere : 
 
 Quam6brem ita facerea m^que meosque' perditum ires liberos, 
 
 (cf. Bacch. ^6^ mi ires consultum male, ' you would go 
 and thwart my interests'). The use of the Accusative/ 
 without a Preposition is common in early Latin in phra,ses 
 like i malam crucem, go and be hanged (Plaut.), mppetian 
 ire, to go to help, infitias ire, to deny, exsequias ire, to go 
 to a funeral. The Supine use thus arose naturally out 
 of the tendencies of the language.. Uike nuptum dare 
 and nuptum ire are venumdare or venundare {vendere) and 
 venum ire {venire) ; pessumdare or pessvm dare and pessum 
 
 ■ In Plaut. Rud. 294 this Loc. plays the part of a Predicative 
 Dative : 
 
 Sunt nobis quaestu et cultu, 
 'They are our trade and pursuit/ 
 
io6 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 ire, which may be regarded as survivals o£ the Plautine 
 idiom. ^ 
 
 § 17. The Participles. The I.-Eur. Participles were 
 merely Verbal Adjectives formed with the various 
 suffixes mentioned in ch. xi. Thus for the Perf. Part. 
 Pass, the TO-suffix was used to form certain Verbal 
 Adjectives which in Latin took the function of Perfect 
 Participles Passive (Gk. 0e-ros, Lat. cre-di-tus, re-ple-tus)^ 
 or the NO-suffix (Engl, bound-en ; cf . Lat. ' ple-nus 
 Adj.). For the Gerundive the YO-suffix was used in 
 various I.-Eur. languages, traces in Greek being words 
 like ay-ios, venerable, ' worthy of veneration ' from 
 afojuat, and in Latin, eximms, 'worthy of being taken 
 out/ from exemo, to take out. 
 
 The Pres. Part. Act. (and all Active Participles, except 
 the Perfect) ^, took the suffix -ent- (-ont-, -nt-"; ch. xi. 
 § 12), e. g. Gk. ^ep-cav, -oi/ros, Jja,t. fer-ens, -entis. The 
 Pres. Part. Middle (or PassiveJ was formed in -meno- 
 (-mono-, -mno- ; ch. xi. § 1 2), e. g. Gk. ^ep6-fievo$, but 
 dropped at an early period out of use in Latin ; though 
 it is found in the a PI. Ind. Pass., e. g. ferimini (sc. 
 estis ; see § ai), and in nouns like alumnv^ (cf. Gk. 
 6 Tpf(l)6i^€fOi, see ch. xi. § 6). (On 2 PI. Ira-per. /erimini, 
 see'§ 21.) The Fut. Part. Act. in -turns is probably 
 a formation with the suffix -ro- from a TU-stem Verbal 
 Noun, e. g. scripturus (stem acripturo-) from the stem 
 scriptu- of scriptws, -us, piciurns from the stem pictu- of 
 pictus, -us, &c., Jike Gk. io-xv-po^ from iaxvi, (For 
 
 ' Aegrotus may he a, tra.ce of aLatin 0-Conjugation like Greek 8)/\(5ai. 
 
 " Its suffix was -w6s-, -us-. Some find traces of a Perf. Part. Act. 
 in Latin in words like cadd-verj papa-ver ; others in O. Lat. gndriires I 
 Plur., knowing (e. g. Plant. Most. loo). Mentor is not a Perf. Part., I 
 but an Adj. derived from a Perf. Part, stem, as Gk. Kt«payii6s 
 (Eurip.) is a Noun derived from Kexpaya. 
 
§ 17J Participle. 107 
 
 another explanation, see § 15.) For a Participle the 
 Latin writers, especially the poets, often substituted an 
 Adjective, e. g. lacer for laceratue (lacerum crudeliter 
 ora Virg.), and these Adjectives or 'truncated Parti- 
 ciples' have to some extent encroached on the Perf. 
 Part. Pass, in the Romance languages, e. g. Ital. trovo 
 beside trovato, ' found.' (On Verbal Adjectives in -bilis, 
 see ch. xi. § la.) 
 
 The close relation between Participles, Adjectives, 
 and even Nouns is seen in words like rudem, a rope, 
 lit. ' rattling ' ; henevolem, a friend, used as a Noun by 
 Plautus ^ It was this close relationship of henevolens 
 and benevolm, imciens and inscius, ijidigens and indigus, 
 eongruens and congrmis, &c., which led to a type of Com- 
 parison like benevolus, -entior, -entissimus (ch. iv. § 3). 
 Very early examples of Pres. Participles used as Nouns 
 or Adjectives are dens, a Pres. Part, of the root ed-, to eat, 
 and sons, a Pres. Part, of the root es-, to be, so that dens 
 properly means ' the eater,' sons ^, ' being,' ' truly being,' 
 whence 'truly charged,' 'guilty.' (Our 'sooth' is the same 
 word.) The Perf. Part. Pass, had the same tendency to 
 become an Adjective, e. g. cltits, swift, lit. ' bestirred ' ; 
 catus, originally sharp ^, from the root co-, to sharpen 
 (cf. cos, a whetstone), then (metaphorically) ( i ) piercing, 
 of sounds, e. g. cata signa, Enn., ' the shrill clarions,' 
 (2) shrewd, of persons ; Idttbs, O. Lat. stldtus (ch. x. § 19), 
 broad, lit. 'extended,' from the root stel-, to spread, 
 
 ' So Engl, friend is properly a Pres. Part. (Goth, frijonds, 
 ' loving'). 
 
 ^ Sons has the ONT-stem, a form of the Stem of which traces 
 occur in Athematio Verbs in Latin like eo, mlo {pmtis Gen., beside 
 ims Nom. ; wluntas beside volms). 
 
 ' Varro tells us the word had this meaning in his native 
 district. 
 
io8 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 extend. 0£ Past Parts. Pass, as Nouns we have e.g. 
 naius, a son, legatus, a lieutenant, deputy. When used 
 as Adjectives, they sometimes passed into I-stems, the 
 favourite form of stem for Adjectives (ch. xi. § i a), e. g. 
 fortis, O. Lat. forctua, originally P. P. P. of the I.-Eur. 
 root dhergh-, ' to establish ' ; in-gens, lit. ' unknown ' 
 (Engl, uncouth), from the root gen-, to know. When 
 used as Nouns the Neuter often appears, e. g. tectum, 
 a bed, tectum, a roof, fatum, destiny, lit. ' something 
 spoken,' from the old phrase fari fatum alicui, to lay 
 a doom or spell ■ on one, and (especially in the case of 
 Abstract Nouns) the Feminine, e. g, offensa, repulsa. 
 
 The Past Part. Passive took, as a rule, in I.-Eur. the 
 weak grade (ch. x. § 12) of the Verb-root, e. g. clu-to- 
 from cleu-, to hear (Gk. kKvtos, Lat. in-clutus) ; Lat. 
 cluc-tus from duco. The Perfect Ind. Act. has however 
 sometimes influenced its vocalism. The same influence 
 caused the substitution of -siis for -tus, the «-form being 
 originally and properly confined to Dental Verb-stems, 
 e. g. tensus for *tend-tus, usus (older usms) for *ut-tus, 
 flexus for *jlect-tm, salsus for *gald-tus, perculmis for 
 *per-c'ldtvs from the root celd-, to strike (cf. dades) [dt 
 and tt became by the Latin Law of Sound ««, ch. x. 
 § 17). But where the Perfect Ind. took « or x, this 
 consonant was given by false analogy to the Part., e. g. 
 farsus from farcio, Perf . farsi for *f arc-si ; Jixus from 
 jigo, Veri.fxi; tersus from tergo, Perf. tersi, just as the 
 analogy of kaesi produced the late form Aaesurus and 
 Aausi (P. P. P. Aausius) Aausurus beside /lamturiw. But 
 in the earlier literature we have the forms with -tus, 
 e. g. tertus. (So in Plautus pulto for class, pulso, § a.) 
 
 § 18. The Gerund and Gerundive. The Gerun- 
 dive (Adj.) in -ndo- has beside it a Gerund (Neut, Noun) 
 
§ i8] Gerund. 109 
 
 in -ndo-, which seems to stand to the Gerundive in the 
 
 same relation as an Impersonal to a Personal Verb, 
 
 eundum est in antiquam dlvam being Impersonal like 
 
 itur in antiquam silvam. The Adjectival use seems to 
 
 have been the original one ^. In the older Latin writers, 
 
 when this formation is turned into finite form, i. e. 
 
 when a statement is made by means of it, the usual 
 
 method is to employ the Gerund with est governing 
 
 an object, e. g. agitandum est vigilias, imperandum est 
 
 servis, carendum est urbe ; but in the classical Latin the 
 
 Gerund is preferred if the Verb is one which governs 
 
 the Accusative, e. g. agitandae sunt vigiliae, but still as 
 
 before, imperandum est servis, carendum est urbe ; and 
 
 the transition from the impersonal to the personal mode 
 
 of expression, marked by a construction like Plautus' 
 
 nominandi istorum copia (a construction allowed by 
 
 Cicero with a Gen. PI. for the sake of euphony, e. g. 
 
 facultas agrorum condonandi) is like the transition from 
 
 ' factum itur contumeliam ' to Ca,to^s ' contumelia factum 
 
 itur' (§ 15 «.). 
 
 In the third and fourth Conjugations we find in 
 
 Early Lat. both -ondo- (e. g. agundiis) and -enio- (e. g. 
 
 agendus), the latter being selected as the classical form 
 
 (but secundus beside sequendus). This agondo- or agendo- 
 
 seems to be formed from *agom, Ace. Sg. of a Verbal 
 
 Noun, and do-, a Verbal Adj. stem meaning ' giving ' 
 
 or 'causing.' Similarly luendus stands for *luem-dus 
 
 (cf . hies), curandus stands for *curain-du,i (cf . euro), ruben- 
 
 dws for *rubem-dus (cf. rule-facio). The combination of 
 
 ' Curiously enough the construction of the Gerundive Gen. of 
 Purpose, e. g. Tac. Ann. ii. 59 Germanicus Aegyptum proficiscitur 
 oognoscendae antiquitatis, occurs not only in the early Latin 
 ■writers, e. g. Lucilius, but also was a usage of the Umbrian 
 language, so that its antiquity cannot be denied. 
 
no 
 
 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 Active and Passive sense which is so peculiar a fea- 
 ture of the Latin Gerundive forms, e. g. ' agitandum 
 est vigilias' Act., and "agitandae sunt vigiliae ' Pass,, 
 may be explained from the double sense that can 
 be attached to an expression like rubor em dare, (i) to 
 blush, Neut., (a) to cause to blush, Act. 
 
 With the Gerundive suflBx are evidently connected 
 the suflBxes of Adjectives in -bundo-, -cundo-, &c., e. g. 
 errabundus, irdcundus, fdcwndtis (from fari), ruhicundus, 
 rotundus. The I of the first of these seems to belong to 
 the root bheu- of fui, &c., the c of the second to the 
 Diminutive suffix seen in rubi-care, albi-care, &c. 
 
 § 19. The Person-endings. The I.-Eur. Person- 
 endings were slightly different in Primary Tenses (the 
 Present Ind., Future Ind., &c.) and in Secondary Tenses 
 (the Preterites Ind., the Tenses of the Optative Mood, 
 &e.). Thus -ti was the 3 Sg. Primary suffix, -t the 3 Sg. 
 Secondary suffix of the Active Voice. In the Perfect 
 Tense an entirely different set of Endings was in use, 
 e. g. -a I Sg. Act., -tha a Sg., &c. ; and in the Imperative 
 the persons were often distinguished by the addition of 
 Particles (see § 14). 
 
 In Passive and Deponent Verbs, Latin departs widely 
 from the I.-Eur. scheme of Passive or Middle Person- 
 endings (contrast Lat. feror, sequor with Gk. (ptpo-nai, 
 f-no-fxai, ferXmwr, seqmmur with Gk. (pepd-fieOa, km-fiidoi). 
 Latin, as well as the kindred languages of ancient Italy 
 and the Celtic family of languages, uses as the character- 
 istic mark of its passive and deponent flexion the letter r 
 (cf. Old Irish sechur i Sg., sechethar 3 Sg., seehemmar 
 I PL, sechetar 3 PI. with Lat. sequor, sequitur, sequimur, 
 sequunlur). This r cannot be connected with the Re- 
 flexive Pronoun swe- (ch. v. § i) (Lat. se Ace), seeing 
 
§§ 19, 2o] The Active Person-endings. m 
 
 that « between vowels does not become r in the Celtic 
 languages as in Latin (ch. x. § 1 9), so that Irish seehur 
 could not represent a form sequo-se. On the early Im- 
 personal use of these r-forms, see § 6. 
 
 § 20. (a) Active. 1 Sg. The Primary suffix of the 
 Athematic Conjugation (§ i ) was -ml (e. g. Gk. Tid^-ixi., 
 dfiC, I am, for eir-^i, Lat. sum) ; in the Thematic the i 
 Pers. ended in -0 (e. g. Gk. \eyu>, Lat. lego). The suffix 
 in the secondary Tenses of both Conjugations was -m, 
 e. g. Gk. e-cj)epo-v, for *k<^€poti., Lat. eram, nm (an Opta- 
 tive, § 13), ama-ham, amaveram, &c. The Latin Perfect 
 shows the I.-Eur. Middle ending -ai, e. g. ckdi, older declei, 
 vidi ol^er veidei. (On -ei from earlier -«», see ch. ii. § 14.) 
 
 2 Sg. -SI and -s were the I.-Eur. suffixes (e. g. Gk. 
 rWri-i, i-cjiepi-s, Hom.Gk.f(r-(n' ; Lat. es [earlier *ess, ch. ii. 
 § 9], affis [earlier *affea, ch. ii. § 14], eras). The Latin 
 Perfect shows -stl, older -stei, e. g. dedisti. (On the 
 Imperative 2 Sg. Act., see § 14.) 
 
 3 Sg. -ti (Primary) and -t (Secondary) were the I.-Eur. 
 endings (e.g. Gk. €<r-rt, Tidrj-ai for ridrj-n, l-^epe for 
 *i-<j)epe-T ; Lat. est, agit [earlier *aget, ch. ii. § 14], erat). 
 The Secondary ending often appears in Early Latin 
 as d, e. g.feced 'fecit/ sied ' sit' on the Dvenos inscrip- 
 tion (ch. i. § 3 «.). In the Latin Perfect the ending was 
 -eit (class. -It, ch. ii. § 16), being the I.-Eur. Middle 
 ending -ai (Lat. -ei) with t added to distinguish it from 
 the First Person which likewise ended in -ai (Lat. -ei). 
 The long quantity -it is found in Plautus and the older 
 writers ; and even in Ovid we have it after i in the 
 compounds of eo, e.g. interilt, ahiit, rediit. (On the 
 Imperative 3 Sg. Act., see § 14.) 
 
 1 PluT. In Latin we have in all tenses the ending 
 -mos (class, -mus, ch. ii. § 14), while in the other I.-Eur. 
 
112 
 
 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 languages we have a variety of endings, e. g. Att. Gk. 
 (fiepo-nfv, l-(^lpo-\xiv, Dor. Gk. <j>epo-p.es, e-4>tpo-iJ,ts. 
 
 2 Plur. The ending -te of Gk. (^epe-re, (-<f>4p(-Te, &e., 
 appears in Latin only in the Imperative, e.g./er-ie. 
 (On the a Plur. of the Future Imperative in -tote, e.g. 
 
 fertote, see § 14.) Elsewhere it was replaced by -iu 
 (older -tes, ch. ii. § 14), e. g.fer-tis (cf. clediitis). 
 
 3 Plur. The I.-Eur. suffixes end with -\ in Primary 
 but not in Secondary Tenses, viz. -onti (-enti, -''nti, ch. x. 
 
 I § la) and-ont (-ent, -*nt). The form tremontiiov tremunt 
 \ is quoted from an interesting passage, but one of doubt- 
 ful reading, from the Carmen Saliare : 
 
 Cumne (?) tonas, Leucesie, prai tet tremonti, 
 
 ' cum tonas, Leucesie, praetremunt te,' and -out is often 
 found in the early literature and inscriptions, e. g. cosen- 
 tiont, ' consentiunt ' on a Scipio epitaph (ch. iv. § 3 n.). 
 The endings of the Perfect, -erunt and -ere (earlier -m) 
 are difficult to explain. The Imperative seems to add 
 the same particle *tdd, as is seen in the a and 3 Sg. 
 (§ 14), to a 3 PI. form, e. g. ferwnto for *feront-trid. 
 
 In Old Latin we find 3 PI. Pres. Ind. forms in -nunt, 
 e. g. danunt ' dant,' nequtnont ' nequeunt,' explenunt ' ex- 
 plent,' which have been explained by the theory that 
 the 3 PI. of the Pres. Ind. had once ended in -n, *dan, 
 *nequm, *explen, and that these forms were a second time 
 provided with a 3 PI. suffix, much as Greek tt, thou art, 
 for *((n, took a fresh 2 Sg. suffix and became eis. 
 
 § 21. (;3) Passive (Deponent). 1 Sg. The Italo-Celtie 
 ending was -or in the Pres. Ind., e. g. O. Lat. sequor, class. 
 sequor (ch. ii. § 16), O. Ir. sechur, apparently an addition 
 of Passive -r (§ 6) to the Active ending -6 (§ 20). 
 Those Tenses and Moods which in Latin formed their 
 
§ 2i] Person-endings, Passive. 113 
 
 I Sg. Act. in -m substitute in the Passive -r for -m, e. g. 
 fera-r Fut. and Subj.j fereha-r Impft., except in the 
 Perfect group, where a periphrastic form is used, e. g. 
 latus sim, latus essem, not ■■ tulerir,'' ■' tulisser ' ; also latus 
 ero, not ' tuleror.' 
 
 2 Sg. The Latin endings are(i) -re, the same as the 
 Imperative a Sg., from I.-Eur. -so (e. g. Gk. hsov for eireo 
 from €7r«-(To, Lat. seque-re, p. 31 ».) ; that is the usual form 
 in Old Latin and even in Cicero ; (a) -ns, which adds to 
 this the ending -* of the a Sg. Act., *seq'uere-s becoming 
 sequeris (ch. ii. § 14). Some think -re a weakening of 
 -r%s. But -«« did not become -e in Latin, e. g. militaris. 
 Isolated spellings like triiunos militare for militaris on an 
 old inscription are not sufficient proofs of this change. 
 
 3 Sg. The Italo-Celtic ending is -tor (e. g. Lat. sequi- 
 tur from *aequeiSr, O. Ir. sechethar), formed by adding 
 Passive -r to the I.-Eur. Secondary ending -to (e. g. Gk. 
 f-<t)epe-To). The Imperative changes to -r the -d of the 
 Particle -tod, which it appends to its bare stem in the 
 Active (§ 14), e. g.fertor Pass, hesiie Jerto^d) Act. 
 
 1 Plur. The Italo-Celtic ending is -mor (e. g. Lat. 
 sequimur for *sequdmdr, O. Ir. sechemmar), formed by 
 changing to r the s of the Active -mos (§ 20). 
 
 2 Plur. In Latin the Nom. Plur. of the old Pres. 
 Part. Pass, is used with ellipse of estis, e. g. fer'iim'm,, 
 (Gk. (jyepoufvoi, § 17), in the Present Tense and analogical, 
 formations in the others, e. g. fereba-mini, fera-mini, 
 ferre-mini. The 2 PI. Imper. ferimini may be the same 
 with ellipse of este, or an old Infinitive (Gk. (pepeixevai) 
 used in Imperatival sense. 
 
 3 Plur. The Italo-Celtic ending is -ntor (e. g. Lat. 
 sequuniur from *sequdntor, O. Ir. sechetar), formed by 
 adding Passive r to the I.-Eur. Secondary ending -nto 
 
114 
 
 The Verb. 
 
 [CH. VI 
 
 (Gk. l-^(po-vTo). (Cf. Gk. ffi-irKri-vTo with Lat. im- 
 ple-ntur). In the Imperative the d of the particle -tod 
 appended in the 3 PI. Act. (§ 30) is changed to -r, 
 e. g. feruntor Pass, heside ferwnto(d) Act. 
 
 § 22. Scheme of the Latin Person-endings. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Active. 
 I. Ind. 
 Pers -m{i) (Athematio fri- -mSs, class.-TOiJs, e. g. sumus, legi- 
 
 mary), e. g. sum. 
 •0 (Thematic Primary), 
 
 e. g. lego. 
 -m (Secondary), e. g. 
 
 eram, legebam. 
 a Pers. -s(t) (Prim.), e. g. es for 
 
 *es-s(i), legis from 
 
 *legSs-{i). 
 -s (Sec), e, g. eras, legeias. 
 3 Pers. -t{i) (Prim.), e. g. est, legit 
 
 from *legSt{i). 
 -t (Sec), e. g. eras, legeiat. 
 
 mus; eramus, legehamus. 
 
 -<&, class. -^, e.g. estis, legitis; 
 eratis, legebatis. 
 
 -nt{i) (Prim.), e.g. sunt, legunt 
 
 from legonU. 
 -mt(Sec), e.g. erant,legebani. (But 
 
 see ch. x. § 17.) 
 
 II. Imperat. 
 I Pers. (the Subjunctive is used), (the Subjunctive is used), e.g. 
 
 e. g. legam. 
 
 2 Pers. Pres. (tlie Verb-stem is 
 
 used\ e.g. es (Athem.), 
 lege (Them.X 
 ' Put.' (adds to(d) ' there- 
 upon '), e. g. es-to, legito 
 from *lege-tod. 
 
 3 Pers. (same as 2 Pers. ' Put.'). 
 
 legamiis. 
 -tl, e. g. es-te ; 
 legi-te. 
 
 ■tote, e. g. es-tote, 
 
 -n<5 from -n<o(eJ), e. g. simto, 
 legunto. 
 
 Passive and Middle. 
 I. Ind. 
 r Pers. Sr (Act. -0), class, -or, -mar, class, -mur, e. g. legimur. 
 
 e. g. Ugor. 
 -r (Act. -m), e. g. legebar. 
 
 2 Pers. (i) -r« from -s6, e. g. 
 
 legere. 
 (3) -ris (-r2 with added 
 -s), e. g. legeris. 
 
 3 Pers. -Mr, class. -<«r, e.g. legitvr. 
 
 (Som. PI. Masc. of Pres. Part. 
 Pass, is used), e. g. legimini. 
 
 ■ntSr, class. -n<ur, e. g. leguntur. 
 
§§ 22, 23] Irregular Verbs. 115 
 
 II. Imperat. 
 
 I Pers. (the Subjunctive is used), (the Subjunctive is used), e. g. 
 e. g. ■ 
 
 2 Pers. -ri from -so, e. g. legere. (the Nom. Plur. Masc. of the 
 
 Pres. Part. Pass.), o. g. legimini. 
 
 3 Pers. -tor, class, -tor, e. g. legitor. -rUSr, class, -nior, e. g. leguntor. 
 
 § 23. Some Irregular Verbs. 
 
 The irregularity of many verbs consists in their use of 
 different roots for different tenses. The Substantive 
 Verb shows the root ES- in some tenses^ the root BHEU- 
 in others, e. g. Feri.fui; and the heteroclite conjugation 
 of verbs like ' to be,' ' to go/ seems to date from the I.- 
 Eur, period. Other Latin examples axe/io (for *J\olo,hoia 
 bhw-, a weakened form of the root bheu-) a.nd.f actus sum ; 
 ferio and percussi ; fero and tuli (from the root of tollo, 
 Gk. TiTXavai) ; tollo (for *tol-no) and sustuli (Compound 
 with Prep, sub, subs) ; vescor and pastus sum ; arguor and 
 convictus sum j reminiscor and recordatus sum ; medeor and 
 medicatus sum ; surgo differs from surrexi and surrectus 
 in being syncopated (cf . ^orgo and porngo) ; vis beside 
 volo comes from a root vei-, which had the same mean- 
 ing as the root vel-, to wish. (On vel-, e. g. velim, and 
 vol-, e. g. volo, see ch. ii. § 8.) 
 
 Other verbs, classed as Irregular, are the Defective 
 Verbs : coepi, the Present of which, coepio, is found in 
 O. iiat., e. g. neque ego lites coepio, Plant., and is a com- 
 pound of cum and apio, to fasten, whence apiscor and 
 aptus ; Mg-Mflwi, perhaps a Subj.-Fut., 'I will say,' from 
 the root se^-, to speak (cf. O. Lat. inseque or insece ^), 
 other parts of which are Pres. Ind. itiquis, inquit, in- 
 quiunt and Imper. inque (Plaut.) ; aio, for *aAio from the 
 
 ' Ennius' translation of "AvSpa /loi t i/vcire, Movaa was : inseque 
 (insece), Musa, uirum. i 
 
 I a 
 
ii6 The Verb. [ch. vi 
 
 root agh-, 'to say/ and infit are other Defective Verbs of 
 kindred meaning to inquam. (Cf . our Defect. Vb. ' quoth.^) 
 The irregularity of verbs like s?im, eo, volo, &c., con- 
 sists, as we have seen (§ i) in their having belonged to 
 the Athematie Conjugation (hence i PI. sumus, volumus 
 with u not *), of which there are not so many remains in 
 Latin as in Greek (e. g. all the Greek verbs in -pit are 
 athematie). Edo, to eat, is thematic in i Sg. Pres. Ind. 
 ecl-o, but athematie in the other persons, which often 
 show a by-form ed-, e. g. essem Impf t. Subj. for *ed-se'm, 
 esse Inf. for *ed-se. Fero has been attracted into the 
 Athematie Can^.,fer-8 2 Sg.,fer-t 3 Sg.,ferrem Impft. 
 Subj. for *fer-sem,ferre Inf. for *fer-se,fer Imper. Bo 
 (root DO-, in weak form Lat. da-) was originally athematie 
 and must have been declined *ddm{i) *dd-s, *do-t, *dd-mos, 
 *dd-tes, dant (cf. Gk. SiSa>|ui, SifSofxcf, and cf. ch. x. § 12) ; 
 but the a of damns, datis, &c., has caused its partial trans- 
 ference to the First Conjugation type. (On ce-do, Imperat., 
 see § 14.) It was confused with another -do, meaning 
 ' to place' or ' put' (root DHE-, Gk. TL-Orj-ixi.), to which 
 belong the Compounds condo, ' to put together/ suhdo, ' to 
 put under/ &c., and which must have been declined *con- 
 de-m{i), *con-dS-s, *con,-de-t, *con,-da-mos, *condd-tes, &c. 
 Here the I to which a was reduced in the unaccented 
 syllable (ch. ii. § 14), con-di-mus, con-di-tis, &c., caused 
 the transference of condo, subdo, &c., to the Third Con- 
 jugation type. I.-Eur. dh when initial became/ in Latin 
 (ch. X. § 17), so that the simple verb would be *fe-m(i), 
 */e-s, with Plur. *fa-mos, &c. A derivative from this is 
 ftic-io, with the e of which we may compare the k of Gk. 
 e-driK-a. Sto was another Athematie Verb (root STA-, Gk. 
 to-Tjjjui for *(Ti-orTd-ni, PI. l-(rrd-nev), with an original decle- 
 sion, *std-m{i), sid-s, sfd-t, *sta-mos, *sia-tes, stant, but in 
 
§ 23] Irregular Verbs. 117 
 
 a verb of this kind the transference to the First Conju- 
 gation was easy. Sto had in Early Latin the transitive J 
 sense of Gk. ta-Trnu, e. g. med Mano statod, ' set me (as/ 
 an offering) to Manus ' (the Good Deity ; cf. Manes, im-\ 
 manis, lit. 'not good') on the Dvenos inscr. (eh. i. § i n.), 
 but in class. Lat. this sense was given to the transitive 
 form si-gto (Gk. 'larmxi for *ui-(TTd-^i), which appears as 
 a Third Conj. Verb. 
 
 Compounds of these Athematic Verbs are possum, 
 nolo, mala. Possum is found in the older writers in its 
 uncompounded form potis sum and pote sum, e. g. potis est 
 Lucr. i. 452j potesse i. 66^. Pote is properly the Neuter 
 of potis, e. g. pote est (class, potest), ' it is possible/ but 
 the Masc. (and Pern.) and Neut. forms are used of any 
 gender and of any number, e. g. potis est, ' it is possible ' 
 Ter. Phorm. 379 ; credo equidem potis esse te, scelus Plaut. 
 Posstom stands for pote-sum (on the Syncope oi-e see ch. ii. 
 § 1 2), possim for pote-sim, &c. ; and possem, posse (for 
 potessem, potesse) have followed their analogy. Mdlo, a 
 contraction of mdvolo (Plaut.), comes similarly from mage 
 (a by-form of magis, which was wrongly treated as an 
 Adj. magis with Neut. mage) united into a word-group 
 (ch. ii. § 11) with volo ; and nolo from the Negative ne- and 
 volo. *Mdg{e)-volo became mavvolo, written mdvolo ; *ne- 
 volo (O. Lat. ne-vis, ne-volt) became *ndvolo (ch. x. § 4) and 
 with loss of V between vowels (ch. ii. § 1 2) nolo. The 
 Imperat. nok may be due to the use of nolis (Opt.) in 
 Imperatival sense, the -s being dropped to suit the type 
 of the Imperative 2 Sg. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 § 1. Origin of Latin Adverbs. I.-Eur. Adverbs were 
 for the most part cases of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pro- 
 nouns. The cases most frequently found in Latin are 
 the Accusative (cf. Gk. irporepov Ace. Sg. Neut., fioKpav 
 Ace. Sg. Fem., Kpv(l>a Ace. PI. Neut.), the Ablative (or In- 
 strumental? cf. Gk. &\\r], AdBpd), and Locative (cf. Gk. 
 oXkol, avaifuoTei, eKovrC). Often we find Latin Adverbs 
 retaining case-forms which have become obsolete in 
 the ordinary declension. Thus -im, the original form of 
 the Ace. Sg. ending of I-stems (ch. iii. § 8), which in 
 classical Latin was replaced by the -em of Consonant- 
 stems (e. g. partem from the stem parti-, like militem 
 from the stem milit- ), is retained in Adverbs vlike partim, 
 and in the Adverbial Accusatives of Verbal Noun I-stems. 
 Examples of these are : raptim from an old *raptis ^, -is 
 Gen. (Verbal Noun of rapio), sensim from *sensis (Verbal 
 Noun of sentio), uni-versim from *verds (Verbal Noun of 
 verto). Again nox, an old equivalent of noctu, seems to 
 be an early by-form of noctis Gen. ; -e (older -eel), the 
 suffix by which Adverbs derived from Adjective 0-stems 
 are formed in Latin, is an Abl. Sg. suffix (parallel with 
 -0,. earlier -od, ch. iii. § 6), which has been reserved for 
 Adverbs alone. The Adverbial suffix -tus (I.-Eur. -tos) of 
 
 ' These old Verbal Nouns in -Us, -sis became obsolete and were 
 replaced by lON-stems, raptio, -onis Gen., sensio, -onis Gen., versio, 
 -onis Gen. (cli. xi. § la). 
 
§ i] Origin of Lat. Adverbs. 119 
 
 funM-tue, divim-4us, &c., is in some I. -Eur. languages 
 used to form the Abl. case of Nouns. 
 
 The Adverbs derived from Pronouns, e. g. ihi, illinc 
 (i. e. illim with the Particle -ce, ch. v. § 4), are not easily 
 referred to their proper cases, owing to our ignorance of 
 the full number of the case-sufExes used in the I.-Eur. 
 declension of the Pronoun (cf . ch. v. § 4). 
 
 Often an independent word has been relegated to the 
 function of an Adverbial suffix. Thus versus and versum 
 (older vorsus, vorsum, ch. x. § 8), the Nom. and Ace. Sg. 
 of the Perf. Part. Pass, of verto, appear in qudqudversus 
 {-m), aliovorsum (contracted aliorsum, ch. ii. § 13), retro- 
 vorsum (contracted retrorsum, retrosum), rwrsus (-»«) for 
 reversus {-ni). Tenus of hdctewus, aliqudtenus, &c., is the 
 Ace. Sg., used adverbially, of the old neuter noun tenus, 
 a stretching (ch. xi. § 18), used by Plautus in the sense 
 of a string or snare (ch. viii. § 39). In the Romance 
 languages mente, Abl. of mens, is the chief Adverbial 
 suffix, and is often added to already formed Adverbs, 
 e.g. Ital. quasimente. 
 
 Adverbs like aliovorsum, aliqwatenus are thus really 
 composed of two independent words alio vorsum, aliqua 
 tenus. Other examples of Adverbial word-groups are (i) 
 Prep, and Noun : ad-fdtim, sufficiently, lit. ' to weariness ' 
 [ci.. fatlgo), ad-modum, de-rmo for de novo (ch. ii. § 14), 
 sedulo from se, an old by-form of sine (ch. viii. § 36) and 
 dolo, i-Uco from in and sloco (old form of loco, ch. x. § 19) ; 
 (a) Verb and Verb : i-licet, sct-licet, vide-licet ; (3) Conj. 
 and Verb dum-taxat (ch. v. § 7 ».), &c. 
 
 The Comparative Degree of the Adverbs derived from 
 Adjectives is in Latin, as in Greek, expressed by the 
 Ace. Sg. Neut. of the Comparative of the Adjective, 
 G.^. pejus, longiv^ (Gk. (ro(fi<iTepov) ; the Superlative by the 
 
I20 The Adverbs. [ch. vh 
 
 old Abl. Sg. in -e (older -ed) of the Superl. of the Adj., 
 e. g.peagime, longisnme (in Greek by the Ace. PI. Neut.j e.g. 
 (TO(l)(iTaTa). Adjectives (and Participles) of the Second 
 Declension (O-stems) form their Adverbs in -um (Ace. 
 Sg. Neut.), -e (Abl. Sg.) or -o (Abl. Sg.) ; Adjectives of 
 the Third Declension, in -ter (Nom. Sg. Masc, § 2), e. g. 
 multum, amice, subito, breviter ; but in the earlier litera- 
 ture Adverbs in -^er from 0-stem Adjectives are common^ 
 e. g. amiciter. Cicero in his earlier writings used huma- 
 niter, but finally discarded it for humane. 
 
 § 2. Nominative Adverb forms. The Nom. Sg. 
 Masc. of an Adjective might become an Adverb by being 
 used without reference to number or gender. Just as 
 potig, M. F., able (Gk. Tiocns, a master), became crystal- 
 lized, so to speak, when used with esse, — -jjotiii sum,potis es, 
 jiotis est ille, potis est illud (ch. vi. § 23), so mrsus [reversus) 
 gradually passed into an Adverb when it came to be used, 
 not merely in phrases like rursus eo, rursus is, rursus it ille, 
 but also in rursus it ilia, rursus eunt illi. In the earlier 
 literature rursum (Ace. Sg. Neut.) competes with rursus, 
 prorstim (pro-vorsum) with prorsus, sursus {sub-versus) with 
 sursum, demus (cf. Gk. T?)fios) with demum, &c. ; but by 
 the classical period one of the rival forms generally has 
 the monopoly, e. g. rursus, prorsus, sursum, demum. Such 
 Latin Nom. Adverb forms end in (i) -s, e. g. rursus, and 
 other compounds of versus ; deinceps, in O. Lat. declined, 
 deincipis Gen., deineipi Dat., &c., like princeps ; eminus and 
 comminus (ch. ii. § 10), compounds of manus, as Gk. 
 o.vr6\ti.p of xiip ; intrinsecus, extriusecus, &c., compounds 
 of an old Adj. secus, following (ef . secundws). (2) -r. This 
 is a very numerous class, comprising all the Adverbs 
 in -ter, e. g. breviter. These are Nominatives Singular of 
 a formation with the suffix -tero- (ch. xi. § 8), which in 
 
§§ 2, 3] From -Norn., Accus. 121 
 
 Greek often assumed a Comparative sense (e. g. ^payy- 
 repos, shorter), but not always, e. g. be^irepos, on the 
 right, not ' more on the right.' Thus lirevUer corresponds 
 exactly in formation to Gk. ^paxvTfpos, as a^er to Gk. 
 aypos (ch. iii. § 6). The i before ter belonged properly 
 to Adverbs from I-stem or 0-stem Adjectives (e. g. brevi- 
 ter from brevis, stem brevi-, humaniter for *humano-ter, 
 ch. ii. § 14, beside auddc-ter from aiidasc, stem auddc-), 
 but has been extended to Cons.-stem Adjectives too, e. g. 
 fallaciter from fallax. NT-stems have -nter, e. g. vehe- 
 menter, impudenter, by Dissimilation, for -nti-ter (ch. ii. 
 § 1 2). On simulter from *simli-ter,faculter from *facli-ter, 
 see ch. ii. §12. Another example of an Adverb in -;• is 
 nuper, Nom. Sg. Masc. of an Adj. nupero-, for *novi-pero-, 
 from novtis and paro. The Adj. is used by Plautus 
 Capt. 718 : 
 
 Rec^ns captum hominem, nuperum, nouicium, 
 ' A man just captured, newly acquired, a newcomer.' 
 
 § 3. Accusative Adverb forms. The Adverbial use of 
 the Accusative Case was a great feature of I. -Eur. syntax. 
 In Homer, for example, we find that hnvov, ^apv, &c., are 
 the usual Adverb forms, not huvw, ^apiws. In Latia we 
 have (i) Ace. Sg. Neut. of Adj. in -um, e. g. commodum 
 (beside commode) ; plerumgue from an old Adj. plerws^, 
 connected with plenus, full ; sursum, and other compounds 
 of veraum (see § a); a few Superlatives like minimum 
 (usually minime), potissimum \ in -e, e. g. facile, an old 
 form of which was facul (ch. ii. § i a), used by Lucilius 
 in his description of the Roman patricians : 
 
 Pecoare inpune rati sunt 
 Posse, et nobilitate facul propellere iniquos, 
 simul (older semut), the Ace. Sg. Neut. of similis ; imjmne 
 
 ^ E. g. Pacuvius : peri^re Danai, pl^ra pars possum datast, ' the 
 Danai are lost, the greater part gone down.' 
 
122 The Adverbs. [ch. vn 
 
 from impunis (in &ndpoena, ch. xi. § 1 2), but I-stem Adjs. 
 as a rule formed their Adverbs in -ifer, the formation 
 in -e being reserved for poetry^ e. g. dulee ridentem, . . . 
 dulce loquentem, Hor. (3) Ace. Sg. Fern, of Adj. in -am, 
 e. g. perperam, falsely, wrongly (so. viam), from perpervs 
 {per aXiAparo), with the same sense oiper as m perjurus, 
 swearing falsely (Gk. irdpo of ■napaKOTira, I forge money, 
 &e.) (ch. viii. § a6). (3) Ace. PI. Fem. in -as, e. g. alias 
 (sc. vices). The Ace. PI. Neut., e. g. torva tueri, is 
 almost confined to poetry. (4) Ace. Sg. of Noun, in -tim, 
 e. g. praesertim from sero, lit. ' in the front row ' ; tolutim, 
 at atrot (connected with <o^/o) ; passim irompando ; siaiim, 
 at once, lit. ' standing,' ' on the spot ■* (like iiico, § i ) ; 
 and many in -diim derived from Nouns, e. g. guttatim, 
 in drops, from gutta, gradatim from gradus. The Nouns 
 in -tis have, as has been mentioned, become obsolete, being 
 replaced by forms in -tio, e. g. statio. But the Nouns 
 remain from which other Ace. Sg. Adverbs are derived, 
 e.g. vicem, masoimam partem, id genus (cf. Gk. xapiv, Ace. 
 Sg. of xapis). Virile seem (e. g. trecenti occisi sunt virile 
 secus, 'three hundred were killed of the male sex') is 
 Ace. Sg. Adverbs in -fariam, indicating division, e. g. 
 hi-fariam, quadrl-fariam are Ace. Sg. Fem. of Adjs. in 
 -farius (cf. Gk. -(jtaa-tos from -(ftarios, e. g. Tpi.<pa(Tios). 
 
 § 4. Atal. and Locative Adverb forms. From O- 
 Stem Adjs.'we have Abl. Adverb forms in (i) -g, older 
 -ed, e. g. faeillime, which is written on the S. C. Bacch. 
 FACiLVMED; this is the usual formation of Superlative 
 Adverbs; valde (valide 'P\a,\it.), ferme, SuTpeil.oi fere; (a) 
 -0, older -od, e. g. cerio (beside certe), vero (beside vere). 
 (On dW, modo, bene, male, see ch. ii. § 16.) From 0-Stem 
 Nouns we have, e. g. vulgo (from vulgus),principio. The 
 Third Declension 'Abl.' (originally a Consonant-stem 
 
§§ 4, 5] From Abl.j Loc; Pron. Advs. 123 
 
 Locative, eh. iii. § 8) in -e appears in forte, sjponte, opere of 
 magnopere (for magm Spere), tantopere, &c., temere, lit. 
 ' in the dark/ from a lost Neuter temus, -eris, darkness. 
 The Abl. PI. in -is is seen in gratis {gratiis Plant.), for 
 nothing, lit. ' for mere thanks ' (cf . Ter. si non pretio, at 
 gratiis) ; foria, outside, lit. ' at the doors ' irom/bra, a door 
 (Gk. Ovpa), used with verbs of rest, e. g. forts manere, while 
 foras, the Ace. PI., is used in a phrase like /bra* exire, to 
 go outside. Of Abl. Sg. Fem. in -a examples are eddem 
 (sc. opera), at the same time, dextera (sc. parte), on the 
 right, recta ,(sc. via), directly, extra, supra, contra. The 
 Abl. Sg. Neut. of the last is seen in contro-versia. 
 
 § 5. Proilominal Adverbs. These show various 
 suffixes : (i) -bi (older -bei) with locative sense, e. g. ibi, 
 uhl (on ihi, uM see ch. ii. § i6) ; (a) -I (older -ei), the 
 Locative 0-stem suffix, e. g. O. Lat. ilii, isti, there, 
 which in classical Latin always have the particle -ce 
 appended (ch. v. § 4), illl-e, istt-c; (3) -6 (older -od), the 
 Abl. Sg. Neut., to indicate motion to (originally route 
 or direction), e. g. eo, quo, isto, alio, porro. O. Lat. hoc, 
 istoc, illoc are probably Ace. Sg. Neut., for class. Lat. 
 hue, istuc, illuG points to -So with short o, but with e 
 doubled in pronunciation (ch. v. § 3) ; (4) -a (older -ad), 
 the Abl. Sg. Fem., to indicate direction, manner, &e., 
 e. g. qua, ea,praeter-ea ; (5) -im, to indicate motion from, 
 e.g. illim, istim, which in class. Lat. always append 
 the particle -ce, illinc, istinc (cf. kinc, dehinc) ; (6) -nde, 
 with similar sense, in unde, inde ; this inde is shortened 
 by Syncope of the final vowel (ch. ii. § la) to -in in the 
 Compounds proin, dein, exin, &c. Other endings like 
 -dam of quondam (cf. quidam, eh. v. § 7), -dem of quMem, 
 tandem,, with the sense of ' exactly,' ' precisely ' in ibi-dem, 
 tantl-dem (cf . idem for is-dem, eh. v. § 3, and is demum). 
 
124 The Adverbs. [ch. vii 
 
 -tern of item, -ta for ^-ia, are apparently case-forms of 
 pronominal stems (cf. ch. v. § 3), as -quam of unquam, 
 usquam (cf. quisquam, eh. v. § 7) appears to be Ace. Sg. 
 Fem. of the stem quo- (ch. v. § 6). Saltim, lit. ' by a 
 leap/ Aec. Sg. of an old Verbal Noun *galtis from salio 
 (§ 3), became in class. Lat. saltern on the analogy of 
 autem, item, &c. 
 
 § 6. Adverbial Word-groups. Other examples are : 
 (i) in --per, ^arum-per, ixom parum, Aac. Sg. Neut. of 
 parus, little, a by-form of parvus, and the Preposition joer ; 
 sem-per from *sem ' one,' Aec. Sg. Neut. (Gk. tv for sem) 
 and the same Preposition ^ ; so paulis-per, tantis-per, 
 aliquantis-per, and in O. Lat. topper, immediately (for 
 *tod-per. (On tod, Gk. to(6), Acc. Sg. Neut. of Demonstr. 
 stem to-, see ch. v. § 3.) (On nuper, see § a.) 
 
 From ob-viam was formed the Adj. ohvius, as from 
 
 se-dulo (cf. se dulo malo on an old Agrarian Law), the 
 
 Adj. sedulus. Like ohviam (and inter-vias with i;m» 
 
 Ace. PI.) is ol-iter, a word regarded with suspicion by 
 
 purists, though the Emperor Augustus gave it his 
 
 sanction, and reproved Tiberius for using per viam 
 
 instead. Ilicet, scilicet, videlicet have in the earlier 
 
 writers the construction of ire licet, scire licet, videre 
 
 licet \ e. g. Plautus Capt. 469 : 
 
 Ilicet pai'asiticae arti m^xumam maHm crucem, 
 ' The profession of diner-out may go hang itself on the highest 
 possible gallows.' 
 
 Lucretius i. aio : 
 
 Esse videlicet in terris primordia rerum. 
 
 ' The Adj. sempHemus stands for *sempertemus as praesUgiae for 
 praestrigiae (ch. ii. § 8). 
 
 " So also /ortosse, an S-Aorist Imperative (ch. vi. § 12) of a lost 
 verb fortare from /artis (like affirmare from firmus) meaning 'to 
 assert.' Cf. Flaut. Asin. 36 te fortasse dicere, 'perhaps you say.' 
 
§ 6] Adverbial Word-Groups. 125 
 
 Virgil revived the use of ilicet, but gave it curiously the 
 sense of ilieo, e.g. Aen. xi. 468 : 
 
 Ilicet in muros tota discurritur urbe. 
 A Preposition with a Noun (or Adj.) appears also in 
 in-cassum, in vain, lit. ' into the empty " (cf . casm nux 
 Plant.) ; im-primis and cum-primis. Actuium is merely 
 actil, lit. ' on the act/ followed by ium, then. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PEEPOSITTONS. 
 
 § 1. History of Latin Prepositions. Prepositions 
 are Adverbs, which came to be specially used in con- 
 nexion with certain cases of the Noun or in composition 
 with a Verb. In the early stage of I. -Eur. languages 
 the cases alone were sufficient to indicate the sense, but 
 as the force of the Case-suffixes became weakened, or as 
 the necessity for clearer definition was more recognized, 
 the Case-suffix was strengthened by the addition of 
 an Adverb. Thus ire monte might mean ' to go out of 
 the mountain ' or ' to go down from the mountain.' To 
 indicate the first sense, the Adverb ex was used, ire 
 monte ex ; to indicate the second, the Adverb de, ire 
 monte de ; ex-ire rnonte, de-ire monte. Those Adverbs 
 which, owing to their meaning, are most frequently 
 associated with particular cases of Nouns, or are used 
 in composition with Verbs, are called Prepositions ; and 
 the process, by which Latin Adverbs became Preposi- 
 tions, may be seen in operation at various periods of the 
 language. Thus contra, which has hardly passed the 
 Adverb stage with Plautus and Terence, is a Preposition 
 in classical Latin and governs an Accusative Case; 
 coram is not a Preposition till Cicero^'s time ; simul in 
 Augustan poetry and Silver Age prose; retro not till 
 
§ i] Origin of Lat. Prepositions. 127 
 
 Late Latin (e.g. vade retro me, 'get thee behind me'). 
 It is customary now in writing Latin to write the Prepo- 
 sition and the Verb in one word, e.g. exire, but not 
 the Preposition and the Noun, e.g. ex monte, although 
 the Romans usually wrote exmonte, &c., and always pro- 
 nounced the Prep, and Noun as one word-group (ch. ii. 
 §11). This close union of the Preposition with its 
 Verb and Noun led at an early time to the syncope o£ 
 the final short syllable of a Preposition, e.g. indo-gredior 
 became *md-gredior, a form confused with in-gredior (cf. 
 O. Lat. indujperator and class, imperator). 
 
 In the later stages of a language the use of Preposi- 
 tions increases more and more. In Latin this culmin- 
 ated in the loss of Case-siiffixes, and the use of Preposi- 
 tions in their place, as we see in the Romance languages 
 (cf . Fr. ' je vais k Rome ' with Lat. ' vado Romam ■*). As 
 early as the first cent. a. d., a grammarian points out 
 that in manus aqua is the phrase in vogue instead of the 
 older aqua manibus. New distinctions of prepositional 
 meaning were expressed by compounding Prepositions 
 with one another, e.g. de-ex, de-sub, ab-ante (Fr. avant), 
 just as I.-Eur. Prepositions often had a Particle appended 
 to define their meaning. Such Particles were (i) s(e), 
 Gk. -ire (e.g. Gk. w\i, ef, Lat. abs, ex, sus-) ; (a) -d(e), Gk. 
 boixou-be (e. g. Lat. prod-eo, O. Lat. postid, antid) ; (3) 
 -n(g) (e. g. Germ, vo-n, Lat. pone for *pos-ne). They are 
 related to the Pronominal stems mentioned in ch. v. § 3. 
 
 In the earlier stage of every language the Prepositions 
 must have been used with great elasticity, sometimes 
 with one case, sometimes with another, the fixing 
 down of Prepositions to a particular case being a late 
 feature. Thus in potestatem esse instead of in potestate 
 esse is a usage of archaic Latin, Their position too 
 
128 The Prepositions. [ch. vn 
 
 varied in course of time. In I.-Eur. the Preposition 
 seems to have preceded the Verb, but to have followed the 
 Noun, while between the Prep, and the Verb a Particle or 
 Enclitic Pronoun might be inserted (cf. O. Lat. anii-d-eo, 
 sub vos placo, the archaic phrase for supplico vos retained 
 in Latin prayers, ob vos sacro for obsecro vos). In 
 classical Latin a Preposition, especially a monosyllabic 
 Preposition, precedes the Noun (hence ' Pre-position '), 
 except in particular circumstances (e. g. metu in magno), 
 but in the older literature often follows it, just as our 
 ' in here ' was earlier ' here-in.' 
 
 § 2. List of Iiatiu Prepositions. 
 
 (i) Ab, from, is I.-Eur. 3,p (Engl, of, off), a curtailed 
 form of 3.po (Gk. airo), of which another curtailment 
 was po (Lat. po-situs, pono for po-s(t)no, O. liat. po-lilbrum, 
 a wash-basin, jio-lire). The form ap- appears in ap-erio, 
 and was no doubt the pronunciation of the word before 
 an initial p, t, c, &e., e.g. ab templo ; ab is due to the 
 same Latin preference of final -b iM -p as substituted ob 
 for op (see below). The form dbs (pronounced and often 
 written aps, ch. ii. § lo), in which the Preposition is 
 augmented by the Particle -s(e) (Gk. &>//), is used in Com- 
 position before t, c, e. g. abs-traho, abs-concl'o, while before 
 p it is, by a law of Latin phonetics (ch. x. § 20), reduced 
 to s, e. g. as-porto for *aps-porto, as-pello for *aps-peUo ; it 
 appears also in the O. Lat. phrase absque me {te, &c.) esset 
 [foret), equivalent to 'si sine me esset,'' where que (ch. 
 ix. § 2) seems almost to have the sense of 'if (cf. O. 
 Engl. ' an ' for ' and ') ; at a later period absque me, &c., 
 was used without the verb, and absque came to take the 
 sense of sine, without. A may be another form of ab as e of 
 ex, e. g.d-mitto for ammitto, ah-mitto, as e-mitto for *emmiUo, 
 ex-mitto (ch. x. § ao). Aii- of au-fu.gio, au-fero, however, 
 
§§ 2-7] Ab — Circum. 129 
 
 represents an entirely different I.-Eur. Preposition awe, 
 which was brought into requisition in these Compounds 
 before an initial f to avoid confusion with the Com- 
 pounds of ad, e.g. affero. A curious Preposition af, 
 used in Cicero's time occasionally in account-books, 
 with the name of the person from whom money had 
 been received, may be a mere (Greek ?) trick of writing, 
 with the symbol F (the Greek Digamma) employed to 
 denote the u- or w-sound. 
 
 § 3. (a) Ad, at, to, I.-Eur. ad (Engl, at) is a different 
 word from the Conjunction at, I.-Eur. St, though often 
 confused with it in Roman spelling. On the old form 
 ar, e. g. arfuerunt, arvorsum, due to the phonetic change 
 of d to an r-sound before/, v, see ch. ii. § 8. 
 
 § 4. (3) Ambi-, around, on each side, I.-Eur. ambhi 
 (Gk. aiJ.(j)C), a Locative of the same stem as I.-Eur. ambho, 
 ' both ' (Gk. aix.<i)M, Lat. ambo), appears in Latin com- 
 pounds in the form am- before a consonant, e. g. am- 
 plector, am-icio for am-jicio (see ch. ii. § i a). This must 
 be distinguished from an-, a curtailment of I.-Eur. anS, 
 ' on ' (Gk. avd, Engl, on) in an-helns, an-quiro, an-tennae, 
 an-testari. 
 
 § 5. (4) Ante, before, I.-Eur. anti (Gk. avri, opposite, 
 instead of; Engl, an-swer), a Locative Sing, of some 
 stem connected with Lat. antes, rows (Engl, end) of 
 which Gk. avra, opposite (cf . &vti}v), is another case. In 
 anti-des, the » of I.-Eur. antT, not being final, does not 
 sink to e (ch. ii. § 14 m.). 
 
 § 6. (5) Apiid, which is also spelt aput, seems to be 
 the I.-Eur. Preposition ap5 (of which Lat. ah is a cur- 
 tailment), augmented by the Particle d(e) or t(i), and 
 must have been originally *apod or ^apot (cf. Dor. ttoti). 
 
 § 7. (6) Circum, around, the Adverbial Ace. Sg. of 
 
130 The Prepositions. [ch. vm 
 
 circus (Gk. KpUos, a ring), is the older form. In class. 
 Lat. a by-form circa appears, first found in Cicero, a 
 formation on the type of supra, extra, &c. (ch. vii. § 4), 
 which was originally employed with verbs like esse owing 
 to a feeling that circum was suitable only for verbs of 
 motion, e.g. legatos circum civitates mittere, 'to send 
 ambassadors a tour of the states/ ire circum urbem, ' to 
 go a circuit of the city.' Circiter, an adverbial formation 
 like breviler (ch. vii. § a), came to be restricted to the 
 logical sense of ' about,' ' almost,' e. g. Plant, loca haec 
 circiter, ' hereabout.' The form circo appears in the Ad- 
 verb id-circo, as circa in quo-circa, also with logical sense. 
 
 § 8. (7) Cis, citra, on this side, are formed from the 
 I.-Eur. pronominal root ki-, ' this ■" (Gk. -xi of ovk'l, ttoWAki, 
 Engl, he), exactly as their opposites uls, ultra, on that side, 
 from the I.-Eur. pronominal root 61-, ' that ' (ch. v. § 3), 
 the first by the addition of the particle s(e), the second (an 
 Abl. Sg. Pem.) with the suffix -tero- (ch. xi. § 8). The 
 Adv. citro (Abl. Sg. Neut.) corresponds to cltra as ultro 
 (e. g. ultro citroque) to ultra. 
 
 § 0. (8) Clam, an Adverbial Ace. Sg. Eem. from 
 the root kel-, ' to hide ' (Lat. celo, occulo, &c., ch. vi. § 2), 
 had in O. Lat. a by-form clam-de, whence was formed 
 the Adj. clandestlnus. It governs the Ace. (not the Abl.), 
 and has in the Comedians another, apparently a Dimi- 
 nutive form, clanculum, e. g. Ter. clanculum patres. 
 
 § 10. (9) Cum, older com (a form still retained in 
 Composition, e.g. com-es, a companion), is I.-Eur. kom. 
 (On the change of tou in Latin, see ch. ii, § 4, and on 
 the loss of -m in co-eo, &c., ch. ii. § 3.) 
 
 § 11. (10) Contra, formed from com, cum with the 
 suffix -t(e)ro- (ch. xi. § 8), is in the earlier literature 
 contra, e. g. Enn. : 
 
§§ 8-i6] Cts — Ex. 131 
 
 quis pater aut oognatu' uolet nos contra tueri ? 
 ' What father or kinsman will care to look us in the face ? ' 
 
 an Ace. PI. Neut., but in class. Lat. contra like citrd 
 (Abl. Sg. Fem. ; see above). The Abl. Sg. Neut. contro- 
 appears in cotdro-versia. 
 
 § 12. (ii) Coram, in presence of, is an Adverbial 
 Ace. Sg. Fem. of an Adj. *coriis, compounded of cum and 
 OS, Gen. oris, the face. 
 
 § 13. (12) De, down from, concerning, is an Abl. Sg. 
 form like Adverbs in -e (ch. vii. § 4). 
 
 § 14. (i2i) Dls-, apart, comes from an unaccented 
 by-form of the root dwo-, dwi-, ' two,'' wanting the w 
 (cf. ch. V. § 1 fin. on swe and se). With the w the same 
 formation expressed the Numeral Adverb, dwis (Lat. 
 bis, ch. iv. § 5). Before a vowel dis- becomes, by the 
 phonetic law of Latin, dir- (eh. x. §19), e.g. dir-mo, 
 and before voiced consonants di- (ch. x. § 19), e.g. 
 di-m.oveo. 
 
 § 15. (14) Erga, ergS. Srffa, originally local (e.g. 
 Plant, quae erga aedem sesed habet, ' the woman who 
 lives opposite the temple'), may represent an e *rega, 
 like e regions, opposite, and ergo an e *rego, lit. ' from 
 the direction,' then ' on account of ' (cf , Germ, wegen, 
 originally ' von Wegen ■"). Erga is not restricted in the 
 earlier literature to the expression of friendly feeling, 
 e. g. Plant. : 
 
 ne mdlus item erga m€ sit, ut erga ilium fuit. 
 
 § 16. (15) Ex, out of, I.-Eur. eks (Gk. e^), adds to 
 a Preposition ek the Particle se. In Latin compounds it 
 often appears before the letter/ in the form ec- (cf . Gk. ek) 
 in MSS., e.g. ecfatus. Before voiced consonants it was 
 e, e.g. e-mitto, e-lego (like tela for *tex-la, ch. x. § 20). 
 
 K 3 
 
132 The Prepositions. [ch. vm 
 
 § 17. (16) Extra is formed from ex as contra from 
 cum, com. 
 
 § 18. (17) In, older en, is I.-Eur. en (Gk. Iv, Engl, 
 in). The same form is used in Latin and other lan- 
 guages with the two senses (i) in, (a) into, but in 
 Greek the second is distinguished by the addition of the 
 particle se, Ivs, Att. eis. The O. Lat. Preposition endo, 
 indv, (I.-Eur. endo ; ef . Gk. ivhov), when reduced by 
 Syncope to ind- (ch. ii. § la), e.g. ind[u)-gredior, ind{u)- 
 joerator, was confused with in, e. g. in-gredior, im-perator, 
 and so dropt out of use. Thus Terence uses in-audio 
 only, though Plautus still retains ind-audio. 
 
 § 19. (18) Infra is an Abl. Sg. Fern, like extra, 
 connected with the Adj. inferus. 
 
 § 20. (19) Inter, between, is formed from in by the 
 addition of the suffix -tero- (eh. xi. § 8). 
 
 § 21. (ao) Intra is an Abl. Sg. Fern, of the same 
 formation as inter, while intro is an Abl. Sg. Neut. (cf. 
 ultra and ultro), and intus has the Adverbial ending -tos 
 (ch. vii. §1). Intus wavers between an Adverb and a 
 Preposition in such a phrase as Virgil's tali intus iemplo, 
 ' in such temple within,' or 'within such temple.' 
 
 § 22. (ai) Juxta, first used as a Preposition by 
 Caesar, is Abl. Sg. Fem. of a stem juxto-, connected 
 with jungo and meaning ' adjoining.' 
 
 § 23. (aa) Ob, I.-Eur. 6p(i) (Gk. onL-irdev), appar- 
 ently a variety (ch. x. § la) of Spi (Gk. iirl), often 
 retains its -p in Latin spelling in Compounds like 
 op-tineo, op-erio (see ch. ii. § 10). In classical Latin 
 it has the sense of ' before ' (e. g. oh oculos ponere, to 
 describe), or ' on account of,' but in the earlier literature 
 also of ' around,' ' to,' ' near,' &c. 
 
 § 24. (23) F&lam, like its opposite, clam, an Ace. 
 
§§i7-3o] Extra— Pro. 133 
 
 Sg. Fem. of some stem connected with pdlari, to 
 wander, be dispersed abroad. It is not found as a Pre- 
 position till the Augustan Age. 
 
 § 25. (34) Penes (governing the Ace., usually of a 
 person) is a suflSxless Locative (ch. iii. § 8) of penus 
 -oris, from the root pen- oipenitm, pene-tro. 
 
 § 26. (35) Per, through, connected with I.-Eur. 
 pero, ' I transport, bring or pass through ' (cf . Gk. treCpio, 
 Lat. ex-perior), corresponds to Gk. -nipL in its intensive 
 sense (e. g. per-l(m.gtis, Gk. -nepi-txriii-qs) ; to Gk. •napa. in its 
 sense of wrong or injury (e. g. per-jurus, per-do, per- 
 fidus ; Gk. irap-oixwixi, napa-^aivoi), these two Gk. 
 Prepositions being really different cases of the same 
 root per-, as are also Lat. pr-o, pr-ae. 
 
 § 27. (a6) Post, O. Lat. posfe, for *pos-tt, often 
 became in Compounds through loss of t (ch. x. § 20) 
 pos ; e. g. posquam was according to some Grammarians 
 the proper spelling in Virg. Aen. iii. i ; po-merium for 
 pos{t)-moermm. With addition of the suflSx -««(§ i) it 
 becomes pone. 
 
 § 28. (37) Prae, before, is a Dative formation from 
 the root per- (see above). Prae-sens has the old sense 
 of ' being in command ' (ef . prae-fectus, prae-positug) in 
 the inscription on the Columna Rostrata, praesented 
 dictatored olorom ' praesente dictatore illorum.^ 
 
 § 29. (28) Praeter, past, except, is formed from the 
 preceding by means of the suflB.x -tero- like the Adverbs 
 breviter, &c. (ch. vii. § 2). 
 
 § 30. (29) Pro is I.-Eur. pro (Gk. -npo, itpai-l, early). 
 It retains in class. Lat. the short vowel before/, e.g. pro- 
 Jieiseor, pro-fundo (but pro-ficio); but in the early 
 literature pro- is much more frequent than it is in the 
 classical period ; the AAi.pro-hus (cf . super-bus, Gk. vittp- 
 
134 The Prepositions. [ ch. vm 
 
 0t)7js) preserves this form. In prodest, prodire, pro is 
 augmented by the particle -de (§ i). 
 
 § 31. (30) Prooul is formed from pro by the KO- 
 suflBx (ch. xi. § 11), and some L-suffix. 
 
 § 32. (31) Prope adds to prd the particle -pe. For 
 Superl. proxime we should expect *2Jrop-(i)s-ime (ch. iv. 
 
 § 33. (32) Propter, near, on account of, is formed 
 from prope by means of the suffix -tero-, as praeter from 
 prae, circiter from circum. 
 
 § 34. (33) He-, back, has a by-form red-, with the 
 addition of the particle -de (§ i), which in class. Lat. 
 remains in red-eo, &c., but is before a consonant discarded 
 for re- in reduco (O. Lat. red-duco), &c. From re- was 
 formed the Adverb retro, like in-tro, ci-tro, ul-tro. 
 
 § 35. (34) Secundum, according to, close behind, 
 is the Adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of secundus, following 
 (ch. vi. § 1 8). In plebeian Latin secus (Nom. Sg. Masc. 
 of an Adj.-stem seco-, 'following') was used for secundum. 
 The Adverb secus of phrases like secus accidit, non secus 
 atque (Comp. sequius) has been referred to this Preposi- 
 tion on the theory that it originally meant ' following 
 but coming short of,' ' less.' 
 
 § 36. (35) Sine for *sene, from s(w)e-, the Reflexive 
 Pronoun-stem (ch. v. § 1) and the particle -ne (§ i). In 
 Early Latin there was another Preposition with the 
 sense of ' without,' sed, later se (eh. ii. § 9), an Abl. form 
 of the same Pronoun ; e. g. se dolo, without guile (whence 
 the Adv. sedulo, ch. vii. § 6), se fraude estu ' let it 
 be without hurt,' ' it shall be free from penalty,' 
 are phrases of common occurrence in Laws of the 
 Republic. 
 
 § 37. (36) Sub is I.-Eur. up5 (Gk. imo for vr,6) with 
 
§§ 31-43] Procul — Versus. 135 
 
 a prefixed particle *. Suh-ter and suh-tus are formed 
 from suh as in-ter and in-ins from in. 
 
 § 38. (37) Super is I.-Eur. fiper (Gk. vtrep for wep) 
 with a prefixed particle s. Super-ne adds the particle -ne 
 (§ ]). Supra is an Abl. Sg. Fem. (ch. vii. § 4). 
 
 § 39. (38) Tenus is Adverbial Ace. Sg. of a Neuter 
 S-stem tenus, -eris, derived from the root ten-, to stretch, 
 and meaning in old Latin 'a cord/ e.g. Plant. 
 
 pend^bit hodie piilore ; ita intendi tenus. 
 
 Pro-tenus, protinus, a Compound of this Preposition, had 
 the sense of (i) ' forward/ ' onward'' (of space or time), 
 e. g. en ipse capellas Protenus aeger ago, Virg. ; sic vives 
 protinus Hor. ; (3) without interval of space, fe. g. Virg. 
 A. iii. 4] 6 : 
 
 cum protinus utraque tellus Una foret, 
 
 of the traditional connection of the Italian and Sicilian 
 shores; (3) without interval of time, forthwith (its usual 
 sense). 
 
 § 40. (39) Trans is connected with the Verb *trare 
 of in-to-are, pene-trare. On the change of trans-mitto to 
 tras-mitto, trd-niitto, see ch. ii. § 3 ; eh. x. § 20. 
 
 § 41. (40) Ultra is derived from uls as citra from 
 CIS. This tds shows the root ol- of the Pronoun ille, 
 O. Lat. olle (eh. v. § 5) with the particle -se (§ i). 
 
 § 42. (41) Usque is formed from the I.-Eur. Prep, 
 ud (Engl, out) in the same way as absque from ab. 
 Its Prepositional use, e.g. usque radices, is due to a cur- 
 tailment of the proper phrase usque ad, much as in Attic 
 Greek ws (for us eis) came to be used as a Preposition, 
 e.g. ftJS rov fiaaiKia levai. 
 
 (42) Versus (see ch. vii. § 1). 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS AND INTEEJECTIONS. 
 
 § 1. Origin of the Conjunctions. As Prepositions are 
 hardly separable from Adverbs of Locality, so Conjunc- 
 tions are closely conriected with Pronominal Adverbs. 
 These Pronominal Adverbs, as we have seen (ch. vii. § 5), 
 are not always capable of being referred to their proper 
 case form (e.g. ibi, ubl), owing to our imperfect know- 
 ledge of the declension of the I.-Eur. Pronoun. Nor is 
 it easy to find their cognates in the various T.-Eur. 
 languages; so rapidly does the meaning of a Conjunction 
 alter. Thus Latin enim, which in the older literature is 
 a particle of asseveration, 'indeed/ had by the classical 
 period appropriated the sense of ' for ' ; and in French 
 pas (Lat. jiasms) and point (Lat. jmnctum) have acquired 
 a negative sense from their use in the phrases 'ne . . . pas,' 
 ' ne . . . point.' A feature of I.-Eur. Conjunctions is 
 their tendency to append other Conjunctions or con- 
 junctive Particles (e.g. is in Greek may append 677, wep, 
 &c., us hri, &aitep) ; and this habit puts another obstacle 
 in the way of identifying cognate Conjunctions in 
 different languages, for in one language they may appear 
 extended by one particle, in another language by another. 
 The exact form of these conjunctive Particles is also 
 a difi&cult thing to ascertain; we often see parallel stems 
 
§§ I, 2] Origin of Latin Conjunctions. 137 
 
 in -0, -i, -u, &c., (e.g. q"o-, q"e-, q'^i-, q"u-, are all 
 various forms of the Relative and Interrogative Pronoun- 
 stem, ch. V. § 6j -te and -ti appear in Gk. av-T(, l-rt), 
 and parallel forms witli long and with short vowel 
 (e.g. Lat, ne- and ne-, the Negative Particle) ; and the 
 tendency was always present to adapt the ending of one 
 Conjunction to the ending of another Conjunction of 
 siniilar meaning (e.g. Lat. saltern for saltim, adapted to 
 au-tem, i-tem). It is therefore best to designate these 
 conjunctive Particles according to their consonants, and 
 in tracing the origin of the Latin Conjunctions to 
 mention such Pronouns (or pronominal Particles) as (i) 
 the T-pronoun of Lat. tarn, i-tem, u-t(i), Gk. av-Tt, l-n, 
 (a) the D-pronoun of Lat. dum, idt-dem, Gk. 6jj, 6e', 6-be, 
 (3) the DH-pronoun of Gk. ev-9a, (5) the P-pronoun of 
 Lat. quip-pe, nem-pe, (5) the N-pronoun of Lat. num, 
 nam, nem-pe, quis-nam. 
 
 § 2. (]) Conjunctive. — Que, et, atque, ac, guoque, 
 etiam. — Q,ve, I. -Eur. q"e (Gk. t«), apparently the bare 
 stem of the Relative q"o- q"e- (eh. v. § 6), is in Latin, 
 as it was in I. -Eur., an enclitic appended to the first 
 word of the sentence. Through Syncope, to which 
 final -e was always liable in Latin (ch. ii. § 12), it 
 became -c in ac for *atc (at-que), &c., and probably often 
 had this sound before an initial consonant in the rapid 
 utterance of every-day life. I.-Eur. -q°e gave a relative 
 and indefinite sense to Pronouns (e.g. Horn, os Tt), and 
 so in Early Latin, though in the classical period the 
 fuller ending -cunque was preferred; e.g. quem-que 
 Plant, for quem-cunque in Mil. 156 : quemque in tegulis 
 Videritis alienum; so quis-que, each (ch. v. § 7). This 
 -cunque, -cumque (O. Lat. -quomque) seems to be nothing 
 but cum-que, 'whenever' (Hor. (J. i. 3a. 15 mihi cumque 
 
138 Conjunctions. [ch. ix 
 
 salve Rite vocanti), like quandn-que. In O. Lat. atque 
 often signifies 'forthwith,' e.g. Plaut. Most. 1050 : 
 
 quiSniam conuociiui, atque ill! me 6x. senatu s^gregant, 
 
 and Virgil uses the word sometimes in this archaic senscy 
 e.g. Georg. i. 201 : 
 
 Non aliter quam qui adverse vix flumine lembum 
 
 remlgiis subigit, si braohia forte remisit, 
 
 atque ilium in praeceps prono rapit alveus amni. 
 
 Qunque has some part of the Pronoun-stem q^'o-, q"e-, 
 as its first element. M is the I.-Eur. Adverb eti (Gk. tri, 
 further), used in Latin^ as in Gothic (i]?, ' and''), for the 
 copula. In etiam, et is associated with the Adverb /«?», 
 now, the j (y) becoming the vowel i by the Latin 
 phonetic law in the middle of a word, as in meclius from 
 I.-Eur. medhyos (Gk. y.ia(a)os) (ch. x. § 13). 
 
 § 3. (2) Disjunctive. — Ve, aut, vel, sive, sen. 
 — Ve is I.-Eur. we (Hom. Gk. ri-{F)f), a particle which had 
 also the sense of 'as,' 'like' (e.g. Lat. ce-u, § 10). Aut is 
 compounded of I.-Eur. au (Gk. aS, again, Engl, eke from 
 Goth, au-k [quasi aS-ye]), and the T-pronoun (§ i). 
 Vel is the old 2 Sg. Pres. Imperative of volo, I wish 
 (eh. vi. § 14), and means literally ' choose,' as Germ, 
 wohl (e. g. Homer, wohl der grosste Dichter, ' Homerus 
 vel summus poeta ') was or'ginally Imper. of wollen. 
 Sive is compounded of »j, older «ei (§ 13), and -ve. Before 
 -u, the curtailed or syncopated form of -ve (as -e of 
 -que, -n of Interrogative -ne), the ei-diphthong was by 
 the Latin phonetic law reduced to e, as in dem from 
 dei{u)u» (ch. x. § 13). 
 
 § 4. (3) Adversative. — At, ast, sed, autem, atqui, 
 tamen, ceterum, verum, vero. — At is the I.-Eur. 
 Abverb a,ti, ' back,' ' from,' used in Latin, as in Gothic 
 
§§ 3, 4] Disjunctive, Adversative. 139 
 
 (a]7-]7an, ' but '), as a Conjunction, A»t, found in old laws 
 
 with the sense 'if further/ e.g. : 
 
 si parentem puer uerberet, ast olle plorassit, puer diuis parentum 
 sacer esto, 
 
 had originally the sense of 'further'' merely, being 
 *ad~sti, a derivative from the Preposition ad like post{t) 
 from the Preposition joo (eh. viii. §§ a, 37). It came 
 to be used exclusively in conditional sentences and so 
 acquired the notion of 'if further' and even of 'if/ e.g. 
 in the curious law of the XII Tables which refers to the 
 use of gold in dentistry : 
 
 Neue aurum addito, at cui auro denies iuncti escunt, ast im cvim 
 illo sepeliet uretue, se fraude esto. 
 
 ' No gold shall men put in a tomb ; but, when the deceased has 
 his teeth fastened with gold, if the / bury or burn him with 
 that gold, it shall not be a punishable offence.' 
 
 The Augustan poets revived the use of the word, as a 
 substitute for at, where the metre required a long 
 syllable; and in the second cent. a. d. it passed into 
 prose. Sed, in early Latin sedum, is a compound of 
 s(w)e, the Reflexive Pronoun stem (ch. v. § i ) with the 
 particle dum. With its loss of -um compare non 
 for noennm (§ 17). Autem adds the particle -tem 
 (cf. l-tem) to the I.-Eur. Adverb au (Gk. aS, Engl, 
 eke from au-k, p. 138), which is probably identical 
 with the Preposition au- of au-fero, au-fwgio (ch. viii. 
 § 3). Atqui adds to the Conjunction at the particle qui, 
 so often used by the early Dramatists as a mere 
 particle of emphasis (e. g. Hercle qui, utinam qui, 
 ut qui Plant.), apparently either the Abl., Loc, or 
 Instr. Sg. of the Relative. Tamen, however, 'none the 
 less/ is clearly related to tam, so, ' equally much,' which 
 was in the early literature used in the sense of tamett 
 (cf. class, tam-etsi an,d tamen-etsi). Ceternm is the ad- 
 
140 Conjunctions. [ch. ix 
 
 verbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of the stem cetero- (Nom. PI. 
 ceferi), from ce- the lengthened form of the Pron. stem ce- 
 (ch. V. § 4), as cetera in such a line as Virg. A. ix. 656 : 
 cetera paree puer hello, ' for the rest — you are a hoy — 
 deal sparingly with war,' is an adverbial Ace. PI. Neut. 
 Verum is similarly an adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of verus, 
 true, and vera an adverbial Abl. (Instr.?) Sg. Neut. of 
 the same. 
 
 § 5. (4) Limitative and Corrective. — Quidem, 
 immo. — Quidem shows the stem of the Indefinite Pro- 
 noun quis (ch. V. § 6) with the particle dem (ch. v. § 3); 
 Immo is perhaps *m-md, 'in magis,' from *md an old 
 Comparative, ' more.' 
 
 § 6. (5) Explanatory. — Enim, nam, namque, 
 
 guippe, nempe. — Enim is in O. Lat. an asseverative 
 
 particle merely (cf. class, enim-vero), a usage imitated by 
 
 Virgil, e. g. A. viii. 84 : 
 
 Quam plus Aeneas tibi enim, tibi, maxima Juno, 
 mactat sacra ferens. 
 
 It comes from an I.-Eur. Pronoun stem eno-, 'this,' 
 ' that.' Nam, Ace. Sg. Fem. of no-, another form of this 
 stem, is often used in O. Lat. in questions, e. g. quid 
 cerussa opus nam ? ' why, what is the use of paint ? ' 
 Plaut. (cf. qnisnam, and in O. Lat. poetry quianam, 
 ' why ?;' cf. Virg. A. v. 13, x. 6), whithout that definite 
 sense of ' f or,^ ' because ' to which the word is restricted 
 in the classical literature (but cf. uti-nam). Quippe 
 for qul-pe, adds the particle pe (§ i) to the Loc. Instr. 
 Sg. of the Pronoun, Nempe adds the same particle to 
 a form *nem, which is the same case-form of the N-Pro- 
 noun as -tem is of the T-Pronoun (ch. v. § 3). 
 
 § 7. (6) Conoluaive. — Ergo, itaque, igitur. — Igitur 
 had in 0. Lat. the sense of turn as in the first law 
 
§§5-io] Limitative, Explanatory, &c. 141 
 
 of the XII Tab. : si in ius uocat, ni it, antestamino, 
 igitur em capito (ch. v. § 5). Oa ergo, see ch. viii. 
 
 §15- 
 
 § 8. (7) Optative. — TTt, utinam. — Ut, in wishes, e. g. : 
 
 Juppiter ut Sanaum otnne genus pereat, 
 
 is the Conjunction tct, that (older ud, ch. ii. § 12), 
 with suppression of the idea ' I wish ' or ' do thou grant.' 
 In utinam the final ? of util) is retained (so in ne- 
 itti-quam, pronounced as a trisyllable with the first two 
 syllables short), and nam has its older sense of a strength- 
 ening particle ' indeed ' (§ 6). 
 
 § 9. (8) Interrogative. Ife, nonne, num, utrum, 
 
 an, anne, cur, quare. — In class. Latin -ne is the general 
 interrogative particle, while nonne is limited to questions 
 which expect an affirmative, num to those which expect 
 a negative answer. This distinction is unknown to 
 Plautus, who uses nonne hardly at all [-ne being used 
 instead), and num, numquis without a negative sense 
 occasionally. It is easy to see how these meanings 
 came to be attached to nonne, 'is . . . not,' and num, 
 ' now/ e. g. nonne haec iia sunt ?, ' is not this the case ? ' ; 
 num haec ita sunt ?, ' now is this the case ? ■* (with em- 
 phasis on the word ' is ■"). 
 
 -iVe is I.-Eur. ne. Num is the I.-Eur. num, ' now ' 
 (Gk. vvv ; cf . nunc for num-c(e), ch. v. § 4). Utrum is 
 the Adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of uter (ch. vi. § 8), like 
 Gk. TTOTfpoi!. An is the same as Gk. av ' in that case.' 
 Cur (O. Lat. quor) is I.-Eur. q^or, related to Engl. 
 ' where,' and is quite unconnected with qua-re (cf. cui 
 rei Plant., quam-ob-rem). 
 
 § 10. (9) Comparative. — TTt, utl, quasi, ceu, quam. 
 — On id, see § 8. Qimsi, ' as if,' comes from qua Neut. PI. 
 .' as ' and si. Ceu, which is restricted to the Epic and 
 
142 Conjunctions. [ch. ix 
 
 Lyric Poets and a few Silver Age prose writers, is 
 compounded of the Pronoun stem ko-, ke- (ch. v. § 4) 
 and the particle -we, ' as, like ' (§ 3), and stands for 
 *ce-ve (cf . ce-teri). Quam is Ace. Sg. Fem. of the Relative, 
 as tarn, of the Demonstrative. The two words are com- 
 bined in tanquam. 
 
 § 11. (10) Temporal. — Quum, quando, dum, donee, 
 ut, ubi. — Quum, O. Lat. quom, is an Adverbial Ace. Sg. 
 Neut. of the Relative. Quando is Aec. Sg. Fem. of the 
 Relative with the I. -Eur. Preposition dS, 'to,' so that 
 quam-do will mean ' to what ' (time). In Plautus quando 
 is mainly temporal, though by Terence's time it is 
 mainly causal, as quaudoquidem is at all periods of the 
 literature. Dum, which is often a mere asseverative 
 particle, e. g. age dum (Gk. Aye 6^), quidum, how so ?, 
 primumdum, first of all, is an Ace. Sg. of the Pronoun 
 stem do- as turn of to-, quum of q"o-. Gk. Sij is another 
 case-form of the same stem. The temporal sense is 
 clearly seen in non-dum, etiam-dum, inter-dum. Donee is 
 in O. Lat. donicum, which is compounded of *do-ne (the 
 Prep. dS, to, and the N-pronoun, § i) and cum, when, 
 and meant ' to when,' ' till when ' (cf. quo-ad). Donicum 
 was wrongly apprehended as donec-cum instead of done- 
 cum and so with omission of cum became donee. Donique 
 of Lucretius (ii. 1116), &c., adds to *d5ne the particle 
 -que, ' ever ' (cf . quando, when, quandoque, whenever; also 
 de-ni-que). Ut from u-ti (ef. uti-nam) adds to the Relative 
 stem qM- (ch. v. § 6) the Particle or case-suffix -ti (§ i). 
 On ubi see ch. vii. § 5. 
 
 § 12. (11) Causal. — Quum, quoniam, quod, quia, 
 quippe. — On qwum. see §11. Quoniam is a compound of 
 quum (quom) and jam, the j (^) becoming by the law of 
 Latin phonetics vocalic in the middle of a sentence (ch. 
 
§§ II-I31 Temporal, Causal, &c. 143 
 
 X. § 13). Its oldest sense is temporal, ' when now ' 
 (with Pres. Ind., the Pres. tense being required by the 
 jam), e. g. Plant. Trin. 1 1 3 : 
 
 Quoniam hinc iturust ipsus in Seleuciam, 
 mihi cdnmendauit uirginem ; 
 
 and it is possible to trace its gradual development from 
 a temporal to a causal sense in the course of Latin 
 Literature. Quod is Aec. Sg. Neut. of the Relative 
 0-stem (ch. v. § 6), used like Homeric o in such a line 
 as Od. i. 38 a : 
 
 TilX^jiaxov Bavfm^ov 6 6apaa\ias dydpeve. 
 
 In Plautus it is always, or almost always, subject or 
 object of a relative sentence, e. g. Capi. 586 : 
 
 filium tuum qu<3d redimere se ait, id ne utiquam mihi placet. 
 
 Quia is an Aec. PI. Neut. of the Relative I-stem (ch. v. 
 § 6), and has the same double meaning as quod, (i) 
 that, (2) because. On quippe see § 6. 
 
 13. (12) Conditional. — Si, nisi, ui, sin, sive, sou, 
 modo, dummodo. — Si, 0. Lat. sei, is a Loc. Sg. of the 
 Pronoun stem so-, seen in Lat. ipse, ipsa (ch. v. § 3). 
 Sic, so, is the same word with the enclitic -c(e) appended 
 (ch. V. § 4). Hui is a compound of the Negative ne, 
 (§ 1 7) with si, and means literally ' not if '. Hi, I.-Eur. 
 nei, perhaps the Negative ne. with the deictic particle -i 
 of Gk. 6vTo<s-l, &c., had originally the sense of non or ne, 
 as in quid-ni, quippi-ni, and still retains this sense in 
 Virgil's line : ni teneant cursus (J. iii. 686). It came 
 however to acquire the sense of nisi fi:om its use in such 
 phrases as si in ius uocat, ni it XII Tab., ' if he summons 
 him (and) he does not go ; ' id ni fit, pignus dato Plant, 
 ' lay me a wager in the event of that not happening,' 
 lit. ' that does not happen, lay me a wager.'' Siti is a 
 
144 Conjunctions. [ch. ix 
 
 compound of si and ne, not the Negative ne, for the 
 negative sense of sin, ' if not/ is hardly attached to the 
 word in the time of Plautus, but the Demonstr. suffix 
 seen in alioquin beside alioqui, &c. (§ 15). On slve and 
 sen see ch. ii. §12. Moclb is the adverbial Abl. (Instr. ?) 
 Sg. of modus, measure, limit (cf. Hor. quis desiderio sit 
 pudor aut modus ?), ' only/ dum-moclo, ' while only.' 
 A common sense of the word is the temporal sense, 
 ' only a little while ago '.' 
 
 § 14. (13) Concessive. — Etsi, quamquam, quamvis, 
 licet. — The formation of all these words is evident : et-si, 
 ' even if/ quam-quam (reduplicated), quam-vis, ' how you 
 wish ' (like quantum-vis, ' however much you wish/ or 
 quam-libet, ' how you please '), licet, ' it is allowed/ 
 ' granted.' 
 
 § 15. (14) Final. — Ut, quo, quominus, quin, ne, neve, 
 neu, nedum. — On «<see § 11. Qwoisthe Abl. (Instr. ?) 
 Sg. Neut. of the Relative, used with comparatives, quo 
 faeilius like eofacilius. Quominus aAds to quo the Com- 
 parative minus, 'less/ used in a negative sense (cf. 
 minime, ' by no means,' parum sciens, ' ignorant '). 
 Q/uln as a Final Conjunction, is composed of qui, how 
 (Abl. ?, Loc. ?, Instr. ?) and the Negative Particle tie. 
 In some instances it represents qui (Nom. Sg. Masc.) 
 with Negative ne, e. g. nemo fuit quin seiret (qui ne- 
 sciret) ; and the same form was extended to sentences 
 like nulla mulier fuit quin seiret, just as 'potis Masc. 
 Sg. is universalized in the phrase fotis est and used 
 with Neuter or Plural Subjects (ch. vi. § 23). Quin 
 in affirmations, e.g. hercle quin recte dicis. Plant., is 
 
 ' This was emphasized in the Praenestine dialect by the addition 
 of iam (tam modo, inquit Praenestinus, ' e'en now, as Praenestine 
 folk say,' Plant. Trin. 609). 
 
§§ 14-16] Concessive, Final, Asseverative. 145 
 
 merely the Adverb qui o£ hercle qui, &c. (§ 4) with the 
 Demonstrative suffix -ne (so atquin and atqui, alioquin 
 and alioqui, ceteroquin and ceteroqui). Quin in commands, 
 originally with Ind. (and so usually in Plautus), e. g. quin 
 dicis ?, then By ' construetio ad sensum ■" with Imper. (so 
 usually in Terence), e. g. quin dicj is the Adverb qui 
 with the Interrogative Particle -ne, 'how not?^, 
 ' why not ? '. Quin in a sentence like Plant. Trin. 360 : 
 quin comedit qudd fuit, quod ndn fuit ? 
 
 i. e. ' eumne dicis qui comedit ? ' &c., is qui Nom. Sg. with 
 the same particle (cf . Mil. 1 3 quemne ego seruaui ? ' you 
 mean the man whose life I saved ? '). JVe is I.-Eur. ne, 
 a variety of I.-Eur. ne (§ i). Neve adds to this the 
 enclitic -ve, 'or,' which in neu is reduced by Syncope 
 (ch. ii. § I a). For nedum (especially used by Livy, also 
 by Cicero, but rarely by the other authors) ne alone is 
 occasionally found. An early instance of the word, 
 which is not employed by Plautus, is Ter. ffaui. 454 : 
 
 satrapa si siet 
 amdtor, numquam sufferre eius sumptiia queat ; 
 nediim tu possls, 
 
 lit. 'ne(dum) tu te posse credas, dico satrapam non 
 posse,' or ' satrapa non potest, nondum tu potes,' with 
 which we may compare Plant. AmpA. 330 : 
 
 uix incedo inanis, ne ire pdsse cum onere existumes. 
 
 Neclurti is related to ne, as vixrJum to vix, nondum to no7i ; 
 cf. Liv. sxiv. 4. I puerum vixdum libertatem, nedum 
 dominationem modice laturum. 
 
 § 16. (i 5) Asseverative Particles. — TSe (nae), -ne.^ 
 Ne is the better spelling, though there may have been 
 a by-form nae (older *nai), as the cognate Greek word 
 irq had a by-form vai (cf. S)j and 801). -Ne affirmative is 
 
 L 
 
146 Conjunctions. [ch. ix 
 
 found In the Dramatists with Personal and Demonstra- 
 tive Pronouns, e.g. Plant. Mil. ^6^ : 
 
 ^gone si post hunc diem 
 muttiuero, etiam qu6d egomet cert6 soiam, 
 dato fecruciandum m6. 
 
 (On ne and ne, see § 1 ; c£. ne and ne Negative, 
 
 §17) 
 
 § 17. (16) Negatives. — In-, ne-, nee, non, haud, 
 ve-. — Ne- (I.-Eur. ne) is prefixed, not only to Verbs, e.g. 
 ne-queo (Engl, can-not), ne-scio, O. Lat. ne-vis (ch vr. § 23), 
 ne-parcunt, &c. (cf. O. Engl, nille, nolde), but also to 
 other parts of speech, e. g. tie-fas, n(e)-utiquam, neuter (ne-, 
 I.-Eur. ne, appears in negmqtiam) ; in- (I.^-Eur. "n, Gk. ai--, 
 a-) and ve- (I.-Eur. wg), a curtailment of I.-Eur. S,w6 (ch, 
 viii. § 2), only to Adjectives ^. Non is 0. Lat. noenum 
 (for *ne-oinom, i. e. *ne unum, ' not one,' ch. iv. § 4), with 
 ' the same loss of -um (originally before an initial vowel 
 only) as is seen in nihil from nihilum. Noenu (e.g. Lucr. 
 iii. 199 noenu potest) should be written noenus, and repre- 
 sents *ne unus Nom. Sg. Masc. (cf. demus and demum, 
 ch. vii. § a). Haud, which is confined within narrower 
 limits than non in O. Lat., being used especially with 
 Adjectives and Adverbs, usually immediately before the 
 negated word, and never in questions, is (like Gk. oi) con- 
 nected with I.-Eur. awe (cf. above), and should properly 
 be spelt awd. The initial h- was added to distinguish . 
 the word from aut. (On the O. Lat. by-form hau, used 
 before consonants, e.g. Iiauscio, see ch. ii. § 9.) Nee in 
 O. Lat. has the sense of non. Thus Catullus (Ixiv. 83) 
 uses the phrase funera nee funera to express the Greek 
 Ta^oi ara^oi ; the Laws of the Twelve Tables had ast ei 
 
 ' Improiare, infiteri, ignoscere, 'not to notice,' 'to overlook' (cf. Ter. 
 Haul. 218 at cognoscendi et igaoscendi) are seeming exceptions. 
 
§§ 17, i8] Negatives. — Interjections. 147 
 
 custos nee eseit (eh. vi. § 4), ' si autem ei eiistos non 
 erit;' Plautus {Most. 240) has nee recte si illi dixeris. 
 The neg- of negotium, neglego (also spelt neolego) seems to 
 be a trace of this usage. 
 
 § 18. Interjections. — Many Latin Interjections are 
 borrowed from the Greeks especially the exclamations 
 used at musical or other entertainments, e.g. euge, 
 sopAdSjpalin, as ours eome from the Italian or French, e. g. 
 bravo, da capo, encore. Of genuine Latin words, some 
 are old Imperatives ^, e. g. em, lo, Imper. of emo, I take 
 (cf. em tibi, 'take that!,' 'there's for you!') (ef. § 3 
 on vel). Em (not to be confused with hem, an Interjection 
 of terror, grief, &c.) was later superseded by en (Gk. ^r), 
 which in the Republican writers is used only in rhetorical 
 questions, e.g. en-unquam? Em joined with ille (in the 
 Ace. Case) produced ellum ^, ellos, &c. of the Comedians. 
 So ecce, an Interjection of similar meaning, from the 
 Pronoun stem eko-, eke- (ch. v. § 3), joined with the 
 Ace. of hie (wanting the enclitic -c{e)) produced eccum 
 (for *ecee-hum), eccos (for ecee-hos), &c. Pro (wrongly 
 spelt proh) is the Preposition or Adverb pro (ch. viii. 
 § 30), forth, ' away with it !' Vae, I.-Eur. wai, is the 
 same word as our Noun ' woe.' 
 
 The names of deities occur in hercle, me-hercules 
 
 («c. juvety, me-dius fidiw ('the god of good faith,' 
 
 from fides), pol (a curtailment of Pollux), &c. ; eccere 
 
 is either an invocation of Ceres, or ecce re', ' lo indeed.' 
 
 '■ Our ' lo ' is Imper. of ' look.' 
 
 " EUo is an Interjection used in parts of Italy at the present day. 
 
 L2 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 HISTOEY OF LATIN SOUNDS^. 
 
 § 1. A. Original or ' Indo-European ' a occurs (i) in the First 
 Declension, e. g. Lat. filid Abl., flliamm, fliahus (eh. iii. 5 4]^, familias 
 Gen. Sg. (ch. iii. § 4). In the Nom. Sg. -a was shortened to -& 
 earlier than the literary period (ch. ii. § 16), e. g. flliS, (contrast 
 Gk. irfXiiS) ; and in the Ace. Sg. we have -am not -am (Gk. 
 ■nt\(iav), because a long vowel was always shortened before a final 
 -m in Latin (ch. ii. § 16). (2) In the First Conjugation, e. g. 
 fa-ri (Dor Gk. <fo/iO, with its Derivatives fa-ma (Dor. Gk. <pdija), 
 fdhula. (3) In Verb-roots like gna-, stra-, developments of the 
 primitive Verb-roots gen-, to produce, stSr-, to strew, e. g. Lat. 
 gna-tus (class, natysi), born, produced, strd-tus, strewn. From iH-, 
 to carry, we have tla-, k. g. Idtiis for *tlatus ; from sttl-, to spread, 
 sUd; ti. g. stldtus, class. Idtus, broad, lit. ' spread out ' (5 191. From the 
 older form stldlus came sildia or stiatta, so. navis, whence the Adj. 
 sUattariiis, ' imported in a stlata navis ', used by Juvenal (vii. 134 
 stlnttaria purpura). Other examples are grd- of grd-num from the 
 root g^-, to rub, wear away, make old (Gk. yepaiv), crdtes from the 
 root cSrt-, to bind, weave together. (4') The Noun suffix -idt-, (ch. xi. 
 § 12), e. g. nomlas for -idt-s (ch. iii. § 8), with stem namtdt- (Dor. 
 Gk. KM-TOT-t. (s) The Adj. Suffix -dco-, -de- (ch. xi. § 1 1), e. g. mSraais, 
 vSrax (cf. Gk. vid(). (6) The A-Subjunctive (ch. vi. § 131, e. g. 
 llgdmus, legdiis. {_^) Words like frater (cf. Gk. (ppdrap), mater (Dor. 
 Gk. iJKvrrjp), fdgus, a beech-tree (Dor. Gk. (j>dy6s), siiavis for *auddms 
 (Dor. Gk. 'aSis). 
 
 Latin a often represents an original &, which has been length- 
 
 ' The weakened form of -the vowels when unaccented have 
 already been described in oh. ii. § § 14, 13. Here we are concerned 
 with the true (unweakened) Latin equivalents of the original or 
 Indo-European sounds. 
 
§§ 1-3] A, E. 149 
 
 ened, e. g. quaMs (older qucdhis), a basket, for *0ms-lus (cf. ^iosUlus), 
 halo ioT:*anslo{% so) from the root are-, to breathe, ans-, to be fi-agrant. 
 
 § 2. A. I.-Eur. a occurs in (i) some Verb- roots, e. g. agr, to 
 drive, Lat. ago (Gk. 570)), with lengthened form ag-, Lat. amh-ages, 
 and its Derivatives, agro-, a field, Lat. ageir (Gk. Hypos), lit. ' where 
 oxen are driven in ploughing,' sca6-, to scrape, dig, Lat. scabo (Gk. 
 aKwmw), with a by-form scSb-, e. g. Lat. soSbis, sawdust, or-, to 
 plough, Lat. aro (Gk. dpoa), sal-, to leap, Lat. salio (Gk. aWofmi). 
 (2) The Prepositions Spo (Gk. orro), Lat. db, ap-erio (ch. viii. § a), 
 ad (Engl, at), Lat. ad. (3) Words like sal-, salt, Lat. sal for *sfflZ-s 
 (oh. iii. § 8) with stem sal- (Gk. a\-s), <&KirM-, a tear, 0. Lat. 
 ctaoru-ma (Gk. S&icpv), class. lacruma (ch. ii. § 8), alyo-, other, Lat. 
 alius (Gk. aWos). 
 
 There was another a-sound in I.-Eur., which occurred in the 
 weakened forms (§ 12) of Roots with A, E, 0. Latin examples 
 are datus (Gk. Sot6s) from the root do-, to give, of Lat. dd-num (Gk. 
 Si-Sa-iu, Sa-pov) ; satus (Gk. Ms) from the root s5-, to throw, throw 
 seed, of Lat. se-men (Gk. 1-7-^1 for *al-ari-iu, fj-fia) ; status (Gk. ot&tos) 
 from the root sta-, to stand, set up, of Lat. sid-re (Dor. Gk. 
 i-ard-fu for *(ri-ffTdfu). The iS of jjctfer-, Lat. pater {irdriip), is an 
 a of this kind, the word being a Derivative from the root pd-, to 
 protect, and meaning literally ' the protector '. 
 
 2. occurs after I, m, n, r in the weakened forms of E-roots (§ 12) in 
 frdngo, fragilis from the root bhr6g-, ' to break', flagi-o from the root 
 blilfig-, to burn (Gk. tpxiyai), gradus, a step, from the root ghrgdh-, 
 ' to step ', &o. 
 
 § 3. E. I.-Eur. 6 occurs in (i) Some Verb-roots like s?-, to 
 throw, throw seed, . Lat. sB-vi, se-men, (6k. Iij-a", ^-A»a, § 2), pie-, 
 Lat. im-plsr-e, pK-nus (Gk. irt/i-nXrj-iJii, irKii-prqs), a development of the 
 primitive root pU-, to fill, dhs- {dMy-), to suckle, Lat. ff-mina, fi-h 
 (usually fello) (Gk. S^-aBai, 97J-Kvs, Bri-K-q), whence fi-lius for fSius 
 (ch. ii. § 15), nS-, to sew, spin, Lat. ne-re, nl-men (Gk. vij-v, vij-im), 
 and other Verbs of the Second Conjugation (see ch. vi. § 3). 
 Lat. rS-s is from a root rl- (rSj/-), Lat. spSs from a root sp(h)e- 
 (sp(h)Sy-) (see ch. iii. § 13). (2) The Optative sufiix, -yS-, found 
 in the Sing. Persons of the Athematic Conjugation (ch. vi. §1), e.g. 
 0. Lat. sils (Gk. £1775 for ♦Iff-iij-r). (3) The E-Subjunctive (ch. vi. § 13), 
 e.g. arms, ams-mus, aml-tis. In i Sg. am&n, 3 Sg. amlt{amet Plant.), 
 this 5 was shortened by the Latin law that a long vowel is short- 
 ened before final -m, -t (ch. ii. § 16). It was similarly shortened 
 before -r (ibid,) in the Nom. Sg. of TEE-stems (ch. ii. § 16), 
 e. g. patSr (Gk. itarrip), mat&r (Gk. /iTjT^p). 
 
 Latin S is sometimes due to the fusion of two vowels, e. g. prendo 
 from prehendo, iris from *treyls (§ 13), sometimes to lengthening 
 
150 History of Latin Sounds. [ch. x 
 
 by ' Compensation,' e. g. Ulum, a web, for *Vlx-hi/m, vemnum for 
 *ven^-num (§ ao). 
 
 § 4. fi. This was a very common vowel in the I. -Eur. language 
 (§ la). It occurs, for example, (i) In a large number of Presents 
 of the Thematic Conjugation (ch. vi. §§ i, 4), e. g. Lat. ISgo (Gk. 
 \e7a1), sSquor (Gk. inoijuu). (a) In Neuter ES-stems (ch. xi. § 18), 
 e. g. Lat. g^us (Gk. 7li'os), iSnus (Gk. rhos) dSiMs (from root dec- of 
 dScet. (3) In the Eeduplicatiou syllable, e. g. Lat. rr^-mmi (Gk. 
 Iii-fiova). This i was assimilated in class. Lat. in mo-mardi (alder 
 me-mordi), &e. (ch. vi. § 10). (4) In words like the First Pers. Pronoun, 
 Lat. Sgo (Gk. k-^ii), the Adj. mSdhyo-, Lat. mSditis (Gk. ^^o-os, older 
 niaaos), the Numerals 'seven,' 'ten,'Lat. sSptem, dScem (Gk. firri, Sixa). 
 Final 6- was found in (5) Voe. Sg. of 0-stems (oh. iii. § 6), e. g. Lat. 
 lupS (Gk. \iKe), (6) a Sg. Imperat. Act., e. g. Lat. legl (Gk. \lye). 
 On the dropping of this ? in die, dUc, JUc, see ch. ii. § la.) 
 
 Lat. &», Sn often represents the I.-Eur. M-, N-vowel (in Gk. 
 II, § la), e. g. in (i) The Ace. Sg. of the Third Decl., e. g. patrem, 
 (for *paterem, ch. iii. § i) (Gk. varlpa). (a) The numerals cSntum 
 (Gk. i-HaT6v), septSm (Gk. kirra), dedm (Gk. 5«'*a). (For other examples 
 see § la.) 
 
 Latin H represents I.-Eur. 6y before a vowel in io for *l!/o, from 
 the root ei-, to go ; in the sufSx -eus (I. -Eur. -6yos) of words like 
 aureus, &c. (§ 13). 
 
 Before v I. -Eur. 6 became in Latin, e. g. nomis (I.-Eur. n6wo-, 
 ' new '). On so- for swi- see § 13. 
 
 § 5. I. For examples of I.-Eur. i we may take (i) The Adjective- 
 suffix -t»M)- (Gk. KOfOK-Tvos, x<"P-i '''?) see ch. xi. § 5), e. g. su-intts. 
 (a) The Optative-suffix -T-, found in the Dual and Plural of the 
 Athematic Conjugation (ch. vi. § i), b. g. Lat. s-l-mus (Gk. 
 (iSufitv from eiSe(ff)-r-/i«>'), vel^^^mus. This -i- has found its way into 
 the Singular too in Latin, e. g. sis (older sies), xelis (oh. vi. § 13). 
 (3) The Noun for strength, Lat. m-s (Gk. is, l-<pt) ; the Noun for 
 poison, Lat. mnts (Gk. f6s for *paos). 
 
 Classical Lat. i comes from earlier ei (§ 17) in words like dMO 
 from the root deic- (Gk. Siuevvju), fldo from the root bheidh- 
 (Gk. iteiSoi), and endings like those of turtiid-% Perf. from I. -Eur. -ai 
 (ch. vi. § 10), Corinthrl Loc. Sg. from I. -Eur. ei- (ch. iii. § 6), 
 popuU Nom. PI. from I.-Eur. -oi (ch. iii. § 6). It is often impos- 
 sible to decide whether Lat. i represents an earlier -ei or I.-Eur. 1. 
 But the two are distinguished on the earliest inscriptions, till 
 u. 150 B. c. 
 
 Lat. I has arisen from a fusion of two vowels in nil, nilum from 
 *nl-Mhim, ' not a thread ' (cf. Lucr. nee proficit hilum), sis for sj vis, 
 if you please, and the like, and from lengthening by 'Compen- 
 
§§4-8] /, O. 151 
 
 sation' in words like nidus from *msdus (Engl, nest), diduco from 
 dis-dmx>. 
 
 § 6. t. I. -Eur. i occurs in (i) The Weak form (§ la) of El-roots, 
 e. g. Lat. in-dico from the root deic-, to point, say (Lat. dlco, Gk. 
 SaKvviu), Lat. fides (Gk. l-mS-ov) from the root bheidh-, 'to 
 persuade ' (Lat. fldo, Gk. netSoi), Lat. red-Uus from the root ei-, 
 to go (Lat. l-re, Gk. fT-jxi), Lat. mi-nu-o (6k. fit-vv-Boi), minor, less, 
 from the root mei-, to lessen, (a) The I-stem Declension (ch. iii. 
 § 8), e. g. om-s (6k. 6(f)is), om-bns. (3) The Demonstrative and 
 Interrogative (and Indefinite) Pronouns, Lat. i-s, 'qui-s (ch. v. 
 §§ 3, 6). . (4) The Suffix of the Comparative -is- (Gk. Superlative 
 -is-to-, &o. ), e. g. Lat. magis, mag-is-ter, min-is-ter '. 
 
 § 7. O. I.-Eur, o occurs in (i) Verb-roots like do-, to give, Lat. do- 
 num, do-s (Gk. Sl-Sa-iu, SSi-pov), pb-, to drink, Lat. po-tm, po-mlum (Gk. 
 ir^-if<u-«o), gno; to know, Lat. gno-ius, gnS-sco, class, no-tus, no-sco (Gk. 
 yvai-Tos, yt-yvii-aicoi'), a development of the primitive root g&n-, to 
 know. But we have no O-Conjugation in Latin (of. aegroius) as we 
 have an A-Conjugation, e. g. std-re from root std-, and an E- 
 Gonjugation, e. g. ple-re from root pU-. (2) i Sg. Pres. Ind. of the 
 Thematic Conjugation (oh. vi. § i), e. g. Lat. lego (Gk. ^iyai), 0. Lat. 
 seguor, class, sequ^ (ch. ii. § 16). (3) Nom. Sg. of E-, N-, S-stems, 
 e. g. 0. Lat. da-tar (ch. ii. § i), class, dator (cf. 6k. Sai-rap), honos (cf. 6k. 
 aiSdii), homo (cf. 6k. itiav). This 5 is continued through the oblique 
 cases in datoris, datori, &c., honoris, honori, &c., ratimis, raHmi, &e. 
 (4) Abl. Sg. of Ostems, «. g. Lat. agro from -od (ch. iii. § 6). 
 
 An I. -Eur. o, which was a by-form of ou (§ 11), appears in os, the 
 face, mouth, os-mlum (with a by-form aus-c/ulum, Plant.). Latin 
 has arisen by fusion of vowels in co-pula for co-Sputa, from 0. Lat. 
 apio, to tie, fasten, with Part, aptus, fit, cogo from co(m) and ago, 
 copialrom. co- and -opia (cf. iriropia), and from the lengthening of S by 
 ' Compensation ' in pono for *po-s{i)no, from the Preposition (a]po 
 (ch.*viii. § 2) and sino (cf. po-situs), pone, behind, for *pos-ng (ch. viii. 
 
 5 Bj). 
 
 (open 0, ch. ii. § 2) is the rustic form of au in plostrum for 
 plaustrum, Clodius for Claiidius ; and Lat. of robus, &c., represents 
 I.-Eur. ou (§ 11). 
 
 § 8. 6. I.-Eur. 5 occurs in (i) The 0-grade of E-roots (§ 12), e. g_ 
 Lat. domus (Gk. 8<5;mos) from the root dem-, to build, toga, from the 
 root teg-, to cover, (a) The 0-grade of A-roots, e. g. Lat. scobis, saw- 
 
 ' In the Oscau and TJmbrian dialects the words corresponding 
 to Lat. magister and minister were used as Comparatives, ' greater,' 
 
152 History of Latin Sounds. [ch. x 
 
 dust, from the root scab-, to scrape, dig (Lat. seabo, Gk, crKaitTOj). 
 (3) The 0-Declension with Nom. -os, M., -6m N. (6k. -os, -ov), 0. Lat. 
 -Ss, -5m, e. g. 0. Lat. Lucids, donSm, class. Lat. vivos, but Lmius, donum 
 (oh. ii. § 14I. (4) The Nom. Sg. of Neut. £S-stems, b. g. 0. Lat. opos, 
 VenSs (cf. Gk. yivos), class. opUs, Venus, gen&s (ch. ii. § 14). (5) The 
 Thematic Vowel, e. g. 3 PI -ont(i), 0. Lat. cosmtiont, class, consentiunt 
 (ch. ii. § 14). (6) Words like the Numeral ' eight,' the Noun 
 ' master,' Lat. octo (Gk. iKrii), poiis, able (Gk. n6ais, master), the 
 Prepositions 'forth' and 'with,' Lat. prS-flciscor, cmn-es. 
 
 Before v Lat. became o,- e. g. cavus, older covas, lavo (Gk. \oiu). 
 So apparently 5 became a in odavus from odo. 
 
 After initial v Lat. became S in the middle of the second 
 century B c, e. g. versus, older v(yrsv,s, Scipio Africanus Minor is 
 said to have brought the new spelling into fashion. 
 
 § 9. '&. I.-Eur. ii occurs generally in the grade of a EU-root, as 
 I.-Eur. I in the grade of an El-root, e. g. dhumo-, ' smoke,' Lat. fumus 
 (Gk. Svfis), from the root dheu-, ' to move violently,' mus-, ' a mouse,' 
 Lat. mm (Gk. \mi). 
 
 Class. Lat. « may represent I.-Eur. eu as well as ii. It may also 
 stand for earlier Lat. eu, a weakening of I.-Eur. au, e. ^.^defrudu from 
 de wn&frwudo (ch. ii. § 14), &c. But in the older language, till c. 150 
 B. c, eii is always written o», e. g. douca (I.-Eur. eu) for class, dwo. 
 (Cf. the similar account of i and ci, 5 1 1-) 5 represents u lengthened 
 by ' Compensation ' in dumus from dusmus, a bush. 
 
 § 10. \5. I.-Eur. ii occurs genei-ally in the weak grade of a EU- 
 root, aa I.-Eur. 1 in the weak grade of an El-root, e. g. yugo- Neut., 
 'a yoke,' with yiig-, the weak grade of the root yeug-, 'to join.' 
 Latin examples are jUgum, dux from duco (root deuc-), indiUMS (Gk. 
 k\vt6s) from the root deu-. I.-Eur. u appears in the declension of 
 TJ-stems, e. g artus Nom. Sg., artiim Ace. Sg., artubus Dat. PI. ; in the 
 Prepositions iip6 (Lat. s-ub, ch. viii. § 37), up6r (Lat. s-Hper, ch. 
 viii. § 38), &c. 
 
 § 11. The Diphthongs. The I.-Eur. diphthongs appear in Latin 
 in the process of reduction to simple vowels. By Cicero's time ae 
 (from I.-Eur. ai) and au are the only survivors, and even they tend 
 in rustic or colloquial spetech to single sounds, 5, 5, e.g. ' CloiUvs,' 
 plostrum (ch. ii. § 2) ; ei (whether I.-Eur. ei or the reduction in the 
 unaccented syllable of I.-Eur. ai, oi, ch. ii. § 14) had become t in 
 the beginning of the second century b. c. ; eu, (whether I -Eur. eu 
 or the unaccented form of I -Eur. au, ch. ii. § 14), which appears on 
 early inscriptions as ou, had become u at the end of the third 
 century b. 0. I.-Eur. ou became a slightly different sound, which 
 came to be written 5 or u. I.-Eur. oi passed (through oe) into it at 
 the beginning of the second century b. c, though oe was retained in 
 
§§9-ii] U; Diphthongs. 153 
 
 some words of the official or legal style, like/oeiZijs, a treaty (of. poena, 
 a Gk. loan-word), and poetical words Uie amomus, foedus, foul. 
 
 The long diphthongs, which were not common in I.-Eur., had 
 some of them ' doublet '-forms (oh. li. § g) even in the I.-Eur. 
 period ; e. g. Si appeared as Si or S (e. g. res, Lat. res), ou as ou or 
 (e. g. okto, Lat. octo). In Latin, when they were followed by 
 a Consonant, the long element must have been shortened by the 
 rule that any long vowel was shortened before y, w, n, m, 1, r, &e. 
 followed by a consonant ' ; when final, the second element might 
 , be suppressed, just as in later times a short final vowel was 
 suppressed after a long syllable in words like exeimplB,r{e), nSo{e) (ch. 
 ii. § 12). 
 
 Examples are : (i) ai. Lat. aedes, lit. ' where the fire is kept up,' 
 from the root aidh-, ' to burn ' (6k. atea). The i Sg. Perf. Middle 
 ended in -ai, whence Latin (unaccented) -ei, e. g. dedei, later -i, dedl 
 (oh. vi. § 10) ; the Dat. Sg. of Cons, stems had the same ending, e. g. 
 O. Lat. IVNONEI, class. Junonl (ch. iii. § 8). 
 
 (2) au. Lat. augeo irom the root aug-, ' to grow,' ' be strong ' 
 (6k. av^ai) ; Lat. aurt, au-tem from I.-Eur. au (6k. aS) (ch. ix. § 3 ; 
 of. the Prep. aM- of au-fugio, ch. viii. § a). 
 
 (3) ei. Lat. dUco, older deico, from the root deic-, to show, say 
 (6k. Sd/cvv/ii) ; fido, older feido, from the root bheidh-, ' to trust,' 
 ' cause to trust ' (6k. irciflco). 
 
 (4) eu. Lat. diico, older douco, from the root deuc-, to lead (Germ. 
 Ziehen) ; Uro, older *ouso, from the root e«s-, to burn (6k. fvm for 
 *etito). 
 
 (5) oi. Lat. unus, older oinos, oenus, from I.-Eur. oinos (6k. oivrj, 
 the ace) ; munus from moin- (6erm. ge-mein) ; utor from the 0-grade 
 of the root eit- (Gk. oTtos) ; curiae from the 0-grade of root kei-, ' to 
 lie ' (6k. Koi-Ti] beside ««-/iai). The Nom. Plur. Masc. of the Second 
 Declension ended in -oi, which, being unaccented, became in Latin 
 -ei, e. g. populei, later -I, populi (ch. iii. § 6). 
 
 (6) ou. Lat. bobus, bubus, Dat. PI. of the stem g^ow-, an ox (ch. 
 iii. § 10) ; rodus, rudus (also raudus), unhewn stone, rough metal, &c. 
 from the 0-grade of the root reudh-, 'to be red,' whence also robus, 
 robigo ; nutrix, older nStrix, from the 0-grade of root neud-. When 
 ou arose in Latin from Syncope, it is treated like I.-lJur. ou. e. g. 
 nunlius, older nonUus, from naoentius ; nimdinae, older nondinae, from 
 *novem-dinae. < 
 
 (7) -ai. Lat. aevum (Gk. at{f)in') perhaps represents I.-Eur. aiw-. 
 
 '■ Thus vSntus comes from vl- (6k. a(f)ri-fu, to blow) ; 
 a cognate of ISnis. 
 
154 History of Latin Sounds. [ch. x 
 
 I.-Eur. -ai was the ending of the Dat. Sg. of the First Declension 
 (Gk. X'^Pt)) ^^^ became in 0. Lat. -a a^ well as -ai (ch. iii. § 4). 
 
 (8) au. I.-Eur. au of the stem nau-, 'a ship' (Horn. Gk. vtjvs), 
 appears in Latin before a consonant as om (the ordinary diphthong), 
 e. g. nau-fragus, nau-stibulwn ; so perhaps the au of I.-Eur. klau-, 
 ' a key,' in claudo. 
 
 (9) ei. The doublet- form § (see above) appears in Lat. rSs, spls 
 (ch. iii. § 13), and Locatives of the Fifth Declension like die (orastini) 
 (ch. vii. § 13). 
 
 (10) eu. I.-Eur. eu appeared in the Nom. Sg. dyeus, ' the sky,' 
 which should have as Latin equivalent, -ous (class. -Us) from -Sus. 
 Latin dies however shows the vooalism of the I.-Eur. Aco. Sg. dySm 
 (Gk. Z^K-a, Lat. diSm from diem, ch. ii. § 16). 
 
 (11) 6i. I.-Eur. 5i, the ending of the Dat. Sg. of the Second 
 Declension, appeared in 0. Lat. as 5 or oi (ch. iii. § 6). 
 
 (12) du. The doublet-form 5 (see above) appears in Lat. ' Dual' 
 of duo, ambo, odd (oh. iii. §1). On 65s (I.-Eur. g^ous) see ch. iii. § 10. 
 
 § 12. VowelrO-radation. A root like pet- of Gk. irirtaBai, to fly, 
 appears in the form pt- in Gk. wT^ffflai, the shorter form being 
 a syncopated form of the other due to loss of accent in the I.-Eur. 
 period. Similarly the root ei-, 'to go' (Gk. et-ai, Lat. it, older 
 ei-t, ch. vi. § 20), loses the S of the diphthong in the Perf. Part. 
 Pass. i-t6- (Gk. If-iTos, Lat. -jitts), where the accent falls on the 
 suffix ; and eu becomes ii, through loss of accent, in I.-Eur. bhiiga, 
 ' flight ' (Gk. (fivy^, Lat. fuga) from bheug5, ' I flee ' (Gk. (pciyai) ; 
 while en, em, er, el, similarly reduced, appear before a vowel as n, 
 m, r, 1, e. g. Gk. yi-yv-o-iiai, Lat. gi-gn-5, beside 6k. yiv-os, Lat. 
 gSmts, but before a consonant, «n, °m, »r, '1, reduced sounds which 
 in Greek appear as o, pa, \a, e. g. <^aT(5s from (pev-, to kill, Spaxiiv 
 from Sep/C; to glance, in Latin as fe, Sm, ol, or, e. g. tenlus (Gk. 
 To-T($s) from ten-, ' to stretch,' ear for cord (ch. ii. § 9) (Gk. xpaSl-q, 
 KopUa). These reduced fornis pt, bhug, t"n, &c., are called the 
 ' weak ' grades of these E-roots pet-, bheug-, ten-. When the root 
 had a long vowel, the weak grade shows in Latin the vowel a, in 
 Greek the short form of the vowel of the root, e. g. da-ius (Gk. So-t6s) 
 from the root do-, ' to give ' (Lat. do-num, Gk. Sa-pov), sd-ius (Gk. 
 i-rSs) from the root se-, ' to throw seed ' (Lat. semen, Gk. •5/m 
 for *ar]iia), sta-tus (Gk. ara-rds) from the root stSr, ' to stand, set 
 up' (Lat. sta-men, Gk. ar^-ficiiv). 
 
 E-roots had beside a ' weak grade ' also an ' 0-grade,' e.g. d6m6- 
 ' a house ' (Gk, So/ios) from the root dSm-, ' to build ' (Gk. Siiio)). 
 Latin examples of the 0-grade are domus ; proms, a suitor, from the 
 root pree-, to ask (Lat. precor) ; toga, ft-om the root teg-, to cover (Lat. 
 iego) ; maneo, from the root men-, to remember (Lat. me-miriri from 
 
§§12-14] Gradation of Vowels; Y, &c. 155 
 
 *me-men-ei) ; torreo, from the root tsrs-, to be diy (Gk. ripaoiuu) 
 They had also a ' long grade ',' sometimes with e, e. g. I.-Eur. reg-, 
 'a king* (Lat. rex), sometimes with o, e. g. I.-Eur. bhor-, 'a thief 
 (Gk. .^(i,)). 
 
 These Gradations of Vowels are seen not only In root-syllables, 
 but in Suffixes. For example, the appearence of -S in the Voc. 
 Sing, of O-stems (Lat. equ^, 6k. iWe) and the alternation of -os 
 Nom. Ace. Sg. with -es- in the other cases of Neuter fiS-stems (Gk. 
 yevos, yiv-f{a)-os, yiv-e^ayx, &a. ; Lat. gen-us, genr-er-is, gen-er-^ from 
 *gm-os, *gen-es-es, *gen-es-m, &c. oh. iji. § 8) are parallel to the variation 
 of S and 6 in dSmo and dSmos. Similarly -Sn, -5n (with -Sn, -6n) 
 in the declension of N-stems (see eh. ill. § 8), -er, -or (with -6r, 
 -6r) in the declension of R-stems are parallel to the variation of 6 
 with 6 and o in rSgo and rSg-s, bhSro and bhor(s). 
 
 § 13. T, Mr. I.-Eur. y is Latin.;', which had the sound of our y 
 (ch. ii. § 3), a. g.jugum (I.-Eur. yiigfim, Gk. C"y6v). In the middle 
 of a word after a consonant this became the vowel i ', e. g. mediiis 
 (I.-Eur. m6dhy5s, Gk. iiia{a)os) '. In Jupiter, Jmem Ace. (0. Lat. 
 Dimem), the j has come from I.-Eur. dy-, but after other initial con- 
 sonants the y was dropped, e. g. suo fbr *syiio (Engl. ' sew ') ; heri for 
 *hyesi (Gk. x*")- Between vowels y was dropped in Latin, e. g. tres 
 from I.-Eur. trSyfis ; farms for forma(y)o like Gk. Ti/tu(j/)<u (ch. vi. 
 
 §2). 
 
 I.-Eur. w is Latin », which had the sound of our w (oh. ii. § 3), 
 e.g. vidi from root weid-, 'to see, know' (Gk. {f)oi5a, Engl. wit). 
 Initial dv- became h, a. g. bellum (older diteUum), bonus (older dmmus), 
 bis (older duis ; cf. duo). Initial swS- became so-, e. g. soror from 
 I.-Eur. swSsor (Gk. lopes PI.). Before u, v was dropped in the ending 
 -vus ; e.g. dimi^ (older deimis) became *deius, then (with loss of 1/ between 
 vowels) (Jews ; Gnaemis became Gnaeus ; bacum became bourn. (On the 
 spelling of the Bepublican period -ms, -vom, see ch. ii. 5 14.) 
 
 § 14. M, N. I.-Eur. m, n remain unchanged in Latin, e. g. m in 
 mater (I.-Eur. mater-) ; medius (I.-Eur. mfidhyo-) ; -m (Gk. -v) of the 
 Ace. Sing, and Gen. Plur., e. g. terram, dominum, terrarum, domirmrum ; 
 n m novus (I.-Eur. u6wo-) ; nSms (I.-Eur. nau-). 
 
 Lat. em, en often represent not I.-Eur. m, n but I.-Eur. «m, «n 
 (Gk. a) in the weak grade (§ 12) of E-roots, e. g. tentus (Gk. ra-T6s), 
 
 ' This grade is thought to have arisen from the suppression *of 
 a following short vowel, e. g. rSg-s Nom. Sg. from an older rSg-6-s, 
 bh6r(s) Nom. Sg. from an older bh6r-6-s. 
 
 ^ Cf. etiam for etjam, nunciam for nunc jam. 
 
 ' In Gk. -py- became jtt, so that Latin Verbs in -jko, e. g. sapio, 
 correspond to Gk. Verbs in -irrai, e. g. TUTrrou, xo^eTTOi. 
 
156 History of Latin Sounds. [ch. x 
 
 I.-Eur. t»n-to-, with the weak grade of the root ten-j 'to stretch ;' 
 -em of the Ace. Sg. of Consonant stems, e. g. pairan (Gk. itarifa). 
 Thus -men of the Nom. Ace. Sg. Neut. is I.-Eur. -ta'n, e. g. semen (Gk. 
 
 § 15. Ii, E. I. -Eur. I, r remain unchanged in Latin, e. g. lingm 
 from the root leiq"- (6k. \ttvw) ; rego from the root rfig- (6k. 
 i-piya) ; ruber from I. -Eur. rudhro- (6k. k-pli6p6s). 
 
 Lat. SI, or are representatives of I.-Eur. '1, "r in the ' weak 
 grade ' (§ 12) of E-roots, e. g. pulsus, older *poltos (6k. ira\r6s), from 
 the root pel- ; cor, older cord- (Gk. Kpaitri, xapSla) ; firs from I. -Eur. 
 hh«r-ti- (0. Engl, gebyrd, ' fate ') from the root bher- (Lat. fero) ; 
 comus, cornel (6k. Kpavoi). 
 
 § 16. P, B, BH. I. -Eur. p is Lat. p, e. g.pecu (I. -Eur. p6ku-, 6erm. 
 Vieh, 'cattle'); sepiem (I.-Eur. s6pt»m, Gk. Ittto). P becomes m 
 before norm, e. g. somnus for *sop-nos (cf. sop-or). I. -Eur. b is Lat. b, 
 e;g. iw'fto (for *pi6o, by Assimilation ; I.-Eur. pib6. Before » or m Lat. b 
 became TO, e.g. scamnumfor *scab-'rmm (cf. soSbMum). I.-Eur.bh,when 
 initial, became Lat./, when medial 6, e. g. fero (I. -Em*, bhfiro, Gk. 
 <l>ipa, Engl, bear) ; frater (cf. I.-Eur. bhrator-, 6k. ippdroip, Engl, 
 brother) ; nebula (6k. veipiKTi). A good example of/ and 6 is the 
 word for a beaver, fiber (I.-Eur. bh6bhru-). 
 
 § 17. T, D, DH. I.-Eur. t is Lat. t, e. g. tentus from the root ten-, 
 ' to stretch.' Before I it was dropped when initial, e. g. latus, carried, 
 for *Udtus, P. P. P. otfero. Mi ; but became c when medial ; thus the 
 suffix -tie- (ch. xi. § 9) became -clo- in Latin, e. g. eiibicium or 
 cubiculum. I.-Eur. d is Lat. d, e. g. decern (I.-Eur. d6k»m, 6k. Sena), 
 (On I for d in lingua, earlier dzngua, &c., see ch. ii. § 8.) Final -d was 
 dropped after a long vowel toward the end of the third cent. b. o., 
 though it is found in Plai^tus in mid, tsd, sSd (class, me, te, se), as well as 
 haud (ch. ii. § 9 ; ch. iii. § 4). Pinal -nt became Lat. -ns, e. g. gwitiens 
 (ch. iv. § 4). I.-Eur. dh became / in Latin, which in proximity to 
 r became 6 ; but in the middle of a word between vowels d is 
 found ; a. g. fumus, I.-Eur. dhiimO- (6k. 8vp.6s) ; rUber (stem rubra-), 
 I.-Eur. rudhrft-, (Gk. i-pvSpos) ; fldo, I.-Eur. bheidhe (Gk. ireifla) for 
 *<j>et6a). A good example of/ and d is /a-c-io beside con-do, both fsgpi 
 the root dhS- of 6k. rl-Sri-iu (ch. vi. § 23). T, d or dh before t 
 became a sibilant, Lat. ss, e. g. Lat passus, for *pat-tus, from jpa/jor ; 
 egressu^, for *egred-tus, from egredior ; confisus (older conflssus, ch. ii. 
 S *9) with -ss- from -dht-. 
 
 § 18. K, a, GH. WemustdistinguishinL-Eur. (i) The Palatals, 
 k, g, gh, e. g. k'ntom, ' hundred ' (Lat. centum, 6k. I-kotiJi'), for 
 which some I.-Eur. languages have a Sibilant, (a) The Gutturals 
 Proper, k, g, gh, e.g. k6rt-, 'to plait' (Lat. orates, cariildgo, 6k. «ipTa\os, 
 basket), which remain Gutturals in all I.-Eur. languages. (3) Labio- 
 
§§i5-2o] L, R, P, B, BH, T, D, &c. 157 
 
 velars, q°, g", gh", e. g. q'^twor-, ' four ' (Lat. quattuor, Gk. riaaapes), 
 q^o-, the Kelatlve (Lat. qui, quo, &c. ; Gk- ttoB), which, become 
 Labials in some languages. 
 
 I.-Eur. Palatal k, g, gh are Latin c, g, h, e. g. cmiam, gnosco (6k. 
 yiyvdiaKo), hortus (6k. X''P''<")' The I.-Eur. Gutturals Proper, k, 
 g, gh are likewise Latin c, g, h, a. g. crates, jugum (6k. ^v-i6v), hostis 
 (Engl, guest), L-Eur. Labiovelar q" is Latin qu, e. g. quattuor, qui ; 
 g" is Latin v, but after a consonant gu, and before a consonant g, 
 e. g. DjDMS (I.-Eur. g^wo-), venio (6k. Paivm, Engl, 'come'); unguo 
 from the root ong"- ; agnus (I.-Eur. ag^no-, 6k. i/ivSi for *d/3yos) : 
 gh" is Lat. /, when initial, but between vowels v, after a consonant 
 gu, and before a, consonant g, o. g. formus (I.-Eur. gh'ormo- ; cf. 
 6k. 0epii6s) • nivem Ace. Sg. (Gk. vlipa) and ninguit, both from the 
 root (s)neigh''-, 'to snow,'' be wet, whence Eiigl. 'snow.' 
 
 Lat; c became g before n, e, g. ilignus from ilex. Initial gn became 
 n at the beginning of the second century B. c, e. g. (g)nSsco (cf. 
 co-gnosco), (g)natus (of. co-gnatus). 
 
 § 19. S. I.-Eur. s remains in Latin, e. g. septem (I.-Eur. s6pt=m, 
 Gk. iiTTo), but between vowels took the soft or voiced sound (as in 
 our Vei'b 'use,' while our Noun 'use' has the hard or unvoiced 
 sound) and passed in the fourth cent. b. o. into r ', e. g. -drum from 
 earlier -S,som in the Gen. PI. of the First Declension (ch. iii. § 4), 
 generis from *genesSs (Gk. yeve(a)os), arboris from *arbosls. Before 
 a consonant like d, I, m, n, the s was dropped, e. g. rmrus from 
 I.-Eur. snuso- (Gk. vv6s), with lengthening of the preceding vowel, 
 e. g. nidus from nisdo- (Engl. nest). Befoi-e r in the middle of 
 a word s became 6, «. g. soirinus for *swisrinus from I.-Eur. sw6sor-, 
 ' a sister.' After r and I it was assimilated, e. g. porrum from *p<yrsurn 
 (Gk. vpdaov^, collum for colso- (Germ. Hals). 
 
 In early Latin we find a group stl- at the beginning of a few 
 words corresponding to class. I; e. g. stlis (also slis) was the old 
 form of lis, retained in the legal phrase decemviri stliiibus judicandis 
 in Cicero's time (Cic. Or, 46. 156) ; stlocus and eloeus, of locus ; 
 stlaius, of latus, broad (§1). 
 
 § 20. Consonant Groups. The difficulty of pro- 
 nouncing certain consonant-groups often led to a con- 
 sonant being dropped or else assimilated to its neighbour. 
 
 ' See ch. i. § 5. Livy speaking of Sp. Furius Fusus, the consul 
 pf 464 B.C., says that some of the early historians spelt the name 
 Fusio- (iii. 4. i Furies ' Fusios ' scripsere quidam). The only in- 
 stances in classical Latin of intervocalic s are (i) words where ss 
 originally stood, e. g. formosus, (a) loan-words, e. g. gaesum (Gaulish). 
 
158 History of Latin Sounds. [ch. x 
 
 We have just had one instancej stl- and si- becoming 1-. 
 Similarly gn- became «- in the middle of the second 
 century B.C., e.g. natus, older gnatus. Examples of the 
 loss of a consonant in a group (cf. our ' hal(f )penny/ 
 ' Satur(n)day/ ' be(t)st/ ' cas(t)le/ ' go(d)spel ') are : — 
 
 (i) l(c)t, l(c)s, r(c)t, r(c)B, r(t)c, s(e)t, o(t)s, r(t)s 
 or r(d)s, e.g. ultus for *ulctus, mulsi for *mwlcsi, fortis, 
 O. Lat. forctis waA. forctus, tortus for *torctus, torsi for 
 *torcsi, corculum for *cort-culum from cor(d), pastum for 
 *pasotum, nox for *nocts, ars foi* *arts, arsi for *ardsi. 
 
 (3) r(g)n, r(g)m, r(d)n, r(b)m, e.g. urna for *urgna 
 (cf. urceus), tormentum for *torgmentuni from torqueo, 
 orno for *ordno (cf. ordino), sarmentum for *sarhmentum 
 from sarpo. 
 
 (3) (t)so^ (c)se, (p)sp, (p)st, (p)sc, (s)ps, (n)gn, (r)st, 
 (i?)se, e.g. e*c« for *efoca from edo, disco for *dicsco 
 (cf . di-dic-i), asporto for *apsporto from aJ* and joor^o, 
 ostendo for *opstendo from o5* and ^erai^o (but ohstinatus), 
 Osctis, older Opscus [Obscus), ipse for *is-pse, ignis for 
 *engnis (I.-Eur. °ngni-), fastigium for ^arstigium (Engl, 
 bristle), Tuseus from *Tnrscus. 
 
 (4) (e)sii or (g)snj (c)sl or (g)slj (o)sm or (g)sm, e.g. 
 few« for *lusna from *lucsna, telum iov *feslum from 
 *tecslum, ala for *fl!«^a from *acsla, sultemen for *«Mi- 
 tesmen from *subtecsmen. 
 
 The loss of a consonant in a group is often really 
 due to Assimilation. Thus the loss of s in hordeum for 
 ^hors-dewm (Germ. Gerste) cannot be separated from the 
 assimilation of « to r in the group rs, e.g. horreo for 
 *}iorseo. Examples of Assimilation are furnished by the 
 Preposition in Compounds, e.g. po, oc-eaeco, suc-curro, 
 pf, of-ficio, bg, suggero, &c., &c. This Assimilation of the 
 Preposition was the rule in Early Latin; e.g. Plautus 
 
§ 2o] Loss of Consonant in Group. 159 
 
 puns on assum, ' I am here ' and assum, ' roasted ' in 
 Poen. 279: 
 
 Milphio, heus ubi tu 6a ? Assum apud te eccum. At ego elixus 
 sis uolo ; 
 
 but the introduction of grammatical studies brought in 
 the fashion of writing the Preposition in its independent 
 form, ad-sum, &c. Other examples of Assimilation of 
 Consonants are : Id, percello for *per-celdo (cf . eludes) ; 
 In, collis [ci. Gk. Ko\a>v6sY; Is, collum (Germ. Hals). 
 When s was assimilated to a following voiced consonant 
 the consonant was at first written double, e.g. quallus 
 from *qua,shs (cf . quasillus ^), but afterwards single, the . 
 vowel being lengthened by ' Compensation,' guahis. So 
 aula and oUa (older aulld) for ^auxla (cf . auxella) ; velum 
 (older vellum) for *vexlum (cf . vexillum) ; anhehis (older 
 anhellus) for *an-enslus (ch. ii. § 15). 
 
 ' Ulna had originally a Yowel between I and n (cf. 6k diKtm]). 
 
 ' The Diminutive quasillus was a recent formation, made after the 
 Phonetic Law, by which s became between vowels r in Latin (§ 19), 
 had ceased to act. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 FORMATION OF WOKDS. 
 
 I. NOUN- AND ADJECTIVE-STEMS. 
 
 § 1. Stem-suffixes. For the forming of words we find sounds 
 combined into ' roots,' and these developed into ' stems.' Thus 
 the sounds t, e, and g are combined into the root t6g-, ' to cover ' 
 (Lat. ieg-o, teg-men, tectus for *teg-tiis, tog-a with 0-grade of root, ch. x. 
 § la), which is further developed Into the stems t6ga- (Lat. Nora. Sg. 
 toga, earlier toga, Gen. PI. toga-rum, &c.), tegmen- (Lat. Nom. Sg. tegmen, 
 Gen. Sg. tegminis, earlier *teg-m£nres, &o.) by the addition te the root of 
 the stem-suffixes -a-, -men-. It is these stem-suffixes, used in the 
 making of Nouns and Adjectives, which will be treated in §§ 2-19. 
 
 § 2. (i) -6-, -A-. -6-, which should rather be called the E-5- 
 suffix, since it alternates with -6- (e. g. L-Eur. Voc. Sg. of Masc. 
 5-stems ended in -6, e. g. ekwS, ' horse,' Lat. egu^, was associated 
 with the Masc. and Neut. Gender. -A-, which should rather be called 
 the A-suffix, since it alternates with a (e.g. I.-Eur. Voc.Sg. of Fem. 
 A-stems ended in -a, e. g. ekwa, ' mare') was associated with the 
 Fem. Gender. Hence the O- and A-suffixes were used in Adjec- 
 tives, e.g. I.-Eur. nSw6- Masc. and Neut., nfiwa- Fem. (Lat. novos, 
 nmom, nma). The A-suffix is very common in Abstract Nouns 
 (Nomina Actionis\ e. g. I.-Eur. bhuga ' the action of fleeing ' (Gk. 
 <pvyli), Lat./Mffos, from the weak grade (ch. x. § lal of the root bheug-, 
 ' te flee ' (Gk. <t>tiya ; of. Lat. fugio). The 0-suffix is used in a great 
 variety of ways. An example of its use in Nomina Agentis is Lat. 
 procus, a. suitor, from the 0-grade (ch. x. i la) of the root pr6k-, ' to 
 ask ' (cf. Lat. precor). Other examples of the suffix are : parous, 
 sparing, from pa/rco, I spare ; dolus, a statagem, from the 0-grade of 
 a root dSl-, ' to deceive ' ; jtigum, a yoke, from the weak grade of 
 the root yeug-, ' to join.' 
 
 i 8. (2) -I6-, -lA- (-y6-, -YA-\ These I. -Eur. suffixes were used 
 to form (a) Verbal Adjectives, especially Gerundives, the Neuter and 
 Fem. being often employed as Verbal Nouns, e. g. sociits from the 0- 
 
§§ 1-4] Noun- and Adj. -Stems, &c. i6i 
 
 grade of the root seq^-'to accompany' (Lat. segwor) ; eximius, ■which 
 had originally the sense otemmendus (e. g. Ter. Sec. 66 : utiu exlmium 
 neminem habeam ? ' am I to make no exception ? ') ; siudium from 
 sfudeo ; exuviae from exna ; pluvia from pluo. (b) Adjectives derived 
 from Nouns, especially Compound Adjectives,- the Neuter and Pem. 
 being often used as Abstract Nouns, e. g. patrius frompater ; somnium, 
 a dream, from Bomnus, sleep ; fcdsi-jurius iTomfalsus and j«s ; jur(i)gium 
 from jus and ago ; Utigium from lis and ago ; jiididum from ^s and dim ; 
 aediflcium from aedes and fado ; vindMnia from vinum and demo, (c) 
 Adjectives which have a sense of comparison or distinction, indi- 
 cating a special locality, direction, &c. e. g. I.-Eur. mgdhyo- 
 (6k. iJ.i{a)aos], Lat. medius ; I.-Eur. aiyo- (Gk. oAAos), Lat. alius. 
 Gk. i((i6s has this sufSx, while Lat. deodsr (Gk. Sf(iTfp6s) has the 
 TEEO-sufSx, which has the same force (§ 8). Also some Ordinal 
 Numbers, e. g. Lat. ter&us. 
 
 A notable use of this sufBx in Latin is in the formation of Proper 
 Names. While in all, or most, of the other I.-Eur. languages Com- 
 pounds were used for Proper Names, the son taking a Compound 
 slightly varied from the father's (e. g. Gk. Aivo-Kp&Trjs, son of Atro- 
 K\ijs, Germ. Walt-bert, son of Wald-ram), the Latins used simple 
 stems with this lO-auffix, e. g. IMcius, Statius, which correspond to 
 some contracted or pet-names in the other I.-Eur. nations, e. g. Gk. 
 Ztvl'tas, for the more ceremonious Zei(-tiriros, AcCkis beside AeuK-miros. 
 
 The ending -eus (from -6-y6-s) arose from the addition of this 
 lO-suffix to 0-stems, e. g. aureus, made of gold, from aurum (stem 
 auro-, auri-, gold), and came to acquire the sense of material, ' made of,' 
 'composed of.' It was in time assigned to any stem; e. g. inyZcimmeMs, 
 made of fire, it is added to an A-stem ; in iAUms, made of a vine, to 
 an I-stem ; in comeits, made of horn, to a U-stem. The ending 
 -tSrium, which arose from the addition of the lO-suffix to TEE-stems 
 (see below), indicated the place or instrument of an action, e. g. audl- 
 toHum, 'the place of hearing, 'dene/'soriMm for *devert-torium (ch. x. § 17), 
 ' a lodging-place,' scalp-torium, ' an instrument for scratching,' and 
 corresponds to Gk. -rripiov of ffovXtv-rriptov, ipyaa--T^piov, both 
 indicating place, xava-T^piov, ' instrument for burning,' xpi-rifpiov, 
 ' means of judging.' Similarly we have -monium, -inonia from MEN- 
 stems (see below), e. g. ali-monia and dli-monium (cf. ali-men-tum), 
 Jlamonium from Jlamen, ail ending extended to tristi^monia, sancH-rmmia, 
 &o. A common ending of Abstract Nouns is -itia (often -Hies, ch. iii. 
 § 13), e.g. laetiHa from laetus (stem laeto-), -itium, e.g. senyitium from 
 senms (stem servo-), flagiUum, lanitium. These are formed on the type of 
 militia from miles (stem miliU). From N-atems we have, e. g. wWnia, in 
 O. Lat. ' a dwelling place ' (Plaut. Aul. 576 : ut conmutet coloniam). 
 
 § 4. (3) -1X6-, -TTA- (-WO-, -WA-). This sufBx is much used 
 M 
 
i62 Formation of Words [ch. xi 
 
 in Adjectives denoting colour, e. g. helms (Engl, yellow from I.-Eur. 
 gliSl-w6-), farvus (older *fus-uos ; of. fus-cus ; on the change of s to r 
 see ch. x. § ig^ flavus, ravus. Greek Verbal Adjectives in -reos for 
 'Tffos, Tvith Gerundive force, e. g. SiaiKrios, requiring to be pursued, 
 capable of being pursued, are in Latin represented by formations 
 in -uus, e. g. caeduus, excipuus, praecipuus, amspicuus, paseu/us, and am/us 
 (Plant. True. 149 : non aruos hie sed pascuos agar est ; whence 
 aroum), while another class of Verbal Adjectives, derived from 
 Verbal Noun Tl-stems (see below) and denoting state or condition, 
 end in Svus, e. g. furHvus from the Verbal Noun-stem fwrti-, of 
 which the Ace, Sg. sui-vives in the Adverb furtim (ch. vii. § 3), 
 naMvus, captiims, voih~us. Examples of Adjectives with the UO-suffix 
 derived from Nouns are : annuus from annus ; Minerva (0. Lat. 
 Menerua of four syllables) for *Menes-iM from I.-Eur. mSnSs Neut. 
 (stem mSnSs-), 'intelligence ' (Gk. ftivos) ; skinuus (cf. Gk. ar/np/os, 
 health^ ; patruys from pater. 
 
 § 5. (4) -3S'6-, -NS.-. This I.-Eur. suffix was chiefly used in the 
 formation of Verbal Adjectives, usually with the force of a Perfect 
 Participle Passive, e.g. lia.t. plenus, lit. 'filled,' donum, lit. 'a thing 
 given.' In Greek we find some Adjectives of Time in -tvos, derived 
 from a Locative Case ending in i, e. g. x^'f-'P^-''^^' iapi-v6s, iavepi-v6s, 
 and correspondingly in Latin hibemus, vemus, vesperna, the evening 
 meal. Ad,iectives in -inus in Latin, like fs^nus,jundnus show an 
 I.-Eur. suffix -in6-, denoting material or origin, e. g. Gk. (frli-f-Xvos, 
 made of beech-wood, 0v0\ivos, made of papyrus, &c. The suffix 
 -ivos in Greek, denoting species, occurs frequently with the names 
 of animals, e. g. Sehtpa/c-fvij from ScXi^of, Kopax-tvos from Kopa^ ; and 
 similarly in Latin we have iovlnus, equmus, minus (Engl, swine), 
 flbrinus, &c., the feminine often being employed with ellipse of caro, 
 flesh, e. g. mWina, veal, suina, pork. Latin -Inus is often due to the 
 addition of the NO-suffix to lO-stems, e. g. LaMnus from Latium 
 (though, when the suffix -Ino-, and not -no-, is added, we have 
 -fSwMS, e. g. alienus, from alius, laniena from lanius), or to I-stems, 
 e. g. ma/rinus from mare, piscina from piscis. The suffix -tmus of 
 diyrtinus, cras-dnus, pris-tinus, &c., is more strictly the second 
 part of a Compound than a suffix, representing a word for ' time ' 
 derived from the root ten-, 'to stretch,' just as -gnus of ^i«- 
 gnm, represents a word derived from the root gen-, ' to produce.' 
 The -gnus of llignus, sdlignus, larignus, on the other hand, shows the 
 suffix -no-, the g being the development before n (ch. x. § 18) of the 
 final c of the stems Sic-, saKc-, Iwric-, and was by their analogy 
 extended to other tree-adjectives like abiegnus fropi abiu Cstem 
 abiei-). Similarly -anus, the ending of Adjectives formed with the 
 NO-suffix from A-stems (e. g. sUvanus from silva, arcanus from area, 
 
§§5-8] in -NO; -MENO; -MO; -RO-. 163 
 
 deoimanus from deoima, se. pars, the tenth part, tithe, e. g. ager 
 dedmanus, land paying tithes, an Adjective which somehow acquired 
 the sense of large,' 'hxi^fi,' e.g. dedmanus acipenser, 'a huge sturgeon') 
 is extended to AdjectiTes from other stems, e. g. urbamis from urbs 
 (stem urhi-'). By the addition of this NO-suffix to Nomina Agentis 
 in -or we get -umus, e. g. tadturnvs, while £S-stems give -emus (ch. x. 
 § 19), B. g. aSnws from aes ; venenum, lit. ' philtre,' ' love-potion,' from 
 Venus (stem verws-) ; egenus (cf . eges-tas) : we have -una from a TJ-stem 
 in lacuna. A common use of the NO-suffix in Latin is to form 
 Distributive Numerals, a. g. quaiemi, bini, trini, tend (ch. iv. § 5). The 
 termination -ma is found in sardna from sardo, pagina from pango 
 (cf. compdges), angina from ango. 
 
 § 6. (5) -MEIfd-, -MiilirA-, (-M1J-6-, -MWA-). This sufBx 
 was used in the Middle or Passive Participles of Thematic Tenses 
 of the I. -Eur. Verb (e. g. Gk. <pep6-iifvos) ; and although these 
 Participles were lost in Latin, traces of this formation remain in 
 the a PI. Pres. Ind. e. g. legimini for legimini estis (ch. vi. § 17) ; 
 perhaps also the a PI. Pres. Imper. e. g. legimini ; aiumnus, 
 6 Tp«p6iitvos ; fimina from the root dhS-, ' to suckle ' ; VeriMmnus, 
 the god of the changing seasons, from verto ; caXumn-ia from O. Lat. 
 calvor, to deceive. Stems with this sufBx often stand side by side 
 with MEN-stems, b. g. columna beside columen, terminus beside termen 
 and tenno. 
 
 The ending -mnus in Latin often arises from the addition of the 
 NO- suffix to a stem ending in a Labial (ch. x. § 16), b. g. sommis 
 for *sop-nus (cf. sopor\ damnum (cf. 6k. Saitdvri), scamnum (fit. 
 scaiellum), &c. 
 
 § 7. (6) -m6-, -MA-. Of this suffix, used to form Adjectives, 
 Nouns, especially Masculine Nouns but sometimes Pem., and 
 Superlatives (ch. iv. § 2), Latin examples are : formus, warm (Gk. 
 Beplios, Engl, warm) from the root gh°er- ; fUmus (Gk. Sv/iSs) from the 
 root dheu- ; animus (6k. aveixos) • fama (6k. (p-qiai) ; palma (6k. 
 iraKifiij) ; minimus, summus for *svpmu£ (ch. x. § 16). The suffix -t6m6- 
 (ch. iv. § a) had a local rather than a' superlative meaning, e. g. 
 marltimus, flnitimus ; but intimus, ultimus, dtimus have acquired 
 a superlative force ; similarly optimus, if from 06. (But cf. p. 65.) 
 
 § 8. (7) -RO-, -KA-. This suffix in its various forms was used 
 to make Adjectives and Concrete Nouns, e. g. L-Eur. riidhro-, 
 ' red ', from the weak grade of the root reudh- (6k. i-pvSp6s), Lat. 
 ruber ; I. -Eur. agro-, ' a field,' from the root ag-, ' to drive ' (Gk. 
 &ypis), Lat. ager. In Latin the Nom. Sg. ending -ros became after 
 a shoi't vowel -er (ch. iii. § 6), as is seen in these two examples, 
 but not after a long vowel, e. g. plsrus (ch. vii. § 3). gnams, matHrus (cf . 
 pSnuria). The suffixes -£e6-, -T^RO- became Comparative Suffixes 
 
 M 2 
 
164 Formation of Words [ch. xi 
 
 in Greek (ch. iv. | 2), though their original sense was rather 
 that of likeness, of equal than of greater degree (of. Horn. Gk. 
 0ri\iTfpos, feminine, not 'more feminine '). Latin Adverbs in -iter 
 have the TERO-sufflx (ch. vii. §2), e. g. breviter (Gk. 0paxirepos) ; 
 so have magis-ter, minis-ter, ci-ter, ex-ier ; while with a prefixed -as- 
 (cf. Gk. -aS- of irf?i€ias, -dSos, a wild dove) we have -aster, a suffix 
 implying imitation, e. g. okaster, a. wild olive, ' like the true olive,' 
 and often used in a contemptuous sense for 'a poor imitation,' 
 e. g. peditaster, with Dim. peditasteUus in Plant. Mil. 54 : 
 
 at peditastelli quia erant, siui uinerent, 
 
 ' they were tag-rag and bob-tail infantry ; so I spared their lives.' 
 The local sense of the TEKO-suffix (Gk. iplarepos, living in the 
 hills, d-fp6repos, living in the country) appears in -ter of paluster, 
 telluster, and -ester of campester, Silvester. The same suffix is used in 
 Possessive Pronouns in Latin, e. g. vester, as in Gk., e. g. viiirfpos, 
 and in various pronominal and locative Adjectives, with the 
 sense of ' like,' ' in the direction of,' o. g. alter, uter, i-terum, citer 
 (Engl, hither), eicter (cf. dexter, Sf(t-Tep6s, sinister), to which Adverbs 
 with -tro- correspond, e. g. diro, citra, extra. 
 
 This suffix -TEKO- must be distinguished from the sufSx -TBO-, 
 which was used to form Neuter Nouns indicating an Instrument, 
 &c., e. g. ardtrum, ' an instrument for ploughing, ' a plough, and 
 from the Latin suffix -cro-, which represents the stem ciro-, making, 
 from the root cer-, to make (cf. Lat. creare), e. g. inducer, or 
 stands by Assimilation for -do- when an I precedes, e. g. involU-crum 
 for *inmludum. This -clo- (L-Eur. -TLO-, § 9) is a suffix closely 
 associated with -tro-, forming Neuter Nouns which indicate a tool 
 or instrument. Another suffix, -DHEO-, (Lat. -bro-) is used in the 
 same way, though in Latin it affects also the Feminine gender, 
 -6ra, B. g. ilrgbra, a gimlet, borer, from tero, to bore ; mbrum, 
 a sieve, from cemo, to sift. But Lat. -bro-, -bra represents an 
 original -sro-, -sra- (ch. i. § 19) in ten&yrae from *temus, darkness, 
 whence temerS (ch. vii. § 4), cerlbrum. Lat. -5n«s of honorus, decorus, 
 canorus, odorus, &c., stands for -osus (ch. x. § 19), arising from the addi- 
 tion of the 0-suffix to S stems ; we have -5ros in e. g. sevens, procerus. 
 
 § 9. (8) -L6-, -LA-. This sufiix in its various forms was 
 used for Nomina Agentis (Nouns and Adjectives), and often came 
 to denote an instrument, while as a secondary suffix it was 
 specially used to form Diminutives. Thus Engl, shovel, literally 
 ' an instrument with which one shoves ' meant originally ' the 
 shover ' ; Engl, throstle is a Diminutive. Latin examples are : 
 ISgiilus, a. picker, from lego; pendulus, hanging, from pendo, 
 pendeo ; vinculum, a bond, ' an instrument for binding,' from vindo ; 
 
§§9-ii] in -LO; -TO; -K0-. 165 
 
 cistula, a little chest, from dsia. The Diminutive suffix is added 
 ij. second time in mstdla, a jewel-box, &c.- A common Diminutive 
 suffix is -C0I0-, a combination of the two Diminutive suffixes -KO- 
 (§11) and -L0-, e. g. auri-cula, a little ear, cor-cvXum, a little heart, 
 which when added to Adjectives, esp. Comparatives, gives the sense 
 of somewhat,' e.g meliusmlus, somewhat better. From Diminutive 
 -culwm must be distinguished the -culum^, -dum from I. -Eur. -TLO-, 
 used to form Neuter Nouns denoting the instrument with which 
 an action is performed or the place' of its performance, e. g. vihi- 
 clum (vehiculum), ' that by which one is carried,' po-dum (poeuluni), 
 ' that out of which one drinks,' cubi-dum {cubieulum), ' the place 
 where one Ues down.' The suffix -DHLO- (in Latin -bUlum) had 
 much the same function, e. g. sta-bulum, ' a place for standing.' 
 The presence of an I in the first part of the word causes a dis- 
 similation of -clum to -a'um, -Uum to -brum, in ambitla-crum, ' a place 
 for walking,' &c. Nouns in -Sto, like querela, sequela, are derived from 
 Neuter ES-stems, so that querela stands for *q'uerMa, sequela for 
 *sequSsla (ch. x. § igl. 
 
 § 10. (9) -T6-, -TA-. This suffix was used to form (i) Verbal 
 Adjectives, which in Latin became Perfect Participles Passive, e. g. , 
 geni-tus from the root gen- (see ch. vi. 5 17). (2) Ordinal Numbers, 
 e. g. quin'^c)tus (ch. iv. § 5). Abstract Nouns in -TA- are found 
 beside Perf. Participles Pass, in -to-, e. g. 6k. ■ytviT'l], birth, Lat. 
 deprensa (for *deprend-ta, ch. x. § 17). The TO-suffix is often added 
 to the MEN-suffix (§ 15) in neuter nouns, e.g. Lat. cognomen-tum 
 beside cognomen, such forms being apparently the Neuter of 
 Participles, formed not from verbs but fi-om nouns (cf. Engl. 
 ' crested,' ' horned ') ; e. g. cogrwmentum points to a *cognii)mentus beside 
 cog-nowHnaiMs, like sceles-tus beside scelera-tu£. The forms with 
 ■mentum are, as a i-ule, those used by prose writers, the forms with 
 -men being relegated to poetry. With -mentum, Plur. -menta has 
 been compared the Greek Plur. -fiara, e. g. arpiiimra (Lat. strdmenta), 
 Kaaav/MTa (cf. Lat. assumenta). Similar are arbus-tum, salic-ium, 
 while arboretum is a quasi-participle from arboresco, like acetum, 
 vinegar, from acesco; so nuc-etum, ilic-etum, &c. The -ceium of 
 iliceium, &c., and the -dum, of salictum, &c. were extended by false 
 analogy, e. g. bu-cetum, mre-ctum. 
 
 § 11. (10) -KO-, -KA-. I.-Eur. -ko-, the -y of Engl. ' stony,' 
 ' angry,' &c., is used mainly in the formation of Adjectives from (i) 
 Adverbs, e. g. anti-ais, of place, anti-quus, of time, posti-cus, reci-procus 
 from rSco- (Prep. rS-) and proco- ^Prep. pro), (a) Nouns, c. g. beUi-cus, 
 
 ' This is the form with the Parasitic Vowel (ch. ii. § 12). 
 
i66 Formation of IVords [ch. xi 
 
 eivi-cus. The suffix had often a Diminutive sense, which in Latin 
 was usually expressed by the compound suffix -KO-LO- (§ 9\ e. g. 
 seni-eulus (but also sene-ca). Other forms are -icus, e. g. histrim-iem, 
 -fiiMS, e. g. rus-tieus, -^cus, e. g. am-ieus, -Sous, v. g. mSr-aeus ; and with 
 addition of the YO- suffix (§3) -wivs (Derivatives from Nouns and 
 Adjectives), e. g. patricius, -Uciua (Derivatives from Perf. Participles 
 Pass.), e. g. deditlcius (also nomdus). ^ 
 
 § 12. (11) Sufflxes ending in I. (Nouns and Adjectives of 
 third Declension.) I-stems were closely associated with Ad- 
 jectives ; and a good many 0-stem Adjectives in Latin have become 
 I-stems, e. g. inermis (O. Lat. inermus), sterilis {sterUus Lucr. ii. 845), 
 sUblimis {BuUimus Lucr. i. 340 sublimaque caeli). U-stem Adjectives 
 have also become I-stems (ch. iv. § i), e. g. hrems (Gk. 0paxvs), levis 
 (Gk. lAaxi'r). Verbal Adjectives in -lis are by-forms with Passive 
 sense of Active Verbal Adjectives in -lus, e.g. bibSis, 'easily drunk,' 
 beside bibiUits, ' easily drinking.' So Vei-bal Adjs. in -Mlis, con- 
 nected with the DHLO-suffix, e.g. amabilis, no-bilis, sometimes 
 derived from the P. P. P. stem, e. g. sensibiUs, flexibilis. -TI- was the 
 suffix of Verbal Nouns as -TO- of the Perfect Part. Pass. (§ 10), e. g. 
 Gk. maris beside iriarSs. These Nouns were of the Pern, gender and 
 had, like the P. P. P., the weak grade (ch. x. § 12) of the root. 
 Latin examples are : mens for m«n-ti-, from the root men-, ' to 
 think ' ; fors for bh°r-ti-, from the root bher-, ' to bear ' ; mors for 
 m'r-fci-, from the root mer-. In Latin, as in Celtic, w^e find this 
 suffix enlarged by an EN-suffix (§ 15), e.g. mentio, Ace. menMonem ; 
 ratio, Ace. rationem ; datio, Ace. dationem ; and this compound suffix 
 supplanted almost entirely the older Tl-suffix. The suffix -TATI- 
 (or -tat-\ used to form Fern. Abstract Nouns, derived from Adjec- 
 tives and Nouns, and the similar suffix -TUTI- (or -tut-) exhibit this 
 Tl-suffix added, to the TA- and TU-suffixes, e.g. Lat. juvmias (cf. 
 juvmta), jupentus. We find a form of the suffix -tut- augmented by 
 an N-suffix, -tUdo, Gen. -iUdinis, 0. g. servitudo beside servitUs. The I- 
 suffix was used in forming Feminines in I.-Eur. and appears 
 augmented with c in Lat. genetnx, cornlx, &c. 
 
 § 13. (la) Suffixes ending in U-. (ITouns of fourth Deol.) 
 U-stem Adjectives passed "in Latin, as we have seen (§ la), into 
 I-stems, e. g. gravis (Gk. 0apis). The suffix -TU- (like the sufBx 
 -TI-, § 12I was used to form Verbal Nouns, a.g. speotatus, and its 
 Ace. Sg. became the First Supine (ch. vi. § 16), e. g. spectatum ire, its 
 Loc. Sg., the Second Supine (ibid.l, e.g. spectatu pvlcer. (On the 
 passage of Fern. O-stems into the U-declension, see ch. iii. | 6.) 
 
 % 14. (13) -TB-, -S-. (Nouns of fifth Decl.) These have been 
 already discussed in ch. iii. § 13. 
 
 $ IS. (14) SufSxes in -N. (Nouns of third Decl.) An Adjective 
 
f§ 12-18] in -I; -U; -YE; -E; -R; -NT; -S: 167 
 
 which is used as a Noun takes this suffix ', e.g. Rufo, ' the Red,' beside 
 rufus, red (cf. STpa0av beside arpaPSs) ; and so we find many Latin 
 nicknames in -0, Gen. -mis, e. g. Naso, Capita, with terms of contempt 
 like bibo, aleo. The more respectful formation was in -onus^, e.g. 
 pairowus. 
 
 The MEN-suffix was used to form Neuter Verbal Nouns, e. g. teg- 
 men, a covering, fi-om tego, to cover. On the connection of cognomen 
 and cognomemtwm, &c., see § 10 ; a.nd on Verbal Nouns in -TI-EN-, 
 e. g. captio, -onis Gen., see § 12. 
 
 § 16. (is) Suffixes in -B. (Houns of third Decl.) I.-Eur. 
 Neuters in -r (-»r) seem to have substituted n for r in the oblique 
 cases (of. Lat. fSmur, Gen. feminis, ch. iii. § i), which has led to such 
 curious declensions in Latin as it-in-er-is, jec-in-w-is and joc-in-er-is. 
 -TEE- is the suffix used for forming (i) words of relationship, e. g. 
 pa-ter, ma-ter, (2) Nomina Agentis, e. g. da-tor (6k. Sor^p and Siircop), 
 which in Latin show the 0-grade of the suffix (ch. x. § 12). 
 
 § 17. (16) Suffixes in Dentals, G-utturals, &c. (ITouns of third 
 Deol.) When a Verb-root ending in a, vowel formed the second 
 part of a compound the T-suffix was used, e. g. Lat. com-es (stem 
 com-S-)from the root ei-, ' to go,' anU-stes from sta-, ' to stand,' sacer- 
 dos from do-, 'to give.' The NT-suffix' (-ent-, -out-) was used to 
 form the Pres. Part. Act , o. g. fereni- (Gk. ipipovr-), sont- (Gk. &v ; 
 ch. vi. § 17). 
 
 The WENT-sufSx, like our ' -ful,' was added to Noun stems to 
 form Adjectives, with the sense ' possessed of,' ' abounding in,' and 
 occasionally ' resembling,' e. g. Gk. x"/"'"? for *xa/"-f e"'-?, possessed 
 of grace, graceful. In Latin it is augmented by the TO-suffix (§ 10), 
 e. g. dolosus (Gk. So\6its) for *dolo-venssus, nivosus (Gk vi<p6fis) for *nivo- 
 venssus, with ss for tt (ch. x. § 17). Older spellings of this suffix are 
 -onsMS, -ossus (ch. X. § 19 ».). 
 
 Examples of Guttural Suffixes in Latin are Adjectives in -ax, 
 expressing tendency or character,e. g. iibSx, dicdx, rapdx, penicdx (cf. 
 -dcus, 511). (On Fern, -inx see § la.) 
 
 § 18. (17) Suffixes in -S. (Nouns and Adjectives of third 
 Deol.) The £S-suffix (varying with -63-, &c., ch. x. § 12) was used 
 to form Neuter Abstract Nouns with E-grade of root (ch. x. § 12) 
 and accent on the root, e. g. I.-Eur. ginos Nom. Sg., g6nSs- in 
 oblique Cases (Gk. 7^1'os, •/ivt(_a)os ; Lat. genus, older *genos, generis, 
 
 ' This is the origin of the German 'weak' declension of the 
 Adjective, where the Adj. is preceded by the Def. Article, e. g. des 
 rothen. Gen. Sg., die rothen Nom. Ace. PI. 
 
 " Hence Gk. Aijt^ (Dor. AoTtii) became Latona. 
 
i68 Formation of Wprds. [ch. xi 
 
 from *genesU, eh. iii. § 8). These Neuter-atema became Adjectives 
 by transferring the accent to the suffix and substituting -es for -6s 
 in Nom. Sg. Masc, -6s in Nom. Sg. Neut., e. g. Gk. eiycviis Masc, 
 -vis Meut. Beside them we find occasionally Masc. or Fern. Nouns 
 with -OS in Nom. Sg., a formation which came into great favour 
 in Latin, e. g. tenor Masc. (from *terws, p. 52) beside tenug Neut. 
 (Gk. TeVos, a string) from the root ten-, ' to stretch.' But Adjective 
 S-stems were avoided in Latin (cf. degener, bianrpor), the usual way 
 of making an Adj. from a Neuter S-stem being to add the TO-suffix 
 (5 10), 0. g. scdls-tiis, funSs-tus, jus-tus, A case of these Neuters was 
 used as an Infinitive in various I.-Eur. languages, e. g. Lat. gignerS 
 (Loc. Sg.), amari (Dat. Sg.) (see ch. vi. § 15). The YES-suffix was 
 used to form Comparatives, Lat. -ior Nom., -iSris Gen., b. g. melior, 
 melioris (from melios, *melios-es) (ch. iv. § 2). 
 
 § 19. (18) Suffixless Forms. Nouns formed directly from the 
 root, without any suffix except those of the cases, are especially 
 h-equent aa the second element of a Compound, and take in this 
 position the function of a. Nomen Agentis, e. g. au-spex, ' seer of 
 birds,' from the root spec-, to see ; parti-ceps, ' taking a share.' They 
 are also found independently, e. g. Lat. dux, a leader. The Lat. 
 Third Conj. Inf. Pass., e. g. agi, seems to be the Dat. of a suffixless 
 "Verbal Noun (ch. vi. § 15). 
 
 § 20. Composition. Compounds are seldom resolvable into two 
 intact words like Gk. Ai6a-Kovpoi, Lat. juris-jurandi, patres-familiarum. 
 The same is true of Reduplicates, which arose out of the habit of 
 repeating a word for the sake of empliasis (cf. ' a great, great deed ') 
 or mimicry (cf. Lat. mw-mur) ; for one element is reduced almost 
 beyond recognition, either the second element (in ' broken ' or 
 curtailed Reduplication), e g. Lat. bal-b-us, gur-g-es, or more usually 
 the first, e. g. ci-and-ela, a glowworm '. So in Compounds the full 
 stem without the case suffixes is generally used in the first part of the 
 Compound, e. g. juH-diaus (contrasted with juris -jurandi), pairi-cida 
 (contrasted with patres familiarum). 
 
 In Latin, owing to the weakening of unaccented vowels (ch. 
 ii. § 14), every vowel in the fifaal syllable of such a stem was liable 
 to change under the early accentuation of the first syllable of each 
 word (ch. ii. § 12), the usual reduction of a short vowel being to { 
 (ch. ii. § 14). / is thus the Latin ' Composition-Vowel ' par ex- 
 cellence, usually representing I.-Eur. 8, which is found not only 
 with 0-stems, e. g. Gk. lir7r6Saiios (cf. Lat. bdli-ger), but also often 
 
 ' Lat. gur-gid-io, the throat, quer-quSr-us, shivering, give equal 
 prominence to bfith elements. 
 
§§ I9-2I] Compound Noun-stems, &c. 169 
 
 with A-stems, e. g. 6k. SiK6-imxos beside viKrj-<p6pos (of. Lat. ali-ger), 
 N-stems, e. g. Gk. &Kfi6-6fTuy (cf. Lat. homi-clda), and appended to 
 many Consonant-stems, e. g. 6k. SpaxovT-6-iMWos (Lat. pedi-sequus'^. 
 Composition does not play so great a part in Latin as in Greek 
 (cf . Liv. xxvi. ii. 4 quos ' androgynes ' vulgus, ut pleraque, faciKore ad 
 duplieanda verba Graeco sermone, appellat). The early dramatists 
 and other imitators of Greek poetry incurred the censure of 
 Quintilian for their attempts to reproduce Greek compounds like 
 KvpravxTiv in Latin, as in Pacuvius' description of dolphins : 
 
 N6rei repandirostrum, inciiruiceruicum pecus ; 
 
 and Virgil uses a periphrasis like (Averna) sonaniia silcis (A. iii. 
 442), where an earlier poet might have employed a compound like 
 sUvisonus ^. The compound Proper Names of other I. -Eur. languages 
 are, as we have seen (§ 3), replaced in Latin (and the other Italic 
 languages) by Adjective lO-stems, such as Lucius. 
 
 II. VEEB-STEMS. 
 
 § 21. Tense-stems. The formation of the Present-stem of the 
 Verb has been discussed in §§ 2-5 of ch. vi. We have seen that the 
 Derivative Verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations, that 
 is to say, derivatives from A-stems, 0-(fi-)stems, and I-stems, 
 exhibit a Y-suffix ; e.g. fugo from fuga (stem fuga-) represents *fugd-yo 
 as 6k. TtiiSi from the A-stem ti/jij represents *Tiijid-ya and rtuSififv 
 represents *Titiayoniv ; similarly clareo stands for *clari-yo, flnio for 
 *flm-yo. Similar Derivatives from U-stems belong to the Third Con- 
 jugation, e. g. statuo for *staiu-yo, which includes a large number of 
 varied Present-forms, especially (i) Reduplicated, e. g. gi-gn-o from 
 the root gSn-. (a) With N-suffix or N-infix, e. g. ster-n-o from the root 
 stSr-, li-n-gf/ro from the root te'g«- (Gk. Aa'rr(u). (3) With SKO-sufSx, e. g. 
 (g)nd-sco from the root gm- ; while a large number show the ordinary 
 form of the root with no addition but the thematic vowel, e. g. 
 ,ieg-o from the root ISg-, The formation of the Perfect-stem has been 
 treated in § 10 of the same chapter, with enumeration of the chief 
 Latin types, (i) The Reduplicated Perfect, «. g. me-min-i (Gk. ^c- 
 iwv-a) from the root men-, the Reduplication being often dropped, 
 sometimes at a recent stage, e. g. class. Lat. tuli for 0. Lat. te-tul-i, 
 sometimes as far back as the I.-Eur. period, e. g. vid-i (6k. (/^)orBo). 
 The Long-vowel Pei-fects like egi from ago, psgi (beside pS-pig-i) from 
 pdngo (root pag-) may be included in this class. (2) The S- Perfect, 
 
 ' Cf. siieifragiis, used by Lucretius, who however complains that 
 the ' patrii sermonis egestas ' prevented him from reproducing the 
 Greek compound ifioioiiepeia, i. 832 
 
170 Formation of Words. [ch, xi 
 
 corresponding to the Greek First Aorist, e. g. dixi (0. Lat. deix-ei) 
 • like 6k. «-8«i£-a, from the root deic-. (3) the V-Perfeot, peculiar: to 
 Latin, e. g. cd-Vri from the root al-, fuga-v-i, flni-v-i, statui (0. Lat. 
 staiu-v-i), re-pts-v-i from the root plS-, dm-Vri for *ctorf-t'-», mojwwifcrr 
 *manM-i:-i (ch. ii. § 15 fin.), and perhaps cam, f&vi, .&«., it their av 
 stands for diT, *cav^-i, */<«!-»-«'. The dififesBOree between Present 
 and Perfect of the same Latin Iferb, cg.-sfco, sivi, which so often 
 puzzles the beginnar, is^j&ie^e'fhe fact that a separate stem was used 
 fac «^jb<er IFense, it being the exception and not the rule that 
 a Present-stem formation should be retained throughout the con- 
 jugation of the verb, e.g. Perf. jwmA (but Gk. «-fewf-a) with the 
 N-iufix of the Present ju-ng-o (cf. Gk. ^eir^-vv-iu), 
 
 Examples of the relation of the Perfect- to the Present-stem in 
 Latin are: — I. Bed uplicated Perfect. (ojWithEeduplicatedPresent, 
 bibo, bibi ; sisto, siiii; sido (for *si-s(S)d-o), sMi. (6) With N-Present, 
 ta-rirgo, te-tig-i (cf. Horn. Gk. TeTayiiy) ; tit-ti-do, tu-tud-4 j pu-n-go, pu- 
 pug-i ; peUo (for *pel-n-o) ', pe-pul-i. The n of tondeo belongs to the 
 root, for it is a Causative from the root tend- (Gk. rivSa). (c) With 
 SKO-Present, disco (for *dic-sco, ch. x. § 20), di-dic-4. (d) With Y- 
 Present, par-i-o, pe-per-i. TvU, which has drifted apart from its 
 original N-Present lollo (for *tdl-n-o) and associated itself with fero, 
 while tollo has adopted as its Perfect the compound suQ})s-tuM, was 
 in O. Lat. a Beduplicated Perfect, te-tul-i. The Beduplication Syl- 
 I lable has likewise dropped off in sadi (0. Lat. sci-cid-i), Jidi with their 
 K-Presents sci-n-do, fi-^n-do (from the I.-Eur. root bheid-, Engl, bite), 
 and some verbs whom the loss of their Beduplication has left in a 
 form resembling the Present-stem, b. g. urto, verti ; dido, cudi, while 
 others retain distinctive features, e. g. riip-i from rur-m-po, where the 
 N-Present has the weak-grade of the root reup- (Engl, be-reave) ; 
 similarly /«d-i Iroiafu-n-do (.root gheud-, GerBi. giessen), vic-i from 
 m-^/irCO (root weik-), Bqit-i (of. Gk. \i-\oiii-a.) from li-n-qiio (root leiq"-, 
 Gk. \eiira) ; fiig-i (Gk. TTi-(peir/-a) beside fug-i-o, a Y-Present with the 
 weak grade of the root bheug- (Gk. (jxiiya) ; similarly ssdi beside 
 skleo (cf. Gk. I^o/iai for *aeS-yo-i>ai, a Y-Present), Ugi ' beside Wgo, 
 a Boot-Present. The absence of Beduplication in vid-i, 0. Lat. veidei 
 (from woid-ai, ch. x. § 8), dates from L-Eur. times (Gk. orSa for 
 foiS-a), and must have been equally old in Verbs beginning with 
 a vowel, like idi from Mo, Imi' from Into. We cannot settle the 
 
 ' Hence not, o. g. *caram like fugdram, "cassem like fugassem. 
 
 ' Pvl<fm should be *p!uMu3 (I.-Eur. p«l-to-), and probably was in 
 0. Lat , for puUo is Plautus' form of the Frequentative. 
 
 ' The -lego oineg-lego (ch. ix. § 17), ' I do not care for,' di-ligo (*d«s- 
 lego), ' I care for exceedingly,' has been referred to a different Verb 
 
§ 2i] Tense-Stems. 171 
 
 exact age of forms with 5 in Perfect and a in Present (cf. ago, igi], 
 like Jac4-o, fic-i (Gk. l-9i;«-a), jSx-i-o, jec-i, cap-i-o, clp-i, 0. Lat. apio 
 {coepio], *Spi (cS-Spi, class, coepi, a disyllablel. These have Y-Presents, 
 ■while /ra-M-gOj/jSg-i, pS^n-go, peg-i hare N-Presents. 
 
 II. S-Perfect. (a) With Root-Present, dico {0. Lat. deic-o), dlxi 
 (0. Lat. deix-ei, Gk. «-5«f-o) ; -teff-o, -ta-j ^Gk. e-^ef-a) ; rej-o, rea^i 
 X^i. ii-pe(-a) ; teg-o, tex-i (Gk. e-ffrcf-a) ; dwco (0. Lat. doiico from 
 ♦Seuc-u), aaaa. In uro (0. Lat. *o«ro from *cttso, Gk. cKo) for *tu7jiu), 
 Us-si (cf. Gk. eJiro for '•evtr-w-a) the -Perfect has ±he weak-grade 
 of the root. (6) With N-Present, (i) N-infix, jungo, junxi (of. Gk. 
 «"?'"£"") ) pi'iigOj pinxi ; plango, planxi ; stringo, strinxi ; exstingtto, 
 exstirud ; flngo, flnxi. They all retain this n in the Perfect, though 
 not always in the P. P. P., e. g. junctus, exsKnctus, pldndus, but j)?c(Ms, 
 strictus, fidMS ; (a) N'SufSx, temno, tempsi for tem-s-i. ^c) With Y-Present, 
 saep-i-o, saep-si ; haurio (for *aus-i-o), hausi (for *auss-i, ch. ii. § 9) ; 
 haereo (for *haesm), haesi (for *haes-s-i) ; o-spic-i-o (Gk. aKinTOjuu for 
 *aKen-yo-iuu, p. ga), a-spex-i (Gk. k-am^-i-iiriv) ; maneo, man-s-i. On 
 the forms /«Jsi for */ulc-si from fulcio, fuld for *fulg-si from fidgeo, 
 mulsi for *mulc-si from mulceo, mulsi for *»j«!s-st from mvlgeo, and 
 with similar loss of Guttural in the Consonant-group, a2si, Tnerst, 
 /arsi, sparsi, fersi, torsi, iwrei, see ch. x. § ao. The Assimilation (ch. 
 X. § ao) of a Dental to the s of the Perfect produced ss, e. g. con- 
 <Mss-i from conditio, jiissi from juheo with 6 for original dh (eh. x. 
 5 17), which after along vowel or diphthong was by the Phonetic 
 Law of classical Latin (ch. ii. § 9) reduced to single s, e. g. 
 clausi (older claussi), vasi (older vassi), suasi (older suassi), Jaesi 
 (older laessi). The same happened in the case of roots ending 
 in s, e. g. glsd from the root gis (Pres. gero with r for intervocalic 
 s, ch. X. § 19^, iissi (see above), hausi and liaesi (see above). 
 -PrSs-s-i shows us that prSmo must have had a by-form *prSso (cf. Gk. 
 rfijioi and rpe{a)i>i). The apparent discrepancy between vivo and 
 mxi is due to the fact that the root ends in g" (ch. js.. § 18), which 
 ' in Latin became v except before and after a consonant. Hence vivo 
 for g"eig°5 (cf. Engl. ' quick,' in the sense of ' living '), but mxi for 
 *mg-si, victus Noun for *vig-t'u,s. Similarly veho (yexi, vecius) has an 
 
 (cf. 6k. d-A.^7<u, I care for), which took an S-Perfect, -lexi. Hence 
 neg-lexi, di-lexi, but e-legi, de-legi, oolrlegi. Intellexi however offers 
 a difficulty. The difference in the Perfect of the compounds of emo, 
 ' I take,' has been referred to a discrimination between emo with 
 its acquired sense, 'I buy,' and emo with its original sense, 
 'I take.' Hence eoemi, ' I bought up,' beside compsi, dempsi, prompsi, 
 mmpsi (S-Perfects). 
 
J 72 Formation of Words. [ch. xi 
 
 intervocalic gh in its normal Latin form h (ch. x. § i8). Cf. fruor, 
 fructus sum ; fiuo, fiwci ; stmo, stnuci. 
 
 III. U-Perfeot. This is the Perfect par excellence of Vowel- 
 Verbs, e. g. re-pJS-v-i from the root pin-, fugd-v-i from the Derivative 
 of the stem fugd-. But we find it also with roots ending in 1, e. g. 
 alo, alui /' colo, colui ; molo, molui ; corirsiUo, am-sfului ; 801-4-0 (Gk. aWofiai 
 for *aa\-yo-fiat), satui. Cf. gem-ui, gen-ui, rap-ui, ap-er-ui, and op-er-ui 
 (see ch. vii. §§ 2, 23). We have (a) a SKO- Present in t.g)no-sco (Gk. 
 yi-yva-aKoj) ; (ff)n6-B» ; pSsco, porm ; crl-sco, crl-vi ; quU-sco, gvM-vi ; 
 sm-sco, sa-!» ; (ft) an N-Present in s4-?i-o (root set-), si-m, of which one 
 Compound de-sino retains the true Perfect deslvi or, with loss of in- 
 tervocalic V (p. 14 «.), desii, but another, pono for *p6-s(i)no (oh. vii. 
 § 2), came in the classical period to assume a new ,Perfect"i)osttt 
 through the influence of the P. P. P. positua '■ ; U-n-o (root lei-), K-ri ; 
 sper-ttro (from root sper-), sprS-iii (from a by-root sprS-) ; ster-n^o (from 
 root ster-), strdvi (from a by-rpot strd-) ; cer-n-o, crl-vi ; (c) a Bedupli- 
 oated Present in sero (for *s{-so ; cf Gk. fij/u for *ai-ati-iit), sl-vi from 
 the root si-. The Perfects arcessivi, lacessivi, petim, &c., point, as we 
 have seen (ch. vi. § 4), to a by-form of the Present, *wrcessio, Hacessio, 
 *petio, like pinsio beside pinso. Quaesivi from *quaessio, a similar by- 
 form of 0. Lat. gua£s{s)o (e. g. Enn. mari quaesentibu' uitam) has 
 become associated with a related Present quaero from *quaiso (with 
 single s). Quaeso, prythee, is not the same form as quaero (ch.x. § 19). 
 
 The other Tense-stems are discussed in ch. vi. §§ 8, 9, 11, 12, and 
 the Mood-stems in § 13 of the same chapter. 
 
 § 22. Verb-stems. Of suffixes used in forming Verb-stems, as 
 opposed to Tense-stems, may be mentioned (i) -dh-, e. g. Gk. Knij-B-ai 
 beside la/iai. (2) -d ^,g. Gk. e\-So-^i from the rootw61- (Lai. volo), 
 which may be nothing but the Verb-stems dhs- ' to put,' and do- 
 ' to give.' Thus Lat. aSdo (vrith d for I.-|lur. dh, ch. x. § 17) meant 
 originally ' I set heart to,' the first part of the word being connected 
 with car, the heart. (3) -t-, e. g. Gk. irin-T-ai (Lat. pec-t-o) beside irew-ai, 
 which seems connected with the P. P. P. suffix -to-. (4) -a-, e. g. Gk. 
 Se'^a) beside Sitpa, Tpe-(<r)-(w beside rpi-ii-m, which seems the same 
 as the fiS-suffix of Nouns, e. g. Gk. reKos, stem rtXea- (Gk. T(\i{a)a, 
 re-TiKta-rat). Latin examples are : gau-d-eo (Gk. yljBonai and iriBioi) 
 for *gavi-d-eo (cf. gamsus), sallo for *sai-do (.Engl, to salt), plec-io (Gk. 
 7rKi«-T-ai beside nKin-iii), iUso, older veisso, for weid-so, in-cesso for 
 *in-ced-so (cf. cMo). (5) -ss- of capesso, ineipisso (Plaut.), facesso, lacesso, 
 
 ' P6-si-tus was regarded as pos-itus with Verb-stem pSs-r ; and so 
 a Perfect pos-ui was coined on the type of al-ui, al-itus, mon-ui, mon- 
 itus, &c. But the older writers have invariably jiosivt, e. g. Catullus 
 xxxiv. 7 : quam mater prope Deliam Qeposiuit oliuam. 
 
§ 22] Verb-Stems. 173 
 
 sometimes called ' Intensives ' or ' Desideratives ' of capio, incipio, 
 facto, lacio, is connected with the Tense-formation {amasso, &c. ) 
 discussed in ch. vi. § 12. Other Latin endings are : (6) -io and -illo 
 of Diminutive Verbs, e. g. consonbiUo Catull. (7) -co of cdHco, fodko, 
 &e., another Diminutive suffix (5 g). (8) -ro of lamb-ero, con-sid-ero, is 
 like -^0 of the Derivative temperan from tempus. (9) -Xgo of navigo, &c., 
 is nothing but the Verb ago, as -flco ofaediflco^, kc, is the Verb/acio, 
 both having the form of Derivatives from Compound Verbal Nouns 
 (of. remigo from remex, Gk. olKoSofiia from o'ucoS6iios). Verbs in 4o, 
 -iUo, -co, -ro similarly show the Derivative Verb type and follow the 
 First -Conjugation. On Iteratives or Frequentatives in -to (so), 
 derivatives from Perf. Part. Pass, stems, see ch. vi. § a, and on 
 Desideratives in -tiirio (silrio), derivatives from Verbal Nouns in 
 -tor, see ch. vi. § 5, on verbs in -wno, -urrio, e. g. ligurrio, derivatives 
 from Verbal Nouns in -«to, see ch. vi. § 5. 
 
 ' A Compound Vei-b, composed of a Noun and a Simple Verb, 
 takes in Latin the form of a First Conj. Derivative, e. g. aedifico from 
 aediflcus, in Greek the form of a Second Conj. Derivative, e. g. 
 ii/coSojiia from oi«oSiJ/(Os. 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 SPECIMENS or EARLY LATIN. 
 
 § 1. The Dvenos-inacription. (Sixth to fourth cent. B.C.) 
 (written on a sacrificial vessel) : — 
 
 loueis (?-ues) at deiuos qoi med mitat, nei ted endo eosmis uirco 
 sied asted, noisi Ope Toitesiai pakari uois. Duenos med feced (? 
 feked) en Manom einom. Die noine med Mano stated. 
 
 loyios (?) ad deos qui me miitet, ne te indo comis Virgo sit adstet, nisi 
 Opem Tuteriae pacrem ' vis. Bimus ° me fecit in MSmum enim ' (? unum), 
 Die n6ni (? noveni) me Mano stato (1. e. sislHo). 'Who offers mo to the 
 Gods of the Sky, may Proserpine not be kind to thee nor stand by 
 thee, unless thou wouldest have the Help of Tuteria appeased. 
 Bonus made me "for !Manus indeed. On the ninth day set me (as 
 offering) to Manus.' 
 
 § 2. The Scipio Spitaphs (from end of third to middle of second 
 cent. B.C.) (in Saturnian Metrel: — 
 
 (a) Hone oino ploirume cosentiont E[omai] 
 Duonoro optumo fuise uiro, 
 Luciom Scipione ; filios Barbati 
 Consol, censor, aidilis hie fuet a[pud uos] : 
 Hee cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe : 
 Dedet Tempestatebus aide mereto[d]. 
 Hum unum plurimi consentiunt Somas bonorum optimum fuisse mrwm, 
 Lucium Scipionem : JUius Barbati consvl, censor, aedilis hie fuit apud ms : 
 Sic cepit Corsicam Aleriamque urbem ; dedit TempestaMbus aedem merito. 
 
 * A El-stem Adj. from the root of pax. Al. pacare (a Sg. Pres. Ind.) 
 mbis. 
 
 " Cf. bene beside bonus. 
 
 ' With the same use of enim as Virgil's tibi enim, tibi, maxima 
 Juno (A. viii. 84). The translation given above, which supposes 
 that the sense of the inscription is that the bowl is to be used in 
 sacrifices to the Di Manes and not to the Di Jovii, with the exception 
 of ' Ops Tuteriae,' is by no means certain. Some decipher the last 
 words as Duenoi ne med malo stated, ' Bono ne a me malum state' 
 
176 specimens of Early Latin, [app. a 
 
 (6) Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbatus, 
 
 Gnaiuod patre prognatus fortis uir sapiensque, 
 Quoius forma uirtutei parisuma fuit, 
 Consol, censor, aidilis quei fuit apud uos, 
 Taurasia, Cisauna Samnio cepit, 
 Subigit omne Loucanam opsidesque abdoucit. 
 Comdiws Lucius Scipio Bariatus, Qnaeo patre prognatus fortis vir 
 sapiensque, cuius forma virtuti parissumafuit, consul, censor, aedilis qui fuit 
 apud vos, Taurasiam, Cisaunam, Samnio (Abl.) cepi7, subigit omtiem 
 Lucanam obsidesgue abducit. 
 
 (c) Quei apice, insigne Dialis flaminis, gesistei, 
 Mors porfecit tua ut essent omnia breuia, 
 Honos, fama uirtusque, gloria atque ingenium ; 
 Quibus sei in longa licuiget tibe utier uita, 
 Facile facteis superases gloriam maiorum. 
 Quare lubena te in gremium, Scipio, rcicipit 
 Terra, Publi, prognatum Publio, Comeli. 
 Qui apicem, insigne Dialis flaminis, gessisli. Mors perfecit tua wt essent 
 omnia hrevia, honos, fama virtusque, gloria atque ingenium ; quibus si in 
 longa Hcuisset iibi utt vita, facile factis superasses gkriam majorum. Quare 
 libens te in gremium, Scipio, recipit terra, Publi, prognaturr^ Puilio, 
 Corneli. 
 
 (t2) Magna sapientia multasque uirtutes 
 Aetate quom parua posidet hoc saxsum. 
 Quoiei Vita defecit non Honos houore, 
 Is hie situs, quei nunquam uictus est uirtutei. 
 Annos gnatus XX is l[oc]eis mandatus. 
 Ne quairatis honore quei minus sit mandatus. 
 llagnam sapientiam muMasque mrtutes aetate emnparvapossidet hoc saivum. 
 Oui Vita defecit non Honos honorem, is hie situs, qui nunquam victus est 
 lyirtute. Annos natus viginti is (? Us) locis mandatus. Ne quaeratis honorem 
 cur minus sit mandatus. 
 
 («) (On Cn. Scipio Hispanus, praetor 139 B.C.) (Elegiacs) : — 
 Yirtutes generis mieis moribus accumulaui, 
 
 Progenie mi genui, facta patris petiei, 
 Maiorum optenui laudem, ut sibei me esse creatum 
 Laetentur; stirpem nobilitauit honor. 
 I 3. The Decree of Aemillus Faulus (189 b.o.) : — 
 L. Aimilius L. f. inpeirator decreiuit utei quei Hastensium 
 seruei in turrl Laseutana habitarent leiberei essent, agrum 
 oppidumque, quod ea tempestate posedisent, item possidere habere- 
 que iousit dum poplus senatusque Komanus uellet. Act. in castreis 
 A.D. xii. K. Pebr. 
 
 L. Aemilius L, f. imperator decrevit uti qui SaMenMum seiiH in turri 
 
App. A] specimens of Early Latin. 177 
 
 Lascutana habitarent Kberi essent, agrum oppictumque, quod ea tempestaie 
 possedissent, item possidere habereque jussit dum popidus smaiusque Bomanus 
 veSUt. Act. in castris a.d. xii. K. Febr. 
 
 § 4. The Senatus Consultum de Baoohanalibus (i86 B.C.). 
 
 Q. Maroius L. f., S. Postumius L. f. cos. senatum consoluerunt 
 N. Octob. apud aedem Duelonai. Sc. arf. M. Claudi M. f., L. Valeri 
 P. f., Q. Minuci C. f. De Baeanalibua quei foideratei esent ita 
 exdeicendum censuere. Neiquia eorum Bacanal habuise uelet. 
 Seiquea esent, quei sibei dfeieerent necesua eae Bacanal habere, eeia 
 utei ad pr. urbanum Eomam uenirent ; deque eeia rebus, ubei eorum 
 uerba audita esent, Ittei senatus noster decerneret, dum ne minus 
 senatoribus C adesent quom ea res cosoleretur. Bacas uir nequis 
 adieae uelet ceiuia Bomanus neue nominus Latini neue socium 
 quisquam, nisei pr. urbanum adiesent iaque de senatuos sententiad, 
 dum ne minus aenatoribus C adeaent quom ea res cosoleretur, 
 iousiset. Censuere. Saeerdoa nequia uir eset. Magiater neque 
 uir neque mulier quisquam eset. Neue pecuniam quiaquam eorum 
 eomoinem habuiae uelet, neue magiatratum, neue pro magiatratud 
 neque uirum neque mulierem quiquam feciae uelet. Neue post 
 hac inter aed ooniouraae lieue comuouise, neue conspondise, neue 
 conpromesiae uelet, neue quiaquam fidem inter aed dediae uelet. 
 Sacra in oquoltod ne quisquam fecise uelet, neue in poplicod, neue 
 in preiuatod, neue exstrad urbem aacra quisquam feciae uelet, nisei 
 pr. urbanum adieset, isque de senatuos sententiad, dum ne minus 
 senatoribus C adeaent quom ea res cosoleretur, iouaiaet. Censuere. 
 Hominea pious V oinuoraei, uirei atque mulieres sacra ne quisquam 
 fecise uelet, neue inter ibei uirei pious duobus, mulieribua ploua 
 tribus, arfuise uelent, nisei de pr. urbani senatuosque sententiad, 
 utei suprad scriptum est. Haice utei in couentionid exdeicatis ne 
 minus trinum noundinum ; senatuoaque sententiam utei scientes 
 esetis. Eorum sententia ita fuit : sei quea esent, quei aruorsum 
 ead fecisent quam auprad acriptum est, eeis rem caputalem 
 faciendam censuere. Atque utei hoee in tabolam ahenam in- 
 Ceideretis : ita senatus aiquom censuit ; uteique earn figier ioubeatis, 
 ubei facilumed gnoaoier potisit ; atque utei ea Bacanalia, sei qua 
 sunt, exstrad quam sei quid ibei sacri est, ita utei suprad scriptum 
 est, in diebua X quibua uobeia tabelai datai erunt faciatia utei 
 dismota sient. 
 
 Q. Marcius L. /., S. Postumius L. f. cons, senatum consuluenmt ]f. Octoi. 
 apud aedem Bellonae. Sc. adj. M. Claudius M. /., L. Valerius P. /., 
 Q. Minucius C. f. De Bacchanalihus qui foederati essent ita edicendum 
 censuere. Nequis eorum Bacchanal hcdmisse veUet. Siqui essent, qui sihi 
 dicerent necesse esse Bacchanal habere, ei uti ad pr. urbanum Bomam 
 venirmt, deque eis rebus, ubi verba eorum audita essent, uti senatus 
 
 N 
 
178 specimens of Early Latin, [app. a 
 
 noster, decerneret, dum ne minus senatoribus C cidessent guum ea res con- 
 suleretur, Bacchas vir neguis adiisse veUet civis Bomanus, neve naminis 
 Latini, neve sociorum quisguam, nisipr. urbanum adiisserd, isgue de senatus 
 sententia, dum ne minus senatoribus C adessent guum ea res consuleretur, 
 iussisset. Censuere. Sacerdos nequis vir esset. Magisier neque vir nequ£ 
 midier quisguam esset : neve pecuniam guisquam eorum communem Jiabuisse 
 veUet, neve magistratum, neve pro magisl,raki negue virum neque mulierem 
 quisguam fedsse vellet. Neveposthac inter se coniurasse neve convovisse, neve 
 conspondisse, neve compromisisse vellet, neve guisguam fidem inter se dedisse 
 vellet. Sacra in ocaulto ne guisguam fedsse vellet, tieve in publico, neve in 
 privato, neve extra urbem sacra quisguam fedsse vellet, nisi pr. urbanum 
 adiisset, isque de senatius sententia, dum ne minus senatoribus C adessent 
 quumea res consuJeretw, iussisset. Censuere. Homines phm V universi, viri 
 atgue mulieres sacra ne guisguam fedsse vellet, neve interibi viri plus duobus, 
 mulieribus plus tribus, adfuisse vellent, nisi de pr. urbani senatusgue 
 sententia, uli supra scriptum est. Haec uti in contione edicatis ne minus 
 irinum nundinum, senatusqus sententiam uti sdenies essetis. Eorum 
 sententia ita fuit : siqui essent qui advorsum ea (Adv.) fedssent, quam 
 supra scriptum est, eis rem capitalemfadendam censuere. Afgue uti hoc in 
 tdbulam ahenam indderetis : ita senatus aequum censuit • utigue eam flgi 
 iubeatis, ubi facHUme nosd possit ; atgue uti ea Bacchanalia, siqua sunt, 
 extra guam siguid ibi sacri est, ita uti scriptum est, in diebus X ; quilms 
 vobis tabellae datae erunt, faciatis uti dimota sint, 
 
 § 5. The Spoleto Inscription (c. 180 B.C.). 
 
 Honce loucom nequis uiolatod neque exuehito neque exferto quod 
 louci siet neque cedito nesei quo die res deina anua fiet. Eod die 
 quod reidinni causa fiat sine dole cedre licetod. Seiquis uiolasit, 
 loue bouid piaclum datod. Seiquis scies uiolasit dolo malo, louei 
 bouid piaclum datod et a. CCO moltai suntod, eius piacli moltai- 
 que dicatore exactlo estod. 
 
 Sune lucwm nequis violato negue evehiio neque efferto guod lud sit neque 
 caedito nisi que die res divina annua fiet. Eo die quod rd divinae causa 
 flat sine dolo caedere liceto. Si quis violassit, Jovi bove piaclum data. Siquis 
 sdens violassit dolo malo, Jovi bove piadum data et a. CCC multae swnio, 
 ejus piaculi m^ltaecpie dicatori exactio esto. 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 LIST OF SPELLINGS. (Cf. ch. ii. §§ lo, 14 ; eh. x. § 20.) 
 
 ahicio, adicio, &c. better than 
 
 abjiciOj &c. 
 aduJescens (Noun), not adolescens. 
 aequipero, not aequiparo. 
 aerumna, not erumna. 
 aestimo : aestumo is the older 
 
 spelling. 
 . afui, &o , not ahfui, &c. 
 
 Alexandrea, Dareus, &o. is the 
 
 spelling of the Bepublic ; 
 
 Alexandria, Barius, of the 
 
 Empire. 
 alium, better than allium, 
 amoenus, not ammus. 
 ancora, better than ancJwra. 
 anguHa 
 
 anvlus, not annulus. 
 arcesso : accerso is a vulgar form. 
 artus, artare ; arctus, arctare are 
 
 earlier spellings. 
 auctar, aiictoritas, not autor, auto- 
 
 riias (ch. ii. 5 10). 
 Autumnus, not Auctummus. 
 Mua, not beUua. 
 hm^cium, &o., better than beni- 
 
 flcium, &c. 
 bracchium and brachium. 
 budna, not bucdna, 
 caecus, not coecus, 
 caelebs, not coelebs. 
 caelum, not caelum, 
 caementum, not cem^rdum. 
 caenum, not coenum. 
 
 N 
 
 caerimonia and caeremimia, not 
 cer-. 
 
 caesaries, not cesariss. 
 
 caespes, better than cespes. 
 
 caestus, not cestus. 
 
 Camena, not Camoewa. 
 
 cena, not coenct, though this mis- 
 spelling was of early date (eh. 
 ii. § 10). 
 
 ceieri, not caeteri. 
 
 claudo, not dudo. 
 
 clipms: clupeus is the older 
 spelling. 
 
 comminus,not cominus'^cix.il. i 10). 
 
 condido, better than conditio. 
 
 conecto, coniior, coniveo, conubium, 
 better than connecio, &c. 
 
 conjunx, better than conjux. 
 
 contio, not concio (ch. ii. § 10). 
 
 convidum, not convitium. 
 
 cottidie and cotidie, not quoiidie. 
 
 ciitteus, not culeus. 
 
 damnwm, not (iowipnMm. 
 
 deliro, better than diiero (ch. ii. 
 § 10). 
 
 dido, better than diiio. 
 
 dinosco : dignosco is the older 
 spelling. 
 
 dissipo : dissupo is the older spell- 
 ing (ch. il. § 15). 
 
 disHiiguo, not distingo. 
 
 elegans, better than eligans. 
 
 emptus, &c., not emtus, &c. 
 
 2 
 
i8o 
 
 List of Spellings. 
 
 [app. b 
 
 epistvla, better than epistola. 
 ems, better than herus. 
 existimo (see aestimo). 
 exsanguis, exscindo, &o., better 
 
 than exanguis, excindo. 
 facinorosus, better than facinerosus. 
 faemua, and /enits. 
 faemum, and /mum, not /oenMm. 
 feawnAus, not/oec«ndMS. 
 femina, not foemina. 
 fetus, not foetus, 
 frenum, not fraenum. 
 futtUis, better than futilis. 
 gmetivus, better than genitiims. 
 genetrix, better than genitrix. 
 gleba and glaeba. 
 Hadria, not Adria. 
 haedus, not hedus. 
 harena, probably better than 
 
 arena (oh. ii. § lo). 
 harundo, probably better than 
 
 antndo. 
 hantspex, probably better than 
 
 aru^ex. ■. 
 hedera, better than edera. 
 heUuo, better than hduo. 
 heres, not haeres, nor eres. 
 hiems, better than hiemps. 
 holus and olus. 
 hardeum, not -ium. 
 Uico, not illico, 
 incUtus, and indutus (older) ; not 
 
 ittdytus (oh. i. § 6). 
 incoho and inchoo. 
 indutiae, not -doe. 
 infitiae, not -due. 
 inteUego, better than intelligo. 
 jucundus, better th&njocundus. 
 Jvppiter, better than Jupiter, 
 lacrima, and lacmma (older) : not 
 
 lachriTna, nor lachryma, nor 
 
 laaryma (ch. i. § 6). 
 libet : lubet is the older spelling. 
 littera. better than Utera. 
 
 litus, better than littus. 
 
 maereo, maeslus, not moereo, 
 
 moestus. 
 maleoolus, &c., probably better 
 
 than malivolus, &c. 
 manifestus : manufestus is the 
 
 older spelling (oh. ii. § 15). 
 mercennarius, not mercenarius. 
 milia, not millia (ante-class.) 
 
 (ch. ii. § 9). 
 mixtus, not mistus. 
 monumentum and mcnimmlum. 
 miUta : mulcta is the old spelling. 
 murena, probably better than 
 
 muraena. 
 nactus and nanctus. 
 namis, better than gnavus (older), 
 n? 'verily,' better than nae (ch. 
 
 ix. § 16). 
 neglego, better than negligo. 
 negoUum, not negocium. 
 nenia, not naenia. 
 nequiquam and neguicquam. 
 twvidus, not namiius. 
 nummus, better than numus. 
 nuntio, not nuncio (oh. ii. § 10). 
 oboedio, not dbedio. 
 obscenus, better than obscaenus : 
 
 not obscoeriMs. 
 onustus, better than honustus. 
 otium, not ocium. 
 padex and pelex, not pellex. 
 Padigni, not Peligni. 
 paene, not pene nor poem, 
 paenitet, not penitet, nov poenitet. 
 paulum; paullum is the older 
 
 spelling. 
 percontar, probably better than 
 
 percunctor. 
 perennis, not peremnis. 
 pemicies, not pemities (p. 60). 
 pilleus, better than pileus. 
 Pollio and Polio, 
 pomerium, better than pomoerium. 
 
APP. b] 
 
 List of Spellings. 
 
 ,i8i 
 
 Voniifex; pontufex is the older 
 
 spelling. 
 praesepe, better than praesaepe. 
 prelum, not praelum. 
 pretium, not precium. 
 proelium, not praelivm. 
 proscaenium, probably better than 
 
 proscenium, 
 pulcher, superseded puker (ch. i. 
 
 §6). 
 qucettuor, better than quatuar. 
 quoties : quotiens is the older 
 
 spelling. 
 raeda, better than reda : not rh-, 
 Baetia, not Rhaetia. 
 reoMdi, not recidi. 
 recipero : recwpero is the older 
 
 spelling. 
 religio : relUgio is the older 
 
 spelling. 
 rdiquiae ; relliquiae is the older 
 
 spelling. 
 repperi, r^pidi, rettuli, not reperi, 
 
 repuli, retuli (oh. vi. § lo). 
 restinguo, not -go. 
 saeadum, not seculum. 
 saepes, saepio, better than sep-. 
 saeta, better than seta, 
 sario, not sarrio. 
 satira and satwra (older) : not 
 
 satyra. 
 scaena, better than scena (p. 13 ».). 
 s^pulorum., better than sepulchrum 
 
 (ch. ii. § 10). 
 sescenti, better than sexcenii. 
 sHius, not secius. 
 solacium, not solatium. 
 
 soUemnis, not sollennis, nor sol- 
 
 lempnis. 
 sollers, not solers. 
 sollicHo, not sdidto. 
 spatiwm, not -cium. 
 stilus, not stylus, 
 subdes, not soboles. 
 sucus, better than sucats. 
 sulphur and sulpur, not sulfur 
 
 (ch. ii. § 6). 
 siiscenseo, better than succenseo. 
 suspicio, better than suspitio. 
 taeter, not teter. 
 temno, not tempno. 
 iempto, better than tento. 
 thesaurus ; thensaurus is the older 
 
 spelling. 
 Thrax and Thraex. 
 tingo and tinguo, 
 
 toties : totiens is the older spelling. 
 transmitto, &o., and tramitto, &c. 
 tus, better than thus (ch. i. § 6). 
 umerus, better than humerus, 
 umor, umidus, better than humor, 
 
 humidus (ch. ii. § 10). 
 unguo and ungo. 
 valitado, not valiiudo. 
 Yergilius, not Virgilius (late), 
 
 (cf. p. 10 n.). 
 Verginius, not Virginius (late). 
 vertex; vortex is the older spelling. 
 vicesimUtS, commoner than vige- 
 
 simus. 
 victima : victuma is the older 
 
 spelling (ch. ii. § 15). 
 vilicus, not vHUgus (ante-class.) 
 
 (eh. ii. § 9). 
 
 (For details about these spellings the student should consult 
 Georges, Lexikon der Laieinischen Wortformen, Leipzig, 1889; Brambach, 
 Riilfsbuchkin fur Lateinische Bechtschreibung, third ed., Leipzig, 1884^; 
 or the larger work by the same author, Die Neu^/estaMung der Latei- 
 nischen Orthographie, Leipzig, 1868. The spelling of Quintilian's 
 time should be our model.) 
 
APPENDIX C 
 
 LIST OF ' HIDDEN ' QUANTITIES. (See p. lo on ns, nf.) 
 
 abUgnvs. 
 
 OcMs (P. P. P. & Noun). 
 
 aliorsum (for oKoBorsinn). 
 
 ardeo (Cf. aricius), 
 
 bttshtm. 
 
 ccdlsco, and other ' Inceptives ' of 
 
 a Conj. Verbs. 
 catllla (Dim. of catena). 
 chirSrgus (Gk. xupovpy6i). 
 (Anctus. 
 
 compsi, 
 
 conjunx. 
 
 coniio (probably). 
 
 corolla (Dim. of corona). 
 
 crastinus (from eras). 
 
 crisco. 
 
 cnspus. 
 
 cimdMS. 
 
 dixi, dictus. 
 
 dignus (probably). 
 
 duxi (probably), diicius. 
 
 esca. 
 
 Etruseus (cf. Etruria). 
 
 exlsHmo (from ex and aestimo, as 
 
 exasus from ex and caeaus). 
 exsSnctus. 
 festus (otfsriae), 
 flxus. 
 fictus. 
 Jlictus. 
 
 flosculus (Dim. of ^5s). 
 frdngo, fractus. 
 frUstra (tromfraus). 
 functus, 
 fiirtim, fHirUims, furtum (from /«!»•). 
 
 georgicus (Gk. •/eaipyiK6s). 
 
 Mstemus. 
 
 ilUx, lawless (but ilVSx, alluring) . 
 
 intrarmm (for intrmareMm). 
 
 junxi, jimdus. 
 
 jurgo (older jurigo, from jus and 
 
 ago). 
 Justus (from jus) 
 Idrdum (older la/ridum). 
 larva (older lama, trisyll.). 
 laMna (older lavcUrina). 
 latro, I bark. 
 
 Uctor, 
 
 luctor. 
 
 liictus (cf. lugeo). 
 
 lustrum, expiation. 
 
 lux, 
 
 maUe (older mavelle). 
 
 Manlius (from Mdnius). 
 
 Marcus, MdrceUus, &c. 
 
 Mars (cf. Mavors). 
 
 massa (Gk. /«Sfo). 
 
 mercinnarius (for *merad noriijs). 
 
 mille. 
 
 mUvus (older rmlu,os, trisyll.). 
 
 mUseulus (Dim. of mus). 
 
 ndscai: 
 
 nejastus (from/os). 
 
 nolle (from *ii,meUe, ch. vi. § 23). 
 
 riondum (of. nan)'. 
 
 nongenti (from * novengenti). 
 
 nonne, nonnuUi (cf. imn). 
 
 nosco. 
 
 nuUus (see ullus). 
 
 nUndinae (older noundinae). 
 
App. c] List of ' Hidden ' Quantities. 183 
 
 nOntius (from nmentius). 
 
 soisco. 
 
 nutrio. 
 
 ecripium. 
 
 osmium, osdUum (Dim. of 5^. 
 
 slgnis. 
 
 ostium (cf. 5s). 
 
 semMstris, (from minsis). 
 
 PaeRgnus. 
 
 sesqui- ,(from sSmisque). 
 
 pcduster {,from palus). 
 
 sestertius (from slmis). 
 
 pasco, pasius, pastor. 
 
 Sestius. 
 
 ptstor. 
 
 signum (probably). 
 
 pUhs. 
 
 sistrum (Gk. auarpov). 
 
 pUctt-um (Gk. w\^xTpov). 
 
 solstitium (of. sol). 
 
 PoUio. 
 
 stagnum. 
 
 prlndo (older prehendo). 
 
 stUla. 
 
 pnnceps (of. primus). 
 
 suisco. 
 
 prUcus, pnstinus. 
 
 sumpsi, sumptus. 
 
 privUgnus. 
 
 mrsum. 
 
 prompsi, prompius. 
 
 lacius. 
 
 prorsus (older provorsus). 
 
 texi, tlctus. 
 
 publious, Publius (from pubes). 
 
 trisiis. 
 
 purgo (older purigo, from purus 
 
 uUus (Dim. of unus). 
 
 and ago). 
 
 ultra, aitimus. 
 
 qudrtus. 
 
 imguo, unctus. 
 
 quiisco. 
 
 iissi, usius. 
 
 gulnque, guinius, quindedm, &c. 
 
 Usque. 
 
 qu^rsus (older quovorsus). 
 
 usurpo (older "usuripo). 
 
 rostrum (from rado). 
 
 vallum. 
 
 rexi, rictus. 
 
 vasmlum (Dim. of vas). 
 
 rignum. 
 
 vastus. 
 
 rsx. 
 
 vendo (cf. vmum do). 
 
 rosddus (from ros). 
 
 vSmus (from ver). 
 
 rostrum (from rodo),. 
 
 mctus, victor. 
 
 ructo. 
 
 viOa. 
 
 rursus (from re-vorsus). 
 
 vlndemia (from mnum and 
 
 rusticus (from rus). 
 
 Vipsaniu£. 
 
 sancius. 
 
 mscus. 
 
 sclpirum (Gk. OKqinpov). 
 
 mxi. 
 
 (For the evidence of these quantities, the student may consult 
 Marx, HiUfsbuchleinfur ctie AusspracheLateinischer Vokale in Positionslangen 
 Silben, seconded., Berlin, 1889, a book to be used with great caution ; 
 GrSber, Vulgdrlateinische Substrata Bomanischer Warier, a series of 
 articles in the Archiv fur Ldteinische Lexikographie, vols, i-iv ; also 
 Christiansen, De Apidbus et I longis inscripUonum Latinaium, Kiel, 1889. 
 The weakening of a vowel in Composition is a proof that the vowel 
 was short, for long vowels were not affected by loss of accent (p. 31). 
 Thus inermis attests arma, infringo attests /rango, &c.) 
 
INDEX 
 
 A, pronunciation, g ; phonetic 
 
 changes, 148 sq. 
 -a, shortening of, 35. 
 a, ah, abs, Prep., 128. 
 abego for abigo, 33. 
 Ablative (see Declension). 
 Ablaut (see Gradation). 
 absque, 128. 
 ac (see atque). 
 aecedo for aocido, 33. 
 Accentuation, 22 sqq. 
 Accheruns, Plaut., 16. 
 Aocius, doubling of vowel, 7 ; gg, 
 
 7- 
 Aocusative (see Declension). 
 Ackivi, 31. , 
 
 Active, endings (see Verb). 
 actuium, xa$. 
 Acute Accent, 22. 
 
 ad, Prep., 129. 
 adco, Adv., 123. 
 Adjective, 63 sqq. 
 Adverbs, 118 sqq. 
 adversus (-m). Prep., iig. 
 
 ae, pronunc. of, 12. 
 aedes, 42, 153. 
 aegrotus, 151. 
 aenus, 52. 
 aequipero, 33. 
 
 -aes in Gen. Sg., 46. 
 
 aes, 52. 
 
 aetas, 29. 
 
 of. Prep., 129. 
 
 affaiim, 119. 
 
 agisr, 149. 
 
 Agma, 7. 
 
 ogntts, 157. 
 
 ojfricoto, 40. 
 
 Agrigefniuim, 34. 
 
 AI (see Diphthongs). 
 
 -ai of Gen., Dat. Sg., 43 sq. 
 
 ctjo, 115 ; fflj'n, pronunc. of, 12. 
 
 aZa, 158. 
 
 alacer, 33. 
 
 .4Zcwme7M, 27. 
 
 oZios, Adv., 122. 
 
 aUenns, 83. 
 
 cdioqui (-»), 145. 
 
 aHorsMm, 119. 
 
 aliquis, 82. 
 
 -ait's (see Suffix -LI-). 
 
 alius, 83. 
 
 Alphabet, i sqq. 
 
 aiter, 67, 83 ; -l«s. Gen., 77 n. 
 
 alternis, Adv., 123. 
 
 alterufer, 84. 
 
 aZiririsecus, 29. 
 
 alumnus, 106. 
 
 am-. Prep., 129. 
 
 ambages, 61 n., 149. 
 
 ambi-, Prep., 129. 
 
 ambo, 37. 
 
 amoe«MS, 12. 
 
 fflmpAorMm (Gen. PI.}, 46. 
 
 an, Conj., 141. 
 
 attr, Prep., 129. 
 
 Anaptyxis (see Parasitic 
 
 Vowel). 
 anciUa, 26. 
 anhelo, 34, 129. 
 animal; 52. 
 anquiro, 129. 
 anfe, antes, 129. 
 antennae, anfestan, 129. 
 
i86 
 
 Index. 
 
 anticus, antiq;ims, 165. 
 
 amiistxs, lag, 
 
 Aorist (see Tense-Stems). 
 
 aperio, 128. 
 
 Apex, over long vow., 7. 
 
 apiscor, aptus, 115. 
 
 Apocope, a8. 
 
 Appius (see Claudius). 
 
 apud, lag. 
 
 or for ad, Prep., arfari, arfuerunt, 
 
 arvena, 19. 
 arboretum, arbustum, 165. 
 ardeo, ardus, 29. 
 artaena, 29. 
 Article, Def., 23. 
 artus, a limb, 57. 
 arvum, 162. 
 -as, e. g. nostras, 28. 
 -as. Gen. Sg., 43. 
 asp- for a6sp-, e. g. asporto, 158. 
 Aspirates, Grk. in Lat. orthogr., 
 
 6, 15 sq. ; pronunc. of, 16. 
 Assimilation, of Frep. in Comp. 
 
 Vb., 158. 
 -asso, -assim, Vb.-formsin, joo, 102. 
 ast, 139. 
 -aster, e. g. peditaster (see Suffix 
 
 -TERO-). 
 at, Conj., 138. 
 Athematic, Oonjug., 86. 
 atque {ac), 20, 28, 137. 
 atqui (-to), 139, 145. 
 ATI, pronunc. of, 12 ; phonetic 
 
 changes, 153. 
 0M-, Prep., 128. 
 am^s, 26. 
 audacter (-Jtec), 121. 
 audeo, sg. 
 ave (see have), 
 augeo, 153. 
 aWa {plla), 159. 
 a2<s- (os-) in oseulwm, &c., 151, 
 a«f, 138. 
 auteim, 139. 
 OMtor for -c<-, 21. 
 autemo, 26. 
 
 Auxiliary yerbs, accent of, 24. 
 awsilla, 159. 
 ammadus, aunc-, 16 n. 
 
 B, pronunc, 16 ; phon. changes, 
 156. 
 
 baUaena, 16, 
 
 &a2n«um, baZt'n-, 30. 
 
 barca, 30. 
 
 beUum, 0. Lat. ditsllum, 155. 
 
 6e»c, 175 ; -e, 35. 
 
 BH, phon, changes of, 156. 
 
 -bi of ibi, &c., 123. 
 
 M60, 156 ; -i, Perf., 170. 
 
 bicorpqr, 168. 
 
 -&i.'8s (see Suffix -DHLO-). 
 
 bis, 67. 
 
 i>ont(s, 0. Lat. duonus, 155. 
 
 60s, 56. 
 
 -lira (see Suffix -DHKO-). 
 
 bracchium, 16. 
 
 Breves Breviantes, 34 sqq. 
 
 brevis, 64. 
 
 Broken Beduplication, 168. 
 
 Bruges for Pkryg-, 16. 
 
 -ftram (see Suffix -DHKO-). 
 
 bs, pronunc. of, 21. 
 
 bucetum, 165. 
 
 -6td«m (see Suffix -DHLO-). 
 
 -bundus, e.g. erra!>un(2!<s, no. 
 
 buxU:S, 6. 
 
 O, the letter, 3; pronunc, 13, 17. 
 
 C. for centum, 3 m. ; for Gaius, 6. 
 
 cacZaver, 106. 
 
 Caecilius, Ceo-, 13. 
 
 caeleb^, 51. 
 
 coelscolum, Gen. PI., 46. 
 
 calamitas, kad-, 19. 
 
 caZcor, 52. 
 
 calda/rius, 29. 
 
 caZiiits for -K(J-, 27, 30. 
 
 calefado, calf-, 27, 35. 
 
 calumnia, calvor, 163. 
 
 caix, lime, 6. 
 
 Camjjans for -kms, 27. 
 
 campester, 164. 
 
 canes, Nom. Sg., 61 «. 
 
 cano, cecini, 170. 
 
 canorws, 164. 
 
 capesso, 17a. 
 
 copio, cepi, 171. 
 
 cordjts for -duus, 30. 
 
 caro, flesh, 53. 
 
 Cases (see Declension). 
 
 catus, 107. 
 
 Catullus on Arrius, 16, 
 
 causa, -ssa, 20. ' 
 
Index. 
 
 187 
 
 Causative 'Vbs., 89. 
 
 wxeo, cavi, 170 ; cautum, 13. 
 
 camts, 15a. 
 
 -ce, Particle, 79. 
 
 Ceciliiis for Caec-, 13. 
 
 cSdo, 103. 
 
 -ceZ2o, 108. 
 
 celo, 88. 
 
 cena, -oe-, 22. 
 
 -ce»jdi, Perf., 170. 
 
 centum, 67. 
 
 cereftruBj, 164. 
 
 cemo, crevij 172, 
 
 cerax (Sg., Piur.), 42. 
 
 ceterum, Conj., 139 ; ceteroqui (-«), 
 
 145- 
 -ceium (see Suffix -TO-). 
 ceu, 141. 
 
 ■cfi- (Gk. x), -cuA-, Plaut., 16. 
 Change of TJnaccented Vowel 
 
 (see Weakening). 
 Chi (see Aspirates). 
 -ci- and -fi-, 17. 
 circum, -a, Prep., 129 sq. ; circiter, 
 
 , ISO- 
 Circumflex Accent, 22. 
 ds (dtra), 130. 
 eitus,' 107 ; -io, Adv., 35. 
 -d- for -tU, 156. 
 dades, 108. 
 
 ctem (ctoncMJttm), dandestinus, 130. 
 Claudius (App.), reforms alph., 
 
 S ; (Emp.), reforms alph., 7. 
 claudo, 154. 
 c2ams, 154. 
 diens, 51. 
 C2o(2it(s, 13 n. 
 Close Syll., quant, of vowel, 
 
 App. C. 
 -dum (-culum) (see Suffix -L0-) . 
 On. for Onaeus, 6. 
 -co ofalbico, &c., 173. 
 coma (see mtcci). 
 coei^io, 115 ; -ptus sum, 95. 
 cosro, 151. 
 collis, 159. 
 
 coiJwm, 159 ; gender of, 41. 
 colonia, 161. 
 coluber, 33. 
 co!m™ms, ,19. 
 co!ms, 47. 
 com- (cum). Prep., 130. 
 
 comes, 51. 
 
 comJwmMs, -m-, 22, 120. 
 como, -mpsi, 171 «. 
 Comparison, of Adj., 64 sqq. 
 Compensation, length by, 159. 
 compitum, 33. 
 
 Compounds (Koun and Adj.), 
 168 ; (Verb) 173 ; Separable, 
 
 34- 
 coneeto, coniior, comMum, spelling 
 
 of, 20, 
 Conjugations (see Verb). 
 Conjunctions^ 136 sqq. 
 cf^nsoribillo, 173, 
 Consonant, pronunc, of, 13 sqq.; 
 
 lost in group, 157. 
 contio, 54. 
 contra, 130. 
 controversia, 123. 
 contiibemium, 33. 
 contumeiia factum itur, 104 n. 
 copia, 151. 
 copula, 151. 
 cor, 52. 
 coram, 131. 
 corbus for corvus, 16. 
 corauc, 166. 
 carrots, cornel, 156. 
 corona, spelling of, 16. 
 cos, 107. 
 
 cosentiont, Scipio Spit., 112. 
 cottidie, 83. 
 couentionid, 54. 
 cra^nus, 162. 
 crates, 148. 
 crebesco for -6r-, 18. 
 credo, 172. 
 cresco, -m, 172. 
 -euU, 80. 
 cuc2o, -(ij, 170. 
 cuicuimodi, 77. 
 cuj'us, Poss., 72. 
 -culi, Perf., 170. 
 -cuto-, Dim. (see Suffix -L0-). 
 cum Prep, (see com); Conj. (see 
 
 quum) ; the spelling, 21. 
 cunae, 153. 
 -c«mit«s^ no. 
 -c«?i5Me, 137. 
 cupressus, 6. 
 cwr, T41. 
 curroj cucurri, cec-, 99. 
 
i88 
 
 Index. 
 
 D, phon. changes of, 156 ; final, 
 after long tow., 20. 
 
 -d, Abl., 45. 
 
 daeruma, 0. Lat. for lotaruma, 19. 
 
 -dam of quidam, &c., 8j. 
 
 damnum, 163. 
 
 <ianMn<, 112. 
 
 Dative (see Declension). 
 
 dattUa, 19. 
 
 rfe, Prep., 131, 
 
 deabus, 45. 
 
 debeo, 17. 
 
 debilito, 26. 
 
 decern, 67. 
 
 decimanMS, 163. 
 
 Declension (Noun, Adj.), 37 
 sqq. ; (Pron.), 69 sqq. 
 
 decoTMS, 164. 
 
 Defective Ifouns, 39. 
 
 degener, 168. 
 
 Degrees of Compar. (see Com- 
 parison). 
 
 deinceps, 120. 
 
 deinde (dein), 123. 
 
 delenio, 34. 
 
 deliro, 22. 
 
 -(iem of i&JB, &c., 76. 
 
 demo, -psi, 171. 
 
 Demonstratives, 73 sqq. 
 
 demum, 120. 
 
 Denominative (see Derivative). 
 
 dens, 107. 
 
 Dentals (see D, T, TH). 
 
 denHo, 93. 
 
 denuo, 34. 
 
 Deponents, 94 sqq. 
 
 Derivative Verbs, 93. 
 
 Desideratives, 93. 
 
 desitiis sum, with Pass. Inf., 95. 
 
 deits, 155 ; Voc, 48. 
 
 dexter, 65. 
 
 DH, phon. changes of, 156. 
 
 dicis, Gen., 39. 
 
 dJco, Imper., 28 ; -xi, 171. 
 
 dies, pronunc, 10 ; gend., 40 ; 
 dec!., 60. 
 
 IHespiier, decl. of, 56. 
 
 dilexi, Perf., 171 «. 
 
 dimico, 33. 
 
 dimidius, 66. 
 
 Diminutives, 164 sq. 
 
 dingua, 0. Lat. for iinffwa, 19. 
 
 dinus for dimnus, 26. 
 
 IMoDem, 56. 
 
 Diphthongs, pronunc, 12 sq. ; 
 
 phon. changes ot^ 152. 
 dis-. Prep., 131. 
 disco, d/idici, 170. 
 Dissimilation of I, /, 18. 
 dissipo, spelling of, 33. 
 Distributives (see Numerals). 
 diutimis, 162. 
 dives, dis, Compar., 66. 
 Division of Syll., rg. 
 dimts (cf. deus), 155. 
 dixo, loi. 
 -do of condo, 116. 
 do, I give, decl. of, 116; datus, 
 
 154- 
 doceo, 89. 
 
 domntts for dominus, 30. 
 domits, decl. of, 41. 
 donee, -icum, -igue, 142. 
 donum, 154. 
 (Jos, 151. 
 Double Cons., pronunc. of, 19 ; 
 
 written, 7 ; at end of word, 20 ; 
 
 Vow., 7. 
 Doublets, 20. 
 drachuma, 27 ; drachmum (Gen. 
 
 PL), 46. 
 Dropping (see Loss). 
 Dual, traces of, 37. 
 ducentum, 0. Lat., 67 re. 
 duco, Imper., 28; -xi, 171. 
 duettum, 155. 
 Dvenos Inscr., App. A. 
 dius, 0. Lat. for bis, 155. 
 duim, loi. 
 dum, 142. 
 dummodo, 144. 
 dumus, 152. 
 duo, 67. 
 
 dMonits, 155 ; dMo»oro(m), 49 n. 
 -dus, e. g, pciUidus, 90. 
 
 B, phon. changes of, 149 sq. ; for 
 ae, 12. 
 
 -S, loss of, 28. 
 
 -5 of Adv., 120. 
 
 e, ex. Prep., 131. 
 
 B-grade of Boot (see Grada- 
 tion). 
 
 eadem, Adv., 123. 
 
Index. 
 
 189 
 
 ecce, ecceire, ecmm, 147. 
 
 ecquis, 83. 
 
 Ecthlipsis, 157 sqq. 
 
 eons for equus, 21. 
 
 edo, decl., 116; 5i», 170; edim, 
 
 lOI. 
 
 ego, 6g. 
 
 EI, phon. changes of, 153 ; for 
 
 «. 7- 
 -ela (see SufSx -L0-). 
 elego, 33. 
 e!eme«i«m, 33. 
 -His (see Suffix -I-). 
 Elision, of -m, 36 ; -s, 36 «. (see 
 
 Hiatus). 
 eHum, 147. 
 
 -em- for I.-Eur. «m, 155. 
 em, Interj., 147. 
 em, ' eum,' 80. 
 emwMs, 120. 
 emo, emi, empsi, 171 m. 
 -enrfMs, -wndws (see G-erund). 
 -e«- for I.-Eur. »n, 155. 
 en, Interj., 147. 
 Enclitics, 23 sqq. 
 endo, indu, 132. 
 enim, 140. 
 
 Ennius, double cons., 7." 
 enos, Oarm. Arv., 71. 
 -ens, -entia, -entium (see Suffix 
 
 -NT-). 
 -entior, Gompar., 107. 
 enunquam, 147. 
 -enus (see Suffix -NO-), 
 eo. Adv., 123. 
 eo, Vb., 86 ; itum, 154. 
 -er- for j-vowel, 26. 
 -er for -ros, 47 ; for -m, 64. 
 eram, 97. 
 erja, erffo, 131. 
 ero, 97. 
 
 -es, Nouns in, 61. 
 -SsimMS, -emumMS, 67. 
 -esso, Vb.-forms in, 172. 
 (e)s<, (e)s, Procope of, 23. 
 -esfec (see Suffix -TERO-J. 
 e(, Conj., 137. 
 Eta (Gk.), Lat. ae, 13 n. 
 efcm, 138. 
 eto', 144. 
 
 -etum, e. g. arioreium, 165. 
 ETT, phon. changes, 153. 
 
 -eus, -eum (see Suffix -I0-). 
 
 -ex ofremex, &c., 33, 173. 
 
 exemo, 33. 
 
 eximtus, 106. 
 
 eipers, 33. 
 
 explenunt, 112. 
 
 ex^eguios to, 105. 
 
 'extem.plo,_i24. 
 
 extra, 132. 
 
 E, the letter, 3 sq. ; pronunc, 
 
 17 ; from I.-Eur. bh, dh, gh 
 
 (see BH, DH, GH). 
 facesso, 172. 
 fades, 60. 
 facilis, faml, 121 ; facillimus, 65 ; 
 
 faeilumed, S. C. Baech., 122. 
 faoio, 116; jtao, loi ; fac, 28; /eci, 
 
 171. 
 /amWas, 26. 
 faculter, 121,- 
 /fflcitJMjMS, no. 
 /ama, 148. 
 fames, 61. 
 
 familia, 33 ; -as, Gen., 43. 
 famul ior famulus, 47 ». 
 -fariam, 122. 
 fatum, 108. 
 fecundus, no. 
 /efes, 61 ». 
 femina, 163. 
 
 Feminine (see Gender). 
 femur, decl. of, 39. 
 -fendo, Vb., -(2i, Perf., 170. 
 fere,ferme, 122. 
 /eriae, 34. 
 /«•«>, percMssij 115. 
 /ero, 116; Imper., 103 ; Mi, 99, 
 
 115- 
 ferveo {-vo), 91 ; -ftw', 16. 
 /es<MS, 34. 
 J56e»-, 156. 
 fides, 61. 
 
 Fifth Bed., 59 sqq. 
 figo, -xi, 171. 
 figwra, 93. 
 
 jSKms, 34 ; filiabus, 45. 
 Final, Cons., 36 «. ; Vow., 34 
 
 sqq. 
 flndo,fidi, 170. 
 .^nffo, -mxi, 171. 
 ^m'fimMS, 65. 
 
190 
 
 Index. 
 
 flo, 96, 115 ; fieri, 96. 
 flagro, 149. 
 flavus, i6a, 
 fluo, -xi, 172. 
 fodico, 173. 
 fodio,fodi, 170. 
 faros, /oris, 123. 
 forces, 26. 
 forem, 102. 
 
 /ormosits, (-ss-), 20, 167. 
 farmus, 26. 
 /oj-s, 156 ; /orte, 39. 
 fortasse, 124 ». 
 /oriis, O. Lat. /orcitjs, 108. 
 Fourth Bed., 57 sqq. 
 frcmgo, 149 ; ^ejj, 171. 
 f rater, 156. 
 FrequentatiTes, 88, 
 frigdaria, 29. 
 /rugi, frugalior, 66. 
 fruor, fructus sum, 172. 
 fuam, 102. 
 ^ffct, iSo. 
 fugio,fugi, 170. 
 /Mi, 97. 
 /idjeo (-ffo), 91. 
 /i(2m(S, 162. 
 /u»!us, 156. 
 
 J'Mn(fe(ni«s, 6k. mispron. of, 17. 
 funditus, 119, 
 fundOjfudi, 170. 
 funera necfunera, 146. 
 fungar, 92. 
 fwnms, 162. 
 Jteti for JVni, 157 n. 
 Future, 97 ; Put. Perf., 100 ; 
 Put. Imperat., 103. 
 
 Or, letter, 5 ; pronunc, 13, 17 sq. ; 
 
 phon. changes, 157 ; written 
 
 forn, 7. 
 Gains, 6. 
 gavdeo, 17a. 
 
 Gender, 40 sq. ; in Adj., 63 sq. 
 gmetrix, 33. 
 
 Oenitlve (see Declension). 
 geno for gigno, 93. 
 gens, sin. 
 genus, 150. 
 Gerund, 108 sqq. 
 -gg-, written for ng, 7. 
 GH, phon. changes of, 157. 
 
 gigno, 96 ; geno, 93. 
 
 glosa, spelling of, 20. 
 
 Ctnaeus, 6. 
 
 gnarvris, 106 n. 
 
 jr»iaft<s {nat-^, 157. 
 
 -jKtts (see Suffix -NO-). 
 
 Gradation of Vowels, 154. 
 
 gradus, 149. 
 
 granum, 148. 
 
 jr?-afe's (-Ms), 15, 123. 
 
 gravis, 166. 
 
 Greek, Aspirates (see Asp.) ; 
 Loan-words, parasitic vow., 27 ; 
 for nuances of feeling, 64 ; for 
 exclamations, 147 ; Mispro- 
 nunc. of Lat., 17, ign.; Ortho- 
 graphy, influence on Lat. 7. 
 
 giibemo, 3 n., 6. 
 
 gurgvKo, 168 n. 
 
 Gutturals, letters, 3 sqq. ; phon. 
 changes, 156. 
 
 H, pronunc. of, t6 ; dropped bet. 
 
 vowels, 17 ; from I.-Eur. gh 
 
 (see GH). 
 haereo, -si, 171 ; -smrus, 108. 
 hah, 149. 
 
 hawd, 146 ; hau, 20. 
 haiM, pronunc. of, 35. 
 haurio, -si, 171 ; -surus, 108. 
 hdvus, i6a. 
 hem, 147. 
 heri, 155. 
 Heterodlte, Nouns, 38 ; Verbs, 
 
 115 ; Comparison, 65. 
 hie, Pron., decl. of, 74 ; pronunc, 
 
 ao ; hoc, pronunc, 20. 
 hie, Adv., 78, 123. 
 Hidden Quantity, App. C. 
 hilaris, 64. 
 hoc, Adv., 75, 123. 
 hoccine, 20, 31. 
 homo (hem-), 53. 
 fionorus, 164. 
 hordeum, 158, 
 hortor, 95. 
 hoboes, 26. , 
 hosHcapas, 43. 
 hostis, 157. 
 hiui. Adv., 123. 
 humerus (see urn-). 
 
Index. 
 
 191 
 
 I, tall form, 7 ; doubled in aiio, 
 &c., 7 n. ; symbols of long, 7 ; 
 pronunc, 9 sq. ; phon. changes, 
 150 ; Lat. i for atonic vow., 
 30 ; for S bef. nff, 33. 
 
 I-stems, mixed with Cons;- 
 stems, 51 (see Suffix -I-'). 
 
 I-Subjunotive (Opt.), loi sq. 
 ibi, 123. 
 
 -8C of iffic, &c., 125. 
 
 -IciMS, -\(Ms (see Suffix -K0-). 
 
 idcirco, 130. 
 
 idem, 76. 
 
 ideo, 123. 
 
 idolatria, 26. , 
 
 -jSits, e. g. paUidiis, go, 
 
 -ie(«)s of Numeral Adv., 66. 
 
 igiiur, 140. 
 
 2f)>ms, 158. 
 
 ignosco,' 146 ji. 
 
 -tgio of namjo, &c., 173. 
 
 -iit of abut, &c., iii. 
 
 z'Zicef, 124. 
 
 i7ico, 119. 
 
 ilignus, i6a. 
 
 -iKs, -8»s (see Suffix -I-). 
 
 iliac, Adv., 123. 
 
 ills, 75. 
 
 j/Kx and t'SsB, 11. 
 
 fflic, iffim, Adv., 123. 
 
 -illo of Dim. Vba., 173. 
 
 tHttc, Adv., 123. 
 
 -tm of sensim, &c., 118; of iHJm, 
 &;o., 123. 
 
 im, 'eum,' 80. 
 
 imago, 95. 
 
 tmftor, 95. 
 
 tmmanis, 117. 
 
 immo, 140. 
 
 Imperative, loa sq. 
 
 Imperfect, 97. 
 
 impero, 33. 
 
 Impersonal Pass. , 94 sq. 
 
 implico, 88. 
 
 imprimis, 125. 
 
 improfto, 146 n. 
 
 impune, 121. 
 
 tmtts, inflmus, 65. 
 
 in. Prep., 132; bef. «-,/-, u. 
 
 i«-, Neg-, 146 ; with Verb, 146 n. 
 
 -ina (seeSuffix -NO-). 
 
 incassum, 125. 
 
 Inceptives, 90. 
 
 incesso, 17a. 
 
 incestus, 33. 
 
 incipisso, 172. 
 
 iMc!M<Ms i-lii-), 108 ; spelling of, 6. 
 
 incolomis, the spelling, 33. 
 
 ijicMmcerm'cMm pecijs, Pacuv., 169. 
 
 I'rec^awifio, 132. 
 
 inde, 123. 
 
 Indefinite Pronouns, 80 sqq. 
 
 indu (see entZo). 
 
 indugredior, induperator, 26. 
 
 Infinitive, 103 sqq. 
 
 infli, n6. 
 
 inflteor, 146 «. 
 
 infltias ire, los. 
 
 im/ra, 132 ; ijt^mMS, imMs, 65. 
 
 ingens, 108. 
 
 i»Kx, 33 (see iZfea;). 
 
 in^uam, 115. 
 
 inseguo, -co, 115. 
 
 instar, 39. 
 
 Instrumental, 37. 
 
 iMfeger, 32. 
 
 inteUigo, -lexi, 171 n. 
 
 iKter, 132. 
 
 Interjections, 147. 
 
 Interrogative, Particles, 141. 
 
 in^a, -tro, 132. 
 
 intrare, 87. 
 
 intrinsecus, 120. 
 
 i«<MS, Adv.. Prep., 132. 
 
 -!»!*s (see Suffix -NO-). 
 
 -ior (see Comparison). 
 
 ijjse, 76 ; isse, 58. 
 
 Irregular Verbs, 115 sqq. 
 
 is, Pron., 76. 
 
 -issimus (see Comparison). 
 
 -isso, Vb., 172. 
 
 istac, istic, istuc, Adv., 123. 
 
 iste, 74. 
 
 -if, 3 Sg. Perf., III. 
 
 item, 139. 
 
 -iter. Adv., lao. 
 
 Iteratives, 88. 
 
 iterum, 121. 
 
 -ifcai (-iWum) (see Suffix -I0-). 
 
 J, pronunc, 13 sqq. ; I.-Eur. Y, 
 
 phon. changes of, 155. 
 jado, jed, 171. 
 jam, 76. 
 
192 
 
 Index. 
 
 JanwaiMS, Jen-, 10 «. 
 jecur, deel. of, 39. 
 jejwnus, jaj-, ion. 
 jiibeo, jussi, 171. 
 juamdus, no. 
 juglans, 47. 
 jugum, 152. 
 -ium, Gen. PL, 54. 
 jung'o, ^noii, 93. 
 juniperus, 47. 
 Juppiter, 56. 
 jurigo, 0. Lat., 27. 
 ji«s(i«s, 165. 
 juveriis, Compar., 66. 
 iMa;to, 132. 
 -uc oicorntx, &c., 166. 
 
 K, the letter, 3, 6 ; phou. changes 
 
 of, 156 sq. 
 K. for Kaeso, 6. 
 
 Ii, pronunc, 18, 26; phon. 
 
 changes, 156 ; for d, 19 ; for 
 
 r, 18 ; for tl-, 136. 
 £ for quinqioaginta, 3 n. 
 Iiabials, phon. changes of, 156. 
 Iiabiovelar Gutturals, 157. 
 labrum, 14 n., 26. 
 lac, lact(e), 52. 
 lacesso, 172. 
 
 lacrima, 19 ; spelling, 6, x6. 
 ?om6ero, 173. 
 tommimi, lamnoi, 27. 
 laniena, 162. 
 larignus, 162. 
 torea (-raa), 15. 
 Xitfona, 167 n. 
 IStus, Adj., 148, 107 ; Part., 
 
 148. 
 Imo, 152 ; -luo in Compds., 34. 
 lawms, 47. 
 2(xu2m, 19. 
 feg'iWm'MS, 65. 
 
 lego, 97 ; Zeffi and -lexi, 1 70. 
 Iiengthening, by Compensation, 
 
 IS9 ; bef. nf, ns, 11. 
 -Ims (,-lentus) (see Suffix -NT-). 
 lentus, 153 n. 
 Xietters (see Alphabet). 
 feft«>» (-ift-), 22. 
 2Ms, 166. 
 -Zj. syncopated after cona., 26. 
 
 libertabus, 45. 
 
 licet, 144. 
 
 Kgiw^'o, 93. 
 
 lingua, 19.' 
 
 ZiriO, ?im, 172, 
 
 linguo, ligui, 170. 
 
 -B- for Id, In, Is, 159 ; pronunc, 
 
 18. 
 Locative (see Declension) ; 
 
 Adv. use of, 37 sq. 
 loeus, -ca Plur., 41 ; 0. Lat. 
 
 stlocus, 157. 
 Iiong Vowel, orth. of, 7. 
 lareola, 13 n. 
 Iioss, of Cons, in Group, 157 
 
 sqq. ; of final syll. in -m, 146 ; 
 
 of final -«, 28. 
 lud (daro), 54. 
 
 Lucretius, use of Compds., 169. 
 luna, 158. 
 
 M. pronunc, 14 ; phon. changes, 
 
 iSS- 
 -m, vow. shortened bef., 36 ; 
 
 final syll. dropped, e. g. 
 
 nihU{um), 146. 
 M for mille, 3 n. 
 M. for Marcits, 7. 
 if', for Manius, 7. 
 macto, 34. 
 magis {mage), 117. 
 magister, 151. 
 Maia, -ii-, 7 n. 
 major, 66. 
 mai«, 35. 
 mdlo, Vb., 117. 
 maJtes, malum, 40. 
 »««««, 54. 
 maneo, -nsi, 171. 
 mam/es<Ms (-nw/-), 33. 
 mamus. Manes, 117. 
 Ma/rdpor, 102. 
 moniiinitcs, 65. 
 Masculine (see Gender). 
 massa, 6. 
 mater, 148. 
 mawJo, 117. 
 maxmi<«, 66. 
 we(Zi<or, 95.' 
 medius, 155. 
 meatus jff2tus, 147. 
 meAercZe, 147. 
 
Index, 
 
 193 
 
 mdifff, 65. 
 
 ■memini, 98. 
 
 memor, 106 n. 
 
 -were (see Suffix -MEN-). 
 
 mens, 51 n. ; -mmte, Adv., iig. 
 
 -mewfetm (see Suffix -TO). 
 
 merfo for -so, 108. 
 
 -mei of egomet, &c., 73. 
 
 Metathesis, 18. 
 
 metus, F. (O. Lat.), 57. 
 
 mms, 72 ; mi, Voc, 73. 
 
 mz7es, scansion of final syll., 20. 
 
 mA'ficte, 44. 
 
 miKe, 67 ; m&'a, spelling of, ao. 
 
 milmis {-uos), 15. 
 
 mina {ffS), 27- 
 
 JUriwervo, 162. 
 
 minisfer, 151. 
 
 minor, minimus, 65. 
 
 mis, Gen., 69. 
 
 miifo, miss, 171. 
 
 modo, 144 ; -0, 35 ; tarn modo 
 (Praen.), 144 n. 
 
 modus in Word-groups, 24, 
 
 tnoneo, 89. 
 
 -monium, -ntonia (see Suffix -I0-). 
 
 Months, Gender of, 40. 
 
 monummtum {-nim-), 33. 
 
 Moods, loi sqq.. 
 
 mordeo, momordi {mem-, 0. Lat.), 
 99. 
 
 morigerus, 47. 
 
 morior, mortuus, 30. 
 
 mors, 156. 
 
 muiceo, -Isi, 158. 
 
 mu^ao, -Isi, 158. 
 
 multus, Comparison, 66. 
 
 munBMr, 168. 
 
 mus, 152. 
 
 Mutation of Vowels (see Grada- 
 tion). 
 
 TS, pronunc, 14; phon. changes, 
 155 ; for nn, 20. 
 
 ITaepor, 102. 
 
 nam, namgue, 140. . 
 
 Names, Proper, 161 ; in -0, 167. 
 
 Nasal, pronunc. (see M, K) ; 
 Gutt. (see g for n) ; Vb.-stem, 
 96 ; 3 Pl.,e. g. danunt, 112. 
 
 natus (ffn,-), 157. 
 
 rumis, 57. 
 
 -nde of unde, &e., 123, 
 
 -ne, Interrog., 141. 
 
 -ne, Affirm., 145. 
 
 nS; Neg., 146. 
 
 nS I'noie), Affirm., 145. 
 
 ra, Neg., 145. 
 
 neimlcc, 156. 
 
 nee, 'non,' 146. 
 
 nee (see nsgue). 
 
 nedum, 145. 
 
 K^as, 146. 
 
 Negatives, 146. 
 
 neglego, 33, 147 ; -xi, 171 ij. 
 
 jiejroiiMm, 147. 
 
 nemo, 17. 
 
 nempe, 140. 
 
 nepKs, 63. 
 
 mguam, Oomparison, 66; no- 
 
 qucUia, 66. 
 ne^w (»i«c), 20, aS. 
 negueo, 146; Kes«inoK<, 112. 
 nequiquam, 83, 146. 
 nescio, 146. 
 Neuter (see Gender) ; in -r, decl. 
 
 of, 39, 
 neuter, 84. 
 neutiquam, 146. 
 n«iie (mew), 145 ; neu, pronunc, 
 
 of, 12. 
 -»/-, lengthening of vow. bef., 
 
 ri. 
 ni, 143. 
 
 nihil {nil), 84, 150. 
 nis, Dat,, Abl., 71, 
 »isi, 143. 
 TCJfor, 96, 
 nix, 51. 
 noc£o, 90. 
 noenum (-ij), 146, 
 jjoto, 117. 
 Nominative (see Declension) ; 
 
 Adv. use of, 120. 
 non, 146. 
 nonne, 141. 
 nanus, 67. 
 ?ios, 71. 
 
 «osco, wopi, 173, 
 Bosfer, 73. 
 
 nostras, &c,, accent of, 22, 28. 
 Noun, 37 sqq. 
 novem, 67. 
 MotJiciMS, 166. 
 
194 
 
 Index. 
 
 Tuamis, 150. 
 
 •max, Adv., 118. 
 
 -ns-, TOW. long before, 1 1 . 
 
 nubes, 61 n. 
 
 nuUus, 84. 
 
 num, 141. 
 
 Numasioi (Praen. fibula), 33. 
 
 Wumber, 41. 
 
 Ifumerals, 66 sqq. 
 
 numerus, 4^. 
 
 nummum, Gen. PI., 49. 
 
 mtwic, 141. 
 
 nuncupo, 33. 
 
 MMndJTMe, 153. 
 
 -nunt, 3 PI., e. g. danunt, i la. 
 
 nun<t2«s, 31. 
 
 nuper, Adv., lai. 
 
 nur2<s, 47. 
 
 mttrix, 153. 
 
 0, prouunc, 8 ; phon. changes, 
 151 ; for e with w, I, 150, 18 ; 
 for au, 12 ; for o«, 153. 
 
 O-stems (see Suffix -0-) ; blend 
 
 with U-stems, 46. 
 -6, shortening of, 35. 
 06 {obs), Prep. , 132. 
 ob ijos sacro, 128. 
 oMier, 124. 
 obju/rgo, 27. 
 oftKf/iscor, -Ksc-, 100. 
 obstelrix, 33. 
 
 obtineo, spelling of, 13a. 
 obviam, 124. 
 occillo, 173. 
 occuZo, 88. 
 occwpo, 33. 
 odor, 66. 
 octo, octavus, 67. 
 oc{ort<s, 164. 
 OE, pronunc, 12 ; spelling, 152. 
 
 (See 01.) 
 offensa, 108. 
 offlcina, 30. 
 
 01, phon. changes of, 153 sq. 
 oinos, 67. 
 
 Oinumama, 33. 
 
 -0!!- from el, 18 ; from »1, 156. 
 
 oleo, 19. 
 
 oKm, 80. 
 
 oliva, 31. 
 
 oUa (cmJo), la, 159. 
 
 0%, 80. 
 
 -o»«s, beside -3, 167. 
 opera, 41. 
 operio, 132. 
 op»|/Zci>ta, 30. 
 Optative, loi sqq. 
 opHmus, 30. 
 opMo, 40. 
 
 -or, e. g. castor (see Suffix -S-). 
 Orthography, 21 sq., App. B. 
 -OS, e. g. 0. Lat. calos, 52. 
 OS, mouth, 151. 
 -osus (see Suffix -WENT-). 
 OTT, phon. changes of, 153 ; for 
 e«, 153. 
 
 P, phon. changes of, 156. 
 
 Facuvius, use of Compds., 169. 
 
 pacmda, 6. 
 
 Palatalizationof Cons, bef.j/, 17, 
 
 palutribes, 61 n. 
 
 pango, pepigi, and pegi, 170 sq. 
 
 papaver, 106 n. 
 
 Fapirius Crassus, his use of r 
 
 for s, 5. 
 Parasitic Vowel, 27. 
 pa/ricidas (0. Lat.), 43. 
 pars, 52 ; partem (Adv.), 122. 
 Participles, 106 sqq. 
 Particles, Conjunctive, 137. 
 parum, parumper, 124. 
 parvus, Comparison, 63. 
 pasco, pavi, 17a. 
 passim, laa. 
 Passive, 94 sqq. 
 passum (miRe), 58. 
 pater, 149 ; p. familias, 43. 
 patronus, 167. 
 
 paufciitim, 122 ; paiAisper, 124. 
 poMper, 33, 47. 
 -pe, Particle, 137. 
 pecto, 172. 
 peditastellus, 164. 
 p«?or, 65. 
 pelagus, 47. 
 pelh, pepvM, 170. 
 penes. Prep., penetro, Vb., pentte, 
 
 Adv., 133. 
 -per, e. g. paidi^er, 124. 
 per. Prep., 34, 133. 
 perceUo, -euZsus, 108. 
 percMssJ, Perf. of ferio, 115. 
 
Index. 
 
 195 
 
 perdo, 133. 
 
 permnis, 33. 
 
 Perfect, 98 ; formation of, 169 
 
 sqq. 
 perftckis, I33- 
 pergo, perrexi, 115. 
 Periphrastic Tenses, 113. 
 perjurus, 133. 
 pemicies and permities, 60. 
 i^erpeTOm, 122. 
 
 Peraoual Pronouns, 69 sqq. 
 Person-endings, no sciq. 
 perstroma, 29. 
 pertjs'ws, 34. 
 pessu/m, 10^. 
 jpeto, -im, 172. 
 Phi (see Aspirates). 
 pSumnoi poploi (Carm. Sal.), 49. 
 pinguis, 64. 
 pinso, -io, 94. 
 pirus, 47. 
 plango, -nxi, 171. 
 ptoijsfrMW, j3to6/rMm, 13 w. 
 i)!e6es, 61. 
 pZecto, 172. 
 pUnvs, 162. 
 -iiZeo, -pJem, 170. 
 pZerwmgue, ^Jents, Adj., 121. 
 pKco, 32. 
 Plinius, 34. 
 Pluperfect, 100. 
 Plural, only (see Number). 
 plus, plurimMS, 66. 
 p6-, Prep., 128. 
 poema, deol. of, 47. 
 poena, 12. 
 pol, 147. 
 2>oIio, 128. 
 poluirum, 128. 
 jjomenum, 133. 
 pone, Prep., 133. 
 pono, is8 ; posui (posim), 172. 
 -i)or for puer, 102. 
 porrigo, porgo, 29 ; poircaii, 115. 
 porrum, 157. 
 portarium, 29. 
 |)osco, ijqposci, 99. 
 Possessive Pron., 72 sq. 
 possum, 117. 
 post, postid, &o. , 133. 
 postridie, 29, 
 Post-tonic Syncope (see Syn- 
 
 cope) ; Vowel-change (see 
 
 Weakening). 
 postumus, 163. 
 potior, Adj. , 66. 
 potis, 120. 
 
 poUs (pofe) SMm, 117. 
 prae, 133 ; prai tet tremonti, Carm. 
 
 Sal., 112. 
 praebeo, 17. 
 praeda, 17. 
 
 Praenestins, tarn modo, 144 ». 
 proes, 32. 
 praesens, 133. 
 praeseriim, 122. 
 praestigiae, 18. 
 2>rae/er, 133. 
 
 prehendo, pri-, 36 ; pren<Jo, 17. 
 premo, -ssi, 171. 
 Prepositions, ia6 sqq. ; written 
 
 with Noun, 24 ; assim. in 
 
 Comp. Vb., 158 ; accent, 24. 
 Present, 96. 
 Pretonio Syncope (see Syncope) ; 
 
 Vowel-change (see Weaken- 
 
 ing\ 
 primus, 67. 
 princes, 26, 31. 
 priscits, 67. 
 pristenus, 142. : 
 prvndois, Carm. Sal., 50. 
 pro, prod-, Prep., 133. 
 pro, Interj., 147. 
 probus, 133. 
 Prooope, (e)st, 23. 
 prodd, 134. 
 procus, 154. 
 prqfestus, 34. 
 proinde, p^oin, 123. 
 promo, prompsi, 171 n. 
 Pronominal, Adv., 123 ; Adj., 
 
 83 sqq. ; Particles, 137, 73, 
 
 79- 
 Pronouns, 69 sqq. 
 Pronunciation, 8 sqq. 
 prope, 134. 
 
 Proper liTames, Italic, 161. 
 Propertius, 33. 
 prqperus, 47. 
 propjjM), 88. 
 propter, 134. 
 prorsus (-m), 120. 
 Prosepnai, 44. 
 
 O 3 
 
196 
 
 Index. 
 
 prosum, Vb., 134. 
 
 proUnua, (-teJMts), 135. 
 
 promrrMs, 134 ; pt-oxumae mdniae, 
 
 44- 
 -pse, -pte, Particles, 76. 
 puer, -re, Voc, 37 ; -poria Compd., 
 
 102. 
 pmrtia, 30. 
 
 puker, spelling of, 6, 16. 
 -piUi of impuli, &c., 170 ; pidsus, 
 
 156. 
 puMo (-80), 170 n. 
 pimgo, pupugi, 170. 
 
 Q, phon. changes of, 157. 
 
 qua. Adv., 123. 
 
 quaero, -sivi, 172. 
 
 gvaeso, 173. 
 
 gucdis, 85. 
 
 giMsJus, 149. 
 
 8t<a»», 14a ; -libet, -via, 144 ; 
 
 -quam, 144. 
 guando, 14a. 
 Quantity, 11 ; list of ' Hidden,' 
 
 App. C. 
 guantus, 85. 
 guare, 141. 
 quartus, 67. 
 4t«ist, 141. 
 quaaillug, 159 «. 
 guater, 67. 
 giwttMor, 67. 
 ewe, 137. 
 guerela, 165. 
 4tierg«erTts, 168 n. 
 qui, Pron., Sosqq. ; Adv., 139. 
 quia, 143 ; -iiom, 140. 
 cpiicumgue, -dam, -libet, -vis, 83. 
 quidem, 140 ; sfj-, &c., 36. 
 ffMm, 144 sq. 
 guingue, 67 ; gumdecim, a6 ; 
 
 -n{c)lMS, -ngenti, &c., 67. 
 quippe, 140. 
 (jfMJs, 80 sqq. ; -nam, -que, -piam, 
 
 -guam, -guia, 83. 
 guo, Adv., 123 ; Conj., 144 ; 
 
 -ciroa, 130. 
 quod, Conj., 143. 
 guam (see gwum). 
 quominus, 144. 
 gMoniiam, 123. 
 Kpumiam, 142. 
 
 guogue, 138. 
 
 guoraus, 120. 
 
 gtMi, 85 ; -idle (see coft-). 
 
 guofus, 85. 
 
 quum, 142. 
 
 B, pronunc, 14, 18, 36 ; phon. 
 
 changes, 156 ; r for s, 157 ; for 
 
 d, 19 ; for I, 18. 
 -r, long vow. shortened bef., 34. 
 rdbiea, 60. 
 ratio, 166. 
 fafeis, 154. 
 raucio, 93. 
 
 re-, red". Prep., 134. 
 recddi, Perf., 26. 
 reciprotMS, 165. 
 Becomposition, 31 sq. 
 recta, Adv., 123. 
 Beductiou (see Weakening. 
 
 Shortening). 
 Beduplioated, Pres., 169; Perf, 
 
 169 sq. ; Noun, 168. 
 Beflexive Pron., 72. 
 rego, rexi, 171. 
 Eelative Pron., 80 sqq. 
 relicuoa, 0. Lat., 15. 
 remex, 31. 
 rear, ratus, 154. 
 r^andirostro-, Pacuv., 169. 
 repperi, reppidi, Perf., a6. 
 repulsa, 108. 
 requies, 61. ' ' 
 rea, 60 ; in word-group, 24. 
 retro, 134, 127. 
 retrarsum, 120. 
 rettuli, Perf, 26, 99. 
 .reeerti, Perf. of -tor, 95. 
 rec, 155. 
 
 Bho, Lat. transcr. of, 6. 
 -ri-, syncop. after cons., 26. 
 -ns and -er in Adj. M., P., 27. 
 Bivers, Gender of, 40. 
 -ro, e. g. tomiiero, 173. 
 roMgo, 153. 
 robua. Adj., 153. 
 rodM, 153. 
 rotundus, no. 
 -rr- for ra, 157 sq. 
 ntiier, 156. 
 ruUeimdus, no. 
 rudcns, 51. 
 
Index. 
 
 197 
 
 )'m2o, 93. 
 
 rudus, 153. 
 
 Buga (see Carvilius). 
 
 riimpo^ rwpi, 170. 
 
 "*"'> (-«)i 54- 
 rursus (-m), lao. 
 
 Rustic Latin, for ott, e for ae, 
 13 ». 
 
 S, voiced written z, then »•, 5 ; 
 
 pronunc, 14 ; phon. changes, 
 
 157 ; s for ss, ig. 
 -s dropped, 36 n. 
 sacellum, 26. 
 sacerdos, 26. 
 saepes, 61 n. 
 sali^nus, 162. 
 salio, salui, 172. 
 saJ^em, 124. 
 sanguinolenlMS, 33. 
 sanijiws, -jfMcn, 39 «. 
 sarcma, 163. 
 satar, 47. 
 sattis, 154. 
 sm&o, 149. 
 scama (see-), 13 ». 
 scamriMm, 156. 
 scatmio, 93. 
 seiiicet, 124. 
 seindo, scidi, 170. 
 Scipio Afr., Be- for m-, 152 ; 
 
 pertiSMs, 34. 
 sdis (stl-), 157. 
 sco&i's, 149. 
 SCR. ASF., 19. 
 se, Pron., 7a. 
 se (sed), Prep., 134. 
 seco, 88. 
 
 secundum, Prep., 134. 
 seamdus, 67. 
 sectts, Noun, 122 ; Adj., 120 ; Adv., 
 
 Prep,, 134. 
 sed, Conj., 139. 
 sedeo, sedi, 99. 
 sedvlo, 119. 
 sedutraque, 84. 
 seges, -getis, Gen., 33. 
 semd, 67. 
 semi-, 66. 
 se(mi)»wo(2i«s, 26. 
 semper, -itemus, 124. 
 senajus, decl. of, 58. 
 
 Seneca, 33. 
 
 senex, decl. of, 39. 
 
 Sentenoe-Aooent, 23. 
 
 seorsum, 120. 
 
 sepelio, 33. 
 
 s^tem, -decim, &c., 67. 
 
 sepwicnjm, spelling of, 16. 
 
 sequiiis, 134. 
 
 sejMor, 94. 
 
 serpens, 107. 
 
 serpo, -psi, 171. 
 
 sero, sevi, 172 ; sotiis, 154. 
 
 sescenU, 67. 
 
 sesgui-, 66. 
 
 sestertius, 66 ; -turn, 49. 
 
 seM, sive, 138. 
 
 sesenjs, 47. 
 
 sea;, 67. 
 
 Shortening of Vow., 34 sqq. 
 
 si, 143. 
 
 sic, 143. \ 
 
 Sicilicus, mark of double cons., 
 
 7- 
 sidOfSidi, 170. 
 ss'em, loi. 
 simiiis, 121. 
 simplex, -plus, 68. 
 simuZ, 121. 
 simid/er, 121. 
 sin, 143. 
 sine, 134. 
 
 Single Cons, for Doable, 7, 20. 
 singuli, 68. 
 si«o, sjiii, 172. 
 ^iguidem, 36. 
 sis for si vis, 14 «. 
 sisto, 117. 
 sive, sen, 138. 
 -so, Vb.-foi-ms in, 172. 
 so-, O. Lat. Demonstr., 74. 
 sobrinus, 157. 
 socw, -rus, O. Lat., 47. 
 sof2es, 29. 
 
 soldus for -H(i-, 27. 
 soleo, solitus sum, 95. 
 so22<s, 84. 
 somnotenftjs, 33. 
 somnus, 156. 
 smto, soKui, 88. 
 sons, 107. 
 sordes, 59. 
 soi-or, 155. 
 
igS 
 
 Index. 
 
 SOTS, 0. Lat. sortis, 51. 
 
 spargo, sparsi, 171. 
 
 species, 60. 
 
 Specimens of Sarly Lat., App. 
 A. 
 
 specio, 92 ; spio-, 3a. 
 
 Spellings, List of, App. B. 
 
 sperno, sprSoi, 172. 
 
 spes, 60, 
 
 sjjondeo, spopondj, 99. 
 
 -ss- for ft, 156 ; reduced to s, 19. 
 
 -(s)so, Vb.-forms in, 17a. 
 
 statim, las. 
 
 statod (Bvenos inscr.), 117. 
 
 status, 149. 
 
 Stem, 38 n., 160; -suffix (see 
 Suffix). 
 
 stemo, strmi, 17a ; stratus, 148. 
 
 stemuo, 93. 
 
 sfefe'm for statim, 9 m. 
 
 -s«s»i3Mo, -mi, 171. 
 
 stl-, 0. Lat., stKs, stZoctts, 157. 
 
 stlMarius, 148. 
 
 sJo, decl. of, 117 ; steti, 170; state, 
 149. 
 
 stramm, stratus, 148. 
 
 Stress-Accent, 24. 
 
 strideo, stridi, 170. 
 
 stringo, -nxi, 171. 
 
 Strong, Boot-grade (see Grada- 
 tion). 
 
 struo, -xi, 172. 
 
 s£tti2ittffi, 161. 
 
 suctdeo, -si, 171. 
 
 suavis, 148. 
 
 sub, sus; Prep. 134 ; sub vosplaco, 
 128. 
 
 Subjunctive, loi sq. 
 
 Subordinate Words, 23 sq. 
 
 suUemen, 158. 
 
 sMftfer, 135. 
 
 sueseo, -mi, 172. 
 
 Sufflxes_(Noun, Adj.), 160 sqq. ; 
 -0-, -A-, 160 ; -I0-, 1.60 sq. ; 
 -U0-, 161 ; -NO-, 162 ; -MENO-, 
 163; -MO-,i63;-TEMO-, 163; 
 -E0-, 163 ; -EEO-, -TERO-, 
 
 163 sq. ; -TRO-, 164; -DHEO-, 
 
 164 ; -L0-, 164 ; -TLO-, 165 ; 
 -DHLO-, 165 ;„ -TO-, 165; 
 -K0-, i6s; -I-, 166; -TI-, 
 166; -TION-, 166; -TlT(I)-, 
 
 166; -TUT(I1-^i66j -U-, 166; 
 -Ttr-, 166 ; -YE-, -E-, 59 sqq. ; 
 -N-, 166 sq. ; MEN-, 167 ; -K- 
 167 ; -TEE-, 167 ; -T-, 167;, 
 -NT-, 167; -WENT-, 167; 
 Guttl, 167; -S-, 167; -ES-, 
 167 ; -YES-, 168. (Verb), 172 
 sq. ; -dh-, 172 ; -d-, 172 ; -t-, 
 172; -S-, 172; -SS-, 17a; -to 
 and -illo, 173 ; -co, 173 ; -ro, 
 
 173 ; -igo, 173- 
 
 Snfflxless Stems (Noun, Adj.), 
 168. 
 
 suitis for si mUtis, 16 n. 
 
 sum, decl. of, 86 ; es, z Sg., 
 scansion of, ao ; fui, 115 ; es, 
 Imper., 103 ; sim, 0. Lat. siem, 
 loi ; eram, 97 ; ero, 97 ; forem, 
 102 ; essem, loa ; (e)st, Procope, 
 
 23- 
 
 summits, 65. 
 
 sumo, -psi, 171 «. 
 
 suo, 155. 
 
 supeUex, decl. of, 39. 
 
 super, 135. 
 
 superbus, 133. 
 
 supercilium, 34! 
 
 Superlative Degree, 65 sq. 
 
 supeme, 135. 
 
 Supines, 105. 
 
 suppetias ire, 105. 
 
 Suppression of Syll., e. g. idoQo)- 
 latria, a6. 
 
 supra, 135. 
 
 surgo, su/rrexi, 115. 
 
 surrupui, 31, -rip-, -rp-, 33. 
 
 sursum (-s), lao. 
 
 SUS-, Prep, (see suV), 
 
 sus, sow, 57. 
 
 suspleio, 34. 
 
 sUstuli, 115. 
 
 suus, 7a. 
 
 Syllable, Division of, 19 ; Sup- 
 pression of (see Suppression ; 
 Syncope). 
 
 sylva, the spelling, aa. 
 
 Syncope, as sqq. 
 
 T, phon. changes, 156. 
 
 tabes, 61. 
 
 talis, 85. 
 
 tarn, 142 ; tarn modo, 144 n. 
 
Index. 
 
 199 
 
 feimew, 139. 
 
 timgo, ieligi, 170. 
 
 tanquam, 142. 
 
 tamius, 85 ; -tidem, 123. 
 
 Tarentore, 34. 
 
 techina^ 27 w. 
 
 Tecumessct, 27. 
 
 ifetJ, 70. 
 
 feffo, fea»', 171. 
 
 tela, 159. 
 
 te^Mm, 158. 
 
 -fern of item, &e, 123. 
 
 iemere, 123. 
 
 tenebrae, 164. 
 
 ienor, tcwMS, Noun, 168. 
 
 Tense-Stems, 96 sqq., 169 sqq. 
 
 tenuis, proniinc, 30. 
 
 toiMS, Prep., 135 ; haciemis, &c., 
 
 119. 
 -ter, Adv., 120. 
 ter, 67. 
 fereftra, 164. 
 toTOJnMs, termo, 163. 
 Zero, irim, 17a. 
 tertiiis, 67. 
 
 ierfus, 0. Lat. for terms, 108. 
 tessera, 34. 
 <efoK, Perf., 170. 
 Thematio Conjugation, 86. 
 Theta (see Aspirates). 
 -ti- and -ci- confused, 17. 
 tibi (see tu). 
 -ticMs (see Suffix -K0-). 
 -tim, Adv., 122. 
 *«»S<', 33- 
 ■tinus. Adj. (see Suffix -NO-) ; 
 
 'Adv. (see tmus). 
 tis, Gen., 70. 
 -fivus (see Suffix -U0-). 
 Tmesis, 128. 
 toga, 160. 
 toUo, susiuli, 115. 
 ^oJuiim, 122. 
 tondeo, totmidi, 170. 
 Tone-Aooent, 24. 
 topper, 124. 
 
 -ten'Mm (see Suffix -I0-). 
 tormenium, 158. 
 forjueo, torsi, 171. 
 torreo, 89. 
 fo«, 85. 
 ioitts, 85. 
 
 ioiits, 84. 
 
 -tra. Adv., 123. 
 
 irans, *■»-, Pi-ep., 135. 
 
 Trees, gender of, 40. 
 
 tremebimdus, 33. 
 
 tremo, 171 ; irermmti, 112. 
 
 fres, <H-, tredeeim, &o., 67. 
 
 iriSitna!, 35. 
 
 triufnphus, spelling of, 16. 
 
 -<ra. Adv., 123. 
 
 ■irum (see Suffix -TKO-). 
 
 -ft- for rf, ai. 
 
 tu, deol. of, 70. 
 
 -<mSo (see Suffix -TUT(I)). 
 
 iueor (tuor), 91. 
 
 ttdi, 115. 
 
 iwm, (mwc, 79. 
 
 tundo, iutudi, 170. 
 
 -titno (see Desideratives). 
 
 -tus {-sus), P. P. P. 108 ; oi fundi- 
 
 tus, &c., 118. 
 tUs, 6. 
 Tusats, 158. 
 tuts, Pron., 73. 
 tuus, 72 
 
 TT, the letter, 4, 15 ; pronuuc, 
 10 ; phon. changes, 152; it for 
 0, 10 ; for unaccented vow. 
 bef. labial, 31 ; from dv, ov, 34. 
 
 -M of comu, &o., scansion of, 59. 
 
 U-stems (see Suffix -U-). 
 
 ubi, 123. 
 
 •uc. Adv., 123. 
 
 ■iicus (see Suffix -K0-). 
 
 -ago (see Suffix in Gutt.^. 
 
 TJI, pronunc, 13. 
 
 -uis. Adj., 63. 
 
 -vl- for li, 26. 
 
 -mKs (see Suffix -LI-). 
 
 uUus, 84. 
 
 ulna, 159 n. 
 
 Mfe, «!ira, 135. 
 
 ultus, 158. 
 
 m!mZo, 168. 
 
 -um {-arum). Gen. PI., 49. 
 
 umems, 47. 
 
 Mna, Adv., 123. 
 
 Tjnacoonted Vowel, Weakening 
 of (see Weakening) ; Syncope 
 of (see Syncot)e). 
 
 unde, 123. 
 
200 
 
 Index. 
 
 undedm, a6, 67. 
 
 undi^pte, 137. 
 
 -undus (see Gerund). 
 
 unguo, -nxi, 171. 
 
 MngjMim, 84, 124. 
 
 Unas, 66. 
 
 TTpsilon, Lat. transcr. of, 6 ; 
 
 pronunc. of, 15. 
 upuipa, 168. 
 «r£reo, -si, 171. 
 «ma, 158. 
 Mro, ussi, 171. 
 -Mmo (-Mrio), Vbs. in, 93. 
 -MS, Gen., e. g. nominus, 53 ; 
 
 Neuts. in (see SufSx -ES-). 
 vsgue, 135. 
 ut, 141. 
 
 Mfer, Pron., 84. 
 uterus, 41. 
 uft'nom, 141. 
 utar, 153 ; ttsus, 156. 
 utrimque, 123. 
 uimm, 141, 
 -MMs (see Suffix -XJO-). 
 
 V, the letter, 4, 15 ; pronunc, 
 i3> 15 ; pton. changes, 155 ; 
 dropped bet. vowels, 14 m., i6n. 
 
 r for guinque, 3 ». 
 
 «ae, 147. 
 
 valde, 27, 122. 
 
 FfflJeri (Voc, Gen.), accent of, 
 22. 
 
 vapido, 96. 
 
 Variation ofVowels (see Grada- 
 tion). 
 
 vates, 51. 
 
 -TO, Coig., 138. 
 
 vi- for TO-, 15a. 
 
 vS; Prefix, 146. 
 
 vegetas, 33. 
 
 veho, -xi, 171. 
 
 «ei, 138. 
 
 Velar Guttural (see Guttural). 
 
 f«Wm (see volo). 
 
 vehim, 159. 
 
 vmdo and Deweo, 96, 105. 
 
 venmum, 52. 
 
 Bcnso, 105. 
 
 cento, veni, 170. 
 
 i)e»ito, 153 n. 
 
 KeiuM, 52. 
 
 Verb, 86 sqq. ; Conjugations, 
 86 sqq. ; Voices, 94 sqq. ; 
 Tenses, 96 sqq. ; Moods, 10 1 
 sqq. ; Person-endings, no 
 sqq. ; Iterative, Causative, 
 &e. (see Iterative ; Causative, 
 &c.) ; Verb-stem suffixes, 172 
 sq. ; Tense-stem sufSxes, 169 
 sqq. 
 
 Vergiliws, spelling of, 10 n. 
 
 vera (-e). Adv., 122 ; Conj., 138. 
 
 verro, -ri Perf., 170. 
 
 -versus (-m). Adv., 119. 
 
 versus (-m). Prep., 135. 
 
 verto, -M, Perf., 170. 
 
 Yeiiumnus, 163. 
 
 verum {-0), Conj., 140. 
 
 vesier, 73. 
 
 vestis, 51. 
 
 vetus, 64 n. 
 
 mcem. Adv., 122. 
 
 vicesimus, mcies, &c., 67. 
 
 vidniae, lioc,', 44. 
 
 mctima (-uma), 33. 
 
 videlicet, 124. 
 
 video, mdi, 99 ; viden, pronunc. 
 of, 36. 
 
 viginti, 67. 
 
 vUicius, spelling of, 20. 
 
 mneo, vid, 170. 
 
 vindemia, a6. 
 
 vinolentus, spelling of, 33. 
 
 vir, 47. 
 
 virecium, 165. 
 
 virus, 150. 
 
 vis (Noun), deol. of, 39. 
 
 vis (Verb) (see soto). 
 
 visa, 17a. 
 
 viiam vivitur, 95. 
 
 vivo, vixiji'ji. 
 
 vivus, 161 sq. 
 
 V0-, 0. Lat. for vS-, 152. 
 
 -vo- unaccented changed to mi, 
 
 31- 
 Voeative (see Declension) ; of 
 
 lO-stems, accent, 22. 
 Voices, 94 sqq. 
 mlo, I wish, deol. of, 86 ; velim, 
 
 loi. 
 voltwrus, 47. 
 voluntas, 107 n. 
 vos, decl. of, 71. 
 
Index. 
 
 20] 
 
 Vowel, Grades (see Gradation) ; 
 Quantity (see Quant., Short- 
 ening, Lengthening) ; pro- 
 nunc. of, 8 sc[q. 
 
 Kvliur (see wltnrui). 
 
 m-, proiiuno. of, lo. 
 
 ■W, phon. changes of, 155. 
 
 ■Weak, Grade of Boot (see Gra- 
 dation). 
 
 Weakening of Unaccented 
 Vowel, 30 sqq. 
 
 ■Winds, gender of, 40, 
 
 Word-Groups, 23 sq. 
 
 X, the letter, 2. 
 
 -X (see Suffixes in Gutt.). 
 
 X for (fecem, 3 n. 
 
 Y, the letter, 6 ; Gk. (sei 
 Upsiloni ; I. Eur., phon 
 changes of, 155. 
 
 Z, the letter, 5, 6. 
 Zeta, Lat. transcr. of, 6 ; pro 
 nunc, of, 15. 
 
CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS. 
 
 P. 7, ]. 3 ab im., far and || reaA and |' 
 
 P. i8, 1 2^, far Aarus read cl^arus 
 
 P. 47, 1. 9 ab im., for humSrus read umSms 
 
 P- SSi !■ 5 ab im., for -om, which read -am, which 
 
 P- 73) !• 7 ^ ini-, /or W-<2- reod ta-tS 
 
 P. 76, 1. 7, for i-pf^^-so read ia-p{,S)-ai 
 
 P. 90, 1. 12, /or -pidvt]-v read f-ii&vi]-v 
 
 P. 159, 1. 3 ab im., for auxelia read auxUla 
 
 P. 98, 1. 12 ab im., to Greek Second Aorist add this note: Attigas, 
 aitidas, and similar forms used by Plautus in Pro- 
 hibitions, e. g. Jie me attigas, are more certain traces 
 of the Strong Aorist in Latin. Cf. p. 93 on rudo, geno, 
 
 P. 1 IS, 1. 11 ab im., <o a root rei- add (whence invJtus), 
 
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