01 M) CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924083944011 In Compliance with current copyright law, Cornell University Library produced this replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1992 to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. 1998 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY MAP OF THE TROAD Hfirper feBnjfliBrBjfewYorii:. TROJA RESULTS OF THE LATEST RESEARCHES AND DISCOVERIES ON THE SITE OF HOMER'S TROY AND IN THE HEROIC TUMULI AND OTHER SITES MADE IN THE YEAR 1882 AND A NARRATIVE OF A JOURNEY IN THE TROAD IN 18S1 BY DR. HENRY |CHLIEMANN HON. D.C.L., OXON., AND HON. FELLOW OF QUEEN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD F.S.A., F.R.LB.A. AUTHOR OF "ILIOS," "TROY AND ITS REMAINS," AND "MYCENAE AND TIRYNS ' PREFACE BY PROFESSOR A. H. SAYCE WITH 150 WOODCUTS AND 4 MAPS AND PLANS " Die Oertlichkelt ist das von einer langst vergangenen Regebenhelt Ubriggebliebene Stiick Wirklichkeit. Sie ist sehr oft der fossile Knochenrest, aus dem das Gerippe der Begebeuheit sich herstellen lasst, und das Bild, welches die Geschichte in lialb- ver\vischten Ziigen (iberliefert, tritt durch sie in klarer Anschauuiig bervor." — Moltke: IVanderbuch^ p. 19, Berlin, 1879 NEW YORK HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE 1884 CORNELL UNlVLr^SSTYi \^LiBRARV Entered according to Act of Congress, in tlie year 1883, by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Office of tlie Librarian of Congress, at Washington. All rights reserved. HAVING INSCRIBED HIS FORMER WORKS WITH THE NAMES OF GREAT SCHOLARS AND EXPLORERS, THE AUTHOR DEDICATES THIS TO ALL WHO LOVE THE POETRY OF HOMER, AND TO ALL WHO ARE SEARCHING FOR THE LIGHT THROWN ON HISTORY BY THE SCIENCE OF ARCHEOLOGY. PREFACE. Hardly ten years have passed since the veil of an im- penetrable night seemed to hang over the beginnings of Gre-ek history Wolf and his followers had torn in pieces the body of Homer ; the school of Niebuhr had criticized the legends of pre-literary Hellas until it had left none of them, remaining ; and the science of comparative mytholog}' had determined that " the tale of Troy divine," like that of the beleaguerment of Kadmeian Thebes, was but a form of the immemorial story which told how the battlements of the sky were stormed day after day by the bright powers of heaven. The earlier portion of the " History " of Grote marks the close and summing-up of this period of destruc- tive criticism. We have no authorities, the great historian showed, which reach back to that heroic epoch of Greece, between which and the literary epoch lies a deep un- chronicled chasm, while the legends turned into history by rationalizing annalists cannot be distinguished from those that related to the gods. Our evidence for the so-called heroic or prehistoric period had been tried and found wanting ; the myths told of the ancient heroes might indeed contain some elements of truth, but it was impos- sible for us now to discover them. All parts of a myth hang closely together, it was pointed out with inexorable logic, and we cannot arbitrarily separate and distinguish them one from another. The work of destruction necessarily precedes the work of reconstruction. It is not until our existing authorities have been sifted and judged, until all that is false and un- certain has been swept out of the way, that the ground is cleared for building up the edifice of fact with new and vi PRIMITIVE GREEK HISTORY. [Preface. better materials. Even while the decisions of Grote were still ruling our conceptions of primaeval Greece, Professor Ernst Curtius had perceived with the eye of genius that they were not, and could not be, final. The ethnology of Greece at the dawn of literary history presupposes the ethnology of the heroic age, and ancient myths could not have been attached to certain events and been localized in certain regions, unless there had been some reason for their being so. Cyrus and Charlemagne are heroes of romance only because they were first of all heroes of reality. But Professor Ernst Curtius perceived more than this. The discoveries of Botta and Layard in Nineveh and of Renan in Phoenicia had revealed to him that the germs of the art, and therewith of the culture, of primitive Greece, must ha^'e come from the East. The discredited theories which had connected the East and West together were revived, but in a new and scientific form ; no longer based on wild speculations, but on the sure foundations of ascertained facts. Curtius even saw already that Oriental influence must have flowed to Greece through two channels, not through the Phoenicians only, but along the high roads of Asia Minor as well. But what Curtius had divined he was not m a position to prove. The conclusions of Grote still held almost un- disputed sway, and the 6th or 7th century b.c. was fixed upon by classical scholars as the mystical period beyond which neither civilization nor history was possible. Even now we are still under the influence of the spirit of scepti- cism which has resulted from the destructive criticism of the last half-century. The natural tendency of the student of to-day is to post-date rather than to ante-date, and to bring everything down to the latest period that is possible. The same reluctance which the scientific world felt in admitting the antiquity of man, when first asserted by Boucher de Perthes, has been felt by modern scholars in admitting the antiquity of civilization. First, however, the Preface.] NEW LIGHT FROM DISCOVERIES. vu Egyptologists, then more recently the decipherers of the monuments of Assyria and Babylonia, have been forced to yield to the stubborn evidence of facts. It is now the turn of the students of Greek and Asianic archaeology to do so too. For here, also, the hand of the explorer and ex- cavator has been at work, and the history of the remote past has been literally dug out of the earth in which it has so long lain buried. The problem, from which the scholars of Europe had turned away in despair, has been solved by the skill, the energy, and the perseverance, of Dr. Schliemann. At Troy, at Mykenae, and at Orkhomenos, he has recovered a past which had already become but a shadov/y memory in the age of Peisistratos. We can measure the civilization and knowledge of the peoples who inhabited those old cities, can handle the implements they used and the weapons they carried, can map out the chambers of the houses where they lived, can admire the pious care with which they tended their dead, can even trace the Umits of their inter- course with other nations, and the successive stages of culture through which they passed. The heroes of the Iliad and Odyssey have become to us men of flesh and blood ; we can watch both them, and older heroes still, in almost every act of their daily life, and even determine their nature and the capacity of their skulls. It is little wonder if so marvellous a recovery of a past in which we had ceased to believe, should have awakened many controver- sies, and wrought a silent revolution in our conceptions of Greek history. It is Uttle wonder if at first the discoverer who had so rudely shocked the settled prejudices of the historian should have met with a storm of indignant oppo- sition or covert attack. But in this case what was new was also what was true, and, as fact after fact has accumulated and excavation after excavation been systematically carried out, the storm has slowly died away, to be followed by warm acknowledgment and unreserved acquiescence. To- viii THE EXCAVATOR'S SUCCESS. [Preface. day no trained archaeologist in Greece or Western Europe doubts the main facts which Dr. Schhemann's excavations have estabhshed ; we can never again return to the ideas of ten years ago. Excavation probably seems at first sight a very simple matter. This is not the case, however, if it is to be of any real use to science. The excavator must know where and how to dig'; above all, he must know the value of what he finds. The broken sherds which ignorance flings away are often in the archaeologist's eyes the most precious relics bequeathed to us by the past. To be a successful ex- cavator, a combination of qualities is necessary which are seldom found together. It is to this combination that we owe the recovery of Troy and Mykenae, and the recon- struction of ancient history that has resulted therefrom. Dr. Schliemann's enthusiasm and devotion to his work has been matched only by his knowledge of ancient Greek literature, by his power of conversing freely in the languages of his workmen, by the strength of body which enabled him to withstand the piercing winds, the blinding dust, the scanty food, and all the other hardships he has had to under- go, and above all by that scientific spirit which has led him in pilgrimage through the museums of Europe, has made him seek the help of archaeologists and architects, and has caused him to relinquish his most cherished theories as soon as the evidence bade him do so. And his reward has come at last. The dreams of his childhood have been realized ; he has made it clear as the daylight that, if the Troy of Greek story had any earthly habitation at all, it could only have been on the mound of Hissarlik. This, as he himself has told us, was the supreme goal of the labour of his life. But in arriving at it he has en- riched the world of science with what many would regard as of even greater importance. He has introduced a new era into the study of classical antiquity, has revolutionized our conceptions of the past, has given the impulse to that Preface.] GAINS TO PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY. ]x " research with the spade " which is producing such mar- vellous results throughout the Orient, and nowhere more than in Greece itself. The light has broken over the peaks of Ida, and the long-forgotten ages of prehistoric Hellas and Asia Minor are lying bathed in it before us. We now begin to know how Greece came to have the strength and will for that mission of culture to which we of CD this modern world are still indebted. We can penetrate into a past, of which Greek tradition had forgotten the verv existence. By the side of one of the jade axes which Dr. Schliemann has uncovered at Hissarlik, the Iliad itself is but a thing of yesterday. We are carried back to a time when the empires of the Assyrians and the Hittites did not as yet exist, when the Aryan forefathers of the Greeks had not as yet, perhaps, reached their new home in the south, but when the rude tribes of the neolithic age had already begun to traffic and barter, and travelling caravans con- veyed the precious stone of the Kuen-lun from one ex- tremity of Asia to the other. Prehistoric archaeology in general owes as much to Dr. Schliemann's discoveries, as the study of Greek history and Greek art. Why is it that Dr. Schliemann's example has not been followed by some of the rich men of whom England is full r Why cannot they spare for science a little of the wealth that is now lavished upon the breeding of racers or the maintenance of a dog-kennel ? There are few, it is true, who can be expected to emulate him in his }>rofuse generosity, and freely bestow on their mother country the vast and inestimable store of archaeological treasure which it had cost so much to procure ; still fewer who would be ready to expend upon science one-half of their yearly income. But surely England must contain one or two, at least, who would be willing to help in recovering the earlier history^ of our civilization, and thereby to earn for themselves a place in the grateful annals of science. Dr. Schliemann, indeed, has created for himself a name that can never be forgotten, xii THE TROJANS OF THRACIAN RACE. [Preface. Slavs on the north ; in other words, in the very country which was known to classical geography as Thrake. Thanks to Dr. Schliemann's discoveries, accordingl)^, we now know who the Trojans originally were. They were Europeans of Thrake, speaking a dialect which closely resembled the dialects of Thrake and Phrygia. And since the dialect was one which belonged to the Aryan family of speech, the probability is that the speakers of it also be- longed to the Aryan race. If so, we, as well as the Greeks of the age of Agamemnon, can hail the subjects of Priam as brethren in blood and speech. The antiquities, therefore, unearthed by Dr. Schliemann at Troy acquire for us a double interest. They carry us back to the later Stone-age of the Aryan race, an age of which memories have been preserved in the enduring records of language, but of which tradition and histor)^ are alike silent. They will serve to settle the question, which is at present perplexing the minds of archaeologists and ethno- logists, as to whether the people of the later Stone-age in Western Europe can be regarded as Aryans, or as represen- tatives only of the races which inhabited this part of the globe before any Aryans arrived here. If the objects of stone and bronze, of earthenware and bone, found at Plis- sarlik, agree with those found in Britain and Gaul, a strong presumption arises that the latter also were made and used by tribes of the Aryan race But the discoveries that have resulted from Dr. Schhe- mann's excavations of 1882 do not end here. He has found that the second prehistoric city, and probably the first also, was not confined, as he formerly believed, to the narrow limits of the hill of Hissarlik. HissarUk, in fact, was only the Pergamos or citadel, crowned with six public edifices, which to the men of that time must have seemed large and stately. Below it stretched a lower cit}^, the foundations of which have been now laid bare. Like the Pergamos, it was surrounded by a wall, the stones of Preface.] PRIMITIVE KINGDOM OF ILION. xui which, as Dr. Schliemann has acutely noticed, must have been those which, according to Strabo, were carried away by Arlchaianax the Mitylenaean, who built with them the walls of Sigeion. To those who know the size and cha- racter of early settlements in the Levant, the city which is now disclosed to our view will appear to be one of great importance and power. There is no longer any difficulty in understanding how treasures of gold came to be dis- covered in its ruins, or how objects of foreign industry like Egyptian porcelain and Asiatic ivory were imported into it. The prince whose palace stood on the citadel of Hissarlik must have been a powerful potentate, with the rich Trojan plain in his possession, and the entrance to the Hellespont at his command. Can we venture to call him the king of Ilion r The best answer to this question will be found in the final result of tlie operations in 1882, which I have left till now unnoticed. More extended excavations, and a closer attention to the architectural details of the site, have proved that the burnt city was not the third, as Dr. Schliemann still believed in Ilios, but the second, and that the vast mass of ruin and dSbris, which lie on the foundations of the second city, belong to it and not to the third. What is more, two dis- tinct periods can be traced in the life and history of this second city ; an older period, when its walls and edifices were first erected, and a later one, when they were enlarged and partially rebuilt. It is clear that the second city must have existed for a long space of time. Now it is impossible to enumerate these facts without observing how strangely they agree with what tradition and legend have told us of the city of Priam. The city brought to light by Dr. Schliemann lasted for a long while ; its walls and edifices underwent at one time a partial restoration ; it was large and wealthj^, with an acropolis that overlooked the plain, and was crowned with temples and other large build- ings ; its walls were massive and guarded by towers ; its ruler XVI NOTHING PHOENICIAN OR ASSYRIAN. [Preface. two or three centuries. Even the masses of potsherds with which the ground is filled must have required a long period to collect, while an interval of some length seems to have mtervened between the decay of the third city and the rise of the fourth. But we have more certain evidences of the age to which Ilion reaches back, in the objects which have been discovered in its ruins. As I pointed out five years ago,* we find no traces among them of Phoenician trade in the Aegean Sea. Objects of Egyptian porcelain and oriental ivor)^, indeed, are met with, but they must have been brought by other hands than those of the Phoenicians. Along with them nothing is found which bears upon it what we now know to be the stamp of Phoenician workmanship. In this respect Hissarlik differs strikingly from Mykenae. There we can point to numerous objects, and even to pottery, whicli testify to Phoenician art and intercourse. Ilion must have been overthroivn before the busy traders of Canaan had visited the shores of the Troad, bringing with them articles of luxury and the influence of a particular style of art. This carries us back to the twelfth century before our era, perhaps to a still earlier epoch. But not only has the Phoenician left no trace of himself at Hissarlik, the influence of Assyrian art which began to spread through Western Asia about 1200 b.c. is equally absent. Among the multitudes of objects which Dr. Schliemann has uncovered there is none in wliicli we can discover the slightest evidence of an Assyrian origin. Nevertheless, among the antiquities of Ilion there is a good deal which is neither of home production nor of European importation. Apart from the porcelain and the ivory, we find many objects which exhibit the influence of archaic Babylonian art modified in a peculiar way. We now know what this means. Tribes, called Hittite by their neiglibours, made their way in early days from the uplands * CojitJuiporary RevicRi, December, 1878. Preface.] HITTITE AND BABYLONIAN ART. xvii of Kappadokia into northern Syria, and there developed a powerful and wide-reaching empire. From their capital at Carchemish, now Jerablus, on the Euphrates, their armies went forth to contend on equal terms with the soldiers of the Egyptian Sesostris, or to carry the name and dominion of the Hittite to the very shores of the Aegean Sea. The rock-cut figures in the pass of Karabel, near Smyrna, in which Herodotos saw the trophies of Sesostris, were really memorials of Hittite conquest, and the hieroglyphics that accompanied them were those of Carchemish and not of Ttiebes. The image on the cliff of Sipylos, which the Greeks of the age of Homer had fabled to be that of the weeping Niobe, now turns out to be the likeness of the great goddess of Carchemish, and the cartouches engraved by the side of it, partly in Hittite and partly in Egyptian characters, show that it was carved in the time of Ramses- Sesostris himself We can now understand how it was that, when the Hittites warred with the Egyptian Pharaoh in the 14th century e.g., they were able to summon to their aid, among their other subject allies, Dardanians and Mysians and Maeonians, while a century later the place of the Dardanians was taken by the Tekkri or Teukrians, The empire, and therewith the art and culture, of the Hittites already extended as far as the Hellespont. Now Hittite art was a modification of archaic Baby- lonian art. It was, in fact, that pecuhar form of early art which has long been known to have characterized Asia Minor. And along with this art came the worship of the great Babylonian goddess in the special form it assumed at Carchemish, as well as the institution of armed priestesses — the Amazons, as the Greeks called them — who served the goddess with shield and lance. The goddess was re- presented in a curious and peculiar fashion, which we first find on the cylinders of primaeval Chaldea. She was nude, full-faced, with the arms laid upon the breasts, and the pelvis marked by a triangle, as well as by a round knob B xviii THE HITTITE AND TROJAN GODDESS. [Preface. below two others which represented the breasts. At times she was furnished with wings on either side, but this seems to have been a comparatively late modification. A leaden image of this goddess, exactly modelled after her form in archaic Babylonian and Hittiteart, and adorned with the swastika (p^), has been found by Dr. Schliemann among the ruins of Ilion, that is to say, the second of the prehistoric cities on the mound of Hissarlik (see Ilios, fig. 2,26). Precisely the same figure, with ringlets on either side of the head, but with the pelvis ornamented with dots instead of with the swastika (py), is sculptured on a piece of serpentine, recently found in Maeonia and published by M. Salomon Reinach in the Revue ai'chiologiqtce. Here by the side of the goddess stands the Babylonian Bel, and among the Babylonian symbols that surround them is the representation of one of the very terra-cotta "whorls" of which Dr. Schliemann has found such multitudes at Troy. No better proof could be desired of the truth of his hypothesis, which sees in them votiv^e offerings to the supreme goddess of Ilion. Mr. Ramsay has procured a similar " whorl " from Kaisarieh in Kappadokia, along with clay tablets inscribed in the undeciphered Kappadokian cuneiform. Ate, as Dr. Schliemann has pointed out in Ilios, was the native name of the Trojan goddess whom the Greeks identified with their Athena, and 'Athi was also the name of the great goddess of Carchemish.* The " owl-headed " vases, again, exhibit under a slightly varying form the likeness of the same deity. The owl-like face is common in the representations of the goddess upon the cylinders of primitive Chaldea, as well as the three protuberances below it which are arranged in the shape of an inverted triangle, while the wings which dis- tinguish the vases find their parallel, not only on the en- graved stones of Babylonia, but also in the extended arms * See my Paper on "The Monuments of the Hittites " in the Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, VII. 2, p. 259. Preface.] OWL-VASES, IDOLS, AND CYLINDERS. xix of the Mykenaean goddess. The rude idols, moreover, of which Dr. Schliemann has found so many at Hissarhk, belong to the same type as the sacred vases ; on these, however, the ringlets of the goddess are sometimes repre- sented, while the wings at the sides are absent. These idols re-appear in a somewhat developed form at Mykenae, as well as in Cyprus and on other sites of archaic Greek civilization, where they testify to the humanizing influence that spread across to the Greek world from the shores of Asia jNlinor. Thanks to the discoveries of Dr. Schliemann, we can now trace the artistic type of the old Chaldean goddess as it passed from Babylonia to Carchemish, and from thence to the Troad and to the Peloponnesos itself As might have been expected, the same type is met with on the peculiar cylinders which are found in Cyprus, on the southern coast of Asia Minor, and in the neighbourhood of Aleppo and Carchemish, and which I have shown else- where to be of riittite origin.* Here it is frequently com- bined with the symbol of an ox-head, like that which occurs so often at Mykenae, where it is found times without num- ber associated wirh tlie double-headed axe, the well-known characteristic of Asianic art. A similar axe of green jade has been unearthed on the site of the ancient Heraion near Mykenae, along with the foot of a small statue in whose hand it must once have been held. The foot is shod with a boot "■' Academy^ November 27, 1S81 (p. 3S4) ; see also Major di Cesnola's Salaviinia, pp. 118 sq., and Fr. Lenormant in the younial tics Sai'ans, June, 1883, and the Gazette archeologique, VIII. 5-6, (18S3). The art of the engraved stones of the Hittite class, which is based on an archaic Babylonian model, must be carefully distinguished from that of the rude gems occasionally met with at Tyre, Sidon, and other places on the Syrian coast, as well as from that of the so-called lentoid gems so plentifullv found on prehistoric sites in Krete, the Peloponnesos, and the islands of the Aegean. The origin of the latter is cleared up by a seal of rock- crystal found near Beyrut, and now in Mr. R. P. Greg's collection, which has the same design engraved upon it as that on the lentoid gem from Mykenae figured under No. 175 in Schliemann's Mycenae. This fact disposes of the theory so elaborately worked out in Milchhoefer's XX PRIMITIVE CHALDEAN INFLUENCE. [Preface. with a turned-up toe, now known to be the sure mark of Hittite and Asianic sculpture. The double-headed axe is also engraved on the famous chaton of the ring discovered by Dr. Schliemann at Mykenae, the figures below it having boots with turned-up ends, and wearing the flounced robes of Babylonian priests. The whole design upon the chaton has manifestly been copied from the Asianic modification of some early Babylonian cylinder.* The presence, in fact, of small stone cyhnders points unmistakeably, wherever they occur, to the influence of primaeval Chaldea. When Assyria and Phoenicia took the place of Babylonia in Western Asia as civilizing powers, the cylinder made way for the lentoid or cone-like seal. Hence the discovery of cylinders at Ilion is one more proof of the age to which the prehistoric ruins of Hissarlik reach back, as well as of the foreign culture with which its inhabitants were in contact. The cylinder figured under No. 1522 in Ilios is especially important to the archaeo- logist. Its ornamentation is that of the class of cylinders which may now be classed as Hittite, and, in its combina- tion of the Egyptian cartouche with the Babylonian form of seal, it displays the same artistic tendency as that which meets us in indubitably Hittite work. A cartouche of precisely the same peculiar shape is engraved on a copper Anfdnge dcr Kunsi in Griechenland. The art of the lentoid gems must be of Phoenician importation. '\\Tiether, however, it may not have owed its original inspiration to the Hittites at the time when they bordered upon Phoenicia, must be left to future research to decide. Some of the designs upon these gems seem clearly to refer to subjects of Accadian or archaic Babylonian mythology, but this may be due to direct Babylonian influence, since Sargon I. of Accad (whose date has been fixed by a recent discovery as early as 3750 B.C.) not only set up a monument of victory on the shores of tlie Mediterranean, but even crossed over into Cyprus. The rudely-cut stones from Syria, to which I have alluded above, may have been the work of the same aboriginal population as that which caived the curious sculptures in the Wadis of el-'Akkab and Kanah, near Tyre. * Schliemann's Mycenae, fig. 530. See Academy, Aug. 25, 1883, P- 135- Preface.] THE TROJAN SWASTIKA, HITTITE. XXl ring which has recently been discovered by Dr. Max Ohnefalsch-Richter in Cyprus. Here the interior of the cartouche is filled with the rude drawing of the Trojan goddess, as she appears in the Hissarlik idols, excepting only that the Cyprian artist has provided her with wings similar to those on the owl-headed vases. In the case of the Hissarlik cylinder, on the other hand, a figure is drawn inside the cartouche, which is curiously like a rudely- designed scarab or beetle on a Hittite seal now in the pos- session of Mr. R. P. Greg. The flower placed by the side of the cartouche may be compared with one upon the Myke- naean ring to which I have before alluded, as well as with others on Cyprian cylinders of the " Hittite " class. I have already referred to the fact that the so-called swastika (f^) is figured upon the pelvis of the leaden image of the Asiatic goddess found among the ruins of Ilion. This would seem to stamp that mysterious symbol as of Hittite origin, at least as regards its use at Ilion. That it really was so, seems to have been proved by a discovery made last year by Mr. W. M. Ramsa)^ at Ibreez or Ivris in Lykaonia. Here a king, in the act of adoring the god Sandon, is sculptured upon a rock in the characteristic stj'le of Hittite art, and accompanied by Hittite inscriptions. His robe is richly ornamented, and along it runs a long line of Trojan swastikas. The same symbol, as is well known, occurs on the archaic pottery of Cyprus, where it seems to have originally represented a bird in flight, as well as upon the prehistoric antiquities of Athens and Mykenae, but it was entirely unknown to Babylonia, to Assyria, to Phoenicia and to Egypt. It must, therefore, either have originated in Europe and spread eastward through Asia Minor, or have been disseminated westward from the primitive home of the Hittites. The latter alternative is the more pro- bable, but whether it is so or not, the presence of the symbol in the lands of the Aegean indicates a particular epoch, and the influence of a pre-Phoenician culture. xxii DATE OF THE FALL OF TROY. [Preface. The gold-work of Ilion may be expected to exhibit traces of having been affected to some degree by the foreign art to which the idols and cylinders owed their ultimate origin. And this I believe to be the case. The orna- mentation of the gold knob given in this volume under No. 38 exactly resembles that of the solar disk on the Maeonian plaque of serpentine of which I have before spoken. The solar disk is depicted in the same way on a haematite cylinder from Kappadokia now in my possession, and the ornamentation may be traced back through the Hittite monuments to the early cylinders of Chaldea. But, simple as it seems, we look for it almost in vain at Mykenae ; the only patterns found there which can be connected with it being the complicated ones reproduced in Dr. Schlie- mann's Mycenae, fig. 417 and 419. Here the old Asianic design has been made to subserve the Phoenician orna- mentation of the sea-shell. The foregoing considerations establish pretty clearly the latest limit of age to which we can assign the fail of the second prehistoric city of Hissarlik. It cannot be later than the tenth century before the Christian era ; it is not likely to be later than the 12th. Already before the loth century, the Phoenicians had planted flourishing colonies in Thera and Melos, and had begun to work the mines of Thasos, and it is therefore by no means probable that the Troad and the important city which stood there could have remained unknown to them. The date (1183 e.g.) fixed for the destruction of Troy by Eratosthenes — though on evidence, it is true, which we cannot accept — would agree wonderfully well with the archaeological indications with which Dr. Schliemann's excavations have furnished us, as well as with the testimony of the Egyptian records. But it is difficult for me to believe that it could have happened at a period earlier than this. The inscriptions which I have discussed in the third Appendix to Ilios seem to make such a supposition impossible. I have there Preface.]/ CYPRIOTE AND TROJAN SYLLABARIES. xxiu shown that the so-called Cypriote syllabary is but a branch of a system of writing once used throughout the greater part of Asia Minor before the introduction of the Plioenico- Greek alphabet, which I have accordingly proposed to call the Asianic syllabary. The palaeographic genius of Lenor- mant and Deecke had already made them perceive that several of the later local alphabets of Asia Minor contained Cypriote characters, added m order to express sounds which were not provided for in the Phoenician alphabet ; but Dr. Deecke was prevented by his theory as to the derivation and age of the Cypriote syllabary from discover- ing the full significance of the fact. It was left for me to point out, first!}', that these characters were more numerous than had been supposed, secondly, that many of them were not modifications but sister-forms of corresponding Cypriote letters, and thirdly, that they were survivals from an earlier mode of writing which had been superseded by the Phoenico-Greek alphabet. I also pointed out — herein following in the steps of Haug and Gomperz — that on three at least of the objects discovered by Dr. Schliemann at Hissarlik, and possibly on others also, written characters were found belonging, not indeed to the Cypriote form of the Asianic syllabary, but to what may be termed the Trojan form of it. Up to this point the facts and inferences were clear. But I then attempted to go further, and to make it probable that the origin of the Asianic syllabary itself is to be sought in the Hittite hieroglyphics. Since the Appendix was published, this latter hypothesis of mine has received a striking confirmation. A year and a half ago I presented a memoir to the Society of Biblical Archaeology, in which I endeavoured bj the help of a bilingual inscription to determine the values of certain of the Hittite characters. Among these there were eight which, if my method of decipherment were correct, denoted either vowels, or single consonants each followed by a single vowel. A few xxiv THE ASIANIC SYLLABARY HITTITE. [Preface. months afterwards, at Dr. Isaac Taylor's suggestion, I compared the forms of these eight characters with the forms of those characters of the Cypriote syllabary which possessed the same values. The result was most unex- pectedly confirmatory of my conclusions ; the forms in each case being almost identical. Those who wish to test the truth of this assertion can do so by referring to Dr. Taylor's recently-published work on The Alphabet, where the corresponding Hittite and Cypriote characters are given side by side (vol. ii. p. 12,3).* If, now, the Hittite hieroglyphics may be definitively regarded as the source of the Asianic sjdlabary, it is evident that Lydians or Trojans could not have come to employ it till some time, at all events, after the period when the con- querors of Carchemish carved their legends on the cliff of Sipylos and the rocks of Karabel. The cartouche of Ramses II., lately discovered by Dr. Gollob, by the side of the so-called image of Niobe, as well as the fact that the latter is an obvious imitation of the sitting figure of Nofretari, the wife of Ramses II., which is sculptured in the cliff near Abu Simbel, indicates that this period was that of the 14th century b.c. Between this date and that at which the inscriptions of Hissarlik were written, a full century at least must be allowed to have elapsed. I have little to add or change in the Appendix in Ilios on the Trojan Inscriptions. The reading, however, of the legend on the terra-cotta seal reproduced on p. 693 (Nos. 15 19, 152,0) of Ilios has now been rendered certain by two deeplj'-cut and large-sized inscriptions on a terra-cotta weight in the possession of Mr. R. P. Greg, which is alleged to have come from Hissarlik. The characters, at any rate, resemble those of the Hissarlik inscriptions, and before the * It is particularly gratifying to me to find that Dr. Deecke in his latest work on the Cypriote inscriptions (in Collitz's Sammhmg dcr griechischcn Dialekt-Inscliriftcn, L p. 12) has renounced his theory of the cuneiform origin of the Cypriote syllabary in favour of my Hittite one. Preface.] TROJAN AND ASIANIC INSCRIPTIONS. XXV weight passed into Mr. Greg's hands were invisible through dirt. They estabUsh that the inscription upon the seal must be read E-si-re or Re-si-e, the name, probably, of the original owner. The word, moreover, on the patera found in the necropolis of Thymbra, which I had doubtfully made Lcvon or Rcvon, is now read pe'^w by Dr. Deecke, no doubt rightly. The alphabet of Kappadokia I am no longer inclined to include among those that preserved some of the characters of the old Asianic syllabary. Mr. Ramsay has copied an inscription at Eyuk, which goes far to show that the one given by Hamilton is badly copied, and that the characters in it which resemble those of the Cypriote syllabary had probably no existence in the original text. In fact, Mr. Ramsay's inscription makes it clear that the Kappadokian alphabet was the same as the Phrygian, both being derived, as he has pointed out, from an early Ionic alphabet of the 8th century e.g., used by the traders of Sinope.* As I now feel doubtful also about the alphabet of Kilikia, the alphabets of Asia Minor, which indubitably contain cha- racters of the Asianic sjdlabary, will be reduced to those of Pamphylia, Lykia, Karia, Lydia, and Mysia. These, it will be noticed, form a continuous chain round the western and south-western shores of Asia Minor, the chain being further continued into Cyprus. The Karian alphabet, though still in the main undeciphered, has been determined with greater exactness during the last two or three years in consequence of the discovery of new inscriptions, and I have recently made a discovery in regard to it which may lead to inter- esting results. A peculiar class of scarabs is met with in Northern Egypt, on which certain curious figures are scratched in the rudest possible way, reminding us of nothing so much as the figures on some of the Hissarlik " whorls." The art, if art it can be called, is quite different from that of the " Hittite " cylinders of Cyprus or of the * Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, XV. i (1883). XXvi CONTINUOUS HABITATION AT HISSARLIK. [Prrface. excessively rude seals that are found on the coast of Syria, and even as far west as the Lydian stratum of Sardes. On one of these scarabs belonging to Mr. Greg's collection I have found a long inscription in well-cut Karian letters, and an examination of another of the same class has brought to light some more letters of frequent occurrence in the Karian texts. Somethmg at last, therefore, is now known of the native art of the south-western corner of Asia Minor ; and a comparison of it with the scratchings on the Trojan "whorls" may hereafter help us to distinguish better than we can at present between the European, the Hittite, and the native Asianic elements, in the art and culture of Ilion. One of the most curious facts, which Dr. Schliemann's excavations have made clear, is that even the destruction of the second city did not bring with it a break in the con- tinuity of religion and art among the successive settlers upon Hissarlik. The idols and owl-headed vases, as well as the "whorls," all continued to be made and -used by the inhabitants of the third, the fourth, and the fifth settle- ments. Even apart from the geological indications, it is evident from this that the site could never have long- lain deserted. The old traditions hngered around it, and though new peoples came to dwell there, there must have been among them some relics of the older population. It could only have been the lower city, not the Pergamos itself, which even an orator in the full flow of his eloquence could have described as "uninhabited." It is not until we come to what Dr. Schliemann has called the Lydian stratum that the first break occurs. The second and more important break is naturally that of the Greek city. The Greek city itself passed through more than one vicissitude of growth and decay. In the lower part of its remains, which do not extend for more than six feet below the present surface of the hill, excepting of course at the sides, we find that archaic Hellenic pottery which always Preface.] STAGES OF THE GREEK ILION. xxvii marks the site of an early Greek town. Mixed with it is another species of pottery, which seems of native manufac- ture, but cannot be of earlier date than the 9th century before our era. At the time when this pottery was in use, the Aeolic Ilion, like the four villages that had pre- ceded it, was stiU confined to the old Pergamos. Those who have visited the sites of early Greek cities in Asia Minor will readily understand that this was almost neces- sarily the case. Like the Aeolians of Old Smyrna or Kyme, the Aeolian colonists at Hissarlik were few in number and scanty in resources, while their position among a hostile population, or within reach of sea-faring pirates, made them choose the most isolated and defensible summit in the neighbourhood where they had planted themselves. This summit, however, as always elsewhere, was near the sea. When the army of Xerxes passed through the Troad, the Aeolic city seems to have not yet extended into the plain below. The long-deserted lower town of the prehistoric Ilion was not again covered with buildings until the Macedonian age. Dr. Schliemann has been vaguely accused of obscuring his facts by his theories, and the public has been warned that a strict distinction should be made between the theories he has put forward and the facts he has discovered. In reality, however, it is his critics themselves, rather than Dr. Schliemann, who have been guilty of propounding theories which have no facts to support tliem. As compared with most explorers, he has been singularly free from the fault of hasty generalization, or the far worse fault of bending the facts to suit pre-conceived views. Admiration of the Homeric Poems, and the growing conviction that if the Troy of Homer ever had any existence at all it could only have been at Hissarlik, can hardly be called theories. His works are for the most part a record of facts, brought into relation with one another by means of those inductive inferences, which the scientific method of modern archaeo- xxvlii THE AUTHOR AND HIS CRITICS. [Preface. logy obliges us to draw from them. And, with the true scientific spirit, he has never hesitated to modify these infer- ences whenever the discovery of new facts seems to require it, while the facts themselves have invariably been presented by him fully and fairly, so that his readers have always been able to test for themselves the validity of the inferences he has based on them. To forbid him to make any suggestion which is supported only by probable or possible evidence, is to deprive him of a privilege enjoyed both by the critics themselves and by every scientific enquirer. But such suggestions will be found to be rare, and the fact that so much has been said about them makes me suspect that the critics do not possess that archaeological knowledge, which would enable them to distinguish between a merely possible or probable theory and an inference which is necessitated by the facts. The very peculiar pottery found immediately below the Greek stratum proves to the archaeologist, more convincingly than any architectural remains could do, that a separate and independent settlement once existed between the fifth and the Greek cities, just as the objects found on the plain below prove that the Greek city must once have extended thus far, even though the walls by which it was surrounded have now wholly disappeared. On the other hand, the theory that this settlement was of Lydian foun- dation is a theory only, about which Dr. Schliemann expresses himself with the needful hesitation. One of the most disheartening signs of the little know- ledge of prehistoric and Levantine archaeology there is in this country, is to be found in the criticisms passed upon Ilios in respectable English publications. Nowhere but in England would it have been possible for writers who enjoy a certain reputation to pass off"-hand judgments and pro- pound new theories of their own on archaeological ques- tions, without having first taken the trouble to learn the elementary principles of the subject about which they treat. What can be said of a critic who does not know the diff^er- Preface.] SCHOLARSHIP AND ARCHAEOLOGY. XXIX ence between prehistoric and Hellenic pottery on the one hand, or archaic and classical Greek pottery on the other, and covers his ignorance by misquoting the words of an eminent French archaeologist who has made the early pot- tery of the Levant his special study? The English public is apt to think that a man who is reputed to be a great scholar is qualified to pronounce an opmion upon every subject under the sun. As a matter of fact, he knows as little as the public itself about those subjects in which he has not undergone the necessary prelimmary training, and his writing about them is but a new form of charlatanry. The power of translating from Greek and Latin, or of composing Greek and Latin verses, will not enable a scholar to determine archaeological problems, any more than it will enable him to translate the hymns of the Rig- Veda, or to decipher a cuneiform inscription. Theories in regard to Dr. Schliemann's discoveries at Hissarlik have been gravely put forward of late, which have derived an importance only from the influential character of the organs in which they have appeared. It has been maintained in sober earnest, that the fifth stratum of ruins represents the Macedonian Ilion, which was embellished by Lysimakhos about 300 B.C., and sacked by Fimbria in 85 e.g., while the fourth city was that visited by Xerxes, and the third city the old Aeolic settlement. It is only neces- sary for the reader who does not pretend to a knowledge of archaeology to examine the woodcuts so lavishly dis- tributed throughout the pages of Ilios, in order that he may judge of the value of such a hypothesis, or of the archaeological attainments that lie behind it. The pot- tery, the terra-cotta "whorls," the idols, the implements and weapons of stone and bone, found in the prehistoric strata of Hissarlik, are all such as have never been found — nor are likely to be found — on any Greek site even of the prehistoric age. We shall look for them in vain at My- kenae, at Orkhomenos, at Tiryns, or in the early tombs of XXX A LATE THEORY DISPROVED. [Preface. Spata and Menidi, of Rhodes and Cyprus. On the other hand, the distinctive features of Greek daily hfe are equally absent; there are neither coins nor lamps, nor alphabetic inscriptions, nor patterns of the classical epoch; there is no Hellenic pottery, whether archaic or recent. We now know pretty exactly what were the objects left behind them by the Greeks and their neighbours in the Levant during the six centuries that preceded the Christian era ; and, thanks more especially to Dr. Schliemann's labours, we can even trace the art and culture of that period back to the art and culture of the still older period, which was first revealed to us by his exploration of Mykenae. It is too late now, when archaeology has become a science and its fundamental facts have been firmly established, to revert to the dilettante antiquarianism of fifty years ago. Then, indeed, it was possible to put forward theories that were the product of the literary, and not of the scientific, imagina- tion, and to build houses of straw upon a foundation of shifting sand. But the time for such pleasant recreation is now gone ; the study of the far distant past has been transferred from the domain of literature to that of science, and he who would pursue it must imbue himself with the scientific method and spirit, must submit to the hard drudgery of preliminary training, and must know how to combine the labours of men like Evans and Lubbock, or Virchow and Rolleston, with the results that are being poured in upon us year by year from the Oriental world. To look for a Macedonian city in the fifth prehistoric village of Hissarlik is like looking for an Elizabethan cemetery in the tumuli of Salisbury plain.: the archaeolo- gist can only pass by the paradox with a smile. A. H. Sayce. Oxford, October, 1883. CONTENTS. PAGE Preface. By Professor Sayce . . . . ^' Comparative Table of French and English Measures xxxiv List of Illustrations ...... xxxv CHAPTER I. NARRATIVE OF THE EXPLORATIONS AT TROY AND IN THE TROAD IN 18S2 ...... I CHAPTER H. THE FIRST PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT ON THE HILL OF HISSARLIK ....... 29 CHAPTER HI. THE SECOND CITY ; TROY PROPER ; THE ' ILIOS ' OF THE HOMERIC LEGEND ...... 52 CHAPTER IV. THE THIRD, FOURTH, FIFTH, AND SIXTH SETTLEMENTS ON THE SITE OF TROY . . . . -175 § I. — THE THIRD PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT . 175 § II. — THE FOURTH PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT ON THE SITE OF TROY . . .184 § III. — THE FIFTH^PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT ON THE SITE OF TROY .... 188 § IV. — THE SIXTH OR LYDIAN SETTLEMENT ON THE SITE OF TROY .... 193 COMPARATIVE TADLE OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH MEASURES, EXACT AND APPROXIMATE. Metric. Inches. Ft. Inch. Approximate. Millimetre . 0-0393708 0-03937 - 04 or -o-V of inch. Centimetre . 0-393708 )5 0-39371 -4 „ i )> Decimetre . 3-93708 3-9371 4 inches. Metre . 39'37o8 3 3-370S 3t '-»■ 2 78-7416 6 6-7416 6i „ 3 118-1124 9 10- 1124 10 ,, 4 157-4832 13 1-4832 13 „ 5 196 -8540 16 4-8540 i6i „ 6 236-2248 19 S-2248 193- " 7 275-5956 2 2 11-5956 23 ,> 8 314-9664 26 2-9664 2-,t ,) 9 354-3372 29 6-3372 29-a „ lO 393-7089 32 9 - 7080 33 ;; II 433-0788 36 1-0788 36 (12 yds.) 12 472-4496 39 4-4496 39I. feet. 13 511-8204 42 7-9204 423- „ 14 551-1912 45 II - I912 46 „ 15 590-5620 49 2 - 5620 49Jr ., 16 620 '9328 52 5-9328 S2i „ 17 669-3036 55 9-3036 55l . 18 708-6744 59 0-6744 59 ,, 19 748-0452 62 4-0452 62I ., 20 787-416 65 7-4x60 65I „ 30 1181 - 124 98 5-124 98i „ 40 1574-832 131 2-832 1314 „ 50 1968-54 164 0-54 164 „ 100 3937-08 328 1-08 328 (109 yds.) N.B. — The following is a convenient approximate rule : hPctrcs into Yards, add i-iitli to the number of Metres." -" To turn LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. {The /i:^t/n's, as 15 M. &c., denote the depths at which tlie Objects were found.) PAGE No. 140. Map OF THE Troad .. .. .. .. Frontispiece No. I. Fragment of a lustrous black Bowl, with an incised decora- tion filled with white chalk (15 Ji.) .. .. .. .. 31 No. 2. Fragment of a lustrous black Vase, with an incised orna- mentation filled with white chalk (15 w.) .. .. .. 31 No. 3. The reverse side of No. 2, with two vertical holes for suspension (15 M.) .. .. .. .. .. .. 32 No. 4. Small lustrous black Cup (14-15 m.) .. .. .. 34 No. 5. Lustrous black wheel-made Jug (14-15 m.) .. .. 34 Nos. 6, 7. Two lustrous black Cups, Avith hollow foot and upright handle (14 M.) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 35 No. 8. Lustrous black Cup, with horizontal flutings, hollow foot, and vertical perforated handle (14 M.) .. .. .. -i^b No. g. Lustrous black Vessel, with convex foot, and vertically perforated excrescences on the sides (14 »t.) . . . . 36 No. 10. Axe of Green Jade (14 M.) .. .. .. .. 41 No. II. Battle-axe of Grey Diorite (14 M.) .. .. .. 43 No. 12. Brooch of Copper or Bronze, with a globular head (14 M.) 47 No. 13. Brooch of Copper or Bronze, with a spiral head (14 m.) 47 No. 14. Huckle-bone (^j'/rcTji?///^-) (14 m.) .. .. .. 51 No. 15. View of the great Substruction Wall of the Acropolis of the second city on the west side, close to the south-west gate 55 No. 16. Section of the Tower G M on the east side of the Acropolis ; showing the arrangement of the channels for the artificial baking of the brick wall . . . . . . . . 60 No. 17. Ground Plan of the South-western Gate .. .. .. 68 No, 18. Ground Plan of the Southern Gate. NF on Plan VII. 71 No. 19. View of the remains of the South-east Gate .. .. 74 No. 20. External Side of a Wall of Temple A, showing the arrangement of the horizontal channels and of those which go right through the wall . . . . . . . . . . 77 XXXvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE No. 2 1. Section of a Wall of Temple A, showing the arrangement of the horizontal channels .. .. .. .. .. 77 No. 22. Section of a Wall of Temple B, showing the arrangement of the horizontal channels .. .. .. .. .. 77 No. 23. Plan of a Wall of Temple B, showing the arrangement of the cross channels .. .. .. .. .. .. 77 No. 24. Plan of a Wall of Temple A, showing the arrangement of the cross channels .. .. .. .. .. .. 77 No. 25. Ground plan of the Temple A . . . . . . . . 79 No. 26. Ground plan of the Temple B .. .. .. .. 79 No. 27. Parastades on the front ends of the lateral walls of Temple A, consisting of six vertical wooden jambs . . . . 80 No. 27A. Temple of Themis at Rhamnus . . . . . . . . 83 No. 28. Copper Nail of a quadrangular shape with a disk-like head, which has been cast independently of the nail and merely fixed on it (8' 50 M.) .. .. .. .. .. 91 No. 29. Quadrangular copper Nail without the disk-like head (8-50 M.) 92 No. 30. Quadrangular copper Nail without the disk-like head (8-50 M-) 92 No. 31. Copper Nail with round head (8 '50 m.) .. .. .. 93 No. 32. Bronze Battle-axe (8 '50 M.) .. .. .. .. 93 No. 33. Bronze Lance-head ; with the end broken off (8 '50 m.) 97 No. 34. Bronze Dagger; with tlie handle and the upper end curled up in the great fire (8' 50 M.) .. .. .. .. 97 No. 34A. Gimlet of bronze (8-50 M.) .. .. .. .. 99 No. 35. Bronze Knife (8 -50 M.) .. .. .. .. .. 99 No. 36. Surgical instrument (8 ■ 50 M.) .. .. .. .. 106 No. 37. Whorl of Terra-cotta, in which is stuck a copper or bronze nail with a round head (8' 50 M.) .. .. .. .. 106 No. 38. Staff or sceptre-knob of gold, with a geometrical orna- mentation (8 -50 m.) .. .. .. .. .. .. 107 No. 39. Bundle of bronze Brooches, intermingled with Earrings of silver and electrum, and fastened together by the cement- ing action of the carbonate of copper : on the outside is attached a gold earring (8- 50 M.) .. .. .. .. 107 No. 40. Knife-handle of Ivory (8 ■ 50 M.) .. .. .. ..115 No. 41. Object of Ivory with 5 globular projections (8-50 m.) .. 116 No. 42. Knife-handle of Ivory in the form of a Ram (8-50 m.) . , 117 No. 43. Small Spoon of Ivory (8' 50 M.) .. .. .. .. 117 No. 44, Arrow-head of Ivory (8' 50 M.) .. .. .. .. n^ xxxvu PAGE • 117 . 118 . 118 ■ 119 120 ■ 13° • 13° ■ 131 ■ 131 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. 45. Knife-handle of Bone (8' 50 M.) .. No. 46. Egg of Aragonite (8' 50 M.) No. 47. Sling-Bullet of Haematite (8-50 j[.) No. 48. Axe of Diorite (8 • 50 M.) .. Nos. 49-52. Four Whorls of Terra-cotta, with incised signs which may be written characters (8 ■ 50 m.) . . No. 53. Vase-head (8-50 M.) No. 54. Vase with two handles, and two ear-like excrescences perforated vertically (8 • 50 m.) No. 55. Tripod-vase in the form of a hedgehog (8 '50 m.) No. 56. Oenochoe of oval form with a long neck (8-50 m.) No. 57. Oenochoe of oval form, with a long straight neck and trefoil mouth (8" 50 M.) .. .. .. .. .. 132 No. 58. Oenochoe with a long straight neck and a trefoil orifice (8-50 M-) 133 No. 59. Vase with vertically perforated excrescences and an incised ornamentation of leaf patterns (8' 50 M.) .. .. 134 No. 60. Vase in the form of a hunting-bottle with a flat bottom, and an ear-like excrescence on each side (8 '50 11.) . . . . 137 No. 61. Vase in the form of a hunting-bottle, with a convex bottom and an incised linear ornamentation (8' 50 m.) . . 138 Nos. 62, 63. Brooches of bronze or copper v/ith spiral heads (8-50 M-) 139 Nos. 64, 65. Brooches of bronze or copper with a semiglobular head and a quadrangular perforation (8 '50 m.) ... . . 139 No. 66. Punch of bronze or copper (8' 50 M.) .. .. .. 139 No. 67. Head of a Vase in the form of a hog, ornamented with incised fish-spine patterns ; the eyes are of stone (9 m.) . . 139 Nos. 68, 69. Side view and front view of a Vase with four feet, in the form of a cat (8' 50 M.) .. .. .. .. .. 140 No. 70. Headless female Idol of terra-cotta, with an incised ornamentation (9 M.) . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 No. 71. Very rude figure of Terra-cotta (8 M.) .. .. .. 142 No. 72. Fragment of an Idol of terra-cotta, with two large owl's eyes (8 '5011.) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 142 No. 73. Oenochoe, with a straight neck and convex bottom (9 m.) 143 No. 74. Tripod-vase with four excrescences, two of which are perforated vertically (9 M.) .. .. .. .. .. 144 No. 75. Tripod Oenochoe with a straight neck (9 m.) . . . . 144 No. 76. Vase-cover with two vertically perforated horn-like excres- cences (9 M.) . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 145 .. i64 IS . i6s kI . i66 . i66 .. i66 .. 167 . . 16S •• 170 •■ 173 •• 173 •• 173 xxxviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE No. 77. Lentiform terra-cotta Bottle with a convex bottom and four -vvart-like excrescences (9 M.) . . . . . . . . i45 No. 78. Lustrous brown Goblet with two handles (SeVa? d/j,<^i- KV-ireXXor) (9 M.) No. 79. Lustrous dark-brown Goblet with two handles (SeVas aixcjiiKVTr^XXoi'^ (9 M.) . . No. 80. Battle-axe of copper with a perforation in the upper end (9^i-) No. 81. Battle-axe of copper (9 M.) No. 82. Knife of bronze (9 M.) No. 83. Ring of bronze or copper (9 M.) .. No. 84. Female Idol of bronze or copper (9 m.) . . No. 85. Mould of Mica Slate (9 m.) No. 86. Stone Hammer with a groove on two sides (8-50 m.) No. 87. Object of white marble, a.J>/ia//i/s (S'5o ii.) No. 88. Object of granite with two furrows (9 m.) No. 89. Accumulation of debris before the Gate. The form of the strata of debris indicates that after the great conflagration the third settlers continued to go in and out on the same spot as before, although the paved road was buried deep under tlie brick-c/t'fo'/j- and ashes .. .. .. .. .. .. 177 No. 90. Ground Plan of the South-eastern Gate, marked OX on Plan VII 179 No. 91. Jug with two spouts (8 m.) . . . . . . . . 183 No. 92. Vase with a hollow foot and vertically perforated excres- cences for suspension (8 m.) . . . . . . . . . . 183 No. 93. Cup with an ear-like ornament in relief on either side (8 m.) 183 No. 94. Clay-ring (8 M.) .. .. .. .. .. .. 183 Nos. 95, 96. Two Astragals (ao-rpayoAoi) (8 m.) .. .. .. 184 No. 97. Vase with an owl-face, the characteristics of a woman, and two wing-like upright projections (5 M.) . . . . . . 186 No. 98. A^'ase with the characteristics of a v/oman and two wing- like upright projections. The cover has an owl-face (5 m.) 187 No. 99. Entrance to the great north-eastern Trench SS on Plan VII. To the left, a huge Roman wall of large well-wrought blocks. To the right, the great wall of the fifth city, consist- ing of irregular stones . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 No. 100. Vase with an owl-head, the characteristics of a woman, and two wing-like upright projections (3 m.) . . . . . . 191 No. 1 01. Vase with an owl-head and the characteristics of a woman (3 M.) .. .. .. .. .. .. ..191 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXXIX PAGE No. I02. Object of ivory (3 M.) .. .. .. .. .. 192 No. 103. Object of ivory (3 M.) .. .. .. .. .. 192 Quarry-marks on Blocks of the Roman AVall . . . . 196 No. 104. Entablature and capital of the small Doric Temple . . 197 No. 105. ]\Iarble Metope of the Macedonian period, representing a warrior holding a kneeling man by the hair (i M.) . . . . 198 No. 106. Fragment of a marble Metope of the Macedonian period, representing a man holding up a sinking woman .. .. 199 No. 107. Fragment of a Metope of marble of the Macedonian period, representing a helmeted warrior, and a shield held by a second figure, of which only the left hand remains . . 200 No. 108. Fragment of a Metope of marble of the Temple of Athene of the Macedonian period, representing a goddess, probably Athenif, with a large shield ; holding by her left a warrior with a shield, who vainly strives to liberate himself from her grasp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 No. 109. Capital, triglyphon, and corona of the great Doric Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 No. no. Cymatium of the Temple of /-ithene, of the Macedonian time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 No. III. Cymatium of the Temple of Athene, Roman restoration 204 No. 112. Fragment of a Pediment-relief .. .. .. .. 205 No. 113. Portion of a Frieze representing a procession of chariots preceded by a winged Nike on a swift chariot. Probably of the Macedonian time . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 No. 114. Fragment of a Frieze with a Gorgon's head, on each side of which is a Nikt^ .. .. .. .. .. .. 206 No. 115. Small Relief representing two gallopping horses. Cer- tainly of the Macedonian period .. .. .. .. 206 No. 116. Pediment-relief representing a man holding his right arm over his head .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 207 No. 117. Ground plan of the Roman Propylaeum in its present state . . ..... . . . . .. _ _ 20S No. 118. Restored ground plan of the Roman Propylaeum .. 208 No. 119. Entablature and capital of the Roman Propylaeum . . 209 No. 120. Restored view of the Roman Propylaeum .. .. 210 No. 121. Ground plan of the great Theatre of Ilium . . . . 211 No. 122. Medallion in relief; representing the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus .. .. .. .. .. ..212 No. 123. Corinthian Capital of the theatre .. .. .. 213 No. 124. Restored Acanthus-leaf of the capital of the theatre .. 213 xl LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. 125. Portrait-statue in the shape of a Hermheracles (i m.) . . No. 126. River-god, probably the Scamander, with a cornucopiae and an urn (i m.) No. 127. Female head of marble (2 m.) No, No. No. No. No. No. 128. Horse's head of marble belonging to a Metope (r m.) 129. Male Mask of terra-cotta (i m.) . . 130. Archaic Greek Vessel (i '50 M.) 131. Archaic Greek painted terra-cotta Bottle, in the form of a huge hunting botde, with two handles and three feet (i'S°M-) 132. Arrow-head of bronze or copper without barbs (yXojxi-ve^). Found in the tumulus of Achilles (6 M.) 133. Tumulus of Protesilaus on the Thracian Chersonesus, opposite the Plain of Troy No. 134. Hammer and Axe of Diorite, with perforation; found on the surface of the tumulus of Protesilaus . . No. 135. Perforated Ball of serpentine, found in the tumulus of Protesilaus No. 136. Bronze Knife found in the tumulus of Protesilaus No. 1360:. Vase-handle found in the tumulus of Protesilaus No. 137. Wall of the first and oldest epoch : on the Bali Dagh No. 138. Wall of the first and oldest epoch : on the Bali Dagh No. 139. Wall of the second and later epoch : on the Bali Dagh No. 139, a. Egj'ptian Women weaving and using spindles No. 139, 6. Men spinning and making a sort of net-work No. 139, <:. Egyptian Spindles found at Thebes No. 139, d. A Woman spinning : from a Roman bas-relief No. 139, e. A Slave bringing the work-basket to her mistress, in whose hand is something that looks like the lower end of the distaff . . No. 139, yi An Egyptian weighing rings (of silver) with Weights in the form of Ox-heads PAGE 214 215 215 216 216 216 217 247 255 258 259 259 259 264 265 265 294 295 295 29S 299 301 MAPS AND PLANS AT THE END OF THE BOOK. Map of the Plain of Troy. Plan VH.* The Acropolis of the Second City. Plan Vni. The Homeric Troy and the Later Ilium. * Note. — The tiumbcrs are in continuation of the Plans at the end of the Author ' Ilios.' T R O J A. CHAPTER I. Narrative of the Explorations at Troy and in THE Troad in 1882. By my excavations on the hill of Hissarlik in 1879, in company with Professor Rudolf Virchow of Berlin and M. Emile Burnouf of Paris, I supposed that I had settled- the Trojan question for ever. I thought I had proved that the small town, the third in succession from the virgin soil, whose house-substructions I had brought to light at an average depth of from 7 to 8 metres beneath the ruins of four later cities, which in the course of ages had succeeded each other above them on the same site, must necessarily be the Ilium of the legend immortalized by Homer ; and I maintained this theory in my work lUos, which I published at the end of 1880. But after its publication I became sceptical, not indeed regard- ing the position of Troy, for there could be no question but that Hissarlik marked its site, but respecting the extent of the city ; and my doubts increased as time wore on. I soon found it no longer possible to believe that the divine poet — who, with the fidelity of an eye-witness and with so much truth to nature, has drawn the picture, not only of the plain of Troy with its promontories, its rivers, and its heroic tombs, but of the whole Troad, with its numerous different nations and cities, with the Hellespont, Cape Lectum, Ida, Samothrace, Imbros, Lesbos, and Tene- dos, as well as all the mighty phenomena of nature dis- played in the country— that this same poet could have 2 SIXTH YEAR'S WORK AT TROY. [Chap. I. represented Ilium as a great,* elegant,! flourishing, and well-inhabited, I well-built^ city, with large streets, || if it had been in reality only a A'ery little town ; so small indeed, that, even supposing its houses, which appear to have been built like the present Trojan A'lllage-houses, and, like them, but one story high, to have been six stories high, it could hardly have contained 3000 inhabitants. Nay, had Troy been merely a small fortified borough, such as the ruins of the third city denote, a few hundred men might have easil)' taken it in a few davs, and the whole Trojan war, with its ten years' siege, would either have been a total fiction, or it would have had but a slender foundation. I could accept neither hypothesis, for I found it impos- sible to think that, whilst there were so many large cities on the coast of Asia, the catastrophe of a little borough could at once have been taken up by the bards ; that the leo-end of the event could have survived for centuries, and have come down to Homer to be magnified by him to gigantic proportions, and to become the subject of his divine poems. Besides, the tradition of all antiquity regarding the war of Troy was quite unanimous, and this unanimity was too characteristic not to rest on a basis of positive facts, which so high an authority as Thucydides ^ accepts as real history. Tradition was even unanimous in stating that the capture of Troy had taken place eighty years before the Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus. Furthermore, as mentioned in my Ilios** the Egyptian documents give us historic evidence that Ilium and the kingdom of Troy had a real existence ; for in the poem of Pentaur, //. II. 332, 803 : ao-rv fjAya TlpiaixoLO ■f" //. V. 210; OT£ "IXlOI' £15 ipaTiLVTJV X II. XIII. 380 : 'IXt'oD iKiTipept!:, 14 m.) trivance may be seen, I must add the Prehistoric Museum of Madrid, which contains five fragments of hand-made vases found in caverns of the stone age in Andalusia, having on each side a tubular hole for suspension. Another vase- fragment with vertical perforations for suspension, likewise found in a cavern in Andalusia, is in the Museum at Cassel. The same system may be seen on several fragments of hand-made vases found by me in my excavations at Chap. II.] HAND-MADE SUSPENSION VASES. 37 Orchomenos in Boeotia ;* also on three hand-made vases found in the terramare of tlie Emilia, one of which is preserved in the Museum of Parma, the other two in the Museum of Reggio, of which Professor Gaetano Chierici IS the learned keeper. Two more hand-made vases, with vertical tubular holes for suspension, may be seen in the prehistoric collection of the Museo Nazionale in the Collegio Romano at Rome ; on 2 of them was found in the terramare of Castello, near Bovolone (province of Verona), the other in the lake-dwellings of the Lago di Garda; another, which was found in an ancient tomb near Corneto (Tarquinii), is preserved in the museum of this latter city. A hand-made vase with a vertical hole for suspension on four sides was found in a terramare of the Stone age near Campeggine, in the province of Reggio in the Emilia.f I may also mention some hand-made funereal urns, having the very same contrivance, which were found in ancient tombs near Bovolone (province of Verona), held to be of the same age as the terramare of the Emilia. J A vase with a similar system for suspension, found in Umbria, is in the prehistoric collection of the Museum of Bologna ; another, found in the cavern of Trou du Frontal-Furfooz, in Belgium, is in the Museum of Brussels. A box of terra-cotta, with a vertical hole for suspension in the cover and in the rim, was found in the district of Guben in Prussia.>^ The prehistoric collection of the Museum of Geneva contains some fragments of vases found in France,|| which have the same kind of vertical holes for suspension. Finally, I may mention a vase with four excrescences, * .See my OrcJwmcnos, Leipzig, 1881, p. 40, fig. 2, and p. 41, fig. 3. t BuUd'uw di Paktnologia Italiana, 18"}^, pp. 8, g, Plate I. No. 3. J Bnlletino di Paldnologia Italiana, 1880, pp. 182-192, and Table XII. Nos. I, 2, 4, 5. § Zcitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Organ der Berliner Gesellschaft fur Anrtiropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1882, pp. 392-396. II The place where this interesting discovery was made is not indicated. 38 THE FIRST SETTLEMENT. [Chap. II. each of which has two vertical perforations ; it was found, last year, in a tomb of the stone age near Tangermiinde in the Altmark, and is preserved in the Nordische Abtluihing of the Roval Museum at Berlin ; my attention was called to it by Mr. Ed. Krause of the Royal Ethnological Museum. I call the reader's particular attention to the great resemblance of these Trojan vases to the kipes (Latin, ctipa ; French, liotte) which workmen use in the fields, and which have the very same kind of vertical tubular holes for suspension as the vases. But I must also mention the discovery, lately made by Dr. Philios on accoimt of the Hellenic Archaeological Society, of a certain number of most ancient terra-cotta vases and idols, at the base of the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, among which is a small vessel having on each side an excrescence perpendicularly perforated for suspension ; whereas nearly all the other vases have on each side merely a hole for suspension in the foot and rim. All these vases have a painting of circular red bands, and they are so primitive that I do not hesitate to claim for them an age antecedent even to that of the royal tombs of Mycenae. The idols found with them are even still more primitive than the rudest ever found at Troy. Fragments of hand-made bowls of terra-cotta, with two long horizontal tubular holes for suspension, such as are represented by Nos. 37-42, pp. 217, ai8 in Ilios, were again found in large masses in the ruins of the first settle- ment ; so that I have been able to recompose twenty-five of them. The Museum of Bologna contains fragments of bowls with a similar contrivance, found in the Grotta del Diavolo,* near Bologna, the antiquities of which are con- sidered to belong to the first epoch of the reindeer. j The same museum contains also a large number of fragments * Aw. Ulderigo Botti, La Grotta dd Diavolo, Bologna, 187 1, PI. V., figs. I and 4. \ Idem, p. 36. Chap. II.] WHORLS AS VOTIVE OFFERINGS. 39 of bowls with the same system of horizontal tubular holes, from o'03m. to o'oym. long in the brim, found in the grottoes of Farneto, Pragatto, and Rastellino, in the province of Bologna, all of which are of the Stone Age. Fragments of bowls, with precisely the same system, found in the terramare of the Emilia, mav also be seen in the Museimi of Bologna, as well as in the Museo Nazionale in the Collegio Romano at Rome. I also found similar bowl fragments in my excavations at Orchomenos,* as well as in those I made with Mr. Frank Calvert at Hanai Tepeh.l On this occasion I may mention, concerning the curious goblet of the first city represented in Ilios, p. 224, No. 51, that the Prehistoric Museum at INladrid contains four cups of the same form, but without handles, which were found in caverns in Andalusia; inhabited in the Stone Period; further, that three goblets of the same form, one with one handle, the others with two, found in Rhodes, are in the Museum of the Louvre. A goblet of a similar form, recently found in the lowest layers o{ debris in the Acropolis of Athens, is in the Acropolis Museum. Of terra-cotta whorls, both plain and with an incised ornamentation, a very large number, not less than 4000, were again found in the five prehistoric settlements in this year's excavations. M)' opinion, that all the many thousands of whorls which I gathered here in the course of vears, have served as votive offerings, is strenuously sup- ported by Mr. H. Rivett-Carnac,J who found a great many similar ones at Sankisa, in Behar, and other Buddhist ruins in the North-west Provinces of India. On many of these Indian whorls the incised ornamentation, in which he * See Orchoinaios, Leipzig, iSSi, p. 41, fig. 4. + See Ilios, p. 710, fig. 1543-1545. % Memorandum on Clay Discs called Spindle Whorls, and Votive Seals, found at Sankisa, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. XLIX. parti. 1880. 40 THE FIRST SETTLEAIENT. [Chap. 1 1. recognises religious symbols, and generally a representation of the sun, is perfectly identical with that of the Trojan whorls. Dr. W. Dorpfeld calls my attention to Richard Andree's EtJinographisclic Parallclcn 7tnd Vcrglciche,^' pp. 230- 232, fig. 8 a and 8 c ; where it is stated that perforated whorls of terra-cotta or glass, which according to the engravings are of a form identical with that of the Trojan whorls, and with a similar ornamentation, are used as money on the Palau or Pelew Islands in the Pacific Ocean : " They are called there Audou, are regarded as a gift of the spirits, and are held to have been imported, no native being able to make them for want of the material. The quantity of them in circulation is never augmented. Some of those whorls are estimated at £']^o sterling each." The most ancient terra-cotta whorls found in Italj- appear to be those of the Grotta del Diavolo, the anti- quities of which, as I have stated above, are attributed to the first epoch of the reindeer -.^ they are unornamented, and are preserved in the Museum of Bologna. But thej' are of no rare occurrence in the Italian terramare, particularly in those of the Emilia, and, besides the places enumerated at pp. 229-231 oi Ilios, I may mention the museums of Reggio and Corneto as containing a few ornamented with incisions : the museum of Parma also contains six orna- mented ones, instead of only two, as stated in Ilios (p. 230). Many terra-cotta whorls with an ornamentation similar to that of the Trojan whorls were gathered by the inde- fatigable Dr. Victor Gross in his excavations in the Swiss Lake habitations. | Unornamented terra-cotta whorls occur also on the Esquiline at Rome, and in the Necropolis of Albano. Pro- * Stuttgart, 1878. I Aw. Ulderigo Botti, La Grotta del Diavolo, Bologna, 187 i, p. 36, and PI. IV. figs. 7 and 8. % Victor Gross, Lcs Protohdvltcs, Paris, 1883, PI. XXVI. Chap. 11/ AXES OF STONE AND JADE. 41 fessor W. Helbig * holds them to have been used partly as spindle-whorls and partly as beads for necklaces ; but this latter use is out of the question for the large whorls. Dr. Victor Gross is of opinion that the terra-cotta whorls must have been used partly as buttons of garments, parti}- as pearls of necklaces, and last, not least, as whorls for the spindle. He says this latter hypothesis is corroborated by the discovery of several of these whorls in which the spindle-stick still remains fixed, and by the striking resemblance of the terra-cotta whorls to those which are still used by spinsters in some countries. f Of stone axes, like those represented at p. 445, Nos. 668-670 in Ilios^ eight were found this year in the ruins of the first settlement at Troy ; five of them being of diorite, and three of jade. J Of these latter I represent one. No. 10, in the actual size. It is of transparent green jade.§ Professor H. Bucking has had the kindness * Wolfgang Y{^\\i\g,Dic ItaUkiT in da- Po-Ebcne,'Lft\\jz\g, 1S79, PP- 21, 22, 83. t Dr. Victor Gross, Zc'j- /'/w/c'/z^/wto, Paris, 1883, pp. 100, loi. See Note XVI. on Spindle IVJiorls and Spinning, p. 293. X I have discussed jade (nephrite) at lengtli in lUos, pp. 238-243, 445-451 ; but to those who wish to read more on this important subject, I recommend Professor Heinrlch Fischer's excellent work Ncphrif und 'yaddt nach ihrcn mincralogischcn Eigenschaftcn^ sowie nach Hirer ur^^c- schichflichen und ctlawgraphischcn JBcdeutung, Stuttgart, 1875 ; ^s '^^'e'l as his learned dissertation, " Vergleichende Betrachtungen iiber die Form der Steinbeile auf der ganzen Erde," in the journal Kosmos, ¥=■■. Jahrgang, 18S1. § A constant!}' severe critic of mine, E. Brentano, Troiaiind A^eii Jlion, Heilbronn, 1S82, p. 70, footnote, endeavours to throw ridicule on me for having always called similar instruments " Axes " in /lios. But if he had had the most superficial knowledge of archajology, he would have known that this is the proper and only name for them ; they are called " axes " in all archaeological works in the world, and I have no rif^ht to change the name to please ignorant critics. No. 10. — Axe of Green Jade. (Actual size. Depth, 14 m.) 42 THE FIRST SETTLEMENT. [Ch^p. II. to send me the following interesting note on Jade : " Jade and Jadeite, the appearance of which is perfectly similar, may, according to the latest investigations by A. Arzrimi * and by Berwerth, f be easily distinguished, because Jade belongs to the group of the Amphibols, Jadeite to the group of Pyroxen-minerals, and consequently they differ considerably in the size of the angles of cleavage in which the finer fibres may be recognised." There were also found two ot those curious instruments of diorite (like that represented in Ilios, p. 243, No. 90), which have the same shape as the axes, with the sole differ- ence that at the lower end, where the edge ought to be, they are blunt, perfectly smooth, and from a quarter to half an inch thick. Two precisely similar implements, found in caverns of the stone period in Andalusia, are in the Prehistoric Museum at Madrid ; another, discovered in the cavern called " Caverna delle Arene," near Genoa, is in the Prehistoric collection of the Museo Nazionale in the Collegio Romano at Rome. There were also found four whetstones of indurated slate, with a perforation at the smaller end, like that repre- sented in Ilios, p. 248, No. 10 1. Besides the places enumerated in Ilios (p. 248), at which similar whetstones were found, I may mention that one, discovered in a tomb at Camirus in the island of Rhodes, is in the Louvre, and three, found in Swiss lake dwellings, are in the Museum of Geneva ; another whetstone, of an identical form, was found in the prehistoric cemetery of Koban in the Caucasus.! No. I r represents a battle-axe of grey diorite ; it is of rude manufacture, and but little polished. It has only one ""■ See Vcrhandlungm dcr Berliner Antlu-opol. Gesellschaft, Session of July i6th, 1881, pp. 281-283, and Session of December i6th, 1882, PP- 564-567- t Sitziciigsbcrichtc dcr k. k. Akademie dcr Wisscnschaftcn, Wien, 1880 I. 102-105. X Rudolf Virchow, Das Grdbcrfeld von Koban im Lande der Ossetcn Berlin, 1883, p. 21, PI. IV. fig. iS. Chap. II.] STONE HAMMERS, AXES, &C. 43 Ko II. — Battle-axe of Grey Diorite. (Si7i; 1 ; 4. Depth, about 14 m.) sharp edge ; the opposite end is blunt, and must have been used as a hammer ; in the middle of each side may be seen a shallow groove, which proves that the operation of drilling a hole through it had been commenced, but was abandoned. A very similar stone battle-axe, in which the boring was commenced but abandoned, was found in the terramare of the Stone age near Mantua, and is preserved in the Museo Nazionale in the CoUegio Romano at Rome. Another stone battle-axe of a similar shape, but in which the perforation is completed, was found in Denmark.* As stone hammers and axes, in which the operation of drilling a hole on each side has been begun, are of very frequent occur- rence, Dr. Dorpfeld suggests to me that it may not have been intended to perforate the instruments, as a wooden handle may easily have been fastened to them by some sort of crotchet. There were also found in the dSbris of the first settle- ment numerous very rude stone-hammers, like that re- presented in Ilios, p. 237, No. 83. Some similar rude stone hammers, found in Chaldsca, are preserved in the museum of the Louvre ; others, found in the terramare of the Emilia, are in the Museums of Reggio and Parma. I may also mention the rudely-cut, nearly globular, stone instruments, like Nos. 80 and 81, p. 236, in Ilios, which occur by hundreds in all the four lower prehistoric cities of Troy. Besides the localities mentioned on pp. ij)^, '^'il-' 442, in Ilios, these rude implements, which are usually called corn-bruisers, are also very frequent in the Italian terramare, and many of them may be seen in the Museums '" J. J. A. Worsaae, Nordiske Ohhager i Jet Ko/igelige Musacm i A'Jolu-nhavn, Copenhagen, 1859, Plate XIII., fig. 38. 44 THE FIRST SETTLEMENT. [Chap. II. of Reggio and Parma; others, found among the ancient ruins in Chaldasa, are in the smaU Chaldaean Collection in the Louvre. I also collected a large number of saddle-querns of trachyte, like those represented in Ilios, p. 234, Nos. 74, 75, and p. 447, No. 678, which abound m all the four lower prehistoric cities of Troy. Besides the places .mentioned at p. 234 in Ilios^ they are also frequent in the terramare of the Emilia, and a large number of them may be seen in the Museums of Reggio and Parma; others, found in the " Caverna delle Arene Candide," near Genoa, are in the Museo Nazionale in the CoUegio Romano at Rome. Six similar saddle-querns of ferruginous sandstone are in the Museum of Saint Germain-en-Laye ; the Prehistoric Mu- seum of Geneva contains four, which were found in the Swiss lake dwellings. Many similar saddle-querns of trachyte have recently been found in the lowest layers of dSbris in the Acropolis of Athens. In Ilios (pp. 2,34, 2,35) I have already explained the fact that the grain was bruised between the flat sides of two of these querns, but that only a kind of groats, not flour, could have been produced in this way, and that the bruised grain could not have been used for making regular bread. I have further pointed out that in Homer we find it used as porridge,* and also for sprinkling on roasted meat."}" I may add that, according to another passage in Homer, it was used as an ingredient of a peculiar mixed beverage, which Hecamede prepares in the tent of Nestor, of Pramnian wine, rasped goat's-cheese, and barley-meal (ak(pLTa).'l Although no regular bread, such as we have, can be made of bruised grain, yet something must have been prepared * //. XVIII., 55S-560. t 0,1 XIV., 76, 77. t n. XL, 638-640: otvw T[pafii'€ia.i^ ^ttI 5' aXy^Lov kvt) Tvp6u Chap. II.] USE OF MEAL IN HOMER. 45 from it which passed by the name of bread (crtro?), and which in the Homeric poems we ahvays find on the table as an indispensable accessory of all meals. The poet nowhere tells us how It was made or what was its form, nor does he ever mention ovens, which are certainly not found also in the ruins of Troy. I would suggest that the Homeric bread was probably made in the same way as we see the Bedouins of the desert make theirs, who, after having kneaded the dough, turn it into the form of pancakes, which they throw on the embers of a fire kindled in the open air, where it gets baked in a few moments. A similar mode of baking bread seems also implied by the fact that leathern bags filled with such meal (aA.(/)tra) were taken for use on the road in a journey ; thus, for example, we see that, when Telemachus prepares for his journey to Pylos, he orders Euryclea to put him up twenty measures of this meal in leathern bags.* Professor W. Helbig -f- caUs attention to the fact that, as I have stated with regard to the Trojans, there is among the inhabitants of the terra- mare villages no trace of any arrangement for baking bread, and he holds that we must conclude from this that, like the Germans, they prepared a sort of porridge from pounded grains. Helbig adds : " In the public Roman rite, which here, as nearly everywhere else, kept up the ancient custom, not bread was oifered, but always parched spelt-grains, the /a?- tostiim, flour spiced with salt, the mola salsa, or porridge, ptcls. Varro J and Pliny § are therefore perfectly right in stating that for a long time the Romans * Od. II., 354, 355 : eV Se ^oi &\€€(Tm hopoluiv • €'iKO(Ti 5' etrrcit ^erpa /j.v\7] //t7///C'c?' z« dcr Po-Ebau, Leipzig, 1879, pp. 17,41,71- \ Varro, R. R. V. p. 105 : " de victu antiquissima puis." § Pliny H. N. XVIII. 83 : " pulte autera, non pane vixisse longo tempore Romanes manifestum, quoniam et pulmentaria hodieque dicuntur." See Juvenal, Sat. XIV. 171. 4.6 THE FIRST SETTLEMENT. [Chap. II. knew no other form of food from grain than^?^A-. It was only at a time comparatively late that leaven, the addition of which is so essential to make flour into wholesome savoury bread, came into general use. It was still con- sidered as an unusal innovation at the time when the Romans regulated the discipline of the Flamen Dialis : for the priest was forbidden to touch farinani fcrmcnto imbutam* Tradition has even preserved a trace of the fact that there existed no proper apparatus for grinding at the time of the oldest Italic development ; because the mola vcrsahils, the more perfected apparatus, whose upper part was turned by a handle above the lower one, was, according toVarro, "j" an invention of the Volsinians. This tradition, therefore, presupposed an older epoch, during which people put up with other more imperfect means, possibly with two stones such as were used by the ancient inhabitants of the terramare villages for pounding the grains. I may here remind the reader that the identical Greek and Latin words, ^iv\.rj=:mola, TTTLcrcroj^^piiiSO, it6'Kto<;=P7iIs, prove that the Graeco-Italians used the cereals in the same manner as the inhabitants of the terramare villages — a fact which is not without significance for our investigation, as among all Italic settlements these villages stand m time and space nearest to the Graeco-Italic stage of civilization {stadhnji)." Of well-polished perforated axes like No. 91, p. 244 in Ilios, only two halves were found in the first city ; of single and double-edged saws of white or brown flint or chalcedony, like Nos. 93-98, p. 246 in Ilios, a very large number were again gathered in all the four lower pre- historic settlements of Troy. Besides the localities enume- rated on pp. 245 and 246 of Ilios, I must mention seventeen similar saws, which were found in the recess of a rock at * Gell. X., 15, ig. Festus, p. 87, 13, Muller. t Ap. Pliniura //; i\^ XXXVI. 135, see Serv. (7^/ Vergil. Aen. i, 179. Chap. II. BRONZE OR COPPER INSTRUMENTS. Beit-Sahour, near Bethlehem in Palestine, and which are preserved in the Museum of Saint Germain-en-Laye. Some similar flint saws were also found in the very ancient grotto already mentioned, called " Grotta del Diavolo," near Bologna.* Several saws of silex, as well as knives of silex and obsidian, found at Warka and Mugheir in Assyria, are in the British Museum. Of polishers of serpentine, jasper, diorite, or porphyry, a large number were again found in all the four lower pre- historic settlements of Troy. Of bronze or copper, there were found in the debris of the first settlement only a knife, like that represented under No. ii8, p. 2,50 in Ilios, some punches similar to those under Nos. 109 and no, p. 249 in Ilios, and from twelve to fifteen brooches, some of which have a globular No. 12. — r.rooch of Copper or Bronze, with a globular head. (Sue I : 3. Depth, 14 m.) 13. — Drooch of Copper or Bronze, with a spiral head, (Size 1 ; 3. Depth, 14 m.) head, others a head in the form of a spiral. I here give one of the former under No. 12, of the latter one under No. 13: both of them are bent at right angles. Both these forms of brooch served the ancient Trojan settlers instead of the fibula, which never occurs here in any one of the five prehistoric cities, nor in the Lydian city of Hissarlik, and which must have been invented at a much later period.^ It deserves very particular attention, that * Aw. Ulderigo Botti, La Grotta del Diavolo, Bologna, 187 1, p. 36, and Plate III. \ A. Dumont and J. Chaplain {Lcs Ccramiques de la Grtce Proprc, Paris, 1S81, p. 4) erroneously state that fibulae have been found in the first city of Troy ; they must have mistaken for a fibula the small flat 48 THE FIRST SETTLEMENT. [Chap. II. brooches of bronze or copper with globular heads are also very frequent in the terramare of the Emilia, in which the fibula has never yet been found.* On the other hand, these brooches are never found in the funeral hut-urns discovered at Marino near Albano and in the environs of Corneto, in which the fibulae are very abundant. It appears, therefore, certain that these hut-urns, for wliich a very high antiquity is generally claimed, belong to a later time than the latest prehistoric city, and even to a later time than the Lydian settlement of Troy. In most of the Swiss lake dwellings both the brooches with globular heads and those with spiral heads are found together with fibulae, from which we must naturally conclude that these lake dwellings belong to a comparatively late time ; for, as Professor Rudolf Virchow J justly remarks, the fibula has been "engendered" by the straight brooch. This scholar also found fibulae, together with brooches with spiral or globular heads, in his excavations in the prehistoric Necropolis of Upper Koban in the Caucasus, J which belongs to the 9th or loth century, b.c.§ I must say the same of the ancient necro- polis of Samthawro near Mtskheth, the ancient capital of Georgia, which has been excavated by the " Societe des Amateurs d'Archeologie du Caucase," || where fibulae also occur together with globular-headed or spiral-headed crescent-like earring of very thin silver leaf, represented in Ilios, p. 250, No. 122. Like the nine earrings of an identical form, made of very thin gold leaf, which are represented by No. 917, p. 501, in Ilios, the small Silver object can be nothing else than an earring. * Dr. Ingvald Undset assures me, however, that in carefully examining the debris in the terramare of the Emilia he discovered fibulae in them, of wliich he gathered in all thirteen. t Rudolf Virchow, Das Gr'aberfeld von Koban im Lande dcr Osseten, Berlin, 1883, p. 24. X Idem, p. 32, Plate I. No. 20, Plate 11. No. 7. § Idem, p. 124. II Objets dAntiqnit'e du Music dela Societe dcs Amateurs d' Archeologie an Caucase, Tiflis, 1877, p. 19, PL VI. No. 9. Chap. II.] SOURCES OF TROJAN GOLD. 49 brooches. I may still further mention that a bronze brooch with a spiral head was found in the ancient cemetery on the Kattenborn road in the district of Guben.* I think it not out of place to observe here that we do not find in Homer any special word to designate metals ; but we find in the poems the verb yu-eTaWadj,"}" with which is connected the later substantive jxeTaWov, which the ancients acknowledged to be derived from /xer' aXXa. Consequently IxeraXkav signified " /K * Strabo, XIII. p. 6S0 : w? o fiXv Taj'ToXou TrXoCro; Kai tw XIcXottiSw ttTTO Twv irnpl ^pvyLav Kal 'S.lttvXov jtteraAAdjy lyiviTo ■ 6 Si KdS/xov [eV rwv] ■n-cpl &paKTjv Koi TO Ilayyatoi' opo? • 6 Si Tlpcdp.ov ck tCjv iv 'AaTvpoii Trent A/3i>Soi' ;^pvo-tiai)', 'Ly Kal vvv iri. fjLiKpd AetVcrat ■ ttoXAv; 8' ,) cK/3oXij Koi ra upvyfxara (njp.e2a t^s TroAat f^erakXaas ■ 6 &k MtSou c'k tw' ircpl to Tiipixiov opos • o hi Tvyov KoX 1kXvq.ttov koI Kpoicrov dwo twv iv AvSia . . . tt;; aera^u "Arapv^w; re Kal Il€pyW:.:h N"o. 17. p. fS. •J. iHa-jnr\ added by the third settlers- ^6 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. In spite of the most eager researclies, we have not been able to find out the course of the wall t on the north-east side. But, from the direction of the layers o{ debris in the trench S S, my architects ascertained with certainty, that the older Acropolis-wall of the second city lay more to the west than the prolongation of the later wall b, and consequently the new citadel wall was intended for extending the Acro- polis on the east side. We have further brought to light in a southerly and easterly direction the wall b, which, as above mentioned, belongs to the second period of the second city. All the walls of the first period of the second city are marked on Plan VII. by a black tint, those of the second period have a red colouring. I give under No. 15 (p. 55), a view of the continuation of the wall (see Plan VII., O Z), on the west side of the south-west gate. Here it is built at an ascending angle of 60° ; it has a slanting height of 9 metres, and a perpendicular height of 7*50 m. On the north side, this substruction of the great Acropolis- wall consisted of much larger blocks, some of which were as much as i metre in ength and breadth. But I had to destroy it on this side in 1872,, in excavating my great northern trench. The course of the whole A.cropolis-wall formed a regular rectilinear polygon, the projecting corners of which were fortified with towers. These towers stood, approximately, at equal distances of a little more than 50 metres ; in which measure we must certainly recognize the number of 100 ancient Trojan cubits, though the precise length of the Trojan cubit is unknown to us. From the analogy of the oriental and the Egyptian cubit it may, however, be fixed at a little more than 0-50 m. I call particular attention to the fact, that on this computa- tion the gate RC and FM is exactly 10 cubits broad; the vestibulum of the edifice A, precisely 2,0 cubits both in length and breadth. The form of the projecting towers cannot now be exactly determined, there being only left on the east, south, south-west, and west sides, some remains Chap. III.] THE CITY WALLS AND TOWERS. 57 of the tower-like spurs (G M, o w, O, /, and p 7U on Plan VII.), on which the towers proper stood, but probably most of them were quadrangular. I may mention here that the wall of the Homeric Troy was likewise provided with numerous towers.* With the exception of the wall c, we found all these substruction walls still crowned with brick walls, more or less preserved, and we may assume with certainty that all of these belonged to the second city, and that they had merely been repaired by the third settlers. This appears the more certain, as on the east side the brick wall of the second city is for the most part in an admirable state of preservation, and still about 2*50 m. high. The third settlers, consequentl)-, needed only to repair the upper part of the destroyed Acro- polis-wall in some places, in order to be able to use the wall again. For this reason we may consider it also certain, that the great treasure found by me at the place A,t at the end of May 1873, was contained in the hnck.-ddbris of the second city ; the more so as, by excavating the substruction wall to its foundations, we have brought to light, precisely in this place, a tower of the second city {p on Plan VII.). It is even possible that the hx\c\i-dSbris, in which the great treasure was found, was the real brick wall. I call parti- cular attention to the fact, that for a layman it is next to impossible to distinguish what is Trojan hnc^-dcdris and what Trojan brick-masonry, and thus it may be that what I called "red and calcined ruins" was really a brick wall. Nay, it is even in the highest degree probable that the whole space between the western city wall (O Z on Plan VII.) and the large house of the third settlement, marked H S, (which, on account of the wealth found near * //. VIII. S17-519: K-^pvK€s 5' ava 6.crTv Aif (biKot c.yy€\x6in-Qiv iraTjas irpo}dr03.s iroKioKpOTa^ovs t€ ycpovTa^ t See Plan I. in Ilios. 5 8 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. 111. it, I used to ascribe to the town-chief or king), had remained filled with hnck-dfin's of the second city wall, which had not been removed by the third settlers, and that the many treasures discovered by me there in 1878 and 1879 were contained in this stratum. That the deej) mass of hnck-Mrzs here belonged to the second city, seems to be proved with certainty by two facts : first, by the non-existence of a door on this side of the edifice H S, and secondly, by the absence of a wall-coating on this side of the house-wall which faces the fortress-wall O Z ; for such a coating exists on both sides of all the other walls of the house, nor is it missing on the internal side of its western wall. But a still more weighty proof that all the treasures belong, not to the third, but to the second, the burnt city, is found in the condition of the more than io,oco objects of which they are composed, for every one of them, even to the smallest gold drop, bears the most evident marks of the fearful incandescence to which it has been exposed. But these marks of heat are still more striking on the bronze weapons than on the gold ornaments. Thus, for example, of the weapons found in the largest gold-treasure. One bronze dagger (see p. 48a, No. 813 in Ih'os) has been completely curled up in the conflagration ; a mass of lance-heads, daggers, and battle-axes (p. 482, No. 815 in Ih'os) have been fused together by the intense heat ; there are, further, lance-heads fused to battle-axes (p. 476, Nos. 805, 807, in I/i'os) ; and a lance and battle-axe firmly fused to a copper caldron (p. j.74. No. 800 in Ilios). The preserved brick wall (N N) on the east side of the Acropolis is from 3-50 m. to 4 metres thick, and is still 2-50 m. high ; but my architects infer from its thickness that it must have been originally at least 4 metres high, and the)- think there cannot be a doubt that the upper wall of the citadel had an equal thickness and height throughout. The construction of this brick wall may best be re- Chap. HI.] WALL OF 15RICKS BAKED IN SITU. 59 cognized on the east side, vvliere an excellent view of it may- be obtained in the great north-eastern trench (S S). It consists of a substruction, more or less deep, of unwrought calcareous stones, on which was erected the wall proper of bricks. The manner in which the latter was made is espe- cially remarkable. Visitors may best realize the following description by comparing it with the above-mentioned tower G M. The sketch No. i6, on p. 60, gives a section of this tower, which is about 3 ■50 m. broad, and projects about 2, metres from the wall. The foundations of the wall and the tower are only from I m. to I •50 m. deep, and consist of calcareous stones, which are on an average o ' 2.5 m. long and broad, and are bonded with clay. On this substruction was erected the wall proper of sun-dried clajr bricks, with which material straw was mixed abundantly. The bricks are on an average o • 09 m. high by o • 23 m. broad ; their length could not well be ascertained, as it is exceedingly difficult to recognize the joints, but it is probably 0^45 m. A very fine light- coloured cla}', mixed with straw or hay, has been used as cement, and has been put on from 0,010 mm. to 0,015 tnm.* deep in the horizontal joints as well as in the vertical ones. We find in the bricks numerous small frag- ments of pottery and masses of small shells, which prove that the clay has not been cleaned, but that it w'as used for brickmaking just as it was found. In order to render this wall of sun-dried bricks more solid, it was artificially baked, when in sihi., by a great fire kindled on its west side. The same could not be 'done on its east side, on account of the abrupt slope. On account of its considerable thickness, the wall could not have been baked through by the fire, for the heat could not have * I explain this notation one for all. The decimal numbers to which m. is affixed are melrcs with their decimal parts. Those to which mm. is affixed are millimetres: thus o,oiomm. and 0,015 mm. mean 10 and 15 millimetres respectively. 6o THE SECOND CITY ; TROY. [Chap. III. penetrated into the interior. In order to effect this, channels 0-30 m. high and broad were made in the interior of the wall at various heights, the arrangement of which may be seen in the engraving No. 16. But the wall could of course not be baked equally throughout in this way, for, whilst the bricks around the channels are thoroughly baked, those on the east side are perfectly crude and unbaked. Even the different stages of baking may be distinctly observed on a number of the bricks ; for, whilst that part of them which faced towards the channel is com- jiletely baked, the part which faced the other way has but slight traces, or none, of the incandescence. It is highly instructive to follow up the effect of the fire round the channels. Dr. Dorpfeld observed round the channel, first, No. 16. — Section of the tower G M on the east side of the Acropolis ; showing the arrangement of the channels for the artificial baking of the brick waJl. a circle which had been completely raised to a glowing heat throughout, and has now a light colour : this is followed by a black ring, which has received its colour from the black vapour of the fire. Still farther from the channel the bricks are completely baked, and have a dark red colouring; the joints, which consist of another material, being light red. The farther the bricks are distant from the channel, the less red is their colour, and the less, thorough their baking. In the less baked or badly baked portion of the wall, the shells contained in the bricks have preserved their white colour, whereas in the thoroughly baked portion they have been blackened by the lire. The Chap. III.] THE WALL ASCRIBED TO POSEIDON. 6l wall is covered on both sides with a clay-coating, o , oo i mm. thick. It is highly probable that the brick wall of the second citjr was built throughout in a similar manner ; but this is certainly the first example ever found of a citadel- wall having been erected of crude bricks and having been baked tJt situ. The reason vvhjr the great brick-wall on the east side has a substruction of stones, only i m. or i'5o m. high, is because no high substruction-wall was needed here, on account of the abrupt slope which served in its stead ; besides, the foot of the brick-wall here was exactly on a level with the upper part of the stone substruction-walls on the other sides of the Acropolis. When the whole wall of the Acropolis was still entire, and when the gigantic substruction-wall was still surmounted by the brick-wall crowned with numerous towers, it must have had a very imposing aspect, particularly on the high north side which faces the Hellespont ; and this may have induced the Trojans to ascribe its construction to Poseidon,* or to Poseidon and Apollo."}" But the legend that the walls of Troy were built by Poseidon may have a much deeper meaning, for, as Mr. Gladstone has ingeniously proved, J a connection with Poseidon frequently denotes Phoenician associations ; and further, as Karl Victor MiillenhofF has proved in his DeutscJie Alterhimskunde^^ Herakles is the representative of the Phoenicians, and the tradition of his expedition to Iliumjl ma)"" point to an early conquest and destruction of the city bj' the Phoenicians, just as the building of Troy's • n. XXI. 435-446. t II- VII. 452, 453- X See hiis Preface to my Mycenm, pp. viii. and xxiv., and \\\% Homeric Synchronism, pp. 42, 43, 177. § W. Christ, Die ToJ>ograJ>hie dcr Troianischen Ebene, p. 225. II //. V. 640-642 : ts QHpoJcXrfs) vOT€ Z^vp* 4k6wv tf^x' ^Tf^ojy Aao/i€5orros «^ oiTjs iei, a/xipl Si Karytis ylyferai i^ aiirifs, icrel nuphs aiOo/iei'aio • I Strabo, XIII. p. 602. Chap. III.] SOUTH-WEST GATE OF THE ACROPOLIS. 67 add the passage of Aeschj'lus,* where Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, pathetically invokes the banks of the Scamander, on which she had been accustomed to play in her child- hood. This passage seems to prove that, in the opinion of Aeschylus, the Scamander flowed at the foot of Troy, and consequently that it was held to be identical with the immense bed of the small rivulet (Kalifatli Asmak), which really flows at the foot of Hissarlik. The south-western gate of the Acropolis of the second city (R C on Plan VII.), the ground plan of which is repre- sented in the engraving No. 17 (p. 68), served for the in- habitants of the western part of the Acropolis, and more particularly perhaps for the inmates of the large edifice immediately to the north-west of it. The road to this gate ascended from the lower city at an angle of 20° by a ramp (T U on Plan VII. and the ground plan No. 17), about 8 m. broad, built of large rudely wrought blocks, and paved with large slabs of calcareous stone. The gate was strengthened by two quadrangular piers (see ground plan No. 17, and Plan VII. Y, Y), on both sides of the road. The interior width of the gate itself was 5*15 m. The lateral walls of the gate (marked v b on No. 17 and Plan VII.) consisted of baked bricks, and rested on substructions of calcareous stones, which are still preserved. The archi- tecture of this gate proves with certainty that it had at first only one portal (indicated by R C on No. 1 7 and by a dark colouring on Plan VIL), formed by two projecting quad- rangular pillars {XX on Plan VII. and ground plan No. 17) to which the folding gates were fixed, and the foundations of which still exist, being formed of unwrought stones cemented with clay. One of these piers stands out to a Agamemnon, 1156-1159 (ed. Tauchnitz) : iii) yajxoi^ yd^oi TldpiSos oK^dpioi l (Tas ai6vas TaAai;'' 68 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. disrance of o* 83 m., the other to a distance of 0*92111.; both are i ■ 08 m. high, and i ' 25 m. thick. The pillars which rested on these foundations, like the lateral walls from which they projected, consisted of bricks, and served with them no doubt to support the roof, which seems to have been crowned with an upper building of brick. No. 17. — Ground Plan of the South-western Gate. (Scale, i : 333.) Just in front of this ancient gateway, and separated from it by an open space, perhaps a street, about 6 m. wide, there stood in the mterior of the Acropolis a large edifice, which was demolished by the second settlers when they added to this gate a second portal (marked F M on No. 17, and with red colouring on Plan VII.) with far-extending lateral walls id z on Plan VII. and on No. 17), whose end- faces {ps,ps on Plan VII. and No. 17) were strengthened with wooden parastadcs ; the well-wrought base-stones of Chap. III.] EXTENSION OF THE GATE. G9 the latter being still in situ. Instead of the demolished edifice, of which the long foundation wall {I in on Plan VII. and engraving No. 17) still exists, they erected to the right and left of the gate new edifices, of which the still extant foundations are marked on Plan VII. by r b and r x and with red colour. The second portal consisted likewise of two projecting quadrangular brick-pillars (ji. on No. 17 and Plan VII.), to which the gates were attached, and of which the foundations, of unwrought stones cemented with clay, still exist ; they are o-6om. high, more than o"9om. broad, and project about o'75m. The tower-like upper building was, no doubt, also continued over the second portal. Visitors will recognize at a glance that this gate has been constructed at two different periods, the walls of the older part being built of larger stones, those of the second epoch of much smaller ones. The later addition to the southern part of the gate is visible on the engraving No. 144, p. 2,64 in Ilios, to the right of the Greek with the spade ; being separated from the more ancient part by a vertical joint, which extends from the top of the wall to the bottom. All the masonry of the first period of the second city is marked on Plan VII. with a black colouring, that of the second period with red. Some remains of the bricks of the lateral walls may still be seen on the foundations. I call the particular attention of visitors to the ancient road- surface of this gateway, of beaten clay, remains of which are still visible between the stones of the foundations of the lateral walls. This surface is higher than the square foundations of the gate-pillars, which were consequently not visible at the time when the gate was in use. The above-mentioned ramp (T U on Plan VII. and No. 17), paved with large slabs and plates, rose gradually to this clay roadway. Much grander is the southern gate (N F on Plan VII.), which we brought to light at a vertical depth of 14 m. yo THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. 111. below the surface of the hill. Whilst the south-western gate is on the level of the Acropolis, and its ramp-like road (T U) paved with large slabs ascends from the lower city, the southern gate has been erected at the foot of the Acropolis hill, and the road, which leads through it, and the surface of which consists of beaten clay, commences only in the interior of the Pergamos to ascend gently to the level, which is 4 m. higher. The surface can be easily recognized by the charcoal with which it is invariably covered. As may be seen from the accompanying sketch, No. 18, the ground plan of this gate forms a rectangle 40 m. long by 18 m. broad, which projects for about 18 m. from the Acropolis wall. From the massive walls {.vo- on Plan VII. and engraving No. 18), which consist of cal- careous quarry-stones, and are on each side about 7 •50 m. thick by 4 m. high, as well as from the broken bricks and burnt wooden beams with which the whole gate-road was filled, we may conclude with certainty that these walls were mere substructions, and were surmounted by an enormous upper building of bricks and wood, of whose shape and construction, of course, we have no knowledge. But the substructions, with the far-extending gateway, are almost perfectly preserved. The bricks, with which the gateway was filled, had the same height as the bricks of the edifice B, namely, 0,085 tntn. ; their breadth is 0,305 mm. Without supposing the existence of such an upper edifice we could not explain the heat which has prevailed here, and which has been so intense that many stones have been burnt to lime, while the pottery has either crumbled away or melted into shapeless masses. Having passed the gate proper {/y on Plan VII. and the engraving No. 18), which had probably a double portal, one enters into the long gallery N F, which is 3*50 m. broad, and leads up to the higher plateau crowned by the principal edifices of the Acropolis. The southern portions of its lateral walls {x £■ on No. 18 and Plan VII.) are built Chap. III. SOUTH GATE OF THE ACROPOLIS. of small calcareous stones of somewhat polj'gonal form, united with a coarse brick cement of clay and straw, which has been completely baked and is perfectly similar to the cement used in the edifice A. The northern part of the lateral walls (/ on No. i8 and Plan VII.) consists of smaller stones, more rectangular in form, united with a ight- No. i8. — Ground Plan of the Southern Gate. NFonPlanVH. Scalei:5oo. coloured clay cement, which is perfectly similar to the clay cement in the edifice B. (Of both these edifices, A and B, I shall speak in the following pages.) The exterior sides of the lateral walls are covered with a clay coating which is still partly preserved. Being built in this wa}', the walls could not have supported an upper edifice, the less so ^2, THE SECOND CITY; TROY. [Chap. HI. as their interior sides are vertical, if thej^ had not been strengthened with wooden posts [z m on No. i8), which were placed vertically against the walls, at intervals of from 2 m. to 2 •50 m. and of which considerable remains are still visible, of course in a carbonized state. We recognize them also by the impressions tltey have left on the walls. In order to make them firmer, they were set o"5om. deep into the ground of the gateway: they must have been o"20m. thick, this being the diameter of the holes in which they stood. At several places where these wooden posts have stood, the heat produced by their com- bustion has been so great that the stones have been burnt to lime, which, by the action of rain, has been fused with the wall-coating into so hard and compact a mass, that we had the very greatest trouble to cut it away with pickaxes. These wooden posts had a double purpose; first, to prop up and sustain the unstable quarry-stone walls, and secondly, to support the crossbeams of the ceiling and the upper edifice. But in spite of these precautions, the northern part of this gateway (/e on No. 18 and Plan VII.) appears to have at some time broken down, or at least to have been very near breaking down, for it has been faced on the east side with a panelling, the posts of which, consisting of two beams side by side, stand at average intervals of o • 60 m. ; the intermediate space being filled up with quarry-stones. The whole exterior side of the panelling is covered with a clay coating and daubed over with a thin layer of clay. In the southern part of the gate, where the entrance is {fy on No. 18 and Plan VII.), the masonry is composed of larger stones joined with clay-cement, no doubt in order to make it more solid. It even appears that, for the same reason, this wall has been artificially baked, as an additional precaution, for the clay cement between the stones is baked much more than the exterior coating of the wall. So far as the gate-road was covered by the upper edifice, its walls were vertical ; but at its northern end (Jz on the engraving Chap. III.] SOUTH-EAST GATE OF THE ACROPOLIS. 73 No. 18 and Plan VII.), where the upper edifice ceased and where the road lay in the open air, its lateral walls were slanting. It led up on the left to the large edifices by a ramp {n on No. 18 and Plan VII.) paved with large stone slabs ; the gate-road itself turned to the right, but we could not ascertain how it ended there, for a later edifice (C on No. 18 and Plan VII.) of the second city, which had been built over the northern part of the gateway, pre- vented us from making further researches in that direction. I have cleared this gateway in front for a length of 45 m., and have found that at the end of that distance {q on Plan VII.), its clay surface ceases, and the road proceeds on the bare rock into the lower cit)^ It was easy for us to bring the clay surface to light up to that point, it being, as already mentioned, everywhere covered with charcoal. This gateway (N F on No. 18 and Plan VII.) was at all events destroyed by fire before the great catastrophe, and it re- mained ever after unused and buried; the edifice (C on No. 18 and Plan VII.) of the second city, which has been built over and above it, can leave no doubt of this fact. As a substitute for the southern gate, a new large gate (OX on the sketch No. 90, p. 179, and on Plan VII.), of which the accompanying engraving No. 19 gives a good view, was erected immediately to the east, which we shall call the south-east gate. Its ground plan is given under No. 90, in the description of the third city. We have only been able to bring this gate partially to light, the third settlers having erected, 1*50 m. above it, a new and narrower gate, which we should have had to destroy in order to excavate that of the second city. We can there- fore describe the latter but incompletely. Its interior breadth is 7*50 m., and it is about three times as long. It has two portals, which are both marked with the letter a on No. 19, on No. 90, and on Plan VII. The south-western lateral wall is visible in the fore- ground, and is marked with the letter b in the engraving Chap. III.] THE SC^AN GATE OF HOMER. 75 No. 19 also in the ground plan No. 90, and w on Plan VII. The same letters mark also the second lateral wall, which has been brought to light only for a short distance, and which is visible further back. The masonry of both these walls consists of unwrought calcareous stones, and is about a "50 m. thick. The upper projecting quadrangular cross- walls of the gate {v on the ground plan No. 90 and on Plan VII.) are also more than 2 •50 m. in thickness. This gate is directed towards the entrance of the two great edifices on the north side, A and B. The great brick wall described above (see Plan VII. NN) is joined to this gate, from which it extends to the north-east. Thus, instead of only one gate, we have now found three. But I must remind the reader that all these three gates are the Acropolis gates of Troy, which Homer never had occa- sion to mention. His Scaean gate was, as I have mentioned above, not in the Pergamos, but on the west side of the lower city, and by it people went out to the great plain.* I have shown in Ilios\ that this Scaean gate is the only gate of the lower city mentioned in the poems, that there is no allusion to other gates, and that, whenever Homer mentions gates [irvkai), he means by the plural the two wings of the gate, and, consequently, but one gate. With respect to this. Dr. Dorpfeld calls my attention to the "inscription of the Parthenon (Corpus InsciHptiomcin Atti- carinn, II. 708, and Michaelis, Partlicnon, p. 316), in which the plural Ovpai is used for the single double- winged door of the cella of the Parthenon, for here we have a perfect analogy with the foregoing interpretation of the TTvXai of Troy. As will be seen from Plan VII., there are only a few large buildings on the Acropolis, the most remarkable of which * //. VI. 392, 393 : eyre 7ru\as 'iKaue Siepx^P-^i'os fi4ya 6.(ttv 2.Kaids — TT? yap e/icAAt Sie^i/xecai TreStocSe. t Pages 143, 144. 76 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. are two edifices on the north side, of which we shall call the larger one A, the smaller one B. The layer of calcined ruins and dibris, which, as I have stated, is in general but insignificant in the second city and frequently only 0*2,0 m. deep, is in these two edifices considerably deeper, but only for the reason that the brick walls of A are i'45m. thick, those of B 1 " 2,5 m., and consequently these walls could not be so easily destroyed, and necessarily produced a much larger quantity of debris. The part of the walls of these edifices still standing is i "50 m. high. To the edifice A belong the three blocks of bricks marked H on Plan III. in Ilios, in which my former colla- borator, M. Burnouf, had erroneously seen the remains of the great city wall. These two large edifices of the second, the burnt city, are most probably temples : we infer this in the first place from their ground plan, because they have only one hall in the breadth ; secondly, from the propor- tionately considerable thickness of the walls ; thirdly, from the circumstance, that they stand parallel and near each other, being only separated by a corridor o*5om. broad; for if they had been dwelling-houses they would probably have had one common wall — a thing never found yet in ancient temples. Both are built of bricks, which — like the above-mentioned fortification-wall of the second city — have only been baked after the walls had been completely built up. The ground being level here, the walls could be baked both on the exterior and interior sides, but the eff'ect of the fire of the wood-piles simultaneously kindled on both sides of the walls was further considerably increased by the holes which had been provided in them in all directions. Some of these holes go right through the wall ; others, which may rather be called grooves, are arranged lengthwise in the external sides of the walls, as represented by the wood- cut No. 20. In the temple A they may be seen on the external sides of the wall in each fourth course of bricks, in such a manner that the lowest groove was immediately Chap. III.] BRICK WALLS BURNT AFTER BUILDING. 11 above the stone foundation (see the woodcuts Nos. 20, 21). These longitudinal grooves penetrate into the wall from 0*25 m. to o'35 ni. deep, and are from 0*15 m. to o • 25 m. high. The cross holes or channels are arranged in the walls at distances of about 4 metres, in such a way that one of them is invariably in the corner of the halls. In this manner the cross walls are enclosed on both sides by such cross channels in the places where they join the lateral walls (see the ground plan No. 24). In the temple B No. 23. Temple B. ^™ f — :.._ — ,.„-■ — , — _ ii 1 I'U i , .i| ', ^"/.■/////^////^■///////^/''/// No 24. Temple A. No. 20. — External Side of a Wall of Temple A, showing the arrangement of the horizontal channels and of those which go right through the wall. No. 21. — Section of a Wall of Temple A, showing the arrangement of the horizontal channels. No. 22. — Section of a Wall of Temple B, showing the arrangement of the horizontal channels. No. 23. — Plan of a Wall of Temple B, showing the arrangement of the cross channels. No- 24. — Plan of a Wall of Temple A, showing the arrangement of the cross channels. the channels are arranged in a similar manner (see Nos. 20, 22, 23); the only difference is that here the longitudinal grooves are in each sixth course of bricks (see No. 22), and the cross-channels at shorter distances, according to the length of the rooms. 78 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. All these longitudinal grooves, as well as all the cross holes, had been originally filled with wooden beams ; as is proved with the greatest certainty by their form and by the impressions the branches have left in the clay cement. But it is a curious fact, that in none of the grooves or holes have we been able to discover the slightest vestige of charred wood. In some rare cases these grooves and holes had, after the artificial baking of the brick walls, been left open, either intentionally or by inadvertence ; but in general they were filled with baked brick matter mixed with vitrified pieces of brick, probably such as had fallen from the walls during the baking operation, for we find occasionally a fragment of pottery in this brick di^bris. As further proofs that the walls were built of crude bricks and were baked after having been erected, I may state that the clay cement between the bricks has been baked exactly in the same manner as the bricks them- selves, and further that the upper parts of the walls were but very slightly baked. This again is proved by a frag- ment of a cross-wall, which contains clay-bricks still quite unbaked, and by the upper parts of the lateral walls, which have fallen into the interior of the edifice, portions of their bricks being altogether unbaked. The foundations of the brick walls of this temple A consist throughout of walls of unwrought calcareous stones, 2-50 m. high, which are covered with large limestone or sandstone slabs, on which the brick walls rested. These foundations protrude in the south-eastern part of the edifice o-3om. above the floor; but, as the latter rises gradually towards the north-west, the foundations are there on a level with the floor. The bricks are on an average 0-45 m. broad, o-6-]m. long, and about o-iam. thick. With this proportion of 2 : 3 in the breadth and length of the bricks, the walls could be regularly bonded in such a way that, together with the joints, three and two bricks alternately formed the thickness of the wall, viz. 1-45 m. Chap. III.] FIRST TEMPLE OF THE ACROPOLIS. 79 The width of the joints varies from o'oam. to 0*04 m. The material used for the bricks is a greenish-yellow clay, mixed with straw. The walls were covered, both on the inside and outside, with a coating about o"02m. thick, which consisted of clay and was pargetted with a very thin layer of clay. The floor consisted of a layer of beaten clay, from 0,005 mm. to 0,015 mm. thick, which has been laid on simultaneously with the wall-coating after the wall had been baked. For this reason the remains of the Temple B. Temple A. No. 25. — Ground plan of the Temple A. No. 26. — Ground plan of the Temple B, charcoal derived from the baking of the walls are found below the floor. As will be seen from the adjoining ground-plan. No. 2,5, the temple A consists of a pronaos or A'estibulum, marked p, which is open to the south-east, and of the naos proper («). The latter is indicated in the sketch (No. 25), as 18 metres long, for close to the semicircle u there appeared to be the remains of a cross-wall belonging to the edifice. But having again most carefully examined the premises, my architects conclude with the highest proba- bility, from the arrangement of the holes in the lateral wall, that the length of the naos (w) must have extended 8o THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. to somewhat more than 20 m., and that, consequently, the proportion of its breadth to its length is exactly as i : 2. It cannot be determined now whether there was still a third room on the north-west side (in correspondence with the division of the temple B), because the western portion of the edifice has been cut away by the great northern trench. The pronaos, p, is iq- 15 m. broad by 10 "35 m. deep, and therefore just a square. The front ends of the lateral walls (marked 0) were cased with vertical wooden jambs, 1"- p 'arastas or anfa at the point of junction. The an/a corresponds here with the entablature of the pillars, and, together with them, encloses the space requisite to form the portico. " The aniac have neither a static nor a constructive function. It is not a pillar to sustain a weight ; it is essentially an artistic form to accentuate the end of the wall and the beginning of an epistylion. Its employ- ment is necessitated only from its relation to the epistylion, and conse- quently it requires only a very slight degree of relief from tlie face of the wall, and a marked difference in the form of the capital from that of the pillars. As it ends the mass of the wall, its front face must be the whole thickness of the wall, but as the inner side receives only the mass of the epistylion or entablature, its breadtli must be governed by that of the epistylion ; wliile its outer face is only marked by sufficient projec- tion to distinguish it from the face of the wall itself. " When the anta is in such a situation that a space is enclosed on both sides of it, so that two epistylia rest on it, the breadth of the anta is governed by the breadth of the epist_\lia, and the anta then assumes the function of a pillar. When the epistylion rests neither on the end nor the middle of the wall, the anta is marked only by two small facets. " The capital (of the anta) consists of a necking with a slight projection adorned with an anthemion (or honeysuckle ornament) ; above this is a slight Doric cymatium with a necking of several annulets, like the echinus of the pillars, thus connecting the two parts together in design. A narrow abacus marks its junction with the pillars of the pteron, and is ornamented with a meander (fret) on its face, like the abacus of the pillars. Originally this abacus had no cymation to separate it from the pteron, as was universally the case in later monuments. " The reason why originally the antac were not constructed with a 7 82 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. I am indebted to my friend, Mr. James Fergusson, for the accompanying sketch (No. 27A) of the temple of separate base, as was usually tlie case, is evident enough. It was for artistic reasons — the same that prevented the pillars and the walls from being furnished with bases. Such a separation from the stylobate would liave prevented it from having a common significance with the other two forms. AVhen however a base to the wall was introduced, with or without mouldings, it was also added to the anta ; but in that case it is a sure sign of the introduction of an Attic-Ionic element; as is found, for instance, in the Theseum, and in the Temple of Artemis- Propvlaea at Eleusis, where a reversed cymatium appears as a base. " In a technical sense, an anta or parastas signifies any part of a building that stands in juxtaposition with another; thence it applies to a wall at the side of an entrance, and also to the artistic form which terminates any projecting wall. For this artistic form, as well as for every such projecting wall, the Latin term anta is used. The term parastas came eventually to be applied to the space between the side walls, a use shown, as already said, by the terra being applied to desig- nate both the pronaos and posticum, when they are called ' in para- stades.' The so-called parastas-space, or space between the antae, is a term used not only to designate this particular portion, but also to describe a form of temple, and to distinguish a particular form of temple, whether prostyle, amphiprostyle, or peripteral. The existence of the autae al )ne would not be sufficient for the purpose, as these exist in all known forms of temples." Boetticher gi\'es the following citations from ancient authors regard- ing /(^nzj-Azc/ci-. The scholiast to Euripides, Androm. 1089 (where Neop- tolemus takes down the arms from ■x parastadcs wall in the temple of Delphi) explains : 77a,oacrTa8as Xcyet ras Kara tvjv etcroSoi/ tKarepojOiv irap- i.cTTaixiva'i Tv)(a';. T\\& parastas becomes the vestibulum, as distinct from the cella, in Eurip. Iphig. Taur. 1159 : "Araj', IxavTov vroSa v 6vpwv, a Trapaa-TaSf: (fjaaiv. Herodotus speaks of them as being of Chap. III.] PRIMITIVE PARASTADES. 83 Themis at Rhamnus, which gives an excellent example of an ancient Greek temple of polygonal masonrj^, to which parastades {p) in hewn stone have been added, probably at some later date, certainly in a later style. It is to be found in the volume of the unedited antiquities of Attica pub- lished by the Dilettanti Society in 1817, Chapter VII., plate I, where the difference of masonry is carefully distin- guished, and certainly appears to be a subsequent addition. r^ljL ,;/4;5#&ii^fw ,i;mfc^ '0 1 // • ''A Y-m n i:f?- ,. ■; '- :_ (.50 5 — 1 6 METRES No. 27A. — Temple of Themis at Rhamnus. It could not be ascertained whether there have been, between the parastades of the temple A, wooden columns such as we are led to expect, with a span exceeding 10 metres, for we could not find the particular foundation stones on which they ought to have stood. I may say the same of any columns which may have stood in the interior to diminish the great span of the roof copper in the gates of Babylon : k\la. Zonaras, Lex. p. 1814, X.ia, and Schol. Lycophr. Alexandra, v. 290, koI r; ■Ka.po.(Tra.% Ik oTadph^ XeyeraL. Phot. arraOp-uiv rwv TTJi 6vpa<; TrapcwTaSuiv. Chap. III.] THE SECOND TEMPLE. 85 deep, and are not covered with large stone slabs like those of the temple A. The construction of these brick walls is similar to that of the walls of the temple A, and only differs from it in details. The antae (;-) are formed in like manner. This temple (B) has been built later than A, because its south-western lateral wall has no coating on the exterior side, as it could not be seen on account of the close proximity of the temple A. On the other hand, the whole exterior side of the north-eastern lateral wall of the temple A is covered with a coating, which must necessaril)^ belong to the time when this large sanctuary still stood alone, and when the temple B had not yet been built. It deserves particular attention, that the north-eastern wall of the temple B is much less baked than the south-western wall; the reason seems to be that in the baking of the latter the heat must have been more intense on account of the close proximity of the edifice A. The narrow passage between the two temples was filled with ddbris of baked bricks, among which we found a ver}^ large number of thoroughly vitrified bricks, called in Germany Ziegel- schlacken (brick scoriae). The material of the bricks is identical with that of the temple A, whereas the cement consists of a much lighter-coloured clay, which is mixed with fine ha}', and also shows after the baking a much lighter colour than the bricks. The ground plan (see No. 26) consists of three rooms : first, the pronaos (.y), which is open on the south-east side, and is 6 ' i o m. in length and 4 • 5 5 m. in breadth ; secondly, the cella or naos proper (/), which is 7*33 m. long by 4 ■55 m. broad, and is connected with t\iQ pronaos by a doorway (jii) 2, m. wide. In the western corner a narrower doorway {v) leads into the third room (.r), which is 8 • 95 m. long by 4'55m. broad. The floor, which consists of beaten clay, has been made later than the wall-coating, for this latter can be followed as far as o" 10 m. deep below the floor. As the wall-coating terminates at the doorways, 86 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. and as remains of charcoal still exist there, it is evident that the lateral faces of the doors were dressed with some other material, most probably with wood. It deserves particular attention that to a height of o '50 m. above the floor the clay walls of neither temple are vitri- fied ; which we explain by the evident fact that the material of the terraced roof, the clay and the charred wood, fell in the conflagration and covered up the floors to this height. In many places even the upper part of the walls is not vitrified, but onlv much burnt : this must be attributed to the larger or smaller mass of burning wood which fell at different places. Very remarkable is the mass of small shells found in the bricks, and which must have been con- tained in the clay of which they were made. These shells are invariably black in the baked bricks, and have retained their natural colour in those which have not been exposed to the great heat. It is uncertain whether there was still a fourth room on the north-west side, for it cannot be proved by the existing fragments of foundations. Although the division of the temple B into three rooms answers in a striking manner to the division of the house of Paris, according to Homer's description, ot ol i-Troiyjcav OdXa/j.ov koI 8a)/xa Koi avX-nv '" " they [the architects of Troy] built him a chamber (thalamos), a dwelling-room (doma) and a vestibule (aule)," nevertheless the reasons given above seem to prove, with the greatest probability, that both the edifices, B as well as A, were temples. Both these temples have been destroyed in a fearful catastrophe, together with all the other buikhngs of the second settlement. At the north-west end of the temple B, large remains of more ancient house-walls stand out from beneath its floor. * J/. VI. 316. I may here observe that by later authors aiXvj is often used for a dwelling-house : see ky)(iLpJ)[un'. J W. Helbig, flf>. at, p. 5. § //. xiii. 712-718. II W. Helbig, oJ>. cit., pp. 42, 43. IT J dan, p. 115. ''* Grimm, Dcutsclic Mythologic, 4th ed. I., p, 151. Chap. III.] LANCE AND DAGGER OF BRONZE. 97 Mi I No. ■^3- — Bronze Lance-head ; witli the end broken ofT. 81262:3; depth 8*50 m. 8 No. 34. — Bronze Dag^^er ; with the handle and the upper end curled up in the great fire. Size 2:3; depth 8'so m. gS THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. represented on p. 482, No. 813, in //w.?, has been partly rolled up in the heat of the great conflagration. It had originally precisely the form of the silver dagger repre- sented in I/ios under No. 901, on p. 499; only that the handle, instead of being round, is quadrangular. Its end IS bent round almost at a right angle, which proves that it had been cased in wood ; it can hardly have been cased in bone or ivory, as all the bone and ivory I found was well preserved. This handle has been bent over so completely, in the incandescence of the great conflagration, that it now lies flat on the blade. Near the lower end of the blade there are two openings, each 0,0:5 mm. long, and 0,002 mm. broad in the broadest place. The upper end of the dagger is curved for a distance of o * 03 m., so that the point touches the blade. There was found besides in the temple A a bronze dagger of the same form and also with two holes ; but it is not curled up and its handle is broken. Seven similar bronze daggers were contained in the great Trojan treasure (see Ilios, p. 453 and p. 482, Nos. 811-815). I also found a few in other places in my excavations at ■Hissarlik ; but they have never been found elsewhere. Of other copper weapons found here I can only mention the curious quadrangular bolts, which run out at one end to a sharp edge, and of which Nos. 816 and 817, p. 482, in I/ios, give fair specimens. A similar weapon, but of iron, is in the Egyptian collection in the Museum of Turin. One of the most interesting objects found in my excava- tions of 1882, was a bronze gimlet which I represent here under No. 34(2; for, as far as I know, no instrument of this kind has ever been found in prehistoric remains, and the one before us is the more remarkable as it was found in the principal temple of Troy divine. Regarding other tools of bronze or copper, my architect. Dr. Dorpfeld, rightly observes to me, that the construction and grandeur of the temples A and B, and of all the other edifices of the Acropolis, denote already a high civilization. Chap. III.] GLMLET AND KNIFE OF BRONZE. 99 and it seems altogether impossible that a people who could erect such sumptuous buildings, and who possessed such masses of gold treasure of elaborate workmanship as I have represented and described in Ilios^ pp. 455-504, should No. 35. — Bronze Knife. Size 1:3: deptli 8 ■ 50 m No. 34A. — Gimlet of bronze. Size 2:3; depth about 8'5o m. not have had regular tools of bronze or copper. But if we found none of these, the reason must be, that the carpenters and the other handicraftsmen probably did not live in the Acropolis, which we must suppose to have been reserved merely for the king with his family, and for the temples of the gods. We must hold it to be impossible that the lOO THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. immense masses of wooden beams, or the large number of well-wrought and polished base-stones of the parastadcs, could have been cut and wrought without good instru- ments. It certainly seems absurd to suppose that this would have been done with stone axes by a people who used copper and bronze abundantly for making battle-axes, lances, knives, arrow-heads, brooches, &c. But then, again, I must confess that I never found at Troy a trace of moulds for casting such working implements, whereas the number of moulds found for casting battle-axes, lance- heads, and small instruments, is very large. There were also some bronze knives found in the temple A, of which I represent one under No. 35. Of the round heads of the pins by which the handle of the knife was fixed in the wooden casing, two may be seen in the handle, and one in the lower part of the blade. All these curious huge nails, battle-axes, lance-heads, daggers, knives, &c., have been cast in moulds of mica- slate, like those represented in Ilios, pp. 433, 435, under Nos. 599-601. That the art of casting gold, and metals in general, was in common use at the time of Homer, is proved by the designation, " melter of gold" {^vo-o^oo-i), which the poet gives to Laerces,* who is sent for to gild the horns of an ox. Prof J. Maehlyf observes, that there are in Homer several passages which seem to corroborate the assertion of Lucretius, \ that copper was in remote antiquity valued '"■■ Od. III. 425, 426 : dKO^'iyy vippa fiohs XP^^^^ K€paffi.v iripLx^vr}. t Blatter filr Literarischc Unicrhaltung, iSSi, Nos. 15, 16. % V. 1268-1273 : " Nee minus argento facere haec auroque parabaiit, Quam validi primum violentis viribus aeris : Nequidquam ; quoniam cedebat victa potestas. Nee poterant paiiter durum subferre laborem. Nam fuit in pretio magis aes, aurumque jacebat Propter inutilitatem^ hebeti mucrone retusum. ' Chap. III.] HARDENING OF COPPER. loi even more highly than gold or silver. But the contrar}' seems to be proved most decidedly by a famous passage of the Iliad* where the proportionate value between a suit of armour of gold and one of copper or bronze is given as loo to 9. This latter proportion, as Dr. Diirpfeld observes to me, agrees pretty accurately with the proportion between gold and silver, which, according to Herodotus, was custo- mary in the coins of Babylon, and in fact in the whole Eastern world. I have in Ilios\ called attention to the general belief that, besides alloying copper with tin, the ancients had still another way of hardening their copper, namely, by plung- ing it in water, for we read this apparently in Homer, \ Virgil, § and Pausanias ; || and Pollux seems to confirm it by a remarkable example, when, noticing the use of /3ai//(,9 instead of /Sa^-r), he observes that Antiphon speaks of the hardening (ySai/;ts) of copper and iron.^ Regard- ing the meaning of the word tempering, Professor W. Chandler Roberts, of the Royal Mint, has kindly sent me the following interesting note.** " It must be remembered that tempering is softening, not hardening: a piece of steel when it has been hardened by rapid cooling, is heated to a certam definite temperature, which makes it softer ; this is * VI. 234-236 : tvd^ avr€ T\avK(f} KpopiSrjs (ppcuas e|eA€TO Ztus", Xp'^crea ■)(_a.KKUO}V^ kKarSfi^oC ivuea^o'ioji'. f Pages 481, 482. j O^. IX. 391-393 : a»y 5' OT^ aVT]p x^^K^^^ TreAe/ct/;/ jueyaf r/e (XlUirapvov €iV uSari ^vxp<^ ^aTTTT] fx€yd\a Idxoyra, (papp.d{Tu)V Se etprjKe jSaxj/tv ^aA.KOi) /cat aiS-qpov. '■'"■ Some further remarks from Professor Roberts are given on p. 104. I02, THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. called ' tempering.' The confusion possibly arises from the French word trempe being the word used for hardening, while in English tempering is softening." According to Dr. Chr. Hostmann, of Celle, all the above passages of the classics must be understood in a different way, for he writes to me : "Any coppersmith can assure you of the fact, that it is altogether impossible to harden copper by immersion in cold water ; and for this reason the /3a(^T) yaXKov mentioned by some ancient authors cannot be understood and explained as a method of hardening. The fact is this : every malleable metal, and therefore gold, silver, copper, bronze, and wrought-iron, loses its dilata- bility, after having been for some time wrought or stretched. But then the workman puts the metal into the fire until it becomes incandescent and cools it in cold water. By this means the original flexibility of the metal is restored, and the work can begin anew. This would, therefore, be the softening effect of the immersion in cold water, the fiar) -^aXKOv Kat o-iSijpov. As a proof that the ancients knew this effect perfectly well, I remind you of the important passage in Plutarch, de Def. Oracid. c. 47, where he speaks of the celebrated tripod of Glaucus, which was made of wrought-iron and richly ornamented with sculptures, and he adds very rightly, that such a work would have been impossible without the /xaXafts Sta irvpo^ Koi v8aTo<; /3a(f)7Jv. Quite in the same sense Sophocles makes Ajax say (verse 651, ed. Tauchnitz) : ficKprj aiSrjpo'; &)S idr)\vt>6y]v crrojjLa. However, the same Plutarch speaks a little before (cap. 41 and elsewhere), in apparent contra- diction with this, of the hardening of iron by immersion. But he was perfectly justified in saying so, for it must be considered that in this case the question is not about malleable wrought-iron, but specifically about steel, for this metal alone and no other has the property of being hardened by immersion in cold water. The same is the case in Homer, who, in the celebrated passage, had in view steel, not wrought-iron, and far less, of course, copper. Chap. III.] THE QUESTION OF HARDENING IMETALS, 103 From what precedes it must, therefore, appear certain, that by /3a(f>rj -^akKov nothing else can be meant than the softening of copper which had been wrought with the hammer. I must also very strongly doubt whether an)^ one of the ancient classical authors really speaks of the Jiardcnhig of copper. For the rest you have rightly ob- served that the ancient kitchen-utensils are harder than the copper of trade. But for this hardness they are indebted solely to the circumstance that, after having been cast, they have been wrought and fashioned with the hammer ; for the same reason their surface is less subject to become oxidized and to form the well-known patina." But as regards iron and steel at all events, the opinion of Professor G. Richard Lepsius, of Darmstadt, and Professor Hugo Backing, of Kiel, is altogether different ; for they write to me on the subject as follows : " It is a well-known fact that iron, like steel, if made red-hot, and then cooled by being suddenly plunged into cold water, acquires a greater amount of hardness than when it is allowed to cool slowly. On this quality of iron depends its applicability to numerous uses ; but since it never becomes as hard as steel, it can never take the place of the latter. Steel how- ever, that is, the result of a chemical union of iron with a certain quantity of carbon, was certainly not known to the ancients ; at least no fact with which we are acquainted speaks in favour of the supposition. On the other hand, it is true that iron is softened by the action of fire (iron wire, for instance, is annealed to make it more flexible and malleable) ; and it is well known that pieces of iron, if exposed to a white heat, can be united and welded together by hammering. Hardened iron becomes malleable again, if made red-hot and then allowed to cool slowly ; whereas, if suddenly plunged into cold water, it once more becomes as hard as before." This is confirmed by Professor W. Chandler Roberts, of the Royal Mint, who writes the following interesting note : " Steel is hardened, and not tempered, by cooling from a I04 THE SECOND CITY : TROY. . [Chap III. red heat in cold water ; but it must also be remembered that while steel is hardened by rapid cooling, certain alloys of copper and tin can be softened by rapid cooling. Thus M. Alfred Riche, of the Paris Mint, has shewn that alloys of copper containing much tin can be so hardened by rapid cooling, but this rapid cooUng {la trempc) produces an almost insensible degree of softening in alloys of copper and tin which contain less than from 6 to 12 per cent, of tin, and it is to this class that the alloys of which analyses are given in the following pages belong." * There were also found in the temple A some very primitive arrow-heads of bronze or copper, like those re- presented in Ilios, p. 505, under Nos. 931, 933, 942, 944, 946. The Museum of Parma contains several copper arrow-heads of the same shape, which were found in the terramare of the Emilia. I also found one arrow-head with two barbs, like that represented under No. 955, p. 505, in Ilios. All these arrow-heads were made to be attached with a string to the shaft, as we find described in Homer.f I sent to Professor Rudolf Virchow at Berlin the borings of three Trojan battle-axes, a lance-head, a quadrangular weapon like that represented in Ilios, p. 482, No. 816, and a brooch. He submitted these borings to the eminent chemist, Prof Rammelsberg of Berlin, whose analysis gave the following results : Tin. Copper. Lead. Iron. I. Battle-axe : 2 -90 97-10 traces 2. n 2-89 97-11 3- )) 4-II 95-38 4- Brooch 6*27 93'73 5- Quadrangular weapon 0-84 99-16 6. Lance-head S"43 94-57 * " Professor Roberts considers that, unfortunately, the view that copper may be rendered exceptionally hard by the presence of small quantities of rhodium is wholly unsupported by experimental evidence." t //. IV. 151 : uiS 5e Xh^v vivQ6v T€ KoX oyKovs €KThs 46vras ^ Chap. III.] ANALYSIS OF TROJAN BRONZE. 105 Prof. Virchow adds: "Nos. i and 2 contain so little tin that they do not answer at all to the common mixture of bronze, such as the analysis of the Orchomenian metals reveals." Of these latter I had sent the borings of a quad- rangular weapon like the above, as well as the fragment of a nail, and a whole nail, found by me in my excavation in the Treasury of Orchomenos, and used to attach the bronze plates to the walls; the analysis of which gave — Tin. Copper. Lead. Iron. I. Quadrangular weapon 8-42 90-70 0-32 o- 50 2. Fragment of a nail 8-26 9i'74 — traces 3. Eatire nail — 99-53 0-27 0- 20 Tin. Copper. Lead. Iron. 9-04 90" 96 — — 5-80 93'5o — - 70 0-45 98-65 — 0-85 traces 99-55 — traces I also sent the borings of a lance-head, a large battle- axe, and two large quadrangular nails, all of which objects had been found in the temple A, for analysis to the cele- brated chemist and metallurgist. Dr. Theodor Schuchardt at Gcirlitz, who obtained the following results : Tin. C< 1. Lance-head 2. Large battle-axe 3. Large quadrangular nail 4. Largest quadrangular nail Dr. Schuchardt desires me to add, that the analytical investigation has been principally conducted by his able assistant, Mr. Hugo Schrdter. I may add that the bronze found by Professor Rudolf Virchow in his excavations in the prehistoric cemetery of Koban contained from 10 to 12 per cent of tin.* There was also found in the temple A the very curious object of bronze. No. ^6 (p. 106), which seems to be a surgical instrument; further, numerous brooches of copper with spiral or globular heads. No. 37 is an unornamented terra-cotta whorl : it appears to have been nailed to a wall with a copper pin, which is preserved, and its round head ■"■ Rudolf Virchow, Das Grdbcrfdd von Koban im Lande dor OsscUii, Kaukasus, Berlin, 1S83, p. 23. io6 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. may be distinctly seen in tlie engraving. The presence of tliis pin in the whorl seems rather to corroborate my opinion, that all the whorls served as votive offerings to Athene Ergane, the tutelary deity of Troy. Of gold there was found in the temple A only a very small and simple unornamented frontlet, and a staff or sceptre knob with a geometrical ornamentation in rcpoiissS . No. 37. — Whorl of terra-cotta in which is stuck a copper or bronze nail with a round head. Size 1:3: depth, S • 50 m. No. 36. — Surgical instrument. Half size; depth, 8"5om. work, which I represent here under No. 38. The reverse side of this object can leave no doubt of its use as a staff button. Just in front of the temple A, and only about a yard to the south of its mitae, was picked up a bundle of a dozen copper brooches with globular heads, intermingled with earrings of silver and electrum, and fastened together by the cementing action of the carbonate of copper : to the outside of the bundle was cemented by the same agency a gold earring, which is conspicuous in the accom- panying engraving. No. 39. It will be seen that the gold earring is of the shape represented by Nos. 754-764, p. 462, in Ilios. Of the same form are also the other ear- rings, but they cannot be seen well in the engraving, as only part of them shows itself. Regarding this gold earring, which is made of wire Chap. IIL] TROJAN GOLDSMITH^' WORK. lo: soldered together, I may remark that the art of manufac- turing gold wire, and of forming with it objects of art, is mentioned by Homer, and attributed by him to Hephaestus, No. 38. — Staff or sceptre knob of G^old, with a geometrica ornamentation. Size3:3; depth, 8*5om. No. 39. — Bundle of bronze Brooches, intermingled with Earrings of silver and elec- trum, and fastened together by the cementing action of the carbonate of copper: on the outside is attached a gold earring. (Size 2:3; depth, 8'5om.) who made of gold wire the crest of Achilles' helmet,* and the tassels of Athene's aegis ;f he also made a net of wire -^ //. XVIII. 611, 612 : TeC^e 5e ol K6pu6a 0pLap^v KpOTatpOis apapv7ap, II. XIX. 380-383 : ...'... TTtpl 5e Tpvtpd\€iai/ aelpas Kparl 6^T0 ^ptap-qv yj 5', affrrjp ws, atr^AafXTre 'LTTTTOvpLS Tpv, ' to crock,' ' to sound,' is altogether impossible. I may liere mention regarding the curious gold ornament represented in I/ios, p. 489, Nos. 836, 838, and p. 490, * Od. IV. 131, 132 : Xpi'O'eTjc t' TjXa/carTji', Td\ap6t^ 8' CnroKiiKKor uiraffaiv, apyvoijy, ^pvv 01 (papos ^KacTos ivirKuvls 7;5e x^'''^^^ II Od IV. 128, 129: hs MeyeXdcf} SoJKe 5iJ' apyvpias acrafiivBovs^ BoLOVs 5e TpiivodaSi S^Ka 5e xp^f^olo raKavra. 112, THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. of the Homeric talent is given in the passage, where two gold talents are deposited in the midst of the judges, to be presented to him who should pronounce the most equitable judgment.* A tongue of gold of 50 shekels is mentioned among the spoil of Jericho, in Josh. vii. 21, 2,4, which not only reminds us of the shape of the Trojan silver wedges, but also implies an object of small size. To Prof Sayce's interesting dissertation f on the same six silver wedges, I have to add that the most ancient coins do not appear to be anterior to the 7th century b.c. Among the ancient Egyptians gold and silver were, as the engineer Winer remarks,^ estimated by weight. The weights used for these metals had commonly the form of animals, and principally of bulls or oxen ; hence the Roman name " pecunia," from " pecus." In like manner, a large number of the Assyrian weights are in the form of ducks. But that Mr. Winer's theory is altogether unsound is proved by the explanation of Friedrich Hultsch,§ to which Dr. Dorpfeld calls my attention : " Much more distinctly than in the case of the Greeks, we can follow up among the Romans the traces of development which, from the most ancient simple exchange by barter, gradually led to the use of coined money. Precisely as among the Greeks at the time of Homer, the ox, and with it the sheep, served until a late period among the Rom.ans as the medium of barter. It really was their oldest money, and consequently they were unable to express this conception better in their language " 11. XVIII. 507, 508: KeiTO 5' ^p iv fi€-ologie,'Bti\m, 18S2, pp. 128-131. § The former interpretation is given by the Etym. M., the latter is based especially on a comparison with the Latin libra. According to A. Fick, Verglciehendes Worterbuch der Indogermaniscken Sprachcii. I. p. 601, TiiXavTov is derived from the original root in the European family of languages tal, lift, weigh, compare ; this root has then, in the Graeco-Italic family of languages (II. p. 105), ihe forms tal (rdXavToi') and io/ (Latin tuli, toUo, etc.). For further details see G. Curtius, Grundziige dcr Griechischcn Eiytnologie, p. 220, sqq. 9 114 "^^^ SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. fixed as the fourth prize among five, and the half of which was at another time set out as the last prize of three.* The Homeric talent weighed, therefore, i6-8 grammes (a little above half an ounce Troy) ; it was brought, out in the customary longish-round bar-form, the prototype of the oldest gold stater, which was coined at the beginning of the 7th century B.C., at Phocaea, and in other cities of Asia Minor. As we have just seen, its half was also in circula- tion in Homer's time; it was a small bar weighing 8*4 grammes, and with this weight it was afterwards issued by Croesus and Darius as a royal coin. Another small talent, the oriein of which reaches back to the earliest time of the civilization of Western Asia, is the weight of three staters or six Attic drachms of gold ( = 2,6-2, grammes, or above 4-5ths of an ounce Troy). " By Greek authors the talent is first mentioned on the occasion of the victory which the Sicilian Greeks won over the Carthaginians at Himera in 480 B.C., and then fre- quently until the second century B.C., to determine the weight of golden presents of honour or offerings, par- ticularly of wreaths, f It is mentioned by the comic ■" //. XXIII. 262-270; 740-751. By comparing these passages with tlie others, where prizes are mentioned, or where talents of gold are spoken of with other references, B. Bortolotti, " Del Talento Omerico" in the Commentationes Mommscnianae, Berlin, 1877, pp. 282- 290, concludes that the Homeric talent was one shekel of gold, and probably the double of the later Daricus. Under the Persian dominion, such a talent was afterwards fixed, in the Syrian provincial coinage (Brandis, p. 235, below 51, 6), as the principal unit for the small silver coins and for the copper coinage. The Homeric talent is put on a par with the Daricus by the anonymous Alexandrian {J\Ictrol. Script. I. p. 301, 6-8; De Lagarde, Symmict. I. p. 167, where the text has erroneously StuptKu! instead of AapetKcS). t Diod. XI. 26, 3, informs us that Damareta, wife of Gelon king of Syracuse, received from the Carthaginians, after the conclusion of peace, a golden wreath of 100 talents = 2 ' 62 kilogr., nearly 5^ lbs. avoirdupois. He further tells us that Gelon consecrated to the Delphian Apollo, from gratitude for the victory, a golden tripod of 16 talents = 419' i gr. (about 9-roths of a lb.) Chap. III.] CROUCHING HOG OF IVORY. 115 poet Philemon,* towards the end of the fourth, or at the beginning of the third century B.C., probably to express the value of an Egyptian copper-talent. Besides Nicander of Thyatira, Pollux and Eustathius give the value and weight of the small gold talent as three staters, f The last writer also calls it Macedonian, but the reason of this denomination is uncertain." There were further found in the temple A some curious objects of ivory, of which I represent five under Nos. 40—44. The object No. 40, of which two examples were found, No. 40. — Knife-handle of Ivory. Size 2 : 3 ; depth about 8" 50 m. represents a crouching hog, rudely carved ; it is very similar to a like object of ivory given in Ilios, p. 423, No. 517, which I supposed at the time to have been used in some way or other in weaving. But I now rather think that all these three crouching hogs have been used as knife handles, because that is certainly the purpose of two very similar objects, in the form of lions, which are in the Assyrian collection in the Louvre. I think this the rather, as the back part of our ivory hog, which is broken off here, but is complete in figure 517 in Ilios, runs out into something like a fish-taii, has a vertical opening, and is perforated horizontally. Much more difficult is it to determine the use of the * Ety77lol. JIT. under TctXai/Toi' ; to ToXavrov Kara rovs ■7raXaiov<; ')(pv yap Chap. III.] SLING-BULLETS.— AXES OF DIORITE. 119 twisted sheep's wool, which an attendant carried for the shepherd of the people;" and again, "The magnanimous Locrians did not follow the son of Oileus ; for their heart was not firm in the ranged battle ; they had no copper helmets with crests of horsehair ; they had neither round shields nor ashen lances ; but they came to Ilium trusting to their bows and to their slings of twisted sheep's wool ; with these arms they did not cease to harass the Trojans and to break their phalanxes." The sling was consequently made of sheep's wool, instead of which leather was used in later times. As the sling is never mentioned in the poems except in these two passages, it appears to have been a weapon which was not much esteemed.* There were also found in the temple A some axes of diorite, among which I represent the most remarkable under No. 48. It has only one edge ; the other end, which is convex, must have been used as a hammer, for it bears the marks of such usage. A groove on each side, No.48.--AxeofDiorue o o ' I : 3 ; deptK about 8-5 half a centimetre deep, proves that the boring had been commenced but abandoned. It is well polished and expanding towards tlie edge ; on all its four sides there are two slightly concave bands, o • o i m. wide, which give the axe a very pretty appearance. Of particular interest is an object of Egyptian porcc- "ite. Sizt ■50 m- ou yap €Xoy itSpvOas x^^'^VP^as tTr7ro5aa"efas, ouS* €;^of affTTiSas €vKvKkovs Kol ^€tA.ica Sovpa' a\A' apa TS^oitrtf Ka\ ivct) olhs aa'TCjH "IXior €ts au' firovTO 7r€iroi0(Jres" o'idiv cTreira Tapp. 25, 26. 124 THE SECOND CITY : TROY. [Chap. III. types of the Lycian coins, which must have taken these signs from a very ancient indigenous ornament. Both tlie jIl-1 and the ip] are very frequent on the most ancient Attic vases with geometrical patterns. I may here remind tire reader of M. E. Burnoufs theory,* that tiie L-p] and the py represent the two pieces of wood, which were laid crosswise upon one another before the sacrificial altars, in order to produce the sacred fire {Agni), and the ends of which were bent round at right angles, and fastened by means of four nails J^, so that this wooden framework might not be moved ; further that the Greek word for cross, =*v - V far' *\^ifcS -iM &: V. .. :t No. 60. — Vase in the form of a hunting-bottle with a flat bottom, and an ear-like excrescence on each side. Size 1:3; depth about 8'soin. incised vertical and horizontal lines. To the list of places given on p. 402 in Ilios, where terra-cotta bottles of a somewhat similar shape may be seen, I have to add the Egyptian Museums in Florence and Turin. One thing, which the Trojan terra-cottas have in common with those found in the Italian terramare, is that they have solely the natural colour of the clay, and no artificial painting ; if they have any decoration at all, it is 13^ THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. 111. either incised or impressed in the clay, or worked out of it in rehef. Of copper or bronze there were found in the temple B a number of brooches with globular or spiral heads, of which latter form I represent two under Nos. 62 and 6^ ; those given in Ih'os under No. 104, p. 249, and No. 114, p. 250, not being distinct. I further represent here, under Nos. 64 and 65, two of the very curious needles having a protruding semi-globular head; from 0,010 mm. to """^.^'W "I'fff! No. 61. — Vase ... .^,i,,^, ^ ..Liwiii,5-uM.-i.t, ...n. ^ convex bottom and an incised linear ornamentation. Size 1:3; depth about 8 '5001. 0,013 mm., below this head the needles are sliglitly beaten out, and they have here a very sj^mmetrical quadrangular perforation, 0,008 mm. long by 0,002 mm. broad in the broadest part ; so that, if these brooches were cut off im- mediately above this hole or eye, they would resemble our present sail-needles. It is a puzzle to us how these needles may have been used ; they could certainly not have been employed for sewing, as the large head would have prevented the needle being drawn through the linen. I would there- Chap. III.] BRONZE NEEDLES, BROOCHES, &c. ^39 fore suggest that they were used as brooches, and that the quadrangular perforation served for suspending some orna- ment. A perfectly similar brooch of bronze or copper, No. 63. No. C3. Nos. 62, 63. — Brooches of bronze or copper with spiral heads. Half- size ; depth about 8' 50 m. No. 65. No. 64. N06. 64, 65. — Brooches of bronze or copper with a scmiglobular head and a quadrangular perforation. Half-size; depth about 8'5om. No. 66. — Puncli .)f bronze or copper. Half-size ; dcpti about 8* 50 m. No. 67. — Head of a Vase in the form ot a hog, ornamented with incised fish-spine patterns ; the eyes are of stone. Half-size; depth about 9m. which was found in Cyprus, is m the British Museum. No. 66 is a punch of bronze or copper. An enormous mass of pottery was found elsewhere m the debris of the second settlement. I represent here only 140 THE SECOND CITY : TROY. [Chap. III. such forms as have not occurred before. No. 67 is the very well made head-fragment of a dark-brown vase in the shape of a hog ; it is ornamented all over with incised fish-spine patterns ; the eyes, which are of stone, are very characteristic. No. 68 presents a side view, and No. 69 a front view, of a Chap. III. ANIMAL VASES : IDOLS. 141 very curious animal-vase with four feet. It is difficult to say vviiat animal the primitive artist intended to represent here ; the head resembles that of a cat more than anything else. But if a cat was really mtended to be represented here, then we must suppose that the \'ase was imported from Egypt, where the domestic cat appears to have been already introduced from Nubia under the eleventh dynasty. A Trojan artist can hardly have known the domestic cat, which, except in Magna Graecia, was unknown in Greece until a comparatively late period : it is therefore difficult to admit that it coidd have existed in Asia Minor in the remote antiquity to which the ruins of Troy belong. As usual, the mouthpiece, which is here uncommonly large, is on the hinder part, and is joined to the back by a handle ; there is an incised arrow-like orna- ment on the neck and on both sides. The taste for animal vases has survi\'ed in the Troad, and the Turkish potters' siiops in the town of the Dardanelles abound with vases in the form of lions, horses, donkeys, &c. No. 70 is, no doubt, a headless female idol, of which the arms are also broken off: in its present state it resembles very much the com- mon Trojan stone idols.* The breast is ornamented by tv\'o incised lines which cross each other ; at the place of their juncture is a concave circle, which is perhaps meant to represent an ornament : to the right and left of it are two short incised strokes, and seven more such below the cross band ; beneath them is an incised ornamentation resembling a pear, but no doubt intended to No. 70. — Headless female Idol of terra- cotta, with an incised ornamentation. Nearlj'" actual size ; depth about 9111. See I/ios, pp. 334-336, Nos. 204-220. 142. THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. represent the delta or vulva of the goddess ; it has a long vertical stroke in the midst ; the space in the vulva is filled up with seventeen small strokes. An idol (?) much ruder still is represented by the figure No. 71 ; the projections to the right and left are doubtless meant to indicate arms. No. 72 is the head of a very curious terra-cotta idol, the lower part of which was un- fortunately not found. Very characteristic are the immense owl-eyes, between which a vertical stroke is no doubt meant to denote the beak : the horizontal stroke above it doubt- No. 71- — Very rude figure of terra- cotta. Size 3:4; depth about No, 72. — Fragment of an Idol of terra-cotta, with two large owl's eyes. Size 3:4; depth about 8*50 m. less indicates the eyebrows ; three incised lines on the neck may perhaps be meant to represent necklaces. No. 73 is a terra-cotta oenochoe, with a straight neck bent back, a pretty handle, and a convex bottom. The taste for vases with long straight necks has also survived in the Troad, and enormous masses of them may be seen in the Turkish potters' shops in the Dardanelles. In spite of their gildings and their other ornamentation, they cannot be compared to the Trojan vases, either for fabric or for elegance of form. But nevertheless they give us another Chap. III.] OENOCHOAE IN THE SECOND TEMPLE I 43 remarkable proof that, in spite of all political revolutions, certain types of terra-cottas may be preserved in a country for more than three thousand years. A terra-cotta vase similar to No. 73 is in the Etruscan collection in the Museum of the Vatican, and two are in the Museum at Turin. Another, found at Ovieto, is in the Cypriote collection in the Egyptian Museum at Florence. The Etruscan collection at Corneto (Tarquinii) contains two somewhat similar vases, which are, however, of a much No. 73. — Oenochoe, with a straight neck and convex bottom. Size 1:4; depth about 9m. later period. I may also mention vases with a straight neck, though with a painted linear ornamentation, one of which is in the Cabinet des Mtidailles, the other in the Musee du Louvre, at Paris. I also found in my excava- tions at Mycenae ten * similar jugs, but with the spout turned slightly backwards ; two similar ones, with necks bent Instead of only three, as I stated erroneously in Ilios, p. 3S7. 144 THE SECOND CITY; TROY. [Chap. III. back, are in the Louvre, and two in the private collection of M. Eugene Piot at Paris. All other places where oenochoac like No. 73 may be seen are indicated in Ilios, p. 387. Of terra-cottas of the second settlement I further represent under No. 74 a lustrous black tripod vase with four excrescences on the sides, two of which have vertical perforations for suspension. No. 75 is a curious tripod oenoclwe of a lustrous red colour, with a handle and a straight neck : by a deep compression all round the middle of the body, this oenoclwe is made to resemble two vases No. 74. — 'l"ripod-vase with four excrescences, two of which are perforated vertically. Size 1:3; depth about gm. XL'-'"- .Sl/V*^"^-'-' No 75. — Tripod Oenochoe with a straight neck. Size 1:3; depth about g rn. |)laced one on the other. No. 76 is a curious vase-cover with two vertically perforated horn-like excrescences : it evidently belonged to a vase having the usual vertically perforated excrescences on the sides, by means of which the cover could be fastened hermetically to the vase. No. 77 represents a lentiform terra-cotta bottle, with a convex bottom and four wart-like excrescences on the body, each of which has a small hollow, and is surrounded by three incised concentric circles, the two larger of which are connected by numerous incised strokes. Chap. III.] MIXING-VESSELS FOR WINE. 145 There was further found a large mixing-vessel of terra- cotta, like No. 438, p. 403 in Ilios, besides fragments of many others. All these KpaTr]p€<; testify to the praiseworthy habit of the ancient Trojans in always drinking their wine mixed with water. That this wise custom was also univer- sally prevalent in the time of Homer, we find confirmed by very numerous passages in the poems ; in fact, pure wine was only used for libations to the gods.* But there can be no doubt that in later times the Romans occasionally drank merimi, and the Greeks aKpaTov, for it appears by many passages in Athenaeus f that all great drinkers drank No. 76. — Vase-cover with two verticaliy perfora- ted horn-like excres- cences. Size 1:4; depth about 9 m No. 77. — Lentiform terra-cotta Bottle with a convex bottom and four wart-like excrescences. Size 1:4; depth about 9 m. pure wine. The same author cites the wise but severe law of the Locrian legislator Zaleucus, which interdicted to the Locrians of Magna Graecia {AoKpol 'E7nl,e(j)vpLOL), upon pain of death, the drinking of aKparov, except when ordered by a physician .| Of lamps, as before, no vestige was discovered ; in fact, I have never found a lamp even in the latest prehistoric settlement at Hissarlik, nor in the Lydian settlement, nor at Mycenae, nor at Orchomenos ; and it may be taken as cer- tain that in all antiquity, previous to the fifth century B.C., * //. II. 341, and IV. 159. t Ddpnosophistae, X. X X. 429 : -Trapa Se Ao/cpot? Tot9 'E7riZ^t<^Dptoi5 ci T19 aKparov cTrie, ^rj TrpoaTa$ain-Oi iarpov Btpairuas evcKa, Oavaro'i rjv r/ ^r]/xia, Za\€VKOv Toy vojxov OivTO^. 11 146 THE SECOND CITY : TROY. [Chap. III. people used torches for giving light. It is true that once in Homer * Pallas Athene lights Ulysses and Telemachus by holding in her hand a Xv-^vo'?, which word is generally translated " lamp." But I must absolutelj^ protest against such an interpretation, for Homer knew no kind of lamp proper, and this is confirmed by the Scholiast and by Eustathius. Consequently the Xv')(vo<; which Athene carried could not be anything else than a Sat?, a piece of resinous wood, or a \ajxTrTT)p (a pan in which dry wood was burned).^ We certainly find the oil-lamp mentioned in the Batracho- myomacliia,\ but this proves nothing else than that the latter poem is not by Homer and belongs to a time centuries later. Of vases with spouts in the body, and which may have served as babies' feeding-bottles, such as are represented in Ilios, pp. 406, 407, under Nos. 443-447, several more were found. Besides the places enumerated in Ilios, p. 406, similar bottles with spouts are not rare in the Swiss Lake- dwellings. Two such bottles have been found by the sagacious Dr. Victor Gross in his excavations at the station of Corcelettes in the Lake of Neufchatel,§ and two at the station of Estavayer.|| Another, which was found under the ancient tufa at Marino near Albano, is in the Museo Nazionale in the Collegio Romano at Rome. There were also found half-a-dozen vases having on each side a spiral decoration in relief, like the Cypri: ie chiracter ko, such as is conspicuous on the vases Nos. xod^ 354, and * Od. XIX. 33, 34 : Xfjyo'^oi' Kvxvov €xov(ra^ ^-, in Ilios ; on many others it is merely indicated by a black colour, which I take for black clay, like Nos. 206-210, pp. o^-^^, 335, in Ilios. These Trojan idols are so rude, that even the rudest idols found in the Cyclades, and of which I gave a list at p. 338 of Ilios, appear masterpieces of workmanship if compared to them. I may add to that list three idols from Paros, and three from Babylon, in the Musee du Louvre, on all of which the vulva is indicated by a triangle. * See Mycenae, p. 12, Nos. 8 and 10; PI. XVIL Nos. 94, 96; p. 72, No. III. 152, THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. Of large urns or vases, like those represented in Ilios, pp. 398-401, Nos. 419-432, or pp. 541, 542, Nos. 11 12, 1 1 19, a vast number were found. Strange as it may appear, urns or vases of like shapes have never yet been found else- where. Though I have most carefully examined all the prehistoric collections of Europe, I have not found a single analogue, with the exception of the type of the urn. No. 424, p. 399, in Ilios, which is somewhat approached by one in the Museo Nazionale of the Collegio Romano at Rome, found in the necropolis of Carpineto near Cupra Marittima in the province of Ascoli Piceno ; and excepting also the shape of the vases. No. 419, p. 398, Nos. 422, 423, p. 399, which is somewhat approached by three vases of the Egyptian Collection in the Museum of Turin. I found another barrel-vase in fragments, like No. 439, p. 404, in Ilios. Dr. Chr. Hostmann calls my attention to a vase of identical form, found in a very ancient tomb near Halberstadt ; * but that is probably the only one of the same shape ever found outside of Troy or Cyprus. Of polished black one-handled hand-made plates (or rather bowls) of the shape of No. 455, p. 408, in Ilios, two were found. Similar but much ruder one-handled hand- made bowls are frequent in the pre-Etruscan tombs of Corneto (Tarquinii), where, strange to say, they alwa3rs served as covers for the large one-handled funeral urns. Of very rude wheel-made plates without handles, like those represented under Nos. 456-468, p. 408, in Ilios, a vast number was found in the ruins of both the second and third settlements. Those of the second city are always of a dark yellow colour, which I take to be the effect of the heat in the great catastrophe. Similar rude wheel-made plates may be seen, besides the places indicated on p. 408 of Ilios, in the Egyptian Collection of the Louvre, which contains two of them. * Chr. Hostmann, Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, IV. p. 211. Chap. III.] CUPS, SPOONS, AND FUNNELS. 153 I cannot leave unnoticed tlie unglazed red wheel-made pottery, which occurs sometimes in the second city ; but it is very rare. I also found in the second, third, and fourth cities, more of those small boat-like cups of but slightly baked clay, like those shewn under Nos. 471-473, p. 409, in Ilios, which, in the opinion of Dr. John Percy and Prof W. Chandler Roberts, have been used in primitive metallurgy. Three similar vessels, found in the ancient tombs near Corneto (Tarquinii), are in the Museum of that city ; of four others, found in the terramare of the Emilia, three are in the Museum of Reggio, the fourth in the Museum of Parma ; this latter one has rather the form of a small ship, like No. 471, p. 409, in Ilios. Now, I am ready to believe that the people of the terramare, like the Trojans, may have used these small vessels in metallurgy, but I am sceptical as to the same use having been made of a similar vessel, which was found in the famous Grotta del Diavolo near Bologna, for the antiquities of which the remote age of the first epoch of the reindeer is claimed, * because the inhabitants of that grotto seem to have been totally unacquainted with metals. Among my discoveries of this year I may further mention such small rude terra-cotta spoons as those re- presented under Nos. 474, 475, p. 410, in Ilios. Of similar spoons, found in the terramare of the Emilia, one is in the Museum of Reggio, the other in that of Parma. Another spoon of the same sort was found by Dr. Victor Gross in his excavations in the Lake habitations at the station of Hauterive.f I also found some more funnels of terra- cotta, in the second and third settlements, of the same form as No. 476, p. 410. Four very similar funnels of * Aw. Ulderigo Botti, Grotta del Diavolo, Bologna, 187 1, PI. IV. fig. 10, p. 36. t Victor Gross, Les Protohdvetes , Paris, 1883, Plate XXXII. fig. i. 154 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. terra-cotta are in the Museum of Parma, with the indica- tion that they were found in the terramare of the Emiha; but the exact station of their discovery is not given. Another very similar terra-cotta funnel, found in the terra- mare of the Emilia at Imola, Monte Castellaccio, is in the Museo Nazionale in the CoUegio Romano at Rome. Two more rattle-boxes of terra-cotta were found. One of them has the form of a woman, but it is of such rude fabric and so much defaced, that, without having in mind the rattle-box represented in Ilios, p. 413, fig. 487, it would hardly be possible to recognize in it the human shape ; it has on its lower end some perforations, by means of which it may be seen that it contains small pebbles which produce the rattling noise ; but others, such as Nos. 486 and 487, p. 413, in Ilios, seem to contain small lumps of bronze or copper, for they produce a metallic sound when shaken. Rattle-boxes of terra-cotta occur also in Swiss lake-dwellings, as well as in Egyptian tombs ; one, of oval shape, was found by Dr. Victor Gross in his excava- tions at the station of Corcelettes in the Lake of Neufchatel ; two similar ones were discovered by M. de Fellenberg in his diggings in the lake dwellings at the station of Moeringen.* I also found one more of those large well-polished funnels of terra-cotta, lustrous dark-yellow or rather brown, of semi-globular form, with sieve-like holes, of which the only two specimens previously found are represented under Nos. 477 and 478, pp. 410, 41 1, in Ilios. Tripod-vases of terra-cotta with two vertically perforated excrescences on the sides, like those represented in Ilios, pp. 357-363, Nos. 252-263, 268-281, were just as abundant as before, so that I was able to collect some hundreds of them.. But still far more plentifully than in any one of my "' Dr. Victor Gross, Station de Corcelettes, Neuveville, 1882, j). 10, PI. I. 6. Chap. III.] THE HOMERIC aehas 'AMctlKYHEAAON. 155 former excavations at Troy have I now found the long straight goblets, in shape like a trumpet, with two enormous handles, such as Nos. 319, 320, p. 371, and Nos. 321-323, p. 372, in Ilios. I have tried to prove by my full disserta- tion on the subject (pp. 299-302, in Ilios) that under the denomination SeTra'; ajxcfiLKVTreWov Homer cannot pos- sibly have had in view anything else than a cup with two large handles. This certamly appears to be also proved by the word d/xt^t^eros in Eustathius, which means "with two handles " or a.fx(^L(f)op€v^.* As this form of goblet was in general use in all the four upper prehistoric settlements of Troy, and even occurs among the Lydian pottery of the sixth settlement, I suggested it as highly probable that cups of an identical shape still existed at the time of Homer, and that it is to this ver}^ same sort of double- handled goblet that he gives the name of SeVa? dfj.LKVTT€Xkov no other inter- pretation can be given than that of double-handled simple cup. An authority equally high. Professor Wolfgang Helbig, of Rome,§ now also accepts my theory ; he brings forward a long series of new and highly interesting argu- ments, from which I give the following extracts : " (p. 221.) The chopin (French, c/ioJ>e ; German ScJiop- pcn) and the champagne-glass are the images of the extremes of social life." (p. 222.) "In the Homeric poems. * Eustath. apud //. XXIII. 270 : 'A/xt^t'^ero; 8c <^iaXrj rj d/x<^0TepOTcf>iii0^v KViTTO^evov, Schol. OJ. XIII. 57 : TO TTtpK^tpt's, TO iTavra)^66fv KiKV<^6%- Schol. Od. XX. 153 ; Athen. XL p. 482 E : a-rro yap KV<^OTrjTO<; to KmreXkov, wa-irep koI to afj.<^LKvir(XXov (cf. Eustath. ad Od. XV. 120, p. 1775, 24, p. 1776, 38), Etyin. ]\lag. p. 90, 42 : to Ik irtpK^epetas KvLKV7riX.(^X.')or irfpt(^€pe? TToT-ijpiOV. Apoll. IjCX. p. 25 : ap.LKvpT0T ■ otor -TrepiKCKuc^oj/xcVov, oir(p litov tw K(.KvpTwp,ivov. Further, several gram- marians maintained that the Homeric goblet had no handles, in order that the continuity of the curve might be in no way interrupted. Athen. XI. 482 F: liuXrjvb'; St rj€ri ■ KinrckXa tKTrojpaTa 0L<; o/iota, ois KaL Nt/cai'Spo9 o KoA.o<^ojvto9. Hesych. kvit^XKov • cTSo? TroTyjplov dcuTOV. t Eustath. ad//. 1.596, p. 158, 41 sqq.; ad Od. i, 142, p. 1402, 26 sqq. J Etytn. Magn. s. v. afi.LKV7rc\Xov (pp. 90, 44) : 'Apt(rTap;)(o's (prjat tTrjp.aLV€ii' TTjv Xliiv T-qv Sia tS>v o'toji/ fKaTcpwOev 7r€pLepeiav. Athen. XI. C. 24, p. 7^3 ^ '• ^o,pOevto^ ok Ota to TT^piKCKVpTitiO-Oat to. coTapta • KViKV7reWov, 0)5 otoi' KvpTov Kai ajj.iKvpToVj airo tC)V wTuyy. § Gcschichte der Kunst des Alterthums,~!L\. i paragr. 15. Chap. III.] NOT A DOUBLE GOBLET. 157 afjLi^iKVTTekkov as a goblet with two handles, such as that of which he has found many specimens m his excavations at Troy, as well as in the Acropolis of Mycenae. This opinion seems to be the right one, and we shall here endeavour to prove it. Buttmann* and Fratif suppose that, since Aristotle compares the cells of bees to d|U,icrTOfj-ot' Trept yap fiiav j3a(Tiv Svo ^uptScs ticriV, (ZsTrfp rj Tuiv afj.<^iKVTriXXu)V, rj fxev «itos 7; 8' ckto's — a passage quoted by Eustath. ad /I. I. 596, p. 158, 45 sqq. § Such vases with double cups have been figured by Gozzadini, B>i tin scpolcreto etr. scop, presso Bolcgna, PI. III. 19, 18, and Intorno agli Scavi fatti dal sig. Arnoaldi Vcli, PI. III. 2 ; see also G. de Mortillet, Le signc de la croix, p. 64, fig. 31 ; p. 166, fig. 91. See also Issel. Ltionio preistorico in Italia, p. 833, fig. 65, and Crespellani, Del Scpolcreto scopcrto prcsso Bazzano, PI. III. i. II //. III. 29s; XXIIL 219 sqq. 158 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. resistance of the air in the other cup. Such a shape of vase is in contradiction with, and not at all adapted to, the form of goblet which could have been used in libations, or for the welcoming of guests on their arrival. In this case one and the same Seira? aixiKVT7ek\ov was handed round among tlie guests,* and if a new guest arrived, the banquetters welcomed him, presenting to him heira a/A^t/cweXXa full of wine; the guest took one of them, drank it up, and gave back the goblet to the person from whom he had received it.f Now it would be very difficult to make such handleless vases full of wine circulate, without spilling the liquid. In fact it would have required the firm hand of the con- juror, not those of banquetters who have already made large libations to Bacchus (p. 228). Besides it is much easier to hold such a handleless cylindrical vase with two hands than with one, J whereas the poems expressly state that the SeTTtt? ajji(f)LKvveXXov was taken with one hand.§ The Villanova vases with a double cup may have received this form because it was the most easy to make. The dia- phragm, which separated the two cups, consolidated the sides of the plastic cylinder and prevented them from bending before they were baked." (p. 229.) " But the fact, that Aristotle describes an aiJi(f)LKVTTeX\oi' as a goblet forming a double vessel, does not prove that the Serras aixt/cu7reXX.oi' of his time a direct descendant from the Homeric goblet, his * Oif. III. 35 sqq. t //. XV. 86; XXIV. loi, 102. J According to the measures which Count Gozzadini has communi- cated to me, the larger internal diameter of these vases'varies between o, 124 and o, 150 mm. ; the smaller one, between 0,075 ^^'^ 0,121 mm § ,.g. Od. XIII. 57 : 'Aprirri 5' 4ir ^fipl rleet Se'iras afiipMijiri Wov, XXII. 17 : diiras 5e' 01 t/ciretre x^^pos^ Chap. III.] THE HOMERIC TESTIMONIES. 159 opinion would have been a mere conjecture. We know besides that the word KvueXXov, which in the poems is synonymous with Sena^ ajx^iKvwfXkov, signified in other Greek dialects a different type from that indicated by Aristotle ; the Cypriots called by this name a goblet with two handles, the Cretans (p. 230) a goblet with two or with four." * Now a name which was in general use among Cypriots has in our enquiry the same and even greater weight than a designation employed by Aristotle, for it is well known that the Greek population of that island preserved many peculiarities of the Homeric lan- guage.f Professor Helbig goes on to repeat the Homeric testimonies, which were first pointed out by me (see Ilios, pp. 299—301), that Se77as ajx<^LKVTr€X\ov, Sena's, KVTreXXov, aXcLcrov, and aXeicrov dficjicoTov, are synonymous, and he thinks that from the same Homeric evidence Aristarchus must have taken the idea of the two handles of the Sena'; a^^iKvneXXov. (p. 2,31.) " Drinking-cups with a double vessel and two handles cannot have existed, because such a goblet has never yet been found, and it has left no trace of its existence among the monumental evidence. The Homeric SeTras a^<^LKvne'k\ov can have been nothing else than a simple goblet with two handles, and this theory corresponds with the monumental examples, because, as Dr. Schliemann's excavations at Troy and Mycenae have proved, this kind of drinking-cup was in common and general use long before the Homeric poems originated * Professor W. Helbig seems not to have been aware that I had cited these instances in Ilios, p. 302. t This peculiarity of the Cypriot flialect nas been noticed by Deecke and Siegesmund, apud G. Curtius, Studien zur gricchischen und latdnischen Gmmmatik, VII. (1875) p. 262 ; also by M. Br&l, Sur k dechiffrancnt des inscriptions Cypriotes, pp. 16, 17 {J oiirnal des savants, Aoflt et Sept. 1877); further by Ahrens in the Fhilologus, XXXV. pp. 36, 49, We may also remind the reader that the Cypriots preserved the use of the Homeric war-chariots till the beginning of the fifth century B.C. Herodot. V. 113. i6o THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. (p. 232-). The same may be said of the examples which follow in date the Homeric age, in the cemeteries of Camirus and Etruria.* To this evidence may be added, that in later times also this type of goblet occupied a place of great importance in the rites of worship; on sepulchral monuments, priests hold it in their hands as a distinctive mark of their dignity.f It is nearly always the attribute of Bacchus, the god of wine,J and it is never missing in the hands of the Chthonian god in Spartan relief sculptures.§ The later Greeks caU such a goblet Kav6apoIKYnEAAON. i6l X.oi' with Kv-n-y), 'cavern,' and cup-a, 'barrel.' If this were right, then d/jiffiLKvnekXov would be a goblet with a double vessel, which we have found to be inadmissible. If the SeTTas ajx(f)LKinTe\Xov means a goblet with two handles, then it seems obvious that the root is Kaw-, as in capere. As the Latins formed from this root cap-ithcs, a handle, cap-i-s, a cup or goblet with a handle, the Umbrians cap-i-s, which has the same signification as the last-mentioned Latin word, so it appears highly probable that in remote antiquity the Greeks made of it a substantive Kv-rr-eX-q (cf. ve(f)-ekr)), handle. The V being an Aeolic peculiarity, Kvn-eXr] would be connected with Ko'm-rj, a common word to designate a ' handle,' as TTpvTavi'; IS connected with 77^0, ajxvjxojv with fjia)fj,o<;, iricrvpe.^ with Tea(rape<;, Kvnr] with kcxttt; (p. 235).* From Kvvikrj was afterwards formed an adjective KVTTek-Lo-<;, KvireWo'; (cf ^vlXov^foUiiin, akko^ = a/u(s) to express 'handled,' and hence d|a(^t/cu7reXA.o?, ' furnished with handles on both sides.' At the time of Aristotle the word aix<^LKviTekkov may have had a different meaning from that which it had in Homer, and it may have designated a vase with two cups. Even in Homer KviriXkov is employed as a substantive without SevT-a? ; in the course of time, it may well have designated simply a cup, with or without handles. It was then but natural that Aristotle should have called a vase with two cups apcjiLKinreKkop. The SeTra? ajxcjiLKv- irekkov from which Ulysses drank when he took leave of Arete, as well as the Sevra dixcfuK-vnekka which we see in the hands of the suitors of Penelope, must therefore be supposed to ha\'e been similar to the Ko.vdapo'; of Bacchus. " This fact is not without importance for judging of the state of society at the time of Homer. The civilization of the Greeks at the time of the poems presents a singular mixture of incongruous elements. On one hand we see rem- * I do not include here the word cupa, by which Cato, De He Rustica, 21, indicates the handle of an oil-mill, for the quantity of the u is unknown, and it may be that the word is derived from koVt;. 12 l62 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. nants of the primitive Indo-Germanic stage of barbarism. Achilles still honours the shade of Patroclus with human sacrifices (p. 236).* Cleanliness, which is one of the most characteristic qualities of the classical time, leaves much to be desired. y The use of the bath is still rare ; the food is of a primitive simplicity.^ On the other hand, with these barbarous elements are mingled the refinements of Oriental civilization ; elegance and luxury in dress, par- ticularly that of the women. The wives of the basilcis, in their costumes of the Asiatic style, resemble rather the Odaliscs (women of the harem) of King Solomon than the Athenian women of the Periclean epoch, and exhale the scent of Asiatic perfumes,§ which contrasts strangely with that rising from the dung in the courtyard. || But the people whose external life generally presents such a mixture of barbarism and Asiatic luxury, are in the development of their inward feelings, already quite Hellenic or classical. This quality finds a splendid expression in the plastic pre- cision of the epic descriptions. The enthusiasm for physical beauty is truly classical. In no popular poetry does any figure exist, which represents, so fully as Helen, the daemonic power of beauty. When Hector is slain and stripped of his armour, the Achaeans admire the perfect form of his naked body.^ They have already the same aesthetic senti- ment which, many centuries later, the Athenian warriors manifested near Plataea before the corpse of the Persian general Masistius ** (p. 237). The types of the divinities » //. XVIII. 336; XXI. 27-32 ; XXIII. 175. t Helbig, die Italiker in der Po-Ebcne, p. 4. X Idem, pp. 74-76. § //. XIV. 171-174; XXIII. 185-187; Od. II. 339; VIII. 364; XVIII. 192-194; Hymn. horn. IV. (in Venerem), 61; XXIV. 3; //. VI. 483 : KTyaJSei koAtto) (of Andromache). Cf. Hehn, Kultw-pflanzen und Hausf/ncre, 3rd ed. pp. 90-93. II //. XXIV. 640 ; Od. XVII. 290-300. H //. XXII. 370, cf. also XXII. 71-76. ** Herodotus, IX. 25. Chap. III.] SOCIAL ASPECT OF THE QUESTION. 163 presented themselves before their mind as vet)' like those ex- pressed by the art of the 5th century B.C., and the celebrated verses of the Iliad, which describe how Zeus nods assent to the praj^er of Thetis, already contain the essential concep- tion which Phidias represented in his Olympian Jove.* There was only wanted the capacity to give to the poetical ideas an adequate form in clay or stone." Prof Helbig goes on to say that his lecture aimed at establishing a new fact which unites the social life of the contemporaries of Homer with that of the classical period : "the goblet with two handles, which the lonians used when the Homeric songs first resounded at their banquets, was the direct ancestor of the high KoivBapos, as well as of the flat and finely profiled /cvXtf, which glittered in the hands of Pericles and Sophocles." In a postscript. Professor Helbig states that lie had consulted Mr. Bezzenberger on the etymology of Kv-rreXXop, and that the latter answered, " If you put Kv-rreWov in relation with capcre, I see only a slight difficulty in the fact that, in the words which are certainly allied to capcre, the a remains unchanged (Gothic haban, Lithuanian kainpt, &c.), and that the words a/xv/xwi^, -iriavpe'i, TrpvTavL<;, &c., which you cited as analogies, belong to a category which is slightly different from a word KvireWov derived from Kair-. Notwithstanding this, your etymology can be sustained ; but I would support it further by pointing to KUTracrcrt?, which is founded on Kviracra-o, corresponding to the Latin capitiu-m. I would also not lose sight of the analogy of * //. i. 52S-530: 'H, KaX Kuav^T]0'iv fiv' 0(ppva'i reuo'e Kpopiojy ■ a^t^poffiai 5' &pa ;>^arTai eVep^wcrafTO &faKTos Kparhs an adai'a.Toto ' ^^ya.v 5' iK^Ai^ev ^OKvpiirov. Besides the Olympian Jove of Phidias, these lines gave Milton the pattern for those sublime verses in the Paradise Lost (III. 135-137) : " Thus while God spake, ambrosial fragrance fiU'd All heaven, and in the blessed spirits elect Sense of new joy ineffable diffused." 1 64 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. the German words, Gefass, Fass, fassen. But I would ask whether the root of KvveXXoi' must not be sought for in the Lithuanian kiiprs, the ancient German kovar, ' a boss,' the Lithuanian kiimpis, ' curved,' the ancient German Jmbil, ' hill,' &c. Then the comparison could be maintained as to Kiivr], C7ipa, &c. ; and afjL ]■' If X >1 if A t./: Jtrk \ it 1 ' 1 * h. ■r No. 80. — Battle-axe of copper with a perforation in the upper end. Actual size depth about gm. No. 81. — Battle-axe of copper. Size 1:3; depth aboat 9 m. No. 82. — Knife of bronze. Actual size ; depth about 9m. 0,120 mm. long, of which two have the upper end per- forated. I represent one of these in the actual size under No. 80. The use of the perforation is not clear to me: may these perforated battle-axes perhaps have been used as Chap. III.] OBJECTS IN THE BRONZE TREASURE. i6 / chisels, and may the artist have used the perforation to suspend them on his belt ? I may here mention that the British Museum contains six battle-axes of copper or bronze of a similar shape, which were found in the island of Thermia in the Greek Archipelago, and of which three are perforated in like manner. There were also a large battle-axe, o'o,^ m. long, which I give here under No. 8i, and the lower part of another. Also a curious object of copper in the form of a seal, on which however no engraved sign is visible. Further, three small but well-preserved knives of bronze, of which I represent one under No. 82; a bronze dagger, precisely similar to that found in the temple A, and represented before under No. 34, but rolled up in the conflagration, No. 83. — Ring of bronze or copper. Size 2:3; depth 9 m. so that it forms nearly a circle, like the dagger No. 813, p. 48 a, in Ilios. The treasure further contained a bronze lance of the usual Trojan form, such as I have represented under No. '^'^, and a most curious ring of bronze or copper, which I represent under No. 83. It is of the size of our napkin rings, but rather thick and therefore very heavy ; it is 0,045 mm. broad and 0,068 mm. in diameter; rt has five compartments, each ornamented with a cross. The use of this ring is altogether a riddle to us. i68 THE SECOND CITY: TROY. [Chap. III. But by far the most interesting object of the httle trea- sure was a copper or bronze idol of the most primitive form, which I represent here, un- der No. 84, in about 7-8ths of the size. It has an owl's head, and round protruding eyes, between which the beak is conspicuous. There is a hole in each ear, which, however, does not go through, and therefore cannot have served for suspension. The neck is dis- proportionately long, indeed, fully twice as long as a human figure of this size would have ; no breasts are indicated ; the right arm is represented by a shapeless projec- tion, which is bent round so as to make the end, where the hand ought to be, rest on the place where the right breast ought to be ; and this circumstance can hardly leave a doubt that a female figure was intended. The left arm is broken off; but the stump which remains of it extends too far horizontally to admit the sup- position that this arm could have had an attitude similar to that of the right arm ; we rather think it stood out in a straight line, and this is also probably the reason that it was broken when the idol fell. No delta or vulva is indi- cated. The legs are separated: probably merely to con- sohdate them, a shapeless piece of copper has been soldered to them from behind, which protrudes 0,012 mm. below No. 84. — Female Idol of bronze or copper. Size abjut 7:8; depth about 9 m. Chap. III.] A PRIMITIVE PALLADIUM. 169 the feet, and ought not to be mistaken for a stay or prop, because it can never have served as such, for the simple reason that it is longer than the feet, and is fastened almost parallel with them. But it is difficult to say how the Trojans may have managed to place the idol upright ; its back has no marks of any fastenings, and we cannot think they could have suspended it with a wire round the neck, for in later times at least that would have been considered as a sacrilegious act, and have revolted the religious feelings of the people. We presume, therefore, that the shapeless piece of copper, which we see projecting below the feet, may have been sunk into a wooden stand ; we see no other way to explain how the idol could have been placed upright. The figure is 0,155 ni™- long, and weighs 440 grammes (nearly i lb. avoird.). I think it probable that it is a copy or imitation of the famous Palladium, which was fabled to have fallen from heaven,* the original of which was pro- bal^ly much larger, and of wood. Fortunately, as may be seen in the engraving, it had broken into three fragments ; I am indebted to this lucky circumstance for having ob- tained it in the division with the Turkish Government ; for the three pieces were covered with carbonate of copper and dirt, and altogether undiscernible to an inexperienced eye. Among the objects found I may further mention many fragments of stone moulds, as well as three entire ones, all of mica slate ; one of them has a bed in the form of a ~i~, such as we see in the mould, p. 435, No. 602, in Ilios ; the two others have the sha])e of the moulds, Nos. 599, 600, p. 433, in Ilios, with beds for similar weapons or instruments on six sides. Conspicuous among the forms is the disk-like one which we see in Nos. 599, 600, and which can in our opinion only have served to cast, copper * Apollodorus, IIL 2, 3 : t