^tate OloUegc of fijome f conomKB At (SrOtntll MniuerBttg TX 361.W7W6" ""'""'*'' ''•'"'^ The 'ood of working women in Boston: 3 1924 003 574 245 The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003574245 WOMEN'S EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL UNION, BOSTON DEPARTMENT OF KESEARCH Studies in Economic Reiations of Women Volume I, Part 1. Vocations for the Trained Woman'. Out of print Part 2. Vocations for the Trained Woman*: Agriculture, Social Service, Secretarial Service, Business of Real Estate. By Eleanor Martin, Margaret A. Post, Fellows in the De- partment of Research and the Committee on Economic Efficiency of College Women, Boston Branch, Association of CoUegiate Alumnae. Prepared under the direction of Susan M. Kingsbury, Ph.D.,' Director. 1914. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $1.50 net. Postage extra. Part 3. Opportunities for Women in Domestic Science". Prepared under the direction of Susan M. Kingsbury, Ph.D., by Marie Francke, Fellow la the Appointment Bureau and Research Department, in cooperation with and published by the National Association of Collegiate Alumnae. 1916. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $0.80 net. Postage extra. Volume II. Labor Laws and their Enforcement; with Special Reference to Massachusetts'. By Charles E. Persons, Mabel Parton, Mabelle Moses and Three "Fellows." Edited by Susan M. Kingsbury, Ph.D., Director. Preface by Edwin F. Gay, Ph.D., Harvard University. 1911. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $1.50 net. Postage extra. Volume III. The Living Wage of Women Workers'. A Study of the Incomes and Expenditures of 450 Wage-earning Women in the City of Boston. By Louise Marion Bosworth, Fellow in the Department of Research. Edited with an introduction by F. Spencer Baldwin, Ph.D., Boston Univer- sity. 1911. Svo. Cloth. Price, $1.00 net. Postage extra. Volume IV. Dressmaking as a Trade for Women. By May AUtnson, Ph.D., Fellow and Associate Director of the De- partment of Research. Prepared under the direction of Susan M. Kingsbury, Ph.D., Director. Published by United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1916. Svo. Cloth. Price, $0.80 net. Postage extra. ' Longmans Green & Company, Publishers, New York City. ' Published as " Bulletin No. 2 " of the Association of Collegiate Alumnse. WOMEN'S EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL UNION, BOSTON DEPARTMENT OF KESEAROH Studies iw Economic Relations of Women Volume V. Millinery as a Trade for Women'. By Lorlnda Perry, Ph.D., Fellow in the Department of Research. Pre- pared under the direction of Susan M. Kingsbury, Ph.D., Director, and Marion Parrls Smith, Ph.D., Associate Pro- fessor of Economics, Bryn Mawr College. 1916. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $1.50 net. Postage extra. Volume VI. The Boot and Shoe Industry as a Vocation for Women. By the Department of Research. Susan M. Kings- bury, Ph.D., Director, May AUinson, Ph.D., Supervisor of the Investigation, Lila Ver Planck North, Editor. Pub- lished by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1916. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $0.80 net. Postage extra. Volume VII. Industrial Home Work in Massachusetts. Pre- pared under the direction of Amy Hewes, Ph.D., Supervisor of the Investigation for the Department of Research. In cooperation with and published by the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics. 1915. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $0.80 net. Postage extra. Volume VIII. The Public Schools and Women in Office Service. By the Department of Research. Prepared under the direc- tion of May Allinson, A.M., Associate Director. Published by the Boston School Committee. 1914. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $0.80 net. Postage extra. Volume IX. Industrial Efficiency of Girls Trained in Massa- chusetts Trade Schools. By the Department of Research. Prepared under the direction of May Allinson, Ph.D., and Susan M. Kingsbury, Ph.D., for and to be published by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $0.80 net. Postage extra. Volume X. The Food of Working Women in Boston. By the Department of Research. Prepared under the direction of Lucile Eaves, Ph.D., published by the Massachusetts Depart- ment of Health. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $1.00 net. Postage extra. ' Longmans Green & Company, Publishers, New York City. WOMEN'S EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL UNION BOSTON DEPARTMENT OF RESEARCH STUDIES IN ECONOMIC RELATIONS OF WOMEN VOLUME X ^\)t (Hommonujealtl) of M(is0ac\)ustit3 STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH THE FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON AN INVESTIGATION BY THE DEPARTMENT OF RESEARCH WOMEN'S EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL UNION, BOSTON LUCILE EAVES, Ph.D., Director IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH BOSTON WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS 32 DERNE STREET 1917 Publication or this Document APPKOVED BT THE SuPEBVisoB OF Administration. PEEFAOE, This investiga;tion of the food of working women in Boston was suggested by Dean Sarah Louise Arnold of Simmons College, who was serving as chairman of a committee appointed by the Mas- sachusetts Conference of Charities and Corrections to consider ways of assisting women employed in Boston and living away from their families. Several previous investigations had supplied information about lodging, but there were no' available data which would show whether such women were obtaining nourishing food at a price adapted to their incomes. The State Department of Health, in con- ference, expressed an appreciation of the social significance of the* subject, and accepted the co-operation of the Research Department of the Women's Educational and Industrial Union, and were willing to assist in placing the results of such a ^tudy before the public. It seemed peculiarly appropriate that the Women's Educational and Industrial Union should undertake such an investigation, be- cause the topic is intimately related to its past heritage and present activities. Several of the pioneer enterprises of Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, which established Boston's claims to leadership in the efforts to promote the practical applications of dietary knowledge, are now being carried on by the Union. The most notable of these are the New England Kitchen, which was established in 1890 for the purpose of demonstrating methods of supplying attractive and nutritious food at moderate prices, and the luncheons for high schools which were started in 1894 as the first American effort to deal in a scientific way with the nourishment of school children. It is evident that the information sought in this investigation is of fundamental importance in the formation of plans for the realiza- tion of the aims of the Union, namely, the promotion of the best practical methods for securing the educational, industrial and social advancement of women. In pursuance of these aims there has been much co-operation in public health activities and in efforts to secure legislation beneficial to working women. However, social obligations for the protection of the health of the future mothers of the race do 4 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. not end with the enactment and enforcement of laws preventing excessive hours of labor, and securing healthful places of work and suitable sanitary conveniences. Add to these the payment of an adequate wage and about all which society may fairly demand of the employer has been attained. The prevention of abuses must be supplemented by the more diflBcult task of educating the worker to a personal hygiene comparable to the sanitary conditions which the law exacts from her employer, and an expenditure of the wage which will insure the greatest possible strength and eflBciency. No argument is needed to prove the fundamental importance of the topics about which we have sought information. It is obvious that labor power is directly dependent on nutrition, and that the chief factor entering into the minimum wage, which society may en- force on the employer, is the cost of food. The increase in the num- ber of women who are working outside the home demands careful 'attention to problems connected with the maintenance of their vitality in order that industry may not draw too heavily on those reserves of energy necessary for racial continuance and development. The economic world deals. with these working women as individual units, hence it seems suitable to use this unit in studying their standards of living. The family has usually been the unit in previous investigations. While the minimum wage commissions have reported on the cost of living of women in different localities, their reports have not segregated the cost of food from expenditures for lodging, clothing and other items. It seems probable that the large cities of the United States afford the best opportunities for this study of the living conditions of individual working women because the unusual independence of American women, which has been fostered by social conditions promoting their safety, has increased their tendency to live outside of family groups. An investigation entering previously unexplored territory meets with the difficulties which are characteristic of pioneer enterprises. Records for which there has been little previous demand are rarely kept with care or accuracy. The choice of food has been left largely to instinct or chance, and the public has not been educated to an appreciation of the value of both personal and institutional account- ing in such matters. In the absence of reliable records we were forced to limit the scope of the study to the short period that could be covered by our investigators, or, in the case of institutions, to PREFACE. 5 resort to estimates which are not entirely reliable. In every case we have indicated the sources of our information so that readers may judge of its value. The work of our Research Department combines co-operation with individual responsibility. Mi^s Louise Moore, the assistant director, has been in immediate charge of the field work, and also has pre- pared the chapter on "The Food of Women living away from their Families." While there has been considerable co-operation in the field work, the three Fellows have devoted their attention chiefly to the topics about which they expected to write. The chapter on " The Noon Luncheon" was prepared by Miss May R. Lane; that on "The Food of Women living in Organized Houses" by Miss Ora M. Harnish; and the one deaUng with "The Food of Certain Dispen- sary Patients" by Miss Irene G. Farnham. Miss Lela Brown and Miss Miriam Segel of Simmons College, Miss Helen R. Hibbard of Wellesley College and Miss Esther M. Flint of Radcliffe College gave some assistance in the field work. The Boston Simmons Club also interested itself in obtaining individual schedules. Miss Margaret Sander, the secretary of the Research Department, rendered valuable assistance in the tabulation of data and preparation of tables. As these studies constitute a part of the training in social-economic in- vestigation given in the Research Department of the Women's Educa- tional and Industrial Union, the director has been responsible for planning, supervising and editing the work, and also has prepared the first and last chapters of the report. We are indebted to the officials of the Carnegie Nutrition Laboratory for permission to make use of the books and bibliographies collected in their library. LUCILE EAVES, Director of the Research Department, Women's Educational and Industrial Union. Boston, Jan. 15, 1917. Missing Page Missing Page 8 CONTENTS. Chaptek V. — FOOD OF CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. By Irene G. Faenham. Classification of women dispensary patients by age, nativity, occupation and marital condition. Characteristics of patients studied. Wages, occupa- tions and dispensary diagnoses. Kinds of food eaten during one week. Proportion of protein, carbohydrate and mineral containing foods in weekly diet. Food of patients suffering from specified disorders. Specimen menus. Preparation and service of food. Economic status of families of patients. Living conditions in relation to health of patients. Relation of industry to health. Hours of work reported by patients. Uses made of leisure time, . 126-160 Chapteb VI. — COMPARATIVE SUMMARIES AND CONSTRUCTIVE SUGGESTIONS. By LuciLE Eaves. Minimum lunch facilities for factories. Organization of employees' lunch rooms. Living plana of lone women. Growing patronage of restaurants. Light housekeeping, its advantages and disadvantages. Choice of food by women of different wage groups. Co-operative housekeeping. Modifications in the policies of the organized boarding houses. Food in relation to the health and eflSciency of working women, ........ 161-184 APPENDICES. A. — Forms of Inquiry used in this Investigation, . . . . 187-193 B. — List of Firms having an Employees' Cafeteria, 194, 195 C. — Methods of calculating the Variety of Food, ... . . 196-198 D. — Bibliography . . 199-202 Index, 205-213 LIST OF TABLES. Table page 1. Number and Per Cent, of Females Fourteen Years of Age and over engaged in Gainful Occupations in the Eight Largest Cities of the United States, classified by Age Groups. Based on the United States Census of 1910, ... 14 2. Number and Per Cent, of Females engaged in Gainful Occupations in the Eight Largest Cities in the United States who are not receiving Food as Part of their Wages, classified by Age Groups. Based on the United States Census of 1910, 15 3. Number and Per Cent, of Females Ten Years of Age and over in Gainful Occu- pations in the Eight Largest Cities of the United States, classified by Color, Nativity and Parentage. Based on the United States Census of 1910, . . 16 4. Index Nimibers showing Variations in Retail Prices of the Principal Articles of Food in the Eight Largest Cities of the United States on June 15, 1915. Prices in Boston used as the Base, . , . . . . . . .17 5. Retail Prices in the Eight Largest Cities of the United States of Groceries re- quired to furnish an Average Menu for a Working Woman for Twenty-eight Days 19 6. Methods by which the Women and Girls interviewed obtained their Noon Lunches, distributed by Kinds of Employment, ...... 21 7. Places where Noon Luncheon was eaten by Women and Girls engaged in Manu- facturing and Mercantile Pursuits and in Office Work in Boston City Proper, 22 8. Amount and Kind of Wage and Length of Noon Hour of Women and Girls in Factories and Factory Offices who brought Lunches from Home or bought them in Town 26 9. Reasons for buying Lunches in Town given by Women and Girls in Factories and Factory OflSces, classified according to Wages and Length of Noon Hour, . 27 10. Reasons for bringing Lunches from Home given by Women and Girls in Fac- tories and Factory Offices, classified according to Wages and Length of the Noon Hour, 28 11. Classification of Women and Girls employed in the Principal Factory District of Boston accorfling to Occupation and the Length of the Lunch Period, . 30 12. Use of Spare Time after Luncheon by Women and Girls in Factories and Fac- tory Offices, distributed according to Kind of Employment, . . .31 13. Use of Spare Time after Luncheon by Women and Girls in Department Stores of Boston City Proper, .......... 31 14. Women and Girls in Factories, Factory Offices and Department Stores, classi- fied according to Method of obtaining the Noon Luncheon, Parentage and Nativity 33 15. Extent of Use of Cooking Facilities by Women and Girls working in Factories and Factory Offices, .......... 36 16. Number of Times the Kinds of Foods appear in Lunch Menus of Women and Girls of English and Non-English Speaking Parentage working in Factories and Factory Offices who brought Lunches from Home, . . . 38, 39 17. Choice of Meat and Fish as Sandwich Fillings by Women and Girls of English and Non-English Speaking Parentage working in Factories and Factory Offices who brought Lunches from Home, ...... 41 18. Commercial Restaurants patronized by Women and Girls working in Factories and Factory Offices, classified according to Frequency of Buying, and Prices actually paid for Menus in Week of Interview, ...... 43 10 LIST OF TABLES. Table pa°e 19. Number of Times the Kinds of Food appear in the Lunch Menus of Women and Girls working in Factories and Factory Offices who bought Lunches in Com- mercial Restaurants, ....•••• ■*" 20. Reasons assigned by Women and Girls working in Department Stores in Boston for buying Lunches in Employees' Cafeterias rather than bringing them from Home, ... ■^S 21. Kinds of Food .and Prices at which they are offered in Eight Conmiercial Res- taurants patronized by Women and Girls working in Boston, as compared with Prices at which they are offered in Thirteen Employees' Cafeterias in Ten Cities, . . . ... . . 51, 52 22. Number of Times the Kinds of Food appear in Lunch Menus of Women and Girls in Department Stores, classified according to Method of obtaining Food, 55 23. Percentage and Frequency of bringing, buying and supplementing Lunches by Women and Girls working in Seven Department Stores of Boston who ate in Employees' Lunch Rooms, ... .... 56 24. Number of Times Certain Foods appear in Lunch Menus of Women and Girls in Department Stores who brought Lunches from Home and supplemented them by Food purchased in Employees' Cafeterias, .... 57 25. Patronage, Predominant Price paid for Lunches, Cost of Food and Labor per Week, and Approximate Expenditure per Week in Employees' Cafeterias in Twenty-five Factories, Stores and Offices in Sixteen Cities, . . 61 26. Living Arrangements of Women Sixteen Years of Age and over engaged in Gain- ful Occupations in the Eight Largest Cities in the United States, . . 66 27. Living Arrangements of Women engaged in Different Industries in Massachu- setts, ...... .... 67 28. Occupations of Two Hundred and Sixty-one Women living Adrift in Boston, 69 29. Age and Birthplace of Two Hundred and Sixty-one Working Women living away from their Families, ......... 70 30. Number of Women living away from their Families expending Specified Amounts for Food, by Wage Groups, ......... 74 31. Per Cent, of the Average Weekly Income of Women living away from their Families spent for Food, by Wage Groups, ...... 75 32. Number of Women living away from their Families expending Specified Amounts for Food and Rent, by Places of Residence, . . .77 33. Per Cent, of the Average Weekly Income of Women living away from their Families spent for Rent, by Wage Groups, . . . .77 34. Per Cent, of the Average Weekly Income of Women living away from their Families spent for Food and Lodging, by Wage Groups, . . . .78 35. Average Weekly Expenditures for Food and Lodging of Women living in New York City and in Ohio, by Wage Groups, ....... 79 36. Number of Women living away from their Families expending Specified Amounts for Food, Rent and Laundry, by Wage Groups, .... 82 37. Average Weekly Wage and Average Weekly Expenditure for Food, classified by Plans of Living of Women away from their Families, . ... 83 38. Frequency of Use in One Week of Tea and Coffee by Two Hundred and Sixty- one Women living away from their Families, by Wage Groups, ... 91 39. Frequency of Use in One Week of Certain Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of Two Hundred and Sixty-one Women living away from their Families, by Wage Groups, . 92 40. Frequency of Use in One Week of Protein Foods and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of Two Hundred and Sixty-one Women living away from their Families, by Wage Groups, . . 94 41. Frequency of Use in One Week of Carbohydrate Foods and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of Two Hundred and Sixty-one Women living away from their Families, by Wage Groups, . 95 LIST OF TABLES. 11 Table page 42. Frequency of Use in One Week of Foods containing Minerals and the Propor- tions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of Two Hun- dred and Sixty-one Women living away from their Families, by Wage Groups, 98 43. Capacity of the Different Types of Organized Houses in Boston and Vicinity, and the Number of Occupants at the Time of the Investigation, . . . 103 44. Occupations of Women living in Organized Houses in Boston and Vicinity, 104 45. The Proportion of Women Sixteen Years of Age and over in Selected Occupa^ tions in Boston, living away from their Families in 1900 and in 1910, . 105 46. Weekly Earnings of Eight Hundred and Eighteen Women living in Seven Sub- sidized Houses, ........ 105 47. The Purpose and Management of Eighteen Organized Houses offering Accom- modations to Working Women in Boston and Vicinity, . . 107, 108 48. The Cost and Variety of Food served in Twenty Organized Houses in Boston and Vicinity 110-112 49. Amount of Protein and Value of Calories of Food furnished by Eight Organized Houses in Boston and Vicinity. Based on Supplies used during One Week, . 115 50. Metabolism of Women engaged in Different Occupations, . .116 51. Source of Proteins consumed per Person per Day in Eight Organized Houses in Boston and Vicinity. Based on Supplies used during One Week, . . 118 52. Patients coming to Eight Dispensaries .in Boston, classified by Number of New Patients and Total Number of Visits from All Patients in One Year, 126 53. New Patients classified by Age and Sex. Data from Four Dispensaries, . 127 54. Women Sixteen Years of Age and over, classified by Participation in Gainful Occupations. Data from Four Dispensaries, ...... 129 56. Ferbale Dispensary Patients in Gainful Occupations, classified by Nativity and Age. Data from Four Dispensaries, ....... 130 56. Female Dispensary Patients in Gainful Occupations, el^sified by Occupation ' and Marital Condition. Data from Four Dispensaries, . . 131 57. Female Dispensary Patients in Gainful Occupations, classified by Dispensary . Departments and by Occupations. Data from Four Dispensaries, . . 133 58. 'Distribution by Age and Nativity of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, . . ' 134 69. Distribution by Occupation and Wage of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dis- pensary Patients, ...... 134 60. Occupations and Dispensary Diagnoses of One Hundred and Twenty-six Patients, 135 61. Frequency of Use in One Week of Certain Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, . ..... 136 62. Frequency of Use in One Week of Protein Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, ........ 137 63. Frequency of Use in One Week of Carbohydrate Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, ...... 139 64. Frequency of Use in One Week of Foods containing Minerals, and Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, ...... 141 65. Frequency of Use in One Week of Certain Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, by Nativity of Parents, .... 142 66. Frequency of Use in One Week of Protein Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, by Nativity of Parents, .... 144 67. Frequency of Use in One Week of Carbohydrate Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, by Nativity of Parents, .... 145 12 LIST OF TABLES. Table pagb 68. Frequency of Use in One Week of Foods containing Minerals, and the Propor- tions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hun- dred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, by Nativities of Parents, . 147 69. Frequency of Use in One Week of Certain Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients suffering from Constipation and Other Disorders, ... ... ..... 148 70. Frequency of Use in One Week of Protein Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients suffering from Constipation and Other Disorders, ... . .... 150 71. Frequency of Use in One Week of Carbohydrate Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients suffering from Constipation and Other Disorders, ............ 150 72. Frequency of Use in One Week of Foods containing Minerals, and the Propor- tions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hun- dred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients suffering from Constipation and Other Disorders, ........... 151 73. Economic Status of the Families of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, ............ 155 74. Weekly Hours of Work in Different Occupations reported by One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, .... . . 158 75. Uses made of Leisure Time by One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients, 159 76. Distribution by Height and Weight of Wage-earning Women registered in the Young Women's Christian Association Gymnasium Classes and of Wellesley College Students, . . 183 77. Frequency of Use in One Week of Certain Foods, and the Proportions which they constitute of the Total Weekly Range of Diet of One Hundred and Twenty-six Dispensary Patients from whom Twenty-one Meal and Six Meal Schedules were obtained, . . ...... 197 THE FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. CHAPTER I. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIELD STUDIED. This study of how working women are supplied with their daily bread was made in a community where the competition is more severe and the cost of food greater than in any other of the large cities of the United States. It deals with the cost and variety of food supplied under conditions varying from those of the hall bedroom with one gas burner to those of a large boarding house where 800 women are served in one dining room. It shows what women select for themselves, what their employers supply for them, and what is provided for them by benevolent societies organized for the purpose of furnishing wholesome living conditions at a minimum cost. The subjects discussed are factors of vital importance in the lives of half the women living in the largest cities of this country, since it is evident from the accompanying table that such a proportion of the women are at work during their minorities if not during their adult lives. The strain of the effort to earn their own support comes at an age when there is peculiar need that they be well nourished in order that they may meet the unusual physical demands of the passage from childhood to womanhood. In 5 of the 8 largest cities over half of the young girls are at work, and the percentages in the remaining 3 approach this proportion, while the total for these centers of our American civilization is 53 per cent. It is difiBcult to exaggerate the social significance of these facts. Boston falls below the average of the 8 cities in the proportion of her young women who are at work, but the high percentage of adult women dependent on their own exertions raises the total in gainful occupations above that of the other cities. One-third (32.5 per cent.) of the women fourteen years of age and over in the 8 largest cities are ;wage earners, but this percentage is not evenly distributed, as Pittsburg and Cleveland have 27 per cent. (Pittsburg 27.2 per cent., Cleveland 27.6 per cent.), while Boston has 10 per 14 POOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. cent, more (37.2 per cent.). The 4 cities having the highest pro- portion of adult women workers also have an excess of females in the population, while the remaining 4 cities have more males than females. However, it seems probable that this surplus of women is Table 1. — Number and Per Cent, of Females Fourteen Years of Age and Over engaged in Gainful Occupations in the Eight Largest Cities of the United States, classified by Age Groups. Based on the United States Census of 1910. * f Total Females 14 Females 14 Years Females 21 Years Years and Over. AND Under 21. AND Over. Cities. IN OAINFtTL in gainful IN GAINFUL In Popula- tion. OCCnPATIONS. In Popula- OCCUPATIONS. In Popula- OCCUP.ATIOSS. Num- Per tion. Num- Per tion. Num- Per ber. Cent. ber. Cent. . ber. Cent. The 8 cities, . 4,212,847 1,379,734 32.6 805,016 427,836 53.1 3,437,831 951,898 27.7 Boston, 259,063 96,283 37.2 41,175 20,302 49.3 217,888 75,981 34.9 Baltimore, . 219,816 77,445 35.3 40,690 20,979 51.6 179,126 56,466 31.5 Philadelphia, 693,017 199,993 33.7 104,125 58,686 56.4 488,892 141,307 28.9 New York, . . 1,743,986 585,571 33.6 342,946 188,319 54.9 1,401,040 397,252 28.4 Chicago, 779,702 236,615 30.4 153,073 81,133 53.0 626,629 155,482 24.8 St. Louis, . 261,468 77,510 29.6 48,832 23,407 47.9 212,636 54,103 25.4 Cleveland, . , . 196,677 64,742 27.8 37,667 19,312 51.3 158,910 35,430 22.3 Pittsburg, . 189,218 61,575 27.2 36,508 15,608 43.0 152,710 35,877 23.5 i The population of these 8 cities is 12.5 per cent, of the total population and 27.1 per cent, of the urban population of the United States. not the chief factor in promoting the tendency for Boston women to become self-supporting, since both Baltimore and Philadelphia have a greater excess of females in the population. Three-fourths (75.6 per cent.) of the women who are at work use a large portion of their earnings to purchase food, while the remain- ing fourth receive food as a part of their wages. The younger women who usually are members of family groups show a greater tendency to work for a money compensation, while as high as 29 per cent, of the adult women hold positions where food is supplied by their employers. Boston has the highest percentage of youthful workers who are earning a money wage, but the large number of adult women who are domestic servants, boarding and lodging- house keepers and nurses lowers the proportion of those receiving no food as a part of their compensation below the average for the 8 largest cities. The American standard of living is frequently given a conspicuous place in the discussion of subjects like those considered in this study, yet less than one-fourth of the working women found in the 8 largest CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIELD STUDIED. 15 cities, and but little over one-fifth of those living in Boston, are native-born whites of native-born parents. In Boston, New York, Chicago and Cleveland about three-fourths of the women in gainful occupations are of foreign or mixed parentage. These women with family traditions and habits brought from foreign lands suffer from the double strain of industrial and dietary readjustment. Too little Table 2. — Number and Per Cent, of Females engaged in Gainful Occupations in the Eight Largest Cities in the United States who are not receiving Food as Part of their Wages, classified by Age Groups. * Based on the United States Census of 1910. ToTAi, Females 11 Females U Years Females 21 Years Years and Over. AND Under 21. AND Over. NOT RECEIVING NOT receiving NOT RECEIVING Cities. In Gain- FOOD AS In Gain- FOOD AS FOOD AS ful Occupa- PART OF WAGE. lul Occupa- PART OF WAGE. ful Occupa- PART OF WAGE. tions. Num- Per tions. Num- Per tions. Num- Per ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. The 8 cities, . 1,379,734 1,042,921 75.6 427,836 365,356 85.4 961,898 677,565 71.0 Boston, 96,283 70,362 73.1 20,302 17,945 88.4 75,981 52,417 69.0 Baltimore, . 77,445 57,287 74.0 20,979 17,061 81.3 56,466 40,226 71.2 Pliiladelphia, 199,993 149,378 74.7 58,686 51,683 88. 1 141,307 97,695 69.1 New York, . 585,371 440,910 75.2 188,319 159,760 84.3 397,232 281,150 70.8 Chicago, 236,615 187,615 79.3 81,133 71,240 87.8 165,482 116,375 74.8 St. Louis, . 77,510 68,943 76.0 23,407 19,660 84.0 54,103 39,283 72.6 Cleveland, . 64,742 43,189 78.9 19,312 16,439 85.1 35,430 26,750 75.5 PittsbuTB, 51,575 35,237 68.3 15,698 11,568 73.7 35,877 23,669 66.0 1 This classification excludes servants, midwives and nurses (not trained), houselceepers and steward- esses, boarding and lodging-house Iseepers, and trained nurses. attention has been given to the difficulties that must arise when bodily needs created by the conditions of an Old World environment must be satisfied with supplies found in American markets. Cost of Food iisr Boston. A study of the retail prices collected by the Federal Bureau of Labor Statistics shows that the cost of food in Boston is from 3 to 16 per cent, higher than in other large cities of the United States. An exhaustive investigation is needed to determine the complex factors entering into retail prices. At present no reasonable explana- tions can be offered for many of the variations shown in the table of index numbers (Table 4). The variations in the cost of a bill of groceries required to feed a working woman for four weeks show this same difference between Boston and the other large cities (Table 5). An average menu was 16 FOOD OF WOBKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. .s^ 1 s *5 ^3 O a 9 g S S ■* t« 00 U3 r* N e« O 'tf' ^ CO *-< CO 04 US -^ C4 -*< S S tD O CD e« 00 00 OS •* N CO to C4 U3 ca <«< o e» r^ c4 U3 ej CO e o r« Q t^ IS ^ d S C4 *M oo oo CO CO lO CO S o S S :s =* e '-'^ Ob ^1 ^ CO <« t«. '« »^ eo e« 8SSSSSSS CO eo iM CO ^H M iM t- ^< v4 S a g — ■i.2 .2 3 a ■» .S 6 II CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIELD STUDIED. 17 Table 4. — Index Numbers showing Variations in Retail Prices of the Principal Articles, of Food in the Eight Largest Cities of the United States on June 15, 1916. Prices in Boston used as the Base 1 CrriES. Commodities. ■2 ■i 0. bO oj d s 1 1 1 p .a S E Combined index numbers, . . , . 100 87 91 91 97 96 94 84 Foods containing much protein: — AH proteina combined Cnuok roast, per pound. 100 83 89 88 92 94 93 83 100 91 93 97 92 101 95 92 Rib roast, per pound, .... 100 74 85 82 91 87 85 79 Round ateak, per pound. 100 67 66 63 77 79 73 74 Sirloin steak, per pound. 100 72 74 73 77 86 80 75 Ham, smoked, per pound, . 100 93 113 88 88 116 121 92 Pork chops, per pound, Leg of lamb, per i»und, 100 86 88 97 101 102 96 85 100 81 88 87 72 88 ■ 92 84 Hens, per pound, 100 83 79 85 88 94 100 75 Sahuon, per can, 100 79 111 94 109 91 94 85 Eggs, per dozen, 100 70 75 83 95 85 74 66 Cheese, American, per pound, 100 98 97 100 96 101 97 85 Milk, per quart, . ... 100 100 91 88 102 91 105 91 Beans, per pound, .... 100 85 96 100 112 99 98 92 Foods containing starch and similar carbo- hydrates: ■— Cereals combined, . . . . 100 86 88 90 94 87 92 84 Corn meal, per pound, . Flour, wheat, ii barrel bag, . 100 69 82 83 94 76 85 74 100 90 85 92 94 90 94 83 Rice, per pound, . . . . 100 100 97 95 94 96 97 94 Foods characterized by sugars: — Sugars combined, 2 . 100 97 102 101 101 101 103 98 . Prunes, per pound 100 97 107 106 111 106 102 104 Raisins, per pound Sugar, granulated, per pound. 100 98 103 92 100 100 103 93 100 96 95 104 93 96 104 97 Fatty foods: — Fatty foods combined 100 95 102 102 98 103 103 89 Bacon, smoked, per pound, . 100 86 113 103 97 103 112 95 Butter, per pound, .... 100 107 93 99 97. 112 101 94 Lard, per pound 100 93 100 103 101 95 95 79 Foods containing mineral substances and organic acids: — Vegetables and fruits combined. 100 85 87 90 109 100 89 78 Corn, per can, , 100 70 78 81 99 87 71 64 Onions, yellow, per pound, . 100 86 S3 87 99 85 102 67 Oranges, per dozen , . . . . 100 83 89 91 105 94 92 83 Peas, per can 100 77 85 97 104 90 80 74 Potatoes, per peck, ' . . . . 100 119 93 93 155 157 108 103 Tomatoes, per can, .... 100 77 93 91 90 89 78 75 Beverages having no nutritive value: — Beverages combined 100 86 93 84 84 97 92 86 CofEee, per pound, .... 100 71 90 88 86 89 82 73 Tea, per pound, 100 100 95 79 81 104 102 99 1 This table waa prepared from data published in Bulletin No. 184 of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. The prices were collected from retail dealers selling largely to the families of wage earners, the number of dealers reporting varying from 4 to 15. In preparing this table we obtained the arithmetic aver- age of the prices quoted on June 15, 1915, and then used the Boston prices as the base on which to calculate the percentages of variation in the other 7 cities. Between June, 1915, and March, 1917, there was a general advance in prices of 33 per cent. 2 This rough classification of foods follows a plan suggested by C. F. Langworthy. (Scientific Monthly, II., p. 303, March, 1916.) Obviously many of the food items belong in several groups, as the various meats contain much fat, prunra and raisina are valuable for their mineral substances, potatoes contain carbo- hydrates and protein, and the cereals supply both proteins and mineral substances. 3 These numbers were based on the first six months of 1915. 18 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. obtained by tabulating the data given on 77 schedules which re- ported the food eaten by working women for the 21 meals of one week. The average number of times in which different food items appeared was as follows: — Meat, . . . .8.3 Cake, Fish,, . . . 2.1 Pastry,. Eggs, 2.4 Pudding, Sandwiches, . . 1.7 Salad, . Cereal, . . .3.7 Coffee, Bread, . . .15.2 Tea, . Soup, . .3.4 Cocoa, Fruit, . . . .8.2 Milk, ... Vegetables, . . . .14.4 4.9 2.3 4.5 1.9 4.5 3.5. 2.1 1.7 If a corresponding list of foods is selected from those whose prices are reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and the different items are distributed in menus for one week, a bill of fare like the following will result : — Breakfast. Lunch. Supper, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday, Stewed prunes. Bacon and egg. Bread and butter. Coffee. Orange. Cornmeal mush. Coffee. Orange. Rice. Tea. Orange. Bread and butter. Coffee. Orange. Rice. Coffee. Orange. Egg. Bread and butter. Tea. Orange. Cornmeal mush. Coffee. Lamb stew (potato^ and onions). Cabinet pudding. Roast beef hash. Corn or peas. Bread and butter. Pie. Country sausage. French-fried potatoes. Indian pudding. Bread and butter. Cold ham. Bread and butter. Rice pudding. Beans. Bread and butter. Stewed tomatoes. Pie. Roast beef. Mashed potatoes. Cake. Bread and butter. Soup. Creamed chicken on toast. Potatoes. Peas. Rice pudding. Bread and butter. Stewed onions. Bread and butter. Cold ham. Cake. Milk. Potatoes. Prunes, Cocoa. Bread and butter. Bread and butter. Canned corn. Rice pudding. Milk. Beef stew (onions and potatoes). Cake. Tea. Soup. Cheese. * Potato salad. Bread and butter. Cake. Soup. Canned peas. Cheese. ^ Bread and butter. Cake. Bread and butter. Cocoa. Potato salad. Chicken sajidwich. 1 As prices for fish are not quoted in the Labor Bureau bulletins reporting retail prices, cheese appears twice in place of fish which occurs in the schedules. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIELD STUDIED. 19 Table 5. — Retail Prices in the Eight Largest Cities of the United States of Groceries required to furnish an Average Menu for a Working Woman for Twenty-eight Days. Commodities. ^ Cities. d o n n Total cost, . Proteins combined, Rib roast, 2 pounds. Ham, smoked, 2 pounds, Leg of lamb, 1 pound, Hens, 2 pounds, Eggs, 2 dozen, . Cheese, 1 pound. Milk, 6 quarts, . Beans, 1 pound. Starches combined. Com meal, 2 pounds. Flour, wheat, 12K pounds, Rice, 1 pound. Sugars combined. Prunes, 2 x>ounds, Sugar, 4 pounds. Fatty foods combined. Butter, 3 pounds. Lard, H pound. Vegetables and fruits combined. Corn, 2 cans. Onions, 3 pounds. Oranges, 2 dozen,' . Peas, 2 cans, ... Potatoes, 1 peck,> . Tomatoes, 2 cans. Beverages combined, . Coffee, }4 pound. Tea, H pound, . . . . $7 77 3 25 27 60 66 24 S3 07 74 07 57 10 53 26 27 1 14 1 06 08 1 87 28 13 75 28 18 25 24 17 07 16 84 2 74 37 45 22 41 46 24 53 06 66 05 51 10 51 25 26 1 20 1 13 07 1 54 20 11 60 22 22 19 19 12 07 36 96 2 86 42 55 23 39 49 23 43 07 64 06 49 09 54 28 26 1 07 1 63 22 11 66 24 17 23 22 15 07 (7 02 2 79 23 42 54 24 46 07 67 06 52 09 56 28 23 1 13 1 05 08 1 67 23 11 66 28 17 22 20 IS 05 17 50 2 99 4S 43 19 44 63 23 54 03 70 07 54 09 54 29 25 1 11 1 03 t7 54 3 OS 43 57 23 47 56 24 48 07 66 06 51 09 54 28 26 1 26 1 19 07 1 31 25 11 68 26 29 22 22 15 07 (7 32 3 10 42 69 25 SO 49 23 55 07 70 06 54 10 S4 26 28 1 14 1 07 07 1 63 20 13 16 44 2 63 39 45 22 37 44 21 48 07 62 OS 48 09 53 27 26 1 06 1 00 06 1 41 18 09 56 21 19 18 19 12 07 1 This bill of groceries will furnish a little over 2,500 calories per day. The prices are averages of those quoted in Bulletin No. 184, United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. In March, 1917, prices were 33 per cent, higher than those used in computing this table. 3 The average prices of California and Florida oranges were used. a Numbers based on first six months of 1915. / A woman living alone would find it difficult to prepare such a bill of fare, as she would be unable to bake bread, cake and pastry. She could not make an economical use of canned vegetables, meat stews or roasts. The women who furnished the schedules usually pur- chased one or more meals each day at restaurants or boarding houses, and in some cases prepared breakfasts and suppers, in their rooms. When obtained in these ways their food for one week cost them about $3.65. However, the prices of raw materials are im- portant factors in determining all charges for food, and no doubt their higher cost in Boston makes it more difficult for working women to obtain adequate nourishment. 20 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. CHAPTER II. THE NOON LUNCHEON. Method and Scope of the Investigation.^ The first step taken in a survey of the noon luncheon in Boston was to compile from the registers and directories of 1915 a card catalogue of business firnis, listing the names and addresses of firms engaged in industries in which, according to the Federal Occupation Census of 1910, women in Boston are principally employed. By the co-operation of the Massachusetts Board of Labor and Industries the addresses of establishments employing 10 or more women and girls were obtained from lists prepared by the factory inspectors. There are 381 of these larger establishments with a total of 22,563 women and girls employed in the city proper, which is bounded in the main by Atlantic Avenue, Dover, Berkeley and Charles streets. It was manifestly impossible to include in a noon luncheon survey all of these 381 firms, since the method of investigation permitted the visiting at the noon hour of but one firm a day, and the time of the survey was confined to the winter months, December to ]\Iarch. It was decided, therefore, to limit the survey to a study of conditions in the principal factory district and in the shopping or mercantile districts. The 702 women and girls interviewed in these factory and mer- cantile districts of Boston city proper include 462 in manufacturing pursuits, 137 in mercantile pursuits and 103 in office work. The factory district in which the intensive part of the study was made is represented by 521 schedules, or 26 per cent, of the women and girls employed in its 52 factories and factory offices. In the mercantile district 7 of the largest department stores which have employees' lunch rooms were visited, and 181 schedules were secured from the women and girls therein employed. Although this number of inter- views is small in proportion to the total number of employees in these stores, at least 25 schedules were obtained at random from each place. For purposes of comparison with the factory schedules they 1 For forma of inquiry, see Appendix A, Noa. 2 and 3. THE NOON LUNCHEON. 21 I s s s ^ n ■*j ■ s ^ a a CO ua CO ^ P 5 < w H S s *** s i o ^ U3 g S Is M V CO W ■* , a 1^ « «n CO CO CD •3 >>-^ « (N CS) o 5, « ' % CO 3 OS 00 § • sl^i 00 rt* g IM z ja 3^ a ^£ & fr- in CO TlH to CO o f^-m^g. 1 1 o t. lO •* s o QO CJ oi o CO 00 iO & :^ 1 t^ S t- J^ o (5 .u \o 00 <£> g CN '-' p z _^ s o o o O o d o 1 § s .s o eu h3 *-' i a t^ lO ^ t- CO o o B p I? CO TJH § 1 B O i i" 's g *a 3 C- g ■£ ft „ hH >. o ^ Q. 1 1 1 1 8 3 es £ 1 < S s o 22 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. afford a true picture of the luncheon resources and of the life of the employees at the noon hour. Comparison of the living arrangements of this group and of those in retail stores made by the Minimum Wage Commission^ shows them to be a typical group. One-half (50 per cent.) of the factory women were sewing on women's wearing apparel, one-sixth (17.3 per cent.) on men's clothing, and one-tenth (11.5 per cent.) on hats and millinery. One hundred and forty-five women were employed in 4 of the factory offices. Table 7. — Places where Noon Luncheons were eaten by Women and Girls en- gaged in Manufacturing and Mercantile Pursuits and in Office Work in Boston City Proper. Total. Women and Gibls engaged in — Places of eating Ltinch. MANTjrACTUH- INQ PDBStriTS. MEECANTILB FUItSUITS. OFFICE WORK. Num. ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. All the places 702 100.0 462 100.0 137 100.0 103 100.0 Commercial lunch rooms, . 127 18.1 74 16.0 16 11.7 37 35.9 Employees' cafeterias, . 153 21.8 16 3.5 110 80.3 27 26.2 Employees* dining rooms, . 25 3.6 1 .2 9 6.6 15 14.6 Employees' dressing rooms. 9 1.3 - - 9 8.7 Dining tables in workrooms, 47 6.7 47 10.2 - - Power sewing machines. 186 26.5 177 38.3 - 9 8.7 Work tables or desks in workrooms or offices. Home, 130 24 18.5 3.4 126 20 27.3 4.3 2 1.4 4 2 3.9 2.0 No lunch. 1 .1 1 .2 - - ' The method followed throughout the study was to secure a per- sonal interview with the manager or employer; obtain permission to talk with employees while at their lunch; secure individual schedules fi;om the women and girls at that time; and personally inspect the accommodations provided for eating and resting at the noon hour. Commercial lunch rooms of the cafeteria or counter- service type which were patronized by those workers who were buy- ing lunches in town were visited, their managers interviewed ■ and their equipment observed and scheduled. A similar study was made ' Massachusetts Minimum Wage Commission, Wages of Women in Retail Stores in Massachusetts, Bulletin No. 6, March, 1916, p. 45. THE NOON LUNCHEON. 23 of the employees' cafeterias of the large department stores, and individual schedules were secured from women in a variety of mer- cantile establishments. By means of a questionnaire, information was obtained from 33 firms in cities other than Boston. Methods of obtaining and serving Noon Lunches. The majority of factory workers brought their lunches from home, while the mercantile and office employees showed a greater disposi- tion to buy lunches. Of the 702 women and girls interviewed, 420 brought lunches from home, 257 bought them in town, 24 went home at noon for dinner and 1 ate no luncheon. Eighty (80.3) per cent, of those engaged in manufacturing (Table 6) brought their lunches five or six days a week, and only 20 (19.7) per cent, bought lunches in town. These percentages were reversed (18.5 and 81.5) for women in mercantile pursuits. Sixty (59.4) per cent, of the factory and department store office women bought lunches in town, and 40 (40.6) per cent, brought lunches from home.^ When the power was shut down at 12 o'clock two-thirds (65.6 per cent.) of the factory women remained at their places of work. They spread their lunches on the machines or tables at which they had been stitching garments, sewing hats or furs, ironing, pressing, drafting, cutting or packing goods. Their food often came in con- tact with the goods being manufactured, or else with the tops of the machines and tables. In some places machine oil, dust, chalk, lint and trimmings of cloth were present, and where fur garments were being made or repaired there was danger of contact with particles of arsenic used in the preservation of the pelts. Three of the 52 firms had work tables cleared and covered with wrapping paper or oil cloth. The large department stores of Boston have made generous pro- visions for feeding their employees, hence the high percentage (80.3) of mercantile workers who patronize these cafeterias. Only 1 of the factories made this provision, and but 3.5 per cent, of the factory workers were able to obtain hot food at cost. A partial luncheon service was found in 1 department store and 1 factory, where com- fortable rooms with tables and gas or electric stoves were provided. 1 These percentages are conservative for those who bring and masimuin for those who buy, since only those who brought lunches for the entire week were counted as bringers of lunches. Women who had not purchased lunches within the week, but who said they sometimes went out to lunch, were counted as occasional buyers. 24 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Matrons in charge kept these rooms clean and attractive.^ The employees prepared such hot dishes as they wished, using their own supplies. In 1 factory lunches were eaten in the coat or dressing room. Factory office workers usually patronized the commercial lunch rooms. Factoes determining the Bringing of Lunches. Several factors determine the bringing of lunches. The most important of these are: — 1. The amount and kind of wages. 2. The length of the noon hour. 3. The character of the employment. 4. The nationality of the worker and of her parents. Amount and Kind of Wages. The wages of a woman factory worker rarely permit the purchase of a warm noon meal. Half of the women engaged in manufacturing (47.9 per cent.) reported their earnings for the previous week as less than $8, a fourth (23.8 per cent.) received $8 to $9, and three-fourths (72.2 per cent.) less than $9. Irregularity of employment makes the situation worse when earnings are distributed through the year. A pay-roll study made in 1915 by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics ^ showed that of 708 women employed in 5 representative ready-to-wear dress and waist factories in Boston, 75.6 per cent, earned on an average less than $8, as compared with 47.9 per cent, in the present study, and that 83.4 per cent, earned less than S9 instead of 72.2 per cent, as reported for the one week covered in this investigation. Results similar to the Federal study were obtained in an investigation of 36 garment-making establishments located in 7 cities of the State, made by the Massachusetts Minimum Wage Commission in 1915.^ The largest number of workers received S5 as an average wage instead of $8 as in the present survey. A further study of the wages of the factory women shows that the piece workers, who were subject to a greater physical strain than those paid on a time-rate basis, were usually found in the lowest * Regularity of Employment in the Women's Ready-to-Wear Garment Industries, United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, October, 1916, Bulletin No. 183, pp. 67, 125. X Wages of Women in Clothing Factories in Massachusetts, Massachusetts Minimum Wage Commis- sion, September, 1916, Bulletin No. 9, pp. 23, 24. THE NOON LUNCHEON. 25 Wage groups. They were operating power-stitching and addressing machines, and were engaged in the semi-skilled processes of manu- facturing, such as folding, ironing, pressing, pasting, labeling, packing, making bows and running ribbons, examining, stock checking and distributing. Only 26 stitchers and sewers and 4 of these semi- skilled workers earned more than $8 per week."- Evidently the women in manufacturing processes who are spending the inost energy in the more exhausting kinds of employment are the ones who are lea^ able to purchase lunches. Ninety-seven (97.3) per cent, of these low-wage piece workers ate cold lunches brought from home. The majority of the women engaged in the occupations demanding less physical exertion were earning wages which permitted the occa- sional or regular purchase of a hot noon meal. Designers, fore- women and others in responsible positions, together with the factory office workers, reported $8 to $18 per week. The women employed in the department stores and the general office workers also were usually found in this higher wage group. The minimum wage in retail stores was fixed in 1915 at $8.50.^ The managers of all the large department stores in Boston voluntarily agreed to establish this wage, so that approximately 11,000 of the women who are en- gaged in salesmanship in these stores are financially able to purchase lunches if they wish to do so. A study * of the wages of women in general office work made in 1914 by the Women's Educational and Industrial Union showed that for these workers also the situa- tion is far better than it is for factory workers; the largest number were found in the $12 wage group, and 83.5 per cent, of them earned more than $8. Only 20 of the HI women who bought lunches earned less than $8, and 3 of these were time workers at $7 a week. While the necessity for economy was an important if not the chief reason which led so large a portion of the low-wage group to bring lunches from home, only a fifth (20.9 per cent.) of those inter- viewed gave this reason. Over a third (37.1 per cent.) of them said they disliked restaurant food or preferred home cooking (Table 10). However, .the higher wage group, who were frequent patrons 1 The Brush Makers' Wage Board of the Massachusetts Minimum Wage Commission reported in 1914 as follows: "Allowing for variationa between individuals, the wage board is convinced that the simi required to Iteep alive and in health a completely self-supporting woman in Boston is in no case less than S8, aind in many cases may rise to $9 or more." Second Annual Report, Massachusetts Minimum Wage Commission, p. 9. 2 Massachusetts Minimum Wage Commission Bulletin No. 12, p. 11. ' Allinson, May. The Public Schools and Women in OfiSoe Service, Women's Educational and In- dustrial Union (Boston, 1914), pp. 113, 114. 26 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. 3 li ^ e Cb Si ^ to ^ IS g. e 1 8tQ I I i o . na K O ss s o Q < z 1 § O o h3 Forty- five to Sixty Minutes. S 00 M ■«# ^1 « M 1 ' ^ ^ -1* M 1 2 , ^ w 1 n i S r- ^ - „^*Mt^^(M (M I-H 1 CO M ' eo 2 S M tH sooOf-o-*oOMr-»-9< oo ^ 1-' s i o . s ^ o o ■< z 1 z c p |- Forty- five to Sixty Minutes. « CO US o 5S .13 3 •^ B oo U3 00 O 1 a o < O Q s 1^ e s s SSSgSS"''''- B g s r» g 2gSSS§'-""2 1 a 3 8 s? s sgggS52'-^=; Ij i S5 !5 5! 1 -< H ! a 1 1 1 8 $6 and le^B than $7, $7 and less than $8, Living wage, $8 and less than $9, $9 and less than 110, $10 and less than $11, $11 and less than $12, $12 and less than $13, $13 and more,' VVitgc not reported. -3 V s s E H S 3 -S — .2 £ THE NOON LUNCHEON. 27 8 f ^ .1 sS ~=^ i5 s? 6 J 1 te; tS 'Is" s -fi s s OS M ^ J5 Si g o o CO f-l N lO .-1 e> CO 6 s -- N s o6 ?4 S3 «* CO 11 1 fc g .s s — « « »o 00 00 CO N SS gl 1 a a "^ i ut 1 00 us IS a d 1 1 ' 2 (2 )■ a N ^ 1 6* to t- C4 C- ° 6 o e^ 00 t^ d d M -di CO 1 s M o ^ 1 1 1 Q t- S; ^ ^ < (1h ^ H s s 1 g , CO M I t^ ^ 1 1 ^- O » ^ .4 1 +9 o ■* lO Oi i-H a i> o CO J 1 d ci s o» s ^ CO ci rt 1 3 00 m CO t- o CB CO (M ■* j3 e^ CO H 3 m V ^ o 1 M a .S3 o o a 'o a 1 1 S id m g T3 1 '3 1 [-1 £ i 1 •H » ja a 1 -0 & 8 •o 1 1 3 so P ■S o C9 *€ » s § s o s g to "a J3 ■3 a 1 O s s d 1 a 1 1 t d 1 o 5 .a 1 1 1 ■s d p 1 1 28 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. I S 5 ? -^ IS' S 5 -I I ■£ c« ,- ^ ;z; n»i o Ci M OT « t- •f*" 00 (9 oo 1 1 s i u 1 1 U3 ^ M '"' 1 O g OS M ^ 00 o CO o Z ;; Q ^- n 6 O o t- ■-« "H ■* e s o - ^ « t- ^ '^ m < Jz, s a ^ r- 1 s 1 ^ z ^ •p a s oo 00 s r^ O « CO eo ca ' ^ •» as K • E. S s XI s s S3 00 CO o M ■* ■* ■* 00 s Si !z; O i3 o •**< U3 CO to ^ r^ 00 ^ s s b- ss fQ o o M M ' ' % i & 1 s m ^H r^ CO 1 ,^ s a ^ i o i-t Ca CO eo t- OS ifl t^ ^ 6 s CO S IT* c* t^ *- M t^ M ' o & 1 i ^ s t* s K ;^ s •a OS S 00 s s a Z fc o H 1 t ^ •3 s 1 1 a S 1 i 3 O B a c ■§ P 3 c a < 1 S c 1 c .2 C 3 1 a P 1 THE NOON LUNCHEON, 29 of cafeterias and restaurants, said they bought the noon meal be- cause they disliked cold, dry lunches, or preferred hot food, or found it inconvenient to pack a lunch (Table 9). Length of the Noon Hour. The third (33.6 per cent.) of the women whose low wages pre- vented the purchase of lunches were also the workers who were al- lowed the shortest noon intervals. "There's no time to go," one worker said, " and I always spend 25 cents which I cannot afford." Thirty minutes, the minimum legal requirement,^ was reported by 30.8 per cent, of the semi-skilled workers and by 36.1 per cent, of the machine stitchers (Table 11). "I would like to go, and used to often when I had an hour in another factory," said one of these women. A number of managers claimed that the workers chose the short noon period in order that they might have Saturday after- noon free, but it is hardly justifiable to claim that the time gained was needed for work, when a recent survey ^ has shown that most of these women were employed on an average of 38 to 49 hours a week, and that only 5 out of 446 employees in the Massachusetts clothing industry averaged as many as fifty-four hours per week. Only 16 who bought lunches have the short period at noon (Table 9). The schedules of 8 of these show that they sent an office mes- senger boy to commercial restaurants before 12 o'clock to purchase the noon ineal which they ate in the factory. By clubbing together they found that they could have greater variety at less expense. Eight who had thirty minutes left the building, but only 1, a time worker who reported $10 a week for wages, bought lunch regularly. Three of the 8 patronized a restaurant across the street from the factory, and 5 walked to restaurants less than three blocks away. The factory office and saleswomen usually had a 60-minute noon hour (Table 11), as did also the 181 women interviewed in the de- partment stores. These were more fortunate than those engaged in the low-wage manufacturing, processes in that they had opportunities for rest and relaxation. The full noon hour is the custom with women in office positions and salesmanship, and they have never been asked to sacrifice any of their noon time, even when they have '■ General Acts of MassachuBetts, 1909, chapter 514, section 68. ' Massachusetts Minimum Wage Commission, Wages of Women in Women's Clothing Factories in Massachusetts, Bulletin No. 9, September, 1915, p. 29. 30 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. been given the half day off on Saturday. The reduction of the legal hours of employment to an eight-hour day, or else an exten- sion of the legal requirement for the noon period to sixty minutes, is necessary in order to restore the noon hour of the factory workers to its traditional length. Character of Employment. The character of the work performed, as well as the wages and the length of the noon hour, influences the leaving of the building at noon either for food or exercise. Manufacturing processes require or permit the wearing of work clothes or aprons, and it takes "too much time" or is "too much trouble" to doff them for street gar- ments, especially if there is but thirty minutes for lunch. Nine per Table 11. — Classification of Women and Girls employed in the Principal Factory District of Boston according to Occupation and the Length of the Lunch Period. Total. Women AND Girls having pob Noon Hoitb — Kinds op Employment.' THIRTY MINUTES. FORTY-PIVE MINUTES. SIXTY MmUTES. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. All occupations, . 621 100.0 134 25.7 Ill 21.3 276 53.0 Manufacturing pursuits. 447 100.0 133 29.7 95 21.3 219 49.0 stitchers and other power ma- chine operators. Hand sewers and finishers, 277 89 100,0 100.0 100 10 36.1 11.3 56 16 20.2 17.9 121 63 43.7 70.8 other semi-skilled workers, 65 100.0 20 30.8 16 24.6 29 44.6 Designers, cutters, managers, etc. Factory saleswomen, . 16 3 100.0 100.0 3 18.8 7 43.7 6 3 37.5 100.0 Office work, ... 71 100.0 1 1.4 16 22.5 54 76.1 cent, more stitchers and hand sewers never leave than workers in the semi-skilled processes, and 12 per cent, more piece workers than time workers. "We have to plow right in and make what we can, and I'd rather rest than go out," said one of the workers. Taken together, more than 50 (51.2) per cent, of those in manufacturing processes never leave the building, whereas office women, sales- THE NOON LUNCHEON. 31 Table 12. — Use of Spare Time after Luncheon by Women and Girls in Fac- tories and Factory Offices, distributed according to Kind of Employment. Uses of Spabe Time. Total Women. Power- machine Operators. Sewers and Semi-skilled Workers. Draftees, Managers, Sales AND Office Women. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. AUuses Talking with others, . Reading newspapers, magazines and books. Besting at tables or machines, . Sewing, embroidering and cro- cheting. Working, Walking for air and exercise, Doing errands or shopping. Dancing and singing, . No time to spare, Other uses, .... Not reported. 521 122 46 16 19 39 56 40 15 116 10 42 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 ioo.o 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 277 68 29 12 12 24 17 18 3 75 3 16 53.1 55. S 63.0 75.0 63.2 61.5 30.3 45.0 20.0 64.7 30.0 38.1 154 44 16 4 6 13 18 13 7 13 6 15 29.6 36.0 34.8 25.0 31.6 33.3 32.1 32.5 46.7 11.2 50.0 35.7 90 10 1 1 2 21 9 5 28 2 11 17.3 8.2 2.2 5.2 5.2 37.6 22.5 33.3 24.1 20.0 26.2 Table 13. — Use of Spare Time after Luncheon by Women and Girls in Department Stores of Boston City Proper. Uses of Spare Time in Department Stores. Number. Per Cent. AUuses Walking 181 62 21 4 37 30 13 5 3 6 100.0 34.3 11.6 Dancing or singing, 2.2 20.4 Talking with others. 16.6 Resting Sewing, embroidering, crocheting, . No spare time Not reported, .... 7.2 2.8 1.6 3.3 32 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. women and those in responsible positions reported that they usually left the building at noon. The quieter ways of spending spare time reported by the ma- chine stitchers showed their need of this period of relaxation. Rest- ing at tables or machines, reading newspapers, sewing for them- selves, embroidering, crocheting and conversing were the uses of spare time reported by them (Table 12). Stitchers, who are usually piece workers, are tempted to use spare time at noon for work; of the 39 who reported this use of time 29 were power-machine stitchers. Sewers and semi-skilled workers avail themselves about equally of the restful and active recreations, and those in responsible positions and office work go out regularly for exercise or lunch or shopping, or else dance and sing if they remain in the factory. One hundred and sixteen, or more than 22.3 per cent, of the factory women, had no spare time after luncheon, and all of these either had thirty minutes for the noon hour or used the longer period to go home to dinner. Without exception all the women interviewed in the department stores had a full hour at noon, and the use made of spare time after eating luncheon depended very much upon the amount of space devoted to the comfort and accommodation of the employees and upon the adequacy of its equipment. Often the women sat reading or chatting at the lunch tables, but this could not be done if the room was small, for successive relays of employees made it necessary for those who came first to depart promptly. One store had a lunch room large enough so that the employees could remain at the tables if they wished, and there was also room at one end for groups to- dance, play the piano and sing. Five of the department stores had rest or recreation rooms in addition to the lunch rooms. Thirty-six per cent, of the women reported that they never left the building at noon, and as many more (37.5 per cent.) only went occasionally. Half of the women (47 per cent.) occupied themselves with the quieter recreations, such as reading newspapers, talking with friends, resting, sewing, embroidering or crocheting, and half (48.1 per cent.) went for walks, did errands or shopping, or danced and sang in the recreation rooms (Table 13). Most of the women named two uses of spare time, and these secondary uses are slightly in favor of the restful recreations. No one used her spare time in working as was done by a number (39) of the women in the factories. Those who THE NOON LUNCHEON. 33 I' C3 «0 '"to II 1 f^ w ^ 5S, 1 O 1 •i^ s c o fc-^ ^ s ^ '■li ^ r* oo CQ »o 11 ^i 1-t ■* cq a,; N -H -. 1 ^ 1 1M 1 ^•° f-S t* (N o m CQ o o o 1 ^6 o e^ o OO o U5 o 00 lO h- o ^ s a (M CO CO 1 z-^ a oi ^6 CO CO t^ CO oo oo "* o o o o S o s « lO a. 1- M - es ^ ^§ ,^ ^^ ' ' I Si ^u a. 1- ^ ■^ N IM Oi 1 ^ ' a e^ a> 00 a O) t^ CO "* O & 01 «^ s 00 o o o to t- § « ^.; o o t^ c» o 00 ^ lO B l« •"• a 2-^ a u-J ■* eo •t ^ » „^ S e> 00 o OO n gs ^^d oz a^- t^ oo CO M t» (M U3 j F? a* > 5 1 1 1 1 a bO ta §. g ft ii a s bD a n, 1 p ^ Kl oT ! -fS g s "m 1 ■a a g •2 d 1 a a N S5 rf N ;< o "S- k ^ ■f >< 3 1 1 o »— t § % H -9J qOU QS'Q%X191'B^ O ^5 ^ C C^ "^ •ejaqio •qsrpaAig •UBuiieo •UBI]Bqi JO uBissn^ 'WX •qo^oog ■Tisii3i;a •nmpBnBQ •qsiq ■uBOTjeray •IB^OX fi"^ « ^ ^ a J "a 15 go 1-^ I coTfneo 1 I I I I (M u3 toe^m I I r- I ^-^^ i m^^ i r (m^ I r I I »-' I «> — iOM»H«e« t- I l-M I M— I I iFH^ CO I I I I I I e<3 us (MC^Ni-l I « US coco *1 CO ONN «o -cH t^ 00 <« (O U3 (r4 ^1^ I I 0-^^m e-aoe4ncs ^-^a coco^ ^ -*i-i eo«»a— « ev 52 00 ooc^gp50si>Q <-4 r. e^ ^ (c w ■« iQ^ c& ^. .-2 . . "a m" . g 2 g . of III n m OQ s R C0 00 CO eo t^ (N ■* Tjf / 00 ■T}< CO C£) CO eo ca CO t» t- ^ CD N M •O (M eo CO O CO ,, 1^ IN CD CO ,eo ^ 3 p. S 13 o 5 o M •3 V g U fl •M a © Si g a B 3 s a z ->J Z 40 FOOD or WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. ence in the variety chosen by these groups as a whole, and for those nationalities which did not bring certain kinds of food the number of schedules and of menus was too small to conclude that they do not eat them. Women of American and of Jewish parentage re- ported the largest variety of foods. The protein diet for all women consisted chiefly of meat, fish, eggs and cheese, used in sandwiches and supplemented often by plain bread and butter. Meats were brought more by women of English speaking parentage, and fish, eggs and cheese by women of non-English speaking parentage. National diet was most noticeable, however, in the kinds of bread, of meats and of fish, of vegetables and of fruit reported in the menus. \Yomen of English speaking parentage brought chiefly white bread, but others brought rye or graham, sliced, or in loaves to be cut off when eaten, or thin like large pancakes and broken into portions convenient to handle. A large number of the menus of the Irish, Scotch, Jews and Italians include plain bread and butter. Ham and roast beef were the most popular meats for sandwiches with women of all nationalities except the Russian and Polish Jews, who preferred corned beef and chicken. Chicken is the third choice for all except the Hebrews and the Irish, who chose lamb oftener, and the Germans, who preferred Frankfurters (Table 17). Fish used in sandwiches were chiefly the small, dry or salt varieties, or else kinds that are easily minced. Salmon was the most popular, herring next and sardines third. The Jews and Italians are the chief eaters of this form of protein diet. Eggs were reported oftenest in the menus of women of Irish, Jewish and American descent, and cheese was used chiefly by Canadians, Italians, Jews and Americans, its frequency being in the order named. Vegetables are most palatable when hot, and since it was not always convenient to warm over food in the factories, and since this kind of food must be brought in jars or tumblers thereby increasing the size and weight of the lunch bundle, they do not appear so conspicuously in the menus of women who ate lunches in the factory as they do in those purchased in the commercial restaurants and em- ployees' cafeterias. Potatoes were brought oftenest by Americans and baked beans by Americans and Irish. Peppers and onions were most popular with Italians, 15.9 per cent, of whose food items were these vegetables as compared with 4.4 per cent, of the vegetable jood of women of English speaking parentage. THE NOON LUNCHEON. 41 OQ s 6 S" s; CO ^^ i-O •s ■§ e •*< i i :^ m n Not reported. cs iM 00 eo ea o> c* "* iMwioua co oo tj* t-i .-t ■* g < i !i 11 « mS"* ' ^'^ ' "^ ' ^'^'^ ^ 1 -^ I 1 I i 1 o t-- ift I** cq M 1 ,-( 1 I 1 (KIN CO 1 1 i 1 CO 111 O C<5«'«S'0"*l'-(i«'*l— "-t MTi*CQT-lNCO 1 (N »ft Ol CO M O iH N 00 ■* .-no ■* t^ -^Ji Tjl — 1 (N O < 1 o S a H & I S ^ ^cq^** ' ^'^'^ " "'^^ ^'^ 1 1 1 1 s oi oi oo lo M ■* »i5 eg .-« i i i »-( 1 1 1 1 1 i CO eof-i 1 < 00 O0M.-(i-l § iH -* ITS 00 t- «0 -"JHO ^ i-l CC (D ■* t-MM 1 1 « Total Times ICinda of Meat and Fish were reported in Menus brought from Home. 1 ssBssssa^iirss sgssa^g i i All sandwiches. Meat Ham, . . . . Hoast beef, Cliicken, . Lamb, Pork, ... . . Frankfurter, TonfTie, Dried beef. Cold meat, not specified. Others,' . Fish, . Salmon, Sardines, . Herring, . . . . Lachs, Others,* . . s S Oi «o (M ■* M ■Wi ■* OO fc. g •g s. 1 1 S .^ II CO ^t* e i i-d t- to 00 00 M , M 1 CO to ^" o Ttl II ra g-dg Ui ' '^ 1 ' ^ 1 1 w ' ^ ' 1 M "go n ^ ■^ 00 l>- N -* 1 1 ^ w 1 sil 1 lis o fa t- lO »o ^ 1 1 1 1 1 -^ »o 1 a fil c^ S aS 9 o lO - - - 1 - ' 1 - t 1 ^ m ^-a B «■» «3» CO I ^ 1 1 J 1 1 1 1 « 1 ia^ ^i6 1 k^ lO ta CO lO W 1 ^ 1 eq cs ^ o eS 2 6 d o kI O OS o CD '"' M •* ^ iM '"' ' 1 '"' ^ U ^Q g a ^ iri t- ' eq 1 '-' 1 M I ' 1 '-' tH rt » mfl P W 03* M CO ^ C-^ CO CO 1 d 1 § fe flH fe m ^ s CO CO •^ Oi (M N CO H Xi OO o d "^ Ei] to 1 fl o r- us Ifl 00 CO CO Oi an 1^ oo » i O 1 3 00 0» •«!fi Tii ■* ^ ^ eo -«i H fa ^ flH O K ^^ r- o l-H CO U3 lO !M (M ■* CO CO S2 .2 c^ M n a '-f fa 3 Z i P5 ■ 3^ §1 a < « d Q H fe" d a t-T 13 . S 4A .*3 -*s -ta ■p ■^ ^ 'B a d d d s] 1^ h t b b b =1 s ^ 5 m gt i s 1 _rt 5 ^ ^ s S 1 o <3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o 44 POOD OP WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. to town, chiefly from Somerville and Lynn, early in the morning, with their large hampers. They have no stores, but stock up at the markets, and from 10 to 1 o'clock go quickly on regular routes through a number of buildings in which they are given the sole right to sell fruit, chocolate bars, nuts and gum. One vender v\hen ques- tioned said that he had been in the country five years, and that his profits averaged $2.50 to S3 a day. Most of the managers en- couraged these venders to come in, and they were reported by the women to be very generally patronized. Two or three managers, however, did not permit them to sell in the factory workroom, for they feared the workers would be tempted to depend upon such purchases for an entire lunch. Another said that the prices of the fruit were too high. "It is cheaper to buy at a fruit store where you can get 2 oranges, bananas or apples for 5 cents, but of course sometimes one forgets to buy or has other bundles." Not many women ate chocolate bars and candies with their noon lunches, and most of them seemed to bring their own fruit. Nevertheless, fruit vending is a resource in an emergency, and as such is to be com- mended. The Luncheon purchased by Factory Workers in Commercial Restaurants. Although the home supplied the lunches of most of the women in factories and factory offices, the commercial restaurant was a lunch- eon resource for a small group of workers who purchased their lunches in town. Of the 521 factory women interviewed, 53 pur- chased their lunches every day, and 58 more bought them frequently or occasionally (Table 18). These buyers of lunches were chiefly office women in the higher wage group, who had forty-five or sixty minutes at noon (Table 11). A fourth of them (25.9 per cent.) gave as a reason for buying rather than bringing lunches the inconven- ience of putting up a lunch at home. Nearly a third of them (29.9 per cent.) said they were only occasional buyers because of the cost of the commercial lunches or because of the shortness of the noon hour (Table 9). The restaurant lunch appeared to be more attrac- tive than the home lunch in that it offered hot food and a change of diet instead of a cold, dry lunch. The restaurants patronized by these women were chiefly of the counter or cafeteria type of service. Nine of them were located in THE NOON LUNCHEON. 45 the immediate factory district, or very near, and a string of stores are maintained by the most popular ones. The health department of the city which inspects the 1,500 or more restaurants rates Restau- rants A, B, C and D as superior in methods and equipment to some first-class hotels. Restaurant A (Table 18) had the most attractive equipment and cafeteria service. Restaurants B and C had counter service, and D had table service. Restaurant C was the one most often praised for the flavor of its food, and was regularly patronized by the largest percentage of the buyers of lunches (14.4 per cent.). The variety of foods reported in the menus purchased at the com- mercial restaurants was greater by 7 items than in the lunches brought from home, and the list of vegetables and desserts was longer. The average menu, however, had 3 (2.6) items instead of 4 (3.6), as the home menus had (Tables 16 and 19), but the meal was probably as nourishing and certainly hotter than the home lunch, even though the buyer did not eat as many portions or kinds of food. The most popular items were meat, potatoes and pie. Hot dishes took the place of the sandwiches of the home lunch, and fish was reported oftener but bread was reported in about the same propor- tion. Pie and coffee in the restaurant lunch surpassed cake and tea in popularity. The amount spent for luncheon was chiefly 25 cents, 45.3 per cent, of the buyers giving this as the price actually paid for a luncheon the items of which were also reported (Table 18). In Restaurant A, where there was cafeteria service, lunches were the least expensive, and were purchased at 15 and 20 cents, but in Restaurants B and C, 20 and 25 cents were the prices quoted, and attendance was more regular in these two because the food was liked. The prices at which the kinds of food were offered in the bills of fare of 8 of the restau- rants patronized by the women interviewed (Table 21) are interest- ing in connection with the make-up of the typical menu and the predominant price paid for it, — 3 food items at 25 cents. The beverage and dessert, reported oftenest, were 5 cents each, and the remaining 15 cents was spent for a hot dish or a hot dish and vege- table. Sandwiches at 5 and 10 cents each were offered frequently and fruit occasionally, but women did not buy them, though both were characteristic of the luncheon brought from home. All the restaurants offered combinations of food at special prices. One of them offered daily 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 35 cent specials, also a num- 46 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. ber of salad, meat and vegetable combinations for a quarter, a lunch special of a sandwich, cake, ice cream and coffee for a quarter, and a dessert special of ice cream, cake and beverage for 15 cents. The best combination for a quarter was offered at the most popular restaurant, and consisted of meat, potato, a vegetable and any 5- cent dessert. A vegetable dinner was offered here also for a quarter. Table 19. — Number of Times the Kinds of Food appear in the Lunch Mentis of Women and Girls working in Factories and Factory Offices, who bought Lunches in Commercial Restaurants. Total Times. Kinds of Food. Total Times. Kinds of Food. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. AU.foods, Soup, . . Hot dishes, . Meat, ... Spaghetti or macaroni. Cheese and macaroni. Vegetables, Potatoes, Peas, Corn, Baked beans. Asparagus, Tomatoes, Beans, Succotash, Cabbage, others, , Salads, Bread and butter. 307' 26 45 26 2 11 1 5 50 25 1 3 1 4 5 2 2 2 5 2 38 100.0 8.4 14.7 16.3 .7 12.4 Desserts, Cake, Pie, . Ice cream. Doughnuts, Coffee jelly. Puddings, French pastry, Apple dumpUngs, Eclairs, Fruit, etc., Oranges, Apples, Bananas, Preserves, Others, Relishes, Beverages, Tea, . Coffee, Milk, Cocoa, 60 14 20 2 3 4 7 4 3 3 10 2 1 1 1 5 2 74 18 49 3 4 19.5 3.2 .7 24.1 1 Number of schedules. 111; number ot kinds of food, 37; average number of food items per menu, 2.6. Still another restaurant offered eggs cooked in many attractive combinations, and fruits, cereals, cheese and nuts were conspicuous on the bill of fare. The price paid for a luncheon in a commercial restaurant is beyond the means of the average factory worker. The definite sum of 15 cents is firmly established in her mind as an allowance for the noon meal. If she has attended one of the high schools of the city she has been accustomed to pay 10 cents for a satisfactory lunch, and could have purchased a substantial meal for 15 cents, as a recent investigation of the school lunch system has shown. When, as a THE nOon luncheon. 47 working girl, she contributes her pay envelope to the family income she receives back from her mother each day 25 cents for car fare and lunch. If her sister is a salesgirl in a Boston department store she probably buys her luncheon in an employees' cafeteria for 15 cents. Everywhere in the popular mind 15 cents is the standard allow- ance for luncheon for a working girl or woman. Since 1911 the cost of food and of other essentials of the standard of living has been investigated in 12 States as a basis for minimum wage legislation, and in 2 of these separate consideration was given to the lunch problem. Both in New York/ where investigators called at the homes of the workers for information, and in Ohio,^ where the cost • of luncheon was one of the expenditures entered by the women in account books, it was found that 15 cents was the amount most often quoted. Estimates of social workers in Boston^ have also placed the standard allowance at 15 cents. The results of the present investigation indicate that office workers and others in responsible positions who are earning as much as $8 a week on time work are the only ones who patronize the restaurants. They form but one-fifth of the entire group interviewed. For these the commercial restaurant is a convenient resource, but, like the box lunch and the fruit vending, it does not offer to four-fifths of the factory women a satisfactory solution of the problem of securing a luncheon in town when it is desirable or necessary for them to do so. The Luncheon of Women in Department Stokes. The women in the department stores of Boston have a far more normal noon hour, and they are surrounded by more of the comforts and amenities of life than are the women working in factories and factory offices. Instead of eating in workrooms at tables or ma- chines, where their lunches are frequently in contact with the goods being manufactured, the saleswomen leave their counters and mer- chandise to spend an hour eating and resting in rooms provided for their use. AH of the department stores of Boston city proper have lunch rooms for their employees, and in 7 of them food is sold on the cafeteria plan at cost or at very low prices. Four other department * Fourth Report of the New York State Factory Investigating Commission, 1915, Vol. IV., p. 512. 2 Cost of Living of Worldng Women in Ohio, State Department of Investigation and Statistics, Report 14, 1915. ' Report of Massachusetts Commission on Minimum Wage Boards, January, 1912, p. 224. 48 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. stores have rooms where lunches brought from home may be eaten, and one of them has cooking faciUties for the use of the employees. The employees' cafeterias of the large department stores are located high up in the store buildings, where there is plenty of light and air. Most of the rooms have hardwood or linoleum floors, white or tinted walls, and curtains or shades at the windows. Usually the tables are bare, but white linen is used in one store, oilcloth covers in another and white vitrolite slabs in another. From 11 until 2 or 3 o'clock groups of employees arrive at the lunch room by elevator, Table 20. — Reasons assigned by Women and Girls working in Department Stores in Boston for buying Lunches in Employees' Cafeterias rather than bringing them from Home. Reasons. All reasons, Inconvenience of putting up lunch, Just as pheap to buy as to bring lunch. The quality of the food is good. Preference for variety and hot foods, Lunch not included in board, . Other reasons, No reasons given. Total Women. Num- ber. 145! 48 27 26 17 4 3 20 Per Cent. 100.0 33.1 18.6 18.0 11.7 2.S 2.0 13.8 Cafe- teria A. Cafe- teria B. Cafe- teria C. 26 10 Cafe- teria D. Cafe- teria E. Cafe- teria F. Lunch Room G.i 10' 1 1 Food was not sold in this lunch room, but buyers purchased their lunches at a commercial lunch room within the store. 2 One schedule omitted from this table was secured in a store not personally visited. ' Twenty-five schedules from each store were secured, except 26 in C; the remainder of the 25 in E, F and G brought lunches from home. form a "bread line" in front of the food counter, and as they walk along, study the menu for the day, posted on the wall. With tray in hand they receive their orders promptly from the servers, pay the • cashier as they leave the line, take silver, glasses and paper napkins, and seat themselves at the tables to eat and converse. The lunch rooms were used by all the employees, whether they brought their lunches from home or purchased them at the lunch- room cafeteria. Of the 25 or more women interviewed in each of the 7 stores, 80 per cent. (Table 23) bought their lunches. Nearly 20 THE NOON LUNCHEON. 49 (18.2) per cent, brought their entire luncheon from home every day, but they were chiefly employed in 2 stores, in one of which there was no cafeteria equipment and in the other there were complaints of undercooked food. Only two women in the department stores went home to dinner. The reasons given for buying lunches in these employees' cafeterias rather than bringing them from home were chiefly tributes to the convenience of the lunch room and the quality and inexpensiveness of the food. One-third (33.1 per cent.) of the group said that it took too much time and was too much trouble to put up a lunch in the morning. Nearly one-fifth (18.6 per cent.) said it was just about as cheap to buy a lunch at the cafeteria as it was to bring it, and about a third (29.7 per cent.) more said that the cafeteria food was good, and that they enjoyed having a change from the home diet, or that they liked something hot to eat and drink for luncheon (Table 20). These reasons agree with those given by factory women for buying lunches in the public restaurants as to the greater convenience of doing so (25.9 per cent.), and as to a preference for variety and hot food (Table 9), but they are in marked contrast to the reasons given by the factory women who brought lunches from home and ate them at work tables or machines. These said chiefly (27.8 per cent.) that they preferred home food, and that the commercial lunches were too expensive to buy (Table 10), whereas women who ate lunches at employees' cafeterias said they liked the food, and that it was just as cheap to buy a lunch as to bring one. Only 6 of the 181 women in the stores said that it cost too much to buy a lunch at the cafeterias. Comparison of the Quality and Prices of Food in Restau- rants AND Employees' Cafeterias. The superior quality and the low prices of the food, according to the statements of the women themselves, were reasons for the differ- ence in patronage of the commercial restaurants and of the em- ployees' cafeterias. Managers of the cafeterias were well aware of the necessity of pleasiijg the workers with food of good quality. " They are like one big family, and they'd go somewhere else or bring all their lunch from home if they didn't like the food," said one man- 50 FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. ager. Another told how he secured canned vegetables by contract from the producer, and paid the highest prices for fresh vegetables, meat and fish, in order to be sure of getting the best quality. Then, too, the price paid for a satisfactory lunch in the cafeterias was but 15 cents, whereas it was 25 cents in the restaurants. As has been shown, 15 cents is the price a working woman feels she can afiPord to pay for the noon meal. A comparison of the prices charged per serving in the restaurants with the prices charged in employees' cafeterias explains why it is that the women in the factories and factory offices paid 10 cents more when they purchased a luncheon than did women in the de- partment stores. Printed bills of fare were secured from 8 of the Boston restaurants patronized by the factory women, from 6 of the employees' cafeterias in Boston department stores, and by mail from 7 cafeterias in stores, factories and offices in other cities. These 21 restaurants and employees' cafeterias are located in 10 different cities, — Boston, Framingham, Philadelphia, New York, Washington, Rochester, Cleveland, Toledo, Buffalo and Indianapolis. Even amounts of money, as 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 cents, etc., were charged for servings in commercial restaurants, but in the employees' cafeterias odd amounts, as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 cents up to 10 and 11 cents, were charged. The range in prices (Table 21) in the restaurants was from 5 to 35 cents, whereas in the cafeterias it was from 1 to 20 cents. The prices most often charged in the commercial restaurants were 5, 10 and 15 cents, but those in the cafeterias were 3, 5 and 10 cents. The principal prices for the kinds of food group by group also vary considerably. Hot dishes and sandwiches are 10 and 15 cents in restaurants, while they are 5 cents in cafeterias. Vegetables are 5 and 10 cents in restaurants, but only 3 and 5 in employees' cafe- terias. Salads are 10 to 30 cents in the former, but only 5 and 10 cents in the latter. Bread and butter is 5 cents and 2 cents. Des- serts are 5 and 10 in one, whereas they are but 5 in the other. Beverages are 5 cents in restaurants and only 3 in cafeterias. Special combinations of food for a lunch range from 15 to 35 cents in the restaurants, but from 12 to 20 cents in the cafeterias. The protein foods are 10, 15, 25 and 30 cents in restaurants, the one dish alone costing as much if not more than a working girl can afford to pay for her entire lunch. In cafeterias, however, salads alone of the protein group are as much as 10 cents, while for 15 cents a working THE NOON LUNCHEON. 51 Table 21. — Kinds of Food and Prices at which they are offered in Eight Com- mercial Restaurants patronized by Women and Girls working in Boston as compared with Prices at which they are offered in Thirteen Employees' Cafe- terias in Ten Cities. Eight Commercial Keb- Thiktben Employees' TAnEANTS N Boston. ■ Cafeterias in 10 Cities. Kinds of Food. Predominant Prices charged per Serving (Cents). Lowest and Highest Prices charged per Serving (Cents). Predominant Prices charged per Serving (Cents). Lowest and Highest Prices charged per Serving (Cents). Hot dishes: — Soup, 10 5-15 6 2-10 Stew, . 20 5-25 8 5-12 Chowder, . . . . 10 5-15 5 3-12 Broth . . 10 10-15 5 4-6 Meat 15 15-35 10 4-20 Fish,, . ... 10, 15, 20 10-30 5 5-12 Sggs, ... . . 15,25 10-30 6 5-12 Cheese and macaroni, . 10 10-15 5 4-6 Sandwiches: — Meat 10 5-35 6 5-8 Fish . . 15 5-30 5 3-S Salad roll 5 5-20 5 5 Cheese and olive, .... 5 5-15 5 6 Egg 10 10-25 6 5 Lettuce, .... 10 5-15 5 3-5 Fruit and nut 5,10 5-10 5 5 Vegetables: — Potatoes, 10 6-10 3 2-6 Baked beans 10 5-15 6 3-6 Peas 6 5-10 5 3-5 Corn 5 5-10 5 3-5 Others 5 5-10 3 3 Salads; - M,eat Fish 30 15-30 10 5-20 30 15-30 10 5-16 Vegetable, . . . . 15 5-20 5,10 4-10 Potato 10 5-20 10 5-10 Egg 20 15-25 6,10 5-10 Fruit 15,20 10-25 10 4-10 Bread, rolls, etc 5,10 6-10 1 1-5 Butter - 1 1 Toast or. crackers 5,10 6-15 1 1 Desserts: — Cake 5 6 4 1-4 Pie . . 5 6-10 5 4-5 Ice cream, 10 6-15 5 3-8 Sundaes 10 10 5 5 • Doughnuts, . 5 5 1,2 1-2 Jelly; 5 6-10 5 3-6 Pudding, . ... 5 6-10 5 3-6 Baked apple. 5 5-15 6 3-5 Custards, ... S, 10 5-10 5 5 Fruit: — Oranges 5 5 3 3-5 Bananas, . . - . 5 5 2,3 2-3 Preserves, 5 6 5 3-5 Kelishes: - Pickles 6 5 1 1 Others, ... ... 5 6 1 1 52 POOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Table 21. — Kinds of Food and Prices at which they are offered in Eight Com- mercial Restaurants patronized by Women and Girls working in Boston as compared with Prices at which they are offered in Thirteen Employees' Cafe- terias in Ten Cities — Con. Eight Commebcial Ees- TAtJHANTS IN BoSTON. Thibteen Emplotees' Capetebias in 10 Cities. Kinds of Food. Predominant Prices charged per Serving (Cents). Lowest and Highest Prices charged per Serving (Cents). Predominant Prices charged per Serving (Cents). Lowest and Highest Prices charged per Serving (Cents). Beverages: — Tea, ... . . Coffee, Milk, . Cocoa, Sodas, . Special combination. Box lunch 5 5 5 5 5 25 5 5 5 5 5-10 15-35 3 3 3 3 5 15 10 2-5 2-5 1-5 3-5 5 12-20 10 girl can buy one kind of protein food, a vegetable, a dessert and a beverage. This is the same lunch for which she pays 25 cents in the commercial restaurants. It might be thought that the retail prices of food in the different cities would vary according to the cost of production and distribution. Such was not the case on the bills of fare described above. Appar- ently those retail prices which the patron will pay are charged both in the restaurants and employees' cafeterias. Typical bills of fare from 3 employees' cafeterias in Boston, Buffalo and Washington, D. C, follow: — Boston. Cents. ' Cents. Fish chowder, . 12 Crackers, 3 for ... 1 Sliced tongue, . 10 Cookies, 2 for . 1 Potato saladj . 5 Cake 3 Broiled sweet potato, 5 Pie, 4 Butter beans, . 5 Tea, . 2 Sliced tomatoes, 5 Coffee, . 3 Sardine sandwich, . 5 Cocoa, 3 Bread pudding and sauce, . 6 Milk, . . . 3 Rolls, 1 Candy, . 1 Butter, . 1 Crullers, . 2 THE NOON LUNCHEON. 53 Vegetable soup, ... Roast beef, mashed potatoes, bread and butter, coffee or tea or milk, ... Frankfurters and potato salad, . Washington. Cents. 15 10 Egg salad, rolls and butter. Mashed potatoes, . Stewed tomatoes, . Spaghetti, Ice cream. Cents. . 10 . 3 3 . 3 . 5 Buffalo. Beef croquette, tomato sauce, scalloped potatoes, bread or rolls, coffee or tea or cocoa or milk, pudding or pie or ice cream, Clam chowder, Swiss steak, gravy, Cheese souf0.6, Beef croquette, tomato sauce. Codfish cake, . Baked beans, . Scalloped potatoes, Steamed squash, Wax beans, .... Baking powder biscuit, . Cents. 20 3 12 5 10 5 3 3 4 3 1 Cents. White bread, . . . . 2 Butter, ... .1 Rye bread, 2 Graham bread, .... 2 Grapefruit salad, . . IQ Compote of rice with peaches, . 3 Pineapple pie, .... 4 Stewed prunes, .... 3 Vanilla ice cream, .... 3 Walnut sundae, .... 6 Coffee, 3 Tea, green or black, with lemon or milk, per cup, .... 3 Cocoa, whipped cream, . . 3 Milk, ... .3 Consideration should be given to the fact that the public restau- rant exists as an investment for business profit, whereas the cafeteria in department stores is established to contribute to the efficiency and health of the employees. One is commercial, the other is sub- sidized; one expects to make as much or more profit than the money could earn at interest in the bank, the other expects to cover merely the expense of food and labor and to pay little or nothing of the cost of rent, light, heat and upkeep. Women working in large groups in factories and stores willingly wait on themselves, knowing that this reduces the expense of the daily meal. In some cafeterias they also return the trays and dishes to a counter or dish carriage, thus saving the cost of labor in clearing away. In other places where both self service and table service are used an extra charge of 5 cents is made for the latter. A number of dairy lunches, lunch counters, "one-arm" ^ places ' Bestaurants providing chairs with wide arms rather than tables or counters. 54 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. and commercial cafeterias are to be found in Boston, but even m these prices are higher than a working woman can pay regularly for a satisfactory meal at noon. Managers of two of the commercial cafeterias have calculated the avel'age price paid by women in these places to be 18 cents. Their patrons, however, include shoppers as well as working women, and the fact that the price quoted is an average shows that the actual cost of some of the lunches ranged above as well as below the 18 cents, and while this is undoubtedly lower than the restaurant average it is still beyond the price of 15 cents to which the working woman tries to limit herself, and the fact remains that any commercial lunch room cannot be regularly patronized by women who are earning low wages. Composition of the Lunches in the Depahtment Stores. Women working in department stores had, on the whole, a more satisfactory luncheon than did women in the factories. The average number of items per menu was 4.3, as compared with 3.6 in the factories and 2.6 in the commercial restaurants (Tables 16, 19 and 22), and the list of foods was longer than either by 7 items. About 50 (53.6) per cent, of those who bought lunches purchased the entire luncheon, and 46.5 per cent, bought something every day (Table 23). A typical menu purchased entirely in a cafeteria consisted of a hot dish, bread and butter, dessert and a beverage. The principal hot dish chosen was meat, and it was often though not always accompanied by baked potatoes; pie and cake were chosen about equally for desserts; and tea and coffee were reported twice as often as meat, and just as often as all the hot dishes together. These hot beverages were chosen equally in the cafeterias, whereas coffee was found 'to be the favorite in the restaurants and tea in the factories. Sandwiches were not purchased at all in either place, but bread and butter and desserts were purchased more than they were brought from home. Women in department stores ate their noon meal in the employees' lunch room, but they were not obliged to purchase their food there; 20 per cent, of those interviewed brought their entire lunch from home, and nearly 30 (27.1) per cent, brought the regulation lunch of sandwiches, bread and butter, fruit and dessert, and supplemented THE NOON LUNCHEON. 55 Table 22. — Number of Times the Kinds of Food appear in Lunch Menus of Women and Girls in Department Stores, classified according to Method of obtaining Food. Total Times Kinds op Food appear IN Lunch Menus. Number or Times Kinds op Food were re- ported IN Lunch Mbnu^ BY Women who — Kinds op Food. Number. Per Cent. Bought it in Employees' Cafeterias. Brought it from Home. AlHooda 1,264' 100.0 725 539 Soup 34 2.7 24 10 Hotdiah 111 8.8 111 ■ Meat, . 56 - 56 Fish 24 24 Eggs 1 1 Macaroni and cheese, .... 30 30 Sandwiches, 144 11.4 144 Meat, . . .... 73 - 73 Fish 17 17 Egg, . . .... 3 - 3 Cheese 19 - 19 Jelly or jam, .... 20 20 Nut and sugar, . i 4 Peanut butter 6 - 6 Others 2 ' 2 Vegetables, ... . . 113 9.0 98 15 Potatoes 66 - 55 11 Peas, . . .... 12 12 - Corn, . . . •: . . 8 S Lettuce, . . ... 8 8 - Baked beans 5 4 1 Others 14 11 3 Salads 16 1.3 13 3 240 19.0 138 102 Desserts 287 22.7 167 120 Cake 126 - 50 76 Pie 76 57 19 Icecream, 29 29 - Doughnuts 15 7 8 Cheese 8 7 1 CoSee jelly 10 - 8 2 Puddings 10 7 3 Cookies 10 1 9 French pastry 3 1 2 Fruit, candy, etc 133 10.5 41 92 Apples 62 37 15 10 47 27 Bananas, 17 5 12 Preserves, 9 7 2 Chocolates 5 3 2 Pop corn, 3 * 1 2 Belishes, 11 .8 5 6 Beverages, 175 89 13.8 128 56 47 33 Coffee, 60 54 6 Milk 15 - 14 1 Cocoa, 9 - 2 2 7 2 • Number oJ schedules for above information, 179, which excludes two who go home to dinner; number of menus, 298. Buyers numbered 146 and had 226 menus; bringera numbered 107 and had 158 menus. The average number of items per menu was 4.3. Seventy-four schedules are repeated, since food was both bought and brought. 56 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. CO s ,3 s e ^1 o e § ^ as s a g 8 Jfc, "1 .§" J s ^ =Q s CO (M n ^ tj § ^H •1 2*^ Q ^ ^ 1 1 gia irf ;S __— Sf.Z s 5k ^ (N 94 1 1 g & 1 • _^ J o. la O c*a CO "* ■^ iO »o o (U a ^ g s 00 2 w _jj olS . § ^ '^ cs « o a s a S o i>^ CJ U3 CO & ca CM CO e:B§pg s OS an CO to lO "W- 3 ^i B S ■ s CO oo kO o o 1 s g s s 1 s s s ea n ^"^ z •♦3 M t^ C3 t- o 00 00 ^ «s 1 eq s 1 ?? s t* ■s ^^ ^ g 1 1 1 1 H s 1 1 ^ g Eh Si 00 s ^ »2 EH K H g i s 1 s / 1 w § Q 1 SP o 1 .2^ 1 5 1 o 1 THE NOON LUNCHEON. 57 them with a vegetable, dessert or beverage purchased in the cafeteria (Table 23). Thus they could procure a heartier meal and spend but 5 or 10 cents daily. This percentage, though based on small num- bers, was approximately true in each of the stores. Meat and cheese Table 24. — Number of Times Certain Foods appear in Lunch Menus of Women and Girls in Department Stores who brought Lunches from Home and sup- plemented them by Food purchased in Employees' Cafeterias. ^ Times the Times the Kind of Food Kind of Food APPEARED IN APPEARED in Kinds of Food brought Lunch Menus. Kinds of Food bought Lunch Menus. FHOM Home. TO SUPPLEMENT — Num- Per Num- Per ber. Cent. ber. Cent. All foods, . 210 100.0 All foods. 110 100.0 Sandwiches, 77 32.1 Hot dishes, . 12 U.O Meat, 42 - Soup or chowder. 1 Fish, 7 Meat, 4 Egg, . . . Cheese, . 2 Fish, ... 2 11 Cheese and macaroni, S Jelly or jam, 9 Peanut butter. 4 Vegetables, . 16 14.5 Others, . 2 Potatoes, Peas, 9 1 ~ Vegetables, 2 .9 Corn, Baked beans. 1 3 Salads,. . 1 .4 Rice, 2 Bread and butter. 64 26.6 Salads, 7 6.4 Desserts, 39 16.2 Bread and butter, 3 2.7 Cake, 28 - Pie, . . . 2 Desserts, 24 21.8 Doughnuts, 1 Cake, 6 - Cheese, 1 Pie, . 8 Cookies, . 7 Ice cream. Doughnuts, 7 1 Fruit, candy, nuts, etc.. 47 19.6 Cookies, . 1 Otanges, . 23 - Puddings, 1 Apples, 13 Bananas, 6 Relishes, 2 1.8 Preserves, 1 - Chocolates, .... 2 Beverages, 46 41.8 Popcorn and nuts, . 2 Tea, . Coffee, 14 28 ~ Relishes, . ... 1 .4 Milk, Cocoa, 3 1 Beverages, 9 3.8 Tea, 7 - Milk, 1 Cecoa, 1 Number of schedules, 49; of menus, 86. sandwiches, bread and butter, cake, oranges and apples held their own in the lunch brought from home (Table 22), just as they did in the factories, but not so many fish and egg sandwiches were brought, partly because there were fewer foreigners, and partly because these foods taste better when freshly prepared. The foods purchased as 58 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. supplementary to those brought from home were chiefly coffee, tea, meat or fish, cheese and macaroni, salad, potatoes, pie, cake and ice cream. Those who brought tea to the cafeterias had the use of cooking facilities or hot water, as was the case in the factories. Whenever the women are allowed to make it for themselves, tea is undoubtedly the favorite beverage for the noon meal. General Survey of Employees' Cafeterias. A comparison of the public restaurant and employees' cafeterias in the department stores shows that the cafeteria is a means of supplying working women with food and relaxation which is satis- factory both to the employers and to the employees. ^Managers in the factories were interested in the problem of getting a hot lunch served to their employees, and often requested criticism of the lunch conditions and suggestions for changes. It seemed desirable to ascertain how extensively the employees' cafeterias had been established in other cities, and to secure information as to their equipment, management and cost of operation. With the co-operation of various organizations and individuals, a list of firms was com- piled which were known to have established employees' cafeterias for women, and a questionnaire was sent to each firm. Information was also sought by personal visit to the 7 Boston stores that had the cafeterias. Twenty of the larger mercantile establishments in 10 different cities, 32 factories located in 24 different cities, and 9 public utilities, publishing firms and educational organizations in 5 cities are included, making a total of 61 firms in 30 different cities, from Boston to San Francisco and from Chicago to Louisville and Washington, D. C. It is not claimed that the list is complete, but that it shows how widely this form of industrial betterment has been adopted as an essential of good business organization, and how many important and well-known firms are advocates of the em- ployees' cafeteria. More than half (33) of the firms responded with information, descriptive booklets and letters. An examination of the data collected indicates that the employees' cafeteria is probably the chief and usually the first form of industrial betterment work undertaken in stores, factories and offices throughout the country. In the large establishments employing from 60 to 2,000 or more women the relations between the employer and the employee usually THE NOON LUNCHEON. 59 are controlled by a service or welfare department, with a secretary, a director, a manager or a superintendent at its head. The em- ployees' lunch room may be directly in charge of one of these man- agers in the service department, or of a matron who attends to the preparation and serving of the food and the care of the lunch room, while the superintendent himself devotes his time to the buying and equipment and to other activities connected with the accommoda- tion and comfort and industrial relations of the employees. Man- agement of this type is paternalistic in character, since the firm provides it as a wise and humane business policy, but retains entire control of its operation. This type prevails in 26 of these 33 estab- lishments, 9 of which have managers of service departments, 21 have matrons, one a nurse and another a dietitian in charge. One lunch club is operated by its own lunch committee. An interesting example of the paternalistic type of lunch room occurs in a firm that provides free of charge a regular dinner at noon for its women employees. The meal is prepared by the women themselves in a well-equipped kitchen under the direction of a domestic science teacher, apparently to the pride and satisfaction of all concerned. "We have emphasized the home idea, and the girls are like a happy family. Their health has improved; besides, they all learn to cook and become good housekeepers," wrote the welfare secretary. Four of the firms reporting through the questionnaire have "house committees" consisting of 3 to 6 members representing both the employers and the employees. Three others have employees' asso- ciations with lunch room committees that are either advisory or au- thoritative on questions of management. This type may be termed co-operative in contrast to paternalistic, and the trend of industrial relations to-day shows that the future is with the co-operative form of control. One of the directors wrote, "It is imperative that a committee of employees be given the management, because they are very efficient in keeping tabs on the gustatory pulse of the store, and their advice is valuable." One establishment of the co-operative type has an employees' as- sociation for which no dues are charged, and in which every em- ployee has some voice in the administration and control of working conditions. An executive committee is elected with general powers, and' the manager of the lunch room is a professional restaurateur who enforces the rules of the association. 60 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. The question as to whether the lunch rooms were patronized by- men as well as by women, and by office workers as well as other employees of the firm, had emphatic replies from a number of sources. Twenty-two, or two-thirds of the repUes, stated that men and women ate together, and in 30 of the cafeterias office workers ate with the saleswomen and general helpers. In one of the Boston firms the fireman, the elevator man, the bundle girl, the buyer, the owner and the saleswomen ate in the same room, and very likely at the same tables. Eleven of the firms made additional provision for the comfort of the men employees who wished to smoke after their luncheon, and one firm found it possible to allow smoking in one end of the lunch room itself, for the ventilation and size of the room were such that there could be no annoyance to any one. Equipment of Lunch, Rest and Recreation Rooms. The amount of space that can be devoted to the use of the em- ployees, and the equipment of the rooms for lunch, rest and recrea- tion purposes, have been very carefully studied ^ and standardized by one of the firms, and plans of the general layout, arrangement and cost of the equipment were sent in reply to the questionnaire. The per capita service area was 19.2 square feet, and the whole service department area, providing for lunch, rest and recreation space, occupied 6.4 per cent, of a building for 300 employees. Only one firm reported that no space was devoted to rest and recreation rooms. Five reported rest and recreation rooms separate from the lunch room, but 27 had the recreation room combined with it. Chairs and tables are moved back when the employees use the room for parties and meetings. Pianos were reported in 13 of these combination lunch and recreation rooms, and pianolas or grapho- phones in 4 others. Reading matter was supplied for those who wished, — newspapers in 15 firms, magazines in 20, a permanent library in 13, and a station of the city public library in 13. Other attractive features mentioned in the replies were easy chairs, rocking chairs and steamer chairs, lounges, card tables, writing tables, desks, telephone booth, bulletin board, hanging baskets and window boxes. Items of equipment for the cafeteria service reported by the 33 firms included a counter and railing, with shelf storage for dishes, a steam 1 Equipment for a Factory Service Department, General Service Department, National Lamp Works o£ the General Electric Company, Cleveland, Ohio. THE NOON LUNCHEON. 61 s. •'» b 19 s £ ag S SS-gS-ggJ O-TtfiO 00 t^ Soooooo ooo OOOOtCO OOQ C4COtOC400 0C40 g ' 'SSS e*3 -iHO-* thOO , 00 , m , OOOOOU3U3 00 lO U3 C1 'viH CO CjS W CSl CO i-( (M^tN^eoo ooo o S »oo . «Ot»' , e^oooious M 00 CO M ■>!}* »-< OOW3 coog IMOCO OOOO lOOOOO MOOON COIMCOOCO oa^f-icoco 94COO> ^0>0 -tJfOOl^ 5000 U3»OeOOlO OOTt- »o rt««f^iO^ SS§SSg8SS uau3O<4u300 §88885 OiOOOOOQOO THCOOC^M-'SfOO I ■g'-^Vmdo"Hfe -oWdWi-ft-jM -a £■ b & & £i04gl5 |||||£S£g£S liSSSgg IIIIIIJSSS o 00 62 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. table for the service of hot dishes and urns for the service of bever- ages, a cash register, dish carriage and garbage cans. The tables could be used by four to six persons, and were oblong or round, folding or permanent, with bare, polished or white tops. The cook- ing equipment included a range, a ventilating hood and pipe, a sink trough, cold storage for barrel and canned goods, and tables for use in the preparation of foods for cooking. The kitchens were rooms behind the cafeteria counters and service areas, and were separated from them by partitions with sliding doors through which food could be delivered to the servers by the cooks. ^ Patronage, Predominant Price and Expenditures. Twenty-five of the questionnaires that were returned by 33 of the listed firms were complete enough for tabulation as to the extent of patronage, the predominant price paid by men and women, and the expenditure per week for food and labor. The 8 factories, 3 offices and 14 department stores which supplied this information were grouped according to whether the lunch room was reported as operated at cost, at a profit or at a loss (Table 25). The data given are not strictly accurate, as the answers to the questions in some cases were carefully calculated and in others were estimated in round numbers. The statistics given include those from department stores in Boston where individual schedules of workers were secured. A total of 24,000 employees is represented in these 25 firms, 10 of which reported lunch rooms operated at cost, 6 at a profit and 9 at a loss. The extent of patronage in these employees' cafeterias is reckoned on the number of possible patrons, excluding those who go home to dinner. Using these 22,637 possible patrons as the base, it was found that the average percentage of patronage was 56.8. This is in agreement with the percentages determined from the individual schedules in Boston department stores. It is therefore approximately correct to say that 20 per cent, of the employees will bring a lunch from home, and that from 50 to 60 per cent, can be counted upon for daily patronage. 1 The United States Bureau of Labor Statistios has announced a projected bulletin to be called A Handbook on Welfare Work. Plans and specifications and descriptions of the various welfare acti\'ities throughout the country are to appear, and will include " anything over and above wages which an employer does for the employees' comfort or improvement, whether social or intellectual, which is not required by law or by the necessity of the industry." United States Bureau of Labor Statistios, Monthly Be^new, July, 1916, p. 18. THE NOON LUNCHEON. 63 Wide variations from this percentage are explained by differences in the prices and quality of food and the extent to which the em- ployees participate in the management of the lunch room. The lowest percentage for any establishment (20) was given by a Boston firm where individuals said that the food was undercooked. The next lowest percentage (26.5) coincides with higher predominant prices, 20 and 25 cents being paid for a luncheon rather than 15 cents. The predominant range in price paid by women in the 25 cafeterias is from 10 to 15 cents, and by men, 15 to 20 cents. That paid by women agrees with what the women themselves reported in the Boston stores and with the results of studies in New York and Ohio. In Store L, which had 100 per cent, patronage, the good quality of the food was the particular concern of the Boston manager. OflBce B, also showing 100 per cent, in patronage, was a lunch club, the management of which was completely in the hands of the mem- bers. Store A and Factory C are well known for the quality of food and of goods produced, and are found with 98 and 80 per cent, of patronage. Five firms that gave partial information could not be tabulated with the rest, but they reported meals served free of charge and 100 per cent, of patronage. Information was sought as to the expenditure per week for raw materials, labor and the various items of overhead expense. The costs of raw materials and of labor were given by practically all the firms. Many of them explained that they did not separate the items for overhead expenses, or that these items were confused with other office expenditures or charged up to profit and loss. One firm gave the proportionate expenditure for the items of food and labor rather than the money cost, and these figures appear twice because the lunch room manager catered for two of the stores. The total cost of raw materials and preparation was divided between 80 (79.9) per cent, for raw materials and 20 (20.1) per cent, for the labor of preparation and of counter service. In other words, food cost four times what labor cost, and the large number of weekly patrons (77,000) reduced the per capita cost to 10 cents per meal. Managers of the employees' cafeterias reported them as run "at cost," "at a profit" or "at a; loss," but not more than one of them reported expenditures for overhead items, — rent, light, heat, fuel and upkeep. Such cafeterias do not, literally speaking, cover all ex- penses, as every expense which a commercial lunch room meets must 64 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. be apportioned and paid by the employees' cafeteria before it can truly be said to be operated at cost or at a profit. The overhead charges usually represent the amount of money which an employer is willing to invest in order to make employment in his establish- ment attractive to the employees, and in order to promote their health and business eflSciency. Such an investment by the employer subsidizes the lunch room, and the degree of subsidy varies greatly in the various stores, factories and ofiices. Where meals are pro- vided free, the subsidy is 100 per cent., and the management bears a burden that borders upon charity. Three of the 33 reporting firms gave amounts for rent varying from S5 to $25, 3 reported bills for light from $1 to SIO, 1 separated the item of heat for S3.60, 6 gave amounts for fuel between $3 and $60, and 4 allowed S2 to 852 per week for upkeep. Evidently employers ^ are bidding high for labor and efficiency, and are finding it profitable to enlist the health and good will of the employee in behalf of the firm. "It is a good business policy," writes one manager, "to establish lunch rooms." "The best invest- ment the company ever made," writes another. "We are of the opinion that the provision of lunch facilities is the only right thing to do," comes from the Pacific coast, and "That it is wise from a business as well as an economic viewpoint is no longer questioned by those who have the welfare of their employees at heart," is the verdict from an Atlantic metropolis. * "Owners of the larger, and the more progreseive owners of the smaller, establishments recognise the fact that their interests are identical with those of their employees from a purely economic standpoint. These employers recognize that money invested for the maintenance of sanitary and healthful conditions in their establishments is a profitable investment. . . . They realize that good working conditions result in obtaining better, more intelligent and steadier employees, . . . and that absences on account of sick- ness are diminished and a higher grade of efficiency is secured." Massachusetts State Board of Health, Report of 1911, p. 567. FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 65 CHAPTER III. THE FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. The problem of three meals a day looms large to the working woman dependent on her own resources. She has a very small sum to spend for food, — too small to admit of serious mistakes in choice. Yet she has little knowledge of the comparative nutritive value of the bewildering variety of foods offered in the restaurant menu or at the market, and, generally, slight skill in cookery and little time or strength to devote to home preparation of meals. These diflBculties are well summed up in a letter from a young work- ing woman in Boston telling of her own experience in the business world. "After I had paid the room rent," she wrote, "an average of 25 cents a week for laundry, 5 cents for church, and saving out 60 cents for car fare, I had $2.10 left to pay for clothes, 21 meals and incidentals. Some weeks I could live on it and others I could not. . . . About every three weeks I went on a 'food spree.' For instance, one day I simply had to have some M 's lobster salad for lunch. It cost me 45 cents. I felt wicked all the rest of the week whenever I thought of that extravagance, but yet I did not regret it, for I was perfectly willing to live on almost nothing for the rest of the week to make up for it. I had to have those 'sprees' because — it's hard to explain — but I felt it kept me normal. But I used to think if I could only get the right kinds of food, the right combination, I could eat less and be better nourished. I got books out of the library, but the cook books did not help much and the, books on food value were too scientific. ... I asked the girls at the ofl!ice about right kinds of food to eat, and they did not know. Housewives told me they didn't hear of such things in their day. When I used to feel queer or dizzy, I do not believe it was because I didn't get enough to eat, but because I didn't have the right things. "My chum tells me that on her darkest financial day she had 10 cents to pay for the three meals. She bought a 5-cent box of crackers and 5 cents worth of pickles. When I asked her if she 66 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. didn't know of something more nourishing than pickles she said she didn't." Waitresses and domestic servants do not have to face these food difficulties, but outside of these occupations is found a great body of industrial workers who are not living in family groups. ^ Where do these women get their food, what variety can they obtain for their money, what devices for reducing cost are practicable, and what is the least sum for which a woman can be nourished adequately? All these are questions of importance to any community in which large numbers of women workers live apart from family groups. All minimum wage discussions take such a woman as their unit, and try to ascertain what wages are necessary to "supply the cost of living and to maintain her in health." Moreover, the isolation of women living in this way makes it possible that they may become public charges when overtaken by misfortune or ill health. In 1900 there were in the 8 largest cities of the United States 91,770 women workers living away from home (Table 26). Boston Table 26. — Living Arrangements of Women Sixteen Years of Age and Over engaged in Gainful Occupations^ in the Eight Largest Cities in the United States.^ Total Women. Women living at Women boahdino. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent The 8 cities, 553,615 100.0 461,745 83.4 91,770 16.6 Baltimore, . 38,104 100.0 32,846 86.2 5.258 13.8 Boston, 43,454 100.0 32,847 75.6 10,607 24.4 Chicago, 95,883 100.0 78,144 81.5 17,739 18.5 Cleveland, 19,964 100.0 17,549 87.9 2,415 12.1 New York, 218,073 100.0 185,739 85.2 32,334 14.8 Philadelphia, 91,774 100.0 74,920 81.6 16,854 IS. 4 Pittsburg, . 12,767 100.0 10,906 85.4 1,861 14.6 St. Louis, 33,496 100.0 28,794 86. 4,702 14.0 1 Excluding boarding and lodging-house keepers, housekeepers and ste^-ardesses, nurses and midwivos, servants and waitresses. 2 Twelfth United States Census, 1900, Statistics of Women at Work. FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FEOM THEIR FAMILIES. 67 showed the largest proportion, about one-fourth of all women in gainful occupations being boarders. All great cities have large num- bers of women living in this fashion; the proportion in 1900 varied from one-eighth (12.1 per cent.) of all women at work in Cleveland to about one-fifth (18.4 per cent.) of those at work in Philadelphia. Nor is this large proportion of women living away from their families confined to a few industries. In 1900 it varied in Boston from 20.1 per cent, of the saleswomen to 32.3 per cent, of the laundry workers.^ Table 27. — Living Arrangements of Women engaged in Different Industries in Massachusetts. i Industries. Total Women. Women living at Home. Women living AWAY FKOM HoME. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. All the industries, Brush factories Candy factories, . Corset factories, . . . . Hosiery and knit goods factories. Laundries Paper-box factories, . Retail stores, . . . . Women's clothing factories. 10,423 481 1,595 672 1,676 1,218 866 3,233 682 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 8,996 418 1,481 665 1,498 945 727 2,801 561 86.3 86.9 92.9 84.1 89.4 77.6 83.9 86.6 82.3 1,427 63 114 107 178 273 139 432 121 13.7 13.1 7.1 15.9 10.6 22.4 16.1 13.4 17.7 Minimum wage reports in 8 industries in Massachusetts made from 1913 to 1916 show that about one-seventh (13.7 per cent.) of all the women from whom data were obtained were not living at home (Table 27). Laundry workers showed the highest percent., boarding and candy workers the lowest. The question of food for working women living apart from family groups is, then, common to all in- dustries and to all sections of the country. It is pecuHarly urgent that the problem be understood in a city Hke Boston, where the » Twelfth United States Census, 1900, Statistics of Women at Work, p. 222. In a study of women em- ployed in department stores in Boston in 1915, only 10.2 per cent, of the 1,763 interviewed were found to be living " independently." See Unemployment among Women in Department and Other Retail Stores in Boston, Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 182 (January, 1916), pp. 33, 52, 64. ' Reports of the Massachusetts Minimum Wage'Commission, 1914-16. The table includes only women from whom data as to living arrangements were available. 68 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. proportion of women boarding is large and where the community as a whole has assumed to an unusual extent the responsibility for the welfare of its workers. Method of Investigation. To discover what arrangements for obtaining food have been made by working women in Boston living away from their homes, and to learn how much food costs and what variety can be obtained for a given expenditure, was the object of this part of the investigation. The unit was the variety and cost of food for one week. The sched- ule contained questions concerning nationality, wages, occupation and amounts spent in one week for rent, laundry and meals, in addition to the inquiry as to food eaten each day.^ Through co- operation with the Alumnae Association of Simmons College, Boston, 48 schedules were obtained. These represented a rather high wage group among working women, and included 12 students. By means of personal visits made by investigators to women known to be living away from their families, the number of schedules complete enough to tabulate was increased to 273. The investigation extended from December, 1915, to April, 1916. The schedules secured through the Simmons College Alumnae Association were filled out completely and sent into the office by mail. When a personal visit was made, the general information and menus of meals for the past two days were obtained. Most of the women could remember what they had eaten "to-day and yesterday," but launched into generahties when questioned as to previous days. A supplementary schedule contain- ing spaces for the menus for one week was, therefore, left to be filled out from day to day, and sent in by the person interviewed. A large number of th^se were returned, partially or wholly completed, and bearing every mark of reasonable accuracy. When the menus for the six meals obtained by the investigator were compared with those on the returned schedule they were found to be surprisingly similar. Little or no tendency to enlarge on the variety of food could be discovered. The danger seemed rather to be that some of the food actually eaten would be omitted from the enumeration of articles. The usual difficulties incident to finding women living apart from 1 See Appendix A, No. 1. FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 69 family groups were encountered. Women "adrift" ^ have so few social affiliations that settlements, churches and clubs could afford the investigators little help. Moreover, many of them move fre- quently, and tracing them was rendered difficult by the general migratory character of rooming-house neighborhoods. The isolation Table 28. — Occupations of Two Hundred and Sixty-one Women living Adrift in Boston. Occupations. Number. Per Cent. AU occupations, 261 100.0 Professional service, 35 13.4 Artists 2 7 Investi(?ator8 and social workers. 7 2.7 Teachers, . 19 7.3 Trained nurses, 1 4 Librarians, 5 1.0 Journalists, 1 .4 Domestic and personal service, 2 30 11.5 Home and office cleaners. 1 .4 Laundresses, 26 10.0 Servants and waitresses. 3 1.1 Trade and transportation. 103 39.5 Forewomen, 2 .7 Office workers, 48 18.4 Saleswomen, 52 20.0 ' Packers and shippers, . 1 .4 Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. 91 34.9 Forewomen, 6 2.3 Dressmakers and seamstresses, 19 7.3 Milliners, . 4 1.5 Semi-skilled operatives: — Candy factories. 10 3.8 Box factories, . 5 1.9 Rubber factories, 1 .4 Shoe factories. 7 2.7 Bookbinderies, . 2 .8 Lace and embroidery factories. 2 .8 Foundries, 3 1.1 Sewing trades. 31 11.9 Textile mills, . 1 .4 No data, . 2 .7 of a number of these women was marked. Long hours of work, coupled with the general habit of using what leisure remained for laundry, cooking and other household tasks, left little time or strength for making friends or forming personal ties of any kind. The hopelessness of the struggle was expressed frequently by the older workers, who sometimes refused to try to estimate the cost of food for the week. " I should go wild if I really knew what I pay for ^ Adrift; not living as an integral part of a family group. See Report on the Condition of Women and •Child Wage Earners in the United States, Vol. V., pp. 10-12. 2 Not receiving food as part of wages. 70 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. food and rent. It takes all I make to keep me, I know that," said one. As she grows older, excessive timidity about looking for better work or asking for better pay, selfishness and indifference to any- thing outside the regular day's routine become characteristic of the woman worker without home ties. Reports as to food eaten were obtained from 261 working women; these included menus for 1,077 breakfasts, 1,047 lunches and 1,028 dinners, in all, 3,152 meals, an average of 12 for each person. The number of items of food tabulated from the schedules was 21,462. Table 29. — Age and Birthplace of Two Hundred and Sixty~one Working Women living away from their Families. Total. Ndmbeb of Women bohn in — Not re- ported. AOES. United States. Canada. Great Britain. Russia. Other Coun- tries. Total, 15 years and under 20, 20 years and under 25, 25 years and under 30, 30 years and under 35, 35 years and under 40, 40 years and under 45, 45 years and under 50, 60 years and under 55, 55 years and over, Not reported. 261 6 54 58 48 32 26 12 12 5 8 178 3 32 40 41 19 17 7 11 3 5 33 1 3 7 3 8 7 2 1 1 23 4 7 2 3 2 3 1 1 19 2 14 3 5 1 2 2 3 1 2 These women lived in almost every section of Boston and its vicinity, received wages varying from $2 to $32 a week, and were engaged in most .of the principal occupations mentioned in the census (Table 28). About one-third (34.9 per cent.) of those interviewed were in manufacturing or mechanical pursuits, two-fifths (39.5 per cent.) in trade and transportation, one-tenth (11.5 per cent.) in domestic and personal service, and one-eighth (13.4 per cent.) in professional serv- ice. Since the lists of women "adrift" came from a number of different sources, and since the workers interviewed varied so greatly in age, experience and traditions, the group probably represents fairly well the situation as a whole among the working women in FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 71 Boston. The wages and expenditure for the week of the interview were obtained. Since the study was made during the time of maxi- mum employment in most industries, income and expenditure are typical of a normal condition of work. Age and nationality as well as occupation ^re of importance in considering the problems of living which must be met by women away from their families. One hundred and ninety-three of the women interviewed, almost three-fourths of the total number, were twenty-five years of age or over, and 29 were forty-five or over. Relatively few girls less than twenty years of age are " adrift," partly because they usually earn wages too small to allow of this method of living, and partly because the families of most of them are as yet not broken up, and are unwilling to trust immature girls away from home. In discussing the food of these working women it is necessary to take into consideration this maturity; the kind of food needed for women over twenty differs from that required for growth by younger workers. Nationality also has an influence on the manner of living of the working woman "adrift." No Italians not living as an in- tegral part of a family group were found. The parents of 114 of the women were born in the United States, 125 were of foreign and 19 of mixed parentage.^ About one-fifth of the girls born in the United States, and somewhat more than one-third of those botn outside the United States, were less than twenty-five years of age (Table 29). American girls and girls of Russian nativity left home somewhat earlier than those born in the other countries. Eighty-three of the women interviewed reported that they had been living away from their families since they were less than twenty years of age; 82 were from twenty to twenty-five, and 37 were from twenty-five to thirty years old when they left home. The average number of years away from home was between nine and ten. These facts should tend to discredit the statement that women can be expected to work a rela- tively short time, and that the problems of workers adrift can be of Httle real importance. If the 261 studied in Boston are a fair sample of the 24.4 per cent. (Table 26) of the working women living away from home, it is evident that a large proportion of the entire group will have many years of this lonely life. How effectually many of these workers are barred from any hope of assistance from home in an emergency is shown by the proportion 1 Data concerning parentage of 3 women were not available. 72 FOOD OP WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. of women interviewed reporting both parents dead or living in other countries. The residence of the surviving parent was considered if either father or mother was dead. One hundred and eleven had no parents living; the parents of 41 others resided abroad. About three- fifths of the total ifumber could, then, obtain no help from father or mother in case of illness. Forty-one others reported parents living in the United States outside of Massachusetts; the parents of only 52 resided in the State. ^ No doubt many of the women have relatives who would help in an extremity, but the length of time away from home is significant of the fact that this group of women is really "adrift," that their needs are riot to be confused with those of a worker belonging to a family, nor are costs of living and stand- ards identical with those of a family group. Whether or not this manner of life is wise for an individual and salutary for the com- munity is not the question. Since these are the conditions it is neces- sary that any general action shall be taken with full understanding of them. EXPENDITUKE FOR FoOD. The expenditure for food is the largest item of any wage earner's budget. The amount spent by women interviewed in the course of this study depended on the wages received (Table 30). Eleven of the 261 workers spent less than S2 a week for food, and 8 of these were receiving less than $9.50 a week; 10 spent S6 or more a week; and 8 of these were receiving S15 a week or more. The largest number of women spent from S3 to S4 a week. The "mode," the sum that the greatest number expended, was S3. 70, while the median was S3.65. There were as many women spending less than this sum as there were spending more than this sum. Half of all the women interviewed spent from S3 to $4.45 a week for food, one-fourth spent less than S3 and one-fourth more than S4.45. The arithmetic aver- age was S3.63 a week (Table 31). Since median, mode and average all fall in practically the same group, the conclusion is justified that about $3.65 per week is a normal expenditure for a normal working woman. She will spend this much for food if she can afford it. This conclusion agrees fairly well with the results of such investi- gations as have been made in the past. Thirty social workers in conference in 1910 estimated the cost of board for a woman adrift t Sixteon did not report residence of parents. FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 73 to be not less than $4 a week.^ In 1906 a study was made of work- ing women "adrift" in Boston. The average weekly expenditure for food was found to be $3.19.2 The amounts spent for food by women earning less than $8 a week differ very little. Twenty-nine of the 52 women in this group spent less than $3, and all but 2 spent less than |4 (Table 30). The difference in average amounts spent forjood by women earning less than S6 and by those earning from $6 to $8 is only 4 cents (Table 31). Two marked increases in the amounts occur, one of 21.3 per cent, between the groups earning, respectively, $6 and less than $8, and $8 and less than $10, and the other 17.9 per cent, between the group earning S14 and less than $16, and that earning $16 and more. The first increase doubtless means that better food and a more adequate supply is purchased; wages of less than $8 do not warrant an expenditure large enough to insure a really satisfying diet. The second increase probably indicates a decided change in the standard of living, with which absolute necessity has nothing to do. It is reasonable to say that while 33 women spent less than $2.50 a week for food (Table 30), $2.60 is the least allowance that should be made, since this is the average expenditure for the lowest wage group, — those receiving less than $5. Only 10 women spent $6 a week or more. The average expenditure for the high wage group, $4.68, probably represents a maximum food allowance irrespective of income, beyond which relatively few working women go. Be- tween these extremes, at about $3.65, lies the comfortable average, the allowance for food which provides for an adequate and not extravagant diet. It is rather interesting to note that only when a woman reaches a wage of $10 a week does her average expenditure for food approximately equal this amount (Table 31). The per- centage of income spent for food decreases rapidly in the low-wage group, and shows a smaller, fairly regular decline after an adequate income has been attained. The failure of the $16 to $18 group to show this trend probably is due to the fact that the small number included in the tabulation resulted in undue weight being given to a few individuals. ' Report of the 'Commission on Minimum Wage Boards, Commonwealtli of MassachuBetts, House Document 1697, January, 1,912, p. 222. ^ Bosworth, L. Marion: The Living Wage of Women Workers, p. 17. Between 1907 and 1915, retail prices for food advanced in the North Atlantic Division 18 per cent. If Miss Bosworth's figures be increased 18 per cent., the average amount becomes S3. 76, approximately the expenditure found in this study. See Retail Prices, 1907 to June, 1915, Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 184, Novem- ber, 1915, p. 8. 74 JOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. .^s =t 1 SI. I o CO 1! O M ■o 1 M ^ M 1 1 CO 1 1 C4 1 Z lis S3 i« T CO "7 CO , N , , 1 , I 8F r-H C4 in«» ^ « 1 ' N M ' 1 1 1 I " " 1 ' " * -i S M 00 g ^ 5 N S m ^ «D 00 S^ iO oa ^ va H DD H ■< N eo ^ <£i t^ 00 ^ ^ b ss S O «• •» •S •• s •• s «• § g ^ iS 1 1 1 1 1 a 1 1 1 i 1 8 i 1 i a 1 CD i i 1 \ 1 H i 1 1 1 T3 a c9 1 1 1 a g9 1 1 •T3 T3 i 1 ^ i» iS S % «» eo •• W5 •• h- s s FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 75 Table 31. — Per Cent, of the Average Weekly Income of Women living away from their Families spent for Food, by Wage Groups. AvEEAGE Weekly Wages. Number of Schedules. AvEBAGE Weekly Expend- iture FOE Food. Amount. Per Cent, of Income. Total, . . Less than $6, . . .... $6 and less than S8, . . . S8 and less than $10, . $10 and less than $12, ., . . $12 and less than $14, $14 and less than $16, $16 and less than $18, $18 and more, . . . . Not reported, » . . . ... 261 21 31 61 32 29 31 14 33 9 S3 63 2 73 2 77 3 36 3 55 3 80 3 97 4 68 4 66 31.4 68.6 41.4 39.4 35.2 31.0 26.9 27.7 21.2 1 Including those not reporting wages and those not reporting expenditure for food. Effect of Place of Residence on Expenditure for Food and Rent. Although Boston is made up of sections differing very greatly in character, place of residence seems to affect very little the amount of money spent for food (Table 32). The number of those paying less than $3.50 a week for board was in excess of the number paying more than S3.50 in the South End, pre-eminently the rooming-house district, and in South Boston, inhabited almost entirely by working- class families. The price of board in the suburbs seems to be, in general, higher than the price in Boston proper. If a working woman is obliged to economize in expenditure for food she will find one sec- tion of the city almost as expensive as another. The South End, with its numerous restaurants, delicatessen and boarding-houses, offers more easily found accommodations for women "adrift" than do other sections. In individual instances it was found possible to live more cheaply there and in South Boston and Roxbury than in other districts. Place of residence does, however, decidedly influence the ex- penditure for rent (Table 32). Only one-fifth of the women living in the Back Bay and Fenway — the section offering accommodations 76 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. to great numbers of students as well as wage-earning women — paid less than $2.50 a week for rent. Residents of the suburbs were almost equally divided, about half paying less than 82.50 a week. On the other hand, the majority of women living in the South End, South Boston, the West End and Roxbury spent less than $2.50 a week for rooms. The largest number interviewed in Dorchester, Roxbury and South Boston spent less than $2. Of the 52 women paying less than $1.50 for rent, 17 lived in Roxbury and Dorchester, 10 in South Boston and 9 in the West End. Since these places, with the exception of the last, are at some distance from the business district, car fare must be added to rent, making the total expenditure approximately the same in these more distant places as in the South End. Expenditure for rent varied less with changes of income than expenditure for food. The increase of both was fairly regular except at the point of transition from wages of $10 a week and less than $12, to $12 and less than $14, where the average amount of rent paid increased 72 cents, or 38 per cent. (Table 33). This probably indicates a change in the standard of living. Usually a woman moved to a more desirable neighborhood rather than to a better room in the same neighborhood. Women living in a given block generally were found to be receiving approximately the same wages. It is interesting to note that while the largest increase in expenditure for food came between the groups receiving, respectively, §6 to SS and $8 to $10, rent did not increase materially until a much higher wage group was reached. Evidently the added income was used first for food, and expenditure for rent increased when the more imperative want was met. In the case of food, Engel's law was substantiated, — the greater the income, the smaller the percentage of outlay. The second state- ment, that the percentage of income expended for lodging remains the same whatever the income, was not proved. The percentage for lodging varied with a general downward tendency, from 30.9 per cent, for women receiving $5 and less than $6, to 15.7 per cent, for those receiving $18 and more. In the study made in 1906 it was found that the variation ranged from 21.6 per cent, in the case of women earning less than $5 to 13 per cent, for women earning $15 and more.^ I BoswortU, L. Marion: The Living Wage of Women Workera, p. 17. FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 77 Table 32. — Number of Women living away from their Families expending Specified Amounts for Food and Rent, by Places of Residence. Residence. Number of Women spending FOR Food — Number of Women spending FOR Rent — Total. Less than $3.80. $3.60 and more. Total. Less than $2.50. $2.50 and more. Total, Boston, Back Bay, South End, South Boston, West End, . Roxbury, etc.,i Near-by suburbs, BrooKline, . ' Cambridge, Somerville, Other suburbs. Suburbs, 10 miles or more distant, Not reported, 2 261 206 24 70 21 25 66 35 9 15 8 3 14 6 113 100 10 36 12 10 32 11 4 3 2 2 2 142 106 14 34 9 15 34 24 5 12 6 1 12 261 209 25 70 21 25 68 35 9 15 8 3 15 2 153 128 5 42 19 15 47 18 4 8 5 1 7 106 81 20 28 2 10 21 17 5 7 3 2 8 1 Includes Roxbury, Allston, Charlestown, Dorchester, East Boston, Hyde Park, Jamaica Plain, Hoslindale. 2 Two did not report place of residence; 4 did not report amount expended for food. Table 33. — Per Cent, of the Average Weekly Income of Women living away from their Families spent for Rent, by Wage Groups. Average Weekly Wages. Number of Schedules. Average Weekly Expenditure for Rent. Amount. Per Cent, of Income. Total, . Lees than S6, $6 and leas than 58, . $8 and less than $10, . $10 and less than $12, $12 and less than S14, $14 and less than $16, $16 and less than $18, $18 and more, Not reported, "... 261 21 31 61 33 30 31 14 35 ■ 5 S2 26 1 84 1 49 1 66 1 88 2 60 2 86 2 99 3 51 19.4 46.1 22.2 19.5 18.6 21.2 19,4 17.7 15.7 1 Including those not reporting wages and those not reporting amount spent for rent. 78 FOOD OP WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. One means of economizing on rent is to take a roommate. The arrangement is frequently more a matter of convenience than of desire for congenial company. Each roommate usually went her own way, with little regard for the other. "I hardly ever spoke to the old lady I roomed with," remarked a shoe saleswoman. "She was pecuhar in lots of ways, and kept all her things locked up in her trunk for fear I would know what she had. I was glad when she left, because the landlord didn't raise the rent on me, but let me have the room for what my share had been and 50 cents more." More than two-thirds (67.8 per cent.) of the women interviewed had no roommates, and one-fourth (25.3 per cent.) had one. The single room is the standard for expenditure, and working women as a rule are very unwilling to sacrifice their privacy. Expenditure for Living Expenses. While the amounts spent for board and room combined (Table 34) show a steady and fairly regular increase, this is not caused by similar regularity in increase of both board and lodging. Although these two items grow larger, as already noted, one does not increase in the same wage groups as the other. The increase for the two Table 34. — Per Cent, of the Average Weekly Income of Women living away from their Families spent for Food and Lodging, by Wage Groups. Average Weekly Wages. Number of Schedules. Average Weekly Expenditure for Food AND Lodging. Amount. Per Cent, of Wages. Total, . Less than $6, 16 and less than 88, 18 and less than 110, . $10 and less than S12, $12 and less than $14, $U and less than 116, 316 and less than $18, $18 and more. Not reported, 261 21 31 61 32 29 31 U 33 9 S5 89 4 57 4 26 5 03 6 43 6 45 6 84 7 67 8 18 51.0 114.7 63.6 58. 9 53.7 52.6 46.4 45.5 37.2 FOOD OP WOMEN LIVING AWAY PROM THEIR PAMILIES. 79 items alternate, but changes in expenditures for food precede those for rent. Thus larger payments for food were found when the tran- sition was made from the $6 to $8 wage group to the $8 to $10 group, and also when the woman began earning $16 to $18; while changes in rent were observed at the times when the woman passed from the $10 to $12 wage group to the $12 to $14 group, and when she earned $18 or over. The general assumption that increase in the price of living means simultaneous increase in expenditure for rent and for food was not found to be true of the women included in this study. Table 35. — Average Weekly Expenditures for Food and Lodging of Women living in New York City and in Ohio, by Wage Groups. New Yoke City. ' Ohio.z Weekly Wages. Number of Women reporting. Average Ex- penditure for Room and Board. Number of Women reporting. Average Ex- penditure for Boom and Board. Total, Less than $6, . 16 and less than S8, $8 and less than $10, $10 and less than S12, $12 and less than $14, $U and less than $16, $16 and less than $18, $18 and more, . 153 12 43 54 22 6 14 1 1 $5 13 3 50 4 41 5 04 6 79 6 43 7 14 6 50 9 20 208 22 72 68 46 Si 02 3 31 3 79 4 09 4 63 ' Fourth Report of the Factory Investigating Commission, 1915, State of New York, Vol. IV., pp. 1539, 1776. 2 Cost of Living of Working Women in Ohio, The Industrial Commission of Ohio, 1915, Report No. 14, p. 41. The average expenditure was $5.89, first reached when the wages were from $12 to $14. The percentage of income spent for food and rent declined steadily with increasing wages (Table 34). The largest decrease came when a woman began to earn from $6 to $8 a week, and the smallest when she was paid $12 to $14 a week. The steady increase in the sum spent indicates that more generous wages were spent for better living conditions, not chiefly for clothes and in- cidentals, as has sometimes been claimed. 80 FOOD OP WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. The expenditure for living expenses by working women was the subject of studies made in 1915 for New York City by the Factory Investigating Commission, and for Ohio by the Industrial Commis- sion. The amounts spent for food and lodging by women in New York differ very little in the several wage groups from similar ex- penditure in Boston (Table 35). In the wage groups $8 to SIO and $12 to $14 they are almost identical. The New York figures are slightly higher in the groups earning $6 and less than $8, SIO and less than $12, and $14 and less than $16. In Ohio the px-ices were de- cidedly lower. In Boston women receiving from $8 to SIO a week paid on an average $5.04 for board and room, while in Ohio they paid an average of $4.09. No doubt the lower cost of food in the Middle West accounts for this difference in expenditure. New York and Boston retail prices are more nearly alike (Tables 4 and 5). Living costs more for a woman "adrift" than for a member of a family group. In Massachusetts the cost of food was S1.35 a week for each individual in a normal family, while rent, light and heat cost 86 cents, a total expenditure for living expenses of S2.21.^ No women living "adrift" were found in the course of this study whose expenditures were as low as this. Two sisters managed by the most rigid economy to keep expenses as low as $2.88 a week each. They lived in two small back rooms in an undesirable neighborhood, doing all their own cooking on a range which also supplied their heat. They bought meat and eggs from a relative in the cojintry at whole- sale prices, worked all day in a candy factory and spent their even- ings in studying at night school or washing and ironing their clothes at home. Both had been going at intervals to a dispensary because of various troubles due to overwork. Evidently their health was suffering, but they could spend no more on living, because they were in seasonal work, and never in busy weeks earned more than SS. Young and unusually ambitious, they were mortgaging their future by a ceaseless round of work, and both were losing their fitness to fill positions paying better wages. None of the other women interviewed even approached an expenditure so low as theirs. Family standards of expenditure are not applicable to women adrift. Any sort of legislation inaugurated for the welfare of workers should take into ' Eighteenth Annual Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor, 1903, p. 540. Tf this amount is "weighted" by adding 18 per cent, to the price of food, the difference between retail prices from 1907 to 1916, the total living expenses would amount to 52.46. See Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 184, Retail Prices, 1907 to June, 1916 (November, 1916) ,p. 8. FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 81 account the fact that a woman Hving away from home earning less than $8 a week is economically below the standard maintained by the ordinary working class family in Massachusetts, a standard not commonly considered too high for the best welfare of the community. Besides the expenditure for board and room, laundry may legiti- mately be considered a living expense. Women "adrift" economize consistently on this item. One hundred and twenty-three of the women interviewed did all of their washing and ironing, 4 others had their washing done free at the laundry where they were em- ployed and ironed the clothes at home. Forty-nine women, many of them earning high wages, did part of their laundry; their average weekly expenditure was 36 cents. Only 80 women reported sending out all their washing, for which they paid an average of 54 cents a week.^ Like food and rent, this expenditure increased as wages in- creased; the average for women earning less than $6 a week was 3 cents; for those receiving $10 to $12, 17 cents; for those earning $18 or more, 40 cents. Washing and ironing are done in the evening and on Sundays. There is some question as to whether working women should spend their brief leisure in this sort of work. The evident savings effected commonly outweigh in importance any possible future danger to health resulting from the greater strain of heavy evening work after long hours of regular employment. The amounts spent by women in different wage groups for food, rent and laundry, shown in Table 36 indicate a fairly regular in- crease in expenditure, with considerable individual variation. About one-tenth of the women spent less than $4 a week for all living ex- penses; all of these were earning less than $10. More than two- thirds (68.6 per cent.) spent less than $1 a day; this group included about one-fifth of the women earning $16 or more a week. The greatest number of women spent from $5 to $6. The amount spent by the "median group" was $5.74. The number spending less than this amount was the same as the number spending more than this sum. The average expenditure was $6.13. 1 Three women aent their washing home by express. Two others furnished no information about laundry. 82 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. "a s s o , s ft; >§ ^^ r fe I CO CO n e1 1 Q 1 1 H s A O li, 1 s n iz s o 4' « I 1 ■^1 ^ ^ ^ « 1 1 1 as s 1 1 1 .-. r- .^ o ■* r- (M 11. •* i r — 1 »-i 1 « «o « - ( ■§1. CO 1 1 .-< ■* ^- to «o w 1 1 g 1 1 04 GO 00 U3 ^ vx - -• 11= CO 1 1 CM ^ t 1 1 1 ' • 11. o P3 r t O (N 00 i-« CM 1 I - (N 1 CN r- w -* (N ^ 1 1 1 •ag gSji S r ^ CO CO r* CO 1 1 1 . I •ai = (N ^ "3 M »-. t 1 1 1 1 g 1 00 t* -* 1 ^ 1 1 I 1 II, CO 1 Tp n (M ^ 1 1 1 1 I ^1 M 1 4.-; -* (N 1 ^ M 1 ' 1 3 ^ i =^ s OS eo 00 r- N o -* W ■* « CO S OS ■* lit ft *! si ^ ^ \ i % Si $4 and le^B than $5, $5 and less than $6. S6 and less than S7, $7 and less than S8, S8 and less than t9, $9 and less than »10, 1 o 1 FOOD OF "WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIE FAMILIES. 83 Plans of Living. Women living away from their families develop great ingenuity in devising methods of economical living. Since the expenditure for food always exceeds that for rent and laundry combined, . plan of living means plan for obtaining food. The more usual of the plans adopted by the 261 women intefviewed are shown in Table 37. The women paying least for food prepare all meals in their rooms, and carry their noon lunches to eat in their places of employment. Pre- paring meals in the room did not necessitate an expensive equip- ment; the usual custom seemed to be to buy what was absolutely necessary at the 10-cent store, and to dispense with all superfluous utensils and furniture. A one or two burner gas plate or oil stove on an oilcloth-covered box or table, dishes kept on the closet shelf or in a bureau drawer, a dining table that was sometimes a desk, sometimes a cutting table and sometimes the lamp stand, — these furnished all that was indispensable for bedroom housekeeping. The tablecloth was usually a newspaper or piece of wrapping paper, Table 37. — Average Weekly Wage and Average Weekly Expenditure for Food classified by Plans of Living of Women away from their Families. Places wheke Food was obtained. Number of Women. Average Weekly Wage. Average Weekly Ex- penditure for Food. Total, ... . .... 261 $11 54 $3 63 Room, or room and workroom, . 24 7 63 2 65 Room, or room and workroom and — Boarding house Restaurant, Restaurant and boarding house S 47 6 1107 13 67 9 20 3 74 3 84 3 44 Restaurant, or restaurant and workroom, . 30 13 40 4 38 Restaurant, workroom and boarding house. 44 12 64 4 19 Boarding house, or boarding bouse and workroom, . H 8 87 3 23 "Home"' and — Room or workroom, Restaurant, Boarding house, . . ... 5 2 3 10 30 10 00 18 83 2 61 5 25 4 12 Co-operative housekeeping, . ... 30 12 83 . 3 25 Notreported,2 9 - 1 Home: meals eaten with friends and not paid for, or obtained during week-end visits to their homes. " Including those not reporting wages and those not reporting expenditure for food. 84 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. occasionally a red table cover or white oilcloth. Service dishes were, as a general thing, dispensed with, the saucepan used in cooking serving as a vegetable dish and the paper sack in which prepared meat or cake had been purchased being used in lieu of a special plate. Some of the women who could afford kitchenette apartments had more care for details, but the crowded condition of many of the bedrooms where cooking was done made real housekeeping methods an absolute impossibility; the equipment was often meager and the service anything but dainty. Obtaining all meals at a boarding house is somewhat more ex- pensive. A boarding house is often managed by a woman who keeps no accounts and has no way of knowing whether she is gaining or losing money. Doing her own work she pays little for service. For these reasons the difference in amounts expended by women eating in their own rooms and those depending on boarding houses was somewhat smaller than might be expected. Several women boarding-house keepers were interviewed, and all acknowledged that they were covering their own expenses and that was about all. High-class roomers pay well, and many women give board in order to keep permanent and desirable lodgers. They say that all the profit is made on rooms, not on the food. Women who eat part of their meals at a boarding house and part at a restaurant and the rest in their rooms pay somewhat more. The most expensive plan of living is at restaurants. A number of women, most of them receiving high wages, have adopted this method, because they are free to go where they please, and have not the trouble of deciding in advance what they will have to eat. One sales- woman remarked that she never ate any two successive meals in the same restaurant. "The food tastes better if you move around," she said. Several workers felt that there is need in Boston for more restaurants of the better type, with more restful atmosphere than can be found in most commercial places. A number expressed the wish for well-cooked food at moderate prices, which they said they had difficulty in finding. These women felt that they must conserve time and strength, and could not afford to do any of their own cooking, even if the rules of the houses where they lived permitted the practice. The combination preferred by many of the highest wage group is partly restaurant living and partly preparation of meals at home. POOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 85 Usually this means cooking of breakfast or breakfast and supper in their rooms, and lunching at a restaurant. Those who claim that the motive for housekeeping is quite as often the housekeeping instinct and the desire for a quiet, restful place in which to eat as the neces- sity for economy are doubtless correct in some measure. Women in all wage groups do both laundry work and cooking, although it is significant that 17 out of the 24 workers who prepared all of their own food were earning less than $9 a week. To know that meals may be cooked at home gives a pleasant sense of independence; but women who can afford to choose their manner of living prefer not to make the exertion all the time. About 60 per cent, of all the women prepared no meals in their rooms. Of the 58 women earning |15 a week or more, 33 went out for all meals, while 25 prepared some meals in their rooms. The latter preferred this manner of living, since their incomes were large enough to enable them to do as they pleased. Some of these women doing light housekeeping buy raw materials and do all of the preparation. While many landladies make no extra charge for gas, the usual price seems to be about 50 cents a month. One woman showed with pride a shelf of jelly and marma- lade put up by herself during her evenings. Having been reared on a farm in the Middle West she had a taste for preserving, and liked her own cooking best. As a rule, however, women living thus de- pend on delicatessen shops and bakeries for cooked supplies. On Wednesdays and Saturdays South End delicatessen stores sell hot baked beans at 20 cents a quart, and on Thursdays boiled dinner for the same price. A pint of boiled dinner, with its corned beef and vegetables, is quite enough for a meal for two persons. A bewilder- ing variety of cooked meats and bake-shop cakes and cookies are always displayed. Some women purchase supplies at the markets on Saturday afternoons. The number of articles that can be cooked on a one or two burner gas plate is limited. Canned soups are a staple food, and, with bread and hermits from the bakery and oranges from the Italian at the corner, make an easily prepared meal. The difficulty of buying in small quantities is a real one: "You tire of your corn before you are able to eat up a can." Women preparing all of their meals in their rooms expended only 60.5 per cent, as much for food as those eating always at restaurants. The difference is not necessarily due to variations in quality or 86 FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. quantity of fare. The woman doing all of her own work paid noth- ing for service, "overhead charges," or restaurant keepers' profit, which obviously formed a considerable part of the price paid by the worker buying at a restaurant. The carefully kept records of the School Lunch Department of the Women's Educational and Indus- trial Union, a department pledged to sell noon lunches at cost to high school pupils, showed in 1914 to 1915 that 58.5 per cent, of the total expenditure had been for raw materials, 24.5 per cent, for wages and the rest for overhead expenses. Women living at boarding houses pay only 21.9 per cent, more than those doing all of their own cooking. The lack of business training of landladies, previously noted, the less efficient service, the smaller variety of food offered and the lowered "fixed charges" account for the difference in price of restaurant and boarding-house living. If a working woman must economize she is forced to do all of her own cooking. Again we are confronted with the question of the wisdom of this procedure, requiring a considerable expenditure of physical energy at the close of a working day. Whether in the long run it is profitable for a working woman who must depend on her- self for advancement in her work, who must have strength for long hours of labor, extending as far into the future as she can see, to employ what leisure she has in washing, ironing and cooking, with consequent loss of rest and recreation, — this is a problem to be considered. Since 3 out of every 5 women interviewed did none of their cooking, and since women with good wages preferred an ar- rangement which allowed them to choose whether they should pre- pare their own meals or not, it is safe to assume that the majority of women have learned that for them the immediate saving is not worth the ultimate cost. Probably two-fifths of the women at work like housekeeping, and will do some of it whether or not the neces- sity for strict economy exists. A few of the women interviewed ate meals with friends at frequent intervals, with consequent saving in the cost of board. Some of them seemed to count on this method of reducing expenses, but these cases were too few and too irregular to be considered important. Besides the ways of living just discussed, co-operative plans have been tried by a number of working women. Co-operative living meant, for purposes of this study, co-operation in the matter of food. FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 87 Thirty-one women, of all ages, reported living in this fashion, 7 of them with sisters, aunts or other relatives, and the remainder with strangers. The average wage' of the 30 who reported on this matter was $12.83, although 8 of the women received less than $9 a week. The average expenditure for food was S3.25, for rent, $2.49. The amount paid for both, an average of $5.74, was lower than the amount paid by women faUing in the $12 to $14 salary group (Table 34). The expenditure for living expenses represents 44.7 per cent, of the income, a lower proportion than that spent by any women except those earning $18 or more. Most of the women interviewed acknowledged the financial advantages of co-operative housekeeping, but seemed to lack the personal qualities which living in this fashion demands. Many were unwilling to give up their absolute inde- pendence, or were suspicious and feared that some one of the group might prove to be a shirker and increase the burdens of the rest. Some had tried the plan and found it a failure. The reasons for its lack of success were summed up by one sample maker in a waist manufacturing establishment. After remarking that she. was 40' years old, she added, "You know, we get harder to live with as we become older. Ten years ago I was lots better tempered than I am now, when the least little thing irritates me." The 12 students from whom schedules were obtained, all living in much the same way as the working women interviewed, paid an average of $4.09 a week for board, $3.78 for room, and 39 cents for washing, a total of all living expenses of $8.26 a week, about the sum paid by women in the highest wage group. Their food ex- penditure equaled that of the women earning $15 a week, while for room rent they paid more than any of the women except those in the highest wage group. The relatively high prices paid by the small number of students from whom information was received suggests the difiiculty of finding desirable accommodations at a moderate price in a strange city. It means that the smaller expenditure made by most of the working women is the result of careful consideration and experience arising from necessity. The comparison also suggests the conclusion that many needy students probably are expending their energy in earning enough to pay for expensive quarters. A little knowledge of working-class conditions would enable them to live for much less without sacrificing any of the essentials of fairly comfortable living. 88 FOOD OF WOKKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Expenditures op Women eeceiving Low Wages. The wages mentioned throughout this discussion represent maxi- mum employment income, since the schedules were collected during the busy season and in a year when most kinds of business were prosperous. Eleven of the women were not working when inter- viewed, 3 because of dull seasons in their industry and 4 because of illness. One had lately been discharged because she was considered by the foreman too old to work in the laundry where she had been employed. One claimed to have been thrown out of work by the operation of the minimum wage law.^ Two candy workers whose weekly wage was somewhat less than $8 a week had saved enough to tide them over the dull season. The laundry worker also had savings enough to keep her for a little while, but had no prospect of permanent employment, and no relatives on whom she could depend. Another woman, a saleswoman, was being "trusted" by her landlady, with whom she had lived some time. Two of the women who were ill were receiving charitable assistance; another had been paid accident insurance; and the fourth had received help from her sister. Almost all industries have dull seasons of vary- ing length; the teacher paid for ten months has the same kind of difficulties in making her salary cover annual expenses ks do the worker in fur, the day cleaner and the home laundress. Other studies have shown in a striking way both variation between apparent and actual income and difficulties of dovetailing occupations.* As far as could be learned by questioning the persons inter- viewed, savings are one method of meeting irregularity of employ- ment, and credit the other. This means that the landlady waits for her money until the worker is able to earn enough to cover all arrears. If long illness comes, and no relative can be called on for help, the burden of support falls squarely on the community at large. Old age, as well as illness, has a sinister aspect for the worker. Two women well past middle age, met during the course of this study, were in a pitiable condition. With slight earning powers they were really "adrift," and unable to hope for any improvement in ^ Two women did not give the reason for their unemployment. ' Andrews, Irene Osgood; The Relation of Irregular Employment to the Li^dng Wage for Women. Fourth Report of the New York Factory Investigating Commission, Vol. II., pp. 497-635. Regularity of Employment in the Women's Ready-to-Wear Garment Industries, Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 183. FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 89 conditions. Like the man, the woman in industry is "scrapped" when she has reached an age at which a woman in the professions is nearing the very highest of her working powers. Illness, old age and the privations of dull seasons are all hard enough for members of a family group; women deprived of the safeguard which numbers assure feel that the situation as it stands is really hopeless. Of the 21 women whose wages were below $6 a week, 7 were part- time workers and 2, day workers. Twelve were working regular hours at regular occupations, so that the sums they earned repre- sented normal incomes. Eleven of the group were forty years of age or over. The expenditure for these workers is entirely abnormal. Those whose wages were less than $5 spent 143.5 per cent, of their income for board and rent; those receiving $5 and less than $6 spent 85.7 per cent, of the amount they earned for these living expenses. The former were subsidized by relatives, friends or the community at large, or were using up small savings; the latter, spending nine-tenths of all they earned on food and rent, were evidently potential receivers of charitable aid. Is it not reasonable to assume that on wages of less than $6 a week no woman living away from her family is really self-supporting? She is either a bur- den on the community already, or will become a burden when over- taken by the slightest misfortune, or when she reaches an age when her productive powers begin to weaken. No matter how great her ingenuity in making ends meet, she is sure to fail at last. And the income of $6 a week must be earned for every week in the year, if it is to be suflBcient to cover the most imperative needs of living. The two-thirds of income spent for board and room by the women earning from $6 to $8 a week (Table 34) allows too narrow a margin to permit of either dull season or of even a few weeks' unemploy- ment. Variety of Food eaten in One Week by Working Women living away from their families. The increased expenditure for food accompanying increased wages is spent in securing a larger variety in the weekly menu. If coffee and tea be omitted from the list of foods consumed, this increase in variety is fairly regular (Table 39). Protein consumption varies the leqtst from wage group to wage group. Foods characterized by car- 90 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. bohydrates and by minerals become increasingly important in the higher wage groups. Contrary to the general impression, working women seem to care very little for pickles, the average number re- ported representing about one serving in ten weeks. The consumption of cocoa and of milk depends very little on the wages received. Soup shows a general tendency to become more popular as women earn larger wages. The total variety of food is really surprisingly large; the average number of items in the menus for one week is about 70, and this average is reached when a woman begins to earn $10 a week. As has been shown (Table 31) the amount expended for food in- creased very greatly between the groups earning from $6 to S8 and from $8 to $10, respectively. This increase in expenditure means a more satisfying variety. The large increase in the variety of food consumed by women earning $16 to $18 may be due to personal idiosyncrasy, since the number of schedules tabulated for this wage group was small. If the group of food items be considered as a whole, one-fifth of all the foods consumed in a week were characterized by protein, more than two-fifths by carbohydrates, one-fourth by minerals, and the remainder were divided among soup, cocoa and milk. Protein food was eaten about twice a day by all the women. The consumption of meat was large, an average of 8 times a week. No large group had meat less than once a day. Beef was eaten about the same number of times by women in all wage groups. The con- sumption of pork, including bacon and ham, was largest in the group receiving the lowest wage. Although fish is cheap and plentiful in Boston, it was eaten on an average somewhat less than once a week, about as frequently as mutton. Eggs, which were high in price at the time the schedules were obtained, were mentioned as often as beef. The women reported eating beans about once a week and cheese somewhat less than once in two weeks. The consumption of carbohydrate food increased with the increase in wages. Not until a woman earned $8 a week did she reach the average, somewhat over 4 times a day. Bread, eaten at 6 meals out of 7, formed the largest part of this kind of food. It fiurnished one- third of the total variety eaten by the lowest paid women and one- fifth of the variety eaten by the best paid. While all kinds of bread were reported, white bread was regarded by most of the women as a staple. Cereals, including ordinary breakfast foods and rice, were FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY FROM THEIR FAMILIES. 91 mentioned somewhat less than 3 times a week. Their use increased as wages grew larger. Several women keeping house in their rooms cooked their oatmeal in the evening, reheating it next morning while they were dressing. In the group of women earning $16 and less than $18, carbohydrate food was to some extent substituted for protein food. These women showed an especial liking for cereals and cake. Macaroni was seldom reported by any of the women. Sweets of all kinds appeared on the menus about 10 times a week. Cake formed from 5 to 7 per cent, of the total variety, pastry Table 38. — Frequency of Use in One Week oj Tea and Coffee by Two Hundred and Sixty-one Women living away from their Families, by Wage Groups. Average Ntjmber of Times a Week Number of THE Women dbank — Weekly Wages. Women reporting. Both Beverages. Tea. Coffee. Total. ... ... 261 13.1 7.4 5.7 Leas than S6 21 14.3 10.3 4.0 $6 and less than J8 31 12.1 8.0 4.1 tS and less than $10 61 16.3 11.5 4.8 tlO and less than $12, . 33 13.4 7.2 6.2 $12 and less than $14 30 13.4 5.5 7.9 $14 and less than $16 31 11.7 6.0 5.7 $16 and less than $18, . 14 8.0 1.7 6.3 $18 and more, . . ... 35 10.5 3.9 6.6 Not reported 5 10.6 .3 10.3 from 3 to 4 per cent. Because of their relatively high price, desserts, including puddings and ices, were eaten more by the high-wage than by the low-wage group. Women receiving less than $6 a week bought desserts about once a week, while those receiving $16 or more ate them 5 times. The favorite form of pastry was apple pie, often used as the main dish at luncheon. In the $16 to $18 wage group the average consumption of all sweets was twice a day; in the lowest wage group they were mentioned once a day (Table 41). The largest variations were found in the consumption of vegetables and fruit (Table 42). Women in the low-wage groups ate few vegetables except potatoes. Like bread and meat, potatoes were eaten with similar frequency by women of all wage groups. The use of other vegetables increased steadily with increasing income. Salads appear about once a week on the menus of women earning $14 or more. Much has been written about the value of fruit to workers. The diets of working women interviewed for this study indicated that 92 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. § w ^ I 1 i J" 1 :§ o « >i: fe: tf CO fS ►J n ; ^ ^ CO DJ M s 1- ^1- M CO CO lO CO «s OO CO O ^ S5 « ■* CO C4 ■* « ■* ^ w C4 § •<" 1 ^iA « lO o 00 o OO to ■* o lO ei ca M D) 1-) CO ^ eo CO e^ i-t £;-° -1 U5 CO t* 00 « ^,^ ^ ,_, s K ^ U « 1 g |i 00 »o 00 to ^ ea •^ o o> oo ua N SO ^ ■* CO o iO t^ O CO us 1-4 CO ec CI ■^ ^ ec la to •o rti ■* C4 eo to O M w t- 00 c-' CO CO •* eo O tM eo ^ eo W eo ^ CM CO C4 04 N n »■ *M N *H (M lO 00 CO ^ C4 C4 CO r*io«ooi-*ooooo ,M* 1-* C4 iM * esj 04 04 to M »o 't o> CO M IS eo 00 eo 00 I^ o Cb o O^USMC^lOOO'^ 04 64 1-4 *-4 64 ^ ' *^ CO eo 04 64 CO P4 04 ioe404t^OQeoooo e00404i-«*H04>4e4 04 '« eM C4 eo »-i ^ *n 04 00 to ^ *o CO a> 00 04 C4 S S3 s g oa CD s t^ CO m 00 u> ■* 04 CO e ■^ o ^ 04 ■* 5 »--*i r* ■«*< ^ cz ^^ 00 ^ 'if o CO ►; Is w ^ M TP CO N ■^ eo "* h , i^ C4 ^^ CO is ^■° S H g ^1 ■^ ^H eo CO 00 C4 CO us CO U3 lO GO o Si 1 Q S 5 e^ ^ w M CO 03 -H 00 ^ ^ I^ 1- '^ " eg *"* ■* CO U3 U5 ^ P5 ^ '^ «Q m CO CO o CO CO ITS o n Pi fi^ o cc CO Ui t* CO o ir> CO CO O S >* " H ■^ t* o 00 CO 00 CO o> CO CQ n ■* eo ■* oa lO ■* ■* M5 ■^ ui p z-° S 4 r* t* CO C3 O oo Ui K ^ ^ K K ^ Be ^. ^ CO O ^■° fe " ■r» eo ^ IS ^6 'J' •* N ^ OJ CO ■* t- '^ CO < H s g isi 00 U3 04 Ci o t^ -* -* CV| r- N N e>) « N eo U3 CO CO H Z-" O g ^1 CO O to (M t^ in CO CO ^ o C9 00 ui o o 00 % esi « Z g n is 00 CO ; W IN t^ 't eo r- lO Cvi t- eo H n* ^(3 § 1 a p § 1^ GO CD t-i CO H ^ ft^ 00 «" K5 U3 00 M CM la ^d C4 C4 ea 04 L Tl" ■^ ^ lis 00 CO «o f- t» e» e M o .1-2. 1 g- 1=1 5 & !, :< ^ ss o Is & •V •» S i ^ P s c 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 M ta •a ta T) i c a 00 1 J s o (3 1 FOOD OF WOMEN LIVING AWAY PROM THEIR FAMILIES. 99 Certain foods seemed uniformly omitted from the menus ob- tained for this study, among them cheese, eornmeal products, maca- roni and rice. Cheese is a cheap protein food, and the others supply carbohydrates at a low cost. Their unpopularity may be due in part to their lack of distinctive flavors and in part to ignorance of their food value. One woman explained that she considered corn meal a "cheap" food, and she thought cheap foods were not as nourishiiag as expensive ones. Spinach appeared very seldom on the menu, and bacon was little used. It is hard to account for the small consump- tion of fish. Many people disUke the flavor of boiled fish, and few know how to make appetizing sauces to improve this flat taste. Frying and broiling seem means of preparation used but seldom. Conclusions. Although the women living away from their homes in Boston who were studied in this investigation were engaged in various occupa- tions, and differed greatly in age and in nationality, they had evolved a real standard of living suited to their needs. As wages advanced, expenditures for food and for rent increased, but not at the same time. Given a larger income, a working woman spent it first for food, then for rent. The average for both was attained about the time the wages reached from $10 to $12 a week. No matter what her income, the average working woman did not spend more than $4.70 for food; in the matter of rent she did not reach a limit to ex- penditure that was so apparent; rent increased as long as wages increased. Place of residence affected the amount spent for rent, but influenced to no great extent the expenditure for food. Wages of $6 a week will cover the average amounts spent for food and shelter, but will leave nothing for clothing, medical care, recrea- tions and incidentals. With an income of $8 to $10 a woman can live in accordance with the standards of an ordinary working-class family. Women doing all of their own cooking spent the least for food; those living at restaurants spent the most. Working women forced to economize saved on service at every turn; they did their own washing and bought and prepared their own food. This saving on service was effected at the expense of physical energy at the close of a working day, which is usually longest for the lowest paid and necessarily most economical worker. While co-operative housekeep- 100 FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. ing offers obvious financial advantages, there were found but few working women who ado'pted this fashion of living. Judged by variety alone, the food of working women of all wage groups was adequate. Protein food was consumed practically the same number of times a week by all women except those in the group earning less than $6 a week. The use of sweets and vegetables increased with better wages, making the total variety eaten much larger in the high than in the low wage groups. The standard dietary was meat, bread and potatoes, which were consumed with much the same frequency by women of all wage groups. Since women adrift cannot live as cheaply as members of a family group, family standards should not be considered in attempting to gain an understanding of the woman who is living away from her parents and relatives. The need of a clear comprehension of the situation of this class of women workers is apparent when it is realized that in Boston they form at least 24.4 per cent, of the whole number of women workers, a conservative estimate placing the number at between 18,000 and 20,000. When their needs are fully understood much of the present uncertainty with regard to the necessity for such measures as the minimum wage, old age and sickness insurance, and special legislation affecting women workers' hours, will disappear. An adequate comprehension of the whole situation must be reached by the woman worker herself as well as by the community as a whole. FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 101 CHAPTER IV. THE FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. The purpose of this part of the study is, first, to discover the vari- ety, adequacy and cost of food supplied to women living in organ- ized houses under the management of persons interested in their welfare; second, to examine the general living conditions in the different houses; and third, to decide whether it would be well to encourage a greater development of this method of providing food and lodging for these women. Information was obtained from 39 houses of which 22 are in Bos- ton and vicinity and 17 are in Lowell, Lynn, Springfield, Waltham and Wellesley, Mass., and in New York City and Chicago. "• Of the 22 houses in Boston and vicinity 4 accommodate students only. These will be referred to simply for comparison. The remaining 18, which provide accommodations for working women, will form the basis for this part of the study. These houses may be classified as follows: — 1. Subsidized houses where a part of the cost of maintenance is supplied by donations. 2. Co-operative houses where all expenses are shared by the occupants. 3. Houses which are self-supporting but not commercial. 4. Commercial houses, or those where a profit is expected. 1. There are 13 houses in Boston and vicinity which belong to the first class. They are designated as subsidized, since they pay no taxes and depend upon assistance from philanthropic individuals when the income from guests is insufficient to cover all expenses. Historically these represent the first type of organized houses. Their foundation dates back to the days of the early factory system, when the owners of large factories in small towns were compelled to provide homes for the young women whom they induced to come from the country districts to work in their mills. The houses were under the supervision of the factory owners, who dictated to the per- sons in charge the prices of room and board and the rules of manage- ment. 1 For form of inquiry, see Appendix A, No. 4. 102 FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. The boarding house established by the Waltham Watch Factory about fifty years ago is the only house of this kind that was visited. In this house, which is in charge of a matron, about 300 women are accommodated. Room and board are furnished at $3 per week. While this amount does not cover the cost of maintaining the house, the authorities consider it a paying investment. When rates as low as these are charged the women are not likely to seek accommodations elsewhere. This enables the factory to have close supervision over its women employees. The factory boarding house has never existed in Boston. It was not until the period of the civil war that the establishment of organ- ized houses for working women was agitated. With the scarcity of male labor due to the war, women came in large numbers to Boston. Because of low wages and being unacquainted with the city they were often compelled to live under deplorable conditions. Through missionary relief work these facts were brought to the attention of a group of philanthropic women. After many discouragements these women succeeded in raising sufficient money in 1866 to establish the first boarding house for working women in Boston. The object of this was to "provide for the temporal, moral and religious welfare of young women who are dependent on their own exertions for sup- port."^ Following this example similar houses were established by religious organizations and philanthropic individuals until 1906, when there were 12 subsidized houses in Boston and vicinity which offered accommodations to working women. 2. About this time there seems to have been a feeling on the part of some that subsidized houses were not the best type of boarding home. This resulted in the establishment of the second class, of which there are 2 in Boston. One was opened in 1906 and the other in 1913. These houses are managed co-operatively, the expenses as well as the responsibility of management being shared by the occu- pants. They aim to be entirely self-supporting, paying taxes as well as all other expenses. 3. A third class, differing slightly from the first and second, also had its beginning about 1906. These houses were founded by a cor- poration or group of individuals for the purpose of providing self- supporting homes for students and working women. As no returns on the investments are expected, the prices charged cover the cost of 1 Wilson, Elizabeth: Fifty Years of Association Work, pp. 29, 32. FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 103 maintenance only, except in the case of 2, which also pay taxes. At present there are 5 houses of this class in Boston; one of these ac- commodates working women, the others students only. Similar ex- periments are being made by the Eleanor Association in Chicago and by the Young Women's Christian Association in Brooklyn and in New York City. 4. To the fourth, class belong the houses which have been estab- lished for commercial purposes. There are 2 of these in Boston, which are occupied for the most part by professional women who pay higher prices than the average working woman can afford. Table 43. — Capacity of the Different Types of Organized Houses in Boston and Vicinity, and the Number of Occupants at the Time of the Investigation. Ttpes of Hotjbes. Capacity of House. Occupants at the Time op THE Investigation. Number, Per Cent, of Capacity. All the bouses, Subsidized, . Co-operative, Non-commercial, Commercial, 2,077 1,660 61 61 295 1,946 1,544 60 61 281 93.7 93.0 98.4 100.0 95.3 Women living in Organized Houses. The 18 organized houses in Boston and vicinity which furnish the basis of this study provide accommodations for 2,677 women, the number in the different houses varying from 14 to 850 persons. When the visits were made only 93.7 per cent, of these accommoda- tions were utilized. As is shown in Table 43 the subsidized houses have the smallest percentage, which is no doubt the maximum, since the visits were made during the winter months when the number of guests is usually the largest. In a similar study recently made in New York City the percentage of accommodations utilized is about the same, being 93.6 per cent.^ Of the total number of women living in the 18 Boston houses it will be seen in Table 44 that 15.8 per cent, are students, 40.9 per > Packard, Estber: A Study of Living Conditions of Self-supporting Women in New York City, p. 104- FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. cent, are engaged in occupations which belong to the general class of trade and transportation, while only 13.9 per cent, are engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. According to the United States Census for 1900 and 1910 the total number of women engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits in Boston is larger than the number in trade and transportation. Table 45 shows that only Table 44. — Occupations of Women living in Organized Houses in Boston and Vicinity. Occupations. ' Women living in Organ- ized Houses. Number. Per Cent. All occupations, Professional service. Teachers and musicians. Trained nurses, . other professional service, . Domestic and personal service. Laundresses, Servants, Other domestic service. Trade and transportation, OfiSoe work, . Saleswomen, ... Telephone operators. Other occupations. Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, Confectionery, ... Clothing manufacturing. Dressmaking, millinery, etc.. Printing and publishing, . Other manufacturing pursuits. Students 1,7191 347 79 232- 36 157 2 99 86 703 S43 118 41 1 240 2 70 119 35 14 272 100.0 20.2 4.6 13.5 2.1 9.2 .1 S.8 3.3 40.9 31.5 6.9 2.4 .1 13.9 .1 4.1 6.9 2.0 ' .8 15.8 21.6 per cent, of the women in trade and transportation live away from their families, while the percentage of women living thus who are engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits is 24.5 per cent. It was also found in an investigation of 1,086 establishments in 8 Massachusetts industries belonging to these classes that 53 per cent, of all the female employees earned less than $8.^ About 18 per cent, of the residents living in the subsidized houses earned less than $8. It will be seen that Institution One (Table 46), > The occupations were not reported for 224, and 3 were unemployed; these must be added in order to make the total of 1,946 found in the organized houses at the time of this investigation. > Eeport of the Massachusetts Minimum Wage Commission, January, 1916, Bulletin No. 11 p 9- table computed from data in the Annual Eeport of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics", Statistics of Manufactures for the Year 1913, pp. 2-11; 84-123. FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN OKGANIZED HOUSES. 105 Table 45. — The Proportion of Women Sixteen Years of Age and over in Selected Occupations in Boston, living away from their Families in 1900 and in 1910. Total Ndmbbb of Women in — Women living away fbom THEIR Families. ' Occupations. 1900.2 1910. s Number in 1900. Per Cent. Esti- mated Number in 1910. < AU the occupations, Professional service, Domestic and personal service. Trade and transportation, .... Manufacturing and meclianical pursuits, Other occupations, ... 45,882 5,827 2,865 14,485 16,181 6,524 68,733 9,365 4,178 24,498 21,162 9,530 12,372 2,873 927 3,125 3,969 1,478 27.0 49.3 32.4 21.6 24.5 22.7 18,612 4,618 1,354 5,292 5,185 2,163 1 Since the classification of occupations in the census for 1910 differs slightly from that of 1900, the number of women who are shown in the different classes as living away from their families is ^n approxi- mation. a Twelfth United States Census, 1900, Statistics of Women at Work. p. 222. 8 Thirteenth United States Census, 1910, Vol. IV., pp. 540, 541. 4 An estimate based on the number of women in the different occupations shown by the census of 1910, assuming that the percentage of women living away from their famiUes in 1010 was the same as in 1900. Table 46. — Weekly Earnings of Eight Hundred and Eighteen Women living in Seven Subsidized Houses.^ Women eabninq — Houses. UNDER $B. UNDER $12. UNDER $16. • $16 and over. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. Num- ber. Per Cent. All the houses, Institution One Institution Two, . Institution Three, 8 Institution Four, . Institution Five, . . . Institution Six, . Institution Seven," 147 10 31 71 6 10 19 18.0 22.2 100.0 12.2 12.0 22.2 70.4 709 3 43 31 520 46 39 27 87.0 9.1 95.6 100.0 89.0 92.0 86.7 100.0 805 31 45 31 676 50 45 27 98.8 93.9 100.0 100.0 98.6 100.0 100.0 100.0 10 2 8 1.2 6.1 1.4 ' The total number of women living in the 7 houses was 1,072, of whom 232 were students, 4 were out of work and for 18 there were no data. 2 In this house wages range from $4.50 to $7 per week. ' In this house wages were reported as ranging from $4 to $10 per week. The distribution has been estimated by classifying the occupations of residents. 106 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. which is a heavily subsidized house, has no guest who earns less than $8 per week, and only 9 per cent, of all the guests earn less than $12 per week. Institution Seven is also heavily subsidized, but none of its guests earns over $10, and some earn as low as $4 per week. In- stitution Three is subsidized to the extent of $1,275 per guest per week, but it will not accept any person who earns more than S7, and it has guests who earn only $4.50 per week. While such assistance is needed by some residents of these houses, it is evident that the ma- jority earn wages which would make self-support possible. While the majority of persons living in the organized houses are not those who receive low wages, they are the younger working women. Since there were no complete records regarding the exact ages of the guests, it was not possible to determine their average age. However, it is estimated that most of them are between twenty and thirty-five years of age, a few being older and some younger. This is due to the fact that many of the houses do not take women who are over thirty or thirty-five. Food supplied in the Boston Houses. In the efforts which were made to discover the food supplied to the 1,946 women living in the 18 organized houses, both personal visits and schedules to be filled in by those in charge were used. In addition to the general information shown in Table 47 the schedules called for the amount of raw food materials furnished during one week, the menus and the total number of people served for the same period. While 8 of the houses supplied complete information, part of it was estimated by the persons in charge. In all of the houses there was lack of an adequate system of book- keeping. In some of them no records whatever were kept regarding the amount of materials used, nor of the exact number of people served at each meal. In addition to these difficulties it was some- times hard to gain any information because the persons in charge did not seem to realize the semi-public character of the houses. Pub- licity of facts was feared and a general dislike for statistics was ex- pressed. On these grounds information was refused. In several cases at least six visits had to be made before the desired data could be obtained. Much less difficulty was experienced in finding the variety of the food served. Menus showing a week's bill of fare were obtained from FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 107 SI'S IP I So CO ^s 3 a I' ■a'ig I- So ill §■•3 a '"' ^'^ oaQ 33 SS ■9 a o ^ aj= aa° ■5 s a§° o.S a £(5 s ^■si Ip^I I \ o o - s S ago I" o ^ d ■o a a .a -. m © 9-S a as- • •Sag! ° ^ => s T3 a g s g£ t* P.O g :s g-s ^ o . ^" t-T! Si S3 3 e O « >» e: S » s sag IS *'■ J o «-.5 ,coa a-"S ■P°g S-E &a p O'o ? as c.S o ^ u ^la g S o e aJ S a ^lE "^a o C o P E c •cb ■14 r s a s H a 15 til |. s 1 1? yp Z J s^ i^ 1 1 U W n u FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 109 all except 2 of the 18 houses. From one of these menus for 14 meals were obtained; from the other only one day's bill of fare was secured. The menus for Wednesday of the week reported by each house are presented in Table 48. Since these menus do not include any special meals, such as might be served on holidays, it is felt they are typical of the variety of food supplied in the several houses. In a comparison of the meals served in the large and small as well as in the high and low priced houses, it is surprising to find how slight is the variation, the chief difference being that the large and high-priced houses serve a greater variety at each meal, permitting a choice of cereals, soups, fish and meats, and in some cases a choice of desserts. Soups as well as fruits and vegetables out of season are furnished in the more expensive houses. Those charging an average price of less than $4 supply meat from 11 to 19 times per week, and those charg- ing the highest rates offer it from 11 to 21 times. The meats fur- nished consist chiefly of beef, both fresh and corned, and lamb, and 9 of the more expensive houses supply chicken once a week. Fish is served in most of the houses at least 4 times a week. Since the cost of meat is so much higher in Boston than in other large cities of the United States (Table 4) it would be better to buy less meat and sub- stitute in its place the more frequent use of cheese and eggs. It is surprising to note that only 5 houses served cheese, and in only one of these is it served more than once a week. While most of the houses supply eggs once or twice a week, 3 of those charging the higher rates serve them from 5 to 10 times, and 3 of the least expensive houses do not furnish them at all. However, it is probable that all supply eggs more frequently when they are not so high in ■price. Both fresh and canned fruits are served in all but one of the houses; 9 serve dried fruits, such as prunes, apricots and peaches, and in 7 of these they are served only once a week. The least expen- sive houses offer fruit of some kind from 6 to 8 times a week; the most expensive serve it from 9 to 12 times, and one house charging an intermediate price serves it oijy once a week. Apples in some form or other are the chief kind of fresh fruit offered, and in a few cases oranges, bananas, grapes and grapefruit are supplied. All of the houses serve white potatoes from 8 to 14 times a week, other vegetables from 6 to 23 times, and 10 of them furnish sweet po- tatoes once or twice a week. The kinds of vegetables supplied during no FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. 135 S.2 « ■■■a « sil s-s .2 c •as. fi.s . §■11 If I lilli^i si esi Kb o K .H BO S^S S J3 f! ° ° •a'fl.SS •-32 g.'o. •^•■^01!? ^•2 ffija n •fis .- -* g o £ I "I 111 jS p' m "=3 S — Q m a> 0) ^ S ffi S'^ fell- Ill's "^a aassaS •rt'O 8i| &•; sis .il I ill Q 0) .- » J.=3S •-a •om OS 9. O rt o sal Ill ■8 3,0 O ? 2 bll CO •|^-° « g lillla o 9 •O OiflS S s es S fl IS •a S 3 |.ss S-aS. •o «- ss g.a ■3SS lllii |o|| li M « m eo t^ o> 111 §-d Hill ? s : ^ S M 1 o 1 .1 1 1 g s fl .2 .9 .S d 3 I I FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN ORGANISED HOUSES. Ill >3-C qS II is 11 ill l^pg -s U n Cm o p c.|g, O Q, Pis' 1^" ^* a s ^S •-■a "I •a S S ■sa&J aa« — o ^ . B''5 s SI rt P t» ■till 5| I I g"3.S . g£ a a a o Sa -^a g...| "O i S C la ai S II 11 S«-s^3 ^2 sip » S ji Ma s i-sg-SS " il S 3 Si sa^sS ST. ;§|ia Isa Pi S7. -Si g^s "■ s-g o fc'B is a s H a ;3 = *■§ •d .- ^ s •* s S S 3 g a 0. "•St g a a I s « § S a ■ U 2 M to * " I .2 -S ^ -a .ft tH H h . 112 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. -0 a o O "a I I •13 e s e g 00 cq < Eh a II ill 1= 8i il «« S M>: t^ _ H .5^ O . A HI'S ® •-®-2 S "d ff o 5 g rt o w '^ S b'2 « ft i3 f.| i M a^ 9 a M4s 01 h"^ 4f^l^ £"0 *I3 O •" 3 S S3 S 9 IT'S ft M-g S "oJ4 l°a •So "^ g o o bo.. GS ■s'5 8 lis all ..S"--i ^ fl 1" ™ M 2 I S'« a aSai-2 gag |-ai a i *- a Q, I •Ssa -I ■pa's ^5i "8 11 o 3 „ - If- ■8S8 8 3.S8 8 &isS S S 3 s * i ■a E=< J 9 3 .9 ig .3 2 a a I Eh a ■J 9 I I FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 113 one week in the several houses vary in number from 5 to 13. They consist chiefly of string beans, peas, tomatoes, corn, squash, celery, onions and carrots, and baked beans are served from 1 to 4 times a week in all except 2 houses. Salads are used in 15 of the houses from 1 to 9 times a week; the more expensive houses frequently offer them in the place of vegetables. In 9 houses macaroni is also used as a substitute for vegetables once or twice a week. Hot cereals are served for breakfast by all, and in 8 houses both hot and cold cereals are offered. The kind of bread supplied cannot be discussed, since none of the houses furnished complete information regarding this. All of the houses furnish hot beverages at least once a day. Coffee is served at every meal in one house, in 2 houses twice a day, in 11 houses for breakfast only and in one house it is served only once a week as a special treat. Two houses do not serve any tea; the others offer it from 3 to 21 times a week. In 11 of the houses milk may be had at all meals. The amount of food which will be served to each person at regular meals is not limited in any house. Guests are permitted to have as many servings as they desire. Since the food was not sampled in all of the houses the quality cannot be discussed. A comparison of the general variety and of the kinds of food served at each meal during one day will be found in Table 48. Lunches are put up in 7 of the houses to be taken out by those who cannot return during the noon hour. These lunches consist chiefly of sandwiches, fruit and cake, and 2 furnish small bottles of milk. All aim to vary from day to day the kinds of sandwiches which they supply. One large house provides a choice of 12 -different kinds of sandwiches, crackers, cake, fruit and chocolates. Each arti- cle is separately priced, and any combination may be chosen to the amount of 14 cents. In this house about 280 lunches are put up daily; of this number, which were served on a particular day, 176, or 63 per cent., represent choice of substantial and well-balanced lunches; 37 were all fruit or all candy, or both fruit and candy; and 67 were combinations of crackers, fruit, cake and candy. The fol- lowing represents a typical lunch: — 1 ham sandwich, . ... . . $0.05 1 jam sandwich, ... 03 1 orange, . . -03 1 piece nut cake, . . -03 $0.14 114 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. These houses are to be commended for their successful efforts in securing a good variety of food. In a similar study in New York emphasis is placed on the necessity of planning meals with regard to attractiveness of combinations of food. "One of the first rules to be observed," says this report, "is to secure contrasts in color, consist- ency and flavor."' It also warns against serving the same meats and vegetables at two consecutive meals. ^ To this might be added that it is well to avoid serving similar menus on the same days of consecu- tive weeks. For instance, the menu which is offered on Monday should not be the same as was served on Monday of the previous week. The combinations of food offered from day to day in the sev- eral houses show that care has been taken to avoid unattractiveness and monotony. Adequacy of the Food supplied. Adequacy is perhaps more important than variety in the diet of working women. To ascertain whether the food offered is adequate it is necessary to determine whether it is of such character that each person may have the proper food values. The reports of the raw materials used in preparing the week's menus supplied were utilized for this purpose. As has been stated, 8 houses fur- nished the desired data. In 5 of these houses the quantities were estimated by the persons who planned the meals. Three of the houses gave the amounts of raw materials used during one month. In one case the information was in the form of monthly statements from the firms which furnish supplies. From these statements the amounts used during one week were ascertained. Another house, having a large central storeroom from which all supplies must be obtained by a written daily order, permitted' all the food orders for one month to be copied. The menus served during the same period were also secured. By comparing storeroom orders and the menus for 7 consecutive days it was easy to estimate the amount of raw food materials used during one week. Although every effort was made to secure complete records, the striking variation shown in Table 49 makes it doubtful whether the amounts are entirely correct. However, the information thus secured is as exact as could be obtained, where it is not possible to follow the ^ Corbet, Florence H. : Dietaries for Charitable Institutions, State Board of Charities, Ne\1r York, 1906, p. 21. ! Ibid., p. 19. FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 115 Table 49. — Amount of Protein at^d Value of Calories of Food furnished by Eight Organized Houses in Boston and Vicinity. Based on Supplies u^ed during One Week. Average per Person per Dat. Amount charged peb Week foe Room AND Board. Grams of Protein supplied. Grams of Protein con- sumed. ' Value in Calories of Food supplied. Value in Calories of Food consumed. Institution One, S3 for 3 meals per day, . Institution Two, S3 for 3 meals per day, . Institution Three, S4 to S5 tor 2 meals per day, Institution Four, S4 to $5.50 for 3 meals per day. Institution Five, S4.50 to S5 for 3 meals per day, Institution Six, S4.50 to $6 for 3 meals per day, Institution Seven, S4.25 to SIO for 3 meals per day, . Institution Eight, S7.90 for 3 meals per day. 76.5 8i.O 91.62 65.1 79.1 111.2 106.3 95.9 68.9 72 .fl 82.4! 68.6 71.2 100.1 95.7 86.3 2,180.8 2,702.7 2,665.8' 1,965.3 2,642.0 3,722.2 3,046.0 2,718.0 1,962.8 2,432.4 2,399.2! 1,759.8 2,287.8 3,350.0 2,740.5 2,690.8 method used in certain dietary studies made in Philadelphia and Baltimore.^ In making these studies the investigators spent a week at each institution. All stock on hand at the beginning of the week was weighed and recorded. An account was kept of all supplies purchased or taken from the storeroom, of materials on hand at the end of the week and of the weight of table waste each day. By de- ducting the amount wasted from the amount supplied it was possible to ©"btain an accurate estimate of the amount consumed per person for each day of the period studied.* In obtaining the estimate of the food supplied in the Boston houses the amount of protein and the value in calories were calcu- lated, and this was divided by the total number served, including in this number both guests and employees. Ten per cent, of the amount supplied was allowed for waste in serving, as this percentage of waste was found in the dietary studies to which reference has been made,^ and has been accepted in similar studies by Ellen F. Rich- > Amount supplied less 10 per cent, for table and kitchen waste, ' These figures are estimates based on the assumption that the 2 meals served per day represent three- fourths of the total amount of food eaten in 1 day. • Smedley, Emma, and Milner, R. D., Dietary Studies in Public Institutions in Philadelphia, Pa., and Knight, H. L., Pratt, H. A., and Langworthy, C. F., Dietary Studies in Public Institutions in Baltimore, Md., United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 223. • Ibid., p. 9. ' United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 223, p. 49. 116 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. ards, Marion Talbot and Mary Swartz Rose. The results of this study show the striking lack of standardization of the dietary in these houses, as the protein supplied per person for one day varies from 65 to 111 grams, and the calories from 1,760 to 3,350 (Table 49). The exact dietary needs of the residents of these houses cannot be determine^, as the food requirements are dependent on such com- plex factors as the age and weight of the women, the degree of mus- cular activity of their occupations, and the amount of walking and standing during the day. Previous investigations indicate that the total bodily fuel needed would be 2,200 to 2,400 calories. In a care- Table 50. — Metabolism of Women engaged in Different Occupations} Age. Height. Weight in Founds. CaLOBIES FEB HOUB. Total Cabries per Day, Eight Hours' Work, Sixteen Hours' Rest. Feet. Inches. At Rest. At Work. Hand sewer, Hand sewer. Machine sewer. Machine sewer, . Wash woman. Washwoman, . Waitress, . Waitress, Bookbinder, Bookbinder, 63 35 53 19 43 19 43 19 22 22 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 6 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 139 143 139 110 125 110 125 110 105 112 75 64 75 64 75 64 75 64 70 61 83 88 103 119. 285 186 228 143 98 127 1,864 1,728 2,024 1,976 3,480 2,512 3,024 2,168 1,904 1,992 ful dietary study made in a home for aged women the average value of the food consumed by each person in one day was found to be 2,206 calories.^ The younger, more active women of the Boston houses would require more nourishment. A recent careful calorimeter study of the amounts consumed in a day divided between 8 hours' work and 16 hours' rest gave the results reported in Table 50. As some additional allowance would be necessary on account of possible faulty assimilation, and because of the fact that residents of the organized houses often have a nine-hour work day, and rarely re§t ' Quoted by Fisher and Fisk in How to Live, p. 195. The figures are the results of calorimeter tests by Becker and Hamalainen at the University of Helsingfors, Finland. For complete report see Skan- dinavisches Archiv fQr Physiologie, XXXI., Band 1, 2 u. 3 Heft. Leipzig, 1914. i Ibid., p. 53. POOD OP WORKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 117 during thp entire period of freedom frona their wage-earning employ- ment, a somewhat larger food supply would be required. Even these additional needs would not justify such an extravagant amount of food as is supplied in Institutions Six and Seven. The dietaries in these houses show a tendency to an excessive use of expensive protein foods. Very few of their residents were at an age when protein food was needed for growth, and the majority were not engaged in occupations resulting in large muscular development. Their bodily needs would have been satisfied with 60 to 70 grams of protein per day, instead of the larger amounts supplied in the ma- jority of the houses. The investigation was made during the colder months of the year, when the large consumption of protein may have been prompted by an instinctive desire to profit by its heating quali- ties. But few authorities would consider the amounts supplied de- sirable, and many would claim that the excess was positively injuri- ous. Cost of Food. One of the chief points upon which information was desired was the actual cost of providing food for women living in these organized houses. In the attempts to get this information several methods were used; the houses were first requested to state the prices charged for board alone; second, to furnish data regarding all expenditures connected with the food as served; and third, to submit copies of their last published financial statements. The first method did not give the exact information desired for two reasons, — first, because room and board are rated together; second, because, in establishing these rates, the same lack of business effi- ciency was evinced as was noted in the failure to keep accurate records of the quantities of raw materials used. In all of the subsi- dized houses there seems to be no definite basis for the rates charged. The persons in charge of the houses apparently make the rates agree with what they feel the women are able to pay. In a few of the houses there is a definite schedule of adjustment between wages and prices. Others objected to this arrangement because in the absence of accurate information it is difficult to know the wages each resident receives. The chief basis of variation in all of the houses is not the cost of food but the location, size and number of occupants of each room. The varying rates Vhich are charged are shown in Table 48. 118 FOOD OF WOKKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. I 05 i -i ^ 58 g .s= o Bq & ■S •p ^ -i t^l ■« a p a o a sS 5 f- S H a ° a . < I a" Is ■Si 1-° ^ a 11 ^c3 sg 00 ■<}< e u3 i-< CO e>i ej CO ■« lO C4 *-4 CO 03 c4 as rH rH •« •^ M ^ 04 M S N -. 0> O 00 o us O CO CO C>^u9<^<-40e0t^ aoeao^Hesoicao« cqc4f-*oescicii*-i 1^ vH 1-t iH *-t ^ ^^ CQ ^^ CO ^* ^< ^S< liO oacoo^eot^oor* S to CO CO 04 N 1^ t^ o5 CO c* CO ■* ^ ■^ |S8SSSSS esoa-^coett-ar-co Se^ e^ 00 T-! o us CO t* OO U3 C» O O 00 S ^ .» H I I 1 I I I 1 1 FOOD OP WORKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 119 When these rates do not cover all expenditures bazaars are held and donations solicited to make up the deficit. In the co-operative and self-supporting houses the prices charged are reckoned on the total expense of maintaining the house. These rates must be large enough to cover all expenses. The second method of requesting definite data regarding the ex- penditures for raw food materials and for light, heat, laundry, service and supervision during one week or month proved as unsatisfactory as the first. In some of the houses there were no records to show the exact amounts expended for raw food materials during any definite period. Since there was no segregation in the records of expenses chargeable to the dining-room account for light, heat, laundry, etc., these amounts were only estimates. While 7 houses furnished all of the data, it was felt the information was not sufiiciently accurate to make deductions possible for all of the houses. Owing to the failure to obtain the exact information desired by the first and second methods, the plan finally used was to make computa- tions from the last published financial statement of each house. The only expenditures in these statements which can be chargeable to food alone are those for " provisions and supplies." While it is realized that these amounts may contain the cost of supplies other than raw food materials, they were the only figures available for all of the houses. Upon these figures the average cost per person per day of raw food materials was calculated. This was done by dividiug the amounts expended for "provisions and supplies" by the number of meals served in each house during the year, as given in the annual reports or by estimates made in the case of other houses, when the number of meals served was not given in their reports. In making these estimates it is assumed that houses serving 3 meals a day would serve 1,095 meals to each guest in a year, or when only 15 meals are served in a week, that 780 meals would be served to each guest in the same period. These factors when multiplied by the number of guests and employees give the estimated number of the total meals served in one year. While these estimates are fairly accurate, it is probable that the actual number of meals served during the year reported was somewhat less, since the investigation was made during the winter months, when the houses usually have the largest number of guests. The variations of the cost of raw food materials in the several 120 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. houses, as is shown by these calculations in Table 48, were found, with the exception of Institutions Two and Eighteen, to be very sHght. Institution Two is a heavily subsidized house, and serves somewhat elaborate menus, and Institution Eighteen is a house which accommodates students only, and does not serve any meals during the summer months when foodstuffs are usually the cheapest. These slight variations do not seem to follow any rule. For in- stance, in the larger houses where food can be bought in wholesale quantities, the raw materials do not cost less per person than in the smaller houses. There was no evidence to show whether this indi- cates that the smaller houses are more careful of waste or that the larger houses serve more expensive foods. The average total cost of maintaining each house per capita per week was also estimated from these financial statements. This was done by dividing the total annual expenditures of the several houses by 52 times the number of guests living in each house when visited. The results of these calculations will be seen also in Table 48. By examining the average cost per capita in the several houses it will be noticed, with the exception of Institution Ten, that 2 of the self- supporting houses have the least per capita cost. This is no doubt due to the fact that the number of guests per employee is larger than in any other house, less service being required because the guests have a small share of the household duties to perform. Since it has been seen that there is little variation in the average cost per person of raw food materials in the several houses, the variation of the total per capita cost of maintenance is probably due to the difference in the amoynts expended for service as well as to methods of management. The savings, which are supposed to result from the advantages gained by dealing with large groups, are not evident when a comparison of the per capita cost in the small and large houses is made. This may be due in some houses to lack of good management, and in others to the fact that the buildings are old and do not have modern equipment, thus requiring more service. The prices charged by some of the Boston houses, which are sub- sidized, are higher than those charged by 6 houses in Chicago and 2 in New York which are self-supporting. The Chicago houses charge from $3 to $5.50 for a room and 15 meals per week. They severally accommodate from 60 to 150 women, are self-supporting and pay a small return on the investment. One of the New York houses, FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 121 which accommodates 212 women, charges from $3.50 to $7 per week for a room and 3 meals per day, and is able to cover all expenses. The other New York house charges from $4.50 to $7.50 per week for room and 2 meals per day, and accommodates 326 guests. Until September, 1915, the prices charged by this house ranged from $4 to $6; with the advance in the cost of foodstuffs an increase of 50 cents per guest per week was found necessary. It is not only self-supporting, but pays 4 per cent, interest on the investment. This house and 1 commercial, the 2 co-operative and 2 self-supporting houses in Bos- ton are the only houses of the 39 studied which pay taxes. While the price of foodstuffs in Boston is soniewhat higher than in New York and Chicago,^ it is not clear why 13 of the Boston houses must depend on endowments and donations to cover their expenses, when the houses just referred to can be self-supporting. Serving of Food. The variation in the equipment of the houses and the methods of serving foods affect both the cost of service and the value of the food supplied. Foods attractively served have not only an aesthetic value, but a physiological one as well. It is a generally accepted fact that attractiveness of service promotes the ease and rapidity of the assimi- lation of food by creating a pleasurable anticipation which causes the digestive fluids to flow more freely. There are a number of factors which influence both the attractiveness of service and its cost. Of these the most important are, first, the location and general appear- ance of the dining room; second, the methods of serving the food; and third, the time of service. The location and general appearance of the dining room in the non-commercial houses is too often a secondary consideration. A room which is partly below the street level is very diflBcult to venti- late and to light properly. When ventilation is poor and little or no sunlight is admitted the room is likely to contain odors of stale cooking and to be damp and uninviting. A number of the houses have basement dining rooms with long institutional tables, giving the room an unattractive and unhomelike appearance. Several of the houses, however, have well-ventilated and well-lighted rooms, with curtains at the windows, plants or flowers and clean linen on the tables, which are mostly round, seating from 6 to 8 persons. » See Table i. 122 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. The second factor which plays an important part in this phase of the food supplied is the method of service. The two ways of serving food in the Boston houses are individual service and the family method. Eleven houses provide individual service at all meals, which means that the food is served in the kitchen in separate dishes, which are taken by waitresses directly to each guest. This insures hot food, but requires more service and more dishes than the family method. With two exceptions the latter method is used only in the smaller houses, and in 6 of these dinner only is served thus. By this method the food is placed by waitresses on the table in large dishes from which each person is served by the head. A unique method of service is used by a house accommodating 212 women which has recently been opened in New York City. In this house breakfast and lunch are served cafeteria style and dinner by indi- vidual service. At breakfast and lunch each article of food is priced separately, and those who pay board by the week are permitted to order to the amount of 20 cents for breakfast and 25 cents for lunch. Dinner is served in individual servings by waitresses who also act as chambermaids, since no dining-room service is required of them at breakfast and lunch. The third factor is the time during which the meals are served. Since all of the women who live in these houses are not engaged in the same occupations, their hours for beginning work vary. In order to meet as nearly as possible the convenience of the guests, meals are served during different periods. Those for breakfast and lunch vary from three-fourths of an hour to two hours, and dinner from one to one and one-half hours. In 6 of the houses the latter meal is served at a stated time, when all guests are supposed to be present and thus form a family group. In some places a number of the waitresses are students, who give their services for certain hours each day in return for their rooms and board. This enables the houses to provide at small cost the extra amount of service needed when all guests are not served at the same time. Factors influencing the Utilization of these Houses. The disposition of women to avail themselves of the adequate and varied food supplied at such small cost is affected by other considera- tions, such as the general accommodations offered; the rules and the limitations regarding admission; the recreation provided; and the FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 123 accommodations for laundry and sewing. Most of the houses are attractive and homelike places in which to live. With one exception all of the subsidized and co-operative houses furnish both room and board. The one exception is a small house for colored women which furnishes rooms and a kitchen where cooking may be done. Other non-commercial and commercial houses either furnish rooms and a restaurant where meals may be secured, or rooms which have light- housekeeping accommodations. Since most of the subsidized houses were founded by religious organizations, or by persons with a religious motive in view, some of the rules governing those who may be admitted show traces of this influence. While none of the houses has any stipulated religious limitations, some of them discriminate against women of certain religious beliefs, who they feel will not be in sympathy with their custom of conducting daily prayers. In two of the smaller houses all guests are required to be present at these services; in other houses, which follow this custom, attendance is optional. Aside from these customs which affect the religious liberties of the guests there are other rules which are resented by some. For in- stance, many women do not like to feel that they must be in at a certain hour in the evening, or explain why they were not in at that time. Some of the houses also require all applying for accommoda- tions to furnish names of one or more persons who will vouch for their good characters. Women who are strangers in the city, or who have lived independent lives for some time, dislike to have their friends troubled by a request which seems to them unnecessary. The fact that a number of the houses are known to be subsidized makes some people feel that they are undesirable places in which to live. A self-supporting woman does not like to feel that she is a recipient of charity. While these conditions are disliked by some, they are welcomed by others. There are many young women who come as strangers to the city, and are grateful to find a home where such pro- tection is offered and a place where living can be secured at such low rates. Aside from these rather personal feehngs regarding the houses there are other reasons which limit the women who may live in them. With two exceptions the houses aim to reach only young women receiving low wages. Three houses state that they will not take women earning over S15 per week; one house will not take any one 124 , FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. earning more than $12, and another limits its accommodations to women earning $7 and less per week. There is an age limit in 4 houses over which no one will be admitted as a permanent guest. In 2 houses this is thirty years and in the others thirty-five. All of the houses make efforts to furnish some forms of recreation for their guests. Most of them provide some sort of a library with books, current magazines and daily papers. All have one or more parlors where callers may be received, and some of the large houses have small parlors which may be engaged in advance. A large room or recreation hall is provided where guests may assemble for parties, dances or entertainments. In some of the houses amusements are furnished as often as once in every two weeks, and in others special entertainments and parties are given at least twice a year. In addition to the small charge made for room and board there are other accommodations which offer the guests opportunities for re- ducing the cost of living. All of the houses provide laundries where both washing and ironing may be done. Two charge 10 cents and one charges 15 cents each time the laundry is used; the others per- mit its use free of charge. With one exception all furnish one or more sewing machines for free use of the guests. That these accom- modations are appreciated is shown by the fact that they are used by one-half to three-fourths of the guests. Every effort is made by these houses to promote the health of their guests. In 3^ of them a physician gives his services free or for a moderate charge. Four provide a trained nurse; one large house has a well-equipped infirmary with trained nurses constantly on duty; and all keep medicines for emergencies. Conclusions. Notwithstanding these facts there are no long waiting lists of women desiring admission. As was shown in the early part of the chapter the houses when visited were not filled to their capacity, and during the summer months the number of vacancies is often quite large. With a single room and board to be obtained for 86 and less per week, and accommodations which cannot be secured in any pri- vate boarding house for the same money, wl^y are these houses not flooded with persons desiring admission? No definite answer can be given. The fact that most of the houses depend upon their guests or other interested persons to inform women of their existence, instead FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN ORGANIZED HOUSES. 125 of advertising their accommodations, as well as the rules and limita- tions already discussed, may have something to do with their failure to attract a larger number of women. While the houses should be criticized for the unbusinesslike way in which many of them are managed, it must be recognized that they have performed a noble service to the working women of Boston. The food provided seems to be of a sufficient variety and of an ade- quate amount; the accommodations offered cannot be found at the prices charged in any private boarding or lodging house; the limita- tions explained do not appear unreasonable; and the value of the protection offered to young women who come as strangers to the city cannot be overestimated. 126 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. CHAPTER V. FOOD OF CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. The selection of food made by women suffering from preventable diseases, generally conceded to be related to diet, is an interesting phase of this study of the food of working women. Since the dis- pensaries of Boston have educated the public to make use of the advantages offered, it seems probable that low-wage women suffermg from ill health would seek their assistance. The variety and charac- ter of the food selected, habits of food consumption, hygienic habits and home and work conditions will be considered in their relation to the health of these women. Patients coming to Dispensaries. In order to appreciate the significance of the 126 cases studied in detail some consideration of dispensary patients as a group is neces- Table 52. — Patients coming to Eight Dispensaries in Boston classified by Number of New Patients and Total Number of Visits from AU Patients in One Year.^ DlSPENSABT. ■ Total Number of Visits. New Patients. Total 450,361 90,132 Massachusetts General Hospital, Jan. 1, 1915, to Dec. 31, 1915, 190,627 29,213 Boston Dispensary, Oct. 1, 1914, to Sept. 30, 1915, 122,776 25,694 Carney Hospital, Deo. 1, 1913, to Nov. 30, 19U, . 50,992 15,506 Peter Bent Brigham, Jan. 1, 1914, to Deo. 31, 1914, 30,434 8,347 Mount Sinai Hospital, Jan. 1, 1914, to Dec. 31, 1914, . 27,680 5,566 Cambridge Hospital, Jan. 1, 1915, to Dec. 31, 1915, 6,647 1,985 Maverick Dispensary, Sept. 1, 1914, to Aug. 31, 1916, . 7,044 1,960 New England Dispensary for Women and Children, Oct. 1, 1914, to Sept. 30, 1915, 14,161 1,861 ' Data obtained from the Fifty-third Annual Report of the New England Hospital for Women and Children, its Training School for Nurses and Dispensary, Sept. 20, 1915, p. 30; One Hundred and Second Annual Keport of the Trustees of the Massachusetts General Hospital, 1915, Section B, p. 67; Report of the One Hundred and Nineteenth Year of the Boston Dispensary, 1916, p. 49; Fifty-first Annual Report of Carney Hospital, 1914, p. 20; First Annual Report of the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital, 1915, p. 16; Thirteenth Annual Report of Mount Sinai Hospital, 1915, p. 15; Report of the Trustees of the Cambridge Hospital, January, 1916, p. 49'; Sixth Annual Report of the Maverick Dispensary, 1915, p. 6. FOOD OF CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. 127

1 5 CO M s s§ o a 3 to lO Ol lO g Z CQ ^ s «* o CO DO CD K is ss CO 9 U ^ CO (O H P4 ,<» 1-4 1 1 fg n o t. 2 g «l •o CO K CO l. Z Q i ■«*H CM O) N w ^ o ^ CO CO O •^ ss (^ < (£ (h s s n ^ ■*t< S g o CO o o 15 >o >o •fc. e ^ Q (0 a N Oi CO M eo tH ■*' CO t^ o CO Q § 3 1 02 s (N o CO CO - ■^ ^ CO ^ g n ^. CO ■* CSI s 3 Jz; '"' ^ ^ "^a^ ^■ ^ a 1 1 1 1 1 Si O lO t4 ^ ^ 1 £ E S r^ * t- U3 t- x_ s s s. •1 1 g •*" of N ■S 'J CO ' c3 ^^ Hh 00 s g te; 1 s OS i o 2 s" CO CO us 1 1 00- 1 s % s 2 3 1 1 2 , m OO Q 1 tS s 1 1 1 g o a 'm 1 d 4^ 1 .3 g P9 ■* 1 tl s g s 5 « E-i « s H A, 128 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. sary. The records of the new patients coming to 4 dispensaries dur- ing periods of one to eight months were tabulated (Tables 52-57). The 9 dispensaries^ in Boston from which cases were selected reach a large number of people, as is shown in Table 52. Although the esti- mated cost of the service ranges from 33 to 49 cents a visit, ^ a fee of only 10 cents is charged in order to reach the group most in need of medical treatment. Wage-earning women formed only one-ninth (11.6 per cent.) of the total attendance (Table 54). The high per- centage of Russian Jews and others of foreign birth, shown in Table 55, makes it evident that nationality is an important consideration in discussing the diet of this group. The largest proportion were young, unmarried women engaged in manufacturing pursuits (Table 56). Cases for this study were found in the medical departments (Table 57). About one-third (36.7 per cent.) of the women coming to the dispensaries were referred to the medical departments, and the sev- eral occupation groups were proportionately represented in this num- ber. Women in domestic service who were not included in this study formed two-fifths (40.4 per cent.) of the attendance at the medical departments. Scope and Method of the Study.' Some 20,000 records covering periods ranging from three to six months for each of the 9 dispensaries were examined. Prom these records 192 cases of women in industry suffering _from preventable diseases possibly complicated by diet were selected for further study. Sixty-six of these cases were not included in this study, as 51 could not be located and 15 were not pertinent. By personal visits infor- mation was obtained from 126 women. In these interviews 2 schedules were used, — the first concerning the food, the second, an inquiry into social and industrial conditions.* Information for form of in- quiry No. 5, as well as menus for two days, were obtained at the time of the interview. The method of keeping this food schedule ^ All dispensaries in Boston were visited, though complete records were available only from these 9 dispensaries. ^ Massachusetts General Hospital. One Hundred and Second Annual Report of the Trustees, 1915, Section B, p. 22; Mount Sinai Hospital, Thirteenth Annual Report, 1915, p. 15; Peter Bent Brigham Hospital, First Annual Report, 1915, p. 16. * For forms of inquiry, see Appendix A, Nos. 5 and 6. * The questions on the second schedule were suggested by the one \ised in a study made by the Massa- chusetts General Hospital of the hygienic conditions of working girls who came as patients to the hos- pital. All unmarried girls under twenty-one (80) who came to the medical department during eight months were studied. Sixth Annual Report of the Social Service Department of the Massachusetts General Hospital, 1912. FOOD OF CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. 129 8 :■& s e (^ e s in ■< H 1 00 Oi o (D t^ o T-J ■^ "* N d CO ■* ec CO 3 K ^ H SS kS 1 ^ W u oo in JO so in M ^ 2; a CO lO « CS CJ o ■* CO ^ ua ^ O) s S3 H Ph 5 S :) s D ;z; 1 o ■s ;z; C3 Oi «o 00 i-O ^ o en ^ s ^ o6 §■ ^ (O U3 to o iz; s H < / ^ s 1 a» 2 :; s S ■^ o •* ^ N 2; ^ (3 g 1 1 1 § b Q hi Pm < o c-t is ^ t^ 00 00 ca CO (M t- s «1 lO o lO 3 CO IS CD CS oT jj lo 2 OS 1 to o OS ^ CS «o (O t* g ^ g OS ^ 3 00 g 03 •-3 5 a s -g 5 K "3 ^ < 2 C» eo (Q [5 OS tS OS a eq ■** ^^ (N ^ ■f OO P -. d 3 w § cS t-S t-3 -rt s 1" 1 o to § c Hi CQ •c a Q. S « s Q CI 1 -+3 P 1 PQ ■* a k< m A 1 1 H R 3 ;^ Pk 130 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Co 1^ ■g^ -^1 M CO m r- r- CI f-i M CI „ (M ^ 1 1 1 1 1 ^ » ■«1* ^ ■* (M g s§ ^ ^__- — — St3 k CO CO 1 CO ^~ 1 1 1 r 1 in B to OJ fc, ■* ^ C9 U3 1 ^ ^ 1 1 g >-§•§ 00 TP ^ ^ *. s § £ e p in P s SS ■* :: -. 1 ' CM CM 1 1- ' CM ' ^ ^ ^ s m ;:3 t» oa ^ CO ^ CM 1 d I § ^§1 "^ 10 M Si <» a •g S ® 'ca S *^ e K^'S ►- us »c N oi (M 1 CM CM CO CM Tf ^ 1 1 1 <— CM (A P -* CO eq N fe; N 3 Sj .0 "§ £ 10 3"^ a 00 U3 ■* ■* CO 1 M CM eq ■^ ii3 ^5- >-§■§ CM 04 e s d a M s ^ u £ V4 » S-o" ■* f- ^^ cc ■* CO to CM ^^ *-• CM e<) •H ^ ^ CO ce !-§| "* (M t-t » s '^ 3 1 cS 00 ce - 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 ' ' 1 1 r — r»A ;3 c !§ 5 b fH t- 01 ■* 00 t- t- ua •V ■* CO »^ s U3 06 CO 00 n f-i ^ ^ • ^ •g J 1 (2 f 1 00 O) l« 1 CO r- CM « 0» CO U3 us ^ ^ QO •«ra H S3 :s e^ o» CC i-< ;s 9 a, e § 01 s .§• v./ d ^ >• 1 8 1 •< Iz; •J 1 ; n 1 1 K l-t 1 if < .1 TO QQ K 1 1 i T3 "2 §■ II 1 FOOD OP CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. 131 s i I- « 5? i« I s 00 -a to U5 n _^ & i ■* M « ■* 00 a M •-4 ' N cc CO ' t O Q §1 1 i O CO 1 « ^ 00 r 1 ^ CO Q 1 *5 g e<3 oo o ws o CM o w 00 00 CNI o «3 M 0* ^ o a §' * _ -* 1 r^ CO U3 e-1 1 .£) U3 ■* iSi a 3 1? *; « O oo O •«!f o Oi CO o ^ 00 o 00 U3 o CO CN a* & S CL< ts B < b s « CO ■* oa CO to o> «o 1 ja t- "* OS .-c ^ +3 g M CM o CO ^ CO o 6 K GO B pi 00 s K ' b (S 2 !2 S' 00 ^ CO W' «o - CO i « « ^~* ■* ^ K iz; c t' < bD a ° a 1 1 o •| 1 1 1 1 1 6 J 1 i 132 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. was explained to the woman so that she could fill in a similar blank for the five days remaining in the week. Over half (51.6 per cent.) completed the menu for five or more days, and more than three- fourths (78.5 per cent.) of this number finished the week, making in all reports of 1,703 meals. Difficulties pecuhar to this subject arose from the necessity of ex- plaining the reasons for the inquiries concerning the food to ignorant and suspicious women, persuading them to keep their menus for a week, and from the personal nature of the questions which had to be asked often in the presence of persons of varying ages and both sexes. The inability to write English prevented the completion of the food schedules in some instances. Characteristics of the Patients Studied. The group selected for further study resembled the wage-earning women in the total dispensary group in age, occupation and nation- ality. These 126 patients were largely young women, native born or Russian Jewesses, engaged in manufacturing pursuits. The average age, twenty-two years (21.9), represented the trend for the group, since four-fifths (79.4 per cent.) were under twenty-five years of age (Table 58). One-half (50.8 per cent.) were native born. One-tenth (10.3 per cent.) of the total number were native born of native parents; one-third (33.3 per cent.), native born of foreign parents; and one-fifteenth (7.2 per cent.), native born of mixed parentage. More than one-fifth (21 per cent.) of the foreign born had been in this country two years or less, and one-half (56.5 per cent.) for five years or less. Although the majority were in the semi-skilled manufacturing occupations, the clerical, selling and telephone operating positions of one-fourth (29.4 per cent.) demand skill and a higher degree of intelli- gence. Their weekly wages ranged from $3 to $14.50, with an aver- age for the group of less than $8 ($7.77) (Table 59). Telephone oper- ating had the highest average wage, almost $10 ($9.97), clerical work slightly over $9 ($9.10), selling and manufacturing occupations be- tween $7 and $8 ($7.50 and $7.43), and the miscellaneous personal service occupations less than $6.50 ($6.30). It is quite apparent that the majority of these women could make no provision from their earnings for private medical care. While their homes were located in all parts of Boston, living conditions did not vary greatly. Seven- eighths (87.3 per cent.) lived as part of their own families, 91 with FOOD OF CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. 133 13 I t o •: •I s ^ ? '3 n 1 , , ^ 11 i5g E^ N ^ , ^ H n 1- i fa M-S O eo ca •«# ) ^ 1 ■^ « , P^O 2 o S^ d 00 O CO oi 00 OS ci « cn' 00 t~ 1 ^3 Q = s" t-i ■* •* g-° i §■§ o o « CO t^ " '^ 00 OS US 1 00 ( (^5 y n !>. « 6 ll oa N M Sfl o M? oo CO ,^ -# CO t-* ^ ^ z S^ o '"' rl S ^■° 4 o Ir- 00 CO ^ "^ ^ o fr- CO ^ »a o CD ,_, O One each from Austria, Azores, Barbadoes, Portugal. ■ Distribution by Occupation and Wage of One Hundred and Twenty- six Dispensary Patients. Weekly Wages. Total. Manufao- tiu-ing. Clerical. Selling. Telephone Operating. Miscella- neous. Total, . 126 86 16 14 7 3 Less than $6, . 3 1 - 2 S5 and less than S6, . 16 14 1 1 $6 and less than $7, 27 23 2 1 1 $7 and less than S8, . 19 17 1 1 {8 and less than $9, . 19 9 5 4 1 {9 and less than $10, . 11 5 2 2 2 $10 and less than $12, 18 10 4 4 - S12 and less than $14, 6 3 2 1 $14 and -more, . 2 2 - Not reported. 5 2 1 2 their fathers or mothers or both, 16 with other relatives, and 3 were married and living in homes of their own. The 16 living with stran- gers formed part of the family group in most instances. These women were suffering from a variety of diseases of which constipation was the most prevalent (Table 60). Nearly two-fifths FOOD OF CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. 135 (38.1 per cent.) were suifering from constipation, 17 (17.4) per cent, from a run-down condition, 16 (15.9) per cent, from debility, 15 (15.1) per cent, from digestive disorders and 13 (13.5) per cent, from anaemia. The appearance of these women was so influenced by racial characteristics that it was difiicult for the casual observer to discern the effect of the different disorders. Recent arrivals from Russia remarked on their loss of weight, poor color and trouble with their teeth since leaving the old country. Of all the immigrants the Rus- sians, who formed the greatest proportion of the foreign-born women studied, seemed least able to adapt themselves physically to the changed conditions. Table 60. — Occupations and Dispensary Diagnoses of One Hundred and Twenty-six Patients. Total. Number of Patients in — Diagnoses. Num- ber. Per Cent. Manu- factur- ing. Clerical. Selling. Tele- phone Oper- ating. Miscella- neous. ' Total, . Constipation, Run-down condition, . Debility, DiReative disorders, Anffimia, 126 48 22 20 19 17. 100.0 38.1 17.4 15.9 15.1 13.5 86 34 15 10 16 11 16 6 3 4 1 2 14 6 4 4 7 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 Food eaten in One Week. For. the purposes of this study the 1,703 meals were reduced for each person to the food eaten in one week.^ The unit of measure- ment was the number of times any article of food occurs during this week, making the total variety the sum of the different articles of food. Since the use of tea and coffee was subject to extreme varia- tions, these beverages were excluded from the total variety of food. Percentages were used to indicate the proportion any food forms of the total variety. The classification of food was a convenient one suggested by Dr. C. F. Langworthy.^ 1 Theatre usher, hairdresser, salad maker. s See Appendix C for method of tabulation. » See Appendix C for discussion of the limitations of this plan of classification. 136 POOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. S e 05 o °o Si -« .« ^ 3 a. ss. •11 g. n s-g m lO ■*. - - ca t^o hJ s>.- P4 1- ,_ r- ^ 5 2 ij o> (N o o o CI K 8 o O P ca CM CO t* oc CO W U3 ta « o "«f o ^- "t^ « (3 CN CO t- t^ o -6 (D I^ 1--3 ^^ g g z §s 00 cg o t^ « o eo en w CO •V •* < z-° l- PS w o »! o r oo o e w < s ^r, (M ^ CJ w CM H « 5 < u ec o Ci CS 1 CO '"' to n 1— 1 H cc "* M oa Eh ° g h n ai *d e*3 CO O < < B g o o as O o CI IM o ■* pq S o Sc CO w (M o „ 00 H O ^ a ^d N M < fi) W a 3 % Pk Its o o cc Z-" o o S a o ^o s E^ 1- r- CO ■V « o 00 CO § >- ^ 5 CS 00 CS o l^a-S a .^^ s" g" s s 1 £ ^ii e J J s S" TI "d < "eS J c B g OS g s g s POOD OF CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. 137 I g A en CO ^6 CO t- ■* r^ ^ (M CD ^ '^ " -^ ^ CM -• a 00 " " Num- ber of Per- sons. ^ OO «3 (M CM CO CO Q §£| K K o ■' %osi g g g < i i 1 1 1 Tl -o •a -d ■'2 m ol g d 1 ^ ^ g s O s 138 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Taking the average for all schedules, the total variety of food for a week was 61 (60.7) items, as shown in Table 61, classified as foods characterized by proteins, carbohydrates and minerals, and a miscel- laneous group consisting of soups, milk or cocoa and pickles. Meats, fish, eggs and all other protein foods constituted one-fourth (24.8 per cent.) of this variety. The median variety was 15 times a week; in other words, there were as many women having a greater variety of proteins than this as there were having a smaller. The usual fre- quency was twice a day. The average distribution of the items com- posing this group (Table 62) indicated meat 8 (8.2) times, fish twice (2.3), eggs 3 times (3.1), beans once (1), and cheese less than once (.5) a week. In the case of meat the predominant number of times a week was 7, or once a day. Since meat was the one item in very general use, and since eggs, fish, cheese and beans are often used in- terchangeably, it was not to be expected that all of the schedules would include all of these items. More than one-third (34.9 per cent.) of the menus for a week were without eggs, two-fifths (38.9 per cent.) without fish, two-thirds (64.3 per cent.) without beans, and three-fourths (77.8 per cent.) without cheese. Breads, cereals and all other foods characterized by carbohydrates formed two-fifths (38.1 per cent.) of the variety for the week (Table 63). While the average tor the week was 23 times, or slightly more than once a meal, there was a tendency to have one of these foods at every meal. Of those who departed from this rule there were as many who served more than one article of carbohydrate food at a meal as there were who served less. The most important article of food in this group, bread, was used an average of 17 (16.7) times a week. The other articles showed smaller averages. Three-fifths (57.9 per cent.) of the group used no cereals, six-sevenths (84.9 per cent.) no macaroni, three-sevenths (42.9 per cent.) no cake, two-thirds (69.8 per cent.) no desserts, and the same proportion (68.3 per cent.) no pastry. Vegetables and fruits formed one-fifth (21 per cent.) of the average weekly variety (Table 64). They were eaten less than twice a day (12.7 times a week). The composition of this group in the various food schedules was influenced by individual preferences. Potatoes were eaten by four-fifths (81 per cent.), fruit by five-sevenths (71.4 per cent.), other vegetables by five-ninths (56.3 per cent.), and salads by less than one-twelfth (7.9 per cent.) of the women reporting. FOOD OF CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. 139 OS "S 11 6 S s o CO m Eh ►3 ^^ z 00 OS us N in h , d • ■^ ui o in eo B 3 15 •" 1 +3 U3 N Oi ,-, 1 ftt d a h3 a h |i 1*5 04 CO CO 50 2 CS Z go ■^6 N M TJH CO oa 1 n Q Q < » < M EQ Sc ^ ^ ^ CO eo 1- 1 s < a s u ^1 CO ■* o* eo — < ■* 1 09 Si -^ »H N "3 »o CD ku es «o CO ■**< I^ lO ^ > • 1- ei '^ CO CO la < DO a t« to 00 • N N M IM <>J i i| e-; w o» es CO CO N CO o^ CO o ■^ l-H N &* S I 1 O 00 o o> OJ •^ s M M CO CO 6-3 § 3 3 &; P H » M fa a O H §^ §g go o o es" ^ ^ -0 ■s ' 13 13 3 d a CI i (S ei a 1^ ^ ^ o o o C5 iJ lO w r- w 142 FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. a as ^^- ^ s i-SS 03 it 5 Ex S si ec ,-. ; CJ *-< ^ CC Ph I 1- 9 ^. '^. w tA s •^ CO eo oi CO H J ii es fr- CO «0 • ( W3 M kO t^ D ^1 CO C4 U3 oi g i g m is 00 W =^i ^^ OJ W M « ■< "1 11 2:-° U3 -^^ O 1 00 Ul • n a l-H ►.-s ^ ec oe 00 ^ H -^ g aa M eo eo b i ^s ^o m ■^ eo m O B §s 05 « 5g Ji Oi 00 » U 1 « CM ^ ° CO OO ^ «o Es; f^ -*§ ^ CO ui ws 9i "^o * n r- cq a ScS « 1— T-l to S a a S s >^ eo o o t^ < n 1^ ^ r^ •Tt f- s' f^ "S- 1 >4^ -B iC ^ t§ o <» ^ s S-. s 5" 1^ h-t2 •* WS t^ CO h ^6 '-*' N .-J K s s is" oo iO -H (M !■" % fS ■o l>- CM- M H s '"' M ^ ^ g ^ 1 S h* CS 1-t r- t- a 1- L.-S M 1-H ■* (M o n Q -"1 ■*< t^ lei .-1 < n t> b- 1-^ S «1 M3 (£> CO ^ -i o f^o s 2 1 Bu CC ^ ^ l-H a s 5 S § 1-° & * 3 ^1' Oft 00 o> «* CO i-I ^ ■*»( 00 g Q f^cS- w (MM CM a S § n S;; 00 cq CO oo ■<• 5 o t^ us ed I-" ^ M+J .-1 CO eo oo ^J oo CO «J CO ti CO ■^ CO eo j< o EH 1^ p m 00 o» CO <0 CM o C>J eq CM ^ a -Si r- "; O 3 o lO o »o O 1-° b (9 eo «o o Ph z CO c • GO U5 « S 0} 09 ^ m 5 i^ s 1% O a* q6 -j! ii ■* eo eo 1 m '~' CO g S p ^ ^ 00 ^ N 00 CO P4 H ni CO M eo O S §5 pi! Pi K § ® -o t^ ea CO S 1-° 4 *-; CO cs 1- U3 "3 ■<»< S S 1 ij " " g o Eh S k.' r* o -* 9 0} z-° s g CO i^M s oo s ^^(^s a" ■' s s 1 o i i ■J 1 c 1 3 1 J eS a o • * FOOD OF CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. 149 fective teeth. ^ The causes for this large proportion suffering from constipation were summarized as follows:^ — In addition to purely occupational conditions, such as defective posture and the sitting position which favor habitual constipation, it would seem that certain dietetic factors in the case of garment workers predispose to this condition. The use of green vegetables and fresh fruit among garment workers was small, and milk was very generally drunk, especially at lunch time. Perhaps, however, the most important personal factor in inducing this condition was the very general neglect on the part of garment workers of forming regular habits of defecation. Leaving their homes for their work hurriedly in the morning, the visit to the toilet is put off for some more convenient time, and is too often forgotten in the stress of work at the shop. The data collected for the study seemed to disprove the common assumption that women suffering from unwise selections of food are excessive users of tea and coffee. Since over half (50.8 per cent.) of the women omit coffee and one-fourth (23 per cent.) tea, the average for those drinking these beverages is once a day (6.7 times a week) for coffee and 8 (8.4) times a week for tea. With a few exceptions the excessive use of candy very evidently has little connection with the ill health of these women, since less than one-eighth (12.5 per cent.) reported regular consumption of this confection. The use of the average in this food discussion resulted in the shortcomings of one menu .correcting to a certain extent the short- comings of others. This average shows the family standard of living of a low wage, predominantly immigrant group. The monotonous diet of bread, meat and potatoes, prepared with little knowledge of skillful cookery, characterized in general the choice of food of this group. There were, however, striking variations among the menus submitted, as are shown in the accompanying samples. A twenty-year-old telephone operator, native born of Irish parents, suffering from stomach trouble, reported Menu I., and a twenty-two- year-old Russian Jewess who had been in this country for eight years, a bowmaker in a candy factory, with the prevalent disorder, constipation, reported Menu II. The total varieties differ by but one item, and approximate the average variety for the group. The ' United States Public Health Service, Bulletin No. 71, May, 1915, Studies in Vocational Diseases, I., The Health oJ Garment Workers, by J. W. Sohereschewsky, p. 55. ' Ibid, p. 64. 150 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. I I -I •l.t ^ g e ft, ^ ■I a, o I O O m n H w 5 ^2 go 1-° 1^ p 9i! !» C a ^ I 5 fe e^ •1 i §=1 1^ •1-^ ^ CO la ^ s t>! '^a g s kii 00 ■* 1-- , &■" a 10 M N 9 i ^6 •^ ^H ^4 s ^ i 1 BQ is a :^-° i fci*" « t» t^ »»s 5 i *^a n iy U3 Q !■" s PS s ^i ao n ca n « a 3§ 1-° [^ a> th r. •< (4 &Q N N n s H i^ ^ « « g ►^•a fO ■* n® S a p M,5j a n S n CO GO eq ■< I?-" •< ■* ^ M 00 -H -»S i n,^ ^ r- P c« ca w itkt ^ s s l^f^s en H g 1 1 5 "I 1 H 5 POOD OF CERTAIN DISPENSARY PATIENTS. 151 .*; CO B Si's ea Ol "5 ^6 tH '"' TH i. Q H i ^ E^ ^i -: eo o i DQ ^■° § H ^ t> 4 o> O) "* □3 CO CO iO U K a S H ffi 03 & P CO Pi & \a ^1 « ^ U3 M < >■ 1- 04 " M a S3^' •>: CO M s' ^6 i>^ "3 t> li) -< « H g P t^ ■* 00 M US 1 ^ o t- o» g ^1 CO 00 IM •5 ^ o tl a*; 1^- •<* CO 3 S W « ;?;■" ^ g m ^ 3 ea □o oo i-s ! (M ■ Table 18, p. «; pp. «-45. SUMMARIES AND SUGGESTIONS. 169 Of the 700 women interviewed in the noon luncheon study only 24 went home for the midday meal.^ Yet many of the women must have felt the need of substantial food, as the hurried departure in the morning often must have prevented the eating of a satisfying breakfast. Those who could afford to buy hot food might easily acquire the restaurant habit as a result of their experiences with the noon meal. Even the women in the small-wage groups would find it practicable to buy a noon meal which would include meat and hot vegetables, and to prepare in their rooms the lighter foods eaten in the morning and evening. Since inexpensive boarding houses are rarely found within walking distance of the places where the women are employed, and since pleasanter and less expensive rooms can be rented in suburban localities, such plans would be adopted by an increasing number of women. A careful study of the Gephart and Lusk report on the nutritional values of ready-to-serve foods would be helpful to these women. Thirty-three varieties of food were found which were sold at prices permitting the purchase of a day's ration supplying 2,500 calories for 50 cents. ^ Thirty-two additional dishes were added to the list when the living allowance was increased to between 51 and 60 cents. At these prices three-fourths of the women living away from home could have obtained adequate restaurant food for the sums which they expended. That good use would be made of a knowledge of the food values of restaurant dishes is indicated by the extreme care with which these women expended their limited incomes. The "food spree" was the exception, and self -restrained confinement to 15-cent lunches or 25-cent dinners the rule. Inability to select a cheap and adequate menu, or unwillingness to confine themselves to the inexpensive dishes, prevented the general adoption of the minimum-cost (restaurant) bill of fare. Only 4 women who reported their food for an entire week, and who spent less than $4, purchased all their meals at restaurants or cafeterias. The usual plan was to buy one or two meals a day, and to supple- ment them with food prepared in the room. Forty per cent, did some cooking in their rooms, over 20 per cent, prepared a large portion of their food there, and about 9 per cent, depended entirely on such light housekeeping.^ Two-thirds of the women for whom 1 Table 7, p. 22. ' Gephart and Lusk: Analysis and Costs of Eeady-to-Serve Foods, pp. 22, 23. ' Table 37, p. 83. 170 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. schedules were collected did the whole or a part of their laundering in their rooms or apartments.^ The opposition of the landlady to such domestic pursuits is well known, so it seems probable that if permitted to do so a higher proportion of the women would indulge their housekeeping instincts. Cheapness and the possibility of accurate adjustment to personal needs and tastes account for the increasing popularity of this method of procuring food. All waste can be eliminated, as the woman pro- vides only such \aands as she feels disposed to eat, and the remnants from one meal can be saved for another. The proverbial fondness for home cooking can be gratified, and the subtler dietary adjust- ments which play an important part in promoting physical well- being can be made. The economic waste due to buying in small quantities is a much smaller factor in determining the final cost than the expenditures for services of preparation and the rent, light and heat of places where restaurant food is served. Three objections are m-ged to obtaining food by light housekeeping in bedrooms: (1) it is pointed out that the fatigue of the day's work should not be increased by the labor of preparing food; (2) from remote antiquity the taking of food has been regarded as a social function, and many women find eating alone very depressing; (3) uncouth living conditions may bring a loss of dainty habits and self-respect. These objections gain greater weight from the fact that such living arrangements are not temporary, but often are important influences throughout the adult life of the large group of women by whom these solitary ways of living are being adopted. Failure to recognize this element of permanence in their living problems is one of the reasons for the lack of efforts to establish good standards for these women who can no longer make use of the traditional methods of obtaining food and shelter. The assump- tion that their present manner of living is a makeshift, and that they soon will be supplied with husbands and homes, is not justified by the facts revealed in the course of this investigation, since the average number of years away from home was between nine and ten^ and in many cases the efficiency and happiness of the entire adult life are dependent on the discovery of sound plans of living. The improvement of the social and economic conditions of working women is greatly impeded by this failure to realize that for the ' Page 81. ' Page 71. SUMMAKIES AND SUGGESTIONS, 171 class, if not for the individual, the situation is permanent, and worthy of the best efforts to understand its conditions and formulate its standards. A frank facing of the possible dangers of a manner of living that is becoming increasingly common, and a consideration of ways for its improvement, will help working women decide whether light housekeeping is the best possible means of providing the whole or a part of their food. Excessive fatigue is a source of indigestion. A careful estimate of physical resources should precede the adoption of a plan of living which makes additional demands on limited strength. Women who feel exhausted at the end of the day's labors should go home and lie down for half or three-quarters of an hour before eating the evening meal. Those engaged in sedentary occupations would be benefited by a brisk walk, or the gentle exercise of light housekeep- ing. School teachers who have an interval of rest in the afternoon can engage in domestic labors without injury. Since emotional conditions have a decided influence on the secre- tion of digestive juices, the advisability of adopting this method of providing food depends also on whether the woman has a liking for and skill in the domestic arts. Indifference or irritation while pre- paring the food is apt to promote discomfort after it is eaten. On the other hand, when cooking. is exercised as a fine art, the focusing of attention on what is expected to be an appetizing meal is a means of promoting a copious flow of digestive fluids. A domestic science teacher who carries heavy responsibilities, and who had recently changed from a boarding house to a small apartment, vowed that she thoroughly enjoyed cooking her evening meal, and found that it agreed with her better than did the boarding-house fare. The emotional effect of solitary eating varies with the individual. Teachers or saleswomen who have labored with people all day often prefer a quiet meal with no conversational obligations. The social intercourse of the average boarding house is not particularly sooth- ing or cheering, and certainly the publicity and noise of the public restaurant offer no attractions. There is a general unwillingness among these women to have roommates, so it is evident that they prefer the quiet ai;id relaxation of freedom from companionship. It seems probable that solitary eating would not prove depressing if the food were properly prepared and daintily served. ' This brings us to the third and chief objection to the light house- 172 FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. keeping observed in the course of this investigation. It is impos- sible to say whether the uncouth habits^ of living of some of these women should be charged to early lack of training or to inability to obtain adequate light housekeeping facilities. In this age of cheap domestic supplies a limited income is not sufficient excuse for con- ditions frequently observed by the investigators. The hurried gob- bling of food from the frying pan or paper bag is in keeping with the customs of the tenements, where families rarely sit down to- gether at a nicely served meal. We need a refocusing of education which shall result in a just recognition of the dignity and importance of the activities of daily life on which depend human happiness and efficiency. It is generally agreed that the vocational education for women must include training for both wage earning and home- making. Since so high a proportion may spend their lives as wage earners, some instruction about methods of adjusting the home- making activities to the needs of single women would not be out of place. The difficulty of finding rooms suitable for light housekeeping at a rental which a working woman can pay discourages all ambition to make an attractive little home. Only the more successful can afford a kitchenette apartment. Resourceful women architects should try to solve the problems connected with building a house of one or two room apartments whose cost would be such that the rents could be moderate. A ventilated closet kitchen with a small gas stove and a sink suitable for washing dishes and clothes, a comfortable living room, a closet for clothing, possibly an ingenious plan for folding away the bed, and access to a bathroom are requi- sites for well-ordered living. The Octavia Hill plan for the management of tenements might well be applied to such apartment houses. They should be in charge of a social worker who would be responsible for the maintenance of good standards. She could serve as a court of last appeal in the self-governing scheme of the tenants, could organize classes for instruction in hygienic living, and could make provision for various forms of co-operative buying which would reduce living expenses. The high cost of city building sites, the excessive amount of plumbing in such a house, as well as the heavy expense of heating and upkeep, will make it impossible to supply such accommodations > Pages 83, S4. SUMMAEIES AND SUGGESTIONS. 173 ' for a large portion of the 18,000 to 20,000 women in Boston who are living away from their families. The lower wage women can often rent rooms with many housekeeping privileges in suburban homes. A stenographer and proofreader, who is thirty-four years old and earns $20 a week, says, in reporting the results of her varied ex- periences: "I have been a participant in five different co-operative schemes and do not recommend them. The place for a girl who has come away from home is in another home. There are many women in the suburbs who are glad to rent rooms to just such a girl, and for but $2 or $3 a week will give her a 'homey' room, well cared for and heated, and with the privileges of doing some washing, iron- ing and cooking, using the sewing machine, piano, etc. Usually, these women have been working girls themselves and know just how. to treat one. They are glad to earn a little extra money for them- selves. How can a lodger be much trouble when she is away all day long and out a good deal in the evenings? An 'ad.' in the 'Transcript' beginning 'Wanted by a business woman' finds them. Many a nice little woman will write a timid answer to such an 'ad.' who would not dream of advertising rooms to let, and she does not 'say anything to her husband about it' until you have told her you would like to come, and is not sure 'what he will say.'" She pays $2 a week for a room in Brookline. Her breakfast is pre- pared in her room; a cold lunch is supplemented by tea or cocoa, made on a gas plate at her -place of employment; and the evening meal is purchased at a restaurant. Her menus show an ample and well-balanced diet at a total cost for the week reported of $3.82. Choice of Food. Notwithstanding the varied plans for obtaining their meals, the women living away from home showed remarkably good judgment in the choice of food. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards began her pioneer Work for the promotion of public instruction in dietetics over twenty- five years ago, and throughout this period Boston has profited by a great variety of educational activities in this field. In the absence of studies of dietaries in other sections of the country it is impossible to make comparisons, but the results of this investigation indicate that these educational efforts have brought some good returns. The^ menus show a healthful variety in the diet selected, but no instance 174 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. was discovered of the deliberate and intelligent effort to procure a properly balanced ration at minimum cost. The reports of food. eaten by women earning less than $6 per week may have shown this knowledge of what constituted a good diet rather than what the women were accustomed to buying, since the sum spent on food and lodging was 114 per cent, of the weekly income. There is the same tendency to an excessive use of brpad which has been noticed in similar English studies, as it constitutes 33 per cent, of the total range of foods eaten, but the more nourish- ing milk and cocoa were used about once a day in place of tea and coffee. The dietaries reported by these poorly paid women were not defective: in one week they ate meat 7 to 8 times; eggs 3 to 4 times; beans, 1 to 2 times; vegetables, 9 to 10 times; and fruit, 3 times.' A larger use of cereals would improve the diet of these women. Since nearly all of them were doing light housekeeping it would have been possible to boil rice, oatmeal, corn meal and hominy or samp. Inexpensive home-made fireless cookers would make possible the thorough cooking required for such cereals, and when eaten with milk and sugar they supply much nourishment at small cost. The 61 women earning $8 to $10 per week may be regarded as typical of the workers of ordinary or mediocre ability, while those scattered through the higher wage ranges probably were women of superior training or of greater natural ability and initiative. The most striking difference in the dietaries of these two groups is the exces- sively stimulating character of the food chosen by the less success- ful women. They used tea and coffee 16.3 times per week, or two to three times every day,^ and also chose the more stimulating pro- tein foods with equal frequency. The higher wage women used more fruits, vegetables and cereals, less bread and meat, and substituted soup, milk and cocoa for a part of the tea and coffee used by the lower wage groups. . Thus the diet of the more successful women contained more minerals and less protein, and was not so consti- pating as the bread, tea and meat menus of those who earned less. The excess of protein may have tended to lower the working capacity of the women. While some of them were engaged in the ' Tables 39-42. 2 The 77 schedules used in oaloulating the menu and Table 5 of pages 18 and 19 show an exceptionally email use of tea and coSee. A number of these earlier schedules were furnished by Simmons College graduates who had learned good dietary habits. SUMMARIES AND SUGGESTIONS. 175 more active occupations, all were past the age when there was a demand for the surplus of protein required for growth. It is well known that when more protein food is eaten than can be utilized there are uric acid by-products which must be eliminated, and which, when in excess, may cause a sense of fatigue. Constipation also' produces depressing poisons which have far-reaching evil effects. The large use of tea and coffee may have promoted undue nervous irritability in many of the women. Food was the most important and at the same time the most elastic item in the budgets of these self-supporting women. Since the majority of them lived in irregular ways, preparing some meals in their rooms and buying the others at cafeterias, restaurants or boarding houses, it was possible to adjust their bills of fare to varying conditions of the purse. Room rent must be a fairly stable factor, as an unprotected woman must provide herself with suitable shelter; but clothing and food, the two chief remaining items, can be varied to meet fluctuations in income or in accordance with prefer- ences of the individual. A woman may be tempted to save on her food in order to purchase clothing which she desires, or may choose this means of reducing expenses. Studies of industries employing women indicate that practically all of them have periods of lessened pay or unemployment. The combination of anxiety about loss of. work and a reduced diet must occur often, and must prove a great strain for many of these women. Provident loan societies should make special efforts to extend their benefits to women living away from home. The ability to procure a small loan at a reasonable rate would prevent the risks to health due to anxiety and inadequate food during times of industrial depression. The majority of the women living away from home were spending more on their food than their incomes justified. Certainly it will be impossible for them to continue during the present national crisis such dietaries as they reported. The chief item on which a saving could be made is meat. Adult women whose occupations do not require severe physical exertion certainly can be well nourished if they have meat or fish once a day. When eggs, beans and milk are used it Would be possible to dispense entirely with a meat dish. Experiments conducted during the months of this investigation showed that adult men could be fed at a cost of 25 to 30 cents a day, or for $1.75 to $2.10 a week. This sum covered only the cost of raw 176 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. materials, while 'the amount paid by the women usually was in- creased by the cost of preparing the food and the charges of res- taurant or cafeteria service for at least one meal a day. Even after making such allowance it will be found that a satisfactory diet could have been procured for less than was paid. The schools re- tain a hold on Boston young people at least until they are sixteen years old. Instruction could be given which would assist these young women to select an adequate and well-balanced ration at minimum cost. This would make possible some saving from their meager earnings, and enable them to decrease their living expenses during periods of financial depression without injury to their health. Tables of dietary values, and problems requiring the selection of menus of varying prices, might well take a conspicuous place in the arithmetic exercises of continuous school classes of both boys and girls. The expenditure for food by women living away from home is much larger than the per capita expenditures of the family budgets of wage earners. The group of 61 women earning $8 to $10 per week spent for food an average of $3.36^ per week, or $174.72 per annum. Atwater estimates that a woman at moderately active work requires about 80 per cent, of what is used by a man, and 3 children may use as much as 2 women; then a family of 5, with the rate of ex- penditure of these single women earning $8 to $10, would require for food alone $787.56 per annum. The standard minimum dietary, which has been tested through eight years of expert application in the families assisted by the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, supplies 3,000 calories at a cost of 34 cents (October, 1916) per unit per day, or 27 cents for the amount usually allowed an adult woman. This ration contains less meat, eggs, butter and fresh fruit, but more vegetables and milk, than were used by the single women of the Boston investigation.^ Co-operative groups of wage-earning women could be taught to select and prepare minimum cost dietaries by means similar to those employed with these families. 1 Table 31, p. 75. 2 Gibbs, Winifred Stuart: The Minimum Cost of Living, p. 18. SUMMARIES AND SUGGESTIONS. 177 Co-operative Housekeeping. Housekeeping in co-operative groups which would reproduce the conditions of family life seems a natural and desirable manner of living for working women separated from their families. It would be inexpensive, would supply companionship, would require no more or even less Work than the light housekeeping of a large proportion of the lone women, and would preserve the capacity for personal adjustment necessary for normal family life. Why is it that so few working women adopt this manner of living? Only 31 of the 261 women living away from home were members of small co-operative households, and most of these groups were fragmentary families rather than voluntary co-operators.^ The latter were found in small numbers at the two extremes of the wage groups, — the women with good incomes sometimes sought the better accommodations or home atmosphere of a family, and those of the lowest wages were forced to resort to light housekeeping in rooms shared by other women of equally limited incomes. A typical example of the experiences of the high-wage, co-operative housekeeper is a young woman holding a civil service position paying |25 a week. She rented a small apartment for $5.50 per week, and paid an additional |2 for the woman who cleaned the apartment and washed. She reports: "When there are three of us in the apartment we each put |6 into the box on Monday morning. This pays our reiil, our gas bill, our telephone ($3 a month) and our cleaning. It allows us to have all the company we want. When there are two of us we each put S8 in the box. "I think the co-operative method of housekeeping is the best and most economical way for girls to live, but the outlay for furniture prohibits many from living this way, and a physically tiring job would make it unwise for a girl to attempt it. For stenographers and office workers this is the solution. For salesgirls some other way is better, I think. "I have very rarely been alone at the apartment except for two months in the summer. Part of that time I lived alone and part of it I closed the apartment and lived with a friend of mine in Jamaica Plain. When I am there alone it costs about $11 a week, if I eat at home, which I rarely do when alone." > Page 87. 178 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. The minimum expenditure was less than the sums covering the average cost of food and lodging of women earning $14 or over,i but the maximum expense could not have been met by a large majority of the women living away from home. Other co-oper- ative housekeepers told of similar uncertainty. In one such enter- prise joint signatures to the lease helped to enforce the complete responsibility of the more unstable members of the group. The un- certainty of the tenure of office of many women would make them hesitate before investing their meager savings in furnishings, and assuming the obligations of an annual lease. A knowledge of this uncertainty deters the women of more stable economic status from forming alliances which may leave them a double share of the ex- penses, or may even require that they assist the unfortunate mem- bers of their adopted family. The difficulty of finding a group who are equally gifted in the domestic arts and disposed to share alike in the household labors is another obstacle to co-operative housekeeping. A strictly equit- able division of responsibility is rarely found in natural families. Usually one abler, stronger or more unselfish member is elected by common consent to the honorable r61e of family burden bearer. There is greater reluctance to "bear the infirmities of the weak" when they have no claims of kinship, and the fairly well-founded fear that some members of the group will be shirkers is enough to prevent many from assuming the obligations of a joint establish- ment. Personal peculiarities or distaste for the forming of new social ties were found to be the chief obstacles to co-operative housekeeping.^ Some of the women interviewed were aware of their growing irri- tability and selfishness. A person of apparent congeniality may, on more intimate acquaintance, reveal habits which are extremely annoy- ing, as in the case of a young woman of good education and refined manner who had contracted the habit of continuous whistling. Women away from home must be on their guard against undesirable associates, and caution often develops into chronic suspicion. Pride and limited incomes prevent the use of opportunities for forming social ties which might grow into permanent friendships. The in- vestigators who interviewed the women living alone were strongly impressed with the dangers to personal character which may result ' Table 34, p. 78. » Page 87. SUMMARIES AND SUGGESTIONS. 179 from the loss of family relations and failure to cultivate other social ties. Newer types of educational work arte likely to promote future attempts at co-operative housekeeping. Model cottages or apartments in which groups of girls keep house are being recognized as essential parts of the equipment for domestic science instruction. Progressive schools where newer ideas of social training have found a foothold are encouraging various forms of group activities which develop a capacity for co-operktion. A systematic teaching of the minor courtesies which are sadly neglected in many American homes would be good preparation for co-operative living and for many other future social relations. Churches might be able to assist groups of working women to establish co-operative homes. A committee of older women, one of whom could serve as a house mother or counselor, could be responsi- ble for the general oversight of the enterprise. The counselor would require rare tact to enable her to be helpful without encroaching on the sense of responsibility which should belong to the co-operative group. The religious fellowship of the household might assist in promoting the unselfishness and forbearance necessary for community living. If the church assumed the expense of furnishing and risk due to the shifting of women when their work changes, it would be pos- sible for women of limited incomes to avail themselves of the econ- omies of such establishments. New members should be received at first as probationers, so that their congeniality could be tested before their acceptance as permanent additions to the co-operative family. Care should be exercised to prevent such groups assuming boarding- house proportions. A large church might maintain several estab- lishments which could be varied in type to meet the economic needs of women of different standards of living. The Food of Women living in Organized Potjses. The organized houses intended for working women showed the same lack of definite standards that was found in the living arrange- ments of the lone women. ^ Charges for room and board ranged from $3 to $10 per week and there was no general agreement about the ages or wages of persons who were received as guests. Some » Table 48, pp. 110-112. 180 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. houses were heavily subsidized and claimed the exemption from tax- ation of charitable institutions, and some were self-supporting, yet there was no great difference between the two types of houses in the quantity or character of the food served. Variations in the cost of service were striking, since the number of guests per employee ranged from 3 to 12. The extpemes are partially explained by assist- ance in the housework given by guests, and by the fact that em- ployees in some cases had other duties than the care of boarders. The numbers accommodated ranged from 14 to 1,000, yet the large and small houses showed no consistent variations in the per capita cost of raw materials. None of the houses had installed a system of accounting which would promote a careful study of food costs. The saving made possible by living in the organized houses was striking, as they offered food and lodging for less than could be obtained by any other plan. The average weekly expenditure for board and lodging of women living alone was $5.89, and the lowest wage groups spent over $4,^ while two houses charged as low as $3, two $3 to $4, and ten had many guests who were paying $4.50 to S5. Women who cooked all their meals in their bedrooms or workrooms paid $2.65 for food alone.^ The addition of rent even for a part of a room would bring the weekly cost of living above that of the less expensive houses. Low-wage women whose physical endurance is limited, or whose occupations make heavy demands on their strength, need the inexpensive board and freedom from household tasks which is made possible by the organized houses. Such assistance is of great value to young women struggling to get a foothold in industry and to women suffering from irregularity of employment. All of these women are in danger of injury to their health or loss of work- ing power because of insufficient food. Concerted efforts are necessary in order to make sure that the women most in need of such assistance shall receive the benefits of the organized houses. Only 1,660 of the 20,000 Boston working women living away from home can be accommodated in such houses. Since their initial cost is great, and since they usually require con- tinuous financial assistance, it is not probable that they 'Will be es- tablished in numbers sufficient to care for a large proportion of the homeless women. Long-continued residence in a subsidized house is socially and economically undesirable for a woman who has at- ' Table 34, p. 78. » Table 37, p. 83. SUMMAEIES AND SUGGESTIONS. 181 tained an earning capacity making possible self-support. The period of residence might be utilized to prepare the women to assume re- sponsibility in self-supporting, co-operative schemes. The success- ful Eleanor Clubs of Chicago furnish a good model for women who have not time and inclination for housekeeping tasks. Smaller groups of women who have formed ties of friendship could be given the training which would prepare them for the activities of family- size, housekeeping units. Those who do not wish companionship could receive instruction and guidance in the choice of wholesome and economical plans of living suitable for lone women. A central municipal or even national organization could do much to promote the development of a comprehensive policy. Such a bureau for the assistance of wage-earning women is being organized in Cleveland. Women seeking boarding places will be guided to the houses best suited to their needs, and information about available resources for education or recreation will be given. Its functions might be extended to include other activities which would result in better standards of institutional management for the organized boarding houses. The following are some of the problems which might be solved by some such pooling of experiences: — The size of the group which can be cared for with the greatest economy and comfort. The service requirted with different forms of organization in the dining room and kitchen. Methods by which the important assistance rendered transients may be combined economically with the care of the permanent guests. Classification of guests so that women with low wages may profit by the smaller charges of the most heavily subsidized houses. The complete utilization of the accommodations of the houses by means of the prompt notification of vacancies and the sending of new guests from the central bureau. Uniform systems of accounting, making possible the comparison of the costs of administering such houses and the determination of places where saving would be possible. The dietaries of many of the Boston houses for working women are more costly than could be afforded in a wage earner's home. It seems suitable that such houses give a practical demonstration of a minimum-cost, yet adequate, dietary. The boarders should be taken 182 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. into confidence about the details of household management and fi- nancing, so that they will be under no false impressions about what it costs to live. It does not seem desirable that young working women lose touch entirely with the problems of family life. This must happen when they spend many years in the organized boarding houses. Influence of Diet on the Health and Efficiency of the Working Women. The present investigation produced no direct evidence indicating that the health or efficiency of Boston working women is suffermg seriously because of insufficient or unwisely selected food. Twenty thousand records were examined in order to find the small group of dispensary patients studied. Wh^Ie the diet of some of them was deficient in fats, lacking in minerals, and of a somewhat constipating character, there were other imsanitary conditions or habits which may have contributed more to their ill health than the defective dietaries. A comparison of the weights at given heights of wage- earning women registered in the Young Women's Christian Asso- ciation gymnasium classes during the past five years with those of the entering class at Wellesley College suggests that Boston work- ing women may be exceptionally well nourished. The largest num- bers in both groups were between 5 feet 1 inch and 5 feet 5 inches in height, as over 70 per cent, of the women were included between these limits. The wage earners found in these groups weighed more than the collegians, but no age records were available, and the differences may be due to the inclusion of a larger number of older women in the Young Women's Christian Association classes. Over 15 per cent. (15.6) of the Wellesley students and only 6 per cent. (6.3) of the Young Women's Christian Assocation women were much above the average in height and weight, hence the averages for the entire group give the college Women a slight advantage. But the adequacy of the diet should be judged by the energy furnished and the freedom from morbidity as well as by Weight and height, and the crude methods of the present study permit no esti- mates of these subtler indications of physical well-being. Morbidity statistics of American wage-earning women are not available; the recent "Sickness Survey of Boston," based on the records of the SUMMARIES AND SUGGESTIONS 183 Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, does not separate the wage- earning women from the married homemakers. Forms of sickness showing a rate for females of over 50 per 100,000, named in the order of their importance, were rheumatism, "nervousness," cerebral hemorrhage, organic diseases of the heart, indigestion and other stomach troubles, and tuberculosis of the lungs. It is generally Table 76. — Distribution by Height and Weight of Wage-earning Women registered in the Young Women's Christian Association Gymnasium Classes and of Wellesley College Students.U Young Women's Chbibtian Association. Wellesley College. Height in Feet and Inches. Weight in Pounds. Number of Women. Height in Feet and Inches. Weight in Founds. Number of Women. 6' 2"2 119.4= 8443 5' 3"2 120.9! 456' 4' 8" 94.4 3 4' 8" i' 9" 100.3 16 4' 9" 102.7 4 i' 10" 106.9 26 i' 10" 94.8 5 4' H" 112.0 54 4' 11" 105.6 12 5' 111.2 83 5' 109.5 30 5' 1" 114. S 129 5' 1" 113.7 60 5' 2" 118.1 157 5' 2" 115.2 77 5' 3" 122.3 135 5' 3" 118.8 81 5' 4" 125.8 116 5' 4" 121.4 71 5' 5" 130.8 72 5' 5" 130.2 45 5' 6" 126.9 31 5' 6" 139.4 40 5' 7" 134.4 15 5' 7" 134.S 18 5' 8" 149.1 3 5' 8" 139.9 9 5' 9" 136.9 3 5' 9" 165.2 2 5' 10" 5' 10" 150.0 2 5' 11" 149.0 1 5' 11" ' The Young Women's Christian Association records were for different women registered during a period of five years, while the Wellesley College data were those of the entering class of September, 1915. The table was prepared by Miss Louise Moore. ' Arithmetical averages of the groups. ' Totals. recognized that the diet of the patients plays an important part in causing or curing several of these maladies; but since the human body responds to morbid states in a unified way, it is impossible to recognize the extent to which defective nutrition prepares the way for many other forms of disease, or lessens the power to re- pair the injuries which they inflict. 184 FOOD OP WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. The influence which diet may have on health and working power is so complex and far-reaching that no reliable conclusions can be based on morbidity or mortality statistics, or on the limited data now available. More intensive investigations are needed before answers can be suggested to the following questions which have arisen in the course of this investigation : — Does the strain of early wage earning and insufficient nutrition prevent or retard the physical development of women? What is the effect of physical strain and unsuitable or inadequate food on the development of the reproductive system? Is the excessive infant mortality found in urban wage earners', families due in a measure to the failure of full physical development, or to the exhaustion of reserves of vitality of the mothers who worked during their adolescent years? Reasoning from analogies among plants and animals can we con- clude that the impulse to continue the race is prematurely aroused or given greater strength when the woman is insufficiently nourished? Is it possible that there is a connection between the physical strain to which young wage-earning women are subject and the break- down in morals which frequently occurs when seventeen to eighteen years old? Is the lack of initiative commonly charged to working women due in a measure to their low vitality and indirectly to defective nutrition? What are the causes of the unnecessarily great differences in the physical development of men and women? Variations in the amounts of food consumed, the less active habits of women, cloth- ing which checks the activities of the organs maintaining the vital forces, or inherited incapacity? A large field for educational activities as well as for research has been opened up by the presenit investigation, as it has revealed the inability to deal intelligently with the fundamental problems of life, which may prove to be the chief source of national weakness in the great struggle upon which we are entering. Participation in the war of the nations has forced upon us a great campaign for educa- tion in dietetics. The efficient "stoking" of the human engine will occupy a more important place in the courses of study of the future. Women must be given the training which will enable them to deal intelligently and economically with the task of providing food for a family or for a lone-woman wage earner. APPENDICES. Appendix A. FORMS OF INQUIRY USED IN THIS INVESTIGATION. Form No. 1. The Food of Working Women in Boston. 1. Where was your father born? 2. Where was your mother born? 3. Where do your mother and father live? 4. Where were you born? 5. When were you bom? Year Month Day 6. In what town or city do you live? 7. On what street? Near what cross street? 8. How long have you lived away from your family? 9. What is the business of the firm for which you now work? 10. What work do you do for this firm? 11. If out of work at present, what was the business of the firm for which you last worked, and what work did you do for them? 12. How much did you earn last week, or the last week that you worked? 13. Were you paid by the week or by the piece? 14. What rent per week do you pay for your room? 15. Have you roommates? How many? 16. How do you get your clothes washed and ironed? 17. How much does your washing and ironing cost you per week? 188 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Food Batbn in One Week and what it Costs. Mon- day. Tues- day. Wednes- day. Thurs- day. Friday. Satur- day. Sunday. 18. What did you eat for break- fast? 19. What did you eat for lunch? 20. What did you eat for sup- per? 21. Which of these meals did you eat outside your room? 22. Where did you get these meals? 23. How much did you pay for each? 24. What did you buy to eat in your room, and what did each thing cost? 25. What did you pay for oil, gas or other fuel used in cooking during the week? 26. What was the total amount which you spent for food during this week? 27. On what date was this record completed? 28. Remarks: Please write on the blank back of this page any ai^gestiona about ways in which girls living as you do might be assisted. Perhaps you can tell of other plana by which such girls can live in an economical and yet healthful way. If you co-operate with others to reduce cost, tell how you do it and how much it saves you. Note. — When this schedule is filled in, please return it to your club leader or other person from whom you received it, or mail it to the following address: Research Department, 264 Boylston Street, Boston* Massachusetts. APPENDIX A. 189 1. Firm name Form No. 2. Noon Lunch in Factories and Stores. 2. Address 3. Business 4. Worker's birthplace 6. Living conditions 5. Birthplace of (o) Father (6) Mother 7. (o) Distance of home from work (6) Minutes: (1) Ride (2) Walk 8. Occupation 9. Time: (o) Sitting ^b) Standing (c) Walking 10. Earnings per week: (a) Time (fi) Piece 11. Noon period: from to 12. Lunch brought: (o) No. of days 13. Heating appliances: (a) Available 14. Use of spare time 15. Packing of lunch: (o) By whom 16. Reasons for bringing 17. Lunch menus of to-day and yesterday (6) Where eaten (6) Used for (b) How 18. Lunch bought: (a) No. of days 19. Reasons for buying 20. Lunch menus of to-day and yesterday, cost of each (6) Where Remarks Date Investigator. 190 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Form No. 3. Employees' Lunch Rooms. 1. Is there a lunch room for women employees? Do men eat there also? Is there a separate one for men? A separate one for office women? Is a rest or recreation room combined with the lunch room? Hours during which women employees eat lunch? Is there a matron in charge of lunch room? What are her total hours on duty? 2. In the women employees' lunch room are lunches eaten at tables or at counteri? Do the women wait on themselves? May employees use heating facilities of lunch room to cook for themselves? Are there heating facilities in another room which they may use? Check kind of facility supplied: Gas Electricity Coal range How many burners or places? Is there an oven? Are cooking dishes furnished by the firm or the employee? 3. How many lunch tables are there? Total seating capacity at tables? What are the sizes of the tables and bow many of each size? When in use are they bare or covered? With paper? With oilcloth? With linen? Is linen white? Unbleached? Colored? How often latmdered? 4. Are dishes furnished by the firm? Are they china? Enamel ware? Are knives, forks and spoons of silver plate? Are glasses furnished for beverages? Is there a coffee um? A cocoa urn? A milk um? An ice box or chest? A steam table? 5. Number of women employed by the firm? How many usually buy their lunch or a part of it in the limch room? How many usually bring lunches? Where do they eat them? How many usually eat lunch at home? 6. Please indicate the amount usually spent in the lunch room by women for their noon lunch The amount usually spent by men Are these amounts estimated, or calculated from some checking or tally system? 7. Is the lunch room run at cost? At profit? At a loss? What is the cost per week for raw materials? For fuel? For entire preparation of the food? For the serving of food? For clearing away? For space? For light? For heat? For upkeep? For salaries? What articles of food are purchased ready to serve, to save baldng or cooking? 8. How many people are required to prepare the lunch? To serve it? To clear away? How many iwrsons who assist in the prepsuration or serving are also employed by the firm outside the lunch room? Is the lunch room managed by a person in the employ of the fixm, or leased to a contractor? Does a bouse committee have any oversight of the lunch room? How many members? How long does a member serve? Are both employers and employees represented on this committee? 9. Check any of the following things which are furnished for the lunch room: Piano Graphophone Magazines Books Newspapers A permanent li- brary A station of the city library Are any of these furnished in a separate rest or recreation room? Please name any other attractive features in the furnishings or equipment of the lunch room 10. If possible, kindly enclose menus for six consecutive days, sample of check or ticket used in sale of food, and any booklets or literature in regard to equipment for the comfort, recreation and education of employees. Please state your opinion of providing lunch facilities for women employees, as a business policy. Name of firm Manager of Lunch Room. Return to Research Depabtment, Women's Educational and Industrial Union, 264 Boylston Street, Boston. APPENDIX A. 191 Form No. 4. Organized Houses for Women, i 1- Name 2. Address 3. When founded 4. Purpose 5. la the plant owned by the association? 6. Estimated value 7. How supported? Endowment Donations Fee from guests 8. Income from all sources (last fiscal year) 9. Amounts paid for taxes 10. Insurance 11. Interest 12. Who are the beneficiaries? Age limit Wage limit References required 13. Capacity of the house 14. Number of guests Date 15. Provisions for transients Number accommodated Date 16. How do girls learn about the house? Do you advertise? Co-operate with room registries? 17. List of guests, classified by age and wage groups. (When supplied, this was put on a separate sheet.) IS. General appearance of hotiae 19. Provisions for social life of guests 20. Library 21. Medical department 22. Laundry, equipment Charge Extent of patronage 23. Sewing room, equipment Extent of patronage 24. Does the house furnish towels and bed linen? Launder them? 25. Cost of supervising the house 26. Cost of cleaning the lodging and social part of the house Number employed Total weekly wages 27. Is the house used as a neighborhood social center? 2S. Where is the dining room located? 29. General appearance 30. Equipment: Tables, nimiber and sizes Covering of tables Dishes, etc. 31. Meal hours 32. Method of serving 33. Estimates of costs of dining-room department for one week: Lighting Cleaning Serving the food Preparation of food Laundering 34. Raw materials used in one week. (This information was supplied in the shape of bills, storeroom orders or reports from cooks or managers.) (o) Meat (cuts) Amounts Costs (6) Fowl and fish (c) Milk, cream, butter and eggs (each item separate) (d) Fruits and fresh vegetables (e) Flour and cereals (/) Groceries 35. Is there a dietitian in the house? If so, what training and duties are required? 36. Are employees served the same food as guests? 37. When do they eat? Number served from dining room 38. Are dining-room employees used in caring for the lodging part of the house? 39. How are supplies purchased? Retail Wholesale in open market Wholesale, with bids Wholesale, contracts for future delivery 40. Provisions for storing food 41. Accounting of storeroom 42. Menus for one week 43. Reports giving itemized summaries of income from all sources, and expenditures for the entire house Remarks: * The information about the organized houses was obtained on two schedules and in various forms. Bills, storeroom orders and reports from persons in charge were supplemented with data gathered from printed reports. The topics covered in both the visitors' and house managers' schedules are included in this form. 192 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Form No. 5. Food and Living Conditions of Women Dispensary Patients. ^ 1. Name 2. Address 3. Age 4. Birthplace: (a) Individual (&) Father (c) Mother 5. Years in U. S.: (a) Individual (b) Father (c) Mother 6. Occupation: (o) Father (&) Mother 7. Number in the home, indicate kinship and which are wage earners 8. Tenement, floor Separate house No. rooms Inside rooms 9. Occupation of subject 12. Time in present position 14. Wages: Time Piece 16. Hours of work, from to Overtime 17. Time per day: Sitting Standing, 18. Workroom: Floor Elevator 19. Hours per week: (a) Housework 10. Employer 11. Age of beginning work 13. Other positions during past year Amount per week 15. Idle time last year Noon period, from to Total weekly Walking, Going to work. Ride, walk Lighting Temperature Dust Odors (6) Sewing (c) Laimdering 20. Forms and amount per week of recreation 21. Bedroom of subject: (a) Daylight (b) Heat (d) Open at night 22. Toilet 23. Bathroom 25. Physical condition, former illnesses 26. Teeth: (a) When cleaned (6) Decayed (c) Pulled 27. Weight: (a) Present (6) Best (c) Lowest 30. Meals: Hot Breakfast Lunch Supper 31. Use of Tea At home At work Hours (c) Outside windows 24. Baths, how often (d) Ache 28. Height Time spent (e) VisitB to dentist 29. Skin Alone Milk Candy Water Coffee Alcohol Pickles 32. Remarks » 1 This form is taken largely from the one used in a prior study of women dispensary patients made at the Massachusetts General Hospital. See p. 126, note 4. 2 Menus for dispensary patients were obtained on Forms Nos. 1 and 6. APPENDIX A. 193 FoBM No. 6. Food eaten in One Week and what it costs. DATS (please pill in Dates). What did You eat for Breakfast? What did You eat for Lunch? What did You eat for Supper? Where did You eat Ea«h of these Meals, and what did Each cost? Monday, Date. Tuesday, Date. • Wednesday, Date. Thursday, Date. Friday, Date. Saturday, Date. Sunday, Date. Please mail the completed record to Research Department, 264 Boylston Street, Boston, Mass. (A stamped and addressed envelope was left with each person who was requested to return the form.) 194 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Appendix B. FIRMS HAVING AN EMPLOYEES' CAFETERIA. Mercantile Establishments. 1. L. S. Ayres Company, 2. Bloomingdale Bros., . 3. Chandler & Co., .... 4. The Emporium, .... 5. Marshall Field & Co., 6. Wm. FUene's Sons Company, . 7. Gilchrist Company, 8. Gimbel Bros., .... 9. Greenhut-Siegel-Cooper Company, 10. Hochschild Kohn Company, 11. The Halle Bros. Company, 12. C. F. Hovey & Co., . 13. Jordan Marsh Company, . 14. LaSaUe & Koch Company, 15. R. H. Macy & Co., . 16. Magrane Houston Company, 17. R. H. Stearns & Co., . 18. John Wanamaker, 19. R. H. White Company, 20. Woodward & Lothrop, Indianapolis, Ind. New York, N. Y. Boston, Mass. San Francisco, Cal. Chicago, 111. Boston, Mass. Boston, Mass. Philadelphia, Pa. New York, N. Y. Baltimore, Md. Cleveland, Ohio. Boston, Mass. Boston, Mass. Toledo, Ohio. New York, N. Y. Boston, Mass. Boston, Mass. Philadelphia, Pa. Boston, Mass. Washington, D. C. Factories. 1. Ballard & BaUard, .... . . Louisville, Ky. 2. H. Black & Co. (Wooltex), . . Cleveland, Ohio. 3. Cleveland Twist Drill Company, . Cleveland, Ohio. 4. Dennison Manufacturing Company, . Framingham, Mass. 5. Eastman Kodak Company, ... . Rochester, N. Y. 6. Joseph & Feiss Company (Clothcraft), . . . Cleveland, Ohio. 7. Fels & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 8. National Lamp Works of General Electric Com- pany, East Cleveland, Ohio. 9. Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Com- pany, East Pittsburg, Pa. 10. Western Electric Company, . . . New York, N. Y. 11. H. J. Heinz Company, Allegheny, Pa. 12. International Harvester Company, .... Chicago, 111. APPENDIX B. 195 13. Larkin Manufacturing Company, 14. Lowe Bros. Company, 15. National Cash Register Company, 16. National Biscuit Company, 17. The Norton Company, 18. Thos. G. Plant Shoe Company, 19. Swift & Co., 20. Shredded Wheat Company, 21. J. P. Squire & Co., . 22. Sherwin- Williams Company, 23. Talbot Mills, .... 24. United States Steel Corporation, 25. United States Envelope Company, 26. United Shoe Machinery Company, 27. Wood Worsted Mill, . 28. Westinghouse Air Brake Company, 29. Waltham Watch Company, 30. Packard Motor Company, . 31. Jeffrey, Thos. B., Company, 32. Royal Worcester Corset Company, Buffalo, N. Y. Dayton, Ohio. Dayton, Ohio. New York, N. Y. Worcester, Mass. Boston, Mass. Chicago, 111. Niagara Falls, N. Y. Cambridge, Mass. Cleveland, Ohio. North Billerica, Mass. New York, N. Y. Springfield, Mass. Beverly, Mass. Lawrence, Mass. Wilmerding, Pa. Waltham, Mass. Detroit, Mich. Kenosha, Wis. Worcester, Mass. Others. 1. Public Service Railway Company of New Jersey, . Newark, N. J. 2. First National Bank, Chicago, 111. 3. Metropolitan- Life Insurance Company, . . . New York, N. Y. 4. New York Life Insurance Company, . . . New York, N. Y. 5. Curtis Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 6. Outlook Company, New York, N. Y. 7. Plimpton Press, Norwood, Mass. 8. New England Telephone and Telegraph Company, Boston, Mass. 9. Women's Educational and Industrial Union, . . Boston, Mass. 196 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Appendix C. METHODS OF CALCULATING THE VARIETY OF FOOD. In considering variety of food eaten in one week, two difficulties of classification were encountered, — first, the schedules to be used did not include reports of the same number of meals in all cases, and second, the variety of food was large and, at first glance, bewildering. Since the food schedules were filled in for periods varying in length from two days to seven, the following method for reducing all menus to 21 meals was adopted. The variety of food eaten at one meal was regarded as l/21 of the probable total variety for a week. All schedules containing the same number of meals were placed in one group, numbers showing the fre- quency of occurrence of different kinds of food for the group were found, and multiplied by 2l/X, X representing the number of meals of each person in the group. The products were divided by the num- bers of persons in the groups. This method resulted in the short- comings of one group correcting those of another. Six meals were evidently a fair sample of 21 meals. The following table shows the similarity in proportion of the foods of different kinds in the group of dispensary cases, where the reports covered, respectively, 21 and 6 meals. The variety of the 21-meal group appears exactly as reported; the variety of the women reporting 6 meals is weighted by the method described above. As will readily be seen, the two groups differ little from each other or from the total group, which includes 21-meal, 6-meal and intermediate groups, weighted as described (Table 76). In an inquiry of this nature no attempt to obtain any kind of quan- titative data was feasible. Variety could, therefore, form the only possible basis of comparison of menus. In general, variety indicates quantity to some extent, as a "helping" of meat, a slice of bread or a cup of coffee have fairly fixed quantitative meanings. Throughout this study variety of food means the number of times given articles ap- peared on the menus reported for one week. Percentage of variety means the ratio to the total variety of any one article of food. The total range, or variety, is the sum of the number of times all articles are mentioned in the menus. Since tea and coffee have little food value they were discussed separately; therefore total variety, as the APPENDIX C. 197 -«- ^.-a ^ W5 CM ^ . Is ■^ ■o5 Tt< & t^ g ^ '^1 OS CO 00 s OS s CJ o Z-^ -g Q ■< ^ pa rt 03 s 3 ! 0) a ^ «o 198 FOOD OF WOEKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. term is used in the discussions in Chapters III. and V., means variety of food excluding coffee, tea and coffee substitutes. The basis of classification of articles was the convenient one suggested by Dr. Langworthy,' and food groups were arranged as follows: — Group 1 . — Beverages having little food value : tea, coffee, miscel- laneous beverages, principally soda water and coffee substitutes. Group 2. — Other beverages : cocoa, chocolate and milk, including malted milk and eggnog. Group 3. — Carbohydrate food: bread of all kinds; cake, including cookies; cereals; macaroni; desserts, including ices and puddings not composed chiefly of fruit; pastry, including fruit pies; and candy, of which mention was seldom made. Group 4- — Protein food : cheese, eggs, beans, fish and meats. Meats classified as beef, including veal; pork, including corned shoul- der, ham and bacon; mutton and lamb; chicken and turkey; other meat, including sausage and meat, kind not mentioned. (Among Jewish people meat usually meant beef.) Group 5. — Salads of- all kinds, largely lettuce and fruit or vegetable mixtures, potatoes, and other vegetables except beans. Vegetables were either fresh or canned, but no attempt to distinguish the two could be made. Group 6. — Fruits, fresh or cooked, and fruit puddings. Group 7. — Soups. Group 8. — Pickles. No effort to classify fatty foods separately proved successful, partly because of the frequent omission from the menus of the mention of butter, although its use probably was general. Among Jewish people this is not true, as they do not serve butter and meat at the same meal. As will readily be seen, this classification is approximate only, adopted chiefly for convenience. It is obvious, for example, that pastry does not belong exclusively to the carbohydrate group, beans to the protein group, or potatoes to the mineral group. Almost all of the foods could have been classified under more than one head. Because of the difficulty of properly classifying liquid foods, soups, cocoa and milk are kept separate throughout the discussion. > See Langwortby , C. F. : Food Selections for Rational and Economical Living, Scientific Monthly, Vol. II., No. 3 (March, 1916), pp. 302, 303. APPENDIX D. 199 Appendix D BIBLIOGRAPHY. Reliable works dealing with the most important aspects of dietetics are included in the following list of books and magazine articles. While the books intended for physicians are usually too technical for lay readers, the bulk of the citations are within the grasp of any person who has received a secondary school education. References to the many excellent bulletins issued from the Food Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry of the United States Department of Agri- culture are omitted. These are often of great practical value, and are distributed without charge or sold for a trifling sum. Persons interested in following the results of original research in this field should consult the current numbers of the "Journal of Biological Chemistry" and the publications of the Carnegie Nutrition Laboratory. Bayliss, W. H. "The Physiology of Food and Economy in Diet." London. Longmans, Green & Co., 1917, 107 p. Written for use during the present war. A simple but scholarly presentation of essentials. Brewster, Edwin Tenney, and Brewster, Lilian. "The Nutrition of a House- hold." Boston and New York. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1915, 208 p. Revision of a series of magazine articles dealing with the subject in a non- technical way. Bryce, Alexander. "Modern Theories of Diet and their Bearing upon Practical Dietetics.'' New York. Longmans, Green & Co., 1912, 368 p. Summarizes theories of metabolism, and gives a critical discussion of the theories and practices of vegetarianism, low-protein and purin-free diets, schemes recommending special uses of mineral salts, water, curdled milk, etc., and various fasting and forced feeding plans. Cathcart, E. P. "The Physiology of Protein Metabolism." London and New York. Longmans, Green & Co., 1912, 142 p. Gives the important results of the investigations of the protein requirements of the body, the effects of starvation and bodily activity on the utilization of proteins, and the extent to which fats and carbohydrates may serve as sparers of protein. Cannon, Walter B. "The Mechanical Factors of Digestion." New York. Longmans, Green & Co., 1911, 227 p. Reports the results of investigations of the activities of the digestive tract made at Harvard University. 200 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Cannon, Walter B. "Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage, an Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement." New York and London. D. Appleton & Co., 1915. Carlson, Anton Julius. "The Control of Hunger in Health and Disease." Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1916, 319 p. Reports of experiments made at Chicago University. Chittendon, Russell H. "Physiological Economy in Nutrition." New York. Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1904, 478 p. Reports of the results of experiments with a low-protein diet by soldiers of the United States army and Yale students. "The Nutrition of Man." New York. Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1907, 321 p. Explains the processes connected with nutrition, and presents the arguments for a low-protein diet. Davis, Nathan S. "Food in Health and Disease." Philadelphia. P. Blakiston's Sons & Co., 1912, 449 p. Deals with the general principles of dietetics and with diets suitable for per- sons suffering from various diseased conditions. Friedenwald, JuUus, and Ruhrah, John. "Diet in Health and Disease." Phila- delphia and London. W. B. Saunders Company, 1913, 857 p. In addition to a discussion of the chemistry and physiology of digestion, and the composition of foods, this book prescribes dietaries for persons suffering from various diseases. Gebhart, F. C, and Lusk, Graham. "Analysis and Cost of Ready-to-serve Foods." Chicago. Press of the American Medical Association, 1915, 83 p. Reports the food values of dishes commonly served in restaurants. Hoist, Axel. "Diet in Relation to Disease." International Congress of Hygiene and Demography Transactions, II., 583-590, 1912. Gives the results of experiments at the Hygiene Institute of the University of Christiana, showing the effects of the absence from the diet of certain en- zymes or vitamines. Jordon, Whitman. "Principles of Human Nutrition, a Study in Practical, Die- tetics." New York. Macmillan Company, 1912, 450 p. Gne of the less technical presentations of the subject. Langworthy, C. F. "Food Selection for Rational Living." Scientific Monthly, II., 294r-306 (March, 1916). A brief explanation of the nutritional needs of the body and easily understood directions for selecting a properly balanced ration. Leathes, J. B. "The Fats." London and New York. Longmans, Green & Co., 1910. Discussion of the characteristics and properties of fats. Lusk, Graham. "The Elements of the Science of Nutrition." Philadelphia and London. W. B. Saunders Company, 1909, 315 p. One of the best discussions of the subject. APPENDIX D. 201 Lusk, Graham. "The Fundamental Basis of Nutrition." New Haven. Yale University Press, 1914, 62 p. Condensed summary of the essential facts about nutrition. McCaskey, D. "Vitamines and Cooking." Scientific Monthly, CXIII., 379 (Oct. 30, 1915). Information based on personal observations about the effects of an absence of the so-called vitamines from the diet. McCay, Major D. "The Protein Element in Nutrition." New York. Long- mans, Green & Co., 1912, 216 p. Shows that the more vigorous races have used a high protein diet. Mendel, Lafayette B. " Newer Points of View about the Part played by Dif- ferent Food Substances in Nutrition."' Journal of the American Medical Association, LXIIL, 819-822 (Sept. 5, 1914). Condensed summary of the results of recent investigations, particularly those dealing with the nutritional values of proteins and fats. "Nutrition and Growth." The Harvey Lectures, 1914^15. Philadelphia and London. J. P. Lippincott Company, 1915. "Changes in the Food Supply and their Relation to Nutrition." New Haven. Yale University Press, 1916, 61 p. A brief, easily understood discussion of practical value to the lay reader. Noorden, Carl von. "Metabolism and Practical Medicine." Chicago. W. T. Keener & Co., 1907, 3 vols., 452, 1320 p. Full treatment, suitable for physicians. Plonies, W. "Diet as a Weighty Factor of Casual Therapeutics in Severe Dis- eases of the Stomach and Intestines, in Troubles of Metabolism, Kidney Troubles, Disorders of the Circulation, in Puhnonary Diseases, and in Nervous and Mental Diseases." International Congress of Hygiene and Demography Transactions, II., 483-535. Rose, Mary Swartz. "Feeding the Family." New York. The Macmillan Com- pany, 1916, 449 p. Particularly valuable for its presentation of the food requirements of children of different ages. Many recipes and menus suitable for family use are given. Sherman, Henry C. "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition." New York. The Macmillan Company, 1911, 355 p. Presents the principles of the chemistry of food and nutrition, with special reference to the food requirements of man and the considerations which should underlie our judgment of the nutritive value of food. Stiles, Percy Goldthwait. "Nutritional Physiology." Philadelphia and Lon- don, 1916. 288 p. An excellent summary of information about the processes by which food is transformed into human energy. Taylor, Alonzo Englebert. "Digestion and Metabolism, the Physiological and Pathological Chemistry of Nutrition." Philadelphia and New York. Lea & Febiger, 1912, 560 p. Describes the chemical changes in normal and abnormal digestion, and ex- plains the modifications that food materials undergo within the body. In- tended primarily for physicians. 202 FOOD OF WORKING WOMEN IN BOSTON. Thompson, Sir Henry. "Diet in Relation to Age and Activity with Hints con- cerning Habits conducive to Longevity." London. Frederick Wame & Co., 134 p. Underhill, Frank P. " The Physiology of the Amino Acids." New Haven. Yale University Press, 1915, 169 p. Voegtlin, Carl. "The Chemical Nature and Physiological Significance of So- called Vitamines." The Scientific Monthly, II., 289-293 (March, 1916). INDEX. INDEX. AocoiJNTiNO System, organized houses, 106. Adequacy op Diet, organized houses, 114-117. Adkift, term applied to women, 69. Age, women adrift, 70, 71; women in organized houses, 106, 124; dispen- sary patients, 127, 130, 132, 134. Age at Beginning Work, women dispen- sary patients, 155. American Woeking Women, variety of food in menu, 38-42. Anemia, women dispensary patients suffer- ing from, 135. Apartment Houses, for light house- keeping, 172-173. Attractiveness op Food Service, im- portance of, 114, 121. Back Bay, living expenses of self-support- ing women, 77. Baked Beans, see Beans. Baltimore, statistics of women at work, 14, 15, 16; retail food prices compared with Boston, 17; number of women workers living at home, and boarding, 66. Basement Dining Booms, organized houses, 121. Bathing Facilities, dispensary patients, 156-157. Beal Nurses Home, purpose and manage- ment, 108. Beans, frequency of use in menu, 94; as part of breakfast, 96; in diet of dispensary patients, 137, 138, 143, 144, 150, 152; of low-wage workers, 174. Beef, see Meat. Bethany Union, purpose and manage- ment, 107. Beverages, classification, 198. Bibliography, 199-202. Bill op Fare, see Menus. Board, expenditure of workers for, 75, 83; cost with room in organized houses, 115. Boarders, women workers reported as, 66-67. Boarding Houses, cost of food, 83, 84; comparison with restaurants, 86; see also Organized Houses. Bookbinder, metabolism of, 116. Boston, statistics of women at work, 13- 16; retail food prices compared with other cities, 17; number of women workers living at home, and board- ing, 66-68. Box Lunches, attitude of workers towards, 42. Bread, in average menu, 18, 38, 40, 45, 46, 100; frequency of use, 90, 95; con- sumption in low-wage group, 93; as part of breakfast, 96; served by organized houses, 110-113; in diet of dispensary patients, 138, 139, 140; of immigrant groups, 145, 149; in con- stipation cases, 150; sample menu, 152-153; excessive use of, 174. Breakfast, working women, 93, 96; time taken for, 153; omission of, 154. Brooke House, purpose and manage- ment, 107. Brookline, living expenses of self-support- ing women, 77. Brush Factories, living arrangements of women workers, 67. Butter, in Russian diet, 143; in diet of dispensary patients, 152, 153. Cafeteria, Employees, patronage, 22, 23; luncheon cost, 47, 49-54; depart- ment stores, 47-49; comparison with commercial restaurants, 49-54, 58; types, 59-60; equipment, 60-62; cost of food and prices, 61-64; firms con- ducting, 194-195. Cafeteria Service, restaurants, 45; or- ganized houses, 122. ' Prepared by Bthel M. Johnson, librarian of the Women's Educational and Industrial Union. 206 INDEX. Cake, in average menu, 18, 38, 42, 46; frequency of use, 91, 95; on menus of organized houses, 110-113; in diet of dispensary patients, 138, 139, 143; of immigrant groups, 145; in consti- pation cases, 150; sample menu, 152- 153. Califoknia Immigration Commission, domestic science instruction prosdded by, 163. Calokies, Food, menus of organized houses, 115; requirements of working women, 116. Cambridge, living expenses of self-sup- porting women, 77. Canadian Women, kind of food in menu, 38-42. Candy, in average menu, 39, 44; in limches put up by organized houses, 113; in diet of dispensary patients, 149. Candy Factohiebi living arrangements of women workers, 67. Carbohydbatb Foods, variation with wage groups, 89-91; frequency in weekly menu, 92, 95; proportion in diet of dispensary patients, 136, 138, 139, 140, 142; increase in use with wage, 143; relation of nationality to, 145; in constipation cases, 148, 150; frequency in diet of dispensary pa- tients, 197; foods included, 198. Cereals, in average menu, 18, 46, 90-91; increase in use with wages, 91; fre- quency of use, 95-96; on menus of organized houses, 110-113; as protein source, 118; in diet of dispensary pa- tients, 138, 139, 143, 145, 152, 153; in constipation cases, 150; in diet of high-wage workers, 174. Charlesbank Homes, purpose and man- agement, 108. Cheese, in average menu, 38, 40, 46; frequency of use, 94, 99; on menus of organized houses, 109; in diet of dispensary patients, 137-138, 143, 144; in constipation cases, 150; in diet of wage earners, 166. Chicago, statistics of women at work, 14-16; retail food prices, 17; living arrangements of women workers, 66; rates of boarding houses, 120. Chicken, see Meat. Choice op Food, see Variety of Food. Churches, assistance in living arrange- ments for women, 179. Classification of food, 198. Clerical Wohkerb, dispensary patients, 131; wages, 132; dispensary depart- ments, 133; diagnoses, 135. Cleveland, statistics of women at work, 13-16; retail food prices, 17; living ■■ arrangements of women workers, 66. Clothing Factories, living arrangements of women workers, 67. Cocoa, in average menu, 18, 39, 46, 90; frequency of use, 92, 174; on menus of organized houses, 112; in diet of dispensary patients, 136, 140, 142, 143, 152, 153, 197; constipation cases, 146, 148; in diet of high- wage workers, 174. Coffee, in average menu, 18, 39, 45, 46; frequency of use, 91; increase with wage, 93; on menus of organized houses, 110-113; in diet of dispensary patients, 146, 149, 152, 197; frequency in diet of low-wage workers, 174. Cold Lunches, employees' reasons for preference, 28; factory workers, 163; bad effects, 164. See also Lunches. Colored Women, organized home for, 108, 123. Combinations, commercial restaurants, 45-46. Constipation, women dispensary patients, 135; Russian women, 146; in relation to diet, 148-151; causes, 149, 174, 175; dietary treatment, 166. Cooking Facilities, provisions for fac- tory workers, 36-37; in organized houses, 123; see also Cafeterias, Em- ployees'. Co-operative Boarding Houses, estab- lishment, 102; capacity ar^d occu- pants, 103. Co-operative Housekeeping, 83, 87, 99- 100, 173; working women, 177-179; expenses, 177; objections to, 178; outlook for, 179. Co-operative Lunches, factory workers, 37; lunch arrangements, 165. Corn Meal, unpopularity, 99. Corset Factories, hving arrangements of women workers, 67. Cost of Food, comparison in different cities, 17, 19; in organized houses, 117-121. Cost op Living, self-supporting women, 78-89; comparison with family group, 180; in different wage groups, 82; low-wage group, 88-89. INDEX. 207 Debility, women dispensary patients, 135. Defective Diet, danger, 184. Delicatessen Shops, in connection with light housekeeping, 85. Department Stokes, lunch room facilities for employees, 21, 22, 23, 32; em- ployees' cafeterias, 47-64; comparison with commercial restaurants, 49-^54, 58; variety of food, 54-58; types of lunch rooms, 59-60; equipment, 60- 62; patronage and prices, 61-64; im- portance of, 166. See also Sales- women. Designees, wages reported, 25; length of lunch period, 30. Desserts, frequency in menu, 91, 95; served by organized houses, 110-112; in diet of dispensary patients, 138, 139, 143, 145; in constipation cases, 150. Diet, relation to health, 126-161, 182-184. Dietary, organized houses, 106-121; ade- quacy, 114-117; protein food calories supplied, 115-117; cost of food, 117- 121; source of proteins, 118; for high- wage and low-wage workers, 174. See also Menu. Dietary Habits, women adrift, 93-99. Dietetics, need for instruction in, 163, 166, 167, 173, 176, 184. Digestive Disorders, women dispensary patients, 135; relation of diet to, 143, 146. See also Constipation. Dining Rooms, organized houses, 121. Diseases, women dispensary patients, 135. Dispensary Patients, 126-160; classifica^ tion, 127-135; diagnoses, 135; kind and variety of food eaten, 135-153, 197; in relation to nationality, 142- 147; in relation to certain disorders, 148-152; eating habits, 153-154; eco- nomic status of families, 154-155; living conditions, 156-157; working conditions, 157-159; hours of labor, 158; use of leisure time, 159-160; questionnaire used, 192-193. Domestic Servants, number living in organized houses, 104; number adrift, 105; dispensary patients, 133. Doughnuts, as part of breakfast, 96. Dressing Rooms, as place for eating lunch, 22. Earnings, women in subsidized houses, 105-106. See also Wages. Eating Habits, women adrift, 168-176. Egos, in average menu, 18, 38, 40, 46, 90; frequency of use, 94, 96; on menus of organized hquses, 109-112; as protein source, 118; in diet of dispensary pa- tients, 137, 138, 143, 144; in constipa- tion cases, 150, 152, 153 ; frequency in diet of low-wage workers, 174. Eleanor Association, mention of, 103. Emotions, effect oil digestion, 171. Employees' Capetehias, see Cafeterias, Employees'. Employees' Lunch Rooms, importance of, 166; questionnaire regarding, 190. See also Cafeterias, Employees'. Employers', interest in limch service for workers, 165, 166. English Women, variety of food in menu, 38-41. Expenditure for Food, women adrift, 72-78, 174, 175-176, 180; effect of residence on, 75-77; increase with wage, 89-90, 96-97, 99, 169, 176; women in organized houses, 115, 120, 121, 122, 179; in co-operative house- keeping, 177-178. Factories, providing cooking facilities for employees, 36; hving arrangements of women workers, 67; boarding home, 102; list of those with cafeterias for employees, 194^195. Factory Lunch Service, importance of, 165-166. Factory Workers, inclusion in study, 20; methods of obtaining noon lunch, 21; eating facilities, 22; proportion bring- ing lunch from home, 23 ; weekly wage, 24-28; reasons for bringing lunch from home, 27-28, 35; length of noon period, 26-30, 35; use of spare time, 31, 32; relation of nativity to kind of lunch, 33-35; use of cooking facilities provided, 36-37; prices paid for lunches, 43, 45-^7. Families, dispensary patients, 154-155. Family Budgets, comparison with individ- uals, 176. Family Group, women workers outside, 65-100. Fatigue, relation to digestive disorders, 157; resulting from light housekee^iing, 170; effect on digestion, 171; result- ing from excess protein, 175. Fats, lack of in Russian diet, 143. Fireless Cookers, for light housekeeping, 174. 208 INDEX. Fish, in average menu, 18, 38, 40, 45, 46, 90; frequency of use, 94, 96; unpopu- larity, 99; on menus of organized houses, 109-112; in diet of dispensary patients, 137, 138, 143, 144, 152; in constipation cases, 150. Food, received as wage, 14. ' Food Values, see Calories, Food. FoKEiaN WoBKiNG WoMEN, proportion, Boston, 15, 16. See also Nationality OF WOKKEKB. Forewomen, wages reported, 25. Fbances E. Willahd House, purpose and management, 107. Franklin Square House, purpose and management, 108. Free Lunches, number of firms providing, 63, 64. French Women's Christian Associa- tion, purpose and management, 108. Fruit, in average menu, 18, 39, 42, 46, 91, 93; increase in consumption with wages, 93; as part of breakfast, 96; frequency of use, 98; on menus of organized houses, 109-113; in diet of dispensary patients, 138, 140, 141, 147; of garment workers, 149; in constipation cases, 151; need of factory women, 165; in diet of wage earners, 166; in diet of high-wage workers, 174. Fruit Venders, 42, 44. Garment Workers, constipation among, 146. Gas, charge for light housekeeping, 85. German Women, variety of food in menu, 38, 42. Harriet Tubman House, purpose and management, 108. Health, influence of diet on, 182-184. Health Provisions, organized houses, 124. Hemenwat, The, purpose and manage- ment, 108. Hemenwat House, purpose and manage- ment, 108. Home Making, instruction for single women, 172. Home-prepared Lunches, number of women interviewed bringing, 21, 23; factors determining, 24-35; relation of wage to, 24-29; relation of length of noon period to, 29-30; relation of employment to, 30-34; relation of nationality to, 34-35; provisions for supplementing, 35-37; kinds of food brought, 37-42; proportion of depart- ment store workers bringing, 54. Homes, see Organized Houses. Hosiery Factories, living arrangement of women workers, 67. Hospitals, see Dispensaries. Hot Lunches, employees' reasons for preference, 27, 29. See also Cooking Facilities and Lunches. Hotels for Women, commercial, number in Boston, 103. Hours op Work, effect on health, 154; dispensary patients, 157-158. Housework, use of leisure time for, 159- 160. Ices, on menus of organized houses, 110- 112. Immigrant Families, need of instruction in dietetics, 163. Income, relation to expenditure for food and rent, 72-90, 93, 96, 97, 99. See also Wages. Index Numbers, food prices, Boston and other cities, 17. Indigestion, relation of fatigue to, 171. Infant Mortality, possible causes, 184. Irish Working Women, variety of food in menu, 38-42. Irregularity, in meals of dispensary patients, 154. Italian Women, variety of food in menu, 38-42. Jewish Religion, influence on diet, 143. Jewish Women, variety of food in menu, 38-42. Kitchenette Apartments, need for low- priced, 172. Labor Cost, employees' cafeteria, 61. Laundries, living arrangements of women workers, 67. Laundry, expenditure of self-supporting women for, 81; facilities provided by organized houses, 124; done in room, 170. Leisure Time, use by dispensary patients, 159-160. INDEX. 209 Length op Noon Houb, relation to wage, 163. Light Hotjsbkbeping, working women, 83-86; charge of gaa for, 85; dietary habits in connection with, 93; per cent, of women studied practicing, 169; objections to, 170-172. Liquid Foods, in diet of dispensary pa- tients, 142, 146, 148, 152. Living Akbangements, women workers, 66-68; in the eight largest cities, 66; in different industries in Massachu- setts, 67; group of Boston workers studied, 83-87; dispensary patients, 132, 134, 156-157. Living Expenses, see Cost op Living. Living Wage, relation to food, 25, 26; to rent, 99. See also Wages. Loans, importance of, to working women, 175. Lodgings, women workers, see Organized Houses; also Rent. Loneliness, women adrift, 69, 71. "LoNE-woMAN Plan of Living," 168-173. Low- wage Wokkers, expenditures, 88-89 ; diet, 93, 174. Lunch Allowance, working girls, 47. Lunch Room Facilities, need for, in business establishments, 166-167. Lunch Rooms, Commercial, see Restau- rants. Lunches, 20-64; methods of obtaining, 21, 23, 33; places for eating, 22-24; rela- tion of wages to, 24-28; length of noon hour, 29-30; character of work, 30-34; by nationality, 33-35; cooking facilities for, 35-36; kind of food brought from home, 37-42; typical lunch, 37; box lunches, 42; fruit venders as sources of supply, 42, 44; prices paid by employees, 43; kind supplied by commercial restaurants, 44—47; combinations and prices, 45- 46; department store cafeterias, 47- 49; quality and prices in restaurants and employees' cafeterias, 49-54; variety of food secured in cafeterias, 54-58; types of lunch rooms, 59-60; prices paid by men and women em- ployees, 59; predominant prices, 61- 63; put up by organized houses. 111; of dispensary patients, 151, 152; suggested improvements, 163—167; questionnaire used, 189. Luxuries, absence of, in diet of dispensary patients, 140, 143. Macaroni, frequency of occurrence in menus, 95, 99; as substitute for vege- tables, 113; in diet of dispensary pa- tients, 138, 139; by nationality, 145; in constipation cases, 150; in diet of wage earners, 166. Machine Operators, strain of work, 157; hours, 158. Management, organized houses, Boston and vicinity, 107-108. Marital Condition, women dispensary patients, 131. Meal Hours, see Lunches; also Noon Period. Meals, prepared in room, 83-84; cost compared with restaurants, 85-86; manner of serving, 153-154; irregular periods for, 154; minimum cost at restaurants, 169. See also Light Housekeeping. Meat, in average menu, 18, 38, 40, 90, 97, 100; frequency of use, 94, 96; on menus of organized houses, 109-112; as protein source, 118; in diet of dispensary patients, 137, 138, 140, 143, 144, 149; in Russian diet, 143; in constipation cases, 150, 152, 153; in diet of low-wage earners, 174, 175. Men, predominant prices paid for lunch, 61; cost of necessary food, 175. Menus, average, 18; retail prices in con- nection with, 19; variety of food, 37- 42, 89-93; prices, 43-47; sample menus, 52-53, 97, 152-153; served by organized houses, 110-112; variety re- quired, 114, 173-176; dispensary pa- tients, 140, 143. Menus, Economical, need for instruction in, 163. Mercantile Establishments, list of, hav- ing cafeterias for employees, 194. Metabolism, women in different occupa- tions, 116. Milk, in average menu, 18, 39, 46, 90; frequency of use, 92, 174; menus of organized houses, 110—113; as protein source, 118; in diet of dispensary pa- tients, 136, 140, 142, 143, 152-153, 197; in constipation cases, 146, 148, 149 ; in diet of high-wage worker, 174. Mineral Substances, in diet of women adrift, 92, 98; in diet of dispensary pa- tients, 136, 140, 141, 142, 147, 197; in constipation cases, 148, 151, 152; in diet of high-wage workers, 174. Minimum Wage, department stores, 25. 210 INDEX. Monet Wages, proportion of women workers receiving, 14, 15. Monotony, in diet of dispensary patients, 140, 149, 152. MoEBiDiTT Statistics, lack of, 182-183. Mutton, see Meat. Nationality op Workehs, relation to kind of lunch, 33-35; to kind of food, 37-42; women adrift, 70, 71; dispen- sary patients, 128, 130, 132, 134, 143- 147, 149. Nebve-stbain, industrial, 157-158. Nbbvods Ibbitabilitt, from stimulants, 175. New England Kitchen, establishment, 3. New York Abbociation for Improving THE Condition op the Poor, mention of dietary, 176. New Yobk City, statistics of women at work, 14-16; retail food prices com- pared with Boston, 17; living arrange- ments of women workers, 66; cost of living, women adrift, 79, 80; rates of boarding homes, 120-121. Noon Lunch, see Lunches. Noon Pebiod, relation of length to kind of lunch, 26-30; relation to wage, 26, 29; use made of, 31-32; dispensary patients, 153. Nutrition Disorders, see Digestivb Disorders. Nuts, in average menu, 39, 46. Occupation, relation to kind of lunch, 30- 34; to length of noon hour, 30, 32; women adrift, 69, 70; women living in organized houses, 103-105; dispen- sary patients, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135; families of patients, 155; relation to health, 157-159. OcTAviA Hill Tenements, mention of, 172. Oppicb Workers, inclusion in study, 20; methods of obtaining noon lunch, 21; eating facilities, 22; wages, 25-27; kind of lunch, 26, 28, 35 ; noon period, 29-30, 163; use of spare time, 31, 32; parentage and nativity, 33; use of cooking facilities provided, 36-37; prices paid for lunches, 43, 45-47; number living in organized houses, 104. Ohio, cost of living, women workers, 79, 80. Obqanized Houses, food and expenses, 101-125; classes, 101; when estab- lished, 102; capacity of different types, 103; women occupants, 103- 106; occupations of women, 104; weekly earnings of women in subsidized houses, 105-106; food supplied in Boston houses, 106, 109-114; menus, 110-112; purpose and management of houses, 107-108; adequacy of the food supplied, 114-117; prices charged, 115, 120-121, 124; cost of food, 117- 121; methods of serving food, 121- 122; factors influencing use of houses, 122-125; regulations, 122-124; food, 179-1,82; charges, 179-180; lack of accounting system, 180; improve- ments suggested, 181-182; question- naire used, 191. Overcrowding, homes of dispensary pa- tients, 156. Overhead Charges, employees' cafeterias, 63, 64. Paper-box Factories, living arrange- ments of women workers, 67. Pastry, in average menu, 18, 38, 46, 91; frequency of use, 95; on menus of organized houses, 110-112; in diet of dispensary patients, 138, 139, 143, 145; in constipation cases, 150. Patients, see Dispensary Patients. Peanut Butter, in diet of wage earners, 166. Philadelphia, statistics of women at work, 14-16; retail food prices com- pared with Boston, 17; living arrange- ments of women workers, 66. Physical Strain, effect on women, 184. Pickles, in diet of women adrift, 90, 92; in diet of dispensary patients, 136, 140, 142, 197; in constipation cases, 148. Pie, in average menu, 38, 42, 45, 46, 91, 96; on menus of organized houses, 110-111; diet of dispensary patients, 152. Piecework, relation to wage, 163. Piece Workers, wages, 24-26; lunches, 25, 26, 35; use of noon period, 32. Pittsburg, statistics of women at work, 13-16; retail food prices compared with Boston, 17; living arrangements of women workers, 66. Polish Women, variety of food in menu, 38-41. Pork, see Meat. INDEX. 211 Positions, change of, dispensary patients, 158-159. Potatoes, in average menu, 91; in low- wage group, 93; as part of breakfast, 96; frequency of use, 98, 100; on menu of organized houses, 109-112; in diet of dispensary patients, 140, 141, 147, 149', 152, 153; in constipa- tion cases, 151. Power Machine Operators, lunches, 23; wages, 25; noon period, 30, 163; use of spare time, 31. Power Machines, as place for eating lunch, 22, 23. Preventable Diseases, relation of food to, 126-160. Prices, retail, statistics, 17, 19 ; commercial restaurants, 43-47; employees' cafe- terias, 47, 49-54, 61-64; commercial cafeterias, 54; predominant prices, 61, 63. Priscilla Inn, purpose and management, 108. Professional Service, number of women engaged in living in organized houses, 104; number adrift, 105; number of dispensary patients, 131, 133. Protein, form in which secured, 40; varia- tion in, with wage, 89, 90, 93, 100; frequency in weekly menu, 92, 94; in menus of organized houses, 115; source of, 118; in diet of dispensary patients, 136, 137, 138, 140, 142, 197; increase in use with wage, 143; in Russian diet, 143-144, 146; constipa- tion cases, 146, 148, 150, 152; in diet of high-wage earners, 174-175; foods included, 198. Pudding, in average menu, 18, 46, 91; on menus of organized houses, 110-112. Questionnaire, forms used in study, 187- 193. Rates, organized houses, 110-112, 115; basis for, 117, 119-121; comparison with Chicago and New York houses, 120-121. Raw Materials, cost in employees' cafe- terias, 61, 63; in school lunch service, 86; in organized houses, 112. Readt-to-serve food, minimum daily cost, 169. Recreation, noon period, employees', 31- 32, 35; provided by organized houses, 124; dispensary patients, 159-160. See also Rest Rooms. References, requirements of organized houses, 123. ReguIjAtions, organized houses, 122-125. Religious Liberty, organized houses, 123. Rent, expenditure of self-supporting women for, 75-78; relation to in- come, 76-77; in suburbs, 173. Residence, effect on expenditure for food and rent, 75-78. Restaurants, patronized by factory work- ers, 43-47; prices paid by patrons, 43, 83, 84; popular dishes and combina- tions, 45-46; kinds of food in limoh menus, 46; positions of patrons, 47; patronized by women adrift, 168, 169. Rest Rooms, employees, 60; need for, 165. Retail Stores, living arrangements of women workers, 67. See also De- partment Stores. Rice, omission from menus, 99; in diet of wage earners, 166. Richards, Mrs. Ellen H., mention of, 173. Roommates, objection to, 78, 171. Room Rent, see Rent. Russian Women, kind of food in menu, 38-41, 143-147, 149. Salads, in average menu, 18, 46, 91, 98; on menu of organized houses, 110- 113; in diet of dispensary patients, 138, 141, 143, 147, 151; inclusion, 198. St. Louis, statistics of women at work, 14- 16; retail food prices, 17; living ar- rangements of women workers, 66. St. Helena's House, purpose and manage- ment, 107. Saleswomen, inclusion in study, 20; methods of obtaining noon lunch, 21, 33; lunch facilities 22, 47-49; propor- tion bringing lunch from home, 23; wages, 25; length of noon period, 29- 30, 32; use of spare time, 31, 32, nationality in relation to kind of lunch, 33-35; number living in organized houses, 104; dispensary patients, 131, 132, 133; diagnoses, 135, working conditions, 157; hours, 158. Sandwiches, in average menu, 18, 38; fillings used, 40; meat and fish pre- ferred by different nationalities, 41; restaurant prices, 45; lunches put up by organized houses, 113. School Luncheons, when started, 3; cost to individual, 46; per cent, of cost for raw material, 86; public function, 165-166. 212 INDEX. School Lunch Depabtment, Women's Educational and Indubtbial, men- tion of, 86. Seamstbesses, metabolism, 116. SelftSuppobtino Women, food problem, 65-100; living arrangements, 66-67, 81-85; occupations, Boston group, 69; age and nativity, 70-71; wages, 70, 72-95, 98, 99; expenditure for food, 72-89; per cent, of income spent for food, 75 ; effect of residence on expendi- ture, 75-77; expenditure for rent, 76- 78; for food and rent combined, 78- 82; expenditures of low-wage group, 88-89; variety in choice of food, 89- 93; dietary habits, 93-99; number of women adrift in Boston, 100. Sebving, methods employed in organized houses, 121-122; in homes of dispen- sary patients, 153-154. Sex, dispensary patients, 127. Sickness, prevalent forms among women, 183. Simmons College Alumni Association, co-operation in securing schedules, 68. Sleeping Akrangements, dispensary pa- tients, 156. Social Insurance, problem of women adrift, 167-168. SoMEBViLLE, living expenses of women adrift, 77. Soup, in average menu, 18, 38, 46, 90; frequency of use, 92; on menus of organized houses, 110-112; in diet of dispensary patients, 136, 140, 142, 146, 152, 153; in constipation cases, 146-148; frequency in diet of dispen- sary patients, 197. South End, price of board, 75; room rent, 77. Spabe Time, use made by employees, 31- 32. Standabd of Living, readjustment of, 162-163; women adrift, 168-176; per- manent character of living arrange- ments, 170-171. See also Cost of Living. Staple Food, in diet of dispensary patients, 140. Stimulants, in diet of low-wage workers, 174. Students, living expenses in Boston, 87; boarding homes, 102-103; number in organized houses, 103. Subsidized Boarding Houses, number in Boston, 101; date of establishment, 102; capacity and occupants, 103; earnings of women occupants, 105- 106; lack of business methods, 117j methods of raising funds, 119; regula- tions, 123. SuppEB, time taken for, 153; manner of serving, 153-154. Swedish Women, variety of food in menu, 38-39, 41. Sweets, in menus of workers, 91, 93; increase of, with wage, 100; in diet of dispensary patients, 149, 152. See also Candt. Table Waste, estimate for, 115. Tea, in average menu, 18, 39, 42, 46; frequency of use, 91; in low-wage group, 93; as part of breakfast, 93; on menus of organized houses, 110- 113; in diet of dispensary patients, 146, 149, 152; frequency in diet of low-wage workers, 174; frequency in diet of dispensary patients, 197. Teachers, number living in organized houses, 104. Teeth, influence on diet of dispensary pa- tients, 146, 156. Telephone Operators, number living in organized houses, 104; dispensary pa- tients, 131; wages, 132; dispensary departments, 133; diagnoses, 135; hours, 157, 158. Temporary Home fob Woeking Women, purpose and management, 107. Trained Nurses, number living in organ- ized houses, 104. Unemployment, how met by women inter- viewed, 88. Variety of Food, women adrift, 37-42, 173-176; increase with wage, 89-93; on menus of organized houses, 106, 109-114; low-priced and high-priced houses, 109; diet of dispensary pa- tients, 140, 143; noon lunches, 165; method of calculating, 196-198. Vegetables, in average menu, 18, 38, 40, 46, 91; increase in consumption with wages, 93, 100; frequency of use, 98; on menus of organized houses, 109- 113; as protein source, 118; in diet of dispensary patients, 138, 140, 141, 147; increase in use with wage, 143; lack of in Russian diet, 146; in diet of garment workers, 149; in constipation cases, INDEX. 213 151; in diet of wage earners, 166; frequency of use of by low-wage workers, 174. VocATiONAi Education, for women, 172. Wage Limit, guests in organized houses, 123-124. Wages, food as part, 14; relation to workers' lunch, 24-29, 47; to length of noon period, 26, 29; women adrift, 70, 72-83, 85, 87-100; average weekly, 83; low-wage group, 88-89; relation to variety in menus, 89-93; relation to diet of dispensary patients, 140, 155. See also Monet Wage. Waitress, metabolism, 116. WaiiTHAm Watch Factory, boarding home, 102. War, effects on women, 167. Wash Woman, metabolism, 116. Water, amount taken by dispensary pa- tients, 146. Weight, comparison of working women and college women, 182-183. Welfare Work, Emplotehs', see Cafe- terias, Employees', Cooking Facili- ties, Rest Rooms. Welleslet College Students, compari- son of physical development with that of wage-earning women, 183-183. West End, living expenses of women adrift, 77. Wilcox Hall, purpose and management, 108. Women, statistics of employment, 13-16. Women Adrift, number in Boston, 1900 and 1910, 105; increase in number, 167-168; living arrangements, 168- 173; food, 173-176. See also Self- supporting Women. Work, see Occupation. Workrooms, as place for eating lunch, 22. Working Girls' Homes, see Organized Houses. Working Period, women adrift, 71. Young Women, importance of adequate diet, 162-163, 164. Young Women's Christian Association, Boston, purpose and management, 107; Cambridge, 107; French Young Women's Christian Association, 108; Roxbury, 108; gymnasium records, 183-184.