LIBRARY OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF HOME ECONOMICS CORNELL UNIVERSITY ITHACA, NEW YORK Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924052338336 FOODS AND SANITATION FOODS AND SANITATION A TEXT-BOOK AND LABORATORY MANUAL FOR HIGH SCHOOLS BY EDITH HALL FORSTER, B.A. FORMERLY DIRECTOR OP HOME ECONOMICS, NORTHERN ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, DEKALB, ILLINOIS MILDRED WEIGLEY DIRECTOR OF HOME ECONOMICS, NORTHERN ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, FORMERLY TEACHER OP DOMESTIC SCIENCE, TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, DKKALB, ILLINOIS CHICAGO NEW YORK ROW, PETERSON AND COMPANY COPYKIGHT 1914 EOW, PETERSON AND COMPANy PREFACE This book is the result of many requests for the laboratory manuals used by the writers in their high school work. The experiments have been used in a progressive high school M^here no special preparation has been required of the pupils before undertaking the work. The text has been drawn from sources too technical or scattered for high school pupils and modified for them. I. The Aim. It is planned, by experiments and many applications, to give an understanding of the scientific principles underlying: 1. The economical use of fuel. 2. The processes of sterilization and food preparation. 3. The choosing of food in regard to its composition and condition. 4. The selection of food for the normal body. 5. Important conditions of home sanitation. II. The Method. It is hoped the method is such that the pupil will get principles rather than isolated facts; that she may be able, with these principles, to make inde- pendently many more applications than are given in the book. It is hoped, above all things, to stimulate thought rather than imitation. Instead of one recipe, various pro- portions and conditions have been given to gain a greater comprehension of the effect of different ingredients and conditions, and so to achieve greater mastery. With a little experience the pupil can make adjustments to material, economy, and particular desire. 3 4 PKEFACE A subject is taken up in the following order : 1. Discussion to connect with the pupil's previous expe- rience, to get a purpose for the new subject. In other words, a psychological approach is used. 2. General discussion giving information not to be de- rived from the pupil's experiments. 3. Simple experiments to discover the principles under- lying the subject. 4. Applications to the preparation of food of informa- tion and of conclusions from experiments. III. The Order. To introduce the entire subject a survey of the use of food by the body is given. The use of fuels and utensils as the tools, and of the different methods of conveying heat, must naturally precede all cooking. The cooking and canning of fruits follows because of the season (work generally begun in the Fall), and because of the simplicity of composition and preparation. The work on bacteriology and canning may. be omitted if desired. Simi- larity of composition and increasing difficulty of prepara- tion determine the order from this point on. IV. Requirements of Pupil and Equipment : 1. Work in cooking in an elementary school is not pre- supposed, but should this have been had, the greater com- pass and different point of view will maintain interest even where there is repetition. 2. It is supposed that the pupil has had some work on the physiology of digestion, such as would be secured in the physiology required in the elementary school or in the first year of the high school, but no other science work is assumed. 3. In addition to the ordinary laboratory utensils, test tubes and a few very easily procured chemicals are used. It is highly desirable to have a number of chemical ther- PREFACE 5 mometers, but in case only one can be had, experiments requiring the use of a thermometer may be performed by a group of students. V. The Results Which it is Hoped may be Attained Are : 1. That the girl who has no more than high school train- ing will have acquired sufficient knowledge to give her a scientific attitude toward the household affairs with which this book deals. 2. That she may perform her duties as housekeeper, whether of actual work or supervision, with more intelli- gence, greater interest, less labor, and better health and happiness to herself and family. The subject of Household Sanitation has been added after requests to have both that and Poods treated of in one book. The aim in this section has been to carry out the applied bacteriology of the Food section in the care of the person and of the house, and to bring to the notice of the High School pupil some of the important factors in physical com- fort. The authors wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to Miss Marion Talbot of the University of Chicago and Mrs. Alice Peloubet Norton for their criticisms and helpful sug- gestions ; to Mr. P. M. Giles of the DeKalb Township High School for valuable suggestions from the point of view of high school work ; to Miss Anne Green for helpful criticism after using the manuscript in her classes ; to Miss Barbara Patten for her suggestions and her assistance in securing pictures and in preparing the index ; also to the University of Illinois for the use of pictures. For the chapter on Fire Prevention in the Home they are indebted to Mr. H. Walter Porster. NOTE TO TEACHERS It is not the thought of the authors that the order of subjects in this book must have close adherence. The order may be altered according to the necessities of the school and community. For example, the chapter on Ices and Ice Creams is placed toM'ard the beginning, when the subject of temperature is being studied, but there is no reason why it might not be put in at the end, if desired. Since this book is not designed to be a cook book, the teacher should see that the student keeps a careful record of good proportions and recipes which come as a result of an experiment or a series of experiments. It will be noted that while most of the book is written with- out Physics and Chemistry as a prerequisite, occasionally some work, as in the case of baking powders, has been added to be used by high school students who have had some work in Chemistry. This may be omitted at the discretion of the teacher without altering the general plan of the book. Real- izing that many of the books on food are too technical to be used for reference work by high school students, an effort has been made to give references to easily available bulle- tins. In some cases, references to bulletins of use only to teachers have been given. In these instances a note "for teachers ' ' is inserted after the reference. The authors are very desirous of making this book a work- able laboratory manual, and to this end will welcome at any time any suggestions and criticisms. CONTENTS PAGE Chapter I. Food Measurements and Weights . . 13 The Study of Food — The Science of Cooking — The Art of Cooking — Measuring — Measurements and Weights. Chapter IT. Safe, Economical, and Clean House- keeping 20 The Economical and Safe Use of Gaseous and Liquid Fuels — The Regulation of Coal and Wood Stoves — Protection from Fire Hazards — Dish- washing — Care of Utensils and Equipment — The Processes of Cooking to which the different Metals are best adapted. Chapter III. Thermometers and Boiling . . 31 Thermometers — Care of Thermometers — Fahren- heit and Centigrade Scale — Experiments. Chapter IV. Fruits 38 Composition — The Importance of their use in the Diet — Effect of Ripening on Composition — Color — Flavor — Structure — The Cooking of Fruit. Chapter V. Canning 46 Experiments to Determine Cause of Fruit Spoil- ing — Use of Syrups in Canning — Methods — Ster- ilization of Vegetables by Canning. Chapter VI. Preserving, Jelly Making, and Pickling 60 Flavoring Materials — Extractions of Fruit Juice — Proportion of Sugar — Jelly Tests — Care of Jelly — Pickling — Vinegar — Dried Fruit. 7 8 CONTENTS PAGE Chapter VII. Stimulants 70 Beverages — Spices — Tea — Preparation for Market — Brewing — Standards for Judging — Test for Tannin with Cuprie Acetate — Coffee — Standards for Judging CofEee — Spices. Chaptee VIII. Caebohydeates 79 Sugar — Candy — Starch — Sources and Character- istics of Carbohydrates which are Found in Foods — Sugars — Crystallization — Candy — The Use of Sugar and Candy in the Diet. Chapter IX. Freezing Mixtures 93 Freezing Temperatures — Construction of a Freezer — Ices — Ice Creams. Chapter X. Starch 101 Characteristics of Starch — Manufacture of Glu- cose from Starch — Effect of Cooking on Starch Grains — Mixing Starch — Cocoa and Chocolate — White Sauces — Thickening Power of Flour and Corn-Starch. Chapter XI. Vegetables Ill Composition — Preparation of Vegetables for Cook- ing — Time of Cooking — Methods of Cooking Vege- tables — Weights and Measures of Vegetables — Dried Vegetables. Chapter XII. Fats 124 Composition — Burning Points and Frying — Effect of Heat on Fat — Frying. Chapter XIII. Cereals 129 Breakfast Food — Rice — Methods of Cooking — Tapioca — Nuts — Fireless Cookers. CONTENTS 9 PAGE Chapter XIV. Milk 138 Milk as a Food — Composition — Skim Milk — But- termilk — Evaporated Milk — Production of Clean Milk — Methods of Safeguarding Milk Supplies — Souring of Milk — Instructions for Making Tests with Babcock Milk Tester— Effect of Tempera- ture upon Milk — Rennin. Chapter XY. Milk Products 159 Cheese — Butter — Manufacture of Cheese — Digest- ibility of Cheese — Butter — Manufacture — Reno- vated Butter — Manufacture of Oleomargarine. Chapter XVI. Eggs 165 Composition — Cooking — Preservation — Digestion — Recipes. Chapter XVII. Meat 177 Structure — Effect of Heat upon Meat — Cuts of Meat — Methods of Preparing Meat for Serving — Relative Economy of Various Retail Cuts — Gravies — Cold Storage Meats — Ptomaine Poison- ing. Chapter XVIII. Gelatin 203 Brands — Cost — Methods of Dissolving — Gelatin Desserts. Chapter XIX. Poultry and Fish 206 Poultry — Selection — Composition — Fish — Se- lection — Methods of Cooking — Shell Fish. Chapter XX. Salads 213 Salad Dressings — French — Mayonnaise — Cooked — Preparation of Salads. 10 CONTENTS PAGE Chapter XXI. Flour 216 Manufacture — Color — Odor — Water Absorbing Power — Measuring Flour for Batters and Doughs. Chapter XXII. Chemical Leavening Agents . . 227 Baking Powder — Available Gas — Chemical Reac- tions. Chapter XXIII. Batters and Doughs .... 233 Use of Sour Milk and Molasses — Muffins — Boston Brown Bread — Baking Powder Biscuits — Dutch Apple Cake — Doughnuts — Pastry — Fillings. Chapter XXIV, Bread 242 Standards for Good Bread — Dried and Com- pressed Yeast — Preparation of Bread — Short and Long Process — Rolls — Use of Bread Mixer — Methods of Using Stale Bread — Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread. Chapter XXV. Cake and Cookies 253 Mixing — Baking — Standards for Good Cakes — Uses for Stale Cake — Frostings — Cookies. Chapter XXVI. The Preparation op Meals . . 258 Conditions Influencing Amount of Food Needed — Table of Food Units — Use of Protein in the Diet — Preparation of Meals. Chapter XXVII. Table Service 270 Principles Underlying Table Service — Setting the Table — Forms of Service — Order of Serving. Chapter XXVIII. The Hygiene op Feeding . . 281 Condition of Good Digestion — Eye-Strain — Ap- petite — Drinking during Meals. CONTENTS 11 SANITATION PAGE Introduction 287 Chapter XXIX. Theories op Disease 289 Theories of Disease — Theories of Pasteur and Koch. Chapter XXX. How to Avoid Disease .... 293 Habits which Will Help to Avoid Disease : Care of Hands — ^Use of Towels — Bedding and Toilet Supplies — Dishwashing — Kissing. Habits Pro- moting Good Resistance: Temperature — Exer- cise — Moderate Eating — Fresh Air. Chapter XXXI. How to Avoid Infectious Dis- eases 296 Colds — Tonsilitis — Bronchitis — Pneumonia — Diphtheria — Inflammation of the Eyes — Tuber- culosis — Typhoid • — Diarrhea — Boils — Lock- jaw — Blood Poisoning — Meningitis — Small-pox — Rheumatism — Malaria — Yellow Fever. Chapter XXXII. The Situation op the House . 312 Desirable Conditions in House Situation — Con- struction of the House. Chapter XXXIII. Indoor Air 315 "What Constitutes Impure Air — Carbondioxide — Poisons from Breath — Humidity and Tempera- ture — Change of Temperature Good — Use of Thermometer — Protection from Draughts — Deter- mination of Humidity. Chapter XXXIV. Heating System 325 Hot "Water — Steam — Hot Air Furnace — Stoves — Fireplaces and Grates. 12 CONTENTS PAGK Chapter XXXV. Lighting 329 Modifying Sunlight — Indirect — ^Light and Air. Chapter XXXVI. Fire Prevention in the Home . 331 Dangers in the Basement — The Cook Stove — Fire- places — Matches — Illuminating Gas — Electric Wiring — Kerosene Lamps — Acetylene — Gasolene ■ — ^Polishes — Spontaneous Combustion. Chapter XXXVII. Plumbing 344 Fixtures — Placing — Choosing — Cleaning. Chapter XXXVIII. Sewage and Garbage Disposal 352 Methods of Sewage Disposal Used in Cities and Towns — In Country — IJse of Privies. Chapter XXXIX. Water Supply 355 Sources of Water Supply — Dug Wells — Springs — Artesian Wells — Rivers — Large Lakes — Moun- tain Streams — Filters. Chapter XL. Clean Food 358 Flies — Dust — Handling of Food — Bating of Raw Fruits and Vegetables. Chapter XLI. Labor Saving and Dust Prevention 361 Furnishing — Dusting — Sweeping. Chapter XLII. Disinfectants 363 Disinfectants and Antiseptics — ^TJses — Fumigation — Sunlight. FOODS AND SANITATION CHAPTER I FOOD MEASUREMENTS AND WEIGHTS The Study of Food. The body is a delicately adjusted mechanism which derives from the food which it .consumes, not only the material for its growth and renewal, but also all its ability to pro- duce work and heat. Although delicately adjusted, the machine will work under adverse conditions, though the ease and quality of its work is impaired. In order to keep the body working efficiently, the proper kinds and quantities of foods must be pro- vided. The application of science to human nutri- tion, or the proper feeding of mankind, has only been begun. The science of feeding some of the lower animals has progressed further and shows marvelous results in improvement in health, size, and efficiency, and therefore in money value. The application of bacteriology and sanitation has pro- longed the average of human life. This has been brought about largely by cleaner water, milk, vege- tables, meat, etc.; by better care of the sick, In- bettor housing, by the abandonment of the public 13 14 FOODS AND SANITATION drinking cup and other sources of infection. With this longer life, we should have a smaller percentage of days of inefificiency, less headache, weariness, and all that host of things which keep people from feel- ing buoyant as they should when in good health. As the science of nutrition develops it shows more and more how the kind, the quantity, the cooking, and the eating of food affects these conditions of life. Foods are materials which contain any or all of five different classes of substances in a form which the body can use. These are called nutrients. They perform different kinds of work for the body as the following table shows: 1. Protein. Examples: The curd of milk, the lean of meat. Protein builds and repairs tissue, and also furnishes heat and power to do work. 2. Carbohydrates. Examples: Starch, sugar, glucose. Carbohydrates furnish heat and power to do work. 3. Fats. Examples: Olive oil, lard, cottolene, butter. Fats have the same functions as carbohydrates. 4. Ash. Example : Common salt, iron, lime, and sul- phur. Ash is a necessary constituent of all of the fluids of the body, as well as of the cells, the bones, the hair, and the teeth. When foods are burned, just as when coal or wood is burned, the mineral material which they contain is left, and this is called ash. 5. Water. "Water is necessary to make the fluids, the blood, lymph, and digestive juices. Spices and other flavoring materials, although they contain a little ash and protein and sometimes FOOD MEASUREMENTS AND WEIGHTS 15 starch, are not considered foods on account of the minute quantities used. Meat extracts are not foods, neither are tea and coffee. They contain either no nutrients, or nutrients in such a forin that the body can not use them. They are stimulants and helpful in time of great fatigue, but they must not be considered nourishment. The body needs the greatest amount of food as fuel for heat and work. All during life the muscles of the body are contracting and expanding, per- forming different amounts of work, from that of breathing in sleep to that of the hardest physical or mental labor. Every kind of work done results also in heat, the amount depending upon the amount of work done. We know that in winter we may make ourselves warm by moving about, or by work- ing. And we feel hotter in summer according as the activity of work increases. After many experiments it has been found that work equal to lifting 427 kilograms, or 939.4 pounds, the distance of 1 meter is capable of producing the amount of heat which would raise the temperature of one kilogram or about 1 quart of water 1° C. This amount of heat is called a calorie, which is a unit used in measuring heat, as an inch is the unit for measuring length. The amount of heat given off by the body doing various kinds of work is shown by a table in Chapter XXVI. Since the fuel needed by the body is measured by 16 POODS AND SANITATION lieat, not by work, the value of foods as fuel is meas- ured also by the calories which they are capable of producing. Although the first three nutrients are all capable of being used as fuel, they are not equally efficient. 1 gram of fat gives 9 calories 1 gram of carbohydrates gives 4 calories 1 gram of protein gives 4 calories The grown body, doing no muscular work, re- quires from .2,000 to 3,500 calories per day. Al- though protein, as well as carbohydrates and fats, is capable of being used as fuel to produce work and heat, yet it should not be used in such quanti- ties as to supply those needs of the body to any great extent. It seems wise to have not more than 300 to 400 calories furnished by protein. The idea that increased protein, as for example, meat, must be eaten to enable one to do hard work, is entirely a mistaken one. The number of calories needs to be increased, not the protein to any appreciable extent. What we know as "muscular strength" comes from the total number of calories, rather than from the amount of protein in the food. In choosing food to serve at a meal, then, we must know the composition of it so that the body will have the nutrients in a fairly correct proportion, and that we may spend money for nutritious rather than for cheap or expensive food. The price is not an FOOD MEASUREMENTS AND "WEIGHTS 17 indication of the food value. Not only calories are to be considered in judging the cheapness or cost- liness of foodstuffs; the kind of nutrients which they furnish has a share in deciding whether foods are worthy of their price. Although fruits and vegetables yield a small quantity of nutrients in proportion to their cost, yet they are necessary for the diet, because of the particular kind of ash which each furnishes. It is not necessary to buy fresh fruits and vegetables to get this ash. None of it is lost in drying. "With this brief summary of the need for the study of the composition of foods, and of the uses of the nutrients in the body, let us proceed to the detailed study of their composition and of the problems involved in their cooking. The science of cooking lies in a knowledge of: 1. The proper degree and quantity of heat to be applied to make food materials most easily and thoroughly digest- ible. 2. The methods of keeping foods from decomposing or spoiling, and of preventing, as far as possible, the spread of infectious diseases by food and utensils. 3. The economical use of fuels and utensils to save money and labor. 4. The composition of food materials in order to combine them in diet so that the nutrients are in the right propor- tion for the body. 5. The proportions of different ingredients used together to make a digestible and palatable dish. 6. The knowledge of what accurate measuring is. 18 i'OODS AND SANITATION The art of cooking lies in: 1. The development of flavors which appeal to a delicate and normal sense of taste. 2. The serving of foods with such an appearance and at such a temperature that they are appetizing. This summary shows how much more there is to be known than is found in an ordinary cook book. Experience has shown and will show how hard it is to have no variation in results. Accuracy and information and judgment are always necessary. "Bad luck" means carelessness or lack of infor- mation. Cooking results, like all others, have a rea- son. If you make mistakes, find out why they were mistakes and so turn them to your profit. Measuring. Measuring is the first step in the prep- aration of a recipe. Inaccurate measuring means : 1. Uncertainty as to the outcome of its product. 2. Many chances of waste of material and labor. 3. Impossibility of comparing results and thereby gaining information. Experiments 1 and 2 will show how to avoid mistakes in measuring. Measurements and Weights. The need for a table of measurements is obvious. A table of weights is useful in buying. Many failures in cooking are due solely to lack of standards in measurements ; that is, to inaccurate measuring. A cup means a half pint cup, not a tea cup, or a coffee cup, or a favorite tumbler. Note. The tables in Experiment 3 may be filled out as "there is time and need. In order to check the results, repeat each measure- ment and weight in Experiments 1 and 2. FOOD MEASUEEMENTS AND WEIGHTS 19 Experiment 1. To determine a standard method of put- ting material into a measure. 1. Scoop flour into a cup until level and weigh. 2. Fill a cup as in 1, shake and fill until level, weigh and compare with 1. 3. Fill a cup with heaping tablespoons of sifted flour. Weigh and compare weights of flour throughout. Experiment 2. To determine a table of measurements. By leveling the measures with the sharp edge of a knife, fill out the following table : 1 ss (salt spoon) equals 1 2 t equals 1 3 T equals 1 4 c equals 1 5 pt equals 1 6 qt equals 1 Note. For the following use a spring scale in pounds if possible. Experiment 3. To determine a table of weights. No. of cups Material Equivalent 1 Flour 1 pound 2 Sugar 1 pound 3 Coffee 1 pound 4 Butter 1 pound 5 Water 1 pound 6 Milk 1 pound Prohlem. To make coffee for sixty people, allowing % e water per person and 2T coffee to Ic liquid, how much coffee should be purchased 1 Note. The standard 14-pint cup of bread flour weighs 113 grams. t (teaspoon) T (tablespoon) c (cup) pt (pint) qt (quart) gal (gallon) CHAPTER II SAFE, ECONOMICAL AND CLEAN HOUSEKEEPING* The Economical and Safe Use of Gaseous and Liquid Fuels. Gas, gasoline, kerosene, and alcohol are used exclusively in laboratories because of the quickness in obtaining heat and the ease in con- trolling the degree of heat. The economical use of these fuels necessitates some understanding of per- fect burning or combustion. Fire is the rapid combining of a fuel material with oxygen taken from the air of which it is one part in five. We all know that to put out a fire we smother it, deprive it of air by heavy fabrics, sand, or earth. In a furnace or range, if a bed of coals is to be kept with very little burning for several hours, the drafts in the lower doors are tightly closed admitting very little air. All fuels, no matter what kind, coal, wood, alco- hol or gas, contain carbon, hydrogen and oxy- gen, and other elements as impurities. The prob- lem in using fuel is to supply enough oxygen to *NoTE TO Instructoes. It is not thought that all parts of this chapter will necessarily be studied at this point, but diflPereut topics from it will be used as seems to work best with the teacher's plan. 20 SAFE AND CLEAN HOUSEKEEPING 21 burn all of the other elements present. For light- ing, not so much air must be supplied, because light comes from glowing, incompletely burned carbon. When heat alone is sought, as in stoves, the flame from gas should be almost colorless, otherwise fuel is wasted. Besides, when the fuel is completely burned the glowing carbon is deposited on the cooking vessels as soot, necessitating constant scouring. The relation of the supply of air to the color of the flame may be readily seen by loosening the screw to the air control valve on a gas stove burner. Sometimes the air chamber becomes clogged with dirt; also material which has boiled over may have dropped into the perforations thereby producing a yellow flame. The remedy is obvious in the first case; in the latter use a straw or fine wire to clean the holes of the burner. If the gas lights in the air chamber, a roaring sound is heard and only a small, yellow flame is seen at the burner. Turn the gas off and do not try to light it again until there is no more blaze in the burner. Burning in the air chamber, as this is called, is sometimes caused by holding a match directly over a burner before the gas has had time to reach the perforations. This usually happens when the gas pressure is weak. It also happens fre- quently when the pilot light is used for lighting the oven burners. 22 POODS AND SANITATION When gas is used, none should be allowed to escape into the room if possible to avoid it. Even in small quantities it is likely to cause headache. All of the joints in the gas fixtures should be tight. Leaks may be found by testing with a lighted match, or for a smaller leak, by putting soap suds around the joint and noticing whether or not any bubbles are produced. When lighting a gas burner, have the match lighted before the gas is turned on. If the gas lighter is used, hold it in readiness over the center of the burner before turning on the gas. The Eegulation of Coal and Wood Stoves This is more complicated than the regulation of a gas stove, which is simply by a cock. The amount of air allowed to pass through the bed of fuel deter- mines the briskness with which the fire burns. Air is admitted through a draft in the door or through the door of the ash pit in coal stoves or furnaces, or the front door of wood stoves. The draft of air through the bed of fire and up the chimney is checked by means of a damper, which can almost close the stove or smoke pipe. When the lower drafts or doors as well as the pipe damper are closed, a still greater check to the fire may be made by opening the drafts or door of the fire box in coal stoves, or by taking off a lid in coal or wood stoves and allowing air to pass over the burning fuel. This SAFE AND CLEAN HOUSEKEEPING 23 cools the gases sufficiently to prevent burning to any extent. If there has been a good bed of coals to begin with, this method keeps the fire for many hours. A great amount of fuel is wasted by not using these methods of control before an overheated condition is reached. In building a fire, use plenty of paper, crumpled so as to let air pass around it, and plenty of dry kindling placed cross-wise for the same purpose. "When the latter is burning add the heavier fuel but not in such quantities as to stop the draft. What should be the arrangement of drafts'? Do not use kerosene in building a fire. Plenty of kindling makes this unnecessary and avoids the danger of an explosion. Protection from Fire Hazard 1. If there is a strong odor of gas or other fuel about the stove do not test the burners with a lighted match. The flame would burst and you would at least be in danger of being singed. Try the burners themselves to see that they are turned off. 2. If the odor is strong in the room, do not take a light into it. Open the windows and doors. 3. Do not place boxes of matches on any part of the stove. 4. Do not hang towels on a line where they may fall onto the stove. 5. Use fire lighters if possible ; if not, use safety Swedish matches, not parlor matches. In using safety matches, close the box before striking one. The heads, like those of other matches, may be set afire by a blaze. 24 FOODS AND SANITATION 6. See that the head of the match has ceased to glow before it is put where it may come in contact with paper or cloth. Receptacles for burned matches should be non- combustible. Carelessness in this regard might burn the building. Of. "Fire Prevention in the Home," Chapter xxxvi. Dishwashing. Dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and drinking cups are some of the means of carrying such diseases as diphtheria, tuberculosis, pneu- monia, colds, and others from one person to another. Drinking cups used by tuberculosis and diphtheria patients have been found to be free from living germs of these diseases only when they are washed and allowed to stand in boiling water for one minute or when washed in water at 122° F. containing about one-half tablespoon of washing soda to each quart of water. If germs should be in pieces of food or in sputum, such conditions would not be sujBicient to kill them. These facts make wise the following precautions in dishwashing: 1. Dishes should be thoroughly scraped before they are put into the dishwater, and the scrapings should be burned or disinfected, in case there are dishes used by a person suffering with infectious diseases which may be carried by saliva. It should be recognized as a fact that people may carry germs in their bodies which might produce disease in another person, although they themselves show no symp- toms of it. Consequently there is never a proper time for careless dishwashing. There should be frequent changes of dishwater and the water kept at a temperature of at least 122° F. SAFE AND CLEAN HOITSEKEEPING 25 2. Rinsing in boiling or at least very hot water would add to the safety and free the dishes of any traces of soda which might be noticeable in appearance or by taste. 3. Dish towels and cloths should be washed in hot water with some washing soda and rinsed after each wiping, to prevent the multiplication on them of any bacteria which might have escaped death in the dishwater or rinsing water. 4. Dish towels should not be contaminated by dust or handling after they have been washed. It has been found by experiment that thorough wiping with a clean cloth made dishes sterile when careless wiping did not. Questions: 1. What is the method of washing dishes in public places in which you eat — restaurants, hotels, and soda fountain shops? 2. "What would you think of the safety to health in using a dishwashing machine with steam or boiling water? Is scraping important here ? Note. An attendant at a soda fountain cleaned a glass, from which ice cream soda had been drnnk, in the following fashion. It was plunged, inverted, into a pan of water said to be hot, but showing no signs of vapor rising from its surface. The water was admitted to have no means of being heated as time went on and to have no soda or like material in it. The glass was withdrawn immediately and set to dry upside down on top of another. It is true that no soiled towel was used in this process. Was this safe dishwashing? 3. Is soap necessary, when washing soda is used, in order that the grease may be easily removed from dishes? Caee of Utensils and Equipment 1. Clean graniteware by soaking and boiling, not by scraping. 2. Clean aluminum stained by water with weak acid ; for example, sour milk or vinegar. 26 FOODS AND SANITATION 3. Clean silver by putting a few pieces at a time into a bright tin or aluminum vessel containing a solution made of one tablespoon of baking soda and one tablespoon of salt to each quart of water. If the tarnish is heavy, the utensil must be rubbed with a cloth after it is taken from the water before it will appear bright. 4. Wood used in table tops, unprotected by paint or a covering, may be roughened or darkened. a. To remove dents. Put a wet pad of several thicknesses of cloth over the dent and cover it with a hot iron. The steam will raise the fibres of wood. h. To smooth out a rough place. Rub with the grain of the wood, using steel or mineral wool. c. To restore color if darkened. Use steel wool and weak hydrochloric acid. Fine sand is better than soap for scrub- bing wood, because the alkali in soap combines with wood to form a dark stain which is really a kind of ink. Scrubbing should be done with a circular motion of the arm for best and easiest cleaning. Rinsing and drying should be done with the grain, however, to leave the fibres flat. 5. Enameled sinks should be scrubbed with very finely pulverized cleaning powders. No acid or lye should be allowed to touch the enamel. 6. All material should be poured into the sinks through a fine strainer. Unless there is a large quantity of very hot water always on hand, a grease trap should be pro- vided under kitchen sinks. The traps may be cleaned by putting a little powdered lye on the metal drain plate and allowing water to drip onto it over night. This is scarcely necessary when there is always an abundant supply of very hot water. 7. Stoves may be kept polished and cleaned with paper or cotton waste, or they may be washed after each using. The latter method is easier and cleaner. Spilled materials SAFE AND CLEAN HOUSEKEEPING 27 should be thoroughly removed before they are allowed to dry. If stoves are to be left unused, it is wise to rub their surface with a light coating of oil or fat to prevent rusting. 8. Garbage cans should be kept sweet and clean. 9. Steel knives and forks should be prevented from rust- ing or discoloring. Whenever possible this should be done by washing and drying them immediately after using. 10. The wheels of Dover egg beaters should not be put into water when the beaters are washed. 11. No spilled or decomposing food should be left in a refrigerator. This decomposition may, in case of mold, spread to other food, or odors from it may be absorbed by milk and butter. The milk should be kept covered and the butter wrapped in oiled paper. Pish and other strong smelling food materials should be wrapped in paper or have the utensils on which they are held slipped into paper bags and the opening closed. All parts of the refrigerator should be washed in hot, soapy water at least once a week. Where fruits and vege- tables are kept in it, twice is better, since these contain many molds and bacteria. The drip pipe is the lodging place for an ooze-like substance formed from most ice. In time this acquires a musty odor. To prevent this, hold each end of the drip pipe in turn under a strong stream of boiling water. It should be kept so clean that no particles will be found in the water as it leaves the pipe. The drip pan should be cleaned frequently, or, if a drain is used, it should be well flushed with hot water. 12. To avoid attracting ants, roaches, mice, etc., keep all supplies in closed cases of glass or metal. Keep all tables, drawers, cupboards, stoves, and utensils clean all of the time. Do not allow a dirty, disorderly condition to exist. The cleaning which means a general upheaval of order is generally a sign of poor management. 28 FOODS AND SANITATION 13. Regarding the transferring of disease from one per- son to another in the course of laboratory work, read (^hapter XXX. The Processes of Cooking to Which the Different Metals Are Best Adapted. All metals are con- ductors of heat. You know how hot the silver spoon becomes when left in the cup of hot liquid; how hot a tin or aluminum cup becomes when hot liquid is poured into it; how hot a saucepan handle quickly becomes. Earthenware becomes hot much less quickly. The metals, copper, aluminum, iron, enamel, tin are not all equally good conductors; that is, carriers of heat. Silver is the best and is rated at 100. Other materials are given numerical values comparing them with silver as follows: Silver 100 German silver. 6.3 Copper 74 Water 083 Aluminum 38 Glass 046 Tin 15 Hard rubber.. .024 Iron ; 12 Gases, e. g., air. .0033 On account of their different conductivities some utensil materials are better suited to certain cook- ing processes and foods than others. The follow- ing shows to what the various materials are best adapted. 1. Aluminum. Quick heating and cooling; e.g., syrup and candy making, jelly making, boiling fruits and veg- SAFE AND CLEAN HOUSEKEEPING 29 etables, milk and cereal steaming, as well as for measuring utensils, such as cups. Handles of aluminum vessels should be made of a more slowly conducting material. 2. Tin. Less rapid heating and cooling ; e. g., cake baking. 3. Iron or Steel, (a) Heavy — For still less rapid trans- fer of heat than tin ; pot roasts, frying pans for pan-broil- ing steaks and chops. (6) Sheet iron — Frying pan for bacon and thinly sliced liver ; pans for oven roasts, bread pans. 4. Earthenware. For cooking for a long while at a low temperature, when browning is not necessary; bean pots, casseroles for souffles and stews. Soapstone for griddle. 5. Graniteware. This may be used instead of aluminum and also in place of sheet iron roasting tins. It is found to be the best material for pie pans. Characteristics of Different Metals Used in Cooking Utensils 1. Copper. It forms harmful compounds when not kept absolutely bright. Therefore, it is abandoned in homes, although it is used in preserving factories. It is very expensive. 2. Aluminum. It is light in weight, does not rust, but stains from hard water, and is rather costly. It has been known to corrode when food is allowed to decompose in it. So far no cases have been proved against aluminum as forming harmful compounds when food is cooked in it. The water stain is easily removed with a weak acid solution. 3. Tin. This is only a coating of tin over iron. The coating is often very thin, as is shown by the readiness with which supposedly tin vessels rust. Iron rusts, tin does not. Tin discolors and is easily scratched through. Heavy block tin is the best to buy. 30 irOODS AND SANITATION 4. Iron and Steel. At least the inside of the vessel should be smooth. Nickel plating is frequently applied to metals to insure this and make the utensils more attractive. 5. Enamelware. This is made by coating sheet iron or steel utensils with an enamel, a specially prepared glassy substance, that is either sprinkled on the dry steel as a pow- der, or mixed with water and floated on as a cream. This is then melted by being put into a glowing furnace for a min- ute. Two or three coats are applied successively. The quality depends upon the ingredients used, not on the num- ber of coats applied, and upon the firmness of the steel or iron foundation. If this can be easily bent or dented, the enamel will crack or chip. This makes enamel spoons im- practical. Royal Gray graniteware is less expensive than some other kinds, but it wears very satisfactorily. Proper care in using this ware is important. It should never be heated directly over a flame without having sufficient liquid in it to cover the bottom; it should be cleaned by soaking and boiling, not by scraping ; it should be protected against sudden changes of temperature; it should be handled as though it were glass. These precautions aid in avoiding chipping. It is more economical for reasons of cleanliness and freedom from burning to use first-class, non-cracking ware, whatever the effect of bits of enamel or of food acids upon the foundation material may prove to be. 6. Earthenware. Ware that does not chip and stands heat and acids has a hard, smooth, glassy surface. The clay from which it is made must be free from iron to make it fire proof. Cheap earthenware is easily scratched or cov- ered with fine cracks and chipped, exposing a porous surface to discolorations at least. CHAPTER III THERMOMETEES AND BOILING Equally as important as correct measuring is con- trol of the heat used for cooking. Toughness of meat and eggs, lack of flavor in soups, unevenness in baking of cakes and bread, stickiness and hardness in syrups and candies may sometimes be caused by use of a wrong temperature. For many things there is a range of several degrees in which satis- factory results may be had. Other things require a definite temperature, a certain degree. Much un- certainty may be saved by the use of thermometers in cooking. ' Until they come into more general use it is helpful to use them in class for determining tests for temperature which may be made without their use; for instance the appearance of water at certain temperatures, and the thread and ball tests for syrups. The first thing to be learned about any kind of cooking is how to use fuel economically. To do this when cooking in water, it is necessary to know its temperatures as indicated by its appearance. For this use a thermometer. Thermometers. Thermometers are instruments which register temperature. Tliey are glass tubes enlarged at one end, into which mercury or alcohol 31 32 rOODS AND SANITATION is put. The glass is extended out from the bulb to various lengths, leaving a tiny even bore or hole in the center. The length depends upon the tem- perature which the thermometer is to measure. Above the liquid in this bore there is nothing, no air to press upon the liquid. The mercury in the bulb rises and falls in the bore as the thermometer is exposed to various degrees of heat, because it ex- pands and contracts more than the glass in the bulb. When a thermometer is to be marked with a scale, the freezing point is fixed by immersing its bulb in melting ice and making a mark showing the height of the column of mercury. -The boiling point is de- termined" similarly, for ice substituting distilled water boiling at sea level, and holding the ther- mometer in the steam just above. In 1704, Fahrenheit divided the space between these two marks into 180 parts or degrees, making the Fahrenheit thermometer. Christian, in 1743, divided it into 100 parts, and this is the Centigrade scale which is used largely in scientific work. Care of Thermometers. 1. Do not put them in a place where they may be struck and injured. 2. Clean them as soon as they are taken from a mixture, not by holding them under a faucet or dipping into water, but by wiping them carefully with a moist warm cloth. Be sure that they are absolutely clean. A black speck or a drop of syrup on a thermometer used in an oven will heat the glass more in that spot and may break the thermometer. Keep them bright, without a blemish. THEBMOMETERS AND BOILING 33 Problems in Transpeering Readings of Fahrenheit and Centigrade Scale 100° C = 180° F. ; 1° C. = 9/5° F. ; 1° F. = 5/9° C. (a) 68° F. room temperature = (68-32) 5/9 = 20° C. (6) 23° F. temperature of ice cream = (23-32) 5/9 = - 5°C. (c) 383° F. temperature of oven for butter cake= (383- 32) 5/9 = 195° C. (d) 37° C. body temperature =(37x9/5 + 32) =98 3/5° F. Experiment 4. To determine the changes in appear- ance when water is brought to the boiling point, and the temperatures indicated by these changes. Discussion. As water is heated the air which is dissolved in it is first seen as small bubbles on the bottom and sides of the pan, then rising through the liquid to the surface and disappearing. The larg- est bubbles breaking on the surface are steam, which condenses as soon as it reaches the surface. In this form it is properly called a vapor. When the mercury ceases to rise the boiling point has been reached although the mercury may not register 100° C, or 212° F. The temperature at which water boils depends upon the length of the column of air which presses down upon it and upon Note to Teachek. If both kinds of thermometers are used, put scales on the board, number every 5° on Centigrade scale and 9° on Fahrenheit scale and draw connecting lines. Note to Student. If the temperature of the water is to be taken, do not let the bulb of the thermometer touch the pan. The metal is hotter than the water. 34 FOODS AND SANITATION the other factors which influence air pressure. Therefore, the altitude affects the boiling point noticeably. For each rise above sea level of about 1,000 ft., the boiling point drops 1° C, or 1%° F. Directions. Fill a saucepan half full of water and, keep- ing the gas low, bring it to the boiling point. Observe temperature : a. — ° C. — ° F. at which bubbles appear on the sides and bottom of pan. 6. — ° C. — ° F. at which larger bubbles come and break before they get to the surface. c. — ° C. — ° F. at which the larger bubbles rise and break on the surface. d. — ° C. — ° F. at which mercury ceases to rise. This is the boiling point. e. Turn the fire as low as possible and still keep the highest temperature. Note the appearance of the water now. /. 1. Boil water fast for 3 minutes. Notice diiference in amount. 2. Turn gas as low as possible and still keep it at the boiling point for 3 minutes. Compare amount lost in /, 1, and /, 2. Conclusions. 1. At what altitude are you? 2. When would fast boiling be economical? 3. When is gentle boiling better? Problems. 1. At what temperature does water boil at Denver, 5,000 feet above sea level? 2. At the Dead Sea, 2,000 feet below sea level? 3. How would each place affect the preparation of veg- etables cooked in water? To prove that the small bubbles are air, and to show the THEEMOMETEES AND BOILING 35 effect of dissolved air upon the taste of water, the following experiment may be performed : Directions. Boil water rapidly for from 3 to 5 minutes. Then divide it into two parts. Allow part 1 to cool until it is below the temperature at which you first saw bubbles in experiment 4. Pour part 2 back and forth into another vessel through the air several times and allow it to cool the same as 1. Taste each, and. then re-heat and notice the temperature at which the first bubbles are seen. Apply this to making boiled water palatable for drinking. As has been seen, when water is heated, the tem- perature rises to a certain point and then, under those conditions, will rise no higher in spite of the continued application of heat. When this point is reached water is said to be boiling and steam begins to be formed. Steam shows the same temperature as the boiling water. As has also been shown, gas under boiling water may be turned off to some ex- tent without lowering its temperature. When more heat is used than enough to keep the water just at the boiling point, the water is changed from a liquid to a gas, steam. To change one kilogram or 2.2 lbs. of water at the boiling point into steam requires 537 calories, 5 times as much heat as to raise that amount of water to the boiling point. Heat is never lost but is given off to the things with which it comes in contact. So when steam is condensed, that is, returned to a liquid state, by coming into contact with a cooler substance, it gives off to the object with which it comes in contact, the heat which was 36 FOODS AND SANITATION required to change it from boiling water into steam. The steam, however, shows no higher temperature on a thermometer than boiling water. Questions. 1. Can you explain why a burn from boiling water is less severe than a burn from steam? 2. When the steam is confined and condenses on the food to be cooked, would you consider fast boiling extravagant? 3. "What would be the effect upon the amount of time and fuel required when steaming is used in place of boiling ? It is sometimes desirable to have a higher temper- ature than that at which water boils. The chief use of this is in the household in cooking fruit. By sup- plying more heat, as is done with a syrup, the time for cooking is shortened and the fruit may be kept in large pieces. Other substances may be added to water and its temperature raised above its own boil- ing point. Experiment 5. To determine how the boiling point at a given place may be changed. Directions. In each ease add a given amount of material to 1 c water, boil, and record temperature. a. IT salt— ° P., then add 1 T more— ° F. h. As many more as will affect the temperature — ° F. c. 1 T sugar — ° F., then add a second T — ° F. Continue boiling until a thick syrup is formed. Record temperature. Change these observed temperatures to the corresponding Centigrade scale. Save this syrup for apple sauce. d. IT sawdust — ° F., add a second T — ° F. THERMOMETERS AND BOILING 37 Conclusions. 1. "What must be the condition of a sub- stance in order to change the temperature of the boiling point ? 2. What is the effect of quantity of material on the tem- perature ? Boiling points of various substances at sea level: Water 100° C. ; Ammonia -33° C. Ether 38.5° (J. ; Alcohol 78° C. Change these to Fahrenheit readings. Experiment 6. To determine the temperature inside of double boiler, and how it may be increased. Directions. Put water in a small doiible boiler. When the water in the lower part is boiling, take the temperature of that in the inner part, keeping the lid on. Take the lid off and record temperature. Add coarse salt to lower part of boiler until the water on the inside boils. Apply this to the reheating of cereals. Reference. Millikau and Gale, ' ' Elementary Physics, ' ' pp. 203-207. CHAPTER IV FEUITS Fruits have been selected as the first food to study because of the simplicity of their composition and preparation. The preparation requires attention to the principles of boiling, and to the amount of sugar needed to flavor. Composition. Fresh fruits are composed largely of water. Even bananas are about % water, straw- berries T%, and watermelons and rhubarb even more. They .contain on an average about 1 per cent of protein, less than that proportion of fat and of ash, and from 3 to 21 per cent of carbohydrate in the form of sugars or starch. The Importance of Their Use in the Diet. The carbohydrate and the ash are the nutrients which make fruits valuable in the diet. The sugars are not as necessary as the ash, for although this is found in exceedingly small, almost minute quanti- ties, it is exceedingly important. Vegetables, fruits, and milk leave, when they are burnt outside the body or used in the body for its purposes, an ash with an alkaline effect or reaction. The ash found in cereals, meat, and eggs has an acid reaction. This may sound strange since fruits taste sour or acid. In the body their acids are broken up and 38 U&D^xiptmont df Agriculture Off»c« J EjpervrefA Stdtons A C.Truei Director FVepored by C.rLANGWOR"mY EJipert >n Oiarqe of Nutrition Irvestigationj COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. IZZ] Fat Corbohydrdtffs APPLE a>BLE FOKTiON VVqter IFuel Voiue 1. 3q In. Equala 1000 CaloriflS nmZD FIG EXUBLE PORTION Water. 84.6 Projein: 0.4- -Fat: 0.5 CarbShydratea-.H. Fuel VALUE STRAWBERRY EOSLE PORTlOt* Wa^endO.'-i Protein: 1.0 Ash: 0.6 Fuel I 1 1 80 cal0hiE5 VALUE I J PER POl^a) Protein :4-.3 Carboll53l^ale3:74.2 Water: 18.8 at: 0.3 1^3h:2.'^ I H75CALDH1C5 PER POUND BANANA EJDIBLE PORTION Water: 75.3 Carboji' PCR POUND Make a list of fruits in plates 2 and 3 accoraing to (1) the amount of asli they contain, (2) the amount jf carbohydrates. 30 40 FOODS AND SANITATION their effect is alkaline. For good health in adults and for the greatest growth of healthy bodies in children and infants, it seems probable from experi- ments on animals that the diet must be chosen so that it does not consist alone or largely of cereals, eggs, and meat. The bulkiness of fruits and vege- tables is supposed to be beneficial in counteracting a tendency to constipation. Effect of Ripening on Composition. Ripening is believed to be brought about by certain kinds of chemical substances very sensitive to temperature, called enzymes. The form in which the carbohy- drate is found depends upon the stage of ripeness. In general, ripe fruits are less sour than green fruits and contain less starch and fibre and more of the different sugars. They also contain less of the jelly producing substance, pectin. These facts explain why: 1. Jelly should be made of underripe fruit. 2. Cider should be made from very ripe apples, since the amount of sugar in the apples determines the quality of the cider and the vinegar, if that is to be made from the cider. 3. Only very ripe bananas, in which much of the search has been changed to sugar, should be eaten raw. It seems probable that failure to follow this rule may be the cause of many of the digestive disturbances which follow the eat- ing of bananas. This is particularly true because the soft- ness of the banana makes thorough mastication seem less necessary. FRUITS 41 Color of Fruit. If pared or cut fruit is exposed to the air, it rapidly turns dark, due to the effect of certain enzymes upon some of the other constitu- ents of fruit in the presence of air. This effect may be largely prevented by covering pared apples thoroughly with several thicknesses of wet cloth or with water. This applies also to potatoes. The brown bruised spots in apples are due to the same cause. These spots contain a greater proportion of starch than the rest of the apple, since this process hinders the change from starch to sugar. Flavor of Fruit. Fruits owe their flavors in a large measure to the sugars and acids which they contain. But the flavor which identifies a fruit par- ticularly is a substance which easily passes from it as a gas or a vapor, as it is cooked or dried. This accounts for the great preference for fresh rather than for cooked or dried fruits, however well those processes may have been carried out. The flavor of a fruit varies with the temperature. Some people like them cold, others only cool, and still others fresh from the garden, warmed by the sun. The Structure of Fruit. The fruit, like the rest of the plant, is made up of .cells. The walls of these are cellulose, and inside is the protoplasm containing all the kinds of material which the plant requires for its various functions. Some cells more than others are made the depository of reserve material, 42 FOODS AND SANITATIUJSI and so we find in fruits reserve carbohydrate, which, is also found in the roots or seeds of some vegetables. The Cooking of Fruit. When fruit is cooked, these cell walls and the deposited starch, if there is any, are softened, and the fruit becomes more easily masticated, more palatable, and more readily digesti- ble. Cooking also kills the bacteria and molds that may have been on the fruit from its exposure in its growing condition and in subsequent packing and handling. Washing cannot produce thorough cleans- ing, since the surfaces of fruits are uneven and rough. It seems likely that the digestive disturb- ances which sometimes follow the eating of green fruit may be due to the presence of bacteria on the fruit which has been picked up from the ground. Soft fruits are generally cooked, unless they are for immediate use, in order to prevent their decay, which is due to the growth of molds and yeasts. To keep fruit indefinitely these must be killed and no more allowed to come in contact with the fruit. This need of keeping fruit from season to season has developed the processes of canning and preserving. Simpler than these is the process of drying, by which so much of the water is evaporated from the fruit that no molds or yeasts will grow upon it. In the cooking of fruits there is a simple and important application of the work on the use of water, or water plus a dissolved substance, in this case sugar, to convey heat to a material to be cooked. KRUITS 43 Suppose some soft fruit is to be cooked and it is desired to keep the pieces whole. How should it be cooked? The following experiment will help to solve this. Experiment 7. To compare the softening effect of cooking an apple in sjo-up and in water, noting the differ- ence in time. Directions, a. Cook a piece of apple in a syrup made of one-third to one-half as much sugar as water. h. Cook the same sized piece of apple in water vintil tender. Flavor, using the same amount of sugar as in a. Compare time, appearance, and flavor. Conclusions. 1. "What method will you use when you want to keep fruit whole? 2. Give difference in results and use of the two methods. 3. Apply this in making apple sauce. Coddled Apples. Coddled apples are pared, cored, and cooked in a syrup. A stick of cinnamon may be put into the syrup. The syrup may be boiled down and poured over the apples when they are served. A bit of currant or other kind of jelly may also be put on top of each apple. From Exp. 7 determine what the proportion of sugar and water should be. What determines the amount of these to be used? Note. Where several apples are used, % as much sugar as water is not too large an amount, but in cooking part of an apple % as much sugar is usually sufficient. Eeperence on Fruit. "Use of Fruit as Food," Farmers' Bulle- tin No. 293. Unless otherwise stated, the bulletins referred to may be obtained for five cents each from the Superintendent of Documents, Wash- ington, D. C. 44 FOODS AND SANITATION For Family Use. When more syrup is used in coddling apples than is desirable for juice, it may be put into a can and sterilized according to method 3, under Canning, until it is to be used again, when it may be diluted with water as necessary. Baked Apples. Wash the apples, remove the cores and place in a pan in which there is enough water to cover the bottom. Almost fill the cavity of the apples with sugar. A very small piece of butter may be placed on top of each apple. Cover the ])an and bake the apples until tender. Spices may be added if desired. If the apples are very sweet a lit- tle lemon juice is a pleasant addition. A card 3x5 inches is a convenient and standard size for an index box. A suggested order for the recipe is also given. MIXED FRUIT ICE 3 oranges 1 c apricots 3 lemons 3 c sugar 3 bananas 3 c water Squeeze oranges and lemons and put bananas and apricots through a sieve. Cook sugar and water together to make a thin syrup (10 min.). Add pulp and juice and freeze. Note. In addition to a laboratory note book, keep a card cata- logue of the best proportions, methods of mixing, and cooking tem- peratures which are derived from each experiment and also of amounts made by the quantities of material used. FRUITS 45 Experiment 8. To apply the principles of cooking fruit in sugar to the cooking of cranberries. Directions. Cook so as to: a. Keep berries as whole as possible. i. Give a thin sauce without skins. In each case measure the berries before cooking and add a measured amount of sugar. c. Make cranberry jelly. Proportions. 1 qt cranberries, 2 c water. Cook the cranberries in water until they are thoroughly soft. Add two-thirds as much sugar as pulp and cook with the cranberries until two drops hold together when the mixture is dropped from the spoon. The cranberry skins may be removed by straining. In this case the sugar should be added to the pulp after the removal of the skins. Why 1 If the cranberries are very acid, it is sometimes better to increase the sugar to equal proportions. Conclusion. Formulate a recipe for each method of cook- ing cranberries. CHAPTER V CANNING Canning is a process by which any foodstuffs which might be ruined for use by bacteria, yeasts, or molds, if kept raw or even if cooked and exposed to the air, may be protected from these for an indefinite length of time. This is done by steriliza- tion, which is the process of making them free from living organisms. These three kinds of tiny plants or microorganisms may be present on the food itself, on the jars and other utensils, or in the air around them. They are so small that a single bacterium, or yeast plant, cannot be seen without a high-power lens, and a single mold plant of most varieties needs a low power lens. When one thinks of how numer- ous and how small these plants are, it is not strange that many cans of fruits and vegetables are wasted every year because of imperfect canning. To pre- vent this great waste of labor and material, the following points must be understood : 1. "Where these bacteria, yeasts, and molds may be present. 2. How they may be killed. 3. How they may be kept from entering the can of ster- ilized fruit and "spoiling" it. To show these points, perform the following experiments : 46 I'late 48 FOODS AND SANITATION Experiment 9. To determine what makes fruit spoil. Directions. Allow fruit to stand under the following conditions : I. Whole Skin. a. Room temperature. (Apple, Plum, Peach, Grape.) 1. Light and moving air 2. Light and quiet air 3. Dark and quiet air 4. "Wrapped 5. In sawdust 6. In contact b. Refrigerator temperature 50° P. 1. Wrapped 2. Unwrapped 3. In contact II. Broken Skin. Repeat I, using pieces of fruit or broken fruit. a. Form conclusions as to effect on the growth of micro- organism of : 1. Light and darkness. 2. Moving and quiet air. 3. Moisture and dryness. 4. Room and refrigerator temperature. 5. Whole and broken skins. 6. Texture of skins. 7. Sources of molds, with explanation of your answer. Show how these principles apply to : 1. Storing or shipping of apples. 2. Temporary keeping of peaches, berries, etc. Note to Instructor. Experiments 9 to 17 may be done in a very s'lort time by assigning to each pupil a part of eacli experiment. Labels should then be carefully affixed and the results of all parts of the experiments watched by everyone. CANNING 49 3. Exhibiting of apples, oranges, etc., in windows or on the street. Experiment 10. To test the effect of various anti- septics upon mold growths. Those substances which hinder the growth but do not kill the microorganisms are called antiseptics. Directions. To test tubes containing pieces of fruit add : a. Thin syrup of 1 part sugar to 3 parts water. Cool before adding to the fruit. b. Thick syrup 2 parts sugar to 1 part water. Cool be- fore adding to fruit. c. Vinegar, (o) 1 part vinegar and 3 parts water; (6) 1 part vinegar and 1 part water; (c) all vinegar. il. Water, cold. c. Oil. /. Alcohol. g. Water and spices (heated first). h. Formalin on whole crab apples, 5% solution. *. One part brine (saturated solution of this), 3 parts water. Apply to preserving, jelly making, pickling and exhibit- ing of fresh fruit. Experiment 11. To discover how molds injure foods. Directions, a. Study individual mold plants under the microscope. Notice parts. What are the functions of each ? Find different varieties of molds. h. Plant mold on a can of fruit syrup. Watch growth from day to day. c. Smell molded fruit. Taste syrup of b. d. Remove mold from jar of fruit. Taste fruit. Boil and then taste. Conclusions as to: 1. How molds are reproduced. 2. How they get their food. 50 FOODS AND SANITATION 3. Effect upon taste of food upon which they grow. 4. Kind of substances produced. Experiment 12. To determine the temperature and time necessary to kill molds. Directions. Heat a small quantity of fruit and water (enough to fill 6 test tubes) in a sauce pan to : a. 150°-160°F. h. 180° P. for 1 second. c. 180° F. for 5 minutes. cl. Boil for 1 second. e. Boil for 5 minutes. /. Boil for 15 minutes. As each temperature is reached and held for the time required, fill a test tube which has been boiled for 15 min- utes. Fill them with the fruit so that there is no air space left. Cork them quickly with corks boiled for 15 minutes. Dip the tops in melted paraffin. Conclusio7is as to: 1. Death temperature for molds. 2. How to prepare glassware for holding fruit prepara- tions. Apply to : Temperature and time used in canning fruit to prevent mold growth. Experiment 13. To determine sources of molds other than fruit and jars. Directions, a. Repeat Exp. 12, taking no pains to cork the tubes quickly. h. Repeat Exp. 12, leaving a short column of air in the tube, and corking the tube quickly. Conclusions. 1. As to the cause of the results of seal- ing in a. 2. As to the effect of the air column in the tube. 3. As to sources of mold in canned fruit. CANNING 51 4. Make a list of possible causes for the appearance of mold growth in a can of fruit. Experiment 14. To determine the structure of yeasts. Directions. Look at yeasts under a lens. What is the shape, the color, the method of reproduction 1 Notice vacu- oles and fat drops. Experiment 15. To determine the effect of yeasts upon fruit juice. Directions. Put apple juice and pulp into four test tubes. a. Expose one to the air for several days. b. Boil and seal one. c. Boil and leave one open. d. Add yeast, dried or compressed, to one. Notice bubbles, taste, odor, and time in which they appear. "When fermentation occurs, test each with litmus paper; also fresh juice. Compare. Examine a drop of each under the microscope for yeasts. e. Boil a and taste again. /. Let d stand until vinegar begins to form, due to acetic acid bacteria. How do you test for this? Vinegar eon- tains acid. Note. When litmus paper is put into a liquid note result: a. change blue litmus to pink, showing the presence of an acid. h. change pink litmus to blue, showing the presence of an alkaline substance, c. change the color of neither pink nor blue, in which case the liquid is neither acid nor alkaline; it is neutral to litmus. Conclusion. 1. Source of yeast. 2. Effect of heat on products of yeast growth. As yeasts grow, they feed on sugars and in doing so change them into alcohol and carbon dioxide (CO,), a gas. This is the process in the making of cider. After a few 52 FOODS AND SANITATIOK months, if cider is left in a warm place, acetic acid bac- teria, by changing the alcohol to acid, make vinegar. Grow- ing yeast plants are killed by a temperature of 129° F., yeast spores by 143° F. Experiment 16. To determine the causes for the spoiling of other food materials. Directions. a. Into test tubes put: 1. Water. 2. Pieces of bread and water. 3. Egg and water. 4. Meat and water. 5. Milk. 6. Tomatoes. 7. Corn and water. 8. Dried beans and water. 9. Dried peas and water. 10. Turnip and water. 11. Cabbage and water. i. Repeat 4, 6, 7, and <9, boiling for 15 minutes before putting into sterilized test tubes. Fill these and seal with sterile corks. Compare these. Keep at room temperature, corked and sealed. Notice from day to day gas and odors formed. Compare with specimens of decomposition due to Isolds and odors from growth of yeasts. The other decom- posing agents are bacteria. Conclusions as to : 1. Agents causing spoiling. 2. Signs of spoiling. 3. Kinds of foods most readily spoiled. 4. Does 15 minutes boiling kill all the micro-organisms? Note. Some bacteria form spores, hard seed-like structures which live where the growing bacteria could not on account of dryness, temperature, or lack of food. The acid and the higher temperature CANNTNO 53 The Thickness and Amounts of Syrups Used in Canning 1. Use a syrup of le sugar to 2 c water for soft fruit, such as peaches, soft pears, and pineapples. 2. Use a syrup of 1 c sugar to 3 c water for hard fruit, such as pears and quinces. 3. For soft, juicy fruit, such as plums, cherries, straw- berries, raspberries, and blackberries, use enough water to cover the bottom of the vessel. Add one-fourth or one-third as much sugar as fruit, according to the acidity of the fruit. Blueberries and raspberries are so sweet that they require less sugar, one-twelfth as much sugar as fruit being used for blueberries, one-sixth as much for raspberries. In these cases the sugar is put on the fruit without being made into a syrup previously. If these fruits are canned in the steam bath or oven, mix the fruit and sugar well before putting them into the jars. There are three methods of canning fruit. In each case the preparation of the fruit and syrup is the same. The difference lies in the method of con- vening lieat to the syrup ard of sterilizing the cans. For the syrup : Use about 1 pt of syrup to 1 qt can of large fruit and about i/2 Pt syrup to 1 qt can of small fruit. 1. The heat may be carried to tlie syrup through tlio saucepan, in which case the can is sterilized separately. due to sugar used make it easier to kill these on fruits than on vegetables. What, then, would be the time to produce sterilization in fruits? Further on, the sterilization of vegetables will be discussed. RErERENCES. Conn, "Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home." Buchanan, "Household Bacteriology," pp. 5.5-S4 (for teachers). 54 FOODS AND SANITATION 2. The heat may be carried to the syrup and fruit in the jar by boiling water and steam. Thus the jar is sterilized as the fruit is cooked in it. 3. The heat may be conveyed to the syrup and the fruit in the jar by hot air in the oven. Method 1. To sterilize tlie can, put a cloth, a piece of paper, or some non-conducting material on the bottom of a pan. Put the jar and the lid into the pan of water, so that the jar is filled. Boil the water for 15 minutes. If the rubber is hard it may be placed in the water with the cans, if soft, dip it in boiling water. Sterilize at the same time a silver fork. If the jar is ready before the fruit is and it is desirable to take it out of the water, let it stand, inverted, on a clean surface. Whenever the cover is removed it should be laid on a clean surface, top side up. Leave the fork in the hot water. When the fruit is tender, turn the can right side up on a pie pan or similar dish and put on the rubber. With the silver fork, put such fruit as peaches and pears into the jar with the convex side of the fruit next to the jar. Small or very soft fruit may be poured into the jar from the saucepan, leaving the fork standing in the jar, that the silver, a good conductor, rather than the glass, may take the heat and prevent the breaking of the glass. Fill the jar to overflowing, keeping the temperature of the fruit in the kettle at the boiling point while the filling is being done. Why? Screw the cover on tight, wipe the jar and CANNING 55 invert for a few minutes to see if any juice oozes out. Questions. 1. To what is the decrease in volume as the fruit stands due ? 2. Why is this space not dangerous, \\'hile one which is caused by not filling the jar to overflowing may be danger- ous, so far as the keeping of the fruit is concerned ? Method 2. Steaming. Pack the washed jars with fruit, fill the jars with syrup and put on the rubber and the lid tight. Place enough water in a boiler to about % cover the jars. Place the jars on a wooden rack or on cloths or paper and cover the boiler close. Cook the fruit until it looks soft. Method 3. Oven. Prepare the fruit in the jars as for steaming, except to fill them to within about 1 inch of the top. Screw the cover on loose. Why! Place the cans on a thick piece of asbestos paper in the oven. The oven may be heated beforehand. When the fruit reaches the boiling point, lower the temperature of the oven so that the fruit does not run over. A temperature of 140° C. or 284° F. in a gas oven will be sufiicient after the fruit has reached the boiling point. This is a temperature which feels barely warm to the hand. Cook the fruit until it looks soft. When the fruit is cooked and the jars are removed from the oven, boiling juice or fruit or syrup may be added to fill the jar. Keep the lid top side up while adding the syrup. Would there be 5G FOODS AND SANITATION any danger in leaving this air space! Care must be taken not to set the hot jars in a draft or on cold material. Conclusions. What are your conclusions as to the best method, considering convenience, time, and amount of fuel ? The sterilization may be tested by noticing the top of the can a few days later. If a metal cap has been used, it should be slightly concave. If it is convex, gas must be forming on the inside, the pres- sure of which produces this bulge. If glass tops are used, throw off the wire clamp; if the lid comes off easily, gas must be forming inside. If the con- tents of the can were sterilized the shrinkage of the air on cooling would make the pressure less on the inside than the outside and the lid would have to be pried off. Sterilization of Vegetables by Canning. For the sterilization of vegetables a higher temperature than boiling point, or the boiling point for a longer time, is required than for the sterilization of fruits, as has been said. Bacteria which produce spores are hard to kill in canning vegetables at home. The bacteria themselves are readily killed by boiling water, but the spores, to be killed, require about five consecutive hours of boiling, or better, one hour of boiling on each of three successive days. The hours of boiling must be counted from the time that the liquid in the can begins to boil. Care CANNING 57 must be taken that the lids are kept tight during the intervening days. This method is called inter- mittent sterilization. Tomatoes seem to be an exception to this rule, probably on account of the acid. This intermittent sterilization is best carried on in the oven, although steaming may be used. Why? The most difficult vegetables to can are peas, beans, corn, and asparagus. When intermittent sterilization is used, the first hour of boiling kills all bacteria. During the fol- lowing day the spores have the right conditions of food, temperature, and moisture to become bacteria again. The third day's boiling is done in case any spores fail to become bacteria before the sec- ond boiling. Chloride of lime or rock salt might be used to raise the temperature of the water in the boiler. The former is sometimes used in canning factories, as it gives a very high temperature. A saturated solution of chloride of lime boils at 160° C, or 320 ° F. However, steam under pressure is more generally used, as the temperature can be kept more constant. There are many preserving powders on the mar- ket which make unnecessary the precautions to bring about sterilization. These, however, are danger- ous for unskilled people to use. Even when used skill- fully, they may produce bad results in children, or other persons who are not in good health, though 58 FOODS AND SANITATION the results may not be seen until after years of use. Do not use them yourself and urge others not to use them. Mistakes in calculating the amount of syrup re- quired for a can of fruit are often made because the space which sugar takes up when it is dissolved is not taken into account. Experiment 17. To determine how sugar affects the volume of a syrup. Directions. Take half as much water as the size of the can which you intend to use for fruit. Add half as much sugar as water. Is the volume increased? Heat it just enough to dissolve it. What is the volume? Note any change of volume in each case. Conclusion. How does a substance dissolved affect the volume of the liquid? Experiment 18. Canning fruit. Directions. Can any fruits on the market which are not expensive, using each of the three methods. a. Compute the cost of fuel and materials and the num- ber of hours of labor. b. Compare with the cost of an equal quantity of bought canned fruit. c. How much per hour does it leave for the work ? Experiment 19. Canning tomatoes. Directions, a. Peel the tomatoes. Cut them into medium sized pieces so that the can may be packed as tight as possible and yet not have the tomatoes like soup when Note. The skins can be most easily removed from peaches, plums, apples, pears, apricots, and quinces as well as from tomatoes by pouring boiling water over them and, if slightly green, allowing them to stand in the hot water for a few minutes. CANNING 59 they are taken out. Mashed tomatoes may be used to fill the empty spaces. Can these by method 2 or 3. i. To can tomatoes for soup, cook the tomatoes in a sauce- pan long enough to be able to mash them. Strain them and sterilize the strained portion by any one of the three methods. c. To preserve tomatoes whole and raw. Use perfect tomatoes with unbroken skins. Wash them and put them into a wide-mouthed jar which has been sterilized. Pour over them boiling water, and put on the lid. These may be used for salad. Experiment 20. To can corn, beans, or peas. a. Corn. Directions. This may be removed from the cob or not. When left on the cob, it is very wasteful of space. Add 1 1 salt to 1 qt of corn. Pack the jar with corn and fill it with water. What method of sterilization will you use? b. Write out directions for canning beans and peas. Experiment 21. To can asparagus and string beans. Write out a method of canning these. Note. Tomato vines may be taken up before frost while the tomatoes on them are still green and allowed to hang in a dry cellar to ripen. This gives fresh tomatoes for many weeks after frost. Note. Experiments by the Department of Agriculture show that the amount of sugar in sweet corn diminishes very rapidly after the ear is pulled from the stalk, even within an hour. This accounts for some of the flavorless corn which is bought. Eefeeences. "Canning Vegetables in the Home," Farmers' Bulletin, 359, 1909. "Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies," Fann- ers' Bulletin 203, 1905. "Home Manufacture and Use of TJnfor- mented Grape Juice," Farmers' Bulletin 175, 1903. "Preservation of Food," Alice Kavenhill, Bulletin 37, Dept. of Agriculture, Prov- ince of British Columbia. "Canning Peaches on the Farm," Farm- ers' Bulletin 426. "Swells in Canned Vegetables," Farmers' Bulle- tin 73, Experiment Station, Work IV, pp. 30-31. CHAPTER VI PRESERVING, JELLY MAKING, AND PICKLING Preserving Preserved fruit differs from canned fruit in the thickness of the syrup used. Use from Y^ to % as much sugar as fruit. With juicy fruits no water is required. For hard fruits, use Vi as much water as fruit and % as much sugar as fruit. For peaches, sweet plums, soft pears, and pine- apples use water enough to a little more than cover the bottom of the pan, and from % to % as much sugar as fruit, depending upon the sourness. Use a wooden spoon and avoid burning. Fruit should be cooked until it is tender and until the syrup is of the desired consistency. Sugar acts as a preservative or antiseptic; the greater the pro- portion of sugar the fewer the possibilities for bacteria to grow. It has not so much of a preserva- tive effect against molds and yeasts, therefore, pre- cautions must be taken to keep them out. The jars should be sterilized and some air proof material should cover the top. 60 peeserving and pickling 61 Jelly Making An ideal fruit jelly is a beautifully colored, trans- parent, palatable product of such a texture that the mass quivers but does not flow when taken from a glass. It is so tender that it cuts easily with a spoon, and yet so firm that the faces of the cut retain their shape. It must not be syrupy, or gummy, or sticky, or tough. To produce such a jelly requires an understanding of: I. The Constituents op Fruit Juice Water Pectin Acids Sugars Flavoring materials Without pectin no fruit juice can be made into jelly. If pectin is present it may be seen by adding from 1 to 2 T of cooked juice to the same quantity of absolute alcohol, mixing the two thoroughly and cooling. Pectin appears as a gelatinous mass which may be taken out on a spoon. The cooked juice of fruit shows much more pectin than the raw juice. Different fruits contain different quantities of pectin. The amount of this which a fruit contains determines the amount of jelly which may be made from its juice. Not only pectin, buit acid, is necessary to make Note. The white skin of oranges and lemons contains much pectin. It may be added to fruits low in that constituent. 62 FOODS AND SANITATION jelly from fruit juice. Quinces, pears, peaches, sweet apples, strawberries, etc., contain plenty of pectin, but are lacking in acid. With juices from these fruits a more acid juice or a little powdered tartaric or citric acid may be used. These acids come from grapes and lemons. In most cases the original delicate flavor of the fruit is changed some- what by the addition of acid; an improvement is found though in the case of sweet apples and quinces. The amount of acid to be used must be decided by taste. Begin. by adding 1 1 of powdered acid to 1 qt of juice. Bring the tartness of the juice to that of a good tart apple. II. The Method op Making Extractions of Fruit Juice 1. The first extraction. a. Very juicy fruits, such as currants and other berries, should have added to the kettle in which they are to be cooked just enough water to prevent burning. Cover the kettle and let the fruit cook slowly, stirring occasionally with a wooden or silver spoon. When the simmering point is reached, crush the fruit with a wooden masher, then con- tinue heating until the whole mass is cooked. Now pour this into a jelly bag (flannelette is a good material) which has been rung out of hot water. Let the juice drain through this into an earthen or enameled pan. Do not squeeze the pulp. 2. When the juice is fairly well drained, put the pulp into a kettle again, and cover with cold water. Bring this slowly to boiling and drain again. Use the alcohol test to deter- mine the amount of pectin in this second extraction. If the PEESEEYING AND PICKLING 63 gelatinous mass is heavy, a third extraction may be made. Sometimes there may be enoiigh pectin to allow live extrac- tions, but ordinarily only three can be made. b. Less juicy fruits. If jnice is to be extracted from such fruits as apples aud Cjuinces, clean the fruit and cut it into small pieces, skins, and seeds included, and cover witli water. From here on proceed just as in using juicy fruits. III. The Ajiouxt op Juice to be Cooked at One Time With the present knowledge of jelly making, it seems wise to use not more than 2 qts of juice at once. The whole proc- ess should be carried out as quickly as possible, since long, slow cooking changes the pectin into substances which have no jelly making power. Currant jelly, first extraction, has been made in ten minutes ; apples may need thirty minutes. IV. Proportiox of Sugar to be Used A wrong proportion of sugar is one of the most frequent causes of poor jelly. The results of experiments using the same vohime of juice and different proportions of .sugar i'latc- 4. — Sliowine tlie effect of different proportions of sutiar on tbe con- sistency of currant jelly. (Courtesy of the University of Illinois.) 1. Ratio of juice to sugar. (1) 4:3, C) 1 ;1, fOl S :0. will show the effect of sugar. In the following table 1 : %, for example, means 1 volume (that is, 1 c, 1 pt, etc.) of juice, and 14 that volume of sugar. 64 FOODS AND SANITATION Juice Sugar 1 : Quantity of jelly very small, tough, opaque, unpalatable mass, consisting chiefly of the pectin in the juice. 1 : 14 Greater quantity jelly ; less opaque, still tough. 1 : % Still greater quantity jelly. More trans- parent and tender. Using i^c currant juice, the following results were obtained : 1 : 34 gives 5 T of jelly — ^flavor a trifle too sour ; texture good. 1 : 1 gives 6 T of jelly — flavor excellent ; texture excellent. 1 : 114 gives 9 T of jelly — ^flavor too sweet ; mass not firm enough. Summary. There is a certain proportion of sugar for each juice, with which an ideal jelly can be made. As the proportion of sugar is decreased, the toughness of the jelly is increased. As the proportion of sugar increases beyond this perfect one, the jelly produced becomes increasingly soft until it is only a syrup. Cooking will not make any- thing but a gummy mass of it. See plate 4. The only rem- edy is to boil this product with more juice to furnish pectin enough to take care of the over proportion of sugar. For the first extraction of the juices of currants and grapes which are a little underripe, a proportion of 1 : 1 has been found best. However, if these fruits seem unusually watery, and do not show sufficient pectin, decrease to 1 :%. For the first extraction from, raspberries and ilackber- ries, and from juices of fruits for which water to cover was used in cooking, 1 : % has been found to be generally the best proportion. This should also be decreased if the pectin test is not good. PRESEEVING AND PICKLING 65 For the second and third extraction. Boil these together, if the quantity is not too great, until they have lost enough water so that by taste and pectin test they are approxi- mately like first extraction. Then use the same proportion of sugar. V. Time to Add Sugar It has been found that the best time for putting the sugar into the juice is when the boiling (after draining) is about half done; that is, after 5 minutes for currants and after 10 to 15 minutes for apples. Some heat the sugar before adding it, in order not to cool the juice so much. VI. Jelly Test Some work is being done to determine the temperature which will indicate when jelly is cooked just long enough. So far, this is not completed, and we must rely on the spoon test. When a drop of juice does not run off, but falls off the stirring spoon, another drop seeming to join the one ahead before it falls, the jelly is done. The old method of allowing some of the juice to cool on a plate to see if the jellying point has been reached, takes too much time. No time should be lost in taking the jelly from the fire when the right point has been reached. VII. Caee op Jelly Since jelly is very sweet, it is not likely to be spoiled by bacteria. Sometimes yeasts act upon it and make it taste like wine. How may this flavor be done away with? The chief agents in the spoiling of jelly are molds. In order to prevent their growth, the jelly should be poured into a ster- ilized jar while it is hot. Before pouring the jelly into the glasses, pour into them enough melted paraffin to cover the top of the jelly. Pour the hot jelly on top of this and the 66 FOODS AND SANITATION paraffin will rise to the top and cover the surface. Some- times jelly is placed in the sun for a few hours if it does not seem stiff enough. In this case the paraffin could not be put into the glass first satisfactorily. The paraffin, however, prevents any chance for infection of the jelly by yeasts or molds, and is easily used after one has had a little experi- ence in jelly, making. Lids should then be put on. "With these precautions, jelly may be kept anywhere without dan- ger of spoiling. Experiment 22. Prepare jelly from any fruit to be had. Calculate the cost and compare it with that of bought jelly. Pickling Pickling means preservation by means of salt, vin- egar, and spices. Two undesirable changes are likely to occur in pickling. First, the fruit is likely to shrivel. Sec- ond, in the case of cucumbers, it may become soft. Experiment 23. To explain shriveling, perform the following experiment. Directions, a. Put pieces of an uncooked vegetable, potato, beet, or cucumber into weak salt water, 1 part salt, 8 parts water. Allow them to stand for one-half hour. i. Repeat, using pieces of cooked vegetable. c. Repeat, putting pieces into plain water. d. Put pieces from a into plain water. Let stand one-half hour. e. Put pieces of c into salt water. Conclusions. 1. "What conditions produce shriveling ? 2. How may it be remedied 1 References, Principles of Jelly Making, N. E. Goldthwaite, Uni- versity of Illinois, Urbana, 111. PRESERVING AND PICKLING 67 3. How does cooked vegetable differ from raw in shriv- eling? The effects which have been noticed in this experiment have been brought about by osmosis, an exchange of liquids through the cell walls. Experiment 24. To prepare unripe cucumber pickles. Directions. Put 4 qts small cucumbers in brine composed of 1 c salt, 2 qts water. Let stand 3 days. Drain off the brine, boil it, and pour over the cucumbers again. Let stand 3 days, then drain off the brine, and pour over the cucum- bers 1 gallon of boiling water in which 1 T of alum has been dissolved. Let stand for six hours, then drain off the alum water. Next, boil the cucumbers for 10 minutes, a few at a time, in one-fourth of the following mixture. Strain the remaining mixture over the pickles in the jars. 1 gal. vinegar 4 red peppers 2 T allspice berries 2 T cloves Questions. Softening is due to bacterial decomposition. 1. What precautions are recommended in the above recipe to prevent this 1 2. By what micro-organisms are these cucumbers likely to be affected after they are perfectly cooked ? How prevent their action? Experiment 25. To prepare Chili Sauce. 12 medium tomatoes 1 T salt 1 pepper 2 1 cloves 1 onion 2 T cinnamon 2 c vinegar 2 T allspice 3 T sugar 2 1 nutmeg Cook 2y2 hours Eepeeence. Reynolds Green, "Vegetable Physiology," (for teacher.) 68 FOODS AND SANITATION Question. What precautions must be taken to keep this from spoiling? Vinegar. This is made from any one of several solu- tions containing sugars by the changing of alcohol to acetic acid by bacteria. The pure food regulations require 4% of acetic acid to be present. The soft mass often found in the bottom of a vinegar vessel called "mother of vinegar" is an accumulation of the bacteria which formed the acid. If the vinegar is clear when it is bought, no mother should appear in it, providing 4% acid is present, since this degree of acid- ity prevents further growth of the bacteria. The following kinds of vinegar are in common use : 1. Cider Vinegar. Made from cider. Considered best in United States. 2. Wine Vinegar. Made from wine in wine-producing countries, but the wine vinegar of this country is made from dilute alcohol. 3. Malt Vinegar. Used in England where neither cider nor wine is made. It is made from grains. 4. Molasses Vinegar. Made from fermented molasses, and largely used in the United States. It is made to imitate cider vinegar and is frequently sold under that name. 5. Spirit Vinegar. Made from dilute alcohol. The chief adulterations practiced in this country are dilution with water and coloring to imitate cider vinegar. Dried Fruit Experiment 26. To determine the best method of pre- paring dried fruit for serving. Wash and use either 3 prunes, 6 dried apricots, or 2 dried peaches. a. Weigh the fruit and soak it over night in enough water to cover it. Cook it until tender in the water in which it PEESERVING AND PICKLING 69 has soaked. Take the fruit out of the juice. Note the time for cooking and the weight. Put the fruit back into the juice, sweeten and, in the case of prunes, add a little lemon juice. h. Wash and weigh the fruit. Cover it with water and cook it until it is tender. Note time for cooking and weigh as in a. Convert into fruit whip. Conclusions. Compare the two methods of cooking as to (1) time, (2) texture. FRUIT W^HIP 14 c fruit pulp White of 1 egg . Sugar Few grains salt Few drops of lemon juice Beat the egg until stiff. Fold in the fruit pulp and enough sugar to give the right sweetness. A few drops of lemon juice improves the flavor, especially if prunes are used. Chill before serving. CHAPTER VI STIMULANTS BEVERAGES — SPICES Tea. Tea is made from the leaves of a small tree from three to six feet high which grows chiefly in China, Japan, and Ceylon. Four sets of shoots are sent out by the plant each year. The two small leaves at the tip of a young shoot are the most juicy and contain the least fiber. These make the best tea, the real Flowery and Orange Pekoe. The larger leaves further down the stem make the Pekoe, Sou- chong, and Congo, inferior in flavor to that made from the smaller leaves. Young Hyson tea is made from leaves corresponding in size to Souchong; Gun- powder tea comes from leaves like the Congou. These are green teas. Preparation for Market. There are two methods of preparing leaves. 1. Black tea. For this the leaves are withered in the sun, then rolled until they become soft and mushy, then made into balls and allowed to ferment. When the fermentation is complete, they are dried in the sun and then in a furnace. 2. Green tea. This differs from black tea chiefly in its not being allowed to ferment before being dried. Formerly green tea was made as black tea was, then treated with chemicals to give proper color. This is rarely done now. 70 STIMULANTS 71 By fermentation black tea has one of its harmful constituents, tannin, made less harmful, less capable of being dissolved in the digestive juices. For this reason it is less injurious than green tea. Black tea has a little more stimulant, theine, than green tea. Green Tea Black Tea Tannin 10.64% 4.89% Theine 3.20% 3.30% The flavor of tea is due to the oils which it con- tains, and in some cases to the material which has been used to scent it, for instance, fragrant olive. Teas from different countries have different flavors. To make the best flavor and body and pungency, most teas on the market are blends of many varieties. Prepaxation of the Beverage. The method of making tea is far more important and possible to control than the variety. Allowing boiling water to stand on the leaves is called making an infusion. The Chinese directions for making tea require that the water shall be freshly boiling, not having all the air driven out, and be poured on the leaves while it is boiling, for only at that temperature can the best flavors be extracted. This means that the vessel in which the water is poured must be heated so as not to lower the temperature of the boiling water. Standards for Judging, Tea-tasters say that the infusion should be of reddish-golden color, pungent in flavor, and not hard or thin, but soft and mellow. 72 POODS AND SANITATION The leaves should all be of a bright coppery tint, and not completely unrolled at the end of the infusion. There should be few stems. The length of time of the infusion determines the amount of tannin and theine extracted and, therefore, the effect of the tea on the body. Tea and coffee are not related in composition to fruits and vegetables. They follow the subject of Canning because of the simplicity of their prep- aration, the chief points being the regulation of temperature and time. Tea and coffee, although they contain some pro- tein and carbohydrate, are yet in no sense foods, because these substances are in minute quantities and not capable of being dissolved and used by the body. Chocolate and cocoa are foods and on this account will be studied with starchy foods. All four of these are stimulants. This means that they act as spurs to increase mental and phys- ical alertness. They should not be used by children and only in moderate amounts by adults. The stimulants which they .contain, are not equally strong. Many adults do not notice any stimulation from cocoa or chocolate, although it can often be noticed in children after the eating of chocolate candy. The stimulant in tea is called theine, in coffee, ,caffein, in chocolate and cocoa, theobromine. Tea, in particular, contains another harmful sub- stance, tannin. The amount of this substance in STIMULANTS 73 an infusion of tea depends upon the length of time which the leaves are allowed to stand in the water. Tannin in small quantities interferes with the secre- tion of the digestive juices and with the digestion of protein. Experiment 28. To determine the amount of tannin extracted by different methods of making tea. Directions, a. Weigh fotir 1-gram portions of black tea. What part of a teaspoon is one gram of tea ? 1. Pour % c boiling water upon 1 gram tea. Keep it hot and let it steep 1 minute. Drain from the leaves. Taste. 2. Pour % c boiling water upon 1 gram tea. Keep hot. Let steep 3 minutes. Taste. 3. Pour % e boiling water upon 1 gram tea. Keep hot. Let steep 5 minutes. Taste. 4. Pour 1/2 c boiling, water upon 1 gram tea. Keep hot. Let boil 1 minute. Taste. Put 10 ee from each cup of tea into test tubes. Test for tannin (see test given below). Save tests to compare with those from green tea. &. Repeat a in all parts using a green tea. Test for Tannin with Cupric Acetate Make a saturated solution of cupric acetate by boiling 1 gram of cupric acetate in 50 cc of water. To 10 ec of the solution add 15 drops of the cupric acetate solution. Boil. Solid material, called precipitate, forms. This is the tannin. It does not show immediately, however. Let the test stand for 24 hours. Note. Ferrous sulphate solution in the proportion of % ec to 5 cc of tea solution may be used in place of cupric acetate, but does not give so clear a test and it will not precipitate tannin from coffee. 74 FOODS AND SANITATION Conclusions. 1. "Which method gives the best flavor to the tea? 2. Compare the amounts of tannin obtained from each method. 3. Compare the amounts of tannin obtained from green and from black tea. 4. "Write a recipe for making tea, indicating amount, kind, temperature, and time. Question. How do these samples compare with the tea- tasters' standards? Coffee. The grains of coffee which we know are the seeds of a berry resembling a small cherry. This grows in the tropics on trees six to ten feet high. The pulp is dried and removed, then the seeds are cleaned, dried, and roasted. There are three kinds of coffee in general use: Mocha, Java, and Eio or Brazil. They take this order in regard to price and desirability. The tannin in coffee is combined with the caffein. These in roasted coffee are 1.24:fo, in comparison with 3.20% theine, and 10.64% tannin in tea. This seems like much less of the harmful constituents than are found in tea, but the greater quantity of coffee used to 1 c water a little more than counter- balances this, so that from about 1 quart of tea or 3 cups of coffee it has been estimated one gets the amount of theine or caffein which is given as the smallest dose when administered as medicine. References. Snyder, "Human Foods," pp. 203-206. Hutehison, "Foods and Dietetics," pp. 300-308, 1902 edition. STIMULANTS 75 Whole coffee is rarely adulterated now. There is, however, substitution of cheaper brands for choice kinds. Ground coffee is more frequently adul- terated with such things as roasted peas, beans, cereals, chicory, etc. These are ordinarily heavier than coffee and therefore, if the suspected material is shaken in cold water, the coffee will be found at the surface, the adulteration at the bottom. Coffee substitutes are made of roasted wheat, or peas, or these combined, and, many times, chicory. Some contain coffee itself which may be considered an adulterant in this case. Standards for Judging Coffee. Good coffee should have a yellow tinge when cream is added to it. It should have a mellow, yet pungent flavor with a good body to it, that is, it should not taste thin. Experiment 29. To determine the effect of hot water upon the amount of tannin extracted from coffee. Directions, a. Tie coffee loose in a piece of cheesecloth, using the proportion of 2 T coffee to 1 c water, and making Yo c coffee in each case. 1. By placing coffee in cold water and bringing it slowly to the boiling point. Taste while hot, adding sugar and cream if desired. 2. By placing coffee in cold water, heating slowly, and removing just before the boiling point is reached. Taste. 3. By placing coffee in boiling water and boiling for 5 minutes. Taste. Remove 10 cc from each solution and test for tannin as in tea. 76 FOODS AND SANITATION Conclusions. 1. "What are the differences in the flavor of the coffee due to differences in method of preparing it? Which method gives best flavor ? 2. Compare the amounts of tannin obtained by different methods of preparing coffee. 3. Compare amounts of tannin found in Ic tea and le coffee. b. Make a cup of coffee for serving, using the tempera- ture and time which you found best in a, but do not put the coffee in cheesecloth. Clear it : 1. By mixing coffee with egg and cold water. 2. By adding 1 T of cold water to settle. 3. Compare these with the best coffee of a. Conclusion. "What is the best method of clearing coffee? Questions. 1. How should a cup of coffee look: (a) Before adding cream? (&) After adding cream? 2. "Why does egg settle coffee ? 3. "Why does cold water settle coffee ? Note. In Europe coffee is made strong and used with equal parts of hot milk. This is called ' ' cafe au lait. ' ' Eefeeences. Snyder, Human Foods, pp. 207-210. Hutchison, Food and Dietetics, pp. 308-311. Spices 1. Peppers, white and black. Fruit of pepper plant, a perennial shrub growing in the East and "West Indies, a. black — berry picked before thoroughly ripe. b. white — berry picked when mature ; this has the hull- all removed. 2. Bed or Cayenne pepper. Fruit pod of capsicum, found mainly in the tropics. 3. Mustard. Seed of mustard plant. Brown or black mustard has smallest seed and most aroma. "White mustard frequently unground. Only the inner part of the seed is used for ground mustard. STIMULANTS 77 4. Ginger, The root of a seed-like plant, a native of Southern Asia. Jamaica ginger is the best variety. 5. Cinnamon and cassia. The bark of several species of tropical plants. True cinnamon is a native of Ceylon ; the cassias are from Bengal and China. The former has much thinner bark than the latter, and is rarely found except in drug stores ; by far more cassia is used in this country. 6. Cloves. Dried flower buds of a tropical evergreen. 7. Allspice. The fruit of a West Indian evergreen tree. A small, dry berry, two-celled, each cell having a single seed. 8. Nutmeg. Interior kernel of an Bast Indian tree. Fruit resembles a small pear. The fleshy crimson mantle covering the seed is mace. The white dust on nutmeg is lime, used to prevent the spi-outing of the germ. Reference. Snyder, ' ' Human Foods. ' ' US Department of Agriculture Offfceof Experiment Stotioira A C.True-. Director FVepored by CFTLANGWORTWY Ejfpert n Charge of Nutrition Westigdtions COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. ■ I 1 I 1 ■■ I ~1 ■■I . Fuel Volue an Fat Corbohydrotes Aih Water ||B iqq^ Calories MOLASSES Proton: 2 A- Carbohydrates: 100.0 Carbohydrates:69.3 1860 CALORIES PCR PQurjD W^er: 3.0 MAPL£ *WGAR 1 785 CALDHIES PtH PDUMD Full value 1290CALQHIE5 PCR POUND MONCY .h:32 ^ :.:^-Water:16.3 5h:0.9-X Carbo- Carbo- hydrate3i82.8 hyd^es:81.2 ' ryEL value: : ■A3h:0.2 ;5^ CALDPiES PCP POUND 1520 CAU3RIE5 PEH POUND Plate 5. 78 CHAPTER VIII CAEBOHYDRATES SUGAR — CANDY — STARCH Tke carbohydrates with which we are best acquainted are sugar and starch. The newspapers had much to say about glucose (also a carbohy- drate) in candies a few years ago, but many people have never seen it to recognize it. Green plants are the original makers of all the carbohydrates which we use as food, ex,cept milk sugar. They take in through their leaves carbon dioxide, a waste product of animal and plant breath- ing, a product of decomposition and of burning. Through their roots they take water from the soil. In the presence of sunlight and ehlorophyl, the green coloring matter in the plant, they make this water and carbon dioxide into a glucose sugar. This is the form of carbohydrate which the plant uses as food. When it has made all of this that it needs for food immediately, it does not stop. It begins to put •glucose sugar into the more compact forms of sugar and starch, by taking away from the glucose sugar more and more water. In these forms the plant stores .carbohydrates in seeds, roots, or tubers. Should the plant need some of this stored material as food, as for instance, in sprouting time, water is 79 80 FOODS AND SANITATION added, and starch and sugar become a glucose sugar again. All of these changes in the amount of water, and consequently, in the kind of carbo- hydrate, are brought about by enzymes in the plant. There are several members of these three different groups of carbohydrates which are commonly found in foods, as follows: Glucose or Cane Sugar or Starch or Monosaccharid Group Disaccharid Group Polysaccharid Group Glucose or dextrose Sugar or sucrose Starch Fructose or Milk sugar or Dextrin levulose lactose Cellulose Galactose Malt sugar or Glycogen maltose Pectin Note for Students Who Have Had Chemistey. Formula for Monosaccharid group, CoHjzO,,. Formula for Disaccharid group, C12H22O11. Formula for Polysaccharid group, (C8Hio05)„. To be able to select carbohydrates intelligently in regard to their ease of digestion and cheapness, we must understand what kinds of carbohydrates the different foods contain and the changes made in them by cooking and digestion. To do this the char- acteristic of this food nutrient and color tests for it Sources and Characteristics of Carbohydrates "Which Are Found in Foods Glucose or Dextrose — Where Found. 1. In ripe or sprouting fruits or vegetables, in honey and in the yellow- ish grains in raisins. CARBOHTDEATES gj 2. In syrups made from corn and potato starch by action of an acid. Example: corn syrups; it is about 40% of these. If the acid acts longer, solid, almost pure dextrose is formed. 3. In the digestive tract and in the blood as the result of the action of the digestive juices on sugars and starches. 4. In juices of cooked fruits by action of acid in fruit on sugar used for sweetening. Characteristics. 1. Crystallizes fairly easily. 2. Dissolves in water easily. 3. Is less sweet than sugar. 4. Gives orange or brick color with Fehling's solution. Fructose or Levulose — Where Found. 1. As companion of glucose in fruits, vegetables and honey. 2. In digestive tract from digestion of sugar, not from starch. 3. In the juices of stewed fruits. It is formed as in glu- cose from the action of fruit acid on sugar. Characteristics. 1. Does not crystallize easily. 2. Is sweeter than cane sugar. 3. Gives Fehling's test. Sugar or Sucrose — Where Found. 1. In stems and roots of sugar cane, beets, sorghum, cornstalks, carrots, turnips, old potatoes. 2. In the sap of date palm and sugar maple trees. 3. In fruits and in the nectar of flowers. Common sugar is manufactured (in about equal quantities) from either sugar cane or sugar beets. Tests show that well purified sugars from these two sources are equally valuable and no difference can be noted if the crystals are equally fine. Only in the last seventy-five years has sugar been produced in 82 FOODS AND SANITATION such quantities as to bring it into general use. In the United States 81.6 pounds per person were con- sumed in 1910. The English speaking people use more than any other. Characteristics. 1. Forms large crystals easily. 2. Dissolves readily in water. 3. Does not give Fehling's test. Maple sugar and syrup have other substances in them which give the special flavor. See plate 5. The amount of sugar in maple sap is small ; five gallons must be boiled down to make one pound of sugar. In spite of this, millions of pounds of maple sugar and syrup are produced yearly in the United States. Malt Sugar or Maltose — Where Found. 1. During the digestion of starch in the animal body. 2. In plants as ripening goes on and starch changes to glucose. 3. In syrups made from starch and acid. 4. In malt extracts used in the preparation of some breakfast foods, and in some medicines. Characteristics. 1. Gives Fehling's test after a few sec- onds of heating. Milk Sugar or Lactose — Where Found. 1. In milk. Characteristics. 1. Less sweet than any other sugar. It is used in medicine as a basis for many powders and pellets. MUk sugar or lactose is the form in which sugar is found in milk and is much less sweet than sucrose. The grains of the cane sugar group are much larger and more readily formed than those of the glucose group. CAEBOHYDBATBS 83 Starch is a wMte substance, without crystals, which is found in fruits, in vegetables, and in cereals. Dextrin is produced when starch is browned by heat, when the plant changes starch back into sugar, or as the first product of starch digestion in the body. Glycogen is the form in which starch is stored in the liver and muscles. Cellulose is the material which forms the framework of a plant, being soft when the plant is young, and tough and woody when the plant is older. It forms wood of trees and the bast of cotton fibre. Pectin is one of the substances on which the jelly making power of fruit depends. Sugars. To understand the relationship of one group of sugars to another we must have some method of distinguishing them. The following ex- periments show this : Experiment 30. To determine a method of detecting the presence of a glucose sugar. Directions, a. Add to a little glucose in a test tube a lit- tle Fehling's solution. Heat. An orange or red color indi- cates the presence of a glucose sugar. Maltose and lactose also give an orange color with Fehling's solution, but a few seconds or a minute of boiling is required before the color shows when these alone are present. b. Test cane sugar in the same way. Experiment 31. To determine a method of detecting the presence of cane sugar. Directions. To a little cane sugar in % test tube of water, add 2 or 3 drops of vinegar. Boil, then add Feh- ling's solution and heat. 84 FOODS AND SANITATION Conclusion. How may the presence of cane sugar in a substance be detected? "What has the acid done to the sugar ? In the making of candies, the changing of cane sugar to dextrose and levulose by acid is made use of to increase the smoothness. All of the varieties of fondant, fudge, penocha, etc., to be considered any more than sweet and edible, must be of just the proper softness and of so smooth a texture that they feel almost like cream or butter to the tongue. The thickness of the syrup, that is, the tempera- ture and time of cooking determines the hardness; the number and size of crystals determine the smoothness. By noting the characteristics of the crystals of cane sugar as compared with those of the glucose sugars it is easily seen which are more desirable in candy. Note. Fehling's solution added to any other substance except a glucose sugar or maltose or lactose will not give the orange or red color, therefore, whenever that color is given with that solution one of these sugars must be present. Likewise iodine gives the blue color only with starch, consequently, the blue color with iodine is a test to find out whether starch is present in a substance or not. These are called color tests for the presence of carbohydrates. To Teachers. To make Fehling's solution use: (1) 9 grams CuSoi + 250 co HjG. (2) 30 grams NaOH + 250 cc H^O. (3) 43 grams Eochelle salts + 250 cc H^O. To use. Add to equal parts of 1, 2, and 3 twice that volume of water. The temperatures of syrups given throughout the work on sugar are sea level temperatures and should be altered according to the altitude. CABBOHTDEATES 85 Experiment 32. To determine by means of cold water the tests of syrups used for different purposes. Directions. Use 1 c of sugar and i/4 c of water. Take out a little syrup on a spoon at temperatures given below. Drop it into cold water and, using the fingers, determine the con- sistency at each temperature. Describe each. Remove the pan from the fire while testing in the water. Use water which is at least as cool as 55° F. for making these tests. 1. Boiling point of syrup used for fondant, 112° to 114° C. 2. Boiling point of syrup used for fudge, 110° to 111° C. 3. Boiling point of syrup used for caramels, 123° C. 4. Boiling point of syrup used for brittle candies, 132° C. Experiment 33. To make peanut brittle. Directions. To the syrup remaining in the saucepan, from Experiment 32, add not more than half its volume of peanuts. Pour onto an inverted pie tin to cool. Un- roasted nuts may be used if they are allowed to cook a few minutes in the syrup. The skins are more difficult to remove from these than from the roasted ones. "What is the temperature when the syrup has reached a light brown color ? Sugar may be melted and browned without the addition of water. To do this without burning, requires more skill in stirring and in regulating the heat. No cold water test need be made when this method is used. When the proper shade of brown is seen, the process is finished. Crystallization. The amount of a substance wHch a liquid will dissolve depends upon the temperature of the liquid. When the amount of a substance made up of crystals, as sugar, dissolved in water is so great that, at the temperature of the mixture, more 86 FOODS AND SANITATION is present than is easily dissolved, crystals of the substance which have been dissolved begin to reap- pear. This is often seen when too large an amount of sugar has been used in jelly making. When even one crystal is on the side of the vessel so that it comes in contact in any way with the liquid in which the other crystals are dissolved, this one crystal acts as the nucleus or foundation for other crystals. In time the whole mass may become crystals, starting from this one. Stirring, particularly at a high tem- perature, produces crystallization. Therefore, to make smooth fondant : 1. There must be no crystals on the sides of the pan. 2. Stirring or beating is better done when the mixture is cool. When cream of tartar is used in fondant or fudge some of the cane sugar becomes dextrose and levu- lose. Dextrose crystallizes less readily than cane sugar and levulose only with difficulty. This slow- ness to crystallize prevents graininess, although very smooth candy may be made without cream of tartar, if great care is taken to prevent crystalliza- tion. Even when cream of tartar is used, it is best to keep a lid on the pan of boiling syrup, so that that which spatters on the sides does not dry and form crystals. A clean, damp cloth may be used to wipe the sides of the pan. CAEBOHYDEATES 87 Experiment 34. To determine the effect of stirring at different temperatures upon the rate of formation of crystals and upon the size of the crystals in fondant. Directions, a. Boil 1 c sugar with % as much water to 112° C. or 233° F., or until it forms a soft ball in cold water. Be careful not to spatter sides of pan. While .ooking, keep fire low and pan covered, and wipe the sides of the pan with a clean, damp cloth during the process of cooking and before pouring out. Divide into two parts. 1. Stir while hot. 2. Let stand until cool to the hand, then stir. Note dif- ference in graininess of 1 and 2. Set aside until next day in a moist place, or wrap in oiled paper so that water does not evaporate. What is the eifect, upon the texture, of standing for some hours ? Conclusion. What is the effect of the temperature at which stirring is done upon the texture of fondant 1 h. Save a portion of the second one of these. Melt the rest with y^ c water, adding 1 ss cream of tartar. Cook and stir in the way which you found best in a to prevent crys- tallization. Keep it over night as in a. Compare, as to texture, with the portion saved from a. Conclusions. 1. What is the effect of cream of tartar upon the sugar? Note. To determine this, test moistened cream of tartar with blue litmus paper. Test vinegar and lemon juice in the same way. 2. Write a proportion and method of making good fondant. Question. To what is the opaqueness of beaten fondant or pulled taffy due 1 Compare whitecaps on waves. gg FOODS AND SANITATION Experiment 35. To prepare peppermint patties, choco- late creams and cocoanut bars from the fondant. a. Cocoanut Bars. Fondant may have soft, shredded cocoanut rolled into it and then be made into bars or other shapes. b. Peppermint Patties. Melt fondant over hot water and add the flavoring and also coloring matter, if desired. Drop it from a spoon upon an oiled paper to harden. c. Chocolate Creams. Mold the fondant into the desired shapes and chill it before dipping. d. Melt chocolate and test it with litmus paper. Moisten brown sugar and test it with litmus paper. Conclusion. What effect would chocolate have upon sugar in cooking fudge ? Experiment 36. To prepare soft candies such as fudge and penocha. Directions, a. Use fondant proportions and a little lower temperature (111° C. or 232° F.), and the same pre- cautions to prevent crystallization, add chocolate in pro- portion of % square to 1 c sugar. Penocha is made with light brown sugar. Questions. 1. What would you say about the necessity of using milk, cream, and butter in fudge to produce a creamy consistency? 2. Look at the ingredients in the hard Note. The clipping of chocolate creams is done in several ways. The best method is that of melting bitter chocolate, then cooling it as much as possible while still keeping it thin, and then covering the creams. Another method is that of mixing paraffin with the chocolate and having the fondant centers hard so that they may be put into the melted chocolate and paraf^ while the latter are fairly hot, without losing their shape. If chocolate is to be melted in order to be used, it should be done over water and the temperature of this water should be below boiling, or else it should not touch the vessel which holds the chocolate. As soon as the temperature of the choco- late is high enough to cook starch, the chocolate begins to thicken. CAEBOHYDRATES 89 candies given below. What may be one of the reasons for their not being grainy? Experiment 37. To prepare hard candies such as but- ter scotch and toffee. Tajfy. This is a fondant cooked to the brittle stage, with the addition of butter and any flavoring de- sired. If desired, a light syrup may be used in the proportion of i/4 part syrup to one part of sugar. BUTTER SCOTCH 1 e sugar 2 T butter ^4: c corn syrup or molasses 2 T mild vinegar or 2 T 14 e water lemon juice TOFFEE 1 c light brown sugar 2 T vinegar or juice of 14 2 T butter lemon Cook all materials together to 132° C, 269 3/5° F., or until brittle in cold water. Pour onto buttered plate and, when slightly cool, dent. Crack when cold. Why is it possible to stir this without fear of crystallization? The Use of Sugar and Candy in the Diet Adulteration. There is a popular belief that sugar is often adulterated with starch or lime dust. Hundreds of tests have failed to show this to be well-founded. Value in the Body. Sugar, like starch and other carbohydrates and fats, furnishes the body with Eepekence. Frinciples of Candy Making, by Louise Stanley, Mis- souri State Board of Agriculture, 1911. 90 FOODS AND SANITATION fuel for heat or work. Since it has only one change ; i. e., to glucose and levulose, to make before it is ready for absorption into the blood stream, its effects in case of fatigue or starvation may be felt in one- half hour. It and sweet chocolate are carried by mountain climbers. Sugar is given in army rations much more than formerly, and tests show less fatigue in the soldiers after long marching. Lem- onade or other sweet refreshing drinks are often given between meals to harvest laborers who are doing heavy, muscular work. Sugar is now given at athletic training tables, where it was once prohibited. When sugar is eaten in too large quantities at once and in a concentrated form, it produces a burn- ing, dry sensation in the mucous lining of the mouth and stomach, or other digestive disturbances. It seems that about % lb per day may be easily used by the body. Sugar and starch when eaten in excess of the body's need for fuel are stored largely as fat. Therefore they should not be indulged in by portly people. Time for Eating Sweets. When sugar or candy is eaten between meals, or in any wa;y that leaves no appetite for other food, it is injurious. It is thought best to put little or no sugar on cereals for children, lest in their fondness for sugar, they become satis- fied before the cereal itself is eaten. Sugar alone CARBOHTDRATES 91 cannot furnish the nutrients to build a strong body ; it has no protein or ash. Lump sugar and candy may be given in small quantities at the end of meals or several hours before a meal, when they do not interfere with normal appetites. The fondness of children for sweets is probably due to the energy they supply for their great activity. The amount of sugar eaten by the individual must be governed by the muscular exercise. A day laborer could eat, with good results, an amount that would be harmful to a clerk or stenographer. Sugar and the Teeth. When the teeth are not kept clean, any food particles which cling to them are decayed by bacteria which are present in every mouth. "When sugar or other substance decays it forms an acid which destroys the enamel that pro- tects the teeth. Therefore, it seems unfair to lay the blame for decayed teeth upon sugar alone. If not kept clean the teeth would undoubtedly decay, even though there were no sugar in the diet. The Selection of Candy. Much cheap candy, col- ored with harmful dyes and handled in a dirty way, exposed to the street air or displayed on counters, handled by dirty hands and weighed in dirty scales, is bought by and for children. Although much im- provement has been made in this regard, a better plan is to make taffy, butter scotch or peanut brittle at home. Hard candy should not be broken by the teeth 92 FOODS AND SANITATION but should be allowed to melt in the mouth. An observance of this rule would prevent many broken corners, which are the l^eginnings of decayed teeth. Chocolate candy should not be giyen to children in any considerable quantities. The theobromine in the chocolate is too strong a stimulant for their delicate nervous systems. Reference. "Sugar and Its Value as Food," Farmers' Bulletin 535, 1913. CHAPTER IX FEEEZING MIXTUEES ICES — ICE CREAMS This subject involves so many principles that it might logically be considered in any one of several places. Since syrups or sugar and cream or milk are used in the making of all frozen preparations, it may follow candy-making. We must consider the subject of temperature of water with substances dissolved in it without the application of heat. In order to understand how to make an ice cream or a fruit ice so that it is hard and smooth one must understand the difference between freezing water and freezing a syrup or sweetened cream, and the use of salt and ice to do this. Water freezes when it loses enough heat to change it to a solid ; that is, at 0° C. or 32° F. Substances which will dissolve in water lower the temperature at which it freezes in proportion to the amount of the substance dissolved. Thus, ice creams or ices which contain sugar freeze at —6° C. to —8° C. or 22° F. to 17° F. Ice melts at 0° C. or 32° F. Eighty calories of heat are required to change ice to water without changing its temperature. The use of this amount of heat by the ice in melting does not take away 93 94 POODS AND SANITATION enough heat from the mixture to be frozen to freeze it. Therefore, by the use of ice alone ice creams and ices can not be frozen. If a handful of salt be put into some water at 60° F. or 15° C. the temperature of the water will fall several degrees. This means that some of the heat of that water has been used up in dissolving the salt. Likewise, to dissolve salt in the melting ice uses up some heat from the mixture to be frozen. This plus that used in melting the ice makes a tem- perature below freezing point in the freezing mixture and also in the mixture to be frozen. The lowest temperature which can be reached with salt and ice is —22° C. or —7%° F. At this tem- perature the water has dissolved all the salt pos- sible. Therefore, it does no good to add more salt, since only that dissolved affects the temperature. From the above facts it will be seen that the melted ice and salt has a lower temperature than the un- melted ice and salt. This low temperature of the water is maintained until most of the ice is melted. After this the temperature rises gradually. Construction of a Freezer. Freezing depends upon two conditions. First, the heat to melt the ice must be taken from the mixture to be frozen, rather than from the outside air. Second, the mixture to be frozen must be frozen evenly, not one part very hard and another part merely congealed. Materials carry heat with different degrees of conductivity, FREEZING MIXTURES 95 by passing it from one particle in the substance to the next. The rate at which it is carried differs with different substances. Metals are the best con- ductors of heat and of these silver and copper stand first. Stone, brick, and glass are inferior to metal. Still poorer are wood, cork, hay, paper, asbestos, and solids that are loose in structure as wool, feathers, and fur. Gases have practically no con- ducting power. The quiet air spaces in the loose materials mentioned above are the reason for their poor conductivity. Prom these facts, explain a freezer and work out a method for using it, answer- ing the following questions : 1. How fine should the ice be ? 2. How rapidly should the freezer be turned? 3. "What kind of material should be put over the top when packing? 4. How might a freezer be improvised from utensils ordi- narily found in a kitchen? How would you manipulate such a one? Some freezers are now made with a metal instead of a wooden outside pail. Experiment 38. To determine the temperature which may be obtained by using ice or snow and salt. Directions, a. What is the lowest temperature to be obtained from: 1. Melting ice or snow? 2. A thorough mixture of 20 parts ice to 1 part salt 1 3. A thorough mixture of 12 parts ice to 1 part salt? 4. A thorough mixture of 3 parts ice to 1 part salt ? 6. Let 1 stand until some of the ice or snow is melted. 96 FOODS AND SANITATION Take the temperature of the water now, and a minute or two after all of it is melted. Conclusion. Explain the results of 1, 2, 3, and 4. Questions. 1. When does the temperature of the melted ice begin to rise? 2. When do you get the lowest temperature in an ice and salt mixture ? 3. Should a stopper be used for an ice cream freezer? Why? 4. What is the function of salt in a freezing mixture ? Ices Experiment 39. To determine the temperature at which water and syrup freeze. Directions, a. Immerse a test tube of water in a mixture of ice and salt (12 to 1) . Note the temperature at which it freezes. 6. Make a syrup, using % c sugar and 1 c water. Bring to the boiling point. Dilute 2 T of this with T of water. Freeze this also and note the temperature. The length of time which syrup for an ice should be boiled to reach a definite thickness depends upon the amounts of materials used. Small amounts lose water much more rapidly in proportion to their quantity than large ones. The amount of surface exposed in proportion to the volume is much greater in the former. A syrup which has a boiling point of 102° C, 213 3/5° F., diluted with one-half its volume of flavoring and of water, makes an ice of good consistency. Use 2 parts of sugar and 3 parts of water. When this begins to boil its temperature is 102° C. Questions. 1. What is the volume when % c of sugar is dissolved in 1 c of water ? FBEEZING MIXTUEES 97 If a mixture to be frozen does not freeze, add a little water to it. Explain the reason for this. Experiment 40. To determine the amount of liquid to be added to the syrup in Experiment 39 b to form an ice of good consistency. Directions, a. Add to the syrup ^ as much flavoring, if lemon juice ; % as much, if other flavoring, or until it is slightly stronger in taste than you would have it if it were to be eaten at this temperature. (Why should it be stronger?) Note. Compare the keenness of the sense of touch in cold hands. Referring to Experiment 39, where the syrup was diluted with half its quantity of water, make this syrup of the same dilution by adding what water is necessary after the flavor- ing. Freeze this. Note the amount of increase in volume. To what is this due? 6. Repeat a, adding enough water so that the syrup is diluted with two-thirds of its volume of water and flavor- ing instead of one-half. Conclusions. 1. "What is the difference in consistency between a and h? "Which do you prefer? 2. "Write a recipe for a quart of this ice. (a) How many will it serve? (&) How much will it cost? Note. Citric acid may be substituted for part of the lemou juice in an ice, thus reducing the expense when the cost of lemons is high. It cannot be used satisfactorily without some lemon juice. c. Add to a portion of 6, one-half its quantity of water. Freeze this and note temperature at freezing. Give con- clusions as to the reason for the differences in temperature between a, h, c. A sherbet is made like an ice with the addition of the 98 FOODS AND SANITATION beaten whites of eggs to the partially frozen mixture or by the addition of a little gelatine to the syrup. Use a propor- tion of 1/^ to 1 white of egg to 1 qt of ice or 2 1 gelatine to 1 qt. The effect of these ingredients is to give a softer con- sistency to the ice. The gelatine makes possible the using of a thinner syrup by giving to the ice the proper body to hold air. Ice Creams. There are two foundations for ice cream, the uncooked and the- cooked. In the un- cooked, the ingredients are the cream, or milk and cream, sugar and flavoring. The cream may be all cream of whatever richness desired, or it may be as thin as half milk and half cream. If the cream is diluted more than this it loses its smoothness and body. A cooked ice cream should be used when it is desired to use a more dilute cream. The ingredients of the cooked ice creams are the same as of the uncooked, but a much smaller proportion of cream is used, and egg and flour are added to give it smoothness and the desired body. The proportions for a vanilla ice cream of both classes are as follows: Liquid Sugar Egg Flour Flavoring Salt 1. Uncooked 4:C*.. %c .- li/a T l/16t 2. Cooked 4 ct . . . . % c 1 yolk 1 T I1/2 T 1/16 1 If all milk is used, increase flour to 2T, and use 2 to 4 yolks of eggs. * Of this from 1 c to 2 c may be milk and the remainder cream. t From 1 c to 3 c may be milk and the remainder cream. FREEZING MIXTUBES 99 1. Uncooked ice cream is made by mixing the ingredi- ents, heating slightly until the sugar is dissolved, then adding flavoring. 2. Cooked ice cream is made by adding the sugar and flour to the heated liquid, cooking for a few minutes to improve the taste of the flour, then pouring this slowly onto the egg yolk. This should then be cooked over a very low fire or over hot water until the mixture begins to have the consistency of cream. Note. Remember that flavorings must be stronger than if the food were to be eaten warm. Vakiations Chocolate ice cream may be made by the addition of li/. squares of chocolate to 4 c liquid. This is melted, mixed with some of the sugar and a little water and boiled to a paste before adding to the cream. The sugar should be increased to 1 c for this and for caramel ice cream. For Caramel ice cream, the sugar is melted (as in peanut brittle, second method), and stirred constantly until a golden brown. It may then be added directly to the milk and cream, and this stirred until the syrup is well mixed, or the caramelized sugar may be diluted with a little boiling water before it is added to the cream. Fruit ice cream is made with from i/4 to I/2 as much crushed fruit or juice as cream. If the liquid is at all warm, it is better to add the fruit after the cream is par- tially frozen to prevent the curdling of the cream by the acid of the fruit. The sugar will have to be changed accord- ing to the acidity of the fruit, the amount varying from 1 to 2 cups. Fruit creams, as well as ices, are improved by the addition of a little lemon juice. 100 POODS AND SANITATION Experiment 41. Preparing ice cream. Directions. Prepare a cooked and an uncooked ice cream. Questions. 1. What is the cost of (a), 1 qt of cooked ice cream? (6), 1 qt of uncooked ice cream? 2. What do you estimate to be the difference in time needed to make these two kinds, taking into consideration the dishes used in addition to actual time of preparation ? 3. Write a recipe for a fruit ice cream of the cooked and uncooked varieties. Eepeeences. Millikan and Gale's "Physics," p. 207-210. "Prin- ciples and Practice of Ice Cream Making," Bulletin 155, Agriculture Exp. Sta., Burlington, Vt. CHAPTER X STAECH COOKING OF STAECH COCOA CHOCOLATE WHITE SAUCE In Chapter VII we studied how starch is formed by the plant. We are now ready to study some of its characteristics and the effect of cooking upon it. Starch — Where Found. 1. In most plants. Characteristics. 1. Odorless, tasteless white powder made up of grains having shapes peculiar to the plant in which they are found. 2. Insoluble in cold water. 3. In hot water, grains become larger and sticky, making a paste. 4. Gives blue color when treated with iodine. Dextrin — Where Found. 1. Formed by the action of acids or digestive juices on starch. 2. By browning starch. Characteristics. 1. Less thickening power than starch. 2. Gives a wine color when treated with iodine. Glycogen — Where Found. 1. The form in which carbo- hydrate is normally found in the body after absorption in the liver and muscles. Cellulose — Where Found. 1. It is the cell walls of young plants. Characteristics. 1. Soft when the plants are young and tender. It is the basis for the laying on of woody cells as the plants grow older. 101 102 FOODS AND SANITATION 2. When very young, it is used somewhat as a food by the body, otherwise excreted as waste. Plants are able by some very sensitive chemical substances wbicb are called enzymes to change starch to glucose. This same result can be obtained by heating starch with an acid. Experiment 42. To show how glucose may be manu- factured from starch. Directions, a. Test % ss of starch for glucose. h. Boil 1/2 ss starch with 5 drops dilute hydrochloric acid or 1/^ t of vinegar and a little water for one minute. Test for glucose. Cf. Exp. 30. c. Test starch with a drop of iodine. Note the color. d. Boil ^2 ss starch mixed with water in a test tube, evap- orating dish, or beaker with 1 t vinegar for 6 to 8 minutes. Notice the change in appearance. Test a little of it for starch, then test for glucose. This is the principle upon which commercial glu- cose is manufactured. It is made in this country from corn by the use of hydrochloric acid, and in Germany from potatoes with sulphuric acid. If glucose is properly manufactured, the acid is re- moved. It is a cheaper carbohydrate than cane sugar but just as nutritious and wholesome when properly manufactured. Eemember this experiment when making filling for lemon pie, cooked salad dressing, or lemon corn- starch pudding. The human body as well as plants has enzymes STARCH 103 by wliicli it prepares starch for absorption in the intestines. Experiment 43. To show the action on starch during digestion. Directions, a. Test a bit of cracker for starch and glucose. i. Thoroughly masticate a bit of cracker. Remove it from the mouth to a test tube. 1. Take a portion of this in another test tube and test for starch. A deep wine color shows the presence of dextrin, one step toward the digestion of starch. If the saliva is very active, so that all the starch is changed, the dextrin will show. 2. Test the other portion for glucose. If the color does not appear immediately, add a drop of acid, and heat until it appears. Note. If thorough mastication has not taken place more acid will have to be added, that is, in the body this step in digestion must be done in the stomach or intestines. All the starch and sugar must be changed into glucose sugar before they can be absorbed through the walls of the intestines. What is the function of saliva in digestion? When starch is cooked without an acid, what change takes place to make it more readily digestible? The following experiment will show this. Experiment 44. To determine by their appearance under the microscope the effect of cooking on starch grains. Directions. Using a proportion of 1 ss cornstarch to % c water. a. Take out a drop before cooking, place on a slide, stain lightly with iodine, and examine under the microscope. 104 FOODS AND SANITATION b. Cook the mixture and take out a drop before it boils. Examine it as in a. c. Boil two minutes and examine as in a and b. Make drawings of the grains in a, b, and c, showing rela- tive sizes of grains and differences of outline. Conclusions. 1. What is the effect of hot water on a starch grain? 2. What is the difference between b and c? Explain. Lumps contain raw starch inside. How to prevent these is one of the important problems in cooking starch. Experiment 45. To determine the best methods of mix- ing starch to prevent lump formation. It is more difficult to mix flour with a liquid without lumping than cornstarch, due to the gluten which flour contains. Flour is about three-fourths starch. Since it is cheaper than cornstarch, use it for making further starch experiments. Directions. Use 1 1 flour and ^ c water, unless another amount is called for. a. Solve this problem: In order to mix most quickly, shall the starchy material be : 1. Put into all of the cold liquid? or 2. Shall twice as much cold liquid as starchy material be put onto the starch to prevent lumping? What would be the effect of putting a smaller quantity of water onto the flour and mixing ? Try it. b. To find out the difference in effect of putting hot and cold water on the starchy material. 1. Use same quantity of flour as in a, adding twice as much hot water as flour in place of cold water. Is it smooth ? Which is more desirable, aS or b 1? 2. Use the more desirable method, then put the mixed flour into the rest of the liquid which has been heated. STAECH 105 Is there any advantage in heating part of the liquid this way ? Explain. c. To find out the effect of mixing the flour with sugar and fat. 1. Mix thoroughly equal quantities of flour and sugar and put into hot liquid. 2. Eepeat 1, using fat in place of sugar. Conclusions. 1. From the description of starch grain's behavior in hot and cold water, and from these experiments explain the formation of a lump. 2. Give methods of mixing which will prevent it. Cocoa and Chocolate. Cocoa and chocolate are unlike tea and coffee in containing nutrients which the body can use. Like tea and coffee, however, they contain a stimulant. They are made from the beans of the cacao tree, a native of the American tropics. The beans, about the size of almonds, are freed from the long pod and allowed to ferment in ovens or in holes in the ground for about two days. The flavor of the product depends largely upon the care with which this fermentation is carried on. The beans aro then dried in the sun and changed from white to their characteristic red. They are next roasted and the shells removed. From these shells is made a cheap preparation having a cocoa flavor. The roasted kernels are next crushed, mak- ing cocoa nibs, and these are ground to a paste. This is mixed with sugar, spices and flavoring or not, as sweet or plain chocolate is desired. It is then run into a mold and comes out as we see it in cakes 106 FOODS AND SANITATION of chocolate. If cocoa is to be made, some of the fat is first pressed out. The composition of cocoa is as follows : Theobromine Fat Starch Cellulose Ash Cocoa nibs 1.66% 44.74% 26.4.5% 4.30% 3.16% Cocoa shell l.TS^o 2.54% 17.04% 6.63% Tannin is fotind in the raw bean but is rapidly changed to form cocoa red to which the color is due. Theobromine is a stimulant of the same nature as caffein and theine, but is milder in its effects. Since it is a stimulant, cocoa and chocolate as bev- erages and as flavorings in puddings and candy, should not generally be given to young children, particularly if they are easily excited or stimulated. Experiment 46. To prepare cocoa and chocolate. Directions. — Cocoa. Choose from the following propor- tions, and make 1 cup of cocoa : 1 to 2 1 cocoa (depending upon the brand of cocoa and the individual taste) Speck of salt li/o to 3 1 sugar 1 c liquid Note. The liquid may be equal quantities of milk and water or % milk and % water. In order to destroy the raw, starchy taste of cocoa, and not boil the milk, how should this be cooked 1 Considering the composition of cocoa, what precaution will you take to prevent lumping? Chocolate. Let some members of the class make choco- STAECH 107 late, others eoeoa, and compare the two as to flavor and smoothness. % sq. chocolate 1 c liquid (half milk and 1 T sugar half water) speck of salt In order to mix melted chocolate and milk without pro- ducing specks, add warm milk, a little at a time, to the melted chocolate. Or the chocolate may be put into the cold milk in a lump. When it is taken from the fire, use a Dover beater in it and all specks will disappear. It is often desirable to use cornstarch instead of flour for thickening, or a brown sauce using browned flour, may be required. The following experiment will show the amounts of each which will give a certain thickness. Experiment 47. To compare the thickening power of browned flour, white flour, and cornstarch. Directions. In each case use 1 T of the thickening mate- rial and i/^c water. Bring to boiling point and compare the thickening power of the three substances. To do this, add to the pastes made with flour and with cornstarch, a measured quantity of water, until they have the same con- sistency as that from the browned flour. Record the amounts of water. a. Test a little of the browned flour with iodine. What is present ? Conclusions. 1. How much of browned flour or of corn- starch would be used to 1 c water to give the same consis- tency obtained with white flour? 2. How does the composition of browned flour affect its thickening power ? 108 FOODS AND SANITATION There are four general classes of white sauces: Uses Liquid Flour Fat Seasoning 1. Thin — Cream soup, toast . . 1 c IT IT 2. Medium — Creamed veg- etables and meats, gravies 1 c 2 T IT 3. Thick— Croquettes Ic 4T 4. Very Thick— Souffles 1 c 6 T Methods of putting fat into white sauce. a. Melt fat over a very low fire, mix in flour, then liquid. 6. Mix flour and fat together, add to hot liquid. Boil. c. Mix as in Exp. 45, h 2, adding fat when the white sauce is thickened. Note difference in appearance of fat in a, i, and c. Is there any difference in taste? White sauces often have a pasty taste due to too little cooking of the starch. This may be overcome by drying the flour in the saucepan before mixing any of the wet materials. The flour should not be browned, but simply heated until a little yellow. Experiment 48. To prepare cornstarch pudding flavored with chocolate. Cornstarch pudding is often objected to because it tastes raw. The following work will show how this result may be avoided. Directions. A proportion of 1 T of cornstarch to 1 c milk makes a pudding which is a trifle less stiff when it is cold than jelly. If greater stiffness is desired, use IV2 to 2T per cup. Use % sq. of chocolate and 2 T sugar per cup of milk. What is the easiest way of mixing the starch to pre- vent lumps ? The chocolate may be put in as a lump, and Eeterence (for teacher). "Digestibility of Starch of Different Sorts as Affected by Cooking," Experiment Station, Bulletin 202. STAKCH 109 the Dover egg beater used, if necessary, as in previous experiment. It has been found that 30 to 40 minutes of cooking, either in a doulile boiler or in tlie tirek^ss cooker, does away with the raw flavor, althougli it does not make the starcli more digestible. Plate 6. CHAPTER XI VEGETABLES From a chart showing by lines the composition of vegetables, classify them. Notice the long line of water in all cases; notice also the difference in the length of the carbohydrate lines. Let all those which have carbohydrate lines as long or longer than that of peas, belong to one class, starchy ; the other to a class which we may call watery. These differences in amount of starch determine the thickness of sauces used for creamed vegetables and for creamed soups; they also determine what to use in arrang- ing a meal; for instance, one should not use two starchy vegetables such as potatoes, both Irish and sweet, for one meal, nor should either of these be served with rice or macaroni. Arrange vegetables in plates 6 and 7 in the order of the amount of the different nutrients present. Vegetables are always watery foods. They con- tain kinds of ash which are very essential to the body, and which are foimd largely in fruits and vegetables. If we use the ordinary method of cook- ing in indefinite amounts of water, part of the ash, sugar, protein and starch will be poured off with the water, thus making many vegetables almost without nourishment.! Eecall the appearance of the water in which vegetables are cooked. This need 110 i U.S D^3p'"tment of Agriculture Office of Experiment Stations AC True J Director WHJPBUHi WiJmiUHM I il FVepared by C.FLANffWORTHY Enpert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations eOMPOSDTiOlM ©F'FOOl EflATEmALio CZZ] CZD [ZZl fat Carbohydrate* Ash Water Prot«ri ,,Water.-58,9 Carbohydrates: 29.1 FVotein: "i ^ ^gl -Ash-.S.O Fuel value.: I Fuel Value I.Sa In. Equals 1000 Calorie! Fat:O.I Vater:12.6 CarbohTaFStesTSS.e \ \ . , ^ FutL value: TMDcALOHiCS FCB POUMD 1600 CmOWS PCR FOimD s2^ Ash:0.8 -Fat: 0.3 rVotein: 2.3 Carbohydrates: 7.4'' Water: 89.2- FuEL VALUE 195 CALORIES PER PauWD Water: 75.4- Fuel V.'.LUE EOOlE PC«T(0N FVotein: 3.K Carbohydjate5;18.7 Ash:0.7 SOOcALOTiEs -~Fat:1.1 I"!' ■j PEP POUND ^y^.yjyj^'^ PJate 7. Ill 112 FOODS AND SANITATION not be considered in fruits because we never pour off the water. The amount of nutrients lost from the vegetables would depend upon the amount of water used and the size of the pieces of vegetables. If the water in which the vegetables are cooked is used, as, for instance, in soup, or as part of the liquid in white sauce, then this practice is not bad. The following table shows the losses which occur in cooking vegetables in different ways. The per- centage of loss is from the fresh edible portion. Solids Ash Spinach, boiled 31.59% lost 51.65% lost steamed 0.18% " 9.34% " Difference 31.41% 42.31% Cabbage, boiled 32.86% " 42.62% " steamed 2.54% " 11.47% " Difference 30.32% 31.15% Carrots, cut up and boiled... 10.05% " 11.48% " boiled whole 6.28% " 7.38% " Difference 3.77% 4.10% Carrots, steamed, 6% sugar lost. " boiled whole, 17% sugar lost. " boiled cut up, 26% sugar lost. From Home Economics Journal, December, 1912, "Losses in Cook- ing Vegetables," Josephine T. Berry. VEGETABLES 113 Conclusions. From this table what can be said as to : 1. Better method of cooking? 2. Effect of size of pieces? Question. How would baking rank as a method of cooking ? As starch occurs in plants it is found among other nutrients. Since starch and fat perform the same work as a food for the body we are not so much interested in testing for fat as we are for protein, which plays a part which nothing else can do. Every living cell must contain some protein, but amounts differ greatly. Millon's Test for Protein. Add a few drops of Millon's reagent to the solution to be tested. Heat. A pink color indicates the presence of protein. Millon's color test, by the depth of the color, shows the quantity only in a very general way. Experiment 49. To test vegetables for starch, sugar and protein. Directions. Test vegetables for starch, sugar, and pro- tein and record results in a table as follows : Name of Vegetable Sugar Starch Protein +or- +or- +or- Prepaeation op Vegetables for Cooking This varies somewhat with the type of vegetable. All vegetables used need thorough washing. Head vegetables, Note. Millon's reagent is mercury dissolved in an equal weight of strong nitric acid, then diluted with twice the volume of water. 114 FOODS AND SANITATION such as cauliflower, cabbage, and brussels sprouts, should be placed, head down, in a pan of cold water which has in it salt and vinegar in the proportion of 1 T salt and 1 T vinegar to each quart of water. This is for the purpose of drawing out any small insects which may be hidden in the vegetable. Green vegetables, such as string beans, celery, cabbage, asparagus, etc., and roots and tubers, such as par- snips and potatoes, should be firm and crisp before being cooked. If this is not the case, they should be soaked in very cold water until they become so. Vegetables with thick skins are pared before cooking by steam or boiling, while those with very tender skins, such as young carrots, should be scraped, thus losing as little material as possible. Time of Cooking. This depends upon the age of the veg- etable and upon the method of cooking employed. In boil- ing vegetables, the time varies anywhere from 15 minutes to several hours. For example, very young cabbage will cook in 15 minutes, while old beets and carrots will often take two hours. Strong Flavored Vegetables. When vegetables have been kept until late in the winter, the flavor becomes very strong. In these eases it is sometimes wise to change the water during cooking, thus losing some of the nutrients but greatly improving the flavor. Covering of Vegetables. Vegetables keep their color bet- ter when cooked uncovered. Potato as a Type of Starchy Vegetable. Potatoes are sometimes soggy in spite of the utmost care in preparation. This is due to their being watery, which may be told in this way: Cut across a potato. Inside of the skin three areas will be noted, decreasing in opaqueness as they ap- proach the middle. See Fig. 1. The more opaque these areas are the better the potato is. Scabby potatoes should be avoided, if possible, because of waste in paring. VEGETABLES 115 The framework of plants may be seen by scraping a potato. Experiment 50. To separate the cellulose in potato from the other substances. Directions.^ Grate a piece of potato into a glass of water. Allow it to stand a few minutes. Note the two kinds of From Farmers' Bulletin 295, U. S. Dept. of Agricnlture. Fig. 1. — Transverse and longitudinal sections of the potato : a, skin ; b, cor- tical layer ; c, outer medullary layer ; d, inner medullary area substances. A potato has a small percentage of cellulose compared to the other vegetables. This cellulose or fibre grows harder and tougher as it grows old. When it is young it is tender and needs little water to soften it , for ex- ample, in young celery, and can be easily digested, while old cellulose is really woody fibre and requires the addition 116 FOODS AND SANITATION of a great deal of water to make it soft, and then it is not digested. Experiment 51. To bake potatoes. Water is necessary to cook starch and cellulose. If a potato is baked, from where does the required water come ? How would the amount of water which a potato contains affect its mealiness when baked? How would the piercing or breaking of a potato at the end of the baking affect its mealiness? Explain. Directions. Prepare potatoes on the half shell by cut- ting baked potato lengthwise, removing potato from the Fig. 2. — Changes of starch cells in cooking : a, cells of a raw potato with starch grains in natural condition ; 6, cells of a partially coolied potato ; c, cells of a thoroughly boiled potato. skins, mashing it and putting it back into the oven to brown. A piece of butter may be placed on top of each. The characteristics of good mashed potatoes are: 1. Creaminess, which depends upon the amount of milk used. 2. Fluffiness, which may be obtained by : a. Beating air into creamy potatoes. h. By cooking potatoes, especially when in water, just until they are easily pierced by a fork, not until they fall to pieces, and then drying them by shaking the vessel containing them over the fire until their sur- faces do not look wet. VEGETABLES 117 Experiment 52. To compare steaming and boiling as methods of cooking sweet potatoes or carrots. Directions, a. Cut vegetables into pieces of equal size. Put half of these into a steamer and half into water to boil. Compare : 1. Length of time for cooking. 2. Flavor. Serve according to methods in the next experiment. Conclusion. Which is the better method? Why? A steamer is on the market which consists of, first, a vessel for holding- the Avater and on top of this three or four compartments fitting close to one another, one or more of which may be used at a time. Pipes stand in each of these compartments, connecting with one another to form a flue for steam. Into each compartment steam passes through an opening in the side of its pipe. Thus, different kinds of foods may be cooked in different compart- ments without danger of contamination. Wlien gas is the fuel, using the steamer necessitates having the gas on full. The cooking of two vegetables requires from % to % as much gas as boiling these vegetables on different burners. The use of the third compartment for pudding, meat, or other vegetables would be clear gain so far as fuel is concerned. Triangular vessels are also on the market which have a clamped lid. Three of these fit nicely over one burner. Vegetables cooked in these require very little water to keep them from burning and this is made into steam which cooks the food very quickly 118 FOODS AND SANITATION with, a small amount of gas, and need leave no water to be poured off. Experiment 53. To show methods of serving vegeta- bles which have been boiled or steamed. Possibilities, a. Boiled, served with butter, salt, and pepper. i. Scalloped. 1. Using white sauce. 2. Bread or cracker crumbs. Whether method 1 or 2 is used, depends upon the juiciness of the vegetable. 3. Grated cheese may be added to white sauce for cab- bage, potato, cauliflower, or celery, and this may be browned in the oven. c. Creamed. d. Sauted. (Cooked in a small amount of fat in frying pan. e. Fritters. /. Candied (for sweet potatoes), sprinkled with brown sugar, and browned in the syrup which this makes. Cooked in syrup either in oven or directly over fire. Directions. Scallop tomatoes and either cabbage, corn, potatoes, cauliflower, or old celery. Saute parsnips or potatoes. Cream carrots or onions. Refer to Exp. 47 for proportions for white sauce to be used with vegetables. Experiment 54. To prepare cream of vegetable soups. Cream soups are white sauces flavored with vegetable pulp or juice, or water in which the vegetable has cooked. Directions, a. Use % to %c pulp to Ic sauce. For soups flavored with juice or water in which the vegetable is cooked, use a maximum of % c juice to 1 c sauce. The VEGETABLES 119 amount of floui- will depend upon the kind of vegetable used, the amount ranging from 1 t for potato soup to 1 T per cup for tomato soup. Potato Soup Directions. Dice potatoes. Boil them in just enough water to cover them. Drain the water and save it. This may be used as one-fourth of the liquid for the white sauce, which has a proportion of from 1 1 to i/^ T flour to 1 e of liquid. Add mashed potatoes in proportion oi Y^c potato to 1 c sauce. Season vsdth salt and pepper and onion, celery-salt, and parsley, if desired. The cooked starch of flour seems to have more binding power than the cooked starch of potato, therefore, it is necessary to use a little flour in spite of the fact that pota- toes are rich in starch. Write a recipe for a quart of : 1. Potato soup. 2. Pea soup. 3. Corn soup. 4. Celery soup. Prepare 1 and either 2, 3, or 4. Weights and Measures in Vegetables. Selling vegetables and fruits by volume is exceedingly inex- act. The larger the pieces the less readily are they packed; also, a low, broad measure will hold more pieces than a deep narrow one. Therefore the fol- lowing table was compiled by the Woman's City Club of Chicago to promote honest measures. 120 foods and sanitation Weights and Measuees 1 pk spinach = 3 lbs 1 qt string beans = f lb 1 pk apples = 12ilbs 1 qt cranberries = l^lbs 1 pk onions = 14 lbs 1 qt dried apples = f lb 1 pk potatoes 1 qt peaches = W^lbs or beets = 15 lbs 1 qt peas = IJ lbs 1 pk carrots, turnips, parsnips, sweet potatoes = 13f lbs Dried Beans. Dried beans are a highly nutri- tious food when their composition is considered. They contain about 24% protein and 59% starch. However, they often give trouble in digestion. Snyder, of the University of Minnesota, has found that the amount of protein digested is increased when the skins of the beans are removed. More- over, the digestive disturbance seems to be avoided also. He thinks that some of the germ is lost with the skin. The germ readily ferments and probably in this way is the cause of the feeling of flatulence. Experiments have been conducted outside of the body which show that when the skins are removed, 42% of the protein of baked beans is soluble in the digestive juices, while from unskinned beans only 3.85% of the protein is soluble. It would seem wise then to remove the skins. To do this soak the beans in cold water to which has been added 1 t soda to 1 qt water. Soak these for a few hours, or over night, then bring them to the boiling point in the same water. Let them boil for a few minutes. This VEGETABLES 121 water is then poured off and a large quantity of cold water is added. The beans may then be rubbed through the hands and the skins will come off easily. Being lighter than water the skins will float on top and so may be skimmed off from time to time. The beans must be cooked in the second water until they begin to soften, then the cooking may be finished in the oven. In preparing beans for a very large number this may not be practicable. In this case soaking the beans for 8 or 10 hours in soda water, 1 1 soda to 1 qt water, draining off the soda water and cooking them with fat meat in water for 12 to 15 hours in a fireless cooker and then adding the molasses and browning in an oven for about an hour makes very soft, palatable beans. Experiment 55. To prepare baked beans. Use the following proportions : 1 qt beans 1/2 to y^ lb salt pork, cut in 1 T salt small pieces 4T molasses By adding a larger quantity of water, 1 pt to 1 c beans, and adding celery or onion, but omitting the molasses, of course, bean soup may be made. Eeferences. ' ' Losses in the Cooking of Vegetables, ' ' by Josephine ^ T. Berry, in Home Economics Journal, Vol. IV, No. 5, pp. 405-412. ' ' Food Value of Beans, ' ' Farmers ' Bulletin 169, Experiment Sta- tion Work 22, p. 26. "Cooking Beans and Other Vegetables," Farmers' Bulletin 342, Experiment Station Work 49, pp. 29-30. 122 FOODS AND SANITATION "Green Vegetables and Their Uses in the Diet," by C. F. Lang- worthy, Year Book Separate, 582. ' ' Beans, Peas and Other Legumes as Food, ' ' Farmers ' Bulletin 121. ' ' Preparation of Vegetables for the Table, ' ' Farmers ' Bulletin 256. "Course in the Use and Preparation of Vegetable Foods," Of- fice of Experiment Stations Bulletin 245. "Cooking Vegetables," Farmers' Bulletin 73. Experiment Sta- tion Work 4, pp. 23-27. ' ' Beans, ' ' Snyder, ' ' Human Foods, ' ' p. 71. "Potatoes and Other Boot Crops as Food," Farmers' Bulletin 295. CHAPTER XII FATS COMPOSITION — BURNING POINTS — FRYING Composition of Fats. Although not all of the foods containing starch have been studied yet, fats must be understood at this point in order to fry- some of the vegetables and cereals. The fats used as food are made up chiefly of differ- ent proportions of olein, palmatin, and stearin which the chemists know as pure fats. What we have are combinations. Olein we see almost by itself in olive and "Wesson oils. It has a low melting point ( — 5° C. or 23° F.) and a very high burning point. Palmatin is above olein in its melting point (45° C. or 113° F.) and below it in its burning point. Therefore, at ordinary temperature it is harder than olein. Stearin has a melting point of 53° C. or 127 2/5° F. and a burning point below that of olein and palmatin, consequently it is the least desirable for frying and the hardest fat at ordinary temperature. It enters largely into the composition of suet. Cottolene and snowdrift are combinations of cotton seed oil, which is olein and beef stearin in different proportions, snow drift having more of the stearin than the cottolene. Crisco is a combination 123 U.S Department of Agncufture Office of Ejipenmeflt Statiora A C.Truei Director FVepored by CfTLANGWORTTHY Expert in Charge of Nutrition Wvestigotions B COMPOSITION OF FOCffl MATERIALS Prcten Fat Carbohydrates Ash OUVC OIL 4O80 CALORIES PCR POUND FuEi. VALUE. 3030 CALOHiES PCW POUND ^ ater:13.2 ■otein:^-' Ash:0.3 3510 EALDTJICS PCR POUIMD Fat:85.0-^ Watsrdl.O LARD r FatJ00.0 AiCJD ^-FVotein ,■ 1 .0 FutL VALUE 3^10 CALORIES PER POUND Plate 8. Compare butter and lard asto the amount of fat in each. 124 FATS 125 of fats treated diemically, one of the results being that it has a higher burning i^oint. Effect of Heat on Fat. When the burning point is reached, the fat is decomposed into fatty acid and glycerin, and a substance called acrolein is formed from the glycerin. Some of this is volatilized and gives the irritating odor. This acrolein is thought to be irritating to the body. Therefore a fat which has a high burning point should be used for frying. Fat does not boil. The boiling appearance which it sometimes has is due to the presence of water. This lowers the temperature which may be obtained from the fat and therefore things which are fried in such fat become soaked with grease. Experiment 56. To determine the burning points of different fats. Directions, a. Heat butter, lard, criseo, and snowdrift or eottolene in test tubes. Heat gently and determine the temperature at which they melt, then heat longer, until the fat smokes and an odor rises. Note temperature of the burning point. Note to Teacher. This experiment is better done as a class ex- periment. Conclusion. What would be the best fat for frying? Why? Experiment 57. To determine the relative cost of dif- ferent fats. Directions. Make a table showing the cost per pound and per cup of lard, criseo, snowdrift, eottolene, oleomar- garine, and butter. 126 FOODS AND SANITATION Conclusion. Which is the most economical fat to buy for frying, considering the burning point and the price ? Experiment 58. To determine tests for temperature to be used for frying. Since by the appearance of fat it is impossible to tell its temperature this must be determined by some other sort of a test before frying foods. A fairly accurate method is by browning the crumb of bread. It is necessary to know, however, just what is meant by dark golden brown. Therefore, use a thermometer with which to determine the various temperatures accurately, then keep the fat within five degrees of the given constant temperature. Count as directed and use the color that results for your standard. Hereafter it should be possible to determine the temperature by browning the bread alone. Use one of the following three temperatures in order to get the standard color of the bread crumb : 1. Put a few pieces of crumb into fat at 175° C. or 347° F. and count 60 seconds. Remove. Note the color. This temperature is used for articles which are not already cooked. These are fritters, doughnuts, breaded meat chops and timbal cases. 2. Put a few pieces of crumb into fat at 185° C. or 365° F., and count 40 seconds. Remove and note color. This temperature is used for articles already cooked. It would be used for meat, vegetable and fish croquettes, and for mush when cooked in deep fat. 3. Put a few pieces of crumb into fat at 195° C. or FATS 127 383° F., and count 20 seconds. Remove and note color. This is used for Saratoga chips and French fried potatoes. Note. French fried potatoes, uncooked material, would seem to belong to group 1, but the cooling of the fat due to the amount of water in the potatoes necessitates a higher temperature. Prepare Saratoga chips or French fried potatoes. Prepare potato croquettes. These are molded from mashed potatoes, dipped in flour, then in egg, and then in cracker crumbs before frying. CHAPTER XIII CEKEALS BREAKFAST FOODS — RICE — TAPIOCA — NUTS The cereals are wheat, oats, corn, rice, barley, rye, and buckwheat. They each contain all of the differ- ent nutrients, but starch predominates. Wheat, oats, Plato 9. — Shows the parts of a grain ut whpat. The gci-m is sonn'tiraes known as the embryo, the endosi:term as the Ivernel, and tlie five outer layers as the brau. Published by courtesy of the Washburn-Crosby ^'oEQiiany. and rye are hig-li in protein also. The others are much lower. Oats, wheat, and barley are high in ash. This makes them valuable in the diet of chil- dren. 128 CEREALS 129 The composition of breakfast foods made from cereals depends upon their process of manufacture and upon the constituents of the kernel which are used. Take the wheat kernel as a type. It' is com- posed of five layers of bran, or cellulose, next to which lie a layer of protein and mineral material. The inside of the kernel is made up of a mixture of starch and protein plus a germ. The more it is refined the less cellulose there is allowed to remain. Cellulose needs to be softened by long cooking but it requires less water than starch does to cook it. Cereals contain three kinds of starch. One of these is hard to dissolve and requires a long time for digestion. No cooking short of three or four hours makes them easier to digest. Unless the cellu- lose is softened and freed easily from the starch, much of the starch is excreted by the body. But with all the cooking, mastication is very important in making thoroughness of digestion and in prevent- ing gas formation in the stomach and intestines. Fireless Cookers. In order to save fuel and atten- tion, and at the same time improve digestibility, and, to many people, the flavor of the breakfast food, a fireless cooker is used. The principle of a fireless cooker is this : The material to be cooked in water is brought to the boiling point on the stove. Then it is put into a place surrounded by material which carries heat away from it very slowly, so slowly that the material L_' 'ii'li— ^—W S«5i:«,'i*f:.'>V'''.o«r4" '.-.■■■ •■.. U.5 Deportment of Agriculture Office of Eiperimerft Stdtiona A.C-True; Director R^pared by CriANGWORTHY Dpert in Cliargeof Wutrifon Irivestigations I C01SPOSITSOK1 ©F FOOl MATERIALS. Pr<*m ru nm n^ Fat Cai~bohydr' the loca- tion of lands, conditions of buildings, cattle, etc., be maintained. In most instances, a weekly inspection of the dairy and a monthly medical examination of the employees is made, and a semi-annual tul)erculin test of the cattle is demanded. In addition to these C(jLirtosy of the Dept. of AgLiculture, W'asLiDgton, Ii. C. Plate l(i. — Bottliug Ituom. conditions the milk is to be delivered to the con- sumer when it is not more than twenty-four hours old. In recompense to the dairies for living" up to these rec|uirements a certiiicate is given which the dairies are entitled to use on their bottles. Certified milk sells at about 15 cents a quart. At that price there is very little profit to the dairyman, for he has to pay the expenses of inspection as well as of fulfilling the requirements at the dairy. 148 FOODS AND SANITATION Pasteurized Milk. Milk is pasteurized by being held at a temperature of 145° F. or 60° C. for 30 minutes. This temperature is used because it is tlie death temperature of the tubercle bacillus. The process makes the milk perfectly safe, providing- it is not contaminated again before being used. Other disease-producing bacteria are also killed by this temperature. Courtesy ol tlie liept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Plate 17. — Placing Bottles in Steam Sterilizer. The pasteurization must take place in a closed vessel else a scum of caseid is formed such as is often noticed on lioiled milk. This scum affords pro- tection to the bacteria so that they are not all killed. There has lieen much discussion about the value of pasteurization and many objections have been raised. Most of these objections have really applied to sterilized or boiled milk rather than to pasteurized MILK 149 milk. The objection often made that pasteurization disguises dirty millv might be true if no inspection of dairies were required. In most places where pasteurization is enforced there is also required a cer- tain scoring on the part of the dairy. For instance, in Chicago the dairies inust score 50 points. All other objections have l)een successfully met by ]ieo|>le who understand the bacteriology of milk and who have studied the eco- nomic question of the milk sup]ily. P^rnui the results of this work there seems to be no question that pasteurized milk is safer than any other milk which can be obtained under ]nT-sent conditions. Souring of Milk. As milk stands, the following changes take jilace: (1) Tt sours tlirougli the pres- ence of the lactic acid bacteria. The acid continues to increase in amount until there is about YJc present. "When tin's point is reached the bacteria cease to grow. Wljy? (2) In tins acid medium molds begin to grow. Thev attack the casein, decom- Coiirtisy of tlie ripiit. r.f Agrioiil- tlHl', W'astiiDgtoli, I', C. riato IS.— Washing JUlk Bot- tles on Revolving LJru.sll. 150 FOODS AND SANITATION posing it and forming ammonia. (3) This changes the milk from an acid to an alkaline condition which is favorable for any bacterial spores which have been left. During the first stage through which milk passes when it begins to sour it is used very acceptably in cooking, but in the last two stages it may be said to be spoiled. Experiment 61. To determine the conditions under which milk sours most easily. Directions. Take 3 sterilized test tubes. Into each place 10 ce. of fresh milk and 5 drops of blue litmus solution. Close with sterilized corks. a. Place one at room temperature (70° F.). &. Place one at refrigerator temperature (about 50° F.). c. Place one near a stove or radiator. Take the tempera- ture of the surrounding air. Notice the order in which the fading of color takes place and the gradual appearance of pink, which indicates the presence of acid. Conclusions. 1. What has temperature to do with the souring of milk 1 2. Formulate a rule for the care of milk in the home in regard to temperature. Experiment 62. To determine the percentage of cream in a quart of milk. Directions, a. Let a quart of milk in a bottle stand for a few hours in a cool place (60° F.). Pour off the cream and measure. (Take it out with a cream spoon whose bowl is at right angles to its handle.) b. Let a quart of milk stand in a pan in a cool place MILK 151 (60° F.) for a few hours. Skim off the cream. Measure. In which case does the cream seem thicker? c. Use the Babcock tester to determine accurately the amount of fat in the cream from a and i. Conclusion. In which way, from pan- or bottle-setting, can the greater amount of cream be obtained ? Question. "What is the state standard for the amount of fat in milk ? in common cream ? in whipping cream ? Reference. State Food Laws obtained from your State Food Commissioner. Instructions for Making Tests with Babcock Milk Tester — Sampling. Mix milk by pouring from one vessel to another two or three times. Fill pipette immediately after mixing by sucking the milk into it until it rises a little above the mark on the stem (17.6 cc), then quickly place the forefinger over end of pipette. Slightly release the pressure and allow the milk to run down until it just reaches the mark. The finger should be dry so that a slight pressure will hold the milk. Do not close pointed end of pipette with the finger; it is awkward and unnecessary and a few trials will enable one to manipulate the sampling easily and quickly. Begin- ners may get practice in using the pipette by filling it with water to the mark. The point of the pipette is now placed in the neck of the test bottle and milk allowed to run slowly down inside the neck. Care must be taken that none of the sample is lost. Hold bottle and pipette at an 152 rOODS AND SANITATION angle so milk will run down one side of the neck and allow the air to escape. Bottles should be marked with a wax pencil or otherwise so as to be easily identified. Adding Acid. The acid cylinder, holding 17.5 cc, is filled to the mark with commercial concentrated sulphuric acid. Pour the acid carefully into the test bottle containing the milk. Hold bottle at an angle and turn slowly so that acid will wash all milk clear of the neck. Never use the pipette for measuring acid. Mixing Milk and Acid. After adding the acid mix carefully, giving the test bottle a rotary motion. Use care that none of the liquid is shaken into the neck of the bottle. Shake until the mixture gets hot and is of a uniform brown color. Shake vigorously toward the finish. Do not place finger over top of bottle when shaking. Whirling. When samples are all mixed, and while still hot, place in the tester, putting an equal number of bottles on each side so as to balance it. Whirl at rated speed (75 turns per minute for hand machines) for 5 minutes. This brings the fat to the surface of the liquid. Adding Water. Hot water is now added by means of the pipette until the bottles are filled to a point near the scale on the neck. Then whirl again at full speed for one minute. Add hot water a second time to bring the lower end of fat column above the zero MILK 153 mark on the scale and give a final whirling at full speed for one minute. Note. It is possible to add sufficient water the first time to bring the fat into the scale, thus saving the third whirling, and this is often done, but results are better when the hot water is added in two portions. Reading the Test. Each division on the scale rep- resents two-tenths of one per cent and the space filled hy the fat shows the per cent of fat in the sample tested. Measure the fat from the lower line of the fat column to the extreme top. The top is curved and when testing milk the reading should be made at the highest point. Subtract the reading at bottom from that at top. The difference is the per cent of fat. In testing cream in a cream test bottle, read to the bottom of curved line. The temperature of the fat when read should be between 120 and 140 degrees F. The fat should be in liquid form and of a clear yellowish color. If fat is partly solidified, a correct reading cannot be obtained and the bottles should be set iu hot water for a few minutes before reading. Effect of Temperature upon Milk. Whether fruits, vegetables, or cereals are boiled or cooked below the boiling point makes no difference in their tenderness. In the cooking of milk great care must be given to the temperature. This is due to the protein that is present. In sweet milk the protein 154 FOODS AND SANITATION is dissolved so that heat shows no effect on its tex- ture. In sour milk the protein is thrown out of solu- tion into either flakes or a large mass. The effect of different temperatures on protein in this condition may be easily seen. In foods from the plant king- dom the protein is so distributed among the other nutrients that the effect of heat is not noticed. Experiment 63. To determine the proportion of curd in milk and the effect of different temperatures upon it. Directions, a. Heat 2 c sour milk until the curd begins to separate slightly from the whey, or to 50° C. or 122° P. Drain, saving the water. Measure the curd. What proportion of the milk used is it ? Re-heat some of it, noting the effect of higher tempera- tures upon the curd. Questions. 1. How does this percentage of curd compare with the percentage of protein given in tables of composi- tion ? Explain. 2. What is the cheapest kind of milk to buy to make cottage cheese? 3. To make a quart of cheese, how much milk should be bought ? 4. If a thermometer cannot be used, how could the tem- perature be tested ? b. Using the best temperature, make cottage cheese. Write directions. In order to make the temperature throughout more nearly the same, the pan of curd may be set in hot water ; or this temperature may be obtained by pouring about an equal volume of boiling water into the curd. Chopped parsley, chopped olives, or pimentoes or paprika, or caraway seeds, may be used to flavor the cheese. MILK 155 Since this cheese is made of skimmed milk, the flavor and consistency are improved bj- adding cream or butter when it is served. CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP Although in making cream of tomato soup sweet milk is used, yet the acid in the tomatoes is likely to make sour milk out of it before the soup is ready to serve. This does not decrease the food value of the soup, but spoils the appearance and is likely to bring up the problem of pre- venting the toughening of the flakes of curd with a boiling temperature. Experiment 64. To determine the method of making cream of tomato soup to prevent its curdling. Directions, a. To I/2 T milk which has been kept at refrigerator temperature since delivery add V2T tomato juice. Heat to the boiling point. Does it curdle? Test tomato juice with litmus paper. h. Eepeat, using this kind of milk, with 1 ss salt in place of acid. Heat to the boiling point. Does it curdle ? c. Repeat, using both salt and tomato juice. d. Repeat a, i, and c, using milk which has stood at room temperature for some time. Note. Students may be numbered in groups of three, alternate groups using milk kept in refrigerator, and that kept at room tem- perature for some time. e. Neutralize the tomato juice with soda and add to milk kept at room temperature. Compare with a, b, and c. Note. To neutralize means here to add enough soda to the acid tomato juice so that the color of neither blue nor red litmus paper will be changed by the juice. /. Using the proportions which you found good for a cream soup from a watery vegetable, make cream of tomato soup in two ways. 156 FOODS AND SANITATION 1. Neutralize tomato juice with soda. Add to white sauce and heat. 2. Thicken the tomato juice. Add soda, then hot milk. (The pulp should be put through a sieve.) Bennin. Milk becomes a solid food not only when it is soured, but when it is acted upon by rennin, as it is in the stomach. Rennin is an enzyme which is found in the gastric juice of animals. From the linings of the stomachs of calves an extract is made. This is dried at a low tempera- ture and made into tablets called rennet or junket tablets. These are used to make milk have the consistency of a corn- starch pudding. Flavors added to it make it a very simple, pleasant, and inexpensive dessert. Since rennin is an en- zyme which is sensitive to temperature and motion, and needs lime to help clot the milk, care must be taken that these three conditions are correct. Experiment 65. To determine the conditions most fav- orable for the clotting of milk by rennin. Directions. In each case let milk stand in the room for 1/^ hour without disturbing it after the tablet is added. a. Add % rennet tablet, powdered, to i/^ c milk at boiling point. 6. Add % rennet tablet, powdered, to 1^4 c milk at body temperature. c. Add % rennet tablet, powdered, to i/4 c milk brought to boiling point and cooled to body temperature. d. Add % rennet tablet, powdered, to i/4 c milk boiled for from 3 to 5 minutes and then cooled to body temperature. In each case notice the texture of the clot that is formed. Conclusion. Under what conditions does rennin form the best clot in milk 1 Application. Prepare caramel junket. MILK 157 Directions. Refer to "Variations in Flavor" under Ice Creams. Keep at room temperature until milk has become firm, then cool. Question. What should be the order of adding freshly- made caramel and junket tablet? Conclusion. "Write proportion and method of making caramel junket. Milk which has been acted upon by rennin is commonly called clotted. Milk which has been acted upon by acid in the process of souring, so that the particles of protein are collected into a mass, is called clabbered milk. Experiment 66. To determine the difiference between clotted and clabbered milk. a. Test each with blue litmus paper and record result. b. Add soda to neutralize the clabbered milk. Can it be re-dissolved by stirring ? Stir clotted milk and compare it with fresh milk in appearance. References. ' ' Milk Supply of Chicago and 26 Other Cities, ' ' Bul- letin 126, University of Illinois. The Case for Pasteurisation (Free. Send stamped, addressed envelope to Edwin O. Jordan, The Univer- sity of Chicago.) "Milk and Its Products as Carriers of Tuberculosis Infection, ' ' Bureau of Animal Industry Circular IdS. ' ' Bacteriology of Commercially Pasteurized and Eaw Market Milk, ' ' Bureau of Ani- mal Ind. Bulletin 126. ' ' Care of Milk in the Home, ' ' Farmers ' Bul- letin 413. "Care of Milk in the Home," Bulletin 21, Illinois State Food Commission, 1623 Manhattan Bldg., Chicago, 111. "Chemical Changes Produced in Cow 's Milk by Pasteurization, ' ' Bureau of Ani- mal Industry Bulletin 166. "Medical Milk Commissions and Certified Milk, " U. S. Dept. of Agri. Bulletin 1. " The Pasteurization of Milk, ' ' Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 184. ' ' Directions for the Home Pasteurization of Milk," Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 197. "Milk and Its Eelation to the Public Health," Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin 56, price $1.00. "The Pasteurization of the City's Milk Supplies," by Mina C. Denton in the Journal of Home Economics, 158 FOODS AND SANITATION Vol. II, No. 3, pp. 279-289. "Restoring the Consistency of Pasteur- ized Cream," Farmers' Bulletin 69, Exp. Sta. Work III, pp. 24-26. "Bacteria in Milk," Farmers' Bulletin 348. "The Digestibility of Raw, Pasteurized and Cooked Milk, ' ' Farmers ' Bulletin 149, Exp. Sta. Work 20, pp. 20-27. ' ' The Milk Supply of Chicago and Washington, ' ' Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin ]38. CHAPTER XV MILK PEODUCTS CHEESE — BUTTER Manufacture of Cheese. Rennin is used in the manufacture of all cheeses but cottage cheese. Either whole or skimmed milk is clotted with junket tablets. It is then heated to about body tempera- ture, cut up, salted, pressed for some hours so as to remove most of the water. It is then wrapped in a close-fitting cloth and allowed to ripen. Eipening is the developing of flavor by the action of enzymes, already in milk, on its curd, or by bacteria and molds, which may be put into the curd to produce an especial flavor. As the ripening goes on the taste becomes sharper. So-called "full cream" cheeses are made from whole milk only, but real cream cheeses are softer and contain more water and fat. The Composition of Cheese Compared with Other Protein Foods Carbo- Fuel Value Water Protein Fat hydrate Ash per lb. Cheese 34.2% 25.2% 33.7 2.4 3.8 1950 calories Eggs 73.7 13.4 10.5 1. 720 calories Milk 87. 3.3 4. 5. .7 310 calories Beef 54.8 23.5 20.4 1.2 1300 calories This shows how nutritious a food cheese is and how it may be substituted for meat and eggs for the 159 160 FOODS AND SANITATION sake of variety and economy. A large number of dishes may be made in which cheese is used and which would therefore serve as the principal dish at a meal. These groups may suggest possibilities for using cheese : 1. Soviffle. 2. Cheese soups and vegetables cooked with cheese. 3. Cheese custards. 4. Cheese salads, sandwiches, and pastry. Experiment 67. To determine the effect of tempera- ture on cheese. Directions, a. Place a small piece of cheese in a test tube of cold water. Place the tube in a pan of water and heat, noting temperatiire of water in test tube when : 1. Cheese melts. 2. Cheese begins to be stringy. Application. When and how would you add cheese to (1) creamed macaroni, (2) baked macaroni, to avoid toughness ? b. Prepare these. Write directions for making these. Use tomato sauce for 1 or 2, using tomato juice instead of milk. Cheese must be added to suit the taste. c. Spread crackers with cheese and heat in the oven until the cheese is melted, but not tough. Conclusions. 1. Best temperature for cooking cheese. 2. Effect of overheating. The Digestibility of Cheese. After a large num- ber of experiments it has been concluded that all kinds of cheese, when raw, are very thoroughly digested and that they take no more energy for digestion than an equal quantity of meat. In these MILK PRODUCTS 161 experiments no digestive disturbances were pro- duced. Tlie cheese remained in tlie stomacla for some time, and for that reason seemed to take longer for digestion than other protein foods. It seems that properly cooked cheese is as digestible as raw, but overcooked cheese may be a source of trouble. References. "Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet," Farmers' Bulletin 487. "Varieties of Cheese," Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 146, Farmers' Bulletin 487. "The Digestibility of Cheese," Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 366. Butter. Butter is another product from milk. It is made by churning cream which has been skimmed or separated from milk. Churning means creating such motion that the particles of fat as they exist distributed through the milk are freed and collect in small masses. Churning may be done in a bowl with an egg beater or spoon, in an old-fashioned wooden or earthenware churn, or in a barrel churn run by a motor. Either sweet or sour cream may be used. The bacteria found in clean milk produce in sour cream a delicate flavor which is one of the characteristics of good butter. Sweet cream butter lacks this flavor but is preferred by many. Some prefer unsalted butter, but in this country it is rather uncommon. Experiment 68. To make butter from sour and from sweet cream. Directions, a. Use i/^ pt whipping cream. Have it at a temperature of 50° F. in warm weather, 60° P. in cold 162 FOODS AND SANITATION weather. The fat exists in the form of an emulsion, that is, in tiny globules scattered through the milk. As the cream is churned the fat globules stick together more and more until masses of butter about the size of peas or beans are obtained. When they are of this size it is considered best to stop churning and wash these free from the butter- milk. To do this, drain off the buttermilk and add to the butter that amount of water of about the same temperature. Work the water through the butter and add salt, using 2 T to 1 lb. After the salt has been worked in for a little while, squeeze out the water until the butter assumes a waxy appearance. Too long working gives a salvy appear- ance, like lard, which is undesirable. i. Repeat this process using slightly soured cream. Conclusions. 1. What is the difference between sweet cream and sour cream butter in (a) flavor, (&) quantity, (c) time to churn? 2. Calculate the cost of butter from a and h. 3. Compare with the current cost of good creamery butter. 4. Compare the flavor with that of creamery butter. Keep for a few days in the refrigerator along with some creamery butter. Is there any difference in the rate of becoming strong? Explain. 5. To what is the difference in flavor between sweet cream and sour cream butter due 1 6. What is the composition of buttermilk ? Renovated Butter. What is known as renovated butter has been found in our markets since the early '90s. It is made largely from country butter, or other butter which is produced in large quantities in the warm seasons and has become rancid. This MILK PRODUCTS 163 rancid butter is melted and tlie bad odors are taken out by different processes througli the action of beat, -washing, and skimming, leaving a fat almost free from taste or odor. To be made to resemble gen- uine butter again it is mixed with milk, buttermilk, or cream, and granulated by cooling. It is now in the form of churned cream again, ready to be made into butter. "When first manufactured its keeping qualities were poor. It became rancid quickly. With later processes of manufacture this has been much unproved and much of the butter which we buy as creamery butter, and think fairly good, is renovated butter. This is sometimes known as sterilized, or process, butter. The grade of this butter depends upon the grade of the stock from which it is made. Fraud lies in selling this renovated butter at the price of genuine, fresh butter. Tubs of what is called dairy butter are frequently renovated butter. Manufacture of Oleomargarine. Oleomargarine is made from a mixture of animal fats. To this is added enough butter to flavor it. The fats from beef suet which have the lower melting points are sepa- rated from the harder fats in it, are mixed with different quantities of butter to give flavor, and churned. It is perfectly wholesome. The cost depends upon the amount of butter used in it. Since these two substitutes for butter are often sold as creamery butter it is convenient to know the follow- ing simple test for them : 164 FOODS AND SANITATION Experiment 69. To determine a method of distinguish- ing butter, renovated butter, and oleomargarine. The simplest test is the spoon test. Into a tablespoon put a small quantity of the article to be tested. Hold it over a low flame. Bring it to a brisk boil and stir the contents of the spoon thoroughly two or three times during the boiling. Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily, sputtering like a mixture of grease and water. Oleomar- garine produces no foam. Renovated butter usually pro- duces a very small amount. Genuine butter boils with less noise and produces an abundance of foam. Combination of these may be made, such as a mixture of renovated and genuine butter. This would be indicated by the noise and the foam. Similarly, oleomargarine might be combined with some renovated or genuine butter. References. "Pasteurization as a Factor in Making Butter from Cream, Skimmed on the Farili," Bulletin 138, 111. Agri. Exp. Sta. "Butter Making on the Farm," Farmers' Bulletin 241, Exp. Sta. "Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter," Farmers' Bulletin 131. CHAPTER XVI EGGS Composition. The egg contains all of the nutri- ents necessary to form the chick: protein, ash, water, a fuel material, fat, but no carbohydrate. The white and the yolk differ in composition as follows: Food Value Water Protein Fat Ash per lb. White 86.2% 12.3 .2 .6 250 calories Yolk 49.5 15.7 :j3.,S 1.1 1705 calories Whole Egg 73.7 13.4 10.5 1 720 calories See plate 19. This shows a decided difference in water and fat. The tarnishing of silver is due to sulphur in the white rather than in the yolk, as is commonly supposed. A comparison of the average composition of beef and cheese (given previously) with that of eggs shows them to be close to beef in composition and less concentrated than cheese. Since smaller quan- tities of cheese are likely to be eaten, these three food materials may be considered substitutes for one another. The color of shells and yolks seems to indicate no difference in composition. Cooking. Eggs contain protein in masses, so, like cheese, they are sensitive to heat. In order to find 165 US Department of Agncufture Office^ £(perimeate5;'t9.7 4i:a9i Ash: 1.3 LLL V.^UJE 1215 Prptein:2.8/ TOAST C0 BRCAB 1 140 CAi.nRit^ \ pcw P3u^D ■■. f>t:0.5 Carbohydrates; M.5 Fuel H20cALnB,E5 PER PfJUn.iD Wai Si Oa 10 40 88 75 82 73 79 00 77 76 60 65 86 72 81 67 77 27 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 81 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 UNCOOKED MEATS, EDIBLE PORTION *Beef, loin, av. (lean) Ord. serving 50 1.8 40 60 00 •Beef, loin, av. (fat) Small serving 30 1.1 22 78 00 •Beef, loin, p'house stealj, av Small steali 36 1.3 32 68 00 •Beef, loin, sirloin steak, av Small rteak 40 1.4 31 69 00 •Beef, ribs, lean, av Ord. serving 52 1.8 42 58 00 •Beef, round, lean, av Ord. serving 63 2.2 54 46 00 •Beef, tongue, average Ord. serving 62 2.2 47 53 00 •Beef, juice 395 14. 78 22 00 •Chicken (broilers), av Large serving 90 3.2 79 21 00 •Clams, r'nd in shell, av Twelve to 10 210 7.4 56 8 36 •Cod, whole Two servings 138 4.9 95 5 00 •Goose (young), av Halt serving 25 .88 16 84 00 •Halibut steaks, av Ord. serving 81 2,8 61 39 00 •Liver (veal), av Two small s'v'g. . 79 2.8 61 39 00 •Lobster, whole, av Two servings 117 4.1 78 20 2 •Mackerel (Spanish), whole, av Ord. serving 57 2. 50 50 00 •Mutton leg, hind, lean, av Ord. serving 50 1.8 41 69 00 •Oysters, in shell, av One dozen 103 6.8 49 22 29 •Pork, loin cliops, av Very small s'v'g. . 27 .97 18 82 00 •Pork, ham, lean, av Small serving 36 1.3 29 71 00 •Pork, bacon, med. fat, av Small serving.... 15 .53 6 94 00 •Salmon (California), average Small serving 42 1.5 30 70 00 Shad, whole, average Ord. serving 60 2.1 46 54 00 •Trout, brook, whole, av Two small s'v'g. .100 3.6 80 20 00 •Turkey, average Two small s'v'g. . 33 1.2 29 71 00 VEGETABLES •Artichokes, av. canned 430 15 14 86 •Asparagus, av. canned 540 19 33 5 62 •Chemical Composition of American Food Materials, Atwater and Bryant, U. S. Department of Agriculture Bull. No. 28. tExperiments on Losses in Cooking Meats. (1900-03), Grindley, TJ. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture Bull. No. 141. ^Laboratory number of specimen, as per Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meat. . By the courtesy of Mr. Irving Fisher. 266 FOODS AND SANITATION VEGETABLES— Continued Wt. of 100 Calories Per cent of o ss Ah "Portion" Cod- i Name of Food taining 100 Food 3 & ^ ^S Units (approx.) £ O d »< Eq on •Asparagus, av, cooked 206 7.19 18 63 19 •Beans, baked, canned Small side dish. . . 76 2.66 21 18 61 ♦Beans, Lima, canned Large side dish. . .126 4.44 21 4 75 ♦Beans, string, cooked Five servings 480 16.66 15 48 37 ♦Beets, edible portion, cooked Three servings. . .245 8.7 2 23 75 •Cabbage, edible portion 310 11 20 8 72 ♦Carrots, edible, portion, fresh 215 7.6 10 8 82 Carrots, cooked Two servings 164 5.81 10 34 56 ♦Cauliflower, as purchased 312 11 23 15 62 ♦Celery, edible portion 540 19 24 6 71 Corn, sweet, cooked One side dish 99 3.5 13 10 77 ♦Cucumbers, edible portion 565 20 18 10 72 ♦Egg plant, edible portion 350 12 17 10 73 Lentils, cooked 89 3.15 27 1 72 ♦Lettuce, edible portion 505 18 25 14 61 ♦Mushrooms, as purchased 215 7.6 31 8 61 ♦Onions, fresh, edible portion 200 7.1 13 5 82 •Onions, cooked Two large s'v'gs. .240 8.4 12 .40 48 ♦Parsnips, edible portion 1% serving 152 5.3 10 7 83 Parsnips, cooked 163 5.84 10 34 56 ♦Peas, green, cann:rl Two servings 178 6.3 25 3 72 ♦Peas, green, cooked One serving 85 3 23 27 50 Potatoes, baked One good sized. .. 86 3.05 11 1 88 •Potatoes, boiled One large sized ... 102 3.62 11 1 88 •Potatoes, mashed (creamed) One serving 89 3.14 10 25 65 Potatoes, steamed One serving 101 3.57 11 1 88 •Potatoes, chips One-half serving . . 17 .6 4 63 33 •Potatoes, sweet, cooked Half av. potato.. 49 1.7 6 9 85 •Pumpkins, edible portion 380 IS 15 4 81 Radislies, as purchased 480 17 18 3 79 Rhubarb, edible portion 430 15 10 27 63 •Spinach, cooked Two ord. s'v'g...l74 6.1 15 66 19 Squash, edible portion 210 7.4 12 10 78 •Succotash, canned Ord. serving 100 3.5 15 9 67 •Tomatoes, fresh as purchased Four av 430 15 15 16 69 Tomatoes, canned 431 15.2 21 7 72 •Turnips, edible portion Two large s'v'g..246 8.7 13 4 83 Vegetable oysters 273 9.62 10 51 39 FRUITS (DRIED) •Apples, as purchased 34 Apricots, as purchased 35 •Dates, edible portion Three large 28 •Dates, as pm'chased 31 •Figs, edible portion One large 31 •Prunes, edible portion Three large 32 •Prunes, as purchased 38 •Raisins, edible portion 28 •Raisins, as purchased 31 FRUITS (FRESH OR COOKED) •Apples, as purchased Two apples 206 Apples, baked 94 Apples, sauce Ord. serving Ill •Apricots, edible portion 168 Apricots, cooked Large serving .... 131 •Bananas, edible portion One large 100 •Blackberries 176 Blueberries 128 1.2 3 7 90 1.24 7 3 90 .9» 2 7 91 1.1 2 7 91 1.1 5 95 1.14 3 97 1.35 3 n 97 1. 3 9 KS 1.1 o 9 88 7.3 H 7 90 3.3 a 5 93 3,9 2 5 93 5.92 K 92 4.61 B 94 3.5 5 5 HO 5.9 9 16 75 4-B U a SO THE PREPARATION OF MEALS 267 FRUITS (FRESH OR COOKED)— Continued Wt. of 100 Calories Per cent of Name of Food *'PortioD" Con- taining 100 Food Units (approx.) o o •Blneberries, canned 165 5.8 Cantaloupe Half or. serving. .243 8.6 •Cherries, edible portion 124 4.4 •Cranberries, as purchased 210 7.5 •Grapes, as purchased, av 136 4.8 Grape fruit 215 7.57 Grape juice Small glass 120 4.2 Gooseberries 261 9.2 •Lemons 215 7.57 Lemon juice 246 8.77 Nectarines 147 5. 18 Olives, ripe About seven 37 1.31 •Oranges, as purchased, av One very large. . .270 &.4 Oranges, juice Large glass 188 6. 62 •Peaches, as purchased, av Three ordinary. . .290 10. Peaches, sauce Ord. serving 136 4.78 Peaches, juice Ordinary glass. . ,136 4.80 •Pears One large pear... 173 5.40 Fears, sauce 113 3.98 •Pineapples, edible portion, av 226 8. Raspberries, black 146 5.18 Raspberries, red 178 6.29 •Strawberries, av Two servings 260 9.1 •Watermelon, av 760 27. 9 10 12 16 4 14 91 3 2 2 7 4 6 14 15 87 94 85 85 80 89 100 95 77 100 98 7 91 100 91 90 76 92 76 8S DAIRY PRODUCTS ♦Butter Ordinary pat 12.5 •Buttermilk 1% glass 275 •Cheese, American, pale , 1'/^ cubic in 22 ♦Cheese, cottage 4 cubic in 89 ♦Cheese, full cream IV^ cubic in 23 ♦Cheese, Neufchatel 1^,^ cubic in 29.5 ♦Cheese, Swiss 1^-^ cubic in 23 ♦Cheese, pineapple 1 Vo cubic in 20 ♦Cream Vi ord. glass, ... 49 Kumyss ISS ♦Milk, condensed, sweetened 30 ♦Milk, condensed, unsweetened 69 ♦Milk, skimmed 1% glass 265 ♦Milk, whole .Small glass 140 Milk, human, 2nd week 162 Milk, human, 3rd month 171 ♦Whey Two " .44 .5 99.5 00 9.7 34 12 54 .77 25 73 2 3.12 76 8 IB .82 25 73 2 1.05 22 7H 2 .8 25 74 1 .72 25 73 2 1.7 5 86 9 U.7 21 37 42 1.06 1(1 23 67 2.05 24 60 26 0.4 S7 7 56 4.9 19 52 29 5.7 11 47 42 6 7 46 47 13 15 10 75 CAKES, PASTRY, PUDDINGS AND DESSERTS •Cake, chocolate layer Half ord. sq. pc. 28 •Cake, gingerbread Half ord, sq. pc. . 27 Cake, sponge Small piece 25 Custard, caramel 71 Custard, milk Ordinary cup 122 Custard, tapioca Two-thirds ord. . . 69.5 •Doughnuts Half a doughnut. . 23 •Lady fingers Two 27 •Macaroons Flour 23 •Pie, apple One-third piece. . . 38 •Pie, cream One-fourth piece . . 30 •Fie, custard One-third piece. . . 55 ,98 7 22 71 96 6 23 71 89 7 25 6S 2.51 19 in 71 4 29 26 66 IS 2.45 » 12 79 ,K « 45 49 .95 10 12 78 .82 6 23 61 1,3 5 32 63 1 1 5 32 63 1.9 9 32 69 268 FOODS AND SANITATION CAKES, PASTRY, PUDDINGS AND DESSERTS— Continued Wt. of 100 Calories Per cent of '•Portion" Con- „ B - ■§ Name of Food taining 100 Food B 5 S S Units (approx.) « n S "S s'S O o 04 fo o^ ♦Pie, lemon One-third piece... 38 1.35 6 36 58 ♦Pie, mince One-fourth piece. . 35 1.2 8 38 54 *Pie, squash One-third piece. .. 55 1.9 10 42 48 Pudding, apple sago 81 3.02 6 3 91 Pudding, brown betty Half ord. s'v'g... 56.6 2. 7 12 81 Pudding, cream rice Very small s'v'g. . 75 2.65 8 13 79 Pudding, Indian meal Half ord. s'v'g... 56.6 2. 12 25 63 Pudding, apple tapioca Small serving 79 2.8 1 1 98 Tapioca, cooked Ord. serving 108 3.85 1 1 98 SWEETS AND PICKLES ♦Catsup, tomato, av 170 Candy, plain 26 Candy, chocolate 30 •Honey Four teaspoons ... 30 ♦Marmalade (orange) 28.3 *Molasses, cane 35 ♦Olives, green, edible portion Five to seven 32 ♦Olives, ripe, edible portion Five to seven 38 ♦Pickles, mixed 415 ♦Sugar, granulated Seven level teasp. or 3^ lumps. .. 24 ♦Sugar, maple Four teaspoons ... 29 ♦Syrup, maple Four teaspoons ... 35 NUTS, EDIBLE PORTION ♦Almonds, av Eight to fifteen.. 15 ♦Beechnuts 14.8 ♦Brazil Nuts Three ord. size... 14 ♦Butternuts 14 ♦Cocoanuts 16 ♦Chestnuts, fresh, av 40 ♦Filberts, av Ten nuts 14 ♦Hickory nuts 13 ♦Peanuts, av Thirteen double. . IS ♦Pecans, polished About eight 13 ♦Pine nuts (pignolias) About eighty 16 ♦Walnuts, California About six 14 CEREALS ♦Bread, brown, average Ord. thick slice.. 43 ♦Bread, corn (johnnycake), av Small square 38 ♦Bread, white, home made Ord. thick slice ... 38 ♦Cookies, sugar Two 24 Corn flakes, toasted Ord. eer. dish f'l. 27 ♦Corn meal, granular, av 2^; level tbsp 27 Corn meal, unbolted, av Three tbsp 26 ♦Crackers, graham Two crackers. ... 23 ♦Crackers, oatmeal Two crackers. ... 23 ♦Crackers, soda 8% level tbsp 27 ♦Hominy, cooked Large serving 120 ♦Macaroni, av 27 ♦Macaroni, cooked Ord. serving 110 ♦Oatmeal, boiled 1^ serving 159 ♦Popcorn 24 ♦Rice, uncooked 28 ♦Rice, boiled Ord. cereal dish. . 87 fi. 10 3 87 .9 () 100 1.1 1 4 95 1.05 1 (I »H 1 .5 25 97 i.a .5 99.5 1.1 1 K4 15 1.H 2 HI 7 14.6 18 15 67 .86 100 I.OH (1 100 l.a u 100 .53 13 77 10 ..12 IB 79 8 .49 10 SB 4 ,50 16 X2 2 .57 4 77 19 1.4 10 20 70 .4S 9 84 7 .47 9 85 6 .62 20 63 17 .46 « 87 7 .56 22 74 4 .4« 10 83 7 1.5 9 7 84 1.3 la 16 72 1.3 13 6 81 .83 7 22 71 .97 11 1 88 .96 10 5 85 .92 9. 11. 80 .S2 9,5 20.5 70 .81 11 24 65 .96 10 5 85 4.2 11 2 87 .96 15 2 83 3.85 14 15 71 5.6 IS 7 75 .86 11 11 78 .98 9 1 90 3.1 10 1 89 THE PREPAEATION OF MEALS 269 CEREALS— Continued Wt. of 100 Calories Per cent ot "Portion" Con- „ n , £ Name of Food taining 100 Food a ^ ^ S Units (approx.) g ^- g ^ ^■a a o o< fc, oS •Rice, flakes Ord. cereal dish.. 27 .94 8 1 91 •Rolls, Vienna, av One large roll, ... 35 1.2 12 7 81 •Shredded wbeat One biscuit 27 .94 13 4 5 82 5 •Spaghetti, average 28 .97 12 1 87 •Wafers, vanilla Four £4 .84 s 13 71 •Wheat, flour, e't'e wheat, av Four tbsp 27 .96 15 5 80 •Wheat, flour, graham, av 4^ tbsp 27 .96 15 5 80 •Wheat, flour, patent, family and straight grade spring wheat, av.... Four tbsp 27 .97 12 3 85 •Zweiback Size of thick slice of bread 23 .81 9 21 70 MISCELLANEOUS •Eggs, hen's boiled One large egg. ... 59 •Eggs, hen's, whites Of six eggs 181 •Eggs, ben's, yolks Two yolks 27 •Omelet 94 •Soup, beet, av 380 •Soup, bean, av Very large plate. .150 •Soup, cream of celery Two plates 180 •Consomme 830 •Clam chowder Two plates 230 •Chocolate, bitter Half-a-square ... 16 •Cocoa 20 Ice Cream (Philadelphia) Half serving 45 Ice Cream (New York) Half serving 48 Experiment 132. To plan meals for a day for a definite cost, with the general proportion of nutrients and the right number of calories per day. Prepare and serve one of these. Experiment 133. To make a list of good and bad com- binations for the three meals. Give reasons for each. Eefeeence. "Some Points to Be Considered in the Planning of a Eational Diet, ' ' by Susannah Usher. Household Science Dept. Bul- letin, University. 2.1 32 fiS (10 6.4 100 n 00 .94 17 S3 on H.H 34 60 fi 13. «H 14 17 5.4 20 20 60 (1.3 IK 47 37 29. 85 00 15 H,25 17 IK 65 .56 K 72 20 .69 17 53 30 1.6 .■■. 57 3S 1.7 V 47 46 270 FOODS AND SANITATION Calculation op a Day 's Meals for a High School Girl Weighing About 115 Pounds, Allowing 20.4 Calories per Pound. (S. P. means Standard Portion of 100 Calories.) S.P. Breakfast. Orange 1 Bacon 2 Shredded wheat. . . 1 Sugar 3 Cream 1% Toast 1 Butter 1 Coffee Luncheon. Eice and 1 Cheese % Vegetable salad French dressing . . 1 Stewed apricots . . 1 Doughnut 2 Milk 1 Breakfast. Protein Calories. 12 13 10 13 54.5 10 12.5 6 12 37 Fat Calories. 3 188 4.5 122 6 423.0 1 36.5 100 90 7 Carho. Calories. 91 82.5 100 18 81 372.5 89 1 94 98 56 Total. 100 200 100 100 150 100 100 850 100 50 100 100 200 100 132.0 Dinner. Vienna EoU 1 12 Butter 1 .5 Consomme Y^. 21.5 Lamb Chops 2 48 Baked Potatoes .. . 1 11 Butter 2 1 Stewed Tomatoes % 7 Baked Custard... 1 26 657.5 7 99.5 152 1 199 2 56 710.5 81 3.5 24 18 1,500 100 100 25 200 100 200 33 100 Total for the day 259.0 1,174.0 925.0 2,358 THE PEEPAEATION OF MEALS 271 This day's menus give about 1/10 the total number of calories from protein, and do not give a heavy, starchy diet. The following variations from the menus calculated are often used, making a diet too high in protein : 'reaTcfast Variation Luncheon Variation Dinner Variation Orange Rice and Cheese Roll and Butter Ham Creamed Dried Beef Consomme Eggs Vegetable Salad Lamb Chops Shredded Wheat Stewed Apricots Macaroni and Cheese Sugar Doughnuts Stewed Tomatoes Cream Milk Baked Custard Toast Coffee Fruits and juicy vegetables are frequently omitted from the diet and starchy vegetables, cereals and starchy pud- dings used in their stead. Following is a list of good and bad combinations at a meal : Good Examples Irish Potatoes Peas Lemon Jelly Potatoes or Rice Vegetable Salad Lettuce Tomatoes Cucumbers Oranges and Bananas (Sliced) Griddle Cakes Bacon Bad Examples Irish Potatoes Sweet Potatoes Rice Pudding or Cornstarch Pudding Potatoes or Rice Com Bananas Cereal Breakfast Food Griddle Cakes CHAPTER XXVII TABLE SERVICE One of the most frequently disputed questions connected with the subject of serving is the correct method of setting the table. For example, one per- son tells us that the spoons should be placed at the side of the knife, another that they should be put just beyond the plate. Which is right? Today the effort is being made to lessen the work of women in the home. If this end is to be achieved, it becomes necessary to cease doing a thing just because some one says it is the way to do it. We must have a reason underlying the things that we do. May it not be possible that there is more than one way of placing the spoons on the table, and that each is equally correct? The meal time, especially the dinner hour, is the time when the average family enjoys a little respite from the strenuousness of the day. Therefore, there must be some symmetry to the arrangement of the china and silver that it may not be confusing and tiring to the eye. There must also be a quiet han- dling of these things that the family may feel that the meal is one of comfort. But these ends are not necessarily accomplished in only one way. 272 TABLE SEEVICE 273 In both the setting of the table and the serving, three things should be kept in mind. First, there should be simplicity. To go into a dining room ornately decorated, to sit down at a table piled high with dishes, center pieces, and food, tends to give a sense of weariness at the beginning of the meal. To enter a dining room which is simply dec- orated, which has only the necessary and convenient furniture, to sit down at a table where the decora- tions do not prevent a full view of the person opposite, and where a glance at the table shows the useful equipment and but little more, gives a feel- ing of rest which enhances the enjoyment of the food, no matter how simple. The second point to note is that of good arrange- ment. It is far more pleasing to the eye to have the knives and forks placed on the table parallel to one another than to have them look as though they had been carelessly dropped there. It is more pleasing to have the tablecloth on straight, the indi- vidual service, that is, the silver, glass, and linen which go at each place, put on the table so that one place is easily distinguished from another, than to have a confusion of lines which comes from lack of attention to these points. It is better to have the glasses filled only about three-fourths full instead of almost overflowing, so that one hesitates to move the glass for fear of aji accident. All these things tend to give to the table an appearance of good 274 FOODS AND SANITATION design, which is as restful as the simplicity of it. Last, a table cannot be said to be well set, or the serving perfectly done, if things are not convenient. Simplicity and good design might tell us that it is proper to put all the spoons to the right of the knife, but if by so doing the next place is crowded, con- venience would suggest putting them beyond the plate. Setting the Table Coverings. There are, in general use, two ways of covering the table: One, covering the whole table; that is, using a tablecloth; the other, cover- ing only portions of the table by the use of center piece and doilies, or a lunchcloth. Sometimes the tablecloth is used for the dinner, and doilies or lunch- cloth for the other two meals. The use of small pieces of linen in place of the larger. tablecloth is often a great saving of labor. Tablecloths must be ironed when they are very damp, in order to give them a smooth, glossy finish. To iron a three-yard tablecloth well means the work of at least forty- five minutes. When one or two spots are made on the cloth it necessitates washing it, while in the case of doilies, the soiled ones may be removed and others substituted, which means comparatively little work to keep the linen on the table clean. Unless, how- ever, the table is well finished, a tablecloth is pref- erable. TABLE SEEVICE 275 Protecting the Table. Wlien any highly polished table is used it should be protected in some way from the heat of dishes. A pad of heavy canton flannel, table felt, or asbestos is generally nsed under the cloth. These are sometimes spoken of as "silence cloths," because the sound of the dishes is deadened by them. When doilies are used it is nec- essary to use asbestos or felt mats beneath those on Tvhich the hot dishes are to be placed. Plate 28. — A Table Simply Bet for Breakfast or Liinclieon. Laying the Cloth. The tabloclotli should be placed over the silence cloth with the crease directly down the middle, and the cloth s])read smooth from the center out. The cloth should hang over the ends an equal distance, or, in the case of a round table, the four corners of the cloth should be equi- distant from the floor. Placing the Doilies and Lunchcloth. When doi- lies are used for the table, each place is usually set with three: one for the plate, one for tlie bread and 276 FOODS AND SANITATION butter plate, and one for the glass. If tea, coffee, or chocolate is to be served, a fourth doily is sometimes used. The method of placing a lunchcloth on the table depends upon the size and design of the cloth, and upon the size of the table. It is sometimes placed with edges parallel to those of the table, sometimes with a corner dropping over each side of the table. If the table is round, the latter method Plate 29. — A Table Set for Three Courses. must be used. In either case, the cloth should be laid evenly. Placing of Individual Service. In order to give sufficient room for comfort, there should be twenty- five to thirty inches between the plates. To the right of the space for the plate is placed the knife with the sharp edge toward the plate. This is the most convenient way because it requires turning the knife only half way over in order to use it. The fork is placed at the left of the plate with the tines up. Both the knife and the fork are placed at a distance TABLE SERVICE 277 of thi'ee-fourtlis of an inch to one inch from the edge of the tahle. This lessens the chance of knocking them ont of phice when sitting down to the table. The distance between the knife and the fork depends upon the size of the largest plate to be nsed. A gen- eral guide is that of having the knife placed a little over its own length away from the fork. The tea- spoons are placed, bowls up, either to the right of the knife or beyond the plate, according to the Plate :!0. — A Variation from Platr 2S in tlie Arrangement of tlie Silver. amount of room or the number of pieces of silver to be used. The water glass is placed about one- half of an inch from the point of the knife, where it is easily reached with the right hand. The bread and butter plate is placed slightly to the left of the end of the fork, and, like the glass, about a half inch beyond. The butter spreader is placed on the butter plate across the farther side, with the edge of the blade turned in and the handle toward the right of the butter plate. This makes the easiest position from which to grasp it with the right hand. 278 FOODS AND SANITATION Sometimes the butter spreader, like the rest of the silver, is placed on the cloth, but on account of its size it is very likely to be overlooked, the edge of the butter plate obscuring it from view. The butter is placed toward the outside of the plate, not in the middle. This, then, gives room for the roll or bread. The napkin is placed to the left of the fork with the open edges next to the fork and the edge of the table, and the fold away from the edge. If individual salts and pepper shakers are used, they are placed beyond the plate; otherwise, between the places, or, if there are but two sets, so arranged as to be con- venient to the largest number of persons. The foregoing constitutes individual service. Very often additional silver is used. In this ease silver of the same kind, such as forks, are placed next to each other in the order in which they are to be used, starting from the outside, or else they are placed according to size. The former is the more usual method because it is less likely to cause con- fusion through the use of the wrong piece of silver for a certain course. There is an exception to this in the case of the small fish fork sometimes used. This is placed to the right of the knives and any spoons which may be there. A soupspoon is, usu- ally, placed at the right of the knives, and the tea- spoons beyond the plate. If knives, teaspoons, soup- spoons, and oyster fork are all placed in a line, it gives an appearance of display which is not pleasing. TABLE SERVICE 279 Serving Forms of Service. There are three forms of serv- ice commonly in use, the English, the Russian, and the "compromise." In the English service all the food to be served at one simple meal, or at one course, is placed on the table at the beginning to be served by the host or hostess. The meat is on platters, the vegetables in suitable dishes, and the service is planned so as to necessitate no one's rising from the table during the meal or course. The Eussian service is just the opposite of the English. All the serving is done from the serving table or pantry. There is no food on the table at the beginning of the meal save the candy, nuts, and relishes. This method of service, of course, requires a servant, or that some one of the family remain away from the meal. The compromise service is one which has points taken from both the English and the Russian, and is the one used by the majority of people because the meal can be served without outside help, or with the minimum of it. In the compromise service the meal is often served in .courses, but at the beginning of each course all the food for that course is placed on the table. Sometimes the salad and dinner courses are put on the table together, especially if one of the members of the family is doing the serving. When this is done less rising from the table is required, and thus there is less interference with the conversation 280 FOODS AND SANITATION at the meal. Everything should be planned so as to make the serving expeditious and with as little offense to the eye and ear as possible. Directions for serving which are given here are not made primarily with the thought that there is to be a maid, but rather that one member of the family may serve by rising quietly between the courses, and not -by staying away from the table. There is nothing that spoils the conversation at the meal more, or makes a guest feel more uncom- fortable, than for one of the family to have to stay away from the table in order to serve. It is much better to use less service and maintain a pleasant, unbroken hour. Placing of Dishes. Always serve from the left anything which is to be taken from the dish by the person sitting at the table. This is so that the right hand may be conveniently used. In putting dishes before a person they may be placed either from the left or from the right, but it avoids confusion, how- ever, to use one side as much as possible, and since the water and any beverage which is to be used must be placed at the right in order not to pass in front of the person, this is the better side to use. Order of Serving. In seating guests, the guest of honor, if a man, should be seated at the right of the hostess; if a woman, at the right of the host. The order in which to serve may be varied. It depends TABLE SERVICE 281 upon tlie numbers to be served and personal prefer- ence. Either of the following methods is correct: 1. Serve all the women before the men, beginning with the hostess or the guest of honor. 2. Serve the guest of honor or hostess first, then the next person to her, irrespective of whether a man or woman, old or young, continuing around the table until all are served. "When there is a large number at the table and this plan is used, it is often wise to serve one course to the left and the next to the right, thereby preventing either side from always being last. Many people prefer beginning with the hostess rather than with the guest of honor, feeling that she has an opportimity to see that things are right so far as the serving is concerned. This, of course, could not be done unless there were a host, providing something is being served on the table, for then the hostess would be engaged in serving. The hostess always takes the initiative in beginning to eat. Removing Dishes. Eemove the larger dishes, such as the platter and vegetable dishes, first, then any smaller things, such as bread plates, which are not individual service. Last, remove the individual things from the right of the person. In removing large dishes use two hands where the dishes are at all heavy. Even if it seems a little awkward, it is better than taking any chance of letting the dish slip. The individual things, which are removed last, are taken from the right-hand side. Be careful that 282 FOODS AND SANITATION dishes are not placed one upon the other. A tray may be used in removing the individual service, thus saving many steps. In refilling glasses always take them up at the bottom. Never let the fingers touch the upper rim of the glass. Fill the glasses only three-fourths full. Before bringing in the dessert remove everything that does not pertain directly to that course and take the crumbs away. In removing the crumbs, use a plate and a folded napkin for a bare table. A silver crumb knife in place of a napkin may be used for a tablecloth. A crumb brush is objectionable because it is difficult to keep clean. Both in serving and in removing dishes a folded napkin may be used on the left hand in place of a tray. If at any time during the serving of a meal a piece of silver is dropped, a glass of water spilled, or any other accident occurs, remove all traces of the trouble as quickly and as quietly as possible, so that the one who was responsible will not be made to feel any more uncomfortable than is necessary. Whenever an unusual condition arises in serving, meet it by applying the general principles before mentioned of simplicity, good design, convenience, and comfort. CHAPTER XXVIII THE HYGIENE OF FEEDING The nourishment of the body is measured not by the food taken in, but by what it absorbs and makes into cell material. These conditions are influenced by the amount of general exercise, bathing, warmth of clothing, habits of eating, and by frame of mind. Food may be of the right kind, the right quantity, and perfectly cooked, and yet the body may not be nourished by it. Some conditions not sufficiently considered in that connection will be discussed first. Conditions of Good Digestion. Digestion, like all other functions of the body, is controlled by the nervous system. The secretion of digestive juices and movements of the various organs of that system are affected by whatever affects the nervous system. The emotions of fear, worry, grief, anger, and home- sickness may be the cause of indigestion lasting long after the passing of the emotion. Worry has been known to keep food in the stomach undigested, just as it entered, for over 12 hours. Food should always be taken leisurely, and under pleasant conditions. Tales of suffering, petulant rehearsals of household or business cares, or any conversation likely to bring unpleasant memories or ideas have no place at the 283 284 FOODS AND SANITATION table. If children must be corrected at the table, it should be done quietly, with as much respect for their feelings as though they were adults. To create a "scene" at table spoils the enjoyment of the meal for all, and is often the unsuspected pause of diges- tive disturbances in children as well as adults. Fatigue, which means the presence in the body of poisons formed by work, should be a sign to refrain from eating. These fatigue poisons unfit every kind of cell in the body for doing its work properly. Fatigue calls for absolute relaxation and rest to keep the body from forming more poisons, and to give it time to throw off what have been accumu- lated. Perhaps the most serious and persistent offenses in the hygiene of feeding are slight mastication and overeating, the first being largely to blame for the second. Insufficient mastication, like fatigue and the emotions mentioned above, means that the food must remain in the stomach a longer time than it should. Here are found bacteria with warmth and food for their growth. Decomposition begins and continues in the intestines. The digestive juices are hindered also by the large quantity of material. Some of the products of decomposition the body may be able to use as food, but many it cannot. These products are all absorbed into the blood stream, from which they go to the cells producing auto- toxication, self-poisoning, which shows itself in THE HYGIENE OF FEEDING 285 general ill-health, possibly anemia, headache, sleep- lessness, fatigue, and hives. Arterio-sclerosis, or hardening of the arteries, is not a disease following immediately upon misde- meanors of this kind, but it comes in mature or later life as a result of heavy protein feeding accom- panied by intestinal decomposition. Mr. Horace Fletcher, by his experiments in thor- ough mastication and the excellent results in health, has aroused much interest in the problems of feed- ing. In middle life his health was in poor condition. He concluded the trouble lay in digestion. He began to eat only when he felt the call of appetite, and he masticated what food he did eat until he could no longer hold it in his mouth. By doing this he so improved his health and endurance that with- out more exercise than one would get in walking about the streets of a town on ordinary business, Mr. Fletcher made a 100-mile run on a bicycle with no results of soreness or stiffness, whereas a man who was in training for this feat could not complete the distance. Now, at over sixty years of age, Mr. Fletcher is an unusually vigorous man both mentally and physically. He holds records for endurance tests made in the gymnasium at Yale surpassing those of trained athletes. These results have followed excellent digestion and absorption of food, due to its small quantity and to thorough mastication. There is no decompo- 286 FOODS AND SANITATION sition o.ecurring, for instead of a daily evacuation of feces there are only one or two a week, and these are without odor, as they should be. Such a condi- tion prevents the fatiguing of cells by decomposition products. It lessens the time necessary for rest and sleep. People who have begun to masticate thoroughly seem to instinctively eat less protein in proportion to the amount of food than formerly. This has no small share in producing odorless feces. You have already learned that protein foods are most suited to bacterial growth outside the body. Eye-Strain. An often unsuspected cause of indi- gestion, as well as of other ills, is eye-strain. This may be due either to lack of glasses or to incorrect ones. In such a case seek the advice of a competent oculist who has had a thorough course of training in his profession. Many persons have been subject to a continued series of illnesses by wrong glasses. Appetite. It is an old saying, "Stop while you are still hungry." It is easier to say what hunger is not than what it is. A gnawing sensation seem- ing to originate in the stomach and extend to the back of the mouth is often taken as a sign of hunger. This is a ravenous feeling and leads its victims to hurry, poor mastication, and overeating. It seems to have no relation to the body's need for food. Its tendencies should be disregarded. Drink plenty of water and eat slowly and lightly under such conditions. Few but the very poor and those THE HYGIENE OF FEEDING 287 recovering from a wasting disease, know what real hunger is. If the appetite is not abused by over- eating, or a sedentary life, it is a good guide as to quantity when accompanied by thorough mastica- tion. Appetite might be described as a delicate relish for food. Appetite ceases when a feeling of complete satisfaction arrives. One should stop eat- ing before the appetite is entirely satisfied. "When food gives off agreeable odors, or is appe- tizing in appearance, the "mouth may water," a popular way of saying that saliva is secreted by the sight or smell of food. Gastric juice also flows at least one-half hour before it would if the food were unappetizing. This may be called psychic juice. It shortens the time necessary to digest food, but does not seem to increase the amount digested, as was once supposed. Drinking During Meals. There has been much controversy regarding drinking during meals. At last experiments have been performed by Hawk which seem to show that the more water drunk at meals the better. Of course, it should not be taken when food is in the mouth, since it would be likely to carry the food with it before mastication has been sufficient. After the eating of a meal neither vigorous exer- cise nor a hot bath should be taken. These take too much blood away from the digestive organs to the muscles and skin. Mental work does not 288 FOODS AND SANITATION demand enough blood in the brain to interfere with digestion. If fatigue is felt when mental work is undertaken after a meal it is due to overeating or general causes. In hot weather, when much blood is on the surface and perspiration is profuse, eat lightly. Eat very little protein food, for in the process of assimilation this, unlike carbohydrates and fats, must be broken up, a process which evolves heat, thus adding to the body's burden of cooling. "Stuff a cold and starve a fever" is an unwise rule. Stuff neither. Feeding should be light dur- ing a cold, although there is a temporary relief to head congestion during a meal. This is another case of deranged nervous system necessitating as little strain as possible on any function of the body. With all of the foregoing precautions taken, unless the teeth are kept clean, free from decay, the food will be contaminated at its entrance to the body and poor absorption and assimilation will result. Make a list of rules as an extract of this chapter to be used as your guide to hygienic feeding. SANITATION INTRODUCTION Sanitation, or sanitary science, is that body of information which deals with the maintenance of health and long life, and with the prevention of disease. It may be divided into two groups of topics: First, those which are purely personal, and, second, those which affect two or more persons. The following list of topics will show the scope of the science: Group 1 a. Diet. e. Bathing. 1). Feeding. /. Care of the teeth. c. Clothing. g. Care of the eyes. d. Exercise. Group 2 a. Relating to the spreading of infection. 1. Care and use of the hands. 2. Use of handkerchiefs, towels, and bedding. 3. Drinking cups and dishwashing. 4. Use of mouth, coughing, and sneezing. 5. Kissing. h. Relating to environment which affects vigor or vitality. 1. Cleanness of soil under the house. 289 290 FOODS AND SANITATION 2. Freedom of surrounding country from breeding places of flies and mosquitoes. 3. Openness of house to sun and moving air. 4. Heating of the house, without overdrying the air. 5. Lights which are like daylight, with no glare or poisonous products. 6. Plumbing which automatically cleans itself, leaving no trace of odor. 7. Garbage and sewage disposal which does not spread contagion nor create a nuisance. 8. An uneontaminated water supply. 9. Clean food supply. 10. House as free as possible from dust and infectious particles. 11. Use of disinfectants and scrubbing materials. The subject of individual sanitation will be left to the study of hygiene in connection with physi- ology. The topics of Group 2 will, alone, be under- taken in this book. The subjects of house planning and furnishing in detail will be left for a special course. It may be said, in passing, that no more satisfactory basis for such a course can be found than Mr. Daniels's Furnishing a Modest Home, which should be in the hands of all who desire artistic and usable homes. CHAPTER XXIX THEORIES OF DISEASE That well-known story of the casting out of devils from a sick man into swine illustrated one theory of the cause of disease. The savage custom of beating instruments and making unbearable noises to drive out the devils of sickness showed the same idea. The Chinese custom of so hideously painting the body of the sick and placing it outside the house so that the devils would not leave it and return to visit some other member of the family went a little farther in paying unknown respect to the possi- bilities of infection. According to the "Father of Medicine," Hippoc- rates, 400 B.C., disease was caused by a wrong ad- justment of the humors of the body: Blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. We still use the idea and its phraseology to describe temperaments: 1. Sanguine, plenty of blood, bright and cheerful. 2. Melancholy, too much black bile. 3. Bilious, too much yellow bile. 4. Phlegmatic, too much phlegm, slow. Later, in the 18th and 19th centuries, arose vari- ous physical and chemical theories of disease. Not until 1863, the breaking out of the Civil War, was it 291 292 FOODS AND SANITATION shown that disease may be caused by the implant- ing in a healthy body of a particular kind of micro- organism. This theory had been proposed 100 years before, but no proof had been made. The steps nec- essary to make the proof possible were taken after 1683. a. In that year a Dutch lens maker, Leewenhoek, made a lens so powerful that he could see living things of unknown nature in the scrapings from teeth. This discovery he spread, and microscopes and lenses were more and more improved until in 1786 a classification of bacteria, according to their form, could be made. Not until 74 years later, how- ever, was the part played by bacteria in disease dis- covered and proved. h. By about 1860, Louis Pasteur, the "Father of Bacteriology," and Tyndall, the great English physicist, proved that air, free from all particles, does not cause fermentation and decay. This, at last, killed the theory of spontaneous generation; that life may come from something totally unlike it. It was believed that the bacteria were produced by fermentation and decay, which was due to the pres- ence of air, just as it was thought that frogs and ducks sprang from the mud of ponds and streams. These men proved that bacteria caused the fermen- tation or decay ; that air, free from them, would not produce fermentation or decay. So recent is this discovery that many otherwise well-educated people THEORIES OF DISEASE 293 still speak of air as causing the decay of canned fruit. c. Next it was proved that a disease from which the silk worms in France were suffering was caused by bacteria. Pasteur saved the silk industry by this wonderful discovery. In 1863 it was discovered that anthrax in cattle was also due to bacteria, and that the disease could be spread from one animal to another by the transfer of these bacteria. d. In 1882 Eobert Koch invented gelatin and agar culture media so that germs could be kept separated and each individual kind studied by itself. These culture media made possible, in the last twenty years of the century, the discovery of the specific organ- isms causing most of the infectious diseases. Now we know that tonsilitis, diphtheria, all kinds of colds, tuberculosis, typhoid, diarrhea, hydrophobia, boils, sores, abscesses, blood poisoning, pneum-onia, whoop- ing cough, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, smallpox, and probably rheumatism, are all due to the trans- fer of certain germs from the body of a sick person, or other breeding place, to the body of another person. If, for instance, all germs which are ex- creted by all typhoid patients at this time were killed immediately, or so disposed of that they could not reach another body free from typhoid, then that disease would cease to exist. With this certainty of the cause of all these dis- eases it is now only ignorance, or almost criminal 294 FOODS AND SANITATION carelessness, whicli allows an epidemic to spread from one member through a family. To prevent the spread of infectious diseases, those caused by micro- organisms, three things must be known: 1. How these germs get out of the sick body. 2. "What their resistance is to conditions outside the body ; e. g., temperature and dryness. 3. How they are carried to another body and how they enter it. Many kinds of disease-producing germs are found permanently in the body. They are held in subjec- tion by the healthiness of the body. An instance of great fatigue, prolonged exposure to cold, under or over feeding, or lack of exercise, might give these a chance to show the symptoms of their particular disease. If, through some carelessness, some of these germs, apparently inactive in a very healthy person, are introduced into the body of someone who is in some way below normal in health, or is particularly susceptible to a certain kind of germ, then, that person may have the disease in virulent form. This makes it necessary to form habits of sanitary practices, not try to take them on only when disease breaks out. CHAPTER XXX HOW TO AVOID DISEASE HABITS WHICH WILL HELP TO AVOID DISEASE 1. Do not touch, the hands or fingers to the mouth or lips or to any mucous surface without thoroughly washing them before and immediately afterwards. The fingering of the face is bad manners, not only because it annoys others, but because it is likely to carry germs to the skin and cause pimples or some- thing worse. It may infect other parts which the hands may touch with germs from the parts. 2. Keep the nails as well as the skin of the hands clean. Dirt is generally accompanied by germs. Plenty of hot water, soap, a nail brush, a nail file, and an orange-wood stick are necessary if you would have clean hands. 3. Use individual towels, pillow covers and other bedding, combs, brushes, clothing, and soap. By all means do not use public soap. Children should always have their own handkerchiefs, and use them when they have them. The importance of this is obvious. If you watch you will see a towel used in common by several people, as a hand towel in a kitchen and those in public places, applied to hands as well as lips. The water bucket in the kitchen 295 296 FOODS AND SANITATION is often dipped into with a dipper or a cup used in common by all members of the family. This is unsafe practice. 4. Thoroughly wash all dishes or utensils used in eating or drinking before they are used by another. This does not show unfriendliness, but rather the greatest kindness. 5. After buying, wash all clothing, to be worn next the body before wearing it. 6. Never carry handkerchiefs in the hand, nor leave thera about on desk, chairs, etc. Keep them in some sort of pocket. 7. Do not wet the fingers to turn the leaves of books or papers. 8. Never put money, or pencils, or pins, or needles, or thread, into the mouth. Do not use the mouth to hold things, nor as scissors, nor as a bowl of water. 9. Always cover the mouth when coughing, or the nose when sneezing. In the spray thrown out many germs are likely to be found. These may be car- ried as far away as 20 feet and stay in the air for as long as half an hour. They may contaminate food, dishes, or the lips or skin of other people. 10. If you want to taste another's apple, for instance, have a piece cut off, do not bite the apple. Use a clean spoon for tasting. Do not put it back into the mixture. 11. Do not spit upon any floor or walk. Use a handkerchief, a suitable cloth, or a piece of paper HOW TO AVOID DISEASE 297 wMcli may be burned, if a bathroom is not at hand. Tuberculosis and pneumonia patients should use sputum cups. 12. Do not kiss promiscuously. When you do kiss, the cheek is a safer place than the lips. Babies and other young children are the helpless victims of ignorance in this respect. Habits Promoting Good Resistance 1. Accustom the whole body to sudden but short and decided changes of temperature. Do not unduly cool it, if avoidable. Wear light-weight, porous clothing. 2. Keep up daily, moderate exercise. 3. Eat very moderately, with plenty of fruits and vegetables; masticate thoroughly, and avoid eating when fatigued, chilled, or overheated or excited. 4. Sleep in a room where the air is cool and mov- ing, under light-weight covers, for at least eight hours per day. Do not live in a temperature higher than 68° F. and keep a window open. 5. Drink at least two quarts of water a day, one or two glasses with meals, the rest between meals. 6. Do not allow yourself to become over-tired, if avoidable. Learn to relax and rest in a very short time. Be happy, interested, calm, well-poised, and busy. Try to make these practices habits as unconscious as breathing. CHAPTER XXXI HOW TO AVOID INFECTIOUS DISEASES The spreading of infectious diseases may be some- what better understood and prevented by a short discussion of some of the more common ones. 1. Colds, Tonsilitis, Bronchitis, Pneumonia, Diphtheria, Inflammation of the Eyes Many people fail to understand that a cold or a sore throat is due to bacteria, although they are well aware of the dangers of the more serious throat dis- eases. As a matter of fact colds are often the fore- runners of the more serious infections. A simple nose cold deserves as much care to prevent further infection as pneumonia. The bacteria are found in the nose, mouth, throat, and eyes. They escape by: 1. Droplets in coughing or sneezing or even in talking, onto handkerchiefs or cloths or into the air. 2. Food, utensils, towels, napkins, drinking cups, pillows, sheets, pencils put into the mouth, bitten thread, anything, coming into contact with secretions of the mouth or nose. They enter: 1. By the mouth. 2. By rubbing the eyes with infected fingers or handker- chiefs, or infected skin with clean fingers or handkerchiefs. 298 HOW TO AVOID INFECTIOUS DISEASES 299 Resistance: 1. Germs in moist sputum are killed by boiling for five minutes. 2. If the sputum is allowed to dry, the germs may live as dust for several months. This makes strong demands for soaking or burning cloths before the discharges are dry. Precautions: 1. Change the cloths used for sneezing, coughing, and spitting so frequently that they may not infect things of other persons. In the throats of patients who have recovered from diph- theria and pneumonia the active germs of these diseases have been found after weeks and months. When quaran- tine is lifted, danger is not over. Moreover, what is apparently a simple cold may be caused by the germs which in others may produce pneumonia or diphtheria. Tuberculosis This disease, called the "Great White Plague," was the cause of 111,059 deaths in the United States in 1900, one-ninth of the deaths from all known causes. In loss of citizens and cost of caring for patients we spend, in the United States, from $150,000,000 to $200,000,000 per year. Germs of this disease may lodge in any part of the body; bony, muscular, or mucous. It is believed that the germs which attack the lungs reach them by way of the digestive tract and then through the blood stream. The bacteria escape from the hody : 1. In the sputum by coughing, sneezing, and talking. An estimate has placed the number of droplets escaping from one patient in 24 hours as from 500,000,000 to 3,000,000,000. If not caught 300 FOODS AND SANITATION in cloths or cups, they may remain in the air for one-half hour, to finally settle on any surface. 2. In the feces. They enter the body : 1. On infected fingers put into the mouth; e.g., children playing on a floor infected with tubercle bacilli. 2. Food infected by flies or other insects which have como in contact with sputum, or by milk and butter from tuber- cular cattle. 3. Imperfectly cleaned dishes. Resistance: 1. In the soil of sewage fields, decaying sputum harbors active germs for weeks and months. 2. Dried sputum in a dark, cool place ; e. g., a dark, damp, unclean room may have active germs for six or eight months. 3. In completely dried dust they may last from eight to ten days. 4. Cold does not kill these germs. 5. Boiling for five minutes kills. 6. In a closed vessel, 140° F., for twenty minutes, kills them; the temperature and time that should be used for pasteurizing milk. If the vessel is open, one hour at this temperature does not kill these germs on account of the pro- tection of the scum formed when milk is heated. 7. Dried sputum stands a temperature of boiling for one hour. 8. A 5% solution of carbolic acid requires 24 hours to kill the bacteria because of its slow penetration of the sputum. 9. Lysol, which dissolves mucus, is the best disinfectant to use. 10. Direct sunlight with abundant oxygen requires from 20 to 30 hours to kill germs if they are in sputum. Precautions: 1. Let no droplets escape into the air. HOW TO AVOID INFECTIOUS DISEASES 30I 2. Keep cloths in a paper receptacle while they are in use, then burn them. 3. Use a disinfectant in washing the dishes of the patient. 4. Disinfect any food left on the patient's plate before throwing it away. 5. The hands of the patient should be washed in disin- fectant solution whenever there is a possibility of their being soiled. Typhoid In 1900 typhoid in the United States caused 35,379 deaths, and there were recorded 350,000 cases of it. Water supply contaminated by sewage is the cause of by far the most typhoid epidemics. The changing of tlie direction of the Chicago Eiver to carry Chicago's sewage southwest into the river system emptying into the Mississippi, and the build- ing of water intakes four miles out in the lake, has played a large part in bringing the death rate in Chicago down from 5.97 in 1891-1900 to 2.21 in 1901-1910. Note. Cholera, another disease producing infected feces, but not found in this country fortunately, has been the cause of many plagues in Europe and Asia. It has been practically wiped out in northern Europe where sewage farms and filter beds have been con- structed for the waste and water supply. Germs leave the body: 1. In the urine and feces, not only of typhoid patients but of those suffering with gall- stones. .2. In the rose spots on the abdomen in typhoid. 3. In the sputum when pneumonia develops with typhoid. 302 FOODS AND SANITATION They enter the tody through the tonsils and through the lining of the stomach. They are carried by: 1. Water. 2. Milk. 3. Oysters growing in sewage-polluted beds. 4. Raw vegetables watered with sewage-polluted water. 5. Plies which have come in contact with infected feces. 6. Dust. 7. Carriers. Four per cent of all patients give off active germs from their bodies for from ten weeks to two years, and even longer after they are in all other respects perfectly well. There is a famous typhoid carrier called "Typhoid Mary," who, as a cook, infected several house- holds before she was discovered as the cause of the cases. Resistance: 1. Germs live in the ground or in surface water for from two to three weeks. 2. They live in a natural body of water ; e. g., lake, for at least five days, likely much longer. 3. In soil and feces they live longer than in water. 4. They have been found alive in five-month-old fecal material after it had been used as manure for two weeks. 5. They survive in ice when the sewage is not in minute particles; otherwise they gradually die. 6. One of the first epidemics for which the cause was found occurred in Lausen, Switzerland, in 1872. There had not been a case in this village for sixty years. Sud- denly one-sixth of the population came down with typhoid. One family having a private water supply developed no cases. This pointed to the public water supply,, a spring which opened at the foot of a ridge, as the probable cause. In a valley one or two miles away, about two months before this outbreak at Lausen, the feces from four typhoid pa- tients had been thrown into a brook. This brook was dammed up to flood the meadows below. "With this dam- HOW TO AVOID INFECTIOUS DISEASES 303 ming an increase of water was noticed in the spring on the other side of the mountain. By dumping almost a ton of salt into the brook, speedily its taste was evident in the spring water, although a large amount of flour dumped into the brook had failed to show any traces at the spring. This proved the source of Lausen 's typhoid epidemic. The water must have passed through a coarse filtering material in its passage through the mountains. Outbreaks in the foothill towns of Colorado have been traced to infected feces which were thrown on the snow beside a mountain stream and carried down with the melting snows to the towns below. There are few cities or towns which have not suf- fered typhoid epidemic from their own or their neighbor's contamination of their water supply. Private supplies, as well as public, may be contaminated. Precautions: 1. Disinfect all feces and urine before they enter a public or a private sewerage system. 2. Do not tolerate flies. Food may be contaminated by them, although they have been removed from it. Start or join a campaign to abolish their breeding places. 3. Do not take one who has ever had typhoid into your house as a member of the family or servant without making sure that that person is not a carrier. At least one railroad system in the United States examines the health of its din- ing car waiters. This should be universal in all public eating concerns, as well as in bakeries, dairies, and candy, grocery, and meat shops. 4. Disinfect all clothing or cloths before they are washed with other clothing or put into a hamper. Diarrhea There are probably many different germs that cause diseases of this kind— dysentery, cholera 304 FOODS AND SANITATION infantum, and inflammation of tlie bowels. Babies, in hot weather especially are likely to suffer from these diseases. Statistics show that almost three times as many babies died in the United States dur- ing the years 1903 to 1907 from these diseases as there were soldiers died in action or were fatally wounded during the Civil War. The germs leave the body in the feces. They enter: 1. In contaminated food, milk, and water. 2. Through the mouth by improper use of dirty hands. Precautions: 1. Disinfect both feces and urine immedi- ately, as in typhoid. Also disinfect all clothing and cloths. 2. At all times wash fruit and vegetables very thor- oughly, particularly if they are to be eaten raw. If pos- sible, hold them under a strong stream of water after they seem clean. If a stream of water cannot be had, use several different waters in abundance. 3. Milk, particularly that which is used for babies or children, should be clean and kept in sterilized, covered vessels at 50° F. or below. Milk which produces no ill effects in older children may cause death in babies when their bodies are weakened by excessive heat. Boils, Carbuncles, Abscesses These and pimples, acute inflammation of the bones, breaks in the skin in which pus has gathered, blood poisoning, and erysipelas belong in the same class. The germs leave and enter the body by way of the skin or through a break in it. A cut, scratch, burn, or bruise offers an opening or a weak spot. HOW TO AVOID INFECTIOUS DISEASES 305 Eubbing carbuncle germs on the tmbruised whole skin of the forearm produced seventeen of these. The germs entered through the sweat glands and hair follicles. Resistance: There are two kinds of germs causing these diseases. The one causing boils, abscesses, carbuncles, in- flammation of the bone marrow, and sometimes other cases of inflammation, is one of the hardest of the non-spore-form- ing bacteria to kill. Not only is. this true, but the dead bacteria can still produce their diseases with a poison or toxin which is found in their cells. The other kind of germ is found either by itself or in company with this in the other diseases mentioned. It is not so hard to kill, nor is the poison in dead bacteria so strong. With either of these germs, those which are transferred directly from man to man produce much more serious results than do the same kinds of germs which enter the body after living upon the skin or mucous membrane for a while. Precautions: There is a tradition that a siege of boils frees the blood from impurities. There is no more reason in this than there would be if that were said of pneumonia or tuberculosis. A series of boils means that germs causing these have made their way through the skin in several spots. The first boil was probably carelessly managed and germs were rubbed into the skin in all of the other spots where boils appeared. 1. The cotton and other wrappings of boils, abscesses, etc., should be burned immediately, and no soiled wrap- ping should have its surface exposed to contaminate other objects with which it comes in contact. 2. If a salve or disinfectant is applied, it should be upon cotton. Fingers should never touch a sore of any kind. If 306 FOODS AND SANITATION an instrument is used for lancing, it should be sterilized before and after using. 3. When a red spot likely to develop into a pimple is first noticed, swab it with cotton wet with hydrogen perox- ide ; do not let it come to a head and then open it and give it a chance to cause further infection. Tetanus or Lockjaw and Blood Poisoning These diseases follow most frequently Fourth of July accidents and the puncturing of the skin by pitchforks, old nails, or pins. The germs of tetanus are likely to be found in horse manure and soil. They have been found on wads of blank cartridges made in Germany. These germs grow, it is believed, only in the body, and then only under certain condi- tions. They flourish in deep wounds where there is no air, and then more likely when much dirt has been forced into the cut. The bacteria remain on the spot where they are first placed in the body, but the poison which they produce as they grow travels along certain nerves and produces the muscular symptoms of lockjaw. The discovery and use of antitoxin before the symptoms were developed reduced the number of deaths from this disease after Fourth of July accidents from 406 deaths out of 4,449 accidents in 1903; to 62 deaths out of 4,413 accidents in 1907. There is no hope of success with the antitoxin after the symptoms have lasted for thirty hours. HOW TO AVOID INFECTIOUS DISEASES 307 Resistance: 1. The germs survive boiling for one hour. 2. Cloths or other articles may carry spores of these germs which will produce the disease for years after they have been first infected. Blood Poisoning Any break in the skin, no matter how slight, allows the possibility of blood poisoning. The germs causing this may be on the skin itself, on the articles causing the injury, on the bandage, or any other surface coming in contact with the exposed flesh. No pin scratch is too small to be free from danger. Many deaths from blood poisoning have been due to carelessness in this respect. Resistance: These bacteria are not so hard to kill as those of boils and carbuncles. Precautions. — Care of deep wounds: 1. Clean these by squeezing, if necessary, to force the blood out of the wound and use it as a wash to carry out any dirt or germs. A dis- infectant may be carried deeper into the wound by the use of a medicine dropper. 2. If something has broken off in the wound, it should be taken out. If it is not so deep as to need a doctor's skill and instruments, use a strong needle, sterilized in a flame or in a disinfectant. After these two things have been properly done, the care of the wound is the same as that of a surface wound. Care of surface wounds: 1. "Wash the wound, thor- oughly with cloth or cotton wet in an antiseptic or disinfec- tant solution. Put a piece of sterile bandaging or sterile cotton on the wound and then a bandage. If wounds have 308 FOODS AND SANITATION pus in them, it means that they have been dirty, not neces- sarily with visible dirt, but with bacteria. A clean wound forms a brown scab or skin and soon this is loosened by the formation of new real skin underneath it. Meningitis The germs leave the patient, convalescent or carrier, who appears healthy : 1. Through the secretions of the nose. They enter through the nose, carried by : a. Direct contact. i. Handkerchiefs, hands, towels, cups, and droplets. Carriers are the chief sources of the disease. SoEE Eyes Pink eye is a common disease among school children. A more severe form of sore eyes is called trachoma. Immi- grants are examined for this at all ports and sent back if they are found to have it. The germs are carried by handkerchiefs, hands, towels, wash basins, etc. Precautions: 1. Cover the infected eye or eyes with a cloth. 2. Burn the cloth when it must be discarded. 3. Do not use the family basin for washing the eyes. 4. If you have well eyes, do not rub them. Ringworm This eruption on the skin is due to an infection by a kind of mold. As the first mold plants develop ripe seed, they drop these around themselves in a circle and then are ready to die. Thus, the center HOW TO AVOID INFECTIOUS BISEASES 309 of tlie sore heals and the infection spreads in rings. What precautions are necessary to prevent the spread of this over the body or to other bodies? Hydrophobia The germs of this disease, contrary to what is generally believed, may be found in dogs and cats at any time of the year. The hot, dry days of August do not cause madness, only the presence of these germs. The mad animals crave water, but they cannot drink. They have a thick, stringy saliva, and usually a cough or a bark. A bite or scratch from an infected animal will transfer the disease to the human body. The symptoms do not occur in less than two weeks and sometimes not for a year. The saliva contains the germs. The best thing to do if there is the slightest doubt as to whether the animal is mad or not is to confine it to see if the disease develops. Then the course of treatment is certain. Hydrophobia is always fatal with dogs. Recovery means that it was not mad. If one is scratched or bitten, the wound should be washed by a physician with a disinfectant after it has been washed at home with one of the household disinfectants. If it should develop that the animal had hydrophobia, the Pasteur treatment should be applied with all speed. Laboratories for the prepa- ration of the cure are situated in New York, Chicago, and Baltimore. The cure may be given at the 310 FOODS AND SANITATION patient's home if the material may be used within thirty-six hours after it has left the laboratory. All the lower animals may have hydrophobia, but trouble comes more frequently from dogs. To pre- vent the disease, dogs should be muzzled all the year. Although this is distressing to lovers of dogs, the following table shows the results of muzzling: NUMBER OF DEATHS FEOM HYDROPHOBIA IN ENGLAND AND WALES. FOR A PERIOD OF TWENTY YEARS Muzzling No Muzzling Enforced Muzzling 1887 29 deaths 1890 8 deaths 1900 deaths 1888 14 (< 1891 7 " 1901 " 1889 30 1 i 1892 6 " 1902 2 " 1893 4 ■i 1896 8 " 1903 " 1894 13 i i 1897 6 " 1904 " 1895 20 i f 1898 1899 2 " •" 1905 " Smallpox This disease was once a dreadful scourge. In the latter part of the 18th century in England one-third of the population showed scars. The first step towards its prevention was the discovery that milk maids who had become infected with cowpox either did not contract smallpox, or had light .cases. This led to the process of vaccination, which Sir Edward Jenner used successfully in 1796. The practice of vaccination soon spread throughout the civilized HOW TO AVOID INFECTIOUS DISEASES 31I world. The effect of compulsory vaccination in SAveden, where accurate records have been kept since 1774, is shown by the following data: 1. With no vaccination from 1774 to 1801, average mor- tality per million, 2,045. 2. Optional vaccination from 1802 to 1816, average mor- tality per million, 480. 3. Obligatory vaccination from 1817 to 1893, average mortality per million, 155. 4. More stringent regulation of vaccination from 1893 to 1902, not greater than 5, and one year only .2. In 1899 in 285 German towns, with a population of 16 million, where vaccination was universal, the deaths from smallpox were 4. In the same year in 116 towns of France, with a popula- tion of 81/2 million, where vaccination was not universal, the number of deaths from smallpox was 600. Porto Rico, before the Spanish war, had an annual mor- tality from smallpox of 600. Since the United States has instituted general vaccination, it has been reduced to vir- tually none. When vaccination is accompanied by disturbance in other parts of the body or with serious inflammation at the point of vaccination, the fault lies not in the principle of vaccination, but in carelessness. This opening of the skin is liable to infection just as any wound is, and must be kept clean and covered, and be made with pure vaccine. Rheumatism This is a new disease to be placed in the infectious list. At present no more can be said tha;n that tlie affections of the muscles, bones, and nerves, called 312 FOODS AND SANITATION rheumatism, neuralgia, neuritis, and arthritis, are now believed to be due to bacteria. Work is being done to isolate the germs and discover a cure. Mosquito-Carried Diseases Malaria, until recent years, was thought to be due to damp night air. Now it is known to be due to the presence of a parasite in the body. This is car- ried from person to person only by a certain kind of mosquito in the blood which it sucks from and injects into people. At night mosquitoes are most active. That, alone, is the connection between night air and malaria. Prevention: This lies in abolishing all breeding places for mosquitoes ; in draining swamps, in filling puddles, cov- ering the water in rain barrels with kerosene, cleaning gut- ters, and in thinning shrubbery so that it offers no damp spot for breeding. People living in a malarial country, through the use of screens and mosquito netting, have kept themselves free from the disease. Another important measure for prevention of the spread of malaria is the screening of patients from mosquitoes to prevent infection by these pests. The careful practice of these two measures would go far toward bringing about the extermination of malaria in a few years. Yellow Fever. Another kind of mosquito carries the parasite of yellow fever. The same precautions would soon stamp out this scourge of the tropics. The universal application of these precautions HOW TO AVOID INFECTIOUS DISEASES 313 would exterminate all mosquitoes, whether disease- carrying or not. References. " General Bacteriology, " Jordan. "Primer of Sani- tation," Ritchie. "Emergencies," Gulick. "Practical Hygiene," Harrington. ' ' Preventable Diseases, ' ' Woods Hutchinson. CHAPTER XXXII THE SITUATION OF THE HOUSE Of all the conditions which affect the vigor of the body, the situation of the home is, perhaps, the most important. This includes: 1. The possibility' of having sun and air in the house; of having light in all the rooms and, above all, windows on the side of the house which will let the prevailing winds into the bedrooms at night. If the latter cannot be accomplished directly, it may be possible through other windows which need not be locked for safety. 2. An environment free from odors or noisy indus- tries; free from breeding places for flies and mosquitoes; i. e., standing water, swampy spots, manure piles, open privies, and uncovered garbage. Flies travel, it is thought, within a radius of not more than a half mile of their breeding places. 3. The cellar or basement should have light and possibility for a draught through it. It should be dry and never subject to the backing up of water in the drains. In order to have pleasant air in the house the cellar must be in good condition. It is a good plan to whitewash the walls to make dirt easily noticeable, and whitewash is a disinfectant. 314 THE SITUATION OF THE HOUSE 315 4. Choose, if possible, a situation which, affords from at least one window, a view unobstructed by buildings for the length of a city block. This gives great rest to the eyes and spirits. 5. Select a quiet, little traveled street, in prefer- ence to a much frequented one. Although one may grow unconscious of noises, yet it has been shown that even the noise made by a person's entering a sleeping room without the least consciousness to the sleeper, increases the rate of his heart beat, thereby disturbing his relaxation and rest. 6. The sewage should be so taken care of that there is no possibility of odor from it. 7. The water supply should be above suspicion. Ask the official in charge of the public supply about it; inquire into the death rate from typhoid fever, which is an index of the purity of the water. These conditions are permanent and not subject to remedy. They must, therefore, be given the first and greatest attention by the house hunter. The architecture and pl&n of the house matter but little in comparison with these considerations. The Construction of the House. This is impor- tant in determining the ease with which it may be kept warm in winter and cool in summer. Thick walls with inter-air spaces are very important. This gives quiet or dead air which is, as other gases are, an exceedingly poor conductor of heat. Brick, stone, and cement blocks, made with open spaces in 316 FOODS AND SANITATION the center,- are good materials. Bricks should be laid so that there are dead air spaces between the tiers. Weather boarded or shingled houses should have building paper and siding under the outer cov- ering. A stucco or cement house should have these on the outside lath also. The tightness of windows and doors is an impor- tant condition of warmth, also of freedom from rattling by the wind. If storm windows are to be used, see that two windows in each room, if possible, have sashes which may be extended at least one foot at the bottom. CHAPTER XXXIII INDOOR AIR Althougli the house is located so that the outer air meets the requirements of the preceding chapter, there remains to he solved the problem of making indoor air pleasant when artificial heat must be used. Sin,ce the era of open-air sleeping, open-air schools, and open-air treatment for pneumonia and tuberculosis patients began, scientists have tried to discover the reason for the curative and invigorat- ing qualities of out-of-door air. An investigation into this has brought, within the last ten years, a complete revolution of our ideas as to what is pure, unvitiated air. The changes in the out-of-door air of temperature, movement of wind, and humidity, produce well- known effects upon the physical vigor. The depressing effect of warm, calm, humid air; the relief which a light breeze gives; the invigorating cold days of fall, with their brisk winds, all of these influences were at first neglected in explaining the depressing effects of indoor air. The now abandoned theories as to what makes impure air must be held in mind as a matter of recent 317 318 FOODS AND SANITATION liistory because of the firm hold they have upon people even today. Error Regarding Carbon Dioxide. Since carbon dioxide is given off in breathing, its proportion in the air of a house must be greater than in outdoor air. Outside air contains, normally, 3 parts of car- bon dioxide in 10,000 parts of air. Six parts in 10,000 has been set as the limit above which air was considered impure. To supply enough air to main- tain this low amount of carbon dioxide, 3,000 cubic feet of fresh air had to be supplied to each indi- vidual each hour. These figures entered into build- ing codes and mining regulations, and have been the reason for some mine explosions. It has been discovered, however, that if other conditions are right, no discomfort is felt if even more than 200 parts of carbon dioxide are present in every 10,000 parts of air. Also, that people have worked men- tally and physically for more than twelve days with only 212 cubic feet of air per person per hour, and felt no discomfort. It has been shown that in well-ventilated rooms the air inhaled by a person standing or sitting quietly contains from 25 to 36 parts of carbon dioxide in 10,000 parts of air, and in rooms in which the air does not seem very impure there have been found as many as 60 to 70 parts in 10,000. In the air of factories where carbon dioxide is manufactured, from 14 to 93 parts of carbon diox- ide were found. The men were engaged in this work INDOOR AIR 319 in 12-hoiir shifts, and some had been so employed for eighteen years without detriment to their health. Poisons from Breath. When carbon dioxide had to be abandoned as the cause of impure air, its com- panions were accused. It was thought that poisons were given off with the breath. However, quantities of air exhaled by a large group of people, to the extent of making a room feel stuffy, have been con- densed and examined, but as yet this has not been proved to be the cause of depressing effects of bad air. Humidity and Temperature. The humidity and temperature were next investigated. The high tem- perature (80 to 85° F.) and high humidity due to water vapor exhaled in the breath and from the burning of gas or kerosene lamps or stoves, together with little or no movement, have been proved to be the cause of the sleepiness, dizziness, headache, and susceptibility to colds from which house dwellers suffer. These account for the frequent sleepiness at lectures and church ; for the early evening drowsi- ness of students shut up in small rooms with a study lamp, for the same feeling when families gather for quiet reading or sewing around the lamp and fire- place with the doors infrequently open. Under such conditions of high temperature and humidity, the movement produced by an electric fan has been found to be a great source of relief. 320 FOODS AND SANITATION Still greater relief, however, is given by the cool- ing of the air. House air under over-crowded condi- tions, and especially when fuels which give off large quantities of heat and water vapor are used for illuminating purposes, may show high humidity with high temperature. The average American house, however, has the difficulty of high temperature and very low humidity. It has frequently been found to be 15% in schools as well as in dwelling houses. The average humidity for a year in the United States east of the Missouri Eiver and on the Pacific slope is from 70 to 80%. In Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Nevada, it is less than 50%. In other western states not mentioned before it is from 50 to 60%. This means that the outside air, with an average humidity of from 60 to 80%, when heated, allows more space for water vapor, and has not enough to keep the humidity the same. Throat troubles, headaches, the parched, almost gasping feeling of the mucous membranes of the mouth and lips, distinctly noticeable when heat is first started in the fall — all of these are due largely to the high temperature and low humidity of the house air and the difference between this and out-of-door air. On account of this greater space for water vapor as air is heated, furniture may come apart and plants dry out and die. In a hot-air furnace near the fire door there is a pan holding about two gallons of water, which INDOOR AIR 321 is evaporated slowly, about two quarts per day in very cold weather. This moisture passes into the heated air as it rises into the rooms. An experiment tried in a double house to find the difference in humidity when this pan was kept filled and when it was not, showed a difference of just 1%. With a furnace made to order, in which there was a capacity for 72 quarts of water, it was found that on cold days, with the thermometer between 20 and 30° F., from 12 to 15 quarts were evaporated, while in severe weather from 20 to 24 quarts had to be evaporated every day to keep the humidity at 35%. It was found impossible to maintain a higher humid- ity in cold weather without the collection of frost on the windows. It could have been raised higher had the house been provided throughout with storm win- dows. With these conditions, 68° F. and 35 to 40% humidity, those entering the house remarked upon the balminess and gentle, soft character of the air. The house dwellers found themselves free from the old fidgetiness, parched skin, restless nights, and frequent colds from which they had suffered with the old furnace and low humidity. This is the result of an experiment carried out by Lillian S. Loveland and reported in Good Housekeeping for 1911, A Difficult Problem. When it is found necessary to evaporate this number of quarts of water to even approximate good conditions, it will be seen how useless are the deep, narrow pans hung on the backs 322 FOODS AND SANITATION of radiators with their small evaporating surface. Shallower pans of water, set under radiators or in registers, offer more evaporating surface. Water in four registers in addition to that in the furnace pan, increased the humidity of the house in which the above experiment was made only 2.4% by evapo- rating 6 quarts of water per day. From this it is plain that the heating devices which are now on the market are sadly lacking in furnishing air that is adapted to health and happiness. Here and there scientists are working out schemes for producing ample humidity with steam and hot water as well as hot air. There is not yet sufficient realization on the part of the public of the effect of dry air to make manufacturers work for such an end. Highly heated, dry air creates great sensitiveness to outdoor air, or even to air of 68° F. and 50% humidity. To satisfy one living in those bad condi- tions, higher and higher temperatures must be pro- duced. With a low humidity so much water is evap- orated from the skin of the body that a high tem- perature must be had to avoid a chilly feeling ; more and more clothing is put on, windows are not opened in daytime and very little at night, open air exercise is shunned, and a good start to bad health is made. Change of Temperature Good. The temperature to which the normal body is subjected should not be kept constant. The vigor or stimulation of the body is due largely to the play of different sensa- INDOOR AIR 323 tions upon the skin. Lack of cliange in these leaves unstimulated the central nervous system, and the body lapses into a state of, at least, dullness. If changes are made very gradually they fail to stimu- late, just as pressure applied gradually to the hand fails to produce the effect which its sudden appli- cation would. Clothing should not be worn so thick that it does not allow the skin to feel changes of temperature. The whole surface of the body should be exposed daily to at least an air bath at room temperature, if not below. A cold is not taken by the blowing of a breeze upon the body unless the cooling of the body goes on for so long a time that it becomes thoroughly chilled. Just as one should keep the heart in practice for emergencies demand- ing speed, so the skin should be kept in training to react in emergencies of cold by being subjected to changes of tenaperature for short periods. This, of course, does not hold in cases of illness, when the nervous system is so weakened as to be unable to react to changes. When you feel a slight movement of air, even if it is cool, train yourself to endure it for a short time, do not immediately close the win- dow; shiver if you feel like it, that is one of the means the body uses to make heat. Use of a Thermometer. There should be a ther- mometer in the living room at least. A difference of a few degrees in temperature, which means dis- comfort, is not felt until the temperature has had 324 rOODS AND SANITATION time to produce the discomfort. Attention to a ther- mometer, the regulation of the heat supply, and the adjustment of windows will prevent much fatigue and unrest in living or study rooms. Little children, with their delicate nervous systems, suffer much from over-heated houses. Between 63 and 68° F. is warm enough for persons living indoors if proper humidity is maintained. Not until the thermometer reaches a temperature below this, does the body, if sitting quiet, begin shivering to keep itself warm. A temperature below 63° F. produces a chilling and congestion of the blood internally which is likely to be the cause for the development of a cold. Impure, vitiated air, then, is due to high tempera- ture, too high or too low humidity, and lack of move- ment. Of course the air should be free from offen- sive odors, some of which, as from escaping gas, might be harmful ; others only unpleasant and there- fore indirectly affecting the vigor of the body. To encourage deep, free breathing, which is one of the essentials of good health, the air should be sweet and balmy and have a gentle movement. What can be done to make house air more nearly perfect with the imperfect heating devices of to-day ? At least keep the temperature down to 68° F. and windows open from the top, but so that no one must sit in a draught. It may be impossible to do this in the living room when the wind is from the direction of its windows. Windows in other rooms may be INDOOR AIR 325 kept open, however, and outside air taken in and unobjectionable movement maintained. If a family has been used to a higher temperature, an abrupt change must not be made, but the temperature may be dropped gradually. In case of illness, keep the body of the patient warm by additional clothing, if necessary, but do not increase the temperature of the room. It is exceedingly important that sleeping rooms should have a temperature of not more than 60° F. Methods op Protecting Against Draughts PROM Open Windows 1. Lower the window from the top. 2. Raise the window from the bottom and insert a board about three or four inches wide. Close the lower sash down on this. Air may now enter between the sashes at the center. 3. A piece of cloth may be fastened over the open space or a very finely meshed screen used. References. Bouse Sanitation, Marion Talbot. (Contains excel- lent bibliograph for teachers.) "Stuffy Rooms," Popular Science Monthly, Leonard Hill, October, 1912 (teacher). To Measure Humidity. A very simple process for deter- mining the relative humidity is as follows : For equipment, a brightly polished metal cup (silver is best, and aluminum is next best, but tin will do), a household thermometer, and a few lumps of ice are necessary. Procedure: 1. Take the temperature of the room. 2. Put water, ice, and the thermometer into the cup. 3. Notice very carefully the outer surface of the cup to see when any moisture is condensed upon it. Rub the fin- 326 POODS AND SANITATION ger over the cup to ascertain this, and note the temperature at which this takes place. The relative humidity means the percentage of water vapor which the air space does contain at any particular temperature as compared with what it could contain at that temperature if saturated. Suppose the room temperature is 68° F. and the temper- ature at which dew appears on the cup is 41° F. This means that there is water vapor in the room to saturate the space if the air had a temperature of 41° F. The weight of a cubic foot of aqueous vapor saturated at 41° F. is 2.955 grains. The weight of one cubic foot of aqueous vapor sat- urated at 68° F. is 7.480 grains. The amount of water vapor at 68° F. is then 2.955 divided by 7.480 as much as it would be if it were saturated. This makes the relative humidity 38%. The "Weight of a Cubic Foot of Aqueous Vapoe Satu- rated AT Different Temperatures Temperature Grains Temperature Grains Temperature Grains 35° r. 2.366 52° F. 4.372 36° F. 2.457 37° F. 2.550 38° F. 2.646 39° F. 2.746 40° F. 2.849 41° F. 2.955 42° F. 3.064 43° F. 3.177 44° F. 3.294 45° F. 3.414 46- F. 3.539 47° F. 3.667 48° F. 3.800 49° F. 3.963 50° F. 4.076 51° F. 4.222 From U. S. Gove 53° F. 4.526 54° F. 4.685 55° F. 4.849 56° F. 5.016 57° F. 5.191 58° F. 4.370 59° F. 5.555 60° F. 5.745 61° F. 5.941 62° F. 6.142 63° F. 6.349 64° F. 6.563 65° F. 6.782 66° F. 7.009 67° F. 7.241 68° F. 7.480 69° F. 7.726 70° F. 7.980 71° F. 8.240 72° F. 8.508 73° F. 8.782 74° F. 9.066 75° F. 9.356 76° F. 9.655 77° F. 9.962 78° F. 10.277 79° F. 10.601 80° F. 10.934 81° F. 11.275 82° F. 11.626 83° F. 11.987 84° F. 12.356 Government Psychroraetric tables. CHAPTER XXXIV HEATING SYSTEMS 1. Hot Water. This is the most satisfactory of all methods of heating in cold climates. As soon as the fire is built in the furnace the water in the pipes which pass over it is warmed and begins to circulate through the house radiators. The radiator does not get so hot as in a steam system ; 150 to 165° F. gives a very good heat without parching the air above the radiator. The disadvantages of this system are: 1. It is expensive to install. 2. It allows no method of getting water into the air of the room. 3. A radiator is hard to keep clean. 4. Provides no method of ventilation. 2. Steam. To heat by steam more fire is neces- sary, since the temperature must be high enough to change water to steam before it is sent into the radiators. The idea of a central heating plant for a group of houses or apartments is very popular now. The objection to this plan has been the waste of heat in carrying the pipes the necessary distances from the heating plant. They are now well wrapped in tarred 327 328 FOODS AND SANITATION wood-pulp and asbestos. This greatly reduces the waste of fuel, the amount of dirt, and the trouble of attendance. It may be expensive to install in houses already built and pavement laid. 3. Hot-air Furnace. This is made like a big stove with a metal jacket covering it, with a space of 9 to 12 inches between the two. At some opening in this jacket near the bottom of the furnace air is taken in which is heated by the surface of the stove and passes out through pipes 9 to 15 inches in diam- eter to the various rooms. Registers should be placed on the unexposed side of the room. This method quickly takes the chill off in early fall and spring days. It has the advantage of causing a circulation of air in the room. Outlet registers are frequently placed near the floor on the side of the room opposite the intakes. The air which has entered the room is warm and is pushed up toward the ceiling, travels across the room, and in so doing is cooled and falls to the floor on the opposite side. A hot-air furnace should be large enough to supply sufficient heat without making the heated air as it comes in the register more than 120° F. The dis- advantages of this system are : 1. The difficulty in driving hot air into the room on the windy side of the house. 2. The greater unsteadiness of heat. 3. The inability as furnaces are now made to evaporate enough water to produce the sufficient humidity. HEATING SYSTEMS 329 The steam and hot water systems are frequently used as indirect methods of heating, particularly in schools and large stores. Huge fans blow cool air over the heated pipes and force it into the room just as in the hot-air furnace system. A fan in the attic sucks it out. In this case the hot air enters near the ceiling. The used air is taken out through a register almost below this. This system necessitates a careful regulation of windows. They must not be opened while it is working. Frequently it is found that over-crowded rooms are hot and odorous in spite of this forced ventilation and its temperature regulation by means of thermostats. 4. Stoves. If stoves are used, they should be of such size that they need not be made red hot to keep the room warm. They make a great deal of dirt and trouble, and they furnish little aid to venti- lation. In some cases they are cheerful. 5. Fireplaces and Grates. In many climates grates and fireplaces are chief means of heating. They heat mainly by radiation, which is a very extravagant method. Little heat from them is conveyed to the air of the room, as may be shown by putting a ther- mometer in front of the fire and covering its bulb with some white material to protect it from radia- tion. Every one has had the experience of roasting the face, and at the same time freezing the back, before a fireplace. They are excellent means of 330 FOODS AND SANITATION ventilating a room. Even while not in use, if a lighted candle or piece of burning paper is held in the throat of the chimney, an upward draft will be noticed when the difference in temperature between indoor and outdoor air is several degrees. A grate or fireplace fire is very suggestive of cheer and comfort. If the ashes can be dropped into a pit in the cellar, the dirt_ and trouble incident to them is greatly decreased. CHAPTER XXXV LIGHTING This subject must be considered from the points of view of eye-comfort and effect on the air. Modifying Sunlight. Eye -comfort demands a steady light with no glare, with no direct light in the eyes, and with no exceeding brightness. To con- form to these requirements the blinds must be ad- justable and the face turned either away from the windows or at right angles to them, when the light is strong. A glare from sunlight on a light-colored surface may be effectively broken by thin cotton cur- tains. Many persons whose eyes are not sensitive to these conditions fail to appreciate the effects of strong light on those whose eyes are more sensitive. Indirect. Diffused daylight is best for the eyes. As a substitute for this, the indirect electric light is excellent. It must be used with a ceiling of light color ; walls of light color add to efficiency, although darker ones may be used. By this means the light itself is not to be seen, and an impression of softened sunlight is given. Fortunately, indirect fixtures are not more expensive than direct fixtures. If reading and sewing are to be done with this indirect light, a 331 332 FOODS AND SANITATION tungsten bulb sufficiently powerful to obviate -eye- strain should be used. If so strong an illumination is needed in only one spot, a smaller tungsten may be used and some sort of well-shaded drop-light used for the close work. This is less expensive and at the same time produces more direct light upon the work. If this device for shading is not possible, frosted electric bulbs or frosted globes on gas should be used, and the lights so placed that they are not in the direct line of vision. Fixtures over dining tables are often of just the right height to carry the light directly into the eyes. Light and Air. The effect on the air of the room produced by different kinds of lights is shown by the following table: Heat Quantity Candle Moisture produced, consumed pou-er produced Calories Tallow candles A lb- 16 8.2 eu. ft. 1400 Sperm candles i lb. 16 6.5 cu. ft. 1137 Kerosene oil lamp Jib. 16 3.3 cu. ft. 1030 Welsbach burner 3A cu. ft. 50 4.7 cu. ft. 763 Batwing burner, gas . . . Stis cu. ft. 16 7.3 cu. ft. 1194 Incandescent electric light ^ lb. coal 16 37 Adapted from Notter and Firth, Treatise on Hygiene, p. 141. This shows what additional requirements of the ventilating system are made by artificial lights for the regulation of heat and moisture. CHAPTER XXXVI FIEE PREVENTION IN THE HOME Tens of thousands of homes in this country suffer fire losses each year. Three-quarters of these fires could easily be prevented if the occupants had knowl- edge of the causes of fires and exercised proper care. In this chapter we shall describe the important and simple precautions which every household should take to guard against fire. Dangers in the Basement. Cleanliness is the best fire preventive. If there is little fuel for a fire it will not spread rapidly. Therefore, keep basements spick and span, and do not store papers, excelsior, empty boxes, barrels and crates, broken furniture, or other combustible and valueless material there. Burn them up. In any event, get rid of packing material immediately, and store in an orderly man- ner, as far as possible from the furnace and from the stairs, those things that must be kept. People frequently drop matches carelessly in going up or down stairs. See that ashes are kept out of wooden boxes and barrels, and out of baskets. You may think that ashes are cold or wet, and therefore safe, but the facts are that they are generally dangerous. Keep 333 334 FOODS AND SANITATION them in metal receptacles or store them on a cement floor. Never mix paper or other burnable things with ashes. The furnace smoke-pipe must be free from rust holes or open joints, and if it is nearer than 12 inches from woodwork of any kind, the wood- work should be protected by using % to % inch sheet asbestos and then nailing sheet metal over this. Sometimes, especially when starting a fire, smoke-pipes become exceedingly hot. As soon as cold weather begins fire departments expect over- heated furnace fire calls, and they are seldom disappointed. Experience has shown that wood which is charred ignites at a very low temperature. Even steam pipes are frequent causes of fires because they grad- ually char the wood so.that it ignites easily. The Cook Stove. Coal- and wood-burning stoves are the causes of many fires. Never have, them less than 6 inches from a plastered wall, and not less than 12 inches from a "Wooden surface. Bright sheet metal set about 3 inches from the wall helps to deflect the heat. To protect the floor against hot coals and ashes, as well as from fat boiling over, sheet metal is needed. It should extend from the back wall, under Note. This chapter is contributed by H. Walter Forster, M. E., Consulting Engineer. FIBE PKEVENTION IN. THE HOME 335 the stove, at least 12 inches m front, and an equal distance on the sides. A stove on legs is much safer than a range resting flat on the floor. Such a range really needs a con- crete floor under it to be entirely safe. Treat the stovepipe as you would that for the furnace. Where stovepipes pass through floors or partitions, the metal thimbles should provide at least 3 inches of air space. Never hang dish towels on a line over a stove where they can fall onto the stove if the line breaks. Gas stoves are less dangerous than coal or wood stoves. If the gas plate type is used, see that sheet metal is under the stove, and asbestos in addition, where the legs are short. Eubber tubes are always dangerous. Have a permanent iron pipe connection. Fireplaces. Keep the hearth well swept up, do not build too large and hot a fire, and always place a screen in front of the fireplace when you leave the room. It is best to leave it in position whenever a fire is burning. Small children are frequently burned to death by toddling into fireplaces, or by playing with brands which they have ignited at the flames. Matches. The American nation uses as many matches as all of the rest of the world put together. Most of the matches used are of the dangerous "parlor" kind, which experience has shown to be hazardous for the following principal reasons : 336 FOODS AND SANITATION 1. Children play with them in spite of instructions to the contrary. 2. Heads fly into curtains, draperies, clothing, and other inflammable material. 3. Heads ignite if stepped upon, this being especially dangerous in the case of women wearing thin house dresses. 4. Heads and sticks glow for an appreciable length of time after the flame is extinguished. Forty-five seconds is about the average. The safety match, which strikes upon the box, is far safer than the snap match or even the tip match, which has been more recently introduced. If a child gets hold of a single safety match he cannot light it ; the heads seldom fly, because it is not necessary to strike the matches vigorously; stepping upon a safety match will seldom ignite it, and the heads do not glow for any appreciable length of time. Occasionally an entire box of safety matches may be ignited by pushing the slide out of the case with the heads first. Always open a box with sticks out first, and when placing these boxes on brackets or holders, see that the heads are inside, so that they will not all be ignited when one match is carelessly struck. The modern gas lighter makes matches almost unnecessary where gas stoves and gas lights are used. Its use is strongly recommended. Illuminating Gas. Illuminating gas has certain inherent hazards, owing to the fact that it is com- FIEE PREVENTION IN THE HOME 337 bustible, explosive when mixed with the right amount of air, and exceedingly poisonous to life. 1. Of the vital hazard connected with looking for a gas leak with a match, particularly in a basement, most people are now informed. If you smell gas, open all windows, close all cocks, look for the leak with soapsuds, and, if you value your life, do not strike a light of any kind. Promptly upon discover- ing a leak telephone to the gas company, which wUl come at once and investigate the matter. 2. Any form of connection which can work loose, be accidentally pulled loose, broken by a child or by a playful dog is dangerous. This means, in other words, that various types of rubber tubing for cook- ing stoves, small portable heaters, pressing irons, and table lamps are dangerous. Have everything connected up with pipe where possible, and if a tube is used have secure fastenings at both ends and have only one shut-off cock, and this at the pipe end, so that there will be no gas pressure in the tube when it is turned off. Gas cocks must have stops so that you may be certain that they are turned off. 3. Remember that when a flame is turned very low, as on a kitchen stove, the opening of a door is likely to blow it out. If you come back into the kitchen and find a strong smell of gas, ventilate everything well before lighting the gas again. 4. The coin meters, which require a quarter to be 338 FOODS AND SANITATION placed in them ever so often, have caused the loss of lives because the meter stopped delivering gas while a number of jets were open. Then when more money was put into the meter, the jets not being all closed first, gas issued from these outlets and caused explo- sions or asphyxiations. , 5. Woodwork, curtains, clothing, and hair are often ignited by unprotected gas jets. Do not use swinging brackets where the flame can ignite wood- work. Even plaster partitions may be heated enough to ignite laths back of plaster. Have the plumber put on a rigid bracket, or limit the swing by means of stops. 6. Never use a gas fixture within curtain-blowing distance of a window. Put globes on lights, and be careful in going near them. Electric Wiring. When the causes of fires are not known there is a decided tendency to blame them upon defective electric wiring. The dangers of ordi- nary house lighting system are not nearly as great as most people believe, and if the following points are borne in mind the danger of fire from this source and the possibility of serious shock will be largely overcome. It takes training and experience to be a competent electrician. Do not try to put in electrical work of any kind which has to do with lighting or power circuits. Bell wiring supplied with energy from a few batteries is quite a different proposition from riEE PEEVENTION IN THE HOME 339 light wiring which has a large power house behind it. If anything goes wrong, except possibly the blowing of a fuse, call in a competent electrician. 1. Keep incandescent lamps away from shelves, clothing, linen, and other materials stored in closets, and never put tissue paper or cloth or any other combustible material in direct contact with the lamp bulbs. Over three-quarters of the electric current for which you pay is used up in the generation of heat, and the balance for giving light. Wrapping an incandescent bulb in a blanket, for example, and taking it to bed to help keep warm, will almost in- variably start a fire within a short time. 2. To all incandescent lights attached to cords, so that they can be moved, it is well to fasten a wire guard to prevent direct contact of the lamp with combustible material. 3. Extension cords should be replaced -by new ones, if seriously frayed, and especially if cracked or otherwise defective so that the copper shows. 4. Fuses are intended to melt and prevent further flow of current in event of over-loading of circuit, or in event of short-circuit taking place. The blow- ing of a fuse usually means trouble of some kind, and if there is any question as to what the source of this trouble has been, do not attempt to replace the fuses yourself. If starting the vacuum cleaner or attaching an electric iron blows a fuse, disconnect the device and make sure that the circuit is large 340 FOODS AND SANITATION enough to supply the necessary current before con- necting again. If trouble has occurred in a fixture, this must be repaired before a new fuse can be put into position. Never replace a fuse until the main switch is open, otherwise you may be seriously burned. 5. If an electric storm is near, keep away from lighting fixtures. They may be charged and cause injury. Shocks and burns occasionally result from using an electric iron in a basement with a cement floor, especially if the iron is defective or the floor damp. It is best to stand on a dry board or on a dry rug or piece of carpet. If any member of the household gets a shock from a switch, lamp socket, pressing iron, or any other part of the electrical equipment, call in an electri- cian. Sometimes a transformer (an electric device for reducing the electric pressure) breaks down and charges the house lighting system with a deadly cur- rent. It does not pay to take chances or to investi- gate matters of this kind which you do not under- stand thoroughly. 6. Finally, never touch a lamp socket or any other metal lighting fixture while the other hand or any part of the body is in contact with steam piping, radiators, plumbing fixtures, or any other metal which is connected with the ground. Be particularly careful when you are in a bath tub containing water. FIRE PEEVENTION IN THE HOME 34] The water, of course, is in contact with the soil pipe, and this goes directly into the ground. A disagree- able shock may result, and occasionally people have been killed by voltages (electric pressure) as low as those used in house lighting. Kerosene Lamps. The following cautions regard- ing the use of kerosene lamps are well worthy of observance : 1. Where there are children or playful dogs in the house, do not have lamp resting on a tablecloth, by means of which the lamp can be pulled to the floor. 2. Be very certain that the grocer furnishes you with kerosene of the standard flash point. This is about 120° F. Kerosene of the cheaper varieties gives off inflammable vapors at a temperature as low as 90° F. This means that when the oil is at that temperature, with that flash point, an explosion of the vapors would occur, and if the lamp should be broken the oil would burn freely itself and set fire to anything it touched. In sdme states no oil is allowed to be sold with the flash point lower than 140° F. Not long ago a grocer in a New England town was the cause of a number of explosions and fires, because, as it later turned out, he had filled kerosene cans from his gasolene barrel, confusion resulting because barrels were close to- gether in his dark basement. 3. Lamps which have metal bowls for holding the oil are far safer than those with bowls of glass. 4. Never fill a lamp when it is burning. The greatest hazard attends such an act. 5. Keep lamps clean, fill the bowl frequently, so that the oil is preferably never below the one-half full line, and keep the wicks long, full width, and clean. 342 POODS AND SANITATlOiN 6. In blowing out a lamp, turn it down first, so as to reduce the possibility of the flame being blown into the bowl, and then blow across the top of the chimney. It must be remembered that the bowl contains an oil gas, and if this should be mixed with air in the proper proportions, blowing even a small amount of fire into the bowl may cause a serious explosion. This is one reason why the wick should fit the opening very snugly. Acetylene, This remarkable gas, made by bring- ing calcium carbide and water together, is exten- sively used for lighting dwellings, particularly in the country, where there is no illuminating gas or elec- tric current supply available. Acetylene light is remarkably white, enables colors to be matched readily, has properties which enable plants to grow in it, and is not nearly so poisonous as ordinary illuminating gas. As used with a piping system similar to that for city gas, acetylene is safer, because the flame is smaller, the burners are designed so that the flame cannot be turned down without seriously affecting the light, and not enough gas can issue from the one or two jets in the course of a night to overcome a person in ordinary health. 1. Acetylene gas is the most violently explosive of all com- monly used gases, and because of this the acetylene gener- ators should not be located in basements of dwelling houses particularly they should not be placed near the furnace. The only safe place for a generator is outside of a building in which persons live. Generators are frequently placed in FIRE PEEVENTION IN THE HOME 343 small, special buildings thirty or more feet away from other buildings of importance. 2. If placed in the basement, there should be a tight par- tition between the generator and the furnace room; under no consideration should any form of flame ever be brought near the generator. This section of the basement should be well ventilated. It must, however, be kept warm enough, to keep the water in the generator from freezing. If any- thing goes wrong with it, call in an experienced plumber, and be very careful that he also observes the rule cf keeping fire away from the machine. Gasolene. The hazard of gasolene is exceedingly great. .Not only, does it cause thousands of fires each year, but many people are burned to death by using it. 1. The gasolene stove is ultra-hazardous, partly because gasolene has to be handled in filling it. Filling a stove which is burning invites death. If the tank cannot be detached, put out the fire before filling the tank ; if it can, take the tank outside of the house to fill it. 2. Keep the gasolene supply in a tight can and outside of the building. Never keep it where vapor can be ignited by stoves, furnaces, gas jets, or by carelessly discarded matches. 3. Use a blue flame kerosene stove instead of a gasolene one. The results are good and the danger much less. 4. Most people have noticed that sparking results from rubbing a cat's fur in cold weather, or from dragging the feet across a carpet and then touehiiig a gas fixture. Static electricity is produced by rubbing. When a woman cleans silk or woolen clothing or gloves in gasolene, similar sparks may he produced, fire result, and . death ,f oUow, Many 344 FOODS AND SANITATION women are burned. to death each year by this cause, and few understand why such fires occur. 5. Gasolene is so dangerous, even in the hands of experi- enced persons, that it has no place in the home. Never use it if you value your life. Polishes. Stove polislies and liquid metal polishes frequently contain benzine or naphtha, both of which are equally dangerous from a fire standpoint. Insist on a noncombustible polish. You can easily make a test by putting a small amount of polish on a cloth and setting fire to this at some point where no danger can result. If you do use a combustible polish, never do so in the presence of a flame of any kind. Spontaneous Combustion. The theory of sponta- neous combustion is rather difficult to understand. How a piece of wiping cloth dampened with furni- ture polish can catch fire by itself is not, as a rule, clear. It is, however, a well-established fact that many a householder has learned to his sorrow. Lin- seed oil is most dangerous, and all other vegetable and animal oils are more or less dangerous. Among the better known oils are hemp, nut, cottonseed, rape, castor, and olive. Olive oil, the least dangerous of this number, is about half as subject to sponta- neous combustion as linseed oil. There are cases on record where butter, on becoming rancid, has heated to the point of igniting cotton in which it was wrapped. The heating results from a chemical FIEE PREVENTION IN THE HOME 345 combination of oxygen in the air with oil. If the fabric is not too oily, if the quantity is moderately large, and if it is fairly compact, the rise in temper- ature may be decidedly rapid. A wiping-cloth used on wooden floors or furniture is almost ideal for self-ignition. Sometimes only three or four hours elapse from the beginning of the process until the fire breaks out. All rags which have been used should be burned at once. It is best not to take chances. If they are kept for another time they should be placed in a stone crock with a cover, and preferably on a cement floor, where fire can do no damage. CHAPTER XXXVII PLUMBING - Great fear used to exist that what was called "sewer gas" would get back into the houses from the sewers^ TaJ.e& were abroad only fifteen years ago telling of this as an odorless gas sneaking into the house, carrying disease with it. It was thought that germs were carried back. An investigation shows the health of men working in the sewers to be at least average. Analyses of sewer air show it to be freer from germs than street air. A prop- erly constructed and operated sewerage system car- ries off the waste without its lodging in an angle or other spot out of the path of a generous supply of water. The first plumbing contrivances with their complicated schemes for keeping out the so-called "sewer gas" offered many places, difficult to get at and clean, for the lodging of particles of sewage. These schemes, then, defeated their own purpose and created (by the decomposition of the sewage in their crevices) a sewer air which was at least un- pleasant to have in the house. With simple con- trivances and open plumbing, no one objects to having a plumbing fixture in a bedroom. It is wholly without odor unless mistreated by a careless house- 346 PLUMBING 347 keeper. The following drawing- illustrates a cross- section of the house with the various fixtures and their attachments. Fig. 7. — Cross section of house showing arrangement of plumbing. Two pipe system, main vent pipe, also vent pipes from individual fixtures. In the one-pipe system the main vent is kept, but there are no small vent pipes except from the closet 348 FOODS AND SANITATION fixtures, and from these only when there is more than one such fixture in the house. This saves about one-half the cost of piping and makes necessary much less cutting of walls and floors. It is perhaps cleaner than the two-pipe system. The only objec- tion may be a slight* gurgling noise in the traps when a flush is made. From Principles unci Practice of Plumbing. Cosgrove. Fig. 8. — A non-siphoning form of trap wWcli is said to cleanse itself by the whirling motion of the water as it passes through it. Fig. 9. — Example of a non-siphon- ig trap. 1. Soil pipe. An iron pipe five inches in diameter pass- ing without a bend from above the roof to the beginning of a horizontal sloping pipe, the house drain carrying house sewage to the street sewer. 2. Waste pipes. Iron pipes li/^ to 2 inches in diameter, carrying sewage from all. fixtures, except closets, into the soil pipe. ■ 3. Traps. In closet fixtures these are made of earthen- ware ; in all other fixtures, of iron. They retain some water PLUMBING 349 known as a seal to prevent the passing liaek into the house of any possible odor. 4. Vent pipes. Formerly eonsidered necessary to pro- vide a system for the circulation of air in the house plumb- ing and to prevent the breaking of the water seal by suction of other fixtures or by air pressure and then suction from the main sewer. Venting is now discarded when non- syphoning traps are used. All of the vent pipes are more (ir less dirt catchers and impossible to clean. They also (.'uLirtfi.v StanUarJ SaDitiir,\' C". Platf '-'A. — Sliows mixpr faucets and cocks which may lie quickly tiinierj without the usi' of the liand. to iirevent soiling. Cuurtes,\ Staailard Sanitary Co. Plate "2. — For hospitals, showing use of feet instead of hands for turning on water and for adjusting tile waste plug to release the water. double the cost of piping. The opening in the soil pipe above the roof opens an outlet for any sewer air which may get into the house system. 5. Flush tanJc. The box which contains water to wash the closet fixture. In an examination of vent pipes from twenty-three kitchen sink traps, twelve were completely obstructed with grease, ten partially obstructed, and only one perfectly 350 FOODy AND SANITATION clean. This had been reguhirly inspected and cleaned. This teaches the following lesson : Buy non-syphoning traps and avoid these dirt catchers. Placing of Fixtures 1. Set the bath tubs either flush against the walls or Avail and floor, or so far away from them that the space left between ma.y be easily cleaned. 2. Set the kitchen sink so that the bottom of it is al)Out the same dis- tance from the floor as the palm of the hand. As sinks are placed now, the.v are too low for even very short people. A lieight of 31 inches from the floor to the bottom of the sink is a good av- erage height. If a sink has non-adjustable legs, it may be raised by set- ting pieces of galvanized iron pipe under its legs if it is not a wall sink. 3. Use the same prin- ciple in regard to height in setting basins. 4. Have a flush tank at least six feet above the closet fixture except wiieii a Sani- tas or Syphon-Jet closet is used. If the bottom of the tank is on a level with the closet seat, there is not sufficient force to the water flow to wash down material always with one Coiii'ti'Sj staiidlid Siiiitii \ t Plate R3.— Tho flush liox is a Kalvan- ized iron tank bcliind the wall. The water from it is released li.v a spring in tlie seat. This makes fewer ehanees for in- fection than a pusl) liutton or chain. PLUMBING 351 or even two flushings. In the closets mentioned, a jet of water enters the bowl so as to force all the material down. At least four gallons should be allowed for each flush. 5. The burdensome pail under the refrigerator drain may Fig. 10. — A closPt offering mucli surface for soiling. Fig. 11. — Offers little surface for soiling. .Tot of water drives material down soil pipe. be abandoned. If the refrigerator is built in, a pipe may be firmly attached to the end of the refrigerator pipe through which the water may be carried to some dripping spot. If it is not built in, a cement platform may be made Fig. 12. — This allows no way of cleaning the pipe from the plug to the opening in the basin. Fig. 13. — A hetter position for outlet in bowl. for the refrigerator to stand on, and a depression made in the center fitted with perforated metal opening from which a pipe leads to the dripping spot. The place of outlet of this drain is of great importance. The pipe may be allowed 352 FOODS AND SANITATION to drip over a small trapped sink over which there is a faucet in the basement or over a laundry tub or the cellar drain. This pipe should be flushed out with very hot water once a week to insure its remaining clean. Choosing of Fixtures 1. Sinks should be made of enameled iron, with back, dripboard, and trough in one piece. There should be per- forated openings into the waste pipe, made of the same material, not of nickel or brass. Tap handles should be made so that they may be turned without using the fingers, and need not be held open. 2. Basins. Porcelain bowl and sides of one piece. Around faucets no narrow groove difficult to clean. Mixer faucet, one out of which both hot and cold water flow. Space on the sides of the bowl to set glasses without their sliding. A waste plug rather than a rubber stopper. 3. Bath tubs should be made of enameled iron or porce- lain, and be provided with a waste plug and a mixer faucet. 4. The closet should offer the least surface subject to soiling and should have a strong jet of water forcing mate- rial down the soil pipe. Keeping Fixtures Clean 1. Closets. Hydrochloric acid may be used as a disinfec- tant and remover of stain from hard water, since it does Fig. 14. — OCEers very little surface un- covered by water. Jet of water drives material down soil pipe. PLUMBING 353 not injure earthenware, of which the l)o\vl and the trap are made. 2. Sinks and Baains. Lye should be used to clean the traps of these, since it does not injure metals of which these traps are made, as acid does. A fine washing or scour- ing powder cleans porcelain or enameled iron satisfactorily. Lye should not be allowed to rest on the enamel. To avoid clogging traps, matches, hair, threads, stiff paper, cloth, withered flowers, large pieces of fruit peelings, etc., should not be allowed to pass into the traps. If water runs out of the basin or sink a little slowly, use lye solution. If this does not clear it, unscrew the nut which is fastened to the downward curve of the trap. First place a bucket under this trap. With a cloth-covered stick clean out the trap and flush it into the bucket. Before a plumbing system is used, it should be inspected to see that all the joints are tight. There is a municipal inspector in the cities and large towns, but the inhabitants of small towns must be their own building inspectors or rely upon the plumber's test. The following method may be used in testing plumbing: The Peppermint Test. "Without taking it into the house, pour two ounces of peppermint down the soil pipe through its opening on the roof. Then pour down a pail of hot water. If the seals are perfect and any odor of peppermint is detected in the house, the joints must be defective. The person using the peppermint should not go into the house until the test is over for fear of carrying the odor. Note to Teacher. Ask your plumber for a catalog of fixtures, Have the students point out good and bad points in their design. CHAPTER XXXVIII SEWAGE AND GARBAGE DISPOSAL All of the waste from animal bodies, food waste, and the dead plant and animal bodies must be made fit for plant food again in order to be harmless. If it were not for the bacteria in the soil this could not be accomplished except by burning. These bac- teria are found most abundant in the first two feet of loamy soil. They do not flourish in water-soaked soil, for in this they are deprived of air. Manure to be used as a fertilizer must be worked over by these bacteria before the ground is enriched in plant food. When the water from sewage is so acted upon there is no danger if it gets into the drinking water supply. A system of filter beds for the sewage is used by many towns and cities, and an analysis of the water as it leaves the filter beds shows that it is free from any disease-producing bacteria and any odor or taste. Filter beds are made as follows : A large area from 10 to 12 feet deep, with a cement bot- tom and sides, has placed upon it : 1. A row of drain pipes. 2. A layer of coarse gravel. 3. A layer of fine gravel. 354 SEWAGE AND GARBAGE DISPOSAL 355 4. A layer of coarse sand. 5. A layer of fine sand from 3 to 5 feet deep. The sewage is received in a settling tank \\here the papers are allowed to settle and all of the solid material to be dis- integrated by water and decomposition. A certain amount of sewage is then allowed to flow on to the filter bed, and after this has drained through the sand, some time is al- lowed before more sewage is applied. As the water drains through, the bacteria in the sand make it free from harmful chemical products as well as from bacteria ; they do not allow disease bacteria to live. It was once thought that the purifying action was due to the filtering alone, but when sand was used which had been heated to free it from the soil bacteria, the water was much less pure. Such filter beds in use in Lawrence, Mass., London, and Hamburg have become famous for the results they have produced in preventing typhoid and cholera epidemics. Drinking water from rivers and small streams is often purified by this method. This same method should be applied to the sewage of the isolated farm house or the village. A tank should hold the sewage until large insoluble material has settled or become finely divided. Then a pipe should carry the sewage to fields provided with troughs between ridges upon which crops of hay or grain are raised, not fruits or vegetables. It is then used as irrigating water. A village should, of course, have a filter bed. The pipe which carries the sewage from the settling tank should not leach into clayey soil, but should be carried in the loamy soil where most of the bac- teria are, so that the leakages will be made harmless. The settling tank is called a cesspool. It should be made of brick or stone and cemented so as to prevent contamination of the surrounding soil. If privies are used instead of a sewerage system, they 356 FOODS AND SANITATION should be provided with boxes or buckets which should be emptied very frequently and their contents buried in light, loamy soil. The material should be raked over to disinte- grate it before it is covered with soil. Soil should cover the contents of the boxes at all times, and fresh lime may be added as a disinfectant. No sewage should be so carelessly looked after that there is any chance of its giving infection by means of flies or other insects, or through the water supply. Garbage, while fresh, may be fed to swine or poultry. It may also be burned or buried lightly and decomposed by the soil bacteria. It should not be exposed so as to be a feeding place for flies. CHAPTER XXXIX WATEE SUPPLY The sources of water supply are as follows : 1. Dug wells. 4. Rivers. 2. Springs. 5. Large lakes. 3. Artesian wells, bored or driven. 6. Mountain streams. Of all these, artesian wells are safest. All surface waters are liable to contamination by washings car- Fig. 15. — Geological formation favorable to tlie obtaining of water by means of artesian wells. (After Harrington.) ried into them from the surrounding land. The water of dug wells may be contaminated or not, 357 •sm FOODS AND SANITATION depending upon whether the water-bearing stratum is reached hy the water from a leaching- cesspool, stable, privy, or the waste poured on the soil above Fig. 16. — How a well located on liigii ground may l;o polluted by the con- tents of a cesspool lower down. (Alter Harrington.) it. Since these possibilities are difficult to prevent, dug wells should not be used. An example has already been given of how an epidemic of typhoid Fig. 17. — How a cesspool located on high ground may fail to pollute a well lower down. (After Harrington.) was produced by spring water contaminated some miles away. If dug wells are used, the walls and the top should WATER SUPl'LY 359 be cemented to prevent the flowing- in of any water thrown on the surface near them. The only house filter that is not worse than none is the Pasteur- Chamberland, or others built on that principle. This consists of a baked clay tube Avith a small bore in its cen- ter, opening at one end, and a metal tube in which this earthen tube is contained. The pressure forces the water tlirough the clay into the small bore from the opening of which it flows into a receptacle used for stor- ,.,.,. T , T IT ''"'fc'- 18.— Chamber- ing it until it IS ready to be cooled. iMnd-i'asteui- niter. To keep the filter in good condition, the clay tube should be washed daily and baked every week when the water leaves a deposit of any thickness. CHAPTER XL CLEAN FOOD The problem of clean food is to be solved by the control of human excretions and of insects, chiefly the common house fly. 1. Flies. Flies carry germs not only on their wings and feet, but also in their intestines, from which they may be deposited anywhere. Typhoid and tuberculosis bacteria found in fly specks have pro- duced these diseases in from 9 to 15 days after they were given off by the fly. 2. Dust. If one stops to think of what dust is composed — soil, manure, dried sputum, bits of ani- mal skin and hair and excretions, bacteria, molds, and yeasts — he will instantly understand how dan- gerous it may be. Fortunately, disease-producing bacteria do not multiply outside the body, nor do they survive the dryness and light of out-of-door air. Typhoid, tuberculosis, boils, abscesses, and car- buncles have the most resistant kinds of bacteria. Spitting and the depositing of other infected mate- rial where insects can get at it, or where the germs in it may be blown into dust before they are dead, cause many cases of disease. When mosquito netting is laid over fruits and 360 CLEAN FOOD 361 vegetables so closely that insects may contaminate at least the top layer, the netting is practically use- less. If screening is used, dust contamination is still possible. Glass cases should be used for dis- playing food. Food should likewise be protected from house dust, which is likely to contain, among other things, droplets from coughing, etc. 3. The Handling of Food. In stores and like places, all food which may be eaten raw or would be difficult to clean should be kept covered. Utensils, rather than the hands, should be used for handling supplies, and these utensils should be clean. The aprons and tables should be kept clean. The boy who handles the horses should not handle the food. For this reason it should be wrapped carefully when sent out of the store. The placing of candies, pret- zels, and other foods on stands on the street should be strictly prohibited. Any person who comes in contact with food in its distribution or preparation should be examined to see that he is free from typhoid, tuberculosis, social diseases, or serious skin troubles. This applies to the man who milks the cow and to the cook in the kitchen. 4. The Eating of Raw Fruits and Vegetables, Many cases of typhoid have been traced to sewage Eeferences. "Care of Food in the Home." Farmers' Bulletin 375, 1910, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Entomology Bul- letin 78. 362 FOODS AND SANITATION contamination by way of water-cress, celery, lettuce, and radishes. These may carry germs of other intestinal disorders. This necessitates a very thor- ough washing of all such vegetables, and regulations to prohibit the flowing of sewage elsewhere than in irrigating ditches in such gardens. Fruits should be thoroughly washed, even though they aire to be pared, on account of spraying to protect them from insects, and of the handling by orchard men and distributers. CHAPTER XLI LABOR SAVING AND DUST PEEVENTION Dirt is generally accompanied by germs. Wlien it is dried and becomes dust, many of the germs die, but not all. Fortunately, disease germs, except those of tuberculosis, typhoid, and boils and carbuncles, do not survive long in dust. For health as well as for appearance, we like to keep ourselves and our belongings as free from dust as possible. But we recognize that most of the dust in our houses is comparatively harmless. The housekeeper may in- jure her health in excessive zeal in keeping a house dustless. The trouble lies chiefly in tlie amount of furniture and its design, the kind of woodwork, draperies, and heating appliances, together with poor methods of cleaning. The application of the following principles will remove many of these difficulties : 1. Have the furniture, woodwork, radiators, and walls of as simple design as possible, with smooth surfaces easily wiped off. 2. Avoid cracks in floors, woodwork, floor coverings, and utensils. 3. Avoid heavy draperies and cloth upholstered furni- ture as far as possible, unless a i^acuum cleaner may be used. 363 364 FOODS AND SANITATION 4. Use a cloth moistened with furniture polish or with water and then wrung very dry for dusting. The dust cloth should not be so large that it can not be kept in the hand to prevent trailing about and distributing dust again. When sweeping is done, the windows and doors should be closed and left for at least two hours before dusting, so that all of the dust which was driven into the air may have time to settle upon some surface from which it may be removed with the damp dusting cloth. Many housekeepers wonder where the dust comes from when they see it on the furniture directly after they have finished dusting. How can this be explained? The only satisfactory method of removing dust from the house is by actually taking it away from the house and from the air. Shaking a dust or mop cloth out of the window simply scatters the dust to other places nearby, if it does not come into the same house again. Dust cloths and mops should be washed out frequently dur- ing dusting and mopping and at the end of these processes ; then the dust is carried off in the sewer. If a vacuum cleaner is used, the dust which it collects should not be thrown into the back yard or the alley ; it should be burned. CHAPTER XLII DISINFECTANTS A disinfectant is a substance which will kill germs. Among those most commonly used for different pur- poses are the following : 1. For hands, face, and skin. When a disinfectant must be used for some time upon the patient, or upon the hands of the nurse after every handling of the patient or his uten- sils, mercuric chloride, called corrosive sublimate, is good. Carbolic acid and formalin are effective disinfectants but they have a bad effect on the skin. For all but surgical work, it is sufficient to scrub the hands with sand soap and then immerse them in a corrosive sublimate solution, one part to one thousand of water as hot as the hands can stand. 2. For mucous surfaces, a saturated solution of boric acid is best. 3. For wounds. Hydrogen peroxide is antiseptic in as weak a solution as one part in twenty thousand of water. Carbolic acid (one part in twenty of water) or corrosive sublimate (one part in five hundred or one thousand) will be found excellent disinfectants. Living germs are killed in a few minutes in this solution of corrosive sublimate. Spores are killed in less than one hour. 4. Bathroom closet fixtures. Either lye or acid may be used inside the closet bowl, and formalin, one part to twenty of water, may be used to wash the outside of the bowl and the floor. 5. Light bedding and clothing. These should be soaked 365 366 FOODS AND SANITATION in corrosive sublimate (1:1000) or carbolic acid (1:20) before they are washed. Then they should be boiled for an hour. 6. Heavy bedding and clothing and carpets. These should be disinfected in a special steam apparatus. The benzine process of cleaning does not destroy all germs. 7. Books and furniture. Books should be treated with formaldehyde gas when standing with their leaves as much separated as possible. It is well to repeat the process several times. Inexpensive books should be burned if they are infected. Stuffed furniture should be well beaten and exposed a long time in the air and direct sunlight. Wooden or leather-covered furniture should be thoroughly wiped with corrosive sublimate solution or with formalin (1:20). 8. Excreta. Excreta should be received in a vessel con- taining a greater volume of disinfectant than there should be excreta. The best disinfectant which is the least offen- sive in odor or appearance in formalin (1:20). The dis- infectant should be thoroughly mixed with the excreta and stand covered for one hour before being disposed of. In out-of-doors closets fresh lime should be sprinkled over the contents of the receiving box at least once a day. Earth closets are also sanitary means of preventing the carrying out of infectious material by insects. 9. For ordinary scrubbing or washing. For these pur- poses water feeling hot to the hands, in which % tablespoon of washing soda for each quart of water has been dissolved, is effective. Formerly emphasis was laid upon fumigation of rooms as the method of preventing new cases of a disease. Experi- ments show that sulphur is a disinfectant only when it is burned in a room into which live steam is also being poured. It is absolutely useless without a great supply of water. Formaldehyde, while probably more effective than sulphur, DISINFECTANTS 367 yet leaves live germs after it has been used with great care. This sort of disinfection has produced a false sense of safety. In Providence, Rhode Island, for some years there has been no disinfection after scarlet fever and diphtheria. The results in the number of new cases show that disinfec- tion had no appreciable value. The patients, missed cases, and carriers are far more dangerous than furniture, cloth- ing, and air. If the precautions spoken of before to dis- infect the excreta are taken, the greatest source of danger removed. The direct rays of the sun have great disinfecting powers. Diffused daylight generally retards the growth of micro- organisms, although not always. The direct rays act on germs somewhat as they do on human flesh, producing sun- burns. Typhoid and tuberculosis germs exposed to the sun are killed in a few minutes, if they are not in sputum or solid material. In sputum, from twenty to thirty hours are required. Direct sunlight is not to be obtained in rooms over any great space for a considerable length of time. Consequently the sunlight in rooms is more for cheerfulness and light than for disinfecting purposes. Direct sunlight is not a disinfectant when it passes through window glass. The violet and ultra-violet rays are the most effective for sterilizing, and they do not pass through glass. Eeperences. Practical Hygiene, Harrington. Sources and Modes of Infection, Chapin. Household Bacteriology, Buchanan. APPENDIX TABLE I Flood a g 0)0 o u Almonds Edible Portion 21.0 As Purchased 11.5 Apples E. P. A A. P. .3 Apricots E.P. 1.1 A. P. 1.0 Apricots, dried A. P. 4.7 Artichokes A. P. 2.6 Asparagus, fresh A. P. 1.8 cooked A. P. 2.1 Bacon, smoked E.P. 10.5 A. P. 9.5 Bananas E. P. 1.3 A. P. .8 Barley, pearled 8.5 Beans, dried 22.5 Uma, dried 18.1 lima, fresh E.P. 7.1 A. P. 3.2 string, fresh E. P. 2.3 A. P. 2.1 baked, canned A. P. 6.9 string, canned A. P. 1.1 lima, canned A. P. 4.0 Beef brisket, medium fat. .E. P. 15.8 A. P. 12.0 chuck, average E.P. 19.2 A. P. 15.8 corned, average E.P. 15.6 A. P. 14.3 dried, salted, and sm'kdE. P. 30.0 A. P. 26.4 369 54.9 30.2 .5 .3 1.0 .2 .2 3.3 64.8 59.4 .6 .4 1.1 1.8 1.5 .7 .3 .3 .3 2.5 .1 .3 28.5 22.3 15.4 12.5 26.2 23.8 6.5 6.9 17.3 9.5 14.2 10.8 13.4 12.6 62.5 16.7 3.3 2.2 22.0 14.3 77.8 59.6 65.9 22.0 9.9 7.4 6.9 19.6 3.8 14.6 S O 03 2940 1615 285 214 263 247 1256 357 100 213 2840 2372 447 290 1615 1565 1586 557 250 184 176 583 93 350 1449 1130 978 797 1353 1230 817 724 ■< 2.0 1.1 .3 .3 .5 .5 2.4 1.0 .7 .8 4.5 2.2 1.1 3.5 4.1 1.7 .7 2.1 1.3 1.6 .9 .8 4.9 4.6 9.1 8.9 4.8 2.7 84.6 63.3 85.0 79.9 29.4 79.5 94.0 91.6 20.2 18.4 75.3 48.9 11.5 12.6 10.4 68.5 30.8 89.2 83.0 68.9 93.7 79.5 54.6 41.6 68.3 57.9 53.6 49.2 54.3 53,7 370 i'OOD^ AND SANITATION TABLE I, continued FV>od Beef flank, lean. . fore shank, lean . heart hind shank, lean, hind shank, fat. . liver loin neck, lean neck, medium fat plate, lean porterhouse steak rib rolls, lean . . . . ribs, lean ribs, fat roast round, lean round, free from rump, lean rump, fat sirloin steak . . . . .. .E. P. A. P. ...E. P. A. P. ...E. P. A. P. ...E.P. A. P. ...B.P. A. P. ...E.P. A. P. ...E.P. A. P. ...E.P. A.P. E.P. A.P. E.P. A.P. E.P. A.P. A.P. E.P. A.P. E.P. A.P. A.P. E.P. A.P. visible fat. E.P. A.P. E.P. A.P. E.P. o ^ u to CMCLi 20.8 20.5 22.0 14.0 16.0 14.8 21.9 9.1 20.4 9.9 20.4 20.2 19.7 17.1 21.4 15.1 20.1 14.5 15.6 13.0 21.9 19.1 20.2 19.6 15.2 15.0 12.7 22.3 21.3 19.5 23.2 20.9 19.1 16.8 12.9 18.9 11.3 11.0 6.1 3.9 20.4 24.7 5.4 2.2 18.8 9.1 4.5 3.1 12.7 11.1 8.4 5.9 16.5 11.9 18.8 15.5 20.4 17.9 10.5 12.0 9.3 35.6 30.6 28.6 7.9 7.3 2.5 13.7 11.0 35.7 27.6 18.5 1.0 .9 1.7 2.5 m Hi 838 1.0 67.8 821 1.0 66.9 647 1.0 71.5 414 .6 45.4 1140 1.0 62.6 1292 .9 53.2 617 1.0 72.5 255 .4 30.1 1171 .9 61.4 552 .4 29.7 584 1.6 71.2 537 1.3 65.6 877 1.0 61.3 764 .9 52.9 732 1.0 70.1 493 .7 49.5 1040 .9 63.4 749 .7 45.9 1051 .7 65.9 867 .6 54.4 1230 1.0 60.0 1077 .8 52.4 795 1.0 69.0 845 1.0 67.9 654 .7 52.6 1721 .7 48.5 1480 .6 39.6 1576 1.3 48.2 694 1.1 70.0 649 1.0 64.4 512 1.2 73.5 940 1.0 65.7 796 .9 56.6 1763 .8 47.1 1361 .6 36.2 1099 1.0 61.9 APPENDIX 371 TABLE I, continued B\)od g g o ^ *- i- Beef Juice 4.9 .6 A. P. 16.5 16.1 Beef Suet 4.7 81.8 sweetbreads A. P. 16.8 12.1 tenderloin A. P. 16.2 24.4 tongue E. P. 18.9 9.2 A. P. 14.1 6.7 Beets, cooked E. P. 2.3 .1 fresh E. P. 1.6 .1 A. P. 1.3 .1 Blackberries A. P. 1.8 1.0 Bluefish E. P. 19.4 1.2 A. P. 10.0 .6 Boston crackers 11.0 8.5 Brazil nuts E. P. 17.0 66.8 A. P. 8.6 33.7 Bread, graham 8.9 1.8 rolls, water 9.0 3.0 toasted 11.5 1.6 white, homemade 9.1 1.6 milk 9.6 1.4 Vienna 9.4 1.2 average 9.2 1.3 whole wheat 9.7 .9 Buckwheat flour 6.4 1.2 Butter •. 1.0 85.0 Buttermilk 3.0 .5 Butternuts E. P. 27.9 61.2 Butternuts A. P. 3.8 8.3 Cabbage E. P. 1.6 .3 A. P. 1.4 .2 Calf 's-foot jelly 4.3 .... Carrots, fresh E. P. 1.1 .4 A. P. .9 .2 Cauliflower A. P. 1.8 .5 7.4 9.7 7.7 10.9 71.1 7.0 3.5 52.1 54.2 61.2 53.3 51.1 54.1 53.1 49.7 77.9 4.8 3.5 .5 5.6 4.8 17.4 9.3 7.4 4.7 5^ ^§2 _I1--S 3 a) 53 89 960 3357 799 1290 717 529 180 209 167 262 402 206 1835 3040 1591 1189 1268 1385 1199 1158 1199 1182 1113 1580 3491 162 3065 417 143 121 394 204 158 139 "i <1 1.5 .9 .2 2.0 .8 1.0 .8 1.6 1.1 .9 .5 1.3 .7 1.9 3.9 2.0 1.5 1.2 1.7 1.0 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.3 .9 3.0 .7 2.9 .4 1.0 .9 .7 1.0 .9 .7 fcs 93.0 54.0 13.7 69.0 59.2 70.8 51.8 88.6 87.5 70.0 86.3 78.5 40.3 7.5 5.3 2.6 35.7 32.6 24.0 35.0 36.5 34.2 85.8 88.4 18.6 11.0 91.0 4.4 .6 91.5 77.7 77.6 88.2 70.6 92.3 372 FOODS AND SANITATION TABLE I, continued Food .SS g 5g OiCU liiCU UEU Celery E.P. 1.1 .1 3.3 A. P. .9 .1 2.6 Celery soup, canned 2.1 2.8 5.0 Cerealine 9.6 1.1 78.3 Cheese, American pale 28.8 35.9 .3 American red 29.6 38.3 Cheddar 27.7 36.8 4.1 Cottage 20.9 1.0 4.3 Full cream 25.9 33.7 2.4 Fromage de Brie 15.9 21.0 1.4 Neuchatel 18.7 27.4 1.5 Pineapple 29.9 38.9 2.6 Eoquefort . . .^ 22.6 29.5 1.8 Swiss 27.6 34.9.- 1.3 Cherries, fresh E. P. 1.0 .8 16.7 A. P. .9 .8 15.9 canned A. P. 1.1 .1 21.1 Chestnuts, fresh E.P. 6.2 5.4 42.1 A. P. 5.2 4.5 35.4 Chicken, broilers E.P. 21.5 2.5 .... A. P. 12.8 1.4 .... Chocolate 12.9 48.7 30.3 Cocoa 21.6 28.9 37.7 Coeoanut (prepared) 6.3 57.4 31.5 Cod, dressed A. P. 11.1 .2 .... salt E.P. 25.4 .3 A. P. 19.0 .4 .... Consomme, canned A. P. 2.5 .... .4 Corn, green A. P. 2.8 1.2 19.0 Corn meal 9.2 1.9 75.4 Cornstarch 90.0 Cottolene 100.0 .... Crackers, butter A. P. 9.6 10.1 71.6 cream A. P. 9.7 12.1 69.7 graham A. P. 10.0 9.4 73.8 s • • ■ • • • 4000 .. . .... 1887 1.5 7.2 1938 1.7 6.8 1905 1.4 5.4 APPENDIX 373 TABLE I, continued irviod a^ ° ^'•0 warn fc<« d 0- eflO) 3 0-08 w K. CMOi i£iA< uoi ii sj 1042 1030 1458 1303 1209 1073 644 362 1315 13.2 731 7.4 . . . 2156 7.3 22.2 9.5 .... 727 1.3 70.6 4.8 .... 367 .7 35.2 3.8 2.6 582 1.5 71.2 1.4 77.9 16C0 2.1 8.1 .3 3.2 109 2.1 92.3 378 FOODS AND SANITATION TABLE I, continued Squash E.P. A. P. Strawberries Succotash, canned Sugar Tallow Tomatoes, fresh A. P. canned A. P. Turkey E.P. A. P. sandwich, canned Turnips E.P. A. P. Veal, breast E. P. A. P. cutlet E.P. A. P. fore quarter E. P. A. P. hind quarter E. P. A. P. Vegetable soup, canned Walnuts, California E. P. black E.P. Watermelons E. P. Wheat, cracked Whitefish E.P. A. P. Zwiebaeh 1.4 .7 1.0 - 3.6 .5 .2 .6 1.0 .9 1.2 21.1 16.1 20.7 1.3 .9 20.3 15.3 20.3 20.1 20.0 15.1 20.7 16.2 2.9 18.4 27.6 .4 11.1 22.9 10.6 9.8 100.0 .4 .2 22.9 18.4 29.2 .2 .1 11.0 8.6 7.7 7.5 8.0 6.0 8.3 6.6 64.4 56.3 .2 1.7 6.5 3.0 9.9 9.0 4.5 7.4 18.6 100.0 3.9 4.0 8.1 5.7 .5 13.0 11.7 6.7 75.5 73., « 3 S 13 O) e3 209 103 169 444 1815 4000 104 103 1320 1042 1568 178 124 817 629 683 670 690 517 715 534 62 3182 .3001 136 1635 680 315 1915 .5 .6 1.0 .8 2.7 .8 .6 1.0 .8 1.1 1.0 .9 .7 1.0 .8 .9 1.7 1.9 .3 1.6 1.6 .7 1.0 is 88.3 44.2 90.4 75.9 94.3 94.0 55.5 42.4 47.4 89.6 62.7 68.2 51.3 70.7 68.3 71.7 54.2 70.9 56.2 95.7 2.5 2.5 92.4 10.1 69.8 32.5 5.8 Edible Organic Nutrients and Fuel, Values of Foods i 1 The percentages of nutrients are taken from Bull. 28, OfBce of Experiment Stations, TJ. S. Department of Agriculture. The fuel values are calculated from these percentages by the use of the factors explained in Chapter I, viz. — protein, 4 calories; fat, 9 calories; carbohydrate, 4 calories per gram. Pl.:ite 34 — Begular Porter-house Steak Plate :;5— Butt-cud Sirloin Steak Plate :;6— Hip-bone Sirloin Steak o79 J'late :;S— t'l;ujk Steak Plate 39— Eound Steak 3S0 I'late 4l_rim,.i, ytp,jj. PJate 42— Hip-bone Porter-house «te :ak 381 Plate 44— 6tli Eib Boast Plate 45— 7th and 8th Rib Eoast 382 Plate 46— 9tli and 10th "Rib Roast I'late 48— Chuck Eib Koast :J83 Plate 49 — Bump Boast Plate 5U— Rouud Steak 384 I'late 51 — Round Pot Roast Plate 52— Slioul.lcr Pot Roast uS5 Plate 5:i— Slioulder I'ot Eoast Plate 54— Shoulder Pot Boast 386 Plate 55 — Chuck Stew Plate 36 — Knuc-kle Soup Bone aS7 Plate 57— Kiimkle Soup Bone Plate 58— Hind Shank Soup B. oup Bone Plate 59— Neck 388 Plate GO— Flank Stew Plate 61 — Foicsliaiik Souji BoiieK Plate 62— Brisket 3S9 Plate 63 — Shoulder Cloa Plate 64r— Navel Plate 65— Eib Ends 390 INDEX Abcesses 30-1 Acetylene, dangers from. . . . 342 Air, carbon dioxide in 318 desirability of changing temperature 332 drafts, protection from . . . 32o humidity and temperature of 319 indoor 318 methods of increasing hu- midity 321 outdoor 317 poisons from breath in . . . 319 vitiated 324 Appetite 286 Apples, baked 44 coddled 43 Arterio-sclerosis 285 Ashes, safe storage of 333 Bacteria, functions in fer- mentation and decay. . . 292 relation to diseases 293 Baking powder, alum 229 mixed 230 phosphate 229 relative costs of 230 tartrate 228 Beans, baked preparation of 121 canning of 59 dried composition of 120 effect of cooking on di- gestibility 120 Beef, cuts of illustrated. . . . 182, 379-390 Biscuits, baking powder 237 Blood poisoning 306 Boiling, phenomena of 34 point, definition of 35 point, effect of substance in solution upon 36 Boils 306 Bran 220 Bread, Boston brown 237 digestibility of 257 effect of salt upon 248, 249 effect of sugar upon. .247, 249 German coffee 250 nutritive value of 257 preparation of 245 puddings 250 rolls, dinner or salad 249 rolls, Parker House 248 score card for 242 stale, use for 250 Bronchitis 298 Brown Betty 251 Butter 161 production of 161 renovated 162 renovated, test for 164 test for 164 Butterscotch 89 Cake 253 Cakes, angel food 171 Dutch apple 238 frosting, boiled 256 frosting, chocolate 256 frosting, uncooked 256 preparation of 176 score card for 253 short 238 sponge 171 stale, uses for 255 Calorie, definition of 15 mechanical equivalent of . . 15 100 portion table 265 Calories required by the body 262 required by the body, effect of muscular activ- ity upon 260 Candy, adulteration of 89 butterscotch 89 chocolate creams 88 coeoanut bars 88 391 392 INDEX fondant 87 fudge SS peanut brittle 815 penocha 88 peppermint patties 88 taffy 89 toffee 89 use of in diet 89 Candy Making, cold water tests for 85 crystallization 85 crystallization, effect of stirring upon 87 methods of cooking 8G principles of 84 use of cream of tartar in. 86 Canning, methods of 54 syrups used in 53 Carbohydrates, characteris- tics of 80 groups of 80 made by plants 79 sources of 80 Carbuncles 304 Cellulose 83 characteristics of 101 sources of 101 Cereals, amount of water used in cooking 132 comparative cost of 132 composition of 128 cooking of 129, 131 Cheese, composition of 159 digestibility of 160 effect of temperature upon 160 manufacture of 159 Chicken, fricasse 207 roast 207 roast, stuffing 207 Chocolate, composition of. . . 106 description of 1 05 preparation of 106 stimulant in 106 Chocolate Candy in diet of children 92 Chocolate Creams, dipping of 88 Chops 198 Cleanliness, effect on nres. . 333 Cocoa, composition of 106 description of 105 preparation of 106 stimulant in 106 Cocoanut bars 88 Codfish balls 211 creamed 210 Coffee, adulteration of 75 composition of 74 description of 74 preparation of beverage.. . 75 standards of judging. ... 75 tannin amounts extracted. 75 Colds 298 Conductivity, table of 28 Cookies 256 ginger snaps 257 molasses 257 Corn, canning of 59 Corned beef hash 191 Cornstarch pudding 108 thickening powers of.... 107 Cottage pudding 253 Cover batter 225 Cranberries, cooking of 45 Cream puffs 224 Croquettes 191 Custard, baked 173 cheese 174 soft 172 Date paste 134 Dextrin, characteristics of.. . 101 sources of 101 tests for 101 Diarrhea 303 Digestion, conditions for good 283 effect of emotions upon. . . 28! effect of fatigue upon. . . . 284 Diphtheria 298 Disease, theories of 291 Dishwashing 24 Disinfectants 365 Double boiler, temperature of inside 24 Doughnuts 239 Drafts, protection from. . . . 324 Drinking, during meals 287 Dust, infection carried by. . . 360 Dusting 364 Dutch apple cake 238 INDEX 393 Egg omelet 168 Eggs 1G5 Eggs, composition of 165 cooking of 165 digestion of 171 effect of temperature npon 167 preservation of 169 size of 169 solubility of white 167 Electric wiring, dangers from 338 Eyes, inflammation of 298 sore 308 Eye strain, effect upon diges- tion 286 Exercise after meals 287 Extractives, meat 181, 193 Fats, burning points of 125 composition of 123 effect of heat on 125 melting points of 125 Eehling's solution, formula for 84 Filters, house 359 Fireless cookers 129 Fire places, danger from .... 335 prevention in the home .... 333 Fish, baked 209 balls 211 codfish, creamed 210 composition of 209 effect of temjierature upon 209 sauces 210 sauted 209 selection of 207 shell 211 solubility in water 209 stuffing 210 Fletcher, Horace 2S5 Flour, accurate measurement of 223 bran 220 color of 219 entire wheat 218 gliadin in 218 gluten balls 220 glutenin in 218 graham 23 8 manufacture of 216 odor of 219 rye 218, 219 thickening power of brown 107 thickening power of white. 107 water absorbing power of. 219 Flies, infection from 360 Fondant 87 Food, amounts required by body 258 to 264 amounts required by body, effect of age and sex upon 200 amounts required by body, effect of hot weather upon 288 amounts required by body, effect of muscular activ- ity upon 260 amounts required by body, effect of size and shape 260 amounts required by body during a cold 288 amounts required by body during a fever 288 bacterial decomposition of 52 definition of 14 kinds required by body. . . 258 to 261 nutrients ....'..' 14 sanitary handling of 361 Food Materials, tables of composition 369 Foods, raw, dangers from eating 361 Freezer, construction of 94 Freezing mixtures 93 obtainable temperatures.. . 95 of syrups 96 Fritters 231 Frosting, boiled for cake. . . . 256 chocolate 256 uncooked 256 Fruit ice, causistency of syrup for 07 Avhip 61) Fruits, color 11 composition of 38 cooking of 42 dried, cooking of 68 effect of ripening upon ... 40 flavor 41 preserved, amount sugar for 60 394 INDEX preserved, definition of . . . 60 preserved, preparation of. 60 structure 41 use in diet 38 Frying, temperature tests for 126 Fudge 88 Fuels, use of 20 Garbage, disposal of 356 Gas, illuminating, dangers from 336 sewer 346 Gasoline, dangers from Si'i Gelatine, cost of brands. . . . 203 desserts prepared from . . . 204 dissolving of 203 preparation of from bone 192 sources of 194 Ginger bread 236 snaps 257 Glucose, manufacture of from starch 102 test for 83 Gluten, characteristics of . . . 220 Glycogen 83 source of 101 Griddle cakes . .■ 230 Heat, of vaporization 35 Heating systems 327 Hot air heating 328 Hot water 327 Hot water heating 327 House, care of 363 construction of 315 dusting of 364 situation of 314 Humidity 319 method of increasing 321 method of measuring 325 Hydrophobia 309 lee creams -. 98 Ices 96 Infection, methods of avoid- ing 295 Inflammation of eyes 298 Jelly, description of perfect 61 method of making extrac- tions for 62 principles of making 61 Kerosene lamps, dangers from 341 Koch, Eobert 293 Lactose 82 Leavening agents, chemical. 227 Leewenhoek 292 Lighting, indirect 33 1 modified sunlight 331 Lockjaw 306 Malaria 312 Maltose 82 Mastication, efEect of 284 Matches, dangers from 335 Meals, calculation of food value of 270 good and bad combinations for 271 serving 272 Measurements, table of 19 Meat 177 characteristics of good cuts 183 cold storage of 198 contents of fibres 179 corned beef hash 191 cuts, illustrated 379, 390 croquettes 191 effect of temperature upon 179 extractives in 181, 193 Hamburg steak 192 loaf 192 methods of serving tough cuts 189 methods of serving tender cuts 196 mock duck 191 pie 238 pot roast 190 relative economy of cuts. . 18'! soup, composition of 193 soup, preparation of. .192, 195 stew 189 structure of 177 Men, table of heights and weights 258 Meningitis 308 Milk, action of lennin upon 156 as a food 137 Babcock tester 151 INDEX 395 certified 14G clean 141 composition of 139 effect of temperature upon 153 effect of temperature upon curd 154 inspected 145 kinds 139 pails 144 pasteurized 148 percentage of fat in 150 souring of 149 use of sour with soda 253 Mock duck 191 Molasses, use with soda. . . . 233 Mold, death temperature. ... 50 effect on food 49 growth and effect of anti- septics upon 49 sources 50 Mosquito, carried diseases. . 312 MuflSns 235 Mutton, cuts of, illustrated. . 184 Nutrients, fuel value of ... . 16 functions of 14 Nuts, composition of 135 digestibility of 135 Oleomargarine, manufacture of 163 test for 164 Oysters, cooking of 211 fried 212 preparation of 212 scaUoped 212 Pails, milk 144 Pasteur, Louis 292 Pastry 239 Peanut brittle 85 Pectin 83 Penocha S8 Peppermint patties 88 Pickles 67 Pickling 66 Pies, chocolate 240 custard 240 fruit 241 lemon 240 meat 238 Plumbing 346 fixtures, care of 352 fixtures, choice of 352 fixtures, placing of 350 installation of 347 peppermint test of 353 Pneumonia 298 Poisoning, ptomaine 201 Polishes, furniture, dangers from 344 metal, dangers from 344 stove, dangers from 344 Popovers, preparation of... 223 Pork, cuts of, illustrated. . . . 184 Potatoes, composition of . . . . 115 cooking of 116 Poultry, composition of 206 preparation of 207 selection of 206 Protein, amount of in diet. . 16 requirements of body.... 265 Psychrometric tables 326 Puddings, bread 250 cottage 253 Resistance, good habits pro- moting 297 Rheumatism 311 Rice, method of cooking. . . . 133 pilaf 134 Ringworm 308 Roasts, pot 190 preparation of 196 Rolls, Parker House 249 dinner or salad 249 Salad dressing, cooked 214 French 213 mayonnaise 213 Salads 214 Sanitation 289 Sauce, drawn butter 210 hard 250 hollandaise 210 lemon 239 Sewage, disposal 354 filter beds 354 Sewer air 346 Sherbet 97 Shortcake 238 Smallpox 310 396 INDEX Smokepipe, safe installation of 33-1 Souffles 17i Souj)s, cream vegetable 118 Spices, description 76 Spontaneous combustion, danger from 344 Starch, changes during diges- tion 103 characteristics of 101 effect of cooking upon. . . . 103 mixing of 104 source of 101 test for 101 Steak, Hamburg 1P2 preparation of 197 Steam heating 327 Stews 189 Stoves, coal 22 gas '22 safe installation of 334 wood 22 Sucrose 81 test for 8:i Sugar, cane, test for 83 use in the diet 89 Syrup, effect of sugar upon volume of 58 Table service 273 service forms of 279 setting 274 Taffy 89 Tapioca 134 Tea, composition of 71 description of 70 preparation of beverage.. 71 standards for judging. ... 71 tannin amounts extracted. 73 tannin in 72 tannin test for 73 Tetanus 305 Thermometers, care of 32 description of 31 transferring readings of. . 33 Toast, French 251 Toffee 89 Tomato soup, cream of 155 Tomatoes, canning of 58 Tonsilitis 298 Tuberculosis 299 Typhoid 301 Utensils, care of 25 choice of 29 Veal, cuts of, illustrated. . . . 182 Vegetable soup, cream of . . . 118 Vegetables 110 canning of 56 losses in cooking 112 methods of serving 118 preparation for cooking.. 113 weights of 119 Vinegar, kinds of 68 Waffles 231 Water supply, contamination of 358 sources of 357 Weights, table of 19 White sauces, classes of 108 proportions for 108 Women, table of weights and heights 259 Wounds, deep, care of 307 surface, care of 307 Yeasts, effect of temperature on growth of 243 effect on fruit juice 51 growth of dried and com- pressed 244 structure of 51 Yellow fever 312 Iliii ^liiii!iitiili'i!iiii,