Vegetabli jARDENINfi. (J? Hem fork ?tate Gfollege of Agriculture At GJotnell ItuuetHttg Strata, 8. % Sithranj ' v 1ilBiliSifi»ir nuai on ,he 9row |_ 3 1924 003 3M710 „ DATE DUE I I DEMCO 38-25 7 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003303710 VEGETABLE GARDENING A MANUAL ON THE GROWING OF VEGETABLES FOR HOME USE AND MARKETING ILLUSTRATED BY SAMUEL B. GREEN Professor of Horticulture in the University of Minnesota Author of ' POPULAR FRUIT GROWING," "'FORESTRY IN MINNESOTA*! " PRINCIPLES OF AMERICAN FORESTRY '! " FARM WIND-BREAKS AND SHELTER BELTS" ETC. TENTH EDITION REVISED ST. PAUL WEBB PUBLISHING CO. 1909 £B32/ Ag.3£o5 Copyright, 1901, 1905, 1908. 1909. By SAMUEL B. GREEN. PREFACE. This book was prepared primarily for the School of Agri- culture of the University of Minnesota, where it has been used as a text book since it was first published. It is the result of the development of the system of teaching at this school and is intended for students of the high school grade. In this, the ninth edition, a few changes have been made to bring it up to date in the matter of methods of culture and varieties recom- mended. In previous editions I have taken pleasure, as I do now, in acknowledging the assistance which I have received in many ways in preparing the manuscript for the first edition of this book from Prof. Harry Snyder, the late Dr. Otto Lugger, the late Major A. G. Wilcox, and my former assistant, Prof. R. S. Mackin- tosh, now professor of horticulture at AuMirn, Alabama. In pre- paring this edition, I have been helped by Mr. A. R. Kohler, as- sistant in horticulture. Figures numbered 52, 67, 69 and 121 are from D. Landreth & Sons; 26, 27, 31, 32 and 92 are from W. Atlee Burpee; Nos. 22, 23, 81 and 96 are reproduced from publications of the Depart- ment of Agriculture; No. 5 is from Bateman Manufacturing Co.; Nos. 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41 and 43 were loaned by Dr. Lugger; Nos. 58, 61, 65, 66, 106, 108, 112, 119, 120 and 122 from various sources. All other figures are original. SAMUEL B. GREEN. St Anthony Park, Minn., November 1st, 1909. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The Vegetable Garden. — Location and soil for early crops. Location and soil for late crops. Irrigation. — Cultivation and irrigation. Humus an aid to Irri- gation. Amount of water required for irrigating different crops. Pumping water for irrigation. Making reservoirs. Application of water. Rules for applying water. Sub-irrigation. Rotation of Crops. — Reasons for. CHAPTER IL Manures. — Most valuable elements in manures. Direct and Indirect manures. Composition of vegetables. Manures and fer- tilizers. Animal Manures. — Horse manure. Hen manure. Cow and ewlne manure. Sheep manure. The manure pile. The compost heap. Commercial manures. Tankage. Ground blood. Ground bone. Nitrate of soda. Sulphate of ammonia. Superphosphate. Wood ashes. Kainite. Lime. Land plaster. Effect of manures on crops. Manures for early and late crops. Manures for legu- minous crops. Manuring the growing crops. Liquid manure. CHAPTER III. Garden Tillage. — Prevention and killing of weeds. Im- portance of not allowing weeds to go to seed. Weed seeds in manure for the garden. Plowing. Subsoil plowing. Ridging land. General cultivation of garden crops. Cultivation to de- velop plant food. Garden Implements. — Horse hoes and horse cultivators. Hand cultivators. Seed drills. Combination seed drills and cul- tivators. Markers. Scuffle attachment to hand garden cultiva- tor*. Scuffle hoe. Plant drag. Potato diggers. Spray pumps. CHAPTER IV. Seed Sowing. — Depth to plant. Time for Bowing. Sowing In stiff clay soils. Sowing seed with machine. Sowing seed by hand. Using the feet for firming the soil around seeds. Thin- ning. Protecting seeds against insects and birds. Transplant- ing. Avoid transplanting as much as possible. Conditions of suc- cess. Shortening the tops of plants. Firming the soil about the roots of plants. Tomato cans for flower pots. The Farmer's Kitchen Garden. — Arrangement of. CHAPTER V. Seeds and Seed Growing. — Good pedigrees in seeds. Test- ing seeds. Simple germinating apparatus. Curing and storing seeds. Changing seed. Stock seed. Seedsmen's specialties. Seedsmen's humbugs. Novelties. Development of varieties. — Rules for improving plants. Cross and self-pollination of plants. Mixing of varieties. Distance between varieties to prevent mir- ing. CHAPTER VI. Glass Structures. — Cold frames. Hotbeds. Hotbed manure. Fire hotbeds. A greenhouse hotbed. Greenhouses. — Cheap kinds of. Methods of heating. Sash for hotbeds and cold frames. Shutters. Mats. Ventilation and temperature. Watering. Soil. Boxes. Substitutes for glass. Shading the glass. Fifteen things to remember in connection with building glass strucures. CHAPTER VII. Insects Injurious to Vegetables. — Insecticides and methods of destroying insects. Pyrethrum. Paris green. London purple. Tobacco. Kerosene emulsion with soap and with milk. Carbon bisulphide. Catching insects by light at night Application of insecticides. Common Garden Insects and Methods of Destroying Them.— Colorado Potato Beetle. Imported and Native Cabbage Worms. Cabbage Plusia. Wire Worms or Drill Worms. Cutworms. Striped Cucumber Beetle. White Grub or May Beetle. Maggots. Cabbage Flea Beetle. Leaf Lice or Aphis. Cabbage Lice or Aphis. Sweet Corn Moth or Tassel Worm. Parsley Worm or Celery Caterpillar. Chinch Bugs. Bean and Pea Weevil. Squash Vine Borer. Squash Bug. CHAPTER VIII. Classification of Vegetables. — Warm and cold climate vege- tables. Frost tender and frost hardy vegetables. Botanical classification. Characteristics and directions for the cultiva- tion of vegetables. Mushrooms. Corn. Asparagus. Onions. Leeks. Garlic. Rhubarb. Beets. Swiss Chard. Spinach. Cabbage. Cauliflower. Radishes. Rutabaga. Turnip. Brussels Sprouts. Kale. Kohlrabi. Horseradish. Cress. Water Cress. Beans. Peas. Okra. Parsnip. Parsley. Carrot. Celery. Cel- ariac. Sweet Potato. Tomato. Potato. Egg Plant. Peppers. Strawberry Tomato. Martynia. Cucumber. Squash. Musk- melon. Watermelon. Pumpkin. Gourds. Lettuce. Salsify. Endive. Dandelion. Garden Herbs. — Balm. Catnip. Lavender. Peppermint Sage. Sweet Basil. Sweet Marjoram. Spearmint. Summer Savory. Thyme. Winter Savory. Anise. Caraway. Coriander. Dill. Borage. Rue. Tables. — I. Weight of one quart of seeds and a number of seeds in one ounce. II. Longevity of garden seeds. III. Amount of seed required to sow one acre. IV. Average time required for garden seeds to germinate. V. Standards of Purity and Qermlna- tion of Agricultural Seeds. Monthly Calendar of Garden Operations, Vegetable Gardening. CHAPTER I. THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. Location and Soil. — The land for vegetable gardening should be free from stones and stumps, and easily cultivated. Wet land should be avoided unless it can be drained at a reasonable out- lay; If it cannot be drained it is of little worth as scarcely any- thing of value can be raised on it. All land for vegetable garden- ing should be well drained either naturally or artificially, since crops on well drained land suffer less from drought as well as from excess of water. Drained land also gives best and most uniform returns from the manure applied to it. When drainage Is lacking In the land, the raising of plants on It is so very much a matter of chance that in the long run it will generally prove unprofitable. Most of the land in cultivation is sufficiently drained naturally, while some land that needs no drainage when used for grass or grain would be greatly improved by being under-drained when it is to be used for some garden crops. Land which has a gently rolling or undulating surface with a southern exposure is the most desirable for general gardening operations, since it receives the full sunlight and allows the most perfect control of the water that falls upon it. When irrigation Is to be practiced, such sloping surface aids very much in the distribution of the water. For a few crops, such as celery, cab- bage, etc., the slope makes very little difference, as flat and even very moist (not wet) land is best. There is a very great difference In the value of northern and southern slopes for vari- ous crops. This difference will frequently amount to one crop a year where the soil is closely tilled The soil on a southern slope can be worked much earlier in the spring than that having a northern exposure, and often by proper management two crops may be grown In one year In such places, while on a northern 8 VEGETABLE GARDENING. elope perhaps only one crop could be raised. Then again, such crops as melons and tomatoes that require a long season and a warm location to mature could do so on a southern slope, while on a nortnern slope they might not ripen. Location and Soil for Early Crops. — When the object in vegetable gardening Is to grow very early crops, It Is Important to have quick-acting land. Such a soil contains a large amount of sand la Its composition. Soils of this class warm up very quickly, and decomposition goes on very rapidly In them. They also give the quickest returns from manures. If such land has a southern slope, and, in addition, is protected from the north and west winds, the situation will be an ideal one for the early vegetable garden and for tropical plants, such as tomatoes, beans, corn, etc. However, land and locations of this character suffer most from drought, therefore every precaution should be taken to protect them from it. Sandy soils are especially adapted to irrigation, and sometimes what were barren sands become very fertile when irrigated. Location and Soil for Late Crops. — When the intention ia to raise cabbages, potatoes, turnips, beets, etc., for marketing in the autumn and for crops that require but a short time to mature or that prefer a cool location, a good clayey loam is generally the best, and if It has a northern exposure so much the better. If obliged to use a stiff clay soil, it will be found to give best results If subsoiled and drained. Such land should be fall-plowed and left in ridges. It will also be improved if coarse manure is worked into it, since this has a tendency to make the land open and more easily worked. A retentive clayey loam will be more difficult to work than a sandy soil, but will generally withstand drought much better, although a somewhat sandy loam with a retentive, porous clay sub-soil is often considered more desirable on account of the greater ease with which it is worked, and it resists drought nearly as well as a clayey loam if proper precautions are used in Its management. IRRIGATION. Irrigation la generally considered unnecessary in this sec- tion, since we raise fair and even abundant crops nearly every year without Its aid, but in almost any season there are periods IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 9 when if water could be applied to growing crops It would Im- prove them. It will seldom If ever pay to Irrigate ordinary farm crops, if it is necessary to pump the water used. In order to have irrigation practical for farm crops the water should be carried and distributed on the land by the force of grav- ity. It may pay to pump water to irrigate some garden crops if the conditions are favorable and the work is done intelli- gently. In this section irrigation, should be used to supple- ment the rainfall which should ordinarily be kept from run- ning off the surface of the land by every possible precaution. Mulching the surface of the soil is practicable only around trees and in the case of a very few garden crops, such as strawberries and raspberries. The intelligent use of mulch on land in well known cases has caused the soil under it to hold an amount of water equal to thirty-three per cent more than was retained in soil near by not mulched, the amount in one case being equal to an increase of over two quarts of water to every cubic foot of soil, or to an increase of over 680 barrels in the upper one foot of soil of one acre. If this amount of water had been applied at the critical stage in the growth of some crops suffering for moisture, it might have made a success of what would otherwise have been a failure. Where practicable it is always desirable to have a good mulch on land that is watered, since it retards evaporation and prevents the suriacw soil from baking. Cultivation of the land prevents evaporation and so saves the moisture in it. In one instance the amount of increase of water in a good soil due to cultivation was equal to thirty- three per cent of what it contained when not cultivated. This increase, however, is somewhat more than was found in other trials, but in every instance there has been a marked increase in the drought resisting qualities of the soil due to continued cultivation. In some experiments made by Professor Levi Stock- bridge in 1878, it was clearly shown that on one occasion in eight days of very dry summer weather thorough cultivation of the land resulted in saving 256 barrels of water in an acre of heavy loam by preventing evaporation from its surface. These facts show the great value of cultivation as an aid in 10 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Irrigating operations. Cultivation of the land or mulching should always go with irrigation. Humus is rotten organic matter. In the soil it increases Its retentive qualities. On this account new land which con- tains much organic matter does not suffer as seriously from drought as that which has been cultivated for some time with- out manure. Likewise, land, heavily manured with rotten ma- nure, which is largely humus, has its drought resisting quali- ties increased, while the application of undecayed manure to the land has a directly opposite result until it has been in the soil long enough to become thoroughly rotted. Amount of Water Required for Irrigating Different Crops. — Sometimes a very small amount of water applied at the right time will make the difference between a good crop and a total failure, as, for instance, when dry weather comes on just as the strawberry crop is almost ripe, when it has happened that so small a quantity as 600 barrels of water per acre has been sufficient to ripen the crop. In western Kansas it is esti- mated that a storage capacity of 5,000 barrels per acre in ad- dition to the ordinary rain supply is needed to mature a crop In dry seasons. In this section a storage capacity of 1,500 barrels per acre would probably be enough to insure against serious injury from drought In any but very exceptionally dry years. Enough water to cover an acre one inch deep Is termed an acre inch. About 900 barrels equal one acre Inch. Pumping Water for Irrigation, — Where valuable crops are grown, it will sometimes pay to pump water for them. There are many localities In this section where a large amount of water may be controlled by lifting It less than thirty feet. In such places windmills may be successfully used for pumping the water, providing reservoirs of large capacity can be cheaply made into which water may be pumped the year around to be used as needed. Thresher engines, which are seldom used except In the late summer and fall, may sometimes be used to advantage for pumping water and often at very low cost Gasoline engines are occasionally used in some irrigation works. They are very desirable, but at present the price Is too high to warrant their general use. In putting In a pumping plant the pump should be put as near the water supply as possible. IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OV CROPS. 11 Reservoirs should be on some elevated point. They are easily made by digging out the earth and puddling the bottom and sides with thick clay, which should be at least one foot In thickness and well packed when wet. A good way to pack It Is to drive horses over it When clay cannot be obtained the bottom may be made tight with a thin coating of coal tar and sand, but clay is preferable, and what is known as blue clay Is generally best. Cement is liable to crack badly from frost and is not adapted to this purpose. Made in this way, reser- voirs are very cheap and easily repaired. It Is important to have them very large where the supply of water is limited; where the supply is large, the reservoir may be much smaller. Application of Water. — Sloping land is necessary for most successful irrigation, as it is very difficult to apply water to the surface of level land. The slope should be sufficient to permit the water to flow quickly along its surface and yet not enough to cause it to wash. For Irrigation purposes the rows should not be over 300 feet long. The best results are gener- ally obtained from soils having considerable sand In their com- position. Drifting sands may often be made to produce good crops by irrigating and manuring, and lands having some sand In their composition are much better adapted to Irrigation than clay soils, since the latter often bake badly or become sticky so that they cannot be cultivated immediately after applying water. Rules for Applying Water to Land. — Water should not be applied unless the crop is suffering for it, but the soil should be cultivated thoroughly and frequently, and thus waste by evapo- ration may be saved. Cultivate at once after Irrigating, if the land will permit of it, so that the soil will not bake; evaporation will thus be prevented, and water will be saved in the soil. Do not apply more than enough water to nicely moisten the land and avoid getting it water-soaked. « Do not think that irrigation will take the place of cultiva- tion, for It will not, since without cultivation irrigation Is sel- dom successful. • Water for Irrigating purposes should be somewhat warm when applied. Cold springs do not afford a satisfactory supply t2 VEGETABLE GARDENING, for some crops unless first pumped Into a reservoir. A tern perature of 60 degrees is desirable, though not always necessary for the best results. Aim to wet the roots of the plants and avoid getting water on the leaves. Wooden troughs afford the cheapest conduits for water and Figure 1. — One method of irrigating crop planted in rows. should be used whenever practicable. Iron pipe is expensive and much more difficult to manage than wooden troughs. Sub-irrigation is a new term that refers to the application of water to the roots of plants by means of underground chan- nels, such as tile or other drains. It works best in sandy soils. In clayey soil the water runs too slowly through the sides of the tiles. Land tiles make as good channels as any for this purpose. They should be buried a few inches below or by the side of the plants to be watered, being laid level with open joints. Some experiments seem to show that it is a very waste- ful way of using water, while others have shown this system to be economical. As practiced for watering plants in green- house benches, especially for lettuce, it has given excellent results. IRRIGATION AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 1J ROTATION OF CROPS. By rotation. Is meant the special succession of crops grow- ing upon the land for a series of years. This is very desirable even on land in the highest state of cultivation, hut it is very difficult to lay down exact rules to be followed. Reasons for Rotating Crops. — We rotate crops for at least six reasons. (1) To avoid insect enemies, as in the case of onions and turnips, which are often liable to serious insect in- juries when grown more than one year on the same land. Tur- nips are especially liable to Injury from insects when grown in the same place successively. (2) To avoid Injuries from fungous diseases, 1. e., in case of potato and beet scab, onion and melon rust, corn smut, etc. (3) To increase the amount of humus in the soil, and for this purpose we may seed down the land to grass or clover. (4) To deepen the soil and add nitro- gen to It as well as humus, as when clover is grown on the land. (5) To get rid of weed seeds in the soil. (6) To use the plant food In the land to best advantage, since crops vary very much In the amount of the different elements which enter into their composition. Leguminous crops, like clover, peas, beans, etc.. Improve the land on which they grow, while most other crops exhaust the soil. Some plants excel others in their power to search for plant food, or to take plant food from the soil. Some plants feed near the surface largely, while others take their food mostly from a lower level. Root crops should not follow root crops, nor should vines follow vines for many years In suc- cession on the same land. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER I. On Vegetable Gardening; Adapted to Students and Others. 1. What location and soil Is best for early crops? 2. What location and soil Is best for late crops? 3. Under what conditions will it pay to Irrigate? 4. When should the land be mulched? 6. What is meant by cultivation? 6. What Is humus and how does it affect the soil? 7. What is an acre inch of water and how many barrels does 11 contain ? 8. When will it pay to pump water for Irrigation? 9. How may a good, small, cheap reservoir be made? 10. What kind of land is best adapted to irrigation? 11. Give slz rules for applying water to land. 12. What is meant by sub-irrigation? 13. What Is meant by rotation of crops? 14. Give six reasons for rotating crops. IB. What crops Improve the land on which they grow and why? CHAPTER II. MANURES. Most Valuable Elements In Manures. — While there ere twelve or more elements that enter Into the composition of our cultivated plants, yet only nitrogen, phosphorus and potash, and in a few cases lime, are lacking from our agricultural soils. These three elements enter largely into all our cultivated crops and are necessary for their growth. The other elements are usually present in abundance. Humus. — While humus in itself is not a plant food, It Is of great Importance in the soil. It is formed by the decay of organic matter and is composed principally of carbon. R promotes chemical action by which plant food is set free in the soil, and it increases the power of the soil for holding the water and gases which it gives up slowly to the roots of plants. Rotten stable manure contains a large amount of humus- forming materials, which undoubtedly add very much to its value, and it is probably on this account that It often gives better returns than commercial fertilizers containing the same quantities of what are termed the essential elements. The Action of Manures In the Soil can be and generally Is both direct and indirect. They act directly when they con- tain actual available plant food or when by their decay they yield it to the plant; they act indirectly when they start chem- ical action in the soil and thus set free soluble plant food in the soil itself. Almost all manures act in this indirect way to some extent. A moderate application of stable manure by its decomposition (which is chemical action) in the soil has been known to increase the temperature of the soil by three degrees. Lime In itself is a plant food and is largely used by some crops. Most soils, however, contain it in great abundance, yet If quick lime be added to a soil already rich in common limestone It generally serves to Increase growth. This Is not due to the plant taking up more lime, but rather to the fact that the quick lime starts chemical action in the soil by which some MANURES. 15 of the locked up stores of plant food are made available. The same may be said of unreached ashes, though it contains much more valuable fertilizing material than lime. Common salt also acts to some extent indirectly as a fertilizer, -while it is of very little value as a plant food. COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES, MANURES AND FERTILIZ- ERS. In the following tables is shown the amount of fertilizing elements required by vegetables and the amount of these ma- terials which is contained in the various farm manures and com- mercial fertilizers. These figures are from eastern United States and European sources. The climatic conditions in these places are quite different from those in many sections of the Western states where the actual amount of ash ingredients in plants, especially in dry years, may greatly exceed the amounts here given. The relation of these tables to one another is worthy of special study, since they show what the plants need and what the fertilizing materials supply. TABLE I.— Composition of Vegetables.) Water. Ash. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric acid. Potash Per ct. 81.50 93.96 68.46 87.23 88,47 90.52 88.59 90.82 78.90 78.33 95.99 92.93 76.68 91.08 86.28 88.46 93.68 92.61 76.44 90.53 91.15 84.19 87.41 87.55 80.34 12.48 12.62 79.93 Per ct. 0.99 0.67 1.69 0.76 1.04 1.40 1.02 0.81 1.09 1.02 0.46 0.50 1.87 1.27 1.71 1.18 1.61 1.01 1.49 0.56 0.68 2.25 0.74 0.57 1.03 2.36 3.11 0.78 Perct. 0.36 0.29 Per el. 0.17 0.08 Perct. 0.48 0.29 0.24 0.38 0.16 0.13 1.92 0.16 •0.09 •0.11 0.09 0.16 0.19 0.12 "0 44 •0.43 0.51 0.36 0.64 024 0.36 0.48 0.07 0.27 1.16 0.43 0.23 •0.07 •0.37 0.14 0,22 0.04 0.19 0.10 0.62 8.58 0.84 1.01 Peas, green................ 16 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Composition ol Vegetables.}— (.Continued.) Peas, small (Lathyrus sativus), whole plant Pumpkins, flesh Pumpkins, rind Pumpkins, seeds and stringy matter Pumpkins, whole fruit Rhubarb, roots Rhubarb, stems ., Rhubarb, stems and leaves Rutabagas * Spinach Squashes, flesh Squashes, rind Squashes, seeds and stringy matter Squashes, whole fruit Sweet corn, cobs Sweet corn, husks Sweet corn, kernels « Sweet corn, stalks Sweet potatoes, tubers Sweet potatoes, vines Tomatoes, fruitt Tomatoes, roots Tomatoes, vines Turnips Watermelons, juice Watermelons, pulp Watermelons, rind Watermelons, seeds - . Water. Ash. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Potash Per ct. 5.80 93.39 Per ct. 5.94 0.67 1.36 1.51 0.63 2.28 0.94 1.72 1.15 1.94 1.72 1.21 1.39 0.41 0.59 0.56 0.56 1.25 1.00 5.79 0.47 11.72 8.00 0.80 0.20 0.33 1.24 1.34 Per ct. 2.50 Perct. 0.59 Perct. 1.99 76.86 92.27 74.35 92.67 *0.11 0.55 *6.16 0.06 •0.09 0.53 91.67 88.61 92.42 88.09 0.13 0.19 0.49 0.02 0.12 0.16 0.36 0.49 0.27 82.00 74.03 94.88 80.10 86.19 82.14 80.86 71.26 41.55 0.21 0.18 0.46 0.28 ♦0.24 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.14 *0.08 0.22 0.22 0.24 0.41 •0.37 93.64 73.31 83.61 90.46 93.05 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.18 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.10 0.27 0.29 0.50 0.39 91.87 89.97 48.37 •Wolff. tSugar in fruit, 3.05 per cent; acid (malic), 0.46 per cent. ^Compiled by office of Experiment Station. TABLE II.— Composition of Farm Manures. Mois- ture. Nitro- gen. Pot- ash. Phos- phorio acid. Xjtme. Perct. Perct. 0.29 0.58 1.10 0.44 1.55 1.00 0.60 8.20 0.80 Perct. 0.10 0.49 0.56 0.35 1.50 0.25 0.20 1.00 0.30 Perct, 0.17 Perct. O60.00 0.85 0.17 77.20 95.90 10.00 50.00 1.09 0.17 1.90 1.40 2.10 80 MANURES. Composition of Farm Manures.— (Continued) 17 Mois- ture. Nitro- gen. Pot- ash. Phosphoric add. Solu- ble. Re- verted. Total. Lime. Sheep excrement (solid, fresh) Perct. Perct. 0.65 1.85 0.50 0.60 0.43 0.49 Perct. 0.15 £.26 0.60 0.13 0.83 0.43 Perct. Perct. Perct. 0.31 o.or 0.30 0.41 0.07 0.33 Perct- Sheep urine (fresh) Stable manure 73.27 Swine excrement Swine urine (fresh) Barnyard manure 68.87 TABLE III.— Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Material s. i 36.08 0.10 0.40 1.14 1.51 1.70 3.80 35.89 28.28 17.00 23.25 17.60 20.10 29.90 26.77 1.75 K85 3.10 3.10 13.35 1.91 8.25 Ashes (anthraicte 0.10 0.40 1.20 1.27 6.25 1.31 Ashes (bituminous Ashes (lime kiln)... 15.45 30.22 12.50 40.09 7.00 4.60 ■48.50 Ashes (wood leached) 28.08 Ashes (wood, un- leached) 34.00 8.20 2.37 1.24 Bone ash 44.89 Bone black 15.40 0.40 1.30 7.60 Bone black (dis- Bonemeal. 7.50 4.05 2.60 6.20 1.70 Bone meal (dis- 13 53 Bone meal (free Bone meal (from 7.31 9.50 7.80 7.75 39.95 5.50 1.10 22.75 1.80 1.50 1.25 6.50 9.60 Ootton-seed meal 7.10 4 30 1.67 10.52 7.25 Cotton-seed meal 24.27 12.50 12.75 22.28 10.17 3.20 4.82 Dried fish 0.55 2.60 43.66 Horn and hoof 13.25 13.54 8.42 1.83 1.15 12.45 18 VEGETABLE GARDENTm Composition ol Commercial Fertilizing riaterlals.— (Continued.) Mois- ture Nitro- ■gen. Pot- ash. Phosphoric acid. Solu- ble. Re- verted. Total. Lime. Per ct. 12.09 13.32 50.00 60.00 2.00 7.60 1.93 1.40 8.54 61.50 14.81 2.25 Perct. 10.44 0.76 1.10 0.40 Per ct. Perct. Per ct. PercU 2.07 21.88 0.10 0.10 Per ct. 7.55 37.49 0.15 0.35 51.48 0.90 Muriate of potash.. Navassa phosphate Nitrateof potash... 34.27 37.45 13.09 15.70 12.12 0.85 7.35 45.19 Oleomargarine re- 0.88 0.08 15.30 24.50 0.18 2.65 Phosphates from 3.20 4.10 28.50 20.93 Sewage sludge (precipitated).. 88.49 5.54 3.61 63.06 1.00 4.75 2.54 10.00 6.18 10.00 0.05 o;o5 1.83 2.04 3,25 0.10 1.58 Spent tanbark 1.19 20.50 1.61 33.46 1.14 Sulphate of am- Sulphate of potash and magnesia... Sulphate of potash (high grade).... 25.50 33.40 2.57 6.70 3.71 2.35 0.30 6.10 11.80 0.65 0.70 5.02 8.20 3.92 *1.20 2.22 4.20 15.80 6.50 0.35 0.11 -Sometimes as high as 5 per cent. tNova Scotia plaster contains 94 per cent pure gypsum and 4 per cent carbonate of lime; Onondaga and Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum and 18-28 per cent carbonate of lime. Animal Manures. — Manure from the same animals may vary greatly in quality according to the kind of food and the condition and age of the animals from which it comes. Fat animals fed on food rich in nitrogen (grains) produce the best manures. Young growing animals that are fed on poor food, such as straw, swale hay, etc., produce very inferior manure. The manure from young growing animals or from milking cows is much inferior to that from fat steers, since, in the case of MANURES. 19 the young animals, a large amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid Is required to build up the animal body. In the case of the milking cow a large amount of nitrogen is required for the production of the casein of the milk, while very little of the nitrogen in the food is retained in the body of the fatten- ing animal. The fats, oils and starchy materlalQ which ani- mals use largely are of no value as manures. The nitrogen, potash and phosphorus are thrown off by the fat animal in the waste products. Manures rich In nitrogen ferment most rap- Idly, other things being equal. The urine is generally rich in nitrogen, and since all it contains is soluble It is of more value than the solid excrements of animals, and special effort should be made to save it. The Heating of Manures and other organic material Is gen- erally due to the presence of ferments which are minute organ- isms that break down the composition of the materials in which they grow and produce chemical changes that result In the formation of heat. They are nearly allied to the yeast that is used in bread-making. Fire fanged is a term applied to ma- nure which has heated to a very high temperature without suf- ficient moisture and has dried out. It is generally white in color and has lost much of Its texture, and parts of It may appear to have been burned to ashes. When in this condition manure is of little value, for It has lost much if not all of its nitrogen and all the ferments which It contained are destroyed. And it is probable that the ferments which are added to soils by manure are often of much Importance to them. Horse Manure Is loose and light, and ferments very quickly. On this account it is especially valuable for early spring crops, as it makes the soil loose, thus permitting the air to easily penetrate it, while by its rapid fermentation it warms the land. It is valuable to mix with cow and swine manure on account of its hastening fermentation. On account of its heating quali- ties It Is used to warm hotbeds. Hen Manure is one of the richest manures formed by any of our domestic animals, for the reason that poultry live on highly concentrated foods and the liquid and solid excre- ments are voided together. It heats quite readily and vio- lently and should be used very sparingly and with caution. 20 VEGETABLE GARDENING. since If put In contact with the roots or sterna of plants It is Tery liable to burn them. It should be handled with great care and be kept dry. If wet it ferments and parts with its nitrogen in the form of ammonia gas, which is readily perceptible to the nose. For the same reason it should not be mixed with lime or wood ashes unless used at once. It acts very quickly and on this account is valuable for early crops or to apply during the growth of a crop when the available manure in the land appears to have been exhausted. It may be composted with dry peat or mucfc when it is more safely applied than if clear and there is less danger of loss from heating. Twenty to thirty bushels of hen manure is generally considered sufficient for one acre when used with stable manure. Cow and Swine Manures are rather slow in action, conse- quently they are not as desirable for early crops as horse manure, while they are excellent for late crops. For this latter purpose they are often better than horse manure. If they are mixed with horse manure they ferment very rapidly. Sheep Manure is a very concentrated manure which heats rapidly. It is one of the best farm manures. Mixing Manures. — It may often be a good plan to mix the different kinds of animal manures for general application, as In this way all seem to be improved. Hen manure is an ex- ception and, as a rule, should be applied separately. Lime, wood ashes or other material of an alkaline nature should never be mixed with stable manure of any kind unless a considerable amount of loam, peat or other material is added to absorb the ammonia, which is always liberated when nitrogenous and alka- line substances are thus mixed. It is a good plan to mix ground bone, tankage and other slow acting fertilizers with heating stable manure, as by so doing the plant food they contain is made more available and the stable manure is greatly improved in quality. The Manure Pile. — If early garden crops are to be grown, it is necessary to have fine, well rotted manure, and this makes the manure pile necessary. It should be placed so that as little waste as possible will occur from leaching by rains. When a manure pile is to remain in one place for a considerable time it should be made upon a bed of leaves, peat, loam, rotted sods MANURE. 21 0r other absorbent, about one foot In thickness, which •will catch and retain any fertilizing material that may leach through the pile. If practicable, the pile should be made where It will be protected from the sun and drying winds. The height of the pile should depend somewhat on the kind of manure and the season of the year when it is made. Manure that will heat readily should be piled about six feet deep. When the pile is quite warm the manure should be turned over. This operation should be performed very thoroughly as often as the pile gets very hot. All the lumps should be broken up and the whole pile turned to the bottom of the bed on which it is placed. The absorbents of the bed should be mixed evenly throughout the pile and the cold manure from the outside be put on the inside of the pile so that it may heat the more rapidly. If the pile ap- pears dry on the inside water or, what is better, the urine from the stable should be added to assist fermentation, as this cannot take place satisfactorily in dry manure, and the lack of water may result in serious loss. The number of times a ma- nure pile should be turned over will depend on the crop to which it is to be applied and the kind and condition of the manure. This is a matter which must be left to the good judgment of the Individual manager, but some of the factors bearing on this will be found discussed farther on. The Compost Heap can be made a prolific source of home made manure. Every farm and garden should have one of sufficiently large proportion to take care of all refuse organic material about the place. It should be made about as follows: Select a place handy to get at but where there is no standng water and put down first a bed one foot deep of old sods or muck and on this pile all the refuse material as it collects in various places. It may consist of old straw, leaves, an occa- sional load of heating manure, rotten vegetables, etc. This should be turned over occasionally, by hand if necessary, but the best plan is to have the compost heap in a hog yard and to It haul manure as It collects near the stables. If manure Is piled upon a good bed of rotten sod it will not lose much by leaching, nor will it lose anything by heating if a sufficient number of hogs have the run of it to keep it well worked up. Commercial Manures. — By commercial manures is meant 22 VEGETABtiB GARDENING. those manures which are commonly sold by the trade. When of a high price they are generally of a guaranteed composition and they should he bought at a valuation based on the amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid which they contain in condition available to the roots of the plants. The most available the form in which these materials exist in the fertilizer, the more valuable it Is generally considered. Most of the older states require a guaranteed analysis to accompany the packages in which the fertilizers are sold and exercise some supervision over the business. Among the most common of this class of fertil- izers are the following: Tankage. — This is the refuse product from slaughtering establishments, which after being relieved of its fat is brought to dryness and ground. It is very rich in nitrogen and phos- phoric acid, but contains very little potash. Most of the nitro- gen and phosphoric acid which it contains Is available to the roots of plants. It Is probably the cheapest source of nitrogen and phosphoric acid to be found in the western states. It varies considerably in composition, and this may sometimes be ac- counted for by the fact that In some establishments the blood is separated from the other offal, thus reducing the percentage of nitrogen In the tankage. It is rather a slow acting fertilizer. Tankage may be safely used in quantities of less than 1,000 pounds per acre if applied broadcast and worked into the soil. Four hundred pounds per acre is generally considered a good application. It may be safely used In these quantities around growing plants of cabbage, corn, lettuce, etc., provided it is spread out evenly and does not come in contact with the roots of the plants. Ground Blood Is very rich In nitrogen and quite difficult to dry thoroughly. If It Is at all moist it is likely to heat badly. It Is a quick acting fertilizer, and is seldom used without being mixed with other materials. Ground Bones are always rich In phosphoric acid, but ground fresh bones are better than dry bones since In addition to phosphoric acid they have quite a large percentage of nitro- gen, which amount Is very small in bones that are old and dry. It Is always best to break or grind the bones that are to be used on the land and In many cases to then mix them with fer- VEGETABLE GARDENING. 23 menting stable manure. Ground bone is said to be a lasting fertilizer because its effect can be seen for several years. If bones are burned the nitrogen is wasted. If fresh bones are mixed with unleached wood ashe3 they will be made soft so they can, be easily broken up. It is generally applied in much the same way and for the same purposes as tankage. Nitrate of Soda, called also Chili saltpeter, is imported from Chili. It looks like common salt and contains about 16 per cent of nitrogen that is perfectly soluble and in form most available for the plant. On this account only very small quan- tities should be applied at one time, because if not taken up by the plant it may be washed deep into the soil out of reach of the roots. It is especially desirable for early leaf crops such as early spinach, cabbage and lettuce, and to apply when a crop comes to a standstill. It acts with wonderful quickness — almost like magic. It may be applied several times to the growing crop at intervals of two weeks, using from 75 to 100 pounds per acre at each application. It may be sown near the hills if ap- plied to cabbage, but for spinach or similar crops it should be Figure 2.— Spinach plants grown on land rich in rotten stable manure. The larger plant received in addition to the stable manure nitrate of soda at the rat* of one hundred and fifty pounds par acre. U VEGETABLE GARDENING. sown broadcast when the plants are perfectly dry or during a hard rain. If It sticks to the leaves It Is liable to burn them. If sown during a hard rain it is quickly dissolved and washed to the roots o£ the plants without injury to the leaves. It is expensive and should never be used when a cheaper supply of nitrogenous manure will do just as well. It may occasionally be used to good advantage in water at the rate of one-half an ounce of nitrate of soda to one gallon of water. Such a solution will not injure the foliage and is of sufficient strength. The use of very large quantities of nitrate of soda on the land has been found to make it necessary to continue using it in large quantities, while if used at the rate given it is not followed by such consequences. The supposed reason for this Is that so much nitric acid in the soil destroys the nitric acid- forming ferments, and these must be slowly replenished before the soil is able to continue yielding its ordinary supply of nitrogen. Sulphate of Ammonia is a by-product from gas works and contains about 20 per cent of nitrogen. It does not act as quickly as nitrate of soda, but for late crops, to be applied dur- ing warm weather, it is one of the best sources of nitrogen. Superphosphate is made by treating ground bone or nodu- lar phosphate with sulphuric acid to render the phosphates soluble. It is rich in phosphoric acid, and some kinds contain a considerable quantity of nitrogen. They vary much in quality. The better kinds are generally used at the rate of about 400 pounds per acre. Wood Ashes fs rich In potash and a valuable fertilizer in many cases provided it has not been leached; if it has been leached it is practically worthless as a fertilizer. Ashes from hard wood is much more valuable than that from soft wood on account of its containing much more potash. Ashes is one of the best fertilizers for fruit trees and plants. About twenty bushels of unleached hard wood ashes is generally sufficient for one acre, but much more may "oe safely used. Kainit. — Potash is also applied to the land In the form ot German Potash salts, a grade of which, known as kainit, is very commonly used as a fertilizer. These salts are more or lesi mixed with common table salt and other Impurities and form MANURES. 25 a cheap and very useful supply of potash. They are gener- ally sold on a valuation based on the percentage of actual potash they contain. Kainit contains 13 per cent of potash which is more than twice as much as there is in ordinary un- leached wood ashes. From 200 to 600 pounds of kainit is gen- erally applied per acre. Lime is found in abundance in most western soils, but burned limestone, whether as freshly slacked or as quick lime, may often be used to advantage in small quantities when large amounts of stable manure have been used upon the land for a number of years. It should not be used alone, because it ex- hausts the soil. Land Plaster is a sulphate of lime. It is not a direct fertilizer, and its method of action is not exactly known. It may occasionally be used to advantage for leguminous crops, such as clover, beans, peas, etc., in applications of from 200 to 600 pounds per acre spread broadcast. There is Little Need for Commercial Fertilizers at present In most of the western states and they should never be used until the home sources of manure have been exhausted, and then they should be used to supplement rather than replace farm manures, and as aids in close cultivation of gardens. They are generally expensive, and results from their use here have not been as satisfactory as in the eastern states. Only the more common kinds to be met with here have been mentioned. Those who use commercial fertilizers of the better kinds for the first time are very likely to use too much and seriously injure the crops to which they are applied. It is much better to use too little than too much, and to experiment along this line in a small and inexpensive way to begin with. Effect of Manure on Crops. — The proportion of the various plant foods used by different crops varies considerably, some using a larger amount of one element and some of another. Their visible effects when in excess are also quite different. Garden plants that are grown especially for their foliage use large quantities of nitrogen and require it in order to be per- fectly healthy, and seed producing plants use large quantities of phosphoric acid and potash. Where nitrogen in a soluble form la ver> abundant so as to be tn excess in the soil it will be 26 VEGETABLE GARDENING, found that the plants growing on It are noted for their dark green color and rank leaf and stem growth, and for late ma- turity of fruit and seed. In the case of small grain, it may result in such a weak, soft, succulent growth that the stems cannot support themselves and they become "lodged," and such growth may be gained without an increase in the yield of grain. In the case of lawns a soft, thick sod is made; in the case of spinach, cabbage and other leaf crops, vigorous, large plants result; while tree and bush fruits, under such conditions, make a soft, late-maturing growth that easily winter kills. On the contrary, when soluble potash and phosphoric acid are in excess in the soil, the plants will have a tendency to pro- duce a large amount of seed and fruit in proportion to straw or wood and to mature early. This is a desirable condition for heaviest grain and seed crops. In the case of bush and tree fruits, it conduces to fruitfulness, early maturity of wood and hardiness. These qualities will be most evident if the nitrogen is under a normal quantity in the soil. It must not be understood from this that any of these ele- ments are hurtful, for they are absolutely necessary in proper proportions to secure best results; but these effects follow when they are greatly in excess. Except in few instances, fresh manure In the soil Is not beneficial, and its presence prevents close cultivation and causes the land to dry out very quickly. Such manure does not afford plant food for some time, since it must first be thoroughly de- cayed before It is of any value to plants. Rotten manure has much of its plant food in an available condition. Manure for Early and Late Crops. — Much more manure and more thoroughly rotted manure Is required for early than for late crops. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that early in the season fermentation goes on very slowly, and unless plant food is supplied in a quickly available form it Is of no Immedi- ate use to the plant. On account of the rapid fermentation which goes on in the soil later in the season, crops that ma- ture later than the middle of the summer may be able to use the plant food that was locked up in fresh manure In the spring. For Instance, the results from fresh cow manure may be almost nothing If applied in the spring to a crop of early MANURES. 27 cabbage or spinach, while for a late crop of cabbage or for corn It may answer very well. Where an abundance of well- rotted manure cannot be obtained In the spring and It becomes necessary to use partially rotted manure for an early crop, It Is a good plan to use nitrate of soda or some other quick acting fertilizer to afford plant food until the manure has rotted. Manures for Leguminous Crops. — Leguminous crops, such as peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, etc., do not need as much nitro- genous manure as most other crops that are so rich in nitro- gen, since their presence encourages the growth of nitric acid ferments in the soil. Such crops improve the land on which they grow by increasing the amount of nitrogen in it, and in this respect they are different from all other garden crops, and are sometimes referred to as nitrogen producers and other crops as nitrogen consumers. Animal Manure should generally be spread evenly on the land and then be thinly covered with the soil; yet for some crops it may sometimes be most desirable to apply the manure in the hill or furrow. The amount that should be applied per acre varies with the crop, soil and manure, so no exact rule can be given. For a midsummer or late maturing crop, probably eight cords of well rotted stable manure per acre would be suf- ficient in almost any case, and much less will sometimes be enough, while for an early crop twice as much rotted manure might be used to advantage. Well rotted manure should be covered with soil soon after it is applied to the land, or it may waste by drying. If it is put on frozen land it may waste by the soluble parts being washed away. But in. the case of fresh animal manures there is little chance of loss in these ways. The effect of the application of animal manures to the land will remain apparent for several years. It is generally consid- ered safe to estimate that not more than one-third the full value of these manures is taken up by the crop growing on the land the year it is applied. Manure the Growing Crop. — Sometimes a crop comes to a standstill on account of having exhausted the available ferti- lizing material in. the soil. In such cases it may be a good plan to fertilize the growing crop with hen manure, nitrate of Boda or other quick acting fertilizer and cultivate the land at 28 VEGETABLE GARDENING. once. This may be done in many cases by applying such ma- terials to the crop during a hard rain or in a dry time by plowing a furrow near the crop and placing the fertilizer in the furrow. But in any case it should be cultivated into the soil so as to become well mixed through it, and much care must be taken to prevent the dry fertilizer from coming in contact with the roots of the plants. Rotating Manures. — It Is a good plan to occasionally change the manures applied to land, i. e. when stable manure has been largely used for some years apply some commercial ferti- lizer, lime or land plaster, and when commercial fertilizers have been used for some time recourse should be had to stable manure. Liquid Manure. — Liquid manure Is sometimes used for en- couraging the growth of plants. It should never be maae from fresh manure, but from that which is thoroughly rotted. Urine may be used as a liquid manure if well decomposed, but it should always be used with great caution and never applied to plants if fresh or undiluted. Cow and horse manure are gener- ally preferred for making liquid manure. The vessel in which it is to be made should be one-third full of manure and filled up with water. The whole should then be stirred and allowed to settle. The clear water is then used for watering plants. Liquid fertilizer is also made by dissolving nitrate of soda In water as mentioned under that head. Ammonia is sometimes used in very small quantities in water applied to plants, espe- cially to house plants, with good results. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER II. 1. What elements are usually lacking In the soil? 2. What Is the difference between direct and Indirect fertilizers? 8. Why are manures from young, growing animals less valuable than from older animals? 4. What is the heating of manures due to? 5. To what extent are the different farm manures valuable for farm crops? 6. What Is the result of mixing alkaline substances with manure? 7. What Is the result of mixing commercial fertilizers with manures? 8. How should a manure pile be cared for? 9. What Is a compost heap and how made? 10. What are commercial fertilizers and In what way are they valuable? 11. What Is tankage? Nitrate of soda? Kaunt? And what ele- ments do they contain? 12. What part of the plant does each •* tae elements, nitrogen, potash and phosphorous affect when lp ™~3a in the soil? 18. What kind of manure shou'3 be used for early crops and why? 14. What kind of manure shoild be used for late crops and why? 15. How should commercial fertilizers be applied to the land? 18. How should animal manure be applied to the land? CHAPTER III. GARDEN TILLAGE. By the proper cultivation of the garden we accomplish three things: (1) The weeds are kept out so that they do not shade or take away valuable plant food and moisture from the plants which we desire to perfect. (2) The surface soil is brought into best condition to resist drought, that is, into the best condition to avail itself to the utmost of the stores of water in the subsoil and to prevent the evaporation of this water from the surface soil. (3) The inert plant food in the soil is made soluble by cnemical action, which is increased by the cultivation of the soil. Prevention and Killing of Weeds. — The methods best adapted for keeping weeds out of the garden are many and varied. They depend much upon the condition and kind of soil in which the weeds grow, and upon the kind of crop and the habits of the weeds themselves. The most important step in making easy the prevention of weeds in the garden is the har- rowing or other thorough cultivation of the land just before the planting of the seed, to kill the young weeds. If this is done thoroughly the weeds do not have any better chance than the crop. If this is not done the weeds will be ahead of the crop in growth, and if started ever so little when the crop is planted the result generally is that the crop is seriously over- grown by them before it is large enough to be cultivated. When garden seeds that require a long time to germinate are sown, it is an excellent plan to lightly rake over the land with an ordinary fine-toothed rake even before tha crop appears above the ground, providing the work is so carefully done as not to dis- turb the seeds. This is an easy matter in case of the larger garden seeds, while it would be impossible with the finer seeds, as they are invariably planted shallow. When the seed is sown with a drill the line of the row may be plainly seen even before the plants come up, thus making it easy to commence cul- 30 VEGETABLE GARDENING. tivatlng In advance of the weeds. In case of such, crops as car- rots, onions, beets and parsnips, which are quite delicate when young, cultivation should begin with some hand garden culti- vator, even if it is intended later on to cultivate it with a horse implement and the crop is planted with this purpose in view. Such close and careful work cannot be done with any horse im- plement now in use as with the best hand implements. Careful early cultivation is of the utmost importance, since if the weeds are removed when they are young the work of weeding is small. If allowed to remain until well rooted, their removal is often a very serious matter, and frequently, if neglected at this early stage, the weeds become so firmly established as to make it a question whether to remove them or to plow under the whole crop; and often it is the part of wisdom to adopt the latter alternative. Aside from its effect in the prevention of weeds, early cultivation is of the greatest value in breaking up the crust that packs firmly around the tender growing stems of plants and which seriously interferes with their growth. Like all surface cultivation It is also an aid in the conservation of moisture in the soil. Importance of Not Allowing Weeds to go to Seed. — A com- mon source of weed infection is often found in the "few weeds that are allowed to go to seed toward the end of the growing season in the maturing crop or after the crop has been gath- ered. To some persons it often seems a small matter to allow a few plants of pig-weed, purslane, tumble weed and weeds of other kinds to go to seed in the garden, but absolute cleanliness should be the rule in this particular, and it is by far the most economi- cal in practice in the long run. It requires but little labor and saves much useless expense if the weeds that are going to seed are destroyed. If the preventives for weeds here suggested are closely followed hand weeding will be reduced to a minimum and will often be unnecessary with any crop. Weed Seeds In Manure for the Garden. — While the dis- cussion of the subject of manures for the garden is not the special object of this chapter, yet some reference to the subject Is quite necessary in considering the subject of weed eradica- tion. The people of this section have not yet learned the great value of barnyard manure and its proper preparation for best GARDEN TILLAGE. »1 results In the soil. This Is a subject of vast Importance and one that in the future will receive far more thought than at present The manure applied to the garden is often coarse and contains many weed seeds and is a fruitful source of weed in- fection. If the manure intended for the garden contains the seeds of weeds it should be piled up and allowed to ferment until the whole mass is thoroughly rotted, which process will kill the weed seeds in it. It is seldom advisable to use fresh manure in the garden, and it should only be applied in this condition when free from weeds and then only for some late maturing crops, in which case there will be time for it to rot before the crops need it. Plowing. — In the western states, where the summers are often very dry, vegetable land should generally be plowed in the autumn so that the subsoil may become sufficiently com- pacted by spring to readily transmit the subsoil moisture to the surface. Such treatment, by forming a dust blanket, retards evaporation from the land during dry autumns and dry winters when there is no snow on the ground. Fall plowing also puts the land in the best shape for the action of the elements and the development of plant food, and may oe a means of killing very many cut worms, white grubs and other insects that winter over in the soil. If plowing Is left until spring in this climate It should be done as early as practicable and not so deep as when done in the fall. Deep spring plowing leaves too much of the upper soil loose and not sufficiently compact to enable the subsoil water to easily reach the surface roots — but where irri- gation is practiced there is not much difference in this respect. The soil for the garden should ordinarily be plowed to a depth of about eight Inches, yet in the case of some light soils half this depth may be preferable. Subsoil Plowing or Subsoiling, are terms applied to the loosening of the land just below where the plow ordinarily goes. In doing this, the subsoil Is not brought to the surface, but a special plow Is used which follows an ordinary plow. This has no mold board, but has a good point and shoe, and these loosen the subsoil without raising it. This process may be hurtful or of no value to subsoils already so loose as to permit the roots of plants to readily push into them, and should not 32 VEGETABLE GARDENING. be applied to them, but for some of the very still subsoils of this section it is a great Improvement, since it deepens the till- able land so that the roots of the plants can push more readily into it. This loosening of the stiff subsoil also puts it into just the right condition for receiving and holding water. It is thus sometimes a great help in carrying plants over droughty periods. Subsoiling gives best results when performed in the autumn. If done in the spring and the operation is followed by dry weather, the land is apt to be left too loose to hold moisture well that year and consequently will suffer from drought. It is seldom, even on stiff land, that subsoiling is needed more than Figure 3.— Root of onion plant with earth washed off. The roots went to the depth of eighteen inches in the earth. once in four or five years, for after being once loosened the roots of plants penetrate it and keep it open. The roots of our garden crops push deeper into the land than is generally known; even the onion, which is, perhaps, as shallow rooted as any gar- den crop grown, often pushes its roots to a depth of eighteen inches in good soil, while corn roots have been followed to a GARDEN TILLAGE. 33 depth of four feet. It is probable that In good land almost any of our garden crops will send their roots eighteen or more Inches deep. Ridging the Land. — If the land is liable to be too wet for planting in early spring, it is sometimes a good practice in plow- ing it to turn several furrows back to back and thus leave the land in ridges over winter. If these ridges or "lands" are made fifteen or twenty feet wide, they may be dragged and planted in the spring without further plowing. For some crops it is often best to open the furrows again in the spring and thus leave the land level. This method of treatment permits of working Figure 4— Cross section of ridged laud. the land much earlier in the spring than it otherwise could be worked if plowed flat. It also ^aves the soil in very good shape for the action of frost on its particles during the winter. For early crops on flat or heavy soils it is a most desirable treat- ment. The objection to it is that if not turned back in the spring the dead furrows interfere with cultivation ; if the land is thus turned back in the spring, it may be left too loose. But admitting these objections, even then there are often cases where this treatment would be very desirable. It should be borne in mind, loo, in cultivating the garden that while the soil in it may be too loose, it cannot be too rich nor too deep, nor can the subsc'l, if not of too impervious a nature, be too compact, and yet it must be loose enough to permit of the roots entering it and the water percolating through it. General Cultivation of Garden Crops. — The methods to be pursued in the general cultivation of garden crops vary some- what according to the soil, season and crop. However, it is very important to remember that the destruction of weeds Is but a small part of the work of cultivation. The most Important part in this section Is to so fit the soil that it may best with- 84 VEGETABLE GARDENING. stand drought. This is accomplished by frequent shallow culti- vation during the period of drought. The first implements to use In the care of such crops as are generally cultivated by hand are those that work the soil to only a very slight depth close to the plants. Such implements may be used just as the seedlings are breaking ground. As soon as the plants have gained some little strength, implements should be used that will go deeper, until a depth of two or three inches can be easily worked with- out endangering the safety of the crop by covering the plants with dirt. It is doubtful if any of our garden crops should ever be cultivated more than three inches deep, and it is very certain that many crops are injured by cultivating deeply very close to the plants, in which case the roots are cut off near their upper ends and thus wholly destroyed. Cultivation in a period of drought results in forming a mulch or blanket of dry earth on the surface of the land, which prevents the moisture from pass- ing into the atmosphere, and a rather shallow dust blanket, say three inches deep, accomplishes this purpose. A compact sub- soil readily transmits the water upwards to the surface soil in Figure 5.— Iron Age horse hoe. the same manner that a lamp wick carries the oil to the flame. At the surface the soil water is prevented from evaporating by the blanket of loose earth, and is thus saved in the upper sub- soil and lower and middle parts of the furrow slice for the roots of the "crop. Loose surface soil is a good non-conductor of water. During the growth of a crop the surface soil should never be left long with a crust on it, but should be stirred after each rain or artificial watering. GARDEN TILLAGE. 35 Cultivation to Develop Plant Food. — Nearly all laud in this eection contains immense quantities of plant food. Professor Snyder has shown that our average wheat-producing soils con- tain enough nitrogen to raise one hundred and twenty-five suc- cessive crops of wheat. But only a "very little of this material is ever at one time in a condition in which the plant can take it up; nearly all of it is insoluble. By chemical action and fermentation in the soil, plant food is set free. This is increased and made more complete by admitting air into the soil. Hence the reason for deep plowing in the fall, which allows the air and water to enter and thus develop plant food. This, also, is an important fact to be kept in mind in cultivating land. Where the soil can be kept moist through the summer deep spring plowing is an advantage as it opens the soil to the air; but on account of the liability to injury from droughts to soils thus worked the practice is generally a poor one for this section. Figure 6.— Planet Jr. fine tooth cultivator. GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. Implements, such as plows, harrows, etc., used for prepar- fug the land for ordinary farm crops are also used in fitting Ue land for garden crops. In addition, however, there are a 36 VEGETABLE GARDENING. number of tools and implements which are not commonly used In growing the farm crops. These may be roughly classed as follows: Horse Hoes and Horse Cultivators are much alike in general construction, but each is adapted to special purposes, and both are very desirable. The horse hoes are for use when the land is very hard and weedy; they may also be used for ridging the land and drawing the earth from or harrowing it towards the plants. For this purpose they have various attachments. The cultivators are especially for the purpose of stirring the surface soil and keeping a dust blanket; they do not remove weeds that are well established. They throw very little soil side- ways and on this account may be used for cultivating very close to small plants. Among the best of these are those known under the names of Planet Jr. and Iron Age. Figure 7.— Opening and closing furrows with hand garden cultivators. Hand Cultivators. — There are many good forms of hand cul- tivators on the market, and they are a necessity in every garden containing over a quarter of an acre. They are made so as to be adjusted to various widths between the rows, and kinds called "straddle cultivators" are made so as to cut on two sides of a row of plants at one time, which is often quite an advantage. They also have various attachments for special purposes. Among GARDEN TILLAGE. 31 the best of these are Jewel wheel hoe, New Universal wheel hoe, Gem garden cultivator and the several kinds manufactured by the Planet Jr. Co. Seed Drills. — These are necessary in every garden. There are many good kinds offered by dealers. Among the best are the New Model drill, Planet Jr. Hill-Dropping drill and Mat thews drill. Combined Seed Drills and Cultivators. — These are very eco- nomical and useful implements for a small garden; for a large garden it is important to have the seed drill and cultivator sep- 1 Figure 8.— Garden drills. (1) A. H. Mathews. (2) Planet Jr. combined drill. (2) Mathews combined drill. (4) New Model drill. (5) Planet Jr. Hill Dropping drill. arate, but in a small garden these combined machines can be used to good advantage, and thereby make a saving in first cost. Among the best of these is the combination drill and cultivator made by the Ames Plow Co., of Boston, Mass., and the Planet Jr. combined drill and cultivator. Figure 9. — A simple garden marker. 38 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Marker. — The illustration shows a good form of a market for the garden. It is easily made by any one who la handy with took and is used for marking out rows. Figure 10.— Common wooden dibber. Figure 11.— Improved flat steel dibber. Dibbers are generally made from a crooked stick shod with iron and are very useful in transplanting (Fig. 10). A better form made of steel is shown in figure 11. Scuffle Attachments for Hand Garden Cultivators. — Fig. 11 shows two sets of implements designed to be attached to the ^^-. Fitrure 12.— Home made attach- ments fur garden cultivators. Figure 13.— Scuffle hoe. ordinary wheel cultivators which will work close up to the young plants bo as to cut off the weeds just under the surface of the soil, and will be found very useful in many places. They GARDEN TILLAGE. 34 should be made out of tool steel and any good blacksmith can make them. The length of blades may be made to suit the work. The Scuffle Hoe, shown in Fig. 13, is an excellent old-fash- ioned implement for shallow cultivation, such as is needed in early spring in the garden. Besides, it is very cheap and simple and can be made by any handy blacksmith. It cannot be recom- mended to take the place of the improved wheel hoes for large gardens, but in small gardens it may be used for the work of shallow cultivation to good advantage. It does not work the soil deep enough for the best summer cultivation. Figure 14.— Plank drag for smoothing the surface of laud. Plank Drag or Smoothing Board. — The form of this is clear- ly shown in Fig. 14. It is used for crushing lumpy soil and smoothing off and levelling the land preparatory to seed sowing or planting and will be found very useful. It can be made by any one. The planks are two by ten. inches on the ends and eight ■ feet long, lapped two inches and nailed. These are strengthened by two six-inch cleats securely bolted on. It is drawn by a chain fastened at the front corners. Potato Diggers. — Of the cheaper forms of potato diggers, probably the HallocK Improved is the most perfect. It does very good work, and where not over five acres of potatoes are to be dug it is probably all that is needed. Where the potato is raised on a large scale, however, it is generally desirable to use an elevating digger. Of these the Hoover and the Dowden are probably the best to be had. They both work on the same principle. Spray Pumps. — Almost every farmer and gardener needs a good spray pump for applying Paris green to potatoes and vines and for spraying trees, vines, etc., with fungicides or In- secticides. For this purpose some form of the knapsack spraj 40 VEGETABLE GARDENING. pump is most desirable where the work to be done is not very extensive, lor applying these subtances on a large scale some special apparatus is needed, and there are many kinds offered by manufacturers. In Fig. 15 is shown the barrel spray pump, which has been found most convenient at the Minnesota Experi- ment Station for general work about the grounds, such as spraying trees of different kinds where the knapsack sprayer is Figure 15. — Barrel spray pump, showing cone shaped strainer to the left. insufficient. The barrel is fastened to a wooden frame and may be placed in a wagon or on a stone boat when it is to be used. The essential parts are a good hardwood barrel, such as a linseed oil barrel mounted on and securely fastened to a light framework of oak. At one end of the barrel is mounted a powerful force pump with attachments capable of throwing two GARDEN TILLAGE. 41 or three fine strong sprays at one time. The liquid In the barrel Is kept agitated by a small stream of water passing through a one-fourth inch pipe, having a one-sixteenth inch wide opening near the feed p.pe of the pump, in the bottom of the barrel. On one end of the barrel is shown a cone shaped strainer which is much the best form to use. There are many styles of spray nozzles on the market. For general use the McGowen, Vermorel or Bordeaux are best. The lower end of the feed pipe is covered with a fine brass screen. In the center of the side of the barrel is an open- ing eight inches in diameter with a tight fitting cover. This is so large that the barrel may be easily cleaned. The whole expense of making this machine was as follows: One linseed oil bar- rel, $1; pump, $6.50; 50 feet of one-half inch hose, $3; strainer, $1.50; two nozzles, $1.25; bolts, etc., 50 cents. Total cost, not Including labor, $13.75. In buying machinery It is well to regard with suspicion those that are very complicated, as the simplest is generally the most durable In the end. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER Ml. 1. What three things are accomplished by cultivation? 2. How and why is it important that weeds should be prevented from growing in the garden? 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fall and spring plowing ? 4. What Is meant by sub-soil plowing and when does it give best results ? 5. What is the object of ridging the land and when is It prac- ticable? 6. How does cultivation develop plant food? 7. What tools and machines are necessary for successful garden- Ins and for what purpose is each one used? CHAPTER IV. SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING FARMER'S KITCHEN GARDEN. For the Successful Germination of Seed In the land It should be placed so as to have a reasonable amount of heat, moisture and air. To secure these conditions in practice, the seed should be imbedded in mellow soil, and this packed around it just firm enough to bring it into actual contact with and make sure capillary action in tne soil. If the soil is left loose over and around the seed, capillary action cannot continue, and the seed is liable to dry out unless the season Is very wet; on the other hand, the soil must not be allowed to become too com- pact over the seed, or the young seedling will not be able to push through it. No matter how carefully the sowing may have been done, the successful germination of the seed is largely dependent upon the condition of the ground. Unless the seed Is carefully and properly placed and covered, the crop cannot get a good start no matter how well the land has been prepared or how good the seed is. Seed will not sprout in the absence of air, and on this account when deeply buried some weed seeds may retain their germinating power for many years. Cases are on record of yellow mustard seeds germinating after remaining in the land for eighteen years. Very frequently, on plowing land that has not been stirred for a long time, the weeds of certain kinds are very abundant, showing that they must have been in the soil a long time, but could not germinate away from the air. Depth to Plant. — Most of the common, smaller garden seeds are planted one inch deep; celery and some other fine seeds cannot be planted nearly so deep. Peas and corn are generally planted from two to three Inches deep. Peas, however, are some- times planted as deep as six inches. These matters will be found referred to under their respective heads. Always Sow In Freshly Stirred Ground, as the seed Is tar SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 13 more liable to get a good start In It than in soil that has lain untilled long enough to become crusty and lumpy. Then, If the seeds are planted Immediately after cultivation has been given and while the soil is still moist, the weeds will hardly get the start of the crop planted if reasonable care is used. In fact, following this rule will generally insure success as long as there is life in the seed and moisture in the soil. Again, it is preferable to sow seeds immediately after a rain rather than just before it comes, since in the case of the finer seeds the crust which forms Immediately after a rain may be so compact that the young seedlings cannot push through. When a crust thus forms over seeds it is sometimes a good plan to go over the land before the crust Is very compact and break it up with rakes, but this should be done in a most careful manner so as not to disturb the seeds. If a crust forms over fine seeds, such as celery, tobacco and others, it is a good plan to keep the crust moist, at least, until the seeds have pushed through it. Soil that is much dried out in midsummer is often quite an obstacle to the ready germina- tion of seed sown at that time, but if the seed is sown shortly after the ground is plowed and somewhat deeper than it is generally sown, in the early spring and care is taken to firm the earth very carefully Immediately after sowing, the seed will generally come up very quickly at this season. But the land should not be worked for seed sowing or for any other purpose when very wet and sticky, as seeds cannot be properly planted In soil in such condition. The Time for Sowing the various seeds varies greatly and will be founnd referred to separately under the several heads. Some seeds, such as spinach, onion, lettuce and radish may be sown as soon r.s the ground can be worked, while the seed of such tropical plants as corn, cucumber and squash should not be sown until the ground is well warmed. The early sown hardier seeds are often frozen up in the ground and, perhaps, covered with snow without injury; in fact, a covering of snow seems to help seeds of the hardy kinds to grow. Sowing In Stiff Clay Soils. — It is comparatively easy to make seeds germinate in sand, sandy loam, muck or soil rich in humus, provided they contain a reasonable amount of moisture, but In ■tiff clay soils this Is often quite a different matter, as the land 44 VEGETABLE GARDENING. becomes crusted over so completely as to prevent the smaller seedlings from pushing through. For such land It is desirable to use rather more seed than would be needed in more porous soil for the reason that while a few plants could not push up the crusted surface yet the many can do so; and while thick seed- ing increases the total cost of seed, yet the certainty of thus securing a full stand is so great an advantage as to well repay this additional outlay and the expense for thinning, if it has to be done at all, is about the same for thick as for thin seeding. Sowing Seed With Machine. — When the soil is prepared for best work with a garden drill it is generally in the best condition for the germination of seeds. The whole surface should be fine, mellow and even. There are only one or two garden seeds that cannot readily be sown with any of the half dozen good garden drills that are offered in the market. Garden drills when properly used will sow and cover seed much more uniformly than It can possibly be sown and covered by hand, and they are a necessity in any well-managed garden. It is of the utmost im- portance to have straight rows in the garden, for they are more economical of space than crooked rows and are more perfectly cultivated with the wheel hoes and cultivator, besides, crooked rows are unsightly and slovenly. It is generally desirable in using a garden drill to mark off the first row with a line to get it straight. If this is done to begin with the subsequent rows may be kept parallel by using the marker always found on such machines, providing constant care Is used. Some growers prefer to mark out all the rows with a marker and then run the seed sower in the marks, but for a careful workman this Is useless labor. Seed drills are made with a point to open fur- rows, a coverer for filling in after the drill, a wheel for compact- ing the soil on the seed and a marker for the next row. To use a garden seed drill most successfully requires good judgment, but a little careful experimenting will soon enable any one aci- customed to tools to handle these most useful implements to good advantage. Sometimes it Is desirable to sow seed when the ground is so wet that it is not safe to firm the soil over It When such is the case the rear wheel is removed in sowing. In other cases when it is desirable to firm the soil more com- pactly, the press wheel may be used for this purpose, by going SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 45 over the rows a second time. It is a good plan in doing this to remove the drill point or else tip the machine until the point is off the ground. In the case of a few seeds that are rather delicate about germinating, it is a good plan to sow the rows a second time with the seed drill and thus mix the seed up with the soil. This method puts in a large amount of seed, leaves the seed at various depths, and some of it is sure to grow. Sowing Seed by Hand. — When only a very small quantity of seed is to be sown it is often best to sow it by hand. When this is the plan the rows are made by the garden maker and the seed distributed in them evenly by hand. The rows are then covered by the soil being drawn into them with a rake and are firmed by passing over the seed with the feet. If the soil is dry it cannot be made too firm; If moist, care must be used to prevent packing it too hard. In the case of very fine seed sown In dry weather, many devices are used to bring about germination such as watering, shading the soil with boards, covering the earth with cloths and the like. Using the Feet for Firming the Soil Around the Seeds. — Many seeds are lost from the failure to properly firm the soil over those sown during dry weather. Many devices have been suggested and used for securing this desirable condition, but for general garden purposes no method or implement ever used can vie with the proper use of the feet for this purpose. While this matter is referred to elsewhere, it is put under this special head to call attention to this useful fact. Peter Henderson was the first to call attention to the importance of this method, and describes it as follows: "After plowing, harrowing and leveling the land smoothly, lines are drawn by the 'markers,' which make furrows about two inches deep and a foot apart. After the man who sows the seed follows another who, with the ball of his right foot, presses down his full weight on every inch of soil where the seed has been sown; the rows are then slightly levelled longitudinally with the rake, a light roller is passed over them and the work is done." Those who have practiced this method know it gives most excellent results. In my own practice, in sowing seed in dry weather, even with a 46 VEGETABLE GARDENING. seed drill which has a wheel for firming the soil, I have fre- quently, and to advantage, walked the rows with the heel of one foot close to and in front of the toe of the other, pressing down on the row. Thinning. — It is generally best to sow the seed of most gar- den vegetables much more thickly than the plants should stand when mature. This is done to make sure of having enough plants to stock the land, and it is a good practice. It Is im- portant, also, to let every young plant in the garden have room enough for perfect development, and this can only be secured, where thick seeding is practiced, by thinning out It is a very general fault of beginners in gardening that they try to grow too many plants on their land. This is a common mistake and is no better in result than permitting weeds to grow. Every plant in excess of what can properly mature on the land is in its effect a weed and should be treated as such. In the home gar- den, where the thinnings are valuable, as In the case of beets, lettuce, etc., the work of thinning need not be done all at once but as the plants need room. In the market garden it is best to thin out the full distance at one time. Do not allow the seedlings to get drawn and spindling before thinning, but do It while they are young and before they crowd one another. The proper distances between plants seem very large when the plants are small, but it must be remembered that later on any- thing less than the proper distance Injures the crop. One must have determination enough to throw away many nice plants in order to make room for those that are to mature. It is better to give too much than too little room to plants. Protection to Newly Planted Seeds against Insects and birds may often be given by slightly moistening them and then stirring in red lead until all the seeds are thoroughly coated. The seed should be dried before sowing. Crows and Gophers May be Kept From Eating Corn by coat- ing it with coal tar as follows: Wet the corn with hot water and drain off all surplus. Spread it out about four inches deep on the floor of a warm room and sprinkle It with hot coal tar using about a tablespoonful to a half bushel of corn and stir thoroughly until every kernel has a thin coat of tar on it. Then SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 47 dry the corn by coating it with dry ground plaster or other fine absorbent This treatment does not seem to hinder germination. TRANSPLANTING. Avoid transplanting as much as possible. — Whatever may be said of its merits elsewhere does not apply in this section, since the dry weather so common here in the season when transplanting is done often makes the operation unsuccessful. Undoubtedly one of the reasons why transplanted plants some- times give better results than seedlings allowed to grow where the seed is sown, is that they are allowed more room to develop in, but if seedlings that are not moved are given the proper room to develop they are just as good and generally far superior to those that are transplanted. Transplanting, as a rule, is an in- jury to plants and yet it is a necessary operation in the growing of some of our most valuable vegetables. figure 16. — A box of young 1 lettuce plants after being transplanted from the seed box. These plants may be moved to the open ground or to hotbeds or cold frames as soon as they crowd one another. This is a convenient way to grow plants in dwelling houses and in front of windows. This style of box is often referred to as a "flat." Success in Transplanting is dependent on a variety of con- ditions. In moist weather the setting of plants in the open ground is a very simple operation and any one can succeed with it without much effort, but during dry weather the gardener's skill is taxed to the utmost to move plants successfully. One oi the most important elements for success in transplanting is 8 i8 VEGETABLE GARDENING. supply of flrst-clasa stocky plants that have not been crowded in the seed bed. Such plants make success reasonably certain. A most important requirement in any case is that the soil be moist and not wet and sticky. If it is very dry it must be watered or failure will be a sure result. Shortening the Tops of Plants. — It is a good plan to shorten the tops of cabbage, celery, cauliflower and similar plants when they are to be moved. This may be done by twisting or cutting off a third or even one-half of the tops. If the plants have ex- cessively long roots it is a good plan to shorten them enough to permit of their being handled easily. Figure 17. — 1. — Cabbage plant with long stem set deep. 2 — Cabbage plant with top twisted off before planting. 3 — Cabbage plant wrapped in manilla paper to protect from out worms. The Digging of Plants should be dono carefully and ©very precaution taken to get good roots. If the bed is very dry the SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING. 49 soil should bo thoroughly wet before digging so that the small roots -will not be broken In separating the plants. The best time of day for transplanting is generally after 4 p. m., as after that time the moisture in the air increases rapidly and the plants have the cool night air in which to recover before being subjected to the intense rays of the sun. Of course if the weather is cloudy the plants may be set out at any time of the day. If a little shade can be provided for the newly set plants so much the better. This may consist of boxes, boards slightly raised from the ground, shingles, inverted flower pots, paper bags, r^" Figure 18. — Tomato plants grown in a compartment box to facilitate transplanting. Such boxes can be bought for a very low price and are very convenient aids for transplanting many kinds of plants. They are especially desirable when plants are to be sold at retail. a handful of green grass, strawberry boxes or similar material that will protect the plants from the fierce rays of the sun. Firming the soil about the roots Is fully as important as finning the soil over the seeds and for the same reasons. It should be so firmly and closely packed that the plants cannot be pulled up without considerable effort. The drier the sod so VEGETABLE GARDENING. the greater the necessity for packing it firmly about, the roots. If the soil is wet and inclined to pack hard it should receive only moderate pressure until somewhat dried out. The firming is gen- erally done by pressing with a dibber or the ball of the foot against the soil on one side of the roots of the plant. When the transplanting is finished it is a good plan to give the plants a good hoeing at once, drawing a little loose, dry soil around them to act as mulch and prevent evaporation. The holes for the plants are generally made with a dibber (Fig. 10 or 11.) A spade is often used for this pur- pose and such plants as small on- ions are most conveniently set in small furrows made with a wheel hoe. In every case, however, the plants should be set a little deeper than they grew in the seed bed and in the case of spindling tomato, cabbage and some other plants it is a good plan to bend the stems and bury a large part of them in the soil as shown in figure 17. Figure 19.— Transplanting aided by the Balbridge transplanter, which takes up a ball of earth with each plant. The illustration shows a box of strawberry plants just taken up and ready for planting out. In planting out the holes are made with the same implement. There are several other similar implements for the same purpose. Hardening off the Plants. — Hardening off is a term used to denote the checking of the growth oi plants in such a way as to cause their tissues to become firm and hard. It is very important to have the plants accustomed to cold weather when they are transplanted to the open ground, or they may be killed by a frost that otherwise would do them no harm. Th's is true of the SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANT 51 cauliflower, celery and of course of all our native frost tender trees and many other plants. When cabbage plants are properly hardened they take on a dull blue color that at once indicates their condition to one acquainted with their peculiarities. This hardening off of the plants is accomplished by gradually subject* ing them to a lower temperature than that in which they grow freely or by drying them a little, and, finally, thus nearly check- ing their growth. The result is a sort of ripening up of the tissues of the plants and, in consequence, they will stand great hardship. Tomato Cans are very convenient substitutes for flower pots when plants are grown for transplanting. The cover on the end opemd may be melted off and a half inch hole made in the Figure 20. — Use of tomato cans a3 an aid in transplanting. A box oi plants in the cans, ready for removal to the field and one can opened, showing- the ball of roots. The cans are held together by wire twisted around them. bottom for drainage. Another way to use them is to melt all the joints and use the body of the can by tying it together with a piece of wire. Thus prepared the tins may be set in the hot- bed or cold frame and filled with earth into which the seed ot 52 VEGETABLE GARDENING. ■ 1 \ Ill . ! ; .- to < ' : oi • :: 1- X 2 (0 UJ i id Ul : CD : :Q ID ¥ » 10 * W « III to CO a: f> Co' : ui u. > I. r co UJ C£ ^ < ; z < m < UJ £ UJ CD ui to o ' c ; i to UJ ce o u 1- UJ 03 • u i a. < to CO 8 - i CC UJ CO 5 2 , LU i UJ >. i U , EC UJ u CD ill to UJ • to uj I : —1 IJ!i Z o h CO cc • at i :: -UJ - o UJ UJ a: : ;q X 2 w get < is: • UJ to i UJ :CQ - ■ X z + c □ (/> O -J + * to + < z <. h- 0! § uj cc <

* VB6ETABLS GARDENING. They hatch In about a wwk Into sluggish larva* which feed upo» the leaves, never leaving a plant until all the leaves are gone. • They also feed to some extent upon tomato and egg plants. When fully developed the larvae descend to the ground where they pupate and emerge as perfect beetles. There are three broods each season. The beetles winter over in potato fields. Remedies. — The number of these pests varies greatly from year to year. The chief remedies are arsenical poisons applied to the foliage. For this purpose Paris green is mostly used, and arsenate of lead to some extent. The method of applying fhem varies much. The quantity of Paris green to use is one pound per acre for each application in from twenty-five to sev- enty-five gallons of water or Bordeaux mixture. The agitation must be thorough, to prevent the Paris green from settling. It is a good plan to add freshly slaked lime to the Paris green mix- ture at the rate of one to two pounds of stone lime to one pound of Paris green. Arsenate of lead may be used instead of Paris green. It has the advantage of sticking much better in rainy weather and of being less liable to burn the foliage. It must be used at the rate of five or six pounds per acre for each applica- tion, in from twenty-five to seventy-five gallons of water or Bor- deaux mixture. It usually comes on the market in a paste form. It is more costly to use than Paris green. Liquid mixtures may be applied with a watering pot or brush broom, but a spray pump is most economical, and on large areas a large one or two horse outfit is necessary. Paris green may be safely applied when mixed with twenty-five times its bulk of flour, sifted ashes, or road dust, or mixed with twenty-five pounds of land plaster. Other poisons than the above should be used with caution. It is very important to apply the poison as soon as the young larvae can be seen on the leaves. Plants injured when young are severely set back. The Imported and Native Cabbage Worm (Pieris sp.). — The imported cabbage worm resembles our native species and both of them are very destructive to cabbage, turnip, cauliflower and similar vegetables and to such flowering plants as mignon- ette, stocks and nasturtiums. They feed on the leaves and will often destroy the cabbage crop unless preventive measures INJURIOUS IN»BOT«. 91 are taken. The worm* of the imported species are green In color, while our native species are bluish with yellow stripes. The butterflies of both species are much alike. They are gener- Fi^.35. ' Imported Cabbage Warm/ (a) La^ae. butterfly. (b) Chrysalis. <«) Male ally white with indefinite black marks above and yellow or green markings on the underside, and are commonly seen flit- ting over fields of cabbage or of other of its food plants during the day time. The full grown caterpillar is about an inch and a half long. The winter is passed in the V/S/ / / A/wt\A'\ A\V chrysalis stage hidden away in sheltered places and from these the adult butterfly emerges in the spring and lays her eggs on the under side of the leaves where they hatch in about one week. There are several broods in a season. Remedies. — Pyrethrum powder, mixed with five times its bulk of flour and dusted into the cabbage just at nightfall is a good remedy. The flour should be mixed with the pyrethrum overnight. In a small way hand picking may be successfully resorted to. If the worms are troublesome where cabbage is grown on a large scale it is customary to use arsenical poison mixed with flour as recommended for the potato bug. The poison cannot be applied in water as It will not stick to the leaves, 92 VEGETABLE GARDENING. These, it is evident to anyone, can be safely applied before the plants commence to head, and recent careful trials and analy- ses of cabbage thus treated with Paris green, show there is very little danger in using it at any stage of the plants. Arsenate of lead is being used by some growers at the rate of five pounds to fifty gallons of water. It sticks best on hot afternoons, when the plants are in a somewhat wilted condition. There are para- sites that attack and kill the worms and chrysalides, and they sometimes may be destroyed very rapidly by disease as well as insect parasites. Cabbage Plusia. (Plusia brassicae.) — The cabbage plusia eats irregular holes in the leaves, and burrows into the heads of the cabbage. The parent insect is a moth of a dark-gray color Figure 37. — Snapping beetle or wire worm with larvae. distinguished by a silver mark on each wing. The eggs are laid on the upper surface of the leaves singly or in clusters. They soon hatch into pale green translucent worms, marked with paler longitudinal stripes on the back and sides. When full grown these are about two inches long. They resemble span worms in their mode of locomotion, hence are easily distinguished from the cabbage worm. The full grown caterpillar spins a cocoon, generally on the under side of the cabbage leaf, in which it undergoes its changes. The insect winters over in the pupal state. The remedies for this pest are the same as those INJURIOUS INSECTS. 93 recommended for cabbage worms and it is also subject to dis- eases and parasites. Wire Worms or Drill Worms (Blator). — Wire worms cause damage by boring into potatoes and some seeds in the ground. They are the larvae of a snapping or clicking beetle, so called from the ease with which, if laid on their backs, they spring into the air with a clicking noise. The larvae are slender wire- like worms having a glassy tough skin of a yellowish or brown- ish color. The larvae stage lasts for two and possibly five years ; it is therefore no small job to clear a piece of land badly in- fested with the pest. Naturally, wire worms live in grass land where the harm they do is not apparent, but when such land is planted to corn or potatoes and the worms are thus depived of their natural food they may become very troublesome. Remedies. — Late fall plowing is desirable for land infested with wire worms since it exposes and thus kills all that are ready to pupate. By clean summer fallowing the land one season the worms are starved out, if no plants whatever are permitted to grow on it. Cut Worms (Agrotis sp.). — Cut worms often cause serious injury by eating vegetable plants. They are generally most in- Figure 38. — Cut worm and moth. jurious while the plants are small, when they often bite off young cabbage, bean, corn or other plants close to or just under the ground and thus destroy them. Their work is most percep- tible in the spring on account of the small amount of growing vegetation at that time, yet they also work in the autumn. True cut worms are the larvae of several night flying moths which appear late in summer. The female deposits her eggs late in the summer. These soon hatch into worms which enter ths 94 VEGETABLE GARDENING. ground and live near the surface on the tender -lots of grass and other plants until the approach of cold weather. They then descend deeper Into the ground and remain torpid until spring, when they come to the surface and again commence their depre- dations. Cut worms when full grown, are from one and a quarter to one and three-quarter inches long and rather large in diameter as compared with the length. Their skin is of some dull color, smooth, with often dull stripes and bands. Remedies. — Cut worms are most injurious in sod land or land on which weeds have been permitted to grow in autumn, or in land adjacent thereto. They are not liable to winter over on any land that is kept free from weeds and grass in autumn, since there is no food for them in such places. The worms feed almost entirely by night and hide during the day time under clods or just under the surface of the ground near where they have been working. In a small way they may be dug out and destroy- ed, but in fields and on a large scale this is impossible and a good remedy is to scatter baits of poisoned clover through the fields. This is easily prepared by dipping clover into Paris green or Lon- don purple and water. A dough made of bran and Paris green sprinkled about the plants will often be found very satisfactory in destroying cut worms, and sometimes will work even better than clover for this purpose. Where cut worms are abundant a larger amount than usual of seed should be planted that a good stand may be secured even If the worm& do get some ol It. When plants such as cabbage, cauliflower and tomatoes are plant- ed out, it is a good plan to wrap the plants with pieces of stout paper extending about an inch below and three inches above the ground. When boxes or tomato cans are set around plants for shade, they afford a good protection from this pest. Protec- tion from cut worms to hills of melons, cucumbers and similar plants, may be given by pieces of pasteboard or tin. These should be cut about three inches wide and sufficiently long to encircle the hill. They should be set about an inch deep in the ground. Spraying the plants with London purple or Paris green is a good remedy. The moths of cut worms, as well as such Insects as adult wire worms and grub worms may be killed at night by means of a lantern suspended over a tub of water having a little kerosene on its surface. This should be done late In the summer when the moths of cut worms are abundaat. INJtTRIOUS INSECTS. w Striped Cucumbar B»»tle. (Diabrotlca vlttata.)— ThiB littl* beetle attack* squashes, cucumbers and melons when they are young. By eating the foliage and tender stems they may cause the death of the young plants. When abundant it is a very difficult pest to combat. It appears in the spring ^Enmterbeeiie? at J ust aDOut tne time the young squash plants are out of the ground, having wintered over In brush piles or other places affording protection. The beetle lays its eggs on the roots of corn where the young do considerable damage. These worms, are full grown in about one month from hatching They then leave the roots, make a little cavity in the earth near by, and undergo their changes. The insects spend the winter in the beetle stage. The beetle is about a quarter of an inch long and is striped with yellow and black. It is very quick in its movements but does not fly much except in the middle of the day. Remedies. — An extra amount of seed should be sown so as to secure a good stand and still allow some for the beetles. Dusting the vines, stems and leaves when they are moist, with air slaked lime, road dust or similar material containing a little Paris green or other poison, is quite a protection, and if per- sistently followed up aft- er every rain will gen- erally prevent serious loss. But care should be taken to put the dust on the stems as well as the leaves. Paris green and water is also a good Vlgvn 40-Cheese cloth screen for protecting remedy and is applied Cucumber, squashes and melon vines from tlle game ag for th e the striped beetle when young. aaiuv aa ivi mo 96 VEGETABLE GARDENING, potato beetle. Tobacco dust is also an excellent preventative used in this way. Some gardeners having quite extensive plant- ings, and many who are working in a small way, prefer to cover each hill with a box or frame covered with cheese cloth. In this case, the edges of the box or frame should be sunk an inch or so in the ground to keep out the bugs. Frames for this purpose are readily made of barrel hoops cut in halves and fastened together or of three slender sticks forming a sort of tent. This method allows the light and air to circulate freely around the plants, while at the same time they are perfectly protected and at slight cost. White Grub or May Beetles (Lachnosterna fuse a. — The insect known as the white grub is the larval stage of the May beetle. It lives in the land where it feeds on the roots of plants. The mature in- sect is a dark brown beetle, often nearly black with breast cover- ed with yellowish hairs. The body is three- fourths of an inch long and about a half inch in diameter. They fly at night and are well- known insects of the spring of the year. As beetles they feed on the leaves of various plants. The females lay their eggs among the grass roots in a ball of earth. These hatch in about a month and the grubs be'- gin to feed on the roots near by. It requires two or three years for the grubs to get their full growth and they then undergo their Figure 41. — May beetles at night. INJURIOUS INSECTS. 9! changes and emerge in the spring of the third or fourth year an the beetle described. Remedies. — The grubs are eaten by birds, moles and skunks. They are not apt to be abundant in any but grass land recently broken up. They are exceedingly hard to destroy on account of their remaining so long in the soil. When, young plants are seen to be wilting from the effects of the grub, they may sometimes be taken up, the grub removed and the plant reset. When lawns or other grass lands are badly affected they should be broken up and grown in some cultivated crop for two years. The beetles should be trapped when they become very abundant as recom- mended for cut worm moths. Such animals as moles and shrews should generally be permitted or even encouraged in our lawns and gardens and the little damage they generally do suffered patiently, since they are among our best friends and destroy im- mense numbers of white grubs and other insects that live in the ground and are difficult for us to reach. They are seldom abundant except where insects are numerous. Maggots ( Anthomyia sp.) — They are often de- structive to the seed or roots of a variety of plants including onions, cabbage, cauliflower and similar plants; they also attack the seed of corn, peas, beans and other vegetables in some seasons. Life History. — The mag- got here referred to is the larvae of a fly somewhat resembling the house fly, but brown in color. The eggs are laid in or near the surface of the ground, gen- erally on the food plants figure 42. — Bean and onion mag- gots on young bean plants. and hatch out in about two weeks into maggots, that commence to feed at once and finally become one-half inch long; these M VEGETABLE! GARDENING. change in two weeks more to files. This Insect winters orer 1b the pupa state In the ground. Remedies. — When this Insect attacks onions the Infested plant turns yellow and looks sickly and they should be pulled and destroyed. The same treatment should be given to any onions that may be found infested at harvest time. When onion land becomes badly Infested with this pest crop rotation should be practiced and no onions should be raised near it for a year or two. When beans, corn and peas are affected, the seed should be treated with a very thin coating of coal tar and afterwards rolled in plaster or other dust. The coal tar may be applied as follows: Spread the grain out in a warm room on the floor about six Inches deep and wet it with warm water; sprinkle on a very little warm coal tar (about one tablespoonful to one-half bushel) until each grain is coated; then roll it In plaster to dry it off. If this is carefully done the grains will not stick together and may be planted by seed planter. This treatment also prevents crows, gophers and squirrels from pulling newly planted corn. When ft attacks cabbage, cauliflower and similar plants It may be destroyed by kerosene emulsion, since the maggots work on the stem and roots of the plant near the surface of the ground and such an application would be practicable in this case, while In the case of many other crops such as onions, beans, etc., It might be quite out of the question on account of the large number of plants that would have to be treated to make it effectual. In the case of cabbage however it may be prevented from entering by inserting the plant through a small piece of tarred paper, that Is allowed to remain flat on the sur- face of the ground. Cabbage Flea Beetle (Halticus sp.) — There are several in- sects closely resembling each other and known as cabbage flea beetles that feed on the surface of the leaves of cabbage, tur- nips, radish, cauliflower, etc., and various wild plants. They are very injurious to the very young plants if allowed to have their way, but when the plants are nicely started they do not seem to be seriously incommoded by this pest. These beetles are very small and move very quickly. The adult Insect is bjack or nearly bo; some of them lay their eggs near the roots INJURIOUS INSECTS. 99 of the food plants, where the larvae do some damage; In other cases the eggs are laid on the under side of the leaves and the larvae mine Into them and live between- the upper and lower surfaces. But their chief damage is as beetles, in which form they pass the winter. One species of flea beetle Is sometimes destructive to potato vines. Figure 43. — Different species of flea beetles with their larvae. Remedies. — Since thsse are biting insects they are readily killed by Paris green or London purple in the usual propor- tions. If the plants are kept dusted with air slaked lime or plaster they are measurably protected from this insect. But the latter applications are greatly improved by adding a little poison to them. Leaf Lice or Aphides (Aphis sp.) — The various kinds ot leaf lice, otherwise called aphides, that live on plants have very much the same general habits. They are all sucking insects and Increase with grsat rapidity when their food plants are abund- 100 VEGETABLE GARDENING. ant. They generally winter over In the egg state. The summer, broods are often brought forth alive without the intervention of the egg state. Kerosene emulsion and tobacco water are the usual remedies, but hot water and pyrethrum will also de- stroy them. Leaf lice are eaten by the larvae of lady bugs and they are also subject to attacks of parasites. When the lice are coated with a meal-like covering that sheds water and pre- vents their being wet by insectides, they should first be sprayed with strong soap suds to remove the mealy covering and then the insecticide may be applied successfully. Cabbage Lice or Aphides (Aphis brassicae). — These are light brown insects covered with a floury substance. They at- tack turnips, cauliflower, rutabagas and similar plants, as well as the cabbage. They work generally on the lower side of the leaves where they collect most abundantly. They are most numerous in dry seasons. The remedies for them are those given under the general head of leaf lice but in addition to those it is a good plan to burn or compost all the old cabbage leaves and Btumps, since the eggs winter over attached to them. Sweet Corn Moth or Tassel Worm (Heliophila unipucta.) — This Is the boll-worm of the south. It eats into the green grain of the corn. But is seldom very troublesome at the north. Dr. Lugger thinks that it does not winter over in the extreme north- ern states, but that the moths come from the south each year. The only remedy is hand picking. It is doubtful If they will ever become very injurious in the northern states, since they do not begin their work there until late in the season. Parsley Worm or Celery Caterpillar (Papilio asterias.) — This worm eats the foliage of celery, carrot, parsley and allied plants, but Is not very often injurious. The mature insect is a beautiful large black butterfly having yellow and blue spots on Its wings. The eggs are laid on the foliage and hatch into small caterpil- lars less than one-tenth of an inch long, which when, full grown are one and a half inches long. It has bright yellow mark- ings. The remedy is to hand pick the worms, which ar« seldom abundant. INJURIOUS INSECTS. 101 Remedies.- Chinch Bugs (Blissus leucopteris.) — The chinch bug does it trouble any of our garden products except corn, but is some- times very injurious to this vegetable and may kill it in a very few days if neglected. This is a sucking insect that winters over In the adult state under leaves and in dry pro- tected places generally. When full grown it is about one-seventh of an inch long with white upper wings which have two well de- fined black spots on them. When crushed they have an offensive bed-bug-like odor, This insect is not affected T>y cold weather, but succumbs quickly to moisture. The fe- male deposits her eggs near the ground upon the stem or roots of wheat, oats, grasses, etc. -The burning of rubbish accumulations along headlands, fences, etc., in the winter or early spring in infested localities will destroy many. They always infest the small grains before they do corn. While these insects have wings they use them but little in their migration in summer, but they travel on foot and often in great numbers. Taking advantage of these peculiarities they may be kept from corn fields by plowing deep furrows in their way, which should be turned back as soon as filled with bugs and new furrows made. Fences of boards six inches high with the upper edge kept covered with tar will keep them out, but holes in the ground should be made at intervals along the line of the boards, which when full of bugs should tie filled in with earth, and new holes made. A dusty headland or road is very difficult for them to go through. If they finally reach the corn they will readily succumb to kerosene emulsion. Much is being done to rid the grain fields of this pest by infecting the bugs with disease. This works most rapidly in moist weather, but other remedies should not be put aside for this one. Bean and Pea Weevil (Bruchus sp.) — The insects known as weevil are quite common in some sections. They work in the seed of beans and peas. The adult insects are small beetles which lay their eggs in the flowers where they soon hatch and 102 VEGETABLE GARDENING, the young larvae eat their way Into the Immature seeds. The hole by which the larva enters the seed grows completely over, so that the seed appears unimpaired externally. In the seed the larva does not touch the germ, though it may eat up a large part of the starch. The larva undergoes its changes in the seed, and when these have been completed the beetles emerge through quite large holes in the shell of the seed. While seed that is infested may germinate it forms only weak plants that are very sure to fail to mature a full crop. Similar insects also attack corn. There is another species that breeds in stored grain, peas and beans, etc., but it is not common here as yet. Remedies. — These insects are generally somewhat local in range. Whenever any locality is infested the date of planting should be delayed two weeks, by which means the beetle fail to find the crop ready when they are ready to lay their eggs. This trouble generally comes from sowing Infested seeds. These may be separated from the good seed by throwing them into water, when the good will sink, but those infested will float. Another method is to treat the seed with carbon bisulphide as recommended under that head. If the seed is kept over two years the beetles will have come out. The species that breeds in the grain is most easily destroyed and kept out of the seed by using bisulphide of carbon as recommended. Squash Vine Borer (Aegeria cucurbitae.) — The squash vine borer is the larva of a moth. The eggs are laid on the stems of the young plants near the roots of cucumber, squash and melon vines. The larvae on hatching burrow into the stem and follow along the center, which causes the plants to wilt an1 finally to die. The full grown borer measures about one inch in length and has a whitish body with a brown head. The borers leave the stem the latter part of the summer and winter over near the surface of the ground In cocoons composed partly of earth. The moth emerges the following spring. Remedies. — This Insect is not yet found in this section but is common In the eastern states, and where It for corn, and It should be in a finely pulverized condition. The seed may be planted in rows at about nine-inch intervals, with rows three to four feet apart, or in hills three to four feet apart each way, according to the growth of the plants and method of cultivation to be followed. It should be covered above two inches. If grown In hills, three or four plants should be left in a place, which means planting about six seeds to the hill. If planted In hills, they may be cultivated both ways, which is an advantage over planting in rows. In rows, however, the plants develop rather better than in hills, and It is the method preferred by many good growers, though field corn is generally planted in hills. Corn should be cultivated shallow and never deep enough to cut the roots; until it is six Inches high it may be harrowed with a slant tooth harrow. In order to have a long season of this vegetable in its best condition for table use, plant- ings of the very early and some good second early kind should be made at the same time; and then plantings of the second early kinds should be made once In two weeks, thereafter up to about the twentieth of June. If planted later than this there Is much doubt about its getting laige enough for table use before the autumn frosts set in. The very early kinds, however, may be planted in this section as late as the fourth of July, with good prospects of their becoming of marketable size; but the very early varieties are small in size and not as sweet and desirable as the larger second early or late kinds, and a few varieties re- quire the whole season in which to obtain table size. If properly planted, sweet corn may be had in a young and tender condition from the middle of July until the cold weather of autumn. CORN. HI Marketing. — There is a large demand for green corn In every city and village. It is marketable as soon as the kernels are well formed and is generally sold in the husk, by the doz- en or by the barrel. There are several canning factories in this section and many in other parts of the country that make a specialty of canning sweet corn. Grown for this purpose or for evaporating, it is a farm crop that may be made to pay very well in some locations, and extensive tracts of land are de- voted to raising it. Where the crop is marketed at canning factories the fodder is left on the farm and is in admirable condition for feeding. The ears are best for table use when Figure 46. — Early Cory Corn. first picked and quickly lose in quality after gathering; if they heat in piles or packages they are of very inferior quality. Varieties. Peep o'Day is an extra early small variety, good for the home garden. White and Red Cob Cory are general favorites for very early use. They will often mature in eight weeks. Early Minnesota is a little later, but a much better table variety. Black and White Mexican and Golden Bantam are second early sorts of high quality and valuable for home use. The latter is especially valuable for succession plantings every ten days in the home garden. Perry's Hybrid is a good second early market sort. Crosby is a good early canning sort and also a good second early for market. 112 VEGETABLE GARDENING. For late use, requiring a long season, Stowell's Evergreen and Egyptian Mammoth are desirable. They have large ears and are particularly desirable for canning purposes. The Country Gentleman is a peculiar, very late variety of considerable merit. The kernels are long and narrow and arranged irregularly on a small cob. While it requires a long season to become of edible size, it is of fine quality and very desirable for home use. Pop Corn is grown in the same way as sweet corn. For home use, a very little will suffice; in some sections, however, Figure 47. — Late Sweet Corn it is raised in large quantities. It is usually marketed on the cob and is seldom salable until at least one year old. Among the best varieties are White Rice and Golden Pop. Varieties of corn run out and change very quickly, and there is often much difference in the strains of different kinds. Those that it is desired to keep pure should be grown at least 1000 feet away from other kinds that flower at the same period. Va- rieties of corn of every description, including all those belonging to the sweet, dent, flint and pop corn classes, will mix together when near by each other. Curing Seed of Sweet Corn. — The seed of the late varieties CORN. US of sweet corn is difficult to cure thoroughly and Is very liable to mould during drying process, unless it is given plenty of light and air. A good way is to tie the ears In small bunches and suspend in a dry, hot, airy room after It has ripened as nearly as may be on the stalk. Preserving Green Corn. — Green corn is often preserved in a small way by cooking and then cutting It from the cob and drying It In the sun, oven or evaporator. It is also preserved in brine by first cooking It and then treating the same as recommended for cucumber pickles. It may also be cut from the cob after cooking and packed In a vessel in layers alter- nating with salt, using about seven pounds of salt to a bushel of kernels. Mrs. T. T. Batchelor has been very successful in canning corn for winter use as follows: When the Stowell's Evergreen corn Is ripe, the fresh pulled ears are slightly shaved with a sharp knife, so as to take off the ends of the kernels. The corn Is then scraped from the cob and packed solidly in Mason jars. The covers are put on, leaving them only a little loose so water will not get in. The cans are set in a boiler, covered with cold water, which is brought to the boiling point and allowed to boll for two hours. The tops are then screwed tight, and they are allowed to boil for two hours longer. No water is used with the corn, and no salt. They have been very successful! In keeping it when put up in this way. Cutting off the Tassels. — It has been recommended to cut off half of the tassels from the young corn, on the ground that one-half the tassels would produce all the pollen needed by all the kernels. While some experiments have shown this to be true, many other experiments show there Is little if anything to be gained by the practice. Insects. — Corn is quite free from serious Injury, either from insects or diseases. The most injurious insects are the cut worms and boll worms, for discussion of which see chapter on In- sects. Smut (Ustllago maydis) Is almost the only disease seriously 114 VEGETABLE GARDENING. injurious to corn. It Is a fungous disease that works in almost any part of the plant, causing swellings which contain black spores. When ripe, the swellings burst and the spores are scattered to continue the disease another year. There can be no question but that gathering and destroying the bunches of spores by burning or burying them deeply in the ground would result Figure 48.-CornS.iut. (Ustilago Maydis.) in grea tly lessening the loss from this cause. It is, however, such an expensive remedy as to seem almost impracticable. Some experiments seem to show that soaking the seed in a solution of sulphate of copper may assist in preventing this trouble in corn as well as smut in wheat, but other experiments apparently prove the contrary, and it may be taken as a doubtful matter at the best. Prac- tically, then, we know of no sure remedy for smut in corn. THE LILY FAMILY. (Order Liliaceae.) The Lily Family is made up of plants that with few excep- tions have parallel veined leaves. The flowers are regular and symmetrical with perianth of six parts, six stamens and a superior three-celled ovary. Fruit a many-seeded dry pcd or soft berry. Besides the asparagus, onion, garlic and leek, whose cultural directions are here given, there occurs in this family the tiger and other lilies, the hyacinth, tulip, Spanish bayonet, cen- tury plant, smilax, lily of the valley and many other familiar flowering plants. ASPARAGUS. (Asparagus ofncinalis.) Native of Europe. — Perennial. — The asparagus Is an her- baceous plant, growing to the height of about four feet. The i^H^H^^^BHBf^n^^^KB j P to»i 3 ASPARAGUS. 11J flowars are small and generally yellow. They are perfect but In many plants the pistils are abor- tive, so that only about half of the plants produce seed. The seed Is produced in spherical berries, that are vermilion In color when they ripen in the autumn. The seeds are black and triangular, num- bering about 1400 to the ounce. Asparagus is one of the most valuable garden veg- etables. It Is per- Flffure 49.-Asparagus plant full grown. fectly har( j yi never fails to produce a crop, is one of the first vegetables to be obtained in the spring and may be used until the middle of June. Perhaps, no other vegetable is more highly esteemed by those who are accustomed to its use. It may be grown with success in any good corn land, but is worthy of the best of care, as it responds readily to rich manure and high culti- vation. On sandy loam the crop is much earlier than on clay soils; wet land is not suited to it. Propagation. — It grows readily from seed, and one ounce of seed is sufficient for about fifty feet of drill and should pro- duce with good care about four hundred plants, though no particular care is necessary for success. The seed should be sown in good soil early in the spring, in drills which may be as close as sixteen inches, and it should be covered about one inch deep. As asparagus seed starts slowly, it is a good plan to sow radishes or other early appearing crops with it, so that tne rows may be seen and weeding commenced early. This practice does not interfere with the growth of the aspara- gus as the radishes will be ready for use and out of the way before It needs much room. The seedling asparagus !roota 116 VEGETABLE GARDENING, will be large enough for transplanting to the permanent plantation when one year old, and it is the best plan to do so, but they may be allowed to stand two years in the seed bed. The young seedling plants which often come up in or near asparagus beds may be transplanted in July of the first year directly to the permanent bed and will do very well if handled carefully. At whatever age they are transplanted the plants should be dug and set out in the spring or early summer, as they are likely to fail when removed in the autumn. Aspar- Figure 50. — Asparagus root with edible shoots. agus may be increased by dividing the crowns, but this Is an expensive process, and plants so grown have no peculiar merit over those from seed. By buying the plants instead of sow- ing the seed to start with, one or two years' time may be saved, and frequently it is cheaper to buy the plants than to raise them. It is said that plants that do not bear seed produce ASPARAGUS. 117 more sprouts than those that do. Such plants may be increased by divisions. Planting. — While asparagus should always be moved In the spring, it is not necessary to move it very early, though it is better to do so; but it may be successfully transplanted as late as the first of June. Any long sprouts that may have started should be broken off when the plants are set out. The land for planting should be heavily manured, deeply plowed and finely pulverized, and it is important to do this work well, as asparagus beds well made should last at least twenty years. The opinions of different growers as to dis- tance between plants vary much. It has been advocated to set the plants four feet apart each way and if the soil is re- markably fertile this distance will not be too great; if the land is not very rich, it is customary to put the plants at in- tervals of three feet in rows four feet apart. If a bed for a family garden is desired where space is limited, it is probably best to set the plants three by three feet apart. About 100 plants will produce all the sprouts needed In an ordinary home garden. Depth to Plant. — For ordinary purposes asparagus roots should be planted about six inches deep; the deeper they are planted the later they will be about starting in the spring; If planted much legs than six inches deep, the roots often push up to the surface and interfere with cultivation. The plants should not be covered to the full depth of six inches at once or the shoots may never be able to push up to the surface. The fur- rows should be made with a plow to the proper depth, the plants placed in the bottom of the furrow and covered about three Inches to begin with, and the furrows filled In by after cultiva- tion as the tops grow. By the middle of the summer the fur- rows should be level full. Cultivation during the first year can be done almost entirely with a horse, though some hand hoeing will be necessary be- tween the plants. By autumn of the first year, the tops should be three feet high. As soon as they are dead they should be cut off close to the ground with a heavy, sharp hoe or similar tool, and then the land should have a light plowing or be worked 1U VEGETABLE GARDENING. up with a harrow to a depth of four inches. No care need to be taken about the plants when cultivating at this season of the year, but the whole surface may be cultivated or plowed three inches deep as though no crop was in the land. In the spring the land should be cultivated as soon as it will work well in order that it may warm up quickly. There will be no crop to cut until the spring of the third year; a very little, however, irvay be safely cut the second year after planting if the plants do well. The cultivation in subsequent years should be very much the same as that given above, but in addition, when the crop has been all harvested and cutting is to cease, which will be about the middle or last of June in the northern states, the whole bed should have a thorough cultivation to the depth of three inches without regard to the rows, and if manure is to be used It should be put on at this time. Under this method of treat- ment it is unnecessary to do much hand weeding, and it is very easy to keep the soil in the best condition by horse power. After the thorough cultivation in June, all the sprouts that come up from the roots should be permitted to grow until autumn, by that time they should be about five feet high if in good soil and will have ripe seed. It is necessary to allow the top to grow to this extent in order that plant food may be stored up in the roots. Very late cutting weakens the growth of the plants. Cutting. — When the crop is grown for marketing, It Is not desirable to cut the shoots until the third season after plant- ing the roots; however, in the case of small beds in the gar- den where the planter Is very anxious to test the fruit of his labor, it may be well to note that no harm is liable to come from a very slight cutting the second season. The sprouts should be cut as they appear in the spring, and all of them should be cut when of the proper size, although they may not be needed at that time. If permitted to grow they interfere with subsequent cutting and prevent the growth of new sprouts. They will also be in the way of cultivation later in the season. The sprouts are generally cut off about two inches below the surface when they are about six inches high above the ground, and in this case all but two Lnches of the asparagus Is green, ASPARAGUS. 119 which Is the right condition for most markets. Some people prefer to have white sprouts and in such cases they should be cut four or five inches deep in the ground. In case white sprouts are wanted it is also a good plan to mound up around the hills or to cover them with fine manure to keep the sunlight away from the shoots. The time between the cuttings is largely de- pendent on the weather. In early spring, if the weather is rather cold, the plants may not give more than one cutting per week, but later in the season a good cutting will perhaps be secured once In two days. A severe frost will kill all the shoots above ground but will not injure subsequent cuttings. Asparagus Is Figure 51. — Method of bunching asparagus, showing loose sprouts, boxes for tying up in and completed bunches. marketed by tying the sprouts In bunches, and the size of the bunches depends much upon the market and, in some places, on the season and whether the supply Is plentiful or not. It Is very desirable, however, to have all the bunches of one size. It is preferable to tie the sprouts when they are just a little wilted and then set them in water to swell and make the bands tight. The shoots will easily keep for a week if kept cold and moist. It is customary to stand the bunches on end in water In keeping them. Manuring. — If manure is applied to the asparagus bed in autumn or before the frost Is out of the ground in the spring, it prevents the frost from coming out of the ground and sa keeps back the growth unless the manure applied Is very fine 120 VEGETABLE GARDENING. and Is at once cultivated Into the soil. Sometimes such treat- ment will keep the sprouts from starting for a week or more at a season when it is most relished and the market price is the highest On this account it is an excellent plan to manure asparagus in June at the close of the cutting season, as it can then be thoroughly cultivated into the soil and does not inter- fere in any way with the growth of the plants in the spring. Asparagus is a rank feeder and needs lots of manure for the best results. Salt may be applied to asparagus to such an extent as to kill all the weeds without injuring the plants and yet careful experiments seem to show that salt is of no special value as a manure for this crop. Asparagus seed is readily taken from the fruit in which it grows by macerating the fruit in water and then drying it Forcing Asparagus for early use is being done to some ex- tent near large cities where It is often a profitable undertak- ing. For this purpose the roots must be dug in the fall and carefully stored in earth in a cellar. In March, make a good, slow hotbed and put the roots In it in good soil. It is im- portant to start the roots slowly or the shoots will be spind- ling and weak. The roots stored ?c recommended may also be forced into growth in a warm cellar, shed, greenhousee, or a part of a permanent bed may be enclosed in glass or cotton sheeting. Varieties. — There are a number of varieties, and they are all desirable when given good cultivation. Among the best kinds are Conover's Colossal, Moore's and Palmetto. ONIONS. (Allium Cepa.) Native of Central or Western Asia. — Biennial, sometimes perennial. The original home of the onion Is not known. It has no true stem, but this is represented by the base of the bulb. The form, color and shape of onions vary greatly in dif- ferent varieties. The free portion of the leaves is elongated and swollen in the lower part. The flowers, which are white or lilac in color, are borne in dense, round heads on long, slen- der, hollow stalks; sometimes, instead of flowers, a head of small bulbs is produced and no seed at all. This may occur oc- casionally in all kinds, but is the almost Invariable character!* ONIONS. lil tic of the tree and top onions. The seeds are black, angular and flattish. Usually the plant after seeding dies and disap- pears entirely, but sometimes seed onions produce peculiar pointed bulbs, called cloves, as well as seeds. Such plants may be considered perennial as well as the potato onion which never seeds and is propagated by the division of its bulbs. The onion has been cultivated from remote antiquity, and there are very many varieties that have been developed for different purposes. These are almost without exception grown for their bulbs, but in a few cases no bulbs are formed. The bulbs in color are white, red and yellow, with intermediate shades. In the suc- cessful raising of the onion, good judgment and experience play an important part. Perhaps no vegetable crop is more certain to pay the skillful grower for his time and labor and none more liable to cause trouble to the careless beginner, and yet its cul- tivation is quite simple. The prices for onions vary greatly. They seldom are so cheap as to make the crop unprofitable; but occasionally they get down to fifteen cents per bushel, at which price they cannot be grown at a profit. There are few animals that eat onions, and if not sold they cannot be fed to stock on a large scale, as Is the case with most vegetables. As a money crop for careful growers in many sections they are among the most reliable, and if a reasonable amount of them is raised each year without regard to the price the preceding year, it Is a crop that will generally average a good profit. Land. — Onions may be raised on any good retentive soil. Sandy land is too apt to dry out in summer for best results. On drained muck land, large crops may be easily raised; although onions grown on such soil are often a little looser in texture than those raised on drier land. The land should be rich, fine and free from weeds and any strawy manure or other material that would interfere with close cultivation. Too much stress cannot be put on having the land free from weed seeds, since it is a crop that requires much hand weeding and the plants are quite delicate when young. The soil should be rather firm for onions and plowed in the fall rather than in the spring. Fall plowing leaves the soil firm and in excellent condition for the crop. Sometimes when the land is rich it is desirable not to plow at all, especially iVi|fwas in onions the preceding year, but instead 123 VEGETABLE GARDENING. to make a seed bed by the use of a disk or other good harrow and plant at once; In fact, better results will generally be ob- tained from spring harrowing than from spring plowing of land to be used for onions. Of course, if the land is to be harrowed only to prepare it for the crop, it is very important, if manure is to be used, that this be very fine, so that the harrow will cover it. Old land Is generally preferred for onions, and this crop Is often successfully raised on the same land for many years. From the fact that onion land is always most carefully attended to and gets much manure and tillage, It is generally in better condition for onions than land used for almost any other crop. However, It Is a good plan to occasionally change the land for onions, since on new land there is far less danger from disease and insect enemies than on old land. Land that has grown any crop requiring high culture and heavf manuring and is free from weed seeds will generally grow &_jd onions. Sometimes onions are raised on newly cleared woodland or prairie sod with greatest success, simply by sowing the seed broadcast and har- rowing it in; but this is seldom attempted. Sowing the Seed. — Before -sowing the seed the land should be made very smooth. It is very important to get the seed in the ground as early in the spring as possible. As soon as the land can be worked in the spring, the seed should be sown and the earlier it is sown the better. The seed of some kinds can be sown in the autumn to advantage, but on land that is in- clined to "bake," it is a bad practice and is seldom attempted. There is, however, a fair chance of a crop even if the seed is sown as late as the first of June, but a first-class crop from seed sown as late as this is almost out of the question. By the mid- dle of May, all onion land should have been sown. The distance between the rows will depend somewhat on the variety grown, but for ordinary purposes the seed should be sown in rows fif- teen inches apart and covered one inch deep. About eighteen good seed should be sown to each foot of row, which will make it necessary to use four or five pounds of seed per acre. If there is danger of much loss from the depredations of the onion maggot, more than this amount of seed should be used; where maggots are very troublesome some growers use as much as six ONIONS. 123 pounds per acre. The seed sower should be carefully tested on a floor or other smooth surface before using It In the field to see how It works. It is very important to know the germinating qualities of the seed sown, since if it is of low germination more must be used than If it is of best quality. Ninety per cent of good onion seed ought to germinate if the conditions are favor- able. It is important to closely study these matters, as it is de- sirable to have the land well stocked with plants and yet not over stocked. It is better to fail of getting quite so much seed on the land as Is desired than it is to get very much more than is wanted, for in the first case the onions, although somewhat scattering, will be of good size, while if the plants are too thick they must be thinned out, o' the onions will be small and in- ferior. The work of thinning onions on a large scale is a ve-y expensive operation, and every precaution should be taken to avoid having V do it. If the seed is sown only a little thicker than the plants ought to stand, it is sometimes a good plan In- stead of thinning them out, to put on an extra dressing of some quick-acting, easily-applied manure, such as hen manure, which will probably make it possible for the land to mature the whole crop in good shape. Onions have the quality of crowding out to the sides of the rows and on top of one another, so that they may grow pretty thick and stul be of good size, providing other conditions are favorable to their development. It is important to have the seed sown in straight rows. If the first row is laid off with a line or otherwise made straight, the subsequent rows are easily made parallel to it by means of the marker on the seed sower. If there are found to be some vacancies in the rows after the onions appear, these may be filled by sowing onion seed in them by hand; late In the season such vacancies may be sown with carrot seed. Cultivation. — As soon as the plants commence to break the surface soil, cultivation should be commenced with a hand cul- tivator that will work both sides of the row at one time and throw a little earth from the plant; hand weeding should fol- low at once. At the second hoeing, the plants being now pretty strong, the soil should be cultivated somewhat deeper. This will enable a careful man to work the soil very close to the plants. Onions naturally grow in the surface of the land and 124 VEGETABLE GARDENING. not below It and should never be hilled up. The onion crop should be hoed and weeded as often as the weeds appear or whenever the ground packs hard around the growing plants. The weeds should be destroyed when small. This means that until early summer the onions should be hoed about once every two weeks. When the plants get so large that they will no longer pass under the straddle cultivator without being bruised the work of cultivation must be continued between the rows until the bulbs commence to form, after which it Is not a good plan to work much among them, since pushing the tops about tends to make them die down quicker than otherwise. When the onions are about the size of a half dollar and before the tops fall over, It Is a good plan, If the land is not very rich, to apply some quick-acting fertilizer such as hen manure or a commer- cial fertilizer broadcast over the crop. This should be done Just before or during a rain if possible. For this purpose dry, fine hen manure Is good, but any rich, nitrogenous fertilizer will answer. If the plants are going to make good onions they will be- come weak In the neck Just above the bulb when nearly grown and fall flat on the ground, where they should be allowed to lie undisturbed until the tops and roots are entirely dried, then the bulbs can be easily pulled out of the ground with a rake or onion puller. In the vicinity of St. Paul, this time will be in August or the early part of September. About four rows of bulbs should be thrown together, and they should be turned with a rake every few days until perfectly dry and then be put under cover to protect them from rain. If they are allowed to get wet several times after being pulled, the outer skins are liable to come off and thus make the bulbs unsightly. If not pulled for some little time after they are ripe, especially if the season Is moist, new roots are very sure to start and the roots become grown so firmly Into the soil that the work of pulling and dry- ing them Is Increased. The work of cutting or twisting off the tops, called topping, may be left until the onions are marketed, but they will be found to keep much better If "topped,"' since If the tops are left on they prevent a free circulation of the air through the bulbs. "8eallion«" or "Thick Necks." — Sometimes, too, the tops of ONIONS. X25 the plant do not die down as they should, but remain green and continue to grow after the bulbs are well formed, and become what are called "scallions" or "thick necks." This is generally due to the planting of poorly selected seed, but sometimes it is not to be accounted for. In such cases it is generally recom- mended to break the tops down, which certainly does no harm, but it is of doubtful value. A better way is to pull such plants as soon as they begin to grow vigorously after once having formed good bulbs, dry them as much as possible and remove the tops. However, such onions do not generally keep well and had better be used during autumn and early winter. Keeping Onions. — Onions should be kept in a dry, cool place. In a damp cellar they will sprout and grow no matter if the temperature there is near the freezing point. They will stand quite a little frost without much injury, but if frozen and thawed several times they become soft and do not keep well, but start to grow very quickly. The best way of keeping onions is in a cold, dry room in slatted bins or on shelves so arranged that the air can circulate through them. A very practical plan is to put them in barrels without heads, having holes in the bot- tom and sides and pile these on top of one another two tiers high, first putting down scantling or other material to allow the air to circulate under and around them. If our common onions are frozen solid in the autumn and kept so all winter, they will generally come out right in the spring. A good way to do this is to lay them eighteen inches thick on the floor of a loft and cover with a foot or so of hay. Thus arranged they will not freeze until severe weather sets in and will remain frozen until spring. They may also be put in water-proof bins in the field where grown and treated in the same way. They should never be handled when frozen, as they are apt to bruise. Freezing and thawing several times seriously injures them, but if kept frozen and gradually thawed out they come out in very nice condition. After thawing out, they will not keep well, but quickly start to grow, and should be disposed of at once. They Prizetaker and similar kinds are an exception to this rule and are liable to be ruined if frozen. Onion Sets is a term applied to small onions which are planted out in the spring instead of seeds. If onions under 126 VEGETABLE GARDENING. three-fourths of an Inch in diameter are planted out in th* spring, they do not go to seed as do larger onions, but form a new bulb, and form it much earlier than they are formed when grown from seed. Taking advantage of this fact, it ha3 become a common practice to raise these small onions (sets) and plant them out for early summer use. It does not matter how small the set is, and one the size of a pea is as good as one much larger. The size generally preferred Is about one-half an inch in diameter. Planting Onion Sets. — The method of planting sets Is to have the land in the same condition as recommended for onion seed and plant the sets as soon as the soil can be worked in the spring. In doing this mark off the land in drills twelve inches apart and push each set down firmly three inches deep into the mellow soil, leaving them three inches apart. This is done by hand, and each set is handled separately, so as to have them right side up. The drill is then closed in with the feet or rake, so that each set is entirely covered up. If the ground is dry, It is sometimes rolled to make it still more compact around the bulbs, but it Is generally quite moist when the sets are planted in early spring. As soon as the rows can be seen, the wheel hoe Is used, and the plants kept free from weeds and the soil well stirred. By this method we will have onions of good table size by the first of July, and some may be marketed in bunches in a green state in June. Onion sets seldom, if ever, fail to produce good crops and are well adapted for use In the home garden and by those who will not take the pains necessary to grow onions from seed. No matter how poor the soil or the cultivation where the sets are planted, they always increase in size and ripen early. There is no danger of their being injured by freez- ing after being planted. Prom six to ten bushels of sets are re- quired per acre, depending on their size. The raising of onion sets is carried on to a large extent in some localities, and It is a crop that requires much skill io handling. Sandy Boil of rather inferior quality but free from weeds and in fine tilth is best for this purpose. To keep th foot. The life history of this disease is not known. It attacks the roots of cabbage, cauliflower, turnips and other plants of the same family, causing them to form large irregular swell- ings. The plant is checked in growth and often dies from the effects of the disease. This is not yet a common disease in this section, but in some of the Eastern and Middle states it is very common. The best way of avoiding it is to not use the same land for cabbage or similar crop without at least three years interven- ing, during which time it is preferable to have the land in grass or clover. This disease is also transmitted by Pepper Cress, Shepherd's Purse, Candytuft and similar plants. This disease may also be distributed in manure from animals fed on diseased plants. Black Rot of Cabbage is a disease that has not attracted much attention until the last few years but has during that time caused much damage to cabbage and cauliflower. The first indication of this disease is upon the outer leaves of the plant which turn yellow and die in spots usually near the margins. Such leaves are also liable to wilt and careful exami- nation will show that the veins in and near the dead areas are blackened. These spots enlarge and gradually involve the whole leaf, from which it passes to the stem and to the rest of the CABBAGE. ito plant, causing It to rot. The dark colored veins In the freshly- cut stem and leaves are the best Indications of this disease and are its characteristic marks. Cabbage that is even slightly affected will not keep, for this rot spreads rapidly In stored cabbage, and in selecting cabbage for storage, the stems and outer leaves should be examined for the blackened vein so characteristic of this disease. The germs of the disease may pass the winter in the soil and reinfect ^abbage, cauliflower, turnips or similar crops anr" even such nearly allied weeds as Pepper Cress and Shepherd's Purse the following season. If diseased cabbage is fed to stock the disease may be distributed by the manure. Remedial Measures. — In view of the s,bove facts, it seems reasonable to take the following precautions: (1) Do not plant cabbage a second year on land where the disease is observed without several years intervening, during which no nearly allied crop has been grown on it. The seed bed should also be made in new soil each year ps the plants may become diseased when vary young. (2) D not use manure for cabbage crop* from animals that have *>een fed uncooked diseased cabbage. (3> Since the disease may be spread by insects which fly from one, plant to another, they should be kept in check as much as possl ble. (4) When the disease ap- pears the field should be gone over systematically and all dis- eased leaves removed and de- stroyed as soon as they appear. If the disease has entered the stem the whole plant should be destroyed This destruction should consist of burning or deep burial. (5) Since this disease may be continued on Wild Mustard, Pepper Cress, Shepherd's Purse and other allied plants, they should be carefully kept out of land that hai bean once lnfewted if it is intended tor c*bba»e. Figure 70. — Brussells Sprouts. 15* VEGETABLE GARDENING. Sauer Kraut. — The following recipe tor sauer kraut is a very excellent one: Slice cabbage fine in a slaw cutter; line the bottom and sides of an oaken barrel or keg with cabbage leaves, put in a layer of the sliced cabbage about six inches in depth, sprinkle lightly with salt, and pound with a wooden beetle until the cabbage is a compact mass; add another layer of cabbage, etc., repeating the operation, pounding well each layer until the barrel is full to within six inches of the top; cover with leaves, then a cloth, next a board cut to fit loosely on the inside of the barrel, kept well down with a heavy weight. If the brine has aot raised within two days, add enough water with just salt enough to taste to cover the cabbage; examine every two days and add water as before, until brine rises and scum forms, then lift off the cloth carefully so the scum may adhere, wash well in several cold waters, wring dry and replace, repeating this opera- tion as the scum arises, at first every other day, and then once a week, until the acetous fermentation ceases, which will take three to six weeks. Up to this time keep warm in the kitchen, then remove to a dry, good cellar unless made early in the fall, when it may be at once set in the pantry or cellar. One pint of salt to a full barrel of cabbage is a good proportion; some also eprinkle in whole black pepper. Or, to keep until summer: In April squeeze out of brine and pack tightly with the hands In a stone jar, with the bottom lightly sprinkled with salt; make brine enough to well cover the kraut In the proportion of a table- spoon of salt to a quart of water; boil, skim, cool and pour over; cover with cloth, then a plate, weight and another cloth tied closely down; keep in a cool place, and it will be good as late as June'. Neither pound nor salt the cabbage too much, watch closely and keep clear from scum for good sauer kraut. — Buck- eye Cook Book. BRUSSELS SPROUTS. (Brassica oleracea.) Native of Europe. — Biennial. — This is one of the many varia- tions which the cabbage has taken on under cultivation. In this case where the head of the cabbage is ordinarily found there are loose green leaves and seldom a head. The stem is generally two feet or more high, with leaves, and at the base of each leaf is a email cabbage which seldom attains a diameter of over two Inches. These little cabbages are the parts eaten; they are CAULIFLOWER. 155 much more delicate than the common cabbage and highly es- teemed by many. The plant requires the same treatment as cab- bage except the plants can be grown nearer together. While easily grown it is doubtful about Its becoming a popular vegeta- ble, since in most of our markets very little attention is paid to quality, and the common cabbage will probably continue to take the place of this vegetable on most tables. The variety most esteemed is known as Dwarf Brussels Sprouts. CAULIFLOWER. (Brassica oleracea.) Native of Europe. — Biennial. — Cauliflower is a form of cab- bage in which the inflorescence becomes fleshy and distorted. Figure 71 — Snowball cauliflower. It is, however, considered much more delicate than cabbage and brings a higher price. It is grown in much the same manner as cabbage; the plants, however, are not so hardy in resisting cold weather as cabbage, are more sensitive to adverse condi' tions and should have more manure in the soil. As soon as the head commences to form, the outside leaves of the plant should be drawn together over the head so as to keep the sunlight away from it. Treated in this way the heads will be nearly snow 186 VEGETABLE GARDENING. white, while If not protected they become brown In color and are not as salable. The crop ripens somewhat irregu- larly "When danger of hard frost is appar- ent the immature heads should be pulled with roots and leaves and be planted out In a cold cellar or cold frame, where many of them will form good salable heads. The insect ene- mies are the same as those of the cabbage. Varieties.— There are many varieties, but per- haps the most desirable are the Snowball, Early Dwarf Erfurt, and Bur- pee's Dry Weather. The latter is larger and later than the other two. Figure 72. — Cauliflower plant with leaves tied together to keep the sunlight off the head. This should be done as soon as the head can be seen, and the leaves should remain tied until the head is cut out. KALE, or BORECOLE. (Brassica oleracea var.) Native of Europe and Asia. — Annual or biennial. — The seed Is like that of the cabbage or kohl-rabi. Under this head is grouped a number of vegetables closely re- lated to the cabbage and kohl-rabi that are used for greens. None of them are sufficiently hardy in the extreme north to stand out over winter. They are here cul- tivated in the same manner as turnips. In sections where the winters are mild, some of them are esteemed for planting in autumn for early spring use, Figure 73.— Dwarf Purple Kale. KOHL-RABI. IfiT KOHL-RABI. (Brasslca oleraoe* var.) KoM-rabi has been derived from a plant nearly allied to the cabbage, and Its seed resembles cabbage seed. Its peculiarity la its swollen stem just above the ground, which Is used for the same purpose and grown in the same general way as the turnip. It is more highly es- teemed than turnips for early summer use where well known. Like turnips it should be sown where it is to mature and used when young and ten- der. It may be stored in winter like tur- nips. Varieties.*— There are small tender va- rieties especially de- signed for table use and others that grow to large size and are valuable for feeding stock. Two of the best for table use are the White and Figure 74.— Kohl-Rabi. Purple Vienna. TURNIP (Brassica napus) and RUTABAGA, or SWEDISH TUR- NIP (Brassica campestris.) Native of Europe or Asia. — Biennial. — Cultivated for theii swollen, fleshy roots. The varieties of turnip and rutabaga vary much In form, size and color of the skin, and the flesh is white or yellow, pungent or slightly acid. There is more difference in the varieties of the turnip than of the rutabaga. The flower stalks are produced the second year and bear a large number of yellow flowers. The seeds are smooth and round like the seed of the cabbage and cauliflower and in similar shaped pods. 158 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Turnip. — The turnip is essentially a cold weather plant and does best when most of its growth is made during the autumn. It is grown to some extent in the spring, but there Is very little call for it until cool weather. Figure 75. — "White Strap Leaved Turnip. Culture. — The turnip needs to be grown very rapidly to have the best quality. The best soil for it is a friable, rich, sandy loam, free from fresh manure; sod land that has been recently broken up is excellent for this purpose, but on old land, i. e., that which has been cultivated for several years, or where there is fresh manure, the roots are often wormy. When grown for early use some quick maturing kinds should be planted as early in the spring as the soil can be worked in rows fifteen inches apart. The seed should be sown rather thickly and the seedlings thinned out two or three inches aparf after all danger from the flea beetle has passed. (This insect is the same as that which attacks the cabbage.) Turnips grown for late use generally come in as a second crop after grain, strawberries, early pota- toes, cabbage or other crop that is off the land by the first of August, since after this time a good crop of many varieties of late turnips will mature before winter, though some of the large kinds need to be sown earlier in the season. The seed is some- times sown broadcast just before a shower or else it is harrowed TURNIP AND RUTABAGA. 149 in. It Is also grown in rows about two feet apart and cultivated by a horse cultivator, or the rows may be put nearer together and a hand cultivator used. Varieties. — Some of the best varieties of turnips are: Early Flat and Extra Early Milan for early use; Red Top Strap Leaf and White Egg or White Globe for autumn use. Rutabagas, (also called Swedish Turnips), are grown in the same manner as the common turnips, but require about four weeks longer to attain edible size, and, on this account, should be planted by the mid- dle of June or first of July. They are grown in rows thir- ty inches apart and culti- vated with a horse hoe. Ruta- bagas are sometimes grown in beds and transplanted, but this is seldom, if ever, done with turnips. The seed of both turnips and rutabagas is so smooth and fine that it is generally sown too thick. Mixing the seed with flour is a good way to prevent its running too rapidly through the seed sower. The crop should be allowed to stay in the ground until the approach of severe cold weather. They will stand some little freezing without injury, but will not live in the land over winter. They should be stored in frost proof pits or cellars. In dry cellars they should be covered with a few inches of sand or other ma- terial to prevent wilting. (See directions for keeping carrots.) Varieties.— Improved Purple Top Swede, and White Rock, are both excellent varieties of rutabagas. HORSERADISH. (Nasturtium armoracia.) Native of Europe. — Perennial. — Flowers white and small, In Figure 76 — Rutabaga. 160 VEGETABLE GARDENING. long clusters; seed vessels small, rounded and almost alwayi barren. Propagated by cuttings of the roots. Cultivation. — This plant delights In deep, moist soil, but will grow in almost any situation and is very hardy. For home use It Is customary to let it remain in some neglected corner, where It kills out everything else, and though treated in this way it yields sufficient roots for home use; yet the roots are so crowded that they are scarcely salable. When grown as a market crop It is planted anew each year. Straight pieces of roots six or eight inches long, called "sets" are planted about twelve inches apart, in rows two feet apart early in the spring. The roots must be set right end uppermost or they will not grow smooth or straight An Iron bar is the most convenient tool for planting the "sets." The top of the sets should be about two inches below the surface. It is customary to grow horseradish as a sec- ond crop after peas or cabbage, by setting the roots between the rows of the first crop and cultivating the soil without re- gard to them until the first crop is harvested. It does not seem to hurt horseradish "sets" much if they are cut off a few times In cultivating early in the season. When the first crop is gath- ered the land is thoroughly cultivated, and the horseradish plants given good care. This plant makes its greatest growth in autumn a^d is dug on the approach of winter or can be left until spring. It must never be left two years on the same land, or else great labor will be required to get rid of It, and the roots will be so crooked as to be almost unsalable. Horseradish is used almost entirely after grinding or grating the roots and mix- ing with vinegar. It will keep for any length of time when thus prepared and kept in air-tight packages. It is also ground and dried, and the young leaves are sometimes used for greens. The demand is limited, though considerable quantities are sold each year. Under some conditions it is a paying crop, but the busi- ness is very apt to be overdone. There are no varieties. WATER CRESS. (Nasturtium officinale.) Native of Europe. — Perennial. — An aquatic plant with long stems, which readily take root In moist soil or water. It Is es- teemed tor use as a salad on account of its pleasant pungent flavor. Leaves are compound, with roundish divisions; flowers WATER CRHSS. 161 *m*>ll, white, In terminal spikes; seeds, usually tew, very fine, In slightly curved pods. Culture. — It can only be cultivated successfully In moist sit- uations and generally does best along the edges of streams, where It grows partially in the water. It may, however, be grown successfully in any moist soil, even in a greenhouse. It is very hardy, but for best results should be covered with water during winter. Most of the supply for our markets comes from along the courses of natural streams. In Europe, trenches from 16 to 20 feet wide for growing water cress are often excavated. Into which running water may be turned at pleasure. In the bottom of these trenches, the roots of the cress are planted. The water is then let in, and the plants are not interfered with until they have grown strong enough to yield a crop of leaves. It is often practicable to make narrow beds about springs or slow running streams for this purpose. CRESS, or PEPPER GRASS. (Lepidlum sativum.) Native of Persia. — Annual. — An early spring vegetable, used as a salad and for garnishing, and of the easiest culture. It should be sown very early in the spring in the hotbed or out- doors in rows one foot or less apart. As it quickly runs to seed, a succession of sowings should be made every eight or ten days. It is only in demand in the early spring or In winter. It can easily be grown in a window box in a dwelling house. Flowers white and small; seeds comparatively large. RADISHES. (Raphanus sativus.) Probably a native of Asia. — Annual or. In the case of the winter radish, biennial. — The flower stalks are branched, about three feet high and have white or lilac-colored flowers, but never yellow. The seed is roundish or oval, but somewhat flattened and much larger than cabbage or turnip seed and much more variable in size. Some recent experiments show that the large radish seeds germinate better and produce marketable root* sooner and more uniform in shape than small seed. Culture. — The radish is a vegetable of very easy culture. The roots of some kinds reach edible size In three weeks when grown in best conditions and are a favorite vegetable of early 162 VEGETABLE GARDENING. spring. It is a common practice to sow the seed of early kinds in hotbeds between rows of lettuce and outdoors between, or in the rows of beets, carrots, parsnips, etc. They will grow in al- most any soil, but new land is best for them. The seed may be sown as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring, and if sowings are made once every two weeks thereafter a succession of tender roots may be had. Winter radishes are grown and stored in the same manner and fully as easily as turnips. The seed is sown in June or July. and the roots gath- ered in autumn and stored in cellars or pitted outdoors. They keep very well. Win- ter radishes closely resemble the er.rly kinds in quality, but are firmer in texture. The cabbage flea bee-, tie affects the young radish plants in the late spring and sum- mer. (See chapter on insects for reme- dies.) The roots are sometimes infested with maggots, but these are seldom troublesome except where fresh manure Figure 77. — White Strasburg Radish. j s use( j or i n i an( j where radishes have been grown for several years. It is best not to manure the land for radishes but use rich soil that has been put in good order by some previous crop. Varieties. — There are many kinds, differing from each other in color, form, size time of maturity and taste. They are gen- erally divided into early or forcing varieties, summer and au- RADISHES. 163 tumn varieties and winter kinds. A few of each are here men- tioned : French Breakfast. — One of the best very early radishes for the market, but small. It remains in good condition for only a short time, consequently is not desirable for the home garden. Early White Tipped Scarlet Turnip Shaped. — A handsome, round, early, popular radish, maturing very quickly. Early Deep Scarlet. — Very early, round and of deep scarlet color. Long Scarlet Short Top. — A well known de- sirable early kind hav- ing long scarlet roots. White Strasburg. — One of the finest half long kinds for summer use. Grows to good Figure 78.-French Breakfast Radish. gize; white and tend er. Rose. — The most popular of the winter sorts. Skin pink. Black Spanish. — Skin very black, flesh white, firm, tender but very pungent. A good winter sort. THE CLOVER FAMILY. (Order Leguminosae.) The Clover family is made up of trees, shrubs or herbs which with few exceptions have a butterfly-shaped corolla, 10 stamens, 9 of which are generally grown together. The fruit is known as a legume and is a pod that opens like the pea or bean pods. The leaves are alternate, chiefly compound, and have stipules. Besides the beans and peas, whose cultural di- rections are here given, the following are members of this fam- ily: Clovers, Vetch, Alfalfa and Lupine among farm crops, and the Common Locust, Kentucky Coffee Tree, Honey Locust and Yellow Wood among trees. 164 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Annual. The common beans in this country are natives of the warmer parts of South America. They are sometimes re- ferred to as kidney or French beans (P. vulgaris). Besides these, the Lima beans (P. lunatus) are culti- vated to a limited ex- tent. The common broad bean of Europe is an entirely different vege- table from the kinds generally grown here and is not sufficiently prolific in this section to make it worthy of cultivation. There are many varieties of beans, and the varieties of each species readily cross together, the flowers being especially adapt- ed to crossing. They vary from one another in many particulars; some are low, bushy and erect, while others are twining and have stems that grow ten or more feet in a season. There are many gradations between these extremes, as well as in size, color and shape of seed and plant. The twining stem kinds always twine from right to left around any support they can lay hold of. Horticulturally, beans are divided into the bush and pole varieties. Under the first class are included all the field varieties that are grown to be used as shelled beans and some snap and string beans. They have stout, erect or slightly running stems. Under pole beans are classed all the kinds that have twining stems and which are benefited by having sup- port of some kind. There are, however, dwarf bunch beans hav- ing the same general features as the pole kinds except the tall stem. While this division is by no means distinct, yet the methods of cultivation adapted to each growth are different. All Figure 79. — Bush Bean. BEANS. 165 beans are quite tender and should not be planted untlll the soil is warm and all danger of frost is over. They are sown for early use about the time for general corn planting. For the main crop they should be planted about the first of June. Bush Beans. — These are very easily grown and are adapted to a great variety of purposes. For a field crop on a large scale, the seed is generally sown with a horse drill or with a hand garden drill, in rows three feet apart It is sometimes best to mark out the land first and then follow with the drill in the marks. Seed should be sown two or three Inches deep. On a smaller scale, the land may be furrowed out with a one-horse plow or with a wheel hoe and the seed sowed by hand. After culture consists in keeping the land well cultivated with a horse hoe and free from weeds. Varieties of dwarf beans for use in a green state, such as string or snap beans, may be sown at any time from the middle of May to the first of August and with good prospects of a good crop of green pods even at the latter date. Some kinds have edible pods in less than six weeks from the time the seed is sown. Harvesting Beans. — For use In a green state, the pods of some kinds of beans are picked as soon as large enough to use and when they are tender and fresh; in other cases the beans are used when still fresh, but not until they are large enough to shell from the pods. Field beans are harvested by being pulled by hand or gathered with a bean gatherer when they are ripe, laid in rows until dry enough for threshing, then threshed at once or stored for threshing later on. Great care should be taken In storing the pods to prevent molding of the beans, and in threshing not to break the beans. In a small way beans may be threshed out by hand, but on a large scale any common threshing machine may be used, providing suitable changes are made in it so it will not break the beans. Varieties of Bush Beans. — There are many varieties of bush beans having desirable qualities, but only a few of the most valuable are mentioned here: Field Beans. — White Marrow, Burlingame Medium, Navy and Snowflake. 166 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Waxen Podded Beans.— Dwarf Golden Wax and Dwarf Black Wax. Shell and String Beans.— Yellow Six Weeks, Early Mohawk, Cranberry and Dwarf Horticultural. Japanese, Soy or Soja Beans. — These are easily grown, but on account of their inferior quality are not much used here. Dwarf Lima Beans are highly esteemed by those who know them and, although smaller in size than the pole Limas, are supplanting them in this section and coming into quite gen- eral use, on account of their being more certain to mature well and requiring less labor in cul- tivation. They require the same methods of cultivation as other dwarf beans but should not be planted until the land is thor- oughly warmed. The best va- rieties are known as Hender- son's Dwarf, Durpee's Dwarf, Jackson Wonder (black spotted) and Kumerle Dwarf Lima. The common dwarf shell beans are early, productive and good, but not so rich in quality as these. Pole Beans. — The twiningva- rieties of beans are little grown in this section, as the improved dwarf kinds take their place to a great extent. However, tall Lima beans are highly esteemed by many and the dwarf varieties of this class are not so desirable as the pole kinds. There is also a demand for such shell beans as the pole Horticultural, Cranberry and Caseknife varieties. Pole beans require stronger land than do the dwarf kinds. The ordinary way of growing pole beans is to set poles six feet long in hills four feet apart e&ch way. It is customary to put a shovel- ful of good compost or rotted manure in each hill if the land is poor. Seed should not be planted till the ground is quite warm — the pole varieties are more particular in this respect than the dwarf kinds. About six seeds should be planted two or three Figure 80— Dwarf Lima beans. BEANS. 16> Inches deep around each pole. In the case of Lima beans the general belief is that the beans should be planted edgeways with the eye downwards, but good results are often obtained by sowing the seeds without regard to this matter. This latter method is customary in sowing the dwarf Lima, and some who sow the large Lima beans in furrows and train them to trellises pay no regard to the position of the seed in the soil, but sow an abundance of seed so as to be sure of a good stand. Lima beans are generally shelled by hand when fresh but full grown and are sold by the quart. In warm climates they are sold in large quantities after being dried. The Cranberry and Horticultural kinds are generally sold in the pod. As soon as the seedlings commence to "run," it is customary to assist them in getting started, and some seasons it is necessary to tie the Lima beans to the poles until they are well started. Lima beans require an extra warm location and soil. Beans may be Transplanted if removed with much care when the soil is moist. Some very successful gardeners find that it pays them to start their pole Lima beans on pieces of sod or in pots or boxes in hotbeds and in this way they advance the period of ripening two weeks or more. This is a very desirable practice with pole Lima beans in this climate, since the short season often falls to mature much of the crop when the seed is planted in the open ground. The varieties of pole Lima beans best adapted to this section are probably the Large Lima and Dreer's Lima; both of these are of fine quality and productive. The fcfc/ : ..,.. .._. v ' ■ small Lima or Sieva bean is aarlier than those mentioned but Df inferior quality. BHg-ure 81— Authracnose of tean pod. Preserving Beans in Salt. — String beans are easily preserved 168 VEGETABLE GARDENING. In salt for winter use, using about seven pounds to the bushel of pods. In doing this the fresh tender pods are put at once into the brine as they come from the field. When wanted for use, they should be freshened out and cooked in the ordinary way. They are very good, and are nearly as desirable as the best canned beans. Diseases and Insects. — Beans are quite free from the attacks of any injurious insects or diseases. An- thracnose of the bean (Gloeospori- um lindemuthianum) shows itself by black spots on the stems or pods or both. It is sometimes very in- jurious in moist weather, but only in occasional years have we any- thing to fear from it. It is not gen- erally considered profitable to ise any of the fungicides, such as Bor- deaux mixture, which would read- ily prevent it. Beans grown in lo- cations where there is a good cir- culation of air are less liable to Figure 82— Nott's Excelsior pea. injury than those protected from a good circulation of air. PEAS. (Pisum sativum.) The pea is an annual plant of uncertain origin, but probably a native of central Europe. The flowers are either white or violet colored, but the most desirable garden kinds, almost with- out exception, bear white flowers. Varieties of peas are divided into three classes, those having wrinkled seed, those having round, small seed, and those having edible pods. Wrinkled seeded varieties do not germinate as well as the smooth skinned or round sorts, nor do their germinat- ing powers last so long, nor are they so hardy in resisting the adverse conditions of early spring. On account of the latter reason, gardeners plant the round seed first in the spring, and PEAS. 169 do not plant the wrinkled kinds until the soil Is In best condi- tion and somewhat warm. The wrinkled kinds are better in quality than the round and smooth varieties. Peas having edible pods are not popular in this country, probably because of the ease with which string beans are grown. Culture. — Peas may be grown successfully In almost any good soil; they even do well on rather poor soil. The kinds hav- ing smooth seeds should be planted as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring — even a hard freeze does not hurt the plants as they are coming out of the ground, and they will stand considerable frost when well up The distance between the rows and the seeds in the row depend somewhat on the kinds grown. Some kinds branch out far more than others and, con- sequently, need more room in the row. They also vary in length of stem from a few inches to six or seven feet. The tall kinds require the rows to be five or six feet apart, while dwarf varieties are generally planted in rows thirty inches to three feet apart. The growing of tall kinds is mostly confined to private gardens, where it is customary to use brush or other material in the rows for support. Formerly, among tall varieties, were those far excelling in quality any- thing found among those of a dwarf habit, but recent introduc- tions of the latter kinds have shown a great improvement in quality, until now the dwarf sorts are generally grown, even by the most fastidious. In common practice, the seed is sown about four inches deep, in rows three feet apart, putting about ten seeds to each foot of row. It is best to sow plenty of eeed in order to secure a good stand. The land should be well cultivated between the rows. Unleached wood ashes or some other fertilizer rich in potash and phosphoric acid is most bene- ficial for this crop. As it belongs to the leguminous section of plants, it is a nitrogen producer and, consequently, does not need much nitrogen in the soil. Early peas as generally grown are % s^m^^Mt* B%-U Figure 105. Varieties of Tomatoes. 1. Acme. 2. Spark's Earliana. 3. Chalk's Early Jewels 4. Tenderloin. 5. Beauty. 6. Stone. 7. Matdiless. 8. Dwarf Champion. tion, especially if the plants are covered on cold nights. Where this seems to be impracticable, a most excellent way is to grow a few plants in barrels placed in warm corners about the build- ings. To do this, at planting time select a barrel as large as a coal oil barrel, bore three or four holes in the bottom, sink the barrel about one-third its depth in the ground and pack the earth around it. Pill it about half full of fresh horse, manure well tramped down and pour a bucketful of hot water on this manure. Then put on eight inches of good soil and then a mixture of well- rotted manure and rich black loam in about equal quantities, until you reach within about twelve inches of the top of the TOMATO. 307 barrel; then heap up manure around the outside. Set three plants In this and trim to two shoots each. Train one of these shoots from each plant to stakes or near-by building, but allow the other three shoots to grow naturally over the sides of the barrel. Be careful to give plenty of water daily — a gallon each day will be none too much. Three or four old barrels treated in this way and placed in sunny exposure will produce all the toma- toes needed by a family of four or five persons. Prolonging the Tomato Season. — In autumn the tomato sea- son may be prolonged by pulling the plants with the unripened fruit on them and hanging them in a shed, where they will continue to ripen fruit for some time. The larger tomatoes will ripen very well if picked off and kept in a shady place. Saving Tomato Seed. — Tomato seed should be saved from the best tomatoes from vines producing the largest amount of good fruit. The tomatoes should be thrown into a barrel as fast as they ripen and be allowed to ferment until the seed separates readily from the pulp, when they should be put into water and thoroughly stirred. The skin and pulp being lighter, the seed is readily separated from it. The seed should be dried at once by spreading it out thinly in a dry place. Varieties. — There are many good varieties of tomatoes. June Pink is good for early, but lacks the color desired on the market. Acme and Dwarf Champion are good second-early pink- skinned varieties. Selected strains of Spark's Earliana are the best for early red tomatoes. For late red-skinned varieties, Beauty seems to be quite a favorite and Stone, an old standard, is also good. It does not usually pay to grow the earliest vari- eties for general crop, since they are inferior. However, in many unfavorable localities it may be best to grow them, as they do very well for home use. Insects. — The tomato is subject to few insect pests. It is sometimes attacked by the potato beetle. The remedy is Paris green and water, as recommended for the same insect when it attacks the potato. Tomato Rot.— There are several diseases that attack the tomato when grown In greenhouses, but only that known as the "rot" is often seriously injurious to plants grown in the open 208 VEGETABLE GARDENING. field. This is a fungous disease, the germs of which lodge in the end of the fruit when it is very small, probably often just as the flowers fall off. By their growth, they rot the end of tne tomato and often cause much loss. Figure 106— Tomato rot. Remedies. — The disease lives over winter in the ground where the rotten tomatoes have fallen. The diseased fruit should therefore be gathered and burned or buried a foot or more deep, where they will not be disturbed in the spring. Some varie- ties are much more liable to rot than others. The Dwarf Cham- pion is perhaps less affected than many other kinds. Experi- ments with spraying the young fruit with Bordeaux mixture or a solution of sulphide of potassium at the rate of one-half ounce per gallon, are said to Lave given good results In some cases, but it is generally considered impracticable to do this, on account of the labor necessary to do the work well. They are less liable to rot when growing on new land than on land that has been used for several years in tomatoes. GROUND CHERRY, or STRAWBERRY TOMATO. (Physalls sp.) Native of North and South America. — Perennial. — There are several species of Physalis that produce edible fruit. Among those indigenous to northern United States is one quite common in old timber land in northern Minnesota and elsewhere. The PEPPERS. 209 malt resembles a tomato but is about the size of a cherry and Is enclosed In a husk formed of the calyx. The seed is dark colored, flat and round. The fruit is used for pre- serves and sauces. Culture. — It is a plant of the earli- est culture and when once sown gen- erally covers the ground in following years from self sown seed. The seed should be planted about the first of May. The plants spread about thirty inches. PEPPERS. (Capsicum annuum.) Native of South America. — Peren- nial, but in cultivation grown as an annual. — Therg are many varieties, differing chiefly in the shape of their Fig-are 107-Uronad Cherry fruit - A11 ot them nav * erect - or strawberry Tomato. branching stems, which become al- most woody. The leaves are spear- shaped; flowers, white, star-shaped, solitary in the axils of the leaves; fruit generally hollow with a somewhat fleshy skin, at first dark green, but when ripe turning yellow, red or dark violet. The seeds are flat, and, like the flesh of the pods, have a very acrid, burning taste, for which the plant is cultivated and used In giving flavor to pickles, etc. Their germinating power lasts about four years after being separated, but if left in the pods they will keep much longer without injury. Culture. — Peppers need practically the same cultivation as the tomato or egg plant, except that they may be planted two feet apart, in rows three feet apart. Varieties vary much in the shape of the pods and the acridity of their juice. The kinds most commonly grown are as follows: Ruby King. — Fruit very large, bright red, smooth, mild fla- vored and prolific. The best for general use. 210 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Long Red Cayenne. — Fruit long and slender. Very pungent Figure 108— Varieties of Peppers. 1— Bird's Eye. 2— Tomato Shaped. 3— New Orleans. 4 — Golden Bell. 5 — Very Small Cayenne. 6 — Sweet Spanish. 7— Cluster. 8— Ruby King. 9— Celestial. (After Landreth.\ THE MARTYNA FAMILY. (Order Martiniaceae.) MARTYNIA. (Martynia probosidea.) Native of southwestern United States. — Annual. — A coarse- growing, spreading plant, having a peculiar shaped fruit that is used for pickles. The flowers are large, irregular and rather prttiy. The fruit is tender when young but is nearly as kard. as horn when ripe. The seeds are black with a rough surface. Culture.— This Is a plant of the easi- est culture. The seed should be sown as soon as the soil settles in the spring, in hills about three feet apart each way. Where seeds are allowed to ripen, plants usually appear the following spring. There is onlv one kind. Figure 109— Martynia. THE GOURD FAMILY. (Order Cucurbitaceae.) The gourd family is made up of mostly tendril bearing herbs, SQUASH. 211 with succulent but not fleshy herbage, watery Juice, alternate palmately ribbed and mostly angled or lobed leaves, pistillate and staminate flowers separate and both kinds generally on the same plant. Calyx grown to ovary, petals commonly united, stamens usually three, of which one has a one-celled and the others two-celled anthers, but commonly the anthers are much twisted and often all combined into a head and the filaments are sometimes grown into a column. The fruit is unusually fleshy and the seed is flat and made up entirely of embryo. It is commonly believed that some of the species in this group readily cross, but if it occurs at all it Is but rarely, and squash and pumpkins have never been successfully crossed with melons. Besides the squash, pumpkin, muskmelon, watermelon and cucumbers, whose cultural directions are here given, there occurs here the gourds and wild cucumbers of the gardens. SQUASH. (Cucurbita.) The term squash does not signify any botanical division, but Is an American name that is applied to a large number of varieties of gourds which In common parlance have come to be classified separately. The term often includes what are sometimes called pumpkins. The term gourd is applied to all the members of Cucurbita pepo and includes the Scallop and Crookneck Squashes, field pumpkins and the small, very hard-shelled fruits of many shapes and colors borne on slender vines that are grown chiefly as curiosities under the name of gourds. The latter are what are commonly known as gourds. Pollenizing the Flowers. — The flowers resemble those of the cucumber and melon, being separate on the same vine. The pistillate flower is produced at the end of the miniature squash; the staminate flower is often called the "false blossom," and its office is to produce pollen only. They are naturally pollenized by Insects. The crop is made more certain by having bees near by to pollenize the flowers. In some places, the absence of many In- sects is the reason why cucumbers, melons and squashes, which are similar In the construction of their flowers, fail to produce much fruit, though the vines may grow freely. This 1b a ai j VEGETABLE GARDENING, common complaint in some new prairie sections, as there Is often a deficiency of pollenizing insects in such places. Where small cucumbers, squashes and melons fall oft and fail to mature, Figure 110. — Flowers on the Squash. To the left two staminate (male flowers; to the right two pistillate (female) flowers. this matter of pollenization should be closely looked into, and if Insects are not present the work can be quickly and easily done by hand. For this purpose a rather large camel's hair brush Is used which can be filled at one time with enough pollen from a Eew male flowers to pollenize twenty or more female flowers. The seedi is oval and flat generally white or yellow, but varies greatly in size. There is a common belief among garden- ers that vines from old seed do not grow so strong as those from new seed and produce more fruit. This seems to be borne jut by some experiments. Cultivation. — The cultivation of the squash and the pumpkin 8QTJASH. ail la much the same as for cucumbers. About six seeds should be put in each hill. The hills should be eight feet apart each way for the longer growing kinds and Ave feet apart for the bush sorts. The plants should be thinned out after they are established so as to allow two plants to each hill. They are affected by the same Insect pests as the cucumber and the same remedies are in order. In addition, however, to these, some kinds are affected in the eastern states by a borer which works in the stem, and by the squash bug. (See chapter on In- sects.) The early varieties of the squash are sometimes started in hotbeds or cold frames to advance them and thus avoid serious Injury from the striped beetle. Harvesting. — Summer squash are not grown for storing and are not desirable for table use except before the skin hardens, when they are used entire. Winter squash are excellent for use In a green state but are not gathered for storing until the skin Is hard. They should always be gathered upon the approach of frosty weather, as a very little frost injures their keeping quali- ties, although the injury may not be apparent when gathered. It Is a good plan in harvesting them to place them in piles in the field, leaving them exposed to the sun during the day and covering them with the vines or other material every frosty night until they are thoroughly dried and the skins have become hard and flinty. In gathering, cut the stem off not over an inch from the squash, for it the stem is left on it is liable to be used aa a handle and be broken off and thus leave a spot that is very sure to start to rotting. Squashes should be handled with the greatest care if they are to be kept successfully, and each one should be placed in the wagon or on the shelf separately; If handled roughly they will not keep. They should be carried in a spring wagon or on a bed of hay or straw. Storing. — Winter squash keep best in a dry atmosphere and at a cool temperature. They will, however, keep well in a warm or even hot cellar or room, providing it is dry, but will quickly rot in a moist atmosphere. They will shrink more in weight In a warm than in a cool place. They should be laid on shelves one tier deep, and never plied up If it is desired to keep them 214 VEGETABLE GARDENING. long. When well hardened without exposure to frost before stor- ing and kept dry, many of the winter sorts are easily kept until March. The quality of squash varies somewhat according to the land on which it is grown. Sandy loam is generally believed to produce the best flavored dry flesh squash, but the quality also varies according to the season. Summer Varieties. — (Cucurbita pepo.) — Summer Crookneck T&s"' ■■&§&&'- *". ^4--- ■ ■ ■ I % x ■ ■ ■, . ' ' . . ■ ■ ■ ■ i Figure 111.— Varieties of summer squashes. Crookneck. Boston Marrow. Scalloped, is a summer sort, generally with a crooked neck, that is highly esteemed. A form of this with a straight neck is also grown. Bush Scalloped. — Yellow and white varieties of this for summer use are much grown by market gardeners, differing from each other only ir color of the skin. They are round-flat and have a scalloped edge. Boston Marrow. — Much grown for marketing and very highly esteemed for summer and fall use. Orange Marrow— A form of the Boston Marrow. Fall and Winter Varieties.— (Cucurbita maxima.)— Hub- bard.— This is the best known and most largely grown of the winter varieties. It varies somewhat in form, is generally dark green in color and sometimes marked with red. When well grown it has a rough shell of flinty hardness and thick, heavy flesh that cooks dry. The quality varies much according to the quality of the land on which it is grown, sandy loam generally producing the best. SQUASH. 21S Marblehead is a variety that resembles the Hubbard la qual- ity of flesh, and by many Is considered superior. It differs from the Hubbard in form and color, is ashy gray and the flesh is Figure 112 — Hubbard Squash. much thinner. It yields less in weight but generally produces more squashes per acre. Essex Hybrid. — Very fine grained, rich, sweet, and a good keeper; excellent for autumn and winter. Bay State. — A good variety. Miscellaneous Varieties. — Winter Crookneck. — One of the hardiest, most reliable and best keeping squahes, but in quality no better than some of the pumpkins. Very little in demand for marketing, but popular in some sections for home use. Cocoanut, Perfect Gem and Chestnut are varieties produc- ing a large number of small squashes of excellent quality and are very easily raised. PUMPKIN. (Cucurbita pepo.) Native of warm climates. — Annual. — Under the name of pumpkin are grouped a number of gourds, greatly varying in shape, color, size and quality. Some of them are very good for cooking purposes, but they are not generally esteemed for table Figure 113— Cheese Pumpkin. 216 VEGETABLE GARDENING. use by those who have become accustomed to the better kinds of squashes; some of them are great yielders and are used for feeding cattle. They may be grown as recommended for squash or, as is most commonly practiced, grown amongst the corn, where the seed is planted as soon as warm weather is assured. The seed varies much in size. For remarks on its flowers and pollination see squash with which they are nearly identical. The variety most generally grown is known as Connecticut Field, which is of large size and is used mainly for feeding stock. Sugar and Cheese pumpkins are varieties much grown for cook- ing purposes. MUSKMELON. (Cucumis melo.) Native of the warm parts of Asia.- — Annual. — Cultivated from a very remote period of antiquity. It resembles the cucumber in habit of growth, and, like it and the squash, the different sexes of flowers are separate on the same plant and in nature re- quire the agency of insects to pollenize them; however, they may be pollenized by hand, and the directions for pollenizing cucumber flowers apply here. In quite a few cases the flowers of the musk- melon are perfect, that is, have both stamens and pistils; but it is likely that even in these cases cross-fertilization is neces- sary. The seed resembles cucumber seed in size and form. The fruit varies in shape but is commonly round or oval. The flesh varies in color from nearly white to deep orange. This is one of the most healthful and delicious of fruits", and our warm, bright summers are especially favorable to its growth. As far north as Minneapolis, this fruit is often so plentiful as to glut the markets in September. Culture. — The culture of muskmelons is practically the same as that recommended for cucumbers, and the insect pests are also the same. A warm soil is, if anything, more desirable for this crop than for cucumbers, and In moist seasons it does MUSKMBLON. 317 especially well on very sandy land, providing It has been well manured. It is a good plan to pinch off the ends of the vines after they have grown several feet for the purpose of forcing out the laterals on which the fruit is borne, although this is not customary in growing them on a large scale. Late settings of fruit may be removed to advantage in September, as they then have not time to mature. The fruit is not ripe until the stem separates easily from it. Fruit ripened on the vine is of the best Figure 114 — Muskmelons. 1 — California Citron. 2 — White Japan 3 — Miller's Cream, i — Extra Early. quality, but for shipping purposes it should be picked when still green. Almost without exception, melons with finely netted skins are of better quality than those with smooth or coarsely netted skins. So true is this that buyers often refuse to buy the smooth kinds. In order to make the fruit ripen earlier and to avoid the attacks of the striped beetle, the plants are often started in pots and on sods in hotbeds or frames, as recommended for cucum- bers. It is a good plan also to place a piece of glass or board under the melons when those of the best quality are desired, since this keeps them off the ground, and they ripen more evenly In consequence. Varieties. — Melons vary much In size, form, color of skin and flesh and in quality. There are many kinds, but only a few are referred to here. Christiana, or Early Christiana Is a popular melon, of extra good quality, with salmon colored flesh. 213 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Miller's Cream. — A large melon having Arm Osage, or salmon colored flesh, very productive and highly esteemed for the market and home garden. Perhaps, the best shipping sort now grown. California Citron muskmelon is a variety especially popular in Borne northern markets for home market and for shipping. Emerald Gem is a very prolific melon, with small but very superior fruit that is valuable for home use. WATERMELON. (Citrullis vulgaris.) Native of Africa. — Annual. — A vine of the same general habit as the muskmelon, but the leaves are deeply lobed Fig-are 115— Varieties of Watermelons. 1— Iron Clad. 2— Cuban Queen. 3- liight Ice Rind. 4— Moute Cristo. 5— Dark Ice Rind. and the whole plant Is covered with soft, grayish hairs that give it a grayish aspect. The flowers are the same in general structure as thoie of the cucumber or muskmelon. The seeds are WATERMELON. 219 large but vary much in size, color and markings. The fruit varies in color of skin from pale yellow to deep green and is often mottled; the flesh varies from 'white to pink or yellow. Some are tasteless and insipid and others are sugary and re- freshing. The fruit often weighs as much as fifty pounds in good seasons when grown in favorable locations, even in the extreme northern states. Culture. — The method of culture is the same as for the cucumber and musumelon, with the exception that the vines should not be pinched, and they require rather more room in which to grow. They should be planted about eight feet apart each way. Varieties. — There are many kinds of watermelons offered by seedsmen, diiffering from one another in many particulars. Sev- eral of the most esteemed are the following: Dark and Light Icing, or Ice Rind. — The best two varieties for general use. Well adapted for home use or marketing. Hungarian. — A melon of good quality, adapted for the home garden. Volga. — An early variety with light colored skin and very red flesh. Fruit rather small but of excellent quality and very productive. Citron, or Preserving Melon. — Resembles watermelon, but the flesh is hard and only fit for preserves. There is but a limited demand for it CUCUMBER. (Cucumis sativus.) Native of the East Indies. — Annual. — A creeping plant with angular, flexible stems, rough to touch and furnished with ten- drils. The flowers are yellow, in the axils of the leaves, some male, others female; the latter flowers are on the ovary, which later becomes the cucumber. The plants produce flowers and fruit in succession over a long season, and these are naturally pollenized by insects. The seed is long-oval in form and yellow- ish-white in color. Cultivation. — The land for cucumbers should be a deep, rich, scmewbat retentive loam, and yet this vegetable will do very well with only moderately favorable conditions. For ordinary use and for the home garden, cucumber seed should be planted after 220 VEGETABLE GARDENING. the ground is warm, say from the middle to the last of May, but it may be planted with good results as late as the middle of June. It is quite customary to furrow out the land six feet apart one way, mark crossways of tht furrows with a six foot marker, and put a shovelful of well rotted manure or compost in each intersection. Cover this manure with soil and plant the cucumber seed. Of course, when the land is in the best condition, it is not necessary to put manure in the hills; in such cases, all that is necessary is to mark out both ways and plant at the> intersections. About ten or a dozen seeds should be put in each hill and covered about one inch deep, and the soil packed, over the seeds. As soon as the plants are up, and after each rain, they should have the soil loosened around them They should also be kept dusted until well established with Paris green, land plaster or some other dust, to keep off the striped beetles, which are often very troublesome and may destroy the plants when they are small unless preventive measures are used. (See chapter on insects.) The land should be cultivated both ways until the vines prevent it, so that very litle work will have to be done by hand. About tnree good plants are enough for each hill, and the rest should be removed after the danger from serious insect injuries has passed. Gathering the Crop. — If for table use or for marketing in a green state, the cucumbers are gathered when full grown but still green; if for pickles, the cucumbers are gathered as soon as of the required size, which is generally when they are about three inches long. Some factories put up larger and some smaller pickles than this size. To gather them of just the right size requires that the whole bed be picked over about once in two days. This is a matter of much labor and is generally paid for by the piece. No cucumbers should be allowed to go to seed if pickles or table cucumbers are wanted, for as soon as seed is ripened the plants commence to die off, while if constantly gathered when green and not allowed to ripen, the plants will continue bearing a long time. In the vicinity of pickling factories, cucumbers for pickles are often raised in large quantities as a farm crop and are contracted for at a specified price per thousand or per hun- dred pounds, for the season. For home use or for storing and CUCUMBER. 221 marketing In the winter, the cucumbers are packed in salt or salt onne when gathered. Growers generally use about seven pounds of salt to a bushel of cucumbers. They may also be packed in dry salt in layers, which has the effect of taking the water out of the cucumbers, causing them to shrivel up and lie in their own Juice. When wanted for use they are freshened out in water, which causes those that are shriveled to swell up plump; they are then put in vinegar. Cucumber pickles are easily kept until the following spring in this way, but when kept later than spring they get soft and are not so desirable. Cucumbers will stand a great amount of dry weather without injury, if frequently cul- tivated. Starting Cucumbers in cold frames and hotbeds and then transplanting them to the open ground when all danger of frost Flgure 116— Chicago Pickllnp Cucumber. IS over is a common practice where they are wanted for early use. Under this system the seed is sown in old strawberry boxes, tomato cans, flower pots, etc. Square pieces of inverted sod are also used for the same purpose, four or five seeds being sown on each piece five inches square and covered with good soil. The plants in this latter case root into the sod and are easily moved. Starting cucumbers this way has the merit of advancing the period of maturity of the plants, and as they are wed started 222 VEGETABLE GARDENING. when set out there is little danger of attacks of the striped beetle, and the fruit is earlier than when sown in the open ground. In following out this plan, the seed should not be sown before the first of May, or the plants will -be too large to move well. Before the plants are removed from the frames to the open ground, they should be exposed without the sash for several days until well hardened off. When these plants are moved to the open ground, they should be set rather deeper than they grew in the frames. They then are cultivated the same as plants from seed sown in the hill. Another way for advancing the cucumber season when hotbed sash is used is by planting a hill of them very early, in the center of each sash of the hotbed, while the rest of each sash may be used for an early crop. The cucumbers will not need much room for several weeks, which will give time to grow the early crop and get it out of the way of the cucumbers. The sashes should be removed when warm weather comes, and the vines allowed to grow in the frames all summer. Insects. — The cucumber has a serious enemy in the striped beetle and is also liable to injury from the cut worm. (For reme- dies see chapter on insects.) Seed. — Cucumber seed is easily raised, and in some loca- tions it is a product of some importance. In raising seed it ia important to save it from the early fruity which in a small way are easily saved; on a large scale, however, the fruits are allowed to ripen but not to rot on the ground. When the vines are dead, the ripe cucumbers are split open, the pulp scooped out with the seed and allowed to ferment for a few days, when it readily sepa- rates from the seed. The whole mass is then thrown into a sieve with a mesh small enough to not allow the seeds to pass through, and the pulp is washed through the sieve, leaving the clean seed, which is carefully dried. If the cucumbers are al- lowed to get rotten before the seed is taken out, the skins will become mixed with the seed, and the seed will be discolored, and such seed is very liable to sprout In the cleaning and curing pro- cess. Varieties. — For general home use and marketing, the White Spine Is a favorite variety. For pickles the most profitable kinds are those producing many small cucumbers, such as the variety LETTUCE. 223 known as the Boston Pickling. There are many good varieties of cucumbers and they are offered under various names. For earliest use the Early Russian is perhaps the best, but it is small and seedy. THE SUNFLOWER FAMILY. (Order Compositae.) The sunflower family (order compositae) is the largest group of flowering plants, yet it has given us only a very few garden vegetables and those are of little importance. Its plants are distinguished by what the older botanists termed the "compound flower." This consists of several or many flowers in a head, sur- rounded by a set of bracts. Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla (generally five), their anthers grown together by their edges. Ovary one-celled, inferior, containing a single seed. Be- sides the artichoke, lettuce, salsify, endive, and dandelion, whose cultural directions are here given, there occur here the tansy, sunflower, daisies, corn-flower, ageratum, cineraria, chicory, bur- dock, thistle, wild lettuce, compass plant, ragweed, fireweed, chrysanthemum, marigold, goldenrod, aster, yarrow, zinnia, dahlia and many other well known plants. LETTUCE. (Lactuca sativa.) Native of India or Central Asia. — Annual. — Flowers yellow, on seed stalks two or more feet high; seeds small, flat, white or black, but sometimes yellow or reddish brown in color. The shape and size of the leaves also vary greatly; sometimes they form a head like the cabbage and again only a loose bunch. The foliage is generally of some shade of green, but some varieties have leaves of a reddish color. Cultivation. — Lettuce is largely grown in greenhouses during the winter, in hotbeds and cold frames in the early spring and outdoors in the late spring and until severe weather in autumn. It is a very important crop for the market gardener, as there is some demand for it at all seasons of the year and a large call lor it in the spring. Some growers making a spe- cialty of this crop have it in marketable condition every month of the year. In some sections, the plants may be start- ed in September and when of good size transplanted to a cold frame, where they may be safely wintered over. In the spring 224 VEGETABLE GARDENING. they are used for planting In hotbeds and In the open ground. In the extreme Northern states, however, although plants fre- quently come through the winter safely when thus protected, It is not a method to he depended upon. It is customary here to raise the plants for spring planting, in greenhouses or early hotbeds. Lettuce may be transplanted to the open ground as Figure 117— Black-seeded Simpson Lettuce. (Typical curley sort.) soon as the soil will work easily in the spring, hut it should be well hardened off before being planted out; it will, however, stand quite a severe freeze if properly hardened off, and, as is the case with many other crops, the plants may be protected with earth on the approach of hard frost, providing it does not remain over them more than a day or two. In the open ground, lettuce plants should be set out about twelve inches apart each way. It is frequently grown between rows of early cabbage, cauliflower or other plants where it fills up otherwise unoccupied space and comes off the land long before other crops need the room It occupies. For late use, the seed is often sown In the open ground in drills one foot apart and the plants thinned to the same distance apart. It is customary also in the home garden to sow the seed and then cut off the young plants as soon as they are LETTUCE. 225 large enough to use; such lettuce, however, Is not nearly so good' as head lettuce where the center is white, crisp and tender. It Is a far better plan to thin out the young plants so that they stand three or four inches apart in the rows and in cutting con- Figure 118— Head Lettuce. tlnue the thinning process so that the later plants will form good heads. Of course, it is necessary to make successive sowings ol lettuce in order to have It fit for table use over a long season. Like all leaf crops, lettuce needs plenty of rich, easily avail- able nitrogenous manure and responds very quickly to small ap- plications of nitrate of soda. Varieties. — There are many varieties and each year finds many additions to the list of those offered by seedsmen. In the matter of quality, those forming a head like the cabbage have the preference. Varieties that form only a bunch of leaves are largely raised by market gardeners to supply the common demand, since they are more easily grown and are less liable to injury in handling than the heading varieties. Some of the most desirable kinds are as follows: White Tennis Ball, or Boston Market. — A very popular market variety adapted for hotbed and early spring use only. It forms a solid head of medium size but quickly goes to seed In warm weather. 220 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Hanson. — Forms large solid heads and Is a general favorite; excellent for spring or summer use. Black-Seeded Simpson. — A popular forcing variety that stands well without going to seed and does not form a head but a mass of curled leaves. Grand Rapids. — A very desirable lettuce for forcing. It re- sembles Black-Seeded Simpson, but Is a better shipping variety. Black-Seeded Tennis Ball. — A popular sort for forcing or early garden culture. It forms large, solid heads and is highly esteemed. Salamander. — A good heading sort for summer use. Buttercup. — Bright chrome yellow in color, very beautiful; tender and desirable. A popular new sort. Insects and Diseases. — There are few insects or diseases that seriously affect the lettuce when grown outdoors. In the green- house and occasionally in the hotbeds, it is sometimes attacked by the aphis and mildew. For remedies for aphis, see chapter on Insects. Mildew frequently injures the lettuce crop when It is grown in greenhouses in winter. It is most liable to be caused by over- watering and especially by frequent watering in cold or cloudy weather, which keeps the leaves wet much of the time. It is a good plan to water heavily when the crop is planted and to avoid repeating it until the soil is quite dry and then water heavily again in the morning of a bright day, so that the foliage may dry off before night. Sub-irrigation has been used with excellent suc- cess for this crop in greenhouses in winter. SALSIFY, OR VEGETABLE OYSTER. (Tragopogon porrlfolius.) Native of Europe. — Biennial. — A plant with long fleshy tap- root and grass-like leaves. The flower stalks grow three feet high; the seed is long, ridged, generally curved and pointed at both ends. It is rather difficult to plant with a seed Bower be- cause of its peculiar form, but when the points are rubbed oft it Is often so planted. Culture. — The cultural directions given for the parsnip apply to this plant It is very easily grown and hardy, and generally comes through the winter in the extreme northern states without Injury; It is safer, however, to dig the roots in autumn, and put 1b SALSIFY. 227 pits until spring or for use during winter. The root is highly es- teemed and has the flavor of oysters; it is used for soupB, but may be cooked in the same manner as parsnips. The best variety is the Mammoth Sandwich Island, which is far superior to any other. ENDIVE. (Cichorium endivia.) Native of East India. — Annual. — Endive resembles the dan- delion in habit and growth. It is esteemed by some as a de- sirable fall and winter salad since it has a pleasant bitter taste when blanched. It is of very simple culture and may be grown in much the same manner as lettuce. For summer use, sow the seed early in the spring; for autumn and winter use, sow in July. It is blanched be- fore being eaten. This is accom- plished by tying the leaves lightly together when the plants have nearly completed their growth. After this treatment, the leaves in the center of the plant will have become blanched in about three weeks. Do not tie the plants too rapidly, since the hearts are liable to rot soon after blanching, espe- cially if the weather is warm. On the approach of severe weather, the plants may be set in boxes in a cold cellar, where they will continue to produce nice blanched leaves dur- ing the early part of the winter. Varieties. — A variety known as Green Curled Endive is generally grown, but other varieties are of- fered by seedsmen. (Taraxacum officinale.) Pie. 119— Sandwich Island Salsify. DANDELION. Native of Europe. — Perennial— The dandelion Is a familiar 828 VEGETABLE GARDENING. plant to almost every one. It Is now of spontaneous growth hera and is used for greens in its wild state; but the cultivated varie- ties are quite an Improvement on the wild plants. The best method of growing it is by sowing the seed in the spring in drills ten inches apart and thinning out the plants to three Inches apart in rows. The seed is somewhat dif- ficult to start, and it is a good plan to go over each row twice with the seed sower, so as to mix the seed up with the soil, since by this method some of it will be sure to be properly covered. It Fig. 120.— Curled Endive. is sometimes used in the fall, but not generally until spring. It is often forced by covering the bed with the hotbed sash or by transplanting to hotbeds or cold frames. It is sometimes blanch- ed and used as a salad, for which purpose it is much like endive. While the plant is a perennial, yet only one crop should be har- vested from each sowing, since after the first cutting there are many sprouts produced from each root so that none of them are large enough for good mar- ket plants. The plants should always be plowed in before they ripen seed unless seed is to be saved, to prevent its scattering and becoming a nuisance. A va- riety called the Improved Thick-Leaved is the most esteemed. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. (Helianthus tuberosus.) Native of North America. — Perennial. — Sterna herbaceous, six or more feet high, roots tuberous. Flowers yellow, resem- bling those of the common sunflower, but comparatively small, Figure 121. — Dandelion. ARTICHOKE. 229 For best results the artichoke requires exceedingly rich soil. It can be grown from the seed, although this Is seldom attempted, but It Is customary to grow It by planting the small tubers whole or cut the large tubers in the same way as potatoes. They should be planted about four Inches deep at twelve inch intervals in rows three feet apart. They are used chiefly for feeding stock and are often harvested by turning hogs into the field. They will frequently remain in the land many years even if not cultivated. They are easily injured by frost when not covered with earth but In the ground they are perfectly hardy. GLOBE ARTICHOKE. (Cynara scolymus.) Native of Barbary and South Europe. — Perennial. — A large thistle-like plant growing two to three feet high, producing large flower heads, the scales of which are large and thick, and are highly esteemed as a garden vegetable in England and Southern Europe. It has, however, never become popular In this country and is rarely grown. In Southern Europe it is grown by divisions and there are many varieties. It may also be grown from seed, but seedlings are generally very much inferior to the best named sorts. The roots must be very carefully protected in order to bring them through our winters. GARDEN HERBS. Under this head are grouped a number of sweet culinary and medicinal plants that are cultivated to some extent In gardens. They are generally easily grown in mellow, open soil. Those having foliage that Is esteemed for its aroma should generally be cut on a dry day, just as they reach full flowering stage, and should be dried quickly in the shade. As a rule, herbs should be cut before being frozen, though freezing does not always injure them. When dry they should be kept In dry air-tight boxes or vessels. The demand is very limited for most of them. Only a few of the most common kinds are referred to here. In the ex- treme northern states, many of the perennial kinds will kill out in ■•vera winters unless protected. THE MINT FAMILY. (Order Labiatae.) The Mint Family includes little other than herbs (with few exceptions) which have aromatic herbage, square stems, op- 230 VEGETABLE GARDENING. posite simple leaves, 2-lipped corolla and a deeply 4-parted ovary which separates into the same number of seeds. Besides balm 1 SUMMER SAGE SAVORY DILL CARAWAY FENNEL LAVENDEK Figure 122— Characteristic portions of garden herbs. catnip, lavender, peppermint, sage, sweet basil, sweet marjoram, spearmint, summer savory, thyme, and winter savory whose cultural directions are here given, this order includes garden coleus, hyssop, flowering sage or salvia, and horse mint. The plants of this group are mostly grown for their aromatic herb- age. Balm. — (Melissa officinalis.) — A native of the south of Eu- rope. — Perennial. — A plant growing about eighteen inches high having aromatic herbage. The seed is very small. Sow in spring where the plants are to remain. Catnip. — (Nepeta cataria.) — Native of Europe. — Perennial.— Often a common weed around buildings and along roadsides here, It is used in a small way for seasoning. Easily grown from seed or by division. The mint family. 231 Lavender. — (Lavendula spica.) — Native of southern Europe.— Perennial. — A low undershrub grown chiefly for Its flowers which are used In the manufacture of perfumery. Generally In- creased by dividing the old roots. It delights in a fine, rich, rather calcareous soil. Peppermint. — (Mentha piperita.) — Native of northern Europe. — Perennial. — Propagated by divisions of the stems; occasionally a roadside weed in moist places. It is cultivated in the same way as spearmint. Used mostly for its essential oil which Is ob- tained by distillation. The raising of this plant forms a con- siderable industry In a few locations in the northern states. Sage. — (Salvia officinalis.) — Native of southern Europe. — Per- ennial. — Plants forming broad tufts about sixteen inches high; flowers in heads of three or four in terminal clusters, usually bluish white but sometimes white or pink. The seeds are round and of medium size. Plants come readily from seed, which should be sown in early spring. It Is cus- tomary in a small way to sow the seed outdoors and allow the plants to remain where they grow for sev- eral years. Where it is grown on a large scale, however, the plants are generally put out as a second crop, following early peas or cab- bage. There is some uncertainty about its coming through very se- vere winters in the northern states, but it generally does so in good shape; it is more reliable if banked with earth or covered with litter in winter. Broad-leaved sage is an Fig. 123-Branch of sage plant. improved kind. Sweet Basil. — (Ocymum basilicum.) — Native of India. — An- nual.— Stem about one foot high; very branching. The leaves and other green parts have an agreeable aromatic odor and are used in seasoning. Sow indoors in March or April and trans- plant as soon as t*>e weather is settled. It may also be sown In the open ground early in the spring. 232 VEGETABLE GARDENING. Sweet Marjoram. — (Origanum marjorana.) — Native of Asia.— Perennial but generally grows as an annual. — The leaves and other green parts are used for seasoning. The seeds are very small. Sow early in spring in any good garden soil. Mint or Spearmint. — (Mentha viridis.) — Native of Europe. — Perennial. — A plant with vigorous creeping root stock, very hardy and sometimes a troublesome weed in moist soil. It Is grown by planting the roots in the spring. There is a small de- mand for this plant in winter as well as in summer, which is met by a greenhouse supply. The leaves and young shoots are used for seasoning. Summer Savory. — (Satureia hortensls.) — Native of southern Europe. — Annual. — A small plant eight or ten inches high. The seed, which is very small, should be sown the latter part of April or in May. The leaves and young shoots are used for flavoring. Thyme. — (Thymus vulgaris.) — Native of southern Europe. — Perennial. — A small plant with small aromatic leaves and stems. It starts easily if sown in early spring. It is customary to sow the seed where the plants are to remain but it may be trans- planted. It is in demand for flavoring and is generally hardy at the north. Broad-leaved thyme is the only variety worth grow- ing. Winter Savory. — (Satureia montana.) — Native of southern Europe. — Perennial. — Stems woody, at least near the base ; twelve to sixteen inches high. Used for the same purposes as Summer Savory. Not hardy here unless well protected. PARSNIP FAMILY. (Oraer Umbelliferae.) For characteristics see page 172. Anise. — (Pimpinella anisum). — A native of Asia Minor. — An- nual. — Attains a height of sixteen inches. The seeds are aromatic and used In medicine and confections. Sow in April or May where the plants are to remain during the season. Caraway. — (Carum carui.) — Native of Europe. — Biennial. — Stem straight; two or three feet high. The seeds resemble those of carrots and are esteemed for flavoring. It should be sown in May in drills and does not produce seed until the following sea- eon; very hardy and of the easiest culture. PARSNIP FAMILY. US Coriander. — (Coriandrum sativum.) — Native of southern Eu- rope. — Annual. — Two to two and one-half feet high. Stem leaves much divided. Grown from the seed which should be sown In the spring. The seed is used for flavoring purposes; the foliage exhales a very rank odor. Dill. — (Anethum graveolens.) — Native of southern Europe. — Annual. — Height, from two to two and a half feet. It Is of the easiest culture. The seed Is much used as flavoring for pickles of various kinds. It should be sown in the spring in rows about one foot apart and cultivated the same as for carrots. Where the seed ripens, an abundance of plants generally spring up the fol- lowing year. Probably botanically the same as fennel but the latter is more in use in the green stage for its foliage. BORAGE FAMILY. (Order Boraginaceae.) Borage. — (Borage officinalis.) — Native of Europe and North Africa. — Annual. — Twelve to eighteen inches high. Used In the manufacture of cordials. Flowers blue, pretty. Of the easiest culture, growing freely from spring sown seeds. RUE FAMILY. (Order Rutaceae.) Common Rue. — (Ruta graveoleus.) — A bushy herb, woody, or almost shrubby at Its base. The leaves are very bitter and some- times used In seasoning. Grown from seed or by division of the roots. 234 VEGETABLE GARDENING. TABLE I.— WEIGHT OF ONE QUART OF SEEDS AND NDMBEB OF SEEDS IN ONE ODNCK KIND OP SEED. Weight of a Quart of Seed in Ounces. Number of Seeds in One Ounce. Asparagus, Balm, „ ... Basil Bean Beet Borecole, or Kale Bruscoli Cabbage, Caraway Carrot, with spines •' without spines Catmirt Cauliflower, Celery Chicory Cress, American *' common garden, . to water , Cucumber, common " prickly -fruited gherkin,. Dandelion Dill Egg Plant, Endive Kohlrabi Leek Lettuce Maize, or Indian Corn, Marjoram, sweet " winter Martynia, Muakmelon,..- Okra Onion, Pea " gray or field Parsnip Pepper, Pumpkin Radish, Rampion, Rhubarb, Sage Salsify Savory, summer •' winter Spinach, prickly-seeded " round-seeded " New Zealand Squash, Hubbard " Bush Scalloped Strawberry Tomato... Thyme „ , Tomato Turnip Watermelon 32 20 20 24 to 33 10 25 25 25 15 9 13 28 25 17 14 20 28 20% 18 20 »!* 11 18 12 25 20 15y s 23 20 24 10% 13 22 18 25 to 28% 21 to 28% 16 9 25 28% 3 to 4% 19% 8 18 15 13% 14% 8 14 15% 23 24 H 2 *> 1,400 66,600 22,665 200 to 228 1,400 8,500 10,525 8,500 9,915 19,835 26,915 3.400 10.525 70,835 19,830 16,916 12.715 113,335 1,103 3,680 34,000 to 42.50O 25.500 6,520 18.000 8,500 11,335 22.665 113 to 140 113,355 840.000 565 1.560 425 to 610 7,080 66 to 14.2 142 to 225 6,605 4,205 85 ».83B 8,400 1,418 7,080 2,835 42,500 70,835 2,550 3,135 280 to 340 93 280 28,338 170,000 8,500 to 11,888 12.718 118 to ISO TABLES. 235 TABLE IT— LONGEVITY OP GARDEN BEED WHEN PBOrEBLT CURED AND STORED. KIND OP SEED. Average Years. KIND OF SEED. Average Years. Balm Basil Bean Beet Borecole Cabbage Caraway Carrot Catmint Cauliflower Celery Chicory Cress, American " Common Garden. " Water _ Cucumber common .... '• Prickly-fruited Gherkin Dandelion Dill... Egg-Plant Endive Kohlrabi Leek , Lettnce, common Maize, or Indian Corn..., Marjoram, Sweet , " Winter , 4 8 8 6 S 5 8 4 or S G 6 8 8 3 S 5 10 a 2 8 10 6 8 S 2 8 D Marty nia. Muskmelon Mustard, white or salad Okra Onion Parsnip Parsley Pea, Garden or field Pepper Pumpkin Radish Ramplon Rhubarb Rosemary Rue Sage Salsify. Savory .summer or wint'rj Spinach, all kinds Squash, Hubbard " Bush scalloped. Strawbery Tomato Thyme - Tomato Turnip ... Watermelon ...... lor 2 S 4 8 2 2 8 3 4 4 or 8 S B a 4 2 a 2 8 8 6 e 8 8 4 S « 306 VEGETABLE GARDENING. TABLE III.— AMOUNT OF SEED REQUIRED FOR ONE AOEE OB FOE A CERTAIN NUMBER OF HILLS OR FEET OF DRILL. Artichoke (Jerusalem), 3 bushels of tubers per acre. Asparagus, 1 oz. to 60 ft. of drill; 4 to 5 lbs. per acre. Beans (dwarf), 2 bu. to the acre in drills; 1 pint to SO ft. of drill. " (pole), 1 qt. to 150 hills; 10 to 12 qts. per acre. Beets, 1 oz. to SO ft. of drill, S lbs. to the acre in drills. Cabbage, 1 oz. to 1500 plants, % lb. of seed in beds to transplant upon an acre. Carrot, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill, 3 to 4 lbs. per acre in drills. Cauliflower, 1 oz. for about 1000 plants. Celery, 1 oz. to 3000 plants; % lb. to the acre. Corn Salad or Fetticu«, 1 oz. to 20 square ft. Corn— Sweet, 1 qt. to 200 hills; 8 to 10 qts. to the acre in hills. Cress, 1 oz. to 16 square ft. Cucumber, 1 oz. to SO hills; 2 lbs. to the acre in hills. Egg Plant, 1 oz. for 1000 plants. Kale or Sprouts, 1 oz. to ISO feet of drill; 3 to 4 lbs. per acre. Kohl Rabi, 1 oz. to 3000 plants; 3 to 4 lbs. per acre. Leek, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill. Lettuce, 1 oz. to 150 ft. of drill, or for 1000 plants. Martynia, 1 oz. to 100 hills. Melons (Musk) 1 oz. to about 60 hills; 2 to 3 lbs. to the acre. " (Water) 1 oz. to 30 hills; 4 to 5 lbs. per acre. Okra or Gumbo, 1 oz. to 100 hills; 20 lbs. to the acre. Onions, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill; 4 to 5 lbs. to the acre. Parsley, 1 oz. to ISO ft. of drill. Parsnip, 1 oz. to 200 ft. of drill; S to 6 lbs. per acre in drills. Peas, 1 qt. to 100 ft. of drill; 2 bu. to an acre in drills. Pepper, 1 oz. to 1000 plants. Potatoes, 8 to 12 bu. cut tubers to the acre, according to method of planting Pumpkins, 1 oz. to 30 to SO hills; 3 to 4 lbs. per acre. Radishes, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill; 8 to 10 lbs. per acre in drills. Sage, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill; 8 to 10 lbs. per acre. Salsify, 1 oz. to 70 ft. of drill; 8 to 10 lbs. per acre. Spinach, 1 oz. to 100 ft. of drill; 10 lbs. to the acre in drills. Squash (Bush) 1 oz. to 50 hills; 5 to 6 lbs. to the acre. " (Marrow) 1 oz. to 20 hills; 3 to 4 lbs. to the acre. Tomato, 1 oz. to 1500 plants: % lb. foi transplanting to an acre. Turnip, 1 oz. to ISO ft. of drill; 2 lbs. to the acre in drills. TABLE IV.— AVERAGE TIME REQUIRED FOR GARDEN SEEDS TO GERMINATE UNDER GOOD CONDITIONS. KIND OF SEED. No. Days. KIND OP SEED. No. Days. 5 to 10 7 to 10 5 to 10 12 to 18 5 to 10 10 to 20 5 to S 6 to 10 6 to 10 6 to 8 Beet 7 to 10 Pea 6 to 10 10 to 20 6 to 14 8 to 6 Salsify 7 to 12 6 to 12 4 to S TABLES. 237 FABLE V.— STANDARDS OF PURITY AND GERMINATION OF AGRICULTURAL SEEDS. The United States Department of Agriculture has adopted the following standards as the base for its decisions as to the value of seeds: The seeds must be true to name, and practically free from smut, bunt, ergot, insects or their eggs or larvae, and the seeds of dodder (Cuscuta spp.), wild mustard (Brassica spp.), wild flax (Camelina spp.), Russian thistle (Salsola kali tragus), Canada thistle (Carduus arvensis), cockle (Agrostemma githago), chess (Bromus secalinus), quack grass (Agropyron repens), penny cress (Thlaspi arvense), wild oats (Avena fatua), and the bulblets of wild onion (Allium vineale). It must not contain more than one per cent of other weed seeds, and should come up to the percent- ages of purity* and germination given in the following table: KIND OF SEED. Parity Alfalfa Asparagus Barley Beans Beet Blue grass, Canadian.. Blue grass, Kentucky Brome, awn less Buckwheat Cabbage Carrot . Cauliflower Celery Clover, alsike Clover, Crimson Clover, red Clover, white Collard Corn, field Corn, sweet Cotton Cowpea Cucumber Egg Plant Fescue, meadow Lettuce Kafir corn Melon, musk per cent.* 98 99 99 99 99 90 90 90 99 99 95 99 98 95 98 98 95 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 95 99 98 99 Germi- per cent. 85-90 80-85 90-95 90-95 140-150t 45-50 45-50 75-80 90-95 90-95 80-85 80-85 60-65 75-80 85-90 85-90 75-80 90-95 90-95 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 75-80 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 KIND OF SEED Purity. Jf,™,}" Melon, water M i llet, com mon ( Chae tockloat italtca) Millet, hog (Panicum miliaceum) Millet, pearl Oats Okra Onion Parsley Parsnip Peas Pumpkin Radish "Rape Rye Salsify Sorghum Spinach Squash Timothy Tomato Turnip Tobacco Vetch, hairy Vetch, kidney Wheat per cent. 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 95 99 99 99 99 99 98 98 99 99 98 98 99 98 98 95 99 per cent. 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 90-95 80-85 80-85 70-75 70-75 90-95 85-90 90-95 90-95 90-95 75-80 85-90 80-85 85-90 85-90 85-90 90-95 75-80 70-75 85-90 90-95 Impurity allowed refers to inert matter and one per cent (only) of weed seeds other than those practically prohibited, as above noted. FKach beet fruit, or "ball," is likely to contain from 2 to 7 seeds. One hundred balls should yield ISO sprouts. ""' i This means purity of grain, not purity of stock. 238 "JTEOTTTABLiB GARDENING. TABLE VT-QUANTITY OP SEED REQUIRED FOR A GIVEN NUMBER OF UILLS: Corn 1 qt. to 200 hlllj Cucumbers 1 oz. to 135 " Muskmelon 1 oz. to 60 " Pole Beans, Limas 1 qt. to 100 " Pole Beans, Wax 1 qt. to 150 " Pumpkin 1 oz. to 50 •* Bquasta 1 oz. to 50 " Watermelon 1 oz. to 30 " TABLE VII.-QUANTITT OF SEED REQUIRED FOR A GIVEN LENGTH OF DRILL: Asparagus 1 oz. 50 feet of drill Beet 1 oz. 50 " Beans, Dwarf 1 qt. 100 " Carrot 1 oz. 100 " Endive 1 oz. 100 " Okra .". 1 oz. 40 " Onion 1 oz. 100 " Onion sets 1 qt. 50 " Parsley 1 oz. 125 " Parsnips 1 oz. 200 M Peas lqt. 75 - Radishes 1 oz. 100 M fialsify 1 oz. 70 " Spinach I oz. 100 " Tttiain - 1 oz. 150 " MONTHLY CALENDAR. Under this head some of the principal operations of the year In the more northern states are referred to, but these can be re- garded only as suggestive, since individual conditions as well as the weather vary from year to year. The point should be borne In mind that it is of the utmost importance, and for the greatest profit, to have all garden work done at the proper time; and to do this considerable planning and studying will be necessary in laying out each day's work, as well as the work of the season, so as to make the most of the opportunities offered by weather and season. January. — The outdoor work is generally quite at a stand- still this month, except that manure may be drawn from the stable to the fields needing it, where it may be piled and forked over. Plan out the work of the season, aiming to have the ground and the time of your help occupied all the time. In do- ing this it is generally best to plan to raise those crops that will not require a large amount of work at the same season, but rather those that will give a succession of work. Market any celery, squash or other vegetables for which there is a demand. Send for seed catalogues of leading dealers. Decide what you are going to want. Test the quality of the seeds you have on hand and get your new stock of seed early. Test the seeds received for planting. February. — The work of this month differs but little from that of January, but, in addition, the following may be men- tioned: During the latter part of the month prepare manure for early hotbeds to be started the first of March. Inspect tools, wagons, harness, boxes and crates for marketing and hotbed sash, and get them into shape for the busy season. In the green- bouse, cabbage and cauliflower plants may be started; and u 240 MONTHLY CALENDAR. Boon as of transplanting size they should be removed to cold frames, where they should remain until the ground is ready for planting out. March. — Make up hotbeds and sow in them tomatoes, pep- pers, cabbage, lettuce, radishes, cress, onions for transplanting, carrots, beets, celery, etc. In the latter part of the month cold frames may be used for the hardy vegetables. If the ground is fit to work, onion sets may be planted and spinach, hardy peas, and other plants which are generally not sown until April may be sown at this time. Harden off the early cabbage and cauliflower plants. April. — The hotbeds and cold frames should be in. constant use. Plantations of asparagus and rhubarb may be made during this and the following month. Plant onion sets. Sow hardy (smooth) peas, lettuce, celery, radishes, cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, onions and spinach, and plant early pota- toes as soon as the land is fit to be worked. By the end of the month, wrinkled peas, salsify and parsnips may be sown. See that tomatoes sown last month are transplanted into beds or boxes so as to have plenty of room. Transplant cabbage plants for the early crop, putting them in deep enough to completely cover the stems. In the latter part of the month, all the early planted crops may need cultivating and some of them thinning though but lit- tle of this is generally necessary until May. Radishes, lettuce, spinach and onions from sets and from seed sown In hotbeds in March should be fit to eat or to market. Haul out manure and plow land for planting next month. Transplant onion plants from the hotbeds to open ground. May Is the month when the larger part of the vegetables are planted. By the middle of the month it Is often safe to plant the more tender vegetables, sucu as cucumbers, squash, melons and beans, In the open ground, although nothing is gained by so doing if the ground is cold, waen it would be better to wait until ten days later. Corn Is frequently planted by the middle of the month, and in early seasons it Is a good plan to venture a little VEGETABLE GARDENING. 241 of some vary early kind during the first week of May. Plant po- tatoes for general crops. All the early planted crops need cultivating frequently, and those In drills need to be thinned. Plantings for succession may be made of all vegetable seeds and sets put in last month. Sow cabbage for winter use. Lettuce, radishes, beets, spinach, asparagus, rhubarb and bunch onions should now be large enough for use. Harden off tomato plants and set them out the first part of next month. June. — Set out tomatoes, celery for early use, peppers, egg plant, late cabbage and cauliflower plants and sow winter beets. Plant cucumbers for pickles and beans for main crop. Plant Lima beans the early part of the month. Market the same vege- tables as last month and in addition early peas and, perhaps, early cabbage. Weeding commences in earnest this month and should be- gin early, since if neglected it may be cheaper to plow up the whole crop rather than weed it out. Keep the soil well stirred with the cultivator. Sow rutabaga turnips. Stop cutting asparagus by the twentieth of the month. Clean up the bed, manure and plow it. July. — Plant celery for main and late crop. Sow string beans, winter radish and rutabaga turnips. Early potatoes, string beans, cabbage, summer squashes, cu- cumbers, green corn, onions from sets and cauliflowers are now of edible size in addition to those vegetables nearing maturity last month. Continued cultivation Is necessary to protect from drought and to keep plants growing. August.— Sow string beans and flat early turnips, spinach for spring use, winter radishes and early peas. The late crops are now maturing, and we have tomatoes, squashes, the better kinds of sweet corn and egg-plant, onions from early sown seed, and those transplanted are now dry and 242 MONTHLY CALENDAR. marketable. Lima beans will be ready for use the latter part of the month. Keep weeds from going to seed. Sow lettuce for growing in hotbeds or cold frames for Thanksgiving. September. — The cool nights of this month are especially favorable to such crops as celery, cabbage and cauliflower, and they should be carefully cultivated. Melons, winter squash and celery are now marketable. Handle celery; 1. e., partially earth np around it. First frosts may now be expected by the fifteenth of the month, and the half-ripened tomatoes should be picked and al- lowed to ripen in some shady place. Winter squash should be gathered before it is at all injured by frost. Dig potatoes. Transplant lettuce to hotbeds or cold frames. Plant out hardy perennial onions for bunching in the early spring. October. — Winter celery should be banked up to protect it from severe frosts, and on severe nights it should be covered with straw or hay for protection. It should all be stored away by the end of the month unless plenty of protection is provided in the shape of straw, in which case it is safe to leave It out un- til the 10th of November. Such crops will not stand with im- munity as much frost in the western states as in the eastern states. Pull and store cabbage, dig beets, carrots, parsnips, sal- sify and potatoes and store in pits or put at once into the cellar. Some parsnips and salsify may be left on high land to be dug in the spring. Plant out rhubarb roots. Attend to fall plowing and leave in ridges any very heavy land that is needed for early spring use. November. — In the more northern states this month generally closes up the work of the season. All the crops should be gath- ered in the early part of the month. Clean up the garden, frames and hotbeds and get them ready for spring work. The lettuce sown in August and transplanted to hotbeds or cold frames should be nt to market this month. Market all tbe vegetables on hand that will bring a fair VEGETABLE GARDENING. 2*3 price, unless wanted for some special purpose or at an assured price. Cover winter spinach and hardy onion sets with hay as soon as the ground begins to freeze hard at night, to prevent freezing and thawing. December. — Clean up the garden and continue the marketing of vegetables If it is not already attended to. Carefully study the season's work, note the profits or losses on the last crop, and what has been learned that will be useful another year. At Odd Times the following may be attended to: — Gather manure, make crates and boxes for marketing fruits, vegetables and plants, repair tools, wagons, harnesses, sashes, hotbeds and cold frames. Clean up I ' QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VIII, 1. How many vegetables be classified and name five In each class. 2. What Is meant by frost tender? Frost hardy? 8. Discuss the cultivation of mushrooms. 4. Of what qountry is corn a native and Into what four classea may the varieties be grouped? 5. Discuss the cultivation of corn. 6. Name five varieties each of early and late maturing sweet corn. 7. How may sweet corn be cured and preserved? 8. What Is corn smut? 9. What 1b asparagus and of what country Is It a native t 10. How Is asparagus propagated and cultivated? 11. How should asparagus be cut and marketed? 12. When and how should the asparagus bed be manured? 13. How may asparagus be forced for early market? 14. Of what country are onions native and how are they props gated ? 15. How should the land be prepared for onion raising? 16. Discuss the sowing of onion seed. 17. How should onions be cultivated? 18. What are "scallious" onion "sets?" 19. What are the methods of keeping onions over winter? 20. What are the advantages of planting onion sets? 21. How are they cultivated and gathered? 22. Discuss the transplanting of onions. 23. Name two varieties grown from seed, two for sets, two for transplanting. Mt QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VIIL 24. What are "shallots," "Egyptian onions," 'top" onions? 25. Bow is onion seed obtained? 26. What are leeks, garlic chives and how arc they cultivated and propagated? 27. How Is rhubarb propagated? 28. What cultivation does rhubarb need? 29. What Is the method used for forcing rhubarb? 80. How are beets propagated and cultivated? 81. Describe a beet seed. 82. How should they be harvested and stored over winter? 83. How does scab effect beets and what precautions should be ta- ken against it? 84. What are stock beets? Sugar beets? Leaf beets? 85. What Is spinach and how cultivated? 86. Of what countries is cabbage native and Into what three groups Is It divided? 37. What varieties have sprung from the original species of cabbage? 88. What soil la best for growing cabbages? 89. How should cabbage crops be manured? 40. Discuss cabbage raising for early crops. 41. How are the plantB set out and cultivated? 42. What soil Is best for late cabbage crops? 43. What are the advantages and disadvantages of growing cab fcagei for late crops? 44. When are cabbages transplanted and how are they set out? 45. How are cabbages sown In the hill cultivated? 40. How are cabbages harvested? 47. What are the methods of storing cabbage? 48. How is cabbage seed obtained? 49. Name two desirable early varieties and two late varieties. 60. What diseases and insects affect cabbage? 51. How does club-root affect cabbages and what Is the remedy for It? 52. What Is black rot and how does It affect cabbage plants? 53. Give five means of preventing It 64. How Is sauerkraut made? 65. What are Brussels sprouts? 66. What Is cauliflower and how Is It cultivated? 67. What is kale-kohl rabl and how Is it cultivated? 58. Of what countries are turnips native? 69. When and In what kind of soil should turnip seed be sownl 60. How are rutabagas cultivated and stored? 61. How Is horse radish propagated and cultivated? 62. Describe watercress and how it Is cultivated. 63. How are winter radishes grown and stored? 64. What Insects affect radishes and what are remedies? 65. Name five good varieties. 66. What are the characteristics of the clover family and what are some of Its species? 67. Into what two classes are beans divided and give character- istics of each? 68. How are bush beans cultivated? 69. How are beans harvested? 70. Name five good varieties of fall beans. 71. How are pole beans cultivated? 72. What Is the result of transplanting beans? 78. What Is a good way of preserving beans? 74. How prevent diseases and Insects from Injuring beans? 75. Into what three classes are peas divided and In what ways are tfcey different? 76. How are oeas cultivated? fctilCSTIONS— CHAPTER Vllt %lt> 77. Name five good varieties of peas. 78. What is okra and how is it cultivated? 79. What are the characteristics of the parsnip family? 80. How are parsnips cultivated? 81. How are parsnips marketed? 82. What is parsley and how is It cultivated? 83. Discuss the cultivation of carrots. 84. How are they gathered and stored? 85. How is carrot seed gathered? 86. What kind of soil is necessary for a good celery crop? 87. How should celery be planted to obtain an early crop? 88. How should celery be planted to obtain a late crop? 89. How is celery cultivated? 90. How are the plants transplanted? 91. How are celery and onions planted out together? 92. What is meant by "handling" celery? 93. What is the process of bleaching or banking? 94. How is celery bleached with boards and why not as profitable as banking with soil? 95. What is a convenient way of planting celery for easy cultiva- tion and weeding? 96. When and how should celery be dug? 97. Discuss a good method of storing celery? 98. How long does It take celery to bleach in the field and In the cellar? 99. How Is celery seed raised? 100. What diseases are most common In affecting celery? 101. How are they treated? 102. Name five good varieties of celery. 103. What is celeriac and how is it cultivated? 104. To what family does the sweet potato belong? 105. How Is the sweet potato cultivated? 106. What plants belong to the potato family and what are their general characteristics ? 107. What colors of skin and flesh, and what forms do we find In potatoes? 108. How Is the potato propagated? 109. When and how was the modern potato originated? 110. What kind of soil is best for potatoes? 111. How should such land be manured? 112. What are "sets" and what are the qualities of a good "set?" 113. How are potatoes planted and what kind should be selected for seed? 114. How are potatoes treated for early planting? 115. How Is the main crop of potatoes cultivated? 116. Discuss digging and storing of potatoes. 117. What is the average per acre of marketable potatoes In the northern states? What are the biggest yields known? 118. Name five good varieties of potatoes. 119. Discuss the propagation of potatoes. 120. What insects and diseases are injurious to the potato? 121. How and when does "scab" affect potatoes? 122. What Is the best treatment for early potatoes? 123. How does potato blight affect potatoes? 124. What is Bordeaux mixture and how is it applied? 125. What Is Internal brown rot? 126. How are egg plants cultivated? 127. When should tomato seed be sown and transplanted? 128. What kind of soil Is best for tomato growing? 129. How should tomato plants be pruned and trained? 130. Bow may the tomato season be prolonged after frosts torn* In antiioan? 240 QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VIII. 181. How should tomatoes be selected to save for seed? 132. Name five good varieties of tomatoes. 183. What Is tomato rot and the best remedies for It? 134. What are ground cherries and how cultivated? 135. What are the characteristics of the peppers and for what an they used? 136. What Is Martynia and how Is It cultivated? What are the general characteristics of the gourd family? How are the flowers pollenized? How are squashes cultivated? Discuss harvesting and storing of squashes. Name three good summer varieties and three good winter 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. varieties. 142, 143 What are pumpkins? What are the general characteristics of the muskmelon and how are they cultivated? 144. How do the different varieties vary? What is difference between muskmelon and a watermelon? Name three good varieties of watermelon. Of what country is the cucumber a native? How Is It cultivated? What soil Is best for raising cucumbers? How should they be gathered when to be used for pickles? How should they be gathered for home use? How may they be stored for winter? How are cucumbers and melons started for early crops? How are cucumbers cultivated? What Insects injure cucumbers and melons? How are cucumbers gathered for seed? Name one good variety for home use and one for pickling. What are some of the plants that belong to the sunflower 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. family? 159. 160. summer. 181. 162. 163. 164. 165. It used ? 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. How Is lettuce cultivated? Name three good varieties for spring use and three for How does mildew affect lettuce and how may It be prevented? What Is salsify and how Is It cultivated? How Is endive cultivated? How are dandelions planted and cultivated? How Is the Jerusalem artichoke cultivated and for what Is What Is the globe artichoke? What soil Is best for garden herbs? How are they gathered and stored? What are the characteristics of the mint family? What Is balm, catnip, lavender, peppermint, and how are they propagated and cultivated? 171. What Is sage and how Is It grown, harvested and stored? 172. What Is sweet basil, sweet majoram and mint, and how are they cultivated? 173. What Is summer savory, thyme, winter savory? 174. What Is anise, caraway, coriander, dill and how are they cultivated 7 17B. What Is borage and common rue and for what are they used ? INDEX. Page Acre Inch of water 10 Anise 232 Artichoke, Globe 229 Artichoke, Jerusalem 228 Ash, per cent in vegetables. 15 Asparagus 114 bunching 119 cultivation 117 cutting 118 forcing 120 manuring 119 planting 117 propagation 115 varieties 120 Balm 128 Beans 164 bush 165 diseases 168 harvesting 165 insects 168 pole 164 transpanting 167 preserving in salt 167 varieties 164 Beet 132 diseases 137 forcing 139 harvesting 139 keeping 139 swiss chard 141 stock 140 varieties 139 gugar 140 Borraginaceae 233 Borage 233 Borage Family 106-233 Bordeaux mixture 203 Borecole 156 Botanical classification 105 Brussels sprouts 154 Buckwheat Family 105-134 Cabbage 144 early 145 Cabbage — Cont'd. »>ag« late 147 storing 149 diseases 152 harvesting 146 hill sowing 14s insects 152 manure for 145 pitting 149 retarding heading of 146 rot 153 sauer kraut 152 seed raising 150 geed sowing 147 setting plants 145 soil 145 varieties 143 Cabbage Family 105-143 Calendar, monthly 238 Caraway 232 Carbon bisulphide 87 Carrot 174 cultivation 175 forcing 178 gathering 176 seed 178 storing 177 varieties 178 Catnip 230 Cauliflower 155 varieties 156 Celariac 188 Celery 178 bleaching with boards 184 bleaching with earth 184 bleaching, time req tired for 187 digging 186 diseases 187 early 179 handling 183 late I8t marketing it j 248 INDEX. Celery — Cont'd. Face onions with 182 planting 181 storing 186 seed 187 varieties 188 Citron melon 219 Chenopodiaceae 137 Chives 134 culture 134 Classification of Vegetables . . 104 Clover Family 105-163 Cold Climate Vegetables 104 Cold frames (see greenhouses) 65 Cold frames, for early spring use 66 sash for 78 Commercial fertilizers 21 Compositae 223 Compost heap 21 Convolvulaceae 189 Corn 109 classes of 109 cultivation 110 curing seed 112 cutting off tassels 113 diseases 101 Insects 113 marketing Ill pop 112 preserving 113 ■mut 113 varieties run out 112 Coriander 233 varieties Ill Corrosive for Potato Scab.... 201 Cress 161 water 160 Cruclfereae 143 Cucumber 219 cultivation 219 gathering the crop 220 Insects 222 salting 221 seed 222 starting la cold frames. ...221 varieties 222 Caeorbltaeeae 210 Page Cultivation, general 29-33-35 Dandelion 227 Dill 233 Diseases — antbracnose of bean 168 beet scab 140 blight or rust of celery 188 club root of cabbage 152 leaf blight of celery 187 lettuce mildew 226 potato blight 202 potato scab 200 smut of corn 113 Egg plant 203 Endive 227 Fennel 230 Formaline for Potato Scab... 202 Frost Hardy Vegetables 105 Frost Tender Vegetables 104 Fungi 106 Garden herbs 229 Garlic, common 132 Glass structures 65 Germinating apparatus 66 Germination, conditions for successful 42 Gourd 211 Gourd Family 105-210 Goosefoot Family 105-137 Gramineae 109 Grass Family ..105-109 Greenhouse hotbed Tl Greenhouses 74 boxes hi glass 83 glazing 84 heating 77 lean-to 73 mats 78 miscellaneous notes on..... T8 radiating surface 77 sash 78 shading 82 shutters .. 78 soil J] substitutes for glass si temperature T9 INDBX 24* Orcenhouaes — Cont'd. Pag* ventilation TO watering "0 Ground cherry 208 Hardening off of plants 60 Herbi 229 Horseradish 159 Hotbeds (see also greenhouses) 66 Hotbeds 66 manure for 67 early spring use 67 Are 69 sasb for 78 ■butters for 78 mats for 78 Bumus 10-14 Implements 35 combined drills and cultiva- tors 87 dibbers 88 hand 36 horse 36 marker 38 plank drag 39 potato diggers 39 potato hoe 89 scuffle hoe 39 seed drills 37 spray pumps 39 Insecticides 85 application of 88 carbon bisulphide ......... 87 kerosene emulsion 87 London purple 86 Paris green 86 pyrethrum 85 tobacco 86 Insects) 85 apbia 99 bean weevil 101 cabbage Ilea beetle 98 cabbage lice 100 cabbage worms 90 catching 88 celery caterpillar 100 chinch bug 101 cucumber beetle 65 cut worms 98 Insects — Cont'd. Page corn moth 100 leaf lice 99 maggots 97 May beetle 96 parsley worm 100 potato beetle 89 pea weevil 101 squash bug .....103 squash vine borer 102 tassel worm 100 white grub 96 wire worms 93 Irrigation 8 acre inch of. water 10 amount of water needed .... 10 application of water 11 cultivation as an aid to. ... 9 humus, an aid to 10 pumping water for 10 reservoirs 11 rules for 11 storage capacity for 10 sub-irrigation 12 temperature of water 11 Kale 156 Kerosene emulsion 67 Kitchen garden 5S Kohlrabi 157 varieties 157 Labiatae ...229 Lavender 230 Leeks 133 cultivation 133 varieties 184 Luguminosae... 163 Lettuce 223 cultivation.... 223 mildew 226 varieties , 225 Lllaceae 114 Lily Family 105-114 Lima beans 166 London purple 86 Malvaceae 171 Manure pile 90 Manure, hotbed ............ 67 Manures 14 290 INDEX. Manure* — Cont'd. P«*« action of 1* animal *" commercial 21 •fleet 25 composition of I 7 composition of farm IB compost heap 21 cow 20 for early and late crops .. 26 for leguminous crops 27 ground blood . . • . 22 ground bones 22 heating of 19 hen 19 horse 19 humus 14 Kalnit 24 land plaster 25 lime 25 liquid 28 mixing 20 most valuable element In... 14 nitrate of soda 23 salt 16-24 sheep 20 sulphate of ammonia 24 superphosphate 3 24 ■wine 20 tankage 22 use of fresh ...... ....... 26 wood ashes 24 Hallow Family 105-171 Manuring growing crops 27 Martynlaceae 210 Hartynia , 210 culture ....... 210 Martynla Family 105-210 Melon, musk 216 culture 218 varieties 217 Melon, preserving 217 Melon, water 218 culture 219 varieties 219 Mint 229 Mint Family 105-229 Mixing varieties 63 Fax Morning Glory Family. . .108-188 Monthly calendar 238 Mulching ... W Mushrooms .... 106 native species of ....... ..107 Novelties 58 Okra 171 varieties 171 Onions for home garden. 130 Onions 120 cultivation 123 keeping 125 land for 121 marketing 131 perennial 131 potato .....131 scalllons 124 sets 125 seed 131 sowing seed 122 storing 125 top 131 transplanting ....128 varieties 131 Oyster plant 226 Parsnip Family 105-171 Parsley 173 culture 174 varieties 174 Parsnip 172 culture ....172 varieties 173 Paris green 86 Peas 168 culture ....169 canning of ......170 varieties 170 Peppers 209 culture 209 varieties .209 Peppermint 231 Pie plant 135 Plowing 81 subsoil 81 Pollenlzlng flowers 61 Polygonaceae 134 INDEX. 2*1 Page Potato Family 106-190 Potatoes 190 blight 202 digging 195 diseases 200 early planting 194 Insects 199 main crop 194 manuring .....192 origin 191 pitting 196 propagation, notes on ..... 199 "running out" of .....193 saving seed 193 scab 200 sets or "seeds" .....193 ■oil 192 starch 198 use for seed of scabby 201 varieties 198 Protection to newly planted seeds against Insects .... 46 against crows and gophers. 46 Pumoklns 215 Py retbrum 85 Radishes 161 culture 161 varieties 162 Rhubarb 135 culture ....135 forcing 136 varieties 137 Ridging land 83 Rotating of manures 28 Rotation of crops . . . 13 reasons for 13 Rue 233 Rue Family 106-233 Rutaceae 233 Rutabagas 157 Sage 231 Sauer kraut 152 Savory, winter 232 Shallot* 133 58 Baods— Cont'd. Fac* coring 57 germinating apparatus .... 56 germinating standards ....237 stock 58 storing ••••.•••• 57 testing 55 Seed sowing 42 depth 42 time 43 firming by feet 45 In stiff soils 43 with machine 44 by hand 45 Seedmen's humbugs 58 Beedmen's specialties 58 Seed tables 234-237 amount for acre 236 longevity 235 purity standards 237 number of seeds In an ounce.234 time to germinate 236 weight of seeds 234 Seeds, pedigrees of 65 novelties ... 68 Solanaceae ....190 Soil 8 for early crops 8 for late crops 8 elements necessary ....... 14 elements lacking In 14 Spearmint 232 Spinach 141 culture ...142 varieties 143 Squash 211 cultivation ....212 harvesting 213 pollenlzlng flowers ,.211 storing 213 varieties ......214 Sunflower Family 105-243 Strawberry tomato ....208 culture 209 Sub-irrigation 12 Subsoillng 81 Summer savory ...232 Sweet basil ..231 Sweet marjoram ........ttt IHDEX. Page Sweet Potato 189 Swiss chard 141 Thinning plants 46 Thyme 232 Tillage, garden 29 general 33 Tomato, prolonging season . . 207 Tomato 204 cultivation 204 diseases 207 insects 207 In severe locations 206 land for 204 propagation 204 pruning 205 saving seed 207 training 205 transplanting 205 varieties 207 Tobacco 86 Transplanting 47 •voiding 47 conditions of success 47 Transplanting — Cont'd. Pajfe shortening the tops In 48 digging plants for 48 firming the soil in 49 with tomato cans 61 Turnip 157 culture 158 rutabaga 159 varieties 159 Umbellifereae 171-232 Varieties, development of... 58 mixing of 63 distance between 63 Vegetable oyster (see sal- sify) 226 Vitality of seeds 236 Vegetables, composition of. . 15 Warm Climate Vegetables... 104 Weeds 30 cultivation to kill 29 killing of 29 prevention of 29 seeds in manure 30 Winter Savory 232 Weights of seeds 234 STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS Published and Sold By WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA AGRICULTURAL. POPULAR FRUIT GROWING, by Samuel B. Green. This book covers the factors in successful fruit growing, with list of fruits adapted to each state; orchard protection, injurious insects, diseases injurious to fruits, spraying, harvesting, propagation of fruit plants, etc., etc. It is prepared es- pecially for beginners and as a text book for schools and colleges. 300 pages, 120 illustrations. Price, postpaid. .$1.00 AMATEUR FRUIT GROWING, by Samuel B. Green, a practical guide to the growing of fruit for home use and the market, written with special reference to a cold climate. Illustrated. 134 pp. Price, 12 mo Paper, 25 cents; cloth, 50 cents. VEGETABLE GARDENING, by Samuel B. Green. 10th edition. A manual on the growing of vegetables for home use and the market, profusely illustrated. 252 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, $1.00; paper, 50 cents. ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, by J. H. Sheppard and J. C. McDowell, a complete treatise on practical agriculture cov- ering plant and animal breeding, thoroughly illustrated. A complete text book adopted in public and agricultural schools throughout the Northwest. 12 mo., cloth, 100 pp. Price, $1.00 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM, by Thomas Shaw, cov- ering name and character of all the principal grasses in America; temporary and permanent pastures; methods in making hay, etc. Illustrated, 453 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, $1.50 WEEDS AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM, by Thomas Shaw, giving the names of the most troublesome weed pests east and west and successful methods of destroying them. Price, 16 mo., 210 pp Cloth, 50 cents; paper, 25 cents. EVERGREENS AND HOW TO GROW THEM, by C. S. Harri- son. A complete guide to selection and growth of ever- greens for pleasure and profit, from seed and nursery, to wind-breaks, and hedges. Illustrated, 100 pp. Price, 12 mo Paper, 25 cents; cloth, postpaid, BO cent», STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS. FARM WIND-BREAKS AND SHELTER BELTS, by Samuel B. Green. A manual of tree planting for wind-breaks and shel- ter with description of the most suitable trees hardy enough to stand Northwestern conditions. Practical cultural direc- tions from seed to maturity. Illustrated, 69 pp. Price Paper, 25 cents. HARDWOOD LANDS, by D. A. Wallace, describes the character- istics of Minnesota and Wisconsin cut-over timber lands heretofore overlooked as suitable for agriculture. Illustrat- ed. Price . ...... .Paper 25 cents. THE GOLD MINE "iN THEf'rONTYARD, by C. S. Harrison! A bock about flowers, both for ornamentation and commer- cial culture, written with special reference to Northwestern conditions. Illustrated, 280 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, $1.00 POULTRY. POULTRY MANUAL, by Franklane L. Sewell and Ida E. Tilson. A safe guide to successful poultry culture in all its branches, fancy and practical; breeding and feeding; diseases and remedies; how to make farm poultry pay, etc., etc. (40th Thousand. Revised Sept. 1, 1908.) 12mo., 148 pp. Price 50 cents; paper, 25 cents. EGG MONEY, HOW TO INCREASE IT, by H. A. Nourse. A book of complete and reliable information on the more profitable production of eggs on the city lot, the village acre and the farm. The instruction in this book will make the "200 eggs a year hen" a reality for the intelligent poultry man. 128 pp., completely illustrated. Price, paper, 25 cents POULTRY HOUSES, COOPS AND EQUIPMENTS, by H. A. Nourse. A book of newest plans for bulding practical, up to-date poultry houses, with description of coops, fixtures and poultry utensils for the farm or village poultry keeper, Profusely illustrated, 100 pp. Price Paper, 25 cents, CHICKS: HATCHING AND REARING, by H. A. Nourse. A manual of dependable instruction in incubating, brooding housing and developing winners and layers, fattening, kilt ing and marketing broilers and roasting chickens. 126 pp. fully illustrated. Price Paper, 25 cents SIMPLE POULTRY REMEDIES, by competent authors; de scribes the symptoms of the leading diseases of poul try and tells how they may be cured or prevented by simple methods. This book should be in the hands of every poultry man. 80 pp., fully Illustrated. Price, postpaid 25 cents. TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE, by H. A. Nourse, latest and most complete and reliable Information on breeding, hatch- ing, rearing, fattening, developing, showing, and selling for pleasure or profit. 128 pp., fully Illustrated. Price, postpaid 50 cents. STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS LIVE STOCK. FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF LIVE STOCK, by Thomas Shaw. A series of lectures on the principles covering se- lection, feeding, breeding, management and marketing of cattle, sheep and swine. 100 pp. Price, 8 mo Cloth, $1.00; stiff cover, 50 cents. FIVE HUNDRED QUESTIONS ANSWERED ABOUT SWINE, by L. H. Cooch. This manual is practically a complete vet- erinary book for swine breeders. Not only does it contain answers to questions concerning diseases of swine, but it also fully and carefully compares the different breeds, treats of breeding, feeding and pasturing. Price, paper, 25 cents. THIRTY DAIRY RATIONS. Thirty complete balanced dairy rations. Treats also of the feeding and. care of dairy cows, by H. C. Carpenter. Illustrated. Price, paper, 25 cents. MISCELLANEOUS. FARM BLACKSMITHING, a complete treatise on blacksmith- ing by J. M. Drew, written for farmers who want a work- shop where they can profitably spend stormy days. Illus- trated, 100 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, 50 cents. STANDARD BLACKSMITHING, HORSESHOEING AND WAGON MAKING, by J. G. Holmstrom, author of "Modern Black- smithing," gives practical instructions by a successful blacksmith. The latest and most complete book on the sub- ject published. Thoroughly Illustrated. Price, 12 mo Cloth, $1.00 THE FARMER'S TANNING GUIDE, by G. E. Stevens, gives all the quick ways of tanning in from ten minutes to six weeks. Also complete receipts for making your own solutions. Pre- pared especially for farmers. Price Paper, 25 cents. VACANT GOVERNMENT LANDS, locates all available govern- ment lands that can be secured free by entry and tells how to get them. All about irrigated lands and how obtained free. (1908 Edition.) 112 pp. Price Paper, 25 cents. THE DOMINION OF CANADA, by Moses Polsom. All about free government land in Canada and how to get it. 155 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, 50 cents; paper, 25 cents. THE COUNTRY KITCHEN. Nine hundred tried and tested recipes suited to the country and contributed by readers of The Parmer. The most popular and practical cook book on the market. 154 pp. Price, 12 mo Cloth, 50 cents; paper, 25 cents. THE "BUCKEYE" COOK BOOK, by Mrs. Wilcox. A careful compilation of tried and approved recipes for all branches of the household. 1288 pp. with complete. Index. Price, postpaid $2.50 ■TANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS. FARM BOOKS. SHORT TITLE LIST. Farmers* Account Book and Farm Record, net $2.25 Bookkeeping for Farmers. Clark Atkeson 25 Barn Plans and Out Buildings 1-00 Cottage Houses. S. B. Reed 1-00 Homes for Home Builders. D. W. Wing 1.00 A. B. C. and X. Y. Z. of Bee Culture. A. I. Root 1.50 Mysteries of Bee Keeping Explained. L. C. Root 1.00 Veterinary Elements. Arthur G. Hopkins 1.50" Diseases of Horses and Cattle. D. Mcintosh 1.75 Feeds and Feeding. W. A. Henry 2.00 Diseases of Swine. D. Mcintosh 2.00 Swine in America. F. D. Coburn, net 2.50 Farm Live Stock of Great Britain. R. Wallace, net 5.00 Profitable Dairying. C. L. Peck 75 Judging Live Stock. John A. Craig, net 1.50 Creamery Accounting. J. A. Vye, net 1.00 Cattle Breeding. William Warfield 2.00 Practical Forestry. A. S. Fuller 1.50 Beautifying Country Homes. J. Weidermann 10.00 Garden Making. L. H. Bailey 1.00 Practical Floriculture. Peter Henderson 1.50 Spraying Crops. C. M. Weed 50 Spraying of Plants. B. J. Lodeman, net 1.50 Agriculture with Some of Its Relations with Chemistry. F. H. Storer (3 volumes), net 5.00 Pruning Book. L. H. Bailey, net 1.50 Field Notes on Apple Culture. L. H. Bailey, net 2.00 The Potato. J. J. H. Gregory 30 Gardening for Profit. Peter Henderson 1.50 The Soil. Franklin H. King 1.00 Principles of Agriculture. L. H. Bailey, net 1.50 Physics of Agriculture. F. H. King, net 1.75 How To Make a Garden Pay. T. Greiner 1.00 Soiling Crops and the Silo. Thomas Shaw , ; , ' 1J50 Forage and Fibre Crops in America. Thomas Hunt ... . 1J5 Fertility of the Land. I. P. Roberts, net. \\\\ 1^50 Farm Machinery and Farm Motors. J. B. Davidson and L W. Chase, net ' . 2 00 Manual of Corn Judging. A. D. Shamel . .50 Cereals in America. T. F. Hunt 1*75 Alfalfa, Book of. F. D. Coburn ....'..'.'.'.'. 2)00 WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA