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PF 
 J/// 
 
 WORKS INTRODUCTORY TO THE 
 STUDY OF GERMAN, 
 
 By "William D. Whitney, ph.d., ll.d., 
 
 Author of "Language and the Study of language," etc.. 
 
 Professor of Sanscrit and Instructor in Modem Languages in Tale 
 
 Cottege ; Memter of the National Acad, of Sciences, tM Amer. Acad. 
 
 cf Arts and Sdenees, and the Amer. PAUosopMcal Society; 
 
 Son. Member of tlie Bay. Asiatic Society qf Great Britian 
 
 and Ireland; Correeponding Secretary of the American 
 
 Oriental Society, etc, 
 
 L A COMPENDIOUS GERMAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 The plan of this work has been suggested by the author's experience 
 as a teacher of German In Yale College during the past fifteen years. 
 It aims to famish the best practical aid to the scholar who is trying to 
 learn German especially for the sake of access to German literature, 
 but who wonld gain at the same time snch grammatical and philological 
 training as it can be made to yield, without neglecting the main object, 
 or turning aside for special stndies in comparative grammar and the 
 philosophy of language. 
 
 Along with a lucid and rational statement of fects and principles of 
 German grammar, it will aim to set forth in an attractive manner, 
 som£ enlgecis which are wont to lie insuffidenUy treated— as, 
 
 I.— Thb dbbitatiohs akd ooitnbotions ov thb words. 
 
 n.— Thb oonstbuotion or sentences. 
 
 in.— The coeeespondbnobs between German and Engush, and 
 
 THEIB GEOXTNDS. 
 
 Practical exercises will not be excluded, but will hold a subordinate 
 place, it being intended that the pupil shall as soon as possible resort 
 to the literature for reading and further practice. 
 
 DOTBEENT BIZB9 OT TYPE WILL MAKE A OARBTUIj DISTINCTION OP 
 THE CONTENTS AGCOEDINa TO THBIE DEGREE OF IMPOETANCE, SO THAT 
 THE WOBK MAT BE USED BY PXn-LLS 07 DIPrBBBNT AGE AND 
 DIFFERENT PROriOIBNOT. 
 
 II. A GERMAN READER, in Prose and Verse, 
 WITH Notes and Vocabulary. 
 
 The Eeader contains about two hundred and fifty pages of German 
 text, almost equally divided between prose and verse, and arranged upon 
 u progressive plan, as follows : 1— snorter and longer pieces of easy 
 
 96C 
 
Cornell University Library 
 PF 3111.W62 1869 
 
 Compendious German grammar / 
 
 3 1924 026 549 315 
 
 narrative prose ; 2— poetic pieces, beginning wltn ttoee CI simpJeST 
 style, and risine to the more difflcnlt ; 8— extended extracts from the 
 dramatic master-pieces of classical authors ; 4 — prose pieces in more 
 elaborate style, narrative, historical, critical, and sdentiflc. 
 
 The Notes and Vocabulary will be unprecedentedly ftill — occupying 
 about the same space as the text. 
 
 The Notes will give the needed general notices and explanations, and 
 will unravel the difficulties of expression in such a way as to make the 
 student understand thb roioMS astd thbib OKiaiN. 
 
 The VocABTjLART will be bspeoiallt pull and complete, en- 
 deavoring to do for the learner more thak is tindektaken by the 
 CUEBBNT DioTioNABiES, in the way of exhibiting, 
 
 I.— THE DEBIVATIONS OF WOKDS AITO OF THEIR MEAN- 
 INGS. 
 
 n. — Thb coebespondenoes between the Gbbman ajtd English 
 
 LANOnAOEB. 
 
 The annooncemeut of the works of Professor Whitney, above 
 described, has been hailed with great eatisi^ction by all educators 
 to whose attention the facts have been informally brought. So great is 
 the confidence in Professor Whitnbt'b transcendent abilities, that on 
 the catalogue of such an institution as the University of Michigan, 
 one of these works was named as the text-book before the Faculty had 
 seen a line of it. The unvarying comment of those Professors who 
 have been told that the books are in press, has been : " Of course we 
 shall use them." 
 
 The Grammar will appear in time for the Fall Term of 1869. 
 
 The text of the Reader is now nearly all stereotyped ; but the Notes 
 and Vocabulary, which will be different &om anything hitherto 
 attempted, will require so much labor that it is doubtful whether any- 
 thing more than the text can be issued during the present year. The 
 text, however, will be far in advance of any compilation now accessi- 
 ble, and will fill the want almost daily expressed to the publishers 
 
 LEYPOLDT & HOLT, Publishers, 
 
 451 BROOME ST., NEW YORK. 
 Makch, 1869. 
 
Leypoldt & Holt's Series 
 
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 See continuation of tbts Catalogue at tbe end of 
 tbis book. 
 
CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
A 
 
 COMPENDIOUS 
 
 German Grammar 
 
 William' D^^'Whitney 
 
 PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT, AND INSTRUCTOR 
 
 IN MODERN LANGUAGES IN 
 
 YALE COLLEGE. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 LEYPOLDT & HOLT. 
 
 F. W. CHRI STERN 
 
 BOSTON: S, R. URBINO 
 
 1869 
 
ff-CORNEI 
 UNIVERSITY 
 '\ L'l BRARV ' 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by 
 
 WILLIAM D. WHITNEY. 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
 
 District of New York. 
 
 The New York Printing Company, 
 
 81, 83, and 8s Centre St., 
 
 . New Yosk. 
 
PEEFAOE, 
 
 The auttor of a new German grammar, in a community 
 wkere so many are already in use, and with so much approval, 
 may well feel called upon to explain and defend his undertaking 
 ■^especially, when his work is almost entirely wanting in those 
 practical exercises, for writing and speaking, which make the 
 principal part of the other grammars now most in use. 
 
 That system of instruction in modern languages of which the 
 Ollendorff gi-ammars are popularly regarded as the type, has its 
 unquestionable advantages where learning to speak is the main 
 object directly aimed at, and where the smaUness of the classes, 
 and the time spent with the instructor, render it possible for 
 the latter to give each pupil that amount of personal attention 
 and drilling which is needed in order to make the system yield 
 its best results. 
 
 But in our schools and colleges this is for the most part 
 impracticable. Their circumstances and methods of instruction 
 render translation and construction the means by which the 
 most useful knowledge and the best discipline can be gained. 
 To the very great majority of those who learn German, ability 
 to speak is an object inferior in importance to ability to under- 
 stand accurately and readily the language as written or printed : 
 and the attainment of the former is properly to be made pos- 
 terior to that of the latter. One who has mastered the prin- 
 ciples of grammar, and acquired by reading a fair vocabulary 
 and a feeling for the right use of it, will learn to speak and to 
 write rapidly and well when circumstances require of him that 
 ability. 
 
IV PBEFACE. 
 
 Moreover, ttere is a large and increasing class of students, 
 whose philological training has to be won cMefly or altogether 
 in the study of 'the modem languages, instead of the classical — 
 and who must win it by methods somewhat akin with those so 
 long and so successfully followed in classical study. For the 
 class referred to, German offers peculiar advantages, quite supe- 
 rior to those presented by any other modem language. In 
 words, forms, and constructions, it is enough imliie English to 
 call forth and exercise all the pupil's powers of discrimination, 
 to sharpen his attention to the niceties of word and phrase, and 
 train his philological insight : while, at the same time, the 
 fundamental relation of German to the most central and in- 
 timate part of English makes the study instinct with practical 
 bearings on our own tongue, and equivalent to a historical and 
 comparative study of English itself: and, both on the esthetic 
 and the practical side, there is no other modem literature so 
 rich in attraction and so liberal of reward to us as the German. 
 
 It has appeared to me that, in these aspects of the study, hardly 
 sufficient assistance was furnished the teacher and learner by 
 the grammars hitherto accessible. Three subjects especially 
 have called for more careful exposition : the derivation of Ger- 
 man words from one another; the construction of sentences; 
 and the correspondences between German and English. I have 
 also desired to see in some respects a more acceptable arrange- 
 ment of the ordinary subject-matter of a grammar — one having 
 in view the history of words and forms, although not obtruding 
 the details of that history unnecessarily upon pupils unprepared 
 for their study. 
 
 At the same time, I have endeavored to make a really com- 
 pendious and simple grammar, according to the promise of the 
 title-page, a grammar which might answer the needs even of 
 young scholars, although containing some thtugs which they 
 would not fairly understand and appreciate until later. That I 
 shall have satisfied others' ideal of a compendious grammar, by 
 including all they may deem essential and omitting the unessen- 
 
PEEFACE. V 
 
 tial, I do not venture to hope : but only trust that I may have 
 come pretty near to meeting the wants of many. 
 
 A careful distinction of the contents of the book by variety 
 of type, according to thfeir degree of immediate importance, 
 has been attempted throughout. Especially, I have meant to 
 put into the largest type (sm. pica) just about so much as the 
 scholar ought to learn carefully and thoroughly in his &st 
 course of grammar-lessons, preparatory to reading. This a class 
 should acquire, according to the age and capacity and previous 
 training of its members, in from twelve to twenty-five lessons ; 
 and should then at once be put into reading, while the grammar 
 is taken up again, and such part of what was before omitted is 
 learned as the judgment of the intelligent teacher shall direct. 
 It is solely as auxiliary to the first course of lessons that the 
 Exercises are intended — to furnish, namiely, to the teacher the 
 opportunity of drilling his pupils ia the practical appKcation 
 of the more important rules and principles while they are 
 learning them, or gaining practice in parsing, subject by sub- 
 ject, instead of leaving the whole work to be taken up at once 
 when reading is begun. While believing that they will be 
 found valuable in this way, I would not press their use, but 
 would leave it to each one's decision whether to employ or 
 neglect them. 
 
 Nothing has been put in the largest type after the subject of 
 conjugation is finished, nor anything anywhere in syntax: the 
 main principles of construction, and the use of particles, are 
 sufficiently alike ia EngUsh and German to allow the pupU 
 to begin reading without having studied them especially in 
 German. 
 
 After enough reading to have given some familiarity with 
 forms and constructions, I would have the writing of exercises 
 begun ; and I feel confident that a better result ia reading and 
 writing together will be won thus, in a given time, than by any 
 other method. I have myself been accustomed to prepare exer- 
 cises for my classes, for turning iato German, from whatever text 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 the class were reading; taking a sentence or paragraph, and 
 putting its phrases into a different shape from that presented 
 ia the text, so that the student shall have his main vocabulary 
 before him on the page, instead of having to hunt for proper 
 expressions ia the dictionary, with knowledge insufficient for 
 the task. This method I would recommend to others ; but, for 
 the aid of those who may desire such aid, I purpose to prepare 
 a series of practical and progressive exercises as a supplement 
 to this grammar, and to have it ready by the time that those 
 who begin their study of German with the grammar shall be 
 ready for its use. 
 
 Some of the subjects treated in the grammar (especially word- 
 derivation, and the relation of English and German), need sup- 
 port from the lexicon. Considering the general deficiency of 
 information on these subjects in the accessible dictionaries, I 
 am endeavoring to give the beginner help till he can make his 
 analyses and comparisons for himself, ia the Vocabulary to a 
 German Reader, which is published as a companion-book to the 
 present one.* From its pages have been drawn a large part of 
 the examples given ia the Grammar, and I have now and then ^ 
 taken the liberty to refer to it (by page and Une), ia illustration 
 of soAe exceptional or anomalous poLat which was under treat- 
 ment. 
 
 Of course, I have consulted, and more or less used, a good 
 many grammars while engaged ia the preparation of this one, 
 deriving more or less of valuable information or suggestion from 
 each and all of them. But I do not feel that I need to make 
 special acknowledgments save to one — ^the work of Heyse (in 
 its two editions, the Schul- Orcmnmatik and the Ausfiihrliches 
 LehrhuoK). To it my obligations have been more constant and 
 various than I can well poiat out in detail : hence this general 
 confession of indebtedness. Those familiar with Heyse will 
 have no difficulty in tracing its influence in many parts (for 
 
 * The text of the Reader is abeady published, and it is expected that 
 the Notes and Vocabulary will be ready by the end of 1869. 
 
PEEFACE. \U 
 
 example, in the classification of verbs of the Old conjugation, 
 ■which I have taken almost without modification from that 
 authority) ; while they will also find that I have nowhere fol- 
 lowed it slavishly. 
 
 It has everywhere been my intention so to set forth the facts 
 of the language as to favor the recognition of language as a 
 growth, as something which has been gradually converted into 
 what it is, from a very different condition, by those who have 
 used it — a recognition which is the first need, if one would 
 really understand language, and which must lead the way to 
 those deeper studies into the history of languages and of 
 language, constituting so important a branch of modem science. 
 
 The study of German is so rapidly increasiug in prevalence 
 that there is pressing need of raising it to a somewhat higher 
 plane. I trust it will be found that this volume contributes its 
 part, though a small one, to so desirable an end. 
 
 W. D. W. 
 
 Tale College, New Haven, Aug. 1869. 
 
1/ 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 The references are to paragraphs and pages. 
 
 Alphabet, 1-5, 1-3. 
 
 Extent and origin, 1, 1 ; table of letters, 2, 1 ; points requiring 
 special notice, 3, 2 ; -written alphabet, 4, 2 ; use of capitals, 5, 2-3. 
 
 Pronunciation, 6-55, 3-14. 
 
 General introductory rules, 6, 3. 
 
 Towels: quantity, 7, 3-4; pronunciation of a, e, t, o, u, I), 8-13, 
 4-5 ; modified vowels, 14, 5 ; pronunciation of o, o, ii, 15-7, 5-6 ; 
 of the diphthongs and vowel digraphs, te, at, et, an, eu, OU, ui, 18-22, 
 6-7. 
 
 Consonants : pronunciation of B, C, b, f, g, 1^, j, I, I, tn, It, p, q, r, f, t, 
 B, H), y, tj, J, 23-42, 7-11; of the consonantal digraphs and tri- 
 graphs, c§, a, ng, ))f, plj, c\n, ^Sj, 6, tl), ^, 43-51, 11-13. 
 
 General supplementary rules: other combinations, 62, 13; letters 
 brought together in compounding words, 53, 13; foreign words, 54, 
 13. 
 
 Accent, 55, 13-14. 
 
 Parts of speech, enumeration and classification, 56, 14-15. 
 
 Declension, 57-62, 15-18. "" 
 
 What declension is, 57, 16 ; numbers, 58, 15; cases and their gen- 
 eral uses, 59, 16-6 ; genders, 60, 16 ; rules for gender of nouns, 
 61, 16-8; of adjectives and adjective words, 62, 18. 
 
 Articles, 63-7, 18-21. 
 
 Declension of definite and indefinite articles, 63, 18-19; remarks, 
 64, 19; combination of definite article with prepositions, 65, 19i 
 rules respecting the use of the articles, 66, 19-21 ; their position, 
 67, 21. 
 
 Nouns, 68-U3, 21-36. 
 
 Classification of declensions, 68, 21 ; first declension and its throe 
 1*- 
 
X TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 classes, 69, 21-2; second declension, 70, 22; general rules of declen- 
 sion, 71-2, 22-S; declension of noun compared with that of article 
 — nomenclature of declensions, and its reasons, 73, 23. 
 
 First declension of Nouns : general, 74, 23. — First Class : its cha- 
 racteristics, 75, 24; what nouns it includes, 76, 24; how decUned, 
 77-8, 24; examples, 79, 24r-5; exceptional cases, 80, 25.— Second 
 Class: general, 81, 26; what nouns it includes, 82, 26; how de- 
 clined, 83-4, 26-7; examples, 85, 27; remarks, 86, 27.— Third 
 Class : general, 87, 28 ; what nouns it includes, 88, 28; how declined, 
 89, 28 ; examples, 90, 28. 
 
 Second declension of Nouns: general, 91, 29; what nouns it In- 
 cludes, 92, 29-30; how declined, 93, 30; examples, 94, 30; excep- 
 tional cases, 95, 31. 
 
 Irregular declension of Nouns : general, 96, 31 ; mixed declension, 
 97, 31-2; declension with defective theme, 98, 82; redundant de- 
 clension, 99, 32-3 ; defective declension, 100, 33. 
 
 Nouns of foreign origin, 101, 33-4. 
 
 Proper names, 102-8, 34r-5. 
 
 Modifying adjuncts of the Noun: general, 109, 35; adjective, 110, 
 35; noun, 111, 35-6; prepositional phrase, 112, 36. 
 
 Equivalents of the Noun, 112, 36. 
 
 Adjectives, 114-48, 37-51. 
 
 Adjective, when declined, 114, 37; attributive, 115, 37; predica- 
 tive, appositive, or adverbial, 116, 37; adjectives used only predica- 
 tively, or only attributively, 117, 37-8. 
 
 Declensions of the adjective: two, 118, 38; their endings, 119, 
 38; how appended, 120, 39; adjective when of first and when of 
 second declension, 121,39-40; examples, 122,40-1; words making 
 the adjective of second declension, 123, 41 ; " mixed " declension, 
 124, 41-2; adjective after indeclinables and personal pronouns, 125, 
 42-3; omission of ending e8, 126,43; exceptional cases of first de- 
 clension for second, 127, 43 ; two or more adjectives before one noun, 
 128, 43. 
 
 The Adjective used as Substantive, 129, 44-5. 
 
 The Adjective used as Adverb, 130, 45. 
 
 Participles as Adjectives, 131, 46. 
 
 Comparison of Adjectives: properly belongs to derivation, 133, 
 46; degrees of comparison, 134, 46; endings of comparison, 135, 
 46-7; modification of vowel, 136, 47; adjectives not compared, 
 137, 47; examples, 138, 47; irregular and defective comparison, 
 139, 48; declension of comparatives and superlatives, 140, 48-9; 
 comparison with adverbs, 141,49; superlative relative, absolute, and 
 intensified, 142, 50. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI 
 
 Modifying Adjuncts of the Adjective: general, 143, 60; adverb and 
 adverbial clause, 144, 50; noun, 146, 51; prepositional phrase, 
 146, 51; order of the adjuncts to an- adjective, 147, 51 ; participles, 
 148, 51. 
 
 Pronouns, 149-95, 51-69. 
 
 Substantive and adjective pronouns not generally distinct, 149, 51 ; 
 classes of pronouns, 160, 51-2. 
 
 Personal pronouns: their declension, 161, 52; their genitives, 
 162, 53; use of the personal pronouns in address, 153, 53-4; pe- 
 culiarities in the use of pronouns of the third person, 154, 54-5; 
 reflexive (and reciprocal reflexive) use of the personal pronouns, 165, 
 65-6, expletive dative, 156, 56. 
 
 Possessive pronominal adjectives: list, 157, 56-7 ; relation to geni- 
 tives, 158, 67; their various declension, and derivatives in tg, 159, 
 57-8; used as substantives, 160, 58-9; substitutes for them, 161, 
 59; ceremonious and titular forms, 162, 69. 
 
 Demonstratives: list and character, 163, 59-60; declension of bcr, 
 164, 60; of bieS and ieit, 165, 60; use of the demonstratives, 166, 
 61. — ^Determinatives, 167,61; berjenige, 168, 62; bet|etbe, felb, etc., 
 169, 62; fotcft, 170, 62-3; demonstratives and determinatives as 
 substitutes for personal pronouns, 171, 63. 
 
 Interrogatives : list and character, 172, 63; Wer and toaS, 173, 
 63-4; meld), 174, 64; ttiaS fiir, 175, 64; their use as relatives, inde- 
 finites, etc., 176, 64 
 
 Relatives: list and character, 177, 64-5; use of ber and loeli^er, 
 178,65; of totx, roaa, WaSfitr, and melc^er, 179, 65-6; compounds of 
 ba and h)0 with prepositions in relative sense, 180, 66; agreement of 
 verb with relative, 181, 66; jo and ba as relative, 182, 66; relative 
 not to be omitted, 183, 66. 
 
 Indefinite Pronouns and Indefinite Numerals: general, 184, 67; 
 man, 185, 67; Senmnb and S^temanb, 186, 67; SebetntaTm, 187, 
 67; etoas and nic^ts, 188, 67; ciitig, ettic^, etwelct), 189, 67-8; jieb, 
 jegttci^, jebmeb, 190, 68; tnondi, 191, 68; »tel, wentg, metir, lumiger, 
 192, 68; an, 193, 68-9; aiiber, 194, 69; ein, fein, 195, 69. 
 
 Numerals, 196-208, 69-13. 
 
 A class by themselves, 196, 69; the cardinal numerals, 197, 69-70; 
 inflection of ein, 198, 70-1; jwei, bret, beibe, 199, 71; inflection of 
 other cardinals, 200, 71; use of cardinals, 201, 71-2; their deriva- 
 tives, 202, 72; ordinals, formation and use, 203, 72; multiplica- 
 tives, 204, 73; variatives, 205, 73; iteratives, 206, 73; derivatives 
 from ordinals: dimidiatives, fractionals, adverbs, 207,73; concluding 
 remark, 208, 73. 
 
XII TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Uses of the Forms of Declension, 209-30, 73-86. 
 
 The rales apply only to substantive words, 209, '73-4. 
 
 Numbers: general, 210, 74; exceptions, nouns of measurement, 
 etc., 211, U. 
 
 Cases: — Nominative: subject and appositive, 212,74; predicate, 213, 
 74-5; vocative, 214, 75. — Genitiver general, 215, 7S: with nouns, 216, 
 75-7 ; with adjectives, 217, 77 ; with prepositions, 218, 77 ; as object of 
 verbs, 219, 77-8; in other uses, 220, 78-9.— Dative : general, 221, 
 79; with verbs, 222, 79-82; with adjectives, 223, 82-3; with pre- 
 positions, 224, 83 ; in other constructions, 225, 83. — Accusative : 
 general, 226, 84; with verbs, 227, 84-5; vrith prepositions, 228, 
 85 ; with adjectives, 229, 85 ; in absolute construction, 230, 85-6. 
 
 Conjugation, 231, 8 '7. 
 
 Verbs, 232-319, 8Y-144. 
 
 Essential characteristic of a verb, 232, 87 ; classification of verbs, 
 233, 87-8 ; application of the general rules of conjugation, 234, 
 88; simple forms of the verb, 235, 88; examples, liebeit and geben, 
 236, 89-90; general rules respecting simple verbal forms, 237, 91-3; 
 compound forms of the verb: general, 238, 93 ; auxiliaries of tense, 
 ffahm, fetn, and tnerben, their simple forms, 239, 93-6 ; formation of 
 the compound tenses, 240, 96-8 ; use of I)aben or feitt as auxiliary of 
 tense, 241, 98 ; other verbal auxiliaries, 242, 99 ; other points in 
 general conjugation, affecting the imperative, infinitive, and past par- 
 ticiple, 243, 99-100 ; synopsis of the complete conjugation of ^abeil 
 and feirt, 244, 100-1. 
 
 ■ Conjugations of verbs: general, 246, 101; characteristics of Old 
 and New conjugations, and their origin, 246, 102. 
 
 New conjugation: characteristics, 247, 102; examples, 248, 103- 
 6; irregular verbs : brennen etc., 249, 107; bringen and benten, 250, 
 107; modal auxiharies, 251, 107-9; uses of the modal auxiliaries: 
 general, 252, 110; biirfcvt, 263, 110; fijnnctt, 254, 110; mijgen, 
 266, 110; niilffen, 256, 111; foUcn, 257, 111; iDoUen, 258, 111-2; 
 modal auxiliaries without accompanying verb, 269, 112 ; njtffen, 
 260, 112. 
 
 Old conjugation : characteristics, 261, 113; change of radical vowel, 
 262, 113 ; classification of verbs, according to varieties of this 
 change, 263, 113-4; first class, divisions of, 264, 114; second class, 
 divisions of, 265, 114; third class, divisions of, 266, 114-5; irregu- 
 lar verbs, 267, 116; formation and infiection of the simple verbal 
 forms : present tense, and its second and third persons singular indica- 
 tive, 268, 115-6; preterit, indicative and subjunctive, 269, 116-7; 
 imperative, 270, 118; past participle, 271, 118; mixed conjugation, 
 272, 118-9; eaamples of conjugation, 273, 119-21. 
 
TABLE OF CONTFNTS. Xin 
 
 Passive Toice: office, 274, 122; its auxiliary, 275, 122; conjuga- 
 tion, 276, 122; synopsis of the forms of rterbeti and of a passive 
 verb, 277, 123-t; future passive participle, 278, 124; passives from 
 transitive and intransitive verba, 279, 124; cases governed by pas- 
 sives, 280, 125; other expressions used for passive, 281, 125; dis- 
 tinction of passive forms, and those made by a past participle with 
 fein, 282, 125-6. 
 
 Reflexive verbs: office and value, 283, 126; the reflexive object, 
 284, 126; example of conjugation, 285, 126-8; verbs used reflexive- 
 ly and proper reflexives, 286, 128; intransitive value, 287, 128; re- 
 flexives from intransitive verbs, and impersonal reflexives, 288, 128; 
 cases governed by reflexives, 289, 128 ; improper reflexives, with re- 
 flexive object in dative, 290, 129. 
 
 Impersonal verba: value and form, 291, 129; classes of imper- 
 sonal verbs, 292, 129-30; use or omission of impersonal subject e8, 
 293, 180; equivalence with passives, 294, 130-1; verbs having e8 
 as subject not always impersonal, 295, 131. 
 
 Compound verbs: general, 296, 131; preflxes, separable and in- 
 separable, 297, 131-2. — Verbs separably compounded: separable 
 prefixes, simple and compound, 298, 132-3 ; conjugation of separable 
 compound verbs, 299, 133; examples, 300, 133-5; remarks, 301, 
 135. — Verbs inseparably compounded: inseparable prefixes, 302, 
 135; conjugation, 303, 135; examples, 304, 135-6; farther compo- 
 sition, with separable prefix, 305, 136; no separable verb farther 
 compounded with inseparable prefix, 306, 136-7 ; derivation and uses 
 of the inseparable prefixes, 307, 137-8. — Verba compounded with 
 prefixes separable or inseparable: general, 308, 139; prefixes some- 
 times inseparable, 309, 139; uses of verbs thus compounded, 310, 
 139; their conjugation, 311, 139. — Other compound verbs: their 
 classification and conjugation, 312, 140; mtg and »oII, as prefixes, 
 313, 140. 
 
 Adjuncts of the verb: value of the personal verb, 314, 141; ob- 
 ject of a verb, 315, 141-2; predicate noun or adjective, 316, 142; 
 adverb, 317, 143; prepositional phrase, 318, 143; order of the ver- 
 bal adjuncts, 319, 143-4. 
 
 Uses of tlie Forms of Conjugation, 320-59, 145-64. 
 
 Person and Number : general, 320, 1 45 ; special rules respecting 
 person, 321, 145 ; special rules respecting number, 322, 145-6. 
 
 Mood and Tense: — Indicative: general, 323, 146; present tense, 
 324, 146-t; preterit, 325, 147; perfect, 326, 147; pluperfect, 
 327, 147-8; future and future perfect, 328, 148.— Subjunctive: 
 general, 329, 148; its general office and use, 330, 148-9; the sub- 
 junctive as optative, 331, 149-50; as conditional and potential, 332, 
 
XrV TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 lBO-2 ; in indirect statement, 333, 152-4. — Conditional : its form and 
 value, 334, 154; uses, 335, 156; use as subjunctive, -336, 155. — 
 Imperative: use, 337, 155; imperative phrases, 338, 155. — Infini- 
 tive: verbal noun, 339, 156; used as noun, 340, 156; used with 
 ju, 341, 166; as subject of a verb, 342, 156; as object of a verb, 
 without or with jju, 343, 157-9; as adjunct to an adjective, 344, 
 159 ; to a noun, 345, 169-60 ; governed by a preposition, 346, 160 ; 
 in absolute constructions, 347, 161 ; infinitive clauses, 348, 161. — 
 Participles: verbal adjectives, 349, 161; present participle, 350, 
 161-2; past participle, 351, 162; future passive participle, 352, 
 162; use of present participle, 353, 162-3; of past, 354, 163; 
 their comparison, 355, 163; adverbial use, 356, 163; appositive 
 construction, participial clauses, 367, 163-4 ; arrangement of partici- 
 pial clause, 358, 164; special uses of participles, 359, 164. 
 
 Indeclinables, classes and origin of, 360, 164-5. 
 
 Adverbs, 361-70, 165-9. 
 
 Definition and office, 361, 165; classification, 362, 165; adverbs 
 from adjectives, 363, 165-7 ; from nouns, 364, 167 ; by combination, 
 365, 167; of obscure derivation, 366, 168; original adverbs, 367, 
 168; comparison, 368, 168; special uses, 369, 168-9; place, 370, 169. 
 
 Prepositions, 371-81, 169-74. 
 
 Definition andoffice, 371, 169-70; classification, 372, 170 ; preposi- 
 tions governing genitive, 373, 170-1; dative only, 374, 171; accusa- 
 tive only, 375, 171; dative and accusative, 376, 171-2; governing a 
 substantive clause or infinitive, 377, 172-3; governing an adverb, 
 378, 173; adverb added after governed noun, 379, 173; prepositional 
 phrase as adjunct, 380, 173-4; place of a preposition, etc., 381, 174. 
 
 Conjunctions, 382-6, 1-^4-7. 
 
 Definition, use, and origin, 382, 174 ; classification, 383, 174^5 ; 
 general conneotives, 384, 175 ; adverbial conjunctions, 386, 175-6 ; 
 subordinating conjunctions, 386, 176-7. 
 
 Inteijections, 387-92, 177-9. 
 
 Character, 387, 177-8 ; partly conventional, 388, 178 ; interjections 
 of common use, 389, 178 ; interjeotional use of other parts of speech, 
 390, 178; interjeotional mode of expression, 391, 178-9; connection 
 of inteijections with structure of sentence, 392, 179. 
 
 Word-fonnatlon, derivation, 393-417, 179-98. _^ 
 
 Introductory explanations : means of grammatical inflection, 393, 
 179; of derivation, 394, 179; unity of character of these two instru- 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV 
 
 mentalities, 395, ItO-SO; advantage of German as illustrating pro- 
 cesses of derivation, 396, 180 ; these processes only partially trace- 
 able, 397, 180. — Priuoiplea: ultimate roots, 398, 180; means of de- 
 rivation, chiefly suffixes, 399, 180-1; auxiliary methods of internal 
 change, modification and variation of vowel, 400, 181 ; accompanying 
 consonantal change, 401, 181; limits to analysis, 402, 182. 
 
 Derivation of verbs : primitive verba, 403,182; verbs derived from 
 verbs, 404, 182-3; from nouns and adjectives, 405, 174-5; from 
 particles, 406, .185. — Derivation of nouns: primitive nouns, 407, 
 186; nouns derived from verba, 408, 186-8; from adjectives, 409, 
 189; from nouns, 410, 189-91; nouns formed by means of prefixes, 
 411, 191-3; from other parts of speech, 412, 193. — Derivation of 
 adjectives : primitive adjectives, 413, 193; adjectives derived without 
 suffix or prefix, 414, 193; by suffix, 415, 193-7; by prefix, 416, 
 197-8. — Derivation of the other parts of speech, 417, 198. 
 
 Word-combination, composition, 418-25, 198-203. 
 
 Definition and character of compound words, 418, 198-9; fre- 
 quency and extent of compounds in German, 419, 199-200. 
 
 Composition of verbs, 420, 200. — Composition of nouns: general, 
 gender, 421, 200-1; varieties of compound nouns, 422, 201-2. — 
 Composition of adjectives : general, 423, 202 ; varieties of compound 
 adjectives, 424, 202-8. — Composition of particles, their accentuation, 
 425, 203. 
 
 Construction of sentences, 426-46, 204-21. 
 
 Introductory explanations : the sentence, its constitution and com- 
 pleteness, 426, 204-5; kinds of sentence and their relation, 427, 
 205 ; subject and predicate, 428, 205-6 ; strictness of rules of arrange- 
 ment in German, 429, 206. 
 
 Regular or normal order of the sentence, 430, 206-7. — Inverted 
 order : in assertive sentences, 431, 207-9 ; in interrogative and opta- 
 tive sentences, 432, 209-10; in conditional clauses, 433, 210-211. — 
 Transposed order: what, and when required, 434, 211; dependent 
 clauses, definition and kinds, 435, 211; substantive dependent clause, 
 436, 211-2; adjective dependent clause, 437, 213; adverbial de- 
 pendent clause, 438, 213-6; additional rules respecting dependent 
 clauses, 439, 216-7. 
 
 Summary of the rules of arrangement: why given, 440, 217 ; the 
 three modes of arrangement, 441, 217-8; normal order, 442, 218; 
 Inverted order, 443, 218-9; transposed order, 444, 219-20. 
 
 Concluding remarks: violations of the rules of arrangement, 445, 
 220 ; grammatical and rhetorical construction of sentences, 446, 221. 
 
XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Eelation of German to English, 447-61, 221-27. 
 
 Part of German akin with English, 447, 221 ; the two languages 
 are dialects of one original, 448, 221-2 ; joint members of what group 
 and family, 449, 222; Indo-European family, its constitution, 450, 
 222-3; its Germanic branch, 451, 223; immediate and remoter con- 
 nections of English, and importance of their evidences, 452, 223-4. 
 
 Law of progression of mutes in English and German : general, 453, 
 224; original Indo-European mutes, 454, 224; their progression in 
 the Germanic languages, 455, 224-5 ; correspondences in the different 
 languages, 456, 226; examples, 457, 225; in lingual series, 458, 
 225-6; labial series, 459, 226; palatal series, 460, 226-7; remarks, 
 461, 227. 
 
 Brief History of the German Language, 462-9, 22T-30. 
 
 Position of German among other Germanic dialects, 462, 227-8 ; 
 three periods of history of High-German, 463, 228 ; Old High-Ger- 
 man period, literature, and dialects, 464, 228 ; Middle High-German 
 period, dialect, and literature, 465, 228-9 ; causes leading to the New 
 period, 466, 229 ; New High-German period and dialect, 467, 230 ; 
 wljat the present German is, 468, 230 ; remarks, 469, 230. 
 
 German Written Character, 231-33. 
 List of Irregular Verbs, 234-40. 
 Vocabulary to the Exercises, 241-48. 
 
 LIST OF EXERCISES. 
 
 I. Nouns of the first declension, first class, 25-6; 11. Nouns of the 
 first declension, second class, -27-8; III. Nouns of the first declension, 
 third dass, 29 ; IV. Nouns of the second declension, 31 ; V. Nouns of 
 all declensions, 31 ; TI. Adjectives of the first declension, 43 ; Til. Adjec- 
 tives of the second declension, 43 ; VIII. Adjectives of various declension, 
 43 ; IX. Adjectives used as substantives and as adverbs, 45 ; X. Compara- 
 tive and superlative of adjectives, 50 ; XI. Personal, reflexive, and posses- 
 sive pronouns, 69 ; XII. Demonstrative, interrogative, and relative pro- 
 nouns, 66-7 ; Xni. Cardinal and ordinal numerals, 72 ; XIY. Simple forms 
 of the verb, 96; XT. Simple and compound forma of the verb, 102; 
 XTI. Terbs of the New conjugation, 106-7 ; XTII. Modal auxUiariea, 
 113; XTIII. Terbsof, the Old conjugation, 121-2; XIX. Passive, reflexive, 
 and Impersonal verbs, 131; XX Compound verbs, separable and inse- 
 parable, 140. 
 
GERMAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 1. The German language is usually printed in an al- 
 phabet having the sam^^ origin as our own, and the same 
 extent ; but in the form of its characters nearly resembling 
 what we call " Old English," or " Black-letter." 
 
 This is one of the derivative forms of the old Latin alphabet, a product of the perverse 
 ingenuity of monkish scribes in the Middle Ages. It was in general use throughout Eu- 
 rope at the time of the invention of printing, but was abandoned by one nation after an- 
 other for the simpler, neater, and more legible character which we call " Eoman," and 
 which the Germans know as "Latin" (lateinisch). For scientific literature, the latter is 
 in more common use among the Germans themselves, and many of the best German 
 BCholars are in favor of the entire relinquishment of the other. 
 
 2. The letters of the ordinary German alphabet, with 
 their "Eoman" equivalents, and the names by which the 
 Germans call them, are as follows : 
 
 German 
 
 Roman 
 
 German 
 
 German 
 
 Boman 
 
 German 
 
 letters. 
 
 equiv'ts. 
 
 name. 
 
 letters. 
 
 equiVts. 
 
 name. 
 
 St, a 
 
 a 
 
 a (ah) 
 
 %n 
 
 n 
 
 en 
 
 «,I) 
 
 b 
 
 ba (bay) 
 
 D, 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 e,c 
 
 c 
 
 tsa 
 
 %>? 
 
 P 
 
 pa 
 
 ©,b 
 
 d 
 
 da 
 
 Q, q 
 
 q 
 
 ku [koo) 
 
 e, e 
 
 e 
 
 a 
 
 %v 
 
 r 
 
 6r 
 
 g,f 
 
 f 
 
 ef 
 
 @,f, 8 
 
 s 
 
 es 
 
 ®,g 
 
 g 
 
 ga 
 
 X,t 
 
 t 
 
 ta 
 
 ^r^ 
 
 h 
 
 ha 
 
 U, u 
 
 u 
 
 u (oo) 
 
 QA 
 
 i 
 
 5' (ee) 
 
 25,0 
 
 V 
 
 fou (found) 
 
 04 
 
 J 
 
 yot 
 
 as, ft 
 
 w 
 
 va 
 
 2,t 
 
 k 
 
 M 
 
 X,5 
 
 X 
 
 ix 
 
 8,1 
 
 1 
 
 61 
 
 9.»j 
 
 y 
 
 ipsilon 
 
 Tl,m 
 
 m 
 
 6m 
 
 S'i 
 
 z 
 
 tset 
 
2 ALPHABET. [3- 
 
 3. Certain points concerning this alphabet require spe- 
 cial notice on the part of the learner : 
 
 1. Of the two forma of small s, the second, or short 8, is used 
 
 only at the end of a word ; the other, or long f, in other situations : 
 
 thus, log ; but Icfen, fo. 
 
 If a word ending in 8 is followed by another in composition, it is still 
 written with short S : thus, Io8gel)en (log and ge^en), be8l)alb (beg and Ijalb). 
 
 2. Some of the letters are modified in form by combination 
 with one another : thus, d), ch ; d, cJc ; ^, sz ; i}, tz. 
 
 3. Some letters resemble one another so much as to he easily 
 confounded by the beginner : 
 
 Thus, S, b, and SB, v ; d, c, and (g, e ; ®, g, and ®, s ; ^, k, 
 ^, n, and jt, r ; S), d, £), o, and Q, q ; also, b, h, b, d, and I), h ; 
 f, /, and f, s ; f, k, and t, t ; x, r, and y, x. 
 
 4. There is a special written alphabet, as well as a printed, for the Ger- 
 man. The forms of its letters, and specimens of written texts, will be given 
 at the end of this work. The beginner had better not concern himself with 
 it, as he can make practical use of it to advantage only when he has already 
 gained considerable familiarity with the language. 
 
 ■ When German is written or printed in the "Latin " character, each Ger- 
 man letter is represented by its Latin equivalent, with the single exception 
 that for the compound 6, sz, is usually and preferably substituted ss. 
 
 5. The German uses capital initial letters 
 
 1. As the Enghsh, at the beginning of sentences, of lines in 
 poetry, and of direct quotations. 
 
 2. For all nouns, common as well as proper, and for words used 
 as nouns. 
 
 Words used as nouns are especially adjectives (129) and infinitiv6s(340). 
 As no fixed line divides their ordinary from their substantive use, there are 
 doubtful cases in each class, with regard to which usage is conflicting. 
 
 3. For pronouns of the third person, when used in address, 
 with the value of those of the second person (153). 
 
 That is, especially, @ie, with its oblique cases, and its corresponding 
 possessive 3l|r ; but not its reflexive, fid). 
 
 Pronouns of the second person properly take capitals only when intended 
 to come under the eye of the person addi-essed (as in letters, etc.); in such 
 a case, ftd) also is written @i^. 
 
 Respecting the indefinite pronouns Sebcrmann, 'every one,' Scmnnb, 
 'any one,' SJietnanb, 'no one,' etc , and the pronominal adjectives used sub- 
 stantively, such as otteS, 'everything,' maildjer, 'manyaone,' ciiiige, 'some,' 
 usage is very various. Some write eiii with a capital when it is emphatic^ 
 or means ' one.' 
 
7] PEONTJNOIATIOSr. 3 
 
 4. For adjectives derived from names of persons or places, 
 usually ; but not for adjectives of nationality, as engtifd), ' English,' 
 franjdfifd), 'French.' 
 
 Adjectives of title, or those used in respectful and complimentary ad- 
 dress, also usually take capital initials: thus, @ure itbnigtid)e §oI)eit, 'your 
 royal highness,' @ie, SCBo^lgeborener §err, 'you, excellent sir.' 
 
 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 6. The precise mode of production of German articulated 
 sounds, taken singly or in combination, as well as the general 
 tone and style of utterance, can only be acquired through means 
 of oral instruction, and by long practice. The following rules, 
 however, will help the learner, with or without a teacher, to ap- 
 proximate to the true pronunciation of German words. 
 
 The subject is a comparatively easy one to deal with, because 
 
 1. There are no silent letters, either vowels or con- 
 sonants. 
 
 Excepting sometimes i) (28). 
 
 2. As a rule, the same letter receives the same sound 
 under all circumstances. 
 
 Exceptions, 6, c, b, g, f, S — see those letters, below. 
 
 3. The German, however, like many other languages, 
 writes certain simple sounds, vowel or consonant, with di- 
 graphs and even trigraphs — i.e., with combinations of two 
 and of three letters. i 
 
 ■VOWELS. 
 
 7. Each simple vowel sound is either long or short, 
 varying in quantity, or time of utterance, without at the 
 same time varying, like our English vowels, to any notable 
 extent in quality, or nature of sound. 
 
 The distinction of long and short vowels must to a great extent 
 ■ be learned by practice ; but the following rules will be found of 
 service : 
 
 1. A vowel doubled, or followed by I), is long. 
 
 2. A vowel is short before a double consonant, and 
 
4 PRONUNCIATION. ['- 
 
 more usually before a group of two consonants — nnlesa 
 the latter of the pair or group belongs to an appended 
 ending or suffix. 
 
 8. 9t, 0. — % has always the sound of our open or Italian a, 
 in far, father. 
 
 It is long in 3IaI, f)oar, 58a^n, nafj, ilfamen. 
 It is short in 58aa, SCRann, f)atte, ^onb, jd)arf, ^at, batb. 
 Particularly avoid the flattening of this vowel, or its reduction to a sound 
 at all resembling that of our " short a " in Jiat, can. 
 
 9. g^ f, — @ is pronounced nearly as our e in they, or our 
 " long a " in fate, only without the distinct vanishing-sound of ee 
 into which our a passes at its close. Short c is nearly our " short 
 e " in met, men. 
 
 It is long in ^eer, md)X, 9Je^. 
 
 It is short in benn, fd)neK, nett, §err, SBelt. 
 
 In long -syllables — and by some authorities also in short ones 
 — is distinguished a closer and an opener utterance of the c, the 
 latter inclining very slightly toward our " short a " (in hat, can). 
 The difference is analogous with that between the French ^ and &. 
 Thus, e is said to be close in me^r, dlti), jeber (first syllable), and 
 open in (the first syllables of) Sebcn, geben, kten. No rules are to 
 be given respecting the occurrence of this distinction ; nor is it 
 much to be insisted on. 
 
 Unlike the other vowels, c is notably slighted and obscured in 
 sound when unaccented. Especially before a consonant, in a 
 syllable following the accent, it acquires nearly the tone of our 
 " short m" (in but), and becomes very inconspicuous. 
 
 Guard against giving to final t the sound of English e ; it should have a 
 very open utterance, and in parts of Germany even becomes like our " short 
 u " (in but, puff). 
 
 10. 3> *• — 3 has the sound of our i in pique, machine, or of 
 our " long e," or double ee. When short, it is more like our 
 " short i" (in^ra), yet somewhat less removed than that is from 
 our " long e." 
 
 It is long in i^n, t[)r, 3get, bit, 9J?ine. 
 
 It is short in bitttg, bitten, I)iutcr, ift, Srift. 
 
 3 is never written double, and it is followed by i) only in the personal 
 pronouns t^n, tf)m, t^r, il)tci-, t^ucrt, and the possessives il)r and it)ng. To 
 indicate its long sound, an e is generally added, making the digraph, or 
 compound vowel, ie (18). 
 
15] VOWELS. 5 
 
 II- O, 0. — D ias always the tone of our "long o," except 
 the distinct vanishing-sound of u (po) with which the latter ends. 
 It is long in SlJJoor, SSol^ne, Son, ©efiot, SJfober. 
 It is short in fott, ®ott, offen, aJJolfe, £o^f. 
 
 Never give to o the quality of our " short o " in hot, on, etc. ; this is no 
 proper o-sound, but pretty nearly the German short a. 
 
 12. U, U. — U long is our u in rule, or oo in boot ; u short is 
 nearly our u m pull, or oo in hooh, but less removed from long u. 
 
 It is long in U^r, nun, gut, rufien. 
 It is short in Sruft, ©tunbe, 9^ult. 
 U is never doubled. 
 
 Be especially careful not to give to u, under any circumstances, the pro- 
 nunciation of English u in v/nion, mute, aire; to do so is to put a y before it. 
 
 13. ^, ^. — ?) is found only in foreign words (except, accord- 
 ing to the usage of some, in the digraphs a\), et) : see below, 
 19.3), aiid is ordinarily pronounced as an i would be in the same 
 situation. 
 
 Examples : ©^rup, ?lft|{, tt)rtfi^, 2KQrte. 
 
 Some require that in words from the Greek, of more learned and less 
 popular use, it should have the sound of it (17). 
 
 Modified Vowels. 
 
 14. 1. The modified vowels are, historically, products of the 
 mixture with a, 0, U, of an e or i-sound, or of the phonetic assimila- 
 tion of the former to the latter in a succeeding syllable. They 
 were written 3le, Oe, Ue, ae, oe, ue, and are still usually so written 
 when the vowel modified is a capital ; but when small letters were 
 used, the e came to be first written above the other vowel — thus, 
 a^ 0^ u — and then, for convenience, was reduced in common use 
 to a couple of dots — as, a, o, it. 
 
 2. They are never doubled ; aad hence, a noun containing in the singular 
 a double vowel, if requiring mollification in the plural, loses one vowel : thus, 
 ©aal forms ©ale, 2ta8 forms Wcfer. 
 
 15; 8Ic, ii. — %t has the sound of an open c — ^that is to say, 
 of an e very slightly approaching our " short a ; " it is every- 
 where hardly distinguishable from an e in the same situation. 
 
 It is long in fitager, ^^rdgen, 2tefer, <Zpai}tv, 5DfaI)re. 
 
 It is short in §anbe, 3lepfel, Ijatte, SSdder, fatten. 
 
6 PEONUNCIATION. [16- 
 
 16. Oc, a. — £)e is really produced by a combination of that 
 position of the tongue in which e (e in they) is uttered, and of 
 that position of the lips in which o is uttered ; but it is not easily 
 given by a conscious effort so to dispose the organs. It is near- 
 est in tone to our u in hurt, but is notably different from this, 
 verging considerably toward the e of they. It is closely akin with 
 the French ew-sounds. 
 
 It is long in Defeit, mogen, fdjiin, l^iiren, Del. 
 
 It is short in fonnte, offncn, §otte, S^jottev, Oerter. 
 
 To form o, therefore, endeavor to hit an intermediate sound between the 
 vowels of hurt and hate. 
 
 The German poets frequently make ii rhyme with the simple e, and in 
 parts of Germany the two are hardly distinguished. But their real differ- 
 ence, as properly pronounced, is quite marked, and should never be. neg- 
 lected. 
 
 17. Vltf it. — He is produced by a combination of that posi- 
 tion of the tongue in which i (i in pique, pin) is uttered, and of 
 that position of the lips in which u (u in rule, pull) is uttered. 
 It is the same sound with the French u. To utter it, first round 
 the lips to the u-position, and then, without moving them, fix the 
 tongue to say t (ee)r— or vice versd. 
 
 It is long in Ue6e^, ©djiiter, miibe, liilp, fii^t, u6er. 
 
 It is short in ®lUd,' SDfiitter, Ueppigfeit, filUcn, ^iitte, bitnn. 
 
 The sounds of ii and ii are, among the German vowels, much the hardest 
 to acquire, and cannot be mastered without assiduous practice under a 
 teacher. 
 
 Diphthongs and Vowel Digraphs. 
 
 18. For 3le, De, Ue, see Modified Vowels, above (14^17). 
 3ie, as already noticed (lO), is an i made long by the addi- 
 tion of an c, instead of by doubling, or the addition of (). 
 
 Historically, ie often represents an original combination of separate 
 vowels. 
 
 Examples : bte, tief, tiegcn, ^I'ieben, SRiemen. 
 
 At the end of a few words (mostly coming from the Latin, and accented 
 on the preceding syllable), the e of ie has its own proper sound, and the i is 
 pronounced like y before it, or else forms an independent syllable : thus, 
 Stnien, @Iorie, gintilte, KragiJbte ; also J?me (plural of j?nie, and sometimes 
 spelt knm). 
 
 19. 1. 9lt. — W\ is a combination of letters representing a 
 true diphthongal sound, which is composed of the two elements 
 
23] DIPHTHONGS. 7 
 
 (a in far) and i (i in pique). It is pronounced nearly as the 
 English aye (meaning ' yes') ; or like the " long i " of aisle, isle, 
 but with the first constituent of that sound made very slightly 
 opener and more conspicuous, a little dwelt on. It occurs in very 
 few words. 
 Examples : §atn, SBaife, Wax. 
 
 2. @i. — (Si represents the same sound, and is of very much 
 more frequent occurrence, being the ordinary German equivalent 
 of our " long «." 
 
 Examples : SSm, Sett, gimer, fet, (St, (Siteffett. 
 
 3. 31^ and el) were formerly written in certain words instead of ai and 
 et ; they are dow gone nearly out of use, only a few authors retaining them. 
 
 Examples : SWot), fel)n, fel), ^otijet). 
 
 20. 8lu.— 2lu combines the two sounds" o (mfar) and u (in 
 rule), and is pronounced almost precisely like the English ou, ow, 
 in house, down, but with the first element, the a-souud, a shade 
 more distinct. 
 
 Examples : ^a\xS, laufen, Sluge, ©au, Braun, SOiaitl. 
 
 21. 1. ^u. — (Su is most nearly like the English oi, oij, in 
 boil, hoy, difiering chiefly in having the first element briefer and 
 less conspicuous. Theoretically, its final element is the it-sound. 
 
 Examples : Ijeute, neu, @uter, ^^reunbe, euer. 
 2. 9lcu, Su. — 9teu is the modified diphthong corresponding 
 to au, as ft to o. It is pronounced in the same manner as eu. 
 Examples : Sleugter, §aute, brauneti, jErSunte. 
 
 22. Ut. — Ut is found only in ^ut, Jjfut, and is pronounced 
 like we. 
 
 CONSONANTS. 
 
 23. SB, B. — 58 has the same sound as in English, when fol- 
 lowed in the same syllable by a vowel or semivowel (r, I), or when 
 doubled. 
 
 Examples : S3t6er, 33u6e, l^aben, o6er, SBtet, Bremen, (Sb6e. 
 
 In other situations — i.e., when final, or followed by a consonant 
 in general — it loses its sonant character, and is converted into the 
 corresponding surd, ^3. 
 
 Examples : ©tab, ge^bt, ob, fc^ub, |)ab«burg. - 
 
8 PEONTnsrCIATION. [24r- 
 
 24. 6;, c. — ^, in words properly German, is found only" in 
 the combinations d^, d, fd), for which see below, 43, 44, 48. 
 
 In words borrowed from other languages and not Germanized 
 in spelling, it is, as in English, hard before a, o, u, (, n, r, but soft 
 before e, t, ^ : in the former case, it is pronounced as f, in the lat- 
 ter, as ts (German ^ ; 42). 
 
 Examples : Sato, Sarcer, Concert, Siccro, StaubiuS, Ocean. 
 
 25. 2), b. — ®, like 6, has its own proper sonant sound, that 
 of English d, before a vowel, or any consonant that may inter- 
 vene between it and a vowel, in the same syllable ; also when 
 doubled. 
 
 Examples : jDanttn, bicf, !Dorf, bu, abd, bret, jDhjaH, S^robbel. 
 At the end of a word, or of a syllable before another conso- 
 nant, it is changed to the corresponding surd, t. 
 Examples : ^rob, ©tobt, ittilb, ?I6enb, tobten. 
 
 26. ^, f. — 5 ^^^ always the same sound as in English. 
 
 27. @, g. — @, like the other sonant mutes, 6 and b, has its 
 proper hard sound (as English ff in cfo, give, get) when doubled, 
 or when followed in the same syllable by a vowel or liquid (t, n, r). 
 It is never softened before e or i — as it also is not in any English 
 word of Germanic origin. 
 
 Examples : @an8, gegen, @ier, gut, grog, ®Ia§, ®nabe, ®oggc. 
 
 In the same situations in which b and b become ^ and t, q is 
 also changed to a surd ; it does not, however, assume the value 
 of t, but rather that of d) (43). 
 
 Examples : Slag, jog, ^ug, SBogt, 2)?agb, ru^ig, tSglid^. 
 
 There is much difference of usage among Germans, and of opinion among 
 German ortiioepiste, as to the pronunciation of g. All, indeed, agree to 
 give it the hard sound when initial. But in other situations, some always 
 soften it to d)— e. g., in ®cgen, S^^a,t. Others do not allow it anywhere 
 the precise c^-sound, especially not after the hard vowels (a, o, u), but pro- 
 nounce it nearly as t, or as something between a g and t, or between a t 
 and d) — and so on. 
 
 28. ^, ]^.^§ has the sound of English h when it begins 
 a word (or either of the suffixes ()eit, ()aft). Elsewhere it is silent, 
 serving either to lengthen the preceding vowel, or to make a 
 hiatus between two vowels. 
 
36] CONSONAIirTS. 9 
 
 2;^ (37) is pronounced as simple t. For d) and \d), see below 
 (43, 48). 
 
 Examples : ^in, I)er, l)at, §of, §ut, ^oljer, rutjen, Sinbljeit, 1)06= 
 ^aft, 9tl)n, @(;re, e|er, i^m, 0[)i-, t£)un, ratljcn, vott|. 
 
 29. ^^ j. — 3^ is always pronounced like "our y consonant. 
 Examples : ^a^x, jung, jeber, 3or)ann, bcja^en. 
 
 30. ^, t. — ^ has always the sound of English k. Instead 
 of double ! is written d (which, however, if separated in syllabi- 
 cation, becomes tf). 
 
 Examples : fann, fennen, Sletb, ^reibe, Snte, Snaht, (Stode, brut= 
 !cn (but bruden). 
 
 31. fi, I ; 351, tit. — These letters have the same sounds as 
 their English correspondents. 
 
 32. 5J, tt. — 9? has usually the same sound as English n. 
 Like the latter, it has before t the value of nff : thus, [tnl'en, ®an!. 
 
 For the digraph ng, see below (45). 
 
 33. Sp, p. — ^ is pronounced as in English. For the digraph 
 ^f), see below (46.2). 
 
 34. Q, q. — O, as in English, is always followed by u, and 
 qu is pronounced as kv, but with the pure labial utterance of the 
 t)-sonnd, as explained below (under m, 39). 
 
 Examples: Ouat, qucr, Duirl, quoH. 
 
 35. 91, r. — 3i has a decidedly more distinct and forcible ut- 
 terance than in English, being more or less rolled or trilled, and 
 so, of course, formed a little further forward in the mouth than our 
 r. In every situation, it must be clearly heard. 
 
 Examples: 3{anb, reben, ^fitter, xoti), runb, ^er, §err, Slrlietter, 
 iJitljrer, bermerten, marmorner, erternfiaver. 
 
 36. ©, f, §. — <3, after a manner analogous with 6, b, and g, 
 has its proper surd or hissing sound only when doubled, final, or 
 standing before a consonant ; before a vowel (not before a semi- 
 vowel ; nor when preceded by a surd consonant, as t, c^, or a liquid, 
 I, m, n, r) it approaches a sonant or buzzing sound, that of our z, 
 and in the usage of some localities, or of some classes, it is a full 
 2 ; according, however, to the better supported pronunciation, it 
 
10 PRONUNCIATION. [36- 
 
 ia a compromise between s and s, a kind of sz. Before t and )3 
 at the beginning of a word, the weight of authority is in favor of 
 its utterance as sh (but less broadly'and conspicuously than our 
 common sh) ; but the pronunciation as written has also good 
 usage (especially in Northern Germany) in its favor. 
 
 Double S (fg, ff) is always surd or hissing ; for §, see 49. 
 
 Examples : ®laS, §o)l, 33o«^ett, triffen, Sootfc, emfig, alfo, ©o^n, 
 ©eete, 93efen, XSefang, ftetf, Strang, ©ijur, fpringen. 
 
 37. X, i. — X, in words properly German, has always the or- 
 dinary sound of English t. In certain terminations (especially 
 tion) of words from the Latin or French, it is pronounced like ts 
 (German j). 
 
 2;f) is pronounced like simple t ; its ^ has usually no historical, 
 but only a phonetic ground, as sign of the long quantity of the 
 neighboring vowel. For ^, see 51. 
 
 Examples : ^at, ^aft, Safe!, tragen, t^ut, 'SHufij, Sljrane, (Station. 
 
 38. SB, b. — 33 is rarely found except at the beginning of a 
 word, and there has the sound of English /. In the few cases 
 where it occurs in the interior of words, before a vowel, it is pro- 
 nounced as our V ; as also, in words taken from foreign languages 
 which give it the latter sound. 
 
 Examples : 5Sater, biel, SSerfatt, frebetn, ©fiabe, SBacanj, SBenebig. 
 
 39. SB, tt). — 2B, when not preceded by a consonant in the 
 same syllable, is commonly and correctly pronounced precisely as 
 the English v, or between the edges of the upper teeth and lower 
 lip. Another mode of its utterance, which is also supported by 
 good authority, excludes the action of the teeth, and produces 
 the sound between the edges of the lips alone. As thus made, 
 it is still distinctly a v (not a w), though one of a different quali- 
 ty from our v : the difference, however, is not conspicuous to an 
 unpractised ear. All authorities agree in requiring this purely 
 labial pronunciation after a consonant (which consonant is nearly 
 always a sibilant, fc^ or j) : and the same belongs, as above noticed 
 (34), to the u of the combination qu. 
 
 Examples: SBeKe, SBoI)n, SBut^, njoHen, fdjtocv, jWei, Z\o\d, 
 ©wall. 
 
43] CONSONANTS. 11 
 
 40. J, f. — 3£ is found in only an exceedingly small number 
 of words originally German. It has the sound of English x (ks) ; 
 but, when initial, may be pronounced as s. 
 
 Examples : lyt, §eye, Sejt, Xeno^fion, Xcmen, 9e^Iograpt)te. 
 
 41. ^, ^. — 9) in German is a vowel only (13). 
 
 42. ,3, J. — _3 is always pronounced as ts, except in the com- 
 bination ^ (see below, 49) : its two constituents should be 
 sharply and distinctly uttered. Instead of double i, is written I3 
 (51). 
 
 Examples : ^tnn, 3oII, 3U, jerjie^eit, jagen, ^eijen, ^rinj, ^olj, 
 §ers, ^la^, jtoei. 
 
 Consonantal Digraphs and Trigraphs. 
 
 43. 1. 61^, ^. — &j, in all situations, is a rough breathing, 
 an h, rasped out with conspicuous force through as nearly as pos- 
 sible the same position of the organs in which the preceding 
 vowel was uttered. According, then, as the vowel is one pro- 
 duced in the throat — namely, 0, 0, it — or one which comes forth 
 between the flat of the tongue and the palate — namely, e, t, t), a, 
 0, u — or as it is a diphthong whose final constituent is of each 
 class respectively — ^namely, aa. on the one hand ; at, et, du, eu on 
 the other — it has a different prontmciation, guttural or palatal. 
 The guttural (^ (after a, o, u, au) is the throat-clearing or hawking 
 sound ; the palatal approaches our sh, but is notably different from 
 it, being formed further back upon the roof of the mouth, and 
 lacking the full sibilant quality. &j after a consonant has the 
 softer or palatal sound. 
 
 As above noticed (27), g not followed by a vowel etc. has the 
 sound which i) would have in the same situation. 
 
 Examples — guttural c^ : Sac^, bod^, Su^, mxi), 9)lad^er, 9lc^tung, 
 Sodjter, Sag, jog, ^ug ; 
 
 palatal ^ ; ^ec^,- re(I)t, id), nt^tS, firf)er, iBit^er, 
 ad)ten, f^dc^er, So^er, rett^, euc^, fcuc^t, baud)tc, bur^, S)oI^, ntait= 
 d)er, SBeg, ri^ttg, 5Kdgbe, Beugte, ?Ieugtctn, 3>»erg. 
 
 The fault particularly to be avoided in practising the cfl-sound is the clo- 
 sure of the organs, forming a mute consonant, a kind of h or g. If such a 
 mispronunciation is once acquired, it cannot be unlearned without great 
 trouble. Much better utter a mere breathing, an h, at first, depending upon 
 
12 PEONUNCIATION. [43- 
 
 further practice to enable one by degrees to roughen it to the desired point 
 of distinctness. 
 
 2. &) before g, wLgb the § belongs to the theme of the word, 
 and not to an added suffix or inflectional ending, loses its peculiar 
 sound, and is uttered as t (i.e., cf)3 as j). 
 
 Examples : 2iBacf)8, Ocf)fe, gud)«, ^ud)'\t. 
 
 3. (5^ in foreign words is usually pronounced as in the lan- 
 guages from which the words are taken — in Greek words, as k; 
 in French, as sh. 
 
 44. (Jf, (f. — Sf, as already explained (30), is the written 
 equivalent of a double {, 
 
 45. 9lg, ng. — 9fg is the guttural nasal, the equivalent of 
 English nff, standing related to t and g as n to t and b, and m to 
 p and 6. Its g is not separately uttered, as g, before either a 
 vowel or a consonant : thus, ginger like singer, not like finger ; 
 ^ungrig like liangrope, not like hungry. 
 
 Examples : jung, fingen, ®ang, ®ange, langer, bringtid^. 
 
 46. 1. fjjf, ^f. — $f is often etyraologically the equivalent 
 of our p Cipfunb, pound, ^fa^(, pale), but is uttered as a combina- 
 tion of ^ and f. 
 
 2. *p(j, ^(j. — 'ip^ is found only in words of foreign origin, 
 and has the sound of f, as in English. 
 Examples : 'ipfeffer, 'ijjferb, to^jf, ru^jfen, 'ipr)afc, 'ip()oS^j^or, ®ra^)l^it. 
 
 47. Dn, HU. — This combination has been already explained 
 (34, 39). 
 
 48. (St^, fi^. — ©c^ is the equivalent of our sh. 
 Examples: ©c^iff, fcI)on, fd]eu, %\i)t, gifd), ©c^nur, ©djftiaii, 
 
 ©c^lo^, ©c^merj, fd)reibcn, tinbifd). 
 
 49. @j, ^. — ©J is pronounced as a double g (ff, 36), the i^ 
 losing its distinctive character in the combination. Double ff is 
 not written at the end of a word, nor before a consonant (t), nor 
 after a long vowel or diphthong, ^ being in such situations sub- 
 stituted for it. 
 
 Examples: lag, lafst (from Inffcn), ©d)o6 (but ©d)offc), genteJ3en, 
 ©trau^ and ©tvduJ3e, ^<x% t)a|Ud), ^aj^tc (but I)affen). 
 
 As was remarlced above (4), when German is written or printed in 
 the Roman character, ^ should be represented by ss. 
 
55] ACCENT. 13 
 
 50. 2|, i^. — S^, as noticed above (37), is equivalent to t 
 simply. 
 
 5L 23, ^. — Sj is the written equivalent of a double. 3, and 
 is pronounced in the same manner as a single 5. 
 Examples : ^(a^, ^tci^e, fil^en, 9}tit^e, ief^t, Ijlo^tic^. 
 
 General Supplementary Rules. 
 
 52. 1. Other combinations of letters than those treated of 
 above, whether of vowels or of consonants, are pronounced as the 
 single letters of which they are made up. 
 
 2. Doubled consonants, however, are not pronounced double, 
 
 but in the same manner as single ones. 
 
 Double consonants, in general, have no etymological ground, but are an 
 orthographical device for indicating the short quantity of the preceding 
 voweL 
 
 53. But doubled consonants, or double vowels, or any of the foregoing 
 combinations of vowels or consonants, if produced by the coming together 
 of the final and initial letters of the parts making up a word — either by 
 composition or by the addition of prefixes or of sufBxes of derivation be- 
 ginning with a consonant — are pronounced as in those parts taken separ- 
 ately. Thus, 
 
 JectbEl (bcsctbct) not as Seere ; geitrt (gcsiret) not as (Setcr ; 
 
 Iieurtljcilt (lje=utt^eilt) " SBeutc ; ^onbbrud (sianbsbtuct) " Sbba ; 
 
 aJiittag (SJlitstog) " SDJittc ; n)egi3in() (ircgsging) " Sggc ; 
 
 aibbilb (atsbilb) - " gbbe ; (lUjfaUt (aiit=fairt) " Mffc ; 
 
 t)iel(ci(l)t (i)iri»Ieii$l) " SIGeEc ; bcnno^ (bciisnott)) " §cniic ; 
 
 werreift (pcrsvcift) " fperri'n ; baejclbe (bn^=jclbe) " be^jeix ; 
 
 tua^fam (lua^s^am) " mfld)^en ; ungar (un^gar) " Ungac ; 
 
 SouS^cn ($duSsd)Cti) " ^afdjen ; ^auSsinS (gauSsjinS) " aujici.' ; 
 
 ^utiUdEet (©utsjuact) " fiilje; mcgeffcn (mcgscffcii) " gcgcffcit ; 
 
 Sttart (2tlJ=(irt) " SUIJenb ; ©aiibeifen (§anb=ei(en) " fanbetn. 
 
 64. 1. Respecting the pronunciation of foreign words occurring in 
 German tests, no special rules can or need be given. The degree of their 
 conformity with the rules of utterance of the language to which they prop- 
 erly belong on the one hand, or of the German on the other, depends upon 
 the less or greater completeness of their adoption into German. 
 
 2. In pronouncing the classical languages, Latin and Greek, the Germans 
 follow, in general, the rules of utterance of their own letters, both vowels 
 and consonants. But, in reading Latin, g is always hard, and v has the 
 sound of English v (German In), not of German a (English/). 
 
 ACCENT. 
 
 55. The accentuation of German words is so generally 
 accordant in its princijples with that of English words, that 
 
14: PEONUNOIATIOIT. [55- 
 
 it occasions little difficulty, even to the beginner, and can 
 be left to be learned by practice, without detailed exposi- 
 tion and illustration. The following are its leading rules : 
 
 1. The accent ordinarily rests, in words uncompounded, on the 
 radical or chiefly significant syllable — never on terminations of de- 
 clension or conjugation, almost never on suffixes of derivation, 
 and never on the inseparable prefixes of verbs (302), either in the 
 forms of conjugation or in derivative words. 
 
 Exceptions are : the suffix et (408) ; the i or te of verbs ending in the 
 infinitive in trcn or iereri (404); and a. few wholly anomalous words, as 
 leben'big (from le'ben, le'benb). 
 
 2. In compound words, except compound particles, the accent 
 rests, as in English, upon the first member. The separable pre- 
 fixes of verbs are treated as forming compounds, and receive the 
 accent, in the verbal forms and in most verbal derivatives. 
 
 Exceptions are: many compounds with ott, as aHmSdj'tig, 'almighty,' 
 oUcin', 'alone,' allererft', 'tirst of all;' compound words of direction, like 
 ©iiboft', ' south-east ; ' and a number of others, as Saljr^un'bert, ' century,' 
 leibei'gcn, 'vassal,' roilttom'men, 'welcome.' 
 
 3. Compound particles usually accent the final member : thus, 
 bnf)in', 'thither,' otigleic^', ' although,' jufot'ge, ' according to,' jusor', 
 ' previously.' 
 
 Exceptions are : many adverbs which are properly cases of compound 
 nouns or adjectives; and some others : compare 425. 
 
 4. The negative prefix un has the accent commonly, but not 
 always (compare 416.46). 
 
 5. Words from foreign languages regularly retain the accent belonging 
 to them in those languages — yet with not a few, and irrSgular, exceptions. 
 As the greater part of them are French, or Latin with the unaccented syl- 
 lables at the end dropped off, they more usually accent the final syUablo. 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 56. The parts of speech are the same in German as in 
 English. 
 
 They are classified according to the fact and the mode of their 
 grammatical variation, or inflection. 
 
 1. Nouns, adjectives, and peonouns are declined. 
 
 Among these are here included abtiolbs, NtntEHALS, and paktioiples, 
 which are sometimes reckoned as separate parts of speech. 
 
59] DEOLENSIOK. 15 
 
 2. Yeebs are conjugated. 
 
 3. Adverbs, peepositions, and conjunctions are unin- 
 flected. 
 
 4. Inteejections are a class by themselves, not entering 
 as members into the construction of the sentence. 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 57. Declension is the variation of nouns, adjectives, 
 and pronouns for number, case, and gender. 
 
 58. There are two numbees, singular and plural, of 
 which the value and use are in general the same as in 
 English. 
 
 For special rules concerning the use of the numbers in German, see 211. 
 
 59. There are four cases in German, as in the oldest 
 known form of English (Anglo-Saxon). 
 
 1. The nominati/ue, answering to the English nomina- 
 tive. 
 
 The nominative case belongs to the subject of a sentence, to a 
 word in apposition with it, or a predicate noun qualifying it ; it 
 is also used in address (as the Latin vocative). See 212-14. 
 
 2. The genitive, answering neai-ly to the English posses- 
 sive, or objective with of. 
 
 It is therefore most often dependent upon a noun, but is also 
 used as the object of certain adjectives, verbs, and prepositions; 
 and it stands not infrequently without a governing word, in an 
 adverbial sense. See 215-20. 
 
 3. The dative, corresponding to the Latin and Greek 
 
 dative, or to the English objective with to or for. 
 
 The dative stands as indirect object of many verbs, transitive or 
 intransitive, and also follows certain adjectives, and prepositions. 
 Sometimes it sustains an " ablative " relation, such as we express 
 hyfrom. See 221-5. 
 
 4. The accusative, nearly the same with . our objective. 
 This is especially tbe case of the direct object of a transitive 
 
16 DECLENSION. [59- 
 
 verb ; certain prepositions are followed by it ; it is used to express 
 measure (including duration of time and extent of space), also the 
 time when anything is or is done ; and it occasionally stands ab- 
 solutely, as if governed by having understood. See 226-30. 
 
 A nouu in apposition with a noun standing in any of these rela- 
 tions is put in the same case with it. 
 
 60. There are three gendees, masculine, feminine, and 
 neuter. 
 
 Each noun is of one or the other of these genders, yet not 
 ■wholly according to the natural sex of the object indicated by it. 
 The names of most objects having conspicuous sex are, indeed, 
 masculine or feminine, according as those objects are male or 
 female ; but there are not infrequent exceptions ; and the names 
 of objects destitute of sex have a grammatical gender, as mascu- 
 line, feminine, or neuter, according to rules of which the original 
 ground is in great part impossible to discover, and which do not 
 admit of succinct statement. 
 
 This system of artificial or grammatical gender was an original characteristic of all the 
 languages with which the German is related ; it belonged equally to the English in the 
 Anglo-Saxon period, and was only lost in connection with the simplification of Enghsll 
 grammar by the loss of the distinctive endings of words. See the author's "Language 
 and the Study of Language," p. 77. 
 
 61. In the main, therefore, the gender of German 
 words must be learned outright, by experience ; but the 
 following practical rules wilLbaJound of value : 
 
 1. Exceptions to the natural gender of creatures having sex. 
 
 a. All diminutives formed by the suffixes d)en and {ein (410) 
 are neuter : thus, baS 5Kaba)en, ' the girl,' ba« grauteiit, ' the young 
 lady.' 
 
 h. Besides the special names which designate the male and 
 female of certain species, there is a neuter name for the young, or 
 for the species, or for both: thus, ber @ber,''the boar,' bte ©au, 
 'thesow,' bag gcrtel, 'the pig,' bag (Sd)tt)etn, 'the hog.' Other 
 species are called by the masculine or feminine name properly be- 
 longing toone sex only : thus, ber §ofe, ' the hare,' bie 9fad)tigaII, 
 ' the nightingale.' 
 
 c. Of anomalous exceptions, only baS SBcilJ, 'woman,' requires 
 special notice. 
 
 2. Attribution of gevder to classes of inanimate objects. 
 
 a. Names of the seasons, months, and days of the week, of the 
 points of compass, and of stones, are masculine : thus, ber 9Biutcr, 
 
61] GENTJEE. 17 
 
 ' winter,' bcr SD?at, ' May,' ber SKontag, ' Monday,' bcr 9?otb, ' nortli,' 
 berStefel, 'flint.' 
 
 6. Most names of rivers, and of plants, fhiits, and flowers (usu- 
 ally ending in e), are feminine: thus, bie jDonau, 'the Danube,' 
 bie %id)tt, ' the pine,' bie 'ipflaume, ' the plum,' bie 9? elfe, ' the pink.' 
 
 c. Most names of countries and places, of metals, the names of 
 the letters, and other parts of speech used as nouns, are neuter : 
 thus : bag atalien, ' Italy,' baS Serlin, ' Berlin,' baS gtfen, ' iron,' 
 bag X, ' the letter a;,' bag 3ta unb ^im, ' the yes and mo.' 
 
 3. Gender as determined hy derivation or termination (for further 
 details, see 408-11). 
 
 a. Masculine are the greater number of derivatives formed from 
 roots without suffix, by change of vowel ; also (though with 
 numerous excaptions) of words in et, ett, and cr ; and all deriva- 
 tives formed by tng and ling. 
 
 Thus, bcr ©^Jritc^, 'the speech,' ber S^agct, 'the nail,' ber 9tegcn, 'the 
 rain,' .bet ?§™92r, ' the finger,' ber ®e(iet, 'the cover,' ber SBot)ter, 'the gim- 
 let,' ber ginbiing, 'the foundling.' 
 
 6. Feminine are most derivatives in e and t, and all those formed 
 by the secondary suflixes et, ()ett, !eit, fd)aft, ung, and in (or inn). 
 
 Thus, bie ©pra^e, 'speech,' bie 3Rac()t, 'might,' bte @(i)mcid)etei, 'flat- 
 tery,' bie SBet8^eit, 'wisdom,' bie Eiteltcit, 'vanity,' bie f?reunbfd)aft, 'friend- 
 ship,' bie Otbnung, 'order,' bie greunbin, 'the female friend.' 
 
 c. Neuter are all diminutives formed with d)en and tein (as al- 
 ready noticed), most nouns formed by the suffixes fel, fal, itt|, and 
 tt)um, most collectives and abstracts formed by the prefix ge, and 
 all infinitives used as nouns. 
 
 Thus, ba6 a)iannil)en, 'the mannikin,' bag Snftbtein, 'the little hoy,' bag 
 SRatWet, 'the riddle,' ba« @cf|tcf(Qt, 'fate,' ba8 ®Ici(f|nt6, 'the likeness,' ba« 
 jfomit^um, 'the kingdom,' ba8 ©efieber, 'plumage,' ba« Oefptodi, 'talk,' 
 boS @te§en, 'the act of standing.' 
 
 4. Gender of compound nouns. 
 
 Compound nouns regularly and usually take the gender of their 
 final member. 
 
 Exceptions are bie aintmort, ' answer' (bo8 SBort, 'word'), ber Sfbfd^eu, 
 'abhorrence' (bte ©d^eu, 'fear'), several compounds of ber SK ut^, 'spirit,' 
 as, bie Orogmut^, 'magnanimity,' ©anftmut^, ' gentleness,' and ®emutl), 
 'humility,' etc., some names of places, and a few others (421). 
 
 5. Gender of nouns of foreign origin. 
 
 Excepting a few words — which, having become thoroughly 
 
18 AETICLES. [61- 
 
 Germatiizod, have had their original gender altered by assimilation 
 to analogous German words, or otherwise anomalously — nouns 
 from other languages are masculine, feminine, or neuter, as in the 
 tongues whence they come: thus, ber Kitet, 'the title' (Lat. 
 titulus, m.), bic Stone, 'the crown' (Lat. corona, f.), bag ^^ano:= 
 men, ' the phenomenon ' (Gr. phainomenon, n.) : but ber Sovticr, 
 'the body' (Lat. corpus, n.), haS g^enfter, 'the window' (Lat. 
 fenestra, f.), bte 92utmtier, ' the number ' (Lat. numerus, m.). 
 
 6. Some nouns are used, commonly or occasionally, as of more 
 than one gender : thus, ber or bag S;t)eil, ' the part ; ' bag or ber 
 Sljor, ' the chorus.' 
 
 A considerable number of nouns are of more than one gender, 
 dependent on differences of meaning — either nouns of identical 
 derivation, as ber SBunb, ' the covenant,' and bog 23unb, ' the bun- 
 dle,' ber See, ' the lake,' and bte ©cc, ' the sea ; ' or nouns of diverse 
 origin, whose identity of form is accidental only, as ber XifOX, ' the 
 fool,' and bag Sf)or, ' the gate.' 
 
 For the details of this variation, as well as of the cases and exceptions 
 under the foregoing rules, the pupil may be referred to his dictionary. 
 
 62. Adjectives and most pronouns are inflected in tlie 
 singular in all the tliree genders, in order to agree in gender 
 with the nouns which they qualify or to which they relate. 
 No such word makes a distinction of gender in the plural. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 63. For the sake of convenience, the declension of the definite 
 
 and indefinite articles is first given. 
 
 The definite article is the same with the demonstrative pronoun, in its 
 adjective use (164); the indefinite is the same with the numeral eill, 'one' 
 (198). Our own articles are of like origin. 
 
 Definite Article. 
 
 
 SingvXar. 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 masc. 
 
 fcm. 
 
 neut. 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 
 Nom. ber 
 Gen. beg 
 
 bic 
 ber 
 
 bag 
 beg 
 
 bie 
 ber 
 
 'the' 
 ' of the 
 
 Dat. bent 
 
 ber 
 
 betn 
 
 ben 
 
 ' to the 
 
 Ace. belt 
 
 bte 
 
 bag 
 
 bic 
 
 'the' 
 
SS] ABTICLES. 19 
 
 
 
 ABTICLES. 
 
 
 
 
 Indefinite Article. 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 ein 
 eineS 
 
 etne eut_ 
 einer eineS 
 
 'a' 
 'of a' 
 
 D. 
 
 einetn 
 
 einer etnem 
 
 'to a' 
 
 A. 
 
 einen 
 
 eine ein 
 
 •a' 
 
 64. 1. The theme (base, stem) of the definite article is b 
 only ; of the indefinite, ein : the rest is declensional ending. 
 
 2. Notice that the declension of ein difi'ers from that of ber in 
 that the former has no ending in the nom. masculine and the 
 nom. and ace. neuter. 
 
 65. The ace. neuter bag, and the dat. masc. and neuter bent are 
 very frequently appended to prepositions in the form of simple g 
 and nt, being written as one word with the preposition ; and, in 
 such contracted forms, a preposition ending in n (on, in, Don) 
 loses its n before m. The dat. feminine ber is in like manner cut 
 down to r, but only after ju, forming jur. 
 
 The commonest cases of this contraction and combination are am, tm. 
 Bom, jjum, betm (for an bent, in bent, Hon bem, ju bent, hct bent), and ana, 
 aufS, tnS, fiirS, tjors (for an bag, etc. ). Much less frequent are nufm, Oovm, 
 burcf|8, and, with dissyllabic prepositions, iiberS, iiberm, and the Uke. 
 
 Barely, the aoo. masculine ben is similarly treated, forming iibevn, I)tn» 
 tern, and so on. 
 
 Some writers mark the omission of part of the article in these contracted 
 forms by an apostrophe : thus, ouf'8, iiber'tn, btnter'n, etc. 
 
 Very rarely, the same contraction is made after other words than pre- 
 positions (e. g., E. tS.SO ; 149.24). 
 
 Ubb of the Articles. 
 
 66. In general, the articles are used in German nearly 
 as in English. But there are also not a few diflferences, 
 the more important of which are stated below. 
 
 1. The definite article regularly stands in German before a noun 
 used in its most comprehensive or universal sense, as indicating 
 the whole substance, class, or kind of which it is the appellation : 
 as, boS ®Dfb ift getb, 'gold is yellow;' bte Slatter ber 'jpflanjen 
 ftnb griin, ' leaves of plants are green.' 
 
 2. By a like usage, it stands before abstract nouns, when taken 
 without limitation : as, b aS Seben ift fut^, b te Sunft ift long, ' life is 
 
20 AETICLES. [66- 
 
 short, art is long; ' ber ©tauben mo^t feticj, 'faith makes happy;' 
 inS 25evberben loden, 'to entice to destruction.' 
 
 3. It is often used where we use a possessive pronominal ad- 
 jective (161), when the connection sufficiently points out the 
 possessor, or when the latter is indicated by a noun or pronoun 
 in the dative, dependent on the verb of the sentence : as, ber -Ska- 
 ter |cf)iittelte ben ^^o^f, ' the father shook his head ; ' ba ergreift'8 
 tl)m bie ©eele, 'then it takes, hold upon his soul.' 
 
 4. It is prefixed to words of certain classes which in English 
 are used without it ; as, 
 
 a. To the names of seasons, months, and days of the week : as, 
 tnt SBinter, ' in winter ; ' t)or bera ^Kai, ' before May ; ' am J'^^itog, 
 ' on Friday.' 
 
 b. To names of streets and mountains, and -to feminine names 
 of countries: as, auf ber fjrtebrid^gftra^e, 'in Frederick Street;' 
 ber 35efub, ' Vesuvius ; ' in b e r ©djWeij, ' in Switzerland.' 
 
 c. Often to proper names, especially when preceded by adjec- 
 tives or titles : as, b e m franfen ®eorg, ' to sick George ; ' bag fd}Due 
 S3ertin, ' beautiful Berlin ; ' — or, when the name of an author is 
 used for his works : as, id^ lefe ben (3d)it(er, ' I am reading Schil- 
 ler ; ' — or, in a familiar or contemptuous way ; as, rufe ben Sotjann, 
 ' call John ;' — or, to indicate more plainly the case of the noun : 
 as, ber ©fatten ber SDtaria, ' Maria's shadow ; ' beii Strginoljn be§ 
 3lnbronifuS, 'the jealousy of Andronicus' (compare 104). 
 
 5. There are numerous phrases, in German as in English, in 
 which the article is omitted, although called for by general ana- 
 logies. These often correspond in the two languages : as, jit 
 SSette, ' to bed,' bet Stfd), ' at table,' ?Infer hjerfcn, ' to cast anchor ; ' 
 — in other cases, the German retains the article which is omitted 
 in English: as, in bie ©d)ule, 'to school,' im §immel unb mif ber 
 Erbe, ' in heaven and on e$rth,' am 3lbenb, ' at evening ; ' — or, less 
 often, the article, retained in English, is omitted in the German : 
 as, bor Slitgen, ' before the eyes,' gen Often, ' toward the East.' 
 
 6. The article is usually omitted in technical phraseology before 
 words referring to persons or things as already mentioned or to 
 be mentioned, as befagt, gebac^t, genannt, ' the aforesaid,' folgeitb, 
 'the following,' erfter and leljter, 'former' and 'latter,' etc.; also 
 before certain nouns, as 3int)aber, ' holder,' Ueberbrtnger, ' bearer,' 
 etc. 
 
 7. In place of our indefinite article with a distributive sense, 
 the German employs the definite article: as, fo biet bag ^funb, 
 'so much a pound;' bc« 2lbcnb8,. ' of aw evening;' brcimalbie 
 
69] AUTICLES. 21 
 
 3Bocfie, ' three times a week.' Also, in certain cases, the definite 
 article in combination with a preposition stands where the inde- 
 finite would be expected: as, ®taat um ©taat foUte jur ^rotiinj 
 hjerben, ' state after state was to be turned into a province.' 
 
 8. The indefinite article is omitted before a predicate noun with 
 fein and werben, and before a noun in apposition after o(g, ' as : ' 
 thus, er 'max ^aufmann, \o\U, abtx je^t ©olbat tnerben, 'he was a 
 merchant, but now wants to become a soldier ; ' id) fonn eg al8 
 9JJatm ni^t bulben, ' I cannot, as a man, endure it.' 
 
 The above are only the leading points that require notice in comparing 
 the German and English use of the articles. The German allows, especially 
 in poetry, considerable irregularity and freedom in their employment, and 
 they are not rarely found introduced — and, much more ^ften, omitted — 
 where general analogies would favor a contrary treatment. 
 
 67. In regard to their position — the definite article pre- 
 cedes all other qualifying words (except qH, ' all') ; and the inde- 
 finite sufiers only fo or folc^, ' such,' \oAi), * what,' and inaS fiir, 
 ' what sort of,' before it : thus, b t e Beiben Snakn, ' both the boys ; ' 
 bcr bo^Jlsette ^reiS, ' double the price ; ' fot^ etn SUJann (or etn fot= 
 c^er Sl^ann), ' such a man;' tnetc^ cin §elb ! ' what a hero ' : but eine 
 \)a&t ©tunbc, ' half an hour,' ein fo arntcr 2Rann, ' so poor a man,' 
 einc gonj fdjone 9lu8ftd)t, ' quite a fine view.' 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 68. In order to decline a German noun, we need to 
 know how it forms its genitive singular and its nominative 
 plural ; and upon these two cases depends the classification 
 of German declensions. 
 
 69. 1. The great majority of masculine nouns, and all 
 neuters, form their genitive singular by adding « or e8 to 
 the nominative. These constitute the first declension ; 
 which is then divided into classes according to the mode 
 of formation of the nominative plural. 
 
 a. The first class takes no additional ending for the 
 plural, but sometimes modifies the vowel of the theme : 
 thus, 'Sjjatcn, ' spade,' <2^aten, ' spades ; ' but SSater, ' father,' 
 aSater, ' fathers.' 
 
22 NOUNS. [69- 
 
 h. The second class adds the ending e, sometimes also 
 modifying the vowel: thus, Qai)x, 'year,' Qa\)Xt, 'years;' 
 %i\% ' foot,' %v.%t, ' feet.' 
 
 0. The third class adds the ending er, and always modi- 
 fies the vowel: thus, SfJJonn, 'man,' SBWnner, ' men ; ' ©rab, 
 'grave,' ©rdbcr, 'graves.' 
 
 Bv modification of the vowol is meant the substitution of the modtfled 
 vowels a, 0, u (14), and iiu (21,2), for the simpler o, D, u, and ait, in themes 
 containing the latter. The change of vowel in English man and men, foot and 
 feet, mouse and mice, and their like, is originally the same process. See the 
 author's "Language and the Study of Language," p. 78. 
 
 2. Some feminines form their plural after the first and 
 second of these methods, and are therefore reckoned as be- 
 longing to the first and second classes of the first declen- 
 sion, although they do not now take S in the genitive 
 singular. 
 
 The German genitive ending of the first declension is historically identi- 
 cal with the 8 which forms our English possessives. 
 
 70. The rest of the masculine nouns add n or en to the 
 theme to form the genitive singular, and take the same 
 ending also in the nominative plural. Most feminines 
 form their plural in the same way, and are therefore classi- 
 fied with them, making up the second declension. 
 
 The feminines are classified by the form of their plurals only, because, 
 as is pointed out below, all feminine nouns are now invariable in the 
 singular. 
 
 71. The two cases above mentioned being known, the 
 rest of the declension is found by the following general 
 rules : 
 
 1. Singular, a. Feminines are invariable in the singular. 
 For exceptions, see below, 95. 
 
 h. In the masculines and neuters of the "first declension, 
 the accusative singular is like the nominative. Nouns 
 which add only § in the genitive have the dative also like 
 the nominative; those which add eS in the genitive regu- 
 larly take e in the dative, but may also omit it — it being 
 
'4] GENEEAL KULES OF DECLENSION. 23 
 
 proper to form the dative of any noun of the first declen- 
 sion like the nominative. 
 
 c. Masculines of the second declension have all their 
 oblique cases like the genitive. 
 
 2. Plural, a. The nominative, genitive, and dative are 
 always alike in the plural. 
 
 5. The dative plural ends invariably in n ; it is formed 
 by adding tt to the nominative plural, provided that case 
 end in any other letter than ti (namely, in c, \, or r, the only 
 other finals that occur there) ; if it end in n, all the cases 
 of the plural are alike. 
 
 72. The following general rules, applying to all declension — 
 that of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns — are worthy of notice : 
 
 1. The ace. singular of the feni. and neuter is like the nominative. 
 
 2. The dat. plural (except of personal pronouns) ends in n. 
 
 "73. It will he seen, on comparing the declension of nouns with 
 that of the definite article (63), that the former is less full, dis- 
 tinguishing fewer cases by appropriate terminations. Besides 
 their plural ending — which, moreover, is wanting in a considerable 
 class of words — nouns have distinct forms only for the genitive 
 singular and the dative plural, with traces of a dative singular — 
 and even these in by no means all words. 
 
 What are here caUed the pmsT and SECOND declensions are often styled (after Grimm's 
 example) the strong and weak declensions. A historically suitable designation would be 
 ** Towel-declension " and " 7i-declension," since the first mode of declension properly be- 
 longs to themes orifjinally ending in a vowel (though the plural-ending cr comes from 
 themes in §) ; the second, to those ending in n : other consonanb-endings with their peculi- 
 arities of declension have disappeared. The whole German declensional system has un- 
 dergone such extensive corruption, mutilation, and transfer, that the old historical classi- 
 fications are pretty thoroughly effaced, and to attempt to restore them, or make any account 
 of them, would only confuse the learner. 
 
 First Declension of Nouns, 
 
 74. As already explained, the first declension contains 
 all the neuter nouns in the language, all masculines which 
 form their genitive singular by adding 8 or ti to the nomi- 
 native, and such feminines as form their nominative plural 
 either without au added ending, or else by appending e to 
 the theme. 
 
24 NOUNS. [75- 
 
 First Class. 
 
 75. The cliaracteristic of the first class is that it adds 
 no ending to form the plural: its nominatives are' alike in 
 both numbers — except that in a few words the vowel of 
 the singular is modified for the plural. 
 
 76. To this class belong 
 
 1. Masculine and neuter nouns having the endings el, 
 cr, en (including infinitives used as nouns, 340), and one 
 or two in em ; 
 
 2. A few neuter noims having the prefix ge and ending 
 in e ; also one masculine in e (Siife, ' cheese ') ; 
 
 3. All neuter diminutives formed with the suffixes (i)cn 
 and Icin ; 
 
 4. Two feminines ending in er (SJIuttcr, ' mother,' and 
 
 Sloc^ter, ' daughter '). 
 
 No nouns of this doolonaion are monoayllabic (except tlie infinitives ttfvm 
 and fein). The endings cl, er do not include iel, eel, ier, eer, but imply the 
 simple vowel e as that of the termination. 
 
 77. Nouns of the first class add only S (not e8) to form 
 
 the genitive singular, and never take e in the dative. 
 
 Their only variation for case, therefore, is by the assmnDtion of 8 in the 
 gen. sing, (of masc. and neut. nouns), and of n in the dat. plural 
 
 78. About twenty masculines (Slpfcl, ' apple,' iBruber, 
 'brother,' ©artcti, 'garden,' 33ater, 'father,' 33oget, 'bird,' 
 etc.), one neuter (Stofter, 'convent'), and both feminines, 
 modify in the plural the vowel of the principal syllable. 
 
 79. Examples : — 
 
 I. With vowel unchanged in the plural : 
 
 ©paten, ' spade,' m. ©ebirgc, ' mountain rangq,' n. 
 Singular. 
 N. ber <Spatm baS ®e6ivge 
 
 G. beg ©patcnS beg (Sebirgeg 
 
 D. bent ©^joten bent ©ebtrgc- 
 
 A. ben ©paten bag ©ebirge 
 
 'fife, ' cheese,' m. 
 
 ber safe 
 beg Safes 
 bent Safe 
 ben safe 
 
80] 
 
 25 
 
 Phral. 
 N. bie ©paten bic ©ebirge 
 
 G-. bcr ©^joten ber ©ebirge 
 
 D. ben ©^laten ben ©ebirgen 
 
 A. bie ©paten bic ©ebirge 
 
 II. With vowel modified in the plural : 
 SBtuber, ' brother,' m. Slofter, 'convent,' n. 
 
 bie ^afe 
 ber ^ofe 
 ben ^afcn 
 bie Safe 
 
 aSutter, ' mother,' f. 
 
 bie 5»httter 
 ber Stutter 
 ber abutter 
 bie abutter 
 
 bie a^iittcr 
 bcr aJWtter 
 ben ajfttttcm 
 bie SKutter 
 
 N. ber iBruber hai Slofter 
 
 G. beg aSruberS beg SlofterS 
 
 D. bent SSruber bem Stofter 
 
 A. ben aSruber bog Stofter 
 
 Plural. 
 N. bie ©ruber bie Slofter 
 
 G. ber Sriiber bcr Stofter 
 
 D. ben Sriibern ben ^ttftcrn 
 
 A. ik SBriiber bic Stofter 
 
 80. 1. A few nouns are of this class in the singular and of 
 the second declension in the plural ; a few others have lost an 
 original ending n or en in the nom. (or nom. and ace.) singular, 
 being otherwise regular. For all these, see Irregular Declension 
 (97). 
 
 2. Among the infinitives used as nouns, and belonging to this 
 class, are a few of irregular ending : namely, t{|un, ' to do,' and 
 fein, ' to be,' with their compounds, some of which are in common 
 use as nouns — e. g., ®afein, ' existence,' 2Bof|Ifein, ' welfare ' — ; and 
 others which end in eln and em ; thus, Sffianbeln, ' walking,' 2Ban= 
 bem, ' wandering.' 
 
 Exercise I. 
 
 Nouns of the first declension, first, class. - 
 
 For the words and forms in this and the following exercises, see the 
 Glossary to the Exercises, at the end of the Grammar. 
 
 1. ®cr SBruber nteineg 33aterg ift mein JOnlel. 2. @r l§at ©ttrten 
 ouf bent ©ebirge. 3. -Sn ben ©iirtcn finb Slepfet auf ben SSSumc^cn. 
 
 4. 3c^ gcbc bent ©cf)ilter bag 2)feffer unb bem Se^rer ben §amnter. 
 
 5. ®cg SKitttcrg Safe finb auf ben 5j;ettern in meinem ^immer. 6. 
 
 2 
 
26 NOUNS. [81- 
 
 SBo ftnb bte fjrautein, bie S6i)ter nteitter Wluttex? 1. ©ie [teljen 
 toor ben ®^3tegeln, ober f^auen au6 ben genftern. 8. Site 3lblcr 
 finb SSBgel, unb ^aben ^wei O^titgcl unb einen @c^nabel. 
 Second Class. 
 
 81. The characteristic of the second class is that it 
 forms the plural by adding e to the singular ; at the same 
 time, the vowel of the principal syllable is usually modi- 
 fied in the plural : but to this there are many exceptions. 
 
 82. To this class belong 
 
 1. The greater number of masculine nouns; 
 
 2. Many neuters ; 
 
 3. About thirty-five monosyllabic feminines (with their 
 compounds, and including the compounds of lunft, not in 
 use as an independent word), with the feminines formed by 
 the suffixes nt| (about a dozen in number) and fat (two or 
 three). 
 
 83. Masculines and neuters form their genitive singular 
 by adding either 8 or e8 ; the dative is like the nominative, 
 or adds c. 
 
 The ending e8 is more usually taken by monosyllables, 8 by 
 polysyllables ; but most words may assume either, according to 
 the choice of the writer or speaker, depending partly on euphony, 
 and partly on the style he is employing — c§ belonging to a more 
 serious or elaborate style, and § being more colloquial. Excepted 
 are words which end in a sibilant, and which therefore require an 
 interposed e to make the genitive ending perceptible to the ear. 
 Thus, 2;age§ is more usual than Sog8, Sonigg than ^iinigeg, while 
 ©cfjmetterlingeS would hardly be tolerated; but always fJto^eS, 
 Sud^feS, ©aljcS. 
 
 The use or omission of e in the dative is nearly parallel with 
 the use of e§ or g in the genitive ; but it may be left off from 
 every noun without exception. 
 
 84. Of the masculines, the great majority take the 
 modified vowel in the plural, there being only about fifty 
 exceptions (including some very common words, as Jag, 
 ' day,' arm, ' arm,' §unb, ' dog,' ®d)ul^, ' shoe,' ^oU, ' inch ') ; 
 of the neuters, only two, 0to^, ' raft,' and £l)or, ' choir,' re- 
 
86] 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION, SECOND CLASS, 
 
 27 
 
 quire the modification, and two others, SBoot, ' boat,' and 
 5Ro^r, ' reed,' may take it or not ; of the feminines, all ex- 
 cept those ending in ni^ and fal modify the vowel. 
 
 85. Examples : — 
 I. With vowel modified in the plural : 
 @0^n, ' son,' m. g(o6, ' raft,' n. §aitb, ' hand,' f. 
 
 N. 
 
 bft ©o^tt 
 
 bag g^Io§ 
 
 bte §anb 
 
 G. 
 
 beS ©o^neS 
 
 beS ??to|e8 
 
 ber §anb 
 
 D. 
 
 bent ®o§ne 
 
 bent g^Ioge 
 
 ber .^anb 
 
 A. 
 
 ben <3o^n 
 
 Plwal 
 
 bte §anb 
 
 N. 
 
 bie <B'6i)ni 
 
 bie glij^e 
 
 bte §attbe 
 
 G. 
 
 bcr (So^ne 
 
 ber glBie 
 
 ber §anbe 
 
 D. 
 
 ben ©o^nen 
 
 ben fjlo^en 
 
 ben |)onben 
 
 A. 
 
 bte ©o^nc 
 
 bte glii^e 
 
 bte §anbe 
 
 II. With vowel unchanged in the plural : 
 
 
 
 SWonat, 'month,' m 
 
 3af)r, 'year,'n. 
 Singular. 
 
 @rf))ami6, ' saving,' f. 
 
 N. 
 
 ber 5D?onat 
 
 bag 3a^r 
 
 bie (Srf^ami§ 
 
 G. 
 
 be« WlomtS 
 
 beg 3al)reg 
 
 ber @rft)armJ3 
 
 D. 
 
 bent Wlomt 
 
 bent 3o^re 
 
 ber ©rf^ami^ 
 
 A. 
 
 ben SWonat 
 
 bag Sa^r 
 Plurai. 
 
 bie (Srflsarmg 
 
 N. 
 
 bie "SJlomti 
 
 bie S^ol^re - 
 
 bte ©rf^jamtfTe 
 
 G. 
 
 ber ajlonate 
 
 ber -Sa^re 
 
 ber grffjamiffe 
 
 D. 
 
 ben SDfonatctt 
 
 ben S^al^ren 
 
 ben Srfparntffen 
 
 A. 
 
 bte 'jSlomtt 
 
 bte Oa^re 
 
 bie Srf^arniffe 
 
 86. Most nouns 
 
 of foreign origin belong 
 
 to this class. For 
 
 son 
 
 le irreeularities ii 
 
 Q their declension, as well 
 
 as in that of other 
 
 members of the class, see below, 97 etc. 
 
 Exercise II. 
 
 N^ouns of the first declension, second class. 
 
 1. 3^ einem 3o:^re finb 3h36lf SOlonate, unb in etnent SKonate ftnb 
 bretitg Sage. 2. 9Kein @of)n ^at ;itt3ei Slrme, unb an jebem %xmt 
 
28 
 
 NOTOfS. 
 
 [87- 
 
 eine §onb. 3. gr fjat ©t^ulje auf ben %n^m, unb auf bent ^o^jfe 
 eincn §ut. 4. ®te ©tul)Ie unb Sante ftefen urn bie Sif^e. 5. 
 ajteine greunbe mo^en g(o§e Bon Saumen, unb frfjiden fie mtr auf 
 bem gtuffe. 6. SDie ©tor^e pnben ??r6fd)e in ben Sa^en bor ben 
 K^oren ber ©tabt. 7. Qn ben SKunben ber §unbe finb ^ti'jns- 
 
 Third Class. 
 
 87. The characteristic of this class is the assumption 
 of the ending er to form the nominative plural, along -with 
 modification of the vowel of the theme. 
 
 88. The class is composed chiefly of neuter nouns, with 
 a few masculines, but no feminines. 
 
 Besides the nouns formed by the suffix t^unt (which are, with 
 two or three exceptions, neuter, and which modify the vowel of 
 the suffix, not that of the radical syllable), there are not far from 
 fifty neuters, and about a dozen masculines, belonging to the 
 class ; also, three or four words of foreign origin. 
 
 Among the neuters of most frequent occurrence are SBilb, ffitatt, 95uc^, 
 gelb, ®vab, §ou8, «inb, Sletb, Sii^t, Steb, S^al, SSott, SBeiB, Sffiort, @eri(J)t. 
 
 The masculines are Oetft, Oott, Setb, Ttann, Ort, 8lanb, SCiSalb, SBuvm, 
 SSormunb, Sofemii^t, and sometimes Som. 
 
 89. Eespecting the .form of the genitive singular end- 
 ing, whether S or eS, and respecting the dative, whether 
 like the nominative or adding e, the same rules apply as in 
 the second class (83). 
 
 90. Examples : — 
 
 
 §au8, 
 
 Setb, 
 
 Srrt^itm, 
 
 SWann, 
 
 
 'house,' n. 
 
 ' woman,' n. 
 
 ' error,' m. 
 
 'man,'m. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 has $au8 
 
 aSeib 
 
 ber 3rrt^um 
 
 aJtann 
 
 G. 
 
 beg §aufe8 
 
 SBeiBeS 
 
 beg 3^a-t^mg 
 
 aWanneg 
 
 D. 
 
 bem §aufe 
 
 aBcibe 
 
 bem S^rrt^um 
 
 ajJanne 
 
 A. 
 
 baa §au8 
 
 SBSeib 
 
 ben Orrt^um 
 
 Plwal 
 
 50Jonn 
 
 N. 
 
 bie |)aufer 
 
 aBeibev 
 
 bie 3rrt^iimer 
 
 STOanncr 
 
 G. 
 
 ber |)aufer 
 
 aeSeiber 
 
 ber 3n:tt)umer 
 
 Scanner 
 
 D. 
 
 ben ^oufern 
 
 aSeibem 
 
 ben 3trtf)umevn 
 
 SDfdmicvn 
 
 A. 
 
 bie ^dufer 
 
 SBeiber 
 
 bie 3^rftt)iimer 
 
 Scanner 
 
92] SECOND DECLENSION. 29 
 
 ExEECISE III. 
 
 Jfouns of the first declension, third class. 
 
 1. IxxS erfte SBetb mac^tc ein ^tetfa au§ SBtfittern. 2. IBrtnge mtr 
 em S3uc^ unb ein Si^t ou8 betn §aufe. 3. 3n ben SBii^em ber fitn= 
 ber finb btete SBilber unb Siete SBBrter. 4. S)er Sei6 be§ 2Ranne§ gefjt 
 in bag @ra6, fein ®eift ge'^t 3U ®ott. 5. IDag SSotf fingt gieber ira 
 §aufe, im iJelb, im SBalb, uno in ben S^aleni. 
 
 Second Declension of Nouns, 
 
 91. To the second declension belong only masculine 
 and feminine nouns. They form all the cases of the plural 
 by adding n or en to the theme, and masculines take the 
 same ending in the oblique cases of the singular. 
 
 92. 1. Nearly all the feminine nouns in the language 
 are of this declension : namely 
 
 a. All feminines df more than one syllable, wlietlier primitive 
 words, as ©ette, ' side,' Suget, ' ball,' g^eber, ' feather ; ' or primary 
 derivatives, as (§)a.ii, ' gift,' ®^)rac^e, ' speech ; ' words formed with 
 prefixes, as ®efa^r, ' danger,' or with sufiixes, as 2;ugenb, ' virtue,' 
 SQSal^r^eit, ' truth,' iJurftin, ' princess,' J?obung, ' loading.' 
 
 i Exceptions : those having the suffixes m^ or fot (see 82.3). 
 
 6. About thirty monosyllables, as ?lrt, ' manner,' g^rau, ' woman,' 
 ^ftid|t, ' duty,' Z\)at, 'deed,' SBett, ' worid,' ^eit, 'time.' 
 
 c. All feminines derived from other languages, as SKtnute, 
 'minute,' SJlelobie, 'melody,' 9(Jatton, 'nation,' Uninerfitat, 'uni- 
 versity.' 
 
 2. Masculines of the second declension are 
 
 a. Words of more than one syllable in e, as S3ote, 'messenger,' 
 (Satte, ' spouse,' ^nabe, ' boy ' — including those that have the pre- 
 fix ge, as ©efa^rte, 'companion,' ©efelle, 'fellow,' and some nouns 
 of nationality, as ^preuge, 'Prussian,' fjranjofe, 'Frenchman;' 
 also a few in cr and ax, as Saier, ' Bavarian,' Ungar, ' Hungarian.' 
 
 6. About twenty monosyllabio root-words, as SBfir, ' bear,' @raf, 
 ' count,' §elb, 'hero,' §err, 'master,' SKenfc^, 'man (human being),' 
 £)di8, 'ox,'S^or, 'fool' 
 
 I c. Many foreign words, as ©tubent, ' student,' SKonarc!^, 'mo- 
 narch,' iBavbar, ' barbarian.' 
 
30 
 
 NOTmS. 
 
 [93- 
 
 93. Nouns ending in e, et, er, and at unaccented, add n 
 only to the theme; others add en. 
 
 Before this ending, the n of the sufiBx in is doubled: thus, 
 ^iliftin, iJiirftinnen. 
 
 §err, in modern usage, ordinarily adds It in the singular, and ett in the 
 plural, being the only masculine whose forms differ in the two numbers. 
 
 No noun of this declension modifies its vowel in the 
 
 plural. 
 
 94. Examples : 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 Feminines : 
 
 
 
 
 
 ©eite, 
 
 S:i)at, 
 
 SSSabrBett, 
 
 9?atton, 
 
 
 ' side.' 
 
 'deed.' 
 
 SmgvXa/r. 
 
 'truth.' 
 
 ' nation.' 
 
 N. 
 
 bic ©ette 
 
 K^t 
 
 SBa^r^cit 
 
 Station 
 
 G. 
 
 ber ©eite 
 
 S^at 
 
 SBo^r^eit 
 
 ^yjation 
 
 D. 
 
 bcr ©eite 
 
 SJiat 
 
 SQSa^r^eit 
 
 Station 
 
 A. 
 
 bte ©eite 
 
 Z^ai 
 
 Plmral. 
 
 SBa^r^eit ^ 
 
 Station 
 
 N. 
 
 bie ©eiten 
 
 S^aten 
 
 SBa^rl^eiten 
 
 Stationen 
 
 G. 
 
 ber ©eiten 
 
 E^aten 
 
 aSa^r^eiten 
 
 Stattonen 
 
 D. 
 
 ben ©eiten 
 
 S^ten 
 
 2Baf)r^eiten 
 
 Stationen 
 
 A. 
 
 bie ©eiten 
 
 S^aten 
 
 TOa^r^eiten 
 
 SJationen 
 
 II. 
 
 Masculines : 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^nabc, 
 
 33ater, 
 
 $Ken(e^, 
 
 ©tubcnt, 
 
 
 ' boy.' 
 
 ' Bavarian.' 
 
 Singular. 
 
 ' man.' 
 
 ' student.' 
 
 N. 
 
 ber Snabe 
 
 SBaier 
 
 5Wenft^ 
 
 ©tubent 
 
 G.D.A. ^naben 
 
 Saiem 
 
 50lenfd^en 
 
 ©tubenten 
 
 
 
 Flv/raZ. 
 
 
 
 N.G.D.A. Snaficn 
 
 SSatern 
 
 SSRenfrfien 
 
 ©tubcnten 
 
 95. Formerly, many feminine nouns of this declension, like 
 the masculines, took the declensional ending in the genitive and 
 dative singular; and this ending is still commonly retjiined in 
 certain phrases : e. g., ouf (Srbcn, ' on earth ; ' ju g^ren, ' in honor 
 [of] ; ' mtt ^reuben, ' with_ pleasure ; ' bon ©eiten, ' on the part 
 [of].' Occasionally, also, it appears in a gen. feminine preceding 
 
97] SECOND DECLENSION. 31 
 
 the governing noun, as um feiner ©eelen §etl, ' for the welfare of 
 his soul ; ' and yet more rarely, by poetic license, in other situa- 
 tions (e. g., R. 100.23). 
 
 Exercise IV. 
 
 N'ouns of the second declension. 
 
 1. jDer §err biefeS ^nobeit tfl etn ^reu§e, ober etn Ungar. 2. 
 (Srafen ftnb nur SDfenfc^en, unb ntc^t immer §etben. 3. SDie ©tu= 
 benten bcr ©urad^e rooren tnetne ©efa^rten auf ber UntOerjitat. 4. 
 jDie ^rau faff ben O^fett t^reg (gotten in @efal}r Don einem.^dren. 
 5. ®ie (grbe tft etne Sugel, unb auf i^rer ^ia6]t IcBen bte S'tationcn 
 ber SJJenf^en nttt itjren 5wonard)en. 6. 2Ba^r^ett tft bie Sugenb cineS 
 aSoten. 7. SDicfer 'ipole ift ein Ibbofat ; fein 5Reffe ift etn ©olbat. 
 
 Exercise V. 
 
 N'ouns of all declensions. 
 
 1. ®tefe i^ontifie befle'^t au8 fed^S ^erfonen : bte grou tft bte 3J?ut= 
 ter ; ber SWaitn ift t^r ®otte, unb SSater ber bier fitnber ; bte jhjet 
 ^naben ftnb if)re ©o^ne ; bte jwei aWabd^en ftnb i^re Sorfjter. 2. 
 ®er ©tubent fte^t an bem 'ipiute in fetnem ^'wmci-' ; er ftugt ben 
 ^o)3f auf fetncti Slvm ; er l^at ein'e g^eber in ber anberen §anb, unb 
 fd^reibt in einent iBu^e. 3. SKein g^reunb gab mir etnen Slpfel, ben er 
 fanb unter ctnent JBaume in fetnem ©arten. 4. jDeS 9HuIIere S3mber 
 ^at baS SKeffer meineS Sijeffen. 5. -Sd) fetje Stc^ter in ben g^enftera 
 alter ^Sufer ber ©tabt. 
 
 Irregular Declension of Nouns. 
 
 96. Irregularities in the declension of nouns of foreign origin, 
 and of proper names, wiU be considered below, under those titles 
 respectively (see 101-8). 
 
 97. Mixed Declension. 
 
 1. A very small number (six or eight) of masculine and neuter 
 nouns are declined in the singular according to the first declen- 
 sion, and in the plural according to the second : as, ©taat, 'state,' 
 gen. sing. ©taateS, pi. ©taaten. 
 
 2. A somewhat larger number (about twenty), form their plural 
 according either to the first or the second declension : as, SSetter, 
 ' cousin,' pi. Setter or SSettern ; 93ett, ' bed,' pi. 58ette or Setten. 
 
32 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 [97- 
 
 Authorities are considerably at variance respecting the limits of these 
 two classes, some rejecting as incorrect the one or the other of the two 
 plurals. 
 
 3. Certain nouns of foreign origin are of the first declension in 
 the singular, and the second in the plural, as 3nfeet, ' insect,' gen. 
 sing. 3nfecte8 ; pi. S'nfecten : — especially those ending in unac- 
 cented or (which, however, throw the accent forward, upon the 
 or, in the plural), as SDoc'tor, gen. sing. ®oc'tor8, pi. ®octo'ren. 
 
 ' 4. Examples : — 
 
 
 
 
 @taat, 
 
 SSetter, 
 
 ®octor. 
 
 auge, 
 
 ' state,' m. 
 
 ' cousin,' m. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 ' doctor,' m. 
 
 'eye,'n. 
 
 N. bcr ©taat 
 
 better 
 
 ^Doctor 
 
 bag Sluge 
 
 G. beS ©taateS 
 
 SBettcrS 
 
 S)octor« 
 
 beS 2Iuge§ 
 
 D. bent ©taate 
 
 SBetter 
 
 ©odor 
 
 bem Sluge 
 
 A. ben <Staat 
 
 ^Better 
 
 Flwal 
 
 SDoctor 
 
 bag 9luge 
 
 N., etc. ©tauten 
 
 SBettem 
 or SSetter, etc. 
 
 SDoctoren 
 
 9lugen 
 
 98. Declension with defective theme. 
 
 1. A few masculines (six or eight), properly belonging to the first 
 declension, first class, and having themes ending in en, more usu- 
 ally drop the n in the nom. sing., being otherwise regular. 
 
 2. One masculine, ©d^nterj, ' pain,' and one neuter, §erj, ' heart,' 
 have lost the en of their original themes in the nom. and ace. 
 sing, (©cftnterj follows also the mixed declension). 
 
 3. Examples: — 
 grieben, 'peace,' m. §cr3, 'heart,' n. 
 Singula/r. 
 
 ^Jrtebe (or =ben) ba§ §er;5 
 
 griebeng beS lierjenS 
 
 ^rteben bem ^er^en 
 
 t^rteben baS ^erj 
 Phral 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 9'Jomen, 'name,' m. 
 
 ber 9?ante (or =nten) 
 beg Sfameng 
 bem Stamen 
 ben Stamen 
 
 K, etc. SJamen 
 
 iJrleben 
 
 fierjen 
 
 99. Redundant Declension. 
 
 1. A considerable number of nouns of infrequent occurrence, 
 
101] lEEEGULAE DECLENSION. 33 
 
 ■with some even that are in familiar use, are declined after more 
 than one model, especially in the plural, less often in the singular 
 also. 
 
 2. A less number (twenty to twenty -five) have two well-estah- 
 lished forms of the plural, belonging to two different significations 
 of their theme : thus, SSanb, n., ' bond ' and ' ribbon ; ' 58anbe, 
 'bonds,' but aSfinber, 'ribbons : ' Sffiort, ' word ;' SBorte, ' words ' 
 (implying their significance), but Sffiiirter, enumerated vocables. 
 
 See also 97.2. 
 
 3. S^jorn, ' spur,' besides its regular plurals @))oriien and <Bpome, haa 
 the wholly irregular ©jjorcn. 
 
 100. Defective Declension. 
 
 1. In German, as in English, there are classes of nouns — 
 especially abstracts, as ®emut^, ' humility,' and names of sub- 
 stances, as ®oIb, 'gold' (unless, as is sometimes the case, they 
 have taken on also a concrete or individualized sense, as 2;^or= 
 fieiten, ' follies,' 'ipaptcre, ' papers ') — which, in virtue of their signi- 
 fication, have no plural. 
 
 Some abstract nouns, when they take such a modified sense as to admit 
 of plural use, substitute other, derivative or compound, forms : as, Sob, 
 'death,' SEobegfatte, 'deaths' (literally, 'cases of death'); Seftreben, 'exer- 
 tion,' Seftrebungen, ' exertions, efforts.' 
 
 2. A much smaller number have no singular: as, Ettern, 
 * parents,' SDf afem, ' measles,' Srilmmer, ' rains,' S?eEte, ' people.' 
 
 Compounds of SfJtontt, ' man,' substitute leute for mann in the plural, 
 when taken eoUeotively: thus, .Soufmann, 'merchant,' jfaufteute, .'mer- 
 chants; ' but jttiei ^aufmcinner, 'two (individual) merchants.' 
 
 Nouns of Foreign Origin. 
 
 101. 1. Nouns derived from foreign languages are variously 
 treated, according to the completeness of their naturalization. 
 
 2. The great mass of them are assimilated in inflection to Ger- 
 man models, and belong to the regular declensions and classes, as 
 already stated. 
 
 3. A class of nouns in um from the Latin form a plural in en ; thus, 
 Snbioibuum, SnbtBtbuen ; ©tubium, ©tubien ; and a few in at and iJ add 
 ten : thus, Capital, Jfa})italien, goffil, gojjttien. 
 
 4. A few, as in English, form their plurals after the manner of the lan- 
 guages from which they come ; but are hardly capable of any other varia- 
 tion, except an 8 as sign of the genitive singular : thus, SUJi: jtcuS, SJiufici ; 
 SempuS, Sempora ; goctunt, gacta. 
 
 5. Some from the French and English, or other modem languages, form 
 
 2* 
 
34 NOUNS. [101- 
 
 the plural, as well as the genitive sin^lar, in S : thus, fetbcne @0))^aS 
 ' silken sofas ; ' bie SorbS, ' the lords ; ' bte CatnaS, ' the lamas.' 
 
 Sometimes, rather than add a genitive sign 8 to 'a word which in the 
 original took none such, an author prefers to leave it, like a proper name, 
 uninfleoted: thus, be8 3aguar, 'of the jaguar' (R. 218.5); beS mima, 'of 
 the climate ' _(R. 222.80). 
 
 Before this foreign and irregular 8, some authorities set an apostrophe, 
 both in the genitive and the plural, especially after a voweL The same is 
 true in proper names. 
 
 Pkopek Names. 
 
 102. Proper names are inflected like common nouns, unless 
 they are names of persons, of places (tovras and the like), or 
 neuter names of countries. 
 
 103. Names of countries and places admjt only the genitive 
 ending 8 (not cS) ; if, as terminating in a sibilant, they cannot take 
 that ending, they are not declined at all : thus, bie SOSitften 9Ifrtta'§, 
 'the deserts of Africa;' bie (SinlBO^ner 33erIinS, 'the inhabitants 
 of Berlin;' but bie Sinhjo^ner bon ^ariS, 'the inhabitants of 
 Paris,' 
 
 104. Names of persons were formerly more generally and 
 more fully declined than at present ; now, the article is customari- 
 ly used to indicate the case, and the name itself remains unvaried 
 after it in the singular. 
 
 But the genitive takes an ending if followed by the governing word : as 
 beS grogen gttebrtd^8 Kljatett, ' Frederick the Great's deeds.' 
 
 105. When used without the article, such nouns add g in the 
 genitive: thus, ©c^iHerg, jjrtebrtc^g. But masculine names end- 
 ing in a sibilant, and feminines in e, have enS in the genitive : 
 thus, SKajenS, ©op^ienS. 
 
 The dative and accusative, of hoth genders, were formerly made to end 
 in n or en, which ending is now more often, and preferably, omitted, and 
 the name left unvaried in those cases. 
 
 106. The plurals of masculine names, with or without the ar- 
 ticle, have e (rarely en), with n added in the dative ; of feminines, 
 n or en. Those in o (from Latin themes in on) add ne : thus, goto, 
 (Satone. 
 
 107. 3c|u8 and (5t)rtfiu8 are stiU usually declined as Latin nouns • gen 
 3eiu, et)vifti (R. 189.23); dat. 3efu, Sl)tifto (R. 183.24); aoo. Sefltm^ 
 Sl)rtftum. Other, classical names were formerly treated in the same man- 
 ner, and cases thus formed are occasionally met with, even inreceut works. 
 
Ill] ADJUNCTS OF THE NOUN. 35 
 
 108. 1. A proper name following a title that has the article before it is 
 left unvaried ; if without the article, it talies the genitive sign, and the title 
 (except §ert) is unvaried: thus; bet @o^n Soijer g(tebri(f)8, 'the son of 
 Emperor Frederick,' §crrn ©c^mibtS §aua, 'Mr. Smith's house;' but 
 Steujjug be8 fioifet« grtebrit^, ' the crusade of Emperor Fredericlc.' 
 
 2. An appended title is declined, whether the preceding name be declined 
 or not; thus, Stlejanberg beg ®xo%tn ©efctlidjte, 'Alexander the Great's 
 history; ' bte S^aten be8 SontgS grtebtie^ be8 ^weiim, ' the deeds of King 
 Frederick the Second.' 
 
 3. Of two or more proper names belonging to the same person, only the 
 last is liable to variation under the preceding rules : thus, ^errn 3ol)aiin 
 @d)mibt8 §0U9, ' Mr. John Smith's house ; ' but, if tlie last be a family 
 name preceded by Son, it takes the genitive ending only before the govern- 
 ing noun : thus, gtiebrtd^ Bon ©c^tUevS SBerte, but bte SStxte griebrtci)8 tion 
 ©(fitter, 'the works of Frederick von Schiller.' 
 
 MODIFYING ADJUNCTS OF THE NOUN. 
 
 109. A noun may enter as an element into the structure of 
 the sentence not only by itself, but as modified and limited by 
 adjuncts of various kinds. 
 
 110. 1. The most usual adjunct of a noun is an adjective (in- 
 cluding under this term the pronominal and numeral adjectives 
 and the articles) ; namely 
 
 a. An attributive adjective, preceding the noun, and agreeing with it in 
 gender, number, and case : as, etn guter SJJann, ' a good man ; ' bcr jc^bnen 
 grau, 'of the beautiful woman;' btefen atttgen ^inbcrn, 'to these well-be- 
 haved children' (see 115). 
 
 6. An appositive adjective, following the noun, and in German not varied 
 to agree with it (treated, rather, as if the predicate of an adjective clause): 
 thus, etn Sel)n)lu]^t veidi geft^ni^t unb munberliii^, 'an arm-chair richly carved 
 and quaint' (see 116.2). 
 
 But an adjective may follow a noun, as if appositive, and yet be declined, 
 being treated as if having a noun understood after it': thus, bte gsiniJEr bte 
 ntod)ttgen, ftegen, 'the enemies, the mighty, prevail;' tnenn td| Bergang'ner 
 Sage, gtUtftic^er, ju benten Wage, ' when I venture to think of past days, 
 happy ones.' 
 
 c. An adjective clause, containing a verb and its subject, and introduced 
 by a relative pronoun or conjunction : as, ber Siing, ben jte mtr gob, ' the 
 ring which she gave to me ; ' bie ^iitte, tt)o ber olte Sergmann IDOljnt, ' the 
 cottage where the old miner lives ' (see 437). 
 
 2. Sometimes an adverb, by an elliptical construction (as representing 
 the predicate of an adjective clause), stands ^a adjunct to a noun : as, ber 
 SDJann ^ier, ' the man here ; ' ber §tmmel bort o6en, 'heaven above : '—that 
 is, 'the man who is here,' etc. 
 
 111. A noun is very often limited by another noun. 
 
36 NOUNS. [111- 
 
 1. By a noun dependent on it, and placed either before or after it. 
 
 a. Usually in the genitive case, and expressing a great variety of rela- 
 tions (216). 
 
 6. Very rarely, in the dative case (225). 
 
 2. By an appositive noun, following it, and agreeing with it in case (but 
 not necessarily in gender or number) : as, er ^at ben A'aiier griebtic^, jctnen 
 §errn, Bcrrattjen, 'he has betrayed the Emperor Frederick, his master; ' 
 ben jte, meine Oeliebte, mtr gab, ' which she, my beloved, gave me.' 
 
 The appositive noun is sometimes connected with its subject by the con- 
 junction al9, 'as: ' thus, jieljt, al8 ber lefetc S)icf|ter, ber icljte SDJenjc^ ^inau«, 
 ' the last man marches out as last poet.' 
 
 3. The other parts of speech used as substantives (113), of course, may 
 take the place of the limiting noun. 
 
 112. A nouD is limited by a prepositional plrase : that is, by 
 a Doun whose relation to it is defined by a preposition : as, ber 
 ©djiilffcl ju ^atnlctS iBetragen, ' the key to Hamlet's behavior.' 
 
 This construction is especially frequent, and most organic, with verbal 
 derivatives retaining something of the verbal force: thus, (Sr3tel)img ^ur 
 greijeit, ' education to freedom ; ' bie §offiiung auf eine Sinigung rait bem 
 Watjer, 'the hoping for an understanding with the emperor.' 
 
 In other cases, the prepositional phrase is virtually the adverbial predi- 
 cate of an adjective clause : as, ber 2Jiann im Often, ' the man [who was, 
 or lived] in the East.' 
 
 EQUIVALENTS OF THE NOUN. 
 
 113. 1. Other parts of speech are habitually or occasionally 
 used as substantives, and may be substituted for the noun in a 
 part or all of its constructions. These are 
 
 a. The substantive pronouns and numerals : as, ii^, ' I ; ' btd^, ' thee ; ' 
 fie, ' she, her, they, them ; ' wer, ' who ; ' fed)S bet SKiinnev, ' six of the men.' 
 
 i. Infinitives of verbs (which are properly verbal nouns ) : see 339 etc. 
 
 c. Adjectives (including pronominal and numeral adjectives and parti- 
 ciples) are often converted into nouns (see 129). 
 
 2. Any word or phrase, viewed in itself, as concrete representative of 
 what it signifies, maybe used as a neuter substantive: thus, fein eigett 3(^, 
 ' his own " I " ; ' o^ne Sffienn ober Stber, ' without " if " or " but " ; ' jebeS giir 
 unb SBtber, ' every pro and con.' 
 
 3. A substautive clause, containing a verb and its subject, and intro- 
 duced generally by bafe, 'that,' ob, 'whether,' or a compound relative word, 
 takes the place of a noun in some constructions (see 436). 
 
 For n fuller defiuition of the relations and constructions in which the 
 various equivalents of the noun may be used, see the several parts of 
 speech concerned. 
 
11'] ADJECTIVES. 37 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 114. The Adjective, in German, is declined only when 
 used attributively or substantively. 
 
 115. 1. The attributive adjective always precedes the 
 noun which it qualifies ; it is varied for number and case, 
 and (in the singular only) for gender, and agrees in all 
 these particulars with its noun. 
 
 But the noun to which the adjective relates ia often omitted j 
 the latter, in such case, has the same form as if followed by the 
 noun: as, er ^at toeige §aufer, unb h)ir ^ahm braune, 'he has 
 white houses, and we have brown ; ' gekn ®tc mir jtoeierlei Kud), 
 rot^e« unb f^niarjeS, 'give me two kinds of cloth, red and 
 black.' 
 
 2. For the adjective used as a substantive, see below, 129. 
 
 116. The adjective remains uninflected when used pre- 
 dicatively, appositively, or adverbially. 
 
 1. The predicate adjective is used, — a. as simple predicate, after verbs 
 that signify being, becoming, continuing, seeming, and the iike : as, feilt 
 §au8tt)orf(f)onunb treig, tntrb abet je^t alt, unb fie^t ^cigtid^ ou«, 'his 
 house was white and handsome, but is now growing old, and loolss -ugly ; ' — 
 i. as adverhial predicate, defining more nearly the condition or action desig- 
 nated by the verb : as, tobt unb ftarr Itegt bie iffiiifte Ijingeftredt, 'the 
 steppe fies stretched out dead and stiff; ' — c. as factitive predicate, to express 
 a condition effected in or ascribed to an object by the action of a transitive 
 verb: as, ftd^ holb tobt lac^en, 'to laugh one's self half dead;' er malt 
 bag 6au8 h)ei|, 'he paints the house white;' \if luiE meine Slugen of fen 
 be^aften, 'I wUl keep my eyes open;' bie taitg' id) Dergeffen gegloubt, 
 ' which I had long believed forgotten ' — whence, of course, also as simple 
 predicate in the corresponding passive expression : as, baS §au8 Wirb in e i g 
 geitialt, ' the house is painted white.' 
 
 2. The appositive adjective usually follows the noun : as, trtrlDaren jtoet 
 ^tnber, tietn unb fcol), 'we were two children, small and merry;' SBorte 
 fiig Wte Sffionbtid^t, ' words sweei as moonlight.' 
 
 3. For the adjective used as adverb, see below, 130. 
 
 4. The nBes of the adjective in apposition, as predicate, and as adverb, pass into one an- 
 other by insensible gradations, and tiie same word often admits of more than one understand- 
 ing. The appositive adjective, also, is sometimes distinguished from the attributive rather 
 foi-mally than logically; as, Itei emem SBirt^e rounbermilb, 'with a host wondrous 
 kijia ,■ ' emen Slid jum J^tmmel ^ o dj , 'a look to Heaven high.' The attributive adjective 
 was formerly permitted after the noun as well as before, and was declined in that position ; 
 as was also the adjective used predicatively. 
 
 117. A few adjectives are always used predicatively, and are 
 
88 ADJECTIVES. [117- 
 
 therefore never declined ; others are used only attributively, and 
 are therefore always declined. 
 
 a. Of the first class, some of the most common are bereit, ' ready,' fetnb, 
 'hostile,' tiinb, 'known,' geltiat)i', 'aware,' eingebent, 'mindful,' t^eitljaft, 
 ' participating.' 
 
 i. To the second class belong many adjectives expressing formal rela- 
 tions — viz., certain pronominal adjectives, as jener, ' yon,' jebet, ' every,' 
 metntg, 'mine,' fetbig, 'self-same;' some adjectives of number, time, and 
 place, as jmEtt, 'second,' ^euttg, 'of to-day,' bortig, 'there situated; ' and 
 certain adjectives of material ending in en, cm, as irben, 'earthen,' bleient, 
 ' leaden.' 
 
 DECLENSIONS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 118. Each adjective, in its attributive u«e, is subject to 
 two different modes of declension, according as it is or is 
 not preceded by certain limiting words. These we shall 
 call the FiEST and second declensions (see 132). 
 
 119. 1. The endings of the fiest declension are the 
 
 same with those of the definite article, already given (63). 
 
 Excepting that the nom. and ace. sing, neuter have e8 instead of ai, and 
 the nom. and aoo. plural and fem. singular have e instead of ie : that is, the 
 final and characteristic letter is the same, but differently preceded. 
 
 2. The SECOND declension has only two endings, e and 
 en : e belongs to the nominative singular of all genders, 
 and hence also (see 72.i), to the accusative of the feminine 
 and neuter; en is found in all the other cases. Thus 
 
 Adjective Evdings of Declension. 
 FrasT Declension. Second Declension. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Ply/ral. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 m. 
 
 t 
 
 n. 
 
 m. f. 11. 
 
 m. f. 
 
 n. 
 
 m. t. n. 
 
 N. 
 
 -er 
 
 -e 
 
 -C8 
 
 -e 
 
 -e -e 
 
 -e 
 
 -en 
 
 G. 
 
 -eS 
 
 -er 
 
 -eg 
 
 -er 
 
 -en -en 
 
 -en 
 
 -en 
 
 D. 
 
 -em 
 
 -er 
 
 -em 
 
 -en 
 
 -en -en 
 
 -en 
 
 -en 
 
 A. 
 
 -en 
 
 -e 
 
 -eg 
 
 -e 
 
 -en -e 
 
 -e 
 
 -en 
 
 3. It will be noticed that the first declension has more than twice as 
 many distinct endings as the second, and that it therefore makes a corre- 
 spondingly superior, though a far from complete, distinction of genders and 
 
121] DECLENSION OF .ADJEOlTrES. 39 
 
 120. 1. The endings as given are appended through- 
 out to the theme of the adjective, or to the adjective in 
 its simple predicative form. 
 
 Thus, from gut, ' good,' are formed, in the first declension, guter, gute, 
 guteS, gutent, guten ; in tha second, gute, guten. 
 
 2. But adjectives ending in e reject this e in every case before 
 taking the ending (or, what is the same thipg, reject the e of every 
 ending). 
 
 Thus, from ttoge, 'lazy,' come troger, troge, troge?, trfigem, tragen. 
 
 3. Adjectives ending in the unaccented terminational syllables 
 
 et, en, er, also usually reject the e either of those syllables or of 
 
 the declensional ending. 
 
 Thus, from ebet, ' noble,' come ebtet, ebte, cbteS, and generally cbtem and 
 eblen, less often ebettn, ebctn ; from Ijeiter, 'cheerful,' come usually ^eitrer, 
 ^eitre, l^ettreg, and ^etterm and l)eitent, or l^Ettrem and I)ettren ; from eben, 
 ' even,' come ebner, ebne, ebneS, cbnem, ebnen. The full forms of these 
 •words, however — as ebener, l^eiterer, and, less often, ebeleS — are also in good 
 use, especially in a more stately or solemn style. 
 
 4. §0^, ' high,' loses its c when declined : thus, ^o^er, ^o^e, 
 l^ol^eS, etc. 
 
 121. 1. The adjective, now, takes the more distinctive 
 endings of the first declension, unless preceded by a limit- 
 ing word of a higher order (an article, pronoun, or pro- 
 nominal adjective : see 123) which itself has those endings. 
 
 Thus, as we say ber SDtorat, 'the man,' so also guter SDtann, ' good man,' 
 but ber gute Tlaim, ' the good man ; ' as bic grauen, 'the women,' so gute 
 groucn, and gute fdjone grauen, but bie guten fc^onen grauen, 'the good 
 handsome women;' as bent ^tnbe, 'to the child,' so guteni jiiube, and 
 gutem, (d)oncm, artigem ^tnbe, but bem guten, fcElonen, ortigen jftnbe, 'to 
 the good, handsome, well-behaved child.' 
 
 2. Or, in other words, a pronominal limiting word be- 
 fore the adjective, if it have itself the more distinctive ad- 
 jective ending characteristic of the case and gender of the 
 qualified noun, takes that ending away from the adjective, 
 reducing the latter from the first to the second declension : 
 the distinctive ending does not need to be, and is not, re- 
 peated upon both words. 
 
 Note that certain cases — the ace. sing, masculine, the nom. and ace. aing. 
 feminine, and the dat plural — have the same ending in the one declension 
 
40 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 [121- 
 
 as in the other, and are therefore not altered, whatever the situation in 
 which the adjective is placed. 
 
 3. By an irregular extension of this tendency to avoid the un- 
 necessary repetition of a distinctive ending, a gen. sing, masculine 
 or neuter ending in 8 (not a masculine ending in it) takes before 
 it usually the second form of the adjective (in en), instead of the 
 first (in eS). 
 
 Thus, ilolten SBafferS, 'of cold water,' frozen SKut^eS, 'with joyous 
 spirit,' grofien K^eilS, 'iu great part,' and so on, are much more common 
 than ta(te« SBaffetS, froIjES aKutI)e8, etc., although the latter are not incorrect. 
 
 122. Examples : — 
 
 1. Complete declension of an adjective, gut, * good,' in both 
 forms. 
 
 
 
 FmsT Declension. 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plwral. 
 
 
 m. 
 
 t a. 
 
 m. t n. 
 
 N. 
 
 guter 
 
 gute guteS 
 
 gute 
 
 G. 
 
 guteS 
 
 gutcr guteg- 
 
 gutcr 
 
 D. 
 
 gutem 
 
 guter gutem 
 
 gutcn 
 
 A. 
 
 gutcn 
 
 gute gutcS 
 Second Declension. 
 
 gute 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plwal. 
 
 
 m. 
 
 i. n. 
 
 m. 1. n. 
 
 N. ber gute bie gute bag gute bie gutcn 
 
 G. beg gutcn ber gutcn beg„^utcn ber gutcn 
 
 D. bcra gutcn ber gutcn bem guten ben guten 
 
 A. ben gutcn bie gute bng gute bie guten 
 
 2. Declension of noun and accompanying adjective: rottjcr 
 
 SBein, ' red wine,' gro^e ^reube, ' great joy,' f^tc^tcg (Selb, ' bad 
 
 money.' 
 
 First Declension. Second Declension. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 F. rotljcr 2Bein 
 
 G. rot^eg or rotljen SBeincg 
 D. rottjent 2Betne 
 
 A. rott;en SBein 
 
 ber xottjt Sfficin 
 beg rotijen SGBetneg 
 bent rotljen SBeine 
 ben rotten aBcin 
 
124] 
 
 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 Singular. 
 
 41 
 
 N. 
 
 gro§e g^reube 
 
 bie groge fjreube 
 
 6. 
 
 grower iJreube 
 
 ber gro^en ^rcube 
 
 D. 
 
 grower jjreube 
 
 ber gro^en greube 
 
 A. 
 
 gro^e greube 
 
 bte groge {Jreube 
 
 N. 
 
 fd^te^'teS ©eft 
 
 ba§ fcf)te(I)te ®elb 
 
 G. 
 
 f^Ied^te§ or =ten ®etbe« 
 
 be8 fd)ted^ten ©etbeS 
 
 D. 
 
 f^ted^tem @etbe 
 
 bent fd^Iedjten ®etbe 
 
 A. 
 
 fd^Ied[)te« Oelb 
 
 bag frfite^te ®elb 
 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 N. 
 
 rot^e SBeine jc. 
 
 bte rotten SBeine 2C. 
 
 G. 
 
 grower tJreuben k. 
 
 ber gro^en ^^reuben 2C. 
 
 D. 
 
 f^Iec[)ten ©elbern jc. 
 
 ben f^Iec[)ten ©elbern jc, 
 
 A. 
 
 groge iJreubcn 2C. 
 
 bie grogen g^reuben 2C. 
 
 123. The words which, when placed before an adjec- 
 tive, take away its distinctive ending, or reduce it from 
 the first to the second declension, are 
 
 1. The two articles, ber and etit, with fein (195.2), the negative 
 of the latter. 
 
 2. The possessive adjectives, meitt, bein, fein, unfer, euer, i^r 
 (157 etc.). 
 
 3. The demonstrative, interrogative, and relative pronominal 
 adjectives ber, bie§, and jen (163), and toelrf) (174). 
 
 4. The indefinite pronominal adjectives and numeral adjectives 
 jeb, iegti{^, fold^, ntand^, anber, einig, etlic^, aE, biel, menig, ntctjr, 
 mel^rer (170, 1 84-194). 
 
 But fold^ after etn is treated as a simple adjective, and does not affect a 
 following adjective : thus, ein folrfier guter SKann. 
 
 5. A few proper adjectives : namely, berji^iebene, pi , ' sundry ' (nearly 
 equivalent with einige and ntel)rcve), and folgenb, ermat)nt, obtg, and their 
 like, used fdiomatieaily without the article (66.6) to indicate things which 
 have been specified or are to he specified. 
 
 124. 1. Since, however, a part of these words — namely, ein, 
 fein, and the possessive adjectives — lack the distinctive ending in 
 three of their cases, the nom, sing, masculine and the nom. and 
 
42 ADJECTIVES. [124- 
 
 acc. sing, neuter, the adjective following those cases retains the 
 ending. 
 
 Thus, aa we aay guter Warm, gute6 Sinb, so also cin gitter 2Kann, etn 
 guteS Sinb (aa opposed to ber gute 9Wann, ba8 gute Sinb), because there is 
 nothing about the etn which should render the lull ending upon the adjec- 
 tive unnecessary. 
 
 2. In this way arises what is sometimes reckoned as a " third " 
 or " mixed " declension, composed of three forms taken from the 
 first declension, and the rest from the second. For example, etn 
 guter, ' a good,' !eine gute, ' no good,' fein guteS, ' his good,' t^re 
 guten, ' their good,' are declined 
 
 Singular. Flv/ral. 
 
 m. f. n. m. 1 n. 
 
 N. ettt gtiter fetitc gute feitt guteS t^re gutett 
 
 G. etneS guten tctner guten feineS guten t^rer guten 
 
 D. ctnctn guten tetner guten fetneni guten t^ren guten 
 
 A. einen guten leine gute fein ^uteS iijre guten 
 
 There is neither propriety nor advantage in treating this as a separate 
 declension. For each gender and case, there are two forms of the adjective, 
 and only two, and the learner should be taught to distinguish between 
 them, and to note, in every case, the reason of their respective use — which 
 reason is the same in the " mixed " declension as elsewhere. 
 
 3. In like manner, when manc^, tDctd), and fot(^ are used with- 
 out an ending of declension (see 170, 174, 191), the succeeding 
 adjective takes the full ending of the first declension. 
 
 Thus, toetd^ reic^er §tmmel, ' what a rich sky I ' but toelc^er retire §itn= 
 juet ; ntonc^ bunte Stumcn, but manege bunten SSIumen, ' many variegated 
 flowers.' 
 
 4. The same is true after all, Diet, trentg, and meljr, when they are un- 
 declined: thus, oiet guteS Obft, 'much good fruit;' tue^r offene SSagen, 
 ' more open carriages. 
 
 125. 1. The adjective follows the first declension not only 
 when it has no other limiting word, or only another adjective, 
 before it, but also when preceded by an indeclinable word, such as 
 etmaS, gcnug, allerlet, and the numerals. 
 
 2. After the personal pronouns (which do not take the endings 
 of adjective declension), the adjective ought, by analogy, to be of 
 the first declension ; and this is not absolutely forbidden ; but in 
 con^mon usage the adjective takes the distinctive endings only in 
 the nominative singular (with the accusative neuter), and follows 
 in the other cases the second declension. — That is to say, the ad- 
 
128] DECLENSION OE ADJECTIVES. 43 
 
 jective after a personal pronoun is declined as after cm, or by the 
 "mixed" declension (124.2). 
 
 Thus, ii) axmac SCljor, 'I poor fool,' bu lieBe? Sinb, 'thou dear child; ' 
 but voix armen 2;i)oren, ' we poor fools,' tl)r fiifien Sieber, 'ye sweet sougs.' 
 
 13.6. The ending e§ of the nom. and ace. neuter in the first 
 declension is sometimes dropped : this omission is especially fre- 
 quent in poetry. 
 
 Thus, fc^on SSSetter, 'fine weather,' faUii) ®elb, 'false money,' ein 
 anber geft, ' a different festival," bcr hotter ^etUg IHtiijt, 'the sacred law 
 of nations.' 
 
 127. After a pai-t of the pronominal adjectives mentioned 
 above, 123.4, it is allowable, and even usual, to use the ending 
 of the first declension instead of the second in the nom. and ace. 
 plural. 
 
 Thus, etmge groge jfaflcn, 'sundry big boxes,' monc^c gliidtid^e S5oI= 
 ler, 'many fortunate races,' me^rere lange ©tragen, 'several long streets.' 
 
 Hardly any two authorities agree in their statement of the words after 
 which this inconsistency is permitted, and it is better avoided altogether. 
 
 128. 1. When two or more adjectives precede and qualify the 
 same noun, unless the first be one of those mentioned in 123, all 
 regularly and usually take the .'same ending. 
 
 2. Barely, however, when the following adjective stands in a closer re- 
 lation to the substantive, as forming with it a kind of compound idea, to 
 which the preceding adjective is then added as a more adventitious deter- 
 minative, the second is allowed to be of the second declension, though the 
 first is of the first : but only in the genitive and dative cases. 
 
 Thus, ^o^e fd^attige S3outne, 'high shady trees;' mit frol^cm tetd^tem 
 ©inn, ' with light joyous mind ; ' gitter niter foftbarer SBein, ' good old costly 
 wine ; ' — ^but Bon Jii)bnent rotten Sud^c, ' of handsome red cloth; ' fri|4er 
 ^ottcinbifc^en §aringe, ' of fresh Dutch herrings ; ' mit etgnera innercn Dc= 
 gatliSnmS, ' with peculiar internal organisation.' 
 
 3. Occasionally, what is more properly an adjective qualifying the noun 
 is treated in German as an adverb Umiting a following adjective before the 
 noun, and so (130) is left undeolined: thus, bie SiSol!en, bic formto8 graucn 
 Soi^tet ber Suft, 'the clouds, the gray shapeless (shapelessly gray) 
 daughters of the air ; ' bie ungtiiif fetig trourtge SSegegnung, ' the unhappy, sad 
 meeting; ' bie jfonigtti^ i8al)ti|(^e Stfabemie, 'the Royal Bavarian Academy.' 
 
 Exercise VI. 
 
 Adjectives of the first declension. 
 
 1. SOtan f^ut neucn SBein in neue gaffer. 2. (Sc^tecf)tc SJJanner 
 berfoufen fatteS frtf(^e« SBaffer atg ad)te SKit^. 3. aBei|eg SSrob ift 
 gut, a6ci- f^loarjeS ift au^ gut. 4. 3d) fiabe fatten ©ta^t unb tt)ei= 
 ^eS Slei. 5. fflffeineg SBrubevS blauer ^Kpd ift tion feinem Zui)t. 6. 
 
44 ADJECTIVES. [129- 
 
 (Sieb mir blauc? ober tuei^eS '^apiev ; i^ tjaSe nm rot^eS. 7. §ol^e 
 fcfiattige Sciurae ftnb jeljt angene^m. 8. ®cr Dd)fe ^t etnen biden 
 ^opf, jtoei tangc §orner, gro^e runbe 3lugen, unb bier ftarfe SScine. 
 
 Exercise VII. 
 
 Adjectives of the second declension. 
 
 1. ®iefer ncue SGBetn ^ft gut in einent neuen goffe. 2. 3^ ^be 
 baS rotI)e papier, unb ber olte Warn giebt mir bag btaue. 3. ®cr 
 blaue Sffod nicine« ticbcn SSruberS i[t tion bent feinen Su^c. 4. ©er 
 junge ©d)iiler fc^reibt feinem atten Se^rer einen langen aSrief. 5. 
 2Bir lieben ba§ weige SBrob, aber n)ir !aufen bag fd^mar^e. 6. 3m 
 h)armen ©ommer [iljt mon unter ben f^ottigen ^aumen. 7. ®te 
 tongen ^orner beS ftarfen Oc^fen fte^en iiber ben runben Slugen in 
 feinem biden ^o^fe. 
 
 Exercise VIII. 
 
 Adjectives of various declension. 
 
 1. Stefer atte SJiann h)ar ein guter (Sotbat ; er biente mit grojjem 
 9Jut)m im te^ten ^riegc. 2. 2ltte ^riege, bie gropen unb bie Heinen, 
 ftnb gro|e Unglilde. 3. -3^ f^reibe auf bem biden ttjei^en $a^)ier 
 mit biinner rotter Kinte. 4. SBir tragen leidjte ^(eiber, benn ber 
 ©ommcr ift warm. 5. SDtein tieber S3ruber ift ber gute greunb be§ 
 ormen ©^iiter§. 6. 9Kan ^ftiidt reife Slejjfet, unb (a^t bie unreifen 
 ouf ben 93aumen bleiben. 1. ®ie guten reifen Sle^jfel ftnb.nid)t gu 
 ^ben, benn fte ^angen ^oc^ auf ben i§o^en Saumen. 8. -Sm neuen 
 g^a^ meineg atten 9^a^barS ift foftbarer alter rotter SBein. 
 
 129. The Adjective used as Substantive. 
 
 1. In German, as in other languages, adjectives are very 
 often used as substantives, either with or without an article 
 or other determining word. 
 
 2. When so used, the adjective is written with a capital 
 letter, like any other substantive ; but it retains its proper 
 declension as an adjective, taking the endings of the first 
 or of the second declension according to the rules already 
 given. 
 
 3. An adjective used as a substantive in the masculine or fem- 
 inine gender usually denotes a person; in the neuter (singular 
 
130] ADJECTIVES AS SUBSTANTIVES AND ADVEEBS. 45 
 
 only), a concrete abstract — a thing which, or that in general which, 
 possesses the quality designated by the adjective. 
 
 Thus, bet @ute tfiittnt ben ^ptolj bem S3o(en, ' the good (man) gives place 
 to the wicked; ' bag ^ie unb ba etn ©liitf liefer getDCJen, ' that here and there 
 has been one happy person ; ' eine ©d^bne, ' a beauty ; ' meine ®eltebte, ' my 
 beloved ; ' 36re 'kti)tt, ' your right hand; ' — Wo baS ©trenge mtt bcm ^ai= 
 ten, TOO @tarte8 ftc^ unb 2Jiitbc8 paorten, ' where the hard has united with 
 the tender, where what is strong and what is gentle have combined ; ' 
 burd^ ^leinereS jum ©tbfiern mid) geloo^nen, ' accustom me by the less to 
 the greater.' 
 
 4. Some adjectives are so constantly used in this way as to have almost 
 acquired the character of substantives. From these are to be distinguished 
 certain neuters derived from adjectives without a sufiix, and deohned as 
 nouns of the first declension: as, Out, 'property,' SRed^t, 'right,' SRot^, 
 'red,' ®eut|d^, 'German (language).' 
 
 5. After ettnaS, ' something,' tnaS, ' what, something,' nid^tS, 
 ' nothing,' an adjective is treated neither as attributive nor as ap- 
 positive, but as an adjective used as substantive, in apposition : it 
 is therefore of the first declension, and (regularly and usually) writ- 
 ten with a capital initial. 
 
 Thus, eg mu6 no(!^ etwas ©rogercs, noi^ etmoS §errUct)ere8 lom^ 
 tnetl, ' there must be coming something more that is greater and more 
 splendid; ' h)0§ ic^Oroufame? ertitt, 'what that was dreadful I endured;' 
 e3 ift ntd^tS SJleueS, ' it is nothing new.' 
 
 6. There is no strict and definite limit between the adjective belonging 
 to a noun understood, and the adjective used as a noun, and many cases 
 admit of interpretation as either the one or the other. 
 
 130. The Adjective used as Adverb. 
 
 Any adjective, in German, may be used in its predica- 
 tive or uninflected form as an adverb. 
 
 Thus, etn ganjeS §ou8, 'a whole house; ' but etn gonj fd^bneS §au3, 
 'a wholly beautiful house,' and eingonj fd^bn gebauteS §au8, 'a quite 
 beautifully built house; ' er fi^retbt gut, 'he writes well; ' er locate noc^ 
 bid bummer, 'he laughed yet much more foolishly.' 
 
 See further 363 ; and, for the adjective with adverbial form, 128.3. 
 
 JlxERCISE IX. 
 
 Adjectives used as Substantives and as Adverbs. 
 
 1. gin ©uter tiebt baS ®ute, after bie ©^(e^ten hjotlen nur 
 ©^ied^teS. 2. ©tefe ®Aone i)at einc f^on rotl^e Jftofe in i^rer fc^o« 
 nen ginfen. 3. ®er e^rhc^ flei|ige Slrme ift gtiicfli^cr atg bcr faute 
 SJei^e. 4. ®iefer 5Deutfcf)e fprid)t fe^r gctcl)rt ; benn er £)at rccfft 
 flci^ig ftubivt. 5, 9^id)t jeber ©ele^rte ift ein aSBeifcr, 6. @itb bem 
 
46 ADJECJTTVES, [131- 
 
 ^leineit etma^ .®U^e3 in fcine 9?cd)te. 7. 3)er ®ute ma()It tmnter 
 ba§ Seffere, unb arkitet fiir bo§ ^efte beg 5Boterlanbe§. 8. 33ergettet 
 ni^t 58ofeS mit Sofem. 9. 3)er 58(mbe tragi ben Sa^men, unb ber 
 Sa(}me fuljrt ben Sllnben. 
 
 131. Participles as Adjectives. — Participles, being verbal ad- 
 jectives, are treated in nearly all respects as adjectives — as regards 
 their various use, tbeir mode of declension, and tbeir comparison. 
 See further 349 etc. 
 
 132. The double declension of tlie adjective is in some respecta analogous with the 
 two-fold mode of declension of nouns, and ia often, like the latter, called " strong " and 
 "weak" declension. The second or "weak" declension of adjectives, like that of nouns, 
 is made upon the model of a theme ending in n. But the other shares in the pecuUarities 
 of the old pronominal inflection ; being originally formed, it is assumed, by the composi- 
 tion of a declined pronoun (long since lost in separate use) with the adjective theme. The 
 principle on which the distinction in the use of the two is now based — namely, the econo- 
 mical avoidance of unnecessary explicitness — is of comparatively recent introduction. 
 The first declension was formerly used when the logical emphasis rested on the attribute ; 
 the second, when it rested on the person or thing to which the attribute lelated ; the 
 " strong " adjective qualified an indefinite or abstract object ; the " weak," one definite or 
 individualized. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 133. Although the subject of comparison, or formation of 
 derivative adjectives of the comparative and superlative degrees, 
 comes more properly under the head of derivation or word-for- 
 mation, it will be, for the sake of practical convenience, treated 
 here. 
 
 134. The German adjective, like the English, is sub- 
 ject to variation by termination in order to express degree 
 of quality indicated; a compakattve and a superlative 
 degree are thus formed from the simple adjective, which, 
 with reference to them, is called positive. 
 
 135. 1. The endings forming the comparative and 
 superlative are the same as in English, namely, er and eft. 
 But 
 
 2. Adjectives ending in c add only x for the comparative ; and 
 those in el, en, cr usually (before the endings of declensiop, al- 
 ways) reject the e of those. terminations before er. 
 
 3. Except after a sibilant letter (j, g, |, fd)), and a b or t usu- 
 sflly (especially when preceded by another consonant : and except- 
 ing the nb of the present participle), the e of the superlative ending 
 
138] 
 
 COMPAEISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 47 
 
 efi is regularly omitted, and the ending reduced to simple ft. 
 After a vowel, except e, the c may be either omitted or re- 
 tained. 
 
 136. Monosyllabic adjectives whose vowel is 0, o, or u 
 (not ait) more usually modify those vowels in the compara- 
 tive and superlative : but there are many (aboiit fifty, in- 
 cluding several which may follow either method) that leave 
 the vowel unchanged. 
 
 Examples of these are bunt, 'variegated,' fatf{^, 'false,' frol), 'joyous,' 
 taljm, ' lame,' natft, ' naked,' rafd^, ' quick,' runb, ' round,' |anft, ' gentle,' 
 ftotj, 'proud,' Bott, 'full,' roaljr, 'true.' 
 
 137. . The formation of comparatives and superlatives by the 
 endings er and eft is not, as in English, limited to monosyllabic 
 adjectives. But those which end in the suflBx tfc^ form no super- 
 lative in efl ; nor are those compared which (see 117.a) are used 
 only predicatively, and are incapable of declension. 
 
 Of course, as in English, some adjectives are by their signification 
 excluded from comparison: e. g., ganj, 'entire,' tobt, 'dead,' irben, 
 ' earthen.' 
 
 138. Examples : — 
 
 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Compaa-aUve. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 fc[)on, ' beautiful ' 
 
 fcfjfiner 
 
 fc^onft 
 
 rei^, ' rich ' 
 
 reiser 
 
 retc^ft 
 
 ^ei^, 'hot' 
 
 l^eijjer 
 
 l^etgeft 
 
 tragc, ' lazy ' 
 
 trager 
 
 trageft 
 
 fret, ' free ' 
 
 freier 
 
 freift, freiefl 
 
 alt, 'old' 
 
 fitter 
 
 aiteft 
 
 fromm, ' pious ' 
 
 frommer 
 
 fromtnft 
 
 lurj, ' short ' 
 
 iitrjcr 
 
 fiirjeft 
 
 fro^, 'joyous' 
 
 fro^er 
 
 fro|eft 
 
 fanft, 'gentle' 
 
 fanfter 
 
 fanfteft 
 
 bunM, 'dark' 
 
 bunfter 
 
 bunfetft 
 
 mager, ' thin ' 
 
 magrer, magercr tnagerft 
 
 offen, ' open ' 
 
 offtter, offener 
 
 offenft 
 
 bcrlBorfen, ' abandoned ' 
 
 ' bertDorfener 
 
 Derworfenfi 
 
 6ebeutenb, 'significant' 
 
 kbeutenber 
 
 bebeutenbft 
 
48 ADJEOTIVBS. [139- 
 
 139. Irregular and Defective Comparison. 
 
 1. A few adjectives are irregular in the comparative, or in tte 
 superlative, or in both : namely 
 
 gut, 'good' 6effer 6e[t 
 
 Diet, ' much ' me^r, me^rer meijt 
 
 t)o^, 'high' J)p^er 1^0^)1 
 
 na^, ' nigh ' na^er na6)\i 
 
 grog, 'great' grower gro^t (rarely gro^eft) 
 
 2. A few are defective, lacking a positive, 
 
 'little' mtnber ntitibefi 
 
 'mid' mittler mittclft 
 
 especially, a class derived from prepositions, 
 
 [in, 'in'] inner innerft 
 
 [au8, 'out'] auj3cr augerjl 
 
 or from adverbs or prepositions in er (itself really a comparative ending), 
 having a quasi-comparative adjective of the same form, 
 
 [oBcr, ' above '] obcr obetfl 
 
 [unter, ' below '] unter unterfi 
 
 [oorbcr, 'in front'] borber oorberft 
 
 [t)tnter, 'behind'] Winter ^interfl 
 
 This class is further irregular in forming its superlatives by adding the 
 superlative ending to the comparative (which has not a proper comparative 
 meaning). 
 
 8. Two lack (as adjectives) both comparative and superlative': 
 
 [e^e, ' ere '] [el)cr, ' sooner '] ev|t, ' first ' 
 ' late ' le^t, ' last ' 
 
 From these two superlatives are then irregularly formed new compara- 
 tives, erfter, 'former,' and letter, 'latter.' 
 
 140. Declension of CoTnpa/ratives and Superlatives. 
 1. In general, comparatives and superlatives are subject 
 
 to the same rules of declension as their positives^ the 
 
 simple adjectives. 
 
 That is to say, they are uninflected when used in apposition, as predi- 
 cate, or as adverb (with the exceptions noted just below), and declined 
 when used attributively or substantively ; and they have the same double 
 declension as simple adjectives, determined by the same circumstanoes. 
 The comparative presents no irregularities, but 
 
141] COMPAEISON OF ADJECTIVES. 49 
 
 2. a. The superlative does not often occur without an article or 
 other limiting word before it, and is therefore more usually of the 
 second declension^ 
 
 It occurs of the first declension espeoially in the vocative, after a limit- 
 ing genitive, and in phrases which omit the article : thus, liebfter SSnibcr, 
 ' dearest brother I ' auf beg 2Heere8 ticfunterftcm ©ruitbe, ' on the sea's very 
 lowest bottom; ' in pc^ftcr ©tie, 'in extreme (highesc) haste.' 
 
 b. What is of much more importance, the superlative is not, 
 
 like the positive and comparative, used predicatively in its unin- 
 
 flected form ; but for this is substituted an adverbial expression, 
 
 formed with the preposition an and the definite article bent (dat. 
 
 sing, neuter), contracted into om. 
 
 Thus, er ift mtr om liebfteii, 'he is dearest to me; ' itn ©omtnerjtnb 
 bie jEagc ju turj,; int §erbfte, notf) tttrsev ; abcr ant tiirseften im aBin= 
 ter, ' in summer the days are too short ; in autumn yet shorter ; but shortest 
 in winter.' 
 
 -This expression means literally 'at the dearest,' ' at the shortest,' and so 
 on, but is employed as general predicate in many cases where we could not 
 substitute such a phrase for it. Its sphere of use borders close upon that 
 of the superlative with preceding article, agreeing with a noun understood ; 
 and it is often inaccurately used in place of the latter: e. g., er ift Qin f[et= 
 f igften unter aUen ©djiilern, ' he is most diligent of all the scholars,' for cr 
 ift bcrflei^igffe sc, ' he is the most industrious,' etc. Thus, we ought to 
 say, biefer ©turm tnor geftcrn am ^eftigften, ' this storm was most violent 
 yesterday,' but ber geftnge Sturm mar ber f)efttgfte, ' the storm of yesterday 
 was the most violent ' (e. g., of the year). 
 
 Only oHerliebft is used directly as predicate : baS toar oUerltebfl, ' that was 
 charming.' 
 
 c. For tlie superlative as adverb are also generally substituted 
 adverbial phrases formed with am, auf§, and jum (see 363.2). 
 
 141. Comparison with Adverbs. 
 
 1. Adjectives not admitting of comparison in the usual manner, 
 by er and eft (137), may be compared, as in English, with help 
 of the adverbs me£)r, ' more,' and ant metften, ' most.' 
 
 _ Thus, er ift am meijlen ftiec^tifc^, 'he is most slavish; ' er tfl mtr mc^r 
 feinb, otS td^ if)m, ' he is more unfriendly to me than I to him.' 
 
 2. When, of two qualities belonging to the same object, one is declared 
 to be in excess of the other, the comparison is usually and more properly 
 made with metjr. 
 
 Thus, er IDor me^r ta^jfer ats tlug, 'he was more bold than prudent: ' — 
 but, tualjrer, otS Hug unb fromm, ' more true, than prudent and dutiful ' 
 (Goethe). 
 
 3 
 
50 ADJECTIVES. [142- 
 
 142. Additional Remarks. 
 
 1. The superlative has, as in other languages, a twofold mean- 
 ing and use : one implying direct comparison and eminence above 
 others (superlative relative) ; the other, general eminence, or pos- 
 session of the designated quality in a high degree (superlative ab- 
 solute). 
 
 Thus, fc^ijnfie iSIumett, 'most beautiful (exceedingly beautiful) flo-wers ; ' 
 bie jt^bnften SBlumen, ' the most beautiful flowers ' (of all those had in view). 
 
 This distinction appears especially in adverbial superlatives : see 363.2c. 
 
 2. To a superlative is often prefixed aHer, in order further to 
 intensify its meaning : thus, ter aHerfdfeonfte, ' the most beautiful 
 of all.' 
 
 SIHct is the gen. pi. of aH, ' all,' and so is used in its literal sense, only 
 combined with the adjective, and in connections where its introduction as 
 an independent adjunct of the adjective would be impossible. 
 
 Exercise X. 
 Comparative and Superlative of Adjectives. 
 
 1. SBann ^o6en tnir bie langfieit S-age ? 2. 3)te Sage finfa Idnger 
 im ©ommer ; im SlBinter finb fie am filrjeften unb am tatteften. 3. 
 Sielifter iJreunb ! f^reibe mtr beffere SSrtefe, unb mit f^mar^ercr S;tnte, 
 auf beineS SSaterS hiet^efiem 'jpapier. 4. S)ie £)oc^ftcn Saume tragen 
 nid^t beffere lepfel otS bie ntebttgern. 5. ®te 3lrmen fmb-oft fro^er 
 ofe bie SfJet^eren. 6. Wan ifi am ret^fien, tnenn matt am jufriebenften 
 tft. 7. ®a8 ®oIb tft ba« foftbarfte aJfetaH, aber bag (gifeit ift ba8 
 nujjlic^fte, uttb ber ©ta^I ift baS atter^totefte. 
 
 MODIFYING ADJUNCTS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 143. The adjective, in all its uses as adjective and as substan- 
 tive (for its adverbial use, see under Adverbs, 363), is liable to 
 be limited by modifying adjuncts of various kinds. 
 
 144. 1. The customary adjunct of an adjective is an adverb : 
 as, fel)r gut, 'very good;' ()er;;ttd^ fro^, 'heartily glad.' 
 
 2. An adjective may be limited by an adverbial clause, contain- 
 ing a verb and its subject, and introduced by a conjunction (see 
 438.3J). 
 
 Thus, er ifl fo gut, bag tc^ ifjn nnr Iteben lonn, ' he is so good, th.at I can- 
 not but love him ; ' tvaitler ate mait gloubte, ' sicker than was supposed.' 
 
 An adverbial clause can hardly qualify an adjective, except as a specifi- 
 cation of degree, where a comparison is made. 
 
150] ADJUNCTS OF THE ADJECITVE. 51 
 
 145. An adjective is often limited by a nonn (or pronoun) 
 dependent on it. 
 
 1. By a noun in the genitive case: thus, tebig oUer $flid)t, ' free from all 
 obligation; ' i^rer ffleute gemig, ' sure of its prey: ' see 217. 
 
 2. By a noun in the dative case: thus, tljm etgen, 'peculiar to him; ' 
 gtetc^ etner 2t\d)t, 'like a corpse: ' see 223. 
 
 3. By a noun in the accusative case, but only very rarely, and in predica- 
 tive construction: thus, id) bin e9 miibe, 'I am tired of it: ' see 229. 
 
 4. By an infinitive, with its sign gu, 'to:' thus, lei^t ju tietfc^affen, 
 ' easy to procure : ' see 344. 
 
 146. An adjective is limited by a prepositional pbrase ; that 
 is, by a noun whose relation to it is defined by a preposition : 
 thus, bom ©c^auttte rein, ' free from scum ; ' angenel)m bon ©cftalt, 
 ' agreeable in figure.' 
 
 147. 1. An adverbial adjunct to an adjective always precedes 
 it — except the adverb genug, ' enough.' 
 
 2. An adjective used attributively must be preceded by all its 
 modifying adjuncts : thus, atler bon bent beutfc^en 9teid)e otf>angt: 
 gen, ober baju gef|origen SSiJtferftamnte, ' of all the races dependent 
 on the German empire, or belonging to it.' 
 
 3. Adjectives used in the predicate or in apposition may take 
 the limiting noun, with or without a preposition, either before or 
 after them : but the adjective more usually follows ; and neces- 
 sarily, if the limiting word be a pronoun without a preposition. 
 
 148. Participles, as verbal adjectives, share in most of the 
 constructions of the adjective : see 349 etc. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 149. In German, as in English, substantive pronouns and 
 pronominal adjectives are for the most part not distinguished from 
 one another (as they are distinguished in French) by difierent 
 forms, but the same word is used, according to circumstances, 
 with either value. It will be convenient, therefore, to treat both 
 classes together, explaining under each word its own proper use 
 or uses. 
 
 150. The principal classes of pronouns are 
 
 1. The personal ; 
 
 2. The possessive ; 
 
52 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 [150- 
 
 3. The demonstrative (including the determinative) ; " 
 
 4. The interrogative ; 
 
 5. The relative (all of which are also either demonstra- 
 tive or interrogative) ; 
 
 6. The indefinite, with the indefinite numerals. 
 
 The determinative, indefinite, afad numeral pronouns are in part of am- 
 biguous character, being intermediate classes tlirough which the pronouns 
 shade off into ordinary adjectives and numerals. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 151. The personal pronouns are 
 
 FiBST PeHSON. 
 
 Singular. • Plwal. 
 
 N. id) 'I' tnir 
 
 G. meiner, mein ' of me ' unfcr 
 
 D. mir 'tome' unS 
 
 A. mid) ' me ' • unS 
 
 Second Person. 
 
 N. bu 'thou' il^r 
 
 G. bcincr, bein ' of thee ' euer 
 
 D. bir ' to thee ' eud) 
 
 A. bi^ 'thee' mi) 
 
 Thied Person, Singular. 
 
 masc. fern. 
 
 er 'he' jte 'she' eS 
 
 'we' 
 * of us '■ 
 'to us ' 
 'us' 
 
 'ye' 
 ' of you ' 
 ' to you ' 
 'you' 
 
 feiner, fein ' of him ' i^rer ' of her ' f einer, fein 
 
 tl^m 
 ifjn 
 
 ' to him ' i[)r 
 
 'to her' 
 
 'him' fie ' 
 
 her' 
 
 Flural 
 
 
 m. t. u. 
 
 
 N. fte 
 
 ' they ' 
 
 G. i{)rer 
 
 ' of them 
 
 D. i^tten 
 
 ' to them 
 
 A.- fte . 
 
 ' them ' 
 
 tl)m 
 
 'it.' 
 'of it 
 'to it' 
 'it' 
 
 ©id^, the special reflexive of the third person (see 165.3), is also 
 a member of this class, a personal pronoun. 
 
153j PEONOUNS Df ADDRESS. 53 
 
 152. 1. iKcin, beta, fetn are older forms of the gen. singular, now an- 
 tiquated, but occasionally met with; i^r, for itjret, does not occur: uitferer, 
 for unfer, and eurer, for euer, are not unknown, but rare. 
 
 Examples are tl)r Snftrumente jpottct tnein, 'ye instruments mock me' 
 (E. 142.33) ; baS jetn (elbft genojj, ' which was enjoying itself (R. 141.15). 
 
 2. These genitives, in composition with '^atben, wegen, and tuilten, add a 
 wholly anomalous et ; and unfer and euer, in like manner, add a t : thus, 
 metnetljolben, beinethjegen, urn feinetloiUen, unfertraegen, euett^alben, etc. 
 
 3. Genitives of the personal pronouns are everywhere of rare occur- 
 rence, and only as objects of verbs (219) and adjectives (217). For the 
 genitive limiting a noun is substituted a possessive adjective (168.2). 
 
 153. Use of the Personal Pronouns in address. 
 
 1. In German, as in English, the pronoun of the second pers. 
 
 singular, bu, ' thou,' is no longer used in address, in the ordinary 
 
 intercourse of life. 
 
 It is retained (as in English) in the language of worship and of poetry : 
 and further, m that of familiarity — the familiarity of intimacy, between 
 equals, as between husband and wife, near relations, or partioidar friends, 
 also among children ; — the familiarity toward inferior age or station, as on 
 the part of any one toward young children, or on the part of teachers or 
 employers toward youthful pupils or servants; — and even, sometimes, the 
 familiarity of insult or contempt. 
 
 2. The pronoun of the second pers. plural — t{|r, ' ye,' etc. — was 
 at one time generally current in Germany for the singular (lUve 
 our you), and is yet met with in poetry or narrative : but modern 
 use authorizes it only in addressing more than one of such per- 
 sons as may, singly, be addressed with bu. 
 
 3. The singular pronouns of the third person — er, ' he,' fie, 
 ' she,' etc. — were also once used in customary address, but soon 
 sank to the condition of address by an acknowledged superior to 
 an inferior — as by a monarch to a subject, a master to a servant, 
 and the like — with which value they are still retained, but are 
 going out of vogue. 
 
 Employed in this way, er and fte and their cases are usually and properly 
 written with a capital. 
 
 4. At present, the pronoun of the third pers. plural — ■ 
 fie, ' they ' — and its possessive, i^r, ' their,' are alone allowed, 
 in the sense of ' you, your,' in common life, in addressing 
 either one person, or more than one. When thus used, 
 they are, for distinction, written with capital letters, Sie, 
 
 ^^l^nen, ^fir, etc. (but the reflexive fid} is not so written). 
 
64 PE0N0UN8. [153- 
 
 Thus, ic^ ban!e 3^nen fur Sljre ®efcitttg!ett, bag @te ftd^ tie SKii^e 
 gegcbcn ^oben, ' I thank you for yowr kindness, in that ycm have given yaw- 
 self the trouble.' 
 
 The verb with (Sie is always in the plural, whether one person or more 
 be intended. But a following adjective is either singular or plural, accord- 
 ing to the sense : thus, @te unglild liefer, ' you unhappy man 1 ' but ©ie un« 
 glildf Ud^en, ' you unhappy ones I ' 
 
 The use of @ie in address is quite modern, not having become generally 
 established till about the middle of the last century. 
 
 5. Some authorities write all the pronouns of address with a capital, 
 even Su, Sic^, Sud), etc. : but this Is not to be approved, except in such 
 documents aa letters, where the words are to reach the person addressed 
 through the eye. 
 
 154. Peculiarities in the use of Pronouns of the third 
 person. 
 
 1. As a general rule, the pronoun of the third person, 
 
 in the singular, takes the gender of the noun to which it 
 
 relates. 
 
 Thus, when speaking of a hat (bet §Ut), we use er and il)n ; of a pen 
 (bie gcbet), ftc ; of bread (bo8 SSrob), e8. 
 
 Excepted from this rule are such words as 3[Bet6, ' womaii,' 
 which are neuter, though designating female persons ; also diminu- 
 tives (neuter) of personal appellations, such as SDtdbdjen, ' girl,' 
 g^rciulctn, ' young lady,' ^nabtein, ' little boy : ' a pronoun refer- 
 ring to one of these usually follows the natural gender, instead 
 of the grammatical, ^inb, ' chUd,' is represented by eS, ' it,' as 
 with us. 
 
 2. But these pronouns are seldom used in the genitive or da- 
 tive for things without life. For the genitive is substituted the 
 genitive of a demonstrative, ber or berfelbe ; for the dative, the 
 dative of the same ; or, if governed by a preposition, a combina- 
 tion of that preposition with the adverb ba (or bar), ' there.' 
 
 Thus, bamit, ' therewith,' bobon, ' thereof,' bottn, ' therein,' barnac^, 
 'thereafter,' and so on, are used instead of mit i^m or il)t, 'with it,' etc 
 Sar is put instead of bo before a vowel or It. 
 
 Similar substitutions of the demonstratives are often made also in other 
 cases where we employ the personal pronouns: see below, 171. 
 
 3. The neuter accusative eS is, in like manner, almost never 
 allowed after a preposition, but is replaced by bd before the 
 preposition: thus, bafur, barum, for fiir c8, 'for it,' um e§, 
 ' about it.' 
 
155] PERSONAL PEONOTJNS. 55 
 
 4. The neuter eg has certain special uses. 
 
 a. It Is, as in English, the indefinite and impersonal subject of a verb : 
 thus, eg regnet, ' it rains ; ' e8 ift fein SBrubcr, ' it is his brother ; ' e9 freut 
 tnid), @te ju (e^en, ' it rejoices me to see you.' 
 
 6. In this use, it often answers to our there before a verb : as, eS Wax ein 
 Mtxn bavin, ' there was a kernel in it ; ' e6 Wirb Sliemanb tommen, ' there 
 win no one come.' 
 
 c. Yet more often, it serves the purpose of a mere grammatical device 
 for shifting the true subjept to a position after the verb, and is itself un- 
 translatable : as, eS ftjertcn bie SRiejen ben etnfameit SBeg, ' the giants bar the 
 lonely way ; ' e8 filrc^te bie ©otter bo8 SJienfc^engefdjlecfit, ' let the human 
 race fear the gods.' 
 
 d. In all these uses, the verb agrees in number with the following noun, 
 the logical subject or the predicate : thus, eg looren bie allerf(^6nften, 'it was 
 (or, they were) the very finest ones.' 
 
 e. @3 also stands as indefinite object; also, as predicate, representing 
 another word or phrase already used, and of which the repetition is avoided 
 (to be rendered, then, by 'so,' ' be so,' ' do so,' or the like) : thus, iSj felber 
 bin e g nic^t me^r, ' I myself am so [what I was] no longer ; ' ate tc^ e 8 noc^ 
 tonnte, ' when I was alUl able to do so.' 
 
 /. Instead of it is ij and the like, the German reverses the expression, 
 and says id^ bin e8, 'I am it,' iSie toaren eS, 'you were it' (i. e., 'it was 
 you'), etc. . 
 
 g. (S3, in all situations, la liable to be abbreviated to '8 : the apostrophe 
 should in such case always be written, but is sometimes omitted. 
 
 155. Reflexive use of the Personal Pronouns. 
 
 1. A reflexive pronoun is one which represents the same per- 
 son or thing as the subject of a sentence, but in the relation of 
 object — ^namely, as object, direct or indirect, of the verb in the 
 sentence ; or (less properly) in a prepositional adjunct to that 
 verb. 
 
 It is usually to be rendered by a personal pronoun with t'le word self 
 added : thus, tc^ maf^e ntic^, ' I wash myself; ' id^ ji^metc^Ie mir, ' I flatter 
 myself; * vi) fd^one mciner, ' I spare myself; ' id^ ftofee fie don mir, 'I thrust 
 them from myself (or, from me).' 
 
 2. In the first and second persons, singular and plural, 
 the reflexive pronoun is the same with the personal in 
 every case, the latter being used in a reiiexive sense, -with- 
 out any adjunct corresponding to our self (but compare 5, 
 below). 
 
 The same is the case with the genitive of the third person — as, er fi^ont 
 feiner, ' he spares himself ' — but 
 
56 PE0N0UN8. [155- 
 
 3. In the third person, there is a special reflexive pro- 
 noun, fid;, which must always be used instead of the dative 
 or accusative of a personal pronoun, after either verb or 
 preposition, whBn the subject of the sentence is referred to. 
 It has the value of both accusative and dative, of either 
 number, and of any gender. 
 
 Thus, er, fie, e8 ttJajdjt ji^, fc^metif|ett ftd^, ' he, she, or it washes or flat- 
 ters himself, herself, or it3*lf ; ' fte lt)aicf|en ftd), jdimeii^eln ftd), ' they wash 
 themselves, or flatter themselves; ' baS tft an uub fiir ftc^ gut, ' that is good 
 in and by itself.' 
 
 The reflexive fid), when representing @ie, 'you' (153.4), is not written 
 with a capital, except in letters and the like. 
 
 4. In German, as in French (there is no corresponding usage in 
 English), the reflexive pronoun in the plural is not seldom em- 
 ployed in what is called a " reciprocal " sense, answering to our 
 one another. 
 
 Thus, tnir biitteu un 8 Itte fe^cn foUen, ' we ought never to have seeu one 
 another;^ \\)x Ijaffet eud), 'ye hate each other; ' fie (@ie) gcbcn ftd| bag ^tU 
 dftn, ' they (you) give one another the signal. ' 
 
 Instead of the reciprocal reflexive (or, rarely and redundantly, along with 
 it), the word cinanber, ' one another,' is often employed. 
 
 Only the connection and the requirement of the sense can show in any 
 case whether the pronoun has its directly or its reciprocally refle:sive value. 
 
 5. ©elbft (or felBer), ' self,' may be added to any reflexive pro- 
 noun, for greater emphasis ; or, in the plural, to exclude the reci- 
 procal sense. 
 
 It may also he added for emphasis to any pronoun, or noim, answering 
 to our myself, thyself, itself, eta 
 
 156. The dative of a personal pronoun is sometimes introduced 
 into a clause expletively, for liveliness of expression: as, la^ mir 
 fcerein ben 2llten, ' let the old man in here (for me) : ' compare 222. 
 III. c. 
 
 POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
 
 157. The personal pronouns are always substantive; 
 their corresponding adjectives are the possessives : namely 
 
 tnein, ' my ' unfcr, ' our ' 
 
 bein, ' thy ' cuer, 'your-' 
 
 feiii, ' his, its ' i^r, ' their ' 
 
 iljr, 'her' [3;t)r, 'your'] 
 
159] 
 
 POSSESSrVES. 
 
 57 
 
 The poasessives of the raaso. and neut. singular are the same, fettt. The 
 possessive of the fern, singular and that of the plural of all genders also 
 agree in form ; and, as the latter (see 153.4) is used in the sense of a second 
 person, i^r has three meanings, ' her,' ' their,' and ' your ' (the last of which 
 is distinguished to the eye by the capital initial). 
 
 158. 1. It will be noticed that tte possessives correspond 
 closely in form with the genitives of the personal pronouns, being, 
 in fact, the same words in a different condition. 
 
 2. The office, also, of the possessive, agrees with that of the 
 genitive of a noun (216.3). The genitive of the pronoun is never 
 used to limit a noun, but for it is substituted a possessive in the 
 form of an adjective, qualifying the noan. 
 
 Thus, bie Sttme beS ajiamteS, 'the man's arms;' but fetne Strine, 'his 
 arms,' never bie Strme fetner, ' the arms of him.' 
 
 Opinions differ as to whether the possessive is derived from the genitive, or the geni- 
 tive ftoja the possessive. Probably the latter opinion is correct ; the history of language 
 shows that a genitive is often, or usually, a stereotyped and invariable case of an adjective 
 of relation. 
 
 159. As regards their declension, possessives are treated 
 in the same manner as other adjectives. 
 
 1. They are used predicatively in their simple or thematic 
 
 form. 
 
 Thus, ber SScd^er tfl bein, ' the goblet is thine ;' bie iBraut fei ntein, ' be 
 the bride mine 1 ' 
 
 2. When used attributively (their regular and ordinary- 
 office), they are declined, not like ber, ' the/ but like ein, 
 ' a ' (63). Thus, metn, ' my,' is declined 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plwral. 
 
 
 m. 
 
 f. 
 
 a. 
 
 m. f . n. 
 
 N. 
 
 ntein 
 
 metne 
 
 metn 
 
 metne 
 
 G. 
 
 meineS 
 
 mctner 
 
 metneS 
 
 meiner 
 
 D. 
 
 nteinem 
 
 meiner 
 
 metnem 
 
 metnen 
 
 A. 
 
 ntetnen 
 
 metne 
 
 metn 
 
 metne 
 
 and unfer, ' our,' 
 
 
 
 
 N. 
 
 unfer 
 
 unfere 
 
 unfer 
 
 unfere 
 
 Gt. 
 
 nnfereS 
 
 unferer 
 
 unfercS 
 
 unferer 
 
 D. 
 
 unferem 
 
 nnferer 
 
 unferem 
 
 unferen 
 
 A. 
 
 unjercn 
 
 unfere 
 
 unfer 
 
 unfere 
 
 Uttfer and euer follow the same rules as other adjectives (120.3) respect- 
 ing the contraction of their endings : thus, we may have unfere or unftc, 
 un{evc8, ititjei-8, or unfreS, and so on. 
 
 3* 
 
58 PEONOUNS. [159- 
 
 3. The possessive is also often used substantively, or with the 
 value of a pronoun (not qualifying a noun expressed, but repre- 
 senting one understood) ; in that case, it is declined in full like an 
 adjective of the first declension : thus, nominatives meiner, tneine, 
 meineS, meinc. 
 
 For example, baS ifl ni(!^t bein SBcii^er ; eStflmetner, 'that is not thy 
 goblet ; it is mine (i. e., my goblet) ;' jein §irn, Wie meineS, ' his brain, like 
 my own.' 
 
 4. In the same substantive use, the possessive may be preceded 
 by the definite article ; and it is then declined like any other ad- 
 jective in like circumstances, or by the second adjective declen- 
 sion (119.2): thus, nom. ber, bie, bag Htetnc, gen. beg, ber, beS 
 metnen, etc. 
 
 For example, fetn 9ti(^terflu'^t ifi ttii^t ber meine, 'his judgment-seat 
 is not mine ; ' lofl mir baa ^etj, bag id^ baS eure rii^re, ' set my heart free, 
 that I may touch yours.' 
 
 6. Again, for the simple possessive, in its absolute or pronomi- 
 nal use after the definite article, is substituted a derivative in tg ; 
 thus, theintg, unfrtg, etc. These are jiever used except with the 
 article, and therefore always follow the second adjective declen- 
 sion. The nominatives of the whole series are 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Flurai. 
 
 m. 
 
 1. 
 
 n. 
 
 m. t n. 
 
 ber meinige, 
 
 bte meinige, 
 
 ba« meinige 
 
 bie meinigen, ' mine ' 
 
 ber beinige, 
 
 bie beinige, 
 
 ba8 beinige 
 
 bie beinigen, 'thine' 
 
 ber feinige, 
 
 bie feinige. 
 
 baS feinige 
 
 bte feintgen, ' his, its 
 
 bet i^tige, 
 
 bie i^ttge, 
 
 baS i^rige 
 
 bie i^rigcn, ' hers ' 
 
 ber unftige, 
 
 bte iinjrige, 
 
 bag unjrige 
 
 bie unfrigen, ' ours ' 
 
 ber eurtge, 
 
 bie eurige, 
 
 bo8 eurtge 
 
 bieeurigen, 'yours' 
 
 bet il^tige, 
 
 bie t^rige, 
 
 baS iljvtgc 
 
 bie if)rigen, ' theirs ' 
 
 [ber 3t)rtge, 
 
 bie 3t)rige, 
 
 ba9 3l)rige 
 
 bie a^rigen, ' yours '] 
 
 Neither the derivatives in tg, nor the simple possessives preceded by the 
 article, are ever used attributively, qualifyiDg a noun expressed. 
 
 SKeln eto. used predicatively, assert ownership pure and simple : thns, ber §ut ift mein, 
 *the hafc belongs to me, and to no one else.' SOiciner, bcv iticine, and ber meinige ni-e wholly 
 equivalent expressions, combining with the idea of property an implication of the cha- 
 mcter of the thing owned; thus, er i\t tncincr etc., 'it is my hat, and no one else^s/ 
 ®et meinige etc. are most common in collotiuial use ; bet mctne eto. are preferred in higher 
 Btylea. 
 
 160. The absolute possessives preceded by the article (ber 
 meinc, ber meinige, etc.) are sometimes used substantively (like 
 other adjectives : see 129) ; the neuter singular denoting ' what 
 
163] POSSESSIVES. 59 
 
 belongs to one ' (his property, his duty, or the like) ; the plural, 
 ' those who belong to one ' (as his family, his friends). 
 
 Thus, unfere $f[i(^t tft, ouf baS Unfrtge ju tel)en, unb fur bie Unyrigen ju 
 forgeit, ' our duty is to attend to our business and take care of our depend- 
 ents ; ' er ermuntertE bie ©einen, ' he encouraged his men.' 
 
 161. The German, like the French, avoids the use of the pos- 
 sessives in many situations where we employ them ; either putting 
 in their stead the definite article only, where the possessor is suffi- 
 ciently pointed out by the connection ; or, along with the article 
 (or even without it), using the dative of the corresponding per- 
 sonal pronoun, where it can be construed as indirect object of the 
 verb in the sentence (see 222. III. b). 
 
 Thus, er jd^iittelte b en ifo)3f, ' he shook his head ; ' ber grofi bringt ttttt 
 imti) alle Snocf)en, ' the frost penetrates through all my bones ; ' er ftet tt)r 
 um ben §al8, ' he fell upon her neck ; ' e8 tam m t r in ©inn, ' it came into 
 my mind.' 
 
 162. ®ero and 3^ro are old-style expressions, used in ceremonious ad- 
 dress, before titles, etc. : thus, 31)ro SDtajeftcit, ' your majesty; ' ®ero Sefe^te, 
 ' your commands.' 
 
 Before titles, feine and fetner are often abbreviated to @e. and @r. ; and 
 for euer, cure, is written ©it). 
 
 Exercise XI. 
 
 Personal, Reflexive, and Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 1. SDteine %xa\x unb \6), tntt un[ern fitnbern, fomraen l^eute ju 
 ■Stjnen ; ftnben h)ir ®ie in 3f)rem neuen §aufe? 2. SSJir feljen i^ren 
 §ut, unb ev gcfttUt ung nidE|t. 3. (Srfennftbumi^ atS bcinen^reunb? 
 4. <Ste ^at fc^one iJebern, benn i^ ga6 fte i^r. 5. gt betvagt fid) gut, 
 unb i^ fveue nti^ eg ju ^orcn. 6. (Sure 'ipferbe finb beffer ofe bie 
 unfrtgen unb bie feinigen. 1. §ter tft i^r 93uc^ ; fie f^tite eg tnir, 
 unb ic^ lei^e cS -S^nen. 8. 3^r ^1)fel tft gut ; meiner ift fd)tec^t. 
 
 DEMONSTKATIVES. 
 
 163. The proper demonstratives are ber, 'this, that,' 
 bieS, ' this, that,' and jen, ' yon, that.' Their original value 
 is that of adjectives ; but they are now with equal free- 
 dom used adjectively, qualifying a noun expressed, and 
 absolutely, or as pronouns, standing for a noun under- 
 stood. 
 
 ®er is historically the same word with our the, that, and they ; bteS is 
 our this, these, those ; jen is our yon, and may by this correspondence be con- 
 
60 PEONOUNS. [163- 
 
 veniently distinguished from jcb (jeber), 'every ' (see 190), with which it is 
 apt to be confounded by learners. 
 
 164. 1. >Der when used adjectively is declined like the 
 article ber (63) ; being, in fact, the same word, and dis- 
 tinguished from it only by greater distinctness, of meaning 
 
 and of utterance. 
 
 Thus, ber Ott ifi iibet regtcret, 'that place is ill governed; ' ber etne l)at 
 bie, bte anbercn anbere, ®aben, 'one has these gifts, others have other.' 
 
 2. iDer when used absolutely, or as pronoun, has pecu- 
 liar forms in a part of its cases— namely, the genitives 
 singular and plural and the dative plural — where it adds 
 en to the adjective forms, at the same time doubling their 
 final S : thus, 
 
 Singular. Plv/ral. 
 
 
 m. f. n. 
 
 jn. f. n. 
 
 N. 
 
 ber bte bog 
 
 bie 
 
 G. 
 
 beffen, (be§) beren, (ber) bcffen, (be^) 
 
 beren, (berer) 
 
 D. 
 
 bent ber bent 
 
 benen 
 
 A. 
 
 ben bte bo8 
 
 bie 
 
 The genitives singular bej?, ber, beg are also allowed, but very rarely 
 u^ed, except the neuter iu certain compounds, as bejjlwegen, begljalb (also 
 written besmegen, bcS^alb). 
 
 In the genitive plural, berer is used instead of beren when a limiting ad- 
 dition, usually a relative clause, follows: thus, berer, bie nttd^ licbcit, 'of 
 those who love me ; ' berer Bon $art8, ' of them of Paris (people from Paris).' 
 
 165. ®ie8 and jen are declined as adjectives of the first 
 declension, or like the definite article (only with c§ instead 
 of a§ in the nom. and ace. neuter) ; and without any dif- 
 ference, whether they are used as adjectives or as pronouns. 
 Thus, 
 
 Singular. Plwral. 
 
 m. t n. m. t n. 
 
 N. biefer btefe btefeS btefe 
 
 G. biefeg biefer btefeS btefer 
 
 D. bicfem biefer biefent biefen 
 
 A. biefen biefe bicfeS ' biefe 
 
 The Tiom. and ace. neuter biefc§ is often abbreviated to bieS (or 
 bie|), especially when the word is used as a pronoun. 
 
167j DEMONSTRATIVES. 61 
 
 166. Use of the Demonstratives. 
 
 1. ®tefer is a general demonstrative, answering to both this 
 and that. If, however, the idea of remoteness in place or time is 
 at all emphasized, either by the antithesis of this and that, or in 
 any other way, that must be represented by jener. Often, biefer 
 and jener are to be rendered 'the latter' (bie[er, the one last men- 
 tioned, the nearer) and ' the former ' (jener, the one mentioned 
 earlier, the remoter). ®ie8 and bag are also sometimes contrasted 
 as ' this ' and ' that.' 
 
 2. 3)er has a great range of meaning, from the faint iudefinite- 
 ness of the article to the determinateness of bie[er — depending 
 mainly on the emphasis with which it is uttered. Special uses 
 worthy of note are as follows : 
 
 a. ®er is the demonstrative employed in sucli phrases as itnfcrc ^ferbe 
 unb bt e bcr gtetnben, ' our horses and those of the strangers- ' ber mit ben 
 ^ettcn 2Iugen, ' hs (the one) with the sharp eyes.' 
 
 Earely, berjenige (168) is used in the same sense. 
 
 J. It takes the place of the pronoun of the third person used emphati- 
 cally: thus, bie mug red)t bumtnfeiit, 'sAe must be right stupid;' bet 
 fiittrc itra^'n, ' may he be food for crows.' 
 
 3. The neuters singular, bag, bieS (or bte§, btefeS), and (rarely) 
 jeneS, are used, like eS (154.4), as indefinite subjects of verbs ; 
 and, if a plural predicate noun follows the verb, the latter agrees 
 with the noun : thus, bag ift mcin SSater, ' that is my father ; ' 
 ba^ ftnb bie ^^etjungen, 'those are the charms;' bieS ift ber 
 ^ani^jf ber ^ferbe unb S^if^e, ' this is the combat of horses and 
 fishes.' 
 
 4. Compounds of the adverbs ba and ^ter with prepositions are 
 very frequently used instead of cases of the demonstratives with 
 governing prepositions : thus, bamit, ' therewith,'' barin, ' therein,' 
 for mtt bem, in bem ; ^iemtit, ' herewith,' (jtertn, ' herein,' for mit 
 bie[em, in biefem. 
 
 6. For the demonstratives as substitutes for the personal pronoun, see 
 below, 171. 
 
 Determinatives. 
 
 167. Certain pronominal words, connected with the demon- 
 stratives in derivation or meaning, or in both, are ordinarily called 
 determinatives. 
 
62 PKONOTINS. [16S- 
 
 168. jDcrjettige. — 1. This is made up of the definite article 
 ber, and jentg, a derivative from jen, 'yon, that' (like tneinig from 
 ttictn, etc., 159.5). The latter part never occurs without the 
 former, and they are written together as a single word, although 
 each is separately declined, the one as the article, the other as an 
 adjective of the second declension. Thus, 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 m. f. n. , m. f. n. 
 
 N. berjentge biejenige bagjenigc biejenigen 
 
 G. beSjenigen berjeiitgett begjentgen berjenigen 
 
 D. bemjcnigen berjenigen bemjenigen benjenigen 
 
 A. benienigen bieientge baSjenige biejenigen 
 
 2. ®erjentgc is used with equal frequency as adjective and as 
 pronoun. Its specific office is that of antecedent to a following 
 relative ; in this office it is interchangeable with the demonstra- 
 tive ber, as the latter's more prosaic and colloquial substitute : 
 thus, berjentge, or berjentge SKann, hjet^er toetfe ift, tft jufrieben, ' he 
 (that man) who is wise is contented.' 
 
 169. ®erfet6e. — 1. This word is composed of the definite ar- 
 ticle and the adjective fetb. Both its parts are declined, after the 
 manner of bcrjenige (168.1), 
 
 2. ®erfette is both adjective and pronoun, and means literally 
 ' the same.' But it also interchanges with the demonstratives as 
 substitute for the pronoun of the third person (see 171). 
 
 3. For berfelBe are sometimea used berfelbtge and felbtger, which, how- 
 ever, are antiquated expressions. S)er namlid)e is its equivalent in the full 
 sense of ' the same.' 
 
 ©clber and fetbft (155.5) are indeclinable forms of the same adjective 
 felb, always following, appositively, the noun or pronoun which they qualify, 
 often at a distance from it. (Setbft is also used adverbially, meaning ' even,' 
 and as substantive in the phrase Don felbft, ' of its own accord.' 
 
 ©etb is also, rarely, declined after biefer aa after ber. Th6 genitive of 
 berfelbe is written either be^jetbeu or beffetbcn : the former ia theoretically 
 preferable (3.1), the latter more uaual (likewise ba9(elbe, neuter). 
 
 no. ©otc^. — 1. ©old) is the English ' such,' and is used, both 
 as adjective and as pronoun, in nearly the same manner. It is 
 declined like biefer (165) ; or, when preceded by ein, as any other 
 adjective would be in the same situation (124). 
 
 Such a is either foli^ ein, or ein \o\.i\tt, the adjective being undeclined 
 when placed before the article. For as, when used after such with the value 
 
173] INTEEEOG-ATI-^ES. 63 
 
 of a relative pronoun, tlie German uses the relative, bet : thus, folc^ett, b i e 
 i^n f annteir, ' to such as knew him.' 
 
 171. The Demonstratives and Determinatives as Substitutes. 
 1. The pronouns of these classes are often used where we put 
 
 the third personal pronoun or its possessive : 
 
 1. For the emphatic pronoun (166.2&.), and the antecedent of a relative 
 clause (168.2), as already explained. 
 
 2. Where the demonstrative meaning helps avoid an ambiguity: as, er 
 ging niit niEtnem 93etter imb be|fen ©o^n, or bent @ol)ne beSfelben, 'he 
 went with my cousin and his (the latter's) son : ' — or an awkward repetition : 
 as, er ^ot eine @if)tt)eflet : lennen ®te bic(el6e (for tcnnen @ie fie)? 'he 
 has a sister ; do you know her ? ' 
 
 3. In the oblique cases, where things and not persons are intended : as, 
 tc^ bin beffen benbt^tgt, ' I am in need of it ' (fetner would mean ' of him,' 
 rather). In like manner, with prepositions, instead of the adverbial com- 
 pounds with ba (154.2,3): as, id^ ^abe einen Oorten, unb getje oft tn-bcm» 
 felben (or barin) (pajjieren, 'I have a garden, and often go to walk in it' 
 
 4. The substitution, especially of berfetbe, is often made, in popular use, 
 in cases where no reason can be assigned, and where the personal pronoun 
 would be preferable. 
 
 INTERROGATIVES. 
 
 172. The interrogatives are leer, 'who,' toaS, 'what,' 
 and lDcI(i)er, 'what, which.' SBer and Wa3 are pronouns 
 only; icelc^er is primarily adjective, but also frequently 
 used as pronoun. 
 
 173. 1. SBer and IcaS are peculiar in having no plural ; 
 also, in conveying no idea of gender, but being distin- 
 guished precisely as our who and what, the one denoting 
 persons, the other things. They are declined as follows : 
 
 N. ttier ' who ' toaS * what ' 
 
 Gr. Mjefjen, (toe^) . ' whose ' [m^] 
 
 D. tDem 'to whom' 
 
 A. tuen 'whom' tt)a§ 'what' 
 
 2. S3}e§ as genitive of ttier is antiquated and out of use, and as genitive 
 of was is hardly met with except in compounds like Wegmegen, ttie61)nlb 
 (or roeSWegen, reeS^atb). SBa§ has no dative : for both its dative and accu- 
 sative as governed by prepositions are substituted compounds of those pre- 
 positions with the adverb mo or to or, ' where : ' thus, to omit, ' wherewith, 
 with what,' tnottrt, 'wherein, in what,' ttofilr, 'wherefore, for what' (like 
 bamtt, ^termit, etc. : see 154.2, 166.4). 
 
64 • PEONOrNS. [173- 
 
 3. Popular colloquial usage sometimes puts WaS, both, as accusative and as 
 dative, after prepositions : thus, mit tuaS, ' with vi'hat,' fiir h)o8, ' for what.' 
 
 4. SBejj is used adjeotively in a phrase or two : as, tti e g ©tnneS bcr §err 
 fci, ' of what disposition the master is ' (R. 92.7). 
 
 174. 1. SBetd) is declined lilie bteS (i65), or as an adjec- 
 tive of the first declension. As an adjective, qualifying a 
 noun expressed, it means either ' what ' or ' which ; ' used 
 absolutely, it is our 'which.' 
 
 2. Before etn or an adjective, especially when used in an ex- 
 clamatory way, toelij generally loses its declensional endings, and 
 appears in its simple thematic form. 
 
 Thus, ttiefc^ES S3ud^, ' what (or which) book ; ' ftieldjeS Don bte|cn Siid^crn, 
 ' which of these books : '—totld) tiefeS ©ummcn, ractt^ etn feller Son, ' what 
 deep murmur, what a dear tone 1 ' tnelif) fi^(ea)te_ ©itten, ' what bad man- 
 ners 1 ' 
 
 175. SJBaS with the preposition fiir, ' for,' after it (sometimes 
 separated from it by intervening words), is used in the sense of 
 ' what sort of, what tind of.' It is then invariable, and the words 
 to which it is prefixed have the same construction as if they stood 
 by themselves. 
 
 Thus, tnaS bifl bu fiir etn tanger ©tttd, ' what sort of a long string are 
 you?' Hon tT)o8 fiir 3eu8S": ""^ "iW 'oas fiir etnem SBerfjeuge, madden ©ie 
 ba8, ' of what kind of stuffs, and with what sort of an instrimient, do you 
 make that ? ' 
 
 176. 1. All the interrogatives are used also as relatives 
 
 (see 177). 
 
 2. 2Ba§ stands often for etltiaS, ' something : ' ircr, in the sense 
 of ' some one,' is quite rare ; iueld), as pronoun only, is familiarly, 
 but not elegantly, used to signify ' some.' 
 
 Thus, noc^ Was Wert^, ' still worth something ; ' xif ntbcftte hiaS brofitis 
 ten, 'I would fain profit somewhat; ' mctnte xoex au9 ber ©ejellfc^aft, 're- 
 marked some one in the company; ' !|aben ©ie ^Pflaumen? geben ®tc niir 
 (neid^e, ' have you plums ? give me some.' . 
 
 8. Sffia? is used not rarely for tint Wo8, or Warum, 'why?' thus, njaS 
 btrgft bu betn @cftd)t, ' why hidest thou thy face ? ' 
 
 RELATIVES. 
 
 177. The demonstrative pronoun (not adjective) bcr, 
 and the interrogatives \uv, toa§, h)aS fiir, and lucldjer (both 
 adjective and pronoun), are used also as relatives ; they 
 
179] RELATIVES. 65 
 
 are declined, as such, in the same mfenner as when having 
 their more original and proper value. 
 
 178. !Der and iDetd^er are the ordinary simple relatives follow- 
 ing an antecedent. In the nominative and accusative, they are 
 used interchangeably, according to the arbitrary choice of speaker 
 or writer. In the dative (except after prepositions) the cases 
 of ber are rather preferred to those of ioelc^cr ; and, in the geni- 
 tive (as pronouns), only beffen and beren are ever met with. 
 
 179. 1. SBer and toaS, WaS fur, and ttjclcfter used adjectively 
 (also absolutely, wlien meaning ' which '), like who and what in 
 English, are properly compound relatives, or antecedent and rela- 
 tive combined. 
 
 Thus, ttier bft 3Jad)t borbetfu^r, falj bte g^Ionmim, 'he who (whoever) 
 went by at night, saw the flames; ' luaS im SKcnfiljen nic^t iff, tomiiit aui) 
 nil^t au8 iijm, ' what (whatever) is not in a man does not come out of him ; ' 
 tc^ IniE toergeffcn, ttier ti^ bin, unb WoS itf) Ittt, 'I -iviir forget who I am and 
 what I have suffered ; ' mtt tl)r Wanbclt, mem fte bie SBeifle lie^, ' with her 
 wallfs he ou whom she has bestowed consecration ; ' man fud)te ju Sergcffett, 
 h) e I d) e 3'Jot^ iiberatt ^errfc^tc, ' one sought to forget what distress was every- 
 where prevailing; ' met meig, mo8 fitr eine Sift baljinter ftedt, 'who knows 
 what sort of a trick is hidden in that ? ' 
 
 2. But the demonstrative is repeated, for distinctness, after the com- 
 pound relative, much more often in German than in English : 
 
 Thus, mer md)t BormfittS gc^t, ber lommt juriitfe, 'who (whoever) does 
 not advance, ?ie falls back ; ',m 8 bu nte Berlierft, ba8 mugt bu bemctnen, 
 'whai you never lose, that you have to bewail; ' to a 8 id) fur §err[td^teit 
 gefc^aut, ba8 fte^t nid^t in ber SBorte Wad^t, 'what kind of maguiflcenoe I 
 saw, that is not in the power of words to tell.' 
 
 3. Aa occasional irregular variations of the mode of relative expression 
 may be noticed the use of the personal pronoun instead of ber as antecedent 
 after mer (e. g., R. 67.20), of ber instead of mer as preceding relative (e. g., 
 R. 71.3), of mer instead of melc^er after ber (e. g., R. 52.22), etc. 
 
 4. The examples show that hjer and itiaS are sometimes to be 
 translated by 'whoever' and 'whatever.' To give them more 
 distinctly this indefinite sense, they may he followed (either im- 
 mediately, or, more often, after one or more interposed words) by 
 aud), 'even,' nur, 'only,' or itnmer, 'ever,' especially the first: 
 thus. Id a 8 er aud) t^ue, 'whatever he may do.' 
 
 5. After a neuter pronoun, personal, demonstrative, or indefinite 
 (as eS, bag, atleg, etma8,'jtt^t§, ntand^eS, stel, toenig), also after an 
 adjective (especially a superlative) taken in a general sense, and 
 
66 PRONOUNS. [179- 
 
 not referring to some defiQite object, the compound relative toaS 
 is used, instead of the simple relative bag or metc^eS. 
 
 Thus, fiber bo8, tt)a8 et felbft erja^lte, 'about that which he was himself 
 relating; ' atteS maS Don bir niir torn, 'all that came to me from thee; ' 
 nt(f)t8 ma 8 meine aWeinung ffbtte, 'nothing that should shake my opinion; ' 
 bag erfte ItioS ftf ptten, 'the first thing which they heard.' 
 
 That is to Bay, for an adjective clause qualifying the antecedent is eubstituted a sub- 
 stantive clause in apposition with it. 
 
 180. For the dative or accusative case of a relative (either 
 simple or compound) governed by a preposition, is usually sub- 
 stituted, when things and not persons are referred to, the com- 
 pound of the preposition with an adverb (as in the case of the 
 demonstratives and interrogatives : see 166.4, 173.2). But the 
 compounds of bo (babon, baraug, etc.) are only rarely used rela- 
 tively, those of ino (loobon, toorauS, etc.) being preferred. 
 
 181. A verb agreeing with a relative is put in the third per- 
 son even when the antecedent of the relative was a pronoun of 
 the first or second person (or a vocative), unless that pronoun be 
 repeated after the relative. 
 
 Thus, urn mic^, ber |t(i^ rettet ju bir, ' about me, who am taking refuge 
 with thee; ' bift bu e8, ber fo jjtttert, 'isitthou whoasrUremblingthua?' — 
 but urn mld^, DEt i* miii rette; bifi bu e8, ber bu jo jitterft ;— gludfelinEr 
 SUejonbcr, ber bu Statten ntdjt fafjeft, 'fortunate Alexander, that didst 
 never see Italy 1 ' 
 
 182. 1. In antiquated or archaic style, fo is used as indeohnable relative, 
 representing the nominative and accusative o»ses of bcr and tocldjer : thus, 
 ber SJiann, jo e8 fogte, 'the man who said it.' 
 
 2. In a like style, ba is appended to a relative, ber or metier, in a man- 
 ner wholly expletive, and unrepresentable by anything in English : thus, 
 totx bo at^met im ropgen Stc^t, 'whoever breathes in the rosy light.' 
 
 183. The relative, often omitted in English, must always be 
 expressed in German: thus, bte greunbe, bie id) liebe, 'the friends 
 I love.' 
 
 Exercise XII. 
 
 Demonstrative, Interrogative, and Relative Pronouns. 
 
 1. SBer finb ©ie, unb tnoS luiffen ©ie? 2. jDie8 tft bcr 9JJann 
 ben ©ic fetinen, unb Don bem 'mvc fpvac^en. 3. S5Beld)cn 9)jQnu mci» 
 ncn @te ? 4. 28er finb bic Scute, berett 93ii(i^cr luir l)atten, unb bcneti 
 h)ir fie tBtebexgaben ? 5. 3^ »oei| iDcber toaS fitr Sitd^cv fie hjorcn, 
 nod) Uon toem luir fie ()atten, 6. SSer baS nici)t tuci| ift cin %{)W, 
 
189] DTDEFINrrES. 67 
 
 7. SBeffen §ut unb )maS fiir einett 9toct tragt jener ^mU ? 8. 
 Siebet bie, toel^e euc^ berfotgen ; fegnet biejentgen, bie eu^ ^ffen. 
 9. ®er ift gtiicflic^, beffen §erj jufiteben ift ; ni^t berjenige, tuetdjer 
 nur ret^ ift. 
 
 INDEFINITE PKONOrNS AND INDEFINITE NUMERALS. 
 
 184. A class of words needs some attention under the above 
 head, in connection with the pronouns, as being more or less re- 
 lated with the latter, and differing from ordinary nouns and ad- 
 jectives, in derivation or in office, or both. 
 
 185. 93tan, 'one.' — Ifftan (originally the same word with 
 5DJann, ' man ') is employed as wholly indefinite subject to a verb, 
 like the French on, our one, they, people, we, taken indefinitely. 
 Thus, man fogt, ' one says, they say, it is said.' If any other case 
 than a nominative is required, einer (195) is used instead. 
 
 186. -Senianb, ' some one,' 9ttentanb, ' no one.' — These are 
 compounds of 5Dtatm, ' man,' with the adverbs je, ' ever,' and nte, 
 ' never.' They ought, therefore, to be declinable only as substan- 
 tives of the first declension : and it is proper always so to treat 
 them, adding g in the genitive, and leaving the other cases like 
 the nominative. But in the dative and accusative (especially 
 where the phrase would otherwise be ambiguous or indistinct), 
 they are allowed to take the endings em or en (R. 168.28; 171.19) 
 in the dative, and en in the accusative. 
 
 Dfiiemanb, ' no one,' must be used instead of ntc^t 3emonb, ' not any one,' 
 except in an interrogative sentence. 
 
 187. Sebermann, ' every one.' — This word is made up of jebcr, 
 'every ' (190), aod Wtaxin, ' man,' but is used without distinction 
 of gender. Its first part is undeclined, and it is varied only by 
 adding g to form the genitive. 
 
 188. SttoaS, ' something,' nic^t?, ' nothing.' — These words are 
 invariable in form, and always have a substantive value. A fol- 
 lowing limiting adjective is treated as a substantive in apposition 
 with them (129.5) : and the same construction is usual with a 
 noun after etmaS ; thus, tttoaS @elb, ' some money.' 
 
 For Was in the sense of etttiaS, see 176.2. 
 
 yiidftS is usually and regularly used instead of ntc^t etlnog, ' not any- 
 thing,' except when the sentence is interrogative as well as negative. 
 
 189. (Sinig, etUd^, ' some.' — These are used chiefly in the 
 
68 PEONOTTNS. [189- 
 
 plural, and declined like bie§ (165). They are employed both 
 adjectively and substantively. 
 
 Etroeld^ ia a word, now antiquated, having the same meaning: for this, 
 ttieli^er is often used colloquially (176.2), as tt)o8 for etiroS. I 
 
 190. Qih, ieatt^r iebhjeb, ' each, every.' — Only the first of these 
 is in familiar use. All are declined like btc§ : or, the first two as 
 adjectives of the " mixed " declension (124.2) when preceded by 
 etn, the only limiting word which can stand before them. They 
 are used either adjectively or substantively. 
 
 The original themes are jebet and jebtoeber, and their er has not until 
 modern times been treated as ending of declension only. For Sebcmionn, 
 see above, 187. 
 
 191. Wtanij, 'many.' — In the singular, mand) means 'many 
 a;' in the plural, 'many.' It is usually declined like bteS (165), 
 but, before an adjective, may be left uninflected: thus, tnand)' 
 6itnte 33lumen, ' many variegated flowers ; ' tnand) gutbcn ©eWanb, 
 ' many a golden garment.' It is also used substantively. 
 
 192. SStet, 'much,' wenig, 'little.' — 1. After another limiting 
 word, Diet and mentg are declined as any other adjectives would 
 be in the same situation — except in ein ttjemg, ' a little.' If they 
 precede the noun which they qualify (or another adjective qualify- 
 ing it), they are sometimes deelined and sometimes left unvaried 
 — and the former more when the meaning is distributive, the lat- 
 ter more when collective: thus, biel SBetn, 'a great quantity of 
 wine,' but bietcr SBeln, ' wine of many kinds ; ' Diet Ieid)t befd^njtngte 
 ®afte, ' a number of ligTit-winged guests,' but btele onbere S^tevgcs 
 ftotten, ' many other animal shapes (individual) ' — but this distinc- 
 tion is by no means closely observed. Both words are used sub- 
 stantively as well as adjectively, and may govern a partitive geni- 
 tive : as, biete ber Q^u^gcinger, ' many of the pedestrians.' 
 
 2. 9Jlet)r, ' more,' and roentger, ' less,' comparatives of tiiet and 
 iDetiig, are generally invariable. But nie^r has a plural, me^rc, or 
 (irregularly, but much more commonly) mel)rere, meaning ' several, 
 many.' 
 
 193. W, 'all.' — 1. When it directly precedes the noun it 
 qualifies, all is fully declined (like bieS, 165) : but before a pro- 
 nominal word (adjectively or substantively used) it may remain 
 unvaried (with a tendency toward the same distinction of collec- 
 tive and distributive meaning that appears in bid : see 192.1). 
 
 Thus, alter Sfficttcifer, ' aU zeal : ' — atte bciiic 6o^cn SBerf e, ' all thy lofty 
 works ; ' aUe tie Sage beS gefleS, ' all the days of the festival ; ' Don ott bem 
 
197] INDEFIOTTES. 69 
 
 ©tattje, 'by all the splendor; ' bet att btefen SScrpttniffen, 'in view of all these 
 circumstances.' 
 
 2. In certain phrases, aUi is used Instead of att undeclined : thus,- bci alle 
 bent, ' in spite of aU that.' 
 
 3. The neuter singular atleS (like the corresponding ease of other pro- 
 nominal words; as jebeS, R. 170.11), is employed in an indefinite way of 
 persons, meaning ' every one : ' thus, alleS nfi^ert fic^ etnonber, ' all draw 
 near to one another.' 
 
 4. The plural of OH is sometimes used distrihutively : as alle 2So(^eit, 
 'every week.' 
 
 194. 3tttber, ' other,' is a pronominal word, but not distin- 
 guished in its uses from an ordinary adjective. 
 
 For nod^ ein in place of anber, see 198.8c ; for anber as ordinal, 203.1a. 
 
 195. (Silt, 'one, an, a,' fein, 'not one, none, no.' — 1. 'The 
 numeral ein, 'one,' is also used as indefinite pronotm (see 198.2), 
 and as article (63). 
 
 2. ^ettt is the negative of ein, and is everywhere dedined as 
 the latter would he in the same situation. Like 9fiemanb (l86) 
 and ntc^tS (188), it often requires to be taken apart in translating 
 into ein and ni^t, 'not.' 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 196. Although the numerals do not form in the proper sense 
 a separate part of speech, their peculiarities of form and use are 
 such that they require to be treated as a class by themselves. 
 
 197. 1. The fundamental words denoting number, the 
 CABDiNAL nmnerals, are as follows : 
 
 1. ein 
 
 11. etf - 
 
 21. ein unb Jtoanjig 
 
 2. jhjet 
 
 12. gttJotf 
 
 22. jttiet unb jwanjtg 
 
 3. bret 
 
 13. bretje^n 
 
 30. breigtg 
 
 4. bier 
 
 14. titerje^n 
 
 40. bterjtg 
 
 5. fiinf 
 
 15. fUnf^eiin • 
 
 50. fiinfjtg 
 
 6. H? 
 
 16. jed^je^n 
 
 60. fetfijtg 
 
 7. ftebcn 
 
 17. fie^eljn 
 
 70. ftebjtg 
 
 8. ad)t 
 
 18. a(^t;ie^n • 
 
 80. d^tjig 
 
 9. neun 
 
 19. neunje^n 
 
 90. neun^ig 
 
 10. je'^n 
 
 20. jmanjtg 
 
 100. ^nbert 
 
 1000. 
 
 taufeitb 1,000,000 
 
 . minion 
 
70 miMEEALS. [19"'- 
 
 2. An older form of elf, 11, now nearly out of use, is eitf. For 
 fUnfjetjn, 15, and fiinfjig, 50, the less regularly derived forms 
 funfje^n and funfjig are also in good and approved use. (Steben= 
 jeljn, 17, and fieknjtg, 70, instead of the contracted [iebjefin and 
 fiebjig, are not infrequent, ©e^je^n, 16, and fec^jtg, 60, are 
 abbreviated, for ease of pronunciation, from fec()83c()n and fe^gjig, 
 which may likewise be employed. 
 
 3. The odd numbers, between twenty and a hundred, are formed 
 always by prefixing the name of the unit to that of the ten, with 
 unb, 'and,' interposed: thus, bret unb jftanstg, 'three and twenty' 
 (not jiranjigsbret, ' twenty-three '). With the higher numbers, the 
 odd numbers follow, as in English : thus, tjunbert unb fieben, 107 ; 
 taufenb unb brei unb bierjig, 1043 ; and the uub, ' and,' may be 
 dropped, especially when more than two numbers are put to- 
 gether : as, ein taufenb ad)t ^unbert neun unb fc^5ig, or ac^tje^n 
 ^unbert neun unb fec^jig, 1869. 
 
 4. The higher numbers, l^unbert, taufenb, nttttton, are multiplied 
 by prefixed numbers, as in English : thus, fe(^§ ^unbert, 600 ; bret 
 unb adj^iQ taufenb, 83,000. The German says eine 9)JitIton, 'a 
 million,' as we do ; but simply ()unbert, ' a hundred,' taufenb, ' a 
 thousand:' ein ^unbert, ein taufenb, mean 'one hundred,' 'owe 
 thousand.' ^ 
 
 198. (Sin is the only cardinal number that is fully inflected. 
 
 1. If used adjectively, or qualifying a noun expressed, it is 
 (unless preceded by another qualifying word : see 3) declined 
 when numeral in the same manner as when indefinite article (63). 
 
 Thus, ein JDlann, 'one man' or 'a man;' ein JiJtnb, 'one child' or 'a 
 child.' 
 
 2. When used absohitfely, or pronominally, standing for a noun 
 understood, it is declined like bieg (165), or an adjective of the 
 first declension (but eineS is usually contracted to einS in the nom. 
 and ace. neuter). 
 
 Thus, urn ein ©tieb, unb bann ifnt noiti etns longer, 'longer hy one joint, 
 and then by one more;' ciner Bon eui^, 'one of you;' emer ber aitf ein 
 Stbcnteuer aui%tiii, 'one who goes out upon an adventure;' Bon fid) ju 
 jagen, h)08 eincm lieb ift, 'to drive away from one's self what is dear to 
 one I ' 
 
 8. When preceded by another limiting word (usually the de- 
 finite article), it is declined as any adjective would be after the 
 same word. 
 
201] CAEDmALS. 71 
 
 Thus, ber cttteftjrad^, ' the one spoke ; ' tntt btefer etnen 3mmg, 'with 
 this one error; ' auf fetnem einen SBeine, 'on liis one leg.' 
 
 a. Ser eine is often employed where we should say 'one' simply: ocoa- 
 sioually it forms a plural, Sie einen, ' the ones, some.' 
 
 6. In numeration, the pronominal neuter, etnS, is used : thus, etnS, jmet, 
 bret, ' one, two, three ; ' etnmol einS ift einS, ' once one is one.' 
 
 c. 9^01^ ein, 'one more,' is employed instead of ein anber, 'another,' where 
 simple addition, not difference, is signified : thus, ntmm nod) ein ©olbftiicf, 
 ' take another gold piece ' (i. e. in addition to the one you have); but niiuin 
 ein anbeteS, ' take another ' (i. e. in place of the one you have). 
 
 d. In the compound numbers, ein unb 3h)anjtg, 21, etc., ein la invariable: 
 also, usually, in the combination ein Unb oerfeloe, ' one and the same.' 
 
 e. In order to distinguish to the eye ein used as pronoun or numeral 
 from the same word aa article, some write it with a capital, Sin ; others, 
 with the letters spaced, e t n (the ordinary German equivalent of our italics) ; 
 others, with an accent upon the e, ein : others leave the difference of value 
 to be pointed out by the connection. 
 
 199. ^ttiet, 2, and bret, 3, are generally unvaried, but have 
 gen. and dat. plural forms — jhjeier, jlneien ; brcier, breien — wMch 
 may be used where the case would otherwise be doubtful. 
 
 a. For Jrtei, the old masculine sHJeen {twain) and feminine JHJO are an- 
 tiquated, but still occasionally met with: thus, waren mtt mtt jttieen Oenoffen, 
 'were with me two comrades; ' yma ©(i^malben jangen urn bie Settc, 'two 
 swallows were singing in emulation. ' 
 
 b. Seibe, 'both,' is often used where we say two: thus, metne Beibcn 
 SSriiber, ' my two brothers.' 
 
 200. 1. From the other units and tens, only a dative in en is occasion- 
 ally formed, when the words are used substantively; or, yet more rarely, 
 from all the units, a nom. and ace. in e (a relic of a former fuller declension) 
 — namely, in certain special uses, as aQe SBicre, ' all fours ; ' or in poetry, to 
 make an additional syllable ; or in colloquial and low style. 
 
 2. §unbert, 100, and taufenb, 1000, are frequently construed 
 and declined as (neuter) collective substantives. SDtillton (fem.) is 
 regularly and usually so treated. 
 
 3. As names of the figures designating them, the numerals are treated 
 as feminine nouns (3fl^', ?■ ' number,' being understood), and take the plural 
 ending en, and sometimes e in the singular: ein forms bte EinS, bie 
 ©injen. 
 
 201. 1. The cardinal numerals are used in general with equal 
 freedom as substantives and as adjectives : thus, ein ®inb, 'a child,' 
 ein§ ber ^iubcr, ' one of the children ; ' bier ober fiinf fot(^er Wlixb^ 
 c^en, ' four or five of such girls ' (R. 161.18) ; toir bret gi'eunbc, ' we 
 three friends;' unjcr bret, ' three of us,' etc. 
 
72 ■ NTTMEEALS. [201- 
 
 2. For the use of a singular instead of a plural noun of measure after 
 numerals, see 211.2. 
 
 202. From the cardinals come, by derivation or composition, 
 all the other classes of numerals, the most important of which 
 are explained below. 
 
 203. Ordinals. 1. The ordinals are a series of ad- 
 jective derivatives, formed from the cardinals by the suf- ' 
 fixes t and ft : from the numbers 2-19, by adding t ; from 
 the higher numbers by adding ft. 
 
 Thus, iittieit, 'second,' neurit, 'ninth,' fcdjje^nt, 'sixteenth,' jwonjtgfl, 
 'twentieth,' ^unbertft, 'hundredth,' toufcnbft, 'thousandth.' 
 
 a. But the ordinal of ein is erft, 'first;' bret forms irregularly 
 britt ; and adit, ad)t (instead of ac^tt) : anber, ' other,' is some- 
 times used instead of jttieit, 'second.' 
 
 h. Compound numbers add, as in English, the ordinal ending 
 only to their last member: thus, ber jloei unb jhianjigfte, 22d, ber 
 ^unbert uitb erfte, 101st, tm acf)t3el)n ^unbert neun unb fedijtgftcn 
 Saljre, 'in the 1869th year.' 
 
 2. The ordinals are never used predicatively or adverbi- 
 ally, and consequently never appear (except in composition) 
 in their simple thematic form. They are declined in all 
 respects like other adjectives. 
 
 Exercise XIII. 
 
 Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals. 
 
 The numerals to be read out of figures into words. 
 
 1. SBtr finb 3 93riiber, ©o^ne eine§ SBaterS ; ber Ite ift 20 3a^rc 
 ott ; ber 2te ift alter um 4 ^al^rc unb 7 SOtonate ; ber 3te ift geboren 
 tm 3at)re 183.5, imb ift olfo tm 34tcn 3a'§r fetncS 2lttev8. 2.- 3n 
 meiner aSibliot^ef finb 35 SBltc^erSrettcr in 5 9tei^en ; bag 4te Srctt 
 in jcber SRei^e trftgt fponifc^e Slicker, unb baS 7te tvagt beutfdje ; ouf 
 alien gufommcn finb 678 SBerte, in 1317 SSanben. 3. 3Ba8 gefd)a^ 
 im 3al)re 1492? unb xoai, 284 3!af|re fpater, in 1776? 4. ©er 
 3onuar ^oX 31 Sage ; ber geferuar, 28 ober 29. 5. ®ie Sanct ^ctvt 
 ^ivct)e ju 9?ont I)at 602 gu| Sdnge, unb 445 %^x% SSreite ; unb bag 
 ^reuj auf bem ®ome fte^t 430 gu^ iiber bem 'pftaftcr : fie wuvbe ge= 
 tnet^t im 162 6 ten 3;ol)ve nad^ S^rifti ©efturt. 
 
209] NTIMEEAL DEEIVATIVES. 73 
 
 204. MuUiplicatives. These are formed by compounding 
 the cardinals with the words fact) or fcittig : thus, einfai^ or etnfttE 
 tig, 'simple;' jmetfac^ or jtocifdlttg, 'double;' je^foc^ or je^nfat 
 tig, ' ten-fold.' They are adjectives, and are treated in all respects 
 like other adjectives. 
 
 205. Variatives. These add eriet to the cardinals : thus, 
 cinerlei, ' of one sort,' bretertei, ' of three sorts ; ' bieterlct, ' of 
 many sorts.' They are adjectives, but incapable of declension. 
 
 206. Iteraiives. These are adverbs, formed by compounding 
 the numeral with mat (literally ' mark ; ' hence ' repetition, time ') : 
 thus, einmat, ' once,' jefininol, ' ten times,' maiK^raoI, ' many times, 
 often.' 
 
 a. The word mat is often written apart from the numeral, sometimes with 
 a capital, as an independent word. 
 
 J. As the examples have shown, derivative words of these three classes 
 are formed also from the indefinite numerals. 
 
 207. Derivatives from the Ordinals. 
 
 1. Dimidiatives are formed by adding ^alB, ' half,' to the ordinal 
 as ending in te (or t), and denote a quantity half a unit less than 
 the corresponding cardinal. Thus, biertef|aI6, ' four less a half,' or 
 ' three and a half.' They are construed as invariable adjectives. 
 
 The implied meaning is, ['the first, second, and third, complete ; but] the 
 fourth, [only] half.' Instead of gWette^alb, li, anbertl)otB, irregularly form- 
 ed from onb'er, 'other,' in the sense of 'second' (203.1a), is in use. 
 
 2. Fractionals are originally compounds of the ordinals with 
 %\]A{, ' part ; ' but are abbreviated by the contraction of the latter 
 into tel, before which the final t of the ordinal is dropped : thus, 
 brittct (britt=tel, britt' S^eil), ' third ; ' tiiertel, ' quarter ; ' jjtDanjtgs 
 ftcl, ' twentieth part.' 
 
 Instead of 3lDetteI, ' second part,' is used only l^alb, §atfte, 'half.' 
 
 3. Ordinal Adverbs add the ending enS to the ordinal theme : 
 thus, erflen§, 'firstly;' jraoiijigftenS, 'in the twentieth place.' 
 
 208. Other derivative numeral words it belongs rather to the 
 dictionary than to the grammar to explain. 
 
 USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. 
 
 209. The following rules apply only to nouns and to words 
 (pronouns, numerals, adjectives, infinitives : see 113) used as 
 nouns ; since the declension of all adjectives and words used ad' 
 
 4 
 
74 trSES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [209- 
 
 jectively (articles, pronominal adjectives, and participles) is de- 
 termined by that of the nouns to which they belong, and with 
 which they are made to agree in number, case, and gender. 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 210. The value and use of the numbers are, in general, the 
 same in German as in English. 
 
 211. 1. This does not exdude minor differences in regard to particular 
 words, whioli the one language may, in general or in certain connections, 
 use as singular and the other as plural : for example, Ran^t (sing.), ' tongs ' 
 (pi.); ffilottern (pL), 'small-pox' (sing.); auf bem ^rtn (sing.), 'in the 
 arms ; ' ©ie (lit. ' they,' pi.), 'you' (meaning one or more: see 153.4), etc. 
 
 2. Masouline and neuter nouns used to express measurement, 
 of extent, quantity, weight, or number, generally stand in the 
 singular instead of the plural after numerals (whether cardinal or 
 indefinite). 
 
 Thus, fte ijaien fteben Bis aS)t gug Sange, 'they have seven or eight feet 
 of length'; jeljit %a% S3ier, 'ten casks of beer;' totcBiel ^jBfunb S'^dtx, 
 'how mmij pounds of sugar? ' ein ^iitfa^eer Bon jel)n toufcnb OBann, 'an 
 auxiliary army of 10,000 men;' JWansig Sopf SRinber, 'twenty head of 
 cattle; ' brei^oll bteit, 'three inches broad.' 
 
 But bm eYlen(f.) Sud^, 'three yards of cloth'; fiinf aKettett (f.) toett, 
 ' five miles distant ' ; — and also taufeiib @ d^ r i 1 1 e (m.) long, '1000 paces long ' 
 (R. 155.26). Eespecting the form of the noun expressing the thing mea- 
 sured, see below, 216.6a. 
 
 S. In the familiar expressions for the time of day, U^r, 'hour,' is also 
 unvaried after a numer^: thus, neutt U^r, ' nine o'clock.' 
 
 Cases. 
 Nominati/ve. 
 
 212. The proper oflSce of the nominative is to stand as the 
 
 subject of the sentence : as, bcr SJJenf^ benft, @ott lenft, ' man 
 
 proposes, God disposes.' 
 
 Of course, also, a noun in apposition with a subject nominative is put 
 in the nominative; since (111.2) an appositive noun always agrees in case 
 with the noun it explains. 
 
 213. With the verb fetn, ' to be,' and a few others, of kindred 
 meaning — such as ivicvben, ' become,' bleifeett, ' continue,' tjci^en, 
 'be called,' fd)einen, 'appear' — also, with the passive of verbs 
 that govern a second accusative as factitive predicate (227.36), a 
 noun may be used as predicate in the nominative. 
 
 Thus, mein Sruber ift ber Server biefeS Snob en, 'my brother is this 
 boy's teacher; ' bev bleibt ein SJlotr fetn Seben lang, ' he remains a fool his 
 
216] GENITITE. 75 
 
 whole life long;' er h)trb cin ©eij'^atS gefi^olten, 'he is called reproach- 
 fully a miser.' 
 
 With tBCrben, however, the noun is often put in the dative, after the pre- 
 position 311: as, ba Werben ilBeiber ju §pnen, 'then women become 
 hyenas (turn to hyenas).' 
 
 214. The nominative is used ia address (as a "vocative"). 
 Thus, l)olber griebe, jiige gtntrad^t, ttieilet iiber biejer ©tabt, 'lovely 
 
 Peace I sweet Concord! linger over this city.' 
 
 Genitvoe. 
 
 215. The genitive in German, as in th6 other related languages, is 
 primarily and especially the adjective or adnominal case, denoting by a form 
 of the noun a variety of relations such as might be expressed by a deriva- 
 tive adjective. As was remarked above (under 158.2), it is in part trace- 
 ably of adjective origin. But its later uses arise also in part from its being 
 merged with other -primitive cases — particularly the ablative, the case re- 
 presenting the from relation, of origin or removal — and assuming their 
 office. To trace all these uses to their origin would require vastly too 
 much of detailed historical discussion, and will not be attempted here. 
 
 216. The Genitive with Nouns. 
 
 1. The German genitive, like the English possessive, is especi- 
 ally the case of a noun that is added to another noun in order to 
 limit or define its meaning. 
 
 2. It is used, accordingly, in all the senses in which we use the 
 possessive case of a noun, or a pronominal possessive {my, your, 
 his, etc.) ; also, in most of the senses belonging to a noun con- 
 nected with another noun by the preposition of: thus, 
 
 a. As genitive of proper possession or appurtenance : ba8 §au8 meitteS 
 35atera, 'the house of my father; ' be8 SBtanne? So^if, 'the man's head.' 
 
 J. As genitive of origin or cause : in beS ^(tjxeienS SBo^tt, ' in the mad- 
 ness of terror ; ' bet Erieb ber ©rogmut^, ' the impulse of magnanimity.' 
 
 c. As complement of relation (designating that toward which the rela- 
 tion expressed by the governing noun is sustained) : ber SSater beS ©oljneS, 
 'the father of the son ; ' beS ©o^neS SSoter, 'the son's father; ' ^ontg biefeS 
 SRetc^a, ' king of this realm.' 
 
 d. As partitive genitive (expressing a whole of which the governing 
 noun is a part), in all its Varieties: ber ©(i^rctflic^fle ber ©i^redett, 'the most 
 terrible of terrors ; ' etn8 ber Heinjien ^inber, ' one of the smallest children ; ' 
 jebeS btefer SScbiirfniffe, 'each of these needs ; ' aUjuDiet beS ©JJO^cS, ' quite 
 too much of the joke.' 
 
 e. As genitive of material, constitution, or equivalence : ein ®a(i^ fc^at= 
 tcnber Sut^en, 'a roof of shady beeches; ' ber ^wetcje laubtgeS Oitter, 'the 
 leafy trellis-work of the branches ; ' eine 3tn3al)f|t^teienber Snoben, ' a num- 
 ber of shouting boys ; ' beS @olbe§ Strbme, ' streams of gold.' 
 
Y6 USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [216- 
 
 /. As genitive of characteristic : dn SKann tiotiett 9long9 unb grower Zn= 
 genb, ' a man of high rank and great virtue ; ' etn §trtenftamm turti|^cr Slb= 
 timft, ' a shepherd-race of Turldsh descent.' 
 
 g. As subjective genitive (implying an action of which the thing desig- 
 nated by the genitive is the subject): beS ©turtneS ©oufen, 'the roaring 
 of the storm ; ' ber SJ'Jagnete §af(en unb Steben, ' the hating and loving (at- 
 traction and repulsion) of magnets.' 
 
 h. As objective genitive (implying an action of which the thing desig- 
 nated by the genitive is the object): bein Sffiunji^ beS ©uteit, 'thy desire of 
 good; ' gSetbejfei-er ber SBelt unb be« Oejeijea, 'Improver of the World and 
 of the Law.' 
 
 The relation of the gemtive to its governing noun is eo infinitely various, that neither 
 the above classification nor any other is exhaustive or peremptory : many cases admit of 
 being arranged under more than one of the divisions given; a few cannot be brought 
 under any of them without violence. 
 
 3. In these relations, the genitive of a personal ■ pronoun is 
 not admitted ; but for it is substituted a possessive pronominal 
 adjective, qualifying the noun to be limited (158.2). 
 
 Exception, a partitive genitive depending on a numeral: as, unfer eincr, 
 ' one of us ; ' burc^ i^rer taufenb, ' through a thousand of them.' 
 
 4. For the genitive, in all these uses, may be substituted a da- 
 tive with the preposition Don, ' of,' as in English. 
 
 The substitution is made, especially, when the expression would other- 
 wise be ambiguous or unclear, from the want of a distinct ending to the 
 genitive, or of a limiting word showing its character : thus, bte ©intno^ner 
 Bon *Pnvi8, ' the inhabitants of Paris ; ' Soter bon fec^8 S'inbem, ' father of 
 six children ; ' but bie @inroo!|ner SScrtinS, 'the inhabitants of Berlin; ' 3Sa= 
 ter biefer fec^3 fiinbcr, ' father of these six children ' : — or, to avoid a suc- 
 cession of several genitives : as, ber @o^n bon bem OI)ctme Saifer @mo= 
 nuctS, ' the son of the uncle of Emperor Emanuel.' But it is made also 
 without special assignable reason — most often for the partitive genitive, 
 and the genitive of material and of characteristic, more seldom for the pos- 
 sessive and complement of relation, least often for the objective genitive. 
 
 5. a. After nouns signifying measure, of extent, quantity, 
 weight, or number, the noun designating the substance measured, 
 if not preceded by an adjective, is usually put neither in the geni- 
 tive (partitive genitive), nor in the dative with uon, ' of,' but 
 stands as if in apposition with the other. 
 
 Thus, etn ®to8 aSein, ' a glass of wine ' (i. e , wme, to the extent of one 
 glass); jtrei ^ftinb 5E^ec, 'two pounds of tea;* brei (Sffen %ud), 'three 
 yards of doth ; ' einige Sud) <)Sa)3icr, ' a few quires of paper ; ' grogc a5lat= 
 ter atonlii^golb, ' great sheets of gold-tinsel ; '—but, ein ©lag biefcS 2Betn8, 
 or Bon bie|em-1JBeinc, ' a glass of this wine; ' jwet ififuiib gutcn j^eeS, 'two 
 pounds of good tea.' 
 
 Exceptions are occasionally met with : thus, ben beflen SBedjcr 2Betn?, 
 ' the best goblet of wine ' (B. 62. 2) ; 300 ^entner ®otbe8, ' 300 cwt. of gold ' 
 (E. 189.18). 
 
219] GENITIVE. 77 
 
 ^6. By abbreviation, the name of the month is left unvaried after 
 a numeral designating the day : thus, ben neunten Wtai, ' the ninth 
 of May.' 
 
 6. The genitive, in any of its senses, may be placed either be- 
 fore or after the noun which it limits (as is shown by the exam- 
 ples given). But its position before 'the noun, especially if limited 
 by any other word than an article, belongs rather to a higher or 
 poetic style ; in plain colloquial prose, the genitive ordinarily fol- 
 lows the noun that governs it. An objective genitive most rarely 
 precedes ; and never, if another genitive be dependent on the 
 same noun : thus, beg ^onigS 293al)t eineS SKinifterS, ' the Mng's 
 choice of a minister.' 
 
 217. . The Genitive with Adjectives. 
 
 About thirty adjectives (with their corresponding negatives) are 
 followed by a genitive,- denoting that in respect of which the ac- 
 tion orquality they express is exerted. 
 
 Thus, beS ©ingenS tniibe, ' weary of singing ; ' miirbtger beS $Rtng«, 
 ' more worthy of the ring ; ' etneS ©uttanS unltiiirbtg, ' unworthy of a Sul- 
 tan ; ' nieiiter ©iinben eingebeni, ' mindful of my sins.' 
 
 These adjectives are mostly such as are followed by of in English, al- 
 though some admit a different construction. Among the commonest of them 
 (besides those already instanced) are belrugt, 'conscious,' fcibig, 'capable,' 
 gett)t§, ' sure,' fc^utbig, ' guilty,' jatt, ' sated,' iiberbriifftg, ' tired.' Some of 
 them also are construed with prepositions, and a few (229) even govern an 
 accusative, when used with the verbs jein and loerben. 
 
 218. TTie Genitive with Prepositions. 
 
 About twenty prepositions govern the genitive. 
 
 Thus, roegen feiner ©iinbe, ' on account of his sin ; ' redjrettb meiner tol' 
 ten 3agb, 'during my mad chase;' un^eaii^tet biefer ©rttorung, 'notwith- 
 standing this explanation ; ' ftatt buftiger ®artett, ' instead of fragrant 
 as.' 
 
 The prepositions governing the genitive are mostly of recent derivation 
 from nouns and adjectives. Eor a Ust of them, see below, under Preposi- 
 tions (373). 
 
 219. 2Tie Genitive as Object of Verbs. 
 
 1. A genitive immediately dependent upon a verb has generally 
 the office of a remoter impersonal object, further qualifying the 
 action of the verb upon its nearer personal object. 
 
 2. About twenty-five transitive verbs govern a genitive in addi- 
 tion to their direct object, the accusative. 
 
78 USES OF THE F0EM8 OF DECLENSIOIT. [219- 
 
 These are verbs . of removing, depriving, accusing, convicting, 
 admonishing, assuring, and the like, and one or two others (tr)ur» 
 bigen, 'esteem worthy,' bcrtrofteit, 'console'). 
 
 theft; 
 
 fear; 
 
 hope.' 
 
 3. About forty reflexive verbs admit a genitive in addition to 
 their reflexive object. 
 
 These verba are of too various meaning to admit of classification. Some 
 of them may he rendered in English either by a construction resemhliag 
 the German, or as simple transitive verbs taking a genitive as direct 
 object: thus, freue bid) beiner Sugenb, 'rejoicethyaelf of (enjoy) thy youth;' 
 cr entriimt ft* jebeg SHSorteS, 'he bethinks himself of (recollects) every 
 word ; ' fti^ 9efol)ritcf)er SBoffen Bebienen, ' to serve one's self with (employ) 
 dangerous weapons; ' — others, only in the latter method: thus, tntt Eifer 
 ^ob' idft tnirfi bet ©tubieit beffiffnt, ' zealously have I pursued my studies ; ' 
 beiner qeiligen 3"i!^ra/ " SBa^r^ett, l)at ber Setrug ft^ angema^t, ' thy holy 
 Bigns, oh Truth I has deceit usurped.' 
 
 4. Four or five transitive impersonal verbs may govern a gCDi- 
 
 tive. 
 
 They are erBarmcit, 'pity,' getilfien, 'long,' jatnmetn, 'grieve,' reuen or 
 gcreuen, ' rue: ' thus, mi^ erbormt jeineS ElenbS, 'I pity his misery.' 
 
 5. About thirty verbs may take a genitive only, after the man- 
 ner of a direct object. 
 
 Thus, er oi^tete ntc^t ber Wartnen ©oitne, ' he heeded not the warm sun ; ' 
 68 beborf ber Slnna'^me nii^t, ' it needs not the assumption ; ' anbrer gtebet 
 nti^t jjU gcbenten, ' not to mention other atrocities; ' lo^tntd| bcrneuen grei* 
 ^eit gemc6en, ' let me enjoy the new freedom ; ' jebeS Seiben Bcrgeffenb, 'for- 
 getting every trial;' i^r ft)ottet tneitt, 'ye mock me;' IDO ii) beiner tuarte, 
 ' where I wait for thee.' 
 
 6. Many of the verbs in these various classes may take instead of the 
 genitive an accusative, or else a noun governed by a preposition : for ex- 
 ample, all the impersonals, and all but two (ermangcfn and gefc^roeigen) of 
 the last class. The construction with the genitive is an older one, which 
 has for some time been going gradually out of use : thus, btcfe Rreibeit, b i e 
 iil je^t gente^e, ' this liberty which I now enjoy ; ' benen, oit f bte bic eWtge 
 grei^eit martet, ' to those' for whom eternal freedom is waiting; ' er freut 
 ftc^ iiber fetn ®lxid, 'he rejoices at his good fortune.' 
 
 220. Other uses of the Genitive, 
 
 1. The genitive of a noun is often used in an adverbial sense : 
 especially (with or without a limiting adjective) to denote time ; 
 also (with adjective) not infrequently manner, more rarely place. 
 
 Thus, eineS 2ogc« im Seuje, ' one day in spring; ' beS SEBtnterS ftnb tnit. 
 
222] GENTITVE. 79 
 
 trie DergraBcn in bent ©(Snee, ' in the winter we are, as it were, buried up in 
 the snow; ' bie Sffiolten, bie 2Korgen3 unb aibenbs iibet t^n l^tn fegelten, ' the 
 clouds which sailed along over him of a morning and evening ; ' er f d^Iiirft 
 langen §alfe8, ' he sips with outstretched neck ; ' prft bu'S fttngen mSc^tu 
 gen 5Rufe8, 'dost thou hear it ring with mighty sound?' iif ermahnte t^n 
 attcS ErnfteS, ' I admonished him in all seriousness ; ' jac^te f (f|leti^' tc| mciner 
 aSege, ' Isoftly steal off on my way.' 
 
 A large number of adverbs are, by origin, genitives of nouns or adjectives, or of a 
 noun and a limiting word which have grown together by familiar use ; see 363-5. 
 
 2. A genitive is sometimes used with a verb (especially fein and hierben) 
 in the sense of a predicative adjective : thus, jte waren muntcr unb guter 
 3)tnge, ' they were merry and of good cheer; ' bie TOaren oft ntd^t fo grog, 
 ober gteit^en Sitters ntit i^m, ' they were often not so big, or of equal age 
 with him; ' olle ttierben auf einntal etneg @inne8, 'all become suddenly of 
 one mind ; ' id^ bin iffiiUenS, ' I am of a mind.' 
 
 The genitive in this construction is allied with the genitive of charac- 
 teristic (216.2/). 
 
 3. By a construction formerly not rare, but now nearly obsolete, a parti- 
 tive genitive is used with verbs : thus, er ttanf beS SdaqtS, ' he drank of 
 the brook ; ' fie Bta(f|te bc8 tloren ^errliii^en SEBeineS, ' she brought of the 
 dear excellent wine.' 
 
 4. Yet more unusual are cases of the occurrence of a possessive geni- 
 tive and of a genitive of origin with verbs : thus, t^ue ttioS beineS SlmteS i|l, 
 ' do what belongs to (is of) thy ofBoe ; ' ^ungerS fterben, ' to die of hunger.' 
 
 5. A genitive is sometimes used with an interjection, to signify the thing 
 which is the occasion of the exclamation : thus, ad) beg UngliidS, ' alas for 
 the mishap ' (see 392). 
 
 Datwe. 
 
 ■ 221. 1. The dative is originally and properly the case of the indirect 
 personal object, designating the person or persons with reference to whom, 
 or as affecting whom, anything is or is done — a relation ordinarily expressed 
 in English by the preposition to or for. In this sense, the dative in Get 
 man is usually the adjunct of a verb, much less often of an adjective, very 
 rarely of a noun. 
 
 2. (The dative has also inherited the ofBoes of primitive cases, now lost ; 
 especially of the instrumental, expressing the with or ty relation, and the 
 locative, expressing the m relation. In these senses, it is ordinarily gov 
 emed by prepositions. 
 
 222. The Dative with Verbs. 
 
 The dative, in Oerman, is most often the indirect personal ob- 
 ject of a verb. 
 
 a. It is thus doubly contrasted in office with the genitive : the latter 
 usuaUj' limits a noun ; and, as indirect object, it is prevailingly impersonal : 
 thus, tdfj Berfti^ere t^n etner @ac^e, ' I assure him of a matter,' but iif| t)er= 
 flit)iXt igm etne ®a(i)t, ' I assure (vouch for) a matter to him ; ' id) beraube 
 
80 USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [222 
 
 i^n jetneS ®clbe8, ' I rob him of his money,' but id) raubc ii)m \tm ®rib, ' I 
 steal from him his money.' 
 
 h. The connection of the dative with the action of the verb is of every 
 degree of closeness, from constituting its essential or necessary complement 
 to indicating a mere incidental interest in its action : thus, er bot mtt bte 
 §anb, ' he offered me his hand ; ' id) legte e8 i^m auf ben Sifd^, ' I laid it on 
 the table for him.' 
 
 1. 1. A large number of transitive verbs take, along with the 
 accusative, a dative as more or less necessary complement of their 
 action. Such are 
 
 a. Many simple verbs, especially such as denote a bringing near or re- 
 moving, a giving or taking, imparting, commanding, permitting or refusing, 
 and the lilse. 
 
 Thus, er bra^te ben SRing ber Stlten, 'he brought the ring to the old 
 woman ; ' id) [d)reibe mctneni SSatet einen ffirief, ' I write my father a letter; ' 
 man etloubt allcS einem greunbe, ' one permits a friend anything.' 
 
 i. Many verbs compounded with inseparable or separable prefixes, espe- 
 cially ent, er, set, and an, auf, ab, bei, nad), fior, gu. 
 
 Thus, er Bermadjt ben SKtng bent tiebften feiner ©b^ne, ' he makes over 
 the ring to the dearest of his sons ; ' er moUte i^m bie ^rone auffcljen, ' he 
 wished to set the crown on his head ; ' fte ntujjte il)m bte 3ungfrau jujogen, 
 ' she had to promise him the girl.' 
 
 c. A few verbs that require a reflexive object in the dative, forming a 
 class of improper reflexives (290): thus, id) ^abe mir Scifott Berbient, 'I 
 have earned myself applause.' 
 
 d. A few verbs compounded with adjectives, or verbal phrases akin with 
 such: e. g., Wa^rfagcn, ' prophesy; ' tunb mac^en, 'make known.' 
 
 2. In the passive of these verbs, where the object-accusative becomes a 
 subject-nominative, the dative remains as sole object; thus, berSiing inuvbe 
 ber 2lten Qibxaift, 'the ring was brought to the old woman; ' e9 ttJltb mir 
 tunb gemad)t, ' it is made known to mo.' 
 
 3. As the examples have shown, the English also often uses its 
 objective without a preposition (when placed next the verb) in a 
 dative sense. In other cases, it expresses the dative relation by 
 prepositions, especially to. But, where the verb implies removal, 
 the dative frequently answers to our objective vfithfrom. 
 
 Thus, nimm mcinei; fRebe jeben ®tad)el, 'take /toot my words all sting; ' 
 c8 ftal)[ mir ba« Sebcn, 'it stole my lite from me; ' e8 betncm 3)iitleib ju cnt^ 
 jieI)En, ' to withdraw it from thy compassion.' 
 
 The same is true of the dative after intransitive verbs : see below. 
 
 4. Either the direct or the indirect object may often be omitted, and the 
 verb used with the other alone : thus, emem cin Suri) Dovlefen, ' to read a 
 book aloud to some one ; ' ein 33ud) Borlcfen, ' to read a book aloud ; ' eincm 
 
 ■ borlefen, ' to read aloud to some one ; ' also, simply oovlcfcn, ' to read aloud, 
 lecture.' 
 
222] DATIVE WITH VEEB8. 81 
 
 II. 1. Many verbs take a dative as their sole object. 
 
 These, as not admitting an accusative, are reckoned as intransitive ; but 
 many of tliem correspond to verbs which in Enghsh are looked upon aa 
 transitive. 
 
 a. About thirty-five simple verbs, together with a few that have the in- 
 separable prefixes be, ge, er ; also, the contraries of several of them, formed 
 with the prefix itltfi. 
 
 Thus, (etb i^r tt)tieti nic^t begegnet, ' did you not meet them ? ' folgt burc^ 
 ben 9let^et bem ®tral)t, ' follows the beam of light through the ether ; ' TOte'g 
 i^ncti gefaUt, ' as it pleases them: ' menn eS mir ittdjt ntttfiele, 'if it did not 
 displease me ; ' !anu e§ bit ntdit fc^oben, ' can it not harm thee 1 ' ^elft mir, 
 ' help me 1 ' ben Stfiumen unb 3eiten ju tco^en, ' to defy space and time.' 
 
 b. A large number of verbs compounded with the inseparable prefix ent, 
 and with the prepositions ob, on, auf, auS, bet, ein, entgegen, nai^, unter, 
 bor, Wiber, ju ; deriving their- power to take the dative object from the mo- 
 dification of meaning given by the prefix. 
 
 Thus, bie @d)merter entfliegen ber ©d)etbe-, ' the swords leap from the 
 scabbard; ' biele ftimmten biefer Slnfic^t bet, 'many acceded to this view; ' 
 lommt einer ifjm entgegen, ' if one comes to meet him ; ' urn aljntii^en @r= 
 cigniffen borjubeugen, ' in order to avoid such occurrences ; ' med^er ben 
 ©cfed^ten jujol), ' who was looking on at the conteets.'- 
 
 The meaning added by the prefix is, as the examples show, to be very 
 variously rendered in English. 
 
 c. A number of verbs compounded with nouns, adverbs, and adjectives ; 
 also, of verbal phrases akin with such. 
 
 Thus, bog fein ©efang |einem MtiH glcic^tommen muffe, ' that his song 
 must correspond with his attire ; ' cr elite (etnem Siatn ju §iitfe, ' he hast- 
 ened to the help of bis father; ' e3 tf)ut mir leib, 'it pains me; ' er nmc^t 
 biefer ®ome ben §of, 'he is paying court to this lady; ' eS toarb i^m ju 
 S^eil, ' it was granted him (fell to his share).' 
 
 d. SBerben, ' become,' is sometimes used alone with a (possessive) dative 
 in the sense of ju S:l)etl (rerben : thus, baju Wotb bem SJienfc^en ber ^er« 
 ftanb, ' for that end was understanding given to man (became his).' Quite 
 rarely, such a possessive dative follows fetn : as, eg ift i^m, ' it is his (be- 
 longs to him).' 
 
 e. A few impersonal verbs, or verbs used impersonally, take a dative de- 
 signating the subject of the feeling or condition they express : thus, e8 grant 
 mir, 'I am horrified;' it)m |i^tt)tnbelt, 'he turns giddy.' Some of these 
 take also the accusative. ■ 
 
 /. Also fein, Werben, and ge^en or erge^en, with adverbial adjuncts, are 
 frequently thus used impersonally with the dative (292.4) : thus, t^m War 
 bonge, ' he was in anxiety ; ' ntir TOtrb fo roo'^I, ' so pleasant a feeling is 
 coming over me; ' tok ift nrir benn, 'how is it then with me?' bem ift fo, 
 ' the case is thus (it is thus with regard to that).' 
 
 2. Of the intransitive verbs governing the dative, a part — especially those 
 that denote an action proceeding from a person — may form an impersonal 
 passive governing the same case (see 279.2). 
 4* 
 
82 USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [222- 
 
 Tlius, e8 ttiarb mtr ^ort bcgegnet, ' I have been harshly dealt with (met); ' 
 eS iDurbc i^m ge^olfen, ' he was helped.' 
 
 III. In a looser and less strictly dependent construction — as 
 denoting the person (or thing) in behalf of whom, or as affecting 
 whom, anything is or is done, the dative (" datiye of interest ") is 
 used so freely, and with so many verbs, that to attempt giving 
 rules for its occurrence would be useless. Only one or two points 
 call for special notice. 
 
 a. A dative grammatically dependent on the Terb takes the place of a 
 possessive genitive qualifying a noun in the sentence : thus, ber 2lmme um 
 ben §al8 faUenb, ' falling upon her nurse's neck ; ' teget betl aJltollner ber 
 aJiaib in ben ©li^oo^, 'lay Miollner in the maid's lap.' 
 
 b. This is especially common with the personal pronouns : thus, eS bli^t 
 au8 ben Stugen i^nt tii^n, ' a daring look beams from his eyes ' (see 161). 
 
 c. The personal pronoun is sometimes thus used in a manner that is ex- 
 pletive : thus, fte^ mir ob fie Jpntmen, ' see (for me) whether they are com- 
 ing ' (compare 156). 
 
 IV. For the dative dependent upon a verb, In all its varieties (but not 
 with all verbs : especially not with those which take the dative after the 
 manner of a direct object, n.lo), is sometimes substituted a case governed 
 by a preposition (as ju, ' to,' fiir, ' for,' Bon, 'from '). This substitution is 
 notably more frequent with a noun than with a personal pronoun ; a dative 
 of the latter is often used where one of the former would make a harsh or 
 forced construction. 
 
 223. The Dative with Adjectives, 
 
 1. The construction of the dative with adjectives is analogous 
 with its construction with verbs. Some adjectives call for the 
 case as their essential or natural defining complement ; others ad- 
 mit it in a looser relation, after the manner of a " dative of in- 
 terest" (above, 222.III.). 
 
 2. Adjectives taking the dative as their more essential comple- 
 ment are especially those that signify nearness or remoteness, 
 likeness or unlikeness, suitableness, property, inclination, advantage 
 or disadvantage, and the like. Usually, they require in English 
 the preposition to before a noun limiting them. 
 
 Thus, Wit na^ fii^l' tc^ mid^ btr, ' how near I feel myself to thee I ' bcm 
 SIderbau fremb, ' strangers to agriculture ; ' SBolten gteid) gittigen, ' clouds 
 like wings ; ' einen i^m etgenen SBert^, ' a value peculiar to it ; *^ eine ©eete, 
 bie ber %\)at nid)t gewoc^fen ift, ' a soul that is not equal to the deed ; ' ctn 
 mir unBer^offte8 ®lii(f, ' a happiness unhoped for by me.' 
 
 3. Participles of verbs governing the dative admit a comple- 
 ment in the same case, in analogy with the uses of the verbs from 
 
225] DATIVE. 83 
 
 whici tLey come, and according to their own character as active, 
 passive, or neuter participles. 
 
 4. "Verbal derivatives in bar and tic^, signifying possibility, take 
 a dative of the person whom the possibility concerns : thus, rtiir 
 begreiflt^, ' comprehensible to me ; ' bem 9Kenf^en unbettio^nbar, 
 ' uninhabitable by man.' 
 
 5. Almost any adjective qualified by ju, ' too,' or genug, ' suffi- 
 ciently, enough,' admits an adjunct in the dative : thus, bag ®Ieib 
 tft mir ju long, tf|m aber ni^t lang genug, 'the garment is too long 
 for me, but not long enough for him.' 
 
 6. Many adjectives admit a dative adjunct more readily, or only, when 
 used with a verb, either predicalively, or forming a more or less closely 
 compounded verbal phrase: 'thus, ba8 tft mir red) t, 'that suits me (seems 
 to me right); ' ba8 tntri) bem ^naben fdjmer, 'that grows hard for the boy.' 
 
 For such phrases, with transitive, intransitive, and impersonal verbs, see 
 above, 222.1. Id, U.lc,f. 
 
 1. For the dative with an adjective, also, is often used a case governed 
 by a preposition (especially Boil, 'from,' fiir, 'for'). 
 
 224. The Dative with Prepositions. 
 
 1. About twenty prepositions govern the dative. 
 For the list of them, see under Prepositions (374). 
 
 2. Nine prepositions govern the dative when the relation ex- 
 pressed is that of situation or locality ; but the accusative, when 
 motion or tendency toward anything is implied. 
 
 These are an, auf, ^intfr, in, neben, iiber, unter, Bor, jwtjd^cn (see 
 376). 
 
 225. The Dative in other constructions. 
 
 1. The use of the dative as a virtual possessive genitive, grammatically 
 dependent on a verb, but logically quahfying a noun, has been explained 
 above (222.III.a,5). Earely, the dative is found having the same value 
 with a noun alone : as, bent SRiefen jur Suft, ' for the giant's pleasure (for 
 a pleasure to the giant) ; ' er gab, ibm 3" &ivm, nionc^e gefte, ' he gave 
 many festivals in his honor.' Yet more rarely, it occurs with a noun in 
 other relations usually expressed by a genitive, or with the aid of a prepo- 
 sition: as, ein aJiujler SSiirgern unb SBauern, 'a model for citizens and pea- 
 sants ; ' OeWipeit einem neuen SBunbe, ' assurance of a new covenant.' 
 
 2. The dative sometimes follows a noun in exclamatory phrases (as if 
 the imperative of fein, ' to be,' were understood) : thus, bem sSuben unb bem 
 ^neiji bit %iift, ' outlawry to the villain and flunkey 1' greube bem @terb» 
 Ud^en, ' joy to the mortal I ' Some words habitually employed as exclamations 
 are also followed by a dative signifying the person toward whom the feel- 
 ing expressed by the exclamation is directed : such are loobt, §cil, 2Bcl), 
 and the like (see 392). 
 
84: trSES OF THE FOEMS OF DECLENSION. [226- 
 
 Accusative. 
 
 226. The relations of tlie accusative are more simple than those of the 
 other oblique cases. Its proper office is to stand as direct object of a 
 verbal action; and also, in that relation, most nearly akin with the former, 
 Vfhioh we ordinarily express by to : but this it has in German only iu part. 
 The German uses it also as the case absolute. 
 
 227. The Accusative with Verbs. 
 
 1. The accusative is especially the case belonging to the direct 
 object of a transitive verb : as, t^ fc^e ben SJJonn ; er triigt einen 
 §ut, ' I see the man ; he wears a' hat.' 
 
 a. And a transitive verb, on the other hand, is one that takes a direct 
 object in the accusative. The classification of verbs as transitive and in- 
 transitive is in part formal rather than logical, and 
 
 6. Some verbs which in English are regarded as transitive take in Ger- 
 man the genitive (219.5) or the dative (222. Il.l), and therefore belong to 
 the class of intransitives. Again, some verbs which to tfs are intransitive 
 are in German, uniformly or occasionally, transitive : as, i^c ^bt mtc^ |pre» 
 ^cn Wotten, 'you have desired to speak to me! 
 
 2. The accusative is also sometimes used as the object of a verb 
 properly intransitive. 
 
 a. Some verbs may be followed by an accusative of meaning 
 akia with their own, or signifying a substantive idea which they 
 themselves virtually involve ("cognate accusative"). 
 
 Thus, Inir ftcrben.^ier ben Sob bcr gteten, 'we die here the death of the 
 free ; ' betet einen frommen ©ptud), ' pray a pious phrase ; ' fie fct)loft ben 
 Ic^ten @d)Iaf, ' she sleeps the last sleep.' 
 
 h. By a pregnant construction, an intransitive may be followed 
 by an accusative of that which is effected or made to appear by 
 the action it designates : thus, tont bie @tocfe (Srabgefang, ' the 
 bell tolls a funeral hymn ; ' nja? grinfeft bu nttv ^er, ' what grinnest 
 thou at me (what does thy grinning signify) ? ' — or by an accusa- 
 tive and an adjective or other equivalent expression as factitive 
 predicate, signifying the condition into which that which is desig- 
 nated by the accusative is brought by the action described by the 
 verb : thus, fi(^ [)alb tobt Iad)cn, ' to laugh one's self half dead ; ' 
 i^ traum' atS ^inb tnic^ juviicfe, ' I dream myself back into child- 
 hood (as child) ; ' bu toirft bie 5IBad)tev auS bcm <Sd)tafe fc^veien, 
 ' thou wilt scream the guards out of sleep.' 
 
 c. Some impersonal verbs, denoting a personal condition or 
 state of feeling, take an accusative signifying the person affected : 
 thus, eg liiftet tetnen, euet SDtonn ju nierbcn, 'no one desires to be- 
 come your husband ; ' mic^ Ijnngeit, ' I am hungry.' See 294. 
 
230] ACCTTSATIVE. 85 
 
 "With these are included also biinteti, bauc^ten, ' seem ' (the only verbs 
 in whifch ■ a like eonstruction still appears in English) : thus, niic^ bitntt, 
 'nDe thinks;' mitt) bduc^te, 'me thought.' These (and some of 'the others 
 also) admit a dative instead of an accusative object (222.II.le). 
 
 d. For the accusative after (etn or Wcvben with certain adjectives, see 
 below (229). 
 
 3. A few transitive verts govern two accusatives: these are 
 
 a. grogen, 'ask,' le^ren, 'teach,' and (rarely) bitten, 'bog,' which add 
 to their personal object another denoting the thing to which their action 
 relates : thus, er fragtc mic^ maitd^eS, ' he asked me many a thing ; ' id) leljve 
 VcfCl bie SKuftf, 'I teach him music; ' ti^ bitte btc^ nur bieS, 'I beg of thee 
 only this ' (R.150.2). 
 
 b. ^eifien and nennen, 'call, name,' fd)im))fen and fd^elten, 'call by way of 
 reproach,' and taufett, 'christen,' which add to their personal object a second 
 accusative as factitive predicate, denoting the name or title given : thus, i6) 
 iBitt atteS eine ©djtdung nennen, 'I win call the whole a work of destiny; ' 
 er fdjimtJfte feinen ®eguet emen 9Jorren, 'he reviled his adversary as a fool.' 
 
 c. A noun in the accusative as factitive predicate now and then appears 
 with other verbs — as, \o gtaube jeber feinen SRtng ben ed)ten, ' then let each 
 believe his own ring the genuine one : ' but this construction is generally 
 avoided by the use of a different expression: as, mon modjt or mal)lt itjti 
 jum Jfonig, ' they make, or choose, him king (for king) ' ; td^ balte it)ii fitr 
 meinen greunb, ' I deem him my friend ; ' id^ tenxie t^n at8 einen ©l)reninann, 
 ' I know him a man of honor.' 
 
 228. The Accusative with Prepositions. 
 
 1. Eight prepositions always govern the accusative. 
 
 They are big, burc^, fitt, gegen or gen, o^ne, (onber, um, tniber (see 375). 
 
 2. Nine prepositions are followed by the accusative when they 
 indicate motion or tendency toward ; otherwise, by the dative. 
 
 They are an, auf, ^htter, in, neben, iiBer,.unter, Bor, gmifc^en (see 376). 
 
 229. The Accusative with Adjectives. 
 
 A few adjectives, when used predicatively with ftin or Kerben (especially 
 the latter), may take an object in the accusative. 
 
 They are anft^tig, bettugt, gelBal)r, gelBobnt, Io8, miibe, fatt, iiberbriifftg, 
 gufrteben : thus, bie ®eifter wero' ii^ nun nii^t to8, ' I cannot now get rid of 
 the spirits ; ' ii^ mfir' eS gufrteben, ' I should be content with it ; ' menn Itiir 
 nic^t (etn (Singretfen gewo^r roiitben, ' if we did not feel its taking hold.' 
 
 This anomalous construction is of quite modern origin. The governing 
 force belongs to the combination of adjective and verb (compare 223.6). 
 
 230. TTie Accusative in absolute construction. 
 
 1. The accusative is used absolutely (that is, as adverbial adjunct 
 of a verb or adjective, but not properly governed by them) to 
 express measure— whether of duration of time, of extent of space, 
 of weight, of value, or of number. 
 
86 TJSES OF THE FOEMS.OF DECLENSION. [230- 
 
 Thus, er ^ordjte ctnett SCugenBIid, 'he listened for a moment'; on bie ic^ 
 btete Sa^re ntd^t gebad)t, 'of which I have not thought for many years; ' 
 man l^atte fie nur mettige Sage Border gefel)en, 'they had been seen only a 
 few days before;' jlDanstg Sa^re ^cr, 'twenty years since;' als ftc eine 
 QUtc ©trede fortgegangen waren, 'when they had gone on a good piece;' eine 
 |otbc ©tunbe Bor bent ©c^tog, 'half a league outside the castle; ' oc^t 3)tor= 
 gen tief, 'eight furlongs deep;' e8 H)iegt ein ^funb, 'it weighs a pound;' 
 6a8 toftet jtoei 5Ct)ater, ' that costs two dollars ; ' etn §eer 300,000 SKann 
 ftar!, 'an army 300,000 men strong.' 
 
 a. To an accusative expressing duration of time is often added the 
 adverb lang, 'long:' as, cr tag fteben Sa^re long, 'he lay for seven years;' 
 ben ganjen Sag long, 'the whole daylong: ' — less often othet adverbs: as, 
 ba8 ganje 3ol)r bur^, 'the whole year through;' bte(e 3eit fiber, 'all this 
 time.' 
 
 i. By a similar construction, an adverb of direction or motion is very 
 frequently added to an accusative of space, in such way as almost to have 
 the value of a preposition governing it: thus, bie EreBBen ^erunter, 'down 
 the stairs; ' ben Serg ^inan, ' up the mountain; ' ben SBeg am 33a(^ t)inauf, 
 ' up the path by the broolj; ' ben ganjen (£or|o l)tn unb micber, ' through the 
 whole Corso and back.' 
 
 2. The accusative is also used to express the time of occurrence 
 ("time when"). 
 
 Thus, baS gefd^al^ jebe8 So^t, 'that happened every year ; ' ben SIbenb 
 betm Kanje, 'that evening, at the dance ; ' er ftc^t bie Selt faunt einen geter= 
 tag, ' he sees the world only pn a holiday.' 
 
 This use of the accusative borders on that of the adverbial genitive 
 (220.1 ), and the two are to some extent interchangeable : but the accusative 
 has the more definite meaning, and cannot be used without a defining ad- 
 junct : thus, StbenbS, beS StbenbS, ' of an evening, in the evening ' (now and 
 then, or habitually); but biefen SIbenb, 'this evening,' lejjten Stbenb, 'last 
 evening,' and so on. 
 
 3. a. A noun in the accusative is sometimes used ahsolutely, 
 with an adjunct (prepositional or adjective), to express an accom- 
 panying or characterizing circumstance — as if governed by with 
 or having understood. 
 
 Thus, bte ajJixtter crfil)tcnen, ben ©angling tm 3trme, 'the mothers 
 appeared, (with) their infants in their arms; ' anbere ftiel^cn, UJttbe Slngfi int 
 f untelnben 3tuge, ' others fly, wild terror in their flashing eyes.' 
 
 6. This is especially usual with a participle as adjunct of the noun : thus, 
 ttjtnit una, bie %adA mngemanbt, 'beclions to us, with torch inverted;' 
 man geniijtint e8, ben ^o^f gegen ben Sorjo gerid^tet, fiiU ju jle^en, 'it is 
 trained to stand still, having the head directed toward the Corso ; ' jelbji 
 ^ran!e nid^t an«genonimen, ' even the siclc not excepted.' 
 
 c. Allied with this is the so-caJled imperative use of the participle (see 
 359.3). 
 
233] CONJUGATION. 87 
 
 CONJUGATION". 
 
 231. Conjugation is variation for mood, tense, number, 
 and person. 
 
 Only verbs are conjugated : hence, the subject of con- 
 jugation is coincident with that of verbal inflection. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 232. The essential characteristic of a verb is that it predi- 
 cates or asserts something of a subject : that is to say, it ascribes 
 some action, or state, or quality, to some being or thing expressed 
 by a noun or pronoun. 
 
 This predication or ascription is not always direct and positive ; it may 
 be contingent, inquiring, or optative compare 427. 
 
 233. Verbs are variously classified. 
 
 1. They are divided into transitive and intransitive, accord- 
 ing to the nature of the relation they sustain to a noun represent- 
 ing the object of their action : a verb that admits an object in the 
 accusative is called transitive ; otherwise, intransitivcj- 
 
 Thus, transitive verbs, idp lobe t^tt, 'I praise him; ] ex fd^togt nttcp, 'he 
 strikes me: ' — intransitive, ti^ ftel^e, er ffiUt,.'! stand, he falls; ' erfd^onet 
 fetneS getnbeS, 'he spares his enemy ; ' id) banie 3^nen, 'I thank you.' 
 
 a. That the distinction of transitive and intransitive is in part formal 
 rather than essential, has been pointed out above (227.1o,6) : practically, 
 however, it is one of importance. 
 
 2. Under these classes are distinguished 
 
 a. Reflexive verbs, which take an object designating the same 
 person or thing with their subject. 
 
 b. Impersonal verbs, used only in the third person singular, 
 and either with an indefinite subject or without an expressed 
 subject. 
 
 3. Transitive verbs, again, form by the help of an auxiliary 
 verb a passive voice, denoting the sufiering of an action, and 
 taking as its subject what was the object of the simple verb : 
 which latter, by contrast with the other, is said to be of the ac- 
 tive VOICE. 
 
 4. Nearly all verbs, moreover, admit of being compounded 
 
88 VERBS. [233- 
 
 with certain prefixes, of a prepositional cliaracter : with reference 
 to such composition, therefore, they are distinguished as simple 
 and COMPOUND. 
 
 234. The general rules of conjugation apply alike to all verbs, 
 of whatever class they may be. They will be first stated and 
 illustrated in their application to simple personal verbs in the ac- 
 tive voice. 
 
 Simple Forms of the Verb. 
 
 235. The German verb has the same simple forms as 
 the English, namely : 
 
 1. Two tenses, the pebsent, and the peeteeit, or inde- 
 finite past. 
 
 The value and use of these tenses nearly correspond in the two 
 languages. But the present is sometimes employed in place of 
 our perfect, or our future ; and the limits of the preterit and the 
 perfect are also not precisely the same in both : see 324 etc. 
 
 2. These tenses are formed each in two moods, the 
 
 • INDICATIVE and the stnBjimcTivB. 
 
 The subjunctive is nearly extinct in English : the German sub- 
 junctive is employed sometimes for our potential and conditional ; 
 others of its uses have no Correspondent in English : see 329 etc. 
 
 The rendering of the subjunctive tenses in the paradigms, therefore, by 
 ' may ' and ' might ' ia only conventional, and for the sake of uniformity ; 
 such rendering gives but one of their various meanings. 
 
 3. Each tense is declined in two nuTnhers, with three 
 jpersons in each number, as. in English. 
 
 4. Of an iMPEEATivE mood there are two persons, tlie 
 second singular and the second plural. 
 
 5. An raFiNiTivE, or verbal noun. 
 
 6. Two PAETiciPLES, or verbal adjectives, one present 
 
 and active ; the otheT past, and prevailingly passive. 
 
 The infinitive and participles are not proper verbal forms, since they 
 contain no idea of predication. They present the verbal idea in the condi- 
 tion of noun and of adjective respectively ; but, as regards their adjuncts, 
 they share in the construction of their corresponding verbal forms : see 
 348 and 367. 
 
236] 
 
 SrMPLE F0EM8 OF THE TEEB. 
 
 89 
 
 236. Examples : 
 
 1. liefien, 'love' (root, lieb). 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Pers. Singular. 
 
 1 ic() liebe ' I love ' 
 
 2 bu Itebft ' thou lovest ' 
 
 3 er Kebt ' he loves ' 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1 toir lieben ' we love ' 
 
 2 i^r tiebt ' ye love ' 
 
 3 fte lieben ' they love ' 
 
 Present. 
 
 id) tiebe 
 bu tiebeft 
 er tiebe 
 
 h)ir lieben 
 i^r liebet 
 fie lieben 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 ' I may love ' 
 'thou mayest love' 
 ' he may love ' 
 Plural 
 
 ' we may love ' 
 ' ye may love ' 
 ' they may love ' 
 
 1 i^ tiebte ' I loved ' id) liebte, =bete ' I might love ' 
 
 2 bit liebteft 'thou lovedst' bu licbteft, ^bcteft 'thou mightest love' 
 
 3 er liebte ' he loved ' 
 
 Plv^al. 
 I loir liebten ' we loved ' 
 
 2 i^r tiebtet ' ye loved '■ 
 
 3 fie liebten ' they loved ' 
 
 2 liebe, liebe bu 
 
 er liebte, ^bete ' he might love ' 
 
 Plu/ral. 
 trir liebten, =beten ' we might love ' 
 it)r liebtet, =betet ' ye might love ' 
 fie liebten, =bcten ' they might love ' 
 
 Imperative. 
 .r. ^ Plwral. 
 
 ' love thou ' tiebt, tiebt if)r ' love ye ' 
 
 Inhnitive. 
 tieben ' to love ' 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present 
 
 Past. 
 
 liebenb 
 
 ' loving ' 
 
 geliebt 
 
 'loved' 
 
 Bemarhs. 1. This yerb illustrates the mode of inflection of verbs of the 
 New conjugation, corresponding with what we call "regular verbs " in Eng- 
 lish. The special rules concerning the inflection of such verbs are given 
 below: see 246 etc. 
 
 2. The forms fiebefi and ttebet maybe used also in the present indicative 
 and the imperative, as well as Itebete etc. in the preterit indicative, and ge» 
 Uebet in the past participle: see below, 237.3. 
 
90 VEEBS. [236- 
 
 2. geben, 'give' (root, gcB). 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 Singular. Singular. 
 
 1 id) ge6e ' I give ' iij ge6e ' I may give ' 
 
 2 bu gtcBft, gtfifl * thou givest ' bu gebejt ' thou mayest give ' 
 
 3 er giebt, gi6t 'he gives' er gebe 'he may give' 
 
 Plural. Flwal. 
 
 1 itjir gefien ' we give ' toir gefien * we may give ' 
 
 2 i^r gebt 'ye give' i^r gcbet 'ye may give' 
 
 3 fic gebcn ' they give ' fie geben ' they may give ' 
 
 Preterit. 
 Singular. Singula/r. 
 
 1 t^ gab ' I gave ' iS) gdbe ' I might give ' 
 
 2 bu gabft 'thougavest' bu gabeft ' thou mightest give' 
 
 3 er gab ' he gave ' cr gftbe ' he might give ' 
 
 Flwal. Plwrcd. 
 
 1 tt)tr gaben ' we gave ' ttir gSben ' we might give ' 
 
 2 t^r gabt ' ye gave ' t^r gabet ' ye might give ' 
 
 3 fie gaben ' they gave ' fie gttben ' they might give ' 
 
 Imperative, 
 
 Singular. Plural 
 
 2 gieb, gib bu ' give thou ' gebt, gcbt i^r ' give ye ' 
 
 Infinitive. 
 geben ' to give ' 
 
 Participles. 
 Present. Past. 
 
 gebenb 'giving' gegeben 'given' 
 
 Bemairhs. 1. This verb Ulustrates the mode of inflection of verba of the 
 Old conjugation, corresponding with what we call "irregular verbs " in Eng- 
 lish. The special rules concerning the inflection of such verba are given 
 below: see 261 etc. 
 
 2. The forms ocbet, gabefl, gabet (for gebt, gabfl, gabt) are occasionally 
 met with; also gaoft, gabt (for gobcjl, gabet). For ttie double forms giebjl, 
 gtbft, etc., see 268.16. 
 
237] SIMPLE F0EM8 OF THE VEEB. 91 
 
 237. General Rules respecting the Simple Forms of the Verb. 
 
 1. Of the forms thus given, three are called the principal 
 PARTS, because, when they are known, all the others can be in- 
 ferred from them: these are the infinitive, the 1st pers. sing. 
 preterit, and the ^as,t participle : thus, liefeen, liebte, gelieBt ; geficn, 
 gab, gegeben. 
 
 a. The infinitive always ends in n, and almost always in en. 
 The rejection of this n or en gives us the root of the verb. 
 , Not ending in en are only fein, ' be,' t^un, ' do,' and infinitives from roots 
 of more than one syllable ending in I or r, as toonbein, ' walk,' inoilbent, 
 ' wander.' 
 
 6. There are, as the examples show, two ways of forming the 
 preterit and past participle : the preterit adding ete or te to the 
 ropt, or else adding nothing, but changing the radical vowel; 
 the participle taking the ending et or t, or else en or n. Accord- 
 ing to these differences, verbs are divided into two conjugations 
 (see below, 245). 
 
 2. The endings of tense inflection are 
 
 first pers. singular, e, — first pers. plural, en, n 
 
 second pers. " eft, fl, e, — second pers. " ct, t 
 third pers. " et, t, e, — third pers. " en, n 
 
 The rules for their use are as follows : 
 
 a. The first persons pres. indicative and subjunctive are the 
 
 same, and formed by adding e to the simple root. 
 
 Exceptions are only bin, ' am,' f et, ' may be,' and the pres. indicative ' 
 of the modal auxiliaries (see 261.3). 
 
 5. The first (and third) pers. singular of the preterit subjunctive, and of 
 the preterit indicative except in verbs of the Old conjugation (269.1.1), also 
 end in e. 
 
 3. a. The third pers. sing. pres. indicative has the ending t or 
 
 et (our th, s in loveth, loves) : in all the other tenses, the third 
 
 person is like the first. 
 
 Exceptions, without the ending t are only the modal auxiliaries (see 
 261.3), and a few other verbs (268.5). 
 
 b. The ending of all second persons singular (except in 
 the imperative) is jl or eft (our st in lovest) ; of all first and 
 third persons plural (excepting only finb, ' are '), en or n ; of 
 
92 CONJUGATION. [237- 
 
 all second persons plural (witli tlie single exception feib, 'are'), 
 et or t. 
 
 c. The retention or rejection of the vowel e of the endings eft, 
 et (also of e before the te forming the preterit of one conjugation) 
 depends partly on euphony, partly on arbitrary choice. The e must 
 always be used when the final letter of the root is such that the 
 consonant of the ending would not otherwise be distinctly heard 
 — thus, we may say ttebeft or ticbft, but only lief eft, 'readest,' 
 tameft, 'dancest;' tiebt or liebet, but only bittet, 'begs,' rebet, 
 ' talks ' — also, when a harsh or unpronounceable combination of 
 consonants would otherwise occur — thus, only atf)meft, at^met, 
 ' breathest, breathes ; ' f?gncft, fegnet, ' blessest, blesses.' In other 
 cases, the writer or speaker is allowed to choose between the 
 fuller and the briefer form ; the latter being more familiar or col- 
 loquial, the former more used in stately and solemn styles. But 
 the e is generally retained in the subjunctive, especially when the 
 distinction of subjunctive and indicative depends upon it. 
 
 The e of the ending en of the first and third persons plural is 
 rarely dropped except after unaccented er or e(, in the indicative. 
 
 Special rules afifeoting some of the forma of the Old conjagation will be 
 given below (268-9). 
 
 d. The final unaccented e of all verbal forms (as of all other words in the 
 language) is not unfrequently cut of^ especially in poetry, and in colloquial 
 style. An apostrophe shoiid always be used, to show the omission ; but 
 this is sometimes neglected. 
 
 4. The inflection of the tenses is always regular, except in the 
 second and third persons singular of the pres. indicative, which 
 often show a difierence of vowel or of consonant, or both, from 
 the other persons of the tense. The same irregularities appear 
 also in the imperative singular (see 268, 270). 
 
 6. The imperative singular ends in c in nearly all verbs (for 
 exceptions, see 270.2) ; the plural is the same with the second 
 pers. p). indie, present. Both numbers admit of use, as in Eng- 
 lish, either with or without a subject pronoun. 
 
 For the flUiug up of the imperative with subjunctive forms, see 243. 1. 
 
 6. The form of the present participle may always be found by 
 adding b to the infinitive. 
 
 Only t^uti, ' do,' and fcttl, 'bo,' form tl)uenb, fetenb. 
 
 7. The past participle has usually the prefix gc. For excep- 
 tions, see 243.3. 
 
239] 
 
 AFXILIAEIES OF TENSE. 
 
 93 
 
 8. Notice that the third pers. plural of all verbal forms is used 
 also in the sense of a second person, singular or plural (see 153.4), 
 its subject fie being then written with a capital : thus, ©ie lieben, 
 ' you love ; ' ©ie gafeen, ' you gave.' 
 
 Compound Fohms or the Verb. 
 
 238. As in the case of the English verb, again, the 
 scheme of German conjugation is filled up with a large 
 number of compound forms, made by the aid of auxiliary 
 verbs. 
 
 239. Conjugation of the Auxiliaries of Tense. 
 
 The auxiliaries used in the formation of the tenses of 
 ordinary conjugation are three, namely, {)aben, 'have,' 
 fein, 'be,' toerben, 'become.' The simple forms of these 
 verbs are as follows : 
 
 1. §o6en : — principal parts ]§a6en, l^atte, gef|o6t. 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 Present. 
 Smgula/r. SinguUm: 
 
 xi) ^be ' I may have ' 
 
 xi) ^a6e ' I have ' 
 
 bu Ijaft ' thou hast ' 
 
 er ^at ' he has ' 
 
 Plwral. 
 
 to'xx I)o6en ' we have ' 
 
 i^r ^afit ' ye have ' 
 
 fie Ijabeit ''they have ' 
 
 bu ^beft 'thou mayest have ' 
 
 er I)a5e ' he may have ' 
 
 FlwaX. 
 
 totr l^aben ' we may have ' 
 
 i^r ^abet ' ye may have ' 
 
 fie t|aben ' they may have ' 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1 i^l^atte 'I had' 
 
 2 bu ^attefl ' thou hadst ' 
 
 3 er ^otte ' he had ' ■ 
 
 Plv/ral. 
 
 1 ioir I)atten ' we had ' 
 
 2 t^r ^attet ' ye had ' 
 
 3 fie fatten 'they had' 
 
 iwr. 
 
 t^ ^tte ' I might have ' 
 bu ^atteft ' thou mightest have ' 
 er {)atte ' he might have ' 
 
 Plv/ral. 
 Itiir fatten ' we might have ' 
 i^r ^attet ' ye might have '• 
 fie Ijatten ' they might have ' 
 
94: 
 
 CONJUGATIOK. 
 
 [239 
 
 Impbeativb. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 2 f)ait 'have thou' ^abt 'have ye' 
 
 Ikmnitivb. 
 
 ^a6cn 'to have' 
 
 Pakticiplbs. 
 
 Present. Fast 
 
 ^aBenb 'having' ge^bt 'had' 
 
 2. ©ein, ' be : ' — principal parts fetn, War, getrefeti. 
 
 iNDIOATlVil. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 Singvlar. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 I t^ bin ' I am ' 
 
 ii\ fet 
 
 ' I may be ' 
 
 2 bu bift ' thou art ' 
 
 bu fetejl 
 
 ' thou mayest be ' 
 
 3 er tjt ' he is ' 
 
 er fet 
 
 ' he may be ' 
 
 Plmal. 
 
 Plwal 
 
 
 I h)ir fmb ' we are ' 
 
 hJtr feten 
 
 ' we may be ' 
 
 2 tl^r fetb * ye are ' 
 
 i^r fcict 
 
 ' yc may be ' 
 
 3 fie fmb ' they are ' 
 
 fte feten 
 Preterit. 
 
 ' they may be ' 
 
 Sifigular. 
 
 Singula-, 
 
 r. 
 
 I t(i^ toar ' I was ' 
 
 id) toare 
 
 ' I might be ' 
 
 2 bu loarfl ' thou wast 
 
 ' bu wareft 
 
 'thoumightestbe' 
 
 3 er War ' he was ' 
 
 er Wore 
 
 ' he might be ' 
 
 Plwrai. 
 
 Pim-al. 
 
 
 I wir Warcn ' we were ' 
 
 Wtr waren 
 
 ' we might be ' 
 
 2 i^r Waret * ye were ' 
 
 t^r waret 
 
 ' ye might be ' 
 
 3 fte toaren ' they were 
 
 ' fie waren 
 Impebativb. 
 
 ' they might be 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 2 fet 'be thou' 
 
 fetb 
 Infinitive. 
 
 ' be ye ' 
 
 fetn 
 
 'to be' 
 
 
 Participles. 
 
 
 Presmi. 
 
 
 Pa^t. 
 
 feienb ' being ' 
 
 geWefen • been ' 
 
239] 
 
 ATJXILIAEIES OF TENSE. 
 
 95 
 
 3, SBerbeit, ' tecome : ' — principal parts loerben, toarb or lourbe, 
 gctDorben. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 1 i^ toerbe ' I become ' 
 
 2 bu h)irft Hhou becomest 
 
 3 er toirb ' he becomes ' 
 
 Phi/ral. 
 
 1 tDtr hjerbcn ' we become ' 
 
 2 t^r tuerbet * ye become ' 
 
 3 fie toerben ' they become ' 
 
 ScrBJITNCTIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Singular. 
 lit hJerbe ' I may become ' 
 ivi toerbefl ' thou mayest ' etc. 
 er toevbe ' he may become ' 
 
 Plwal. 
 tDtr ftierben ' we may become ' 
 i^r tuerbet ' ye may become ' 
 fie toerbcn ' they may become ' 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 ' I became ' 
 
 ' thou becamest ' 
 
 ' he became ' 
 
 1 id^ tnarb, 
 
 tourbe 
 
 2 bu inarbfl, 
 
 to'urbeft 
 
 3 er iDorb, 
 
 hjurbe 
 
 Flv/ral. 
 
 1 totr tuurbcn ' we became ' 
 
 2 i^r Wurbet ' ye became ' 
 
 3 fie tourben ' they became ' 
 
 Imperative, 
 
 2 hjerbe * become thou ' itierbet 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 loerbett ' to become ' 
 
 Participles. 
 
 werbenb ' becoming ' gcloorben 
 
 ti^ hJiirbe ' I might become ' 
 
 bu loiirbep 'thou mightest' etc. 
 
 er Wurbe ' he might become ' 
 
 Plwai. 
 tBtr lourben ' we might become ' 
 tf|r Wttrbet * ye might become ' 
 fie tourben 'they might become' 
 
 ' become ye ' 
 
 ' become ' 
 
 4. Irregularities in the Conjugation of these Verbs. 
 
 a. §aBen is analogous in its conjugation with Itebett, above, but the 
 frequency of its use has led to an abbreviation of a few of its forms. Thus, 
 l^aji and ^at are for older l^abjl and {|abt, and J)Otte for %abtt. The modifi- 
 cation of the vowel in l^otte, pret. subj., is against the prevailing analogy 
 of verbs of its class (see 260.2). 
 
96 VERBS. [239- 
 
 i. @etn ia of the same conjugation with geBen, above. Its irregularity, 
 which is far greater than that of any other verb in the language, comes 
 mainly from its being made up of forms derived from three independent 
 roots : bin and bift are from the same root as our be, being, been (original 
 form hhu-; Lat. fui, Greek phuo) ; the rest of the present from the same 
 root as our pres. indicative am etc. (original form as ; Lat. sum, etc., Greek 
 eimi) ; while the preterit and past participle, gettefcn, are from the root of 
 our was, were (original form was, ' dwell, abide '). See the author's " Lan- 
 guage and the Study of Language," p. 115. 
 
 Some authors still retain el) for ei (see 19.3) in fetn, in order to distin- 
 guish it from the possessive fetn (157). 
 
 c. SBerben is a nearly regular verb of the same conjugation with gebert. 
 Por its persons tnirft and ttjtvb, see below, 268.5. In the double form of 
 its pret. ind. singular, it preserves a solitary reho of a condition once be- 
 longing to many verbs in the language, whose preterits had a different vowel 
 in the singular and pluraL SBarb is the original form, and routbe is a quite 
 modem and anomalous fabrication, made after the analogy of the plural 
 hjurben. 
 
 Exercise XIV. 
 
 Simple Forrns of the Verb. 
 
 1. jDer SSatet ttefit feine ^tnber, unb [ie Kekn i^n. 2. SBenn i^ 
 3^nen gabe toaS t^ ^abe, ^atte ic^ fetber nid)t8. 3. SBaS ^a\i bu in 
 ber Safc^e? 4. @r tft franf, aber er irtrb je^t beffer. 5. ®erjentgc, 
 ben t^ liebte, toarb mir jeben Sag Iteber. 6. SBo finb ©ie? unb mo 
 tnar fie ats iriir J)ier hjaren? 7. ®ebt mir xoai it)r tiebt, unb i^ 
 toerbe jufrieben. 8. (S8 ift gut, rei^ m fein ; aber e6 hjcite beffer, jus 
 frieben ju fein. 9. Sltte tSim\6)m fino Sriiber, aber fie Iteben einan= 
 ber nic^t wie ©ruber. 10. 2Ba8 er gebe, tuiffen tuir nidjt. 
 
 240. Formation of the Compound Tenses. 
 
 1. From ^aben or fein, ■with the past participle of any verb, 
 are formed a perfect and a pluperfect tense, indicative and sub- 
 junctive, and a perfect infinitive. 
 
 a. The Pkeekct tense, indicative and subjunctive, is formed by 
 adding the past participle to the present tense of Ijaben or of 
 fein : thus, ic^ Ijabe qeliebt, ' I have loved,' or ' I may have loved ; ' 
 id) bin gefontmen, ' I have (am) come,' ic^ fei getommen, ' I may 
 have come.' 
 
 h. The Pluperfect adds the participle to the preterit of the 
 auxiliary : thus, id) ^attc gcliebt, ' I had loved,' i^ ()fttte gcliebt, 
 ' I might have loved ; ' id)' mar gefomraen, ' I had (was) come,' i^ 
 luflrc getoramen, ' I might have come.' 
 
 c. But the modal auxiliaries (251) and a few other verbs (namely 
 
240] COMPOUND TENSES. 97 
 
 lafyen, ^ct^en, fielfen, ^oren, feljen, Ic^ren and ternen — the last two not 
 uniformly), when constraed with another verb in the infinitive, 
 f6rm their perfect and pluperfect tenses by adding the infinitive 
 instead of the participle to the auxiliary (see 251.4). 
 
 d. The Perfect Infinitive prefixes the participle to the sim- 
 ple or present infinitive : thus, geliebt ^abeit, ' to have loved ; ' 
 gefommen feirt, ' to have come.' 
 
 e. What verbs take ^(iben and what take fein as their auxiliary, will be 
 explained below (see 241). 
 
 2. From tnerbcn, with the infinitives, present and past, of 
 the verb, are formed a future and a future perfect tense, indi- 
 cative and subjunctive, and a conditional and conditional per- 
 fect. 
 
 o. The Future tense, indicative and subjunctive, is formed by 
 prefixing to the present infinitive the present tense, indicative 
 and subjunctive, of loerbctt : thus, i^ locrbe lieben or foramen, ' I 
 shall love or come.' 
 
 6. The Future Perfect prefixes the same tenses to the per- 
 fect infinitive : thus, i^ werbe aeticbt Ijaben, ' I shall have loved;' 
 ic^ toerbe gefominen fein, ' I shall have come.' 
 
 c. The Conditional and Conditional Perfect are formed by 
 prefixing to the present and perfect infinitive the ijnperfect .sub- 
 junctive of hierben ; thus, id) tuiirbe Itcben or foramen, ' I should 
 love ' or ' come ; ' id) miirbe getiebt f)abcn, ' I should have loved ; ' 
 id) rouvbe geforamen fein, ' I should have come.' 
 
 3. The uses of these tenses so nearly agree with those of the 
 corresponding English phrases with which they are translated 
 that they need no explanation here : for details, see 323 etc. 
 
 4. The German is the only one of the Germanic languages which, in its modem exien- 
 sion of the conjugational system by composition, has chosen merben as its auxiliary for 
 forming the future tenses. 3d) werbe gebcn, literally ' I am becoming to give,' receives a 
 future meaning through the idea of ' I aih coming into "a condition of giving,' or ' I am 
 going to give.' 
 
 In the tenses formed with ^afeen, the participle is originally one qualifying the object 
 of the verb in the manner of a factitive predicate, or expressing the condition in which I 
 ' have ' ( ' possess, hold ') the object. This, as being the constructive result of a previous 
 action, is accepted as a description of that action, and id) ^abe_bie 2lrme au^geftrccft, for 
 example, from meaning ' I have my arms .stretched out,' comes to signify ' I have stretched 
 out my arms.' (See the author's " Language and the Study of Language," p. 118). 
 
 On the other hand, in the tenses formed with fein, the participle is originally one quali- 
 fying the subject in the manner of a direct predicate, and defining a sfcite or condition in 
 which the subject exists. This, in English, has become (by a process quite analogous with 
 that just above describe^ a passive, or an expression for the enduring of the action which 
 produced that condition. But the German uses (see below, 275) another auxiliary to form 
 its passives, and, in itB combination of fein with the participle, it only adds to the asser- 
 tion of condition the less violent implication that the action leading to the condition is a 
 past one ; i^ 6tn gefommen, *I am here, being come ; ' i. e., ' my action of coming is athing 
 of the paat J ' or, 'I have come.' 
 
 5 
 
98 VEEBS. [240- 
 
 In strictness, then, l^aBen should form the past tenses only of transitive verbs, and 
 when they take an object ; and (cm, only ol intransitivea which express a condition of 
 their subject. But, as lumie in English has extended its use until it has become the auxiUaiy 
 of all verbs without exception, bo, in German, ^abcn has come to be used with transi- 
 tive verbs even when they do not take an object, and with such intransitivea as are in 
 meaning most akin with these ; until the rules for the employment of the two have bo- 
 come as stated in the next paragraph. 
 
 241. Use of ^afien or fern as Auxiliary of Tense. 
 1.- Verbs whici take f)o6en as auxiliary are 
 
 a. All transitive verbs (including the reflexives and the modal 
 auxiliaries). 
 
 b. Almost all intransitives which take an object in the genitive 
 (219.5) or the dative (222.II.la). 
 
 c. A large number of other intransitives, especially such as de- 
 note a simple activity, a lasting condition, or a mode of motion 
 (including all the proper impersonal verbs). 
 
 2. Verbs which iaki feiit for auxiliary, as exceptions under the 
 above classes, are 
 
 a. Especially, many intransitives which signify a change of con- 
 dition, or a movement of transition, from a point of departure or 
 toward a point of arrival. 
 
 These intransitives are partly such as do not take an ohject — as, Wcrbcit, 
 'become,' (omtnen, 'come,' follcn, 'fall,' fmlen, 'sink,' xoaAi\a\., 'grow,' ftct= 
 ben, 'die,' berften, 'hurst,' evftarten, 'stiffen,' erlofc^en, 'become extin- 
 guished,' ein(c^lofen, 'fall asleep,' juriidtreten, 'retreat:' — partly such as 
 may take a dative object in virtue of the meaning given them by a prefix : 
 as, entlaufcn, ' run away from,' iriberfo^rcn, ' happen to,' ,entgcgcngel)en, 'go 
 to meet,' auffatteu, ' strike the attention of.' 
 
 b. A few others, without reference to their meaning: namely, 
 of verbs that take an objective dative, begegncn, ' meet,' fotgen, 
 ' follow,' ttieic^en, ' give way,' getingen and gtitden, ' turn out suc- 
 cessfully ' (with their opposites, mi^tingen and mt^gtiicten) : also 
 fetn, ' be,' bletben, ' remain,' ge^en, ' go.' 
 
 ■ 3. A small number of verbs may take either auxiliary. 
 
 o. Some that are used with different meanings : as, bcr Sedet ^at aufge» 
 ftattben, ' the cover ^has stood open ; ' metn SSvuber i|i aufgeftanben, ' my 
 brother has got up.' • 
 
 6. About twenty verbs of motion, which take I)aben, when the act of 
 motion or its kind are had in view (as in answer to the questions how, how 
 long, when, where f), but (ein when reference is had to a starting-point or an 
 end of motion (as in answer to the questions whence, whither, how fart): 
 thus, bev Jtnabc l)ot gc|()ruiigen, ' the boy has jumped,' but cr ift'boni feoume 
 gcjtjvuiigen, ' he has jumped from the tree ; ' fie l)obcu Btcl geretfl, ' they have 
 travelled much,' but cr tft nac^ Sngtanb geveift, 'he has gone to England.' 
 
 c. ©te^en, 'stand,' licgen, 'lie,' ftljcrt, 'sit '(especially the first), are some- 
 times conjugated with jeiu, but properly take l)abtvi under all circumstances. 
 
243] AUXILIARIES. 99 
 
 242. Other verbal Auxiliaries. 
 
 Besides the three heretofore spoten of, there are a number 
 of verbs, generally or often used with other verbs, to impress 
 upon them modifications of meaning more or less analogous with 
 those expressed by the forms of conjugation of some languages. 
 Such are 
 
 1. The MODAL AUXILIARIES, of which there are. six, tonnen, 
 ' can,' tnbgen, ' may,' bilrfen, ' be permitted,' miiffen, ' must,' foUen, 
 ' shall,' iDotlen, ' will.' They have, however, a much more inde- 
 pendent value and use in German than in English, and are not to 
 be treated as bearing any part in the ordinary verbal conjuga- 
 tion. Their peculiarities of inflection and construction will be 
 explained below (251 etc.). 
 
 2. The CAUSATIVE auxiliary, lajjen, which (as one among 
 many uses) is often employed in a causal sense with the infini- 
 tive of another verb: as, etneit 9?ocE mac^en, 'to make a coat;' 
 einen 3tocf macf)en laffen, 'to have a coat made (cause to make it) : ' 
 see 343.1.5. 
 
 3. S^^un, 'do' (267.5), wliieh we employ so freely as auxiliary in Eng- 
 lish, is not used as such in German. Some of the German dialects, indeed, 
 make an auxiliary of it ; and it is now and then found having that value 
 even in the literary language: thus, unb 1 1) u' ntc^t me^r in Sffiorteu Iramen, 
 ' and do no longer peddle out words ' (E. 134.23). 
 
 243. Other points in general conjugation, affecting the Impera- 
 tive, Infinitive, and Past Participle. 
 
 1. The third pers. singular, and the first and third pers. 
 plural, of the present subjunctive are very commonly used in an 
 imperative sense (see 331), and may be regarded as filling up 
 the defective declension of that mood. Thus, for the two verbs 
 first given, 
 
 Imperative. 
 Singular. Plv/ral. 
 
 1 Itefeeit tovt ' let us love ' 
 
 2 ttebe, ttebe bu ' love ' IteBet, Itefct t§r ' love ' 
 
 3 liebe er ' let him love ' Iteben fte ' let them love ' 
 
 1 gebcn loir ' let us give ' 
 
 2 gte6, gt6 bu ' give ' gebt, gebet t^r ' give ' 
 
 3 gebc er ' let him give ' geben fie ' let them give ' 
 
 Of these forms, the third plural is in especially frequent use 
 
100 VEEB8. [243- 
 
 as substitute for the second person of either number (153.4) : 
 thus, gekn ©ie mir baS 93u^, ' give me the book.' 
 ■ Other imperative phrases— as, n jofl getieil, ' he shaU give,' fag un« 
 gebcn, laSt un« gcBen, taffen @ic un8 aebcii, ' let us give '—are more or 
 less employed, but need no special remark. 
 
 2. The infinitive, as in English (though not so uniformly), takes 
 'often the preposition ju, ' to,' as its sign : this is always placed 
 next before the simple infinitive form : thus, ju geben, gegeben ju 
 ^aben. 
 
 For details respecting the use of ju, see 341 etc. 
 
 3. The past participle of nearly all verbs has the prefix ge. 
 Exceptions are 
 
 a. Verbs that begin with an unaccented syllable, especially 
 1. Those ending in the infinitive in iren or ieren (being verbs de- 
 rived from the French or Latin, or others formed after their 
 model) : as marf(i^ircn, ' march,' part, marfdjtrt ; ftubiren, ' study,' 
 part, ftubtrt. 2. Those compounded with an inseparable, and 
 therefore unaccented, prefix : as, bergebcn, ' forgive,' part, bergebett. 
 
 b. SDBerben, when used as passive auxiliary, forms worben instead 
 of genjotben (see 276. la). 
 
 c The syllable ge was not originally an element of verbal InSection, butone of tlje clofia 
 of inseparable prefixca (see 307.5). It was Sc«Tnerly used or omitted as special prefix to 
 the participle without any traceable rule, aaA Itaa only in modem times become fixed as its 
 nearly invariable accompaniment. Hence, tft archaic style and in poetry, it is still now 
 and then irregularly dropped. The same prefix was employed, in very much the same 
 manner, in the oldest form of English, the Anglo-Saxon ; and traces of its use survived 
 even down to a time comparatively modem, in aach participles as y-cUxd^ y-clept^ y-drad' 
 (dreaded). 
 
 244. Synopsis of the complete conjugation of ijahtn and |ein. 
 
 The synopsis of toerben will be given later, in connection with that of the 
 passive voice of the verb (277). 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present, ' I have,' etc. ' I am,' etc. 
 
 B.I ^alt tin 
 
 Preterit, 'I had,' etc. 'I was,' etc 
 
 e.i ^tte mar 
 
 Perfect, ' I have had,' etc. ' I have been,' etc. 
 
 S.I ()Qbe geljabt bin gemcfen 
 
 Plv^erfeci, 'I had had,' etc. 'I had been,' eta 
 
 8.1 ^atte ge^abt toax getnefert 
 
 Future, ' I shall have,' etc. ' I shall be,' etc 
 
 B.I tocrbe ijobm hjerbe fetn 
 
244] AUXTLIAEIES. 101 
 
 Futwre Perfect, 'I shall hare had,' eta 'I shall have heen,' etc. 
 
 S.I toerbe ge^abt l^aben toerbe getoefen fein 
 
 Sttbjunctive. 
 
 Present, 'I may have,' etc. ' I may be,' etc. 
 
 S.I ^abe fet 
 
 Preterit, 'I might have,' etc. 'I might be,' etc. 
 
 S.I tjcittc luSre 
 
 Perfed, 'I may have had,' etc. 'I may have been,' etc. 
 
 s.i ijobi ge^bt - fet gemefra 
 
 Pluperfect, 'I might have had,' etc. ~ 'I might have been,' etc. 
 
 B.I fiatte ge^abt xooxt gewefm 
 
 Futwre, 'I shall have,' etc. 'I shall be,' etc. 
 
 S.I luerbe ^aben >t)erbc fein 
 
 Futwre Perfect, 'I shall have had,' eta 'I shall have been,' etc. 
 
 S.I toerbe ge^abt ^aben tnerbe getocfen fein 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 Conditional, ' I should have,' eta ' T should be,' etc. 
 
 S.I toiirbe §aben tuiirbe [em 
 
 Gondii Perfect, ' I should have had,' eta ' I should have been,' eta 
 
 5.1 hjiirbe ge^abt fiaben ttiiirbe getoefen fein 
 
 Imperative. 
 have,' etc. ' be,' eta 
 
 5.2 I|abe fei 
 
 Infinitives. 
 
 Present, ' to have ' ' to be ' 
 
 ^aben fein 
 
 Perfect, ' to have had ' 'to have been ' 
 
 ge^abt l^abcn ge»t)efen fein 
 
 Participles. 
 Present, 'having' 'being' 
 
 ^abenb feicnb 
 
 Past, 'had' 'been' 
 
 ge!§abt getuefen 
 
102 VEKB8. [24*- 
 
 EXEROISE XV. 
 
 Simple and Crnipound Forms of the Verb. 
 
 1. 9Bo tft er gclocfen, unb- waS ^ot er ge^bt? 2. SWeine ^inber 
 hJiirbcn jufrieben fein, menn fie ©pteheug 1)atten. 3. gr hJtrb mir 
 oHeS geben, benn er liebt mii), unb tft immer mein greunb gemefen. 
 4. 3cf mltrbe mit t^ra gehiefen fein, aber ii^ hiar anberSttJO, unb man 
 ift nic^t teic^t an jiuei Ovten i^ugtet^. 5. aCaren <Stc je, wo er neu= 
 tic^ gcwefen ift? 6. SBir finb fdjwa^ ; aber hjann toerben h)ir ftar= 
 ferhjerben? 7. Sebermann tiebt feine tJreunbe ; tiebt t^r eure geinbe, 
 
 CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS, 
 
 245. Verbs are inflected in two modes, called respec- 
 tively the Old and the New conjugations. 
 
 246. 1. Verbs of the Old conjugation form their pre- 
 terit by a change of the vowel of the root, without any 
 added ending, and their past participle by the ending en: 
 thus, gebcn, gab, gegebcn ; fingcn, fang, gcfungen. 
 
 2. Verbs of the New conjugation form their preterit by 
 adding tc or ete to the root, and their participle by the end- 
 
 ' ing et or t : thus, lieben, liebtc, geliebt ; rcben, rebete, gerebet. 
 
 8. The Old and New Coniugations correspond to what are generally called in English the 
 ** Irregular " and ' ' Regular verbs. The- former, as the name implies, ia the more primi- 
 tive method of inflection ; its preterit was originally a reduplicated tense, like the Greek 
 and Latin perfects (as dedSIca, teligi) : and, in the oldest Germanic languages, many verbs 
 have retained the reduplication (ae hathaK 'held,' from Saltan, 'hold;' saizlep-, 'slept,' 
 from iflepan, 'sleep'). By phonetic corruption and abbreviation, however, this reduplica- 
 tion led to an alteration of the radical vowel, and then was ilseU dropped, in the great 
 majority of verbs ; producing phenomena of conjugation so various that there was left no 
 prevailing and guiding- analogy by which to inflect the new derivative verbs, that were 
 brought in as needed, to supplement the old resources of expression. Hence the need of a 
 new method of conjugation ; which was obtained by adding the preterit of the verb cto 
 (did) to the theme of conjugation. The preterit-ending tc of the New conjugation is the 
 relic of thin auxiliary (as, in English, I loved stands for an original / love-did). Sea- the 
 author's "Language and the Study of Language," pp. 60, 80. 
 
 The Old conjugation therefore includes the primitive verbs of the language ; the New, 
 ail those of later origin. Only, as the latter have become the larger class, and their mode 
 of conjugation the prevailing one, some of the old verba (although to by no means such an 
 extent as in English) have been changed, in part or altogether, to conform to it. See be- 
 low, 272. 
 
 We shall take up first the New cofijugation, as being simpler 
 in its forms, and easiest to leam. 
 
 New Conjugation. 
 
 247. The characteristics of the New conjugation are 
 that its preterit ends in te, and its participle in t. 
 
248] 
 
 NEW CONJUGATION. 
 
 103 
 
 248. Examples: rcben, ' talk ; ' wanbern, ' wander.' 
 Principal Parts. 
 rcben, rebcte, gerebet tBanbcrn, tnanberte, gehianbert 
 
 
 Indicativb. 
 
 Preserd, ' I talk,' etc. 
 
 'I wander,' etc. 
 
 S.I rebe 
 
 hjonbere, hianbre 
 
 2 rebcfl 
 
 njanberft 
 
 3 rebet 
 
 manbert 
 
 r.i reben 
 
 wanbern 
 
 2 rebet 
 
 hjanbert 
 
 3 reben 
 
 wanbern 
 
 Pretent, 'I talked,' etc. 
 
 ' I wandered,' etc. 
 
 8.1 rebete 
 
 wanbertc 
 
 2 rebeteft 
 
 Wanberteft 
 
 3 rebete 
 
 roanberte 
 
 P.I rebeten 
 
 wanberten 
 
 2 rebetet 
 
 wanbertet 
 
 3 rebeten 
 
 wanberten 
 
 Perfect, ' I have talked,' etc. 
 
 ' I have wandered,' etc. 
 
 S.I ifobi gerebet 
 
 bin gewanbert 
 
 2 ^ojt gerebet 
 
 bift gctnanbert 
 
 3 ^at gerebet 
 
 tft gewanbert 
 
 P.I l^aben gerebet 
 
 finb gehjanbert 
 
 2 !^a6t gerebet 
 
 feib gctoanbert 
 
 3 ^aben gerebet 
 
 finb gewanbert 
 
 Phi/perfect, 'I had talked,' etc 
 
 1. ' I had wandered,' etc. 
 
 S.I ^atte gerebet 
 
 war geWanbert 
 
 2 ^atteft gerebet 
 
 warfl geWanbert 
 
 3 ^atte gerebet 
 
 war geWanbert 
 
 P.I l^atten gerebet 
 
 waren gewonbcrt 
 
 2 ^ottet gerebet 
 
 wart geWanbert 
 
 3 fatten gerebet 
 
 waren geWanbert 
 
 Futwe, 'I shall talk,' etc. 
 
 ' I shall wander,' etc. 
 
 S.I hjcrbc reben 
 
 wcrbe wanbern 
 
 2 totrft reben 
 
 Wtrft wanbern 
 
 3 toirb reben 
 
 wirb wanbern 
 
104 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 [248 
 
 P.I JDcrbenreben 
 
 tDcrben h)anbem 
 
 2 hjerbet reben 
 
 toerbet manbern 
 
 3 Werbcn reben 
 
 hjcrben tcanbern 
 
 Future Perfect, 'I shall have talked,' 
 
 etc. ' I shall have wandered,' etc. 
 
 S.I itjcrbe gerebet ()aben 
 
 2 mirft gerebet t)aben 
 
 3 hjtrb gerebet ^aben 
 
 merbc g£tt)anbert fetn 
 tuirft getnanbert fetn 
 h)irb gettjanbert fetn 
 
 P.I merben gerebet ^aben 
 
 2 hjerbet gerebet tiaben 
 
 3 tcerben gerebet §aben 
 
 h)erben gehjanbert fetn 
 toerbet gewanbert fein 
 Werben getoanbert fein 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present, ' I may talk,' etc. 
 
 'I may wander,' eta 
 
 S.I rebc 
 
 hianbere, wanbre 
 
 2 rebefl 
 
 3 rebc 
 
 hsanbereft, tranbrefi 
 toanbere, hjanbre 
 
 P.I tebcn 
 
 ttianberen, toanbren 
 
 2 rcbct 
 
 manbcret, tnanbret 
 
 3 reben 
 
 manberen, hjanbren 
 
 Preterit, 'I might talk,' eta 
 
 ' I might wander,' etc. 
 
 8.1 rebetc 
 
 ttJQnbcrtc 
 
 2 rebetejl 
 
 3 rebetc 
 
 toanberfeft 
 hjanberte 
 
 P.I rebeten 
 
 h)anberten 
 
 2 rebetet 
 
 hianbertet 
 
 3 rebeten 
 
 hjanberten 
 
 Perfect, ' I may have talked,' etc. 
 
 ' I may have wandered,' etc 
 
 S.I ^obc gerebet 
 
 2 ^abeft gerebet 
 
 3 ^obe gerebet 
 
 fet getoonbert 
 feiefi gehjonbert 
 fet genjoitbert 
 
 P.I ^aben gerebet 
 
 2 l^abet gerebet 
 
 3 ^aben gerebet 
 
 feien gettianbert 
 fcict gelDanbert 
 feien gemanbert 
 
248] NEW CONJUGATION. 105 
 
 Pluperfect, 'I might have talked,' etc. 'I might have wandered,' eta 
 
 S.I ^attc gerebet toare getnanbert 
 
 2 l}atte[t gerebet vnciveft gewanbert 
 
 3 ijixttt gerebet toare gemanbert 
 
 P.I flatten gerebet tnciren gewanbert 
 
 2 ^attet gerebet Jnaret geioanbert 
 
 3 fatten gerebet hjaren gewanbert 
 
 'I shall talk,' etc. 'I shall wander,' etc. 
 
 S.I werbe reben toerbe manbera 
 
 2 toerbeft reben hjerbeft wanbern 
 
 3 werbe reben tferbe toanbern 
 
 P.I itjerbra reben werben tranbem 
 
 2 hjerbet reben hierbet wanbern 
 
 3 toerben reben ttierben loanbern 
 
 Fiitwe Perfect, 'I shall have talked,' etc. 'I shall have wandered,' etc 
 
 S.I tnerbe gerebet ^aben toerbe getoanbert fcin 
 
 2 hjerbeft gerebet [)a6en • toerbeft gewanbert fetn 
 
 3 werbe gerebet l^aben werbe gewonbert fein 
 
 P.I werben gerebet ^a6en Werben gewanbert fetn 
 
 2 werbet gerebet ^6en werbet gewonbert fein 
 
 3 werben gerebet l^aben werben gewanbert fein 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 Conditional, 'I should talk,' eta 'I should wander,' etc. 
 
 S.I wiirbe reben wiirbc wanbcm 
 
 2 witrbeft reben wiirbeft wonbem 
 
 3 wiirbe reben Wiirbe wanbern 
 P.I wiirben reb^n Wurben wanbern 
 
 2 wiirbet reben Wiirbet wanbern 
 
 3 wiirben reben Wiirben wanbern 
 
 Cond. Perf., ' I should have talked,' etc. ' I should have wandered,' etc 
 
 S.I Wiirbe gerebet ^aBen Wiirbe gewonbert fetn 
 
 2 wtirbejt gerebet ^ben wUrbeft gewanbert fetn 
 
 3 Wiirbe gerebet ^aben wurbe gewanbert fetn 
 
 6* 
 
106 VERBS. [248- 
 
 P.I milrben gerebet '^aBen 
 
 
 hJiirben gettianbert fcin 
 
 2 tniirbct gerebet ^aben 
 
 
 iriirbet gewanbert fein 
 
 3 hJiirbcn gerebet ^aben 
 
 
 Wurben getoanbert fein 
 
 
 Impkhativb. 
 
 'talk,' etc. 
 
 
 'wander)^ etc 
 
 S.2 rebe, rebe bu 
 
 
 ttjanbere, manbre bu 
 
 3 rebe er, er rebe 
 
 
 toanberc er, er toanbre 
 
 P.I reben ioir 
 
 
 hKinbem wir 
 
 2 rebet, rebet i^r 
 
 
 wonbert, hjanbert i^r 
 
 3 reben fie 
 
 
 toanbem fie 
 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present, 'to talk' 
 
 
 'to wander' 
 
 reben, ju reben 
 
 
 wanbem, ju hjonbem 
 
 Perfect, ' to have talked ' 
 
 
 ' to have wandered ' 
 
 gerebet ^aben, gerebet ju ^aben 
 
 geluanbert fein, getoanbert ju fein 
 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present, 'talking' 
 
 
 ' wandering ' 
 
 rebenb 
 
 
 hjonbernb 
 
 Past, 'talked' 
 
 
 'wandered' 
 
 gerebet 
 
 
 gewanbert 
 
 Remarks. The conjugation of reben eiomplifles the necessity of reten- 
 tion of e of the endings et, ete after a consonant with which t would be con- 
 founded in pronunciation. SBanbent is one of the verbs which (241.32i) 
 take sometimes f)aben and sometimes fein as auxiliary. It exemplifies the 
 loss of e of the ending en, and other peculiarities of the combination of end- 
 ings with verbal roots in el and er. 
 
 Exercise XVI. 
 
 Verbs of the New Conjugation. 
 
 1. Steben mir intnter rebtic^, unb unfere grcunbe hjcrben un8 Iteben. 
 2. @r hjare feijt nic^t Ijier, ftore er hjeiter geluonbert. 3. SBo Warjl 
 bit, ate loir Don bir rebeten ? 4. SOBaS hiirb er benfcmgen fd)t(fen, bie 
 er fo liebt? 5. (Sr ^atte un8 nid)t8 gefd^idt, benn e8 ^fitte unS gc= 
 fi^abet. 6. SBag ^ot er gerebet, unb ntoljtn ift er gelnanbert? 7. @r 
 toiirbe nt^tg gefauft ^oben, flatten roir eg nicf)t getiiinfdjt. 8. ^Brten 
 ©te, tt)a« bie ©chiller gefagt I)aben? 9. ^aufen <5ie nur njaS ®ic 
 njiinfdjen, unb bonn wanbcrn ©ie fort. 10. SSir lobten bie ^inbcr, 
 
251] 
 
 NEW CONJUGATION. 
 
 107 
 
 Brettncn, 
 
 'bum ' 
 
 tetinen, 
 
 'know 
 
 nennen, 
 
 ' name 
 
 rennen, 
 
 'run' 
 
 fenben, 
 
 ' send ' 
 
 loenbcn, 
 
 'turn' 
 
 btenttte 
 
 gebrannt 
 
 fennte 
 
 getoirat 
 
 nennte 
 
 genonnt 
 
 rennte 
 
 gerannt 
 
 fenbete 
 
 gefonbt 
 
 Wenbete 
 
 getDonbt 
 
 benn fte hjaren ftei^tg geftefen, unb fatten oici gcarBettet. 11. -3^ 
 fagte i^nen, er toiirbe nt^tS foufen. 
 
 Irregularities of the New Conjugation. 
 
 249. A few verbs, all of which have roots ending in nn or nb, 
 change the radical vowel e to o in the preterit indicative (not the 
 subjunctive also), ^.nd in the past participle. Thus, 
 
 InfimMve. 
 
 indicative. 
 
 6ronnte 
 
 tannte 
 
 nonnte 
 
 ranttte 
 
 fanbte 
 
 hjonbte 
 
 a. The last two, fenben and Wenben, may aJso form the pret. indicative 
 and the participle regularly: thus, fenbete, gefenbet; wenbete, gettJenbet. 
 
 b. After the altered vowel, the e is always omitted before te and t : in 
 other oases, the general rules are followed : thus, brennete or brcnnte, etc. 
 
 250. 1. Two verbs, 6rtngen, ' bring,' and ben!en, ' think,' are 
 still more irregular, and agree closely in their forms with the cor- 
 responding English verbs. Thus, 
 
 Infinitive. Preterit Pariidple. 
 
 indicative. s^ibjun/Mve. 
 
 bringen, 'bring' brac^te broc^te gebra(f)t 
 
 benfen, 'think' bai^te bfi^te gebodit 
 
 2. The Irregularities of ^aben have been given in full above (239.4a) : 
 
 bringen, benfen, and ^aben, with some of the modal auxiliaries, are the only 
 
 verbs of the New conjugation which modify in the preterit subj. the vowel 
 
 of the indicative, like the verbs of the Old conjugation (269 JI). 
 
 251. Modal Auxiliaries. 
 
 1. These are (as already noticed) 
 
 biirfen, ' be allowed ' miiffen, ' must ' 
 
 fbnnen, 'can' fotten, 'sljall' 
 
 mbgen, 'may' tnotten, 'will' 
 
 2. While the corresponding verbs in English are both defec- 
 tive and irregular, these have in German a complete conjugation 
 (only lacMng, except in tnoHen, the imperative), but with the fol- 
 lowing irregularities : 
 
 a. For the singular of the present indicative are substituted 
 forms which properly belong to a preterit of the Old conjugation. 
 
108 
 
 VEEB8. 
 
 [251 
 
 Theso are, in fact, relics of an ancient preterit used in the sense of a 
 present — thus, fonn, 'can,' is literally 'I have learned how; ' mag, 'may,' is 
 ' I have gained the power; ' mill, 'will,' is ' I have chosen: ' — and the rest 
 of their conjugation is of more modern origin. 
 
 6. Those which have a modified vowel in the infinitive reject 
 the modification in the preterit indicative and the past participle. 
 
 c. All the rest of their inflection is regular, according to the rules 
 of the New conjugation (except that niogeit changes its g to (^ be- 
 fore t). 
 
 3. Thus, the 
 
 simple 
 
 forms are 
 
 
 
 
 Indicative Present. 
 
 
 
 
 
 S.I barf 
 
 tann 
 
 mag 
 
 mu6 
 
 foil 
 
 (Bin 
 
 2 barffl 
 
 lannfl 
 
 mogfi 
 
 mugt 
 
 follft 
 
 tniajl 
 
 3 barf 
 
 lann 
 
 mag 
 
 mug 
 
 foU 
 
 mia 
 
 P.I biirfen 
 
 tonnen 
 
 mbgen 
 
 mijffen 
 
 foffen 
 
 Woden 
 
 2 biirft 
 
 lonnt 
 
 mbgt 
 
 miigt. 
 
 foUt 
 
 tnoUt 
 
 3 biirfen 
 
 fbnnen 
 
 miigen 
 
 mitffen 
 
 foneit 
 
 ttJoUen 
 
 Indicative Preterit 
 
 
 
 
 
 S.I burfte 
 
 fonnte 
 
 mod)te 
 
 mugte 
 
 foHte 
 
 moUte 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc.- 
 
 etc. 
 
 ete. 
 
 Subjunctive Present. 
 
 
 
 
 
 S.I biirfe 
 
 tonne 
 
 mbge 
 
 miiffc 
 
 fotte 
 
 moUe 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 eto. 
 
 etc 
 
 Subjunctive Preterit. 
 
 
 
 
 
 S.I burfte 
 
 Jijnnte 
 
 mbc^te 
 
 miigte 
 
 follte 
 
 mollte 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 eto. 
 
 eto. 
 
 eta 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 hJoUe 
 
 P.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 iDOttt 
 
 Pres. burfenb Ibnuenb mbgenb muffenb foltenb moHenb 
 Past, geburft getonut gemo^t gemu|jt gefottt gemoUt 
 
 biirfen Ibnnen mbgen muffcn follen molten 
 
 4. The compound tenses are formed in the same manner as 
 those of other verbs — with one important exception, namely 
 
 a. When used in connection with another verb (infinitive), the 
 infinitive is substituted for the participle in the perfect and plu- 
 perfect tenses. 
 
 Thus, er ^at eS m(f|t getonnt, but cr l^ot eSnidit tl^uu Ibnnen, 'he has 
 not been able to do it; ' roaS ^abt il)t genjoUt, 'what have you wished? ' 
 
251] MODAL AUXILIARIES. 109 
 
 but i^r ^abtmtc^ fprcd^etl IDoIteit, ' you have wanted to speak to me;' Wir 
 ^abeit Worten miinen, 'we have been couipelled to wait.' 
 
 This is a simple grammatical anomaly, an original blunder of constmction, thongli 
 now sanctioned by universal use ; it was apparently caused by the Influence of the other 
 neighboring infinitive, which " attracted " the auxiliary into a coiTespondence of fonn with 
 itself. A similar construction is usual with a number of independent verbs, which are fr©. 
 quently used along with the- infinitive of another verb : see 240.1c. 
 
 5. The compound tenses are, then, as follows : 
 
 •Perfect (first person the same in both moods). 
 
 S.I l^obe geburft, getonnt, jc. 
 
 or l)aBe biitfen, tonnen, jc. 
 
 Indicative Pluperfect. 
 
 S.I ^atte geburft, geionnt, ic. 
 
 or ^atte biirfen, tonnen, sc. 
 
 SvJyunctive Pluperfect. 
 S.I ^fitte geburft, geionnt, tc. 
 or i)atte biirfen, lijnnen, jc. 
 
 Futv/re (first person the same in both moods). 
 S.I toerbe biirfen, lijnnen, jc. 
 
 Fviwe Perfect (first person the same in both moods). 
 
 S.I njerbe geburft ^aben, ge!onnt ^aben, k. 
 Conditional. 
 
 B.I miirbe biirfen, lonnen, jc. 
 
 Conditional Perfect. 
 S.I wiirbe geburft ^aten, geionnt I)aben, jc. 
 
 InfmiHve Perfect, 
 
 geburft ^aben, getonnt ^abcn, jc. 
 
 6. a. The absence of a complete conjugation of the corresponding auxili- 
 aries in English makes it necessary for us often to render the German verb 
 by a paraphrase : substituting, for example, 6e able for cam, (tonnen) ; he 
 compelled, have to, for mMs<(miiffen); 6e willing, wish, desire, for will (tnotten), 
 and so on: compare below, 253-9. 
 
 5. The same absence has led to the use of certain idiomatic and not 
 strictly logical constructions in English, in which the auxiliary of past time, 
 have, is combined with the principal verb in the participle, instead of with 
 the modal auxih'ary; while the German, more correctly, combines it with 
 the latter. Thus, he would not have done it is not, in German, er Wottte e8 
 nidjt gett)an Ijabcn, unless it signifies 'he was not willing to have done it; ' 
 if, as usual, it means ' he would not have been willing to do it,' it is er ^citte 
 e6 ntd)t t^un ttjollen. Thus also, he might have come (that is, ' he would 
 have been able to come ') is er ^otte tommen tonnen, not er tonnte gelommen 
 fein. The logical sense of the sentence may be tested, and the proper Ger- 
 man expression found, by putting the corresponding verbal phrase in place 
 of the simple auxiliary in the Enghsh. 
 
110 VEKB8. [252- 
 
 Uses of the Modal Auxiliaries. 
 
 252. Although the exposition of the meaning of these auxiU- 
 aries belongs rather to the dictionary than to the grammar, such 
 is the frequency of their use, and the intimacy of their relation 
 to the verbs with which they are combined, that it is desirable to 
 give here some account of their chief uses. 
 
 253. ®uvfen. — 1. This represents two separate verba of the older 
 ' language, the one meanmg ' need, require,' the other ' dm'e, venture, trust 
 
 one's self.' The former sense is nearly lost, appearing only occasionally 
 with nuv and laum, and in a few other phrases : thus, et barf nut Befe^len, 
 'he needs only to command.' The other has been in modern use modified 
 into ' be authorized, permitted,' and, even where it approaches nearest to 
 ' dare,' means properly rather 'feel authorized,' 'allow one's self.' Thus, 
 Sitcmaub barf ptiinbem, 'no one is permitted to plunder;' barf id) bitten, 
 ' may 1 ask ? ' etncm jf atfcr botf bie ilTittbe nte fel)[en, ' an emperor may never 
 lack cjemency ; ' er burf te i^n tn8 Slngcfii^t preifen, ' he was allowed to praise 
 him to his face.' 
 
 2. The imperfect subjunctive biitfte signifies, by a quite special use, a 
 probable contingency: as, ba8 biitfte Wa^t fein, 'that is likely to be true.' 
 
 254. ^ijnnen. — The original meaning of fbnnen, as of our can, is 'to 
 know how; ' but both have alike acquired the sense of 'be able,' and sig- 
 nify ability or possibility in the most general way, whether natural, con- 
 ceded, or logicaL Thus, xi) tann lefen, ' I can read; ' meinetlDegen fann cr 
 ge^cn, 'he can (may) go, for all me;' jcne Soge tonnen h)tcb'er tomnten, 
 'those days may return (their return is possible) ; ' et tann fd^on gclomtnen 
 fein, ' he may possibly have already arrived.' 
 
 255. SKbgen. — This verb meant originally to have power, but its use in 
 that sense is now antiquated and quite rare: thus, Wenn teiner ftc etgriinben 
 mag, ' though none is able to fathom them.' At present, it has two leading 
 significations : 
 
 1. That of power or capability as the result of concession on the part of 
 the speaker ; and that, either a real permission — as et mag i^n be^atten, 
 ' he may keep it ' — or as a logical concession or aUowanoe, as bo8 mog Wo^l 
 ju 3eiten tommen, ' that may happen at times.' 
 
 2. That of choice, liking, desire : thus, tnaS fie bit nic^t offcnbarcn m ag, 
 'what she does not choose to reveal to thee; ' baS modjte er gat nt^t 
 ^bren, ' he did not like to hear that at all.' This meaning is most frequent 
 with the imperfect subjunctive : thus, eS m o c^ t e tein §imb fo tSnger leben, 
 'no dog would care to live longer thus;' and) t(^ moc^t' mit bit fterben, 
 ' I too would like to die with thee.' 
 
 SOlogen has other uses (akin with the above, but of less definite character). 
 In which it approaches very near to equivalence with the subjunctive tenses: 
 thus, in expressing a wish, iiioge nie ber Sag ctfd)einen, ' may the day never 
 appear ; ' mod^te bie ganje SBclt un8 l)oren, ' would that the whole world 
 might hear us ; ' also, in clauses expressing design or purpose— bamtt fte 
 ntd)t ouSgleiteu mbgcn, 'that they may not slip'— or after an indefinite 
 pronoun, as, luaS et au^ tl^nu mog (or t^ue), ' whatever he may do.' 
 
258] MODAL AUXILIAIIIES. Ill 
 
 256. SKiiffen. — This, like mbgen, has wandered far from its primitive 
 meaning, which was 'find room or opportunity,' and now designates a general 
 and indefinite necessity (as lijnneit a correspondingly indefinite possibility), 
 either physical, moral, or logical It is rendered by our 'be compelled to,' 
 'be obliged to,' 'have to,' 'cannot but,' and the like. ITius, aUt ajieiijc^en 
 ttiiiffeit fterben, ' all men must die ; ' mtr miiffen tceu (ein, ' we must be faith- 
 ful ; ' eS ntug in biefer SSSeife gefifie^cn fein, ' it must have taken place in this 
 way; ' ttJtt mugten ummenben, ' we had to turn back; ' ^eute mug bte Olodc 
 tnerbett, 'to-day the beU has to -come into existence;' man raufete glouben, 
 ' one could not but suppose ; ' ic^ mugte fiber bie Seute lai^en, ' I could not 
 help laughing at the people.' 
 
 As must in English is present only, such phrases as those above given 
 should always be used in translating the other tenses of miiffen. 
 
 257. ©oHen. — Its proper sense ia originally that of duty or obligation, 
 and in the past tenses, especially the imperfect, it is often still used in that 
 sense : thus, ea follte fo, unb nt(i)t anbetS fein, ' it ought to be thus, and not 
 otherwise; ' er Ijatte !ommen foUen, 'he ought to have come.' 
 
 But to this meaning has now become added, in prevailing use, the distinct 
 imphcation of a personal authority, other than that of the subject, as creat- 
 ing or enforcing the obligation : either 
 
 1. Proceeding from the speaker ; in which case the auxiUary intimates a 
 command, a promise, a threat, or the like : as, bu fottft @ott licbcn, 'thou 
 Shalt love God ; ' meine Soi^ter folten btd^ warten, ' my daughters shall wait 
 on thee;' mon bro^t, biefer ober fener ^ijnig folte gegen.i^n gie^en, 'it is 
 threatened that this or that king shall take the field against him.' 
 
 2. Eecognized by the speaker, but not proceeding from him ; in which 
 case fotten is to be rendered by ' to be to,' ' to be intended or destined to,' or 
 other like expressions: as, Wenn man jute^t l^atten foil, hjttt man Iteber ^ier 
 Bletben, ' if one is finally to stop, one will rather stay here ; ' Wa8 foil g6> 
 fi^e^en, ' what is to happen ? ' m.an jweifelte meWjen SBeg mon etnfdjtagen 
 foUe, ' they doubted which road they were to take ; '. raa8 mag i* ^ier wo^t 
 Ijijren fotten, ' what can I be meant to hear here ? ' baruber foUte er bitter 
 enttaufc^t Werben, 'he was destined to be bitterly undeceived upon that 
 point.' 
 
 3. A special form of this use of foHen ia its employment to report some- 
 thing that rests on the authority of others, is asserted by them : thus, 
 SSerored^en, bie er begangen l^aben foil, 'crimes which he is clauned to have 
 committed;' diele foEen an biefem Sage umgelommen fein, 'many are said 
 to have lost their lives on that day.' 
 
 In conditional and hypothetical clauses, follte is sometimes used like our 
 should, nearly coinciding in meaning with the proper conditional tenses : 
 thus, fottt' er au^ ftrauifetn flberall, ' even should he everywhere stumble: ' 
 so, elliptieaEy, in interrogation : fottte baS WO^C fein, ' [is it possible that] 
 that should be true ? ' 
 
 258. Sotten.— This signifies will, intent, choice, on the part of the sub- 
 ject of the verb : thus, i* Witt bi^ glet^faUS begletten, ' I will accompany 
 thee hkewise ; ' Jeiner Witt ben Seeder gewmnen, ' no one wants to win the 
 goblet ; ' was er ^ierti^eS auffai)ren Witt, ' whatever he intends to bring 
 forward that is pretty; ' id) wottte tljn ntit ©c^a^en belaben, ' I would load 
 him with treasures.' 
 
112 VERBS, [258- 
 
 a. Occasionally it indicates a claim or assertion (compare the correlative 
 use of foUen above, 257.3): thus, er tnitt btcfi gcfe^cn Ijoben, 'he claims to 
 have seen you (wUl have it that he has done so).' 
 
 6. Not infrequently it implies the exhibition of intent, or impending ac- 
 tion, and is to be rendered by 'be on the point of and the like; thus, er 
 win gel)en, 'he is on the point of going; ' etn SBauer, tnelcfter fterben (noUte, 
 ' a peasant who was about to die; ' SBrateit h)iU Oerbrennen, ' the roast is on 
 the brink of burning.' 
 
 259. The Modal Auxiliaries without accompanying Verb, 
 All these auxiliaries are sometimes met with unaccompanied by 
 
 an infinitive dependent upon them. Thus, 
 
 1. When an infinitive is directly suggested by the context, and to be 
 supplied in idea : thus, bafi jeber fo toU fein biirfe o(3 er rtiolle, ' that every 
 one may be as vTild as he will (be) ; ' ic^ tl)ue, WaS t^ lonn, 'I do what I 
 can (do).' 
 
 2.' Very often, an adverb of direction vrith the auxiliary takes the place 
 of an omitted verb of motion: thus, mir miiffen aiti^ barail, ' we must also 
 [set] about it; ' fte tbimcn ni(J)t Bon ber ©telle, ' they cannot [stir] from the 
 place;' wo^in foUen bie, 'whither are they to [go]?' ber immer bation 
 Wollte, 'who all the timewanted [to get] away; ' er barf ntd)t roett genug 
 ^inouS, 'he may not venture [to go] far enough out.' 
 
 3. Other ellipses, of verbs familiarly used with these, or naturally sug- 
 ested by the context, are not infrequent: thus, hjaS (oil id), ' what am I to 
 
 _do] ? ' n)a8 foil btefe SRebe, ' what is this talk intended to [signify] ? ' bie faU 
 i^en 3!inge toerben ba? nic^t tonnen, 'the false rings will not be able [to 
 
 accomplish] that;' nid)t iJergotbuiig mitt man me^r, 'one will no longer 
 
 [have] gilding.' 
 
 4. The auxiliary is thus often left with an apparent direct object, really 
 dependent on the omitted verb. In other cases the object may represent 
 the omitted verb— as, ptte ii^ m\ii gcfreut, alS id) eS noc^ !omtte, 'had I en- 
 joyed myself when I was still able to do so ' — or be otherwise more really 
 dependent on the auxiliary. SBoUen is most often used thus as a proper 
 transitive: thus, ntdjt er mill euren Untergang, 'not he vrishes your ruin; ' 
 h)a8 ®ott gettiottt, ' what God has willed '—also, mbgen in the sense of 
 'like : ' asj id) inog i^n ntd)t, ' I do not hke him ' — and lonncn in the sense 
 of ' know (a language) : ' as, lonncn @ie ®eutf(^, 'do you know Gorman 7 ' 
 
 260. SSSiffen, ' know, know how,' has a conjugation nearly 
 akin with that of the modal auxiliaries : namely 
 
 Pres. Indie. tocig, ttietgt, WeiB, Wtffen, migt, loiffen. 
 
 Pres. Svij. Wiffe, etc. 
 
 Pret. Indie. Inugte, etc. Pret. Subj. tniifitc, etc. 
 
 Past Partic. gelDufet. 
 
 Its present indicative ein^ular, like that of the modal auxiliaries, is an old preterit, 
 moaning * I have seen : ' it is historically the saino word with the Greuk oida and Sanskrit 
 Veda — ^which have likewise a similar office. 
 
263] OLD CONJXTGATIOIT. 113 
 
 Exercise XTII. 
 
 Modal Awciliaries. 
 
 1. Sotraett ftE heute mit un6 gel)en ? 2. Si) tottn I)eute gefien, ober morgeit 
 tocrbe id^ lueber ffinnen noiJ) tooaen, 3. §at tl)r SBrubcr lommen bUrfen? 
 4. et f)at neburft, a6er ec ()at iiic^t gemoHt. 5. SBer etiten SBrief fdjreibert 
 mia, mug *Ji(a^)ter t)obett. 6. 3i^ I)obe tiicJit jd^teibcn fonnen, benn i^ hitbe 
 atbetten muffen. 7. ®arf t* fragen, n)eld)e ®^)raii)e <Sie icljt ternen nioUeu ? 
 8. 3c^ foUte unb Wottte ®eut(ci) lernen, benn id) tann eS nod) ntd)t. 9. (£r fott 
 ^ter feitt ; man mill x\)n gefebcn Ijaben ; ober ei; mug fogleic^ fovt. 10. (Sr 
 Wore getBtg ^ier, ^iitte er fommen follen. 11. Sir mogen iitd)t immer tl)un 
 iDttS mir loUten. 12. 3d) mog bo8 niiit l)aben ; er mag c8 bcfjalten. 13. 
 SBoUe nur roaS bu lonnft, unb bu rairft otte? Ifinncn was bu wittft. 
 
 Old Conjugation. 
 
 261. The characteristics of the Old conjugation are : 
 the change of radical vowel in the preterit, and often in the 
 past participle also ; and the ending of the past participle 
 in en. 
 
 With these are combined other peculiarities of inflection, of 
 less consequence, which will be found stated in detail below. 
 • For the reason of the name " Old " conjugation, see above, 246.3. 
 
 Change of Radical Vowel. 
 
 262. The changes of the radical vowel in verbs of the 
 Old conjugation are, in general, as follows : 
 
 1. The vowel of the infinitive and that of the present 
 tense (indicative and subjunctive) are always the same. 
 
 But the vowel of the present is sometimes altered In the second and 
 third persons singular indicative : see below, 258. 
 
 2. The vowel of the preterit is always different from that 
 of the infinitive and present. 
 
 3. The vowel of the past participle is sometimes the 
 same with that of the infinitive and present, sometimes 
 the same with that of the preterit, and sometimes different 
 from either. 
 
 263. According to the varieties of this change, the verbs are 
 divided into three principal classes, each with several subdivisions. 
 
 Class I. Verbs whose infinitive, preterit, and participle have 
 each a diflferent vowel. 
 
114 VEEBS. [263- 
 
 Class II. Verbs in which the vowel of the participle is the same 
 with that of the present. 
 
 Class III. Verbs in which the vowel of the participle is the 
 same with that of the preterit. 
 
 This is merely a classification of convenience, founded upon the facts of the modem 
 language. The latter have undergone too great and too various alteration to aUow'of our 
 adopting, with practical advantage, a more thorough classification, founded on the charac- 
 ter of the original radical vowel, and the nature of the changes it has suffered. 
 
 264. First Class. Verbs whose infinitive, preterit, and par- 
 ticiple have each a different vowel. 
 
 I. 1. Verbs having the vowels t — — U in the three fonns specified. 
 
 Example : fingen — Jang — gefungcn (sing, sang, sung). 
 To this subdivision belong 16 verbs, all of them having roots ending in 
 Itg, n!, or nb. 
 
 2. Vowels t — a — o. 6 verbs : root ending in nn or mm. 
 Example : fptnnen — fpatin — gefponnen (spin, span, spun). 
 
 3. Vowels e — a — o. 22 verbs. 
 
 Example : brec^en — Brac^ — geBro^en (break, brake, broken). 
 One verb, gebarcit, has irregularly a for e in the infinitive. 
 
 4. Vowels t or ie — o — e. 3 verbs. 
 Examples : fi^en — \a% — gefcffen (sit, sat, sat). 
 
 liegen — lag — gclegen (lie, lay, lain). 
 These are properly verbs belonging to the first division of the next class, 
 II. 1, but have their vowel irregularly varied in the infinitive. 
 
 265. Second Class. Verbs having the same vowel in the 
 infinitive and participle. 
 
 II. 1. Vowels c — a ^ e. 10 verbs. 
 
 Example: [el^ert — fa^ — ge|el)en (see, saw, seen). 
 Three verbs properly belonging to this division have changed their vowel 
 to i or ie in the infinitive, and thus become a fourth division of the first class 
 (see above). 
 
 2. Vowels — u — 0. 10 verbs. 
 
 Example : fd)Iagen — fd^Iug — gefd^tagen (slay, slew, slain). 
 
 3. Vowels a — ie or t — o. 16 verbs. 
 
 Examples: fallen — fiet — gefallen (fall, fell, fallen). 
 
 ^angen — l^ing — ge^angen (hang, hung, hnng). 
 
 4. Vowels on, U, or — ie — alt, U, or o. 4 verbs. 
 Examples: taufen — lief — gelaufen, (leap) 'run.' 
 
 rufen — rtef — getufen, ' cry.' - 
 ftogen — ftieg — geffogen, ' thrust' 
 
 266. Third Class. Verbs having the same vowel in the 
 preterit and participle. 
 
268] OLD CONJUGATION. 115 
 
 III. 1. Vowels ct — t — i. 22 verba. 
 
 Example: beigett — big — gebiffen G^itSi l^i*. bitten). 
 
 2. YoweU et — ie — ie. 16 verba. 
 
 Example : tretben — trteb — getriebcn (drive, drove, driven). 
 
 Theae two diviaiona differ only in the length of the vowel of the preterit 
 and participle. One verb, tjeigen, has the participle gc^ctgen (below, 267). 
 
 3. Towels ie or ii — o — O. 24 verbs (only 8 with ii). 
 Examples : fliegen — flog — geflogen (fly, flew, flown). 
 
 liig'en — log — gelogen, ' lie ' (speak falsely). 
 
 4. Vowels au — — 0. 4 verbs. 
 Example : faugctt — jog — gefogeit, ' suck.' 
 
 5. Vowels i, e, a, 0, or a — o — o. 20 verbs. 
 Examples: Itimmen — tlomm — geftommen, 'climb.' 
 
 Weben — Wob — geWobett (weave, wove, woven), 
 toogen — toog — . geroogen, 'weigh.' 
 Mtooren — f^loor — gefcblooren (swear, swore, sworn). 
 fdfiaUen — fii)oH — gefd^oUen, ' aound.' 
 
 AUHhe verba in thla division are stragglers, irregularly altered from 
 other modes of conjugation. Of those having e in the infinitive (like Irebeit) 
 there are eleven ; of the other forms, only one, two, or three each. 
 
 6. Vowels i — u — u, 2 verbs. 
 
 Example : fd^tnben — fc^unb — gefcfiunben, ' flay.' 
 Theae, also, are stragglers, from I.l. 
 
 267. Verbs with irregular change of vowel. 
 
 1. tomtnen — lam — gefommen (come, came, come) : 
 an exception under 1.3, the original vowel of the infinitive being e. 
 
 2. ^eigcn — ^ie6 — geljeijjen, ' be called : ' 
 an exception under III. 2, as noted above. 
 
 3. gc^ett — gtng — gegongen, 'go: ' 
 
 an exception under II.3, the original infinitive being gangon. 
 
 4. fie^en — jlatib — gejlanben, ' stand : ' 
 
 in Old High Grerman, belonging to IL2 (ftantoit— ftuont — flantan). 
 
 5. tl)un — t^ot — get^ait (do, did, done). 
 
 In t^at (Old High Gennan teta) is preserved a solitary relic of the original reduplication 
 of the preterit tense (as also in our corresponding word did) : its final t is that of the root ; 
 its initial t§ (t) that of the reduplicating syllable. See iAe author's "Language and the 
 Study of Language," p. 268. 
 
 Formation and Inflection of the Simple Yerbal Forms. 
 
 268. Present Tense. 
 
 The first person singular and all the plural persons of 
 the present indicative, together with the whole of the pre- 
 
116 VERBS. [268- 
 
 sent subjunctive, are, without exception, regularly formed 
 (see 237), and need no remark. But the second and third 
 persons singular of the indicative are subject to various 
 irregularities. 
 
 1. Verbs having e as radical vowel in the first person change it 
 to'te or i in the second and third — short e becoming t, and long e 
 becoming te (that is, long i ; see 18) : thus, l^etfe, ^tffft, ^tlft ; ftetjte, 
 ftie^lft, ftieljtt ; efjen, tffeft, i^t ; fe'^en, fie^ft, fie^t. But 
 
 a. A few verts leave the e unchanged: namely, gel^eii, jiel^en, l^eben, 
 hJcBen, <)flcgen, beiregen, ntelfen, genefen — besides a few which here, as In 
 others of their forms, follow the New conjugation. 
 
 b. Two or three verba that have long e in the first person shorten it to 
 i in the second and third : namely, nc^men, nimmft, ntmtnt ; tveten, trtttft, 
 ttttt. @eben makes either gtebft, giebt, or gibft, gibt. 
 
 2. Verbs having a as radical vowel in the first person modify 
 
 it (to a) in the second and third : thus, tragc, trogft, tragt ; Ia[fen, 
 
 tcigeft, la^t. But 
 
 a. The a remains unchanged in {(fjaffen and [c^oUeit, and sometimes in 
 lobcn and maljlen. ' 
 
 3. Saufen, faufeti, and flo^ett also modify the vowel in the same persons : 
 tontmen does so sometimes, but not according to the best usage : erIo|i^en 
 forms erltfiileft, etlifc^t. 
 
 4. gttegcn and about a dozen other verbs of its class (III.3) have a 
 second and third person in eu — as fliege, fteugft, fteugt ; liige, teugfl, Icugt — 
 which are now antiquated and only met with in archaic and poetic style. 
 One or two that have roots ending in ^, change this letter to cb after eu, 
 
 5. The tendency to reject the e of the endings eft and et is stronger in 
 these persons with altered vowel than anywhere else in conjugation. The 
 e of eft is rarely retained except after a sibilant — as in erlifi^Efi, Icigeft, given 
 above. The e of et is always omitted, even when preceded by t, t^, b ; 
 hence, after these letters, the t, being no longer audible, is also dropped in 
 writing. 
 
 The verbs which thus lose the ending of the third pers. sing. pres. iudi- 
 cative are fcc^tcn, fi(^t : berften, bitft ; fled^tcn, flt^t ; getten, gttt ; fd)Elten, 
 fc^itt ; merben, Msitb ; fatten, ^ott ; ratten, rttt^ ; braten, brot ; bieten, beut. 
 Only (aben forms labt. 
 
 269. Preterit Tense. 
 
 I. 1. The preterit indicative is formed by the change 
 of radical vowel alone, without an added termination, and 
 therefore ends in the final letter of the root, whatever that 
 may be. But 
 
269] OLD CONJUGATION. 117 
 
 a. A few roots, ending in the infinitive with a double consonant, 
 and lengthening their vowel in the preterit, reduce the double 
 consonant to a single one : namely, f^recfeu, fci^raf ; treffen, traf ; 
 Bitten, 6at ; bacfen, buf ; f^affen, fc{)uf ; fallen, fiet ; fontnten, foni. 
 
 b. A few others (fifteen), on the contrary, shortening their 
 vowel in the preterit, double the following consonant; and three 
 of them, ending in b, change it to tt : namely, teiben, Ittt ; fi)net5 
 ben, f,^nitt ; ficben, fott. 
 
 AH of these save three (trtefen and fteben, III.3 ; and faufen, 111.4) are 
 of division 111.1 : e. g., reiten, titt, gcritten (ride, rode, ridden). 
 
 c. More isolated cases are jie^en, jog ; ^ouen, Ijieb ; fi^en, fa^. For 
 g^cn, ging ; fteljen, ftanb ; tl^un, t^at, see 267. 
 
 2. The second person singular strongly inclines to the abbrevi- 
 ated form of the ending, ft instead of eft, and in ordinary use re- 
 jects the e except after a sibilant or in order to avoid a very harsh 
 combination of consonants. 
 
 3. Traces of an ending e in the first and third persons are, very rarely, 
 met with; especially fal)e, for fa^, 'saw:' also ^telte (R. 89.10). Por ttui'be, 
 from toerben, see 239Ac. 
 
 4. A few verbs have a double form in the preterit, of which 
 one is in more common use, the other archaic or provincial. 
 
 But fcfjIBor and fdjttiur, are of nearly equal authority: of the others, those 
 most often met with are ^u6, for l)oB (^eben, III.5), and' ftunb, for ftatib 
 (ftetien). 
 
 This double form (as in like cases in English : e. g., began or beffun) is due to the fact 
 that in the ancient laiiguage many verbs had different Towels in the singular and plural 
 of the preterit indicative, both of which, in the Liter usage, appear in either number of a 
 few verbs. The vowel of 'the subjunctive preterit agreed with that of the indicative plu- 
 ral, not the singular : whence the double forma of the subjunctive, noted below. 
 
 ir. 1. The preterit subjunctive is regularly formed from 
 the indicative by adding e (in the first person), and modi- 
 fying the vowel, if the latter be capable of modification : 
 thus, fang, fange ; fa^, fof)e ; fdilug, fi^Wge ; ftet, fiele ; flog, 
 fliige ; f(i)Wor or f^wur, fd)Wore or fdEiWiire ; t^at, t^ate. But 
 
 a. Some verbs have a double form of the subjunctive, of which one dif- 
 fers in vowel from the indicative : thus, all in division 1.2 have a second in 
 — e. g., fpann, j^jonne or fpiinne — which is as common as that in ci, or 
 more so ; and others (especially in 1.3) have second forms in ii or ii : e. g., 
 golt, galte or gottc, Wovb, Itiorbe or hiiirbe. All that have two indicative 
 forms have the two corresponding subjunctives : thus, ftanbe and ftiinbe, 
 lijbe and ^iibe. 
 
 The reason of this has been explained above : the subjunctive has sometimes retained 
 the old vowel of the indicative plural, instead of becoming assimilated, with the latter, to 
 the indicative uiagular. 
 
118 VEEBS. [270- 
 
 270. Imperative. 
 
 1. The imperative singular regularly ends in e, the plural in et 
 or t, adding those endings respectively to the root of the verb as 
 shown in the infinitive : thus, fingen, finge ; fd^togcn, fdjtage ; ru= 
 fen, rufe ; fommcn, fomtne ; gc^en, gc^e. But 
 
 2. Verbs which in the second pers. sing, of the pres. indicative 
 change e to i or ie (268.1) take the latter also in the imperative 
 singular (not in the plural) — at the same time rejecting the e of 
 the ending. 
 
 Thus, f)etfen, ^ilf ; fleljten, fiie^t ; effen, ig ; lel^en, fte^. 
 
 So, also, verbs that have an archaic second person in eu (268.4), have a 
 corresponding archaic imperative : thus, flicgen, fitcge or fteug. @rIo|d)en 
 (268.3) forms ertifd). But verbs that modify a, an, o to fi, ou, o (268.2,3) 
 retain in the imperative the unchanged vowel and the ending : thus, tragen, 
 trage ; laufcn, laufe ; ftogen, ftoge. 
 
 a. Exceptions are : toerben (totrft) has mcrbe ; jc^en (fieljfl) has either 
 ftc^e or fiel). 
 
 3. The e of the singular ending is dropped much more freely 
 in the other verbs of this than in those of the New conjugation, 
 and in some — as fomnt, la^ — ^is almost 'never used. 
 
 271. Past Participle. 
 
 1. The ending of the participle is en. 
 
 The e of the ending is ordinarily retained in all cases, but may 
 be occasionally dropped, especially after a vowel or ^ : thus, ge=: 
 Je^en or gefel^n. When, however, the participle is used as an ad- 
 jective and declined, it is subject to the same abbreviation as 
 other adjectives ending in en (120.3) : thus, Bergongner Sage, 'of 
 past days ; ' t)erfd)Wunbner 'iprad^t, ' of vanished splendor.' 
 
 2. A number of participles share in the irregular changes of a 
 final radical consonant exhibited by the preterit : namely 
 
 a. All those that shorten in the preterit the vowel of the infinitive 
 (269.1.16): thus, rciten, ritt, geritten ; leiben, titt, gelitten ; foufen, joff, nc= 
 foffen. 
 
 l. Of those that lengthen the vowel (269.1.1a), only one, namely bitten, 
 bot, gebcten ;— but tveffen, traf, getvoffen ; fotten, fiel, gefatten, etc. 
 
 c. Also, jte^en (jog), gejogen; ftfeeit (fa6), gefcffen ; gel)ett (gtttg), gegan. 
 geit ; fte^en (ftanb), geftanben ; tl)un (tljot), gct^an. 
 
 3. (Sffen, 'eat,' Inserts g in the participle : thus gegeffen (for ge=effen). 
 
 272. Mixed Conjugation. 
 
 The same tendency which has converted a large number of the 
 "irregular" verbs in English into "regular" has been active, 
 
273] OLD CONJUGATION. 119 
 
 though to a much less degree, in German also. Besides those 
 verbs which have entirely changed their mode of inflection, and 
 therefore no longer require to be made any account of under the 
 Old conjugation, there are others which form a part of their in- 
 flection by the one method and a part by the other, or which 
 have equivalent forms of either conjugation. Thus, 
 
 1. Some have a double series of forms through the whole or nearly the 
 whole- conjugation : the forms of the Old conjugation being then either poe- 
 tic and unusual (as in toeben), or else belonging to the verb in certain spe- 
 cial meanings (as in ttJtegen) or in its intransitive use (as in l)letd)en). 
 
 2. Some have certain forms of either conjugation — especially the second 
 and third pers. ind. present and second sing, imperative, with differences of 
 use as above stated ; m6at often with intransitive meaning for the old 
 forms : such are fd^recEen, Sevbcrben, fieben, to}cl)en, fc^meljen, jc^roeEen, and 
 others. 
 
 3. Some have retained only a participle of the Old conjugation ; and 
 even that in special uses or connections. The participle is in general the 
 form that has maintained itself most persistently. 
 
 These irregularities, as well as those which are explained in 
 more detail above, will be best exhibited in a table of irregu- 
 lar VERBS, given at the end of this volume. 
 
 273. ExaTnjples of Verbs of the Old Conjugation. 
 
 aSinben (1.1). ^omtnen (267.1). 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Sittben, 6anb, geiunben. lomnten, !atn, gefommcru 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present, 'I 
 
 bind,' etc. 
 
 ' I come,' etc. 
 
 S.I 6tnbe 
 
 
 lomntc 
 
 2 binbejt 
 
 
 fomnift 
 
 3 btnbet 
 
 
 fotmtit 
 
 P.I btnben 
 
 
 fommen 
 
 2 btnbet 
 
 
 fontmt 
 
 3 binbett 
 
 
 fomtnen 
 
 Preterit, 'I 
 
 bound,' etc. 
 
 ' I came,' etc. 
 
 S.I banb 
 
 
 tarn 
 
 2 banbft 
 
 
 !amfl 
 
 3 banb 
 
 
 tarn 
 
 P.I banben 
 
 
 fanten 
 
 2 banbet 
 
 
 famt 
 
 3 banbett 
 
 
 tamen 
 
120 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 [273 
 
 Perfect, ' I have bound,' etc. 
 
 ' I have come,' etc 
 
 B. I ^abe gcbunbm 
 
 bin gefontmen 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 Pluperfect, 'I had bound,' etc. 
 
 ' I had come,' etc 
 
 s.i mte gebunbcn 
 
 toax gelommcn 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 Future, ' I shall bind,'' etc. 
 
 ' I shall come,' etc 
 
 S.I rterbe btnben 
 
 toerbe fomnten 
 
 etc 
 
 etc. 
 
 Fui. Perf., ' I shall have bound,' etc. 
 
 ' I shall have come,' etc. 
 
 B.I ttjerbc gcbunben l^aben 
 
 iDerbe gefommen fein 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present, ' I may bind,' etc. 
 
 ' I may come,' eta 
 
 B.I btnbe 
 
 fottime 
 
 2 binbejl 
 
 fommcfl 
 
 3 binbe 
 
 fontme 
 
 P.I binben 
 
 fomnten 
 
 2 binbet 
 
 fommet 
 
 3' binben 
 
 fomnten 
 
 Preterit, ' I might bind,' etc. 
 
 'I might come,' etc. 
 
 8.1 bSnbe 
 
 fame 
 
 2 banbcjl 
 
 famcfl 
 
 3 banbe 
 
 fame 
 
 P.I bSnben 
 
 famen 
 
 2 bonbet 
 
 famet 
 
 3 banben 
 
 famen 
 
 Perfect, 'I may have bound,' etc. 
 
 ' I may have come,' etc 
 
 8.1 ijobt gcbunben 
 
 fet gcfommcn 
 
 etc 
 
 etc. 
 
 Plvperf., 'I might have bound,' etc. 
 
 ' I might have come,' etc. 
 
 S.I ^atte gebunben 
 
 njare gefommcn 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
273] OLD CONJUGATION. 121 
 
 Future, ' I shall bind,' etc. ' I shall come,' etc. 
 
 S.I toerbe 6tnbcn toerbe fomntcn 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 Fhit. Per/., 'I shall have bound,' etc. ' I shall have come,' etc. 
 
 B.I toerbe gebunbm ^aben » toerbe gefommcn fein 
 
 etc. ' etc. 
 
 Conditional. 
 Oonditional, 'I should bind,' etc. ' I should come,' etc. 
 
 S.I iBurbe btnben - lourbe fommctt 
 etc. etc. 
 
 Oond. Perf. 'I shouldhave bound,' etc. 'I should have come,' etc. 
 
 8.1 miirbe gebunben f aben toiirbe ge!ommen fein 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 Imperative. 
 ' bind,' etc. ' come,! etc. 
 
 5.2 binbe fomtne, fontm 
 3 binbe er fomme er 
 
 P.I binben h)ir foramen hiir 
 
 2 binbet fommt 
 
 3 binben fie foramen fie 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Present, ' to bind ' ' to come ' ' 
 
 binben foramen 
 
 Perfect, ' to have bound ' ' to have come ' 
 
 geOunben ^aben getommen fein 
 
 Participles. 
 Present, ' binding ' ' coming ' 
 
 binbenb fommenb 
 
 Past, ' bound ' ' come ' 
 
 gebunben geforamen 
 
 Exercise XVIII. 
 
 Verbs of the Old Conjugation. 
 
 1. SBaS^abenfieinraeincra @arten getfjon? 2. Sinige faj^en auf 
 ben Sanfen, mibere lagen unter ben SSaitmen ; raiv f^)rad)en jnfararaen, 
 unb fangen unfcrc Sicber. 3. SGSciren loir ni^t geforamen, Ijotten fie 
 
 6 
 
122 VEEBS. [274- 
 
 un8 nte gcfunben. 4. (Sr \mx bom 3)a(!^e gefatten, unb Ijatte fid^ ein 
 SBetn gebroc^en ; bie ^leine fiel)t eg, ^el)t i^n, imb triigt if)n in8 $au« ; 
 jet3t tiegt er auf bcni SBettc, unb mujj btet letbcn. 5. §ilf mir, unb 
 icf) merbe btr njteber Ijelfen. 6. ®er SBogel fliegt in ber Suft, bie 
 ^i\d]e f^minimen im SSaffer, unb bie JBiirme fnei)en ouf ber gvbe. 
 7. SBii- moi)ten ^ier blciben unb Pei^ig'fd)veitien. 
 
 Passive Voice. 
 
 274. The passive voice is a derivative conjugation of 
 
 a transitive verb, in wliicli that person or thing which in 
 
 the simple conjugation is the object of the transitive action, 
 
 becomes a subject of the suffering of that action : thus, 
 
 active, ber §unb 6i^ ben Snaben, ' the dog bit tlie boy ; ' 
 
 passive, ber £nabe tourbe Dom §uube gebtffen, ' the boy was 
 
 bitten by the dog.' 
 
 a. That a kind of passive is also formed from some intransitive verbs is 
 pointed out below (279.2,3). 
 
 6. The passive is mainly a grammatical device for directing tte 
 principal attention to the recipient of the action, and the action as 
 affecting him, and putting the actor in a subordinate position. 
 
 275- The German passive, like the English, is formed 
 by the aid of an auxiliary verb — but by a different one, 
 namely the verb wcrben, ' become.' 
 
 276. 1. To form the passive of any verb, its past participle 
 is combined with luerben, throughout the whole conjugation of 
 the latter. In this combination, 
 
 a. The past participle of the auxiliary, wherever it occurs, is 
 abbreviated from geluorben to toorben. 
 
 6. The participle of the main verb is put after the proper 
 verbal forms (simple tenses) of the auxiliary, but before its infini- 
 tives or participles. 
 
 This is in Sccordanoe with the general rule for the position of any word 
 limiting an infinitive or participle: see below, 348.2,358. 
 
 2. Hence, to produce any given person, tense, and mood 
 of the passive of a verb, combine its past participle with 
 the corresponding person, tense, and mood of Wcrbcit. 
 
277] 
 
 PASSIVE. 
 
 123 
 
 277. Synopsis of the Forms of iuerben and of a Passive Verb. 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present, ' I become,' etc. 
 S.I ioerbc 
 Preterit, ' I beoame,' etc. 
 
 S.I luarb, murbe 
 
 Perfect, ' I have become,' etc. 
 S.I 6in geitiorben 
 
 Pluperfect, ' I had become,' etc. 
 B. I toar getBorben 
 
 Futwre, 'I shall become,' etc. 
 S.I merbe Werben 
 
 Fut. Peirf., ' I shall have become,' etc. 
 S.I toerbe gehjorbeu fem 
 
 ' 1 am loved,' etc. 
 tuerbe getiefct 
 
 ' I was loved,' etc. 
 toarb, iDurbe geltebt 
 
 ' I have been loved,' etc.' 
 bin getiebt ftorben 
 
 ' I had been loved,' etc. 
 tDar gefiebt luorben 
 
 ' I shall be loved,' etc. 
 toevbe gelkbt ircrben 
 
 ' I shall have been loved,' etc. 
 Irerbe geltebt hjorben fein 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present, ' I may become,' etc. 
 s.i hjevbe 
 
 Preterit, ' I might become,' etc. 
 S.I toiirbe 
 
 Perfect, ' I may have become,' etc. 
 S.I fct gelDovben 
 
 Pluperfect, 'I might have become,' etc. 
 S.I rtjare getuorben 
 
 Future, ' I shall become,' etc. 
 S.I Jtierbe tuerben 
 
 tilt. Perf., 'I shall have become,' etc. 
 S.I tnerbe getoorben fein 
 
 ' I may be loved,' etc. 
 luerbe getiebt 
 
 ' I might be loved,' etc. 
 hJiirbe geliebt 
 
 ' I may have been loved,' etc. 
 |ei geliebt itjorben 
 
 ' I might have been loved,' etc. 
 iuare geliebt toox-ben 
 
 ' I shall be loved,' etc. 
 hjerbe geliebt tuerben 
 
 ' I shall have been loved,' etc. 
 trerbc geliebt morben fein 
 
 Conditional. 
 Conditional, ' I should become,' etc. ' I should be loved,' etc. 
 
 S.I tDiirbe tuerben tnltrbe geliebt ttjerben 
 
 Gond. Perf., 'I should have become,' etc. ' I should have been loved,' etc. 
 
 5.1 mitrbe geloorbcn fein iDiirbe geliebt hjorben fein 
 
 Imperative. 
 ' become,' etc. ' be loved,' etc. 
 
 5.2 werbc hJcrbc geliebt 
 
124: • VEEB8. [277- 
 
 Infinitives. 
 Present, ' to become ' ' to be loved ' 
 
 toerben gettefit hjerben 
 
 Perfect, ' to have become ' ' to have been loved ' 
 
 getDorben fein gettebt ioorben fein 
 
 Participles. 
 Present, ' becoming ' ' being loved ' 
 
 ttjerbenb gcltebt tuerbenb 
 
 Past, ' become ' ' been loved ' 
 
 gctDorbett getiebt worbcit 
 
 Remarh: gettcbt inorbcn is used only in forming the compound tenses; 
 since the past participle of a transitive verb has by itself a passive value. 
 
 278. The passive voice of a transitive verb has one peculiar 
 form, a kind oi future passive participle, formed from the pre- 
 sent active participle, by putting ju before it: thus, ju Uebenb. It 
 implies a possibility or a necessity : thus, ein' ju Hebenbe^ Sinb, ' a 
 child to be loved ; ' i. e., ' which may or should be loved.' It can 
 only be used as an attributive adjective, and therefore hardly de- 
 serves to be called a participle ; it is, rather, a participial adjective. 
 
 It iB in reality a quite modem and anomatouB derivative from the infinitive, answering 
 attributively to the infinitive with ju taken »redicatively (343.111.14) : as, baa ftinb i(l 
 JU licbcn, ' the cliild is to be loved ; ' i. e., ' may or should be loved.' 
 
 279. 1. Transitive verbs, with hardly an exception, may form 
 a passive voice, with a complete scheme of conjugation, as given 
 above. 
 
 §abcn, ' have,' is not used in the passive. 
 
 2. Many intransitives (especially such as denote a mode of ac- 
 tion by a person) may form an impersonal passive — thatns, a pas- 
 sive third person singular, with indefinite subject eS, or with omit- 
 ted subject. 
 
 Thus, c8 Wurbe j)elad)t unb gcjiragcn, 'there was laughing and singing;' 
 ittn Slntroort Wirb gebeten, 'an'ausw'er is requested.' 
 
 a. These passives do not represent any subject as suffering an action, but 
 simply represent the action, without reference to an actor. 
 
 3. Those intransitives which, by a pregnant construction (227. 
 26), govern an accusative along with a factitive predicite, are also 
 convertible into passives in corresponding phrases : thus, fie lucr^ 
 ben a\\% bcm ©c()Iafe gefd)i'iecn, ' they fire screamed out of sleep ; ' 
 cr luuvbe fvet gefprodjcn, ' be was acquitted (declared free).' 
 
282] PASSIVE. • 125 
 
 280. 1. Verbs which govern two accusatives (227.3), except le'^ren, 
 take in the passive the second accusative, either as object (fragen, etc.), or as 
 predicate nominative (iiennEli, etc.). 
 
 2. Transitive verbs which, in addition to their direct object, govern a 
 genitive (219.2) or a dative (222.1.1), retain the latter along -yith the 
 passive : thus, ber ®tener rourbe be8 ®te6fta^t8 angcllogt, ' the servant was 
 accused of robbery; ' oUe8 loirb einem greunbe erlaubt, 'everything is per- 
 mitted to a friend.' 
 
 3. Of the intransitives that form an impersonal passive, such as govern 
 a genitive or dative take the same ease in the passive : thus, eS mirb 
 ijieiiter gefd)ont, ' I am spared ; ' i^m TOurbe ge^olfen, ' he was helped.' 
 
 281. The passive is very much less frequently used in Grerman than in 
 English, being replaced by other modes of speech. Sometimes a full active 
 expression, with subject and object, is employed instead. Most often, the 
 intent of tlie passive form of speech is attained by using an active verb with 
 the indefinite subject tnmt, 'one,' etc. (185): thus, man |ogt, 'it is said;' 
 eilt ®efc(j, tt)elrf)e8 man erlieg, ' a law which was passed.' Not infrequently, 
 a reflexive phrase is substituted, the return of the action upon the subject 
 being accepted as signifying the latter's endurance of the action : thus, eS 
 fragt fid), ' it is questioned (asks itself) ; ' ber @d)Iiiffel I)Ot fti^ gefunben, 
 ' the key has been found.' 
 
 282. 1. By its use of luerbcn, ' become,' instead of fetn, ' be,' as auxi- 
 hary forming the passive, the Grerman is able clearly to distinguish between 
 the actual endurance of an action, and existence in a state which is the 
 result of such action. Thus, alle genfter werben naiij unb ttac^ mit 2:et)^td)En 
 be^angt, ' all windows are by degrees hung with tapestry ; ' and ttiie ntle 
 genfter tnit Kcppic^en BehSngt ftnb, ' as all the windows are hung with 
 tapestry' (R. 158); etngeiaben tourbett fte, 'they were invited,' and einge= 
 label! ftnb fie ott', ' they are aU invited ' (R. 50) — the latter phrases, in either 
 pair, signifying the condition to which the act described by the former led. 
 As we use the same verb, to be, in both senses, of copula and of passive 
 auxiliary (accepting the simple statement of the resulting condition as suf- 
 ficiently implying the suffering of the action), our expression is liable to 
 ambiguity — an ambiguitj' which we are sometimes forced into removing by 
 the use of the clumsy and objectionable phrase ' to be being : ' thus distin- 
 guishing it is being cleaned (eg tntrb gereinigt) from ii is cleaned (ea tft geret= 
 nigt). And our sense of the distinction is so obscured that the English 
 piipil finds it one of his peatest difficulties to know when to translate to be 
 before a participle by fettt, and when by toerben. Only assiduous practice 
 in noting the distin&tion as made in German will remove this difScidty. A 
 practical rule which will answer in a great number of cases is this : if, on 
 turning the expression into an active form, the same tense (pres. orpret.) is 
 required, it was passive and requires toevben ; if the tense has to be changed 
 to a perfect (perf. or plup.), fetn is the proper word. Thus tliey were invited 
 is fie ttiurben eingelaben when it means ' I invited them,' but jte Woren ein» 
 gelaben when it means 'I had invited them ; ' and finb is used in eingeloben 
 finb fte aH', because it means, ' I have invited them.' 
 
 The German itself sometimes loosely accepts the statement of condition, 
 with the pres. or pret. of fetit, in heu of the fuU passive expression in perf. 
 or pluperfect. Thus, ber %\\6) roar gefangen, ' the fish had been caught' 
 
126 
 
 VEEBS. 
 
 [282- 
 
 (for luar gefongen tnorben) ; fit tfl ermovbet auf bet Sonbner ©trage, 
 has been murdered, in London street.' 
 
 she 
 
 EEFLEXIVE VEEBS. 
 
 283. A reflexive verb is one that represents the action 
 as exerted by the subject upon itself. 
 
 1. Such, verbs are grammatically transitive, since they take an 
 ohject in the accusative : they all, then, take (jaben as their auxi- 
 liary. 
 
 2. Logically, they are rather to be regarded as intransitive, since they do 
 not signify an action exerted by the subject upon any object outside of 
 itself: thus icf) fiir^te mtdj (literally, 'I frighten myself), 'I am afraid.' Is 
 in idea as much intransitive as tl^ Jtttcre, ' I tremble.' And, as noticed 
 above (281), a reflexive verb is often used even in a passive sense, the idea 
 of the endurance of the action on the part of the subject being more con- 
 spicuous to the mind than that of its exertion of the action. 
 
 284. Such a verb, therefore, takes as its object a re- 
 flexive pronoun, of the same person, nyinber, and gender 
 with its subject. 
 
 1. The reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons are the same as 
 the personal; that of the third person is fid), in both numbers (155). 
 
 2. The reflexive pronoim is placed where any other pronoun 
 would be placed as object of the verb: namely, after the verb in 
 the simple tenses, but before the infinitives and participles. 
 
 285. Conjugation of a Reflexive Verb. 
 
 ©icf) freuen, ' to rejoice ' ('rejoice one's self). 
 Principal Parts. 
 <S>ii) freuen, freute fic^, gefreut. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 S.I i^ freue mid) ■< 
 
 2 bu freucft bid) 
 
 3 er freut \\i) 
 P.I mir freuen unS 
 
 2 if)i- freut euc^ 
 
 3 fie freuen fid) 
 
 S.I id) freute mid) 
 
 etc. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Preterit. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 id^ freue mi^ 
 bu freueft bid) 
 er freuc fid) 
 tuir freuen unS 
 i()r freuet end) 
 fie freuen fid^ 
 
 i6] freucte mtc^ 
 etc. 
 
285] 
 
 REFLEXIVES. 
 
 127 
 
 S.I id) ^6e mtc^ gefreut 
 
 2 bu ^aft btc^ gefreut 
 
 3 er ^at fic^ gefreut 
 P.I tuir ^aben un8 gefreut 
 
 2 i^r l^abt eu^ gefreut 
 
 3 fie ^aben fi^ gefreut 
 
 S.I x(ij ^atte ntid^ gefreut 
 etc. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 S.I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 P.I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 S.I 
 
 S.I 
 
 t^ ^abc mid) gefreut 
 bu Ijabeft bid) gefreut 
 er ^abe fid) gefreut 
 toir ^aben unS gefreut 
 if|r t)abet eu^ gefreut 
 fie ^aben fid) gefreut 
 
 tc^ l^atte mic^ gefreut 
 etc. 
 
 i^ h)erbe mi^ frcuen 
 bu ttierbeft bid^ freuen 
 er hjerbe fid) freuen 
 intr ttierben unS freuen 
 t^r tncrbet eu^ freuen 
 fie Werben fid) freuen 
 
 i^ hjerbe niic^ freuen 
 bu ttiirfl bi^ freuen 
 er ttjirb fid^ freuen 
 h)ir werben un« freuen 
 i^r toerbet en^ freuen 
 fie iBerben fi^ frcuen 
 
 Futv/re Perfect. 
 
 \i) tnerbc mid) gefreut t)aben t^ njerbe mtc^ gefreut ^aben 
 
 etc. eta 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 CondUiondl. Conditional Perfect. 
 
 ic^ hjiirbe mi\ freuen id) wurbe mi^ gefreut §oben 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 Imperative. 
 Singular. Plv/ral. 
 
 1 freuen wir unS 
 
 2 freue bic^, freue bu bid) freut eu^, frcut i^r eu^ 
 
 3 freue er fic^ freuen fie fi^ 
 
 IirFINITIVE. 
 Present. Perfect. 
 
 fid^ freuen fid) gefreut ^aben 
 
 Participles. 
 Present. Past. 
 
 fid) freuenb fic^ gefreut 
 
 Remarks. 1. The reflexive pronoun ia not given with the participle in 
 the principal parts, since, that participle being in transitive verbs of a passive 
 character, it can take no object eicept as used with an auxiliary in forming 
 the compound tenses. 
 
128 VERBS. [285- 
 
 2. The jtd^ given with the infinitives and participles is, of course, only- 
 representative of the whole body of reflexive pronouns, with all of which 
 those forms, not being restricted to any one person or number, may be con- 
 strued. 
 
 286. Any transitive verb in the language may be used re- 
 flexively, or take a reflexive pronoun as object ; but none are 
 properly regarded as reflexive verbs except 
 
 1. Those which are only used with a reflexive object: as, 
 fx^ f c^antcn, ' be ashamed ; ' fic^ fetpen, ' long ; ' fic^ triberfegeu, 
 ' resist.' 
 
 2. -Those which are usually or often used reflexively, and have 
 a special meaning in that use, the object not maintaining its inde- 
 pendence, but combining with the verb to form a single concep- 
 tion, the equivalent of an intransitive verb : as, fid) £)iiten, ' be- 
 ware' (^iiten, 'guard') ; fid) ftelten, 'make believe, pretend' (ftet 
 len, ' place ') ; fic^ berlaffen, ' rely ' (oerlaffcit, ' quit '). 
 
 287. 1. A reflexive verb is thus often related to the simple verb as a 
 corresponding intransitive to a transitive — thus, freuEtt, 'give pleasure to,' 
 fid) freueti, 'feel pleasure;' fui:d)ten, 'fear,' fid) fiitd)ten, 'be afraid.' But 
 
 2. A few are intransitive, and of nearly the same meaning, both as simple 
 verbs and as reflexives : thus, irren and fid) ivren, 'be mistaken; ' nal)eii and 
 ft(| uo^en, ' draw nigh ; ' jonieit and fti^ J0lt!en, ' quarrel.' 
 
 288. 1. An intransitive verb is much more often used transitively 
 (227.26) with a reflexive object than with one of another character : thus, 
 er arbeitet uiib Iciuft fid) tobt, 'he works and runs himself to death ; ' bu fottft 
 bt(^ emtnal fatt effen, ' thou shalt eat thyself to repletion for once.' 
 
 2. An intransitive reflexive is sometimes used impersonally instead of an 
 intransitive passive (279.2), especially with adverbs of manner, to express 
 the action itself, without reference to a subject : thus, c8 ton jt fil^ l)ter gut, 
 ' it is good dancing here ; ' tebljaft traumt ftd)'S unter biefem Saitm, ' it is 
 lively dreaming under this tree ; ' e8 fiel)t fid) gar ortig in bie j?utfd)en Ijinciii, 
 ' it ia very pretty looking into the carriages.' 
 
 289. 1. A considerable number of reflexive verbs take an ad- 
 ditional remoter object (impersonal) in the genitive (219.3). 
 
 n. The construction of a reflexive verb with the genitive is notably easier 
 than of the same verb used otherwise than reflexively — thus, id) eritluevE 
 mid) meineS SBcrgc^cn8, 'I remember (remind myself of) my fault,' but \ii] 
 ertimere il)n on fcin SSergel^en, 'I remind him of his fault' — yet many of 
 these also frequently make their construction by the aid of a preposition, 
 and many others admit only a prepositional construction : thus,- id) Ucvloffe 
 mid) auf t^n, 'I rely on him.' 
 
 2. Only two or three reflexives take a remoter object in the dative: such 
 are fii^ nat|eii, 'approach,' fid) iuiberje^en, 'oppose,' fid) bcqucmcn, 'submit.' 
 
292] IMPEBSONALS. 129 
 
 290. A small number of verbs are used witb a reflexive ob- 
 ject in the dative, in a manner quite analogous witb tbe true re- 
 flexive verbs, and therefore form a class of improper reflexives. 
 
 a. Most of these require in addition a direct object in the accusative : thus, 
 tt^ moge mtc leiii Unrest an, 'I make no unjust claim; ' ti^ bilbe imr bo3 
 ni(f)t eii!, 'I do not imagine that;'' bu getrmieft bit Uiel, 'thou darestmuch.' 
 But fid^ fd^meidjeln, ' flatter one's self,' is intransitive. 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 291. 1. An impersonal verb, or a verb used imperson- 
 ally, is one by means of which the action implied in the 
 verb is represented as exerted, without reference to a sub- 
 ject or actor. 
 
 2. Such a verb stands always in the third person singu- 
 lar, and either without a subject, or, more usually, with 
 the indefinite subject eS, 'it.' 
 
 Thus, e8 regnet, ' it rains,' i. e. ' there is rain falling ; ' eS Itoflft, ' it 
 knocks,' i.0. ' there is a knocking; ' am OongcS buftet'8 unb teui^tet'8, ' on 
 the Ganges are sweet odors and shining sights ; ' mid) biintt, ' me seems,' 
 i.e. 'it seems to me; ' i^n ^ungerte, 'him hungered,' i.e. 'he was hungry.' 
 
 292. No verbs in German are absolutely and exclusive- 
 ly impersonal : verbs impersonally used may be classified 
 as follows : 
 
 1. Verbs describing the phenomena of nature, which are almost 
 invariably impersonal in virtue of their meaning : thus, eg ^agelt, 
 ' it hails ; ' e8 f)at gefdineit, ' it has snowed ; ' eS toirb bonnern unb 
 bliljen, ' it will thunder and lighten.' 
 
 2. Certain verbs which by the idiom of the language are ordi- 
 narily used in an impersonal form : as bitnten and baud^ten, ' seem ; ' 
 gedtften, ' desire ; ' gclingen, ' prove successful ; ' and a number of 
 verbs signifying personal conditions and feelings, as pungent, 
 ' hunger,' biirften, ' thirst,' frieren, ' freeze,' fc^iuinbeln, ' be giddy,' 
 graucn, ' be horror-struck,' etc. 
 
 a. All this class of impersonals take an object designating the person 
 affected by their action, or the subject -of the feeling or condition they 
 describe : some take an accusative, others a dative, others either an accusa- 
 tive or dative (222.II.le; 227.2c) : thus, mt(^ geliiftete nid)t nad) bem t^eiivcn 
 joljn, ' I should not long for the costly prize ; ' biicftet beinen geinb, \a ttante 
 iftn, ' if thine enemy is thirsty, give him to drink ; ' mir grauet Bor bcr ©otter 
 5Keibe, 'I dread the envy of the gods; ' e8 biintt mir or mti^, 'it seems 
 to me.' 
 
 6'* 
 
130 VEEB8. [292- 
 
 3. Almost any verb, transitive or intransitive, is liable to occur 
 in impersonal use — if transitive, along with its ordinary object. 
 
 Thus, iBte fte^t'8 mit ben ©ottern, ' how fares it with the gods ? ' erge^t'8 
 eud) Wot)l, ' if it goes well with you ; ' e9 fet)lte an §o[j, ' there was lack of 
 wood; ' pto^ltc^ rent eg fid) tm 3lof)re, 'suddenly there is a rustling in the 
 reeds ; ' e8 treifet tl)n ben *Prei8 ju erWerben, ' he is impelled to gain the 
 prize;' eS crforbert eine ®rel)ung, 'it requires a turning;' e8 bebutf ber 
 2tnnat)me nid^t, ' it needs not the assumption.' 
 
 a. The very comraon use of C8 gtebt, ' it gives ' (i. e. ' there are given or 
 furnished '), in the sense of ' there is or are,' with following accusative, requires 
 special notice: thus, ba gob e9 ©c^outclftii^Ie, 'there were roeking-chairs 
 there; ' e3 gtebt biele, bie alter ftnb, ' there are many who are older;' baf3 e§ 
 tncntger S^viften gcibe al8 ©aracenen, ' that there were fewer Christians than 
 Saracens.' 
 
 4. Impersonal pbrases formed witb the verbs fein and trerben 
 along with adverbial or adjective adjuncts, describing personal 
 conditions or states of feeling, and always accompanied by a da- 
 tive designating the person to whom such conditions belong, are 
 very frequent. 
 
 Thus, mit ift ganj anberS ju aJJutl^, ' I feel quite otherwise (it is to me 
 quite otherwise in mind);' t^m War fo bange, 'he was so apprehensive ; ' 
 rete mtr wo^t tfl, 'how well I feel I ' ttiie ift mir benn, 'how is it with me 
 then ? ' — nun Wirb mtr immer bSnger, ' now I grow more and more anxious ; ' 
 mie nie^ mirb mir, ' how I am beginning to suffe'r I ' je tdltcr e8 ift, befto 
 ^eiger Wtrb mit, ' the colder it is, the hotter 1 become ; ' il)m tjl'8, ol8 ob'S 
 t^n ^tniiberrtef, ' he feels as if he were invited across.' 
 
 6. Impersonal expressions are often made from intransitive verbs 
 in a passive or reflexive form (see 279.2, 288.2). 
 
 Thus, Ijcnte Stbenb TOtrb getanjt tnerben, 'there will be dancing this 
 evening ; ' e8 flfet fil^ [d)Iec^t bter, ' it is disagreeable sitting here.' 
 
 293. The impersonal subject ti is (as is abundantly shown by 
 the examples already given) very often omitted — not, however, 
 with the impersonals describing the phenomena of nature; nor, 
 generally, with verbs which are not of common use in impersonal 
 form : but, as a rule, with verbs which are of common impersonal 
 use, whenever the eg would, by the rules for the arrangement of 
 the sentence, come elsewhere than in its natural place next before 
 the verb. 
 
 That is, especially in the cases mentioned in sections 2, 4, and 5 of the 
 last paragraph, whenever the object of the impersonal verb, or an adjunct 
 qualifying the verb, is placed before it — and the putting of the object first, 
 with consequent omission of e8, is the more usual construction. 
 
 294. Since the impersonal verb represents the simple action 
 without reference to an acting subject, such impersonals as take 
 
297] IMPEESONALS. 131 
 
 an object, dii-ect or indirect, representing the person or thing 
 affected by the action or condition, are virtually equivalent to pas- 
 sives or intransitives, having that person or thing as their subject 
 — and they often may or must be so rendered in English. 
 
 Many of the examples given above have been so rendered, and those 
 ■with jettt or loerben hardly admit of being treated otherwise : thus, funher, 
 eS erforbett eine !SreI)ung,. ' a turning is required ; ' eg bcbarf bev itunaljnie 
 nicf)t, ' the assumption is not needed.' 
 
 295. A verb haviUg the indefinite subject e9, 'it,' is not always 
 to be regarded as impersonal: the e9 sometimes represents indefinitely a 
 subject which is contemplated by the mind, and admits of being deflnitely 
 stated : yet more often, e9 is a grammatical subject only, standing for a 
 logical subject which is to be stated later, whether a substantive clause, an 
 infinitive clause^ or a simple substantive : thus, e8 freut ung, bag @te Ijier 
 fiitb, ' it rejoices us that you are here ; ' eg freut ung, @ie jii je^eu, ' it re- 
 joices us to see you ; ' eg freut ung biefe S'Jadjridjt, ' this news rejoices us.' 
 
 ExERCISB XIX. 
 
 Passive, Meflexive, and Impersonal Verbs. 
 
 1. jDer fleigt^e (Sd)iiler mkh geto6t, a6er man tabelt ben Mgen. 
 2. ®er 33rief mxt 6atb gef^rkben tocrben ; unb foBalb er gef^rieben 
 ift, mirb er Don un8 jur 'i)3oft getragen toerben. 3. SDaS ^u^ ttJtrb 
 je^t gebrucft, unb hjtrb batb ooEenbet fein. 4. ©tefer §ut ift Derfauft, 
 unb tann nic^t gc!auft njerben. 5. SBtr frenten un§, afe er fo gelobt 
 ttjurbe ; man (obte itjn voiii feine ?lufgaben gut gefrf)rieben waren. 6. 
 ■3(^ f^'ame mid), fo oft baaon gcfproc^en wirb. 7. S)u follteft btc^ 
 f^amcn ate bte X^at get^an wurbe ; unb jeijt mieber, hjeit fie get£)an 
 ift ; nt^t nur, rocnn fie toon anbern befprDd)en njtrb. 8. SBer ift bie= 
 fer aJJann ; t(^ ertnnere mi^ feiner nt^t. 
 
 COMPOUND VERBS. 
 
 296. Verbs, in German, admit of composition with various 
 other parts of speech — with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. The 
 importance and frequent use of certain classes of these com- 
 pounds render it necessary that they be treated here, rather than 
 later, under the general subject of the composition of words. 
 
 297. Vei'bs are compounded especially with a class of 
 elements called prefixes. These are all of kindred deri- 
 vation, being originally adverbs, words signifying place or 
 direction ; but they have become divided in modern iise 
 into two well-marked classes ; 
 
132 
 
 VEEBS. 
 
 [297- 
 
 1. Prefixes which are also employed as independent 
 parts of speech, adverbs or prepositions. These form a 
 less intimate union with the verb, being separable from it 
 in many of its forms; they are therefore called sep arable 
 PREFIXES, and a verb in combination with them is said to 
 
 be SEPAEABLT COMPOUNDED. 
 
 2. Prefixes which, in their present form, occur only in 
 combination with verbs, and never admit of separation 
 from verbal forms (or verbal derivatives) : they are called 
 iNSEPAiSABLE PREFIXES, and the verb with them is said to^ 
 
 be mSEPAEABLT COMPOUNDED. But 
 
 3. A few independent prefixes sometimes form with verbs 
 combinations after the manner of the inseparable prefixes, 
 and therefore require to be treated as a class by themselves. 
 
 Verbs separably Compounded. 
 
 298. The class of separable prefixes is divided into two sub- 
 classes, simple and compound. 
 
 1. The simple separable prefixes (including those sometimes 
 also used as inseparable — see 308 etc.) are : 
 
 ab, ' off, down ' 
 an, ' on, at ' 
 auf, 'up, upon' 
 au8, ' out, from ' 
 bet, ' by, beside, with ' 
 
 ^" °''i' there, at' 
 bar, ) 
 
 burc^, 'through' 
 
 ein, ' in, into ' 
 
 em()or, 'up, aloft' 
 
 entjwei, ' in two, apart ' 
 
 fort, ' forth, away ' 
 gcgctt, 'against' 
 in, ' in ' 
 ^eim, ' home ' 
 l)cr, ' toward one ' 
 ^in, ' from one ' 
 Ijintcr, 'behind' 
 mit, ' with ' 
 nad), ' after ' 
 ttteber, ' down ' 
 
 ob, ' over, on ' 
 
 iiber, ' over ' 
 
 um, ' around ' 
 
 unter, ' under ' 
 
 Bor, ' before ' 
 
 Iriber or ) ' against ' or 
 
 tuiebcr, ) ' again ' 
 
 ircg, 'away' 
 
 gu, 'to' 
 
 juriiif, 'back' 
 
 jufamnien, 'together' 
 
 2. The compound separable prefixes are 
 
 a._ Conjbinations of many of the above with one another, especially with 
 the words of more general direction or place \)tx, \)\n, ba or bar, Dor: as 
 l^eran, Ijinon, baron, Boran. 
 
 6. One or two combinations of the above with preceding inseparable 
 prefixes: namely, beBor, 'before,' cntgegcn, 'agaiust' (this, however, is 
 really derived from in^gegcn). 
 
300] SEPAEABLE COMPOUNDS. 133 
 
 c. SajhJtfc^cn, ' between ' (jroifc^en by itself is not used aa a prefix), and 
 I)inton, ' belimd ' (contracted from ^inten an). 
 
 Note that, of those given in the list above, several are really compound 
 adverbs (empor, entjmet, gutitd, jufainmen), although not made up of two 
 different prefixes. . 
 
 299. Conjugation of Verbs compounded with Separable Pre- 
 fixes. 
 
 The conjugation of a compound verb is in general the 
 same with that of the simple verb : only one or two mat- 
 ters regarding the treatment of the prefix require notice : 
 
 1. The prefix stands before the verb in the infinitive 
 and both participles, but after it in all the other simple 
 forms. 
 
 a. ,In the former case, the prefix is written with the verb as a 
 single word ; in the latter case it is, of course, separated from it ; 
 and, if the verb be followed by other adjuncts — as objects, ad- 
 verbs, etc. — the prefix usually and regularly stands last, at the end 
 of the whole clause : thus, from anfangen, ' begin,' tc^ fanne an, 
 'I begin;' ic^ fing btcfen SKorgen friil) ju ftubiren an, 'I began 
 early this morning to study.' 
 
 b. But if, by the rules for the arrangement of the sentence 
 (434), the verb is transposed, or removed to the end, it comes, 
 even in the simple forms, to stand after its prefix, and is then 
 written as one word with it : thus, ofe ic^ biefen SRorgen frii^ ju 
 ftubiren anfing, 'as I began to study early this morning.' 
 
 2. The ordinary sign of the past participle, ge, is inserted 
 between the separable prefix and the root ; also the sign 
 of the infinitive, 3U, whenever used. 
 
 Thus, angefongen, ' begun ; ' anjufangen, ' to begin : ' in the lat- 
 ter case, as the example shows, the verb is written along with its 
 infinitive sign and prefix, as one word. 
 
 3. The prefix has the principal accent. 
 
 300. Examples: onfangett, 'begin' (II.3); '^eraramfien, 
 
 ' draw nigh.' 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 onfangen, fing an, angefangen l^eranna^en, na^tc tjeran, tjerangenafjt. 
 
134 
 
 VEKBS. 
 
 [300- 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Present, 'I begin,' etc. 
 
 ' I draw nigh,' etc. 
 
 S.I f tinge an 
 
 na^e ^eran 
 
 2 fongft on 
 
 na^ft ^cran 
 
 3 fangt an 
 
 na^t ()cran 
 
 P.I fangen an 
 
 na^en ^eran 
 
 2 fangt an 
 
 nal)t l^eran 
 
 3 fang en an 
 
 na^en ^cran 
 
 Preterit, 'I began,' etc. ^ 
 
 ' I drew nigh,' etc. 
 
 S.I fing an 
 
 na()te ^eran 
 
 Peifect, ' I have begun,' etc. 
 
 ' I have drawn nigh,' etc. 
 
 S.I (jabe angcfangen 
 
 bin ^crangenaf)t 
 
 Pluperfect, ' I had begun,' etc. 
 
 'I had drawn nigh,' etc. 
 
 S.I tjatte angefangen 
 
 h)ar ^erangenal)t 
 
 Future, ' I shall begin,' etc. 
 
 ' 1 shall draw nigh,' etc. 
 
 S.I merbe anfongen 
 
 hjerbe ^eranna^en 
 
 lut.Perf., ' I shall have begun,' etc. 
 
 ' I shall have drawn nigh,' etc. 
 
 S.I luerbe angefangen ^aben 
 
 JDevbe ^erangeno^t fein 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Present, ' I may begin,' etc. 
 
 ' I may draw nigh,' etc. 
 
 B.I fange an 
 
 naf)e t)cran 
 
 etc., etc. 
 
 etc , etc. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 Conditional, ' I should begin,' etc. 
 
 ' I should draw nigh,' etc. 
 
 S.I iourbe anfangen 
 
 tBuvbe ^evannal)en 
 
 etc., eta 
 
 etc., etc. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 ' begin,' etc. 
 
 ' draw nigh,' etc. 
 
 S.2 fange an, fonge bu an 
 
 nafie tjeran, natje bu l^evan 
 
 3 fange er an 
 
 naljc er ^eran 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 Infinitives. 
 
 Present, ' to begin ' 
 
 ' to draw nigh ' 
 
 anfangen, anjufangeri 
 
 {)cvanna§en, Ijeronjuna'^en 
 
 Perfect, ' to have begun ' 
 
 ' to have drawn nigh ' 
 
 angefangen IjaOen 
 
 I)erangena()t feiu 
 
304] msepaeable compounds. 135 
 
 Participles. 
 Present, ' beginning ' ' drawing nigh ' 
 
 anfangenb ^eranna^enb 
 
 Past, ' begun ' ' drawn nigh. ' 
 
 angefangen f|erangeitat)t 
 
 301. 1. The meaning of the simple verb is often greatly altered by 
 its composition with a prefix, as in onfangcit, 'begin,' literally 'take hold 
 on : ' in other cases, each member of the compound retains its independent 
 meaning nearly unchanged. 
 
 2. When the combination is of the latter character, no absolute line is to 
 be established dividing the employment of the prefix as prefix from its uso as 
 independent adverb : and there are many instances in which the prellx 
 (especiaHy a compound one) is treated in both ways indifferently, and 
 either written with the verb or separated from it ; thus, mo man maEjer 
 l)tnctn gel)t unb fett ^erau« fommt (or, ^inetngef|t, ^erauStommt), 'where one 
 goes in lean and comes out fat' 
 
 Verbs inseparably CoMPOtrNDED. 
 
 302. The inseparable prefixes are be, ent (or ent^)), er, ge, 
 eer, and jer. 
 
 These prefixes are, most of them, traceably descended from those of the 
 other class : their original form and present office will be explained below 
 (307). 
 
 303. They remain in close combination with the verb 
 to which they are attached, through its whole conjugation, 
 forming with it, as their name denotes, an inseparable 
 combination, of which the radical syllable, and not the 
 prefix, receives the accent. Hence, 
 
 1. The sign of the infinitive, jU, is put before the combi- 
 nation (and separated in writing from it), as if it were a 
 simple verb. 
 
 2. The sign of the participle, ge, is omitted altogether. 
 
 Since, as was pointed out above (243.3o), this is never prefixed to an 
 unaccented syllable. Moreover, the ge is itself an inseparable prefix, and 
 no verbal form is ever allowed to have two inseparable prefixes. 
 
 304. Examples : fieginnen, ' begin ' (1.2), toerretfen, 'jour- 
 ney away.' 
 
136 VEEBS. [304- 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 fcegtnnen, 6egann, fcegonnen berreifen, toerreifte, berrcip. 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Beginnc 
 
 berreife 
 
 begann 
 
 berreifte 
 
 I)abe begoimen 
 
 bin berreift 
 
 ^atte begonnen 
 
 ■wax berreift 
 
 loevbe beginnen 
 
 tuerbc berreifen 
 
 wetbe begonnen I)a6cn 
 
 [ nierbe berreift fein 
 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Bcgtnne 
 
 berreife 
 
 beganne or begonne 
 
 berreifete 
 
 etc., etc. 
 
 etc., etc. 
 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 tDiitbc beginnen 
 
 ttiiirbe bcrreifcn 
 
 etc., etc. 
 
 etc., etc. 
 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 beginnc 
 
 berreife 
 
 
 Infinitives. 
 
 beginnen, ju beginnen 
 
 berreifen, ;iu berreifen 
 
 begonnen ^aben 
 
 berreift fein 
 
 
 Participles. 
 
 beginnenb 
 
 berreiferi 
 
 begonnen 
 
 berreift 
 
 305. A few inseparably compounded verbs are further com- 
 pounded with a separable preiix. Such combine the peculiarities 
 of both modes of conjugation, taking no ge in the participle, and 
 interposing ;(u of the infinitive between the two prefixes : thus, 
 anertenncn, ' recognize,' onjuerfcnnen, erfannte on, anerfannt. 
 
 a. Some of these, however — as anbetreffen, ouferff e^cn, auSertcjen, cinBer= 
 letbcn, Borcntl)o(tcn — are never used except hi such verbal forms, or in such 
 arrangements of the sentence, as require the separable prefix to stand before 
 the verb : thus, ol9 St)riftu8 auferftanb, ' when Christ arose ; ' but not 
 (EtjriftuS erftanb auf, ' Christ arose.' 
 
 306. No verb separably compounded is ever further com- 
 pounded with an inseparable prefix. 
 
 The words sometimes given as examples of such composition are really 
 derivatives from nouns: thus, »crab|d)eucn, 'regard with horror,' is not 
 
307] rSfSEPAEABLE PREFIXES. 137 
 
 from a verb abfc^euen, but from the noun 2Ibfc§eu, 'horror;' Beaitftragm, 
 'commission,' in like manner, is from 2tllftra(5, 'an errand, charge; ' benacf)^ 
 ric^tigen, 'inform,' from iJio(i)tid)t, 'news, information,' and so on. 
 
 307. Derivation and Uses of the Inseparable Prefixes. 
 
 1. Tlie inseparable prefixes are elements which have become greatly 
 changed, both in form and in meaning, from their originals, and have acquir- 
 ed such importance in the system of word-formation as to call for special 
 notice in the grammar. 
 
 M.. While they have in part a distinct and clearly definable force in the 
 •ompounds they form, they in part also modify in a very general and indefi- 
 nite way the mehning of the verbs to which they are attached ; and their 
 spheres of use variously approach, and even sometimes overlap, one another. 
 Only their leading applications will be stated below. 
 
 6. These prefixes are also freely used in forming derivative verbs from 
 other parts of speech (see 405) : such derivatives are conjugated in the 
 same manner as the inseparably compounded verbs. 
 
 2. SSe is the same vrith our own prefix he, and of kindred force with the 
 latter; it comes ultimately from the separable prefix arid independent pre- 
 position bei, ' by.' 
 
 a. Prefixed to an intransitive, it adds the meaning of 'upon, about,' or 
 the like, converting the intransitive into a transitive: thus, tlagen, 'moan,' 
 beflageii, 'bemoan; ' ftitgen, 'sing,' bcfiugen, 'sing about, basing.' 
 
 6. Prefixed to a transitive, it changes the direction of the verbal action, 
 converting into a direct object what was only indirectly or remotely the ob- 
 ject of the simple verb: thus, malen, 'paint (a picture),' benmlen, 'paint 
 over (as, a wall) ; ' roubett, ' steal (something from some one),' beraubcn, 
 ' rob (some one of something).' 
 
 c. Rarely, it only slightly modifies the meaning of a verb, usually in tho 
 way of a strengthening or extension of its action : thus, bedeu and bebetfen, 
 'cover;' brfingen and bebrcingen, ' crowd, oppress ; ' bnn'en and bcl)arren, 
 'wait, persist; ' fle^en and Beftet|eu, 'stand, subsist' 
 
 d. Some of its compounds' are restricted to a reflexive use : thus, ji^ be= 
 finbcti, ' find one's self, be ; ' fic^ betragcn, ' bear one's self, behave.' 
 
 3. @nt was earher ant, in which form it appears in S(nttt)ort, ' answer,' 
 and Slntlt^, 'countenance;' it is by origin an adverb meaning 'against,' 
 related to our and and the prefix of answer {and-swarian), etc. In combina- 
 tion with three verbs beginning with f, it has taken, by assimilation, the 
 form ein)) : thus, empfatigen, etn()fef)len, empfinben. 
 
 a. Its primitive meaning appears in a few compounds, as entlpvcc^en, 'cor- 
 respond, answer; ' enHJfongeii, 'receive.' 
 
 , 6. Its leading idea is nov? that of 'out; ' it denotes removal, separation, 
 deprivation, sometimes even negation : thus, eutge^en, enttommen, entfiic» 
 ^en, ' escape ; ' entjtcl)en, ' take away ; ' entio[fen, ' let ofi', release ; ' f ntfa= 
 gen, ' renounce ; ' entluet^cn, ' desecrate.' 
 
 c. It sometimes indicates transition into a condition: as, cntbvennen, 
 ' take fire ; ' entfte^en, ' come into being.' 
 
138 VTSEBS. [307- 
 
 4. dv is the same word with the prefix lir forming nouns (411), and 
 means by origin ' forth, out,' being related to ou8, ' out,' and probably ulti- 
 mately identical with it. 
 
 a. It has most nearly its primitive force in such verbs as erjieljcn, ' edu- 
 cate, bring up,' evridjten, 'erect,' er(d)reden, 'startle.' 
 
 b. It often signifies a passing into a condition, a becoming, the beginning 
 of an action ; as, evfdjeiitcn, ' (shine forth) appear,' crtoncn, ' sound forth,' 
 ersittcru, 'fall a trembling.' 
 
 c. It strengthens the verbal idea, often adding an implication of accom- 
 plishment or attainment: as, erfd)ot)fen, 'exhaust,' crtvagcn, ' endure,' erle= 
 ben, 'experience,' erfuc^en, 'request,' n'finben, 'invent.' 
 
 d. Hence (its prevailing ofBce in the production of new compounds), it 
 signifies an acquisition by means of the action expressed by the simple 
 verb: thus, evjagcn, 'obtain by hunting;' ertro^en, 'get by defiance j ' er=. 
 tnnjen, ' bring on by dancing.' 
 
 5. ®e is believed to have had at first the sense of 'with, together,' 
 which sense appears, somewhat dimly, in a few of the compounds it forms: 
 as, gcfricren, 'become solidified by cold,' gerinnen, 'coagulate,' gcfallen, 
 ' (fall in with) please,' gefte^en, '(stand by) confess.' But this sense has 
 become so generalized and effaced, and its applications are so various and 
 indistinct, that it would be in vain to attempt to classify them. 
 
 The adoption of this prefix as regular characteristic of past participles 
 has been already referred to (243. 3cJ as comparatively modern, and hardly 
 admitting of explanation. 
 
 6. a. Sin is historically the same word as Sor, ' forward, forth,' and its 
 leading ideals that of 'forth, away:' as in Uerbrfingcn, 'crowd out,' \>cx= 
 jagen, 'chase away,' Sertaiifen, 'bargain away, sell,' derrcifen, 'journey off,' 
 »er(})ielen, 'lose at play.' 
 
 6. Hence, as intimating removal through the action of the verb to which 
 it is attached, it comes further to imply loss, detriment, destruction : as in 
 tierbraii(I)en, 'wear out,' Derbei'Den, 'ruiu; ' — or a removal from what should 
 be, the production of an untoward effect : as in Ucvf iil)ren, ' lead astray,' 
 Bcrviid eit, ' put out of place ; ' — or the commission of error : as in Uetred^ncn, 
 ' misreckon,' uertenncn, ' mistake ; ' — or a reversal of action : as in Derbteten, 
 'forbid,' t)crad)ten, 'despise.' 
 
 c. On the other hand, it signifies a complete working-out of the action 
 of the verb: as in Detbtuten, 'bleed to death,' bevbrcuncn, 'burn up;' — 
 which may imply a cessation of the action, as in Berbtiit)en, 'blossom out, 
 fade, wither;' or, more usually, a strengthening of the action, as in licr^ 
 finten, 'sink away,' Bertilgen, 'blot out,' ucridjliegcn, 'shut up,' ucvbinbeii, 
 ' unite ; ' — and this intensive force in a few cases makes transitive, as Cer= 
 lad)cn, ' deride,' ocrfe^Ieil, ' mias, fail of.' 
 
 '7. ^n represents an older bt§, which is related to the Latin dis, and 
 means, like the latter, ' apart, asunder.' 
 
 Accordingly, it either intensifies the meaning of verbs which contain the 
 idea of dissolution, of going to pieces or reducing to pieces, or it adds that 
 idea : thus, jerburrtjeu, ' break asunder; ' j|er(prcnncti, ' blow to pieces ; ' 3cr= 
 f a Ecn, 'fall apart;' jcniuncn, ' become dissolvedl' 
 
311] compound veebs. 139 
 
 Prefixes Separable or Inseparable. 
 
 308. A few prefixes, belonging properly to the separa- 
 ble class (Being all of tliem in use also as independent 
 parts of speech), nevertheless sometimes form compounds 
 after the manner of inseparables. 
 
 309. These prefixes are 
 
 burd^, ' through ' ii6er, ' over ' unter, ' under ' 
 ^inter, ' behind ' utn, 'about' tutber ['against' 
 
 luteber f ' again ' 
 
 SBiber and tnteber are the same word, but differently spelt, to in- 
 dicate a difference of meaning. All verbs compounded with tut= 
 ber are inseparable ; all but one or two compounded with tuiebet 
 are separable. 
 
 310. In verbs separably compounded with these prefixes, both 
 members of the compound have their own full meaning, hardly 
 modified by the combination ; the inseparable compounds often 
 take an altered or figurative sense. 
 
 Thus, as separable compounds, burc^brtltgen, 'crowd through,' I)tnter» 
 geljen, 'go behind,' iibcrfe^en, 'set across,' iimgetjcn, 'go around, revolve,' 
 uiitertoerfen, 'throw under,' Wieberljoten, 'fetch back;' — but, as insepa- 
 rable compounds, burc^bttngcti, 'penetrate, permeate,' ^iitterget)en, 'deceive,' 
 iifievle^en, 'translate.' «mget)en, 'evade,' untetmerfen, 'subjugate,' lt)tebci'= 
 Ijoten, 'repeat.' Yet the difference is not often so marked as in these 
 examples, and in a host of cases the two classes of compounds are distm- 
 guished by only a slight shade of meaning, if at all. 
 
 311. The compounds, of either class, are accented and 
 conjugated according to the rules already given. That is 
 to say, 
 
 1. The separable compounds are accented on the prefix; they 
 put the prefix before the verbal form in the infinitive and partici- 
 ples, but after it in other cases ; they take the signs of participle 
 and infinitive between the prefix and the root. 
 
 Thus, from biiri^'bvtitgen, 'crowd through,' come burc^'jubrtngcn, bringe 
 burd), bvong burcft, bin burdj'gebrungcn, merbe burc^'brtngen, burclj'gebrungen. 
 
 2. The inseparable compounds are accented on the radical syl- 
 lable, reject the ge of the participle, and put ^u of the infinitive 
 before the whole combination. 
 
 Thus, from buvd^brin'gen, 'penetrate,' come 311 buril)brin'gen, bitrfb=' 
 brin'qe, burti^bvang', ^obe burc^btun'gen, hicrbe burc^btin'gen, burd)« 
 brim'gen. 
 
140 VEEB8. [312- 
 
 Other Compound Verbs. 
 
 312. Verbs compounded with other adverbs than those al- 
 ready mentioned, or with nouns or adjectives, fall into two classes : 
 
 1. True or close compounds, in which the first member has be- 
 come an integral part of the combination, and the whole is treated 
 as a simple verb. 
 
 Thus, l)anbl)oben, 'handle, manage,' 5U^anb^aben,5anb^abtE,gel)anbbabt; 
 lt)at)rjngen, 'prophesy,' jit tt)al|viagen, tna^vjogte, gett)a^r|agt; lieb£o|en, 
 'caress,' ju liebtofcii, Uebtofte, getiebt'oft. 
 
 2. Loose or false compounds, phrases, written together as one 
 word, in which the first member is treated as any such word limit- 
 ing the verb would be, and the combination is conjugated like a. 
 verb separably compounded. 
 
 Thus, ftattfiiiben, 'take place,' flattjitftnben, fonb fintt, jlnttgefunbcn ; 
 VBo[)Ul)un, 'benefit,' itiol)l3Utl)un, that tt)ol)l, moljtgctljan ; feljlfc^lagen, 'mfs- 
 carry,' (el)ljiifcl)lagen, fdjliig feljl, fE5lgefd)logen ; loafpredjen, 'absolve,' lo8ju= 
 fjji-cdjcn, fvradj lo's, lo^gcf^jroc^en. 
 
 a. If a verb of the former class has not thfe accent on its first syllable, it 
 loses (243.3a) the ge of the past participle: thus, fi'O^IocE'en, fto^lodf. 
 
 J. Prom the same class are to be carefully distinguished certain verbs 
 which have the aspect of compounds, but are in fact derivatives from 
 compound nouns: such are friitjftiicfcn, 'to breakfast' (from griil)ftii(f, 
 'breakfast'), rat^fc^lagen, 'consult' (from 9}Qtl)jd)lag, 'consultation'). 
 
 313. SKi^ and Boll are treated as proper prefixes, forming both 
 separable and inseparable compounds, which are accented and 
 conjugated like those made with burc^, etc. (308-11). 
 
 But mifj is very rarely treated as a separable. SBott forms five or sii in- 
 separable compounds, as BoUbringeii, 'accomplish,' bolljicljen, 'execute,' and 
 a number of loose separables, as Uottgie^cn, ' pour full.' 
 
 Exercise XX. 
 Compound Verbs, Separable and Inseparable. 
 
 1. SGBonn fangen ©ie an, 3il)re iBriefe afijufdjretben ? 2. ^6) ht= 
 gann geftevn, unb fdjrieb etnige ab, fobdlb icf) fie em^fangen f)atte. 3. 
 §r bcrfteljt alleS tuag man i()in borlieft, unb fpridjt bte beutfd)cn 2!Bor= 
 ter beutlitt) aug ; abcr fc Itberfe^t ntd)t gut. 4. SDer ijag nal^t ^eran, 
 unb bic (Sonne tuirb batb aufge()en ; fte^cn wir aud) aiif, unb tlciben 
 mir ung an. 5. ®ie ^aben bergeffen n)0§ ©te mir berf^rodjen fatten. 
 6. ®ic t)at i()re Ucberfc^u^e angejogcn, unb ift auSgcgangen ; fie loirb 
 bolb berreift fein. 7. SBtebcrl)oIe beine Sitte, unb' id) t)olc bir iutebcv 
 JuaS bu bcvlangft. 8. SBir faufen it)m gtei^ ab, luaS erunS berfanfcn 
 mill. 9. (Sr tuar fd)on juriidget'ommcn, c^e id) foi'tging. 10. ®er 
 ^nabc ^at ben 23att in bie ©tube t)ineiuge»tiovfcn, unb ben ©piegel 
 jcrbrod)en. 
 
315] "~ VERBAL ADJUNCTS. 141 
 
 ADJUNCTS OF THE VERB. 
 
 314. A verb, in a proper verbal form (that is to say, exclud- 
 ing the infinitives and participles: see 339, 349), always stands 
 as the simple predicate of a sentence ; and all that constitutes 
 the complete predicate is brought in in the way of modifying 
 adjuncts to the verb, variously limiting and qualifying its action. 
 
 a. The proper verbal forms, those possessing the characteristic of person, 
 are often called its "finite" forms: they might also be called its jjcrsonai 
 forms. 
 
 J. Even in the compound tenses of the verb itself, the rank of verb 
 belongs in strictness only to the personal auxiliary, the other parts being 
 adjuncts of the latter : thus, m id) Ijabe il)n gctranlt, ' I have pained him,' 
 ifobt is the simple predicate, and getcoitft is an attribute of the object, as 
 much as ftnbe and tvaiit, respectively, in tc^ finbc i^tt tranf, ' I find him 
 siclc ; ' id) ttierbe geltanit, ' I am pained,' id) bin gegangcn, ' I am (have) 
 gone,' are analogous, in like manner, with tt^ merbc , tranf, ' I become sick,' 
 ■ic^ bin Weg, 'I am away; ' and \i) Inerbc getrfintt Irorben fetn, 'I shall 
 have been pained,' is made up by the addition of successive modifying ad- 
 juncts to inerbe, each adjunct after the first being (see 348.2) regularly pre- 
 fixed to the one which It further limits ; the phrase means literally ' I am 
 entering (werbe) into a state of having (fetn) become (Worben) pained 
 (getrflrilt).' That the auxiliaries have more or less completely the inferior 
 value of copulas, connecting the subject with the chiefly significant 
 part of the predicate, does not alter their formal or grammatical char- 
 acter. 
 
 c. No personal form of a verb has the value of adjunct to another 
 personal form; there are as many separate sentences as there are separate^ 
 verbs. All tlie other parts of speech (excepting the conjunctions : see 
 382.0.) may enter, by connection with the verb as its adjuncts, into the 
 relation of parts of the predicate of a sentence. 
 
 315. Object of a Verb. Most verbs may take aa object — 
 that Is to say, may be followed by a noun (or its equivalent) 
 in an oblique case, designating the person or thing upon which, 
 or as aflfeoting which, the action which it describes is exerted by 
 the subject. 
 
 1. A "transitive " verb takes its object in the accusative case; 
 and such is called a direct object : thus, er ^at e i n e n § u t, uub 
 trcigt i ^ n, 'he has a hat, and wears it : ' see 227. 
 
 a. A few transitive verbs are followed by two accusatives: see 227.3. 
 
 2. Many " intransitive " verbs take an indirect object in the 
 genitive or dative case: thus, i^ f(^onc metneS ^ctnbeS, 'I 
 spare my enemy;' er fotgt inir, 'he follows me:' see 219, 
 222.11. 
 
142 . VKEBS. [315- 
 
 3. Many verbs, beside their direct object, take a remoter object 
 in the dative or genitive, indicating the person or thing affected 
 less immediately by the action of the suljject upon the object, or 
 further defining that action : thus, id-) rank bief em SJJanue bag 
 @elb, 'I steal the money from this man; ' id) beraube i^n f eineS 
 @etbcg, ' I rob him of his money : ' see 219, 222.1. 
 
 316. Predicate Noun or Adjective. A noun or adjective is 
 called predicate, if it is brought by the verb into connection with 
 a noun (either the subject or -the direct object of the verb), as 
 limiting or qualifying that noun. 
 
 1. a. A predicate noun stands in the nominative, relating to 
 the subject of the verb, after fetn, ' be,' luerben, ' become,' blei^ 
 ben, ' continue,' fdjcincn, biinten, and bau^ten, ' seem,' and I)et= 
 ^cn, ' be called ; ' also, with the passive of the verbs that take a 
 noun in the accusative as factitive predicate: see 213. 
 
 These are verbs of incomplete predication, requiring a comploment. 
 Bapscially jcin, ' be,' is tlie ordinary simple connective of a subject with its 
 predicated quality, and is therefore called the copula. 
 
 h. After a few verbs — of calling, regarding, and the like — a 
 predicate noun stands in the accusative, brought by the verb 
 into relation with its object : this is called & factitive predicate : 
 thus, er nannte mid) fetneix greunb, ' he called me his friend : ' see 
 
 227.36,c. 
 
 2. a. A predicate adjective is used after the same verbs as a 
 predicate noun : thus, er ift unb bteibt mir tteu, unb tsirb nte untreu 
 txierben, 'he is and continues faithful to me, and will never become 
 unfaithful. ' 
 
 h. With v&rbs of more complete predication, or of full predica- 
 tive force, an adjective is often used in a manner which it is con- 
 venient to distinguish as adverbial predicate : thus, bte ^inber ftan= 
 ben ft It mm, 'the children stood silent;' bie ©timme [tvomte ^tmm= 
 lifd) Ijeltc t>ov, 'the voice poured forth heavenly clear;' itiirb'g 
 aud) fc^oit ju Sage fommen, 'will it also come forth beautiful?' 
 
 c. Some verbs are followed by an adjective as factitive predi- 
 cate, relating to their object : thus, fie ringctt bie ^cinbe immb, ' they 
 wring their hands sore;' bte id) gerne bretfo(^ biete, 'which I 
 gladly offer threefold;' fie ftellt fid) uberrafd)t, 'she feigns her- 
 self - suiprised ; ' i^ fiiljle metne ijrttfte I)ot)er, 'I feel my powers 
 higher;' er ()att il)n luartn, 'he holds him warm.' 
 
 This predicative construction is much more common with adjectives 
 than with nouns, wliich generally require al6, 'as,' fUr, 'for,' ju, 'to,' or the 
 like, before them: compare 227.3c. 
 
319] VERBAL ADJUNCTS. 143 
 
 ♦ 
 
 317. Adverb. The verbal idea is limited by an adverb, or by 
 
 more than one, in the most various manner, in respect to time, 
 
 place, occasion, manner, end, and so on. See Adverbs, 361 etc. 
 
 Thus, ti^ ge^e j e ^ t, ' I am going now ; ' er IBol^nt 1) i f r, 'he liVes here ; ' 
 fte fprecfien gut,' they speak well ; ' bii bift Ijeute morgen je^r fpcit evwo(f)t, 
 'you woke very late this morning.' 
 
 318. Prepositional Phrase. A phrase composed of a prepo- 
 sition along with the word (generally a nonn, with or without 
 adjuncts) which it governs, and tbe nature of whose relation to 
 the verbal action it defines, is a very frequent adjunct to the verb, 
 taking the place of object, predicate, or adverb. 
 
 a. As direct object in place of an accusative, such a phrase can hardly stand : 
 but it may be used for a genitive object— as, id) luavte auf il)n, for id) wartc 
 feiner, .'I wait for him; ' for a dative object— as, er folgt ntir, or cr folgt ouf 
 mid), ' he follows me ;' — yet more freely for a remoter object along with a 
 direct object — as, id) ftene mid) iiber biefeS, for tc^ frcue mid) beffeii, 'I re- 
 joice at this ; ' w'n Bertraueit un« ouf il)n, for mir ucrtrauen unS i^m, ' we 
 trust in him.' 
 
 S. Ezamples of prepositional phrases with predicate value are e9 loar Uou 
 cntfc^eibeuber Sic^tigJeit, 'it was of decisive importance; ' bie ifronfen btica 
 ben tu ber 3)?ttte, 'the sick remained in the midst; ' fte evtt)al)tten il)n jum 
 JtQt[er, 'they chose him emperor; ' bie« tnirb jum 3lu6brucf ber @eele, 'this ■ 
 becomes an expression of the soul.' 
 
 c. Adverbial prepositional phrases are ber SSoget fptelt tm ?aube, ' the bird 
 plays in the foliage; ' Wit bergen ben ©amen iii'ber^Srbc @(i)oo6, 'we hide 
 the seed in the earth's bosom; ' er ricf mit lauter letimme, 'he cried with 
 a loud voice.' 
 
 319. Order of the verbal adjuncts. 
 
 1. In the normal or regular arrangement of the sentence, all 
 
 the adjuncts of a personal verb are placed after it. 
 
 a. For the inverted order of arrangement, in which one of the adjuncts 
 is frequently placed before the verb it modifies, and for the iiunsposed order, 
 in which the personal verb is placed after all its adjuncts, see the rules given 
 for the order of the sentence, below, 431, 434. 
 
 2. When the verb is modifiied by two or more adjuncts, the general rule 
 is, that one which is more closely combined in idea with the verb, and more 
 essentially modifies its predicative meaning, is placed further from it than 
 one of a more external and accessory character. Hence, 
 
 a. The infinitive or participle, in a compound verbal form, stands at the 
 end of the sentence: thus, fie I)atte if)re ^fl'l'ie ftI)ovf in feiue ginger g e= 
 fc|3t, 'slie had sunk her teeth sharply into his fingers; ' i^r Werbet cud) 
 fo bditig rurer i)Jiad)t nid^t iiber^eben, 'you will not presume so cruelly 
 upoi^your power.' 
 
 b. An infinitive dependent upon any verb, modal or causative auxiliary 
 
144 VEEBS. fals- 
 
 er other, stands in like manner at the end of the sentence: thus, tc^ WiU 
 bor tl)r inid) n i e b e rlt) e r f e n , 'Iwill humble myself before her.' 
 
 c. A separable prefix belonging to the verb takes the same place: thns, 
 fte jal) babei red)t finftev unb miWiUig ou,8, 'she looked at the same time 
 right gloomy and out of humor.' 
 
 d. Any part of speech compounded with a verb after the manner of a 
 separable prefix, or forming with it a verbal phrase analogous with such a 
 compound, takes the same place : thus, id) n a ^ m uidjts me^v Bon bet Ijinter 
 mil' Itcgenbeit ©bene ltial)r, 'I no longer saw anything of the plain that lay 
 behind me.' 
 
 e. Of two cases governed by the same verb, the second accusative (227.3) 
 is placed after that which is the more immediate object of the verb ; the 
 genitive (219.2,3) follows the accusative; the dative (222.1.1) rather more 
 usually precedes the accusative. 
 
 /. Of more than one adverb qualifying the same verb, an adverb of time 
 ordinarily precedes one of place, and both are placed before one. of manner 
 or degree : thus, et atbeitet immev ftctjjig, ' he always works industriously ; ' 
 bu moljnft Ijtcr jeljr bcquem, 'you live hero very comfortably.' Hence, also, 
 the adverb of negation, nii^t, if it modifies the general as.sertion of the sen- 
 tence, stands last ; but if its negative force applies to some particular ad- 
 junct of the verb, It is placed next before that adjunct. 
 
 3. The rules as above stated are subject to various modification under 
 the influence of accent or emphasis, or of euphony. 
 
 a. Any adjunct of the verb may be transferred to a position other than 
 its proper one (usually later), for the purpose of being made more promi- 
 nent. 
 
 5. Since a pronoun is, in general, a less significant and emphatic word 
 than a noun, usage has established the rule that 
 
 A pronoun immediately dependent on the verb (not governed by a pre- 
 position), whether as direct or indirect object, comes first among the verbal 
 adjuncts. 
 
 Among the pronouns, a personal pronoun comes before a demonstrative, 
 the briefer personal pronouns, especially c8, ' it,' before the longer, and the 
 reflexives first of all. 
 
 4. Prepositional phrases take, in general, the position belonging to the 
 part of speech whose equivalent they are ; but they are more liable than 
 single words to change place for euphonic reasons. 
 
 5. The natural connections of the different verbal adjuncts are regarded 
 In the arrangement of the sentence ; those which afiect one another, and 
 exert a combined influence upon the verbal action, bemg put together. 
 
 6. The above are only the leading principles of the arrangement of words 
 in a sentence. To follow out their application in detail, and illustrate their 
 joint and mutual action, and the more or less irregular and arbitrary modi- 
 fications which they admit, cannot here be attempted. 
 
322] PEESOK AND NTTMBEE. 145 
 
 USES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 
 
 Person and Number. 
 
 320. In general, the verb is of the same person and number 
 as its subject. 
 
 Being, of course, of the flrst or second person only when its subject is a 
 personal pronoiia of those persons respectively, since all other words are of 
 the third persoiL 
 
 321. Special Rules respecting Person. 
 
 1. When the same verb has subjects of more than one person, 
 it is of the first person (plural) if either of its subjects is of the 
 first person ; otherwise, of the second : thus, id^ unb bu f in b ^ier, 
 'I and thou are here;' bu unb er gtaubt e§ beibe ntc^t, 'you and 
 he both disbelieve it.' 
 
 2. After a relative (ber) referring to an antecedent of the first 
 or second person, the verb is in the third, unless the personal 
 pronoun is repeated after the relative (compare 181) : thus, bu, ber 
 bent SBafiligf ben aWorbbltd ga6, 'thou who gavest to the basilisk 
 .his deadly glance' (but bu, ber bu .... . gabfi). 
 
 322. Special Rules respecting Number. 
 
 1. A verb having for its subject more than one singular noun 
 is put in the plural. 
 
 a. To this rule there are frequent exceptions, either as the several sub- 
 jects are regarded as combined into a single idea ; or as, when preceding or 
 following an enumeration of single subjects, the verb, by a familiar license 
 of speech, is suffered to agree with the one nearest it alone ; or as the verb 
 is in fact understood with other than tlie one subject with which it agrees : 
 thus, Winter mit licgt nur Suntmct unb (Slenb, 'behind me lies only sorrow 
 and misery;' gets unb SJfeer Wirb fottnertffen, 'rock and sea are hurried 
 onward;' eg begteite butc^ I'eben unb ©tcrben uns Steb unb Siebe unb SGBein, 
 ' may song and love and wine accompany us through hfe and death ; ' Siigen, 
 aytorben, @tel)ten unb (Sl)eBrec^en ^at iiberI)onb genommen, 'lying, murder, 
 theft, and adultery have become prevalent.' 
 
 2. A collective noun in the singular takes a verb in the singular much 
 more strictly than in English. 
 
 a. Exceptions are only such expressions as ein ^JSaar, ' two or three,' eine 
 SKenge, 'a number,' ein Sulsenb, 'a dozen,' which are frequently used with 
 plural nouns (ordinarily <?onstrued appositionally with them: see 216. Sa), 
 and have gained a plural value by association : thus, in meld^em etn ^ncir 
 Sibgel I)in unb tntcbcv ^it^jfeu, 'in which a couple of birds hop back and 
 forth; ' tnt §ofe (piclten ein *(Saar ber mimteren Sinbet, 'in the yard were 
 playing two or three of the merry children ; ' ein ^aar finb gelDoljnUil) l)Ot= 
 au§, ' a couple are generally in front. ' 
 
 7 
 
146 USES' OF THE FOEMS OF CONJUQATTON. [322- 
 
 3. After the impersonal and indefinite subjects tS, bieS, bn«, H)08, tt)ric^f8, 
 etc., the verb is put in the plural if a following predicate noun is plural : 
 thus, eg jinb mifer gtret, 'there are two of us; ' baS I'tub meiiie greiuibe, 
 'those are my friends.' — So also occasionally in a case like bte gruqt biefeS 
 SBaumea finb !leine SSeeien, 'the fruit of this tree is small berries.' 
 
 4. Out of exaggerated respectfulness, the plural verb is sometimes (the 
 usage is happily going out of vogue) construed with a singular title, or name 
 and title: as, Belie ben ber §err biefen ©ecfel ju erfiroben, 'may the gentle- 
 man be pleased to try this purse ; ' ©cine ajJajcftcit ber ^onig ^ o b en gei'U^t, 
 ' his majesty the king has been graciously pleased to ... . 
 
 Mood and Tense. 
 Indicative. 
 
 323. The use of the indicative mood, in its various tenses, 
 corresponds upon the whole pretty closely in German and in Eng- 
 lish. The principal points of difference will be stated below. 
 
 324. Indicative Present. 1. The German present — e. g. td^ 
 Itebe — answers to the three English forms of the present 'I love,' 
 'I do love,' and 'I am loving:' the shades of difference among 
 these different values are either left to be inferred from the con- 
 text, or are expressed or intimated by adjuncts to the verb or by 
 verbal phrases. 
 
 2. In German, as in English and French, the present is often 
 substituted for the preterit in lively narration : thus, ic^ ^ielt ftittc, 
 unb fa^ mi^ no^ betn ©tanbc ber ©onne um. 3ubem t^ nun fo 
 em^orbltde, fc^e id^K., 'I stopped, therefore, and looked about 
 me for the position of the sun. While, now, I am thus looting 
 upward, I see' etc. 
 
 3. In expressing a p.ast action or state which is continued so 
 as to be present also (or in signifying what has been and still is), 
 the German, like the French, indicates the present part and leaves 
 the past to be inferred, while the English does the contraiy: 
 thus, finb fie fd)on (ancje ^icr, ^have you been (are you) here al- 
 ready a long time?' erf ^taft fcit funf 3al)ren unter bem ©d^nee, 
 ' he has been (is) sleeping for five years beneath the snow.' 
 
 4. The German present, much more often than the English, 
 is used in the sense of a future : thus, luie fang' id)'S an ? id) b r e I)' 
 mid) uni, fo tft'8 getf)an, 'hovf shall I set about it? I will turn 
 myself around ; that will fetch it;' bic ®itter, bie cr bereinft erbt, 
 ' the property which he will one day inherit.' 
 
 This future use of the present is a direct inheritance from a former condition of Ger- 
 manlo language (as represented to us by the oldest Germanic dialcots), in whioll the 
 
327] nroioATrvE tenses. 147 
 
 present and future meanings were both habitoally expressed by the present tense, the later 
 auxiliary futures, as T shall or will love, i^ njcrbe lieben, not having been yet brought into 
 use. See the author's "Language and the Study of Language," pp. 119, 269. 
 
 325. Indicative Preterit. 1. The preterit answers to our 
 own simple past tense, in its three forms of 'I loved,' 'I did 
 love,' 'I was loving' — all expressed, without distinction, by id) 
 lieBte. 
 
 2. As the present for tlie perfect (324.3), so the preterit is 
 sometimes used for our pluperfect, to express what, at a given 
 time, had been and was still: thus, inaren ©ie fi^on lange bo, 
 ' had you been (were you) there long already ? ' 
 
 3. The distribution of the expression of past time between the 
 preterit and perfect is not precisely the same in German as in 
 English. As (326.2). the German perfect often stands where we 
 should use the preterit, so the contrary is also sometimes the case : 
 thus, lijx ^ortct, irel^ fd^redfic^eg ©eric^t beS ^errn it6er -3crufa^ 
 lem erring, 'ye have heard what a terrible judgment of the 
 Lord has come upon Jerusalem.' 
 
 326. Indicative Perfect. 1. The perfect answers in the main 
 to our perfect, expressing completed action, or action in the past 
 ■with implied reference to the present, as no longer continuing : 
 thus, icf) ^a6e geliebt, ' I have loved,' or ' have been loving.' 
 
 2. But the perfect is not infrequently used where we employ 
 the preterit : the perfect is rather the tense by which something 
 is simply asserted as true, while the preterit implies a connection 
 ■with other past events in continuous narration, or a personal par- 
 ticipation of the speaker, as spectator or joint actor. 
 
 Thus, ®ott 5at bie SBett erMaffen, ' God created the world (it was God 
 who etc.);' ic^ bin gcjterntnbErfec^egctBefeii, 'I was at church yesterday ; ' 
 unfer gteuitb ift neultd^ gefiorben, 'our friend died lately: ' — but @ott erf(|uf 
 bie SBett in fecf)8 Sogen, nub ru^te om ftebcnten, ' God created the world in 
 six daysj and rested on the seventh;' id) mac in ber iftrdje, tt)o §et;r 9J. cine 
 BortreffTtc^e ^rebtgt l)tett, 'I was at church, where Mr. N. preached an ad- 
 mirable sermon ; ' unfcr S5ater ftorb geftern, ' our father died yesterday (in 
 our presence).' 
 
 Something of the same distinction appears also in English usage, and it 
 is impossible to explain fully the difference in idiom between the two lan- 
 guages -without a great deal of detailed illustration. Moreover, there are 
 many cases in either tongue where both tenses might be employed -with 
 equal propriety. 
 
 3. For the present in place of our perfect, see 324.3 ; for the perfect in 
 place of the future, see 328.S2i. 
 
 327. Indicative Pluperfect. The pluperfect in German, as 
 
148 USES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [327- 
 
 in English, expresses action already finished at a time in the past 
 either defined or contemplated by the speater : thus, id) l^atte gc= 
 lietit, ' I had loved ' or ' been loving.' 
 
 328. Indicative Future and Future Perfect. 1. These tenses 
 
 ordinarily agi-ee in use with their English correspondents : thus, 
 
 id) tuetbe tieben, ' I shall love ' or ' be loving ; ' i^ tnerbe gettebt 
 
 {)a6en, ' I shall have loved ' or ' been loving.' 
 
 They express simple futurity, that which is going to be ; and are care- 
 fully to be distinguished from the modal auxiliary forms composed of the 
 infinitive with TOoUcn and (otten (257-8), which more or less distinctly im- 
 ply an assent or intent, a propriety or obligation. 
 
 2. The futures are sometimes used to indicate a claimed probability, or 
 express a conjecture ; thus, ba8 TOtrb Woljl 3^t Srubet feiii, ' tliat is your 
 brother, is it not?' er tnirb nic^t lange bovt geblieben (etn, 'I presume he 
 did not stay there long.' 
 
 3. a. In German, as in English, the perfect is often employed where the 
 future perfect would be logically more correct, the implication of futurity 
 being sufficiently made by the context ; thus, iii^ werbe tomtneit, fobalb id^ 
 meincn 93rief gefdjrtcbcn babe, ' I shall come as soon as I have written my 
 letter ' (for ttjctbe ge|d)rieben baben, ' shall have written '). 
 
 6. A present or perfect is occasionally substituted for a future, by a figure 
 of speech, to indicate the certainty of what is to take place : thus, jeitc bot 
 gelcbt, ttJEnu ti^ bic8 Statt au8 meinen §onben gebe, ' she has ceased to live, 
 if I let this paper go out of my hands ; ' fteb', oitx bu bift beg SEobeS, ' stand, 
 or thou art a dead man I ' 
 
 t. For the frequent use of a present instead of a future tense, see 324.4 
 
 Subjuncti/ve. 
 
 329. The subjunctive mood, which has almost passed out of 
 use in English, still continues in full currency in German, having, 
 if the two " conditional " tenses be included with it (as they are 
 in fact subjunctive, both in form and character), more than a cor- 
 responding tense for every tense of the indicative. In some of 
 its oflices (the optative, potential, conditional) it answers to what ^ 
 is left of our own subjunctive, and to the compounded tenses 
 (with the auxiliaries may, might, would, and should) by which 
 we have in part supplied the place of the latter ; in other offices 
 (especially in indirect statement, 333) there is in English hardly 
 anything analogous, though the classical tongues present similar 
 constructions in abundance. 
 
 330. The subjunctive is the mood of possibility, contingency, 
 subjectivity, in contradistinction from the indicative as the mode 
 of actuality, direct assertion, objectiveness. 
 
331] suBjuNCxrvE. 149 
 
 a. The subjunctive of the Germanic languages is by origin an optative, or mood ex- 
 pressing wish or desire, and there was another mood more properly known as subjunctive. 
 In the Greek, both still subsist together ; but in German, as in Latin, the two have become 
 one, which combines, with various modifications and restrictions, their several offices. 
 
 b. Not every statement of a hypothetical or contingent character re- 
 quires the subjunctive : that character is often sufficiently intimated by the 
 radical meaning of the verb used, or of the adverbs or conjunctions era- 
 ployed with it ; the cases in which this mood is availed of are those to be 
 explained below. 
 
 c. Even in the cases detailed, there is considerable freedom of choice be- 
 tween a subjunctive and an indicative expression, depending on the degree 
 of contingency or reality of the implied conception; the difference being 
 sometimes so slight as to be hardly definable : and an indicative is occa- 
 sionally used where analogy would lead us to expect a subjunctive, as if, 
 by a figure of speech, to give a character of actuality to what is 1q itself 
 properly contingent. It is not possible to say, as in some other languages, 
 that certain grammatical constructions, or certain particles, require or 
 " govern " the subjunctive. 
 
 d. In the subjunctive, the distinctions of tense are of only subordinate 
 value, and are even to some extent effaced. The tenses do not, therefore, 
 require to be separately treated. 
 
 331. The Subjunctive as Optative. 
 
 1. The present subjunctive is frequently used in an optative 
 sense, as expressing a wish, request, or direction on the part of 
 the speaker. 
 
 Thus, gefegtiet fei ex affe^ett, 'blessed be he ever; ' tnng tebe ber Sottig ! 
 eS freue fidfi, ber ba . . . 'long live the king I let him rejoice, who . . . ; ' 
 Brautlt^eS Seinen legen toir bem K^or^on, 'let us dress Thor in bridal vest- 
 ments.' 
 
 u. This use is limited to the third persona of both numbers, and the first 
 plural: for the second persons, the imperative is used; and for the first 
 singular, tnogc, ' may,' is needed as auxiliary. The same auxiliary may also 
 be employed in the other persons. 
 
 6. The subject is put after the verb, except in the third pers. singular, 
 where it may have either position, and more usually stands before. 
 
 c. The optative subjunctive is used, as already noticed (243.1), to fill 
 out the declension of the imperativCi and is practically, in the third pers. 
 plural, the most common imperative form, since the use of the second per- 
 son ia ordinary address is no longer approved (153.4). 
 
 d. This subjimotive sometimes becomes, in application, concessive, or 
 expresses a supposition or assumption: thus, ittflti begegne Semanben tnt 
 §au8 ; ej8 fet etne ®efell(i^aft betfatnmen, ' let one meet anybody in the 
 house ; lot a company he assembled (i e. supposing such to be the case) ; ' 
 et tf)Ue, IBOS n rooEe, ' let him do what he please (i. e. though he do).' 
 
 e. Hence, with benn, it becomes, by an eUiptioal construction, equivalent 
 to 'unless ; ' thus, et fii^re benn Sret)a jur SSraut mir l)eini, ' unless he bring 
 me home Freya as bride,' (i. e, ' pf he would gain what he wishes] then let 
 him bring, 'etc.) 
 
 2. The preterit and pluperfect tenses are also employed in a kind 
 
150 TT8ES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [331- 
 
 of optative sense, but only by elliptical constraction, in abbrevi- 
 ated conditional and indirect pbrases. 
 
 Thus, ttjfite e8 boi^ Sttbcnb, 'if it were only eveniBgl ' {)atte i$ mid) bod^ 
 gefrcut, ' liad I only enjoyed myself (while it wag still in my power to do so) 1 ' 
 a(^, bojj mctne Stugcn £|ranenqueUcn maren, '0 that my eyes were foun- 
 tains of tears I ' 
 
 332. The Subjunctive as Conditional and Potential. 
 
 The conditional and potential uses of the subjunctive so pass 
 into one another, that they can hardly be treated separately. 
 "We commence, for convenience, with the hypothetical period. 
 
 1. The hypothetical period consists of two parts or clauses, the 
 one expressing a conclusion or result which would follow, if the 
 condition were true which is expressed by the other — it being at 
 the same time implied that the condition is not realized, and, 
 generally, that the result is therefore also untrue. This, in its 
 complete form, requires a past tense (preterit or pluperfect) of 
 the subjunctive both in the condition and the result. 
 
 Thus, regterte Slcd^t, fo Ifiget tl)r Bor tntr im ©taube, ' if right prevail- 
 ed, you would lie in the dust before me ; ' (tiEnn'8 longer gebauert ptte, 
 WSre ii) tm groft evjlorrt, 'if it had lasted longer, I should have been 
 stiffened with frost; ' gMi(fIid)er tDfire and) id), locnn ii) nac^ Strten gejogen 
 tofire, ' I too should be happier, if I had marched to Asia,' 
 
 a. Either of the two clauses may stand first, and the idea of if in the 
 clause of condition may be expressed either by a conjunction (luenn) or by 
 the inverted arrangement (433) — as the examples shbw. 
 
 h. In the result or conclusion, the conditional tenses may be used in- 
 stead of the proper subjunctive: see below, 335. 
 
 c. The implication as to the result is liable to modification by various 
 causes ; for example, by its being put into the form of a question — as, WaS 
 Ware ou« mir gcmorben, f)nttet il)r niic^ nic^t aufgenommen, ' what would 
 have become of me, if you had not received me ? ' — or by an ' even ' involved 
 in the condition: as, unb mfiren Bon Ootb fie, ii| gcfbe [it bir, 'even were 
 they of gold, I would give them to thee.' 
 
 d. If the condition be regarded as doubtful merely, and not contrary to 
 reality, the verbs are put in the indicative mood : thus, always when the 
 tense is present or perfect — as, ttienn er !oiitmt^ gcbe id) fort, ' if he comes, 
 I shall go away ; ' Inenn er getommcn ijl, roilt tc^il)u fc^cn, 'if he be ar- 
 rived, I wish to see him ; ' and often when the tense is past : thus, tneim cr 
 fd)on getommen rear, nntg er un8 gefcl)en f|aben, 'if he had already come, he 
 cannot have failed to see us.' 
 
 2. In the incomplete hypothetical period, either the condition 
 or the conclusion is unexpressed, but is more or less distinctly 
 intimated or implied. 
 
 a. The conclusion is wanting altogether, and the condition has the value 
 of a wish or prayer (see 331.2). In this case a bod) or nut is more often 
 
332] CONDrnONAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 151 
 
 introduced to help the optative expression, but is not indispensable : thus, 
 tnatcn tnir nut ben SJcrg borBet, '[how happy I should be] if we were 
 only past the hlU ! ' tbnut' ic^ mit, ' if I could but go along with you I ' 
 
 h. The conclusion may be intimated by atg, ' as,' and the con- 
 ditionality of the other clause expressed either by a conjunction, ob 
 or hjenn, or (more commonly) by the inverted arrangement (433) 
 of the clause after atS : 
 
 Thus, i|r eilet \a, otS ttienn i'^t gtiigel ^attet, 'you are hurrying as [you 
 would do] if you had wings ; ' er mtu bie Sffialjr^eit fo, a(8 ob fie Sltiinje rofire, 
 ' he demands truth in this way as [he would demand it] if it were cash ; ' 
 ber SBoben Kofft auf, a(« inore er Bon Srbftiigen erfd^iittert, ' the soil cleaves 
 open, as if it were shaken by earthquakes.' 
 
 e. The analogy of this construction calls always for a past tense, but a 
 present is sometimes met with, as if the phrase were one of indirect state- 
 ment (333) instead of conditional : thus, bo tnorb e8 ntir ats tiinne \i\ burt^ 
 ben Soben fe^en, at« (et ev griitte« ®(o9, 'then it seemed to me as if I could 
 see through the ground as though it were green glass.' Occasionally, it 
 really represents an indirect phrase: thus, \i) bae^te ate(et e8 . . ., for tc^ 
 bad)te, c8 fei . . . , 'I thought as if it were,' for ■" I thought it was ' so and so. 
 
 d. The conclusion is expressed by some other and virtually equivalent 
 means: thus, \S) gebod^tc, bofern M) teiti Stbentcuev fanbe, ben fietmWcg ju 
 fuc^en, 'I intended, in case I should meet with no further adventure, to seek 
 the way homeward.' 
 
 e. On the other hand, the conclusion may be fully expressed, 
 and the condition intimated by some word or phrase which more 
 or less distinctly implies it : 
 
 Thus, O tnfire tdj ein grower Saitm! b onn Ibnnte id; meine 3*E'flE ou8=' 
 Bvetten, ' that I were a big tree I then [if I were so] I might spread out my 
 branches; ' ntanc^eS ^iitt' li) get^on; alt ein Wer fc^eut iitdjt bie Soften, 'I 
 would have done much — only, who does rot fear the cost? [if I had not 
 feared the coat] ; ' jonft lufir' er gefoUen, ' otherwise [if this were not so] he 
 would have fallen.' 
 
 3. A yet less explicit implication of a condition makes of the 
 past subjunctive a proper potential, expressing what in general, 
 under the circumstances, might, could, or would be : 
 
 Thus, baS gtnge nod), ' that might answer yet ; ' e8 ptte ftc^'S fetner t)er= 
 tBogen, 'no one would have presumed to do so; ' cS fonnte mi^ retten, 'it 
 might be able to rescue me ; ' nimm iljr jcben ©ta^el, ber Bertnunben fiinttte, 
 ' take from it every sting that should be able to wound.' 
 
 a. The potential subjunctive is sometimes used in place of an indicative, 
 when it is desired to soften the positiveness of an assertion : thus, id) boif)te, 
 'I should think,' for 'I think; ' i^ mbd)te, ' I should like ' (255.2); t(f| ttJOre 
 fa(i gegeii SJaumjiamme aiigcrannt, 'I came near running against trunks of 
 trees ' 
 
 4. Analogous, on the other hand, with the clause expressing the condi- 
 tion in the hypothetical period, are occasional phrases like e8 ttltrb nadE)ge= 
 a^mt, ttifire e8 nur uiit einigen if utfdien, ' it is imitated, were it only with a 
 
152 USES OF THE FOEMS OF CONJUGATION. [332- 
 
 few carriages ; ' BefonberS, wenn er ftc^ bcrfc^offett ^ofien foUte, 'especially 
 if he should chaDce to have exhausted his ammunition.' 
 
 5. Akin with the potential and hypothetical uses of the subjunc- 
 tive are the following more special cases : 
 
 a. The suhjunotive present is used in a clause involving an indefinite 
 relative pronoun or conjunction {whoever, however, etc.) ; thus, ttiie ailrf) bcr 
 ajjen(d)li^e Wante, 'however human (will) may waver; ' fo flein fte aiti^ fei, 
 ' however small it be ; ' ouf roclii)e Strt e8 jet, ' in whatever way it may be.' 
 
 6. The subjunctive, present or past, is used after bag, utn bag, bamtt, 'in 
 order that,' to express the end had in view, or sought to be attained: thus, 
 loft tnir baS §ers, bog tc^ baS eure rii^re, 'reUeve my heart, that I may move 
 yours;' er tniinjc^te ju rcgieren, nur bamtt bcr ®ute unge^iiibert gut fein 
 moiiii, 'he desired to rule only in order that the good might be able to be 
 good without hindrance.'" 
 
 The tense is governed by the requirements of the sense, generally accord- 
 ing with that of the preceding verb. 
 
 c. In these, as in other constructions, the indicative is also met with: 
 thus, loaS and) bie ©tnnttc^tett ju tijun gebrfitigt tnirb, ' whatever our sensu- 
 ousness is impelled to do ; ' bamtt man bicje @tabt einneljmen tonn, ' that 
 the city may be (wherewith it is able to be) captured; ' bag jeber Ouett Wc 
 fiegt, 'that every fountain may dry up (so that every fount shall dry up).' 
 
 d. A subjunctive is used in a dependent substantive clause (generally after 
 bag, ' that ') to denote something that is provided for or looked forward to, 
 regarded as of probable, desirable, or suitable occurrence : thus, er mugte 
 bleiben bis (or bt8 bag) bte ptut^cn ftc& uertiefen, ' he had to remain till the 
 flood should subside; ' e8 lag i^m baran, bag ber griebe nid)t unterbroc^cn 
 ttJetbe, ' he was anxious that the peace should not be broken ; ' eg geljbrt fic^, 
 bag bos SBebiirfnig befriebigt tnerbe, ' it is proper that the want be satisfied.' 
 
 In some of its forms, this construction passes over into that of the sub- 
 junctive of indirect statement (see the next paragraph), after verbs of wish- 
 ing, anticipating, and the like. 
 
 333. The Subjunctive of Indirect Statement. 
 
 1. By a construction which has only partial analogies in Eng- 
 lish, the German subjunctive is often used to express a thought 
 indirectly, as reported, recognized, or contemplated by some one. 
 
 Thus, er antwortete, er acfite griebric^ iinb miinfd^e ben grieben, 'he 
 
 §err j e t , ' one sees at once, of what mind the maste/is.' 
 
 2. Such a subjimctive stands always in a (logically) dependent 
 substantive clause. The use of this mood more fully subordinates 
 the clause to the action of the verb in the other clause, upon 
 which it depends, relieving the speaker from responsibility for it 
 or concern with it. 
 
 3. Verbs most often followed by the subjunctive of indirect 
 statement are especially 
 
333] SUBJUNOnVE OF INDIEECT STATEMENT. 153 
 
 a. Verbs that signify Imparting, in every form, as statement, report, 
 assertion, confession, reminding, and the like. 
 
 b. Verbs that signify apprehension, as perceiving, knowing, feeling, 
 calling to mind, imagining, concluding, and the like. 
 
 c. Verbs that signify contemplation with feelings of various kinds, as 
 belief, doubt, dread, wonder, joy, sorrow, wish, hope. 
 
 Some of these verbs complicate the idea of indirectness with that of de- 
 sire, doubt, or conditionaUty, as expressed by the subjunctive in its other 
 uses. 
 
 d. The verb upon which the clause of indirect statement depends may 
 sometimes be omitted altogether: thus, bie Satetner ttuvben l^ort tierfolgt, 
 Wdi jcner fte 3« fc^r begiinftigt Ijabe, 'the Latins were severely persecuted, 
 because [it was claimed that] he had favored them too much.' 
 
 e. Or, the clause is dependent on a noun of kindred meaning with the 
 verbs above mentioned : thus, au9 SSeforgntg, ba§ er Untuf)en crtegen m erb e, 
 ' out of apprehension that he would stir up disorders ; ' uttter bent iBor» 
 tnanb, er ^abe friif)et; befd^rooren attes anjujetgen, 'under the pretext that 
 he had earlier taken oath to denounce everything ; ' bie 5JJadjriii)t, baO er fie 
 ins Oefangnig gemorfen ^ a b e, 'the news that he had thrown them into 
 prison.' 
 
 4. a. Regularly and ordinarily, the verb in the indirect state- 
 ment has the same tense as it would have if the statemgnt were 
 made directly, by the person and under the circumstances con- 
 templated. 
 
 Thus, jte gtoubten, bo§ e8 Waijr fet, 'they believed that it was true' 
 (since they would have said "we believe that it is true"); et onttnortete, er 
 fei nic^t getommen, Sl)rijlen feinblic^ anjugreifen, fonbern merbe nur ®e= 
 tDolt ntit ©eroalt juriitftreiben, 'he answered, he vias not ["I am not''] 
 come to attack Christians, but would only [" I shall only "] repel violence 
 with violence; ' balb fcagte man nic§t mel)r, mer mitge^e", fonbern roer ju^ 
 riicfbletbe, 'soon it was no longer asked who was going along ["who is go- 
 ing?"], but who was staying ["who is staying?"] behind;' tc^ ^abe ge» 
 miinjdft, er foUe ftd) auf JReifen begeben, 'I have wished that he should he- 
 take himself to journeying.' 
 
 b. Hence, the use of the present, perfect, and future subjunctive in in- 
 direct statement is much more frequent than that of the preterit and pluper- 
 fect and of the conditional. But 
 
 c. The past tenses are used, when they would have been used (either as 
 indicative or as subjunctive) in tho corresponding statement made directly : 
 thus, et miinfi^te, bag er ouf bem Soben geblieben mare, 'he wished he had 
 remained in the garret ; ' wer tonn Wiffen, roa« nic^t Semonb gtoubltdfi fanbe, 
 'who can tell what somebody might not think credible ? ' bel ©efiiljleS, ba§ 
 ni(^t8 tm Seben rec^t ge(tf|at)e roenn ea blog gejcbal)e, ' of the feeling that no- 
 thing in life would be done rightly if it should be just simply done.' 
 
 Barely, on the other hand, a subjunctive of indirect statement is forced 
 out of the past tense which it shoidd have into the present, as the more 
 usual tense belonging to the indirect construction (see R. 190.33). 
 
 d. Moreover, in a clause dependent on a verb of past tense, the subjimc- 
 tivo is quite often put in the past (as it always is in English), contrary to 
 
 7* 
 
154 USES OF THE F0EM8 OF CONJUGATION. [333- 
 
 strictrule: thus, fte gtaubteneS Wore [fortet] §a'^itengc|(Sret, 'theythought 
 it was the crowing of cooks; ' fte fragten oD fie rec^t mitcte [for ttiffe] met 
 i^r SOJann hjore [for jei], 'they asked whether she really knew who her 
 husband was;' gtng bei mir ju 8iat^, ob tc^ fie toe (fte [for mede], 'took 
 counsel with myseli, whether I should wake her.' 
 
 e. This assimilation of the subjunctive in tense to the verb on which 
 it depends is, in general, much more common in the more careless and less 
 diguiiSed styles of writing, and in colloquial discourse, than in higher styles. 
 But it is occasionally met with in every style, sometimes without special 
 assignable cause, sometimes where a present subjunctive form would not be 
 distinguishable from an indicative, or where a clause is dependent on an- 
 other dependent clause, and needs to be distinguished from the latter in 
 construction : thus, er bot bur(^ ®efanbte an, bie giirften moc^ten [for mbgen, 
 which would be indicative as well] felbft ent|djetDen, WaS er redjttnofeig be= 
 fcijje, ' he offered through embassadors that the princes might themselves 
 decide what he rightfully possessed.' 
 
 5. The indicative may also be used in phrases similar to those above 
 cited, mostly with an implication of actuality, as recognized by the speaker 
 also: thus, ttJer lueig, Wo bir betn Oliicfe blii^t, 'who knows where thy 
 fortune is blooming for thee [as it surely is blooming somewhere] ? ' man 
 niugte gtaubcn, bag er oollig oergeffen W o r ,' ' one could not but believe that 
 he was wholly forgotten; ' er Derweilte, bt8 er fid^ iiberjeugt l)ntte, ba6 teiiiec 
 Don ben feitien juriidblieb, 'he delayed till he was persuaded that none 
 of his men was left behind.' 
 
 But the difference of imphcatiou is often very indistinct, and the choice 
 between the two moods depends in part upon the style used : too nice a use 
 of the subjuuctive in easy or colloquial discourse would be thought finical 
 and pedantia 
 
 6. The elliptical use of the subjunctive of indirect statement with optative 
 meaning, or to express a wish, has been referred to above (331.2): thus, o 
 bag fteewtg grunen bUebe, '0 that it might ever continue to flourish I' (i. e. 
 \i) rnocbte, bag . . . , ' I should vrish that '...). 
 
 1. A past subjunctive tense is (rarely) used interrogatively, by way of 
 questioning or disputing something supposed to have been asserted : thus, 
 bu batteft e8 gefagt? bn ^oft mtr nic[)t8 gefagt, '"[is it daimedthat] you have 
 said so ? you have said nothing to me.' 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 334. The conditional tenses are, in form, subjunctive preterits 
 corresponding to the futiire as a present : thus, er Wtrb liebcn, ' he 
 is about to love,' er Werbe Itcben, ' he may be about to love,' er 
 iDiirbe ttebcn, ' he might or would be about to love.' 
 
 Their proper significance, then, is that of a contingent futurity, 
 such a potentiality as may be signified by a tense past in form. 
 In this they coincide (as appears from the rules and examples 
 given above, 332) with the past subjunctive tenses, preterit and 
 pluperfect. In fact, 
 
338] CONDITIONAL. 155 
 
 335. 1. The conditional corresponds in meaning ■witli the 
 preterit and pluperfect subjunctive, being an admissible substitute 
 for these tenses in some of their uses. 
 
 a. Especially, in the conclusion of a complete hypothetical period (332.1) : 
 thus, lebtefl bu noi), ic^ luiirbe btcti He ben oon biefet 3"', 'wert thou 
 yet alive, I should love thee henceforth;' feineS Wiirbe lentfatii gciiug 
 fein, Wenn Voir btog fein ®a|ein in ber §anb gerealjr roiirben, 'none would 
 be manageable enough, if we were merely aware of its presence in the 
 hand.' 
 
 6. In a condusion with condition only intimated (332.2e): thus, bie 
 25ogcI iriirben b a n n Df efter in nieinen '^mi%m Bauen, ' in that case (if this 
 were so) the birds would build nests in my branches ; ' jjrob' e8 Iteber ni(^t, 
 benn bu Wiirbe^ jerfdiettt metben, 'rather, do not try it; for [if then didst 
 try it] thou wouldst be dashed in pieces.' 
 
 c. In a more strictly potential construction (332.3): thus, fic^ ctnjllic^ 
 gu Webren m fir be fcbr gefo^rltcb fetn, 'to defend one's self seriously 
 would be very dangerous;' bag Wiirbe unS ju meit fit^ren, 'that 
 would lead us too far.' 
 
 2. The use of the conditional Is much less frequent than that of the 
 past subjunctive tenses in the constructions above explained. While the 
 two are so nearly equivalent that the subjunctive may always be put in 
 place of the conditional, they are not absolutely identical in sense ; the con- 
 ditional may sometimes be preferred where the idea of futurity is promi- 
 nent (as in the first example above, under a) — as also, for formal reasons, 
 where the subjunctive verb would not be plainly distinguished from an in- 
 dicative (as in the first example under b). 
 
 336. Quite rarely, the conditional is employed in indirect statement in 
 place of the future subjunctive, in the same manner as a preterit subjunc- 
 tive for a present (333.4<i) — that is to say, with the value of a past sub- 
 junctive to the future : thus, er mugte, bag btefe 2(nerbietungen ben Steuj= 
 ;iug nid)t aufbotten lo iirb en [for nierben, which would not be distinguish- 
 able from an indicative], ' he knew that these offers would not detain the 
 crusade.' 
 
 • Imperative. 
 
 337. The use of the imperative requires no explanation, be- 
 ing the same in German as in English. 
 
 a. With the proper imperative persons (the second persons singular and 
 plural) the subject pronouns, bu and it)r, may be either expressed or omitted: 
 if expressed, they follow the verb. 
 
 6. For the use of the present subjunctive as imperative in the third 
 persons singular and plural and the first plural, see 331ilc. 
 
 338. Besides the phrases mentioned at 243.1 as employed impera- 
 tively, the present indicative sometimes intimates a peremptory order, as if 
 from one whose simple word is equivalent to a command ; the past partici- 
 ple has, elliptioaUy (see 359.3), a similar force; and the infinitive is used 
 dialeetically or colloquially, with the same meaning (347.2). 
 
156 USES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [339- 
 
 Infaiiime. 
 
 339. The infinitive is properly the verbal noun, and all its 
 uses grow out of its value as such. 
 
 340. 1. Any infinitive is capable of use directly as a noun, 
 either with or without an article or other limiting words. Such 
 a noun is always of the neuter gender (61.3c), and declined ac- 
 cording to the first declension, first class (76) ; and, having the 
 value of an abstract, it very seldom forms a plural. 
 
 Thus, ®otte8laftern, Siigen, ajJorbcn unb ©te^ten l)at uBerf)anb genom= 
 men, ' blasphemy, lying, murdering, and stealing have become prevalent ; ' 
 toric^ eiti StMetit jum @d6mait|en, 'what an appetite for feasting! ' er ftiig 
 tnieber mit jeinEin tjfifiltd^ ^bfli^eti OriiScu on, 'he began again with his 
 odiously polite greeting.' 
 
 2. As the examples show, such a noun is more uanally to be rendered 
 by our verbal noun in ing (which we often call "participial inflnitive," al- 
 though in truth it is quite another word than the present participle) ; but 
 also, not rarely, by other verbal derivatives. 
 
 3. There are some nouns, originally infinitives, which are in such con- 
 stant use as to have won an independent value as ncims : such are Sebeil, 
 'life,' ©ntfe^en, 'horror,' 2(nben!cn, 'memorial,' and so on. 
 
 341. In German, as in EngUsh, the preposition ju, 'to,' which 
 was originally used only in its proper prepositional sense with 
 the infinitive, governing the latter as it would govern any other 
 noun under similar circumstances, has now become attached as 
 a kind of fixed accompaniment, or sign, to the infinitive in a great 
 part of its uses ; and therefore, in describing the different infini- 
 tive constructions, it becomes necessary to distinguish between 
 the cases in which ju is employed and those in vNiich it is omit- 
 ted. 
 
 342. The Infinitive as subject of a verb. 
 
 The infinitive, either with or without ^u, is often employed as 
 the subject of a verb. 
 
 Thus, it)ad)fen, grog unb att merben, baS t(l bag ciiijig @d)bne, ' to grow, 
 to become big and old — that is the only fine thing; ' njo getaufdjt jU loers 
 ben una I)ei(famer war, ' where to be deceived was more advantageous for 
 us; ' mit (oW)cn i[t nidit gut in bcr 9Jnt)e !atn|3fcn, 'fighting at close quar- 
 ters with such men is not'good ; ' gcjo^rlid) tft'8 ben I'eu jn WciJen, ' it is 
 dangerous to wake the lion.' 
 
 a. The inflnitive aa subject is in the great majority of cases accompanied 
 
 b. More usually (as the examples show), the inflnitive stands as logical 
 subject, the verb taking in addition c8, ' it,' or bn?, ' that,' or the like (especi- 
 ally the first), aa impersonal or indefinite grammatical subject. 
 
343] _ rcTFiNn'ivE. 157 
 
 343. The Infinitive as object, or dependent on another verb. 
 
 1. The infinitive without ^u is directly dependent on 
 
 1. The various auxiliaries: as, loerben, the auxiliary of the future and 
 conditional tenses (240.2) ; ^aben, the auxiliary of the perfect and pluper- 
 fect tenses, in the cases where the infinitive is used instead of the past 
 participle in forming those tenses (240.1c) ; the auxiliaries of mood 
 (242.1) ; t^uit, when used as auxiliary in the sense of our do (242.3) ; 
 loffeit, as causative auxiliary (242.2) : see below, 5. 
 
 2. §aben, ' have,' in certain phrases, with an adjective : thus, bit ^ofl gut 
 reben, ' that is easy to say' (ie. ' thou hast talking good, makest an easy 
 thing of talking '). 
 
 3. E^un, and a few other verbs, followed by tttt^tS otS, ' nothing [else] 
 than, nothing but : ' thus, er t^at ittd^ts al8 fie onf^auen, ' he did nothing 
 but look at her ; ' e« foftet ittt^ts al8 bie ®emeine fetn fijr atte, ' it costs 
 nothing but being the common one for alL' 
 
 4. Semen, 'learn:' thus, er ^atte ba8 @ute Wiirbtgett gelernt, 'he had 
 learned to value what was good.' 
 
 5. A number of verbs admit an Infinitive in the manner of a second 
 direct object, along with their ordinary object: these are ^eigen, 'call, bid,' 
 netmett, 'call,' tel)tett, 'teach,' ^etfen, 'help,' mac^en, 'make,' laffen, 'allow, 
 cause,' and a few that denote perception by the senses, namely fef)en (and 
 rarely \i)<mtn), 'see,' ^oren, 'hear,' fit^len, 'feel,' and finben, 'find.' 
 
 Thus, er ^eigt t^n Weber ,Sfoften tioifi SKii^e fparen, ' he bids him spare 
 neither expense nor labor : ' tt)o§ tnan jo erteimen ^eigt (nennt), ' what peo- 
 ple call knowing; ' bo8 le'^rt un« beurtl^eiteii ob , . . 'that teaches us to 
 judge whether . . . ;' tt)tr miiffen it|m t)elfen fjuten, 'we must help him 
 tend his herd; ' bie grei^ett mad^t euc§ ft^roarmen, 'this freedom makes 
 you rave ; ' ber ®ott, ber ©fen waii^ien lieg, ' the God who made iron 
 grow;' er ftebt fie erbletd)en unb finten l)in, 'he sees her turn pale and 
 sink down | ' tc^ finbe fte aiif bem @opt)a liegen, ' I find her lying on the 
 sofa.' 
 
 a. With most of the verbs under this head, the object taken along with 
 the infinitive has the logical value of a subject-accusative to the infinitive — 
 which is the nearest approach made in (Jerman to that construction, so 
 familiar in the classical tongues, especially in the Latin : thus, xi^ ^brc bag 
 @ro8 Wod^fen, ' I hear the grass grow,' signifies that the grass grows, and 
 that I perceive it so doing. 
 
 This Qonstruction, especially vnth fef|en, pren, and loffen (and by far 
 oftenest with the last), is followed out into a variety of other forms, some 
 of them of a peculiar and idiomatic character : thus, 
 
 J. The proper object of the governing verb is frequently omitted, and the 
 infinitive then designates its action without reference to any definite actor : 
 thus, ic^ pre HolJfen, ' I hear [some one] knock (hear a knocking) ; ' 
 la^t Ilingetn, 'cause to ring (let tbe bell be rung); 'Jag iibirnU fiiv bag 
 jfteujper in ben tod^en beten, ' cause to pray for the crusading army 
 everywhere in the churches (let it be prayed for).' 
 
 c. If, then, the infinitive itself takes an object, the oonstruction is equiv- 
 alent to one in which that object is directly dependent upon the governing 
 verb, and is the subject-accusative of the infinitive taken as an infinitive 
 
158 USES OF THE FOEMS OF OONJUaATION. [343- 
 
 passive ; and it is generally beat so rendered : thus, ic^ fiBre mil jebett Sag 
 })tei[cn, ' I hear you to be praised every day (hear [them] praise you) ; ' et 
 liefi bie btci SRinge fiir cinen mocijen, ' he caused the three rings to be made 
 in place of one (caused to make them).' 
 
 d. That the construction has in fact, in the apprehension of those who 
 use the language, been virtually converted into a passive one, and the real 
 object of the infinitive transferred to the governing verb, is shown by the 
 circumstance that that objegt, when designating the same person or thing 
 with the subject of the verb, is expressed by the reflexive instead of the 
 personal pronoun : thus, er Wottte fic^ nid)t fatten laffen, 'he would not let 
 himself be held' (instead of 'would not allow [any one] to hold him'); bn8 
 tfijjt fi d) f)oren, 'that lets itself be heard (i. e. is worth hearing); ' al8 er 
 (id) Etroag Botlefen lieg, ' as he was having something read aloud to himself; ' 
 et l(i6t oft Bon fid) ti'dxm, 'he lets himself be often heard from (lets [us] often 
 hear from him).' Occasionally, the logical object of laffen is even added in the 
 form of a prepositional adjunct : thus, fte tiegen ftc^ b u r d) bie SS a d) e 
 liid)t ab^olten, 'they did not sufl'er themselves to be restrained by the guards' 
 — ^instead of fie liegen bie SSacf|e fte nii^t ob^alten, ' they did not suffer the 
 guards to restrain them.' 
 
 6. Special and more anomalous cases are — an infinitive in the sense of a 
 present participle after blciben, 'remain: ' thus, fie BIteben tm SEBaffer ftecEen, 
 ' they remained sticking in the water ; ' and after ^abcit with a direct ob- 
 ject: thus, er t)Ot SBein im Setter Itegen, 'he has wine lying in his cellar: ' 
 — an infinitive of purpose (below, III.l) without jU in a few phrases ; as, lag 
 fie bettein ge^n, 'let them go bogging 1 ' er legt ft(^ fc^tafen, 'he lays himsefl 
 down to sleep;'— and fpojieren, 'to be out for pleasure or exercise {expati- 
 ate),' after a verb expressing the kind of motion: as, ii) reite, fa^re, gelje 
 fpajieren, ' I ride, drive, or walk out for pleasure.' 
 
 n. The infinitive with ju is often construed as a direct object. 
 
 1. As the sole object of a considerable number of verbs, especially of 
 verba whose action points forward to something as to be attained or done : 
 for example, such as sigulfy begin, undertake, endeavor, venture, plan, 
 hope, desire, promise, refrain ; and some others. 
 
 2. Along with an indirect personal object, with verbs signifying com- 
 mand, permit, impute, forbid, and the like. 
 
 Thus, er gebot mir ju fdjttieigen, 'he commanded me to remain silent; ' 
 bie 3[Bod)e emubt SUiemanben borptreten, 'the guard allows iio one to step 
 forward.' 
 
 III. The infinitive with ju is construed in the mannier of an 
 indirect object : 
 
 1. To express the purpose or design of an action: thus, iiS) bin ni^t ba 
 5)latt)fel jii Ibfen, ' I am not here to solve riddles ; ' bie 3Jteere ju befrcien, 
 fotttcn aue I'onbet cvobert merben, ' to free the seas, all lands were to be sub- 
 dued.' 
 
 a. This comes nearest to the original and proper purpose of an infini- 
 tive with JU, ' to, in order to, for to.' The same meaning is conveyed more 
 explicitly by prefixing utlt (see below, 346.1). 
 
 b. The infinitive stands thus often after fein, ' to be,' and ftc^eil, ' stand,' 
 with the logical value of an infinitive passive: thus, bvl WAX (o bicteS JU' 
 
345] IKFINITITE. 159 
 
 fe^en, ' there was so much there to be seen (so much for seeing, as object 
 for sight).' 
 
 This construction in itself evidently admits of either an active or a pas- 
 sive interpretation, according as the thing mentioned is put forward as 
 subject or object of the verbal action conveyed by the infinitive. German 
 usage merely adopts the latter alternative. 
 
 c. §_obeit, with a following infinitive and ju, also sometimes forms a 
 phrase in which what is properly the object of ffobm is regarded and treat- 
 ed as if dependent on the other verb : thus, >nir ^oben ben Sov'fo ju beid)ret= 
 ben, 'we have to describe the Corso (have the Corso for describing, or as 
 theme for description) ; ' — the object may even be omitted, or an intransi- 
 tive infinitive employed, leaving to ^abcn simply the idea of necessity : 
 thus, er t)ot ni^t me^r ju futc^ten, 'he no longer has [aught] to fear.' 
 
 2. In other relations such as are ordinarily expressed by a remoter ob- 
 ject, or a prepositional phrase having the value of such an object, after 
 verbs Intransitive or transitive: thus, al8 er tarn jit fterben, 'when he came 
 to die (to dying) ; ' ba treibt'« t[)n, ben *Pret8 jU erreerben, ' then he feels 
 impelled to gain the prize ; ' man getnobnt eS [till ju ftefjen, ' it is trained to 
 stand still; ' mii)t barf id) btr gu gteic^en nttcfi oevmeffen, 'I may not pre- 
 sume to be like thee; ' Irir freuen unS, ba8 gu pren, ' we rejoice at hearing 
 that; ' er rufjt ntct)t bte @tabt ju Berjieren, ' he ceases (rests) not to adorn 
 the city; ' baS ©ebronge ^tnbert t[)n ju flie^en, 'the crowd forbids (hinders) 
 him to fly.' 
 
 As the examples show, the infinitive in this construction, though it 
 often has the value of a dative, which its governing preposition ju, ' to,' 
 best fits it to fill, is also sometimes used in the manner of a genitive, or an 
 " ablative " (expressing the from relation). 
 
 344. The Infinitive as adjunct to an Adjective. 
 
 1. The infinitive, always with its sign ju, is used as limiting 
 adjunct especially to adjectives denoting possibility, ease or 
 difficulty, obligation, desire, readiness, and the like — to such, in 
 general, as point forward, to something to be attained or done. 
 
 Thus, bcreit ben Stet^er ju burc^brtngen, ' ready to penetrate the ether ; ' 
 letd^t p li^affen, 'easy to obtain; ' bange, (einen ©d^mud gu oertteren, ' afraid 
 of losing his adornment.' 
 
 2. Many adjectives when qualified by Ju, 'too,' or genug, etc., 'enough, 
 BuEBciently,' become capable of taking an infinitive as adjunct : thus, 
 modjtig geuug, bie grogten £t)iere gu tobten, ' powerful enough to kiU the 
 largest animals; ' gu ttein ben 8foum gu fiiflen, 'too small to fill the apace.' 
 
 But after gu and an adjective, the infinitive governed by um (346.1), 
 or an awkward and illogical construction with al8 ba^, 'than that,' is more 
 frequent. 
 
 Compare the power to govern a dative given to an adjective by the same 
 qualifying words (223.5) ; the cases are plainly analogous, the gu in such 
 combinations having its proper prepositional force. 
 
 345. The Infinitive as adjunct to a Noun. 
 
 The infinitive, always accompanied by jU, is often dependent 
 upon a noun. 
 
160 USES OF THE FOEMS OF CONJUGATION. [345- 
 
 The cases of such infinitives may be classified under three 
 heads : 
 
 1. The governing noun is one related in meaning to the verbs and adjec- 
 tives already specified as admitting a dependeat infinitive : thus, Srlaubnig 
 ben ©aum jii (jliinbetii, 'permission to plunder the tree; ' ol)ne ^offuung 
 aufjufte^en, 'without hope to rise again (of rising);' bie 33e9terbe,_ fie ju 
 metfen, ' the desire to awaken her ; ' ben SBorJci^tag, jeme ©ij^ne abjuienben, 
 'the proposal to send off his sons.' 
 
 2. The preposition ju has nearly its proper meaning as connecting the 
 infinitive with the noun: thus, 3ett, ftct) ju ergijljen, 'time to please one's 
 self (for pleasing) ; ' 3Rutt), mii in bie Sffielt ;iu magen, ' courage for ventur- 
 ing into the world ; ' bcr aiugenbtid JU teben, ' the moment for talking.' 
 
 3. The infinitive represents a genitive, most often a genitive of equiva- 
 lence (216.2e), or has the logical value of an added explanation of the gov- 
 erning noun : thus, bie @(^mac6I)eit, jebem gu Berfpred^en, ' the weakness 
 of promising to each one; ' etn ©effl^l beS S5erbienfte8, bteje gansc §ol)e au8= 
 jufiillen, 'a feeling of the merit of filling out this whole height.' 
 
 These classes, however, variously cross and pass into each other. 
 
 346. The Infinitive governed hy a Preposition. 
 
 1. Only three prepositions — namely, um, 'in order,' o^ne, 
 ' without,' ftatt or anftatt, ' instead ' — are allowed in German to 
 govern the infinitive directly. 
 
 They are placed at the beginning of the infinitive clause, preceding all 
 the words dependent on or limiting the infinitive, which stands last, always 
 with JU next before it, and which is ordinarily to be rendered (except after 
 um) by our "participial infinitive," or verbal in mj ; thus, iebermann tommt, 
 um JU jetjen obet gefcl)cn ju roerben, ' every one comes in order to see or to 
 be seen;' ol^ne euc^ fcftmer ju Bertlagcn, 'without accusing you sorely;' 
 anftott abet bie ^ieburc^ erjeugtc giinftige ©timmung ju benuljen, 'instead, 
 however, of improving the favorable state of mind thus brought about.' 
 
 2. With other prepositions, when a similar expression is re- 
 quired, the infinitive clause is represented beforehand by a ba or 
 bar in composition with the preposition, and then itself follows, as 
 if in apposition with this ba. 
 
 Thus, fie morenna^e bar an, auf i^n ju treten, ' they were near to tread- 
 ing on him (near to this — viz. to tread on him); ' belua^rte m\&\ baBov, 
 bie Scatter on ben SBufen [elbft ju legen, ' saved me from laying the adder to 
 my own bosom (from this — viz. to lay etc.) ; ' fie brangen b o v a u f , fid) relets 
 ju menben, 'they insisted on turning to the right.' 
 
 a. Such a phrase as 'they insisted on his turning to the right,' where 
 the subject of the action signified by the participial infinitive is different 
 from that of the verb with which this is connected by the preposition, can- 
 not be expressed in German by an infiuitive : for the infinitive clause is 
 substituted a complete substantive clause (436.3d), with a personal verb and 
 its subject: thus, fie brangen barouf, bajj er jtd) vcd)t8 itieuben foUte, 'they 
 insisted on this — that he should turn to the rigVit.' 
 
350] rfTFiNrrirE. 161 
 
 347. TTie Infinitive in Absolute Constructions. 
 
 1. In various elliptical constructions, chiefly aualogous with such as are 
 usual in English also, the infinitive stands without being dependent on any 
 other word: thus, Warum m\6) tDeden, 'why awaken me?' ac^ ! auf t)a8 
 ntutht^e 9ioJ3 mid) ju jdjtotngen, 'oh, to leap upon a spirited horse! ' o \6)a' 
 itcS S3tlb, ju fel)ett . . . , ' oh beautiful picture I to see . . . ; ' onbever gvenet 
 nic^t 3U gebenten, 'not to mention other outrages: ' and so on. 
 
 2. By a usage not authorized in good German style, an infinitive is 
 colloquially used with an imperative meaning: thus, bo bleibeit, 'stay 
 there I ' 
 
 348. Infinitive Clauses. 
 
 1. The infinitive used as a noun has the construction of an 
 ordinary noun. But in its proper use as infinitive, it shares in 
 the construction of the verb of which it forms a part, taking the 
 same adjuncts — whether predicate, object, adverb, or preposi- 
 tional phrase — as the personal forms of the verb ; thus fonning 
 often extended and intricate infinitive clauses, which have the 
 logical value of full substantive clauses, and are exchangeable 
 with such. 
 
 Thus, mott tft bcfc^afttqt, boS fd^iinc IfSjTafter, Wo ea abjuttieic^en (c^eint, 
 trieber ueu in ©tanb JU fe^cn, 'they are occupied with setting the nice 
 pavement newly in order again, wherever it seems to be giving way;' 
 or, mon ift bamtt be|d)ofttgt, bog mon .... in ©tanb jeljt. 
 
 2. As a rule, the infinitive stands last in such a clause ; and, in 
 general, whatever limits or is dependent on an infinitive is placed 
 before it. 
 
 See the various examples already given. "When two or three infinitives 
 come to stand together, each precedes the one on which it depends, in an 
 order directly the reverse of that usual in English : thus, il)t ^obt mii^ 
 ermorben loffen rooHen, ' you have wanted to cause to murder me (to have 
 me murdered).' 
 
 3. The order in which the various members of an infinitive 
 clause stand is the same which would belong to them if the in- 
 finitive were a part of a compound verbal tense and dependent 
 on an auxiliary : see 319. 
 
 Pa/rticiples. 
 
 349. The participles are properly verbal adjectives, and all 
 their uses and constructions are those of adjectives. 
 
 350. The present participle has active force, representing in 
 adjective form the exerting of an action, or the continuing of a 
 state or condition, in the same way as this is represented by the 
 present tense of the verb. 
 
162 USES OF THE FOEMS OF CONJUGATION. [350- 
 
 Thus, ber reifcnbe 5Kater, 'the travelling painter (i. e. the painter who 
 travels) ; ' etne liebEnbe 2Jiutter, ' a loving mother.' 
 
 a. In rare cases, and by a license which is not approved, a present 
 participle is used passively: thus, eine mcIEenbe fi'iif) (eine jfu^ ttjelc^e 
 OEmeltt tntrb), 'a milking cow (a cow that is milked);' bie Bort)abenbe 
 alei|e (bte ateife bie man toor^at), ' the intended journey (the journey which 
 one has before him) ; ' ber betreffenbe S|Juntt, 'the point concerned.' 
 
 351. 1. The past participle of a transitive verb has pas- 
 sive meaning, without any distinct implication of past time. 
 
 Thus, bag geliebte ^inb, 'the beloved child,' i. e. the child whom one has 
 loved, or loves, or will love, according to the connection in which the term 
 is used. 
 
 a. But such a participle, from a verb denoting a single act rather 
 than a continuous action, may sometimes be used with a past meaning : 
 thus, bag geftoljlene *Pferb, 'the stolen horse;' ber gettuntene SGSein, 'the 
 imbibed wine.' 
 
 2. The past participle of an intransitive verb has active mean- 
 ing, and is for the most part employed only in the formation of 
 the compound tenses of the verb. But, 
 
 a. The past participle of a verb taking (etn as its auxiliary (241.2) 
 may be used attributively, with a distinctly past meaning : thus, ber gcfal= 
 Ieue_@(i)nee (bet ©djnee, reeld^er gefatten ift), 'the fallen snow.' 
 
 3. Many words have the form of past participles, but the value 
 of independent adjectives, either as having a meaning which would 
 not belong to them as participles, or as being divorced from verbs 
 both in form and meaning, or as derived from verbs which are no 
 longer in use as verbs, or as seeming to imply verbs which have 
 never been in use. 
 
 Thus, gelel^rt, 'Warned,' belannt, 'known,' tierbroffen, 'listless; '— crl)a« 
 ben, 'lofty' (crbobeit, 'raised'), gebiegett, 'pure, sterling' (gcbicl)cn, 
 'thriven'); — uerfto^Ien, 'furtive,' Berfdjteben, 'different;' — jeftirnt, 'starry,' 
 bejaljrt, ' aged.' 
 
 a. Such past participles have not rarely assumed, the value of present 
 participles : thus, Berjdjltitegen, ' silent ; ' uetbient, ' deserving ; ' bcforgt, 
 'anxious;' pf(iii)tBcrgcffen, 'duty-forgetting.' 
 
 352. The future passive participle, as has been already no- 
 ticed (278), is formed only from transitive verbs, and is not used 
 otherwise than attributively. 
 
 Thus, bie 5RoUe einet auf fcine SBctfc jit benil^igenben %m\, ' the part of 
 a woman who was in no way to be pacified; ' 6i'e glcidjjcitig aii;iitrctcnbeil 
 ^ilgetfa^rtcn, 'the pilgrimages to bo entered upon at the same time'— but 
 bie %xa\\ ift auf (eine aSeijc ju berul)igen, 'the woman is in no way lo be 
 pacified' (343.ni.16). 
 
 353. The present participle is used freely as an attributive. 
 
357] PARTICIPLES. 163 
 
 and hence also, like other attributive adjectives, as a substantive ; 
 but it is rarely employed as a simple predicate. 
 
 Thus, bie jpietenben Siiftc^en, 'the sporting breezes;' er crltiac^te ben 
 @d)Iummeniben, ' he awoke the sleeper (slumbering one) ; ' ba8 triicjenbe 
 S3ilb lebenber giille, ' the deceiving show of hving fulness ; ' in ber ijanb 
 beS ®(!^reibenben ober SUJolenben, ' in the hand of the writer or painter.' 
 
 a. But there are a number of present participles which have assumed 
 the value and character of adjectives, and admit of predicative use : for 
 example, reijenb, ' charming,' ^inreigenb, ' ravishing,' bcbeutenb, ' Important.' 
 
 6. Such constructions as our he is loving, (hey were going, though not un- 
 known in ancient German, are no longer in use. 
 
 354. The past participle (except of an intransitive having 
 ^abett as auxiliary: see 351.2) is commonly employed both attri- 
 butively and predicatively, and may be used as a substantive, like 
 any other adjective. 
 
 Thus, bie Berlorene 3eit, ' the lost time ; ' in ewtg wieber^olter Oefialt, 
 'in ever repeated form; ' gebt ben Oefangenen lebig, 'set free the prisoner 
 (imprisoned one).' 
 
 355. Both participles admit of comparison, or form a com- 
 parative and superlative degree, only so far as they lay aside the 
 special character of participles, and become adjectives. 
 
 Thus, bebentenbere Summen, 'more important sums;' bo8 er^abenfie 
 SSilb, 'the most majestic image.' 
 
 356. As adverbs they are used rather sparingly, except those 
 which have assumed the value of adjectives. 
 
 Thus, ouSgejeiiSnet gete^rt, ' exceedingly learned ; ' fiebenb ^n% 'boiling 
 hot ; ' entjiicEcno oft, ' ravishingly. often ; ' tl)te gefenlt jdjlutnmernbcn 581at= 
 ter, ' their droopedly slumbering leaves.' 
 
 357. Both participles are, especially in higher styles of com- 
 position, very commonly used appositively (llO.lJ), either alone, 
 or with limiting adjuncts such as d,re taken by the personal forms 
 of the verb. 
 
 Thus, bet 5(Ite fa^ Io))ffci)iitteInb nteber, ' the old man looked down, shak- 
 ing his head ; ' (djiafenb ^atte fte tntr Jo gefaUen, ' she had so pleased me 
 sleeping ; ' ^errttd)e ®aben bejdjerenb etji^einen fte, 'bestowing splendid gifts, 
 they appear; ' bem SBeijJitele folgenb, emjifingen bie(e j[el5t ba8 ^reuj, 'follow- 
 ing the example, these now took the cross ; ' bag §eer Ijntte, bur* frud|t= 
 bnre ©egenben t)orau8jiel)enb, unb retc^Udi mit SeBenSmitteln Berfocgt, bie 
 Srau etreidjt, ' the army, moving on through fruitful regions and aWndant- 
 ly supplied with provisions, had reached the Drave; ' id) bin ein greunb Bon 
 @ei(f)id)ten, gnt erjiifjlt, 'I am fond of stories, well told; ' nod^ lefen umflort 
 bie Slugen bie Snjqnft nic^t, 'my eyes, dimmed with grief, do not yet read 
 the inscription; ' id) fniete nteber, Bon Steb' unb 2lnbad)t gonj burc^ftroMet, 
 'I kneeled down, quite irradiated with love and devotion; ' Bom 2JJet|el be= 
 feelt, rebet bet fii^tenbe Stein, 'animated by the chisel, the feeling stone 
 speaks.' 
 
164 USES OF THE F0EM8 OF OONJUGATIOIT. [357- 
 
 a. Such a participle or participial phrase is used only in the sense of an 
 adjective clause, and expresses ordinarily an accompanying circumstance, or 
 describes a state or condition ; it may not be used, as in English, to signify 
 a determining cause, or otherwise adverbially: in such phrases as "not 
 finding him, I went away," " walking uprightly, we walk surely," " having 
 saluted him, we retired," fuU adverbial clauses must be substituted for the 
 participial phrases : thus, ba td) i^n nid)t fanb ; — Voenn totr aufric^tig tt)an= 
 betn ; — nac^bem wir iljn begriigt fatten. 
 
 b. Rarely, however, the participle approaches a causative force : thus, 
 bteS Befiird)tenb, tobtete er ben 33eauftragten, 'fearing this, he slew the mes- 
 senger.' Compare also 43I.d 
 
 358. The participial clause follows the same rule of arrange- 
 ment as the infinitive clause (348.2,3) — namely, the participle regu- 
 larly and usually stands last, being preceded by all that limits it 
 or is dependent on it. 
 
 This rule is without exception, when the participle is used attributively 
 (compare 147.2); in tlie appositive clause, the participle not very rarely 
 stands first: ,thus, bcr btitte, niit ben frofteftcn ^offnungen Begonnene, nut 
 feltcner ^lug^cit gefii^rte itreujsug, 'the third crusade, begun vrith the 
 gladdest hopes, conducted with rare prudence : ' — in ben 3been ber franjjbjts 
 (d)en Ummaljung erwac^fen, rein ge^atten Bon i^reit SJerbredjen, begabt mit 
 ber OcifteSftarte . . . , ' grown up in the ideas of the French revolution, 
 kept free from its crimes, gifted with the strength of mind . . . ' (R. 194. 
 8-12). 
 
 359. Special Uses of Participles. 1. The past participle is used in the 
 sense of a present participle, after one or two verbs of motion, to express 
 the mode of motion: thus, fo fam ^aufig ein §aje angelprungen, 'a hare 
 often came jumping along; ' ^eulenb tommt ber ©turm geftogen, 'the howl- 
 ing storm comes fiying.' 
 
 2. After a verb of calling, a past participle is occasionally used in an 
 infinitive sense : thus, bo8 tjetgt oud) fitr bte ^ufunft gcforgt, ' that I call (is 
 called) caring for the future also.' 
 
 3. B^ an elliptical construction, a past participle has sometimes the value 
 of an imperative: thus, inS %tib, in bie grctljeit gexogen, 'march forth (let 
 there be marching) into the field, to freedom I ' ben ata'jjjjen gejaumt, ' [have] 
 the steed bridled I ' 
 
 INDECLINABLES. 
 
 360. There are three classes of words not admitting inflec- 
 tion, or grammatical variation of form indicating change of rela- 
 tion to other words, and which are therefore called indecliaables, 
 or particles. These three are adverbs, prepositions, and con- 
 junctions. They pass over into one another, to some extent, the 
 same word having often more than one ofiSco. 
 
363] ABVEEBS. 165 
 
 «• 3a, ' yea,' and netrt, ' no,' are particles which fall properly into no one 
 of the classes mentioned, each being by itself a complete expression or 
 intimation of a thought. 
 
 6. The indeclinables are, in great measure, traceably descended from 
 declined words, being cases of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns ; and the 
 rest are with probability presumed to be of the same origin. See the au- 
 thor's "Language and the Study of Language," pp. 275-6. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 361. Adverbs are words qualifying verbs and adjectives, as 
 also other adverbs, and defining some mode or circumstance of 
 the action or quality signified by those parts of speech. 
 
 In certain exceptional cases, adverbs qualify prepositions also: see 369.1. 
 
 362. Adverbs may be classified according to their meaning as 
 
 1. Adverbs of manner and quality : as, MtnbttngS, ' blindly,' 
 treulidi, ' faithfully,' boEcnbS, ' completely,' anber§, ' otherwise,' 
 otfo, ' thus.' 
 
 2. Adverbs of measure and degree : as, betna^e, ' almost,' gSnj^ 
 tid), ' wholly,' f auin, ' scarcely,' ju, ' too,' fe^r, ' very.' 
 
 3. Adverbs of place and motion : as, ^ier, ' here,' bort, ' yon- 
 der,' Ijer, ' hither,' ^itt, ' hence,' ctnpor, ' up,' rec^t^, ' to the right,' 
 jDcg, 'away.' 
 
 4. Adverbs of time : as, bantt, ' then,' etnft, ' once,' oft, ' often,' 
 fd^on, ' already,' enbli^, ' finally,' nie, ' never,' ^eute, ' to-day.' 
 
 5. Adverbs of modality ; or such as limit not so much the 
 thought itself as its relation to the speaker, or show the logi- 
 cal relation between one thought and another : thus, affirmative, 
 filrwo^r, ' assuredly,' aflerbiitgS, ' by all means ; ' — negative, ni^t, 
 ' not,' fetneSwegg, ' by no means ; ' — potential, bieKeid^t, ' perj^ps,' 
 n)af)rfd)etttli^, ' probably ;' — causal, bo^er, 'therefore,' waium, 'for 
 what reason.' 
 
 a. This last is a transition class between adverbs and conjunctions: 
 see 385. 
 
 i. These leading divisions may be very variously subdivided, nor are 
 their own limits precise or absolute. The relations expressed by adverbs 
 are almost as indefinitely various as those expressed by adjectives, and are 
 in like manner incapable of distinct and exhaustive classification. Hence 
 it is of equal or greater importaaoe to note their various derivation, to 
 which we next pass. 
 
 363. Adverbs from Adjectives. 
 
 1. Almost all adjectives in German admit of use also as ad- 
 verbs, in their uninflected or thematic form (see 130). 
 
166 INDECLINABLES. [363- 
 
 a. Exceptions are : the articles and pronominal and numeral adjectives 
 (except crft) ; further, most participles having their proper participial mean- 
 ing (356) ; and a few others, as arm, gram, ltiol)r, from which derivative 
 adverbs have been formed by means of endings (below, 3). 
 
 h. In an earlier condition of the language, the adjective when used as 
 adverb had an ending of inflection. A relic of this ending is the e of lange, 
 'long' (adj. long, 'long'), and that of gerne, feme, (adjte, ftiUc, and a few 
 others, which are now more commonly used without e. 
 
 2. Adjectives are tbus used as adverbs both in the positive and 
 
 the comparative degree; but only rarely in the superlative. 
 
 a. Superlatives that are employed as adverbs in their simple form are 
 meijl, Itingft, jiingft, nod)ft, t)b(J)ft, Sufierft, n)oglid)ft, innigft, fteunbtid)ft, 
 l)erjtid)ft, gflttgft, gefdUigft, and a few others. 
 
 6. Instead of the simple adjective, Is commonly used in the superlative 
 an adverbial phrase, composed of the adjective with preceding definite, ar- 
 ticle and governed by a preposition, an or auf ; more rarely, in or gn (com- 
 pare the similar treatment of the superlative as predicate, 140,26). 
 
 Thus, ttiaS am meiften in bie 3Iugen fiel, ' what most struds the eye ; ' 
 bxi9 ^fcrb, bag fitf) geftern am (4ted)teften get)alten, ' the horse that behaved 
 ■worst yesterday; ' — man mnjj fie aufs 6eftc erjie^en, 'one must bring them 
 up in the best possible manner; ' et bot bnrd) Oefanbtc aufs ^bflidjfte an, 
 ' he offered most "courteously through ambassadors ; ' — Jpecrcn nidjt int 
 ntinb'ften eitel, ' gentlemen not in the least vain ; ' — bo trof et jum erften 
 2;^rt)m, ' then he smote Thrym first (for the first).' 
 
 c. Of the phrases formed with am and ouf8, respectively, the former are 
 used when there is direct comparison made, and eminence of degree above 
 others is signified (superlative relative) ; the latter, when general eminence 
 of degree, without comparison, is intended (superlative absolute : compare 
 142.1) : im and jnm are used with certain adjectives, in special phrases. 
 
 d. Many superlatives form a derivative adverb with the ending enS : see 
 below, 3c. 
 
 3. A comparatively small number of adverbs are formed from 
 adjectives by means of derivative endings : 
 
 a. Hi) (otmi a number of derivative adjectives from adjectives, nouns, 
 and participles ; and of these- a few (fifteen or twenty) are used only with 
 adverbial meaning : examples are fretUd^, neultd), fc^mcrlid), ftt^etlii^, tttu* 
 lid), woljrlid), folglid^, Ijoffentlii^. 
 
 12ic^ is by origin the same with our ly, which was also at first exclusively an adjectiye 
 snifix, and the same word with the adjective like : oux use of it as distinctive adverbial 
 suffix is only recent : see the author's " Language and the Study of Language," pp. 68-60. 
 
 b. Six or eight adverbs are formed from adjectives (or nouns) by the 
 ending lingS : thus, filinblingS, ' blindly ; ' fd)rittlilig8, ' step by step.' The 
 8 of this suffix is a genitive ending. 
 
 c. The sufQx enS forms adverbs from many superlatives, and from all the 
 ordinal adjectives: thus, BeftAlg, 'in the best manner;' erficnS, 'firstly,' 
 jc^ntcnS, 'tenthly; ' — also from iibrig, iibrigeiiS, 'moreover.' 
 
 The en of this suffix is an ending of adjective declension, to which a 
 genitive 8 has become farther attached, irregularly. ' 
 
365] ADVEEBS. ' 167 
 
 d. The simple genitive ending 8 forms adverbs from a small number of 
 adjectives and participles : thus, UtiW, 'on Ihe left ; ' 6 ere its, ' already ; ' 
 onberS, 'otherwise;' eifcnbS, 'hastily;' OergeSeng, 'vainly;' jujeljenbS, 
 ' visibly ; ' — BotlenbS, ' completely,' is a corruption of BoUettS. 
 
 e. A few other derivatives are too irregular and isolated to require 
 notice here. 
 
 364. Adverbs from Nouns. 
 
 1. Besides the few adverbs formed from nouns by the suffixes Itc^ and 
 littg8 (above, 363.3a,6), there is also a small number formed by the simple 
 genitive ending «, as anfangS, 'in the beginning,' ftugS, 'in haste,' t^ctlg, 
 'in part,' nai^tS, 'in the night.' 
 
 "With these are to be compared the adverbial genitives of nouns, either 
 without or with a Umiting word, noticed at 220.1. 
 
 2. A considerable number of adverbs of direction are formed from nouns 
 and prepositions by the suflSx IticirtS (by origin, the genitive case of an ad- 
 jective mcirt, 'turned, directed'): thus, aufinoi'tS, 'upward;' oftmartS, 
 'eastward;' IjtmmelwSvtg, 'heavenward.' 
 
 365. Adverbs by combination. 
 
 1. Combinations of a noun and a limiting word (article, ad- 
 jective, pronominal adjective — even adverb), which, from being 
 adverbial phrases, iave become fused together into one word. 
 
 a. Such are of every oblique ease, most often genitives, least often da- 
 tives, but not infrequently with irregular endings or inserted letters. 
 
 Examples are groJ3tentf)ei(8, 'mostly,' fetneSWcgg, 'in no wise,' bergeftalt, 
 'in such wise,' alfeutl)alben, 'everywhere,' allejeit, 'always,' jebenfolTs, 'in 
 any event,' einmol, 'once,' oielmatS, 'often,' abermata, 'again.' 
 
 6. Certaia nouns are thus used with especial frequency, forming classes 
 of compound adverbs: such are 2)tng, gaU, §albe, Diat, 3Jio6, @eite, 
 Slieit, SBeg, SBeile, SSSct(e. 
 
 2. Combinations of a preposition with a following or preceding 
 noun, or with a following adjective. Tbese are also fused adver- 
 bial phrases. 
 
 Examples are untetlDegS, 'on the way,' abl)rtnben, 'out of reach,' ptt)el= 
 ten, 'sometimes,' uber^aupf, 'in general,' tnbeffen, 'meanwhile; ' — Bergob, 
 ' down lull; ' fttomauf, 'up stream; ' — juerft, 'at first,' fitrtna^r, ' verily.' 
 
 3. Combinations of adverbs with adverbs or prepositions — ^more 
 proper compounds. These are very numerous, and various in 
 kind : one or two classes require to be especially noticed: 
 
 a. Combinations with the words of general direction or motion, such as 
 are also used as compound prefixes to verbs; see 298.2. 
 
 6. Combinations of prepositions with the adverbs ba or bar, tt)0 or luor, 
 and ^ie or I)ier, used commonly as equivalents for the cases of pronouns 
 governed by those prepositions (see 154.2,3; 166.4; 173.2; 180), with 
 a demonstrative, an interrogative, or a relative value. 
 
168 INDECLINABLES. [366- 
 
 366. Adverbs of obscure derivation. 
 
 Many adverbs which appear Uke simple words are traceable to combi- 
 nationa analogous with those explained above. 
 
 Examples are JttJar, 'to be sure' (zi wdre, 'in truth'), itur, 'only'()M' 
 wdre, 'were it not ), fonjl, 'else' (so ne isl, 'so it be not'), ^eute, 'to-day' 
 (hiu tagii, 'on this day '), nte, 'never' {ne ie, 'not ever'), ntmtnet, 'never' 
 (nie me^r, 'nevermore'), tii(^t, 'not' (ne-wiht, 'no aught'). 
 
 367. Original Adverbs. 
 
 Besides the classes already treated of, there remain a number of ad- 
 verbs which, though in part demonstrably forms of inflection of pronom- 
 inal and other words, may be practically regarded as original. The most 
 important classes of these are 
 
 1. The simple adverbs of place or direction, ob, on, auf, ou8, bei, butc^, 
 in or ein, ob, um, Dor, gu ; — these are all of them commonly employed as 
 prepositions, but retain their adverbial value especially as prefixes to verba 
 (298.1). 
 
 2. Derivatives from pronominal roots : thus, 
 
 a. from the demonstrative root (in bet) — ba, bar, bann, benn, bort, 
 befto, bod^. 
 
 b. from the interrogative root (in wer) — Kit, too, Itienn, loann. 
 
 c. from an obsolete demonstrative root hi — l)ie, ^ttr, ^er, ^in, l^inter. 
 
 3. Farther derivatives from these classes, with adverbial or prepo- 
 sitional meaning: thus, from in, inne and innen ; from ob, ober and oben, 
 iibcr and iiben ; from bann, Wann, and ^in, bannen, tnannen, and ^innen ; 
 and so on. 
 
 a. In several cases, forms in cr and en stand related to one another as 
 corresponding preposition and adverb; thus, iibev and iiben, Winter and 
 l)intcn, ouger and augen, untcv and unten. 
 
 368. Comparison of Adverbs. 
 
 Adverbs, as such, do not generally admit of comparison: comparative 
 and superlative adverbs, so-called, are for the most part comparative and 
 superlative adjectives used adverbially. 
 
 a. Only oft, ' often,' forms bftcr and bftc|i ; and e^e (itself used only aa 
 conjunction, 'ere,' or, in a few compounds, as el)ebem, with prepositional 
 force) forms- e^er and am el)eften. 
 
 b. A few words now used only as adverbs have corresponding forms 
 of comparison from other words, adjective's: for example, gem, 'willingly,' 
 has Itebcv, am liebften, from licb, 'dear.' 
 
 c. Adverbs whose meaning calls for such treatment may, rarely, form a 
 kind of degrees of comparison with mefjr, ' more,' and am meiflcn, ' most,' 
 or other quaUfying adverbs of similar meaning: thus, nief)r red)t8, 'more 
 to the right; ' ant meiftcn Bormnrt«, ' farthest forward.' 
 
 369. Certain special uses of Adverbs. 
 
 1. Some adverbs qualify prepositions— or, rather, prepositional phrases 
 of adverbial meaning: thns, mitten uni bcn Scib, 'midway about the 
 
371] ADVERBS. 169 
 
 body ; ' bag et beflSnbe b 1 8 auf'8 SBtut, 6 i 8 in ben %ob bte gel)be, ' that he 
 might maintain his quarrel even to blood, even unto death.' 
 
 2. Adverbs are not seldom governed by prepositions : see below, 378. 
 
 3. Adverbs are used elliptioally with the value of adjectives : thus, bie» 
 fcr VJlann ifitx, ' this man here ; ' ©rober iinb bte StjtJreffen bran, ' graves 
 and the cypresses thereon ; ' — or, in predicative relations, nun tvax ber 
 2tbenb Borbei, 'now the evening was past ; ' bte 3al)re ftnb no^ nti^t 
 utn, 'the years are not yet over;' atteS jott anberS jein nnb gejaimacts 
 tooH, 'everything is to be otherwise, and tasty;' tft fein StUorber tnel)r un = 
 tertDegcg, 'is there no longer a murderer on the way ? ' aUer SBettetfer 
 tnivb BcrgebenS, 'all emulation becomes futile ; ' id) fa^ Sfiebel ttjeit u m= 
 iitt, 'I saw mist far about' 
 
 4. An adverb is often added after a preposition and its object, to com- 
 plete or to make more distinct the relation expressed by the preposition: 
 see below, 379. 
 
 370. JPlace of Adverbs. 
 
 1. An adverb precedes the adjective or adverb which it quali- 
 fies. 
 
 a. Except gcnug, ' enough,' which, as in English, follows the word it 
 limits. 
 
 2. An adverb qualifying a personal verb is put after it in the regular 
 arrangement of the sentence : one qualifying an infinitive or participle is 
 placed before it. 
 
 As to the placo of the adverb in relation to other adjuncts of the verb, 
 see 319 ; as to certain adverbial words which have exceptional freedom of 
 position, see 385.4. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 371. A preposition is a word used to define the relation be- 
 tween some person or thing and an action, a quality, or another 
 person or thing with which it stands connected. 
 
 a. The distinctive cliaracteristic of a preposition is that it governs an 
 oblique case of a noun (or of the equivalent of a noun) ; and by this it is 
 sepai-ated from an adverb: it is a kind of transitive adverb, requiring an 
 object in order to the completion of the idea which it signifies. Many 
 words are either adverbs or prepositions, according as they are used with- 
 out or with such olig'ect. 
 
 6. The oldest prepositions were originally adverbs, and the various mode 
 of relation of a noun to the action or quality which they aided to define 
 was expressed by means of a more complete scheme of cases: the reduc- 
 tion of this scheme (in German, from six oblique cases to three: see 
 the author's "Language and the Study of Language," pp. 271-2, 276), and 
 the conversion of adverbs to prepositions, are parallel processes of change 
 in the history of our language. In the German, as a fuller system of de- 
 clension is still preserved, a host of relations . are signified by the use of 
 cases alone where we require prepositions in English. 
 
 8 
 
170 INDECLINABLES. [371- 
 
 c Many of the German prepositions are of late formation from nouns 
 or adjectives, or from adverbial phrases containing such. Some examplea 
 of these will be noted below. 
 
 372. Prepositions are most conveniently classified according 
 to the case they/ govern, as the genitive, the dative, the accusa- 
 tive, and the dative or accusative. 
 
 a. A few govern either the dative or genitive, but their difference of 
 use in this respect is not of consequence enough to found a class upon. 
 
 6. Since what determines the relation is originally the cape of the noun, prepositions 
 ought to be followed by cases according to the kind of relation they signify — thus, those 
 that denote motion toward or to should take the accusative ; those that mean for (ori- 
 ginal dattve\ with or 6// (original instrumental), and in or at (original locative), should 
 take the dative ; those that mean of, from, and the like (original genitive and ablative) 
 should take the genitive — and those prepositions that denote different relations should be 
 followed by different cases to correspond. This latter is to a certain extent still the case 
 (see 376.C) : but, on the one hand, the relations of each ancient case now lost have not 
 been assigned in bulk to one of those yet remaining ; and, on the other hand, many prei)o- 
 sitions which have undergone a great change of meaning continue to take the case by 
 which they were originally followed : for example, na^/ which is historically the same word 
 with na^, "'nigh to,' governs the dative, the case regularly following na§, thongh itself 
 used in the sense of ' after ' and of ' toward, to." 
 
 373. Prepositions governing the genitive are anflatt or flatt, 
 'instead of,' t)atber or mbcn, 'for the sake of — with the com- 
 pounds of \)aVa, namely oujjer^atb, ' without, outside,' tnnert|oI6, 
 ' within,' obciljotfi, ' above,' untciFiatb, ' below ' — fraft, in virtue of,' 
 IdngS, 'along,' lout, ' according to,' ixo%, 'in spite of,' um . . . 
 miden, 'on account of,' ungeadjtet (or ol)n3eQc[)tet), 'notwithstand- 
 ing,' unfem and unrocit, ' not far from,' tnittelS or mittelft or »er« 
 mittelft, 'by means of,' Bermoge, 'by dint of,' h)a()venb, 'during,' 
 luegen, 'on account of,' jufotge, 'in consequence of,' and the com- 
 pounds of fett, bieffett or bieffettg, ' on this side of,' and jenfeit or 
 jcnfeitS, ' on the further side of, beyond.' 
 
 Thus, ftatt bcr golbncn Steber, 'instead of the golden Songs; ' um biefer 
 fremben 3eugen tntUcn, 'on account of these stranger witnesses; ' ®enug= 
 t^iiuiig lucgen bcr getobteten Eljttften, ' satisfaction on account of the slaui 
 Christians ; ' jenjeit bc8 gorfieS, ' beyond the forest.' 
 
 a. Of these prepositions, IfingS, tro^, and jitfotgc also not infreciuently 
 govern the dative ; some others do so occasionally. 
 
 b. §otbeu or ^alber always follows the noun it governs; um . . . 
 miUen takes the noun between its two parts; ungeacfjtet, WEgen, and jii- 
 fotgc may either precede or follow (jufotge precedes a genitive, but follows 
 a dative). 
 
 c. These prepositions are of recent use as -such, and all evidently 
 derived from other parts of speech. §alb is a nouu meaning originally 
 ' side : ' megcn was formerly Bon megeti, which is still in occasional use. 
 
 d. The adverbial genitives ?Inge|"i(i)tS, 'in presence,' and SBct)uf«, 'in be- 
 half,' the adverbs inmitteil, 'in the midst,' abjcitS, 'aside,' and some of 
 those formed with IniirtS, as jeitlnfil'tS, ' sideways,' noi'bmartS, ' northwards,' 
 
376] PKEPOSITIONS. 171 
 
 also enttang, ' along,' and a few others, antiquated or of rare occurrence, 
 are sometimes used prepositionally with a genitive. 
 
 374. The prepositions governing the dative are, of more an- 
 cient and original words, ait§, ' out,' 6et, ' by,' mit, ' with,' o6, 
 ' above, for,' bon, ' of,' ju, ' to ; ' of recent and derivative or 
 compound words, uad), ' after, to,' jett, ' since,' gkiif, ' like,' 
 famntt and nebft, ' along with,' nad^ft, ' next,' binncn, ' within,' 
 au^cr, ' outside,' entgegeit, ' against,' gegenitbcr, ' opposite,' gema^, 
 ' in accordance with,' juioibev, ' contrary to.' 
 
 a. For prepositions wliich more regularly and usually govern the gen - 
 itive, but are sometimes construed with a dative, see above, 373.a. Of 
 those here mentioned, ob (which Is now antiquated), when meaning 'on 
 account of,' is oecaslonally used with a genitive: auger governs a geni- 
 tive in the single phrase au§er Sanbeg, ' out of the country.' 
 
 6. 9la(^, gteicl), and gemag either precede or follow the governed noun: 
 thus, noc^ bee Stabt, ' to the city ; ' bev 3f otuv nac^, ' according to nature ; ' 
 gEmfig ben Urgcfc^ic^ten, 'according to the old stories;' ber 3s't ""^ 
 ben UmftSnben gemog, ' in accordance with the time and the circumstances ; ' 
 fie jteljt ftd) gteic^ eiuem a)ieere8ornie Ijin, 'it stretches along, after the 
 manner of an arm of the sea ; ' fie flog, einet @r)tpt)ibe gleic^, ' she flew 
 like a sylph.' — Entgegen, gegcniiber, and gemfijj follow the noun ; but gc» 
 geniiber is sometunos (by a usage no longer approved^ divided, and talies 
 the noun between its two parts : thus, ffon Samen fi^en gegen etnonber 
 iiber, ' two ladies sit opposite one another.' 
 
 c. Occasionally, by a bold construction, a word which is properly adverb 
 only is construed as if preposition : thus, ooron ben liibnen 9ieil)cn, ' in 
 front of the brave ranks: ' compare 373.d 
 
 375. The prepositions governing the accusative only are 
 biir^, ' through,' fur, ' for,' gegen or gen, ' against,' o^ne, ' with- 
 out,' urn, ' about,' niiber, ' against ; ' also fonber, ' without,' bt3, 
 'unto, till.' 
 
 a. ®en is now nearly out of use, except in certain phrases, like gen 
 §immel, 'toward heaven,' gen SSBcftcn, 'toward the west.' ©onber is 
 hardly employed except in a phrase or two, as fonber gteiti)en, ' without 
 equal.' Si8 usually stands adverbially before a preposition (see 369.1), but 
 also governs directly specifications of place and time : thus, biS Stnttodjten, 
 ' as far as Antioch ; ' roarte nur bi3 niorgcn, ' only wait till tomorrow.' 
 
 6. Um is very often followed by ber after the noun : see 379. as. 
 
 c. Prom the case of an accusative governed by a preposition requires 
 to be distinguished that of an absolute aconsative of place followed by an 
 adverb of direction, as ben Serg [)inaHf, 'up the mountain' (see 230.16). 
 This construction Is interesting as illustrating an intermediate step in the 
 process of conversion of adverbs into prepositions. 
 
 376. Nine prepositions govern sometimes the dative and some- 
 times the accusative — the dative, when they indicate locality or 
 situation merely, or answer the question " where ? " the accusa- 
 
172 mDECLINABLES. [376- 
 
 tive, when they imply motion or tendency toward, or answer the 
 qnestion " whither?" They are on, ' on, at,' auf, 'upon,' ()inter, 
 ' behind,' in, ' in, into,' nebcn, ' beside,' iiber, ' above, across,' 
 unter, ' under,' oor, ' before,' jhJtfc^en, ' between.' 
 
 Thus, id) l)altc an ben ©i^ranlen, unb retire ben §etnt on einen ,Srto(). 
 )jen jlltuiJ, ' I stop at the barrier, and hand back my helmet to a squire; ' 
 ev lag auf ber (Srbe, unb ^atte baS D^t anf ben SRofen getegt, ' he lay on 
 the ground, and had his ear laid on the turf; ' fie briiten Winter bem Ofcil, 
 'they brood behind the stove ; ' ev legte ftc^ t)inter etne Sabaef^bofe, 'he laid 
 himself behind a snuff-box; ' er gtng iitS §au8, unb blieb tange tn bemfc(= 
 ben, ' he went into the house, and staid a long time iu it ; ' bort (tegt cr 
 ncben eincm ©tein, ' there it lies, beside a stone ; ' fie febten ftc^ neben ben 
 iBanin, ' they seated themselves beside the tree ; ' ber 8ta(f|en jc^liegt fti^ 
 iiber bem ©c^njimmer, ' the abyss closes over the swimmer ; ' iiber biefcn 
 (Strom bin id) cinnml gefabren, ' I once crossed over this stream ; ' ber Sa^n 
 trieb nnter cmc SSviicfe'; unter biefer SBritdfe luobntc eiue 3lattc; ' the boat drove 
 uuderneath a bridge ; under this bridge lived a rat ; ' int Stugenbltd! waren fie 
 bor bem SE'fcn, ' in a moment they were before the rook ; ' er trat Bot bie SCoau 
 gin, ' he came before the queen ; ' baS ©eftricfte rul)te ^mijcben il)ren JpSn« 
 ben, ' the knitting-work lay between her hands ; ' fie fd)liipften smift^eB 
 fcine ^incige, ' they slipped in among its branches.' 
 
 a. The difference of meaning determining the use of the dative or-accu- 
 sative after these prepositions is not always an obvious one ; sometimes a 
 peculiar liveliness is given to an expression by the employment of the accu- 
 sative: thus, er mad)te etne Oeffnung in bie @rbe, 'he made a hole in (into) 
 the ground; ' unb tiigte fte an ben SDtunb, 'and kissed her on the mouth 
 (impressed a kiss) ; ' iiber ben 3tanb ber Sitfc gcbogen, ' arched over (thrown 
 as arch across) the edge of the abyss ; ' — or, the accusative implies a verb 
 of motion which is not expressed: thus, er ftteg in ein 2Birtb8bau8 ab, 'he 
 got down (and entered) into an inn; ' er rettete ficb •" ^'^ SSurg, 'he saved 
 himself (betook himself for safety) into the castle ; ' ftc ficben in bie §obc, 
 'they stand up (rise to a standing posture); ' — or, the action is a figurative 
 one: thus, an tbn benfcn, 'think of him (turn one's thoughts on him);' ct 
 fnb nuf all bie 5prad)t, 'he looked upon all the beauty; ' fie frencten fnb «bet 
 bie fd)ijnen Stefifei, 'they were delighted with the beautiful apples;'— or 
 there are phrases, the implication of which seems arbitrarily determined; 
 thus, auf bic bcftc iffieife, 'in the best manner; ' uber tonfenb 3a^re, 'after a 
 thousand years.' 
 
 b. It Is only by its use of in and into (as also, in colloquial phrase, of on 
 and onto), that the English makes a corresponding distinction ; and even 
 tins does not agree in all particulars with the German distinction of in with 
 the dative and with the accusative. Hence the ground of the difference of 
 case is the less easily appreciated by us, and needs to be carefully noted at 
 everj' instance that occurs. 
 
 t. The accusative and dative with these prepositions have each its own 
 proper value, the one as the case of directest action, the other as repre- 
 senting the ancient locative (or case denoting the w relation). 
 
 377. 1. Some prepositions govern a substantive clause, introduced 
 usually by ba(j, rarely by a compound relative (179): such are ouf, aufier, 
 bis, ol)nc, ftatt oranftott, um, ungeai^tct, niSl)vcnb : thus, ouf baji c8 biv H)ol)t 
 
380] PEEPOsmoNS. 173 
 
 ge^e, ' in order that it may go well with thee ; ' ouger locr feme SSJlitfc^uIbU 
 gen feien, ' except who were his accomphces.' 
 
 a. This is closely akin with the office of a conjunction ; and 6t8, ungeai^tct, 
 and njat)renb may be used without bog, as proper conjunctions': thus, luo^= 
 renb intr bo blieben, 'while we continued there' (compare 439.5c). 
 
 2. The prepositions um, o^ne, and ftott or anftott may govern an infini- 
 tive and its adjuncts, as equivalent of a complete clause (compare 346.1). 
 
 378. An adverb not infrequently takes the place of a noun 
 as object of a preposition. Thus, 
 
 u. Many adverbs of time and place: as, no^ oben, 'upward (toward 
 above) ; ' ouf immer, ' for ever ; ' fiir je^t, ' for now ; ' Don fern, ' from afar ; ' 
 in rote fern, 'how far.' 
 
 6. The adverbs bo or bor, IBO or ttior, and ^ter or l)te, as substitutes for 
 the oblique cases of pronouns. These are compounded with the governing 
 preposition, forming a kind of compound adverb (see 365.36). 
 
 379. 1. After the noun governed by a preposition is often 
 added an adverb, to emphasize, or to define more nearly, the re- 
 lation expressed by the preposition. Thus, 
 
 a. The general adverbs of direction, ^tn and l)er : as, um unS ^er, um 
 i^n f)et, ' round about us or him ; ' Ijtntcc i^m ^er, ' along after him ; ' 
 itocf) eincr S)iid)tung I)tn, ' in 'a single direction ; ' fiber bo9 Mza J|in, 
 ' across the sea ; ' tion oUen ©eiten I)cr, ' from all sides.' 
 
 In these combinations, the distinctive meaning of the adverb, as de- 
 noting motion yrom and toward, is apt to be effaced. Um . . . ^ev is the 
 commonest case, and a stereotyped expression for 'round about.' 
 
 6. The same adverbs, in combination with the preposition itself repeat- 
 ed : thus, utn mid) ^erum, ' round about me ; ' in ben gorft l^inetn, 
 'into the forest;' aug.bem SSalbe ^inouS, 'out of the wood;' ou8 ber 
 SSruft ^etou3, ' forth from the breast ; ' b urd) ®efol)ren ^tnburci^, ' through 
 dangers.' 
 
 c. Other adverbs of direction, simple or compound, often adding an es- 
 sential complement to the meaning of the preposition : thus, Son nun on, 
 ' from now on ; ' Bon bort au8, ' forth from there ; ' Son 3ugenb ouf, ' from 
 youth up ; ' nod^ ber aJZitte ju, ' toward the middle ; ' fie gingen ouf i^n jn, 
 ' they fell upon him ; ' er prt bie geinbe Winter ftd^ bretn, "' he hears the 
 enemy [coming on] after him ; ' Winter SSoumen IjerBor, ' forth from be- 
 hind trees ; ' jur fiommcr ^inetn, ' intO' the room ; ' jum E^ore ^inouS, 
 'out at the gate.' 
 
 2. It may sometimes be made a question whether the adverb of direc- 
 tion belongs to the prepositional phrase, or, rather, to the verb of the 
 clause, as its prefix : the two cases pass into one another. 
 
 380. To what members of the sentence a prepositional 
 phrase forms- an adjunct has been pointed out already : namely, 
 
 1. To a verb, with very various value: see 318. 
 
 2. To a noun: see 112. 
 
174: INDECLINABLES. [380- 
 
 3. To an adjective : see 146. 
 
 4. Hence, also, to an adverb, wten an adjective is used as such. 
 
 381. 1. The rules for the position of a preposition, whether before or 
 after the noun that it governs, have been given above, in connection with 
 the rules for government. 
 
 2. Between the preposition and its following governed noun may in- 
 tervene the various limiting words which are wont to stand before a 
 noun — as articles, adjective pronouns, adjectives and participles, with 
 their adjuncts — often to an extent discordant with English usage : thus, 
 Qu8 Hcinen, Dicredig juge^auenen, 3iemtt(i^ gteii^en i8o|altftucfcn, 'of small, 
 squarely hewn, tolerably equal pieces of basalt; ' fiir bent Sranfen gcletftete 
 ^iilfe, ' for help rendered to the sick man.' 
 
 Respecting the combination of the preposition with a following definite 
 article into a single word, see 65. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 382. Conjunctions are words which connect the clauses or 
 sentences composing a period or paragraph, and show their rela- 
 tion to one another. 
 
 a. "We have hitherto had to do only with the elements which enter into 
 the structure of individual clauses, and among which conjunctions play no 
 part. When, however, clauses themselves are to be put in connection 
 with one another, conjunctions are required. 
 
 b. If certain conjunctions — especially those meaning ' and ' and ' or ' — 
 appear to connect words as well as clauses, it is as such words represent 
 clauses, and may be expanded into them : thus, n unb i^ loorcn ba — er 
 tnav ba, unb it^ mar ia, ' he was there and I was there ; ' er ift mad^tigct 
 ol8 id) [bin], ' he is mightier than I [am].' 
 
 c. Conjunctions, as a class, are the words of latest development in the 
 history of language, coming from other parts of speech, mainly through 
 the medium of adverbial use. A word ceases to be an adverb and becomes a 
 conjunction, when its qualifying influence extends over a whole clause in- 
 stead of being Umited to a particular word in it. Almost all oonjunotions 
 in German are also adverbs (or prepositions), aud their u,ff}§ as the one 
 or the other part of speech shade off into one another. , •• ^ »-'& 
 
 383. Conjunctions are most conveniently classified accord- 
 ing to the character of the relations they indicate, and their 
 effect upon the arrangement of the clauses they introduce, as 
 
 1. General connectives, which do not alter the arrangement of the 
 clause. 
 
 2. Adverbial conjunctions, causing the inversion of a clause 
 (that is to say, causing its subject to follow, instead of preceding, 
 the verb). 
 
385] CONJUNCTIONS. 175 
 
 3. Subordinating conjunctions, which make the clause depend- 
 ent, and give it the transposed order (removing the verb to the 
 end). 
 
 The first t-wo classes, in contradistinction from the third, may be called 
 co-ordinating cov^'wnctions. 
 
 384. The general connectives are those signifying ' and,' ' but,' 
 ' for,' and ' or' and ' either.' 
 
 Namely, unb, ' and ; ' — ober, ollein, fonbetn (and sometimes boi^), ' but ; ' 
 — benn, 'for; ' — cntiueber, 'either,' and ober, 'or.' 
 
 a. Of the words meaning ' but,' fonbern is more strongly adversative 
 than abcr, being used only after a negative, and introducing somu word 
 which has a like construction with the one on which the force of the 
 negation falls, and which is placed in direct antithesis with it: thus, nieil 
 nidjt etgcne Wladft, |onbern ®ott, bie ifontge errettet, ' because not their own 
 might, but God, saves kings ; ' et genog ntd^t lange feineS SRu^mS, joiibcrn 
 Oorb bejn)unc|en,'he did not long enjoy his fame, but was subdued; ' mettt 
 ajetter mar tein SDJann, fonbern etu 33a4, ' my preserver was no man, but a 
 brook ; ' — the combination titi^t mtr (or blop) . . . fonbern aud), 'not only 
 . . . but also,' is likewise common: thus, nid)t blog jenc (iinbtgten, fonbcnt 
 ouc^ Wit, ' not they alone have sinned, but also we.' Stffein means literally 
 'only,' and is often best so rendered, being more restricted than ober to 
 the introduction of a definite objection. For bod) as ' but,' see below, 385.5c. 
 
 6. These connectives stand always at the head of the clause whose 
 connection they indicate; except aber, which has great freedom of 
 position, and may be introduced at any later point — without any notable 
 difl'erence of meaning, although often to be conveniently rendered by 'how- 
 ever.' 
 
 385. 1. The adverbial conjunctions are originally and strictly 
 adverbs, qualifying the verb of the clause which they introduce ; 
 and, like any other of the adjuncts of the verb {431), when 
 placed at the head of the clause, they give it the inverted order, 
 putting the subject after the verb. 
 
 2. No distinct boundary separates the conjunctional use of these words 
 from their adverbial use : they are conjunctions wJien their effect is to de- 
 terming.^ th^ r^^ations of clauses to one another, rather than to limit the ac- 
 tion 01 -u'Verb^and these two offices pass insensibly into each other. 
 
 3. They may be simply classified as 
 
 o. Copulative (related to the general connective ' and '), uniting different 
 phrases with no other implication than that of continuation, order, or divi- 
 sion: as, aud), 'also,' augerbem, 'besides,' bnnn, 'then,' ferner, 'further,' 
 erftcna, jroeiten«, brittenS, 'firstly, secondly, thirdly,' and so on, fc^Iieglidj, 
 'finally,' TOcber . . . no(i^, 'neither . . . nor,' t^eilS . . . t^eitS, 'partly 
 . . . partly,' bolb . . . batb, 'now. . . now.' 
 
 b. Adversative {related ix) 'but'), implying more or less distinctly an op- 
 position of idea, a denial or restriction: as, bot^, jpborf), bennot^, 'yet, 
 though,' gIeid)iuot)(, beffenungeoc^tet, 'nevertheless;' bagcgen, l^ingegcn, 
 
176 nSTDECLINABLES. [385- 
 
 ' on the contrary,' inbeffen, 'however,' Dtelme^r, 'rather,' jtoav, 'to he sure,' 
 ftioljl, ' indeed.' 
 
 c. Causative (related to 'for'), implying a ground, reason, or occasion: 
 as, bn^er, beSraegen, beal)0lb, 'therefore,' alfo, 'accordingly,' folglii!^, miff|in, 
 ' consequently.' 
 
 d. Adverbs of place and time, particularly the latter, sometimes assume 
 a conjunctional value: as, unterbeffen, 'meanwhile,' Border, 'previously,' 
 barauf, 'thereupon.' 
 
 4. Although these words in their conjunctional office tend toward the 
 head of the clause, they do not always take that place ; nor are they al- 
 ways conjunctions rather than adverbs when they introduce the clause. 
 Especially itcimlic^, ' namely,' and some of the adversative and causative con- 
 junctions — as bod), jebocf), tnbeffcn, Jttar, h)ol)t, alfo —have a freedom of po- 
 sition like that of abet (384.J). 
 
 5. The clause sometimes maintains its normal order, instead of being 
 inverted, after conjunctions of this class ; especially 
 
 a. When the emphasis of the clause, or of the antithesis in two correla- 
 tive clauses, rests on the subject, so that the conjunction becomes a kind 
 of adjunct of the subject: thus, auc§ bein SBruber ()at e8 geluiinji^t, 'thy 
 brother also has wished it; ' ttjeber er, no^ ic^ ttiaren ba, 'neither he nor I 
 were there.' 
 
 i. When the conjunction represents a clause which is not fully expressed, 
 or is thrown in, as it were parenthetically. Conjunctions most often so 
 treated are jmar, iibetbteg, fotgltd^, jubem, f)tngegen, and ordinals, as erften8, 
 gweitens. 
 
 c. 2)0(5 sometimes has its adversative force weakened to a mere 'but,' 
 and leaves the order of the dSuse unchanged, like the other words that 
 have that meaning (384). 
 
 386. 1. The subordinating conjunctions are such as give to 
 the clause which they introduce a dependent (subordinate, acces- 
 sory) value, making it enter, in the relation of substantive, adjective, 
 or adverb, into the structure of some other clause. Such a de- 
 pendent clause assumes the transposed orders — that is to say, its 
 personal verb is removed to the end of the clause (see 434 etc.). 
 
 2. The conjunctions that introduce a substantive dependent clause are ba6, 
 'that,' ob, 'whether,' and those that have a compound relative value, 
 namely loie, 'how,' tnann, 'when,' roo, 'where,' and the compounds of wo, 
 whether with adverbs of direction, as iroljin, 'whither,' ttjo^cr, 'whence,' 
 or with prepositions, as representing cases of the compound relative pro- 
 noun xotx (X80), as inodon, 'whereof, ' tnomit, 'wherewith.' 
 
 Thus, iii) voeiS, bag er l)tcr rear ; oB er nocfi l)tcr Blcibt, ijl mir unbclantit ; 
 fvagcit ©ie nut utid), moI)in er ftfl) begeben l)abe, ' I know that he was here; 
 whether he still remains here is unknown to me ; only inquire whither he 
 has betaken himself.' 
 
 8. The conjunci.ions that introduce an adjective dependent clause are 
 
387] CONJUNCTIONS. 177 
 
 chiefly those made up of prepositions, with the adverbs ba and loo, repre- 
 senting cases of the simple relative pronouns ber and tticld^et (180), or of 
 words of direction with the same adverbs. The simple conjunctions Wo, 
 tnenn, wctnn, ba, aU, ttiie, following specifications of place, time, or manner, 
 also sometimes perform the same office. 
 
 Thus, ba8 SBett, moraiif er lag, 'the bed on which he lay; ' tl)r OueHen, 
 bal)tn bie welte SSruft ftc^ btangt, 'ye fountains toward which the drooping 
 breast presses;' ba8 8onb, IDO bie Sttrotien btit^n, 'the land where the 
 lemons blossom; ' bie Strt, wie man ben ^ricg fii^rt, 'the way in which the 
 war is carried on.' 
 
 4. The conjunctions that introduce an adverbial dependent clause are of 
 very various derivation, character, and meaning: namely, 
 
 a. Conjunctions indicating ^Zoce .• as, IDO, ba, 'where.' 
 
 J. Time: as, ba, a(8, inenn, TOie, TOO, 'when,' inbem, inbeffen or tnbe§, 
 
 toetl, ma^renb, 'while,' nai^bcm, 'after,' feitbenty 'since,' bi«, 'unta,' e^e, be= 
 
 Bor, 'before.' 
 
 t. Manner: as, H)te, 'as.' 
 
 d. Cause: as, nieil, biemett, 'because,' ba, 'since,' nun, 'now that,' bag, 
 'that.' 
 
 e. Purpose: as, bamit, bag, auf bog, urn bag, 'in order that.' 
 
 /. Condition: as, ttienn, 'if,' fo, mo, tnofern, bafern, fatl8, 'incase,'tn= 
 bem, 'while; ' — and, with implication of objection, imgead^tet, obgleict), ob= 
 ttJoM. obfdjon, ob jmov, ob oui^, hjennglctd), mcnnfi^on, menn aud), h)ie« 
 >ool)l, 'although.' 
 
 The compounds of ob and wenn with gtetd^, Wo^I, and (dion, meaning 
 ' although,' are often separated by intervening words. 
 
 g. Degree : as, ttJte, ' as,' je, ' according as,' al8, benn, ' than.' 
 
 h. Besides these, there are numerous conjunctioaal phrases, of kindred 
 value, composed of conjunctions and other particles : as, ala ob, ' as if,' in 
 Wie fern, 'so far as,' je naci^bem, 'according as,' fo balb, 'as soon as,' fo 
 long, ' so long as,' etc. 
 
 i. @o, especially, with following adverb, forms (as in the last two exam- 
 ples) a great number of conjunctional phrases or compounds, after which 
 the conjunction ol9,' ' as,' is sometimes expressed, but more often impUed : 
 thus, fo tang ats e8 nur moglid) iff, or fo tang e8 nur raijgtitfi ifi, ' so long as 
 it is in any way possible ' (compare 438.3d). 
 
 5. Few of these words are exclusively conjunctions : many are adverbs 
 also, or prepositions, or both j some, as roSljrenb, ungeac^tet, are partici- 
 pial forms ; some, as falls, hiett, are cases of nouns ; many are combined 
 phrases composed of a preposition and'a governed case ; as inbem, nai^» 
 bem, feitbem. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 387. The interjections have a character of their own, sepa- 
 rate from the other parts of speech, in that they do not enter as 
 
 8* 
 
178 INDECLINABLES. [387- 
 
 elements into the structure of sentences or periods, but are inde- 
 pendent outbursts of feeling, or intimations of will, the uttered 
 equivalents of a tone, a grimace, or a gesture. 
 
 388. Nevertheless, they are not purely natural exclamations, 
 but utterances akin with such, which are now assigned by usage 
 to the expression of certain states of mind or will. 
 
 389. The interjections most commonly used are 
 
 1. Of those expressing feeling — o or o^, used in a great variety of 
 meanings ; ad), tuct), expressing painful or disagreeable surprise or grief; 
 ^)fut, fi, ba^, expressing disgust or contempt ; et, joyful surprise ; ifa, al), 
 wonder, pleasure, and the like ; \)ti\a, juc^^e, exultation ; ^cm, t)m, doubt, 
 hesitation ; Iju, horror, shuddering. 
 
 2. Of those intimating will or desire — ^e, ^eba, ^oUa, to call attention ; )f)% 
 the same, or to command silence ; ^ufc^, to command silence ; to)))), to sig- 
 nify the closing of a bargain. 
 
 3. Here may be best classed, also, the various imitations of the cries 
 of animals and other natural sounds, directions and callwords for animals, 
 and the more or less artificially composed and unintelligent words whieli 
 are used as burdens of songs and the like : as, i)0))jaia, DtUatlera, tun> 
 tebum. 
 
 390. As, on the one hand, the inteijections are employed 
 with a degree of conventionality, like the other constituents of 
 language, so, on the other hand, many words that are proper 
 parts of speech are very commonly used in an exclamatory way, 
 quite as if they were interjections. Such are ^cil, 'hail!' gott= 
 Io6, ' praise God ! ' bewa^r, ' God forbid ! ' fort, hJeo, ' away ! ' 
 fte^, 'behold,' bvat), 'well done!' etc.; and the whole series of 
 oaths and adjurations. 
 
 a. The ordinary equivalent of Our alas, Iciber, is an abbreviation of the 
 phrase tt)og nitr nod) I e tier ift, 'what is yet more painful to me '(or 
 something equivalent to this), {ind is capable of being introduced, parenthe- 
 tically, at almost any point in the phrase — even, when put first, some- 
 times causing inversion, like an adverb. 
 
 391. The exclamatory or inteqecjional mode of expression pre- 
 vails to no small extent in the practical use of language, when emo- 
 tion or eagerness causes the usual set framework of the sentence, 
 the verb and its subject, to be throws aside, and only the em- 
 phatic elements to be presented at all. 
 
 Thus, mi) jitr (Srbin Evtlorenl ber bertfitljerift^c JaHfind, 'declare you 
 my heiress I the treacherous snare 1' flicl)'! aiifl I)inaii8 tii« Weite Sanb! 
 'flee! up I out into the wide country! ' id) ucrftel)' bid) ; loeitcv! 'I under- 
 stand you : further I ' 
 
395] INTEEJECTIONS. 17-9 
 
 The grammatical forms most frequently thus used are the nominative of 
 address (or " vocative : " 214), and the imperative. 
 
 392. Some of the inteijections are also brought into a kind 
 of connectioQ with the structure of the sentence, being followed 
 by cases, or phrases, such as would suit a more complete expres- 
 sion of the feeling they intimate. 
 
 Thus, 0, aH), ))fui may stand before a genitive expressing the occasion 
 of the exclamation : as in o beg Sljoren ! pfiii ber @d)anbe 1 ' oh the fool I 
 fie on the shame I ' — some may take a prepositional phrase or a substan- 
 tive clause after. them: as, ac^ bag bu bo Itegji, 'alas that thou liest 
 there I ' pfui iiber ben ^cigen, ' fie on the coward I ' — and nouns used in- 
 terjectionally often admit a dative object, signifying that toward which 
 the feeling is directed : thus, §etl, o griit)ltng, bcinein @d)cin, ' hail to thy 
 brilliancy, oh Spring I ' loe^ mir, bag i(^ bir Bertrout, ' woe to me, that I 
 have trusted thee I ' 
 
 WORD-FORMATION, DERIVATION. 
 
 Introductory Explanations. 
 
 393. The etymological part of grammar, as thus far treated, deals with 
 the character and uses of the parts of speedi, and of their grammatical or 
 mfleciional forms, which are made from simple themes (stems, bases), chiefly 
 by inflectional endings, but in part also by in ternal change. 
 
 Such grammatical forms (along with the indeclinable particles, which 
 are ultimately derived from them) constitute the most essential part of the 
 grammatical apparatus of a language, its instrumentality for the expression of 
 relations of ideas, the means by which its names of beings, qualities, acts, 
 etc., are placed in connection with one another, in order to express the 
 thoughts of the speaker. 
 
 394. Another, and only less important part of the same grammatical 
 apparatus is the array of means by which themes of declension and conju- 
 gation are formed from roots and from each other. These means are of the 
 same character with those already described, consisting chiefly of sufBxes, 
 along with a few prefixes, and supplemented by methods of internal change. 
 
 395. There is no fundamental diversity between the two instrumentali- 
 ties. The suflBxes and prefixes of inflection and of derivation are equally, by 
 origin, independent words, which were first uttered in connection with 
 other words, then combined with the latter, and finally made to lose their 
 independence and converted into subordinate elements, designating the 
 relations of other more substantial and significant elements. 
 
 a. The working-out of grammatical apparatus, by the reduction of words 
 once independent to the condition of endings of inflection or derivation, 
 
1 "^0 DEEIVATION. [395- 
 
 has been a part of the history of inflective languages, from their beginDing 
 <lown to modern times. Of many of the affixes formed in this way, as well 
 as of some that are much more ancient, the origin can still be distinctly 
 traced : but their history is to a great extent obscured by the effects of lin- 
 guistic change and corruption. Compare what is said above of the deriva- 
 tion of the ending te, forming the preterits of the New conjugation (246.3), 
 and of the suffixes li(^, loattS, etc. (363-4); and see the author's "Lan- 
 guage and the Study of Language," pp. 55 eta, 250 etc. 
 
 6. The difference between the two classes of endings lies in their mode 
 of application, and in the frequency and regularity of their use. Certain 
 suffixes of derivation are so regularly applied to whole classes of themes, 
 and produce derivatives so an^ogous with forms of inflection, that they 
 are conveniently and properly treated along with the subject of inflection. 
 Such are the endings er and eji of comparatives and superlatives (133 etcj, 
 and those which form the infinitives and participles of verbs. 
 
 396. Among modem lauguages commonly studied, the German is the 
 one which most fully and clearly illustrates the processes of word-forma- 
 tion ; and the subject ought therefore to receive the attention of every ad- 
 vanced German scholar. 
 
 397. But no known language (not even such exceptional ones as the 
 Sanskrit) has preserved so much of its primitive structure that we can 
 carry back the analysis of its vocabulary to the actual beginning. By the 
 help, especially, of a careful and searching comparison of related languages, 
 the procesae.s of word-combination can be traced up until we discover of 
 what sort are the ultimate elements of speech, although we are by no means 
 certain of being able to point them out in their very form and substance. 
 
 Principles. 
 
 398. The words of German, as of other related languages, 
 are believed to come ultimately from certain monosyllabic boots, 
 which were not themselves distinct parts of speech, but mate- 
 rial out of which were developed verbs, nouns (nouns adjective 
 and nouns substantive), and pronouns ; and, through these, the 
 other parts of speech. 
 
 a. Because the roots of language are usually seen in their simplest 
 form in verbs, we are accustomed to call them verJxd roots ; and we also 
 ordinarily call the theme of verbal inflection a " root " (237.1a), yet without 
 at all intending to imply that it is an original or ultimate root. 
 
 399. The means of derivation, through the whole history of 
 development, have been chiefly suffixes or derivational endings — 
 with some aid from prefixes. 
 
 a. The almost exclusive use of suffixes rather than prefixes, as means 
 both of inflection and of derivation, is a characteristic feature of the family 
 of languages to which the German (with our own) belongs. The few pre- 
 fixes employed have retained much more distinctly the character of iude- 
 
401] PEINCIPLES. 181 
 
 pendent words, forming proper compounds with those to which they are 
 attached: that character has been lost only by the inseparable prefixes 
 (307) and one or two others (see below, 411.11). The negative nn is 
 the only German prefix of really ancient character and obscure derivation. 
 
 400. Besides this, there have come m in German two other 
 specific auxiliary methods of internal change, affecting the vowel 
 of the root or primitive word. These are 
 
 1. The modification of vowel (14), or change of o, c, u, au into ci, ij, 
 ii, an, respectively : thus, SKann, SKcinnct, ' man, men ; ' gug, Juge, ' foot, 
 feet I ' aiffauS, a)Jou|e, ' mouse, mice ; ' alt, alter, altefi, ' old, elder, eldest ; ' 
 Sorn, Siirnletn, ' com, kernel ; ' ^ange, l)ongt, ' I hang, he hangs ; ' ffog, 
 fliige, ' I flew, I might fly ; ' rotf), rbtl)en, ' red, redden.' This modification 
 is by the Germans called Umlaut, 'change of sound.' 
 
 a. This is a euphonic change, coming from the assimilation of a hard 
 or guttural vowel to a soft or palatal one (e, t) closely following it — al- 
 though finally applied by analogy, in many single cases, where no such 
 cause had been present. It is of comparatively recent introduction, al- 
 though, as the examples show, shared in part by the English. It is quite 
 unknown in one branch of Germanic speech, the Moeso-Gothic ; and, on 
 the other hand, most highly developed in the Scandinavian tongues. 
 
 6. In the present condition of the language, the cause of the modifica- 
 tion is generally no longer to be seen, the assimilating vowel having been 
 lost. 
 
 c. Some derivative words having vowels which are really the effect of 
 modification are now, usually or always, written with the simple vowels e 
 (for a or ij) or i (for it). Again, some words show a modified vowel as the 
 mere result of an irregular variation of utterance, without etymological 
 reason. 
 
 2. The variation of radical vowel: as in ftn^eit, fang, gc|uitgen, '^ing, 
 sang, sung; ' irerbe, Wtrb, roarb, tnurben, gettiorben, from tnerben, 'become ; ' 
 breeze, Bridit, brac^, gebro(^eit, SSrud^, from brecften, 'break.' This variation 
 is by the Germans called Slblaut, 'divergence of sound.' 
 
 a. This second mode of vowel change is also, hke the other, originally 
 of euphonic character, one of the accidents attending the phonetic devel- 
 opment of language, under the combined influences of quantity, accent, 
 combination, addition of suffixes, and the like. But it is much more an- 
 cient, being one of the characteristic peculiarities of all the Germanic 
 languages ; and its specific causes and mode of evolution are in great part 
 obscure. 
 
 b. The sphere of action of the variation of radical vowel is in the in- 
 flection of the older verba of the language, and the formation of their ear- 
 liest derivatives. 
 
 401. The modes of eonaonantal change which accompany the pro- 
 cesses of word-formation are too various and irregular to be systemati- 
 cally set forth here. Some of them wiU be noticed below, in connection 
 with the derivatives whose formation especially calls them out. 
 
182 DERIVATION. [402- 
 
 402. To carry back the historical analysis of German words to the 
 farthest point attained by the aid of the languages kindred with the German, 
 would take the pupil into regions where he is a stranger, and would be un- 
 profitable. Such study requires a knowledge of the older dialects, and be- 
 longs to a higher stage of progress. Only the processes of derivatioa 
 whoso results are traceable in the existing language will he set forth; and 
 those words will be treated as " primitive " which have no German 
 etymons, or more original words whence they are derived, even though evi- 
 dence from other languages may not only show them to be derivatives, but 
 also exhibit the earlier forms from which they came. 
 
 Derivation of Verbs. 
 
 403. Primitive Verbs. Verbs to be regarded as primitive are 
 
 1. The verbs of the Old conjugation, nearly two hundred in 
 number (264-7), which constitute the most important body of 
 primitive roots in-the language. 
 
 u,. Several verbs of this conjugation, however, are demonstrably deriva- 
 tive: thus, fc^reiben(III.2), 'write,' from Latin smio; preifen (III.2), 'praise,' 
 from ^JJtetS, ' value ' (w|iich comes from Lat. pretium), etc. Others are 
 doubtless of the same character ; since, down to that period in the history 
 of the language at which the mode of inflection of the New conjugation 
 was introduced, all verbs, whether recent or older, were inflected according 
 to the Old conjugation. 
 
 2. Many verbs of the New conjugation : as, ^ben, 'have,' fagcn, 
 '.say,' reben, 'talk,' fc^icfcn, 'send,' lebett/'hve.' 
 
 a. A number of the verbs of the New conjugation formerly belonged to 
 the Old, having changed their mode of inflection under the influence of the 
 tendency to extend a prevailing analogy and reduce more irregular to more 
 regular forms. Others, if originally derivative, have lost the evidence of 
 it. To the root of some there is a corresponding noun, and it may admit 
 of question which is the more original, verb or noun. 
 
 b. All verbs whose root, or theme of conjugation, is of more than one 
 syllable are to be classed as derivative : even though, as in the case of 
 f^metd)eln, ' flatter,' tiettcrn, ' climb,' the original from which they come is 
 no longer to be traced. 
 
 404. Verbs derived from Verbs. 
 
 I. By internal change of the root itself: 
 
 1. By change (generally, modification) of the root vowel, a class of cau- 
 sative verbs are formed, takiug as their direct object what was the subject 
 of the simple verb: thus, fallen, 'fall,' fallen, 'cause to fall, /eU;' tnnfcii, 
 'drink,' trfiiitcn, 'cause to drink' drench;^ fi^en, 'sit,' fefcciv 'set; ' liegeii, 
 'lie,' tcgen, 'lay;' faugcii, 'suck,' faugeu, 'suoklo;' frtljvtn, 'go,' fii^ren, 
 'load.' 
 
404] DERIVATIVE VERBS. 183 
 
 a. As some of the examples show, this class of derivatires has its repre- 
 sentatives in English also, but they are much more numerous in German. 
 
 2. By change of the final consonant, with or without accompanying 
 change of vowel, a few verbs are made, with various modification of the 
 meaning of the simple verb : thus, ftel)en, ' stand,' ftetten, ' place ; ' t)angen, 
 'hang,' ^enten, 'execute by hanging;' biegen, 'bend,' biidEn, 'bow;' net« 
 gen, 'incline,' ntcfen, 'nod;' wac^en, 'walse, watch,' totdm, 'awaken, 
 arouse ; ' effen, ' eat,' dfeen, ' corrode, etch.' 
 
 II. By additions to the root : 
 
 1. The suffix el forms a few diminutives, as toc^en, 'laugh,' (fic^cln, 
 'smile; ' Iteben, 'love,' Itebeln, 'dally, flirt; ' tranfen, 'be sick,' friintetii, 'be 
 sickly or ailing.' 
 
 a. But most of the diminutive verbs in eta are derived from nouns and 
 adjectives: see below, 405.11. 1. 
 
 2. The suffix er forms a few iterative, desiderative, or causative verbs : 
 as tta))))en, 'flap,' Uappem, 'rattle; ' lad)en, 'laugh,' loij^etn, 'make inclined 
 to laugh; ' folgen, 'follow,' folgent, 'infer, conclude.' . 
 
 a. But most verbs in era, as in eln, come from nouns and adjectives ; 
 and those which appear to come from verbs are rather to be regarded aa 
 formed in imitation of such, or after their analogy. 
 
 3. The addition of d) gives in a few cases intensive force : aa in I)orcn, 
 'hear,' Ijovc^ett, 'hearken;' fd^norren, 'rattle,' fi^iiarc^cii, 'snore, snort.' 
 
 4. 3r or ter. This is properly a French ending, representing the er or 
 ir of the infinitive of French verbs ; and it forms German verbs from French 
 or Latin roots: thus, fiubtren, 'study,' tnav(d)ii-en, 'march,' ftiajieren, 'expa- 
 tiate, go abroad for pleasure or exercise,' regieren, 'rule.' 
 
 a,. But a few verbs in treil are formed, in imitation of these, from German 
 words: as buc^ftabiren, 'spell' (from S3ud)ftabe, 'letter'), fc^ottiren, 'shade' 
 (from (S(i)atten, 'fehadow'). 
 
 b. At a certain period, about the middle of the last century, the German 
 language was well-nigh swamped by the introduction of a multitude of such 
 foreign verbs in iren. The greater part of them have been cast out from 
 dignified and literary use, but they are still rife in low colloquial and 
 humorous styles. 
 
 c. The syllable ir or iet of these verbs receives the accent ; and they 
 therefore admit no prefix ge in the participle : see 243.3a. 
 
 III. By prefixes to the root : 
 
 1. By the_ inseparable prefixes be, ent or tmp, er, ge, bcr, and jer. 
 
 For the derivative (or compound) verbs formed by means of these pre- 
 fixes, see above, 302 etc. 
 
 2. By separable prefixes. 
 
 Verbs formed by means of such prefixes have no real right to be regarded 
 as derivative: they are compounds, rather: see 296 etc. 
 
 Remark. — Derivative verbs in German coming from other verbs directly 
 are quite rare ; and, of those usually regard^^ aa so derived, some admit of 
 explanation aa denominatives, or as coming from nouns and adjectives. 
 
184 DEEIVATION. [405- 
 
 405. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives. 
 
 Verbs from Bouns and adjectives are commonly called denominatives 
 They eoustitute in German, as in the other related languages, the great mass 
 of derivative verbs. The relation of the verbal idea to the meaning of thf 
 primitive word is of the moat varied character. Verbs from adjectives 
 usually signify either, as Intrausitives, to be in or to pass into the conditio! 
 denoted by the adjective, or else, as trausitives, to reduce something to thai 
 condition. Verbs from nouns signify either to supply with that which the 
 noun denotes, or to deprive of it, or to use or apply it, or to treat with it, oi 
 to be like it, and so on : for examples, see below. 
 
 I. By tlie simple addition of the endings of conjugation : 
 
 1. From nouns, more usually without modification of the vowel of the 
 primitive word: as, fii^en, 'set foot, find footing' (gu^, 'foot'); l|aujen, 
 'house, dwell' (§ou8, 'house'); grafen, 'graze' (®ra8, 'grass'); aitcrn, 
 'grow old, age' (2tUet, 'age'); buttevn, 'make or turn to butter' (Sutter, 
 'butter'); pnmEen, 'make a show' (^runt, 'show'); arbeiten, 'work 
 (Slvbett, 'labor'): — sometimes with modification of the vowel: as, pflugcn, 
 'plough' (^flug, 'plough'); pmntetn, 'hammer' (§amme:, 'hammer'); 
 ftuijcii, ' fall or hurl headlong ' (©turj, 'fall'). 
 
 a. Rarely, a verb is formed from a noun in the plural : as, BlSttem, ' tun 
 over the leaves of,' etc. (SBIattet, ' leaves,' from SBIatt). 
 
 i. Nouns (and adjectives) ending in the unaccented syllable en reject the 
 e of that syllable in the derivative verb : thus, rcguen, ' rain ' (jRcgcn, ' rain ') ; 
 Bffneu, ' open ' (offcn, ' open '). 
 
 2. From adjectives, usually with modification of the vowel : thus, riit^en 
 'redden' (rott), 'red'); ftfirten, 'strengthen' (ftart, 'strong'); tobtcn, 'km 
 (tobt, 'dead'); geniigen, 'sueSce' (genug, 'enough'); cinbern, 'alter '(anber, 
 'other'); ailfecnt, 'utter' (oufeet, 'out');— rarely without modification: as 
 nal)en, ' draw nigh ' (iio^, ' nigh ') ; olten, ' grow old ' (alt, ' old '). 
 
 a. A number of derivative verbs are formed from adjectives in the com 
 parative degree: thus, noIjErn, ' come nearer' (na^er, 'nearer,' from na^) 
 niinbcrn, ' diminish ' (minber, ' less '). 
 
 II. By derivative endings, forming themes of conjugation : 
 
 1. The ending e[ forms from both nouns and adjectives (wjth modiflca' 
 tion of their vowel) verbs which have a diminutive, disparaging, or reproach 
 ful meaning : thus, !iinftcln, ' treat in an artificial or affected manner ' (jfimjl 
 ' art ') ; altettpmein, ' be foolishly or affectedly fond of antiquity ' (9IIter 
 t^um, 'antiquity'); Hiigefn, ' subtilize, be over-oritioal' (Hug, 'knowing') 
 frommeln, 'affect piety, cant' (fvomm, 'pious'). 
 
 a. Compare derivatives formed from verbs by the same ending, 404.II.1 
 
 2. The endings (d), f;, and em form a few verbs: fi^ forms only I)cri-f(|Ell 
 'rule' (§etr, 'master'), and feitidjfn, 'chaffer' (fcti, 'cheap'); 3 formi 
 biljcil, 'to thee and thou' (bu, 'thou'), and one or two others; enj form! 
 faulcnjen, 'play the sluggard' (faul, ' lazy '), etc. 
 
 3. The ending tg is properly one forming adjectives (below, 415.9); bff 
 it is sometimes attached both to adjectives and nouns in order to the forma 
 tion of a special theme of conjugation, by analogy with the numerous verbi 
 derived from adjectives ending in tg : thus, rciiiigeu, 'purify' (rein, 'pure') 
 Cllbigen, 'end, terminate' (Snbe, 'end'). 
 
406] DEEIVATIVE VEEBS. 185 
 
 4. The ending ir forms a few verba from German nouns : gee 404.II.4o. 
 III. By prefixes (either with or without derivative endings) : 
 1. The inseparable prefixes (except ge) form a very large number of de- 
 nominative verbs, generally without any accompanying derivative ending, 
 but occasionally along with such. In these denominatives, the prefixes 
 have a force analogous with that which belongs to them in composition (see 
 307): thus, 
 
 a. SBe forms transitivea, denoting especially a furnishing, making, or 
 treating: thus, Befeelett, 'endow with a soul' (Seele, 'soul'); bec)eiftcrn, 
 
 6. @ut forms especially verbs signifying removal, deprivation, and the 
 like: thus, entfevnen, 'withdraw' (fern, 'far'); entblogeii, 'strip' (blofi, 
 'bare'); ent^aupteit, 'behead' (§aupt, 'head.'); enttroften, 'enervate' 
 (Srnft, 'power'); cnt!)citigen, 'desecrate' (Ijettig, 'holy'); entmoffncn, 
 ' disarm ' (SBJoffen, ' weapon '). 
 
 c. St forms transitives, intransitives, and reflexives, chiefly from adjec- 
 tives, and signifying a passing into, or a reduction to, the state signified by 
 the adjective: thus, cr^arten, 'grow hard,' erljcirten, -make hard' (^art, 
 'hard'); ermatten, 'tire' (mott, 'weary'); erganaeii, 'complete' (%an^, 'en- 
 tire'); erniebrigm, ' humble ' (itiebrig, 'low'); eriofen, 'release' (to8, 'loose'); 
 erweitetn, 'extend' (meitet, 'wider,' from toett); efftoren, 'explain' (flar, 
 ' clear ') : — but sometimes with more irregular meaning, from adjectives or 
 nouns: thus, erobern, 'conquer' (obet, 'superior'); crinttern, 'remind' 
 (inner, 'interior'); crgviinben, 'fathom, explore' (Orunb, 'bottom'). 
 
 d. SBer has nearly the same value and office as er, but is more prevail- 
 ingly transitive in effect : thus, Dcranbevn, ' alter ' (anber, ' other ') ; uereb 
 teln, ' frustrate ' (eitel, ' vain ') ; Betgniigcn, ' gratify ' (genua, ' enough ') ; Ber^ 
 Ifingern, ' lengthen ' (Ifinger, ' longer,' from lang); Brrglafen, ' vitrify, glaze ' 
 (®(a8, ' glass ') ; Bcvfitbcvn, ' plate with silver ' (Silber, ' silver ') ; Beralten, 
 ' become antiquated ' (alt, ' old '). 
 
 e. ^tx forms a very few derivatives : a^, jerfleifi^en, 'lacerate' (j^eifd^, 
 'flesh'); jefgliebent, 'dismember' (©Keber, 'limbs,' from Olieb). 
 
 2. A small number of denominatives are formed with the separable pre- 
 fixes: such are abbac^en, 'unroof (Dac^, 'roof'); aus!ernen, 'remove the 
 stone or kernel of (fflern, 'kernel'); emlertcrn, 'imprison' (Serfer, 'pri- 
 son ') ; umarnien, ' embrace ' (3trm, ' arm ') ; aufmuntetn, ' cheer up ' (mun» 
 ter, 'cheerful'); auSlneiten, 'widen ' (ttieit, 'wide'). 
 
 406. Verbs derived from Particles. 
 
 A few verbs are derived from other parts of speech by the same means 
 as from nouns and adjectives. 
 
 Such are emtJiJten, 'excite, arouse' (cmbov, 'aloft'); begegnen, 'meet' 
 (gcgcn, 'against'); evmiebern, 'answer' (Wieber, 'again'); bernid)ten, ',rv= 
 miflten, 'annihilate' (iiidit, 'not'); Berneinen, 'deny'(nein, 'no'); be)al)cii, 
 'affirm' (ja, 'yea'); oc^jen, 'groan' (ad), 'ahl'); janc^sen, 'exult' (judj, 
 jud)^e, ' hurrah 1'). 
 
186 deeitation. [407- 
 
 Dbbivation of Nouns. 
 
 407. Primitive Nouns. 
 
 1. Primitive nouns are in part monosyllabic words which contain no evi- 
 dent sign of their really derivative nature, and of which the original roots 
 are no longer traceable in German. 
 
 Such are "SRaxm, 'man,' §ou8, 'house,' 58ount, 'tree,' Stnb, 'child,' 
 SSolt, 'people,' gug, 'foot' 
 
 2. In part they are words of more than one syllable, the evident products 
 of composition or derivation, containing elements more or less closely ana- 
 logous with those by which other recognizable deripatives are formed, but 
 coming from roots of which they are the only remaining representatives. 
 
 Such are 9'Jame, 'name,' ^nabe, 'boy,' Stage, 'eye,' (Srbe, 'earth,' 35ater, 
 ' father,' SEoditev, 'daughter,' SBaffer, 'water,' 5i5ogeI, 'bird,' SKabel, 'needle,' 
 ©cgel, 'sail.' 
 
 a. Some of the words in both these classes are traceable by comparison 
 of the kindred languages to earlier roots from which they are descended : 
 thus, SWoiin is usually (though doubtfully) referred to a root man, ' think ' 
 (the same with tneincn, ' think, mean ' ) ; fiinb comes from the root gan, 
 ' generate ; ' gii^ is identical with Latin pes, Greek pous, coming from pad, 
 ' walk ; ' 9Jamc goes back to gnd, ' know ; ' Koi^ter to duh, ' draw the breast, 
 milk,' and so on. 
 
 408. Nouns derived from Verbs. 
 
 I. By variation of vowel (?tMaut: see 400.2) alone, without 
 added ending. 
 
 Thus, SBanb, ' volume,' SBiinb, ' bond,' from btnben, ' bind ; ' @i^, ' seat,' 
 (Sa^, ' sediment,' @a6, ' settler,' from fi^en, ' sit; ' ^Ufl, ' draft,' from jieficn, 
 ' draw ; ' Sritt, ' step,' from trcten, ' tread ; ' <S)3ruc^, ' speech,' from fptedijEn, 
 ' speak ; ' ©prung, ' spring,' from fpringen, ' spring.' 
 
 u,. All these words originally had endings of derivation, which have 
 become lost by phonetic corruption. They are prevailingly masculine. - 
 
 ft In words thus derived appear sometimes irregular alterations of the 
 root, especially of its final consonant, as the examples in part show. 
 
 c. The relation of meaning of such derivatives to the idea of action, state, 
 or quality expressed by the verbal root is very various : but they signify in 
 general either the act or quality itself, or the result of the action, or the 
 person or thing that acts, or to which the state or quality belongs. 
 
 II. By brief and obscure endings, relics of earlier fuller forms, 
 and no longer producing distinct classes of derivatives, with de- 
 finable modifications of the radical meaning. Such endings are 
 
 1. %t, be, t (ft, ft), b: thus, SBiirbc, 'burden,' from Barcn, 'bear;' 
 @(l)nrtc, ' notch," from |ci)ercn, ' shear ; ' f^nljrt, ' passage,' from faljveit, ' go ; ' 
 ®fl)vift, 'document,' from fdjteibcil, 'write;' Svadjt, 'dress,' from tvagen, 
 'wear;' SBninft, 'heat,' from bcennrn, 'burn;' .ffiinfi, 'aft,' from tcniicn, 
 'know;' Suiift, 'coming,' from tommcil, 'come;' SSvaitb, 'combustion,' 
 from breuucii, ' burn.' . 
 
408] DEEirATIVE NOUNS. 187 
 
 2. (g, which forms a very large number of derivatives : thus, SStnbe, ' tie,' 
 from binben, 'bind;' ®J)ra^e, 'language,' from \pniien, ' speak ;' ©aOe, 
 'gift,' from geben, 'give; ' gliege, ' fly,' from ftiegen, 'fly.' 
 
 a. The derivatives of this class also share in the variation of radical 
 vowel, and in the irregular alterations of the final consonant of the root, 
 which characterize the older words of the language. They are of as various 
 meaning as those of the preceding class. Their gender Is prevailingly fem- 
 inine — exceptions being appellations of males (persons and animals), and a 
 few that are of anomalous character. 
 
 III. By endings of more distinct form, and more uniform and 
 definable meaning. 
 
 The most important of these we wiU take up in alphabetical order, for 
 the sake of more convenient reference. 
 
 1. (St. This suffix is of foreign origin, being derived from the Latin and 
 French ia, ie. It was used originally only to form derivatives from nouns 
 (see below, 410.2), but has come also to form from verbs ending in eln and 
 crn abstract nouns of action, often vrith a disparaging or contemptuous im- 
 plication: thus, ©(^meiielei, ' flattery,' from f(J)meid)eln, 'flatter; ' a;anbe= 
 let, 'trifling,' from tfinbeln, 'trifle;' ^[auberei, 'chit-chat,' from (jlaubcrn, 
 'chatter; ' ^aubetet, 'witchcraft,' from jaubern, 'practise magic' 
 
 a. Words formed with ei are feminine, and take the accent upon this 
 syllable, as is required by the derivation of the suffix. 
 
 2. (St. This suffix forma a considerable class of masculine derivatives, 
 denoting generally an instrument, quite rarely an actor: thus, §ebet, 'lever,' 
 from ^eben, 'raise; ' SedEel, 'cover,' from becfen, 'cover; ' @(f)(agel, ' mallet,' 
 from f(f|l(igett, 'beat; ' ©(^(iiffel, 'key,' from fdEjliegen, 'lock; ' gliigct, 'wing,' 
 from fitegeit, ' fly.' 
 
 a. But a great many nouns in the language ending in el are from lost 
 or unknown roots, and therefore have the value of primitive words (407.2): 
 some of these are feminine or neuter : as are also some others, whose gen- 
 der is determuaed by their signiflcation. 
 
 3. (Sit. Besides forming the infinitives of all verbs (237.1a), which, 
 when used as ordinary nouns, are neuter (340), eit is the suffix of deriva- 
 tion of a considerable class of masculine nouns, as 33iffnt, 'bit,' from beigen, 
 'bite;' ©mbeil, 'ditch,' from gvabetl, 'dig;' ©i^abeit, 'harm,' from fd^abeii, 
 ' injure.' 
 
 a. Of the numerous words of obscure etymology in en, a few are neuter, 
 but none are feminine. 
 
 4. @r. This suffix forms numerous masculine nouns denoting an actor: 
 thus, Slfetter, 'rider,' from rciteii, 'ride;' ajiater, 'painter,' from tnoten, 
 'paint;' Soitjer, 'dancer,' from tanjen, 'dance;' SBddEer, 'baker,' from 
 botteit, 'bake.' With these are closely akin a few names of instruments, 
 as So^tei;, 'auger,' from bof)rett, 'bore;' ^tx^ix, 'pointer,' from jetgen, 
 'point' 
 
 a. Of the older words ending in er, and requiring to be reckoned as 
 primitives (407.2), many are feminine or neuter. 
 
 6. (5r also forms classes of derivative nouns from nouns: see 410.3. 
 6. Sittg forms from verbs chiefly masculine nouns denoting the recipient 
 
188 DERIVATION. [408- 
 
 of the verbal action: thus, ginbting, 'foundling,' from finben, 'findj' Se^r» 
 ling, 'pupil,' from Iel)ren, 'teach;' ©ciugling, 'suckling-' from jougen, 
 ' suckle.' 
 
 a. For the derivatives in ling from nouns and adjectives, see 409.II.4, 
 410.6. 
 
 6. DfJig. This suffix is chiefly used in German to form abstract nouns 
 from verbs: much less often, Uke the corresponding English ness, to pro- 
 duce similar derivatives from adjectives (see 409.II.6). Such abstracts 
 come especially from derivative verbs and those compounded with insepa- 
 rable prefixes, as be, cv, Uer ; sometimes seeming to be formed from the par- 
 ticiple rather than the simple verbal root. Like all abstract nouns, ihey 
 may admit of use also as concretes, or pass wholly over into such. Ex- 
 amples are ^cugnifi, 'testimony,' from jeugen, 'testify;' ^inbetnife, 'hin- 
 drance,' from tjiiibern, 'hinder;' Segrobnifi, 'burial,' from bcgvaben, 
 *bury;' Ereigm^, 'occurrence,' from ercignen, 'occur;' SBerpUnife, 'rela- 
 tion,' from Oer^oltcn, 'stand related;' ©eftanbntg, 'confession,' from geftc» 
 ^en (geftonben), 'confess; ' Ocfongnig, 'prison,' from gefangen, 'imprisoned.' 
 
 a. The greater number of nouns in nife are neuter, but a score or more 
 of them are feminine, especially such as have retained more fuUy their ab- 
 stract meaning. A few, as (Srf|)orniJ3, Evtcnntnig, are feminine when used 
 abstractly, but neuter as concretes. 
 
 1. ©al, jet. These are two difierent forms of the same original sufBi, 
 which at first and more properly formed nouns. from nouns, but whose exist-' 
 ing derivatives are to be referred almost exclusively to verbal roots, and are 
 akin in meaning with those in nig. @el is used only in concretes. Thus, 
 <B&\\i\a\, ' fate,' from |diiden, ' send ; ' Srrfal, ' error,' from irren, ' wander; ' 
 Ueberb(e:6|el, ' remnant,' from iibcrbleiben, ' remain over ; ' 8fJotl)jeI, ' riddle,' 
 from ratljcn, ' guess.' 
 
 a. Derivatives in fat and fet are neuter, excepting two or three in fat 
 (Srangfat, aSu^foI, SEriibfal), which may also be used as feminine. 
 
 8. Ung. This suffix is nearly equivalent in meaning and application 
 with our ing forming verbal nouns ("participial infinitives," not present 
 participles), but is peculiar in that it is hardly used except with derivative 
 and transitive verbs. The nouns it forms admit an object (objective geni- 
 tive : 216.2/8) nearly as regularly as the verbs from which they come. 
 Many of the nouns in ung, like other abstracts, pass over into concrete use ; 
 and such as come from reflexive verbs have an intransitive force. Examples 
 are gii^rnng, 'leading, conduct;' ffletcbvung, 'instruction;' (Srfinbung, 
 'invention;' SJergebung, 'forgiveness; ' SBeniertuncj, 'remark; ' SBebeutung, 
 ' meaning ; ' Settjegung, ' motion ; ' Jieigung, ' afieot'iou ' — from fu^ren ' lead,' 
 belc^ren, ' instruct,' and so on. 
 
 a. The derivatives in ung are feminine without exception. 
 
 9. Besides the suffixes above detailed, there are a few of infrequent use: 
 such are anb (properly the old participial ending), in Jpcilanb, ' Savior,' from 
 l)ct(en, ' heal ; ' — ir^t, in l)c^rid)t, ' sweepings,' from tel)ten, ' sweep,' etc ;— 
 ig in Effig, 'vinegar,' from effen, 'eat; ' — at^ in ^icvatl), 'ornament,' from 
 jtcren, 'decorate; ' — enb in Sugenb, 'virtue,' from taugen, 'be of value; ' — 
 and one or two others, of too little consequence to be worth noting, ©li^aft 
 (410.7) and tl)nm (410.8) also form from verbal roots two or three deriva- 
 tives, as aSanbcrfdjaft, aBad)6tl)um. 
 
410] DEErVATTVE NOTINS. 189 
 
 409. Nouns derived from Adjectives. 
 
 1. 1 . That the adjective, of either number and of any gender, Is capable 
 of use directly as a noun, still retaining its adjective declension, was pointed 
 out above (at 129), and needs no further notice. 
 
 2. A few nouns are derived from adjectives without a suiBx, being iden- 
 tical with the adjective theme, but being declined as independent (neuter) 
 substantives : such are SRot^, ' red ; ' Oriili, ' green ; ' SJec^t, ' right ; ' Out, 
 'property, goods.' 
 
 II. Nouns derived by the aid of suffixes. 
 
 1. S. The sufBx e forms feminine abstracts (convertible into concretes) 
 from primitive adjectives, the vowel of which is always modified if capable 
 of it. Thus, ©rbjje, 'greatness,' ©iite, 'goodness,' %xtut, 'truth,' %\e\t, 
 'depth; ' from grog, 'great,' etc. 
 
 2. §eit. This suffix is the same with our head and hood (in Godhead, 
 manhood, etc.), and forms feminine abstracts both from nouns (see below, 
 410.5) and from adjectives. Thus, gtei^eit, 'freedom,' 5BttnbI)eit, 'blind- 
 ness,' Sllbern^ett, ' stupidity ; ' from fret, ' free,' etc. 
 
 3. Scit is originally the same suffix with ^cit, talking the place of the 
 latter after most primitive adjectives ending in e[ and er, and after all those 
 formed by the suffixes bar, ig, Itc^, and jam. Thus, (Sttelfett, ' vanity,' 
 SBittertett, 'bitterness,' ©antbavleit, 'gratitude,' S3iUtgteit, 'cheapness,' 
 ^oftii^tett, 'courtesy,' @)3av|amfctt, 'economy;' from citel, 'vain,' etc. To 
 many adjectives, the additional adjective suffix tg (415.9) is added, with 
 hit after it, instead of, or along with, fctt alone : thus, from tiein, ' small,' 
 we have both j?lein^eit and ft^Ietnigleit ; from fiig, ' sweet,' ©iigigfcit : from 
 ftanb^oft, ' steadfast,' Stonb^aftigteit; from trculoS, ' faithless,' Sveulofigteit. 
 
 4. Sing forms a few masculine personal nouns from adjectives : thus, 
 grcmblingr ' stranger,' 3iittgling, 'youth;' from fvetnb, 'strange,' jung, 
 ' young.' For derivatives with ling from verbs and nouns, see 408.III.5, 
 410.6. 
 
 5. 9?i6 (see 408.III.6) forms only four nouns from adjectives: namely, 
 -giniietnil, 'darkness,' ©e^etmnig, 'secrecy,' SBUbnig, 'wilderness,' ®{dd)= 
 m% 'likeness.' 
 
 6. ©diaft is chiefly employed in forming nouns from nouns (see 410.7); 
 only a few adjectives admit it, as @emein|d)aft, ' community,' @efangen= 
 j^aft, 'imprisonment,' @igenfd)oft, 'peculiarity;' from gemein, 'common,' 
 etc. For the derivation etc. of jt^aft see below, 410.7. 
 
 1. %A, from %^di, 'part,' forms fractional numerals from ordinals: see 
 207.2. 
 
 8. Kl^um, like fdjoft, is a suffix apphed chiefly to nouns : see below, 
 410.8. A few adjectives take it, as 8ieic^tt)um, 'wealth,' ©igent^um, 
 'property; ' from reidi, 'rich,' etgen, 'own.' 
 
 9. Tet rarer suffixes are ung (compare 408.III.8, 410.9) in j^eftung, 
 ' fortress,' from feft, 'strong ; '— id)t in ®t(f ti^t, ' thicket,' from bid, ' thick ; ' — 
 Htb in 2(nnut^, 'poverty,' from orm, 'poor;' — enb in Sugenb, 'youth,' 
 from jung, ' young.' 
 
 410. Nouns derived from Nouns. 
 
 1. S^cn, lein. These are equivalent suffixes, forming from nouns (al- 
 
190 DERIVATION. [410- 
 
 ■ways mth modification of the vowel of the latter, if it be one admitting 
 modification) neuter diminutives: thus, §au8d)en, 'little house;' 3)Jnnn» 
 djcn, 'little man, mannikin;' A^nablein, 'little boy;' Siic^lem, 'little 
 book.' 
 
 a. These suffixes correspond to the English diminutive endings hin and 
 ling (in gosling, duMing, etc.). (E^cn belongs more to the northern dialects 
 of German, tein (often shortened in popular u.ie to el or Ic) to the south- 
 ern; but in the literary language their respective use is mainly deter- 
 mined by considerations of euphony, and many words admit the addition 
 of either. 
 
 6. The words formed by these suffixes often add to their meaning as 
 diminutives, or substitute for it, an implication of intimacy or tenderness. 
 Some of them have a well-established value as independent words: such 
 are grSulein, 'j-oung lady. Miss;' aHcibdjen, 'girl; ' SJlann^eu and SBeibt^tn, 
 ' male and female of an animal species.' 
 
 2. (St. The foreign origin of the suffix Et was explained above (408. 
 III.l). As added to nouns, it indicates especially the state, condition, or 
 
 ' occupation of a person ; also sometimes the place where an occupation 
 is carried on: thus, 3cigerei, 'sportsmanship,' from 3ager, 'hunter;' 
 Sviictcret, 'printing-establishment,' from ©ruder, 'printer.' In a few 
 words it has a collective force : thus, SReiterei, ' cavalry,' from iRciter, 
 ' rider.' 
 
 a. As it is itself accented, this suffix was added most easily to unac- 
 cented terminational syllables, as e[ and er ; and there are but few words 
 — as 2(btet, ' abbacy,' SJogtet, ' bailiwick ' — in which it is appended to rad- 
 ical syllables. Being oftenost used after er, it has come to assume er in 
 many cases as a prefix to itself, forming a kind of compound suffix erei, 
 which is freely used with words accented on the final : thus, ©tliiBerei, 
 'slaveiy,' Siiiberet, 'childishness,' ©djelmcrei, 'roguery;' from ©tiao, 
 'slave,' etc. 
 
 J. Especially in its recent derivatives, et is apt to convey a disparaging 
 implication : for example, 3urtfterei, ' lawyer's doings,' as compared with 
 3uri8prubenj, 'jurisprudence.' 
 
 3. @r. a. Besides the numerous derivatives which it forms from verba 
 (408.III.4), er makes many names of a personal agent from nouns express- 
 ing the thing dealt with or acted upon: as, ©Sviger, 'singer,' from @ang, 
 ' song ; ' @d)af er, ' shepherd,' from ® t^af, ' sheep ; ' ©cirtner, ' gardener,' from 
 ®arten, 'garden.' 
 
 6. It is also added to names of countries and towns, to indicate a native 
 or inhabitant of the same : thus, S^metjfr, 'Switzer;' Serliner, 'inhabitant 
 of Berlin;' 8eit)jtger, 'man from Leipzig.' 
 
 These nouns are then frequently employed as uninflected adjectives : 
 see 416.5. 
 
 c. For the same purpose, it is sometimes combined with Latin endmgs, 
 forming the compound suffixes aner and eujcr : thus, Slmcritatier, ' American,' 
 a(tl)enien(er, 'Athenian.' 
 
 d. After nouns, as after verbs, it is in a few cases irregularly converted 
 iutoner: thus, Olodiicr, 'bell-ringer,' from ©lode, 'bell; ' ^arfner, 'harper,' 
 from .Sparfc, 'harp.' 
 
 e. It forms a small number of masculines answering to feminines in e: 
 
411] DEKIVATIVE NOUNS. 191 
 
 thug, SBittWer, 'widower,' from SittHje, 'widow; ' Souber, 'cock -pigeon,' 
 from EouDe, ' dove.' 
 
 4. 3n (sometimes spelt inn). This suffix forma feminiue from mascuh'ne 
 appellations: thus, §irttn, 'shepherdess,' from §ivt, 'shepherd; ' itbnigiii, 
 'queen,' from ifoittg, 'king;' grEUtibin, ' female friend ; ' fi'oc^in, 'female 
 cook;' Sbtrin, 'lioness;' gronjBrm, 'French woman;' Serliuerin, 'woman 
 of Berlin.' It is also added to titles to signify the wife of the person to 
 whom the title belongs : as, ipfarrertn, ' pastor's wife ; ' '^Srofeffotin, 'Mrs. 
 Professor.' 
 
 3n usually requires modification of the radical vowel, but there are (as 
 the examples show) numerous exceptions. 
 
 5. §eit, like our head and Jiood, forms abstracts, and a few collectives, 
 from nouns as well as from adjectives (409.II.2) : thus, ©ott^eit, ' God- 
 head; ' jfinbljEit, 'childhood;' 21)orI)cit, 'folly;' 2Ken|d)l)cit, 'humanity; ' 
 Oetftltdjteit, "clergy.' 
 
 6. Sing forma a few masculine personal names from nouna, as from verbs 
 (408.III.6) and adjectives (409.II.4): such are Sal)tltng, 'yearling,' gliid)t» 
 ling, 'fugitive,' @iinft(ing, 'favorit«.' 
 
 T. a. ©i^aft is the same with our ship (in lordship, worship, etc), and is 
 derived from |c^affen, ' shape, create ; ' it signifies primarily the shape or 
 make of anything, then its character, office, rank, and the like : thus, greimb= 
 frfjiift, 'friendship,' SBEfannt[cI)oft, 'acquaintance,' i'ormunbji^nft, 'guardian- 
 ship.' All its derivatives are of the feminine gender. 
 
 i. It forms also a number of collectives: as, 'ipriejlerjc^aft, 'priesthood,' 
 ®tenev(c^aft, 'body of servants,' Oefettft^aft, 'company,' Sanbfc^aft, 'land- 
 scape.' 
 
 S. S^^unt, our dom (in kingdom, wisdom, etc.) is also a noun, of obscure 
 derivation, but of meaning and application as a suffix nearlj' akin with those 
 of ft^aft (above, 1). Its derivatives are neuter, with only two or three 
 exceptions (namely Sn'ttjum, 9lEid)tI)um, and, according to the usage of 
 some, SSEloetSt^um and S!Bad)8t^iim), which are masculine. It forms nouns 
 signifying character, rank, or authority, which then, in a few oases, come to 
 mean that over which authority is exerted: thus, 9tittEtt^um, 'chivalry,' 
 *Ca))fttt)um, 'papacy,' Sl)rift£nti|um, 'Christendom,' ^ontgtljum, 'kingdom,' 
 giirftErtt^um, ' principality.' 
 
 9. Suffixes forming a few isolated words are rid^ in ®ar\\txii^, 'gander,' 
 from @on8, 'gooae,' go^nrid^, 'ensign,' from galjnB, 'banner,' etc. ; — ung in 
 one or two collective words like SBalbung, ' woodland,' from SBolb, ' forest ; ' 
 — ot^ in §Etmat^, ' home,' from §£tiit, ' home.' 9ii|j (408.III.6) appears to 
 form a derivative or two from nouns, as in SiinbniS, 'covenant,' from S3unb, 
 'tie; '—also fal (408.III.7), aa in Wiul)\at, 'distress,' from Wix\)e, 'toil.' 
 
 411. Nouns formed hy means of prefixes. 
 
 I. A very large number of nouns contain aa their initial elements the 
 verbal prefixes, both separable and inseparable (297). For the most part, 
 however, they are not formed as nouns by means of those prefixes, but are 
 derivatives, according to the methods explained above (408), from verbs 
 compounded separably or inseparably. 'i?he only exceptions are, a con- 
 siderable class formed by ge (below, 11.1), and an occasional anomalous case 
 like Jlnljolje, 'rising ground,' from |)ijl)£, 'height.' 
 
192 DEEIVATION. [411- 
 
 11. The proper prefixes forming nouns are very few in number, 
 namely as follows: 
 
 1. @e. This common prefix forms a large number of derivative' nouns, 
 both from nouns and from verbs, having in general a collective or frequenta- 
 tive character. Thus, 
 
 a. Collectives from nouns, generally with modification of vowel, some- 
 times with other more irregular vowel changes : such are ®eftrau^, ' shrub- 
 bery,' from ®trauc^, ' shrub ; ' Ocnibtt, ' cloud-mass,' from SSotfe, ' cloud ; ' 
 ©ebttg or Ocbirjie, ' mountain-range,' from 5Betg, ' mountain ; ' ©efiebcr, 
 ' plumage,' from gebcr, ' feather.' 
 
 b. A. few collective or associative personal appellatives, from nouns or 
 verbs, in which gc has nearly its original meaning (307.6) of 'with: ' thus, 
 ©cfpielE, 'playfellow,' from fjjietcn, 'play;' (Sefatjrtc, ' companion,' from 
 fat)ren, 'go;' ©eoatter, 'godfather,' from SBater, 'father;' @e|c^ratfler, 
 ' brothers and sisters,' from ®d)Wefter, ' sister.' 
 
 c. Prom verbs, nouns signifying either the means or the effect of the 
 verbal action : thus, @cl)br, ' sense of hearing,' from l)oren, ' hear ; ' ®c= 
 h)eI)V, ' weapon,' from meljVEil, ' defend ; ' @ebet, ' prayer,' from bitten, ' ask ; ' 
 ©emalbe, 'painting,' from maten, 'paint' 
 
 d. Prom verbs, frequentative or intensive abstracts, or nouns significant 
 of the verbal action: thus, Oefprcid), 'conversation,' from fprEi^cn, 'speak;' 
 Ocjpbtt, 'mockery,' from fpotten, 'mock;' ©cprfinge, 'pageantry,' from 
 Jjrangcn, 'make a show; ' ©ctofe, 'din,' from to|en, 'roar.' 
 
 Remarks, e. These are the leading uses of the prefix gc ; but in not a 
 few of the derivatives it forms, its effect is too indistinct or various to be 
 brought under any classification. 
 
 /. As the examples show, the words formed with ge exhibit the variation 
 as well as the modification of vowel, and are either without sulfix, or 
 take one of the simpler suffixes (408.11.), especially e. In many words, 
 this e may be either added or omitted. 
 
 g. Excepting the class under 6, above, which are masculine, the nouns 
 formed with ge are nearly all neuter. Masculine are only about a dozen 
 (Ocbraucb, ®cbante, ©efatten, ®e^alt, ®enug, ®Etuc^, ©cfang, ®£i(f)nia(f, 
 ®eftan!, ©ctninn, ®elt)innP) ; feminine, the same number (©Ebkbe, ®Ebiil)r, 
 ©ebiivt, ®cbulb, ®efo^r, ©Eiiteinbe, ®enuge, ®cfc^id)t£, ®Efe^n)uIfl, ®cftalt, 
 ®ett)alt, ®EmaI)r). 
 
 h. A few nouns, as ®liidf, 'luck, happiness,' ®Iaube, 'belief,' contain 
 the prefix ge, abbreviated to a simple g. 
 
 2. SSJJtS. This prefix is the same with the English mis, and has a simi- 
 lar oEBce. Its value is rather that of a compounded element than of a 
 prefix. It takes always the principal accent, and does not affect the 
 gender of the nouns to which it is prefixed. Thus, 5UJiJ3griff, 'mistake;' 
 ajjiffctljat, ' misdeed ; ' aJiiggimft, ' disfavor ; ' 5U?ipe^agen, ' discomfort,' 
 
 3. Utl is, as in English, the negative prefix. It is used with nouns more 
 often than in our language, always taking the accent, without affecting the 
 gender; it either signifies actual negation, or implies something unnatural, 
 repugnant, or injurious. Thus, Unted^t, ' wrong,' Unbnnt, ' ingratitude,' Un» 
 gliitf, ' misfortune,' Unfmn, ' nonsense ; '— UnmEnjoI), ' unnatural morister,' 
 llngeftalt, 'misshapen form,' Untljat, 'misdeed.' 
 
415] DEEIVATIVE NOITNS. 193 
 
 4. Ur. This is, as has been ah-eady pointed out (307.4), the same word 
 originally with the inseparable prefix er, and ultimately identical with au9, 
 ' out.' In a few words it stUl has a meaning akin with that of er : thus, 
 Urt^ett, 'judgment' _(ertl)eilen, 'assign'), UrlanB, 'leave' (ertaubeii, 'per- 
 mit '), Uriunbe, ' document,' Ur^jrung, ' origin,' and so on. But in most of 
 the derivatives which it forms it has an intensive force, with the distinct 
 implication of originality or primitiveness : thus, Urfadje, ' cause (original 
 or fundamental thing),' Uvtuclt, ' primitive world,' Urbilb, 'archetype,' Ur= 
 gtofiuoter, ' greatgrandfather.' 
 
 a. Ur always takes the accent, and it leaves unchanged '\;h6 gender of 
 the word to which it is prefixed. 
 
 6. (Srj is identical in derivation and meaning with our prefix arch, and 
 denotes what is eminent or superior in its kind. In respect to accent and 
 gender, it is like the three prefixes last treated of. Thus, grjengel, arch- 
 angel; ' @rjf)erjog, 'arch-duke;' (grjbteb, 'arch-thief 
 
 6. 2Int, originally the same with the inseparable prefix ettt (307.3), 
 appears in the present language only in Stttttnort, ' answer ' (from SSBort, 
 'word'), and SCnttt^, 'countenance.' 
 
 412. Prom other parts of speech than those treated above, nouns are 
 only with the greatest rarity formed directly, or otherwise than through the 
 medium of derivative adjectives or verbs. Such words as TOebetung, ' low- 
 land,' from meber (adverb), 'down,' and 3nnung, 'guild,' from in, 'in,' are 
 anomalies in the German system of word-derivation. 
 
 Derivation of Adjectives. 
 
 413. Primitive Adjectives. 
 
 Primitive adjectives, like primitive nouns (407), may be divided into two 
 classes : 
 
 1. Simple monosyllabic adjectives, the evidences of whose originally 
 derivative character are effaced : ,thus, gut, ' good,' lang, ' long,' orm, ' poor,' 
 l^art, 'hard,' griin, 'green.' 
 
 2. Adjectives containing an evident element of derivation, and analogous 
 with those derived from known primitives, but coming from roots which 
 are now lost: thus, tvfigc, 'lazy,' I)eitcr, 'cheerful,' eben, 'even,' bunlel, 
 ' dark.' 
 
 u. Some of these, as of the " primitive " nouns (407.a), admit of being 
 traced to more primitive roots by the researches of comparative philology. 
 
 414. Adjectives derived without Suffix or Prefix. 
 
 Adjectives coming from verbal roots by simple variation of the radical 
 vowel, without a suffix (like nouns : see 408.1.), are very few in German : 
 examples are brac^, ' fallow,' from bved^en, ' break up ; ' gtatt, ' smooth,' from 
 gteiten, 'slip;' bicf, 'thick,' from the root of gebeifjeii, 'thrive;' ftiid, 
 "fledged,' from ftiegen, ' fly.' 
 
 415. Adjectives derived hy Suffix. 
 
 As the various endings forming adjectives are, ahnost without excep- 
 
 9 
 
194 - DEEIVATION. [418 
 
 tion, used in derivation from different parts of speech, it will be more con- 
 venient to treat all the uses of each one together, taking the suffixes up in 
 their alphabetical order. 
 
 1. 33ar. This suffix is regarded as a derivative from the verb bfiten, 
 ' bear, carry. ' It was of infrequent use in ancient German, and only as 
 attached to nouns. 
 
 a. Examples of its use with nouns are bienftbar, ' serviceable (service- 
 bringing) ; ' frudjtbnr, ' fruitful (fruit-bearing) ; ' fuvc^t&or, ' terrible ; ' gang= 
 bar, ' current ;J fit^tbar, 'visible.' 
 
 6. In modern usage, it forms a large class of derivatives from verbs (al- 
 most always transitive), having the meaning of our adjectives in able, or 
 indicating capability to endure the action of the verb ; thus, epor, ' eatable,' 
 flcnieftbar, 'enjoyable,' t^eilbor, 'divisible,' unbemo^nbar, 'uninhabitable;' 
 — unfeI)(bot, ' incapable of failing.' 
 
 c. Tery rarely, it is added to an adjective : thus, offenbar, ' evident,' 
 from offen, ' open.' 
 
 2. (Sn, crn. The sufiBx en forms (from nouns) adjectives denoting 
 material or kind: thus, golben, 'golden,' tnoUen, 'woolen,' irben, 'earthen,' 
 eidjm, 'oaken.' To words ending in er, only n is added: thus, Imifcrn, 
 ' of copper,' filbetn, '.of silver,' Icbern, 'leathern.' Out of the frequency 
 of this combination has grown in recent use the form ern, which was 
 perhaps at first applied only to nouns forming a plural in er — ^thus, ptserii, 
 ' wooden,' from §ol;5 (pi. §ol;ier), ' wood ' — but is now used indiscriminately, 
 requiring modification of the vowel of its primitive : thus, bteicrn, ' leaden,' 
 t^onern, ' of clay (SC^on),' ftaljlcm, ' of steel (@tol)l).' 
 
 3. (5n, enb. These endings, forming respectively the past participle 
 of verbs of the Old conjugation, and the present participle of all verbs, 
 are proper adjective suffixes, but need only be mentioned here, as their 
 uses form a part of the subject of verbal conjugation, and have been al- 
 ready explained (see 349 eta ). 
 
 4. @r, efi. Hiese are the endings by which are formed, from simple 
 adjectives, adjective themes of the comparative and superlative degree 
 (see 133 etc.): also, jl forms ordinal numerals from carduials (see 203). 
 
 5. St, The patronymic nouns formed by the suffix er from names of 
 countries or towns (410.36) are very commonly used also with the value 
 of adjectives. When so used, they are not subject to declension, but are 
 treated as if they were compounded with the noun which they qualify. 
 Thus, Sertiner SBlau, ' Berlin blue : ' ba8 ©tropurger SKiinfter, ' the Stras- 
 burg cathedral ; ' bcr ?eil3jiget flJieffe, 'of the Leipsio fair.' 
 
 6. @t forms the past participle of verbs of the Few conjugation : see 
 246, 349 eta 
 
 1. §aft. This suffix is regarded as derived from boben, ' have,' or I)af= 
 ten, ' cling,' indicating primarily the possession or adhesion of the quality 
 designated by the words to which it is attached. * 
 
 a. It forms derivative adjectives especially from nouns signifying 
 quality: thus, tugcnb^aft, ' virtuous,' (iinb^aft, 'sinful,' fc^vectt|aft, 'fright- 
 ful,' ftanb^aft, 'steadfast; ' — but also, not infrequently, from names of per- 
 sons and things : thus, niaunljaft, ' manful,' meifter^aft, ' masterly,' Icibljaft, 
 ' bodily.' 
 
415] ' DEEIVATIVE ADJECIIVES. 195 
 
 b. It ig added to only a few verbal roots : as in ttolin^oft, ' resident,' 
 fc^toafe^aft, 'loquacious.' 
 
 c. Only three adjectives admit it, namely boS^aft, 'malicious,' Iran!^aft, 
 ' sickly,' roal)rI)oft, ' true.' 
 
 d. To ^aft is sometimes added the further ending ig, as in tetbljaftig, 
 loal^rl)0ftig ; and this addition is always made before the suffix teit, forming 
 abstract nouns (409.II.3) : thus, Eugenb^aftigteit, ' virtuousness.' 
 
 8. 3c^t forms adjectives only from concrete nouns, especially such as 
 denote material: thus, (Icintd^t, 'stony,' bornii^t, 'thorny,' faljtc^t, 'salty.' 
 Its office is hardly distinguishable from that of tg (below, 9) ; and, in pres- 
 ent use, its derivatives are almost superseded by those in tg, and are but 
 seldom met with. Only tpridlt, ' foolish,' is in familiar use, and is also 
 peculiar in exhibiting the modiiication of vowel, and in being formed from 
 a personal appellation (S^or, ' fool '). 
 
 9. 3g, This suffix is the same with our y (in stony, holy, easy, etc.), 
 and forms, from every part of speech, a very large number of German 
 adjectives, which are constantly increasing by new derivatives. Thus, 
 
 a. From nouns, of every class : thus, mcidlttg, ' mighty,' gilnftig, ' favor- 
 able,' jdjutbtg, 'guilty,' biirftig, ' thirsty,' blutig, 'bloody,' rtfilferig, 'watery,' 
 bidfojjfig, 'thickheaded,' langormig, 'longarmed.' 
 
 b. From verbs: thus, ffiumig, 'dilatory,' nad^gicbtg, 'yielding,' gefiiffig, 
 'obliging.' 
 
 c. From adjectives, in a few cases only: thus, giitig, 'kind,' BoIIig, 
 ' complete ; ' — and from the possessive and other pronominal adjectives, 
 as tneintg, 'miae,' etc. (159.5), felbig, 'self-same' (169.3), jentg, 'you' 
 (168), cinig, 'only, some' (189). 
 
 d. From indeclinable words, namely prepositions, adverbs, and adverbial 
 conjunctions of various kinds: thus, Bortg, 'former,' from Bor, 'before;' 
 iibrig, 'remaining,' from fiber, ' over ; ' je^tg, 'present,' from je^t, 'now;' 
 ^euttg, 'of to-day,' from ^eute, 'to-day; ' borttg, 'of that place,' from bort, 
 ' there ; ' obermatig, ' repeated,' from aberttial?, -' again ; ' begfattfig, ' relating 
 to the case in hand,' from be^foHS, 'in that ease.' 
 
 e. The addition of tg to other adjective endings before the suffix teit has 
 been noticed above (409.II.3) ; also to l)aft in forming adjectives (above. Id) ; 
 to adjectives and nouns in forming derivative verbs (405.II.3); and to cer- 
 tain nouns in forming derivative adjectives (below, 15e,/). 
 
 / 3g added to the suffix fal of certain nouns (408.III.'7), along with mo- 
 dification of the vowel (written e instead of o), forms a combination having 
 the aspect of a separate suffix, fetig : thus, mii^felig, ' painful, ' from 2)Jiit)ial, 
 'distress;' triibfeltg, 'afifiictive,' from Sriibfol, 'affliction.' And the combi- 
 nation is in fact treated as an independent suffix, by being added to words 
 which do not form derivatives in |a( : thus, gtiicEfetig, 'blissful,' from ®Iiicf, 
 'happiness; ' feinbfelig, 'inimical,' from feinb, 'hostile; ' rebjelig, 'talkative,' 
 from reben, ' talk.' 
 
 g. A number of adjectives in tg are from lost roots, and so have in the 
 present language the value of primitive words ; thus, eiDtg, ' eternal,' fetig, 
 'happy,' lippig, 'luxuriant.' 
 
 10. 3\il- This is the same vrith our English suffix ish, and is used in 
 much the same way. 
 
196 DEEIYATION. [415- 
 
 u. It forms adjectives from nouns of different olaaaes : thus, especially 
 from proper names of persons, places, and peoples : as, Ilttl)evif(^, ' Lutheran,' 
 ^)teu6ifc§, ' Prussian,' baterijcl), 'Bavarian,' fpanijd^, 'Spanish;' — from ap- 
 pellations of places, persons, and animalsi as, (jtmrntifd), 'heavenly,' ftcib= 
 ttfcf), 'townish,' tinbifc^, 'childish,' btebifc^, 'thievish,' bid^tcrtid), 'poetical,' 
 ^iinbifdj, 'doggish; ' — and from a few abstracts or verbal nouns: as, aber« 
 gtfiubtfc!^, ' superstitious,' argroiiljnifi:^, ' suspicious,' ucibifd), ' envious.' 
 
 ft. It often takes, in adjectives derived from the classical languages, the 
 place of our ending icorical: as, ^iftorijc^, 'historic' or 'historical,' fttti|(^, 
 'critical,' togtfd), 'logical.' 
 
 c. In a few words, ifd^ has a somewhat disparaging sense as compared 
 with ltd), much as in the corresponding English adjectives : thus, tinbifcfi, 
 'childish,' and tinbtti^, 'childlike;' tnciBiji^, 'womanish,' and Weibltdq, 
 ' feminine.' 
 
 d. The use of if(^ with proper names of places and with foreign words 
 is attended vrith some irregularities of detail, in respect to the form of the 
 theme to which the suffix is appended: these cannot be dwelt upon here. 
 
 11. Pet forms indeclinable adjectives from numerals and words related 
 with numerals, which, before it, take the ending er : thus, etnetlet, 'of one 
 sort,' mand)erlet, ' of many sorts,' ottertei, ' of all sorts.' 
 
 The tei is by origin the genitive of a feminine noun, meaning ' sort,' and 
 the preceding er is the proper ending of the adjective qualifying it : hence 
 the treatment of its derivatives as indeclinable words. 
 
 12. Stc^. This suffix corresponds with our like, ly (in godlike, godly, etc.), 
 and, like these, forms a very large number of derivatives. It is historically 
 the same word with the adjective like (German gleid^): compare 363.3a. 
 
 Std)t is also added to adjectives, perhaps as a mere variation of \\ij. 
 
 a. It is added to nouns of various classes (usually with modification of 
 their vowel): thus, mtinnlit^, 'manly,' bfiterlidl, 'fatherly,' liinpitc^, 'artful,' 
 ^crjlidj, 'hearty,' gliidti:^, 'happy,' ia^rltd), 'yearly,' geifittc^, 'spirituaL' 
 
 6. It forms from other adjectives (always with modified vowel) 'kdjeotivea 
 that have in general a diminutive meaning: thus, rbtljlid^, 'reddish,' faiict» 
 lid), ' somewhat sour,' langlid), 'longish.' But some of its derivatives are 
 free from the diminutive implication ; and a considerable number (see 363.3a) 
 are used only in an adverbial sense, the ending having the same value as 
 the English ly in similar derivatives from adjectives. 
 
 In a few words — as fold^, melc^, our such, which — it is greatly corrupted. 
 
 c. It is appended to many verbal roots ; and either in an active sense 
 (especially with intransitive verbs)— thus, fd)ablid), 'harmful,' bet)arrli^, 
 'persistent,' fterblicft, 'mortal,' erfreiitid), 'agreeable' — or, yet more often, 
 in a passive sense: as glaubtii^, 'to be believed, credible,' Bevodjtlid), 'con- 
 temptible,' bcgreiflidi, 'comprehensible,' unfSglic^, 'unspeakable.' Of this 
 class of passive derivatives, many are in use only with the prefix im : e. g. 
 there is no fflgtic^, ' speakable.' 8td), as thus used, is closely equivalent 
 with bar (above, 16), and it is in part a matter of arlsitrary custom, or de- 
 termined only by euphony, which suffix shall be employed; in other cases, 
 derivatives are formed with both, with a more or less distinct difference of 
 meaning. 
 
 33. ©am is our some (in whoksome, noisome, etc.), and is supposed to be 
 ultimately the adjective same (now lost in German). It forms derivatives, 
 
416] DEEIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. 197 
 
 a. From nouns, mostly of an atstraot character: thus, furii^tfant, 'fear- 
 ful,' geWoltfam, 'violent,' mii^fam, 'laborious.' 
 
 b. Prom verbal roots: thus, aufmertfant, 'attentive,' folgfant, 'docile,' 
 lentfom, 'manageable.' 
 
 c. From a few adjectives: thus, etnfam, 'lonely,' genietnfatn, 'common,' 
 langfaiti, 'slow.' 
 
 14. %, besides one or two isolated adjectives, like bid^t, 'thick, close,' 
 from the root of gebei^ett, 'thrive,' forms the class of ordinal adjectives from 
 numerals below twenty (203). 
 
 16. There are certain words forming classes of derivative adjectives 
 which have not yet (Hke bar, lid), faitl, above) lost their independence of 
 form and meaning sufficiently to be reckoned as adjective-suffixes, al- 
 though approaching very near in value to such. The most noticeable of 
 them are 
 
 a. 8o8, 'loose,' our less, forming numerous adjectives of deprivation: 
 thus, eilblog, 'endless,' I)erjIo8, 'heartless,' trcuIoS, 'faithless.' 
 
 These adjectives, like those ending in ^oft, always add ig before teit ; 
 thus, Ereuloftgteit, 'faithlessness.' 
 
 6. SBolI, ' full,' our ful, in thankful, fearful, etc. : examples are leibBOIt, 
 ' sorrowful,' gebanfenbott, ' thoughtful.' 
 
 c. ^tx6), ' rich : ' examples are tiefireic^, ' gracious ' (Stebe, ' love '), geift= 
 rctd), ' witty, full of esprit.'' 
 
 d. god^, 'compartment, division,' forms multiplicatives with numeral 
 words, cardinal or indefinite (204): examples are je^nfa(^, 'tenfold,' t)iet= 
 fad), 'manifold,' . 
 
 e. %a\i, ' fold,' is used in the same manner with \aS). But multiplica- 
 tives with fait simply are antiquated and unusual : they now regularly take 
 the additional adjective ending ig (above, 9), before which the vowel of fait 
 (except in two or three words, as mottnigfalttg) is modified : thus, je^tifot 
 tig, 'ten-fold,' Bielfaltig, 'manifold.' 
 
 /. Strttg is, hke falttg, an extension of a noun, 2ttt, ' manner, kind,' by 
 the adjective suffix ig, and forms a considerable class of derivatives-deno- 
 ting sort or manner : thus, tiebelartig, ' cloudlike,' frembatttg, ' of strange 
 fashion.' Other similar formations are fbrmig, from the foreign noun 
 govnt, 'form' (Lat. /orTTio) : thus, infelformtg, 'island-shaped;' — tnitt^tg, 
 from TbxVcj, ' mood, disposition : ' as, friebmiitl^ig, ' disposed to peace ; ' 
 etc. 
 
 ■416. Adjectives derived by Prefix. 
 
 The prefixes forming adjectives are, in general, the same with those 
 forming nouns (411), namely ge, mi§, un, ur, erj, together with be. 
 
 1. i8c forms a very few adjectives, as bereit, 'ready,' beqitetn, 'con- 
 venient.' 
 
 2. a. ®e aids to form past participles, or verbal adjectives (243.3) ; — 
 and sometimes from nouns which do not furnish any other of the parts 
 of a derivative verb : thus, geftiefelt, 'booted (provided with boots),' 
 geprnt, ' homed,' gefittet, ' mannered,' geftirnt, ' starred.' 
 
 6. It also forms, either without suffix or with ig, a class of adjectives 
 from verbs; thus, gencl^m, 'acceptable' (ne^tnen, 'take'), gemtg, 'certain' 
 
198 DEEITATIOIT. [4l6- 
 
 (ttitffen, 'kno-w'), gclfiufig, 'current' (toufen, 'run'), gehJOVttg, 'expectant' 
 (marten, '-wait'). 
 
 c. @e is prefixed to a few simple adjectives without noteworthy change 
 of their meaning: thus, gerec^t, 'righteous,' gctteu, 'faithful,' geftreng, 
 ' severe.' @teil^ is thus forme4 with abbreviated prefix, from an earlier 
 lei^, ' like.' 
 
 The other prefixes have the same value in adjectives as in nouns : thug, 
 
 3. SUJtg forms such adjectives as tnifigiinftig, 'grudging,' ratgtroutfd^, 
 ' distrustful.' 
 
 4. Un forms negative adjectives, as unllar, ' unclear,' ungtiidlii^, ' un- 
 happy.' 
 
 a. That some of the adjectives formed with un have no corresponding 
 positives has been noticed above (415.12c). 
 
 b. According to some authorities, the words formed with un always 
 have the principal accent on that prefix : others except compounds of par- 
 ticiples, as unbeto^nt, 'unrewarded,' and of verbal derivatives with the 
 suffixes bar, lid), fam, as unbent'bar, 'inconceivable,' unenb'Itc|, 'unending,' 
 unbulb'fam, ' intolerant.' 
 
 5. Ur forms directly only a very small number of adjectives, from other 
 adjectives, adding to the latter an intensive meaning, or an implication 
 of primitivenesa : thus, urplo^tic^, ' very sudden ; ' urolt, ' of primitive an- 
 tiquity.' 
 
 6. ®rj is prefixed, in a half-humorous way, to a few adjectives, with 
 intensive force : thus, erjbumtn, ' excessively stupid,' erjfoul, ' very lazy.' 
 
 Derivation of the other Parts of Speech. 
 
 417. Of the remaining parts of speech, the adverbs are the only ones 
 which are to any extent formed in classes, by means analogous with those 
 above explained ; and they have been already sufficiently treated (363 eta) 
 under Adverbs. 
 
 The derivation of the rest, so far as it is capable of being shown, is a 
 matter for the lexicon to deal with, under each separate word. 
 
 WORD-COMBINATION, COMPOSITION. 
 
 418. A compound vmrd is one that is made up of two (or 
 more) independent words, each of which maintains in the com- 
 position its separate form and meaning. It is made one word 
 by constancy of combination in practical use, by the absence of 
 inflection except in the last member, and by being placed under 
 the dominion of a single principal accent. 
 
 a. Thus, Suiigfrau is distinguislied from junge grau, ' young woman,' by 
 the adjective jung being made indeclinable and receiving a marked accent. 
 By this means a unily of form is given to the word, to which a unity of 
 
419] coMPomn) woEDs. 199 
 
 idea is then further added by attribution of the meaning 'virgin,' which na- 
 turally grows out of the other, but yet is not the same with it. 
 
 b. As ivill appear hereafter (422.2J etc.), other members of a compound 
 than the final oae sometimes take an ending of declension, but irregularly 
 and superfluously, and without liability to further variation in the inflection 
 of the compound. There are also' a few words which are arbitrarily written 
 together as if compounds, while both their parts are declined In fuU, and 
 they are not in fact of a different character from many collocations of words 
 which the language writes separately: such are berfelbe and berjienige (168, 
 169), §o^eprtefter, 'high-priest,' etc. {422.1a). 
 
 c. All derivation and inflection begin witli composition. The compound becomes in 
 practical nse an integral representative of the idea signified by it, its origin is more and 
 more lost sight of, and it becomes liable to such alterations of form as more or less dis- 
 guise its derivation : thus, ^ungfrau has been in popular use abbreviated to ^ungfer ; and 
 Stlng^crr (junger §crt, 'young sir'), in like manner, to ^unCer. And if the final member 
 of the compound happens to be one that in practice is added to a large number of words, 
 forming a considerable class of composite words, it may be turned into an ending, of deri- 
 vation or inflection. Thug, btittet St^eil became the compound 2)rittt^eil, 'third part,' and 
 this was contracted into ©rittel ; and, the same being done with the other ordinal numer- 
 als, tel became a " suffix," forming fractionals from ordinals (207.2). The conjugational end- 
 ing ten, in roir gotten, ' we had,' represents in like manner an originally independent conju- 
 gational form, tdtumes (yet older 6nd6/maM\ ' we did,' which has gone through a like pro- 
 resH of abbreviation. (See the author's " Language and the Study of Language," p. 55 etc. ) 
 Composition therefore forms, in the grammatical treatment of a language, an appropriate 
 transitional subject between inflection and derivation on the one side, and collocation or 
 arrangement on the other. 
 
 419. Compounds are very much more numerous in German than in 
 English, and the liberty of forming new ones, after the model of those al- 
 ready in use, is much more freely conceded than with us. In making prac- 
 tical acquaintance with the language, therefore, we are constantly meeting 
 with them, of every class — from those in which the final member has al- 
 most acquired the value of a sufiBx (see above, 415.15^ or in which the 
 fact of composition is otherwise disguised (as in 3ungfet and 3itnfer ; or in 
 folc^ and totX^, see above, 415.12), to the chance combinations which each 
 speaker or writer forms as occasion arises, and which are not to be found 
 explained in any dictionary, however complete. 
 
 a. Compounds are often also formed In Grerman of a length and complex- 
 ity unknown in English: thus, jJeuerBerfie^erungSgefeUfc^aft, 'fire insurance 
 company ; ' 9}orb(eejii)tftfal)tt, 'North Sea navigation ; ' S,'uftrof)renfii^h)tnbfU(5t, 
 'bronchial consumption; ' aieid&SobertJoftamtgjeitunggjc^retber, 'editor of the 
 imperial general postofifice journal.' Such, however, are for the most part 
 met with only in technical and official language. 
 
 6. The parts of a compound — especially if it be a long and cunibroug 
 one, or liable to an incorrect division — are sometimes separated by hyphens : 
 thus, geucrdcrfid)erung8 = ge|ellfc5aft, or geuer = Berrtc^erungg = geleUfi^aft. 
 Ho rules are to be definitely laid down respecting this division, it being 
 mainly left to the taste and choice of individual writers. Usage is also 
 much at variance aa regards the employment of capital letters for the separ- 
 ated parts of a compound noun — acme writing, for example, geuer»S5erfiii^e= 
 ruug8=®e[cttfc^aft. The preferable method is to avoid as much as possible 
 the multiplication of capitals. 
 
 c. Wherq two or more compound words having the same final member 
 
200 COMPOSITION. [419- 
 
 would follow one another, it is the usage In German often to omit that 
 member except in the last word, noting the omission in the other cases by 
 a hyphen appended to the former member : thus, aUe @onn= imb gefttcige 
 eine« 3a^e«, ' on all the Sundays and holidays of a year ; ' in titefer baiim= 
 unb quelleiiteeren gtnbbe, 'in this treeless and waterless desert;' Bon bet 
 yonn= unb fefttagigen @tJa3terfa^rt, ' of the promenade usual on Sundays and 
 holidays.' A similar liberty is even tal£on with words of foreign origin : 
 thus, ate Of' unb ®efenftBh)affe, 'as offensive and defensive weapon' (R. 
 161.13) ; but it is not to be approved or imitated. 
 
 Composition of Verbs. 
 
 420. The importance of compound verbs in the general grammatical 
 system of German has rendered necessary their treatment under the head 
 of verbal conjugation (296-313). Only a brief recapitulation of the dif- 
 ferent classes, therefore, is called for here. 
 
 1. Verbs are compounded with the inseparable prefixes 6c, ent 
 or cirtp, er, ge, ber, jer ; being conjugated, in general, in the same 
 manner as when simple, but losing the prefix ge of the past par- 
 ticiple ; retaining, also, their proper accent. See 302-7. 
 
 2. Verbs are compounded with a considerable number of sep- 
 arable prefixes, simple and compound — which prefixes, however, 
 stand before the verbal form, and are written with it as one word 
 only in the infinitive and participles ; or in the personal forms 
 of the verb also, when the sentence has the transposed arrange- 
 ment. The prefix always has the principal accent. See 298-301 
 
 a. A few of the separable prefixes, how;ever — namely, burd^, ^tnter, iiber, 
 um, unter, and rotbcr or mteber — form with some verbs inseparable com- 
 pounds. See 308-11. 
 
 3. Verbs are compounded with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs 
 either closely, forming compound themes which are conjugated 
 like simple roots, or loosely, fonning themes which are conjugated 
 after the manner of verbs with separable prefixes. See 312-13. 
 
 «. There is no fixed lino separating compounds of the latter character 
 from verbal phrases, and some combinations are treated indifferently as the 
 one or the other: thus, San! fagen or baut(agen, .'express gratitude;' 
 ©tott finben or ftattfinben, ' take place.' 
 
 Composition of Nouns. 
 
 421. With few exceptions (422.66 etc.), compound nouns 
 are made up of a noun with a preceding limiting word. The 
 final noun determines the gender and fiiode'of declension of the 
 compound ; the preceding member of the compound has the ac- 
 cent. 
 
422] COMPOUND Noinsrs. 201 
 
 1. Exceptions as regards gender are 
 
 a. Names of towna, which are neuter (61.2c), eyen when they are com- 
 pounds whose final member is mascuUne or feminine : thus, baS SSJittenberg 
 (ber SSerg) ; ba8 fflijagbeburg (bie Surg). 
 
 b. Many compounds of ber SKut^, ' mood, spirit,' which are feminine : 
 for example, bie Slttmutl), 'grace,' bie Semutt), 'humility,' bie SBe^mut^, 
 ' sadness.' 
 
 These are, by origin, feminine abstracts from compound adjectives, which 
 have lost their sufBx of derivation. 
 
 c. A few special words : thus, bie SlntWort, ' answer ' (baS SBSort, ' word ') ; 
 berSRittmoc^, 'TVednesday ' (literally, 'mid-week,' from bie SBoc^e, 'week'), 
 which has taken the gender of the other names of week-days (61.2ffi) ; bie 
 jZeunouge, 'lamper-eel' (literally, ' nine-eyes,' from baS 9(uge, 'eye'): and 
 SlbMcu, 'horror,' is mascuUue, and Oegent^eit, 'opposite,' is neuter, while 
 ©a)eu, 'fear,' and K^eit, 'part,' are now respectively used iu general as 
 feminine and masouhne. 
 
 422. The varieties of compound nouns are 
 
 1. Nouns made up of a noun and a preceding qualifying adjective: thus, 
 SBoUmonb, 'full moon,' Sbetftein, 'precious stone,' ^oc^jeit, 'wedding' (lit. 
 'high time'), ,Surjtt)cile, 'pastime' (lit. 'short while'). 
 
 a. A very few nouns are written as compounds of this class, although 
 the adjective is declined as an independent word : thus, §o^erpriefter, ' high- 
 priest,' I'angelneile, ' tedium,' ®e^etmcrratl), 'privy-counsellor' (also Song» 
 ineite, ©e^eimvat^, as proper compounds). 
 
 2. Nouns made up of a noun and a preceding limiting noun: thus, S8u(I)= 
 brucfet, 'bookprinter,' @e((f|i(^t(^teiber, 'historian' (lit. 'history-writer'), 
 ©d^utte^rer, 'school-teacher,' §anbfc^u^, 'glove' (lit. 'hand-shoe'), 3Bein= 
 glaS, 'wine-glass,' SBaumtBoUe, 'cotton' (lit. 'tree-wool'), Sagbleben, 'life 
 by hunting,' Eid^baunt, 'oak-tree.' " 
 
 a. The relation of the first noun to the second is oftenest that of a geni- 
 tive dependent on it ; but it may stand in various other relations, often such 
 as could not be expressed by any simple case, without the use of words of 
 relation : or, the two words may be in apposition with one another. 
 
 b. Often the first noun is put formally in the genitive case : thus, ^i)« 
 nig8jol)n, 'king's son,' SanbSmann, 'countryman,' Sirt^S^auS, 'inn '(lit. 
 ' host's house '). 
 
 c. And even, by irregular imitation of such forms, the first noun takes 
 an 8 or e8 which does not properly belong to it as an independent word : 
 thus, ®eburt«tag, ' birthday,' SiebeSbrtef, ' loveletter.' 
 
 d. The first noun sometimes takes a plural ending: thus, SSitberbud^, 
 ' picture-book ' (lit. 'pictures-book'), SBorterbui^, 'dictionary' (lit. 'words- 
 book'), ^(eiberfd^ront, 'clothes-press,' Saifenl)au8, 'orphan asylum' (ht. 
 ' orphans' house '), Sagebuc^, 'journal' (lit. 'days-book'). 
 
 e. These endings of declension are introduced in part for their meaning, 
 in part for euphonic reasons ; and insertions of a similar kind are occasion- 
 al]y made quite arbitrarily: as, 3lfd^ermittniod^, 'Ash-Wednesday,' §eibet 
 beere, 'heath-berry.' 
 
 9* 
 
202 COMPOSITIOIT, [422- 
 
 3. Nouns made up of a noun and n preceding verbal root, having the 
 value of a qualifying noun or adjective : thus, ©ingBogel, ' singing-bird,' 
 S8renngto8, 'burning-glass,' ©djreibfeber, 'writing-pen,' ©tubitjtmmer, 
 'study-room,' §ob|U(^t, ' oovetousness ' (lit. 'desire of having'). 
 
 4. Nouns made up of a noun and a preceding particle, with qualifying 
 force: thus, 2Iugenyeite, 'outside,' Snianb, 'inland,' SluSlaut, 'final sound 
 (of a word),' SKitmenfc^, 'fellow-creature,' SBort^etl, 'advantage' (lit. 'ex- 
 celling part '). 
 
 5. Nouns made up of an infinitive and words dependent upon it : thus, 
 bo8 giirftc^jein, 'the being by one's self,' baS ^ufpotlommen, 'the coming 
 too late.' These are unusual cases, and not employed in dignified style. 
 
 6. Compounds of a different and peculiar character, which designate an 
 object by describing some peculiarity belonging to it, and which may be 
 called possessive or characterizing compounds. Such are 
 
 a. A noun with preceding limiting word : as, Sa^tIo))f, ' bald-head ' (a 
 person or thing having a bald head), SSlauflriirnjjf, ' bluestocking ' (person 
 wearing such),@d)ret^al€, 'bawler' (lit. 'scream-neck'), 35iered[, 'square' 
 (lit. ' four-corners '). 
 
 b. An adjective with preceding qualifying word: as, ber ^JJimmerjatt, 
 ' the greedy-gut ' (lit. ' never satiated '), bo8 Smtnergriin, ' the evergreen.' 
 
 c. A verb with a following object, or other limiting word or phrase : as, 
 SaugenidjtS, 'good-for-nothing,' ©torenfrieb, ' kUl-joy ' (lit. ' disturb-peaee '), 
 ©tellbic^ein, ' rendezvous ' (lit. ' make thine appearance '), @t)ringtn8fclb, 
 ' romp ' (lit. ' jump into the field'), Se^rauS, ' closing dance ' (Ut. ' turn-out '). 
 
 d. One or two more anomalous cases ; as, ®arau9, ' end ' (lit. ' all over '). 
 
 Composition of Adjectives. 
 
 423. Compound adjectives are always made up of an adjec- 
 tive with a preceding limiting or qualifying word. Their treat 
 ment, as regards declension, use as adverbs, and the like, is the 
 same with that of simple adjectives. The first member of the 
 compound takes the accent. 
 
 424. The varieties of compound adjectives are 
 
 1. Adjectives made up of two adjectives, of which the former either is 
 co-ordinate with the latter— as in toilbjlumitl, ' deaf and dumb,' !atjcttii^= 
 lijitigtic^, 'imperial-royal' — or, much more often, limits it in the manner of 
 an adverb: as, f|eUblau, 'bright blue,' tobttranf, 'deadly sick.' 
 
 2. Adjectives made up of an adjective (usually a participle) and a pre- 
 ceding adverb: as, tt)ol)Icbet, 'right-noble, worshipful,' too^lmcinenb, 'well- 
 meaning,' fogenannt, 'so-called,' tneitauSfe^enB, 'far-looking.' 
 
 3. Adjectives made up of an adjective and a preceding limiting noun : as, 
 |d)neetDei6, 'snow white,' troftbeburftig, 'needing consolation,' etSfalt, 'ice- 
 cold.' 
 
425] COMPOUND ADJECTITEe. 203 
 
 . a. A very frequent form of this compound is made up of a participle and 
 its dependent noun: as, Ijeilbrtngenb, 'salutary' (lit. ' health-bringing '), 
 <)flic^toergefyen, 'duty-forgetting,' gottergeben, 'god-devoted.' 
 
 6. The noun in such compounds, as in compounds with a noun (422.26- 
 e), often taltes the form of a genitive or a plural: thus, lebenSfatt, 'tired of 
 life,' lobenSlDiirbig, 'praiseworthy,' ^offnunggooU, 'hopeful,' tiefengrog, 'gi- 
 gantic' (lit. 'giant-great'), !inber[o8, 'childless' (lit. 'children-less'). 
 
 i. Adjectives made up of an adjective and a preceding verbal root, hav- 
 ing the value of a dependent noun: thus, merJwurbig, 'remarkable' (lit. 
 ' worthy of noticing '). 
 
 This form of compound is rare and exceptional, the infinitive being gen- 
 erally used, instead of the simple verbal root. 
 
 6. Adjectives formed by appending a suffix of derivation, especially tg 
 (415.9), to the combination of a noun with a preceding limiting word 
 (which combination is not itself in use as a compound noun) : thus, t)ier« 
 fiigig, 'four-footed,' groperjtg, 'great-hearted,' ^oc^naftg, 'supercilious' 
 (lit. ' high-nosed '). 
 
 Composition of Particles. 
 
 425. 1. The modes of formation of compound particles have 
 been already suflSciently explained and illustrated, under the 
 head of the different kinds of particles (see especially 365). 
 Such particles are, in part, cases of compound words, analogous 
 with those just treated of; in part, phrases composed of. inde- 
 pendent and fully inflected words, which have simply ran to- 
 gether into one by frequent usage ; in part, they are combina- 
 tions of particles. v 
 
 2. a. Compound particles of the last class, and those of the second which 
 are made up of a governing preposition and its governed case, are accented 
 on the final member: thus, Dormer', 'previously,' IjerDor', ' forth,' jubetn', 
 'besides,' uber^ou<)t', 'in general,' bergab', 'down hill.' 
 
 6. Such, on the other hand, as are originally cases of compound words, or 
 phrases composed of a noun and a preceding limiting word, are accented on 
 the first member: thus, ^tm'meltDcirtS, 'heavenwards,' Btel'mal8, 'often,' 
 tet'tieSWeg?, 'in no wise,' ber'geftalt, 'in such wise.' 
 
 c. A few are accented on either the first or second member ; and either 
 indifferently, or according to a difference of meaning: thus, olfo' or at' jo, 
 'accordingly,' et'tna or etnja', 'perchance,' ein'trlot, when eilt means dis- 
 tinctly 'one,' rather than 'a;' bav'unt, Inar'um, ^ter'mit, when the em- 
 phasis rests on the pronominal element — and so on. 
 
 d. There are occasional irregular exceptions to these rules of accentu- 
 ation, which may be left to the dictionary to point out. 
 
204 CONSTEUOnON OF SENTENCES. [426- 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Introductory Explanations. 
 
 426. 1. A SENTENCE IS a combination of words having com- 
 pleteness in itself as the expression of a thought. 
 
 2. It is composed of a subject, designating that of which some- 
 thing is asserted (inquired, desired), and a predicate, expressing 
 that which is asserted (inquired, desired) of the subject. 
 
 M. That a thought cannot be signified or communicated without the com- 
 bination of a subject and a predicate ia not claimed (compare 391); but 
 only that this combination is ita full and regular mode of expression, the 
 norm to which all expressed thoughts may be reduced, or of which thoj- are 
 to be regarded as variations. 
 
 b. The division of the predicate, as above defined, into predicate and 
 copula (the latter being always a person of the present tense of fcin, ' be : ' 
 compare 316.1a, remark) — for example, of er ticbt, 'ho loves,' into er i ft Ite= 
 benb, ' he is loving ' — though of value in the logical analysis of expression, is 
 unimportant in grammatical analysis, and has no bearing upon the construc- 
 tion of the sentence. All verbs except fein, ' be ' (and even that, in some 
 of its uses), contain the copula combined with a more or less complete pre- 
 dication of gome action, state, or quality : some require more than others u 
 complement, to fill out their idea and make a significant predication: a few 
 (316.1), so especially as to be called " verbs of incomplete predication; " a 
 transitive verb is in itself less complete than an intransitive, and so on. 
 
 c. The completeness of a sentence composed of subject and predicate ia 
 a relative one — namely, as compared with a word, or a phrase not contain- 
 ing those two elements. A noun by itself suggests an object of thought ; 
 a noun with qualifying adjuncts implies certain things as standing in certain 
 relations to one another, an object as invested with qualities : so also a verb 
 by itself, or with adjuncts, calls up an intelligent conception in the mind ; 
 and either, in certain circumstances, has all the value of a complete expres- 
 sion, because the mind of the hearer or reader understands, or intelligently 
 supplies, whatever is wanting. But we do not feel that anything is really 
 said until a verb and its subject are combined, until something is predicated 
 of something. 
 
 d. A sentence may signify only a small part of the thought which is in 
 the mind of the speaker, and which he sets out to express ; it may require 
 to be set in connection with other sentences in order to perform its full office, 
 as much as a word with other words to form a sentence. And, in the de- 
 velopment of language,' a means is found by which individual sentences are 
 so combined as to form a higher unity — by which, instead of being merely 
 set side by side, they are twined together into a complex sentence or period. 
 This means is the conversion of independent sentences into dependent clauses 
 having tlie formal as well as logical value of parts of a sentence (see below 
 435 etc.). For the simple sentence still remains the norm and unit of com • 
 plete expression : the dependent clauses have value only as they enter int o 
 
428] SENTENCES. 205 
 
 the structure of such a sentence, in the quality of adjuncts either to Its 
 subject 01 its predicate. They themselves, then, though containing a 
 subject and a predicate, become incomplete, because thoy distinctly imply a 
 relation to something else,- -which requires to be also expressed. 
 
 427. Sentences are of three fundamental kinds, assertive, in- 
 terrogative, and optative (or imperative). 
 
 Thus, assertive, bu tiebfi mxij, ' thou lovest me ; '—interrogative, Kcbfl bu 
 mtd), ' lovest thou me ? ' — optative, Itebe bu mic^, ' love thou me I ' 
 
 a. Of only the first of these can it be truly said that it involves the pre- 
 dication of something of a subject. The relations of the three to one an- 
 other are best developed by reducing them to the common form of dependent 
 clauses, expressing -svhat is affirmed, inquired, or desired by some defined 
 speaker. Thus, -we say of another, er be^au^tet, bag bu il)n liebft, ' he as- 
 serts that thou lovest him ; ' er fvagt (tnitt ttitffen), ob bu i^ liebeft, ' he asks 
 (wants to know) -whether thou lovest him; ' er Betlangt, bag bu tl)n liebeft, 
 ' he requires that thou love him.' When, now, we come to speak in our 
 own persons, we change tc^ be^aupte, bog bu.mii^ liebft, 'I maintain that 
 thou lovest me,' into bu (tebft mi^, 'thou lovest me,' the assertion of the 
 assertion being usually a quite unnecessaryTormality; it^ ttiitt miffeti, ob 
 bu mic^ liebeft, ' I wish to know whether thou lovest me,' becomes liebft bU 
 tnic^, ' lovest thou me ? ' the wish to know being intimated by arrangement 
 and tone; and ic^ Berlange, bag bu m\i) liebeft, 'I require that thou love 
 me,' is changed into Hebe bu tni^, 'love thou mel ' the desire or demand 
 being expressed by arrangement, tone, and appropriate verbal form. That 
 is to say, the usage of language has established modes of expression by 
 which the speaker can signify his desire to know, or his request or com- 
 mand, directly, without putting it necessarily, as he may do optionally, into 
 the form of an assertion. 
 
 6. All these kinds of sentence alike consist of a subject and a predi- 
 cate (save that the subject of the imperative sentence is often omitted as 
 superfluous, when of the second person, or representing the individual to 
 whom the request or command is directly addressed). And the assertive 
 sentence is properly assumed as the norm or standard, of which the other 
 two may be treated and explained as variations. 
 
 c. The formal construction and logical office of the three kinds of sen- 
 tence do not always correspond. A variety of modes of expression (338) 
 may be used as intimations of a command ; a question may be expressed 
 (432.1i) in the form of an assertive sentence; and an assertion may be 
 implied in the asking of a question. 
 
 d. The direct assertive force of an assertive sentence may be variously 
 and greatly modified, either by the mood and tense of the verb or by ad- 
 juncts, so that the statement is made uncertain or hypothetical to any 
 degree — yet -without affecting the grammatical character of the sentence. 
 A negative sentence is only one variety of the assertive, in which, of two 
 opposite and mutually exclusive things, one is affirmed by the denial of the 
 other. 
 
 428. 1. The subject of a sentence is always a substantive word 
 — that is to say, either a noun, or one of the equivalents of a 
 
206 CONSTEUCnON OF SENTENCES. [428- 
 
 noun (113) — along witli such adjuncts (109 etc.) as may be at- 
 tached to it for its limitation and qualification. 
 
 2. The predicate of a sentence is always a personal form of a 
 verb, since this alone has predicative force (232, 314) : it may 
 be accompanied by the various modifying adjuncts (314 etc.) 
 which it is capable of taking. 
 
 429. The arrangement of the sentence, as thus constituted, 
 is subject to stricter and more intricate rules in Gennan than in 
 English : which rules will now be set forth. 
 
 a. The diflferences in construction between the two languages are in 
 good part of comparatively modem growth ; some of the peculiar rules 
 which now domineer German sentences were only tendencies and preferen- 
 cies a few centuries ago. 
 
 5. Hence, in archaic style, as well as In poetry, the rules are much less 
 strictly observed than in ordinary prose. 
 
 Regular or Normal order of the sentence. 
 
 430. 1. In its ordinary and normal arrangement, the Ger- 
 man sentence, like the English, requires the subject to be stated 
 first, and to be followed by the predicate. 
 
 a. This rule has reference to the simple assertive sentence; such a 
 sentence, as explained above (427.6), being taken as the standard from 
 which the other forms are deduced. For the arrangement of the interroga- 
 tive and optative sentences, see below, 432. 
 
 6. Taken in connection with the rules already given as to the order in 
 which the adjuncts of a noun and verb are respectively arranged (110-12, 
 3 1 9), this rule determines the whole order of the normal sentence ; but 
 it is desirable to caU especial attention to the peculiarities which distinguish 
 the German order. 
 
 2. No one of the adjuncts of the predicate is ever allowed to 
 stand between the subject and the verb. ' 
 
 Thus, for English, ' he truly loves justice, and never willingly commits a 
 wrong,' the German must say er Itebt treuK(^ ba8 Sied^t, unb bege^t nic lt)it» 
 Ug ein Unrei^t. 
 
 a. Rarely, a word or phrase is found inserted between the subject and 
 the verb. Such a one, however, is never an adjunct of the predicate, but 
 one of the conjunctions having exceptional freedom of position (385.4,5), 
 or an asseverative particle, or a phrase of parenthetical force. The words 
 oftenest met with in this position are aber, nainlid), atfo, inbcffen, and \i-- 
 boi^. 
 
 3. Since the infinitive (348.2) and the participle (368) are 
 regularly preceded by whatever limits them, and since (319.2) 
 the word moat closely combined in idea with the verb as sharing 
 in its predicative quality is put farthest from it, it results that 
 
431] EEGULAE OEDEE. 207 
 
 in sentences containing a compound tense, or a simple form of a 
 separably compounded verb, the non-personal part of the verb 
 (prefix, participle, or infinitive) stands at the end of the sentence : 
 and the same place is taken by an infinitive dependent on the 
 verb of the sentence, or by a word, other than a prefix, separably 
 compounded with it, or forming with it a verbal phrase. 
 
 Thus, er bUcfte tnit SDSo^IgefaUen aitf ben etti))orl(|auenben @oI)tt ber 
 Srbe ^crnteber, 'he tooteol iwwn with compkceney upon the upgazing son 
 of earth; ' bu t)aft jtDor nid^t Hug, aber boc^ natiirlii^ unb noc^ finbtidier 
 Sffieijege^onbett,' thou host acted, not wisely, indeed, but yet naturally, and 
 in childish fashion ; ' il)r TO c r b e t eud) jo blutig curet SUiac^t nidjt ii b e r I) c= 
 ben, you will not presvme so cruelly upon your power ; ' t(^ ft) i I ( meitl 
 ?ebcn ala etn ©efci^ent au8 eurer §onb empfangen, 'I will receive my 
 life as a gift from your hand ; ' icbnaljtn md)t8 mebt Bon ber bintet mic 
 Itegenben (Sbcne wal) r, ^\ 'perceived nothing more of the plain that lay be- 
 hind me.' 
 
 a. 'Where there is more than one non-personal part of the verb in the 
 sentence, the prefix stands before the participle, or the infinitive, or the 
 participle and infinitive ; and the participle stands before the infinitive : 
 thus, id^ gebe es ouf, id) ^abe c« oufgegeben, td^ werbe e8 aufgeben, id) Werbe 
 e8 oufgegeben Ijaben, eS mirb oufgegeben morben fetn — since each element 
 is prefixed to that to which it is added as a limitation (314.6). 
 
 6. In the greater number of sentences, therefore, the two parts of the 
 ■ verb, the personal and non-personal, form as it were a frame within which 
 are set all the verbal adjuncts, according to rules of arrangement (319) 
 which are (except the one requiring the personal pronoun to come first) on 
 the whole somewhat loosely observed, and liable to manifold variation. 
 The three fixed points in the normal order of the sentence are the sub- 
 ject, the personal verb, and the non-personal part of the verb (if there be 
 one present). 
 
 Inverted order of the sentence. 
 
 431. To arrange all sentences in the manner above described 
 ■would result in an intolerable monotony. The German enjoys 
 the same privilege as the English, and with even greater freedom, 
 of putting at the head of the sentence any other member of it 
 than the subject — for the general purpose of attaining a eupho- 
 nious variety ; or, more often, in order to lay an emphatic stress 
 upon the member thus removed from its proper place. But, when 
 any part of the predicate is thus put in the place of the subject, 
 the latter is no longer allowed to stand before the verb, but is 
 put next after it instead. This is called the inversion of the sen- 
 tence. 
 
 Thus, in normal order, ein Sanbmann bro^te fetnen Mnbern ou8 ber 
 ©tobt fiinf ^firftd^e, 'a countryman brought his children from the cit^ 
 
208 coNSTEucnoiT of sentences. [431- 
 
 five peaches : ' — inverted, with no other change of meaning than as regards 
 emphasis, fiinf ^Pfttfic^e bta(fite ein Sanbmann feinen jftnberti au8 ber @tabt ; 
 or, again, au8 ber @tabt brai^te ein ?anbttiann feinen Sinbern fiinf '^Jftrft^e ; 
 or, feinen Sinbern brat^te ein Sanbmann oug ber ©tobt fiinf 5pftrficfie. 
 
 a. This arrangement is styled inverted, because, when the sentence con- 
 sists of only three members, its effect is completely to invert their regular 
 order: thus, er lieBt mid), 'he loves me: ' inverted, mxij liebt er ; er iff gut, 
 'he is good: ' inverted, gut iff er. In all cases, too, the term is appropriate 
 as denoting an inversion of the natural order of the two essential elements 
 of the sentence, the personal verb and its subject. 
 
 h. The same inverted order, as occasioned by the same cause, is in Eng- 
 lish sentences also more or less usual, only not imperative, except iu cer- 
 tain special phrases: thus, we say always "hardly had he gone, when . . .," 
 but cither " thus was it," or " thus it was; " and " slowly and sadly we laid 
 him down," but " few and short were the prayers we said." In such 
 phrases as "said I," "replied he," "added they," interjected in the midst 
 of a quotation of some one's words, the inversion (made alike in English, 
 German, and French) is best explained as falling under the principle here 
 stated, since the part of the words already quoted is logically the object of 
 the verb in the interjected phrase. 
 
 c. The only words (other than the subject) which are allowed to stand 
 at the head of the sentence without causing its inversion are the general 
 connectives (384), meaning 'and,' 'but,' 'for,' and 'either' or 'or.' Even 
 the co-ordinating adverbial conjunctions (385) invert the sentence in their 
 conjunctional use, as when proper adverbs. 
 
 d. As will appear below (438.3/), an adverbial clause, if placed at the 
 head of the sentence of which it forms a part, has the same inverting force 
 as a simple adverb. 
 
 Even an adjective phrase belonging appositively to the subject, if placed 
 at the head of the sentence, inverts it, being treated as if it were an aSverb- 
 ial adjunct of the predicate (as it often logically is so) : thus, etnflWeitcn be= 
 rul)tgt, jog nun ba8 §cer SKitofjoliS ttoriibev, 'being for the time tranquillized 
 (i e. since it was so), the army now marched past Nikopolis ; ' gart unb ebet 
 cntftJtoffen, tt)uci)8 bte Wnigli^e iBInme ^eraor, Hhe royal flower, having 
 tenderly and nobly sprung forth, continued to grow (i. e. after springing 
 forth).' 
 
 e. It is not usual, nor in good style, to remove to the head of the sentence 
 more than a single connected member of the predicate — which may, how- 
 ever, consist of any number of words: thus, not feinen Sinbern 0U8 ber 
 ©tobt ixaifit ein Sanbmann fiinf ^IJfirfidje ; —but bort, Winter biefen genfievn, 
 Sertrcinnit' ic^ belt erften Xxawm, ' yonder, behind those windows, I dreamed 
 my first dream;' je^t fd^netl, e^' bie SBvanbung tt)tebertel)rt, beficljit bet 
 3iingltng fid) @ott, 'now quickly, ere the surge returns, the youth commits 
 himself to God.' 
 
 /. The members of the predicate most often placed at the head of the 
 sentence for emphasis, with consequent inversion, are the object (direct, in- 
 direct, or remote), and the various adverbial adjuncts ; less often a predica- 
 tive adjunct (316) ; least often one of the non-personal parts of the verb. 
 No part of the predicate, however, is exempt from such treatment, and 
 even 
 
432] mVEETED OEDEE. 209 
 
 g. The personal verb itself is sometimes placed first in the sentence by 
 inversion, with the effect of emphasizing the predication — that is to say, of 
 strengthening the genefal force of the assertion made. In such an in- 
 version, the verb is usually followed by 'iifii), 'though; ' much less often by 
 JQ, ' surely : ' but neither of these particles is absolutely necessary. 
 
 Thus, ftnb boc^ ein wunberliifi 35olI bie SSSeiBer, ' surely women are a 
 strange race of beings I ' [)ob' id) bid) boc^ mein' Sage ntd)t gefeljen, 'surely I 
 never saw you in my life I ' 3a, fo fiiib pe ! fc^recEt fit alleS gieic^, roa8 etne 
 Sicfe ^atl 'Yes, that is the way with them! everything that has any 
 depth straightway terrifies them.' 
 
 h. In general, the inversion of the sentence affects the arrangement only 
 of the personal verb and its subject. If, however, the subject be a noun, 
 and there be a personal pronoun in the sentence as object of the verb, the 
 pronoun generally remains next the verb, and is put between it and the 
 subject. 
 
 Thus, bo Derlteg nttcft ber 5Konit @otte8 in tiefpm latoimen, 'then 
 the man of God left me in deep astonishment ; ' bonac^ f(I)tttiig \ t d) ber Sange 
 jitn fie beibe in etnen ^cetS, ' after that, the tall fellow twined himself round 
 about both of them.' ^ 
 
 The same thing is customary in the interrogative and the optative sen- 
 tence (432): thus, njte l)aben eui^ bie jd)biieit 2te))fe( gejdimectt, 'how did 
 the beautiful apples taste to you ? ' 6en)at)re b tc^ ber §tmine(, ' may Heaven 
 preserve thee 1 ' 
 
 A similar transfer of the pronoun from its proper place is usual also in 
 transposed clauses : see 439.1. 
 
 i. When, of two co-ordinate clauses following one another, the first is 
 inverted, the second usually retains its normal order, even though the 
 word or phrase which caused the inversion of the one logically forms a 
 part of the other also : thus, borauf blieb er fttjen, unb ic^ ging fort, ' there- 
 upon he remained sitting and I went away.' 
 
 432. Interrogative and Optative sentences. 
 
 1. In German, as in English, an interrogative sentence is or- 
 dinarily arranged in the inverted order, or with the subject after 
 the verb. In a direct question (one requiring " yes " or " no " 
 as an answer), the verb comes first of all ; in an indirect ques- 
 tion, the interrogative word (pronoun, pronominal adjective, or 
 particle), or phrase involving such a word, coraes first. 
 
 Thus, toirb bie junge @4o()fiing aiifpren, ' will the young creation 
 cease ? ' l)oIt fte tnic^ nii^t me^r, ' does it no longer confine me ? '— tno ift er, 
 'where is he?' h)08 fuc^t it)r, 'what seek ye?' Welches S3u^ ^at er gele» 
 fen, 'what book has he read?' mit Weffert (Selb l)Ot ev e8 geiouft, 'with 
 whose money has he bought it ? ' 
 
 a. "When the interrogative word or phrase is Itself the subject of the 
 verb, the sentence necessarily retains its normal order: thus, Wer ^ot mir 
 tai getl)an, ' who has done that to me ? ' Weffen S3ud) tiegt fjiet, ' whose 
 book lies here ? ' 
 
 J. Often, however (also as in English), a sentence is made interrogative 
 
210 CONSTEUCTION OF SEISTTENCES. [432- 
 
 by the tone with which it is uttered, whUe it has the constniction of an 
 assertive sentence: thus, tt)r fd)tBeigt? bie SRinge Wtrfen niir priitf ? 'yoU 
 are silent? the rings only work backward?' baS foil bie Sllttttiort jein auf 
 nteine ^ta^t ? ' that is to be the answer to my question ? ' 
 
 Often or usually, an interrogative sentence so constructed has a some- 
 what different force, implytag " is it possible that . . . I " or " do you mean 
 that . . . ? " or the like. 
 
 c. An exclamatory sentence sometimes has the interrogative form : thus, 
 tnie fd)on tji ber a^orgen 1 mie (djcint bie @otme jo warm uub tnilb ! ' how 
 beautiful the morning is I how warmly and gently the sun shines I ' 
 
 2. The optative or imperative sentence takes, as in English, 
 the inverted arrangement : that is to say, in the second persons, 
 singular and plural, of the imperative, and in the various per- 
 sons of the subjunctive used optatively or imperatively, the sub- 
 ject follows the verb, instead of preceding it. ' 
 
 Thus, j))tid) bu, unb h)tr Ijbren, ' do thou speak, and we hear; ' (ud^' @t 
 belt reblic^en ©eroinii, ' seek thou (lit. ' let him seek ') for honest gain ! ' 
 mijge nie bet Sag ci'fcl)einen, 'may that day never appear!' wore e« l)tet 
 nur nit^t jo buntel, ' w6uld that it only were not so dark here I ' ntoc^t' ou(^ 
 boc^ bie ganje SBelt un8 ^bren, ' would that even the whole world might hear 
 usi' bar' id) nie geboteit, '0 that I had never been born I' Compare 
 243.1, 331. 
 
 u. But in the third person singular of the present subjunctive, the subject 
 may also stand before the verb, and more frequently does so: thus, jicber 
 fomnic rate er ift, 'let each one come as he is.' 
 
 433. Conditional clauses. 
 
 A clause of a sentence is very often inverted in German to ex- 
 press the conditionality of a statement — that is, to add the 
 meaning of if. 
 
 Thus, ptte cr geriifen, jo pttctt fte t^n gefltttbcn, 'had he cried out (if he 
 had cried out), they would have found him; ' l)at Bon eud) jeber jetiten 9iing 
 Bon jeiltettt iSoter, ' if each of you has his ring from his father; ' er^ebet eili 
 ^wift ftd), ' if a quarrel arises ; ' l)at ber SBe'grobene f^on jtc^ et^oben, ' if tlie 
 buried one hath already arisen ; ' Iteg er un8 t)ter juriitf, ' if he left us behind 
 here.' 
 
 a. This mode of signifying the conditionality of a sentence is (as the 
 first example shows) not unusual also in EngUsh, in the past subjunctive 
 tense's had and were, in the conditional clause of a complete hypothetical 
 period (332.1); and it is not wholly unknown under other circumstances: 
 bnt in German the construction is a very common one, with all the differ- 
 ent tenses of verbs of every class. 
 
 b. The same construction is frequent in the conditional clause of an in- 
 complete hypothetical period, after an ol« representing the omitted con- 
 clusion (see 332.2i): thus, er be^nbelte fte, a(3 roareit fie jetne Uiitertl)a> 
 neii, ' he treated them as [he would treat them] if they ■were his own 
 subjects;' cr nidte mtt bem fiojjfe, q18 raotte er jageit: @(J)on red)t, 'he 
 uoddod his head, as if he meant to say " quite right I " ' 
 
436] TEAKSPOSED OEDEE. 211 
 
 c. Rarely, of two Buccesdlng conditional clauses, only the first is inverted : 
 thus, roor e8 bann SBtnter, unb ber @il)nee log rings um^er, 'if then it was 
 winter, and the snow lay about: ' compare 431.i. 
 
 transposed order of the sentence. 
 
 434. The two modes of arrangement heretofore explained 
 belong to independent or principal sentences or clauses (except- 
 ing only the inverted conditional clauses, treated in the last para- 
 graph). The German construction, however, is most peculiar in 
 that it has a special mode of arrangement for dependent (some- 
 times also called subordinate or accessory) clauses. In these, 
 namely, while the other members of the sentence remain in their 
 normal order, the personal verb is removed from its proper place 
 to the end of the clause. This removal is called transposition, 
 and the resulting arrangement is styled the transposed. 
 
 Thus, in normal order, ber Sag n e tg t ftc^ jU fetnem Snbe ; but, trans- 
 posed, mttfel^en, bog ber Eog ftc^ ju jeinem Enbe netgt, 'we see that the 
 day is drawing to its close ; ' — bte ®ontmerung B e r f) ii 11 1 tnte ein buf tiger 
 ©djleter bte §o^en unb Sljoter ; but, bie ©ommerung, tnetd^e hjte ein buftiger 
 ©djieier bte §bt)en unb Scaler B e r ^ ii It t, 'the twilight which envelopes 
 like a misty vail the heights and valleys ; ' — bie Sonne ^ a 1 1 e t^re S8ot)n 
 Botlenbct ; but, ol8 bie Sonne il^re SBofin BoUenbet I) a 1 1 e, ' when the sun 
 had finished its course.' 
 
 a. The name " transposed ovier or arrangement " is abbreviated, for the 
 sake of convenience, from "arrangement with transposed verb," which 
 would be more fuUy and truly descriptive. 
 
 435. Dependent clauses. 
 
 1. A dependent clause is one which enters, with the value of 
 a substantive, an adjective, or an adverb, into the structure of 
 some other clause. 
 
 2. Dependent clauses are of three Mnds, according to the parts 
 of speech which they represent — namely, substantive clauses, ad- 
 jective clauses, and adverbial clauses. 
 
 436. 1. A substantive dependent clause is one which has the 
 logical value and construction of a noun, 
 
 2. Such a clause is introduced by ba§, ' that,' ob, ' whether,' the 
 compound relative pronouns and pronominal adjective hjer, ItiaS, 
 and tBcIdjer (I'S)) or the compound relative conjunctions (386.2), 
 h)ie, toarni, luo and its compounds, etc. 
 
 3. A substantive clause stands in various constructions : thus, 
 a. As subject of a verb: as, b a fi cr bie ©efanbten befreite, iji jroar gut, 
 
 'that he has released the ambassadors, is, to be sure, well; ' lu onn bieje 
 
212 CONSTKUCTION OF SENTENCES. [436- 
 
 er|d|einung fi(5 S«tnig, tti e t d) e f raft ben gmBruifi befttmmte, ifi ticf in bag 
 ®un!el ber 3Sor;icit ge^iillt, ' when this event happened, what power deter- 
 mined the inroad, is deeply hidden in the darlcness of antiquity.' 
 
 h. As object of a verb: thus, fie ftagten, ob fie reii^t roiigtc, rter i^r 
 3Jfonn Wore, 'they asked whether she really knew who her husband was;' 
 id) njiU feljen, m o eS ticgt, ' I will see where it lies; ' nic^ts t(inn il)m ttiiebet 
 erfe^en, W o 8 er nerloren ^ot, ' nothing can make up to him what he has 
 lost.' 
 
 c. In apposition with a noun or its equivalent : thus, ntit bet @ntf(i^ufbi= 
 gung, b a 6 er jitm JEriege bcrcbet morben fei, 'with the excuse, that he had 
 been persuaded into the war; ' beg ®efm(e8, bag nic^tS im ?eben red)t ge= 
 fdjcilje, menn e8 bloj} gefdja^e, ' of the feeling, that nothing in life was done 
 properly, if it was just simply done ; ' — after C8, as preceding indefinite sub- 
 ject (164.4): thus, jftiEifetbaft bticb e8 je^t, me Id) en Seg man einfc^Iagen 
 folle, 'it remained doubtful. now, which road one was to take; ' — after other 
 neuter indefinites, pronominal and adjective (see 179.5): thus, aUem, ID a 8 
 ba b(iil)t, ' to everything that blossoms ; ' — explaining a preceding ba, that 
 represents the case of a relative pronoun governed by a preposition : thus, 
 bic8 trug o^tte 3'ueifet bap bei, bag nut biUtgeS Berlangt rourbe, ' this 
 doubtless contributed to the result that nothing unreasonable was de- 
 manded ; ' fte^ bai^te nur bat auf, m t e fte bie SUenfc^cn tn8 SBerberben loden 
 tijunte, 'she thought only of how she could entice men to destruction: ' see 
 below, d. 
 
 d. As governed by a preposition: thus, o^ne bag er ein @Ia8 ni)tl)ig 
 l)atte, ' without needing a glass ; ' ijarrct i^r, b i 8 bag ber red^te Sling ben 
 aihmb erbffne, ' are you waitmg till [the time that] the right ring shall open 
 its mouth?' auger wer feine-3)2itf(^ulbigen fetett, 'except whoever were his 
 accomplices.' 
 
 Only a few prepositions thus govern a substantive clause directly, and 
 some of these (377.1), the bay being omitted, have assumed the character 
 of conjunctions: thus, Bi8 bie glut^eii ftd) Derliefen, 'till the floods should 
 run out: ' — in general, if such a clause is to be placed under the govern- 
 ment of a preposition, it is anticipated by a ba in combination with the pre- 
 position, and itself follows, as if in apposition with the ba : see just above, c ; 
 and compare 346.2o. 
 
 e. As dependent on a noun: thus, bte8 waren bie §aupturfa(^cn, 
 bag fie nitgenb8 gteunbe fa^en ober gewannen, 'these were the chief rea- 
 sons [of the fact] that they nowhere found or made friends.' 
 
 /. A substantive clause not infrequently stands in dependence upon a 
 noun or a verb, by a pregnant construction, where a simple substantive 
 could not stand without a preposition, or even sometimes more than that, 
 to explain its relation to the noun or verb: thus, er erlag bem ®(^merje, 
 bag folc^ Ungtiid in feinen Sagen etntrate, 'he broke down under his grief 
 [at the fact] that such a misfortune should occur in his time ; ' ici^ banle 
 @ott, b ag id) meine @ol)ne h)tebcrgefunben l)obe, ' I thank God that I have 
 found my sons again ; ' forgf, b ag fte nic^t au8 nteiner itammcr tornmt, 
 ' take care that she does not leave my room.' 
 
 g. A conditional clause after al8 (compare 433.6) is sometimes used with 
 the value of a substantive clause: thus, bie anmutljige S:aujd)ung, a IB jet 
 e8 bie etgcne Eyiftenj, bie in alien biefeit ?Inl)cingen mitfd)n)ebt, ' the pleasing 
 illusion that (lit. ' as if) it is our own personality which floats in tdl these 
 appendages.' 
 
438] ADJECnVB OLATTSE. 213 
 
 437. 1. An adjective dependent clause is one which belongs 
 to and qualifies a noun. 
 
 2. Such a clause is introduced by a relative pronoun, ber or 
 toelc^er (or a prepositional phrase containing such), or by a rela- 
 tive conjunction — namely, the compounds of ba and too with pre- 
 positions or with adverbs of direction, and the simple conjunctions 
 h)0, toenn, irann, ba, ate, tuie (compare 386.3). 
 
 Thus, ein SBunfc^, ben auc^ icf) in tneinen aiingltngsja^ren Batte, ' a wish 
 which I also had in the years of my youth ; ' ba8 einijige Syfnljrcqen, tt) e ( c^ E 8 
 cr geprti^otte unb p etjo^len h)u|te, 'the only story which he had heard 
 and knew how to tell;' ben SKenJi^m, filr beffen SBertI)etbigung tl)re 
 ©tammboter tampften, 'man, for whose defense their ancestors' fought; ' 
 t^r Ouetten, bat) in bie xotXtt S3ruft |tc^ brangt, 'ye fountains toward which 
 the drooping breast presses; ' etnen Sertrag, tnonac^ bie ®rie:^en einen 
 friebltc^en ©urc^jug ertaubtcn, ' a compact, by which the Greeks permitted 
 a peaceable transit;' bogSanb, too ber SBrunnquell beS ©(aubenS entfprang, 
 'the land where the fountain of faith first sprang up;' in ber SRegenjeit, 
 iDenn ba« ®eUa itber|d)raemmt ift, 'in the rainy season, when the delta is 
 inundated.' 
 
 a. Any simple quahfying adjective may be converted by means of a rela- 
 tive pronoun into an adjective clause : thus, ber gnte 5ffiann, ' the good man,' 
 into ber ajjnnn, Weldjer gut ift, ' the man who is good : ' — and, on the other 
 hand, the German often puts into the form of an attributive adjective (espe- 
 cially a participle), with modifying adjuncts, what we more naturally ex- 
 press in Enghsh by an adjective clause : thus, et beftegte bie ju unBorfidjtig 
 iinb in etnjelnen 2lbt()eitungen oorbringenben Stormannen, ' he vanquished 
 the Normans, who were pressing on too incautiously and in isolated divi- 
 sions.' 
 
 The order of the parts of such a compound adjective is the same with 
 that of an adjective clause : thus, bie 9Jormannen, weli^e ju unOorfti^tig unb 
 in eiiiselnen ^btf)eilnngen oorbrangen. 
 
 b. The German not infrequently uses an independent clause, introduced 
 by a demonstrative pronoun, where our idiom requires an adjective clause, 
 with a relative: thus, ba ift einer, ber fann me^r ats tc^, 'there is one — he 
 can do more than I' (for b er me^r al8 ti^ lann, ^wTio can do more than I'). 
 The difference of arrangement shows plainly enough what such a clause 
 literally means. 
 
 c. An adjective clause is often employed, as in English, not so much to 
 describe or qualify a noun, as to add to the sentence, in a more intimate 
 way than by a simple connective, something relating to a noun : thus, bie 
 itationate Setbenfi^aft hjoffitete ftd) gegen tl)n ; ber eruntcrtag, nad^bem . . . , 
 ' the national passion armed itself against him ; to which he succumbed, 
 after . . . '—instead of nnb biefer iinterlag er, 'and to this he succumbed.' 
 Or, what has logically a different value, as of a ground or reason, is cast 
 into the shape of a descriptive clause: thus, be«l)o(b befc^tog ber i?atfer, 
 bem bavan lag, fdjneff ;iit feinent ®ol)ne ^^u tommen, ' accordingly the em- 
 peror, who was desirous of getting quickly to his son, resolved . . . ' — in- 
 stead of ba eg tljm baran tag, ' since he was desirous.' 
 
 438. 1. An adverbial dependent clause is one which performs 
 
214 CONSTEUOTION OF SENTENCES. [438 
 
 the part of an adverb, by qualifying a verb, an adjective, or an- 
 other adverb. 
 
 2. It is introduced by one of the subordinating conjunctions 
 mentioned and classified above, under Conjunctions (386.4). 
 
 3. a. An adverbial clause, in most cases, qualifies a verb. 
 
 Thus, as adverb of place, W o in ber SBtftnt^ oUeS fc^wieg, Demount id^ bai 
 Oetaute roieber, ' where In the wilderness all was silent, I heard the pealing 
 again ; ' — of time, a 1 8 nun tie SfJtotgenbommerimg begann, bcriif)rte Eloa^ ben 
 ©c^Iummernben, ' when now the morning twilight began, Bloah touched the 
 slumberer; ' el)' e8 jlDolf fdjlug, jogcn fie (Die Border, 'before it struck twelve, 
 they sat as before ; — of manner, bu magft alleS fdjaucn, It) i e id^ bit gefagt 
 babe, ' thou mayest behold everything as I have told it thee ; ' e8 ra|d)elt nut 
 ben Steften, bag inein ©out toll rairb, ' it rustles with the branches in such 
 wise that my horse becomes frantic;' — of cause, id) btieb unt fie, meit fie 
 freunblic^ gcgsn mid^ trar, ' I hung about her, because she was friendly 
 toward me;'— of purpose, ber mug mitgeljen, bant it mir ben {fcflen lt)eg» 
 f d)Off en, ' he must go along, in order that we may get the rock out of the 
 -vfa.y;'— of condition, tt) e n n bu tnir bienen IDtllft, jo tontm mtt, 'if you would 
 like to serve me, then come along ; ' o b g 1 e i c^ fte tbm nalje Waren, !onnten 
 fie il)n boi^ nic^t erblirten, ' although they were near him, they yet could not 
 espy him ; ' — of degree, j e beiger e8 tft, befto mebr frier' ii), ' the hotter it is 
 (in proportion as it is hotter), so much the colder am I.' 
 
 b. An adverbial clause qualifying an adjective is usually one of degree or 
 manner, introduced by Wie or al8, 'as' or 'than,' or by fo bag: thus, fold^e 
 SBebtngungen, mte cr fie t)orjufd)(agen geroagt t|at, ' such conditions as he 
 hag dared to propose ; ' ctn @tnb, let(^t umfagt, fo bag feine Semcgungen 
 eintgeu ©ptetraunt babEH/ ' ^ staff lightly grasped, so that its movements 
 have some play; ' id) ^abe fo beQe Stugen bag ii^ burc^ bie ganje SBett fe^en 
 fann, ' I have so dear eyes that I can see through the whole world ; ' baS 
 iff beffer, al8 ic^ Bon t^m ermartet ^atte, 'that is better than I had expected 
 of him.' 
 
 Where a fo is present, it strictly qualifies the adjective as an adverb, and 
 is itself qualified by the adverbial clause. 
 
 c. An adverbial clause qualifying an adverb is for the most part either 
 introduced by bag as correlative to fo, or it follows a demonstrative adverb 
 of the same kind with that by which it is itself introduced, and correlative 
 to the latter : thus, fie I)ob bn8 eine 93ein f o ^od) emtjor, bag cr e8 bureaus 
 nid)t ftnben tonnte, 'she hfted one. leg so high up that he could not finl it 
 at all; ' er tonnte fd)on b a, mo bie SSriicfe auft|ovte, ben ^cUen Sag erbttcten, 
 ' he could already see the bright day at the point where the bridge ended ; ' 
 nur barum, Weil eine @eele »orl)onben iff, 'only for the reason that asoul 
 is present ; ' er fpottcte bcr 3bee lib erall, Wo fte nid)t feineS @inne8 mnr, 
 ' he mocked at ideas in all oases in which they were not of his way of think- 
 ing;' ic^ tann fie crft bann fletteu, wenn bie @ricd)m anbere au8tiefetit, 
 ' I can only furnish them at the time when the Oreeks deliver up others.' 
 
 In the latter class of cases, the preceding adverb is often superfiuous, and 
 the adverbial cause logically qualifies the verb. 
 
 d. Out of the frequent use of fo with a following adverb in the principal 
 clause, and limited by a succeeding adverbial clause introduced by al6 — for 
 
438] ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 215 
 
 example, er ifl f o Balb gctommen, a,l8 id^ i^n rtcf, 'he came as soon as I 
 called him ' — has grown a very common construction in which the adverbial 
 clause is itself introduced by jo and the adverb (often combined into one 
 word), and the ats is usually omitted: thus, in 2tfrita, fomeit TOtr e3 
 fenncn, ' in Africa, so far as we know it ; ' j o b o t b ber SJienfdj fi4 bem ®ru(f e 
 ber augcrftetrS'lot^ entmunbcn I)at; ' as soon as man has relieved himself 
 of the pressure of extreme need:' fo long' etn 3lug' noE^ meinen, etn 
 §er3 noi) btei^en fann, jo tange raattt auf @rben bie Oott'tn ipoefte, ' so long 
 OS an eye can yet weep, a heart yet break — so long walks upon earth the 
 goddess Poetry.' 
 
 e. A similar construction is sometimes made with an adjective instead 
 of an adverb after fo : thus, abcr jo gro^en 5Rut)m btejer ©teg oud) ben 
 $tlgern brad^te, 'but, great as was the fame this victory brought to the 
 pilgrims,' or ' however great fame this victory brought,' etc. — literally, ' so 
 great fame as it even brought.' 
 
 In both these classes of cases, the implication of the omitted at? is 
 clearly shown by the transposed arrangement of the clause ; and they are 
 thus readily distinguished from the cases where jobalb, fo lange, etc., have 
 simply their literal meaning. 
 
 /. If an adverbial clause, or an inverted conditional clause (433), be put 
 at the head of the sentence, the principal clause takes the inverted ar- 
 rangement, just as after a simple adverb (431) : thus, w i e er bo8 prte, ftanb 
 er auf, ' when he heard that, he arose ; ' w e n n bte ©raSbede in ©tnub jerf at= 
 len ift^afit ber ertjSrtete SBoben auf, 'when the covering of grass has fal- 
 len into dust, the hardened earth cleaves open ; ' el) e fte jur SHotur juriicEs 
 !ef)rt, tommtfte jur SJJanier, 'before it returns to nature, it becomes man- 
 nerism ; ' >n eil mir bieg feljr mipe^ogte, banlte tc^ iljm gonj turg, ' as this 
 was very disagreeable to me, I thanked him quite curtly.' 
 
 g. After a prefixed adverbial clause, the principal clause is very often in- 
 troduced by a particle — jo, bo, orthe like ; especially jo — correlative to the con- 
 junction of the former, and rendering easier the inversion : thus, m e n n bo8 ift, 
 jo tann ic^ bic^ brouii^en, 'if thatis'the case, (then) I can make use of you;'' 
 ol8 er bte §anb juriidjog, b a ^ob fic!^ bie ©ct)olIe, 'when he withdrew his 
 hand, (then) the clod rose.' — A jo stands in like manner as correlative to 
 the implied Inenn, 'if,! of an inverted conditional clause: thus, fonn tnS) 
 bo8 nii^en, jo mill td^ eud^ gevn btenen, 'if that can help you, (then) I will 
 gladly serve you.' 
 
 And the inversion of the principal clause comes so to depend in ap- 
 pearance upon the correlative particle, that, when the particle is omitted, 
 the clause not very infrequently retains (improperly) its normal order : thus, 
 l)otte tt ben grtcben gett)iinjci)t, es Wore jcinem SRett^e Bort^eil^oft gettiefen 
 (for Ware e8, or fo more eg), ' had he wished peace, it would have been ad- 
 vantageous to his realm.' 
 
 h. An independent clause is often employed in German where ouij 
 usage requires a dependent adverbial clause. Thus, for example, always 
 in a dause after one containing toum, 'hardly: ' as, tautn XottX ber SJater 
 tobt, f tommt ein ieber rait fetnem 9Jtng, ' hardly was the father dead, 
 wlim (lit., ' then ') each one comes with his ring.' 
 
 i. An adverbial clause, like an adjective clause (437.c), is sometimes made 
 use of to add something to the sentence — thus, bod) fitiinbevten einige au8 Ue» 
 btrmutl); ra c 8 ^ o I b bie 3uf"^i^ oufprte unb ajlongcl entftanb, ' yet some, out 
 
216 CONSTEirCTION OF SENTENCES. [438- 
 
 of wautonuess, committed pillage : on, which account the supply C6ased,and 
 want arose ' — or to make an antithesis— thus, ttJiiI)renbbo8 5£f)ier [etne 9Ja^ 
 rung gu jebcr 3eit unb an jebem Dttc tterjd)tingt, bereitct bcr SWenfc^ feine 3)to^I» 
 jettcn, ' whUo the lower animals swallow down their food at any time and 
 in any place, man prepares his meals at definite times ' — or for other pur- 
 poses not wholly accordant with the office of a simple adverb. 
 
 439. Additional rules respecting dependent clauses in general. 
 
 1. In the transposed, as in the inverted (431.A) order of the sentence, 
 a personal pronoun as object of the verb not infrequently stands before the 
 subject: thus, bafiir,baJ3 t^nen biedjrtftlic^enfflird^eu in *Palaftina eingeroumt 
 roerben joUten, ' on condition that the Christian churches in Palestine 
 should be placed in their possession ; ' etn Sanb, luo i i i) oUeS in i^iittc oors 
 fiubet, '5 land where everything is found in abundance; ' obgieic^ il)itt 
 cin @tctn mel)re }^a.\)nt auSfdjhig, ' although a stone struck out several of 
 his teeth.' 
 
 2. When a clause ends with two (or more) infiuitives, the transposed 
 verb is not allowed to be put after them, but is placed instead next before 
 them : thus, etn (Scfcig, baa nur licbtic^E SBIumen in feinen @c^od6 ^ a 1 1 e 
 nufueljmen foUen, 'a vessel that should have taken into its i)Osom only 
 lovely flowers ; ' benn tl)r mifjt, bng il)r nnc^ I) a B t ermorben loffcn tnottcn, 
 ' for you know that you have wanted to have me murdered. ' 
 
 By imitation of this construction, the transposed verb is also sometimes 
 placed before, instead of after, a participle and infinitive. 
 
 s. a. An exclamation often has the transposed arrangement, as of a de- 
 pendent clause : thus, ttier mit t\xi) tnanberte, ' if one could but go with 
 you I (lit. ' [how happy he] who should ' etc) : ttiie EV fid) ttitnbet, ' how 
 he twists himself I ' toie bie Sffienfiiien bod) (o gut ftnb, 'how kind people are, 
 to be sure 1 ' 
 
 6. A question may be asked in the same manner: thus, oB fie tno^t 
 I)orc^t, ' [I wonder] whether she is perhaps listening? ' unb Xaai bann Woljl 
 gefd)te^t, ' and what is going to happen then ? ' 
 
 4. "Wliether a dependent clause shall be placed within the framework of 
 the one upon which it depends, or outside that framework, is determined 
 mainly by rhetorical or euphonic considerations : but it is much more usu- 
 ally placed outside : thus, bag ollevcrfte, Was fie in biefer 3&tii l)brten, a(8 
 bev ®ec£cl Bon ber @c^ad)tel genommen wurDc, in bet fie logen, tnar bas 
 SBort : „3i'infolbaten !" 'the very first thing that they heard in this world, 
 when the cover was taken from the box in which they lay, was the word 
 " tin soldiers ! " ' — not tt)08 fie in biefei: SBett, al8 ber 2>ede( Bon ber @c£|ad)tel, 
 in ber fie lagen, genommen lourbe, l)brten, which would be excessively awk- 
 ward. But, as the example shows, clauses qualifying the subject of a sen- 
 tence are regularly brought in before the predicate — unless, as is often 
 done, the principal clause is inverted : thus, am @nbe bcSfetben crl)ob fi(^ em 
 S8erg, n)eld)en §er;ion jjriebrid) mit bent SSorberjnge vafrf) l)tuanjog, niot)renb 
 bnS ©cpiicf unb bcr Waijer mit beiu 5fJad)jugc juriiabHeb, ' at the end of this 
 arose a hill, which duke Frederick quickly ascended with the van, while 
 the baggiige and the emperor staid behind with the rear-guard.' 
 
 5. In general, no sentence in German takes the transposed arrangement, 
 as a dependent clause, unless it be grammatically as well as logically de- 
 pondeut — that is to say, unless it be introduced by a word (conjunction or 
 
441J DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 217 
 
 relative pronoun) whiqh gives It distinctly and formally a dependent char- 
 acter. Many a clause is logically dependent (especially as a substantive 
 clause) without being so formally : thus, ic^ bac^te, e8 Wore um bcfto gottIi= 
 c^er (or, b a 6 68 um befto gottlie^er ttfire), ' I should think it was so much 
 the more divine ' (or, ' that it was ' etc.). 
 
 Exceptions are 
 
 a. A clause following another dependent clause, and implying the same 
 subordinating word by which the former was introduced : thus, ^iejll lont, 
 bag bie SBnige Son ©icitien tnit §oftanten faini)fen mugten, ber JJorben ju 
 fern lag, unb @))anien ftd^ laum ber na^eren getnbe ermetiren lotinte, ' to this 
 was added, that the kings of Sicily had to contend with court intrigues, 
 [that] the north lay too far away, and [that] Spain could hardly defend her- 
 self against nearer enemies.' 
 
 J. The cases explained above (438.3d,e), where al8 is omitted after jo 
 followed by an adverb or adjective. 
 
 c. A number of words (adverbs, prepositions, and so on) which were 
 formerly construed with substantive clauses introduced by bo6, 'that' — or, in 
 part, are sometimes still so construed — have now won the character of con- 
 junctions, and themselves introduce a dependent clause directly, the bog 
 being omitted : thus, bt8, ' until ' (for Bt8 bog, ' as far as the time that ') ; 
 ungeoc^tet, 'although' (for ungead^tet bog, 'it bemg disregarded that'); 
 nun, ' now ' (for nun bag, ' now that '), .and others : compare 377.1. 
 
 d. It may be remarked here that an inverted conditional clause (433) is 
 really a dependent clause, both logically and formally — as much so as if it 
 were introduced by menn, 'if,' and had the transposed order of arrange- 
 ment; only its dependence is shown in another and peculiar manner. 
 
 Sv/mma/ry of the Rules of Arra/ngement. 
 
 440. For the convenience of both teacher and learner, the leading 
 rules respecting the arrangement of clauses, those which it is most import- 
 ant to commit to memory and keep constantly ready for application, are 
 presented below in summary. 
 
 441. 1. There are three modes of arranging the sentence in 
 German : 
 
 a. The normal, or regular ; 
 
 b. The inverted ; 
 
 c. The transposed. 
 
 2. The first two belong to independent clauses, the third to de- 
 pendent. 
 
 3. Their character is determined by the position of the simple 
 predicate, or the personal verb : 
 
 a. In the moj-jwoZ arrangement, the personal verb immediately 
 follows the subject ; 
 
 h. In the inverted arrangement, it precedes the subject , 
 
 10 
 
218 CONSTEUCTION OF SENTENCES. [441- 
 
 c. In the transposed arrangement, it is at the end of the clause. 
 
 442. The order of the normal sentence is 
 
 1. The subject; 
 
 2. The simple predicate, or personal verb ; 
 
 3. The various modifying adjuncts of the predicate, as objects, 
 adverbs, predicate noun or adjective ; 
 
 4. Finally, the non-personal part of the verb (if there be one) 
 — namely, prefix, participle, or infinitive : and, if more than one 
 be present, they follow one another in their order as here men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Among the modifying adjuncts of the predicate, standing after 
 the personal verb, or between it and the non-personal part of the 
 verb, ' 
 
 a. A personal pronoun directly dependent on the verb regu- 
 larly comes first; 
 
 b. An accusative object precedes a genitive, and more usually 
 follows a dative ; 
 
 c. An adverb of time ordinarily comes before one of place, 
 and both before one of manner ; 
 
 d. A predicate noun or adjective, especially a factitive predi- 
 cate, usually comes last. 
 
 More special rules would be too liable to exceptions to be worth giving. 
 Examples of a normally arranged sentence : 
 
 1. 2. S. 4. 
 
 er ]d)idt ; 
 
 a ]iiidt bas S5u(^ ; 
 
 er l^at nttr ba8 S3ud^ gelc^tdt ; 
 
 mein greunb Wirb mir ba8 iBui^ Balb m(t\ §oufe juriidgefi^iclt l)aBen : 
 that is, 'be sends;' 'be sends the book;' 'he has sent me the book;' 
 ' my friend wiU soon have sent the book back home to me.' 
 
 443. The order of the inverted sentence is the same with 
 that of the normal sentence, except that the subject comes next 
 after the personal verb, instead of next before. 
 
 The inverted order is followed 
 
 1. When any part or adjunct of the predicate is put in the 
 place of the subject, at the head of the sentence ; 
 
 2. Earely, for impressiveness ; with the personal verb firsts 
 and usually with bo^ or jo, ' surely,' somewhere after it ; 
 
444] EULES OF AEEANGEMENT. 219 
 
 3. In interrogative sentences, or when a question is asted ; 
 
 4. In optative or imperative sentences — that is, when a com- 
 mand pr desire is expressed ; 
 
 5. Often in conditional sentences, or to give the meaning of if. 
 
 Special rules, a. The general connectives, meaning ' and,' 
 * but,' ' for,' or ' or,' are the only words which, save in rare and ex- 
 ceptional cases, are allowed to precede the subject without invert- 
 ing the sentence. 
 
 h. In an inverted sentence, a personal pronoun as object is 
 often put before the subject. 
 
 Examples of inverted sentences: 
 
 1. tntr l)at er ba9 Sud^ ge|c^tift ; 
 8a8 ^ni) ^at ettnir gefc^idt ; 
 gejdjicit ^ot er tntr baS ^n&i : 
 
 that is, ' he has sent me the book ' — with varying emphasis, first on ' me,' 
 then on ' the book,' last on ' sent.' 
 
 2. ^at er ttitt boi^ ba8 SSuc^ gefc^td t : 
 that is, ' surely he has sent me the book.' 
 
 3. I^at er tttir baS S3u4 gcjd^tdt? 
 >t)o8 %a.t er tittr gefc^tdt? • 
 inent t)ot er bo8 SBud^ gefd^td t ? 
 
 that is, ' has he sent me the book ? ' ' what has he sent me ? ' 'to whom 
 has he sent the book? ' 
 
 4. fc^ide er tntr baS 35ud^ I 
 
 that is, 'let him send me the book I ' 
 
 6. fd^tdt er tttir bo9 ©u(^, |o t^ut er njo'^t : 
 that is, ' if he sends me the book, he does well.' 
 
 6. l)at tttir tttetit greuttb bo8 ^ni) gefi^tdt ? 
 that is, ' has my friend sent me the book ? ' 
 
 444. The order of the transposed clause is the same with 
 that of the normal sentence, except that the personal verb is 
 removed from its proper place to the very end of the clause. 
 
 The transposed order is followed in dependent clauses — ^that 
 is to say, in such as, being introduced by a subordinating word 
 (relative pronoun or conjunction), are made to enter as members 
 into the structure of some other clause. 
 
 Such a clause has the value either of a noun, an adjective, or 
 an adverb, and is accordingly reckoned as a substantive, adjective, 
 or adverbial dependent clause. 
 
 1. A substantive dependent clause is either the subject or ob- 
 
220 coisrsTEuoTTOir of sentences. [444- 
 
 ject of a verb, or in apposition with or dependent upon a noun, 
 or governed by a preposition. 
 
 It is introduced by bo|, ' that,' 06, ' whether,' or a compound 
 relative pronoun or particle. 
 
 Example of a substantive dependent clause (objective) : 
 
 id) weig, ba% er mtr bo8 iBui^ gefii^idt \)at : 
 that is, ' I know that he has sent me the book.' 
 
 2. An adjective dependent clause belongs to and qualifies a noun. 
 It is introduced by a relative pronoun or a relative particle. 
 Example of an adjective dependent olauae : 
 
 bo8 S3u(^, tt)etci)E8 er mtr gefci^ictt l)at : 
 that is, ' the book which he has sent to me.' 
 
 3. An adverbial dependent clause qualifies usually a verb, some- 
 times an adjective or an adverb. 
 
 It is introduced by a subordinating conjunction of place, time, 
 manner, cause, purpose, condition, or degree. 
 
 Examples of an adverbial dependent dause : 
 
 als er tnir baS SBud^ fc^idte ; 
 
 wenn er tnir ba8 ®uc^ gefd^tdt 'i)at : 
 that is, ' when he sent me the book ; ' ' if he has sent me the book.' 
 
 Special rules, a. lu a transposed sentence, a personal pro- 
 noun as object is sometimes put before the subject (if the latter 
 be a noun). 
 
 6. If the sentence ends with more than one infinitive, the 
 transposed verb is put next before instead of after them. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 a. ob mtr metn greunb ba8 SSut^ gefc^iit l^at ; 
 
 6. Weil er mir ba8 Sud^ nit^t ^at {i^itfen hiotten : 
 
 that is, 'whether my friend has sent me the book; ' 'because he has not 
 wanted to send me the book.' 
 
 Concluding Hemarks. 
 
 445. It must not be supposed that the rules of arrangement, as 
 drawn out in the preceding pages, are always and everywhere strictly 
 observed, even in prose. The demands of euphony, the suggestions of 
 style, even sometimes the arbitrary and unexplainable choice of a writer, 
 lead to their not infrequent violation. A few cases of such violation, of 
 sufficiently prevalent occurrence to constitute exceptional classes, have 
 been pointed out above | but to show iu detail the different degree of obli- 
 gatory force belonging to the different rules, and how and under what 
 circumstances their neglect is permitted, would require a treatise. 
 
448] EHETOEIOAL C0N8TEFCTI01T. 221 
 
 446. The construction of sentences has been taken up and treated 
 here only on its grammatical aide. To treat it on its rhetorical or stylistic 
 side — to explain how and to what extent clauses may be put together so 
 as to form admissible or harmonious sentences and periods — is not the duty of 
 a grammar. There is, in theory, no limitation to the expansion of a simple 
 sentence ; for both its subject and predicate may involve a variety of mo- 
 difying adjuncts in the shape of words, phrases, and clauses; and each' part 
 of these clauses may take on further clauses as adjuncts — and so on, ad 
 mfinitum. The usages of the language, gradually estabhshed under the in- 
 fluence of a regard for euphony and for convenient intelligibility, practi- 
 cally set bounds to this indefinite expansion. But the bounds are very 
 differently drawn in different styles of composition, in every language; 
 and the variety in German is notably greater than in most other languages. 
 Between the style of simple narration, and that excessive involution and 
 intricacy in which many German writers love to indulge, there is an im- 
 mense interval. It is, because poetry is intolerant of involved periods that 
 German poetry is, upon the whole, decidedly easier to the learner than 
 German prose. No one, of course, can put together German periods 
 which shall be tolerable — much less, elegant — after study of the rules of 
 construction in a grammar : JjamUiarity with the language as spoken and 
 written, the acquisition of what seems an instinctive feeling for the har- 
 mony of construction, but is in fact an educated habit, the product of much 
 reading and hearing, can alone enable one to compose such sentences as 
 Germans compose. 
 
 RELATION OF GERMAN TO ENGLISH. 
 
 447. 1. A part, and the most essential part, of our English 
 language — ^namely, that derived from the Anglo-Saxon — is of near 
 kindred with the German. 
 
 a. That other and very important part of our language which is more 
 directly akin with the French and Latin was brought in and grafted upon 
 the Anglo-Saxon in consequence of the conquest of England by the Nor- 
 mans, in the 11th century. The Normans were of Germanic (Scandinavian) 
 race, though they had been settled in France long enough to have substi- 
 tuted the French language for their own. Thus our Germanic blood is purer 
 from intermixture than our Germanic speech. 
 
 2. This part akin with German includes, along with the most fre- 
 quently used and familiar words in our vocabulary, nearly the whole of the 
 grammatical appairalms of English — that is to say, all its endings of inflection 
 (393), most of its endings of derivation, its sufBxes and prefixes (394-5), 
 and the larger part of its indeclinable particles, or words of relation. 
 
 448. Kindred in language, as elsewhere, implies descent 
 from a common ancestor : the English and German are modem 
 dialects of one original language. 
 
 a. That is to say, there was a time when the forefathers of the English- 
 speakers and those of the German-speakers formed together a single com- 
 munity, of uniform speech. By its division, under historical causes, into 
 
222 EELATION OF GERMAN TO ENGLISH. [448- 
 
 separate and independent communities, and by the consequently discordant 
 changes which these communities have wrought each upon its own speech, 
 the various dialects now spoken have gradually come to exhibit the differ- 
 ences which characterize them. (See, for the causes affecting the growth 
 of dialects, the author's " Language and the Study of Language," p. 153 etc.) 
 b. Thus, the Englishman and the German both use the words sirui, sang 
 (frag', fang) in the same sense, because each has received them with this 
 sense by uninterrupted tradition — going down from father to son just as 
 language goes nowadays — from ancestors who lived together and differed 
 in then- talk no more than we ourselves and our immediate neighbors. 
 Thus, on the other hand, the one says slm, slew, and the other fii^tog', 
 fd^lug ('strike, struck') — words originally identical in pronunciation and 
 meaning, though now different in both — ^because these words have, in the 
 course of their tradition, become differently altered in the one and the 
 other line, in the same manner as words are altered nowadays. 
 
 449. The English and German are joint members of a group 
 or sub-family of dialects called the gbrmanio (often also "Teu- 
 tonic"); which, again, is a member of a larger family, called 
 the iNDO-BUEOPBAN (aJso " Indo-Germanic," "Japhetic," or 
 "Aryan"). 
 
 450. The Indo-European family includes most of the lan- 
 guages of Europe and southwestern Asia. Its divisions are 
 
 1. The Germanic (451) ; 
 
 2. The Slavic (Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Servian, etc.) and 
 Lithuanic ; 
 
 3. The Celtic (Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, etc.) ; 
 
 4. The Italic (Latin, etc. ; and, as modem representatives of 
 the Latin, the Italian, French, Spanish, etc.) ; 
 
 5. The Greek (ancient and modern) ; 
 
 6. The Persian (Zend, Modern Persian, etc.) ; 
 
 7. The Indian (ancient Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit ; modern Hindi," 
 Bengali, Marathi, etc.). 
 
 a. The resemblances and differences of these languages are of the same 
 kind with those of the English and German, and due to the same causes. 
 If, where we say six and the German fed)8, the ancient Eoman said sex, the 
 ancient Greek hex, the ancient Hindu shash, and so on, it is all for the same 
 reason for which the Germans and we say siiig and sang (above, 448.6). 
 Only, in this wider family, of races whose separation is much more ancient, 
 the remaining correspondences are proportionaDy fewer and less conspicu- 
 ous, the discordances more numerous and deeper. 
 
 6. Although relationships for the languages here named have been sur- 
 mised, and are often claimed, on a yet wider scale (for example, vdth the 
 Hebrew and the other "Semitic" languages), they have not been demon- 
 
452] GEEMAOTO BEAITCH OF INDO-EUEOPEAH FAMlLT. 223 
 
 Btrated. See, for the Indo-European family in general and in particular, tlie 
 author's " Language and the Study of Language," p. 186 etc. 
 
 451. The divisions of the Germanic branch of this great 
 family are as follows : 
 
 1. The Low-German, occupying the lo-wlands of northern Germany. 
 To this division belong — ^the English, as modem representative of the Anglo- 
 Saxon, which was carried into England, and made to displace the Celtic, 
 by the invading tribes from the northern shores of Germany, in the fifth 
 century ; the Dutch, or literary language of the Netherlands ; the ancient 
 Somm and Frisian, no longS- cultivated; and the various dialects now 
 spoken among the people in northern Germany, whose literary language Is 
 the cultivated High -German, or " German." 
 
 2. Tlie High-German, occupying central and southern Germany. The 
 only existing cultivated dialect of this division is the one which we know 
 as " the German " language ; its history will be given with a little more 
 fulness farther on (462 etc.). 
 
 3. The Scandinavian, occupying the peninsulas of Denmark and Sweden 
 and Norway, with the island of Iceland (colonized from Norway in the 
 ninth century). Its languages are the ancient Icelandic or Old Norse, and 
 the modem Norwegia/n, Swedish, and Da/nish. 
 
 These are aU the divisions represented by existing languages. Besides 
 them, however, is to be noticed 
 
 4. The Gothic, represented by parts of a Gothic version of the Bible 
 made in the fourth century of our era in the dialect of the Goths of Moesia 
 (generally called, therefore, the Mceso-Gothio), by their bishop Dlfllas. Of 
 all the extant monuments of (Jermanic language, this is by two or three 
 centuries the oldest, and therefore of the highest value in all inquiries into 
 the history of the whole Germanic family of languages. 
 
 452. 1. The more immediate connection of English is thus 
 seen to be with the Low-German languages ; but its relation to 
 the German is very near, as compared with that to the other Eu- 
 ropean tongues, and the correspondences of word, grammatical 
 form, and meaning, between the two are numerous and striking. 
 
 2. These correspondences — beside their intrinsic interest, and 
 their value as historical evidences bearing upon the development 
 of both languages, the relations of the races spealdng them, and 
 the growth of ideas and institutions among those races — have 
 also a practical value, as a help to the scholar to whose attention 
 they are brought in retaining the meaning of the German words 
 he is endeavoring to learni 
 
 3. It is the proper duty of a German-English dictionary to point out in 
 detail the English words which are to be regarded as identical, or of kindred 
 
224 • EELATION OF GEEMAIT TO ENGLISH. .[452- 
 
 elemeuts, with German words (a duty sought to be fulfilled in the vocabu- 
 lary to the author's German Reader). But no small part of the correspond- 
 ences are readily to be discovered lay the scholar himself, especially if his 
 researches are guided at first by a judicious and enlightened teacher. 
 
 4. The varieties of difierence, both of form and meaning, which distin- 
 guish German words from their English correspondents, are much too great 
 to allow of their being set forth here. To exhibit with fulness even the 
 more important among them, and explain their reasons (so far as these ad- 
 mit of explanation), would be the work of a professed comparative gram- 
 mar of the Germanic languages. There is, however, one set of differences 
 which are so regular in their occurrence, and which are of such prime im- 
 portance for one who undertakes to compare G«rman words with English, 
 that they may not be passed without notice. 
 
 The Law of Progression of Mutes. 
 
 453. The law of progression of mutes (in German, the !S?aut= 
 tierfd)ie6ung, ' pushing of sounds out of place : ' generally called 
 " Grimm's Law," after the great German grammarian Jacob 
 Grimm, who was the first clearly to illustrate and establish it) is 
 one of the most striking and characteristic features of the whole 
 body of Germanic languages, afiecting the original mutes of those 
 languages with a regular but intricate system of changes. 
 
 454. The original mute letters of the Indo-European langua- 
 ges are nine in number, and of three classes — lingual or i-mutes, 
 palatal or A-mutes, and lahial or ^-mutes : each class containing 
 a surd mute (t, h, p), an aspirate {th, Jch, ph — more originally 
 dh, gh, bh), and a sonant {d, g, b). Thus, 
 
 snrd.- 
 ■ t lingual mutes t 
 
 ' ■ ' - palatal mutes k 
 
 labial mutes p 
 
 a. These aspirates are to be understood as uttered in the way they are 
 written — that is to say, with an ft or aspiration audibly following the mute 
 letter which begins them : and not, for instance, as wo are accustomed to 
 pronounce our th and ph. These last are not aspirated mutes, but spirants, 
 simple continuable sounds, which have grown out of the aspirates, but are 
 phonetically of quite another character. Any aspirate in the Germanic 
 languages which had become a spirant was no longer liable to the law of 
 progression. 
 
 455. It is found now that, as a general rule, in the great body of 
 the Germanic languages (Gothic, Scandinavian, Low-German), each 
 of these mutes has been pushed forward one step in its own elates, 
 the surds having become aspirates, the aspirates sonants, and 
 the sonants surds ; while, in the High-German languages (includ- 
 
 aspirate. 
 dh or th 
 
 sonant. 
 
 d 
 
 gh or *ft 
 Jft or ph 
 
 g 
 
468] PEOGEESSION' OF MUTES. 225 
 
 ing the " German "), each has been pushed forward two steps, the' 
 surds having become sonants, the aspirates surds, and the sonants 
 ^spirates. 
 
 456. 1. This rule would in strictness require that 
 
 lingual labial palatal 
 
 original t, th, d p, ph, h k, kh, g should have become 
 
 English th, d, t ph, b, p kh, g, k and 
 
 German d, t, th h, p, ph g, k, kh; 
 
 but to the regularity of this result there are many exceptions : 
 
 a. Original p and h, in whole classes of words, at their first change 
 were converted into the spirants / and h, instead of the aspirated mutes 
 ph and kh, and so remained unaltered by the second change. 
 
 b. The High-German dialects in general tools the second step of progres- 
 sion less completely and less strictly in the labial and palatal than in the lingual 
 series. In the two first, some dialects, at a certain period, were more faithful 
 to the requirements of the rule than were others ; but, in the modem Grer- 
 man, the authority of the latter has prevailed. Thus, for bin, ' be,' the 
 older monuments give pim (p for 5) — and so in a great number of other 
 
 c. In the lingual series, the German has converted the aspirate th, 
 regularly required as the correspondent of English t, tuto a sibilant, 
 
 2. Hence, the actual correspondence between, English and 
 German, so far as concerns the law of progression, is in general 
 as follows : 
 
 lingual labial palatal 
 
 to English th, d, t fj b, p h, g, k correspond 
 
 German b, t, f,j 6,f, 5, f,p 1^, g, !. 
 
 Even these correspondences, however, do not hold strictly in 
 all cases : thus, 
 
 a. A mute is often protected from alteration by combinafiou with an- 
 other letter : thus, rf by ra or / ; as in Sanb, land, IDanbcrn, wander; ®oIb, gold ; 
 — t by s, h (ch, gh), f: as in Stein, stme, §oft, haste; Stad^t, night; Staft, 
 craft. 
 
 6. Even the oldest English and German (the Anglo-Saxon and the old 
 High-German) have their irregular exceptions to the rules of correspon- 
 dence ; and these exceptions have become much more numerous in later 
 times, as each language, in the course of its history, has suffered anoma- 
 lous changes in some of its words and letters. 
 
 457. Below are given examples of the more important correspondences 
 between German and English consonants — those which result from the law 
 of progi-ession, and a few others. 
 
 458. Lingual series. 
 
 1. ® in German answers regularly to English ih: thus, baS, t?iat, benfcil, 
 
 10* 
 
226 EELATION OF GEEMAU TO ENGLISH. [458- 
 
 thinJc, bid, thick, boc^, thmgh, Surji, thirst, btet, tJi/ree, S3ab, hath, SBruber, 
 brother, (Srbe, earth. 
 
 a. The most important exception is that of a b after n or I, as noticed 
 above (456.2a). 
 
 2. S; (or t^: see 37) in German answers regularly to English d: thus, 
 5£ag, day, ttcf, deep, Sob, death, t^un, (fo, Uebte, loved, Oott^eit, godhead, 
 feltcn, seldom, SBort, wOT-d, unter, «n(fer. 
 
 a. Excepted especially is a t after ?, df, f, which (as noticed abovo, 
 456.2as) usually corresponds to an English t. 
 
 3. The lingual sibilants In German, 6, ff, g, j, often correspond to Eng- 
 lish t: thus, bas, bag, </ia<, ^eifi, hot, e8, «7, au8, ou<, beffer, Mfer, gu6,/oo(; 
 jtnei, too, ju, to, 3ett, iiote, B"^'/ ^^: 3"^/ toll. ^nA . 
 
 a. But the sibilants are also in numberless cases the representatives Of 
 original sibilants, and are therefore foimd alike, or with but slight variations, 
 in German and English : thus, fing, sing, \o, so, bteg, this, Stein, stone, ©c^am, 
 shame, ©d^nee, srum, fc^etten, scold. 
 
 459. Labial series. 
 
 1. a. S8, in German, when initial, regularly answers to English 6: thus, 
 Sab, lath, Stuber, brother, S3(ut, blood, geBoren, bom. 
 
 b. In the middle of a word, or as final, it is usually represented in Eng- 
 lish by/ or v. thus, ab, off, of, fjalb, half, tciub, deaf, SGSetb, wife, lieb, lief; Ja^-i4~ 
 — Saube, dove, ftcrben, starve, fieben, seven, if nabe, Imave, iiber, over, gieber, 
 
 fever. 
 
 2. *}J in German answers, with very few exceptions, to English^: thus, 
 pa^m, pass, '•^c^, pitch, ''^la^t, plague, ©pteg, spit, f^jringen, spring. 
 
 3. a. g, like b, agrees with Enghsh / when initial: thus, fallen, fall, 
 %i\S),fish, ^n%foot, f(tegen,/2/, fret,/ree. 
 
 6. Elsewhere in a word, it usually corresponds to English p : thus, ticf, 
 deep, ©c^laf, sleep, ouf, up, retf, ripe, ft^affen, shape, ^elfen, fteip, metfen, 
 toar^, offen, ope»i.-Zr(Vvt/-'-vi / I t^|., t 
 
 4. ^f is a peculiar German combination, occurring with great frequency 
 in words anciently derived from the Latin, as representing a Latin p : thus, 
 ^flonje, plant (Lat. planta), <pforte, ' door ' (Lat porta), $feit, ' arrow' (Lat. 
 pilrnn), ^feffer, pepper (Lat. piper), ^Pfunb, pound (Lat. pondus): But it is 
 also found in a good many words of Germanic origin : thus, SttJfet, apple, 
 $fltc^t,p%A<, @d)ne))fe, snipe, ^iipfen, hop, ^Pfropf, ^?-op. 
 
 460. Palatal series. 
 
 As a general rule, the letters of this series — namely, g, X, I), also n! and 
 ng — are the same in German and English: thus, ®ott, god, Bcrgeff en, /orjei, 
 griin, green, SBSagen, wagon ; — !att, cold, bicf, thick, tntvlen, work, flar, dear, 
 ftnabe, teave;— §aor, ho/ir, ^nf,, heart; — fmtcn, sink, fmgen, sing. 
 
462] C0EEESP0NDENCE8 OF LETTEES. 227 
 
 Exceptions, however, of a more irregular kind, are very numerous. 
 Thus, 
 
 a. English ch is found not infrequefltly where the Gorman has t : thus, 
 ^tnn, chin, ©trecfe, strgtch. 
 
 6. German if is variously represented in English, bv Jc, gh,\ tch, etc. : 
 thus, 33uc^, hook, bodj, though, tetc^t, light; ^t(i), pitch. ^i^/u^„ 'f'uU'/A^ 
 
 c. An original g, which the German has retained, has very often under- 
 gone manifold corruption or loss in English : thus, £ag, day, tiege, liige, 
 lie, maa, may, SBeg, way; — §iigcl, hill, j^xeael, tile, SSogel, /ojS7;- — folgcn, 
 follow, fflalg, bellows, ©orge, sorrow, borgeii, borrow; — and so on. 
 
 d. §, as has been pointed out, is in German very often a mere ortho- 
 graphical device for signifying the long quantity of the neighboring vowel. 
 Of course, where it has this character, nothing corresponding with it in Eng- 
 lish is to be loolced for. 
 
 461. Into the discussion of the general tendencies and the special 
 causes which have led to the harmonies and discrepancies of German and 
 English words, and have produced either classes of correspondences or 
 
 "■: single and apparently anomalous cases of difference, we cannot here enter : 
 such subjects would be in place in a historical gramnlir of Oerman, or a 
 comparative grammar of the Germanic languages in general. 
 
 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE GERMAN LANGrAGE. 
 
 462. The German language is, as has been seen, one of the 
 dialects of the High-German sub-division of the Germanic division 
 or branch of the Indo-European family of languages. 
 
 a. Every cultivated or literary language is, in the same way, by origin 
 one of a group of more or less discordant dialects — one to which external 
 circumstances have given prominence above the rest. 
 
 b. Since unity of speech cannot be maintained over a wide extent of 
 country, or through a numerous community, except by aid of the unifying 
 influences of high civilization and Uterature, it is only a matter of course 
 that Germany, at the beginning of the historical era, was filled with a 
 variety of dialects — many of which are yet far from being extinct. 
 
 c. Grermany was first brought to the knowledge of the rest of the world 
 by the Romans, whose attempts to conquer the country, as they had con- 
 quered Gaul (France), proved in vain, partly owing to the stubborn resistance 
 of the German tribes, partly because of the remoteness of the country, and 
 the decay of the aggressive force of the Roman empire. Later, nearly all 
 the European provinces of the empire were overwhelmed, one after an- 
 other, by roving hordes of Germans ; but these nowhere established them- 
 selves in sufficient numbers to maintain their own speech! Thus the 
 dialects of the Goths, the Vandals, and other noted German races, became 
 extinct, by the absorption of those races into the communities of other 
 speech among whom they settled. 
 
 d. The introduction of Roman Christianity, civilization, and letters into 
 Germany (beginning in the fifth century), the establishment of the Frank- 
 Ish empire under Chlodowig over nearly aU the German tribes (about the 
 
228 EELATION OF GEKMAN TO ENGLISH. [462- 
 
 end of that century), and its yet more brilliant renewal under Charlemagne, 
 three centuriea later (A. D. 742-814), produced in the country a state of 
 things favorable to a unity of customs, institutions, and language. It re- 
 mained then for circumstances to determine which of the many existing 
 dialects should win such importance in the eyes of all the German peoples 
 as to be accepted by them as their literary language. 
 
 463. The history of tte High-German dialects falls into 
 three periods : 
 
 1. The Old High-German period (Hlt^od^beutfd^), down to the 
 twelfth century ; 
 
 2. The Middle High-Qerman period (9)?ttteI^0C^beutf^), cov- 
 ering four centuries, from the beginning of the twelfth to the 
 time of Luther ; 
 
 3. The New High-German period (JJeu^o^beutfi^), from the 
 Eeformation down to our own days. 
 
 464. 1. The Old High-German period commences with the 
 eighth century ; from which, however, only fragments have come 
 down to us. 
 
 u,. As the oldest of these la regarded the Hildbrandslied, a pre-Chris- 
 tian poem, in the alliterative verse which appears to have been the origi- 
 nal form of poetic expression of the whole Germanic race. » 
 
 2. The literature of this period is chiefly Christian, and con- 
 sists of versions from the Latin, collections of words or glosses, 
 paraphrases and comments of Scripture, and the' like. 
 
 a. The most noteworthy productions of this class are Otfried's Krist 
 (A. D. 868), a harmony of the four Gospels, in the first rhymed verse ; a 
 prose version of Tatian'a harmony of the Gospels, of about the same 
 period ; the works of the monk Notker (about A. D. 1000) and his school, 
 especially his prose version and explanation of the Psalms ; WUliram's 
 (about A. D. 1075) prose paraphrase and explanation of Solomon's Song. 
 
 6. Besides these, there are a few songs, forms of imprecation, and other 
 like remnants of a more popular and native class of productions. 
 
 3. The leading Old High-German dialect was the Prankish, as 
 being the language of the ruling race and dynasty ; but there was 
 no prevailing literary dialect accepted through the whole country : 
 each writer used his own native idiom. 
 
 a. Other dialects represented in this period are the Alemannio and Swa- 
 bian, and the Bavarian and Austrian. 
 
 465. 1. In the Middle High-German period, the literary dia- 
 lect was the Swabian. 
 
 a. Because it was the court-language of the empire under the Swabian 
 emperors, Conrad and Frederick Barbarossa and their successors (A. D. 
 1138-1268). 
 
467] HISTORY OF GEEMAK, 229 
 
 b. The grand difiference distinguishing the language of the Middle period 
 from that of the Old, is the reduotion of the former full and distinct vowels 
 of the endings of words to the indifferent and monotonous e. Thus, gcfie, 
 'I give,' was in the first period gibu; geben, 'to give,' was geban; Rifc^cn, 
 'to fishes,' was viscwm; blirtbe?, 'blind' (neut. sing.), was blindaz; olinbcn 
 (dat. pi.) was blindono ; and so on. In this respect the Middle and New 
 High-German stand nearly upon the same leveL 
 
 2. The literature is abundant and various, and of a very high 
 order of merit. 
 
 It may be divided into 
 
 a. Tho works of the Minnesmger (' love-slngera '), of whom more than 
 three liundred are more or less known. Some of the most eminent among 
 them were Hartmann von der Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Heinrich von 
 Ofterdingen, Walther von der Togelweide, and Gottfried von Strassburg. 
 They wrote songs of love and chivalry, epics (chiefly founded on French 
 and Provonfal subjects), didactic poems, fables — almost everything except- 
 ing dramas. 
 
 6. The popular legendary epics, new workings-up of stories — half-mythi- 
 cal, half-historical — which had long been current among the German races, 
 and even in part belonged to the whole Germanic race. Their authors are 
 unknown. Chief among them is the Lay of the Nibelungen (Mbelungenlied), 
 a magnificent poem ; others are Gudnm, and the lesser tales which make 
 up the Hddentmch ('Book of Heroes'). 
 
 c. The works of the Meisiersanger (' master-singers '). These were poets 
 by trade, organized into guilds, and carrying on their handicraft in a very 
 regular and very uninteresting manner, in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- 
 turies (and later), after the decay of the national literature which had 
 flourished under the Swahiau emperors. Their productions have mostly 
 gone into merited oblivion. 
 
 466. During the time of literary depression which occupied the last 
 century or two of the Middle period, the foundations were laying for the 
 New. The wearing-out of the feudal system ; the rise of the cities to im- 
 portance and wealth ; the awakened sense for Art, both in architecture and 
 in painting ; the establishment of universities ; the impulse given to classi- 
 cal learning through Europe in consequence of the capture of Constantiupple 
 by the Turks ; the invention of printing, which put literature within the 
 reach of a vastly increased class — all these circumstances prepared the way 
 for a national culture which should be as much wider and deeper-reaching 
 than that of the preceding period, as this than that of the first. And 
 whereas in the Old period literature had been the property chiefly of tho 
 church and the priests, with complete diversity of dialects ; and, in the 
 Middle, the property of courts and the great, with acknowledged pre-emi- 
 nence of the court-dialect ; so no w, it was to be shared in by the great 
 body of the people, and to possess for its use something like a true national 
 language. 
 
 467. The New High-German period begins with the grand 
 
230 EELATION OF GEEMAH TO ENaLISH. [467 
 
 national movement of the Eeforraationj and especially with the 
 ■writings of Luther. 
 
 a. The dialect which Luther used was not a continuation of the Swa- 
 hian, which had long since sunlc into insignificance, while each author had 
 again begun to write in his own idiom ; nor was it the precise spoken 
 language of any part of the country: it was, as he himself states, the language 
 of public affairs in Saxony, and used by the various courts throughout 
 Germany. It had grown up in a measure on paper, in learned and hte- 
 rary use, and united in itself some discordant dialectic elements. 
 
 b. It was the nationality of Germany that created the possibility of a 
 national langiiage : it was the excited and receptive state of the national 
 mind at the time of the Reformation, the inherent force and vigor of style 
 in the writings of Luther and his coadjutors, the immense and immediate 
 circulation which they won among all classes of the people, and the adop- 
 tion of his version of the Bible as a household bools through nearly the 
 whole country, that gave to the particular form of speech used by him an 
 impulse toward universality which nothing has since been able to checlc or 
 interfere with. It has become more and more exclusively the language of 
 education and learning, of the courts, the pulpit, the lecture-room, the 
 school, the press ; and in the large towns and cities it has to some extent 
 extirpated or deeply affected the old popular dialects, which are now 
 hardly met in purity eicept among the rude country populatioiL Thus 
 
 468. The language of Luther, not a little modified in spel 
 ling, utterance, and construction, and greatly enriched by new 
 formations and additions, is now the speech of the educated in 
 all Germany (both High-Germany and Low-Germany), and there- 
 fore entitled to be called the German language. 
 
 a. To illustrate the alteration which it has undergone during the 
 three centuries and a half of its existence, is here added Luther's version 
 of the Lord's Prayer, as given in his first edition of the German New 
 
 Testament (1522): sgnfct SBotct tjiiit bciit §t)mcl, Scflit 9Jame fel) 5c»)Iin; 
 S)ci)n 91cl)d) fomt; Sc^it SBiUc Qt\i)t^t auff (Siben tote »nn bcm ^tjmcl; 
 Uiifcr tcfllidi SBtott gtS unn8 5f«tt; Unb bctgili un8 unfere ©c^ulbc, mie 
 tot)r unfcrrat ©^ulbiflcrn bcrflcStn; Uniib futc mS nttt Dmt SBttfudiung; 
 ©onbern criofc mS »on bcm SBficl; Scnn beljn ift bag SRc^t^, mtb i>k Srafft, 
 unnb bie ^eclidc^t in @toidet)t. Stinetu 
 
 6. The former dialects not only still subsist in Germany among the 
 uneducated, but their influence more or less affects the literary speech, 
 especially as regards its pronunciation, so that the educated even, from 
 different parts of the country, do not spealc precisely alike. 
 
 469. To give any history of the language, its cultivation, and its 
 literature, during this its modern period, will not be attempted here : even 
 to mention the names of the principal writers who have distinguished 
 themselves by their contributions in German to literature and science would 
 require pages. Such are their merits that to possess no knowledge of 
 German is to be cut off from one of the most important sources of knowl- 
 edge and culture within our reach. 
 
GEEMAN WEITTEN CHAEACTEE. 
 
 231 
 
 GERMAN WRITTEN CHARACTER. 
 
 The German written letters are as follows : 
 
 Cap. BmalL equiv't. 
 
 Cap. smalL eqiliVt. 
 
 a 
 
 -«fc 
 
 a 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 J" 
 
 h 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 To 
 
 ./^ 
 
 -*■ 
 
 G 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 J^ 
 
 d 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 e 
 
 ^ 
 
 ** 
 
 n 
 
 / 
 
 f 
 
 ^ 
 
 -©u 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 y 
 
 g 
 
 r 
 
 y 
 
 P 
 
 f 
 
 / 
 
 Th 
 
 f 
 
 / 
 
 q 
 
 a?- 
 
 •»• 
 
 i 
 
 w 
 
 ■ft^ 
 
 r 
 
 Cap. smalL eqmT't. 
 
 ^ 
 
 y^ s 
 
 ^ y 
 
 
 G^ 
 
 t 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 w 
 
 X 
 
 y 
 
 z 
 
 sz 
 
 The general peculiarity requiring especial notice in this character is the 
 prevalence of angular instead of rounded strokes among the small letters. 
 Owing to this, i is distinguished from c only hy its dot ; also,« from n only 
 hy the round stroke above the former (which stroke, however, is omitted 
 as unnecessary when the u is modified). Further, e is distinguished from 
 n only by the strokes being made much closer together. For the same reason, 
 the a,g,o,q are not entirely closed at the top. 
 
 The use of the two forms of small s corresponds precisely with that of 
 the two forms of the same letter in printed text ; the first is to be every- 
 where written for ], and the other for 8. 
 
 For sz is written a peculiar character (as shown in the table), instead of 
 a combination of those for s and as. Special forms of combination of sa 
 and St are also sometimes made. 
 
232 GEEMAN WEITTEN CHABACTEE. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 t^^ 
 
 
 <^^ (^^:?„ ^ /^ . ^ >v 
 
 ^^/. 
 
 Z^. 
 
 C::>'c-^-M-'^-^-«'^(-«-«. • 
 
 e^^^^^^^L;^. a. 
 
 •*-«'**-*-^ -ttt-*-*- 
 
 /C-M-^-t-fK. ^Z^-r*.^-^*,-*^^ '^Mt^^^U-Mt-^-Mb ^■^^^KM-fvt-^l ^^:iC-it»-e*-**. 
 
GEBMAir "WEITTEN OHABAOTEE. 
 
 233 
 
 ^^^ ^^ w^ ^ ^,P^,: ^i_l 
 
 §etne 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 SStl^e. 
 
234 
 
 LIST OF lEEEGULAE VERBS. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF 
 VERBS OF THE OLD CONJUGATION, 
 
 MD OF THE lEREGULAR VERBS OF THE UW CONJUGATION. 
 
 Explanations. — In the following table are given the principal parts of all 
 the verbs of the Old conjugation, together with the imperfect subjunctive ; 
 also the second and third singular indicative present and the second singu- 
 lar imperative, whenever these are otherwise formed than they would be 
 in the New conjugation. Forms given in full-faced type (thus, gtbactcn) 
 are those which are alone in use; for those In ordinary type (thus, bodji, 
 Sdit) the more regular forms, or those made after the manner of the New 
 conjugation, are also allowed; forms enclosed in parenthesis are especially 
 unusual, poetical, or dialectic : a subjoined remark gives additional explana- 
 tion, if any is needed. The number of the class and division to which each 
 verb belongs (see 263-6) is added at the end. 
 
 For convenience, the forms of the modal auxiliaries and other irregular 
 verbs of the New conjugation are included in the List, with reference at the 
 end to the paragraph in the grammar where their conjugation is explained. 
 They are distinguished by being put in ordinary type throughout. 
 
 No verb is given in the list as a compoxmd. If found only in composition, 
 hyphens are prefixed to .all its forms, and an added note gives its com- 
 pounds. 
 
 . Inlla!tl70. pres't indio. sing. preL indlc. pret snbj. Impsr. past part 
 
 ©atfen, 'bake' m^, Hit Sul bule gebacfcn 
 
 often of New conj., especially when transitive ; except the participle. 
 
 daii. 
 
 iLa 
 
 tbavtnt 
 
 only in gcJaten, 
 
 sitevfl, =Bicri star sboire 
 , 'bear, bring forth' (formerly (|«ljcten). 
 
 =l)ler 
 
 :bcren 
 
 1.3 
 
 ' aScigcn, 'bite' 
 
 
 m 
 
 biffe 
 
 
 gebifTeii 
 
 ni.i 
 
 Serseii, 'hide' 
 
 ftirgfl, birjf 
 
 Sara 
 
 barge 
 burge 
 
 Wrg 
 
 gcborgcn 
 
 I.S 
 
 Scrften, 'burst' 
 
 iitpefl, iitfl 
 
 Satft 
 botfi 
 
 Batfle 
 l)5c|te 
 
 Sit(t 
 
 gcBotjlen 
 
 1.3 
 
 •* Sicgcn, ' bend ' 
 
 
 
 b09 
 
 boge 
 
 
 gebogcit 
 
 III.3 
 
 iSicfm, 'offer' 
 
 C6eut(l, Scut) 
 
 bot 
 
 bote 
 
 (teuO geboten 
 
 IIL3 
 
 ' 9Sitibcn, 'bind' 
 
 
 banb 
 
 bonbe 
 
 
 gebimben 
 
 1.1 
 
 J aSittcn, 'beg' 
 
 
 bat 
 
 bate 
 
 
 gcbctcn 
 
 1.4 
 
 Slafcii, 'blow' 
 
 Iilafeft, Maft 
 
 blicS 
 
 bticfc 
 
 
 gcblafen 
 
 n.3 
 
 •^SSIciben, 'remain' 
 
 
 blicb 
 
 blicbe 
 
 
 
 gcblicben 
 
 1II.2 
 
 aSkidjcn, 'bleach' 
 as intransitive, 
 
 of either conj. ; as transitive 
 Brdtfl, Jtat Jtiet 
 
 tli^e 
 
 ), of New only. 
 
 Jtlcte 
 
 Sebli^en 
 gebtatcn 
 
 1II.1 
 
 93ratcn, 'roast' 
 
 11.3 
 
 ^ !Brcd)eit, 'break' 
 
 bricDfl, bridjt 
 
 brad) 
 
 brdd)e 
 
 brid) 
 
 gcbrod)Cit 
 
 1.3 
 
 ^ SSrcnncn/ 'bum' 
 
 
 
 Srannle 
 
 trtimte 
 
 
 
 aeBrnnnt 
 
 249 
 
 ^'ffltinjcn, 'bring' 
 
 
 brai^te 
 
 M^te 
 
 
 gcljca^t 
 
 250 
 
 :bcil)cn sbtcl) 
 
 obsolete except In gebel^en, 'thrive.' 
 
 sbiefte 
 
 
 stiebcn 
 
 III.2 
 
LIST OF lEEEGTOAE VEEBS. 
 
 235 
 
 InflnlUvt. 
 
 proB't Indie. Bln^. 
 
 pret.{naic. prot. eubj 
 
 I. Impor. past part. 
 
 clo-is. 
 
 -■ ffienten 
 
 
 ba^te 
 
 unite 
 
 
 2^0 
 
 sittbm 
 
 =bitS|l, ::Mtit 
 
 =barS 
 
 =batBe 
 =bur6e 
 
 sbir6 sborben 
 
 1.8 
 
 only in oetlietCeii, ' perish ; ' which, as transitlYe, ' destroy,' is ol New oonj. 
 
 
 Siitgcn, 'engage' 
 
 
 bung 
 Ci>«ng3 
 bxa & 
 bro4 
 
 biinge 
 
 
 ni.6 
 
 " !8rcfd)en, 'thresh' 
 
 brit^c(l,'btit^t 
 
 bra iSe 
 bro^c 
 
 btif^ gekrofd)cn 
 
 1.3 
 
 sSrfegen 
 
 (»btcu6t) 
 
 in, 'vex.' 
 
 sirofi 
 
 sbroffe 
 
 (=btej«W sbroffcn 
 
 m.3 
 
 only in veib)Ae^( 
 
 
 
 
 
 ISringcn, 'press' 
 
 — - 
 
 trang 
 
 brdnge 
 
 gebrungcn 
 
 1.1 
 
 ^OJiirfen, 'be permitted' batf, batfjl, barf 
 
 buvfte" 
 
 bfirfte 
 
 . wanting gebutft 
 
 251 
 
 J-«ffcn, 'eat' 
 
 fffcft, iflt 
 
 afi 
 
 ««e 
 
 fg gcgcffen 
 
 II.l 
 
 >9almn, 'go' 
 
 fdfirft, fdftrt 
 
 ful>r 
 
 fiiftrc 
 
 flcfabrm 
 
 IL8 
 
 ^-gfanett, 'JMl' 
 
 fotlfl, fdnt 
 
 fict 
 
 fiefe 
 
 gcfallen 
 
 II.3 
 
 ^Sangen, 'catch' 
 
 foingfl, fdngt 
 
 fing 
 ficng 
 
 fo*t 
 
 fingc 
 ficngc 
 
 focl)tt 
 
 gefangen 
 
 II.3 
 
 5>S«d)tcii, 'flght' 
 
 Pc^teil, m 
 
 fi^t gefod)tcn 
 
 ni.5 
 
 :fe()tcn 
 
 :fiel)lfi, -.fitm 
 
 ■■fahl 
 
 :fd()(e 
 =fol)le 
 
 =ficl)I :(of)lm 
 
 L3 
 
 only in befe^Ien, 
 
 , 'command,' cmpfc^Ien, 'commend:' 
 
 fc^tcn, 'fail,' is another word. 
 
 y>3finbcn, 'find' 
 
 
 fanb 
 
 fdnbe 
 
 gcfunbcn 
 
 I.l 
 
 ^ledum, 'twine' 
 
 Pi(^t|l, fli^t 
 
 flod)t 
 
 fl6*tc 
 
 [[i$t geflpcl)ten 
 
 III.5 
 
 Sleificit, 'apply' 
 
 
 «ii« 
 
 fliffe 
 
 geflifTen 
 
 UI.l 
 
 antiquated except in (It^ Befleijen, 
 
 ' exert one's self.' 
 
 
 
 ji^Uegen, 'fly' 
 
 (fleugfl, fleugt) 
 
 flog 
 
 flogc 
 
 (flcug) gcflogcn 
 
 III.3 
 
 :TSne|)eit, 'flee' 
 
 (fleu^P, fteui^t) 
 
 not) 
 
 flolje 
 
 (deu^) gefloljcn 
 
 III.3 
 
 j,91ieficit, 'flow' 
 
 (fleu6e|l, fleu^t) 
 
 flofl 
 
 floffc 
 
 (fleuj) gefloffcn 
 
 III.3 
 
 •-/gtaacn, 'ask' 
 
 fragfl, ftSgt 
 
 ftug 
 
 fruge 
 
 gcftagt 
 
 ii.a 
 
 properly a verb oJ the New oonj. 
 
 only. 
 
 
 
 
 9reffen, 'devonr' 
 
 friffcfl, frifit 
 
 fraft 
 
 frafie 
 
 frifl gcfreffen 
 
 n.i 
 
 - Sfricrcn, 'freeze' 
 
 
 fror 
 
 frorc 
 
 
 III.3 
 
 ©aitren, 'ferment' 
 
 
 go^t 
 
 go^re 
 
 — g«go?>rcn 
 
 in.B 
 
 also spelt garen 
 
 etc., without ^. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^©elicn, 'give' 
 
 giebii, giebt 
 gibfl, gibt 
 
 flo6 
 
 gabt 
 
 gicb gegeben 
 gib 
 
 11.1 
 
 —^ '©eficn, 'go' 
 
 
 B'ns 
 
 ginge 
 
 gegangen 
 
 267 
 
 - . ®e(t«n, 'be worth' 
 
 gfW, gilt 
 
 goU 
 
 galte 
 gBltt 
 
 gilt gegoltcn 
 
 1.3 
 
 . ,> sgeffin 
 
 '?ot'S''''** 
 
 =9«fi 
 
 =B'fi 'fleffen 
 
 II.1 
 
 Bnly m DctgeRen, 
 
 
 
 
 
 - ©feficn 
 
 (geujeil, geu^t) 
 
 gofi 
 
 floffe 
 
 (geni) gegofTen 
 
 III.S 
 
 1^ :9fnni>n 
 
 
 
 fgann 
 
 sgdnne 
 sgoniM 
 
 sgpnncn 
 
 1.2 
 
 only in Sejlnncn 
 
 , 'begin.' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ®teiil)eit, ' resemble ' — — 
 
 g«^ gti(^e gegll^en 
 
 usually of New conj. when transitive, ' make similar,'. 
 
 ©fcitcit, 'glide' glitt glitte t geglltlen 
 
 ©limmen, 'gleam' glomra glommc gegtoramen 
 
 -y- ©rabeit, 'dig' grdbfi, grdbt grub smbt_ gcgraben 
 
 m.l 
 
 ni.i 
 m.6 
 
 112 
 
236 
 
 LIST OF lEEEGtrLAE VERBS. 
 
 InflnltlTe. 
 
 ®Kifcn, 'gripe' 
 
 prea't indie, sing. 
 
 pret India, pret aubj. 
 
 griff griffc 
 
 imper. 
 
 past part. 
 
 gegriffen 
 
 dOBS. 
 
 III.1 
 
 -- §oben, *have' 
 
 m, m 
 
 ^atte 
 
 ^atte 
 
 
 ge^obt 
 
 239 
 
 v^nltm, 'hold' 
 
 (altfi, batt 
 
 biett 
 
 tiieiu 
 
 
 gebalten 
 
 n.8 
 
 > -^angen, ' bang ' boingft, bangt 6ing l)inst 
 ftanaft, Sanj!) biena bicnge 
 sometimeB confounded in its forms witli^aitgen, ' hang 
 
 ■' (trane 
 
 gcdangcn 
 
 1.), New conj. 
 
 n.3 
 
 'fallen, 'liew' 
 
 
 
 *ic6 
 
 f)itU 
 
 
 gel^auen 
 
 IL4 
 
 /'^ebcn, ' raise ' 
 
 « 
 
 dob 
 6u6 
 
 hobt 
 hiibe 
 
 
 gtbobm 
 
 ni.6 
 
 >^ciSm, 'caJl' 
 
 
 wn 
 
 ftiefie 
 
 
 
 gefieifien 
 
 m.a 
 
 #erf«n, 'help' 
 
 him, f>iUt 
 
 ftolf 
 
 halfe 
 
 *ilf 
 
 geftolfcn 
 
 1.3 
 
 Seifen, 'chide' 
 
 
 
 tiff 
 
 ttffc 
 
 
 jetiffen 
 
 m.i 
 
 -?Stennen, 'know' 
 
 
 lannte 
 
 feiinte 
 
 
 getannt 
 
 249 
 
 ^iefcn, ' choose ' 
 
 antiquated, and most often met in 
 
 [0» 
 
 1 cttiefen : 
 
 lofe ((clofeii 
 
 liiren is the same word. 
 
 ni.3 
 
 Slemincn, 'press' ttomm HBmrae 
 
 forms of Old conj. very rare except from (ellemmen. 
 
 
 gettommen 
 
 m.5 
 
 ^lielicn, 'cleave' 
 
 
 flob 
 
 nobe 
 
 
 geftoben 
 
 m.3 
 
 Slimmeit, 'climb' 
 
 — — 
 
 Qomm 
 
 flomme 
 
 
 
 getlcmmen 
 
 ni.5 
 
 ^lingen, 'sound' 
 
 
 
 Hang 
 
 nSnge 
 tmnge 
 ive. 
 
 
 
 getlungen 
 
 Ll 
 
 rarely of New conj,, especially when transit 
 
 
 
 
 £ncifen, 'pinch' 
 
 — — 
 
 tniff 
 
 Iniffc 
 
 
 gelntffen 
 
 m.i 
 
 ^cfpcn, 'pinch' 
 
 
 
 tni|)|) 
 
 Inippc 
 
 
 gctnliipen 
 
 in.i 
 
 -■• ^ommen, 'come' 
 
 (16mmft tSramt) 
 
 Cam 
 
 Came 
 
 
 geCommen 
 
 267 
 
 - Bomwn, 'can' 
 
 lann, !annfl, tmin lonnte 
 
 fiiiinte 
 
 wanting getonnt 
 
 251 
 
 firfeiJicn, 'creep' 
 
 (tteuc^it, tteuc^t) 
 
 ttod) 
 
 ftodit 
 
 (tteui^) geCroc()cn 
 
 ni.3 
 
 ^iiren, 'choose' 
 
 
 tot 
 
 16« 
 
 
 gelocen 
 
 m.3 
 
 .^Saben, 'load' 
 
 im, im 
 
 lui 
 
 lube 
 
 
 
 gefaben 
 
 II.2 
 
 — £afrcn, 'let' 
 
 laffcfl, last 
 
 Ii«8 
 
 liefie 
 
 
 getaffcn 
 
 II.3 
 
 . -Caufen, 'run' 
 
 rauffl, reuft 
 
 licf 
 
 licfe 
 
 
 gelaiifett 
 
 11.4 
 
 £cibc«, 'suffer' 
 
 
 litt 
 
 litte 
 
 
 genttcn 
 
 III.1 
 
 - ficil)cn, 'lend' 
 
 
 (ied 
 
 luht 
 
 
 gclicben 
 
 ni.3 
 
 ,-£cfeii, 'read' 
 
 Kcfefl, liefl 
 
 lai 
 
 lafe 
 
 Iie« 
 
 gclefcn 
 
 II.1 
 
 % -fiiegCM, 'Ue' 
 
 
 lag 
 
 lage 
 
 
 
 gelcgcn 
 
 1.4 
 
 'J :Iiercn 
 
 only in tetlleren 
 
 :, 'lose.' 
 
 slur 
 
 slore 
 
 — ~, 
 
 :loren 
 
 in.3 
 
 slfngcn 
 
 only found in gelingen, 'succeed,' 
 
 :tang 
 
 raiJUnsei 
 
 I, ' fail : ' used in third person only. 
 
 «of*cii, 'extinguish' tit(*c(J,Iif^l lo^ WWe 
 
 the forms of New conj. preferably limited to transitive 
 
 liW gelofi^en 
 meaning. 
 
 m.5 
 
 ■-fiugeii, 'lie' 
 
 (leugjl, Icujt) 
 
 log 
 
 toge 
 
 (Icug) 
 
 gctogcn 
 
 in. 3 
 
 a»al)lcn, 'grind' mo^ljl, ma^lt 
 
 the forma of Old conj. now m use 
 
 only In the participle 
 
 1. 
 
 gcmat)kn 
 
 II.2 
 
 SOlcibcn, 'shun' 
 
 
 
 micb 
 
 micbe 
 
 
 gemicben 
 
 m.a 
 
 SRelCcn, 'milk' 
 
 Cmlltfl, mlltt) 
 
 moK 
 
 mSltc 
 
 (milO 
 
 gemoncn 
 
 nL5 
 
 SRcffcn, 'measure' 
 
 miffefl, miet 
 
 mofi 
 
 raafte 
 
 mifi 
 
 gemeffcn 
 
 ii.i 
 
 'p- Wliita, ' may ' 
 
 ina0, magft, mag 
 
 mc^te 
 
 m5((te 
 
 wanting gcmo^t 
 
 251 
 
LIST OF lEEEGULAIt VEEBS. 
 
 237 
 
 Inflnltllre. prea't indie, sing. 
 
 , ' must ' mu6, mu^t, muj tnujte 
 
 SBtftmm, 'take' nintmft, nintmt nal)m 
 
 ^SRennen, 'name' nannte tiennte 
 
 snefnt ma$ stiSt^ 
 
 only in genefen, ' recover, get well.' 
 
 snicfien Q^wa^t^ =neu60 snog 
 
 obsolete, except in genie^en, ' enjoy.' 
 
 Vfcifcit, 'whistle' pUff pfiffc; 
 
 Vflcgcn, 'olieriBh' (jjloj (ifloac 
 
 VMifeit, 'praise' • prics prfcfc 
 
 forms of the New conj. are occasionally met with. 
 
 dtteftm, ' eash' (|uill(l, quim fluoH duBIte 
 
 of New conj, when transitive, 'swell, soak.' 
 
 9l(id)Clt, 'avenge' C*"^!) (l6$s) 
 
 forms of Old conj. very rare, except the participle. 
 
 pret. indie, pret. snbj. iraper. past part. 
 
 multe wanting gemu^t 
 nddme 
 
 tiimm genommen 
 
 genannt 
 
 stieftn 
 
 snoffc (»neu5) snoffen 
 
 quia 
 
 gepfiffen 
 
 gepftaaen 
 
 gepriercn 
 
 gequollen 
 
 JrSSaftcn, 'advise' 
 
 SReiben, 'mb' 
 
 -VWcifitit, 'tear' 
 
 A-SRciteil, 'ride' 
 
 J^I^^^StmMV., 'run' 
 
 SRiedKn, ' smell ' 
 9tingen, ' wring ' 
 
 tot^fi, xaS) 
 
 (Mu^ll, icu^l) 
 
 VSlinneit, 'run' 
 
 Vswufcti, 'call' 
 
 rarely of New conj. in preterit. 
 
 ®aufcn, 'drink' 
 
 faufp, fSuft 
 
 ®(iugen, 'suck' -; — -y- 
 
 rietd 
 ricb 
 tie 
 ritt 
 
 ranntc 
 (tennte) 
 
 rang 
 rung 
 
 rief 
 
 foff 
 
 f09 
 
 xiett)t 
 riebe 
 riffe 
 rftfe 
 
 tennte 
 
 range 
 ttinge 
 
 ranne 
 ronne 
 
 riefc 
 
 f6ffe 
 
 (6gc 
 
 gcratOen 
 
 gericben 
 
 gcrifTen 
 
 geritten 
 
 gerannt 
 
 (getennO 
 
 (xaxif) itttiim 
 
 gcrungen 
 
 geronnen 
 
 gerufen 
 
 class. 
 251 
 
 i.a 
 
 249 
 II.l 
 
 in.3 
 
 III.l 
 
 ni.5 
 ni.3 
 m.5 
 ni.5 
 
 II.3 
 
 ni.2 
 III.1 
 in.1 
 
 249 
 
 m.3 
 
 Ll 
 L3 
 
 n.4 
 
 gefoffen ni.4 
 
 gefcgen- 
 
 m.4 
 
 ^ forms of New conj. occasionally met :"sometim68 confounded with fSugetti ' suckle.' 
 
 II.2 
 
 ^K ®c4affen, 'create' fi^uf Wftfe 
 
 generally of New conj. when meaning ' be busy,' or ' procure. 
 
 @(()anen, 'sound' -. — WoU f^olle 
 
 V=f*i!6en, !fd)ic6t =fd)oI> !fd)a6e 
 
 omy in geff^e^en, 'happen: ' used in third person alone. 
 
 geft^affen 
 
 gef^ollen 
 :fd)e6cn 
 
 in.5 
 
 ©djeibm, 'part' Wieb 
 
 of New conj. when transitive, 'disjoin.' 
 
 gefi^icbcn III.2 
 
 > ®d)efncn, 
 
 'appear' 
 
 fd»ien 
 
 ®d)cltcn, 
 
 'scold' 
 
 f*«tft, fd)Ht f*alt 
 
 ®d)eren, ' 
 
 shear' 
 
 Wtetft, W'srt fdwir 
 
 ®d)ieben. 
 
 ' shove ' 
 
 f*ob 
 
 > ®d)iegen, 
 
 'shoot' 
 
 CWeu^cfl, Wm fd)oS 
 
 Si^inbcn, 
 
 'flay' 
 
 fd)unb 
 
 i*®(ftIofen, 
 
 'sleep' 
 
 fd)Jciffl, fdiWft fd)rief 
 
 -V€Sc6(agcn, 
 
 'strike' 
 
 fd)(agft, fd)Iagt fd)Iug 
 
 @d)Ictc6en 
 
 , 'sneak' 
 
 fd)Iid) 
 
 fd)iem 
 fd)alte 
 fd)6Ite 
 
 fd)ore 
 
 fd)6bc 
 
 fd)6ffe 
 
 fd)unbe 
 
 fd)li<!fc 
 
 fd)lu3C 
 
 Widie 
 
 
 gcWencn 
 gefd)pltett 
 
 gefd)orcn 
 
 g<fd)oben 
 
 (WeuB gcfd)Ofren 
 
 gefd)unbcn 
 
 gcfd)tafen 
 
 gefd)Iagen 
 
 gef<b(id)cn 
 
 III.2 
 1.3 
 
 in.5 
 ni,3 
 
 III.3 
 
 ni.6 
 
 II.8 
 II.2 
 
 ni,i 
 
238 
 
 LIST OF lEEEGULAK VERBS. 
 
 Infinltlre. 
 
 <Zd)kifcn, 'whet' 
 
 in other senses i 
 
 prea't Indie, sing. pret. indlo. pret, subj. 
 
 Mm WHffe 
 
 than ' whet, sharpen,' properly of New i 
 
 Imper. 
 
 conj. 
 
 past part, 
 gej^llffen 
 
 claBi. 
 
 m.l 
 
 '®d)kificn, 'sUt' 
 
 
 fd)Ii8 
 
 fdjiiffc 
 
 
 gefd)(ifTen 
 
 IIH 
 
 Sd)licfen, 'slip' 
 
 
 fd)IofF 
 
 fd)lDffe 
 
 
 gcfd)loffen 
 
 1II.8 
 
 '''®d)Ifc6<:it, 'shut' 
 
 Wleu5cIi,Wteu(!t)fd)ti)« 
 
 fd)t6ffe 
 
 (»IeuW8cfd)to(fcn 
 
 in.3 
 
 iZd)Iiitgcn, 'sling' 
 
 
 fdjtnng 
 
 fdjlange 
 
 
 gefd)lun3en 
 
 1.1 
 
 <Sd)mcificn, ' smite ' 
 
 
 
 fdjmiS 
 
 fd)mi{Te 
 
 
 8cfd)miffot 
 
 m.i 
 
 - <Sd)mcl»cn, 'melt' Wmtljcyi, Wmllit ie^mDlj . f^molje 
 usually and properly of New con], when transitive. 
 
 (^ratlj geWmoIjen 
 
 in.5 
 
 Sdwnubcn, ' snort ' 
 
 
 
 ((^no6 
 
 j^noie 
 
 
 ge[4no6en 
 
 in.4 
 
 ■" Sdmcitictt, 'out' 
 
 
 fdmitt 
 
 fd)nitte 
 
 
 gefd)nitten 
 
 IILl 
 
 i2d)raubcn, 'sorew' 
 
 
 
 fc^ioli 
 
 f^cBie 
 
 
 
 get(^totcn 
 
 ni.4 
 
 @d)rccten, ' be afraid 
 of New conj, as 
 
 1 transitive, ' frighten.' 
 
 (d^tole 
 
 Wrid 
 
 geWto4cn 
 
 1.3 
 
 ®d)rciben, ' write ' 
 
 
 fd)rieb 
 
 fd)rube 
 
 
 gefc^ricbcn 
 
 ni.3 
 
 I3d)rckn, ' cry ' 
 
 
 fd)rie 
 
 fd)rr» 
 
 
 gefd)rieen 
 
 III.2 
 
 ®d)reiten, ' stride ' 
 
 
 fd)ritt 
 
 fd)ritte 
 
 
 gefd)ritten 
 
 IIH 
 
 ® d)tt)orMt,' suppurate '(t(I)n)ler(l, Wlticrt) fd)n>or 
 
 fd)n>6« 
 
 
 9cfd)niorcn 
 
 nxs 
 
 Sdjtoefgen, 'be silent' fdtmieg fd)n)iege 
 
 sometimes of New conj. as transitive, 'silence.' 
 
 
 gefdiniegcn 
 
 m.3 
 
 Zd)n>enen, 'swell' 
 
 of New conj. as 
 
 transitive. 
 
 ((^ICDlI 
 
 fi^BoUe 
 
 fc^lpiS gefi^niiiEen 
 
 in.5 
 
 iZd)n>imincn, ' swim ' 
 
 « 
 
 fd)n>amm fdjtpamme 
 
 fd)roontm fd)tDpmine 
 
 gefd)n)Dmmat L3 
 
 ®d)n>fnbcn, 'vanish' 
 
 
 
 fd)n>aitb fd)n>anbe 
 fdjtouiib fd)miinbe 
 
 
 gefd)n>unt)en 
 
 1.1 
 
 @d)n>fn9en, 'swing' 
 
 
 fd)n>an9 fd)n>ange 
 fd)n)ung fd)tPLinge 
 
 
 gcftftwungcn 
 
 1.1 
 
 ®d)n)6rcn, ' swear ' 
 
 
 fd)n)Ot 
 fdiiDur 
 
 fdiipore 
 fd)n>ure 
 
 
 gefd^worcn 
 
 IILB 
 
 - Scltcti, 'see' 
 
 f!cl)fl, (Iclit 
 
 \a\) 
 
 faljc 
 
 fTtft 
 
 9«fe?ien 
 
 II.1 
 
 Sciit, ' be ' 
 
 bin, bift, ift ». 
 
 root 
 
 moire 
 
 fei 
 
 gewefcn 
 
 239.3 
 
 ' ©enben, 'send' 
 
 
 anbte 
 enbete 
 
 fcnbete 
 
 
 gefonbl 
 gefentet 
 
 249 
 
 Sicben, 'boil' 
 
 
 fott 
 
 Tiebete 
 
 
 gefotten 
 
 ni.s 
 
 Singcii, 'sing' 
 
 
 fons 
 
 fans'' 
 
 
 gcfungcn 
 
 Ll 
 
 ShiEctt, 'sink' 
 
 . 
 
 fane 
 
 fantc 
 
 
 gcfunien 
 
 LI 
 
 Sinnoi, 'think' . 
 
 
 fann 
 
 fanne 
 fonnc 
 
 
 gejonnctt 
 
 1.3 
 
 ®f?clt, 'sit' 
 
 
 fo8 
 
 fnfic 
 
 
 gcfcffcn 
 
 1.4 
 
 .'©offcn, 'shall' 
 
 (oti, fonp, (oH 
 
 foUtc 
 
 foate 
 
 wanting gefottt 
 
 2S1 
 
 Spcicn, 'spit' 
 
 rarely, of the New conj. 
 
 (Die 
 
 (piee 
 
 
 getpicen 
 
 in.3 
 
 Spinnen, 'spin' 
 
 — — 
 
 fpann 
 
 fpSnnc 
 fponne 
 
 
 gcfppnncn 
 
 1.3 
 
 iZpIcifien, 'split' 
 
 
 \m 
 
 (pUffe 
 
 
 flcyplinen 
 
 ni.i 
 
 ' ®pKd)cn, ' speak ' 
 
 fprid)ft, fprid)t 
 
 fprnd) 
 
 fprad)c 
 
 fprid) gcfproc^cn 
 
 I.S 
 
 Spricftcii, 'sprout' 
 
 (ftrecuSell, f))teu|t) fprofi 
 
 fprpffe 
 
 (fptcuWgcfproffcn 
 
 III.3 
 
 epringcn, 'spring' 
 
 
 
 fprong 
 
 fprona* 
 
 
 gcfpTungm 
 
 \x 
 
LIST OF lEEEGULAE VEEBS. 
 
 239 
 
 Infinitive, preB't indie sinp. pret. Indio. pret. aubj. 
 
 ®tcd)en, ' prick ^ fiidtii, ikidyt flad) ftadje 
 
 ®tedtfn, * stick' filcfil, fliift ftal fldtc 
 
 usually of New conj., especially when transitive. 
 
 imper. 
 
 fHct 
 
 past part. 
 
 gefiodjcn 
 
 A®tel)etl, 'stand' 
 
 <k iStcblen, ' steal ' ftiel)lfi, flicljlt 
 
 * 3teigen, ' ascend ' 
 
 >®ter6cn, 'die' ftirbf}, fiirbt 
 
 ^tUben, 'disperae' 
 
 'stitttm, 'stink' 
 
 >®toflcn, 'push' flogeft, ftogt 
 
 iStrci(^en, 'stroke' 
 
 ■^Strcitctl, 'strive' 
 
 :>SI)un, 'do' — — 
 
 ftanb 
 ftunb 
 
 ftnftl 
 
 flics 
 ftarb 
 
 ftob 
 
 flant 
 ftunt 
 
 flies 
 ftrid) 
 flritt 
 tbat 
 
 flanbc 
 fluitbe 
 
 fialile 
 fitijl)le 
 
 flicge 
 
 fiatbe 
 fliirbe 
 
 flobc 
 
 ftotifc 
 ftiinfe 
 
 fiicBc 
 
 flrid)e 
 
 flritte 
 
 tf)dte 
 
 geflanbcit 
 
 fiiebl stfiobUtt 
 
 flirb 
 
 gefticgen 
 gcflorben 
 
 gcftoben 
 g<fh<nCcn 
 
 gcflojen 
 geflrid^en 
 gcflrittcn 
 -; — getban 
 
 the pret. indie, t^dt is common in dialectic German, especially as auxiliary. 
 
 ^'Xragen, 'carry' 
 'Srcffeii, 'hit' 
 ^nibeti, 'drive' 
 JXtettn, 'tread' 
 Sriefen, 'drip' 
 *!Erinfcii, 'drink' 
 
 Sriigeii, 'deceive' 
 ■'aBaAfen, 'grow' 
 
 triigft, troigt 
 trifffl, ttifft 
 
 trittfl, trift 
 CtreufH, ttenfO 
 
 mM)\t% mat^H 
 
 trug truge 
 
 tvaf trafe 
 
 trieb triebe 
 
 tvat ttate 
 
 ttoff ttoffe 
 
 ivant trattte 
 
 trunC tciinte 
 
 trog triige 
 
 i»iid)$ n>iid)fe 
 
 mog moge -; — geroogcn 
 
 gctrogcn 
 
 triff gctroffcn 
 
 getricben 
 
 tritt getvetm 
 
 (trcuf) gettoffen 
 
 Stivuntm 
 
 getrogcn 
 
 gen>ad)fm 
 
 olasB. 
 L3 
 1.3 
 
 267 
 
 1.3 
 
 IU.3 
 1.3 
 
 III .3 
 1.1 
 
 IL4 
 
 IILl 
 
 III.l 
 
 267 
 
 « 
 
 11.2 
 
 1.3 
 
 III.2 
 
 II.l 
 
 III.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 in.3 
 ii.a 
 
 III.5 
 
 aBcigcn, ' weigh ' „ ,, „ „ 
 
 sometimes of New conj. : compare stoegcn and totegeitr which are the same word. 
 
 '2Bafd)eii, 'wash' B)if(^ct*j ""W M)uf<^ wiifcite getvofdten II.a 
 
 aScben, 'weave' moB mSSe geicobeit 
 
 stocgcn 
 
 only in bemegen, 
 
 • swog =mogc sttogen 
 
 ' induce ; ' BetDCgen in other senses is of New conj. 
 
 aBefdxn, 'yield' Bi^ mi^c — 
 
 of New conj. when meaning * soften ' (as trans, or intrans.). 
 
 aScifen, 'show' 
 ^ SSJenbcn, ' turn ' 
 
 , - aScrben, ' sue ' 
 
 "* aiScrben, ' become ' 
 aOerfeit, 'throw' 
 
 aBiegcn, ' weigh ' 
 
 toirbft, nirbt 
 
 ivirft, niirb 
 reirffl, wirft 
 
 miei 
 
 uanbte 
 Dienbete 
 
 tnarb 
 
 loiefe 
 
 menbete 
 
 rearbc 
 tviirbe 
 
 toarb etc. loiirbe 
 
 worf toarfc 
 toiicfe 
 
 ivirb 
 
 wirf 
 
 icog 
 
 njoge 
 
 geisi^en 
 
 geroiefen 
 
 gemnnbt 
 gemcnbel 
 
 gciDorben 
 
 geiBprben 
 gctvprfen 
 
 gemogfit 
 
 the same word with wagen and stoegen : wiegen, 'rock,' is of New conj. 
 aBinben, 'wind' tvaiib noinbe gemunben 
 
 ,-^sH>inncn sioanit siocinne siooitnen 
 
 :n)i)niu 
 
 only used in geipinnen, ' win.' 
 
 IIL5 
 in.5 
 
 III.1 
 
 III.2 
 249 
 
 1.3 
 
 239.3 
 1.3 
 
 ni.3 
 
 1.1 
 1.2 
 
240 
 
 LIST OF lEEEGULAE VEEBS. 
 
 InflnttlTe. pres't indlo, sing. pret, Indlc. pret. subj. imper. past part. 
 
 SHJt(?en, 'know' wetj, meiSt, njclj mu^lc toulte imait 
 
 Sffiotten, 'wlU' Bin, ttiiaft, mtll woBtc mm gemoltt 
 
 3cit)cn, 'accuse' jfej jicI)C 9<J'«5»'" 
 
 Siclicit, 'draw' (jeu#, jeuW JOfl JoS* (SC"*^) sejOB'" 
 
 Sminscit, 'force' jttiong Jivangc ge}tt)ungen 
 
 claes. 
 260 
 2S1 
 
 m.2 
 m.3 
 
VOCABtJLAJET TO THE EKEECISES. 
 
 241 
 
 VOCABXJLARY TO THE EXERCISES. 
 
 Abbreviations. 
 
 irreg. irregular, 
 m. masculine noun, 
 n. neater noun. 
 N. New conjugation. 
 num. numeral. 
 
 O. Old conjugation. 
 prep, preposition. 
 pron. pronoun. 
 rejl. reflexive. 
 t). verb. 
 
 aty. adjective. 
 adv. adverb. 
 art. article. 
 conj. conjunction, 
 /. feminine noun. 
 
 In the case of verbs of the Old conjugation, their class and division (263-6) is added in- 
 parenthesis after v. O. References are frequently made to the Grammar, by paragraph 
 and division, in the sa^ne manner as in the Grammar itself. Unusual meanings of a word 
 are referred to the exercise and sentence where they occur. 
 
 To ea«h noun is added the ending of the genitive singular (except in the case of f emi- 
 nines), and the nominative plural (68). 
 
 (iBcr, conj. but, 
 obfaufen, «• N. buy from. 
 abf^rcibcn, v. 0. (III.2). copy. 
 d<ftt, adj- genuine. 
 Stblct/ m. =r8, =r. eagle, 
 9tbt)ofat/ TO- 'ten, =ten. lawyer, 
 aVi, pron. (193). all. — attc, nam. 
 pl—MtX, gen. pi. 
 
 aacrftdrtcft, from ^art (142.2). 
 
 aXSf conj- as; ■wrhen; after a com- 
 
 pa/rative, than. 
 alfO/ i^'"- accordingly, 
 (lit, 00^. (S in comparison), old. 
 2lltcr, n. =X9, --X. age. 
 am= on bent (65). 
 an, prep, at; on; in. 
 
 onbcr, «<^'. other.— attbcrcn, dat 
 
 sing. fern. 
 anbetStVO; <"*", elsewhere. 
 anfangett, «• 0. (II.3). begin. 
 
 anqtntiim, adj. pleasant. 
 
 nnf leibett/ ■»■ N. refi. dress one's 
 
 self. 
 anjie^en, v. 0. (in.3), draw on. 
 3t^)fcl, m. 4«, a^jfel, apple. 
 atbeiten, v.N. work.— arbcitct, 
 
 works. 
 ^tm, m. •xati, 'We, arm. 
 acnt/ at^- (ii in comparison), poor. 
 
 auSfi, conj. also. 
 auf , prep, on, upon ; at (Ex. 4.3). 
 ^nf ^abtf f «ben. task, exercise, 
 auf oe^cn, «• 0. (267). rise. 
 aufftcften, v. 0. (267). get up. 
 ^uge, M. =ge8, =gen. eye. 
 <IU§/ iw«p. out of; of (Ex. 5,1). 
 
 au^^thtn, V. 0. (267). go out, 
 auSfpre(i)en, v. 0. (i.s). pro- 
 
 ^at^, TO- =ii^e8, 4c^c. brook. 
 Balti, odv. soon. 
 aSflfl, TO- =tte8, 4ae, ball. 
 SSanb, TO. =t>e8, =anbe. volume. 
 93anf / /• =StlIc, bench. 
 35dr, TO. =ren, =ren. bear. 
 93auiit/ TO- =tne8, =aume, tree. 
 SSdutn^cn/ »- »lt8, =n. little tree. 
 Beginnen, ''. 0. (i,2). begin. 
 bcftalten, «- 0. (ii.3). keep. 
 aScin, K- =ne8, =ne. leg. 
 6cf<)rC(J»Cn, tf- 0. (LS). speak of. 
 Bcffcr, adj- (139.1). better. 
 bcft, fl^'- (139.1). best. 
 beftcftctt, "■ 0. (267). consist.— 
 
 bcfieljt, consists. 
 (etcagen, «- 0, behave.— Be* 
 
 trdgt, behaves. 
 
 11 
 
2i2 
 
 VOOAB0LAEY TO THE EXEKCISES. 
 
 SSctt, n. =tte8, =tten. bed. 
 
 Sibltptficf, /. =ten. library. 
 
 aSilb, n. =be8, Mt. picture. 
 
 SSittC/ /■ «tten. request. 
 
 aSIatt, re. =tte8,=otter. leaf. 
 
 6Iau, adi- blue. 
 
 ^Ici, «. =eie8, — . lead. 
 
 BIciBcttr ". 0. (III. 2). remain. 
 
 blinb/ <!<?;. blind. 
 
 hb^i o-olo- bad. 
 
 93ote, m. =ten, =ten. messenger. 
 
 tfCd)Cn, «. 0. (1.3). break. 
 
 SSrcitc, /. =ten. breadth. 
 
 aSrctt, Ti- «tte9, =ttci". board. 
 
 33ricf, m. =fe8, =fe. letter. 
 
 (ringett/ w. N. irreg. (250). bring. 
 — bringc, bring i 
 
 aSroi, n. =be8, =be. bread. 
 
 SStH&cr, m. =ber8, »iiber. brother. 
 
 ^ud)/ n. =c^e8, =uct)er. book. 
 
 ©iidberbrett, ».=tt8, =tter. book- 
 shelf. 
 
 ©6riftu«,m.=ti, — (107). Christ. 
 
 Sacf), «. «i^e8, 4c^et. roof. 
 
 banit/ CK^". then. 
 
 baDon, a^ii- (166.4). thereof, of it. 
 
 tnn,pr.adi. thy.— bcincS, ofthy. 
 
 bcnn, conj. for. 
 
 Set; fcic, baS, 0?^. the. — demon- 
 strative adj. and pron. that, that 
 one. — relative pron. who, which, 
 that. 
 
 bcticnigc, etc. determ. adj. amd 
 pron. that, that one. 
 
 ttntli^,adj. plain. 
 
 bCUtf(*, adj- German. 
 
 ©CUtfc^; »• indeel. German lan- 
 guage. 
 
 titt, adj. thick. 
 
 bicnen, «. JVi serve.— bicntc, 
 served. 
 
 bicS/ demonsir. adj. amdpron. (165). 
 
 this, that.— bicfeS, bicfcr, bics 
 
 fc, cases of btCS. 
 
 bit, pron. from btl. 
 
 ®oin, m. »nte8, =me. dome. 
 
 btcif^ig, »J«TO. thirty. 
 
 bruticn, «■ N'. print. 
 
 bu, i^ran. (151). thou. 
 
 btinn, adj. thin. 
 
 burfcn, «. J?^ ^'"'■e?. (261). be al- 
 lowed. 
 
 efftf conj. before. 
 
 C^rlic^, ad), honest. 
 
 cilt, ^ri. a, an. — num. one. 
 
 einanbct/ ^^rora. indecl. one an- 
 other. 
 
 cinig; prora. ado.— pi. CinigC, some. 
 
 ©ifcn, '». »n8, =n. iron. 
 
 cm^fongcn, v. O. (I1.3). receive. 
 
 er, pron. (151). he, it. 
 
 @rbc, /. =ben. earth. 
 
 ecinnetn, ". N. refl. remember. 
 
 Ctfenncit; v. N. vrreg. (249). re- 
 cognize. — ttitnnitf recognizest. 
 
 crft, a^. first. 
 
 C§, pron. It. 
 
 Cffcn, «. 0. (II.1). eat. 
 
 ettOaS/ pron. (188). something. 
 
 CUct», pron. (151). you. 
 
 ttttt, poss. adj. (\bl). your. 
 
 fallen, V. 0. (II.3). fall. 
 
 Santilie, /■ 4ien. family. 
 
 f anb, from finbcn. found. 
 
 g^afj, ■". =ffe8» =affer. cask. 
 
 f aul, adj. lazy. 
 
 S^cbriiar, «i. =re9, =rc. February. 
 
 ^cbcr, /. »rn. pen. 
 
 fcin, adj. fine. 
 
 ^Cinb, m. =bc8, =bc. enemy. 
 
 5clb, n. =be8, =ber. field. 
 
 Scnftcr, ". =r8, =v. window. 
 
VOCABULAET TO THE EXEECISES. 
 
 243 
 
 fiitbett, v. 0. (1.1). find. 
 ^ifd), m. =((^e8, '\ate. fish. 
 ^latSfi, /■ 'iltn. surface. 
 flei^ig/ Of^- industrious. 
 flicgcit, ^. 0. (III.3). fly. 
 S^Iofj, »• =6eS,= ofie. raft. 
 §IugcI, m. 48, 4- wing. 
 glu^, m- =ffe8, 4iffe. river. 
 f Ott/ at*"- forth, away. 
 f ortgcften, ?<. 0. (267). go awaj. 
 
 fragcn, «. .K ask. 
 $caU/ /• =ouen. woman, wife. 
 g^rdutcin, «• «n8, =n. young lady. 
 frcuen, v.N.refl. rejoice.— freuc 
 
 tni«i), am glad. 
 ^ccunb; »"• -be8, «be. friend. 
 frifd), ai^'- fresh. 
 froft/ <"?/■ cheerful. 
 ^rofd), m. =\i)ti, «ofi^e. frog. 
 f Xiftrcn, "• N. lead.— fiiftrt, leads. 
 fiir, prep. for. 
 %n^, m. =6es, =u6e. foot.— ^u^, 
 
 feet (211.2). 
 
 gaB, from gcben. gave. 
 ©artctt, m. --ni, =arten. garden. 
 ®ottC, m. =tten, =tten. husband. 
 @e6itge/ «■ «ge«, gc mountain 
 
 range. 
 gcbdrcn, "• 0. (1.3). bear.— ges 
 
 iotcn, born. 
 gcbcit, V. 0. (236.2). give.— gcBc, 
 
 (I) give. 
 gcborcn, from gebdrcn. 
 gcBtDc^cn, /row brc«^cn. 
 ©cburt, /. =ten. birth. 
 ©efaftr, /• --ten. danger. 
 ®cfd^rtC, m. =ten, 4m. comrade. 
 gcfaCcn, "• 0. (II.S). please.— 
 
 gcfditt, pleases. 
 
 gefunbcn, from ftnbcn. 
 
 ge^en, v. o. (267). go.— gcftt, 
 
 ©cifit, m. 4(9, 4n. spirit. 
 getcljrt, ad;, learned. 
 gefc()C{Kn, «. O. (II.l). happen; — 
 
 gef (^ a^ , happened, took place. 
 gcfc^Cn, from fc^CU. seen. 
 geficrit, adv. yesterday. 
 
 gctftan, from tftnit. 
 
 getOCi^t, part, of tOCiScU, conse- 
 crate.— tjjur be gctociftt/ was 
 consecrated. 
 
 gctDi^; o^j- sure, certain. 
 
 gicb, ij'om gcbcn, give I 
 
 gicbt, from gcbCM. gives. 
 
 gleil^^ adv. immediately. 
 
 gluc?lid)> adj. happy. 
 
 ©olb, «. =be8, =be. gold. 
 
 ®t)tt, ™. »tte«, =otter. god. 
 
 ®r(lb, w. =be8, =aber. grave. 
 
 ®raf, «i. «fen, =fen. count. 
 
 gro^/ «'?/'• (b «« comparison), great. 
 
 girt, o'^y. good. 
 
 I»abc, /rom l&abcn. have. 
 Iiaben, w. JK w-rey. (239.1). have. 
 
 fialUn, V. 0. (n.3). hold.— :&dlt, 
 
 holds, keeps. 
 
 J^ammcr, m. =r8, =dnitnev. ham- 
 mer. 
 
 i^ani, f 'Unit. hand. 
 
 ftangcn, "• 0. (ll.s). hang. 
 
 ftiirt/ adj. (a in comparison), hard. 
 
 ^affen, w- iV. hate. 
 
 iftat, from tiabtn, has. 
 
 :6atten, .^-om ftabcn. had. 
 
 J^OW^/ "■ =1^^' =aufer. house. 
 
 l^eben, v. 0. (III.S). raise, lift. 
 
 J^clfc, n. =ben, «betl. hero. 
 
 ftclfcn, «. 0. (1.3). help. 
 
 ficrannaftcu, «. N. draw nigh. 
 
 ^cri'/ »»• =ttit, =rren (93). master. 
 
 l^CUte, adv. to-day. 
 
 ^crj, M. 'jeng, .gen. heart. 
 
 ftiiVf adv. here. 
 
244 
 
 TOOABTTLAET TO THE EXEKCI8ES. 
 
 liilf, fr(ym I)clfCtt (270.2). 
 l^ineintvctfett/ 1>- o. (i.3). throw 
 
 in. 
 
 16 0«^, a4i- (139.1) (b in compari- 
 son), high. 
 
 ftotie, from ^OC^. 
 
 Movtn, ■"■ ^- liear. 
 
 j^ovn, «• =ne8, =orner. bom. 
 
 ^linii, m. =be8, «bc. dog. 
 
 J^Ut, m. =te8, =ute. hat. 
 
 ic^, pron. (151). I. 
 
 ilftncn, pron., from ct. 
 
 iftr, i)oss. adj. (157). her, its, their : 
 
 tftrc, ifircOT, iftrcn, iftvcr, 
 
 3[()r, pass. adj. (157). your. 
 im = in bcin (65). 
 immcr, adv. always. 
 in, prep, in, into. 
 
 in« = in ba« (65). 
 
 ift, /rom fcin (239.2). is. 
 
 ^a^V, »• »fe?, =te. year. 
 ^anuav, »• =1:8, =re. January. 
 fC/ «<*«'• ever. 
 jcti, pron. adj. (190). each, everj-. 
 
 — jcbcnt, jctct, case* 0/ jcb. 
 3cfecrntann, pron. (187). every 
 
 one. 
 JCrt, ^rom. (Ki/. yon, that 
 
 junQ/ oi??'. (ii »» comparison), young. 
 
 fait/ (fi in comparison), cold. 
 
 f ann, from f onncn. 
 StaSt, m. =jc8, -St. cheese. 
 f auf en, v. N. hny. 
 {cnncn, ■"• -^ in-egr. (249). know. 
 ^inb, «. =l)e8, =bcv. child. 
 jtirc^e, /. =(^en. church. 
 .Slcib, »• =be8, =bEr. garment. 
 {(cin, adj. small, little. 
 
 SnaBe, »• =ben, =Ben. boy. 
 fommcn, ». 0- (267). come. 
 fonncn, '»• N. w-reg. (251). can. 
 ^Oijjf , ™. =fe8, =o))fe. head. 
 ^0St1)aX, o# precious. 
 franf, adj. (a in com,pairismi). 
 
 sick. 
 «rcuj, n- =je8, =je. ca'oss. 
 frie<i)cn, o. 0- (in.3). crawl. 
 Srieg, ™- »3e«, »ge. war. 
 .Kugel, /. »getn. balL 
 fut}, adj. (ii in comparison), short. 
 
 lagen, Aom liegem 
 
 la^nt, «(??• lame. 
 
 lang, ooj/'- (a j» compansori). long. 
 
 Conge, /. =gen. length. 
 
 laffcn, -o. 0. (n.3). let.— ld#t, lets. 
 
 leben, «. .K live. 
 
 Center, m. =r8, =r. teacher. 
 
 Seib, »i. =be8, =ber. body. 
 
 leic^t, <i^- light, easy. 
 
 leibcn, i>- 0. (ni.i). suffer, 
 lei^cn,®. 0.(111.2). lend.— leilftc, 
 
 (I) lend. 
 letnen, v. K leam. 
 Icfet, od;'. last. 
 fieute, m. pi. (100.2). people. 
 8i«J)t, n. 4e8, =ter. Ught. 
 lieb, adj. dear. 
 UcBcn,t'.-W. (236.1). love.— liett, 
 
 loves. — licbct, love ye I 
 Cicfc, n. =be8, =ber. song. 
 liegen, v. 0. (1.4). lie. 
 linf, adj. left. 
 lobcn, V. N. praise. 
 8nf t, /. =afte. air. 
 
 madjcn, v. n: make.— macOtc, 
 
 made. 
 9)ldtld)Cn, n. =n8, -n. girl. 
 ninn, pron. (185). one. 
 SDlann, w. =ne8, =anner. man. 
 
VOCAJBULAEY TO THE EXBECISES. 
 
 245 
 
 ntctit, poss. adj. (159.2). my.— 
 mcinem, mcincn, mciitcr, 
 tnctneS, cases of ntcin. 
 
 mcincn, v. N. mean. 
 SJlcnfd), m. =\&jtn, 4d)eit. man. 
 gjlcffcr, n. =t:9, =r. knife. 
 SWctaff', «. 'ttee, =IIe. metal. 
 ntid), from i(^» me. 
 5SJtiI*, /. — . milk. 
 tnir, from i(J). to me. 
 ntlt, W^P- with. 
 ntdi^tcn, ^om mogcn. 
 mogcn, «• -W- ^•'■«S'- (251), may, 
 SBlonor^,m-»ci)eti,»(^en. monarch. 
 SJJionat, m- =t«, «te. mopth. 
 ntotgcn, a<^- to.morrow. 
 SBfuCcr, m. =r8, »r. miner, 
 SSJiunb, ™. =be8, =be. mouth. 
 iniiffcn, i>- ^- irreg, (251). must, 
 3JIuttcr, /. =uttcr. mother. 
 
 Wac^, prep, after, 
 
 ^a.d!i\>aXf in. »r8, «rn. neighbor. 
 
 Station, /• =nen. nation, 
 
 9lcffe, ™. =fen, »fen. nephew. 
 
 neu, o<^'- new. '•; 
 
 ncuiic^, flK^i'. recently. o-,'i 
 
 nic^t, a*, not. "- 
 
 ni^tS, pron. (188). nothing. 
 
 nic, o-dv. never. 
 
 niebtig, 0^'. low. 
 
 no(^, «*■ yet, 
 
 not^, o*. nor (after tDCict), 
 
 nnr, adv. only. 
 
 nii^Iicfi, a(^'. useful 
 
 Oc()fe, m. J\m, =fen. ox. 
 
 06cr, ^onj. or, 
 
 oft, of^"- often. — fo oft, as often 
 
 as. 
 ©nfcl, ™. 48, 4. uncle. 
 ©rt, ™. =te8, »te. place, 
 
 spflpicr', ». 'IS, =re. paper. 
 
 ^crfon', /. =nen. person. 
 
 ^etruS, m, Peter.— spctri, Pe- 
 ter's (107). 
 
 ^fcrb, ■/». =be8, »bc. horse. 
 
 ?Pflaffcr, »• =l'8, »r. pavement. 
 
 pfln&tn, V. N, pluck.— pfljitft, 
 plucks, 
 
 spolc, TO. =len, 4eit. Pole, 
 
 ^oft, /• =ten. post, post-office. 
 
 ?i)rcn#e, m. '6e«» '6en. Prus- 
 sian, 
 
 ^ult, »• «te8, At. desk. 
 
 rcbcn, w- iK (248). talk, 
 
 tcblidb, ad?', honest. 
 
 rcdjt, cidj. right. 
 
 rci^, ad/, rich. 
 
 teif., oulj, ripe. 
 
 Slcitic, /• 4en- row. 
 
 9lo(f , m. »fe8, sijde. coat. 
 
 91 om, »■ =ttt8. Rome. 
 
 9lofC, /• =fen. rose. 
 
 tot^, od;. (o «ra compa/rison). red. 
 
 Slu^nt, TO. =me8, — . fame, credit, 
 
 tunb, ad;', round. 
 
 fagcn, v. N. say. 
 faft, .^om fc:&cn. saw. 
 
 ®anct, adj- Saint. 
 
 fangen, /-oto flfngcn. 
 fa#cn, from ftftcn. 
 fd)abcn, «. .K injure, 
 ft^dmen, «. N. refl. be ashamed. 
 fd^attig, oAj. shady. 
 ftbauctt, «• .^^ look. 
 f*t(Scn, w. -W, send.— f*i(ftC, 
 
 sent.- 
 fcftlcdjt, od;'. bad. 
 
 ©efinaBcI, m. 48, =a6el. bill. 
 ftfion, adi;, already. 
 fd)on, od/, beautiful. 
 
246 
 
 VOCABULAET TO THE EXEECISES, 
 
 ftfircibcit, i>. 0. (in.2). write.— 
 
 fi^rcitt, writes.— ft^rctbc, (i) 
 
 write ; write 1 
 StJ^U^, m. =t|e8, =^e. shoe. 
 <Bd)nltXf m. 'XS, 'X. scholar. 
 fc^ttXIli^/ <^- (ft wi ccmvpajrison). 
 
 weak. 
 fdbtvat}/ <K?/. (H ^Jt comparisori). 
 
 black. 
 fct>W«mmcn, "• 0. (1.2). swim. 
 fc(J)5/ num. six. 
 
 fcgncn, w- JV. bless. — fcgnet, 
 
 bless ye 1 
 fcftcn, «. 0. (HI), see.— fcl&c, 
 
 (I) see. 
 fcir, a*, very. 
 fcin, pass. adj. his, its.— fciite, 
 
 fcincm, fcincn, coses e/fein, 
 fcin, 1). a (239.2). be. 
 fciltifl/ poss, adj. (159.5). his, its. 
 fclbcr, pron. adj. (155.5). self. 
 ft(^, refl.pron.{\bb.2,). himself etg. 
 fie, pron. (151). they, them, she. — 
 
 ®tC, you. 
 flc^t, from fclften (268.1). 
 ftnb, from fcin, «• are. 
 
 fingcn, i>- 0. (1.1). sing.— fingt, 
 
 ftftcn, ■"■ 0. (1.4). sit.— fi^t, sits. 
 fo, («to. so. — fp oft, as often as. 
 fob alb, core/, as soon as. 
 foglci^, o*. immediately. 
 ®P^n, ™- 'ties, -tUtnt, son. 
 ®oIbat/ m- =ten, =tcn. soldier. 
 foKen, "• .W irreg. (251). shall. 
 ®omntct, »». =r§, =r. summer, 
 ©onnc, /. =nen. sun. 
 fpauifc^, a(^'- Spanish. 
 fpdt, «<??'■ late, 
 ^|)iC0Cl, TO. 4«, 4. mirror. 
 S^jicIjCUfl, »• --%i, --?,t. playthiflga. 
 ®^)ra«J)C, /. »ci^en. language. 
 fprrtci)cn, Aom f^v^cben, spoke, 
 
 fpreiJ^en, «• o. (Ls). speak.— 
 fprirftt, speaks. — f^cat^en; 
 
 (they) spoke. 
 («tabt, /. «bt, =abte. city. 
 ®taftl, TO. 4e8, =a^le. steel. 
 ftatf , of^^ (tt *» comparison), strong. 
 ftcftcn, V. 0.(267). stand.-ftcfit, 
 
 stands. 
 tetord), TO. =d^e8, =i)r^c. stork. 
 ®tube, /. =ben. room. 
 @tubcnt, TO- =tcn, =ten. student. 
 ftubircn, v. K study.- ftubirt/ 
 
 studied. 
 <Stu6I, m. =lc8, »ii^(e. chair. 
 ftiiljcn, V. N. rest.— ftufet, rests. 
 fxi#, adj. sweet. 
 
 tabcin, "• N. blame. 
 3;ag, TO. =ge8, =ge. day, 
 !£af(i)C, /• =(ii&en. - pocket. 
 JScUcr, TO. =r8, =r. plate. 
 ;£l^al, «. 4e8, =ater. valley. 
 !£iat, /. =tcn. deed. 
 !£^or, »• =re8, =rc. gate. 
 !£ftor, TO. »rert, =ren. fooL 
 t^un, V. 0. (267). do, put.— t^but/ 
 
 puts. 
 S^intc, /. =ten. ink. 
 %iSii), m. '\iiei, =|c^e. table. 
 Xodfttt, f. =0(I)tcr. daughter. 
 ttagcn, *• 0. (I1.2). cany, bear, 
 
 wear. — ttdgt (268.2), carries, 
 
 wears. 
 trdge, adj. lazy. 
 !S^ud), ». =dEie8, =(^e. cloth. 
 !£ugcnb, /. =bcn. virtue. 
 
 I'iBcr, prep, over, above. 
 Itctctfc^Uft, TO.48,=5e- overshoe. 
 iiberfcft'cn, «. .^V: translate. 
 um, prep, around, about; by (Ex. 
 
 13.1). 
 linb, oonj. and, 
 
TOCABTJLAKT TO THE EXEECISES. 
 
 247 ^ 
 
 Itttgat/ n. =rn, =rn. Hungarian. 
 ItnglU^^ n. =cl8, sde. misfortune. 
 ttniSJCrfitdt, /• =ten. unireraity. 
 tinrcif, ad}- unripe. 
 UnS; jprora. (151). us. 
 Unfct/ jposs. ad/. (159). our. 
 unftig/ pos*. <«?/■ (159.5). our. 
 unittf prep, under. 
 
 SSatct, ™- =r8/ =fiter. father. 
 33atettanb, «. 'bes, «be. one's 
 
 country. 
 DCrfoIgcn, «• .^^ persecute. 
 Vergelten, «• O. (1.3). reward.— 
 
 ttetgeltet, reward ye I 
 DetgefFeu, % o. (il,i). forget. 
 sjccf aufcn, ". -^^ sell. 
 
 ©criflngcn, i'- i^- reqube. 
 »crreifen, «• -K journey away. 
 »erf^re(i)cn, «. 0, (1.3). promise. 
 »crfiC^ClI, 11. 0. (267). under- 
 stand. 
 Die!/ pj-ow. (192). much, many, 
 Dicr, «M»J. four. 
 33oge(/ TO. =t8, =bget. bird. 
 95oDF, «. =te8, »otIer. people. 
 DoKenben, »■ .k fluish. 
 
 Doit/ i»rep. of, from. 
 
 uom = ton bent (65). 
 Dor, prep- before; outside (Ex. 2.6). 
 VOrlcfcn, v. 0, (II.l). read to. — 
 Dorlieft (268.1). 
 
 tvd^Ien, V. K choose,— twdftlt, 
 
 chooses. 
 aSaftrftcit, / =teti. truth. 
 SSalb/ m. =be«, sfilber. forest, wood. 
 toann, otdv. when? 
 
 tt>anbcrn/ «. .w; wander. 
 
 toat, from fctn, w. was. 
 Warcn, yj-om fcin, i'. were. 
 h>artrt, ac^'. (S i« comparison). 
 warm. 
 
 M)a§, jprora. what 
 toaS f iir, pron. what sort of. 
 aSBaffcr, «. =r8, »r. water. 
 twcfcct/ oonj. neither. 
 SSeib/ ™. =6e8, =ber. woman. 
 W)Ci(^, ac?;'. soft. 
 Wciftctt, ». .Wi consecrate. 
 XDtilf conj. because. 
 SEBcin, TO. 'HeS, =ne. wine. 
 Wcifc, of^'. wise. 
 tvei#, a<^'. white. 
 WCii?/ from tuiffcit/ know, knows. 
 hJCit, acy. far. 
 tVCl^, p?-o». who, which. 
 toenn, co?i/. when, if. 
 tottf pron. who. 
 tocrben, i;. O. (277). become. 
 SBcrf , ». =Ie8, =fe. work. 
 tt»t£/ corej'. as, like. 
 toitbtV, adv. again ; in return. 
 toic'bergebcn, ». 0. (ii.i). give 
 back. -, totebcrgabcn, gave 
 
 back. 
 toit'btvftoltxtf V.N. fetch back. 
 toicberfto'Icn, ■». N. repeat. 
 h)ilf, from njoticn. 
 2Stntct, TO. »r8, »r. winter, 
 tt)ir, i»"on. (161). we. 
 toiffcn, ti. If. irreg. (260). know.— 
 
 tvei#/ know, knows. 
 Jt)0, «<?!;. where? where, 
 tOO^ilt/ o^v. whither? 
 toottcrt, «'■ .K irreg. (251). will, 
 
 wish. 
 SiBort/ «• =te8, =te or sorter, word. 
 h)Unf«ictt, v, J?: wish. 
 aBurm, m. =me8, =fltmcr or =urme. 
 
 worm. 
 
 3<l^n/ TO- «ne8, «a]|ne. tooth. 
 jerBrod^en; v. 0. (I.S). break in 
 
 3tmmcr, ». 'ts, =r, room. 
 
24:8 ' VOCABULAET TO THE EXEECISES. 
 
 gU, prep, to'; at (Ex. 13.5).— gu jurucEfommCtt, "• 0. (267). come 
 
 itabtn, to be had (343.III.1). back. 
 
 jufricbcit/ ad,j. contented. jufammctt, oidii- together. 
 
 JUglci^, adv. at the same time, poti, num. two. 
 
 at once. Jtpolf/ num. twelve. 
 
 gur = ju tcr (65). 
 
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