!*illi!MlitimHtmiill(lliii:iiiilll I |i dfatnell Uniwersitg library atljaca, Sfetu foik BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HENRY W. SAGE I89i ^i 0.1346 JAN211948M t ■^£e -413481 FER 5 1949 d ;EB1 2 1950 py 5fl r.1 on ^i^"'"^" University Library BL80 .B29 Rel gipns of the world by George A olin Bar 3 1924 029 053 705 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. ( http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029053705 The University of Chicago Publications IN Religious Education EDITED BY ERNEST D. BURTON SHAILER MATHEWS THEODORE G. SCARES HANDBOOKS OF ETHICS AND RELIGION THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD THE CNIVEBSITY OF OHIOAQO PRESS OHIOAGO. ILLINOIS THE BAKEB & TAYIOR COMPANY NEW YOHK THE J. K. GILL COMPANY rOBTLAND THE CnKNINQHAH, CtJKTISS & WELCH COMPANY LOS ANSHLBB THE CAMBBISSE XINIYERSITY PRESi> LONDON AND EDINBDB6B THE UARUZEN-EABTISHIEI-KAISHA TOKYO, OSABA, ETOTO, FDK170EA, 8ENDA1 THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY 8HANSHAI THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD By GEORGE A. BARTON Professor of Biblical Literature and Semitic Languages in Bryn Maivr College THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO. ILLINOIS z-^z Kimi\ Copyright 1917 By The University of Chicago All Rights Reserved Published July, 1917 Second Impression, October, 1917 -v....^^ Composed and Printed By A. The University ot Chicago Press Chlcagro, Illinois, U.S.A. if TO Morris Jastrow, Jr. COLLEAGtfE, FRIEND MASTERLY INVESTIGATOR OF THE BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN RELIGION PREFACE In attempting a study of the religions of the world, one is confronted with the problem of the order in which they should be taken up. The order in which they are presented in the following pages is that which the writer has found most advantageous in his own classroom: (i) an outline of primitive religions; (2) the religions of Babylonia and Egypt, which approach most closely to the primitive type; (3) the other religions which have sprung from the Hamito-Semitic stock, the religion of the Hebrews, Judaism, and Mohammedanism; (4) passing eastward to Persia, the study of Zoroastri- anism; (5) the religions of India, China, and Japan; (6) the religions of Greece and Rome; and (7) the study of Christianity. To some it may seem unnecessary to treat the religion of the Hebrews, Judaism, and Christianity in a textbook which forms a part of an educational series in which whole volumes are devoted to these subjects, but no book on the rehgions of the world would be complete from which a treatment of these great religions was absent, and it often gives the student a new sense of the value of these religions to study them briefly in comparison with the other religions of the world. If the time devoted to the course is too brief to permit the study of so many religions, and if the religions of Israel and Christianity are studied in other parts of the curriculum, chapters iv, v, and xv may be omitted from the course. It is believed that teachers will find it useful to have their pupils master the outline of each religion given X THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD here, and then make it the basis of wider reading. As the Hbrary facilities of colleges differ greatly, two lists of reading are given at the end of each chapter. If con- siderable time can be given to the course, and the library contains the necessary material, the student should be required to look up the references cited under "Class A." If the Hbrary facilities are meager, or the time allotted to the course is brief, then those cited under "Class B " should be used. If the teacher deems it wiser to direct the student who has mastered the text of this book to investigate special topics, such topics are suggested in Appendix I, where a list of books that will be of use in such investigation will also be found. A student who works by himself should make him- self famihar with the text of this volume as already suggested, and, after doing such other reading as the works available may permit, should write a brief book on the subject for himself. For his guidance an outline of such a book will be found in Appendix II. Those who take the course under a teacher wiU find this exercise of writing their own books most helpful. The writer's thanks are due to Professor A. V. Williams Jackson of Columbia for reading and criticizing the chapter on Zoroastrianism, to Professor Franklin Edgerton of the University of Pennsylvania for like help in the chapters on the religions of India, and to his colleagues Professors Tenney Frank and James F. Ferguson for rendering a similar service for the chapters on Rome and Greece. George A. Barton Beyn Mawr, Pa. May, 1917 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. The Religions oe Primitive Peoples . . i II. The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria i6 III. The Religion of Egypt .... 35 . IV. The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews . 58 V V. Judaism . ...... 79 ^ VI. Mohammedanism . 97 VII. Zoroastrianism . . . . 117 VIII. The Religion of the Vedas .... 138 IX. Buddhism and Jainism ... 158 X. Hinduism . . . 178 XI. The Religions of China . ... 201 XII. The Religions of Japan . 223 XIII. The Religion of Greece 242 XIV. The Religion of Rome . .... 265 -' XV. Christianity . 286 Appendix I 308 Appendix II 325 Index • • 335 CHAPTER I THE RELIGIONS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES And yet he left not himself without witness. — ^Acts 14: 17. I. Primitive peoples, as the term is here employed, are the peoples who have never developed svifficiently to embody their ideas in literature. They are the savage and barbarous tribes of ancient and modern times. According to the generally accepted theory of evolution, all the civilized peoples of the world have arisen from a savage ancestry. The primitive peoples of antiquity may be known to some extent through survivals of their ideas and customs among their civilized descendants, as well as through occasional descriptions of their institutions by ancient writers; those of modern times, from the descriptions of travelers and mission- aries and from the investigations of anthropologists. Between the lowest and the highest savages there are many gradations. Anthropologists, however, recog- nize four well-defined classes of peoples: those of the early Stone Age, often called Paleolithic; those of the later Stone Age, also called Neolithic; those of the Copper Age; and those of the Bronze Age. This classification is based on the degree of inteUigence manifested in making implements. Paleolithic man did not shape the stones employed for tools. He found, for example, one shaped roughly like an ax and used it as an ax. Neolithic man made flint implements and often became very skilful in their manufacture. 2 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Men of the Copper Age learned to employ copper. The passage from the Copper Age to the Bronze Age was slow, as men learned with difficulty to employ tin and antimony as alloys. Social and religious institutions varied with the people's advancement. 2. The method of studying the religions of uncivilized peoples necessarily differs from the method of studying the reKgions of civilized races. In the latter case we turn, not only to institutions, but to religious literatures; in the former we can study only their institutions and such myths and ideas as travelers, ancient or modern, have collected from them. Myths were the hypotheses of prescienti&c men. By means of them they explained, in ways satisfactory to themselves, the world and their reHgious institutions. Myths accordingly often aid us in ascertaining fundamental religious conceptions. 3. The psychological unity of man is one of the most striking results of modern investigation. There are, of course, details in which the religion of any people differs from that of every other people. Indeed, in some respects the religion of every individual is peculiarly his own; it differs in some details from the religion of everyone else, for the facts of the universe impress each mind differently. Nevertheless the variations are far less than one would expect. The surprising fact is that in all parts of the world the minds of men, as they react to the fundamental facts of existence, work in so nearly the same way. This likeness of the psychological processes of man is one of the most striking discoveries of modem times. One writer declares : The laws of human thought are frightfully rigid, are indeed automatic and inflexible. The human mind seems to be a THE RELIGIONS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES 3 machine; give it the same materials, and it wiU infallibly grind out the same product.' .... Under ordinary conditions of human life there are many more impressions on the senses which are everywhere the same or similar than the reverse. Hence the ideas, both primary and secondary, drawn from them are much more likely to resemble than to differ.^ While, then, early religions differ in innumerable minor details, in the great fundamental conceptions they are the same. Of many secondary conceptions too it may be said that they are all but universal. It is not the purpose of this book to follow out the details in which the rehgions of primitive peoples differ, but rather to glance at the fundamental ideas and institu- tions which they have in common. Such a survey is necessary because these fundamental ideas form the basis of the rehgions of civilized peoples, and many of these institutions have persisted for centuries in civilized rehgions, often producing far-reaching consequences. 4. The universality of religion is now generally conceded. Man is a worshiping animal; he is "incurably rehgious." Certain Australian tribes, re- ported on by Spencer and Gillen, appear at first sight to be exceptions to this rule, but a closer study of the facts leads one to beheve that rehgion is not entirely absent.^ "Rehgion is man's attitude toward the universe regarded as a social and ethical force," and there is no satisfactory historical evidence that since man was man there have been peoples who did not 'D. G. Brinton, Religions of Primitive Peoples (New York, 1897), p. 6. 'Ibid., p. 7. 3 C. H. Toy, Introduction to the History of Religions (New York, 1913). §§10-12, 4 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD attempt to enter into social relations with the extra- human powers of the universe. 5. The nature of religion. — Among primitive peoples the essential part of religion is not belief, but practice. The primary aim is to avert the anger of supernatural beings and to secure their aid in the struggle for existence. As among men anger is aroiised by improper conduct, so it is beheved to be with the gods. One must be careful to do the things that are pleasing to them. The gods are supposed to be pleased, not with what men think of them, but by the service that is "rendered them. Religion is the proper manners to be observed in approaching the gods. Carelessness as to the ritual which embodies the proper etiquette toward them is thought to arouse the anger of deities and spirits. The emphasis in early rehgions is quite different from that in the so-called positive religions. Nevertheless we can trace in early rehgions certain behefs. 6. The soul is among all men intimately connected with rehgion. All tribes, even the lowest, observe that a human being is made up of two parts, the body of flesh and bones, and an impalpable something that Hves within. This impalpable something, or soul, is called by various names, but behef in it is universal. Among the lowest Australian tribes it is not as well defined as among more advanced peoples, but the belief is still there, and a man's Murup or soul may, when he sleeps, go off and talk even with the Murups of the dead.' Among savage peoples the soul is thought to have a material form. They cannot otherwise conceive of it. ■ See A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of Souih-East Australia (New York, 1904), pp. 434-42. THE RELIGIONS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES $ Perhaps a man's shadow, which, in his ignorance of optics, is to the savage inexplicable, contributed origi- nally to this belief. Souls were not, however, always thought of as existing in human form; sometimes they were conceived in animal shapes. Early men generally identified the soul with the breath, since they noticed that a dead man no longer breathed. They seem not to have thought, however, of any one part of the body as the home of the soul. 7. Life after death is another of man's universal beHefs. It is only among a few modern thinkers, in whom the elemental intuitions are "sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought," that it has ever been doubted. The universality of man's faith in the survival of the soul after death is attested in part by the universality of the behef in ghosts, and in the uniform practice of placing food in the tombs of the departed. Among all peoples, whether in the two Americas, in Central Africa, in Australia, or among the ancient inhabitants of Egypt or Palestine, not only food and drink, but the utensils that the departed had used in life were buried with him. Along with quantities of delicacies Queen Tai, of Egypt's Eighteenth D3Tiasty, placed in the tomb of her parents splendid easy chairs, a bed, chests of cloth- ing, and even a chariot in which they might ride! Similarly the Indians bury with their brave his bow and arrows for use in the happy hunting-grounds beyond the setting sun. 8. The underworld, while not universally beheved in, plays an important part among many peoples. Except where the bodies of the dead are burned, or where, as in Northern Alaska, the earth is continuously frozen, they 6 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD are buried in the ground. Where some are deposited for a time in trees, as in Australia, they are ultimately buried in the earth/ Naturally it was inferred that the soul descended into the earth with the body. In many parts of the world, accordingly, there is supposed to be a great cavern in the heart of the earth in which the dead abide. Such was the Aralu of the Babylonians, the Sheol of the Hebrews, the Hades of the Greeks, and the Hel of the Scandinavians. This underworld was generally thought to be a dark and cheerless place. The dead longed for the free life of the upper air where the sun shone. Among some races, as civilization advanced, this underworld was divided into Elysian fields in which the good passed cheerful and happy hves, and places of punishment in which the wicked received the reward of their deeds. Belief in an underworld is not, however, universal. Peoples living near the sea have sometimes thought of the dead as dwelUng beyond the deep; others have thought of them as Hving in high mountains; still others have thought of them as hving in the sun, moon, or stars.^ Several peoples who have begim by thinking of the dead as in an underworld have, as they advanced, transferred that dwelKng to the sky or to a heaven above the sky. Such a change can be traced among the Egyptians. 9. Animism. — ^As early man was conscious that he himself possessed a spirit or soul, so he attributed a similar spirit to everything about him, not only to animals, in whom the presence of a spirit was manifested ' Spencer and Gillen, The Northern Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1904), pp. 505-56. ' See Toy, Introduction to the History of Religions, § 65. THE RELIGIONS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES ^ in action, but to trees, rocks, springs, plants, weapons, heavenly bodies, etc. This general belief of men is called animism. These spirits might be weak or powerful, kind or unkind, helpful or hurtful, but in their midst man was compelled to live. He must, accordingly, come into relationship with them. In course of time the good and more powerful spirits developed into gods. 10. Transmigration. — One of the earliest and most persistent beliefs is that souls are reborn or reincarnated as human beings, beasts, plants, or inanimate things. The rise of such a behef is natural. If at the moment of a child's birth a person dies, it is natural to infer that the spirit has passed from one body to the other. Such a belief has been held among savages in America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania, as well as by the Brahmins, Buddhists, Plato, and Swedenborg.^ 11. Gods are powerful and fully personified spirits with whom clans or tribes are believed to have estab- lished friendly relations. It is not always easy to dis- tinguish a god from a spirit or ghost. The spirit or ghost may be regarded as just as powerful in his sphere as Ashur or Jupiter in his, but the sphere of the god is larger and his functions are more varied. In the earliest times the gods appear to have been the spirits of springs or of fertile localities. As man was dependent on their blessings, it was easy to regard them as powerful and beneficent. If the god was the god of a locality, it might be thought to dwell in a tree or a rock. Later the sun, moon, certain stars, the wind, rain, and even the sky were personified as gods, i.e., their spirits were thought to be influential in human life, so that man for ' See Toy, of. cit., §§ S5 ff- 8 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD his own good should cultivate friendly relations with them. At times the local spirit of a tribe's dwelling- place became associated with the tribe as its god, and was gradually detached from its original locaKty. Thus tribal gods arose. As human society is constituted of men and women, so the gods were thought to be male and female. 12. Fetishism. — In many parts of the world a power akin to that of man is supposed to reside in certain inanimate things. When such objects are parts of an animal, such as bones, claws, tails, feet, etc., or of vegetables, they are probably thought to retain some- thing of the power of the living thing to which they belonged. Fetish objects in West Africa are believed to be inhabited by spirits. In Australia an object called a churinga is regarded as the abode of the soul of an ancestor endowed with marvelous power. 13. Idols. — Closely related to fetishism is the practice of making images of the gods, although idolatry is a step higher in the process of evolution. An idol is an image or an object consciously made by man to rep- resent his god. It is a distinct advance when it is supposed that a spirit which originally dwelt in a spring, or a rock, or a tree, can be persuaded to make its dwelling in an object of man's own manufacture, so that he may carry its presence with him continually. 14. Social organization has everywhere affected the conceptions entertained of the gods. It is natural for men to think of the earth as a goddess — as the great mother of inexhaustible fertihty. It is also natural for them to think of the rain-deity, who enables the earth to bear and whose thunderbolts are like a warrior's darts, THE RELIGIONS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES g as masculine. But whether the god or the goddess is regarded as the head of the divine family is determined by the social organization of human society. In ma- triarchal communities a goddess is the superior deity, in patriarchal communities, a god.' 15. Environment and economic conditions also had their influence upon the conceptions of the gods. In regions like Arabia, where by far the larger part of the land is utterly barren and the fertile oases are the rare exception, the struggle for existence is severe. Deities of fertihty were accordingly there given great promi- nence. Such deities have been worshiped in all parts of the world, but in these desert regions they have been given special importance. 16. Ceremonies. — Early religious expression consists largely of ceremonies. These are of social and economic significance. They consist of harvest festivals, or, among pastoral peoples, festivals of the yeaning time, at which the gladness of the populace finds expression as a tribute to deity. Among uncivilized peoples these feasts are often orgies of a bestial nature. When, as among the Semites, the feast was held in honor of a deity of fertility, sexual Hcense was thought to be pleasing to such deities.^ But similar Hcense was granted at such times in many other parts of the world.' At such feasts wives were often selected and marriages ' See G. A. Barton, A Sketch of Semitic Origins, Social and Religious (New York, 1902), pp. 119-21. ^ See the article "Hierodouloi" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, VI; and Barton, Semitic Origins, pp. iiof. 'See, for example, J. Dowd, The Negro Races (New York, 1907), p. 137; and for the Fiji Islanders, J. G. Frazer, The Belief in Immortality (London, 19 13), pp. 433 f. lo THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD consummated. As religion covered the whole of life, marriage feasts had a certain rehgious significance. Birth, too, was attended with certain other cere- monies. But most important of all were the ceremonies through which young men, and in parts of the world yovmg women, must pass at the age of puberty. These initiated the young people into the full life of the tribe as adult members; as adults they also came into full relationship with the god of the tribe. The ceremonies were usually such as to try the courage of the initiate, especially of the male, and to predispose the mind to religious impressions. Often the men of a tribe have for long periods been organized into secret societies which had a religious or magical significance.' 17. Taboo. — ^Uncivilized men conceive of the super- natural as a kind of divine electricity with which many things in the world are charged. If things so charged are not handled in certain ways, the hoHness, or supernatural power, will discharge itself and harm the individual. From this general conception many prohibitions have arisen. These are found among all peoples in early stages of development, though they vary in different tribes. The word "taboo" is taken from a Polynesian dialect, where the phenomenon was first studied. Of course many taboos prevent activities the harmfulness of which are purely imaginary. Taboos have had an important influence in the development of ethics. Taboos control the actions of men, not only in daily life, but during their religious festivals and ceremonies, though the taboos that are in force at such times often differ from those that control daily life. ' See H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies (New York, 1908). THE RELIGIONS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES ii 1 8. Totemism is the name given to the system of tribal subdivision denoted by totems. Totems are natural objects, usually animals, though they are some- times plants, assumed as the emblem of a clan or family. The name is derived from the languages of the American Indians, among whom totemism was first studied. The totem is sometimes regarded as the ancestor of the tribe and is often closely associated in one way or another with its deity. Totemism exists in many parts of the world among tribes in a low stage of development, though there is no evidence that it has been universal. A number of the highly civilized nations of antiquity appear, however, to have passed through a totemistic stage of development. Totemism was a kind of imaginary social alliance, offensive and defensive, between a group of human beings and the class of animals or plants to which the totem belonged. The clan and its totem were usually supposed to be akin to one another. In many parts of the world exogamous marriage was controlled by the totem. If the totem of one tribe would eat the totem of another, the two could not intermarry. Among many tribes it was forbidden to eat the flesh of the totem. Sometimes the animal totem was regarded as especially valuable for sacrifices. In totemistic groups gods, men, and animals, or plants are thought to be embraced in one social organization. Totemism is, therefore, intimately connected with religion. 19. Sacrifice. — In all parts of the world men have offered to the gods gifts of food. They have assumed that the gods needed sustenance as much as they them- selves. These gifts have, however, not consisted 12 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD merely of grain or bloodless offerings, but of animal life as well, and, among many peoples, even of human victims. Only a few of the higher religions have reached a stage of evolution in which animal sacrifice is discarded, although human sacrifice survives only among the lowest savages. At times the entire victim has been burned as an offering to the deity; at times the flesh has been consumed by the worshipers, while only the bones, the entrails, and the blood were offered to the deity. In some rituals the blood has been poured out on the earth; in others, care is taken to prevent this, lest the earth become surcharged with its sacred power. The reason why animal sacrifice is a part of all early religion is obscure. It is regarded by some as a gift to the gods of the most costly kind of food;' by others, as a meal in which the kinship or social bond between gods and men is renewed by both partaking of the flesh of a totemic victim akin to both;^ by still others its significance is found in the bursting forth of the victim's blood, the sight of which is supposed to appease the offended god.' Whatever the explanation of the practice of animal sacrifice may be, it is clear that all men have, at a certain stage of religious develop- ment, believed that through it they entered into renewed communion with their gods. When great danger has threatened a community, so that the deity has been ' So F. B. Jevons, Comparative Religion (Cambridge, 1913), p. 35- ' So W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (London, 1904), Lectures VI-XI. 'So S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion Today (New York, 1902), p. 216. THE RELIGIONS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES 13 thought to be estranged, the most costly victims have been offered in order to regain the aid of the god. Under such circumstances human sacrifices have been ofEered by peoples who had generally discarded the practice. Such was the case when at Marseilles a man was sacri- ficed to avert a pestilence;' among the Aztecs, when in the fifteenth century human sacrifices were offered to avert a famine f and among the ancient Moabites, when the king sacrificed his son to gain victory in war (II Kings, chap. 3). 20. Circumcision is a rite practiced in many parts of the world, though not by all peoples. It was employed by the ancient Egyptians, by the Semites, by many African tribes, by peoples of Australasia and Poljoiesia. Among some peoples both men and women were sub- jected to it. At times great religious significance is attached to it. For example, among the Hebrews it was interpreted as the sign of the covenant between the people and Yahweh (Jehovah) . The reason for the origin of the practice of circumcision is obscure. At times it has been explained as a sacrifice of a portion of the generative organs to the goddess of fertility in order to insure fertility; others have seen in the rite the sacrifice of a part of the individual instead of the whole ; while others explain it as a simple device to facilitate procreation. 21. Magic. — Side by side with early religions one finds magical practices, and there has been much dis- cussion as to whether magic originated before rehgion or whether it is a degenerate form of religion. In ' Jevons, Comparative Religion, p. 32. " Ihid., p. 33. 14 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD religion men appeal to higher powers to be gracious; they seek to gain the good will of gods by offerings and prayer; in magic they seek to force supernatural powers to do their will. There is in magic no reverence, but compulsion only. It is believed that the utterance of certain words or the performance of certain ceremonies compels spirits to do what men desire. It is impossible to tell whether religion or magic is the older; they may have been coeval. At all events, they have existed side by side in history. Possibly religion was the sponta- neous attitude of the earliest men toward spirits suffi- ciently powerful to excite fear, while magic was the contemporaneous human attitude toward lesser spirits. 22. Importance of primitive religion. — The reHgions of all the civilized nations had their root in the reUgion of an uncivilized people. As some of the material of a tree comes from the earth through its roots, though more comes from the air through the leaves, so civilized reUgions, however much they owe to the inspiration of great souls after the rise of civilization, owe something to the inheritance of the remote, uncivilized past. The behefs of primitive men are often unintelligent and their practices often revolting, but through them the way outward to the infinite was opened just a little. Each god represented to his worshipers in shadow, however faint, some rudimentary conception of the All- Father, and we need not doubt that through his worship there came to the worshiper in some degree the inspira- tion and courage that come from communion with God. The universal presence among uncivihzed men of religion of some sort is evidence that in no part of the world has God "left himself without a witness." THE RELIGIONS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES 15 SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sec. I : A. H. Keane, Man Past and Present (Cambridge, 1899), pp. 8-23. On sees. 2, 5: W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed. (Lon- don, 1894), pp. 15-20. On sec. 3: D. G. Brinton, The Religion of Primitive Peoples (New York, 1897), pp. i-ii. On sec. 4: C. H. Toy, Introduction to the History of Religions (New York, 1913), §§ 1-12. On sees. 6, 10: C. H. Toy, ibid., §§ 18-45. On sees. 7, 8: C. H. Toy, ibid., §§ 45-70. On sec. 9: The article "Animism" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, I, 535-37. On sec. 11: Toy, op. cit., §§ 635-70; or W. R. Smith, op. cit., pp. 28-48. On sec. 12: J. B. Jevons, An Introduction to the History of Religion, pp. 163-69. On see. 13 : Toy, op. cit., §§ 1091-94. On sees. 14, 15: G. A. Barton, A Sketch of Semitic Origins, Social and Religious (New York, 1902), chap, ui, or chaps, ii and iii. On sec. 16: Toy, op. cit., §§ 101-52. On see. 17: Toy, op. cit., §§ 581-624. On sec. 18: Toy, op. cit., §§ 542-59, or 422-559. On sec. 19: Toy, op. cit., §§ 1027-84; or Jevons, op. cit., chaps, xi and xii. On sec. 20: The article "Circumcision," in Hastings' Ency- clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, III, 659-80. On see. 21: Toy, op. cit., §§ 883-904. CLASS B D. G. Brinton, The Religions of Primitive Peoples (New York, 1897). CHAPTER II THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA The incantation of the bright Tigris, The binding of the bright Euphrates, The bright sceptre of Enki Prevents the destruction of man. O lord of darkness, protect man! O lord of Hght, protect man! O lord of the feast, protect man! O lord of the sanctuary, protect man! The lion is the chief terror; O divine lord, protect the little habitation! well of the mighty abyss, give protection! To Ninkharsag belongs demon-enchantment; Brilliant enchantment her hand created; Bada was opposed to her. "The house is bright," may she say! "The house is good," may she say! "A thing lofty, brightest of all," may she say! "Unspeakable with the brightness Of many cedar fires," may she say! O mother, briOiant goddess, come! Make the tall grain fertile! May thy might man's garden restore! O my mother, divine lady, is there no might with thee ? To expel the sickness from the land I cry mightily! In the fold may there be no demon! Sickness, fever, expel! — From the oldest known Babylonian religious text.' ' Written about 2800 b.c. See G. A. Barton, Miscellaneous Baby- lonian Religious Texts (in preparation), for the whole poem. 16 THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 17 O lady, with outpouring of heart I earnestly raise to thee my voice! How long ? O lady, to thy servant speak pardon, let thy heart be pacified! To thy servant who suffers pain grant favor! Thy neck turn to him! Receive his entreaty! Unto thy servant with whom thou art angry be favorable! — From a prayer to Ishtar of Agade. Unto the land of No-return, the land of darkness, To the house of darkness, the dwelling of Irkalla, Unto the house whose entrance has no exit. Along the way whose going has no return, To the house whose entrance is deprived of light. Where dust is their food, their sustenance clay, Light they do not see, in darkness they dwell. — From "Ishtar's Descent to the Lower World."' 23. Babylonia lay in the southern extremity of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, just north of the Persian Gulf. In it there developed one of the two oldest civilizations of the world. This civilization was produced by the mingling of two races, Semites from Arabia and the Sumerians from the mountains of the East. The racial affinities of the Sumerians have not yet been determined. The Semites wore long beards; the Sumerians shaved both their faces and their heads.^ Gods in ancient times were believed to be attached to the soil, and, when a new people entered the country, they felt com- pelled to seek the favor of the gods of the land.^ From ' See G. A. Barton, Archaeology and the Bible (Philadelphia, 1916), Part II, chap, xxiv, § 4, for the whole poem. " See Eduard Meyer, Sumerier und Semiten in Babylonien (Berlin, 1896). 'An example of this occurs in the Old Testament: II Kings 17:24-34. 1 8 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD these customs, reflected in their art, it is proved that the Semites were in the land before the coming of the Sumerians, for the beardless Sumerians picture their gods with Semitic beards! While the Semites were first in the land, the Sumerians were the inventors of Babylonian writing,' and/ apparently, of the higher elements of the civilization. 24. The Semitic background of the Babylonian religion is of fundamental importance. The Semites in Arabia, their cradle land, were compelled by the struggle for existence in that barren country to advance somewhat beyond most savages of that far-off time. They were nevertheless still savages. The world was to them animistic; they had, apparently, their totems, and their Uves were controlled by many taboos. On account of the poverty of the country, their social organization was matriarchal, and they imagined that the relations of their gods to one another resembled their own. Their chief deity was, therefore, a goddess, whom they called Athtar, or Ishtar, or Attar, or Astar, or Ashtar, or Ashtart, according to their various dialects.^ This name probably meant "the self-waterer"^ and was given to her because she was the spirit of the springs in the oases. This goddess had a son, who was the spirit of the vegetation that grew by the spring; or, more par- ticularly, he was the spirit of the date palm. The early Semitic name of this god has not survived. He is 'See G. A. Barton, The Origin and Development of Babylonian Writing (Leipzig, 1913). ' See G. A. Barton, A Sketch of Semitic Origins, Social and Religious, chap. iii. » See G. A. Barton, "The Etymology of Ishtar," Journal of the American Oriental Society, XXXI, 3SS~S8- THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 19 generally known as Tammuz, a late form of one of his Babylonian names. It is probable that along with this mother and son other spirits were more vaguely worshiped as her husbands — the spirit of the wind, of the moon, of the sun, etc. 25. The prehistoric period, ca. 5000-ca. 3200 B.C. — This period began with the infiltration of Semites into Babylonia. They came, apparently, from the south, settling first at Eridu, which was then at the head of the Persian Gulf, afterward founding Ur, Erech, and a group of four towns, Girsu, Nina, Erim,^ and Alu-ellu, "the bright city," which the Sumerians, translating into their language, called Uru-azagga. These four were afterward united into the city-state of Lagash. Each of these cities was at first the fortified residence of a tribe or part of a tribe. In the productive soil of Babylonia the matriarchal organization gave place to a patriarchal, and in course of time in many centers the goddess was superseded by a god. In some cases the god was the goddess herself masculinized. Such, for example, was Ningirsu, the chief deity of Lagash, whose name means "Lady of Girsu." At other times the son of the mother-goddess or one of her husbands was exalted to the chief place. This was the case at Erech, where Anu, the god of the sky, became her father, though in reahty he never displaced the goddess in the affections of the people. Sometimes, probably, she was displaced by a Sumerian deity, for the Sumerians moved into Babylonia long before the dawn of history, and it is impossible in most cases to disentangle the Sumerian and Semitic strands. ' See G. A. Barton, Semitic Origins, pp. 184-201. 20 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD The Sumerians founded Nippur, and perhaps Adab and Umma. They also overran the Semitic settlements. Perhaps there had been a Semitic settlement at Nippur, for Enhl, its god, whose name means "lord of spirits," is pictured with a beard, but the chief importance of that city was gained from the Sumerians. During the long prehistoric period these cities often fought and con- quered one another. When a city ruled the land, homage was paid to its god by all conquered cities. Meantime the local god was not neglected. It thus happened that, when written history begins, Enlil of Nippur, Enki (Ea) of Eridu, Anu and Ishtar (often called Nana) of Erech, were worshiped throughout the country. Each of these cities had for a time held sway. Before the end of this period another wave of Semitic migration had entered Northern Babylonia. The new immigrants occupied the cities of Agade and Kish, the gods of which were respectively Shamash (the sun-god) and Zamama. Either from this source or from some other the worship of the sun-god had spread over the country before written history begins. 26. The early Sumerian period, ca. 3200-ca. 2800 B.C. — During this period the chief rivalry was between kings of Lagash and kings of Kish, though other cities entered into the struggle also. At times Lagash was in the ascendant; at times Kish. Many local gods were worshiped and many demons feared. Enlil of Nippur (contracted later to EUil; also called Bel by Semites) was, however, worshiped by all. Kings of the south as well as kings of the north maintained that he gave them lordship over the land. Nippur must have been domi- nant over the whole land in prehistoric time long THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 21 enough for Enlil to become recognized as the divine suzerain of the whole country. Enhl had a spouse, Ninlil, who is also called the goddess Sir, or the serpent- goddess. Most of our inscriptions for this period come from Lagash; more is therefore known of its religion. From the reigns of the last tvro rulers of Lagash before the close of this period extensive lists of viands for con- sumption at the festivals of various gods have come down. In addition to Enhl and Enki (of Eridu) these rulers worshiped the deities" of their own fourfold city. There were, too, a number of other deities. Whether these were originally different, or whether they were different epithets of those just mentioned, it is often difficult to say. There was a tendency, however, to multiply god's by applying to known deities new names. In time the new name and the old were thought to designate different beings. At all events, the documents of this period present a bewildering perplexity of divine names. While we cannot explain all of these, it is clear that there were many deities, and that the number of these was increasing. Ninkharsag, "the lady of the mountain," a name brought from the East, was an epithet of Ninlil. Ningirsu, however, received the chief homage, and the government of the state was carried on as a theocracy in his name. At the sacri- ficial festivals, which seem to have been conducted mainly in the interest of the worshipers, large quantities ' Chief of these was Ningirsu, called in one inscription the Patesi, or priest-king, of the gods. Bau, goddess of Uru-azagga, Nina, goddess of the city NinS,, Ininni, goddess of Erim, and Lugal-Erim, her mascu- line counterpart, were also especially honored. 22 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD of beer, black beer, oil, milk, flour, fish, some kind of vegetable wine, and sheep were consumed. Lagash was a simple agricultural community. Its calendar was purely agricultural. The names of the months were derived in part from the feasts of the gods and in part from the agricultural work that fell in each month. Most of the months had more than one name; the month March-April, in which the largest number of agricultural activities were carried on, had as many as fifteen different names! Only one month-name was connected with a heavenly body. This month was named from the rising of a star, probably Sirius.' The heavenly bodies played as yet little part in Babylonian life and thought. As early as 2900 b.c. Enki was re- garded as the giver of intelligence — the god of wisdom. The religious life of Lagash is probably typical of that in other Babylonian cities in this period. Similarly organized worship was carried on at Eridu with the god Enki at its head; in Ur, where Nannar was the supreme deity; at Erech, where Nana-Ishtar and Anu were wor- shiped; at Nippur, the home of Enlil; at Kutha, whose chief god was Nergal; at ELish, the shrine of Zamama, and at other centers. 27. The first Akkadian period ca. 2800-ca. 2400 B.C. — ^After Lugalzaggisi of Umma, who overthrew Urkagina of Lagash, had enjoyed a brief period of supremacy, Sargon of Agade took the country. The chief deities of Umma were Shara and Nidaba; that of Agade, ' On the calendar of this period, see G. A. Barton, "Recent Research in the Sumerian Calendar," Journal of the American Oriental Society, XXXni, 1-9, and "Kugler's Criterion for Determining the Order of the Months in the Earliest Babylonian Calendar," ibid., pp. 297-305. THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 23 Shamash, the sun-god. During this period Babyloniaji armies reached the Mediterranean. After Agade had ruled for nearly two hundred years, a foreign dynasty from Gutium on the east held the land for 159 years. Each new djmasty brought in new gods, but the general features of the religion remained the same. With the domination of Agade the worship of Shamash, the sun- god, became more general. His consort, the water- goddess Ai, later known as Malkatu or "the Queen," emerged in this period. The moon-god, Enzu, also became prominent. The dynasty of Agade was a part of that branch of the Semitic race known as Amurru, or Amorites, whom we find in Syria and Palestine. It is not surprising, therefore, that under this dynasty two gods, afterward worshiped on the Mediterranean coast, appear in Babylonia. These are Adda, or Hadad, the god of wind and storms, and Dagon, the corn-god. Another new feature of the religion of this period is the deification of certain kings during their lifetime. Rimush and Naram-Sin were both honored as gods. Babylonian kings did not usually pretend to be divine. Why these two were so honored we cannot tell. Toward the end of this period, probably under the dynasty of Gutium, Ur-Bau and Gudea flourished as priest-kings at Lagash. Gudea built a palace, and both repaired the temple. Gudea placed a brazen sea in the temple as Solomon did at Jerusalem (I Kings 7:23-26). Both Ur-Bau and Gudea left inscriptions from which we discover the names of the gods of Lagash worshiped in their time. Some of the divine names of the earlier period have vanished, and several new ones appear, but none of these became permanently important. We 24 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD learn from the inscriptions of Gudea that Anu, Enlil (Bel), and Enki (Ea, who was regarded as the god of the deep) had been grouped in a triad. These gods repre- sented respectively the sky, the earth, and the sea. 28. The dynasties of Ur and Nisin, ca. 2400-ca. 2100 B.C., after a brief interval, followed the dynasty Gutium. The triumph of Ur was a triumph of the Sumerians. We begin in this period to meet the name Sumer for Southern Babylonia. North Babylonia was called Akkad, a corruption of Agade. With the triumph of Ur its god Nannar became prominent. A large number of new deities appear in the inscriptions of this period. Gula (derived from Bau by the use of an epi- thet) is one of these. Most of them are not important; Dungi, the second monarch of the dynasty of Ur, was deified and extensively worshiped in his lifetime. Bur- Sin and Gimil-Sin, his successors, were also regarded as gods. 29. The first dynasty of Babylon, about 2100 B.C., made the city of Babylon mistress of the country. This dynasty had arisen out of a new wave of Amoritic immigrants who had come into the country. The chief god of Babylon was Marduk, whose worship now became prominent, but the older deities were all honored too, especially the triad Anu, Bel, and Ea. Among the bewildering number of new divine names that came into use in this period there is one that was destined to play a great role in the later rehgion of Babylonia and Assyria. This was Nabu, god of Borsippa, opposite Babylon, who later became the god of eloquence and of writing. Frequent mention is made of the spirits of heaven and the spirits of earth. By this time greater THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 25 knowledge of the stars had also been attained. The goddess Ishtar had been identified with Dilbad, the star Venus, and apparently some rudimentary knowl- edge of the signs of the zodiac had been gained. 30. The Kassite dynasty, about 1750 B.C., came in from the East and occupied the throne of Babylon for 576 years. Barbarians at first, the Kassites soon assimilated Babylonian culture. They added little to Babylonian religion except a few barbarous divine names like that of their war-god, Shukamuna. Early in the Kassite period Sin, Shamash, and Ishtar, representing the moon, sun, and Venus, were grouped together as a triad. By this time the city of Lagash had been destroyed and its god, Ningirsu, known now as Ninib, was detached from his local origin and worshiped as a sun-god. 31. Assyria emerges from obscurity about 2100-2000 B.C. The dominant strain in its population was Semitic, derived partly from Babylonia and partly from the West. Recent discovery shows that Babylonian immi- grants went thither as early as 3000-2800 B.C. The national god of Assyria was Ashur, the deity of the city of Ashur, but from early times Anu and Adda were also worshiped there with him. Nineveh, later the capital, was founded by immigrants from Nina, a part of Lagash. They brought their goddess Nina with them, later calling her by her Semitic name Ishtar. Ishtar was also the chief deity of Arbela, another Assyrian city. The Ishtar of Arbela became a warrior goddess — the goddess of the bow. Assyria was the most warlike and ruthless of the ancient nations. Her kings boasted of impaling men and flaying them aHve. 26 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Their deities Ashur and Ishtar were accordingly cruel. The Assyrian kingdom lasted until 606 B.C. Through- out its history many Babylonian deities were wor- shiped, since Assyrians always looked up to the ancient divinities of their mother-country. 32. The neo-Babylonian empire, 625-538 B.C., added little to the reUgion of the country. In this period we find the triad Sin, Shamash, and Adad (the moon-, sun-, and the weather-god), as well as the triad Sin, Shamash, and Ishtar. The worship of a multitude of deities was maintained, but Marduk, Nabu, Ishtar, Shamash, and Sin were the most popular. After Babylon lost her independence the worship of local deities was in some places continued down to the Chris- tian era. 33. Monotheism was never attained or even ap- proached by the Babylonians. In the early time the nearest approach to a conception of unity was the for- mation of the triads, Anu, Bel, and Ea; and Sin, Shamash, and Ishtar. Perhaps in the latest period some priests went farther, for a neo-Babylonian litany reads: Ninib is the Marduk of might, Nergal is the Marduk of fight, Zamama is the Marduk of battle, Enlil is the Marduk of dominion, Nabu is the Marduk of superintendence ( ?) Sin is the Marduk of nocturnal light, Shamash is the Marduk of decisions, Adad is the Marduk of rain [etc.]. The author of this litany saw in the activities of these gods Marduk performing different functions, but there is no evidence that his view was shared by any con- THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 27 siderable number of people. Some of the gods kept many functions till the end. Some were gradually assigned more and more to special functions. Thus Ea (Enki) became in very early times the god of wisdom, a role that he maintained tiU the end. Shamash, the god of light, naturally became the god of justice, and Hammurapi before 2000 B.C. professes to have received from him the great code of laws. 34. Creation-myths. — In Babylonia and Assyria various creation myths were developed. One of the oldest assumes the existence of the earth and narrates the building of cities and the development of agriculture. Another, which is known only through a broken tablet written about 2100 B.C., attributes the creation of the world to the triad Anu, Bel, and Ea, together with the goddess Ninkharsag, while Nintu or Ishtar created mankind. The best known of these myths was in late Assjnrian and Babylonian times developed into an epic in seven tablets or cantos. The essence of this story is that Tiamatj the great mother-dragon of the sea, deter- mined to destroy the gods whom she had borne. They then chose one of their number, Marduk, to fight her; he overcame her, spht her in two, and formed of one part of her the heavens and of the other the earth. There is evidence that in substance this myth is very old and that, in earlier forms of it, EnUl of Nippur and Ea of Eridu had stood in place of Marduk. In still another creation-myth the god Ashur is the chief actor. Such a myth was the natural product of lower Babylonia, where, on account of the annual overflow of the rivers, the sea seems to come and try to overwhelm the land. 28 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD 35. Gilgamesh is a name around which another cycle of myths and legends clusters. These now form an epic in twelve tablets or cantos. Some of the myths come from that very early time when gods and men were thought to mingle freely together, others embody appar- ently bits of history, while still others reflect compara- tively advanced thoughts on death. One interesting passage tells of the creation of a primitive man by the goddess Aruru from a bit of clay taken from the ground. It is strikingly like the creation of man in Gen. 2:7. The whole epic is now arranged in twelve parts according to the signs of the zodiac, and is thought by some to be at bottom a sun-myth. The eleventh canto contains an account of the flood almost identical with that in the Bible.^ 36. Ishtar's Descent is the name of another mythical poem, which describes the underworld.^ A quotation from it stands at the head of this chapter. The myth, so far as it relates to the goddess, undoubtedly had its origin in the annual death of vegetation in the burn- ing sun of a Babylonian summer. The picture which it affords of life after death is most gloomy, but is not unlike that found in Isa. 14:9-11 and Ezek. 32:22-32. 37. Other myths relate to various matters. Two are concerned with the acquisition of knowledge on the part of man. According to one of these, preserved to us by Berossos, Cannes (a late name for Ea) was a fish-god who lived in the water at night, but came up by day and ' The tablets on which the Gilgamesh Epic and Ishtar's Descent are written come from the seventh century B.C., but both poems are probably much older. THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 29 taught men agriculture, horticulture, the art of building houses, and how to make laws. According to another, called the Adapa-myth, Ea feared lest man, who had become intelligent, should partake of the food of the gods and become immortal. At a time when Ea knew that other gods would offer Adapa such food he warned Adapa not to partake of it, lest it destroy him. Adapa obeyed Ea and thus missed immortahty. These myths reflect the feeling that, while the gods are willing to help man up to a certain point, they are Jealous of his too great advancement. Another myth relates how Etana, a shepherd king, after various adventures with a serpent and an eagle, essayed at last to mount to heaven on the back of an eagle. Still another myth relates how the ZM-bird broke the wing of the south wind. 38. Temples, built generally of brick, the common Babylonian building material, existed in Babylonia from the dawn of history. From the walls of some of them which have been discovered, it appears that they were elaborate structures built on brick terraces. They contained, besides the sanctuary for the chief deity, minor sanctuaries for other deities and extensive apartments for priests and temple attendants. To each temple was attached a ziggurat, or staged tower. This represented a mountain peak as Gudea's brazen sea represented the deep. The deities were represented by idols, and on festal days were carried in procession in "ships." It was a pious deed for a king to present a god with one of these "ships." 39. Priesthoods had developed in the preliistoric period. Later, elaborate liturgies were developed. As 30 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD time advanced, the duties of the priests were differ- entiated; some gave themselves to the ordinary duties of a priest, while others were set apart for the observance of omens, and still others for the recitation of the incan- tations which were supposed to drive out the demons of sickness. In connection with the temples there also existed men and women who represented the life-giving fimctions of the deity. It was their duty to have commerce with those who resorted to the temple for the cure of sterihty.' The Babylonian priesthood was the learned class. Among them the art of writing was kept ahve. Schools of instruction existed in the temples, from which some of the students' exercises have survived. Here men were trained, not only in mathematics and bookkeeping, which were necessary for the administration of the large temple estates, but in the religious literature. In the temples the hymns and myths were copied and preserved. 40. Divination as a means of ascertaining the future was practiced throughout Babylonian history. The earhest method mentioned was by pouring oil upon water. Skilled diviners were supposed to read the future in the shapes assumed by the oil. King Urkagina, before 2800 B.C., found it necessary to regulate the charges for such divination. A form of divination that became prominent under Sargon of Agade was the inspection of the markings on the liver of a sheep. In later time this developed into an extensive pseudo- science. From Babylonia it extended to the Etruscans and the West. Augury was practiced by watching the 'See G. A. Barton, " Hierodouloi (Semitic and Egyptian)" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, VI, 672-76. THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 31 flight of birds. Omens were also derived from unnatural and deformed births, both of animals and of human beings. In the late Assyrian and neo-Babylonian periods omens were drawn from the stars, and the pseudo-science of astrology was formed. It also spread to other countries, and is practiced to the present day even in our own land. It is difficult to tell whether some of these practices were more closely related to religion or to magic. 41. Incantations were extensively employed through- out Babylonian history for the cure of sickness. This is the more remarkable since medical knowledge had so far advanced before 2000 B.C. that the Code of Ham- murapi contained laws relating to medical practice. To the end, however, disease was regarded by the masses as a kind of demoniacal possession, and it was thought that by reciting incantations the demon could be driven out. A number of these incantations have survived. 42. Prayers and hymns employed in the temple service and in private devotions have also been pre- served. Some of them are beautiful in form, and, touchingly present the suppKant's sense of need and his cry for help. Some of the appeals remind one of parts of the Hebrew Psalter. 43. Sin and atonement. — The Babylonian sense of sin seems to have been simply a consciousness, brought on by misfortune, that some god or gods were angry and estranged. It does not appear to have had a marked ethical content. The main effort was to appease the divine anger, so as to remove the affliction. From the earliest times sacrifices were thought to accomplish this, but sacrifice was reinforced by pathetic personal 32 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD appeal and by intercession. In the penitential psalms one god or a group of gods is frequently called upon to intercede with the deity who is angry. About 2400 B.C. this intercessory idea found expression in a proper name. A man called his son Ningirsu-zidda-sagiSse- Nind4a, i.e., "Ningirsu brings the blessing from Nina." 44. Ethics. — The Babylonians developed at an early time a highly organized social and commercial life, which, as the Code of Hammurapi shows, was controlled on well-formulated principles of justice. All the con- tingencies of such a society, even those of commercial travelers, are provided for in a way that denotes a high degree of ethical feeling. The gods, although in the myths they sometimes lie to men and deceive them, were believed to demand ethical conduct of their wor- shipers, for in the code provision is frequently made for the employment of oaths as guaranties of obligations. In the general ethics of ordinary life the Babylonians were fully abreast of other nations. The Assyrians were more backward. Perhaps in private life they did not fall behind the Babylonians, but in war they were the most cruel of all the great nations of antiquity. 45. In general, the spirit of the Babylonian and Ass3n:ian religion is well summed up by the quotations at the head of this chapter. Their pantheon was a highly developed polydemonism. They lived in con- stant fear of the demons of floods, pestilence, and darkness. Some of their gods were good; they gave life and could protect it if they would; but sickness and misfortune, which were all too frequent, made the worshiper realize poignantly their estrangement. Hence the frequent and pathetic appeals for mercy. Then at THE RELIGION OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 33 the end came death, inscrutable mystery, and ruthlessly swept man into a most cheerless underworld! Acute as the Babylonians were in working out the initial problems of agriculture, social organization, mathematics, and astronomy, they produced in the entire course of their history no great prophetic or philosophic soul. Their religion remained, therefore, to the end a religion of grown-up children. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sec. 24: either L. B. Paton, "Ishtar'' in Hastings' Ency- clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, VII, 428-34; or G. A. Barton, Sketch of Semitic Origins, chap. iii. On sees. 25-33: R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (New York, 1908), pp. 49-98; or M. Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (New York, 1898), pp. 48-234, or Aspects of Religious Belief in Babylonia and Assyria (New York, 1911), pp. 143-206. On sec. 34: either L. W. King, The Seven Tablets of Creation (London, 1902), pp. 1-155; or R. W. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament flSfew York, 1912), pp. 1-60, or Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (New York, 1908), chap, ui; or R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature (New York, 1901) , pp. 282-303 ; or G. A. Barton, Archaeology and the Bible (Philadelphia, 1915), Part II, chaps, i-viii. Chapter viii of the last-mentioned work contains material not found in the other books. On sec. 35: R. F. Harper, op. cit., 324-68; or M. Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (New York, 1898), pp. 467-517- On sec. 36: R. W. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Tes- tament, pp. 121-31; or G. A. Barton, Archaeology and the Bible, Part II, chap, xxiv, §4; or M. Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 556-611. 34 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD On sec. 37: R. F. Harper, op. cit., pp. 304-23. On sees. 38, 39: Jastrow, Religion, etc., pp. 612-89, or Aspects of Religious Belief, etc., pp. 265-350. On sec. 40: L. W. King, History of Sumer and Akkad (London, 1910), pp. 183 ff.; Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief, etc., pp. 143-255, and Babylonian-Assyrian Birth-Omens and Their Cultural Significance (Giessen, 1914), pp. 1-41. On sec. 41: Jastrow, Religion, etc., pp. 253-93. On sees. 42,43: R. W. Rogers, Religion, etc., pp. 142-84; or Jastrow, Religion, etc., pp. 294-327. On sec. 44: Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief, etc., pp. SS1-41&. CLASS B G. F. Moore, History of Religions, I (New York, 1913), chap. x. CHAPTER III THE RELIGION OF EGYPT King Unis is one who eats men and lives on gods. It is "Punisher-of -all-evil-doers" Who stabs them for king Unis; He takes out for him their entrails. Shemsu cuts them up for king Unis And cooks for him a portion of them. He has taken the hearts of the gods; He has eaten the Red, He has swallowed the Green. King Unis is nourished on satisfied organs, He is satisfied, living on their hearts and their charms. He hath swallowed the knowledge of every god.' — From a pyramid text of the Fifth Dynasty. If thou art the son of a man of the coimcil .... be not partial. If thou becomest great after thou wert little, and gettest possessions after thou wert formerly poor in the city, .... be not proud-hearted because of thy wealth. It has come to thee as the gift of the god. If thou searchest the character of a friend, .... transact the matter with him when he is alone. Let thy face be bright as long as thou livest. — From the precepts of Ptahhotep.' ' Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Eygpi (New York, 19 12), pp. 127!. ' Breasted, ibid., pp. 234 f . 3S 36 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Thou, O Amon, art lord of the silent, Who Cometh at the cry of the poor. When I cry to thee in my affliction. Then thou comest and savest me. That thou mayest give breath to him who is bowed down, And mayest save me lying in bondage. Thou, Amon-Re, lord of Thebes, art he. Who saveth him that is in the Nether World, When men cry unto thee, Thou art he that cometh from afar. — From a hymn of the Empire period.' 46. Egypt is unique among the countries of the world for its form and its isolation. Created by the river Nile as a narrow strip of green out of the barren and almost trackless deserts which bound it on either side, Egypt was long isolated. Here she worked out alone the problems of civilization centuries before she was drawn by the impact of foreign invasion into the whirl- pool of world-affairs. We have no positive knowledge concerning the sav- ages who may have occupied the Nile Valley before it was settled by the ancestors of the Egyptians. We only know that about 5000 b.c. or earlier forty-two tribes, most of whom seem to have belonged to the Hamitic branch of the Hamito-Semitic race, settled there.^ 47. The prehistoric period, ca. 5000-ca. 3400^ B.C. — During the first part of this period each tribe seems to ' Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, P-35I- "See G. A. Barton, A Sketch of Semitic Origins, Social and Religious, chap, i; "Tammuz and Osiris," Journal of the American Oriental Society, XXXV, 213-23. 3 For a discussion of Egyptian chronology, see Breasted, Ancient Rec- ords, Egypt, I, 25 fi.; or Barton, Archaeology and the Bible, chap, i, § 5. THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 37 have been independent. Each had its separate god, and, hke many other early tribes, they appear to have been henotheists. At this period there seems to have been a different totem for each tribe, although the relation of animals to their rehgious and social organiza- tion does not conform altogether to the laws of totemism as formulated from the study of its features in other parts of the world/ Nevertheless in each Egyptian nome^ or tribe an animal or a bird was so closely asso- ciated with the god that it was thought to be sacred to the deity, and the god was often represented in the form of the totem. Thus Amen of Thebes was repre- sented by the ram, Ptah of Memphis by the bull, Atum of Heliopolis by the lion, Bastet of Bubastis by the cat, Har-khent-kheti of Athribis by the serpent, Harshef of Akhnas by a ram, Hathor of Denderah by the cow, Khnum of Elephantine by the goat, Khons of Thebes by the sparrow hawk, Min of Koptos by an ithy- phallic man, Mut of Thebes by the vulture, Nekhbet of El-Kab by the vulture, Opet, a goddess of childbirth in Thebes, by a pregnant hippopotamus, Osiris of Busiris and Abydos by a pecuhar post which seems to have been a conventionalized palm tree, Horus of Edfu by the sparrow hawk. Set of Ombos by the ass, Shu of LeontopoKs by the lion, Sobk of the Fayum by the crocodile, Thoth of Hermopohs by the ibis and baboon, Wto of Buto by the serpent, and Wep-wat of Siut by the wolf. Such information as we have comes from ' Cf. C. H. Toy, Inlroduciion to the History of Religions, §§ 515-21. ^"Nome" is the word applied by Greek writers to the different divisions or " counties " of ancient Egypt, each one of which was originally occupied by a different tribe. 38 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD later times, and while we cannot trace the animal which was sacred in every nome, we can trace so many that the inference is justified that every tribe had its sacred animal or plant. In some nomes more than one animal was sacred. This may indicate that in the lapse of centuries war and invasion created in such cases a mixture of different tribes. This association of animals with Egyptian gods was so long continued, and their civilization crystallized sacred customs at a time so early, that the animal representations of the deities continued down to Roman times. The physical environment of the Hamitic tribes in North Africa was so similar to that of the Semitic tribes in Asia that the power to produce life appeared to these tribes, as to the Semites, to be an especially divine quaUty. There is reason to beheve that the larger number of Egyptian gods were at the beginning gods of fertility. The most popular of these deities of fertility in later times was Osiris and his sister-wife, Isis. Isis was a mother-goddess and is pictured nursing a child- god in the reed lands.^ Though the myths of Osiris make her prominent, she seems herself to have become popular in actual worship only in late times. On some of the pottery found in pre-dynastic tombs it appears that standards were attached to different boats, some of which were in animal form. Whether these were private emblems or were the banners of ' See Erman, Aegyptische Religion, 2te Aufl. (Berlin, 1909), p. 40. The writer has stated above his own view of the god Osiris, but opinions differ. According to some scholars he is Tammuz or Marduk, borrowed from Babylonia or from the Semites, and given another name. According to Frazer, Adonis, Atlis, Osiris (London, 1914), he is a corn-god. THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 39 different tribes, we have no means of knowing.^ Little by little through many wars these tribes were united into two kingdoms. The territory from near the first cataract to the apex of the Delta formed the kingdom of Upper Egypt, the region of the Delta formed that of Lower Egypt. These two kingdoms existed side by side for several centuries, or at all events for a time so long that to the end of Egj^Jtian history Egypt was called the two kingdoms or the two Egypts. Like Austria-Hungary it was a dual monarchy. The names of a few kings who reigned before the union of these two kingdoms have survived on the Palermo stone.^ As in Babylonia, the victory of one city over another led to some measure of worship being given by the conquered to the god of the conquerors. The deity of the nome whose chieftain ruled the kingdom was wor- shiped in all the nomes composing the realm along with the local gods. Thus the worship of some gods tended to become universal in the country, and a syncretism began which in the end created pantheons. At some time, while the two kingdoms were separate. Set, the god of Ombos, was regarded as the god of Upper Egypt, and Horus of Behdet the god of Lower Egypt. A war occurred between the two realms in which Lower Egypt was victorious. Horus was said to have triumphed over Set. In later generations the political circum- stances were forgotten, though the myth of the strife remained, and the priests of later centuries, assigning to ' See E. A. W. Budge, History of Egypt (Oxford University Press, 1902), I, 78. ' See Breasted, Ancient Records, Egypt, I, 57. 40 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Horus the functions of light and to Set those of darkness, read deeper meanings into the myth of this conflict.'' 48. The archaic period, ca. 3400-ca. 3000 B.C. — About 3400 B.C. the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt were united into one monarchy by Mena, or Menes, and that period began which Manetho covered in his chronicle. This writer divided the time from Mena to Alexander the Great into thirty-one dynasties. The archaic period covers the time of the first two dynasties, both of which came from the nome of This in Upper Egypt, the chief city of which was Abydos. The original god of This was Enhor, but in some way that is now obscure the worship of Osiris, the god of Busiris in the Delta, had become popular at Abydos. Perhaps a colony from Busiris had settled in Abydos. The long supremacy of the nome of This under the first two dynasties gave to the worship of Osiris as the most popular god of This a vogue in all parts of Egypt which the theories of later ages tended to heighten. Mena chose the city of Memphis, near the borders of the two kingdoms that he had united, as an administrative center. This fact tended to bring into prominence Ptah, the god of Memphis. During this period a great advance in the conception of the divine appears to have been made. Images of the gods began to be represented in human form. This was a distract advance over the animal forms of the earlier time. The older ideas were still expressed, however, by giving to the statue of the god the head of the animal that represented that particular deity. Thus originated ' Cf. G. Steindorf, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (New York, 1905). P- 3°- THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 41 divine images, the bodies of which were in human form, while the heads were those of animals or birds. During this period and the preceding the king, through the evolution of an absolute government, came to stand entirely apart from the people. In an animistic stage of society any man who rises above his fellows by the exercise of superior ability is supposed to be possessed of a more divine spirit than the common crowd. It thus came about very naturally that the kings were now regarded as gods. 49. The Old Kingdom, ca. 3000-ca. 247s B.C.— This includes Dynasties III, IV, V, and VI. It is the period in which the long processes through which Egypt's civilization had been developing reached their first culmination. It was the age of pyramid-builders. In it the great pjTamids came into existence. DjTiasties III and IV were attached to Memphis, and Memphis was the capital of the country throughout the period. The political supremacy of his city tended to increase the importance of the worship of the god Ptah in all parts of Egypt. The Fifth Dynasty came from the family of the priesthood of On (Gen. 41:45), called Heliopolis by the Greeks. At On, Atum had by this time been identified with the sun and was often called Re, the Egyptian word for the sun. The ascendency of this priestly family in- the Fifth Dynasty gave Re a degree of universal homage in all parts of Egypt that he never afterward lost. In this period the sky was sometimes represented as a gigantic cow, whose legs stood upon either horizon, and whose belly was studded with stars. Sometimes the sky was pictured as a woman, whose feet stood upon 42 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD one horizon, and who stooped so that her fingers touched the other.' It was thus that the mother-goddesses of the earlier time began to be transferred to the sky. The long-continued existence of Egypt under one ruler produced in this period in the minds of the more thoughtful a sense of the unity of the world. It began to seem anomalous that there should be so many deities. This difficulty was met in part by the assignment of different functions to different deities — Geb became a sky-god; Nut, the earth-goddess; Shu, the god of the air, etc. To some degree the end was also sought by grouping the gods in families of father, mother, and son. At On the priesthood had, before the end of the Old Kingdom, taken another step and formed a group o nine affiliated gods, called by the Greeks an ennead. The scheme of this ennead was as follows : Atum-Re Shu i Tefnut Geb ^Nut Osiris-Isis Set-Nephthys This ennead was imitated all over Egypt, but ancient conceptions were too deeply ingrained and the gods were too numerous to permit the movement toward a unitary conception to make much progress. In the tomb of Unis, the last king of the Fifth Dynasty, and in the tombs of the kings of the Sixth " See Breasted, History of Egypt, 2d ed., p. 55. THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 43 Dynasty, religious texts were inscribed. These texts are the oldest literary remains which we have from Egypt. They consist of sentences which depict in various forms the fortunes of the king after death. These fortunes are described in the terms of fortunes of the god Osiris."^ It is assumed that the king will become an Osiris. Osiris was a vegetation god (origi- nally a palm-tree god?) Hke the Semitic Tammuz. Like Tammuz he had a mother, Isis. As Ishtar later became the wife of Tammuz, so Isis became the wife of Osiris. As a god of vegetation Osiris, like Tammuz, died, and Isis, like Ishtar, mourned for him. The myth, as time passed, took on many features, but the feature of importance here is that Osiris rose from the dead, a.nd before the pjrramid texts were written it was supposed that he was translated after the resurrec- tion to a place in the sky along with the sun and other heavenly bodies. Ordinarily the dead were supposed to pass a miserable existence in an underworld, but the king, as a god, was to escape from this and, like Osiris, to be translated to a heavenly paradise. The paradise portrayed in these texts was of a peculiarly material sort. Although at times the king is represented as soaring through the heavens like the god Re, his paradise has a tree of life growing in its midst, from which at times the king feeds. This tree of hfe is probably a surviva from the date palm of the primitive North African and Arabian desert, which furnished to both Semites and Hamites their conception ■ See Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, Lecture V. 44 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD of the tree of life/ But the king is not always confined to this. Upon his arrival in paradise he was thought to be an infant in the heavenly realm, so the sky-goddess extended to him her breasts to suckle him.^ Later he was provided with a feast which consisted of viands such as men were fond of on earth — a thousand of bread, a thousand of beer, a thousand of oxen, a thousand of geese, a thousand of everything whereon the god lives.^ He was also provided with a mistress, and is described as the man who takes women from their husbands whither he wiUs, and when his heart* desires. He is even represented as pursuing those cannibal practices which the savage Egyptians of an earher time had employed, by which they hoped to absorb the brave quaHties of their enemies. He is said to eat other gods, so as to swallow the knowledge and power of every god.^ 50. The Middle Kingdom. — Strictly speaking, the Middle Kingdom comprises the Eleventh and Twelfth djmasties, 2 160-1792 B.C., but in classifying the stages of religious development it may be said to begin with the fall of the Sixth Dynasty in 2475 B.C. From the accession of the Fifth D3aiasty onward the tendency of social evolution was away from the absolutism that had culminated in the power of the pyramid-builders. The organization of the Sixth Dynasty was thoroughly feudal, and upon its fall Egypt appears for a time to ' Barton, Semitic Origins, pp. 88-96. ' Breasted, op cit., p. 130. 3 Ibid., p. 132. * Ibid., p. 177. s See quotation at the beginning of this chapter. THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 45 have fallen into its original parts. The later organization of society under Dynasties IX, X, XI, and XII was thoroughly feudal, and this change left its mark upon the religious conceptions of the time. With the accession of the Eleventh Dynasty the nome of Thebes became the dominant nome in Egypt, a position which it held for more than a thousand years.- This gave to Amon, the god of that nome, a position of reverence in all parts of Egypt similar to that attained at an earlier time by Osiris, Ptah, and Re, though none of the others ever attained the popularity of Osiris. The most striking religious development of the Middle Kingdom was the emergence into prominence of the common man. A series of writings from this period shows the development of a sensitive social con- science and of an advanced system of ethics. The social conscience appears in such compositions as the popu- lar story of the "Eloquent Peasant,'" in which the grievances and rights of a poor man are so effectively set forth that a noble and a king do justice to him, and in the admonitions of a sage, Ipuwer, who mourns the unjust social conditions of his age, and, in the opinion of some, refers to an ideal king, a kind of Messiah, who was to come.^ Of a similar social nature is a work ' Students who read German should consult F. Vogelsang and Alan H. Gardiner, Die Klagen des Bauern (Leipzig, 1908), which contains the best translation of it into a modern language. Those who do not should consvilt Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 217 fE.; G. A. Barton, Archaeology and the Bible, Part II, chap, xxiv; or Petrie, Egyptian Tales, First Series, pp. 61 ff. ' See Breasted, Development 0} Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 203 ff., especially p. 212, note. The whole work is trans- lated in Alan H. Gardiner's Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage (Leipzig, 1909). 46 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD embodying instructions to a vizier.' The ethical ideals of the time are set forth in the Wisdom of Ptahhotep, who gave instruction that in many respects reminds one of the Book of Proverbs."" The age was one of reflection. The glad chUdhood of Egypt had passed. Skepticism and misanthropy had begun to prevail in some circles as "The Dialogue of a Misanthrope with His Own Soul" proves.' Another testimony to the importance now attached to the common people is shown in the changed conceptions of the life after death. In the old kingdom it was only the kings who ascended to heaven like Osiris; now it was thought to be the destiny of the common man as well." 51. The Early Empire period, 1580-1375 B.C. — In the period between the Middle Kingdom and the Empire, Egypt was subject for a hundred years to con- querors from Asia, commonly known as the Hyksos. The effort to expel these, and so to conquer Asia as to keep them out of Egypt, led to the building up of the Empire. In this struggle the local nobiUty, who had for several hundred years restrained the power of the king, were killed off, and the king emerged with power as absolute as of old. Nevertheless the hterary products of the earlier period, in which the social con- science of that time found expression, were read and ' See Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 240-43. "Breasted, ihid., pp. 227-37; ^^^ Barton, Archaeology . and the Bible, Part II, chap. xxii. .;4i 3 Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 188-98. * Breasted, ibid.. Lecture VIII. THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 47 treasured. The victories of the kings in Asia tended to increase the glory of Amon, god of Thebes. Beginning with Thothtnes III large quantities of booty were con- tributed to his temple. This increased the wealth and importance of his priesthood. Indeed Thothmes III had been a member of the priesthood of Amon before he came to the throne and had secured the throne through a coup planned and executed by that priest- hood. He accordingly paid his poUtical debts by making the high priest of Amon primate of Egypt — a step which resulted in long making Thebes the religious capital of the country. The new imperial power was accompanied by a new tendency toward a unitary con- ception of the universe. In the reign of Amenophis III two brothers, architects, inscribed in a tomb a hymn to Amon as the sun-god, that speaks of him as the only lord of the world. He is called: Sole lord taldng captive aU lands every day, When he enfolds them Every land is in rejoicing At his rising every day, in order to praise him.' 52. The reform of Ikhnaton, 1375-1350 B.C. — This monotheistic tendency culminated in the reign of Amenophis IV, who preferred to be called Ikhnaton, or "Spirit of Aton." This king was a religious enthusiast rather than a politician. He looked about for some deity that alone could be worshiped. The time had not come in the development of the human mind when men could get away from material things and think of a ' See Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 315 2-, for the entire hymn. 48 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD really spiritual deity. Ikhnaton accordingly selected the sun disk as his one god. Amon, as we have just seen, was identified with the sun, but the name of Amon was really bound up with the old polytheism. Re of On was also a sun-deity who had long been wor- shiped throughout Egypt, but Ikhnaton felt the same objection to him. He selected a different name, Aton, for his god, and employed all his imperial power to compel men to worship him. The priesthoods of the old cults were, however, strong, and the priests of Amon at Thebes so thwarted the king's power that he soon left Thebes and founded a new city as his capital. This city was about midway between Thebes and Memphis on the site of the modern Tell-el-Amarna. The new city was called Akhetaton, or "Horizon of Aton." Here a temple to Aton was constructed and the whole city given over to his worship, and here the king composed h3anns to Aton, the one god, some of the strains of which remind one of the Hebrew Psalter.' Ikhnaton used his regal power to extend the worship of Aton and the new monotheism. Temples of this deity were planted in distant Nubia and elsewhere. So absorbed was Ikhnaton in this work that he permitted the dominions of Eg)^t in Asia to fall into a state of anarchy and ultimately to become separated from Egypt. Egypt was not prepared for such a reform as Ikhnaton's, and one of the early successors of Ikhnaton was compelled to abandon it, return the royal resi- dence to Thebes, and restore the god Amon to his old place. ' See Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 324 ff- THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 49 53. The Later Empire period, 1350-1167 B.C. — ^A reform that fails leaves matters in worse condition than before, and after Ikhnaton the rehgion of Egypt as a whole settled down to a repetition of ancient ceremonies and the acceptance of old ideas. In the inscriptions from the tombs of Thebes, where the common people now received such burial as had formerly been accorded to kings, and where they died in hope of a resurrection like that of Osiris, we can trace for a century or two a development of marked personal piety/ Under Seti I and Ramses II the Asiatic empire was renewed, and before the end of this period contact with Asia led to the introduction here and there of Asiatic deities, such as Baal, Resheph, Anath, and Ashtart. These foreign cults, however, made no deep impression upon the rehgion of Egypt as a whole. 54. Period of decadence and foreign control, 1167- 31 B.C. — The centuries that followed the Empire were centuries of decadence. Various changes occurred, but they could hardly be called advances. In this period great attention was given to old and obscure forms. Care was taken to preserve the bodies of the sacred animals. We hear of tombs for the Apis buUs at Mem- phis as early as the Eighteenth Dynasty, but in the Per- sian and Hellenic periods extensive cemeteries of other sacred animals were supported. The Serapeum at Memphis contained the mummies of more than sixty bulls, the last one found having been buried after 100 B.C. Similar cemeteries for bulls existed at On and Hermonthis, for rams at Mendes, for cats at Bubastis and Beni Hasan, for crocodiles at Lake Moeris, for ' See Breasted, ibid.. Lecture X. so THE RELIGIONS_^OF THE WORLD falcons at Buto, and for ibises at Eshmunen. Such numbers of mummified cats have been found at Beni Hasan that modern enterprise has employed them as fertilizer! At the beginning of this period we learn from the Papyrus Harris that about one person in every fifty in Egypt was a slave to some temple. In other words, the temples owned about 2 per cent of the population. They also owned about 14I per cent of the cultivatable land of the country, and enormous flocks and herds and treasure in proportion.' By far the larger share of these vast possessions was in the hands of the priest- hood of Amon. The immense power thus acquired by this priesthood led before the end of the Twentieth Dynasty to an assumption of authority on the part of the high priest of Amon almost equal to that of the king, and at the beginning of the Twenty-first Dynasty the high priest Hrihor seized the crown. During the reigns that followed the king usually resided at Tanis in the Delta, and the high priest was a son or brother of the monarch and viceroy of the southern third of Egypt. Under the Nubian kings of the Twenty- fifth Dynasty the sisters and daughters of the monarchs fiUed this of&ce. Apparently these kings thought that the best means of controlling the powerful priesthood of Thebes was to have a woman at its head! From 663 to 525 B.C., after three centuries of control by foreign dynasties, Egypt once more enjoyed the rule of native kings. This period was accompanied by a great revival of national feeling, but in religion it was not a creative period. The ceremonies and texts of 'See Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 491. THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 51 the Old Kingdom were revived, assiduously studied, and an attempt was made to galvanize them into life, but it was not a reUgious r^evival in the deeper sense of the word. Under the Hellenic kings after 306 B.C. the god Osiris as Osiris-Apis or Serapis triumphed over the solar gods Re and Amon and became the most popular deity of Egypt. This position he retained until over- whelmeH by Christianity. Isis also received in this period a greater degree of adoration than ever, and in Roman times became the center of a cult practiced by many non-Egyptians. 55. Priesthood and cult. — The priesthood of the Egyptian temples was, as in other countries, gradually evolved from the chieftains and medicine men of the earHer time. The stages of the evolution are involved in obscurity. As finally organized the priesthoods con- sisted of various classes of priests, prophets, etc., to whom different duties were assigned. These derived their whole living from the temple and its revenues. They were subject to many minute rules of ceremonial purity, which prescribed how they should bathe, shave, dress, and what they should eat. To some were assigned the duties of awakening the god, making his toilet, and feeding him. Greek writers tell of festivals at which priests acted out the m)^hs of the gods. At some of the temples (probably at all) schools existed for the instruction of candidates for the priesthood in the mysteries of their work and the culture of their time. 56. Sacrifice. — In the earliest times the sacrifices consisted mainly of gazelles, antelopes, and wild goats, the flesh of which was most often employed by men as food. 52 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD The meat was offered partly raw and partly cooked.' When cooked, it was brought forward on metal braziers. Probably the use of fire is of later development than the uncooked offering. Herodotus bears witness to the continuance of the burnt offerings down to the fifth century B.C. According to him the head of the victim was cut off and imprecations were pronounced over it, after which it was thrown into the river or sold to Greeks. The ritual in other respects varied in different places, but the sacrifice to one of the principal goddesses consisted, he says, of bullocks. These were flayed, the intestines removed, though the vitals and fat were left in the body. The priests then cut off the legs, the extremity of the hips, the shoulders, and neck, after which they filled the trunk with fine bread, honey, raisins, figs, incense, myrrh, and other perfumes. Having poured oil over the whole, they burned it.^ Apart from such offerings the priests prepared for the gods at meal-time food consisting of bread, meat, cakes, and pastry.^ At their festivals great quantities of food and wine were also consumed.'' 57. Magic. — As in other ancient countries magic developed in Eg3^t at an early date. It appears to have been fairly well advanced by the time of the Old Kingdom. As in Babylonia it attached itself to the cure of disease. In later time it connected itself with the burial of the dead, and magic formulae, often sentences from the book of the dead, were written on 'See Erman, Aegyptische Religion, 2te Aufl. (Berlin, 1909), pp.SSfE. 'Herodotus ii. 39. ^Erman, op. cit., pp. 60 ff. * Herodotus ii. 60. THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 53 the inside of the coffins in order to ward off from the departed evil spirits which would block their way. When these became too numerous for the inside of the coffin, they were inscribed on rolls of papyrus. Such superstitions hindered the best development of religion, and Ikhnaton prohibited them during his reign. After him they were again revived.' 58. The ka and the soul. — ^According to Egyptian belief each person possessed a ka given to him by a god at his birth. As long as he was master of this ka he lived. The ka was invisible, but it was assumed to have an appearance exactly like the body in which it dwelt. At death the ka left the body, but it was hoped that it would occasionally visit and reanimate the form in which it had dwelt so long. It was for the ka that food was so carefully placed in the tomb, and that such care was taken to preserve the body.^ Besides the ka each person was thought to have a bai or soul, which could be seen, and which also left the body at death. This was often conceived to exist in the form of a bird, and it was thought that, while the mourners were lamenting the departed, he might be sitting among the birds of a neighboring tree watching them. This conception con- tinued into Christian times, for in Christian cemeteries in Nubia the souls of the departed in the form of stone birds are found perched on the gravestones. 59. Life after death.— Interest in the hfe after death was developed among the Egyptians to a higher degree " See Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. loi ff., 175, 249 S., 369 ff., 390, 4S9, and 498. ' Professor Breasted thinks the ka simply awaited a man in the hereafter, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, p. 52. 54 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD than among any other ancient people. Probably it is in part due to the development of their civilization at a time so early that the mind of man could not dis- entangle its thoughts from the physical that the preser- vation of the body was considered essential to the life after death. Every effort was accordingly made to preserve the body, and the art of mummification was evolved. As to the life after death itself, it is probable that at the beginning different conceptions prevailed in different parts of Egypt. At the beginning, however, all Egyptians thought of the dead as having an earthly abode. As time passed this abode was, in the thought of many, through the influence of the Osiris-myths, transferred to the sky. Side by side with this last conception some of the older ones survived. The life of the departed was, according to the most widely accepted view, but a continuance of the life on earth. The child remained a child and the old man remained an old man. The same social organization existed, and the same joys and physical needs of food. In the earliest time the dweUing-place of the dead was supposed to be the sands of the desert, generally to the west of the cities, where the cemeteries were situated.^ According to another conception, which apparently originated in some par- ticular part of Egypt, the dead Hved in a lower world, which, Uke Egypt, was a narrow land bounded by deserts through which a river flowed. This land was dark by day, but was visited by the sun at night.^ The conception that the dead were taken up to ' See Steindorf, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (New York, 1905), pp. 1 16-19. ' Steindorf, ibid., pp. 126 flf. THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 55 heaven became the popular one in later times. The earliest literary witnesses to it are the p3nramid texts, where its blessings are confined to kings. As in later time it became more democratic, other expressions of faith in it were committed to writing, sometimes on cofiins, sometimes on papyri. In the Empire period and the revival of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty efforts were made to collect these, but no collection embraces them all. This body of Hterature is known as the Book of the Dead.' While it is mainly devoted to the Osirian conception of the hereafter, older views also often find expression. It is a confused and repetitious mass of material, but is a powerful witness to the ancient Egyptian yearning for immortality. 60. Myths. — ^The Egyptians appear to have had a considerable number of myths about their gods. There are in the Book of the Dead and other rehgious texts many allusions to such myths. Comparatively few of these have survived. The most popular of those which we know was the myth of the death and resiir- rection of Osiris, which played such an important part in the development of the conception of the hereafter, and of which some description has already been given." Another popular myth told how the goddess Isis learned the secret name of Re. This myth seems to have circulated among magicians. Still another told how, when Re had grown old and feeble, his authority was despised. Men conspired against him as they might against an old Pharaoh who had outlived his vigor. Re ' See E. A. W. Budge, The Book of tUe Dead, 11 (London, 1898). This volume contains a translation of the various texts. Vol. I is occupied with the Egyptian text, and Vol. Ill with an Egyptian glossary. ' See above, sec. 50. 56 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD in anger sent the fierce lion-headed goddess Sekhmet to devour them, and she executed her task, so well that mankind was in danger of complete destruction. The problem then became how to induce the goddess, who had once tasted blood, to desist. This Re accomplished by making seven thousand jars of beer look like blood, so that the goddess drank herself drunk on these, and the remnant of the human race escaped. Egypt had no story of the flood. The overflow of the Nile was there not an evil, but the greatest blessing. 6i. Ethics. — The thought of the Egyptian people, though in some domains always of a peculiarly elemen- tary character, achieved its greatest triumphs in the realm of ethics. Civilization developed at too early a date to permit the acceptance of an advanced system of religious thought. To the end animal-worship, together with a confused mass of gods and myths about the hereafter, perpetuated certain primitive conceptions. The realm of reUgious theory was in Egypt always occupied by a chaos of contradictory views. The Egyptians, like the Babylonians and Chinese, were an exceedingly practical people. They worked out for the human race, as did the Babylonians, many of the initial problems of civilization. In ethical thought, too, they did yeoman service. The precepts of Ptah- hotep and the admonitions of Ipuwer take high rank. Ptahhotep's precepts are, like the bibhcal Book of Proverbs, eminently practical, but they also betray deep insight into human nature and the exigencies of practical life. The expressions of a social conscience which come from the Middle Kingdom are also evidence of advanced ethical thought. No doubt practice lagged THE RELIGION OF EGYPT 57 behind theory, but it is to Egypt's credit that her sages were able to formulate such lofty theories of conduct. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On Egyptian history: cf. Barton, Archaeology and the Bible, chap. I ; or better. Breasted, A History of the Ancient Egyptians (New York, 1908) ; or better still. Breasted, History of Egypt, 2d ed. (New York, 1909). On sees. 47, 48: cf. Barton, "Tammuz and Osiris," Journal of the American Oriental Society, XXXV, 213-23; and Breasted, History of Egypt, 2d ed., chap, iii, or Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, Lecture I. On sec. 49 : cf . Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt (New York, 1912), Lectures II-V. On sec. 50: cf. Breasted, op. cit., Lecture VIII. On sees. 51-54: cf. Breasted, ibid., Lectures IX and X. On sec. 55: cf. Herodotus, Book ii. 37; and Breasted, History of Egypt, 2d ed., pp. 62-63, 171, 24i> 247, 249 ff., 272, 362, 401-3, 475, 489-97, S06 ff-, 520-28, 574-96. On sec. 56: cf. Herodotus, Book ii. 39-41; and Erman, Hand- book of Egyptian Religion, 1907, chap. vi. On sec. 58: cf. Steindorf, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, pp. 106-13. On sec. 59: cf. Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, Lectures II-VIII; and E. A. W. Budge, The JBook of the Dead, II, passim; also Steindorf, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, pp. 114-37. On sec. 59: cf. D. A. Mackenzie, The Myths of Egypt (London, 1914), passim; and Petrie, Religion and Conscience in Ancient Egypt, Lecture IV. On sec. 60: cf. Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, Lectures VI and VII; and Petrie, Religion and Conscience in Ancient Egypt, Lecture VT. CLASS B G. F. Moore, History of Religions (New York, 1913), chaps, viii and ix. CHAPTER IV THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS Yahweh is a man of war: Yahweh is his name. — Exod. 15:3- I Yahweh thy God am a jealous God. — Exod. 20:5. Hear, O Israel, Yahweh our God is one Yahweh. — ^Deut. 5:4. When Israel was a child, then I loved him, And called my son out of Egypt. — Hos. 11:1. But he was wounded for our transgressions. He was bruised for our iniquities. The chastisement of our peace was upon him; And with his stripes we are healed. — Isa. 53:5. 62. The land. — Palestine consists of a strip of fer- tility, varying in width from 70 to 125 miles, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Desert. The fertility is caused by the rain from moisture-laden clouds which are driven in from the Mediterranean during the winter months, and extends eastward until the moisture of the clouds is exhausted. This strip of land formed in ancient times a bridge of fertility between the Nile and the Mesopotamian valleys. The whole country is about the size of the states of Rhode Island and Con- 58 THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 59 necticut. On the west is the maritime plain, bordered on its southeastern part by the Shephelah or low hills; east of this is the central range of Palestinian hills, cleft in parts by many deep valleys, the chief of which is the great valley of Esdraelon or Jezreel; east of this again is the Jordan Valley, in many respects the most remark- able valley in the world. From the Huleh southward it is altogether below the level of the Mediterranean Sea, and at the Dead Sea reaches a depression of about 1,300 feet. East of this is a great tableland which rises, in parts, to a height of 3,500 feet above sea-level. At its northern extremity Mount Hermon rises 9,166 feet, and from November to July or August is capped with snow. In no other part of the earth's surface is such a variety of flora and fauna found within such narrow limits. The land and its climate no doubt played some part in the birth of that rehgion which has so influenced the world for good.' 63. Value of the patriarchal narratives. — The his- torical study of the early books of the Bible has shown that they were written much later than was formerly supposed, and that the traditions of the Hebrew patri- archs collected in the Book of Genesis consist largely of traditions of later tribal history, which are in some cases attached to the names of tribes represented as persons, and in some cases to immigrants from Babylonia whose names had been attached to localities in which the Hebrew tribes settled.^ ' For a fuller statement, see George Adam Smith, Historical Geog- raphy of the Holy Land, pp. 43-61. ' For a more extensive discussion of these narratives, see G. A. Barton, in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, LII, 185-200, or The Religion of Israel (in press), chap. ii. 6o THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD 64. The formation of the Hebrew nation. — The traditions indicate that the Hebrew nation is composed of four groups of tribes, which are said to be descended from four mothers. Of these groups the most important are the Leah tribes and the Rachel tribes. Leah means "wild cow" and Rachel, "ewe." Opinions differ as to whether these were totems or economic symbols or both. The Rachel tribes may have been sheep-raisers and the Leah tribes cattle-raisers. There is consider- able evidence, both archaeological and biblical, to show that the Leah tribes entered Palestine and secured a footing there about 1375-1350 B.C., and that the Rachel tribes did not enter the country until 1200 B.C. or later. The evidence indicates that the Leah tribes entered the land from the south, the Rachel tribes from the east. The probability is that the Rachel tribes only were in Egypt, that it was they who were led out by Moses, and that it was with them that the covenant was made at the burning mountain called Horeb.' 65. The early religion. — ^Analogy makes it probable that the reUgion of these tribes before they entered Palestine did not differ materially from that of other nomadic tribes about them. Since the primitive Semitic pillars and asheras (or wooden posts), circum- cision, the herem or ban, and law of blood-revenge were perpetuated by them into much later times, it is probable that in other respects their religion was similar to that of other nomadic Semites. Each tribe may have had its ' For full discussion of the evidence, see L. B. Paton, Biblical World, XL VI, 82-88, 173-80; also Journal of Biblical Literature, XXXII, 1-54; and G. A. Barton, Religion of Israel, chap. iii. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 6i deity; at least we hear of a god Gad' (Isa. 65:11) which was probably originally the god of the tribe Gad, and there is reason to believe that the tribe of Asher wor- shiped the goddess Ashera. In the tribe of Judah some Kenites settled. The Kenite god was Yahweh (Jehovah) , and the J document written in Judah reflects the belief that the worship of Yahweh went back to the earhest times (Gen. 4:26). We cannot now determine the date of this fusion. It is possible that it began before the settlement of the Leah tribes in Palestine. 66. Yahweh before Moses. — A theory that has in recent years won the assent of the majority of the writers on the religion of Israel is that Yahweh was the god of the Midianite-Kenites before he became the God of Israel. This tribe was nomadic and wandered from the borders of Egypt as far eastward as the volcanic lands to the north of Medina, in Arabia. Their god, like most Semitic gods, was a god of fertiHty. The epithet Yahweh, by which he was called, probably meant "he who causes passionate love." They attributed all activity to him. Volcanic eruptions were his appear- ance on the burning mountain, the showers of the peninsula of Sinai were given by him, their victories over their enemies were won by him. There are indi- cations that Yahweh may have been a divine name in North Arabia for a thousand years before Moses, and that emigrants from this region to Babylonia and Palestine had carried the name to those countries." ' Rendered "Fortune" in the Revised Version. ' For a fuller discussion of this point, see G. A. Barton, " Yahweh before Moses," Studies in the History of Religion Presented to Crawford Howell Toy by Pupils, Colleagues, and Friends (New York, 191 2), pp. 187-204. 62 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Possibly some of the Leah tribes other than Judah had learned before they came to Palestine to apply this epithet to their god, but of this we have no definite information. 67. The work of Moses. — Moses, fleeing from Egypt, married the daughter of Jethro, Yahweh's priest among the Midianite-Kenites. At the burning bush on Yah- weh's volcanic mountain he was so impressed with the power and majesty of Yahweh that it marked an epoch in his life. He returned to Egypt to preach to his enslaved kinsmen the hope of escape through the power of Yahweh. The escape was effected, and at the burn- ing mountain the Rachel tribes entered into covenant with Yahweh to make him their God and to serve him (see Exod., chaps. 1-24). At the first sacrifice offered after the Hebrews reached Yahweh's moun- tain Jethro officiated (Exod. 18:1-12); but later the covenant was consummated at a sacrificial feast at which Moses and Aaron of&ciated (Exod. 24:1-11). The E document holds that the name "Yahweh" first became known to Israel at this time (Exod. 3:1-14), and this is probably true for the Rachel tribes. A box or ark, which could be easily carried from place to place, and which, perhaps, contained a sacred stone, became the symbol of Yahweh's presence with them. The sum of his requirements of his new wor- shipers, as nearly as we can now ascertain them, con- sisted of ten commands which could be easily numbered off on the fingers and remembered. They are now embedded in Exod., chap 34, where later agricultural regulations have in two or three instances overlaid their THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 63 originally nomadic character. They appear to have been the following: 1. Thou shalt worship no other god. 2. Thou shalt make thee no molten gods. 3. The feast of the Passover thou shalt keep. 4. The firstling of an ass thou shalt redeem with a lamb; all the first-born of thy sons thou shalt redeem. 5. None shall appear before me empty. 6. Six days thou shalt work, but on the seventh thou shalt rest. 7. Thou shalt observe the feast of ingathering [of dates], 8. Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leavened bread, neither shall the sacrifice of the Passover remain until the morning. 9. The firsthngs of thy flocks thou shalt bring unto Yahweh, thy God. 10. Thou shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk. There is much reason to believe that these commands were not written down, but were committed to tradition. This fact made it easier for later prophets to reinterpret the covenant and to make its basis ethical. In the fact of the covenant, the possibility of such ethical reinterpretation, and the belief in Yahweh's intolerance of other gods lay the germs of future progress. 68. Yahweh an agricultural God. — The entrance of the Rachel tribes into Palestine led to their union with the other tribes of Israel. Yahweh was already known to some of these, and by silent processes of assimilation which are now obscure to us he was accepted more or less definitely by all the tribes as their God. The political and religious life of the early time was in no sense organized. Until the time of Saul and David there was no national consciousness. In the early days 64 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD there was no organized priesthood (cf. Judg., chaps. 17, 18). In the union of the tribes the vivid memories which the Rachel tribes entertained of their experiences triumphed over all other traditions of Yahweh. Spread by the omnipresent oriental story-teller, they were so much more vivid than the tamer experiences of the other tribes that in time they became the common inheritance of all. When Palestine was conquered the shrines of the agricultural gods were taken over and became shrines of Yahweh. This happened at Schechem, Bethel, Hebron, Gezer, and at many other places. Stories of how it occurred at Dan and Jerusalem have survived in the Bible (Judg., chaps. 17, 18; II Sam., chap. 24). The stories which at these shrines were told of the old gods were now told of Yahweh. Yahweh was now believed to send the rain and to give the crops. The old gods had been called baals, i.e., owners of the soil, and in time the name was applied to Yahweh also (see Hos. 2:16). To Yahweh's feasts new agricultural feasts were added, and agricultural elements were intro- duced into the old ones. The sensual orgies of Semitic religion became more reprehensible when practiced by a wealthy population. These orgies as they had been practiced by the Canaanites were taken over into Yahweh's religion. During all this time the orthodox type of sanctuary for Yahweh was a high place open to the sky. We hear of one small temple at Shiloh (I Sam., chaps. 1-5), with doors and apparently a roof — a temple m the holiest place of which Samuel slept! The open-air high place was nevertheless the normal type of sanctuary. Solo- THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 65 mon's temple was an innovation. It was constructed on the general plan of the temples of Israel's more civilized neighbors. It contained an altar of bronze, whereas an altar of earth or unhewn stone was regarded long after this as the only proper altar (Exod. 20: 24-26). Centuries later the temple of Solomon was revered as the ideal dwelling-place of Yahweh, but for a consider- able time it was thought to be of a heretical type. 69. Elijah and after. — In the reign of Ahab there began a rehgious and social ferment which led to the transformation of Israel's religion. Ahab's Tyrian wife, Jezebel, had brought with her the worship of the Tyrian god Melkart. She and her husband in the case of Naboth (I Kings, chap. 21) outraged Hebrew popular rights. At this junctm^e Elijah came from Gilead, proclaiming the old nomadic ideal of Yahweh and linking his religions ideals to the rights of the people as against the king. To Elijah and his followers, not only was the worship of the Tyrian Melkart wrong, but the worship of the agriculturized Yahweh of the west Jordan lands was little better. It was, he thought, also the worship of Baal. In the person and work of the prophet Elisha the ideals of Elijah, though some- what obscured, were to some degree cherished. In the circles of Elijah's disciples stress was laid on ethics rather than upon ritual as the essence of Yahweh's covenant with his people. It is not surprising, accordingly, that in the E docu- ment, written in the Northern ELingdom, where the ministry of these prophets was spent, ethical require- ments were substituted for the ritualistic requirements in the ten "words" or commands, which were supposed 66 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD to sum up what Yahweh required of his people when he made his covenant with them. This substitution was the easier because at the begiiming the commands had not been written, but committed to oral tradition. Such substitution involved no conscious fraud. It was but an expression of the feeling we all have that, if properly transmitted, the fundamental religious docu- ment of our faith must teach the highest reHgion and ethics of which we know. The ethical decalogue which resulted was as follows: 1. Thou shalt have no other gods before me. 2. Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image. 3. Thou shalt not lift up the name of Yahweh to a vanity [i.e., thou shalt not swear to a lie]. 4. Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. 5. Honor thy father and thy mother. 6. Thou shalt do no murder. 7. Thou shalt not commit adultery. 8. Thou shalt not steal. 9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor. 10. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's house. This decalogue sums up the reHgious advance which Elijah and his followers had achieved, though some of the commands clearly go back to the early days. It is tempting to think that the commands against coveting, swearing to a he, and bearing false witness were sug- gested by the experience of Naboth. It should be noted that Israel was not yet in theory monotheistic. The first of these commands presupposes the reality of the existence of other gods. 70. The eighth-century prophets. — The insight of four great men, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah, who lived and preached between 755 and 690 B.C., carried THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 67 the work begun by Elijah to much higher levels. While they presented no philosophical theory of monotheism, each one of them was a practical monotheist. They assumed that Yahweh controlled all nations. Amos was the first to proclaim this (Amos 9:7), and it became an axiom with the others. Their monotheism was one- sided in its conception of Yahweh's attitude toward the world. They thought him chiefly interested in Israel, and as deahng with the other nations as such dealing was necessary for the discipline of Israel. They all represented Yahweh as a God whose one desire was his passion for social justice. His chief demand was righteousness between man and man. In their earlier ministry they maintained that this was the simi-total of his rehgion. They declared that he demanded no sacrifices; that he was disgusted with ritual (Amos 5: 21, 25; Isa. 1:12-14); that the essence of his religion was that "justice roll down as waters and righteousness as an ever-flowing stream" (Amos 5:24). Amos held out as a motive for righteousness only the fear of pun- ishment. Hosea, the first prophet of the love of Yahweh, urged as a motive his great love. Hosea interpreted the covenant at Horeb as a marriage contract. Yahweh had chosen Israel as his bride, and her faithlessness was base ingratitude to him and deeply grieved his heart. 71. Beginning of the messianic hope. — Isaiah was, in the opinion of the writer, the first prophet of the messianic hope. There has been a tendency in the last thirty years to believe that all messianic prophecy was written after the exile. Against this view the writer has elsewhere protested. There is no adequate reason 68 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD for denjdng to Isaiah the authorship of the two oracles in Isa. 9:2-6 and 11:1-9.' The first of these visions dates from the Syro-Ephraimitish war of 735 B.C., and represents the ideals of a young man whose blood is hot. He looked for a king to come who should surpass in all kingly qualities Tiglath-pileser IV of Assyria. He was to be a wonder-counselor, a god of a warrior, a father of booty, a prince of peace. The vision recorded in Isa. 1 1 : 1-9 is a vision of his old age, dating from the time of Sennacherib's second inva- sion of Judah in 691 or after.'' In this vision the figure of the king fell into the background, and in imagery of unsurpassed beauty the prophet set forth the unsullied righteousness that should then prevail. Here is crys- taUized the essence of the ethical teaching of the prophets of the eighth century. 72. Isaiah's compromise with rituaL — ^Apparently in his old age Isaiah saw that the world was not ready for a reUgion without ritual and persuaded King Heze- kiah to try to reduce ritual to such limits that it could be purified of those agricultural and primitive elements which the prophets now identified with the worship of the Canaanitish Baals. Hezekiah accordingly attempted to suppress all the outdoor shrines of the land and to center " For a more extended discussion, see G. A. Barton, Journal of Biblical Literahire, XXXIII, 68-74; Religion 0} Israel (in press), chap. vi. ' See the argument of FuUerton in Biblioiheca Sacra, LXIII, 577- 634; and Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament, pp. 332-40. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 69 the worship in the temple at Jerusalem (II Kings 18: 1-6 and 22). This movement naturally met with much opposition. 73. Jerusalem the dwelling of Yahweh. — When Sennacherib came against Jerusalem the second time and all looked hopeless, Isaiah, in accordance with the principles of Hezekiah's reform, conceived Jerusalem to be necessary to the worship of Yahweh, and declared that Yahweh would protect it (Isa. 31:5). The army of Sennacherib was decimated by bubonic plague, which the people of Jerusalem beUeved to be inflicted by the angel of Yahweh (II Kings 19:36),' the Assyrian withdrew and Jerusalem was spared. This providential vindication of the prophet's word gave to Jerusalem a new significance in the minds of many Hebrews, and was the beginning of the belief that Yahweh dwelt on Zion rather than at Horeb. 74. The writing of Deuteronomy. — Under King Manasseh, 686-641 B.C., there was a violent reaction against the prophetic reforms. The country shrines were restored, and the people, led by their king, revived heathen Semitic customs that had been discarded. During this period, while the disciples of the great eighth-century prophets could do nothing openly, they cherished their ideals in secret and made plans for the future. In these circles about 650 B.C. the Deuter- onomic law was composed. Its basis was the "Book of the Covenant," Exod. 20:24 — 23:19, the legal kernel of the E document, but the law of the altar, Exod. 20:24-26, was changed so as to limit the sanctuary to " See G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 158 ff., or Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. One- volume ed., p. 403. 70 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD the "place which Yahweh should choose," and other fea- tures of the code, which presupposed a multiplicity of sanctuaries, were modified to conform to this. The striking deHverance from Sennacherib was held to show that Yahweh had chosen Jerusalem, and there was never a question that Jerusalem was the one place of worship. Some of the social features of the older code were soft- ened, so that the law as it appears in Deuteronomy embodies something of the social emphasis of the preach- ing of the eighth-century prophets. 75. Josiah's reform. — Josiah, the grandson of Manas- seh, was friendly to the prophetic ideals, and by the eighteenth year of his reign the advocates of those ideals found a favorable opportunity to secure public action. Repairs upon the temple were in progress, and it was so arranged that a copy of the Deuteronomic law was foimd while the temple was being cleared out. When it was read to the king, he appealed to the prophetess Huldah to know whether it was really the law of Moses. It corresponded with her conception of what religious law ought to be, so she declared it genuine. Thereupon Josiah undertook to reform the religion of his kingdom, so as to bring it into conformity to this law. The country shrines were abolished, the cult was centralized in Jerusalem, while pillars, asheras, the ministers of social impurity, and other survivals of primitive Semitic religion were removed. The people of Judah xiid not acquiesce in this reform much more readily than in the time of Hezekiah and Manasseh, and a long spiritual struggle ensued. 76. Jeremiah. — ^About six years before the finding of the Deuteronomic law, Jeremiah, a very young man. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 71 began to prophesy, and his prophetic activity continued for forty years during the period of Judah's decline and fall. The form in which the Book of Jeremiah has come down to us is forbidding, so that few reaHze how great a prophet Jeremiah was. He contributed four great ideas to Israel's religion which became potent ia after- time and which tended greatly to its purification and advancement. The first of these ideas was theoretical monotheism. EarKer prophets had been practical monotheists; it remained for Jeremiah to declare that the gods of the heathen were "vanities" — mere figments of the imagination (Jer. 10:15; 14:22). As a corollary of this conception he also taught that Yahweh was will- ing to become the God of the nations as well as of the Jews; that, if they were repentant, he would receive them (Jer. 16:17-21). His third contribution was the doctrine of the inwardness of religion. The heart must be changed, not the outwiard life only (Jer. 31:31-34). To these great doctrines Jeremiah added that of indi- vidual responsibihty (Jer. 31 : 29, 30). Down to his time the nation or family had been the moral unit (see Josh., chap. 7), but on that basis no great progress could be made in personal religion or in ethics. The teaching of Jeremiah set religion free from many time-worn shackles. In addition to these doctrines, Jeremiah revived Hosea's conception of the covenant of Yahweh, enfor- cing the view that it was a covenant of marriage and that Yahweh was a God of love. His view of the inward- ness of religion enabled him to declare, when invaders threatened Jerusalem, that its preservation was no longer necessary to the worship of Yahweh. For the time of Jeremiah that was true. The Deuteronomic 72 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD law had supplied religion with a tangible form from which the temple could be temporarily omitted, and the teaching of Jeremiah had given it an inward significance, which for the more choice spirits made it independent of outward forms. 77. Ezekiel, a young priest who had been taken to Babylonia with those first deported by Nebuchadrezzar in 597, began to prophesy five years later. His pro- phetic activity continued until about 570 b.c. Until the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C., Ezekiel in Babylonia reinforced the teaching which Jeremiah was giving in Palestine. He was animated by the same lofty ethical ideals, as is shown by the seventeenth and eighteenth chapters of his prophecy. In 586 b.c. Jerusalem was again captured by Nebuchadrezzar, the temple was destroyed, and another considerable number of the more prominent inhabitants were transported to Baby- lonia. The poorer peasantry were left behind to drag out their existence among the ruins. After this event Ezekiel, who was a priest as well as a prophet, in brood- ing over the fortunes of his people felt certain that at some time Yahweh would rehabihtate a Hebrew state in Palestine, and he drew up a form of organization and of law for the regulation of such a state and its wor- ship; see Ezek., chaps. 40-48. The plan outlined by Ezekiel advances a step farther than the law of Deu- teronomy in blending prophetic ideals, with the ritual law. Details are laid down for the measurements of temple and al1;ar and for various details of the ritual. Ezekiel first called into existence a class of Levites as distinct from the priests. In Deuteronomy every Levite had been a potential priest. Before, the exile. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 73 so Ezekiel informs us, the menial work of the temple, such as the slaying of the sacrifices and the cleansing of the implements, had been performed by foreign slaves (see Ezek., 44:8-.;i3). This Ezekiel prohibited, and ordained that such work should in the future be done by the priests, who had formerly officiated in the high places which were now abolished. 78. Second Isaiah. — After the death of Ezekiel no great Hebrew voice was heard for twenty years. The great Nebuchadrezzar died in 562 B.C., and, after the rapid succession of three weak kings, in 555 the religious devotee Nabonidus gained the throne. In 553 B.C. Cyrus the Persian overthrew the Median kingdom and inaugurated that series of conquests which created the Persian empire. In 546 he overcame Croesus, king of Lydia. Cyrus revoked the pohcy of transportation practiced by the later Assyrian and Babylonian kings, and permitted peoples who had been transported to dominions which he now conquered to return to their respective lands and revive their national institutions. His deeds during these years seem to have been fairly well known in Babylon, which he did not conquer until 538 B.C. About 550 there arose in Babylonia a new prophet, whose utterances are now summed up in chap- ters 40-45 of the Book of Isaiah. We do not know his name, but call him the second Isaiah because by some literary accident or misconception his prophecies were attached to the book containing those of Isaiah. In the first half of his prophecies (Isa., chaps. 40-48), which were uttered before 538 B.C., he asserted that Cyrus was conquering for Yahweh and for Israel, declared that the opportunity for Hebrews to return to 74 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Palestine was approaching, sought to impress his hearers with the might and majesty of Yahweh, the only real God, and to prepare them to return to their land when the opportunity came. When Babylon fell and the opportunity occurred, but few Judaeans embraced it, in spite of the prophet's impassioned appeals. He accordingly uttered another series of discourses (Isa., chaps. 49-55) to encourage them to return. All through his preaching he had addressed Israel as the "servant of Yahweh." When it was necessary to reprove her slowness, she was the unfaithful servant; when he thought of her possible service in the world, he por- trayed her as the ideal servant. This ideal he em- bodied in four poems, the greatest of which constitutes Isa. 52:13 — 53:12. Here he pictured Israel as by her sufferings making Yahweh known to the world. It was thus that he found a philosophy of the national mis- fortunes. Israel's sufferings had been double the amount that her own sins deserved (Isa. 40: 2). A part of this suffering had been incurred because she received the chastisement due to the nations. When the nations beheld, they would repent, the prophet declared, and turn to Yahweh (see Isa. 52:15; 53:1-5). An ideal was thus called into existence which no nation could really fulfil. One only, Jesus of Nazareth, has fulfilled it. 79. The Code of Holiness. — About 500 b.c. or earlier (perhaps during the time of the second Isaiah) a priest imbued with the prophetic spirit drew up the so- called Code of Holiness, which, excluding later additions,' " See J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, Hexaieuch, II, 166-81; or S. R. Driver, "Leviticus," in Haupt's Sacred Books of the Old Testament, pp. 33-53. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 75 now constitutes Lev., chaps. 17-26. This writer felt the influence of Ezekiel strongly, as his laws and style prove. These laws were another step toward a religion which should attain by law what the great prophets had attempted to attain by loyalty to Yahweh. 80. The rebuilding of the temple. — ^About 520 b.c. two prophets, Haggai and Zechariah, who had apparently recently returned to Jerusalem from Babylonia, per- suaded the Judaeans that a lack of rain and its conse- quent famine were evidences of Yahweh's displeasure because the temple had not been rebuilt. The voices of these prophets were so persuasive that its rebuilding was undertaken, and by 516 b.c. the temple was completed, though in a fashion far inferior to its former splendor. 81. The third Isaiah. — ^After the completion of the temple ordinary historical sources fail us for seventy years. During this period, however, probably about 450 B.C., a prophet kindred in spirit to the second Isaiah came forward. His stirring appeals are now found in Isa., chaps. 56-66, though here and there his words have been expanded by later editors. 82. The priestly law. — While the third Isaiah was preaching in Jerusalem, priestly circles, probably in Babylonia, were busy making a further codification of the priestly law. In order to give that law and its requirements a proper perspective, an accoimt of the creation was written, as well as brief narratives of the chief crises of the earKer history. The whole consti- tuted the P document.' In this law Ezekiel's plan for ' For the sections comprising the P document see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, Eexateuch, II; or W. E. Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch (London, 1898), 11, 195-406. 76 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Levites to perform the menial services of the sanctuary was adopted. Of course these Levites were descended from the priesthoods of the cities that in the old days had possessed the most flourishing high places. Later followers of the codifiers of the P document drew from this conclusion that all such cities must have been assigned by Joshua to Levitical clans — an inference that resulted in the distortion of historical perspective on a gigantic scale. 83. Adoption of the priestly law. — During the administration of Nehemiah, which began in 444 B.C., a great convocation of Judaeans was held in the temple court at Jerusalem at which the new law was read to them and they bound themselves to keep it (see Neh., chaps. 8-10). The adoption of this law as the funda- mental law of religion marked the complete transforma- tion of the religion. The old nature religion was dis- carded and Judaism was born. While Judaism was the result of the transformation begun by the prophets, it differed in many respects from the prophetic ideals of the eighth century. To them Yahweh was a present God, whose voice still spoke in the hearts of his prophets. From the priestly point of view Yahweh was a distant, exalted God, who long ago spoke to Moses. The prophets had Httle use for ritual; to the priests ritual was of the utmost importance. 84. Life after death. — ^To all Hebrews up to this time the dealings of Yahweh with his people were con- fined to life on the earth. He rewarded his faithful here; he punished the wicked in this life. The pictures of the life after death drawn in Isa. 14:9 ff. and Ezek. 32:22-32 present the same gloomy non-religious con- THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS 77 ception as that held by the Babylonians and as that reflected in the eleventh book of Homer's Odyssey. 85. Spirits and demons. — The ancient Hebrews thought that the world was filled with spirits. These spirits were non-ethical. They were subject to Yahweh, and might be sent by him on missions either of blessing to man or of harm (see I Kings, chap. 22; Job, chaps. I and 2). In the prophetic period no need was felt for a behef in Satan. Yahweh was thought to do every- thing both good and evil (see Amos 3:6; Isa. 45:7). It was only after the exile that the figure of Satan began to emerge, and he was then only an adversary (Zech. 3:1), not the full-fledged prince of evil that he after- ward became. 86. Importance of the Hebrew religion. — The devel- opment of Israel's religion through the influence of the prophets from its primitive Semitic beginnings to the formation of Judaism is one of the most significant chapters in the history of the human race. In other countries, as in Egypt, monotheism was grasped by a few; in Israel alone was it made the possession of the people. Others conceived it as a great idea ; the prophets linked it with human rights and conmion justice. Per- haps even here it would have failed but for the mis- fortunes of the Jewish state. These constituted a sifting process by which the devotees of the higher reli- gion were separated from the reactionaries and formed into a community in which it was an axiom to men, women, and children that there is but one God and that he demands a righteous life. In this achievement were the seeds of the best religious experience of mankind. It was on accoimt of this that the Hebrew religion became 78 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD the mother of the three great monotheistic reUgions of the world, Judaism, Mohammedanism, and Christianity. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sec. 62: G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 43-6 1. On sec. 62: G. A. Barton, The Religion of Israel (in press), chap. iii. On sees. 64, 65: L. B. Baton in the Biblical World, XL VI, 82-88, 173-80, and in the Journal of Biblical Literature, XXXII, 1-54; also G. A. Barton, The Religion of Israel, chap, iii, or "The Historical Value of the Patriarchal Narratives," Pro- ceedings of the American Philosophical Society, LIII, 185-200. On. sec. 66: G. A. Barton, "Yahweh before Moses," Studies in the History of Religion Presented to Crawford Howell Toy by Pupils, Colleagues, and Friends (New York, 1912), pp. 187-204. On sec. 67: G. A. Barton, Religion of Israel, chap. iv. On sees. 68-86 : G. A. Barton, Religion of Israel, chaps, v-ix; or K. Budde, The Religion of Israel to the Exile, Lectures II- VI; W. E. Addis, Hebrew Religion (New York, 1906), chaps, iv-ix; or K. Marti, The Religion of the Old Testament (New York, 1907), chaps, ii-iv. CLASS B H. T. Fowler, The Origin and Growth of the Hebrew Religion (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1916); J. M. P. Smith, The Prophet and His Problems (New York, 1914). CHAPTER V JUDAISM The law of Yahweh is perfect, restoring the soul. — Ps. 19:7. Oh how love I thy law! It is my meditation aU the day. — ^Ps. 119:97. Behold the fear of Yahweh, that is wisdom; And to depart from evil is understanding. —Job 28:28. But the saints of the Most High shall receive the king- dom, and possess the kingdom for ever, even for ever and ever. — Dan. 7:18. Simon the Just was one of the last of the great synagogue, He used to say: "The world rests upon three things — ^upon the law, upon the service, and upon the charity of the pious." — Pirqe Aboth i, 2. Until what time do they recite the Shema} in the evening? .... The wise say: "until midnight." Rabban Gamaliel says: "until the dawn of morning." — ^Berakoth i, i. 87. The Persian period. — The adoption of the Law in the time of Nehemiah led, as pointed out in the last chapter, to the establishment of Judaism. Not all the Jews were resident in Palestine. Most of those who had been settled in Babylonia did not return, but con- tinued to Uve there. Babylonian business documents of the Persian period contain a large number of Jewish ' Shema ("hear") is the Jewish name for the great confession of faith found in Deut. 6:4!., beginning "Hear, O Israel: Yahweh our God is one Yahweh.'' 79 8o THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD names. This colony, known as the Goliouth, or "Cap- tivity," continued for fifteen hundred years to be an important colony in Babylonia. Like their brethren in Palestine, the Babylonian Jews accepted the priestly law. Indeed, it is the belief of most scholars that it had been compiled among them by disciples of Ezekiel. From Babylonia Jews had spread eastward to Media and Persia. A considerable Jewish colony existed at Ele- phantine in Egypt also. They possessed a temple, and apparently did not receive the new law at once.' When the temple was rebuilt at Jerusalem and the worship was reorganized, an appropriate hymn book was necessary, hence the first portion of the Psalter (Pss. 3-41) was compiled. Enthusiasm for the Law and the high hopes it awakened in many pious souls are reflected in some of these psalms, as in Ps. 19: 7-1 1. Extensive as was the influence of the Law it did not, however, enhst the affections of all. The sages appear to have been almost untouched by it. About 400 b.c. one of these composed the great poem which is now the Book of Job. He was a devout Israelite and a believer in Yahweh, but he investigated and discussed the prob- lems of life with a freedom entirely untrammeled by the Law. In his poem the problem of suffering is treated in a way that proves the inadequacy of the popular theology and portrays the growth that may come to a soul in the crucible of suffering.^ Josephus informs us' that about 350 B.C. the Persian general Bagoses dealt very harshly with the Jews for ' See G. A. Barton, Archaeology and the Bible, Part II, chap. xix. 'See G. A. Barton, "Job," Bible for Home and School (New York, I9ii),pp. 7-12. 3 Antiquities of the Jews, XI, vii, i. JUDAISM 8 1 seven years. Many scholars think that the cause of this was an attempt on the part of the Jews to gain their independence. This attempt is believed to have called forth much national and religious enthusiasm, and to have been the occasion of the compilation of two more books of the Psalter, Pss. 42-73, to which Pss. 84-89 were later added as an appendix. 88. The Samaritans. — The Book of Nehemiah shows that friction between the Jews and the Samaritans existed as early as the fifth century. The Samaritans wished to be counted as Jews; the Jews looked on them with suspicion because of their mixed descent (see II Kings 17:24-34). Before the time of Alexander the Great the friction had become so acute that the schism was complete. The Samaritans built a temple on Mount Gerizim and became a separate sect (see John 4:20), which has persisted, though with greatly dimin- ished numbers, to the present day.' They took as their Bible the Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua, though they have transformed Joshua so freely that it is hardly recognizable. 89. The Greek period. — With the conquest of Palestine by Alexander in 332 Palestine passed under Hellenic control. After his death both the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucidae of Antioch offered Jews inducements to settle in various cities of their dominions. The settlements thus made tended to scatter the Dias- pora, as the Jews outside of Palestine were called, more widely, and to bring them into contact with the varied life of the world. So many of them settled at Alexandria ' For the character and history of the Samaritan sect, see J. A. Montgomery, The Samaritans (Philadelphia, 1907). 82 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD in Egypt that it became a little Judaea. There about 250 B.C. the translation of the Jewish Scriptures into Greek, known as the Septuagint, was begun. Mean- time Palestine, subject at first to the Ptolemies, then a bone of contention between them and the Seleucidae, passed in 199 B.C. under the dominion of the S)Trian monarchs. It felt the influence of the various currents of life and thought that swayed the world, although the Jews resident in it were far more sheltered than their brethren of the Diaspora. In Judaea the variety of thought manifested in the Persian period continued. The sages were active. The book of Proverbs, the collection of which was, per- haps, begun under the Persians, was brought to com- pletion.^ An unknown sage composed, about 200 B.C., the Book of Ecclesiastes in which the skeptical influences generated by Greek thought are clearly apparent.^ About twenty years later Joshua, son of Sirach, com- posed the book commonly called Ecclesiasticus. Devo- tees of the Law were not, however, wanting. Its precepts were cherished by many, and its priestly regu- lations were not only pondered, but supplemented. 90. The rise of apocalyptic literature. — Before the organization of Judaism the voice of prophecy had nearly ceased. After that time there were but few to prophesy, and their voices were not strong. Such were Joel, the author of Isa., chaps. 24-27, and of Zech., chaps. 9-14. This last prophet lived in the Greek period, perhaps as ' See Comill, Introduction to the Canonical Literature of the Old Testament, pp. 437-47. "See the introduction to G. A. Barton, "Commentary on Eccle- siastes," Internatfional Critical Commentary. JUDAISM 83 late as 250 B.C., and predicted that there should be no more prophets after him (see Zech. 13 : 2-5). After this time no one dared to speak in his own name as a mouth- piece of Yahweh. Struggling humanity could not rest satisfied without reHgious guidance, so after 200 B.C. there arose a succession of apocalyptists, who couched the teaching the age needed in the form of visions which were attributed to some famous person of ancient times. Six such apocalypses were attributed to Enoch, one to Noah, one to Moses, one to Isaiah, six to Baruch, one to Shealtiel, two to Ezra, one to Daniel, one to each of Jacob's sons, not to mention apocalyptic frag- ments attributed to Solomon and the Sybil. The earliest of these, written between 200 and 170 B.C., was attributed to Enoch and is now embodied in Enoch, chaps. 1-36. The sources of apocalyptic visions were unfulfilled prophecy and the Babylonian creation-myth. The Babylonian myth gave the apocalyptists their philosophy of the universe. Evil was personified as a great world-power, and, they thought, that just as in the myth there had been a great struggle before the present heavens and earth could be created — a struggle in which the dragon had been overcome — so there would be a great conflict before the new heaven and new earth could be created. Under the influ- ences of this apocalyptic material the messianic hope was eventually transformed from the expectation of an earthly king of the Davidic dynasty to the expecta- tion of a heavenly Messiah who should come on the clouds of heaven. 91 . The Maccabean revolt. — The readiness with which certain Jews accepted Hellenic ideas led Antiochus IV 84 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD of Syria to attempt in i68 b.c. to suppress the Jewish religion and forcibly to establish Hellenic religion in its place. This led to the so-called Maccabean uprising, which was supported by the most ardent devotees of the Law. After a struggle of twenty-five years, through various vicissitudes, military, political, and religious, the Jews won their independence, emerging from the struggle with Simon the Maccabee as their high priest and prince — two offices which they made hereditary in his house.' This successful uprising called forth the greatest national and religious enthusiasm. The hopes and fears of its early stages are reflected in the Book of Daniel, written between i68 and 165 B.C.; the religious aspirations and enthusiasm are mirrored in Books IV and V of the Psalter (Pss. 90-150), which were compiled just at the close of this period. 92. The synagogue. — The origin of the synagogue is shrouded in obscurity. When it is first mentioned in rehgious literature it was an institution already old. It apparently arose before the Maccabean revolt, as the burning of synagogues is one of the atrocities laid to the Syrians in Ps. 74:8 — a psalm which was probably re-edited in the Maccabean period. Perhaps the syna- gogue originated in Babylonia. In any case it was intended to be a place for the public reading and inter- pretation of the Law and for united prayer. It was introduced into Palestine, not only into the country villages far from the temple, but into Jerusalem itself. Little by little the synagogue became the center of the religious life of Judaism, especially after the destruc- tion of the temple. Its democratic services are elastic ' See I Mace. 13:35-41. JUDAISM 85 and have adapted themselves to all the forms of Jewish life.^ 93. Rise of the Pharisees and Sadducees. — Under the descendants of Simon, who are often called Asmonaeans, the Jews were independent for eighty years. These princes soon assumed the title of king and conquered practically all the territory over which David had ruled. The pious devotees of the Law did not reUsh having a worldly high priest who played pohtics and engaged in wars. Little by little they developed their ideas into a tolerably consistent system and took the name " Phari- sees," or separated ones, to signify their idea that the Jews should be separate from the world. They came into particular prominence as an opposition party in the reign of Alexander Jannaeus, 104-79 ^.c, and were so strong that upon his death Alexander advised his wife to make her peace with them. During her reign, there- fore, they were the dominant party and continued to exert a paramount influence in Judaism. With refer- ence to legal customs they were conservative, insisting upon the rigid fulfilment of the Law; in thought they were in some respects more advanced, accepting, for example, the newer conception of the resturrection of the dead (see Dan. 12:2-4). The Sadducees were more conservative in thought, adhering to the older Hebrew non-belief in a resurrection, while in practice they were less rigid, and did not insist so strictly upon all the details of the Law. Another somewhat obscure sect that developed before the Christian era was the Essenes, who mingled with the observance of the Jewish law some elements of ' See "Synagogue" in the Jewish Encyclopedia. 86 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Persian thought. They were not very numerous and lived in coenobitic communities. 94. The oral law. — The desire of the Pharisees to give strict adherence to the Pentateuch in all the details of life led to a careful study of its requirements and to definite interpretations of them. These interpretations led to the formulation of traditional rules as to what was and what was not allowed by the Law. These tra- ditions were ultimately written down in the Mishnah, but for two centuries or more they were passed from rabbi to pupil as traditions and constituted the oral law. In the reign of Herod the Great (37-4 b.c.) the first schools for the conservation and transmission of this oral law were organized in Jerusalem. Shammai was the head of the school of strictly Hteral interpretation; Hillel, who had been born in Babylonia, was the head of the school of more liberal interpretation. Hillel, for example, so interpreted the law against taking interest in Deut. 23 : 19, 20 that it was practically set aside and the Jews were permitted to become a commercial people. Shammai and Hillel had their successors in Judaism for many centuries. In interpreting the Law and applying it to the details of the Hfe of a continuous community, these rabbis naturally developed the Law. The oral law, like the Pharisaic movement out of which it sprang, is evidence of an intense desire to do the will of God and to order the earthly hfe according to the expressed will of heaven. God had, however, become to these men remote. His voice, once heard, was thought to have been long silent. The best that religion could do was to treasure the words uttered long ago. JUDAISM 87 95. Philo. — While in Jerusalem and Babylonia Phari- saism was developing, in some of the western settle- ments of the Diaspora Judaism was being broadened by contact with philosophic thought. This was nota- bly the case in Alexandria, where Philo Judaeus, bom about 20 B.C., lived and wrote. He died before 40 a.d. and was accordingly a contemporary of Jesus of Naza- reth. Philo was the successor of the sages of the earlier time. A thorough monotheist, he approached the problems of Hfe from the standpoint of reason rather than from that of the Law. He was profoundly affected by Greek philosophy, and developed a doctrine of the Logos, or Word, as an emanation from God which in some respects resembles that in the Gospel of John, though in some of its phases it is quite different from that. 96. Judaism in the time of Paul. — Jewish Hfe in the first century of the Christian era presented great variety, nevertheless it was all bound together by the doctrine of monotheism and by the congregational life of the synagogue. The ideals of the Pharisees were very influential far beyond the borders of Palestine. Paul, for example, born at Tarsus of a family that had appar- ently been resident there for nearly two centuries,' was sent to Jerusalem to be educated under Gamaliel, HUlel's great successor. Paul, though of the Diaspora, was a Pharisee. No doubt his case is typical of many. Paul's missionary journeys afford glimpses, even if pre- judiced ghmpses, into many synagogues. Distinguished strangers, if Jews, were invited to explain the lessons ' See W. M. Ramsay, The Cities of St. Paul (New York, 1908), pp. 180-86. 88 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD of the day at the Sabbath services, and Paul found in this his opportunity to present his Christian point of view. The uniformity with which it was rejected is proof of the inner coherence of the scattered Judaism of the time. In Palestine itself intolerance of foreign rule was steadily growing. In the year 66 this led to open revolt, which in the year 70 resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the final annihilation of the temple. 97. Jamnia. — Before the destruction of Jerusalem the city of Jabneh in the Philistine plain, called by the Greeks Jamnia, had become an important center of Jewish learning. It is the same as the Jabneel of Josh. 15:11. Upon the destruction of Jerusalem the San- hedrin moved to Jamnia, where its sessions were held most of the time until the rebellion of Bar Chocheba, 132-35 A.D. The famous Rabbi Akiba, who was born about 50 and died 132 a.d., lived here. In the discus- sions of the rabbis at Jamnia the oral law was further developed, and it was decided that Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs are canonical Scripture. This decision finally closed the Old Testament Canon. 98. The Talmudic period. — The Talmud consists of two main strata, the Mishnah and Gemara. Each of these consists of several strata of traditions. The Mishnah rests upon the collection of the traditions made by Rabbi Judah, the Prince, in the early part of the third century a.d. These traditions were of gradual growth. They had been given shape by the pupils of Hillel and Shammai in the first century. In time the wording of the traditions was found to differ in differ- ent schools, and the Sanhedrin of Jabneh at the end of the first century examined them, assorted them, and JUDAISM 89 determined their exact wording. Later they were revised by Rabbi Akiba, who excluded many traditional interpretations and abbreviated others. By the end of the second century many variations had again crept into the traditions, and Rabbi Judah, the Prince, in order to secure uniformity, re-examined the interpre- tations and committed them to writing. Up to this time there had been a strong prejudice against allowing the traditions to be written. The edition of Rabbi Judah was so convenient and his reputation was so great that his revision soon supplanted all traditional forms of the text in the schools both of Palestine and of Baby- lonia. Thus the Mishnah was completed. The name means "repetition," and then "law learned by repe- tition." It is derived from the method of study in the rabbinical schools, where the pupil repeated the words of the teacher until he knew them by heart. The rabbis who formulated the traditions of the Mishnah are called Tanaim or "Repeaters." They lived before 200 A.D. After the formation of the Mishnah the development of the traditional law went on for three hundred years in the schools of Palestine and of Babylonia. As the advancing life of the community called for the appli- cation of the law to new situations, the law was devel- oped by interpretation. In the sixth century the traditions later than the Mishnah were written down in the Gemara. The rabbis who contributed to the tradi- tions of the Gemara are called Amoraim or "Sayers." They did not lay claim to as high an authority as the Tanaim and their words are even less fresh and vital than those of their predecessors. The Gemara is in 90 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD reaKty in the nature of a commentary on the Mishnah. The two together constitute the Talmud. Although the Talmud is not inspiring reading, it reveals to us a people of great religious devotion and earnestness — a people groping after God, anxious in every detail of life to do his will, and ready to make any and every sacrifice to obey him. If they lived on tradition, because they thought the voice of God now silent, they did not in this respect differ from the Chris- tians of the time. The Talmud shaped the main course of orthodox Judaism and is, after the Bible, its chief religious book. Philo and Alexandrian Jewish thought left no permanent impress on Judaism, partly because of the Jewish aversion to Christianity, which had appropriated the Alexandrian conceptions, and partly because of the decline of philosophical thinking. 99. The Geonim. — The head of a rabbinical school in Babylonia was given the title Gaon, "Majesty" — in the plural, Geonim. After the completion of the Talmud until the eleventh century the schools of Babylonia had such a reputation that the decisions of these Geonim were widely accepted. After the Moham- medan conquest in the seventh century the Geonim were accepted as the arbiters of practice in the countries under Mohammedan rule — the East and Spain — but later their decisions were eagerly sought and widely accepted all over Europe. Their authority waned in the eleventh century. 100. The Karaites are a Jewish sect which split off from the main body in the eighth century. The sect had its origin in Babylonia; its founder was Anan ben David, an Exilarch, or leader of the Captivity, as the JUDAISM 91 Jewish colony in Babylonia was still called. The move- ment was a revolt against tradition and rabbinism and an attempt to follow the Bible only. The name of the sect comes from kara, "to read," and expresses the desire of its members to guide their Uves by what could be read in the Bible rather than by what had been handed down by tradition. Anan recognized, however, that the biblical laws could not apply literally to all the details of the life of his day, and through the influence of the system of Abu Hanifa, a Mohammedan lawyer, he recognized that biblical laws could be extended by analogy and by allegorical interpretation. Allegorical exegesis really opened the way to extend the law by speculation, though the speculations were introduced under cover of bibhcal interpretations. While the Karaites rejected the traditions, they did not succeed in entirely emancipating themselves from them. They are accused by orthodox Jews of reverting to principles of the Sadducees and the Essenes as well as of being profoundly influenced by Mohammedanism. During the first two or three centuries of their existence the Karaites made many converts in Babylonia, Persia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. In the twelfth century they began to make converts in Europe, gaining many in the Byzantine Empire, where they flourished until its faU in the sixteenth century. Later many were found in Lithuania and in Russia. In Russia they exist in considerable numbers at the present time. loi. Jews in the Middle Ages. — By the beginning of the eleventh century the influence of the Babylonian schools upon Judaism had begun to decline. Babylon 92 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD had given to Jewry the written Law, and, in the Baby- lonian Talmud, the traditional law in its most widely accepted form. The decisions of her Geonim had been widely accepted; but now the glory departed from the Jewish communities of Babylonia. Babylonian scholars are said to have migrated and founded rabbinical schools in Alexandria, Kairwan, near the site of Carthage, Cor- dova, and perhaps at Narbonne. Until the sixteenth century the hfe of the Jews was comparatively free in the countries around the Mediterranean. Jewish scholars distinguished themselves among the scholars of the world, and a number of Jewish poets flourished. Among the gifted poets was Moses Ibn Ezra (1070- 1138) ; among the distinguished philosophers of the time was Ibn Gabirol (Avicibron) (1021-58). In this period four scholars flourished who profoundly influenced the Judaism of the West. They were Solomon Bar Isaac, called Rashi (1040-1105), who hved in France and whose commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud were very influential; Abraham Ibn Ezra (i 093-1 13 8), a native of Toledo in Spain, whose commentaries on the Pentateuch and many other books of the Bible were of great importance; Moses Ben Maimon, or Maimonides (i 135-1204), who was a philosopher as well as an exegete, who endeavored to reconcile Aristotle with the Bible, and whose principles of interpreting the Talmud, though they really set some parts of the traditional law aside, were generally accepted; and David Kimchi (1160- 1235), who learned from the Arabian scholars the gram- matical science which they in turn had learned from the Greeks, and who applied it to the interpretation of the Hebrew Bible. KJmchi was influential, not only among JUDAISM 93 Jews, but among the Christian reformers who studied his grammatical works, and through them he profoundly- influenced the Protestant scholarship of a later age. Maimonides surpassed all these in influence. He is often called by the Jews the second Moses. In this period Jewish scholars and rehgious thinkers were more able and were better equipped than those of Christendom. 102. Period of the Ghetto. — In 1492 the Jews were expelled from Spain, and in the next century in most European countries they were compelled to live in separate quarters of the towns where they resided. If these quarters were sufhciently large at first, they soon ceased to be on account of the natural increase of the population. Herded in these narrow ghettos and pro- hibited generally from acquiring an education in the languages of the countries in which they resided, they made the synagogue the center of Jewish life. Through centuries of ostracism they kept their faith, thoughthey produced no such thinkers as in the preceding period. 103. Jewish emancipation. — Moses Ben Menahem- Mendel, or Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786), is counted by the Jews as Moses the Third, or Moses the Emanci- pator. He was born at Dessau and educated in Berlin. Having himself by indomitable energy gained an edu- cation, he formed friendships with a number of dis- tinguished Germans, the most important of whom was Lessing. He translated the Pentateuch into German. His coreligionists, studying this, became acquainted wifh the language of the country and thus had access to modern learning. One of his most famous works was entitled Jerusalem. In it he made a plea for the emancipation of Judaism and argued for the separation 94 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD of church and state. This work had a wide influence. The emancipation of the Jews in France, begun in 1784, was completed by the French Revolution. Between 1782 and 1814 it followed in Austria and Germany. Other countries took similar action, so that in Western Europe the shackles were struck from the Jews, though in Russia the mediaeval conditions prevailed until the revolution of 191 7. 104. Zionism. — During the centuries of the Christian era Judaism never entirely lost the messianic hope. In times of persecution it was revived, and at all times the prayers recited in the synagogue asked for the coming of Messiah and the restoration to Palestine. The long residence of the Jews in different lands, where, after the emancipation, they became the citizens of different countries, led in some sections to an abandoning of Israel's national hopes. Nevertheless, since 1895 an extensive movement for the recovery of Palestine and the estabhshment of a Jewish state has arisen, and is backed by an extensive organization. This movement is due to the influence of Theodor Herzl's book The Jewish State, the German original of which was published in 1895. It is called Zionism. Its adherents are orthodox Jews. They regard the Law as binding and Israel as in exile. Until the temple can be rebuilt she is compelled to break many of the laws of the Pentateuch. 105. Reform Judaism. — Reform Judaism began in Germany about 1845, but has its center now in the United States. It is the result of the impact of modern science — evolution, bibhcal criticism, and philosophy — upon Jewish teachers. Reform Judaism rejects the JUDAISM 95 messianic hope and looks for no restoration to Palestine. It regards Judaism simply as a religion. It distinguishes between the moral and the ceremonial law, regarding all ceremonial laws as natural evolutions, and holds itseK at liberty to reject them except in so far as time- honored custom is psychologically necessary to religion. The dietary laws are generally disregarded, and the prayers of the s3magogue are much modified. Organs and mixed choirs furnish music in the reform synagogues. Reform Jews substitute for the messianic hope the con- ception of Israel as a messianic people, chosen to teach the world of the one true God. They believe that the Aaronic priesthood has passed away; every Jew is a priest. The world and humanity are, in their view, under God's guidance; humanity is not innately sinful; it is Israel's mission to acquaint every being with the fact that he is a child of God and to call him to a righteous hfe. 1 06. The spirit of Judaism, whether orthodox or rtform, is still noble. Jews regard themselves as the heirs of the prophets, as the preachers of monotheism, and the champions of social righteousness. Among themselves they ^hibit a good degree of social solidar- ity, helping oije another now, as they have during centuries of persecution, in many practical ways. They have in modern times furnished, too, a good quota of the world's notable philanthropists. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sees. 87 and 89-93 '■ cf- G. A. Barton, The Religion of Israel, chaps, viii-xvi; or J. P. Peters, The Religion of the Hebrews, chaps, xxiv-xxix, and "Sjoiagogue" in the Jewish Ency- clopedia. 96 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD On sec. 88 : J. A. Montgomery, The Samaritans, passim. On sec. 94: the article "Oral Law" in the Jewish Encyclopedia. On sec. 95: "Vhilo" iniJoR Jewish Encyclopedia; or James Drum- mond, Philo Judaeus (London, 1888). On sees. 96-98: "Mishnah"' and "Talmud" in the Jewish Ency- clopedia; and Hershon, Treasures of the Talmud (London, 1882), passim; also Hereford, Christianity in Talmud and Midrash (London, 1903), passim. On sees. 99, 100: "Geonim" and "Karaites" in the Jewish Ency- clopedia. On sees. 101, 102: "Ghetto" in the Jewish Encyclopedia; or I. Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (Philadelphia, 1906), passim. On sees. 103-105: "Emancipation," "Zionism," "Reform Juda- ism," "Moses Mendelssohn," and "Theodor Herzl" in the Jewish Encyclopedia. On sec. 106: "Judaism" in the Jewish Encyclopedia; M. Fried- lander, The Jewish Religion (London, 1900); I. Abrahams, Judaism (London, igio). CLASS B I. Abrahams, Judaism, 1910. CHAPTER VI MOHAMMEDANISM Say: He is God alone, the everlasting God; he does not beget, and he is not begotten ; and there is not one equal to him. — ^Koran, Sura cxii. Fear God .... surely God is knowing and wise. — ^Koran, Sura xxxiii, i. God is forgiving and merciful. — ^Koran, Sura xxxiii, 5. Those who misbeheve, for them are cut out garments of fire. There shall be poured over their heads boiling water, wherewith what is in their belHes shall be dissolved and their skins too, and for them are maces of iron. Whenever they desire to come forth therefrom through pain, they are sent back into it: "And taste ye the torment of the burning." — Koran, Sura xxii, 20. Is the reward of goodness aught but goodness ? Then which of your lord's bounties wUl ye twain deny? And beside these, are gardens twain, .... with dark green foUage In each two gushing springs In each fruits and pahns and pome- granates In them maidens best and fairest! .... Bright and large-eyed maidens kept in their tents .... whom no man or jinn has deflowered before them .... reclining on cushions and beautiful carpets Blessed be the name of the Lord possessed of majesty and honor. — Koran, Sura Iv, 60-75. 107. Arabia, the cradle of Islam, is one of the most sterile portions of the earth's surface. The greatest length of the peninsula is 1,000 miles, and its average breadth is 600 miles. This area consists of great stretches of upland gravel on which only hardy thorn bushes grow, of sandy deserts, and of extensive tracts 98 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD of igneous rock. A few scattered oases, produced by isolated springs, and a comparatively fertile strip along the southern end of the peninsula slightly relieve its steriHty. From this barren land from time immemorial Semites have been pouring into other lands, carrying with them the peculiar type of Semitic religion alluded to in chap- ter i. By the sixth century a.d. the old Semitic religion had been in some degree transformed and had lost some- thing of its hold upon the people/ Jews and Christian ascetics had to some degree penetrated the peninsula. At Mecca, the seat of the powerful tribe of Koreish, a center to which people from all parts of the peninsula came each year to celebrate a festival and to trade, four men had broken away from heathenism and called them- selves "Inquirers." They professed to be searching for the cathohc faith of Abraham. io8. Mohammed. — It was under these conditions that Mohammed was born at Mecca about 570 a.d. Left an orphan at an early age, he was cared for first by his grandfather and then by an uncle. He appears to have been a quiet and an exemplary youth, and, with the exception of two visits to Syria with trading caravans, passed the first fifty years of his life at Mecca. At the age of twenty-five he married a widow, Khadijah, who bore him two sons and four daughters. The sons died in infancy, but the daughters grew up. When about forty years old Mohammed was agitated by grave ' For conditions in Arabia before Mohammed, see W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, 2d ed. (London, 1903); G. A. Barton, A Sketch 0/ Semitic Origins (New York, 1902), chaps, ii and iii; and for the peninsula itself, S. M. Zwemer, Arabia the Cradle of Islam (New York, 1900). MOHAMMEDANISM 99 doubts and, withdrawing from the city, spent two years in a cave in prayer and meditation: He came forth with the conviction that God had commissioned him to be a prophet to his people, as the Hebrew prophets and Jesus had been commissioned to the Jews. He at once began to preach and for ten years labored in Mecca against great odds. Converts were never numerous, and during the first part of this period they were very few. At one time Mohammed and his followers were con^ned by a ban to a narrow section of the city and endured great hardship. Under such circumstances a little group of behevers were gathered about the prophet. 109. Doctrines. — The cardinal doctrine of Moham- med was the oneness and aloneness of God, whom he called Allah, "The God." The one God was conceived by him as a great human being or a transcendent man. He had hands, eyes, and human attributes. He was thought to be all-wise and all-powerful, and to be the absolute despot of the world. It was useless for man to hope to understand him, but God would be merciful if man submitted to him. Next in impor- tance to the doctrine of God was the doctrine of the prophetic function of Mohammed. Through Moham- med, God made his final revelation; Mohammed was the seal of the prophets; no prophet was to come after him. ReUgion is supposed to make a man "whole," to give him "peace." The root by which this is ex- pressed in Arabic is salama, the infinitive of the causa- tive stem of which, islam, means "to submit." As Mohammed preached the doctrine of submission to God he called his religion Islam. lOO THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD To these doctrines Mohammed added, from the time of his earliest ministry, a doctrine of material rewards and punishments. Behevers were to be rewarded with a material paradise, and unbehevers were to be tortured in a very material hell. His ideas on this point are indicated in the quotations at the head of this chapter. The outward duties of believers were to pray five times a day, as well as to be just and kind to the poor. The doctrines of angels and of Satan were taken over from Judaism, though the figure of Satan was blurred by conceptions of the jinn inherited from Arabian heathenism. no. The Prophet at Medina. — In the year '622 the Prophet fled from Mecca and took up his abode at Medina.' This was accompHshed through a secret understanding with the men of Medina and in spite of the determination of the men of Mecca to prevent it at any cost. The flight marked such an epoch in the life of Islam that Mohammedans begin their era for reckon- ing time from its date. At Medina, Mohammed was accepted by the Arabs as ruler of the city. At Medina, Islam was transformed in many ways. Until Moham- med had resided in Medina for some time he had prayed with his face toward Jerusalem. He fondly hoped that the Jews, of whom there were numbers in Medina, would accept him as a successor of their prophets. When this hope was disappointed, the Prophet changed the Kihla, or the direction of the face in prayer, from Jerusalem to Mecca. Henceforth the ideals of Arabian heathenism ' The real name of the city was Yathrib. It was so called when Mohammed moved thither. Later it was called Medinat un-Nabi, "the city of the Prophet,'' afterward shortened to Medina. MOHAMMEDANISM loi were more influential in Islam than those of Jerusalem and Israel. At Medina the Prophet, as the head of the state, engaged in successful wars, in raids for robbery, and not only descended to trickery and violence, but had revelations justifying these practices. Islam was no longer a religion of moral suasion; the alternative became conversion or death. Khadijah had died before Mohammed left Mecca, and during his career at Medina he extended, sometimes by revelation,' his marriages far beyond the number four, which he allowed to other believers. Before the end of the period Mecca was captured by him, and the pilgrimage to Mecca, with the heathen ceremonies in- volved in it, became a part of Islam. The black stone of the Kaaba thus became sacred to him who abhorred idols; it became a sacred privilege to drink from the waters of the well Zemzem in Mecca; and sacrifice became a part of a rehgion that recognizes no place for atonement. Before the Prophet died, in 632 a.d., all Arabia had given him a nominal allegiance. III. The Medina caliphate and the Koran. — Follow- ing the death of Mohammed a chief was chosen to govern the community. He was called al-khalija, "the follower" or "successor" of the Prophet. He did not, like the Prophet, receive revelations from heaven. He was guided by the prophet's words and by what he thought the Prophet would do if he were alive. The caliphate of Medina lasted from 632 to 660. During this time the conquests of Islam were extended over Palestine, Egypt, and Persia. The early policy, that those who would not accept Islam should be put to the ' See Sura xxxiii, 37 ff. I02 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD sword, was modified; they were permitted to pay a tax. This tax went to swell the fortunes of the ruling congregation of Medina. During this period the Koran was compiled and its text fixed. In the Prophet's hfetime many of the suras had been carried in the mem- ory of his devout followers. Of some of them notes had been made on bits of bone, leather, or palm leaf. In the reign of Abu-Bekr, 632-34, these were brought together in a book. The longer were placed first, and the shorter after them. No attempt was made to place them in chronological order. As most of the longer ones were uttered at Medina, the arrangement brings the greater number of the later suras at the beginning of the book. In the reign of Othman, 644-56, the text of the Koran was fixed by the addition of vowel points. The book thus formed became, as the Prophet intended it should, the fundamental religious and civil law of the Mohammedans. It was believed to be eternal. Its heavenly counterpart had existed with God in the highest heaven from all eternity. God intrusted copies of it to the angel Gabriel and permitted him to take them to the lowest heaven, and to impart the contents to Mohammed bit by bit as the Prophet needed it. This revelation was thus held to be fundamental and final. That later parts sometimes contradicted earlier parts did not seriously trouble the early generations of Islam. In 656 AH, the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, was chosen caliph. The Prophet had expressed the wish that Ali succeed him, and many thought that he should have been chosen when the Prophet died. At this juncture Muawia, a descendant of Ome)^a, a cousin of MOHAMMEDANISM 103 Mohammed's grandfather, revolted. Before his revolt Muawia had been governor of Damascus for several years, and pushed his revolt from that vantage-ground. The whole of AU's caliphate was occupied with the civil war thus precipitated. Finally in 660 Ali was assassi- nated and Muawia triumphed. 112. The Damascus caliphate. — Muawia established the Omayyad caliphate of Damascus upon the ruins of the caUphate of Medina. His family, though kins- men of Mohammed, had clung to their heathenism as long as they could. During the Prophet's ministry at Mecca and most of his residence at Medina they had been among his most bitter enemies. Muawia changed the character of the caliphate. At Medina it had been an elective office; at Damascus it became hereditary in the Omayyad DjTiasty. Heathen at heart, possessing only a veneering of Islamism, these successors of the Prophet secularized the Mohammedan organization. During their ninety years of rule (660-750 a.d.) Moslems con- quered the rest of North Africa and the southwestern half of Spain; they surged into France and were turned back by Charles Martel at the battle of Tours. The armies of this caliphate also carried the conquests east- ward to the borders of India and into Turkestan and Samarcand beyond the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers. During this caliphate Mohammedans came into contact with the Hterature and learning of the Greeks, which had been cherished in the monasteries of Syria. 113. Abbasside and Spanish caliphates. — In 750 a.d. the house of Omayya was overthrown by Abul-Abbas, a descendant of Abbas, an uncle of Mohammed, who established the Abbasside caliphate. The caUphs of I04 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD this line also formed a dynasty. The success of Abul- Abbas forever divided poHtically the Moslem world, for North Africa and Spain never accepted the sover- eignty of the Abbassides. Abd-er-Rahman, a scion of the Omayyad house, escaped the slaughter visited upon his kinsmen and fled to Spain, where he became ruler. His descendants estabhshed the Spanish caliphate, which continued until 1027 a.d. The second of the Abbasside caliphs founded the city of Bagdad as a capital city. Under the cahphs of both Bagdad and Cordova literature and philosophy flourished and the brilhant period of Moslem intellectual life began. The Koran is everywhere anthropomorphic in its conception of God. It insists on the eternity of the unrevealed exemplar of itself. The study of philosophy led in many quarters to pronounced skepticism on these points. Even Mamun, caHph of Bagdad, 813-33 a.d., became a philosophical skeptic much to the horror of most of the Moslem world. These skeptics were often called Mutazilites, or Seceders. Before the middle of the tenth century the Bagdad caliphs lost their poHtical power. Their empire had gradually broken up, dissolving into a number of petty political states which have changed many times in the lapse of centuries. The Abbasside caliphs continued to be the religious heads of Mohammedanism, except that in Spain and North Africa their authority was not acknowledged until after the fall, in 1171, of the Fati- mite caliphate. This caliphate had arisen at Kairwan in North Africa in 909 and conquered Egypt in 968. The Abbasside caliphs continued to reside at Bagdad until 1258 A.D., when they removed to Cairo. When MOHAMMEDANISM 105 Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1517 A.D., the last of the Abbasside line sold the office of caliph to the Sultan of Turkey, who, since that time, has been regarded as the successor of the Prophet. 114. Missionary efforts. — Throughout its history Islam has aimed at making converts. In the course of the centuries it has penetrated India, China, Africa, and the isles of the Pacific, and has made many converts. As it had its birth in a crude civilization and is in its original form a peculiarly objective faith, it is well adapted to the intelligence of the half-savage tribes of Africa and other backward lands. It is estimated that at present there are about 240,000,000 Mohammedans in the world. If this is true, they constitute nearly one-sixth of the population of the globe. 115. The development of Mohammedan law. — Mohammed regarded the Koran as God's revealed law for both sacred and secular things. In his legal deci- sions at Medina he sometimes followed Arabian tribal custom and sometimes the precedents of Jewish law. Where these failed him, he usually received a special revelation which was believed to disclose the divine will with reference to the matter in hand. Upon his death the revelations ceased; nevertheless, novel situations were continually rising. His successors had little diffi- culty in cases to which the words of the Koran were appUcable, or in cases analogous to those that the Prophet had decided. In other cases they had recourse to tradition. "The Companions of the Prophet," as those who had come in contact with him as faithful believers were afterward called, would, in such emer- gencies, recall that on such and such an occasion the io6 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Prophet had said or done so and so. After the death of the Companions, the memories of those who had known the Companions were drawn upon. They would say that they had heard so and so say that on such and such an occasion the Prophet said or did thus and so. And so the process went on. It must be admitted that the Companions and their successors often drew upon their imaginations, so that in time the body of traditions grew to enormous proportions, containing many items that were fictitious. AI-Bokhari, who died in 870 a.d., collected and sifted the traditions in his Sahih. He rejected many, but his collection contained about seven thousand traditions. Other collections were made, but that of Al-Bokhari, who possessed great critical insight, is the best. Simple tradition did not, however, always sufi&ce. In Syria and other territories conquered from Byzantium, Moslem courts had taken, over precedents and principles from the Roman courts that they found established there. It accordingly became necessary to justify the actual practice of Mohammedan tribunals from the Moslem point of view. The conditions varied in different parts of Islam. In applying the traditions to these conditions four schools of law were developed: (i) The earliest was that of Malik ibn Anas, a lawyer of Medina, who died in 796 a.d. Malik lived in the city of the Prophet, and sought to build up a body of jurisprudence on the basis of the precedents and tradi- tions of the Prophet. He represents a reaction from Abu Hanifa, and is the exponent of law based on tradition only. He was not careful as to the cor- rectness of a tradition, but only of its value in MOHAMMEDANISM 107 legal practice. His system is still followed in North Africa. (2) A second school was that of Abu Hanifa, a resi- dent of Kufa, a man of Persian birth, who died in 767 a.d. He was a lecturer on law — a speculative lawyer, rather than a practical jurist. He depended very little on the traditions, preferring to go directly to the text of the Koran. As this was in most cases inapplicable, he introduced the rule of analogy, which was practically identical with legal fiction. Even analogy he modified by what he called "holding for the better." Admitting that analogy pointed to such and such a rule, he would say, "Under the circumstances I hold it better to rule thus and thus." He thus made Moslem law so flexible tha,t regulations made for the desert need not ruin city life. The Ottoman Empire and Orthodox India still follow his legal principles. (3) A third school of law was foimded by Ash- Shafi'i, who resided at times in Arabia and at times in Egypt, and who died in 820 a.d. In addition to the Koran and tradition, both of which he regarded as inspired, he introduced the principle of agreement. If, for example, Moslem commxmities were found to follow customs for which there was no authority in the Koran or traditions, it was assumed that the Moslem commu- nities had agreed that such practices were right. As the first caHphs had attached weight to the agreement of the Companions of the Prophet, so Ash-Shafi'i made the agreement of Mohammedan communities a source of authority. Ash-Shafi'i also held that in drawing an analogy between a rule of the Koran and any particular case the reason lying behind the Koranic rule should be io8 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD taken into account. On the principles of Ash-Shafi'i any law or custom could be adopted and naturalized in Mohammedan law. The jurists of the Dutch protec- torates still follow the principles of Ash-Shafi'i. (4) A fourth school was formed by the disciples of Ahmad ibn Hanbal of Bagdad, who died in 855 a.d. He was a resident of Bagdad, who revolted against the rationahsm of the ninth-century caliphs there. He swerved to literal traditionalism, suffered severe perse- cution, and was regarded by his disciples as a saint. He developed Moslem law in no way, his influence being wholly reactionary. His followers in modern Islam are few and are found chiefly in Arabia. 116. Sects. — Mohammedan sects are almost as numerous and varied as the sects of the Christian church. Attention can be given here only to the most important. The Karejites (Khawagri), or "Come- outers," were a group that grew up in the early days of Islam. They were radical reformers, and sought to establish a theocracy, urging that a pious man of what- ever tribe or nation might be called to the caKphate. They, too, afterward broke up into many minor sects. The greatest cleavage in Islam is, however, that between the Shiites and Sunnites. (i) The Shiites had their origin at the end of the caliphate of Medina and were the outgrowth of a group that had been discontented ever since the Prophet's death. This group had held that the first three caliphs were interlopers; that the Prophet desired Ah, the hus- band of Fatima, to be his successor. When Ali became caliph after the assassination of Othman, Muawia resisted him, professing to be an avenger of the murdered MOHAMMEDANISM 109 Othman. Ali fought him for a time, but was finally persuaded to refer the dispute to arbitration. The decision went against AK, and the Karejites were so disgusted with him that one of them assassinated him. His eldest son Hasan was regarded for a time by a small coterie as caliph, but was poisoned in 669. His other son, Hosein, eleven years later headed an insur- rection against the Omayyad caliph Yezid and was killed in battle. The slaughter of AU and his sons, descendants of the Prophet, at the hands of Moslems seemed to the Shiites the greatest outrage. The Shiites were at first largely of the Persian race, and the Persians are still Shiites. Of Aryan stock, they believe more easily than the Semites in incarnations. The tragic deaths of Ali and his sons led them to regard these heroes as almost divine. Their tombs are to this day sacred shrines to the Shiite sects, and passion-plays still keep alive the memory of their sufferings. Among all the Shiites, AU is regarded as an incomparable warrior, concerning whose prowess the most extraor- dinary legends are told. They regard him also as a saint whose miracles equal those of the prophets. In contrast with the Shiites are the Sunnites, or tradi- tionalists, or those who follow the ordinary traditions of Islam and who recognize the legitimacy of the first four caliphs. The Turks are Sunnites. The Shiites have broken up into many sects, among whom the Nusari and the Ali-ilahi believe Ali to be an incarnation of God. The Nusari believe him to be the first of the three persons of the Trinity. The Shiites have a tend- ency to adopt Aryan types of mysticism, which some- times strain their monotheism almost to the breaking no THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD point. According to the more general Shiite view Ali and his two sons were imams, or divinely appointed leaders, who were succeeded for a time by other imams. Some of the sects regard the imams as Nuqat, or "Points" of divine manifestation. Some Shiites hold that there were seven imams, others twelve. Both agree that the last imam did not die, but is concealed, awaiting the proper time for his full manifestation. (2) The Ismailites, or "Seveners," were a Persian sect of Shiites, who believed that Ismail, who had been adopted by Abd-Allah ibn Maimun, the sixth imam, upon the death of the latter in 766 a.d. became the seventh and last imam. They believed in reality in a system of incarnations by sevens. In this system Ismail was the forty-ninth incarnation. (3) The Druses. — In the eleventh century Darazi, an Ismailian, went to Egypt and persuaded the Fatimite caliph Hakim that the caliph as a descendant of Ali was an incarnation of God. After the disappearance of Hakim, who appears to have been insane, Darazi went to Syria and taught. He was opposed in some tenets by one Hamzah, whose opinions finally prevailed among the followers of Darazi. It thus happens that Darazi is counted a heretic by the sect which bears his name. This sect is now known as the Druses and is quite numerous in the neighborhood of the Lebanon Moun- tains and in the Hauran to the east of the Sea of Galilee. (4) The Assassins is a name given by Europeans to another of the Ismailian sects. This sect made much of the doctrine of imams. It spread to Syria in the time of the Crusaders, and its leader, Rashid ed-Din Sinan, "the Old Man of the Mountain," who claimed to be MOHAMMEDANISM iii not only an imam but an incarnation of Deity, was for many years the terror of the Lebanon. The Assassins, with many other Ismailians, held to the "inner meaning" of the Koran rather than to its outward form, and could thus set aside its obvious precepts. A band of disciples was ever ready to assassinate those marked out by the head of the order for death. (5) Babism and Bahaism. — On May 23, 1844, Mirza AH Mohammed, a merchant of Shiraz in Persia, an- nounced that he was the Bab, or gate through which men might hold communion with the concealed imam. Later he declared himself to be an incarnation of God. The claim was admitted by a number of enthusiastic followers, some of whom suffered martyrdom for the belief. The Bab was martyred at Tabriz, July 9, 1850. Bahaullah, one of the Bab's followers, proclaimed him- self in 1866-67 "He whom God manifests." He claimed that the Bab had foretold his coming, being simply his forerunner. The followers of Bahaullah are called Bahis. After the Bab was put to death his followers fled to Bagdad, whence some years later the Turkish government removed them to Adrianople. It was here that Bahaullah proclaimed himself — an act which caused schism and bloodshed among the Babists. In conse- quence of this the Bahaites were removed to Akka in Palestine, and the Babists to Cyprus. The Babists soon dwindled in numbers and influence, while the Bahaites have increased in importance, and have carried on a somewhat successful propaganda in the United States. 117. Scholastic theologians. — ^As Moslems imbibed the principles of Greek philosophy, there were a number 112 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD who began to apply these principles to the Koran and the articles of the Moslem faith. They were called MutaziHtes, or Seceders, and were numerous and popular among the Shiites. The first of a long line of scholastic theologians who opposed the MutazUites and endeavored to justify the tenets of Islam by the use of reason was Al-Ashari, who died in 933. He was of Arab stock, but, according to tradition, brought up by a MutaziUte stepfather. He was himself a Mutazilite until he was forty years of age, when he underwent a conversion to orthodox views. His conversion has given rise to several legends. He devoted the rest of his life to the defense of the Koran and the traditions — a task for which his previous education peculiarly fitted him. No one with sufficient intellectual equipment had before undertaken it. He handled the questions with great acuteness, and in one respect (the definition of what a thing is) he anticipated Kant. The greatest of all the Mohammedan theologians was, however, Al-Ghazali, who was born in 1059 and died in 1 109. He was the St. Augustine of Islam. He com- bined great philosophical abihty with a profound type of mystical piety. During his earlier years he was a pupil of Mutazilite teachers, and at one time became a thorough skeptic. After this he experienced a con- version so remarkable that it is quoted by William James in his Varieties of Religious Experience. During his closing years he was a Sufi or mystic, as well as a defender of the faith. There was a tenderness and charity about all his judgments of others that is very winning. In philosophy Al-Ghazali, like Hume, was a thorough skeptic. He held that we can know the cause of nothing. MOHAMMEDANISM 113 We only know that events succeed one another; whether one is caused by the other is a matter beyond our ken. All our knowledge is due to revelation, whether in the religious or in the scientific sphere. According to him existence has three modes. The first is the world that is apparent to the senses; it exists by the power of God and is in constant change. Then there is the unseen, eternal universe that exists by God's eternal decree, without development and without change. Between these is an intermediate universe, which seems externally to belong to the first, but in respect of the power of God really belongs to the second. Al-Ghazali refused to allegorize the Koran, but, holding that angels, the Koran, Islam, and Friday are not corporeal realities, but actual existences in the unseen, eternal universe, he avoided the crass concreteness of much of Moslem thought. In dogmatic theology Al-Ghazali resembled Albrecht Ritschl. He rejected metaphysics and opposed the influence of any philosophical system on his theology. Theology must be based on rehgious phenomena, simply accepted and correlated. Like Ritschl, he laid stress on the value for us of a piece of knowledge. Al-Ghazali led Islam back to reality in rehgion. He would have been called in Christianity a biblical theologian. He combined with his genuine attachment to the Koran and traditions a genuine piety and religious experience.' He is probably the most influential figure in Islam after Mohammed. 118. Modem reactionary sects. — ^Arabia, always largely untouched by outside influences, produced in the ' This statement of Al-Ghazali's thought is based on D. B. Mac- donald's "Life of Al-Ghazali," Journal oj the American Oriental Society, XX, 71-132. 114 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD eighteenth century in the person of Abd-al-Wahab, a native of the Negd, who died in 1787, a reactionary reformer. It was his aim to restore Islam to its primi- tive purity, and to lop off all later accretions. He was the founder of the Wahabites, who take the Koran literally, and follow the legal maxims of Ibn Hanbal. The movement soon produced a dynasty that early in the nineteenth century ruled all of Arabia. The poHtical power has vanished and Wahabism has become, as at the first, a religious sect. It doubtless had some influ- ence upon Mohammed ibn Ali as-Sanusi, who in 1837 founded the Brotherhood of as-Sanusi for the purpose of reforming and spreading the Mohammedan faith. 119. The mystics. — The unseen world has always been very real to Mohammedans and has always seemed very near. From the earUest times there has been an element in Islam which was repelled by traditional teaching and intellectual reasoning. Such persons often became ascetics, and sought by mortifying the flesh to commune with God through direct vision. Such persons are called Sufis, from sufi, "wool," because in the early days they wore rough woolen garments. The tendency to asceticism has led to the organization of numerous religious orders and to a great variety of types of thought. The orders are often called "dervishes," from a Persian word meaning "seeking doors." The term is now not restricted to mendicant orders. Some of the mystics came under the influence of Greek mystical writings, and are scarcely to be distinguished from pantheists. Others, hke the Christian Gnostics, exalt knowledge. Others simply accept God's immanence in the world and exalt the life in God. Ascetic and mystic sects have MOHAMMEDANISM iiS flourished among the Berbers of North Africa. One of these, the Al-Morabits (Almoravides), or "Monastics," established a dynasty which conquered Spain in 1087, and was overthrown by the Al-Mohads, a dynasty founded by another fanatical Berber sect. The Mohads were founded by Ibn Tumart, a pupil of Al-Ghazali, who emphasized the unity, tawhid, of God. Tawhid, however, as he employed it, stood for the spirituality of God. While often leading to political consequences, asceti- cism and mysticism have opened the way in Islam to the religious life as a vocation for both men and women. While much that is bizarre and fanatical, and even demoralizing, has found expression in these orders, they have helped to keep the religious life of Islam in touch with reality, and have been one of the means of so diver- sifying Islam that it could meet a great variety of rehgious needs. 120. Estimate of Islam.^ — Mohammedanism began as the religion of a semibarbarous people. Though a great advance upon the Arabian heathenism which it displaced, it appeals, in its primitive form, essentially to backward peoples. Though Mohammed endeavored so to fetter it that progress would be impossible, the genius of the best Mohammedan thinkers has been able to find avenues of expansion and to make Islam a fairly exalted religion. The varieties of Islamic thought rival those of Christianity, and the nimiber of its mystical sects surpasses that of Christianity. Much must be conceded to a religious system that commands the devo- tion of nearly one-sixth of the population of the globe, even if it must be recognized that it is not the natural ii6 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD instrument for the expression of the religious feeling of the most refined. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sec. 107: cf. S. M. Zwemer, Arabia the Cradle of Islam (New York and Chicago, 1900), chaps, i and ii. On sees. 108-10: cf. Sir William Muir, Mahomet and Islam (London, 1895); or A. Giknan, The Saracens (New York and London, 1887), chaps, iv-xxii. On sees. 111-13: A. Oilman, The Saracens (New York and London, 1887),' chaps, xxiii-xli; S. Lane-Poole, The Moors in Spain (New York and London, 1891); or Ameer Ali, A Short History of the Saracens (London, 1899). On sec. 114: cf . D. B. Macdonald, Aspects of Islam (New York, 191 1), chap. viii. On sec. 115: cf. D. B. Macdonald, Muslim Theology, Juris- prudence, and Constitutional Theory (New York, 1903), pp. 65-118. On sees. 116, 118: cf. D. S. MargoHouth, Mohammedanism (London), chap, v, and "Assassins," "Babis and Bahais," and "Druses," in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; or I. Goldziber, Mohammed and Islam (New Haven, 1917), chap. V. On see. 117: cf. D. B. Macdonald, Muslim Theology, Juris- prudence, and Constitutional Theory (New York, 1903), pp. 186-242. On sec. 119: cf. R. A. Nicholson, The Mystics of Islam (London, 1914); or D. B. Macdonald, Religious Attitude and Life in Islam (Chicago, 1909), Lectures VI, VII; or D. B. Mac- donald, Aspects of Islam (New York, 1911), Lectures V, VI. CLASS B D. S. MargoKouth, Mohammedanism in the "Home University Library. " CHAPTER VII ZOROASTRIANISM Ahura Mazdah,most beneficent Spirit, Maker of the material world, thou Holy One! — -Vendidad ii, i. 1 conceived of thee, O Mazdah, in my thought that thou, the First, art also the Last — that thou art Father of Good Thought, for thus I apprehended thee with mine eye — that thou didst truly create Right, and art Lord to judge the actions of life — Yasna xxxi, 8. I win speak of the Spirits twain at the first beginning of the world, of whom the holier thus spake to the enemy: Neither thought nor teachings nor wills nor beUefs nor words nor deeds nor selves nor souls of us twain agree. — ^Yasna xlv, 2. All the pleasures of life which thou boldest, those that were, that are, and that shall be, O Mazdah, according to thy good will apportion them. Through Good Thought advance thou the body, through Dominion and Right at will. — ^Yasna xxxiii, 10. It is they, the liars, who destroy Ufa, who are mightily deter- mined to deprive matron and master of the enjoyment of their heritage, in that they would pervert the righteous, O Mazdah, from the Best Thought. — ^Yasna xxxii, 11. In immortaUty shall the soul of the righteous be joyful, in perpetuity shaU the torments of the liars. AU this doth Mazdah Ahura appoint by his Dominion. — Yasna xlv, 7. 121. Persia is geographically a great tableland or plateau. This was called Iran and extends beyond the borders of modern Persia into Afghanistan on the east. The area of this elevated region is nearly one-fifth of the United States of America. Moimtains boimd it on nearly every side, opening only through rocky passes. 117 ii8 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Frequently they stretch far into the interior. While parts of this tableland are well watered, it has no rivers worthy of the name. Most streams are absorbed by the soil before they reach an outlet. In many portions of the land irrigation is a necessity, if crops are to be wrung from the arid wastes. Nevertheless the soil responds readily to tillage. It is natural that in such a country irrigation should become synonymous with righteousness, as it was in the Zoroastrian rehgion, and that agriculture should be regarded as a religious duty.' 122. The people of Iran, as we know them in history, belonged to the Aryan branch of the Indo-European stock. At some remote period their ancestors had lived on the great plain to the north of the Hindu Kush Mountains side by side with the ancestors of the Aryans of India. At what date they migrated into Parthia, Media, Persia, etc., we cannot now determine. Aryan names are found among the Mitanni of the upper Euphrates Valley and among the Hittites of Boghaz Kui about 1400-1300 B.C. Among the Mitanni the names of Mitra, Indra, and Varuna, Aryan gods, are found during the same period.^ It seems probable that the Mitannians and Hittites were a mixture of races, but the presence of these gods, which appear also in India, prove that there were Aryans among them. Whether the migra- tion of Aryans into India and Persia occurred before or after 1400 B.C. it is impossible at present to determine. • Compare A. V. W. Jackson, Persia, Past and Present (New York, 1906), pp. 23 f. ' See Winckler, Milteilungen der deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, No. 3S (1907), p. SI. ZOROASTRIANISM 1 1 g The most that we can say is that the Medes were in the region of Media in the ninth century B.C., for in the year 836 B.C. Shalmaneser III of Assyria invaded their land.' It seems probable that by this time the Aryan stock had penetrated those parts of Iran in which we find them in later times. The struggle with nature in this elevated tableland produced an efficient, practical people, not unlike the ancient Romans in their general characteristics. Their kinsmen of India became in the milder Indian climate contemplative, speculative, mystical. The Persians remained to the end active and alert, more deeply interested in objective realities than in metaphysical speculations. On this account the religion of Zoroaster was very different from the religions of India. 123. The sources of our knowledge of the religion of Zoroaster are extant portions of the Avesta,^ collected probably in the last period of the Achaemenian Dynasty after 400 B.C., and the Pahlavi- texts, the most important of which is the Bundahishn. These were collected during the Sasanian Dynasty (220-641 a.d.) and the centuries immediately following, having been edited not later than 881 A.D. The Pahlavi writings bear about the same relation to the Avesta that the Talmud does to the Old Testament, or the patristic writings to the New Testa- ment, though the analogy is not quite complete, since it is probable that in parts of the Bundahishn lost portions of the Avesta are reproduced in a late form. The Avesta consists of three parts, the Vendidad, the Yashts, ' See Schrader, KeilinschriftUche BiUiolhek, I, 143. 'The etymology of the name Avesta, despite proposed explanations uch as "knowledge," or again "text," or the like, remains imcertain. I20 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD and the Yasna. These are not all of the same age. The oldest portion is Yasna xxviii-liii, hymns that are called Gathas, written in a very old dialect. It is generally agreed that these are as old as Zoroaster himself, and contain, besides his own words, as sage, seer, and religious teacher, our most authentic informa- tion about the prophet. These seventeen psalms form an especially sacred part of the Avesta. They are called "holy" in the later texts. Like the Hebrew Psalms, they are collected into five groups named the "Five Gathas." Throughout them runs the tone of a prophet proclaiming a faith not known before. The other parts of the Avesta contain material that is undoubtedly old, though later in form of redaction. The Visperad and the liturgical Yasna, which contains litanies for the sacrifice, may be later than the Gathas, but in the Yashts there is much that dates back to antique times. It is in a measure pre-Zoroastrian. The Yashts are poetic expressions of the mythology and historical legends of ancient Iran, and represent, it has been conjectured, the popular religious beliefs which the prophet opposed, but was unable to suppress, and which, after his death, found a place among the sacred writings.' The Vendidad is a compilation of ritual laws and of mythical tales possibly of non-Aryan origin.'' It is the Book of Leviticus of Zoroastrianism. It has been conjectured that this ritual was introduced by the Magi at the end of the Achaemenian period, i.e., between 405 and 331 B.C. At any rate, it reproduces old Iranian ' See J. H. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism (London, 1913), p. 182. ' So Moulton, ibid., p. 183. ZOROASTRIANISM I2I material, which probably represents the attitude of Zoroaster as little as the Levitical laws represent that of the prophet Amos. The term "Bundahishn" means "creation of the be- ginnings" or "original creation." The work is a collec- tion of fragments relating to cosmogony, mythology, and legendary history. It is compiled in the Pahlavi dialect, that stage in the development of the Persian language when the older inflectional endings had been dropped and before the modern Persian alphabet had been introduced. Its legendary history contains ac- counts of Zoroaster's Hfe. 124. The Iranian religion before Zoroaster was clearly a type of polytheism kindred to that of the Vedas. Mithra, a sun-god kindred to the Vedic Mitra, was widely worshiped, as was Ahura, who corresponds to the Vedic Asura, and the Greek Ouranos,' and was appar- ently originally a sky-god. Varuna is sometimes called Asura (the Sanskrit form of Ahura), which means "lord." Ahura appears to have been called among the Persians, even before the time of Zoroaster, Ahura Mazdah, the Wise Lord, for his name appears in a list of gods compiled for the library of Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria (668-626 B.C.), where it occurs near that of an Elamite deity."" As this inscription was written before Zoroaster began to preach, it affords positive proof of the existence of Ahura Mazdah as a pre-Zoroastrian divinity. The prominence of fire even in the religion of Zoroaster 'See M. Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda (New York, 1908), pp. 136 ff. ' See H. Rawlinson, Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia, III (London, 1870), p. 66, col. IX, 24; cf. also F. Hommel in the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, XXI (1899), 127, 132. 122 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD indicates that the Iranians reverenced a fire-spirit kindred to the Indian Agni. That these gods were related to those of India is further shown by the promi- nence of Haoma, the Vedic Soma (an intoxicating drink), in their cults — a feature that later found its way back into Zoroastrianism/ In later tradition Haoma was thought to be an angel with whom Zoroaster once conversed. Together with these deities many daevas were feared. In later times these were regarded as demons, but before Zoroaster they may have been reverenced as gods, since the corresponding word deva in Sanskrit means god. This is, however, uncertain. The conditions of existence on the elevated plains of Iran colored the religious thought of the people. It was not easy for the agricultural communities to wrest the means of subsistence from an arid soil that must be continually irrigated. From the sterile steppes, espe- cially from Turan (Turkestan) to the north, unsettled nomads were ever ready to swoop down and plunder the crops and cattle of Iran. The world naturally seemed to them, because of this, a struggle between good and evil — between light and darkness. All that promoted agriculture and the raising of cattle was good; whatever destroyed these was evil. As time passed, this view of the universe was intensified. 125. Life of Zoroaster. — The Gathas, our only con- temporary source, are religious h)niins. They contain no biography of Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, and the tra- ditions in later documents are conflicting. It seems ' See, for example, Yasht xxiii of the Avesta in F. Max MuUer, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXIII, and Yasna ix, 1-16, ibid., Vol. XXXI. ZOROASTRIANISM 123 certain that Zoroaster was born in Iran, but whether in Bactria or Media it is difficult to say. Professor Jackson favors the view that he was born in Atropatene in the neighborhood of Lake Urumia/ Little is known of his early life. According to tradition he retired from the world when about twenty years of age, giving himself for a number of years to religious meditation. During these years he fought out the fight of his own faith and doubtless began the formulation of the general truths of his religious system. When about thirty the revelation came to him. In a vision that was repeated thrice in one day he was admitted to the presence of Ahura Mazdah^ in heaven, and the Supreme Being himself instructed Zoroaster, by the Omniscient Wisdom, in the doctrines of the faith. Upon returning to earth Zoroaster began to preach to the ruling priests the new rehgion — the worshiping of Mazdah, the anathematizing of demons, the glorification of the archangels, and the marriage of the next of kin. During the next seven or eight years he was granted six more visions, in which each of the archangels appeared to him: Vohu Manah, or "Good Thought"; Asha Vahishta, or "Perfect Righteousness"; Khsha- thra Vairya, or "Wished-for Kingdom"; Spenta Armaiti, a feminine personification of harmony and the earth; Haurvatat, "Health" or "Salvation"; and ' Cf. A. V. W. Jackson, Zoroaster the Prophet of Ancient Iran, pp. 16-22. No certain account of the prophet's life or the early develop- ment of the religion is possible. The account given in the text is con- fessedly conjectural, though based on legends which may have had facts behind them, since Zoroaster was a historical personage. ' Spelled also in Pahlavi as Aiiharmazd and in later Persian as Ormuzd. 124 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Ameretat, or "Immortality." In Zoroaster's thought these six personified qualities, or institutions, became the chief attendants and agencies of Ahura Mazdah. Possi- bly he substituted them for spirits which the earlier heathenism had associated with Ahura, for in the list of Ashurbanipal, Ahura Mazdah is referred to in connection with the seven Igigi, or spirits of heaven. For ten years Zoroaster presented his doctrine in vain at court after court of the petty rulers of Iran and Turan. But one disciple had been won, Maidyoi-maonha, Zoroaster's cousin. At the end of this period of preaching and com- munion with the powers of heaven Zoroaster underwent a severe temptation. In the eleventh year of his mission Zoroaster sought out the court of a certain Vishtaspa (Hystaspes), where he spent two years trying to convert the monarch. Of course he met with much opposition, but finally he was successful, and Vishtaspa became a disciple and a cham- pion of the faith. His court followed the example of the ruler, and the subjects of the realm came into out- ward conformity. The conversion of Vishtaspa changed the whole outlook of Zoroastrianism. The prophet was no longer a lonely preacher; he had now a powerful ' royal patron who could back the appeal of the new rehgion with force of arms. If we follow the traditional chronology of the life of Zoroaster, as Professor Jackson is inclined to do, the prophet was born about 660 b.c. His preaching began about 630 B.C., and, when Vishtaspa was converted in 618 B.C., Zoroaster was forty-two years old. The same tradition says that he lived to be seventy-seven years old. If this be true, his ministry continued thirty-five ZOROASTRIANISM 125 years after the conversion of Vishtaspa. During these years various sages are reputed to have come to the court of Vishtaspa in order to refute Zoroaster, and to have been converted by him. The chief of these was the Brahman Cangranghacah. Perhaps the story of this Brahman is historical, though those relating to Greek conversions are doubtless apocryphal. According to traditions Vishtaspa was compelled to fight two wars in consequence of the new religion. These wars were fought vnth. Arejat-aspa (Arjasp), a Turanian, who invaded Vishtaspa's kingdom from the north. The first invasion of Arejat-aspa resulted in the complete defeat of the unbelievers. This was accomplished through the heroism of a gallant crusader of the faith, Isfendiar, who was rewarded for his valor with the hand of Vishtaspa's daughter. Between the first holy war and the second a considerable period elapsed. Jamasp is said to have written down the teachings of Zoroaster and the scriptures were circulated even to distant lands. Isfendiar, who had expected to succeed the monarch, was thrown into prison through the jealousy of another prince. While Vishtaspa was absent in Seistan, Arejat- aspa again invaded the kingdom. There was only his aged father Lohrasp to defend it. He was unequal to the task. The kingdom was overrun and Zoroaster slain. This was, on the traditional chronology, in the year 583-582 B.C. The Iranians were beleaguered on a lonely height and all seemed to be lost, when Isfendiar was released from prison and saved the day. Jamasp is said to have been the prophet's first successor. 126. Teachings. — Zoroaster was a practical mono- theist. In his thought Ahura Mazdah was the One 126 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Supreme Deity. He appears to have taken this god from among those revered by his Aryan ancestors and to have done for him what Amos and the prophets of the eighth century did for Yahweh. To him Ahura Mazdah was the all-wise Creator, who knows all inex- plicable things.' He knows men's secret sins;^ he is absolute Lord.' The absolute sovereignty of Ahura Mazdah was in the present state of the world potential only. Though Zoroaster in the Gathas does not have much to say of Angra Mainyu, it is nevertheless assumed that the spirit of evil is as eternal as Ahura Mazdah him- self, and exists independently of him.'' Nevertheless Ahura Mazdah will in the end achieve dominion over him.5 The agencies employed by Ahura for the accom- pHshment of his will were the heavenly helpers, Good Thought, Perfect Righteousness, Wished-for Kingdom, etc., though in the thought of Zoroaster Good Thought and Perfect Righteousness are far more important than the others. Popular Iranian belief held the animistic idea that each person had a guardian spirit or double called a Fravashi, which seems to have been analogous to the Egyptian Ka. Zoroaster appears to have rejected this idea, but he retained an analogous one that there is a heavenly ox-soul which bore a similar relation to cattle as the Fravashis to men.* Zoroaster proclaimed that Ahura Mazdah demands righteousness of men, and that his help is promised to those who desire it.' It is assumed that man is the ' See Yasna li. = Yasna xxxi, 13. ' Yasna xlv, 10, 11. ' Yasna xxxi, 21. ' Yasna xxix, j.. < Yasna xlv, 2. 'Yasna xxxiv, 15; xliii, i. ZOROASTRIANISM 127 arbiter of his own destiny; that he can do right if he will. Right is truthfulness, the practice of justice, and the fostering of agriculture; wrong is lying, robbery, and the destruction of irrigation and cattle. On the last day the characters of men will be tried by the ordeal of passing through molten metal.^ The righteous, who come out unharmed, will be accorded eternal bliss; the evil will be assigned to the house of liars forever.^ The gospel of Zoroaster was characterized by its power of abstract thought, as well as by its ethical and practical insight. It was distinctly an effort of religious reform. The prophet rejected the popular gods as daevas or demons,' and apparently most of the popular religious practices. 127. Under the Achaemenians. — The details of the early progress of Zoroastrianism are shrouded in ob- scurity. How far the wars of Vishtaspa, the patron of the prophet, carried it we have no means of knowing. It seems probable, though not certain, that the kings of the powerful Achaemenian Dynasty, founded by Cyrus the Great in 553 B.C., were from the first Zoroastrians. It is true that Cyrus in the one inscription of his that has come down to us — an inscription written in Baby- lonian and found at Babylon'' — speaks of himself as a worshiper of the Babylonian god Marduk. This he probably did for reasons of state, and he may well have thought that all gods were but other names for Ahura. ' Yasua xxxiv, 4; cf. I Cor. 3: 13: "The fire shall try every man's work." ' Yasnaxliii, 5; xlv, 7; xlviii, 7; xlix, 11, i, 2, etc. 3 Yasna xlviii, i. *See G. A. Barton, Archaeology and the Bible, p. 385, for a trans- lation. 128 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD That he named his daughter Atossa, the same as Huta- osa, the queen of Vishtaspa, has been held to indicate that he probably reverenced everything connected with the prophet.' Darius I and Xerxes in their inscriptions constantly refer to Ahura Mazdah as their god. It is true that there is no real certainty that they thought of Ahura as Zoroaster thought of him, but they say nothing to indicate that they thought of Ahura as only one among many deities.^ Apparently Darius was a mono- theist. The father of Darius, too, bore the name Hystaspes, or Vishtaspa — a fact that creates a probability that also in this branch of the Achaemenians Zoroaster and his patron were honored.^ It seems probable that Zoroastrianism was the religion of Persia at this time, for Herodotus, who visited the country in the reign of Artaxerxes I, describes the religion as substantially that represented in the Yashts of the Avesta. He says that they worship the whole circle of heaven under the name of Zeus. This was the Greek way of indicating the equivalent of Zeus. It is testimony that Ahura Mazdah, who, as already shown, was originally the sky-god, was the chief deity. Along with him he says they worshiped the sun (Mithra),'' the moon,5 the earth,* fire,' water,* and the winds,' as ' Cf. J. H. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism, pp. 88 f. ' See the inscriptions of Darius translated in A ssyrian and Babylonian Literature, edited by R. F. Harper (New York, igoi), pp. 174-93. 3 See Moulton, ibid. ' < See the Mihir Yasht, Sacred Boohs oj the East, XXIII, 119-58, and A. J. Camoy, Iranian Mythology (Boston, 1917), pp. 287-88. ^Ibid., pp. 8, 16, 19. ' Ibid., pp. 286 flf. ' Ibid., pp. 16, 356 f . ' Ibid., pp. 358 £. » Ibid., p. 18. ZOROASTRIANISM 129 well as a mother-goddess whom they had borrowed from the Semites.' She was the Avestan Anahita.^ In the Yashts and Sirozas of the Avesta the worship of these elements appears in conjunction with Ahura Mazdah and the six good spirits: Good Thought, Perfect Righteous- ness, etc. ; hence it seems probable that by this time the pure ethical teaching of Zoroaster, which was probably in advance of the thought of the majority, had been fused with much of the earlier heathen practices. Among these practices was, apparently, that of main- taining the sacred fires. Tradition attributed the kindling of some of these to Zoroaster. Except for the compromise with older customs Zoroastrianism could probably not have survived. In this respect the ex- perience of Zoroastrianism was parallel to the religion of Israel, to Mohammedanism, and even to Christianity. A place was found for these additional objects of worship by supposing that they were reverenced as creations of Ahura. Under the Achaemenians the Magi, originally a Median tribe,' gradually attained power through royal patronage and became the priests of Zoroastrianism." It was probably due to their influence that during the 'The passage is Herodotus i. 131. Herodotus confused Mithra with An^hita. 'Ibid., pp. 52-84, and Moulton, op. cit., pp. 66, and 238 f. Arta- xerxes Mnemon, 405-359 B.C., is the first to mention these new deities in inscriptions. 3 Herodotus i. loi. < They came into favor through Cambyses, who appointed one of them as his steward (Herodotus iii. 61). They were in disfavor after the accession of Darius I, but later Artaxerxes Mnemon became their patron, and their triumph was complete. See Berossos as quoted by Clement of Alexandria, Exhortation to the Greeks, V, 65. I30 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD closing decades of the Achaemenian D3Tiasty the Avesta was completed by the addition of the Yashts and the Vendidad. By these additions the ethical system of Zoroaster was grafted into a mass of nature-myths and ritual with which it originally had little in common. The ritual is as arid as that connected with any Semitic religion. One other theological addition can be traced — the raising of Angra Mainjoi to the position of an archfiend. Zoroaster, as already pointed out, had recognized that at the beginning there were two spirits.' These two spirits he described as twins and defined them as the Better and the Bad (Angra) in thought, word, and action ;'' it was the Bad Spirit who taught the daevas and liars to ruin mankind.' Beyond this Zoroaster did not go, but in the Vendidad, Angra Mainjoi, or the Bad Spirit, is portrayed as the evil counterpart of Ahura Mazdah, who at the time of creation met each beneficent creation of Ahura Mazdah by a counter-creation of evil.'' Whereas in the thought of Zoroaster, Angra Mainyu was apparently thought of as a spirit who could be largely ignored, and whose influence could be overcome by right-doing, in the Vendidad he had become an active and mahgnant devil, whose presence it was necessary to banish, along with that of other demons, by powerful incantations.^ 128. Under Greeks and Parthians. — The conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great gave the development of Zoroastrianism a great check. Greek cities were ■ Yasna xlv, 2. " Yasna xxx, 3. ' See Sacred Books of the East, IV, 4 S. 3 Yasna xxxii, 5. = Ibid., pp. 142 f. ZOROASTRIANISM 131 founded in many parts of Persia. Zoroastrians were no longer the ruling caste, and there was a popular move- ment in favor of polytheism. Later the Zoroastrian countries passed imder the sway of Parthia, but this did not permanently improve the status of the religion. At first the Magi were held in high esteem and had much influence,' but later they fell into disfavor and were deprived of power.^ The Parthians were tolerant of all reUgions, and, even if in theory Zoroastrianism was main- tained, that which most impressed a foreign observer was the worship of Mithra, or the sim,^ and the adoration of rivers'* — both features of the cult of the later Avesta. While this may have been the official cult, the people worshiped with special ceremonies household gods rep- resented by images. 5 Josephus calls these "ancestral," and it was doubtless an old cult that Zoroastrianism had never suppressed. In spite of these disintegrating influ- ences the rehgion maintained itself and the sacred fires were kept burning during the five himdred and fifty years from the conquest of Alexander to the estabHsh- ment of the second Persian empire under the Sasanian Dynasty in 220 a.d. 129. The Sasanians, who were intensely patriotic Persians, regarded Zoroastrianism as their ancestral faith and inaugurated an enthusiastic revival of it. The sacred Avesta was not only copied and studied, but, since in the lapse of centuries the inflections of spoken ' Strabo, XI, ix, 3. " Agathias ii. 26. 3 Herodian iv. 30. ■• Justin xli. 3. 5 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XVIII, ix, 5. 132 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Persian had so worn away that the language of the Avesta was no longer understood, paraphrases in the vernacular were circulated. Such paraphrases were also necessary because in the Sasanian period an alphabet was in use different from that employed in the Avesta. The para- phrases of the Sasanian time, like the Jewish targums to some of the biblical books, were often free reproduc- tions into which much new material was woven. Such texts are known as Pahlavi-texts — Pahlavi being the name of the writing of this period. It is generally ac- cepted that "Pahlavi" is a corruption of "Parthian." While the Pahlavi-texts were based on the Avesta, and are believed in parts to preserve the substance of Avestan books that are now lost, they represent the final doc- trinal development of Zoroastrianism. To the doctrine of this period we shall presently return. Under some of the Sasanians Zoroastrianism became again a militant reHgion. At times it was propagated by the sword. One king actually imposed it for a time on the Arme- nian Christians.' The four hundred years of Sasanian supremacy witnessed the last triumph of this faith. 130. Since the Mohammedan conquest Zoroastrian- ism has declined. Under the early caliphs Zoroastrians were, with Jews and Christians, accorded the privilege of retaining their religion and paying a head tax, since they, too, were "people of a book" (i.e., possessed scriptures). Later they were denied this exemption. Until the ninth century they appear to have flourished, since Pahlavi-texts were written in considerable numbers until then, but after this they began to decline. The cause is obscure. It may have been due to the influence ' Cf. George Rawlinson, The Seventh Oriental Monarchy, chap. xv. ZOROASTRIANISM 133 of fanatical Shiites and to the oppression by Seljuk Turks. Two hundred years ago Zoroastrians were esti- mated at one hundred thousand in Persia; today they number only about ten thousand souls.' In the early centuries of Islam, Zoroastrians estab- lished themselves in India. Their descendants now num- ber about a hundred thousand. They reside chiefly in the Bombay presidency and are very prosperous. They had become very ignorant of their sacred books, which they could read only in imperfect translations, though in the last fifty years, through a revival of learning, they have revived their religion through a clearer knowledge of its sources. Through all the centuries they have adhered with considerable fidelity to their ritual. 131. Final form of the doctrines. — The historical development of Zoroastrianism from the Gathas to the Bundahishn resulted in a theory of the world based on a well-defined dualism. The forces of good were led by Ahura Mazdah and the six archangels, who were followed by many angels and lesser divine beings. The arch- angels were, as in the time of Zoroaster, Vohu Manah, Asha Vahishta, Khshathra Vairya, Spenta Armaiti, Haurvatat, and Ameretat. In the Bundahishn these six are called Amesha Spentas ("Immortal Holy Ones"). The angels and lesser divine beings are called Yazatas ("Worshipful Ones"). Mithra and Anahita had in this period become angels. Opposed to Ahura Mazdah is Angra Mainyu (also called Ahriman) and his hosts. The hosts of evil were riot so well organized as the hosts of good. After Ahriman the demon Aehsma (Daeva)^ ' Cf. G. F. Moore, History of Religions (New York, 1913), pp. 378 f. ' See Tobit iii. 17, where he is called Asmodaeus. 134 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD seems to have been the most prominent. To him were given seven powers.' The other archdemons, mentioned incidentally in the Avesta, in the Pahlavi-books were named Akoman, or Ako Manu ("Bad Thought"), Andar (who is no other than the Vedic god Indra),^ Sovar, Nakahed, Tair^v, and ZMrik. These six, in some pas- sages, form with Angra Mainyu a group antithetic to Ahura Mazdah and the Amesha Spentas.' To many other demons proper names and special functions were assigned;'' and in addition many other demons were sup- posed to exist. Nevertheless Ahriman was not believed to be either eternal or omniscient.^ Ahura Mazdah created the world, making first the sky, then water, then the earth, plants, animals, and man- kind, in the order named.* The creation occupied a year of 365 days, and was divided into six periods of two months each.' When Ahriman rose from the abyss* and beheld the work of Ahura Mazdah, he desired to destroy it. Ahura Mazdah met him and offered him an opportu- nity to co-operate with the good, but Ahriman refused. Ahriman was then granted by Ahura Mazdah a period of nine thousand years in which to contest the mastery of the world,' and proceeded to bring evil thoughts into men's minds and to mingle disagreeable elements with the good works of the Creator. For example, Ahriman mingled smoke and darkness with fire." ' Bundahishn (in Sacred Books of the East, V) xxviii, 15. ' See chap. viii. 3 Bundahishn i, 27. ' Ibid, xxv, i. < Ibid, xxviii, 7 f . • Ibid, i, g. ilbid. iii, g, 13. ^ Ibid, i, 20. '' Ibid, i, 2%. " 76i(f . iii, 24. ZOROASTRIANISM 135 The nine thousand years just mentioned bring to our notice the Zoroastrian theory of the world. According to this theory the world-cycle consisted of 12,000 years. Of these, 3,000 passed while all creatures were unthink- ing and unmoving. This was the spiritual state,^ when only the Fravashis existed. This was followed by 3,000 years of confusion. The confusion was caused by Ahriman, but during it Ahura Mazdah created his material creatures.^ During the third period of 3,000 years Ahriman descended to the earth and brought evils upon men.^ This was the period of greatest distress. The wills of Ahura Mazdah and Ahriman were mingled in the world. Toward the end of the ninth millennium Zoroaster was born. This last millen- nial age is presided over by Zoroaster, whom the Bundahishn regards as divine, and his three posthumous sons, the last of whom, Soshyans ("Savior" or "Bene- factor"), will be a kind of Messiah. He will render the evil spirit impotent and cause the resurrection of the dead."* Ahriman wiU be disabled and overthrown. ^ This cycle of 12,000 years may have belonged to primi- tive Zoroastrianism. It is clearly based on the con- ception of a world-year — a thousand years for each of the twelve months. Zoroastrianism looked forward, however, to the ultimate triumph of Ahura Mazdah, just as the Jews looked forward to the ultimate triumph of Yahweh and his Messiah. Zoroastrians believe in a resurrection of all men. At the resurrection a wicked man will be as conspicuous as ' Bundahishn xxxiv, i. ' Ibid, i, 23. *Ibid. xi, 6 and xxxii, 8. 3 Cf . ibid, xxxiv, i with iv, i £f. s Ibid, i, 20. 136 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD a white sheep in a flock of black ones.' The righteous are destined for heaven and the wicked for hell. All will be tested by passing through molten metal. It will seem to the righteous that they are walking in warm milk, but to the wicked, that they are walking in molten metal forever.'' Relatives will then be reunited with the greatest affection,^ and the righteous will be con- veyed to paradise and the heaven of Ahura Mazdah.'' Hell was thought to be in the midst of the earth, where Ahriman pierced it and rushed into it when he first attacked it.^ Into hell all the demons will be cast at the end of the period of 12,000 years. Then Ahura Mazdah, the good Creator, wiU be completely trium- phant and a new and perfect world established for all time. 132. Estimate of Zoroastrianism. — Next to Judaism Zoroastrianism is the oldest ethical monotheism in the world. Zoroaster was a great religious genius who caught something of eternal truth and successfully inter- preted it to men. He and his followers were keenly alive to the struggle between good and evil. To them the world was a great battlefield on which this struggle was being fought out. They laid great stress on con- duct and demanded a noble ethical life. They had firm faith in God as they saw him, faith in man, and faith in the ultimate triumph of right and of God. The thought and development of Zoroastrianism are in many ways parallel to those of Judaism. Some scholars have endeavored to show that Zoroastrianism borrowed from ' Bundahishn xxx, 10. 'Ibid, iii, 27. ^ Ibid, xxx, 21. 3 Ibid, xxx, 20. s Jbid. XXX, 27. ZOROASTRIANISM 137 Judaism; others that Judaism borrowed from Zoroas- trianism, but no considerable borrowing in either direc- tion can be proved. Each religion appears to have grasped some truth, and to have developed in its own environment independently of the other. Such like- nesses as there are came from similarity of conditions and the psychological unity of man. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sees. 122, 124: cf. J. H. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism (London, 1913), Lectures I, II. On sec. 125: cf. A. V. W. Jackson, Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran (New York and London, 1901), passim. On sec. 126: cf. J. H. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism, pp. 343-90. On sec. 127: cf. Jackson and Gray, "The Religion of the Achaemenian Kings," Journal 0} the American Oriental Society, XXI (1900), 160-84; L. H. Gray, "Achaemenians" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, I, 69-73 ; and J. H. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism, Lectures VI, VII. On sec. 128: cf. George Rawlinson, Sixth Oriental Monarchy, chap, xxiii. On sec. 129: George Rawlinson, Seventh Oriental Monarchy, chap, xxviii. On sec. 130: A. V. W. Jackson, "Zoroastrianism," in the Jewish Encyclopedia, XII, 695-97; G. F. Moore, "Zoroastrianism," Harvard Theological Review, V, 180-226; or J. H. Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism, Lectures IV, V. CLASS B G. F. Moore, History of Religions (New York, 1913), chaps, xv, xvi. CHAPTER VIII THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS Thou Indra who Greatest light where there was no light, and form, O men! where there was no form, hast been born together with the dawns. — ^Rig-Veda, I, 6, 3. Indra speaks: Almighty strength be mine alone, whatever I may do daring in my heart; for I indeed, O Maruts," am known as terrible: of all that I threw down, I, Indra, am lord. — ^Rig-Veda, I, i6s, 10. Protect the dear footsteps of the cattle. O Agni, thou who hast a fuU life, thou hast gone from covert to covert. — Rig-Veda, I, 67, 6. May Vanma, Mitra, Aryaman, triumphant with riches (?), sit down on our sacrificial grass as they did on Manu's.— Rig- Veda, I, 26, 4. May we imharmed stand under the protection of Agni, Indra, Soma, of the gods; may we overcome our foes. — ^Rig-Veda, II, 8, 6. Your greatness, O Maruts, is to be honored, it is to be yearned for like the light of the sun. Place us also in immortality; when they went in triumph, the chariots followed. — Rig-Veda, V, 55, 4. Slay thou, O Kama, those that are my enemies, hurl them down into blind darkness. Devoid of vigor, without sap let them all be; they shall not live a single day! — ^Atharva-Veda, IX, 2, 10. There is one eternal thinker, thinking non-eternal thoughts, who, though one, fulfils the desires of many. The wise who per- ceive him within their Self, to them belongs eternal peace, not to others. — Katha-Upanishad, V, 13. ' The storm-gods. 138 THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS 139 One hundred times that bliss of Pragipati is one measure of the bHss of Brahman, and Ukewise of the great sage who is free from desires. — ^Taittiriyaka-Upanishad, II, 8, 4. He who forms desires in his mind, is born again through his desires here and there. But to him whose desires are fulfilled and who is conscious of the true Self (within himself) all desires vanish, even here on earth — Mundaka-Upanishad, HI, 2, 2. 133. The land and people. — India, extending from 8 to 36 degrees of north latitude from the Himalaya Mountains far into the Indian Ocean, presents a great variety of temperature and climate. It is a great three- cornered country, about 1,000 miles from north to south and the same distance from east to west. The student of the Vedic religion is, however, chiefly interested in the two great river-valleys of the Indus and the Ganges. The upper part of the valley of the Indus, where the rivers are fed by the melting of the everlasting snows on the Himalayas and the climate is that of the temperate zone, is one of the favored portions of the earth's surface. The valley of the Ganges lies farther to the south; it is dependent for its fertility to a greater degree upon the rains brought by the monsoons; the climate is not favor- able to human life, and the struggle for existence is intensely severe. As compared with Persia, Palestine, or Arabia, Northern India is a land of fertiUty. From time immemorial India has been populated by a variety of tribes. It has become customary in recent years to call many of these Dravidian.' Not all the " See the article "Dravidian" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia 0} Religion and Ethics, V, i ff. The term was first applied by Mann to a tribe of Southern India. It has been supposed that he meant to include all of them. I40 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD aboriginal tribes of India were of one stock, but, so far as we can trace them, they appear to have been back- ward races. At an unknown date, probably consider- ably more than a thousand years before the beginning of our era, there came into the upper Indus Valley through the passes of the Hindu Kush Mountains some tribes of Aryan stock. They were members of the great Indo- European race, and before their migration into India had lived with their kinsmen, the ancestors of the Persians, somewhere to the north of the Hindu Kush Mountains. They spread over the upper part of the valley of the Indus. The majority of them lived on the eastern side of that river in the region called Punjab, or the five-river region. They extended as far east as the Sutlej River. In this valley they lived for some centuries; here the Vedas were composed. Later, portions of this Aryan race pressed on into the valley of the Ganges, and it is held by some that the change in their rehgious thought, which we shall trace in this sketch, was due in part to the depressing effect of the climate of that valley. 134. The sources of information concerning the religion of the early Aryans of India are the Vedas, Brahmanas, and Upanishads, all of which are counted as Vedic by the people of India. More than a hundred books are called Vedas, some of which are little known to scholars.' The Vedas, properly so called, are the Rig- Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. The word "Veda" springs from the same root as the English "wit" and the German wissen, and means "knowledge," especially "sacred knowledge." The " Bloomfield, Religiqn of the Veda, p. 17. THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS 141 oldest of the Vedas is the Rig- Veda — "Rig" being from a stem which means "stanzas of praise." It consists of a Kttle more than a thousand hyrons, containing about 10,000 stanzas, and equals in bulk the Iliad and Odyssey. Not all these poems are "stanzas of praise." Some of the later ones are blessings and curses. Six of these books (II-VII) are called "family books." They are supposed to have been composed by different poets or seers, or families of such, each of whom claimed to trace his descent from a single seer. They are the earliest part of the Veda. The Yajur-Veda takes its name from a word meaning "formulae in prose." It is later than the Rig- Veda, contains many of the same hymns, though with many new verses, and adds the formulae mentioned. These are sometimes mere dedications, sometimes short prayers, and at times long solemn litanies. The Sama-Veda takes its name from a word which means "melodies " and is the Veda of music. It contains no connected hymns, but rather disconnected verses borrowed mainly from the Rig- Veda. Some practices not found in the other Vedas appear in it. With these a number of legends are connected. Even the sense of its verses is subordinated to the music. It is devoted largely to the worship of Indra. The Atharva-Veda is named from one of two ancient famihes of priests who were supposed to understand potent charms. It is a collection of 730 hymns, con- taining about 6,000 stanzas, a part of which are blessings whUe others are "witchcraft charms" or curses. It is a most valuable collection of popular practices, supersti- tions, and folklore. 142 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD The Brahmanas are theological treatises attached sometimes to the Vedas. They are written in prose and deal with the sacrificial ceremonial. They were designed to explain the significance of the ceremonial to those who were famihar with its details. Sometimes they reveal a reflective spirit, unsatisfied with the mere offering of animal sacrifices, seeking for union with a spiritual being. The theological attitude of the Brahmanas is varied, veering from a very practical interest in the ritual to theological speculation far beyond the range of ritual. Closely connected with the last-mentioned side of the Brahmanas are the Upanishads, which are sometimes counted with the Brahmanas, but really present a new rehgion. Next to the Rig- Veda the Upanishads are the most important literary productions of Vedic India. 135. Chronology. — It is generally agreed that the oldest Upanishads were written before the time of Gautama, called the Buddha, who died about 487 B.C. This seems certain, since the whole Buddhistic system of thought presupposes the philosophic conceptions of the Upanishads. Beyond this single fact we have no chronological datum from the Vedic period. No build- ing, or monument, or coin, or jewel, or utensil has come down to us from the Vedic time. No ancient Indian historian has left us a chronicle or an outline of the chronology. It is not strange, therefore, that the estimates of scholars have varied widely. Some would put the Rig-Veda at 3,000 or 4,000 B.C.; others would bring it down to 1,000; advocates of 2,500, 2,000, 1,500, and 1,200 have not been wanting. Macdonell supposes that the Brahmanas and Upanishads developed in the THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS 143 period 800-500 b.c' If this is so, one need not suppose that the beginnings of the Rig- Veda antedate 1,500 B.C., though they may go back to 2,000. From what we know of the appearance of the Hittites^ in history, and of the beginnings of the Aryan occupation of Iran,^ it does not seem probable that the Aryans entered India earher than 2000 B.C., and it may well have been later than that. It must, however, be frankly recognized that we have no direct evidence on this point. 136. The social organization represented by the Rig-Veda was a simple patriarchal society, ruled by chieftains called rajas {raja is philologically equivalent to the Latin rex), who were often hereditary. In the Rig- Veda occupations were not differentiated; every man was a soldier as well as a civilian. The family was the foundation of society. The father was lord of the house; he was also a priest who offered the sacrifice. The wife, though subject to him, occupied a position of greater honor than in the age of the Brahmanas, for she partici- pated in the offering of the sacrifice. She was mistress of the house and shared the control of the children, slaves, and unmarried brothers and sisters of the husband. Suitors asked the father for a daughter's hand, making the request through the mediation of a friend. Sons and daughters married usually in the order of age, but sometimes girls remained unmarried and grew old in their father's house. The standard of morality was comparatively high. The community was agricultural. ' A. H. Macdonell, A History of Sanskrit Literature (New York, 1900), chap. viii. » See Barton, Archaeology and the Bible, chap. iii. 3 See chap, vii, passim. 144 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD The standard of value was a cow. Horses, sheep, goats, asses, and dogs were also domesticated. Gold is fre- quently referred to, and also bronze. The Indus (ancient Sindhu) is frequently mentioned, as are the five rivers of the Punjab imder ancient names, viz., the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. The sea is never mentioned, for the community was confined to the upper Indus. Later, conquests were made of the aborigines in other regions, especially in the valley of the Ganges. In the course of the struggles thus entailed, a differentiation of occupations occurred, a priesthood, a warrior class, as well as an agricultural class, were developed, and the caste system came into being. This system was appar- ently due in part to the gulf which separated the Aryan from the colored race which they conquered, and in part to the effort of the priesthood, which had now emerged, to maintain its sanctity. 137. Vedic deities. — The Rig-Veda states that the number of gods is thirty-three, or thrice eleven. This number is not exhaustive, for it does not include the storm-gods. It is nevertheless in excess of the number of important deities, for there are scarcely twenty that have as many as three hymns addressed to them. Several of these gods were brought by the Indian Aryans from their home beyond the Hindu Kush. The most important of these was Indra, the national god of the Indians, who among the Persians was relegated to the place of a demon. The importance of Indra is shown by the fact that nearly one-fourth of the hymns of the Rig- Veda celebrate his praises. Like other early tribal gods, Indra was supposed to fight the national battles. This THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS 145 fighting character he never threw off. Like other fighters, Indra is full of brag and bluster. The first two quota- tions from the Rig- Veda at the head of this chapter suf- ficiently indicate his character and the attitude of his worshipers toward him. Indra paid the penalty of his early origin. Owing to the conservatism of religious thought, he never rose to the height of refinement of his later worshipers. He does not represent the best religion even of the Vedas. He is of the earth, earthy. He slays dragons and monsters; he is a glutton, a drunkard, and a boaster. One hymn' is generally interpreted as attempting to utter the vaunting of Indra when intoxi- cated with soma. It is the earliest attempt in literature to portray the maudlin exhilaration arising from the use of alcohol. Another prehistoric god .of India was Agni, the god of fire. The sacredness of fire among the Persians attests his antiquity. Next to Indra he is the most popular of the Vedic gods. More than two hundred hymns are addressed to him. While Agni is personified as a god, the consciousness of his origin was never lost. To the end all his qualities were qualities of fire. Mitra and Varuna are also gods brought from the primitive Aryan home, for, as pointed out in chap, vii, they were prominent among the Persians also. Mitra was a sun-god; Varuna probably a sky-god.^ Mitra is in the Veda almost submerged as a companion of Varuna. Only one hymn is addressed to Mitra alone. Varuna, though addressed in far fewer hymns than Indra, Agni, or Soma, is next to Indra the greatest of the Vedic gods. 'Rig-Veda, X, 119. » See, e.g., Rig-Veda, VII, 86-89. 146 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD He was thought to be the upholder of the physical and moral universe. The hymns addressed to him are more devout and ethical than any others in the Veda and approach more nearly the strains of the Hebrew Psalter. His omniscience is a favorite theme. He witnesses the truth or falsehood of men. No creature can wink with- out him.' Another sky-god, Dyaush pitar, "father Sky," appears to go back to pre-Indian days. Both his name and epithet are philologically identical with the Greek Zeus pater, the Latin Diespiter, or Jupiter. The personi- fication of the sky as a god is shown by these correspond- ences to go back to primitive Indo-European times. In the Vedas, Dyaush is employed both as the name of the god and as the word for sky. The origin of the god is thus quite transparent. Quite as old as Dyaush is his daughter Ushas, the Dawn, identical with the Greek Eos (or Heos), and the Latin Aurora. Like that of her father, the origin of the deity was always clear, and the beauty of the dawn inspired the Vedic poets to produce some of their most charming creations." The Agvins, or heavenly twins, who correspond to the Dioskouroi of Greek mythology, were also probably pre- historic. They, like Ushas, were the children of Dyaush pitar. It is not certain whether they were personifica- tions of the morning and evening star, or of the sun and moon, or of the twiHght, half-light, half-dark. In the Vedas they are the succorers who aid those in trouble. ' See, for example, Rig- Veda, VII, 89. 'Ibid., I, 113. THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS 147 PrithivT' matar, or "Mother Earth," who is repre- sented as the wife of Dyaush pitar, is perhaps also as primitive as he. Only one separate hymn is addressed to her in the Rig- Veda, and even in that reference is made to her heavenly spouse. Another god that would seem to have originated before the separation of the ancestors of the Indian Aryans from the Persians was Soma, the Persian Haoma. In the Yasna,^ Haoma was an angel with whom Zoroaster once conversed. Soma was at once a plant and an intoxicating drink; it also became a god. In both Veda and Avesta it is described as dwelling or growing on a mountain. Its true abode was thought to be in heaven, whence it was brought down to earth. Its exhilarating power led to the belief that it was a drink that bestows everlasting life. From it the gods themselves were thought to gain their immortality. Naturally large quantities of soma were employed in the ritual; gods set men the example of drunkenness. It is a somewhat sad comment on Vedic morals, but others, as, for example, the Babylonians, believed that their gods were not above drunkenness,' even if they did not deify drink. In the latest hymns of the Rig-Veda, Soma is somewhat obscurely identified with the moon. The ancient people of India manifested a strong bent toward the multiplication of gods through the personi- fication of the powers of nature, and the multipKcation of deities through the personification of different epithets of the same god. By these means several deities were ' Rig-Veda, V, 84. Prithivi is literally "the Broad One." ' Yasna ix, 1-16. 3 See G. A. Barton, Archaeology and the Bible, p. 241. 148 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD added to the pantheon after the migration into India. Thus in the Vedas there are in addition to Mitra four sun-gods: Surya, Savitar, Pushan, and Vishnu. In the Vedas, Vishnu is not one of the most important gods, though he became such in later Hinduism. Similar per- sonifications produced Vata or Vayu, the wind-god, Par- janya, the rain-god, and Rudra, the storm-god. In the Vedas, Rudra is a simple storm-god of no very great prominence. In Hinduism he assumed a different role. A group of storm-gods, indefinite in number, to whom many hymns in the Rig- Veda are addressed, is the Maruts. The terrific force of storms in India led to the belief that there were many such spirits, and magnified their terrifying powers. The important Vedic gods have been classified as: Celestial gods : Dyaush pitar, Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitar, Pushan, Vishnu, Ushas, the Afvins, and the Adityas, frequently associated with Varuna and Mitra. Atmospheric gods : Vata or Vayu, Indra (who is fre- quently represented as a kind of storm-god), Parjanya, Rudra, and the Maruts. Terrestrial gods : Prithivl, Agni, and Soma. 138. Cosmogony. — In the earlier hymns of the Rig- Veda creation is referred to as an act of natural genera- tion.' In the later strata of the Rig- Veda we find the idea of a creator, or the material of creation, distinct from all the gods and superior to them. This creator is given various names, Prajapati being one of the most important. He was in reality a huge man, whom the gods cut up as though he were a sacrifice, and from the parts made the various portions of the universe. His • Rig-Veda, IV, 2, 2, and III, 4, 10. THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS 149 head became the sky, his feet the earth, his navel the air, while from his eye sprang the sun, from his mind the moon, and from his breath the wind/ 139. The ritual and its purpose. — The hymns and prayers of the Veda were composed to accompany the sacrifices which were offered to the gods. These con- sisted of such viands as the worshipers regarded as delicious or necessary. Ghee, or melted butter, and soma were prominent elements in them. The purpose of the offerings was to propitiate the gods and bring them near. Thus one hymn prays :^ May Varuna, Mitra, and Aryaman, triumphant with riches ( ?) , sit on our sacrificial grass as they did on Manu's! In the earliest time the sacrifices were offered by the heads of families, and chieftaias offered their own sacrifices. There were no temples and no permanently holy places. A spot was chosen for a sacrifice and con- secrated for the occasion. When the sacrifice was com- pleted, the place became again as other places. Before the end of the Vedic period, through a natural differen- tiation of duties, certaia men had assumed the function of the priesthood, and others had acquiesced in the arrangement. It thus happened that kings often em- ployed others to ofllciate at sacrifices offered by them. Nearly all the hymns of the Rig- Veda appear to have been written by such priests, who had a pecuniary interest in the sacrifice, and who employed their poetry, not only to praise the god or gods, but to impress the king with the desirability of liberally rewarding the priest. It thus happens that most frank appeals for ' Rig-Veda, X, 90. ' Ibid., I, 26, 4. ISO THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD baksheesh, or a gift, are mingled by the singers with beautiful descriptions of the gods, and with genuine religious appeals. Dakshina is the Sanskrit term for "sacrificial fee." In the following translations by Bloomfield' it is rendered "baksheesh." Up the shining strands of Dawn have risen, Like unto glittering waves of water! All paths prepareth she that they may be easily traversed; Liberal goddess, kind, she hath become baksheesh. And again:'' Baksheesh's roomy chariot hath been harnessed, And the immortal gods have momited on it, The friendly dawn, wide-spread, from out of darkness Has risen up to care for the abode of mortals. The mighty goddess rose before all creatures, She wins the booty and always conquers riches; The dawn looks forth, yoimg and reviving ever. She came the first here to our morning ofiering. For a time so early the poetry is beautiful. As Bloom- field remarks: "Never has sacrifice had such genuine poetry to serve it. But the reverse of the coin is that never has poetic endowment strayed so far from whole- some theme as to fritter itself away upon the ancient hocus-pocus of the fixe priest and the medicine-man." 140. Vedic salvation. — Notwithstanding that the priests made the ritual and the poetry fill their own pockets, the Veda voices many an appeal for salvation as the people of that time understood salvation. They desired to be healthy and prosperous; to have good crops; that storms might not devastate, and to have ' Religion of the Veda, p. 69. ' Bloomfield, op. cit., p. 71. THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS 151 long life. One hymn appeals to Varuna, the god of justice, thus:^ May I not yet, King Varuna, Go down into the house of clay: Have mercy, spare me, mighty Lord. Thirst has come on thy worshiper. Though standing in waters' midst;'' Have mercy, spare me, mighty Lord. O Varuna, whatever the offence may be That we as men commit against the heavenly folk. When through our want of thought we violate thy laws, Chastise us not, O God, for that iniquity. Such an appeal presupposes a god that, though just, is merciful. There is no hint that he needed an atoning sacrifice to change his attitude toward the worshiper, though another hymn implies that he may exact from the sinner atoning suffering. It runs:^ We ascribe to thee honor from of old. Now and in future, Vanma, thou mighty one; Upon thee we rest as upon a firm rock. Infallible one, the eternal laws. Take my peculiar misdeed from me. Let me not, O King, expiate a sin imknown; Should yet many brilliant mornings dawn. On them, Varuna, thou wouldst lead us alive. 141. Heaven and hell. — In the Vedas, Yama'' was the god of death. He was king of the regions of the ' Translated by Macdonell, History 0} Sanskrit Literature, p. 77. ' A reference to dropsy, with which Varuna was thought to afflict sinners, according to Macdonell. 3 Translated from the German of Grassman's Rig-Veda (Leipzig, 1876), II, 28, 9, 10. ■" Yama was probably a part of primitive Aryan mythology, since he appears in the Avesta as Yima. 1 52 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD departed, whether they had been good or bad. The poets of the Rig- Veda have, however, little to say about the after-life, and that little is vague. In Rig- Veda, V, 55, 4, the worshipers yearn for immortality, but whether it is immortality on the earth or in some other abode is not told. In Rig- Veda, X, 14, i, a hymn devoted to funeral obsequies, Yama is celebrated as the god who first spied out a path to another world. That other world was, Sanskrit scholars think, in heaven. The dead are addressed thus :' Run on thy path straight forward past the two dogs, The sons of Sarama, four-eyed and brindled, Draw near thereafter to the bounteous fathers, Who revel on in company with Yama. In the Atharva-Veda there is a definite belief in a pit of black darkness in the earth beneath, into which the wicked are to be hurled,"" though the conditions which prevail there are only vaguely described. Evidence is also afforded that the good were taken to a place of happiness. In a charm against dropsy is the prayer :' Lift from us, O Varuna, the uppermost fetter, take down the nethermost, loosen the middlemost! Then shall we, O Aditya, in thy law, exempt from guilt, hve in freedom! Loosen from us, O Varuna, all fetters, the uppermost, the nethermost, and those imposed by Varuna! Evil dreams and misfortune drive away from us: then may we go to the world of the pious! In later literature, the Upanishads and the epic of the Mahabharata, there are clear traces of an Indian belief ■ Rig-Veda, X, 14, 10, translated by Macdonell, op. cit., p. 118. » See Sacred Books of the East, XLII, p. 191, vs. 49; p. 211, vs. 32; p. 222, vs. 10. 3 7ia..p. i2(Vn,3,4). THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS 153 in a hell and a heaven.' Because the rewards of heaven were of a material nature, the thinkers of the Upanishads frown upon the hope of heaven as unworthy of a philosopher.^ 142. Magic and demonology. — In its main contents the Atharva-Veda is more superstitious than the Rig- Veda. It represents the popular beUefs rather than those of the more intelligent. It betrays a belief in the existence of many demons, and contains many charms by which it was supposed their attacks could be warded off. It was compiled later than the Rig-Veda, and where it reflects the conceptions entertained of the higher gods they are often more advanced than those of the Rig- Veda. Some of its charms against the demons of sickness originated perhaps before the Indo-Europeans separated, for they agree to some extent in content as well as in purpose with certain old German, Lettic, and Russian charms.^ While parts of the Atharva-Veda clearly developed in India, it reveals to us the fact that a belief in numerous demons, and a magic art believed to be potent against them, existed through the entire period of Vedic development. 143. The Brahmanas, which probably began to be composed as early as 800 B.C. in prose, represent a theo- logical transition. The Aryan people had now been long exposed to the Indian climate, had occupied, in addition to their original territory, the valley of the Ganges in which the climate was more depressing, and had, inde- pendently of climate, reached a more mature period of 'See Hopkins, Thfi GreatEpic of India (New York, i90i),pp. 184-86. ' See Sacred Books of the East, XV, p. 30, vs. 10. 3 See Macdonell, op. cit., pp. 185 ff. 1 54 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD thought. In the Brahmanas, too, we have evidence that the fluid society of the time of the Rig-Veda had crystal- lized into the four castes : the Brahman, or priestly class, who now became the real rulers; the Rajanya or Kshat- riya, the warrior class; the Vaisya, the agricultural class, and the Sudra or serf caste. While most of the Brah- manas are occupied with practical sacri&cial directions, others undertake to explain the meaning of the ritual. A few passages indicate that the more thoughtful had passed beyond the stage of culture in which gods are believed to be material beings and animal sacrifices are thought to be potent. Rehgion was becoming a thing of the spirit; they were questioning the utility of the ritual. The priests, or Brahmans, as they were called, had a pecuniary interest in the ritual, which to many was stiU a sacred necessity. This pecuniary interest they sometimes manifested in repulsive ways.' It became the duty of the Brahmans, however, to explain to the worshipers the spiritual significance of the time-honored material ceremonies. For example, certain sacrifices by their burning took the sacrificer up to the god-world; others by their noise made him master of the father- world; still others of the man-world. Fire, which con- sumed the sacrifice, was interpreted as speech.'^ In such ways the ritual was given a more intellectual and spiritual interpretation. In the Brahmanas one beholds the minds of the thinkers traveling away from old beliefs toward another kind of religion. 144. The Upanishads, into which the Brahmanas merge, contain the essence of this new religion, if religion ' See, for example, Sacred Books of the East, XV, 121 flf. ' See Bloomfield, op. cit., pp. 190 ff. THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS 155 it can be called. It is rather a philosophy and a pessi- mistic one at that. (i) The heart of the philosophy of the Upanishads is that there is but one real existence in the universe, the supreme Brahman, Atman, or Self. All creatures are but evanescent manifestations of this Self. This doc- trine is reached even in the Brahmanas, where it is taught that no material thing may be loved for itself, but for the Self that is manifest in it: Verily, a husband is not dear, that you may love the husband ; but that you may love the Self, therefore a husband is dear. Verily, a wife is not dear, that you may love a wife; but that you may love the Self, therefore a wife is dear. Verily, sons are not dear, that you may love the sons; but that you may love the Self, therefore the sons are dear. Verily, wealth is not dear, that you may love wealth; but that you may love the Self, therefore wealth is dear. The list continues and enumerates even the Vedas and the gods as things that are to be loved only because of the Self. A monistic doctrine could not well be more pronounced. (2) The Upanishads are saturated with a profound pessimism. In the Vedas there is manifest a genuine youthful joy in life; in the Upanishads, on the other hand, hf e is considered an evil. The essential element of life is desire; desire leads to pain; he only reaches the happiness of Brahman or the Self who is free from desire. (3) Transmigration. — The pessimism of the Upani- shads is intensified by the belief in the transmigration of souls. This belief is not peculiar to India; we hear of it in Egypt, among the Celts, and among the Greeks. Hindu pessimism made it, however, especially terrible. IS6 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD How it arose in India is not known. There is no trace of it in the earlier Vedic Hterature. It was possible for any man in the animistic stage of culture to reach it, if he reflected on three facts in which all men believed: {a) man has a soul separate from the body; (6) animals have souls; (c) all souls can change their habitation. In the Vedic literature the souls of the departed went to the realm of Yama; in later times to heaven. In the Upanishads belief in transmigration is grafted on to this earlier behef . The ascetic, who retires to the forest, goes at death on the path of the gods not to return. Those who practice the ordinary callings of life go at death by the path of the fathers to the moon, where they remain until the influence of their good deeds is exhausted, when they return by the same path an,d are reborn. They may be reborn as a person, an animal, or an herb. If their conduct has been good, they will attain to some good birth, such as a Brahman; if it has been evil, they will quickly attain some evil birth, such as a dog, or a hog.' The influence of deeds on rebirth was called the doctrine of Karma, or the deed. (4) The abolition of desire became, under these cir- cumstances, the great aim of the believers in this philoso- phy. Desire led to rebirth; rebirth led to suffering; and so the wheel of pain rolled on forever. Salvation lay in the abolition of desire.'' It has been frequently held that this pessimistic philosophy is the natural outcome of the conditions of ' The fullest description of transmigration is in the Upanishad translated in Sacred Books of the East, I, 80 ff. ' Sacred Books of the East, XV, p. 40, vs. 2. THE RELIGION OF THE VEDAS 157 life in India, which, it is declared, are harder than those of any other civilized country/ 145. The evolution of religious thought in the Vedic literature is most striking. The Indians reckon the Upanishads a part of the Vedas. The religion of the earliest h}Tnns of the Rig- Veda is that of buoyant, joyous youth; that of the Upanishads is the religion of a world- weary people for whom life held no treasure great enough to offset its agony. This was, however, only the religion of philosophers. As wiU appear in chap, x, the older Vedic religion long survived among the common people. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sec. 133: cf. Hunter's "India" in Lodge's History of the Nations, chap, i, or A. A. Macdonell, History of Sanskrit Literature (New York, 1900), pp. 139-44. On sec. 134: cf. Macdonell, op. cit., chaps, iii, vii, and viii; or Bloomfield, The Religion of the Veda (New York, 1908), pp. 17-59. On sec. 135: cf. Bloomfield, op. cit., pp. 18 ff. On sec. 136: cf. Macdonell, op. cit., chap, vi; or Hoemle and Stark, History of India (Cuttack, 1904), chaps, ii and iii. On sec. 137: cf. Bloomfield, op. cit., Lectures III and IV; or Macdonell, op. cit., pp. 67-107. On sec. 138: cf. MacdoneU, op. cit., pp. 131 ff. On sec. 139: cf. Bloomfield, op. cit.. Lecture II. On sec. 140: cf. Macdonell, op. cit., pp. 116 ff.; and E. W. Hop- kins, Xhe Great Epic of India (New York, 1901), pp. 184 ff. On sec. 142: cf. Macdonell, op. cit., pp. 185-201. On sees. 143, 144: Bloomfield, op. cit., Lectures V and VI. CLASS B G. F. Moore, History of Religions, chap. xi. ■ Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, pp. 264 ff. CHAPTER IX BUDDHISM AND JAINISM There are two extremes, O Bhikkus, which the man who has given up the world ought not to follow — the habitual practice, on the one hand, of those things whose attraction depends upon the passions, and especially of sensuality — a low and pagan way (of seeking satisfaction), unworthy, unprofitable, and fit only for the worldly-minded — and the habitual practice, on the other hand, of asceticism (or self-mortification), which is painful, unworthy, and unprofitable. There is a middle path, O Bhikkus, avoiding these two extremes, discovered by the TathS,gata" — a path which opens the eyes, and bestows imderstanding, which leads to peace of mind, to the higher wisdom, to fuU enlightenment, to Nirvana! What is the middle path, O Bhikkus, avoiding these two extremes, discovered by the Tathagata — that path which opens the eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads to peace of mind, to the higher wisdom, to fuU enhghtenment, to Nirvana ? Verily! it is the noble eightfold path; that is to say: Right views; Right aspirations; Right speech; Right conduct; Right livelihood; Right effort; Right mindfulness; and Right contemplation. — Dhamma-Kakka-Ppavattana-sutta," 2, 3, 4 (Buddhist). He who knows wrath, knows pride; he who knows pride, knows deceit; he who knows deceit, knows greed; he who knows greed, knows love; he who knows love, knows hate; he who ' An epithet of Buddha. "That is, "The Foundation of the Kingdom of Righteousness." «S8 BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 159 knows hate, knows delusion; he who knows delusion, knows con- ception; he who knows conception, knows birth; he who knows birth, knows death; he who knows death, knows hell; he who knows hell, knows animal existence; he who knows animal existence, knows pain. Therefore, a wise man should avoid wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love, hate, delusion, conception, birth, death, hell, animal existence, and pain. — ^Ak§,r§,nga Sutra, I, iv, 4 (Jain). 146. The sources of Buddhism. — Buddhism has died in India, the land of its birth, but flourishes in many other countries. As Gautama, its founder, committed nothing to writing, his teachings were intrusted to tra- dition, and were not written down until later. In the course of the centuries much has been added to the tradition. From Ceylon and neighboring lands have come sacred books of Buddhism (the Pitakas^) in the Pali language, estimated by Rhys Davids to be in bulk about four times that of the Old and New Testaments. These consist of discourses (Suttas) attributed to Gautama, commentaries upon them, wonderful stories of the birth of the Buddha (Jatakas), and traditions of his Ufe.'' From Nepal, in the north of India, Buddhistic scriptures have also come. Among these are Ashva- ghosha's poem on the life of Buddha,' descriptions of the land of bliss,' and a work of a miscellaneous character, entitled The Lotus of the True Law. In China and 'The Sanskrit for "basket." Used as the name of a "collection" of books. " Pali works are translated in the Sacred Boohs of the East, XI, XVII, XX; M. P. Grimblot, Sept suttas pdlis (Paris, 1876); and in K. E. Neumann, Die Reden Gotamo Btiddho's (Leipzig, 1896-1905). 3 Nepalese Buddhistic scriptures are translated in the Sacred Books of the East, XXI and XLIX. i6o THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Tibet^ also Ashvaghosha's poem on the life of Buddha has been found, and from China^ many other Buddhist scriptures have come. As the religion spread into these coimtries either before the Christian era, or at the very beginning of it, the existence of the same work in PaU, in the Sanskrit texts of Nepal, in Tibetan, and in Chinese is proof of a high antiquity. There is reason to beheve that some of these works were composed less than a cen- tury after the death of Gautama. 147. Life of Gautama to his enlightenment. — ^In the sixth century before Christ an Aryan tribe named Sakyas was living at Kapilavastu on the little river Rohini in the valley of the Ganges about 130 miles north of Benares. Forty miles to the north rose the great peaks of the Himalayas. There were but two tribes of Aryans farther east than the Sakyas. They were the Lichavis and the Magadha. Suddhodana, the raja of the Sakyas, married the two daughters of the raja of the KoHyans, a neighboring tribe. The elder of these sisters became the mother of Gautama, afterward called the Buddha, about 567 b.c.^ At the time of his birth the ' Translations from Tibetan sources are found in W. W. Rockhill, Life 0} the Buddha (London, 1884). " Chinese Buddliistic sources are made accessible in English in Samuel Beal, Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from Chinese (London, 1871), his Ahsiract of Four Lectures on Buddhistic Literature in China (London, 1882), and his translations in the Sacred Books of the East, XIX. 3 This date is obtained in the following way : Asoka, king of Western India, who says in his inscriptions that he was converted in his ninth year, says that he sent missionaries to Antiochus of Syria, Ptolemy of Egypt, Antigonus of Macedonia, Alexander of Epirus, and Magas of Cyrene (see V. A. Smith, Asoka [Oxford, 1901], pp. 129-32). These rulers were all ruling at the same time only between 262 and 258 B.C. (see A. J. Edmunds, Buddhist and Christian Gospels, 4th ed. [Philadelphia BUDDHISM AND JAINISM i6i mother was on her way to her father's house, but her son was born under some tall trees in a pleasant grove called Lumbini. The mother died a week later, and the child was brought up by her childless sister, his father's other wife. When of suitable age Gautama was married to his cousin, the daughter of the raja of Koh. A later tra- dition seems to show that Gautama was never interested in the ordinary occupations of a prince, but it is certain that in his twenty-ninth year, shortly after the birth of his only child, he abandoned home and family to devote himself to the study of religion. This was in accord with an ascetic custom then already old in India. Coeval with the rise of the Upanishad philosophy, there had grown up a body of ascetics who abandoned the world, lived in poverty in the forests or mountains, and begged their bread. Gautama is said to have been led to this step by four visions: that of a man decrepit through age, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and a dig- nified hermit. Before leaving home he stole into the chamber of his sleeping wife, to take a last look at her and his child. This parting the Buddhists call the "Great Renunciation." Gautama traveled eastward beyond the Koliyan ter- ritory with his horse and then sent back his horseman to tell his wife and father what had become of him. He 1908], I, 58). If we take the average of 260 for the conversion of Asoka, his reign began in 269 B.C. A Ceylonese tradition states that Asoka be- gan to reign 218 years after Buddha died. This tradition is followed by leading Buddhist scholars; it fixes Buddha's death in 487 B.C. Tradi- tion also has it that Gautama was eighty years old at his death. If so, his birth occurred in 567 B.C. On this reckoning there is an uncertainty of four years as to the accession of Asoka, and consequently as to the birth and death of the Buddha. It should be added that some scholars discredit the Ceylonese tradition. 1 62 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD then changed his princely clothing for that of a poor man, cut off his long hair, and became a wandering mendicant. He first went southeastward to the kingdom of Magadha, on the south of the Ganges, where he spent some time studying the philosophy of the Brahmans under two distinguished teachers. The Brahmans insisted that the practice of penance was an elG&cient aid in gaining super- human power and insight. Gautama, unsatisfied by his study with the philosophers, withdrew with five faithful disciples into the jimgle, and for six years gave himself to the severest asceticism, until he had wasted to a shadow. Since asceticism was in India a sufficient title to sanctity, his fame had by this time spread far. Gaining no peace, he intensified his fasting until one day he fell in a swoon and was regarded by his disciples as dead. When he came to himself he was convinced that fasting was not the way to his goal; he therefore abandoned it. Upon this his disciples left him and went away to Benares. The depression that Gautama now suffered surpassed all that had preceded. Philosophy and asceticism, the outward helps on which his countrymen leaned, had both failed him. Wandering toward the river Nairan- jara, he sat down one morning under the shade of a ban- yan tree, reviewed the years of his life, and fought with temptation through the long hours of the day. As the day ended he beheld in mental \dsion a new path. He became Buddha, the enUghtened one. This tree was accordingly called the Bo-tree, or tree of enlightenment. He gained peace in the power over the human heart of inward culture, and of love to others. At last he had found certitude. He then made another renunciation, greater than his first; he renounced asceticism and BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 163 penance. Because of Gautama's experience the Bo-tree has become to Buddhists almost what the Cross is to Christians. Gautama's iirst thought was to announce his reUgious discovery to his previous philosophic teachers. They, however, rejected him, but, nothing daunted, he went on to Benares and began to preach there.^ 148. Gautama's doctrine was really not a religion, but a method of ethical culture. He recognized no supreme God. The devas, or the gods of the old rehgion, were real beings, but they were, like men, caught in the meshes of the material universe. Gautama proposed no reformed worship of these. He accepted the pessimistic point of view which is reflected in the Upanishads, and the doctrines of transmigration and of Karma. Salva- tion as he conceived it was escape from the pain and the necessity of continuous reincarnation. His formula- tion of this thesis he called the four "Noble Truths": (i) The experiences of hfe — birth, growth, decay, illness, death, separation from objects we love, hating what can- not be avoided — are all sorrowful. That is, such states of mind as are inseparable from conscious personality are states of suffering and sorrow. (2) The causes of suffering and sorrow are the action of the outside world on the senses. These objects excite a craving, or a delight, which leads to action, which leads in turn to rebirth, continued existence, and misery. (3) The complete subjugation and destruction of this eager thirst or lust is that which causes sorrow to cease. (4) The path which leads to the cessation of sorrow is the Noble "This statement is abridged from that of T. W. Rhys Davids Buddhism (London, 1903), pp. 25-45. 1 64 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Eightfold Path: right views or beliefs; right aspirations or aims; right speech; right conduct or action; right livelihood (or means of Hving) ; right effort or endeavor; right mindfulness; right contemplation or meditation. Gautama taught that one who followed this path would become an Arahat — a man set free by insight from the desire for material or immaterial existence; from pride and self-righteousness and ignorance. As one traveled the Noble Eightfold Path on the way to ArahatsYdp, one would conquer ten errors or evil states of mind: self- delusion; doubt; dependence on works; sensuaHty or bodily passions; ill-feeling or hatred; love of hfe on earth; desire for life in heaven; pride; self -righteous- ness; ignorance. One who became an Arahat had attained Nirvana, a state to which Buddhist writers devote many pages of awe-struck praise. An Arahat was not, however, a saved soul, for Gautama denied the reahty of the soul's existence. The soul, he held, was only an ensemble of sensations, desires, and fears. Apart from these it has no reality any more than a chariot has reality apart from its wheels, axle, pole, and body. Denying the reaUty of the soul, he should in consistency have denied transmigration also, but the fascination of this doctrine he could not shake off. Though there was no soul to migrate, he held that there was a Karma — a kind of character attained through what one had done, and according to this character one's next incarnation would be shaped. Here Gautama agreed with the philosophers of the Upanishads. He also held that one might be so good as to attain temporary Arahatship in some heaven without attaining Nirvana. Such a person would dwell BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 165 in Nirvana until the virtues of his Karma were exhausted, and would then be compelled to begin again the round of incarnations. As an Arahat was not a soul, so Nirvana was not heaven. It is rather' the extinction of that sinful, grasping condition of miad and heart which would other- wise, according to the great mystery of Karma, be the cause of renewed individual existence. It is the same thing as a sinless, calm, unconscious state of mind. It is Buddhistic holiness — a holiness of perfect peace, good- ness, and wisdom. The doctrines of Buddha, though they centered one's thought on himself, gave a great impulse to ethical living. The world's tragedies and in- justices spring from the selfish desires of men for things. As Buddhism aimed to destroy this deisre, it produced an unselfish morahty that at times has rivaled that of Christianity. 149. The years of Gautama's ministry. — When Gautama arrived at Benares he went to the Deer Park or Migadaya Wood, about three miles north of the city. Here he continued to teach for some time. Three months later, and iive months after the crisis under the Bo-tree, he called together his disciples, who are said already to have been about sixty in number, and sent them forth to preach. During the rest of his life Gautama was accustomed to travel about and preach during the eight pleasant months of the year. During the four rainy months he remained in one place and taught. He soon returned to Rajagriha, the capital of the kingdom of Magadha, where Bimbisara, the king, ' This definition is taken from T. W. Rhys Davids, op. cit., p. iii, a book to which the writer is greatly indebted. i66 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD became his patron, assigning him a bamboo grove, in which Gautama spent many rainy seasons. The tra- ditions tell us in what localities he traveled for about twenty years of his ministry, but we have not space to follow the details.' He died at the age of eighty at Kusinagara, the modern Kasia, from a fit of indigestion induced by eating mushrooms. The first disciples of Buddha gathered about him, leaving all and becoming an order of mendicants. He himself was the leader of this order. The order was estabhshed, not because Gautama attached any value to ascetic practices as such, but because he held that men occupied with the things of life could less easily so eradicate desire as to attain Nirvana. He recognized also the desirabihty of encouraging those who were not ready to join the order to make an endeavor to enter upon the Noble Eightfold Path. From an early period in his ministry, therefore, a lay membership was organized. Indeed, as in other ascetic orders of India, many entered this order temporarily. The two types of members have ever since characterized Buddhism, though the wandering mendicants have become a settled, celibate clergy. At a comparatively early period in his ministry the Buddha returned to Kapilavastu, his birthplace, when his wife Yasodhara and his son Rahula were converted to his teaching. His son joined the order at once. Later, when Gautama organized an order of female mendicants, Yasodhara became one of its first members. 150. Buddhist orders and laity. — When one joins the Sangha, or Buddhist order, he is required to subscribe ' For details see T. W. Rhys Davids, op. cit., pp. 69 ff. BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 167 to no creed. In one part of the ceremony of initiation he says: I go for refuge to the Buddha. I go for refuge to the Law. I go for refuge to the Order. He vows not to destroy life, not to steal, to abstain from social impurity, not to he, to abstain from intoxicating drinks, not to eat at forbidden times, to abstain from dancing, singing, music, and stage plays, not to use garlands, scents, unguents, or ornaments, not to use a high or broad bed, and not to receive gold or silver.' The rules of the order are very elaborate.'' They define four faults which are regarded as fatal to the status of a regular disciple of the Buddha. They are: any act of sexual intercourse, theft, taking human life or even encouraging anyone to self-destruction, and pre- tending to knowledge that one does not possess. Next to the four great offenses are thirteen that deal with "formalities." Several of these have to do with clean- ness and imcleanness; others with so building huts that no animal may be inconvenienced or killed. Other rules deal with the uses of robes, rags, bowls, etc., and restrict monks to the use of certain medicines. The Pacittiya rules, which are ninety-two in number, are of a most miscellaneous nature. Five are directed against taking Hfe. A monk is forbidden to dig, lest worms should be accidentally killed. Twenty rules guard against immor- ality; about ten are directed against lying, slander, etc. ' See T. W. Rhys Davids, op. cit., p. 160. ' Compare for a more elaborate statement T. W. Rhj-s Davids, op. cit., pp. 162-73; and R. S. Copleston, Buddhism (London, 1892), chaps, xiii, xiv.^xviii, and_xix. i68 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD One is directed against the use of intoxicating drinks. As it is followed by several against indecorous conduct, it is probable that drink was forbidden because it led to levity and a lack of decorum. Much space could be devoted to the rules of the order, which are very elabo- rate, but enough has been said to indicate their char- acter. The rules for the nuns contain little of importance. They were required to follow the rules for monks as far as they were applicable, and in other matters to follow their own judgment. They were altogether dependent upon the community of men. They had to go to the monks for instruction, and their acts were not valid unless con- firmed by the monks. The laity, so far as the Buddhistic community was concerned, were really outsiders. Buddha's teaching was applicable to all living creatures in three worlds — for gods, men, and animals. The discipUne was, however, for human beings. In order to adapt the rules to the laity, some of the requirements were modified. A lay- man is not called to celibacy, but is required to be faith- ful to his wife. He may kill animals for the table, though he will have to suffer for it in future births. He need not abstain from alcohol, except after a special vow. 151. Early history of Buddhism. — The sources, both Pali and Sanskrit, agree that immediately after Gau- tama's death the older members agreed to hold a council to settle the rules and doctrines of the order. It would seem that these had not been fully determined by the Buddha himself. The first council was accordingly held in the rainy season, or the season was, following his death. Five hundred members attended the council. BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 169 It was held in a cave near Rajagriha, which had been prepared by Ajatasatru, king of Magadha. It is regarded as probable by Rhys Davids that the kernel of the later sacred books of Buddhism dates from this time. The next information about the history of Buddhism concerns the Council of Vaisali, which was held about one hundred years after the first one. Some of the monks desired this council to adopt what are known as the ten indulgences, among which was the permission to drink intoxicants, if they looked like water, and to receive gold and silver. The indulgences were condemned by the council, and a schism resulted. Although this was the first open schism, others occurred later, for the Ceylon chronicles enumerate eighteen sects. They were prob- ably not sects in the modern sense of the term, though they formed different governments and lived apart from one another. By the time of the Council of Vaisali the kingdom of Magadha had become supreme in Eastern India. In 325 B.C. Alexander the Great reached the most easterly point of his Indian invasion, and at the request of his sol- diery abandoned the invasion of the valley of the Ganges. Before he turned back, his camp was visited by Chan- dragupta, a low-caste rebel from Magadha, whom Alex- ander spurned. Later, when Nanda, king of Magadha, was murdered, Chandragupta seized his throne, and after Alexander's death he drove the Greeks from India and established an empire that controlled all of Central India. He ruled from 322 to 298 B.C. His capital was at PataHputra at the junction of the Ganges and Gandak rivers. Being of low caste, Chandragupta apparently favored Buddhism. His son Bindusara succeeded him. I70 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Bindusara was followed some tiftie between 271 and 267 B.C. by his son Piyadasi, or Asoka, who was in his ninth year converted to Buddhism, and became the Constantine of that faith. He enjoined its precepts upon his subjects, inscribing them upon rocks in many parts of the country, and sent missionaries to foreign lands to preach it. Some of these missionaries visited Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Epirus, and C5T:ene. In his eight- eenth year Asoka held a council at Patna and appointed a chief minister of rehgion, whose duty it was to preserve the purity of religion and see that subject races were properly treated. Asoka's edicts show that, along with many other good works, he estabhshed hospitals even in foreign lands for the care of men and animals. The most important of Asoka's missionary enterprises was the mission sent to Ceylon, for it resulted in the introduc- tion of Buddhism into that country, where it has flour- ished with especial vigor. Here in the fifth century A.D. Buddhaghosa, the famous monk who compiled an encyclopedia of Buddhist doctrine, lived. Asoka's efforts seem also to have introduced Buddhism into Kashmere — at least it reached that part of India in his century. Space forbids us to follow in detail the later history of Buddhism. About the beginning of the Christian era it found its way into China. Probably even earlier it had become naturalized in Tibet. From China it spread to Korea and Japan. In the fifth century a.d. Buddhism was adopted in Burmah, and in the seventh century in Siam. In India proper it was already decadent in the sixth century a.d., when the Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang visited the country. It lingered on, however, BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 171 till the twelfth or thirteenth century, when it was ex- pelled by Hinduism and Mohammedanism. Although it has practically vanished from the land of its birth, it is estimated that there are today perhaps 500,000,000 Buddhists in the world. In other words, it is a religion of about one-third of the human race! 152. The transformation of Buddhism. — Buddhism, which remained comparatively pure until the time of Asoka, has in the centuries since been greatly trans- formed. Gautama himself recognized no God, but quite early in its development Buddhism had made him a god. He is regarded as omniscient and as perfectly sinless. Soon the doctrine arose that he had no earthly father; that he descended of his own accord from his throne in heaven into the womb of his mother, who was the purest of the daughters of men. After his birth the very trees bent of their own accord over him, and in many miracu- lous ways he gave evidence of his heavenly character. Around this conception of him all the marvels of the Jatakas, or Birth Stories, grew up. These were in part the outgrowth of a certain doctrine which, it is alleged, Gautama taught. According to this doctrine twenty- four Buddhas had appeared before him. After the death of each one the world grew gradually worse until a new one appeared. After five thousand years the religion revealed to Gautama under the Bo-tree will become so corrupt that a new Buddha, Buddha Maitreya, the Buddha of kindness, will appear and again open to men the door to Nirvana. Thus the pre-existent Buddha, who had appeared many times, newly rein- carnated in Gautama, took the place of a God in the religion. 172 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Along with this development many beautiful stories and parables were incorporated in the Buddhist scriptures and attributed to Gautama. Some of these, like the story of the penitent and impenitent robber/ and the parable of the prodigal son,'' somewhat resemble passages in the Gospels. It has been maintained that Christianity borrowed these from Buddhism, and that Buddhism borrowed them from Christianity. Albert J. Edmunds and Garbe earnestly advocate the indebtedness of Christianity to Buddhism.^ Such borrowing has not yet been fully proved, though shown to have been possible. One form of the legend of the Buddha became, however, so popular that it was given a Christian form, and, as St. Josaphat, the Buddha is revered as a Christian saint on the twenty-seventh of November! The development which made Buddha a god is known as Mahayana Buddhism, or Buddhism of the Great Vehicle. The Little Vehicle, or Hinayana, accepted in Ceylon, Siam, and Burma, represented Gautama as a simple teacher who uttered elementary truths easily comprehended by all."* This, as already noted, did not long satisfy. In the Great Vehicle Gautama's activity was divided into five periods. In the first his doctrine proved too advanced for the multitude, hence there followed a period of twelve years called the Deer Park. In this period Gautama set forth the doctrines of the ' Albert J. Edmunds, Buddhist and Christian Gospels, II, 14 ff. 'Sacred Books of the East, XXI, 99-106; Vol. X of American edition. 3 See Edmunds' BiMhist and Christian Gospels, II, 14 £E. ■• See Sacred Books of the East, XIX, 168-79. BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 173 Little Vehicle as an accommodation to human infirmity. The third was a period of expansion, when he preached to Boddhisattwas in ten regions a doctrine of greater profundity. This was only prehminary to a fourth period in which Gautama taught the doctrine of the Absolute, "which is the negation of all that is finite, and can be neither described nor comprehended by the ordi- nary processes of the intellect." In the fifth period he set forth more fully the nature of the Absolute, which constitutes and pervades all things, but which becomes incarnate in successive Buddhas. This last period is called Nirvana.^ Thus in the Greater Vehicle Gautama was exalted to an incarnation of the Absolute. Along with the transformation of the conception there de- veloped a transformation of the means of grace. In early Buddhism the efforts of each individual constituted his means of grace; in the Mahayana system great stress is laid upon prayer. The Absolute is merciful and may be appealed to. In Tibet and Nepal the development of this system has taken a peculiar form. According to this view there were three Buddhas before Gautama. The Buddha Maitreya, who will finally bring in the Golden Age, will be the fiith. Each of these mortal Buddhas has his counterpart in the mystic world free from the corrupting influences of material life. These are called Dhyani Buddhas. Each one of the five has a Boddhisattwa — a being, either man, angel, or animal, whose Karma is capable of producing other beings in a continually ascending scale of goodness until it becomes a Buddha. ' Compare the statement in G. W. Knox, The Development of Religion in Japan (New York, 1907), pp. 95 £. 174 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD According to this scheme the fifteen Buddhas are as follows : Dhyani Buddhas Boddhisattwas Human Buddhas Vairochana Samanta-bhadra Kraku-chanda Akshobya Vajrapani Kanaka-muni Ratna-sambhava Ratnapani Kasyapa Amitabha Padmapani (or Gautama Avalokitesvara) Amogasiddha Visvapani Maitreya Some of these, like Avalokitesvara, "the lord that looks down from on high," are metaphysical inventions, but Vajrapani, "the thunderbolt handed," or "hurler of the thunderbolt," is no other than the Vedic god Indra, under one of his epithets. Thus the old religion has crept back into Gautama's system of ethical culture! Another infusion from the old reHgion is the belief in heaven and hell. This belief is interwoven with the doctrine of transmigration. In heaven the good, who are not good enough for Nirvana, rest awhile before they are again incarnated. Hell is similarly a temporary abiding- place for the wicked. In Tibet alone of Buddhist countries the Buddhist order has developed into a hierarchy. Avalokitesvara is conceived as the Spirit of the Buddha who is present with his church. He is supposed to be incarnate in the Dalai Lama, the infalUble Head of the Church. The temples in Buddhist countries are supposed to be places for meditation and reading of the sacred books of Bud- dhism. There are altars on which incense is burned to the statue of the Buddha. Prayers are also said or chanted in parts of the Buddhist world. In Tibet the mechanical saying of prayers is thought to be a virtue. BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 175 Even their presentation in written form is of value, hence prayer wheels have been invented, to which written prayers are attached. Every time the wheel, turned by wiad or water, bears the prayer upward merit accrues to the devotee! In Nepal the early discipline of the order has so far relaxed that there are monasteries swarming with married monks/ 153. The founder of Jainism, Vardhamana or Maha- vira, was born near Vaisali, the modern Besarh,^ in the valley of the Ganges. His father appears to have been a petty chieftain. Mahavira lived in the same general period as Gautama, but probably a little before him, and founded a system of ethical culture which so much resembles Buddhism in some points that it has at times been regarded as a Buddhist sect. In many respects, however, it differs strikingly from Buddhism. Maha- vira, until he was thirty years old, lived a normal life. He became an ascetic and practiced asceticism for twelve years, when he received enlightenment and became the Jain, or the Victorius One. He then founded the Jainist order of monks, over which he presided until his death, when he was seventy-two years old.^ 154. Jainism, like Buddhism, was a revolt from the Brahmanic system. With reference to the gods Mahavira went farther than Gautama. Gautama admitted their existence, but denied them worship; Mahavira was thoroughly skeptical about them." Like Gautama, he ' V. A. Smith, Early History of India (Oxford, 1914), p. 367. ' See Jacobi, Sacred Books of the East, XXII, pp. x, xv; and A. Cunningham, The Ancient Geography of India (London, 1871), p. 443. 3 Sacred Books of the East, XXII, 269. 'Ibid., p. 152. 176 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD retained the doctrine of transmigration and of Karma, but, unlike him, he held with many Brahmans to the value of asceticism. Notwithstanding his faith in trans- migration, he still retained the Vedic doctrine of hell, to which the wicked went between births. Mahavira had practiced ascetic austerities twelve years before he became victorious, and he held that twelve years was the appointed time, if such practices were to be efficacious. The five vows taken by the Jainist monks are not to kill any living being, not to tell lies, not to steal, not to indulge in sexual pleasures, and to renounce all attach- ments.' These are in many respects similar to the vows of the Buddhist monks, but Jacobi has made it probable that both are influenced more by earlier Hindu ascet- icism than by each other. Although Mahavira had a very poor opinion of women,^ he permitted them to be- come ascetics. His rules apply to nuns as well as to monks. There are at present two orders of Jain monks, one of which wears clothes and admits women, while the other does not admit women and goes nude.^ Deliver- ance from rebirth is to be attained by right knowledge of the relation between spirit and non-spirit; by right intuition, or absolute faith in the Master and the dec- larations of the sacred texts; and by the right practice of the virtues, or observance of the five vows in all their details. The belief that it is wrong to kill anything leads the Jains to the most absurd tolerance of vermin. At times they fear to move or to breathe freely lest they kill some of the small insects with which the very air of India ' Sacred Books of the East, XXII, pp. 202 £E. 'Ibid., pp. 21, 48. 3 E. W. Hopkins, Religions oj hidia (Boston, 1895), p. 295. BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 177 frequently swarms. In almost every town where Jains live animal hospitals abound. One at Kutch is said to have contained five thousand rats! The followers of Mahavira regard him as a pre- existent being, who of his own accord was born of his mother. In practice, therefore, they accord him divine honors. Hopkins declares that a religion that denies God, worships man, and nourishes vermin has no right to exist!' Its one virtue, that of not killing, it holds in such exaggerated form that it becomes grotesque. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sees. 146-49: cf. T. W. Rhys Davids, Buddhism (London, 1903), chaps, i-iv. On sec. 150: See ibid., chaps, v and vi; and R. S. Copleston, Buddhism (London, 1892), chaps, xiii, xiv, xviii, and xix. On sees. 151, 152: cf. T. W. Rhys Davids, op. cit., chaps, vii-ix. On sees. 153, 154: cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, chap, xii; S. Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism (Oxford University Press, 1915); and Sacred Books of the East, XXII (American ed., Vol. X, second half). CLASS B George F. Moore, History of Religions, 1, chap. xii. ' Hid., p. 297. CHAPTER X HINDUISM The Veda is the source of the sacred law. — Gautama', Insti- tutes of the Sacred Law, i, i. There are four castes — Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. Amongst these, each preceding [caste] is superior by birth to the one following To serve the other castes is ordained for the Sudra. — ApAstamba, Aphorisms, I, i, 1:4, 5, 8. There are four orders, viz., the order of house-holders, the order of students, the order of ascetics, and the order of hermits in the woods. If he Kves in all these four according to the rules, without allowing himself to be disturbed, he will obtain salvation. — ApAstamba, Aphorisms, II, 9, 21: i, 2. Heaven is their reward, if they speak the truth; in the con- trary case hell. — Gautama, Institutes, xiii, 7. He who receives a (gift) from an avaricious king who acts in opposition to the treatises goes in succession to these twenty- one hells. — Ordinances of Manu, iv, 87. Leaving his good deeds to his loved ones and his evil deeds to his enemies, by force of meditation he goes to the eternal Brahma. — Ordinances of Manu, vi, 79. All this depends on meditation, whatsoever has been declared; for no one who knows not the supreme self obtains the fruit of his deeds. — Ordinances of Manu, vi, 82. And consecrated altar built and raised of bricks of gold, Shone in splendor like the altar Dasha raised in days of old, Eighteen cubits square the structure, four deep layers of brick in height. With a spacious winged triangle like an eagle in its flight! ' Not to be confused with the founder of Buddhism. 178 HINDUISM 179 Beasts whose flesh is pure and wholesome, dwellers of the lake and sky, Priests assigned each varied offering to each heavenly power on high. Bulls of various breed and color, steeds of mettle true and tried, Other creatures, full three hundred, to the many stakes were tied. Birds and beasts thus immolated, dressed and cooked, provide the food. Then before the sacred charger priests in rank and order stood. And by rules of Veda guided slew the horse of noble breed. Placed Draupadi, Queen of yajna, by the slain and lifeless steed. — Mahabhdrata, Book xii (Dutt's translation, pp. 167 f .). Krishna (said): I am the creature seated deep in every creature's heart ; Of poets Usana, of saints Vyasa, sage divine; The policy of conquerors, the potency of kings, The great unbroken silence in learning's secret things; The lore of all the learned, the seed of all which springs. Living or Mfeless, still or stirred, whatever beings be, None of them in all the worlds, but it exists by me! — Bhagavad-Gita, Book X (Sir Edwin Arnold's translation). 155. History. — Neither the Vedic religion nor the philosophies of the Upanishads was supplanted by the Buddhistic and the Jainistic heresies. Each lived on and has undergone multiform developments in the course of the centuries. The history of India has witnessed many upheavals. The chief events down to the reign of Asoka have already been noted. The descendants of Asoka lingered as petty rajas of Magadha and of parts of Western India for several centuries. In 206 B.C. Antiochus III of Syria is said to have made an incursion into India, and in the following century parts of India were at several times subject to kings of Bactria. i8o THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD After Bactria had been overthrown by Parthia, Par- thian princes at various times ruled portions of India to about 60 A.D. Legend has it that the apostle Thomas visited and preached in India at this time. These conquerors from the West left no permanent influence upon the country. In 185 B.C. the descendant of Asoka at Patahputra was overthrown and a Sunga dynasty was established there. Pushyamitra, its founder, inaugurated a reaction against Buddhism and revived the horse sacrifice. The Sunga dynasty was succeeded by the Kanva dynasty in 73 B.C. The Kanvas were in turn overthrown in 28 B.C. by the Andhra dynasty, a Dravidian people who lived in the region of the Godavari and Kistna rivers, where the Telugus are now found. The Andhra dynasty had been founded in that region after the death of Asoka, where it had gradually increased its power until it finally overthrew the Kanva dynasty and controlled the valley of the Ganges. The Andhra kings flourished until about 225 a.d. While these events were in progress a Scythian dy- nasty called Kushan, that had established itself in Bactria about 10 B.C., invaded Northwestern India about 20 a.d. and estabhshed itself in the region of Kabul and the upper Indus. This dynasty was not expelled from India until about 225 a.d. During a part of its career in India it controlled much of the valley of the Ganges. One of its kings, Kanishka, is said to have been con- verted to Buddhism. For about a hundred years we have no knowledge of the events occurring in Central India, but about 320 a.d. a man bearing the historic name of Chandragupta HINDUISM i8i established a dynasty at or near Pataliputra, which lasted till 606 a.d. and withstood an invasion of the Huns. It was followed by the powerful reign of Harsha of Thanesar, who flourished until 647 a.d. After Harsha's death the country broke up into petty states which were often at war with one another, and the history of which we have not space to follow. From the end of the tenth century (986) to the thirteenth century the Mohammedans made many conquests in Northwestern, Central, and Southern India, compelling many of the people to accept Islam. The Mohammedans estab- Ushed monarchies in various parts of the land — Bengal, the Deccan, Delhi, etc. — and became the most important political force in the country vmtil 1803. Since that time India has gradually passed under the control of Great Britain. 156. Systems of philosophy. — Before entering on the development of religion in the narrower meaning of the term, it is conveninent to trace the various systems of philosophy that were evolved out of the thought of the Upanishads or in reaction against it. These systems were regarded by their adherents as religions, or substitutes for religion. Some of them profoundly ii^fluenced the law books and the epics. The oldest of these philosophies was the Sankhya system, which is said to have originated with Kapila, a pre-Buddhistic thinker. Kapila revolted from the monism of the Upanishads, and maintained that there are two eternal things: matter and an infinite number of individual souls. An accoxmt of the nature and the mutual relation of these two forms the main content of the system. The philosophy is atheistic, as it recognizes i82 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD no God. What are called gods were no more than individual souls. Salvation, according to this system, is deliverance from the misery of transmigration, and is accomplished by the recognition of the absolute dis- tinction between matter and the soul. The Yoga system was founded by the grammarian Patanjali two or three centuries later. The system takes its name from a word meaning "union," etymologically related to the 'La.tm. jugum, "a yoke," and had for its aim, some think, union with God. Others say that it means "exertion" and refers to ascetic labors. Like Sankhya, it held to the distinction between spirit and matter, but unHke it, it held to faith in a personal God. The Yoga theory of salvation was practical rather than theoretical. It laid emphasis on asceticism and expe- rience rather than upon knowledge. Fasting and other penances had long prevailed in India. The Yoga system took them up and enforced them with a philosophical explanation. The object of these practices was to isolate the soul from matter, that it might be united to God. To stand with mud caked in one's hair till birds nested in it, immovable because the soul was in ecstatic abstrac- tion, was an extreme manifestation of the practice of Yoga principles. StiU another philosophy, a development of that of the Upanishads, passes under the name of Vedanta. It is chiefly influential in the form given to it by fankara, a commentator on the Veda who lived about 800 a.d. It is built on the conception of Brahman, which is explained at times as Absolute Being, at times as the ground of being or soul of the universe, and at times as a personal God. According to this philosophy the HINDUISM 183 phenomenal world has no real existence, though a kind of existence, Hke that of a dream, is accorded to it. Dreams are for a time real, though there is no outward reality to correspond to them. The bad dream of death and rebirth will go on imtil each recognizes that there is no real existence in the v/orld except Brahman-Atman. This knowledge is salvation. Passages in the Upani- shads which speak of Brahman as a personal supreme God were, Qankara taught, accommodations to the hmi- tations of human understanding. On accoxmt of such limitation Brahman might be adored as Lord. This was, however, a lower view than the other. There was thus a distinction between a higher and a lower Brahman. (The Sanskrit term Brahman and its deriva- tives are employed in Indian religious Uterature in a variety of ways. The term meant originally "to think holy thoughts," "worship," "adore," etc. Then a Brahman was a member of the priestly caste. The reh- gion conducted by this priestly caste came in time to be called Brahmanism — a term which in modern times is sometimes used as a synonym of Hinduism. Brahman was at times also employed to designate the object of worship. In this sense it is another name for Atman, the Soul of the universe.) Opposed to this school is that of Ramanuja, who Hved about iioo a.d. According to this system Brah- man is not a metaphysical Absolute, but his essence is intelligence. He is all-enveloping, all-knowing, all- merciful. He is goodness and is unalterably opposed to evil. Souls, far from being troubled dreams, constitute the very body of Brahman. Ramanuja, like the others, accepted the doctrine of death and rebirth. On his view 1 84 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD one could gain salvation from this by loving God, seeking him, adoring him. God would then mercifully grant the seeking soul release and permit it to share his own bliss. There are three minor orthodox systems of phi- losophy, the Mimansa, which explains the value to be derived from Vedic ceremonies; the Nyaya, a system of logic and argumentation; and the Qarvakas, a material- istic philosophy which regards the soul as a kind of ferment produced by the elements of the body. The influence of these philosophic sects upon Hindu- ism has been profound. One consequence of this is the widespread belief that salvation may be attained by contemplation of Brahman and intellectual absorption rather than by ethical endeavor and attainment of character. Religion thus becomes a matter of thought, and the life remains untouched. ' 157. Religion of the earlier law books. — Perhaps the earliest sources of information concerning the religion of the period just outlined are the law books of India, the sutras of Gautama, Apastamba, and Manu. These are, if not the earliest, the most conservative sources. It is thought that the Institutes of Gautama may be as early as the rise of Buddhism. This work makes the Veda the source of sacred law; a king and a Brahman are to be deeply versed in the Veda. The work is a set of rules defining the duties of each of the four castes. Incidentally it ordains certain sacrifices to Agni, the Maruts, and to Prajapati, the Vedic Creator.' Adora- tion of Rudra, Mitra, Indra, Agni, Soma, and all the gods is also prescribed.^ Heaven is the reward of witnesses who speak the truth; hell, of those who lie.^ ' Gautama, v, 10. " Ibid., xxvi. 3 ihid., xiii, 7. HINDUISM 185 In the Aphorisms of Apistamba there is more varia- tion from Vedic worship. Offerings and hymns were to be presented to "Earth, Air, Heaven, Sun, Moon, the Constellations, Indra, Brihaspati, Prajapati, and Brah- man.'" Brihaspati, "Lord of Prayer," is a deity of the Rig- Veda, but Brahman, the universal substance of the monistic philosophy of the Upanishads, has been taken from later strata of thought. His presence is evidence that even these law books were not untouched by the speculations of the philosophers. In this work, as in that of Gautama, the distinctions of caste are everywhere presupposed, and are rigidly enforced. It is assumed that the doctrine of transmigration and of Karma may to some extent relieve men from the prison-house of caste. Those who do well may in successive births enter higher castes; those who do ill, if members of a noble caste, will be born in the future in lower castes.^ In the Ordinances of Manu (about 200 B.C. ?) the influence of philosophic speculation is still more pronounced. While formally making the Veda the basis of legal prac- tice, and enforcing the obhgations of caste, many varia- tions are introduced. The Lord, Creator of all things, is Brahman. He is self -existent; he created all things, even the gods; lightnings, thunderbolts, and Indra's unbent bow are his work.^ This one some declare to be Agni, others Manu Prajapati, some Indra, others breath, others again the eternal Brahman." The wicked man goes not to one hell, but to twenty-one hells,' though in other passages it is taught that sin may be pimished by rebirths » Apastamba, 11, 2, 4:4. ' Ibid., II, s, 11: 10, II. ^ Ibid., xii, 123. 3 Manu, i. s lUd., iv, 87 ff. i86 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD rather than in hells. Thus the crime of killing a beast will be punished by as many rebirths as there were hairs on the animal/ Salvation is, according to Manu, union with Brahman, but the thought as to how this union might be accomplished was evidently in a state of transition. At times it is said to be effected by study of the Veda, by vows, offerings, offspring, and sacrifice.^ At other times it is said to be secured by meditation.^ At times the rules of sacrifice are enforced with almost trivial literalness ; at other times sacrifice is declared to be spiritual.'' In such ways the old religion appears in the Laws of Manu to be in process of transformation. In the estimation of the compilers of all these laws it was necessary to regard the Veda as the Hindu Bible, but the Veda to which they adhered was not always the same. Gautama built upon the Sama-Veda, Apastamba and Manu upon the Yajur-Veda. The methods of treating Vedic texts and institutions differed, as the methods of interpretation applied to the Bible by modern Christian sects have sometimes differed. It was thus that one school could justify speculations which almost did away with Vedic gods. 158. The Mahabharata, the great epic of India, is a work of much religious significance. It has profoundly affected large sections of Hmdu reHgious hfe. Like the Gilgamesh Epic of the Babylonians and like the Iliad, it is not all from one hand or one age. It is a long con- glomerate work, containing about eight times as much material as the Iliad and the Odyssey put together.^ ' Manu, V, 38. s Ibid., iv, 87; vi, 79. 'Ibid., ii, 28. * Ibid., iv, 22-28. 5 Macdonell, History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 282. HINDUISM 187 This mass of material was a gradual growth, begimiing as an epic not earlier than 400 B.C., and (with the excep- tion of minor amplifications) completed about 400 a.d.' By 500 A.D. its contents were the same as at present.^ The beginnings of the epic are based on stories that reach much farther back into Indian antiquity. Even a brief outline of the epic story would occupy too much of our space. The scene is laid at Hastina- pura, fifty-seven miles northeast of the modern Delhi. The region was called, from the ruling race, the land of the Kurus. Here two brothers ruled, Dhritarashtra and Pandu. Dhritarashtra being blind, Pandu reigned glori- ously. Pandu had five sons, the chief of whom were called Yudhishthira, Bhima, and Arjuna; Dhritarashtra had a hundred sons. After Pandu's death Dhritarashtra took over the government, but made Yudhishthira the heir apparent. Soon the sons of Pandu were com- pelled by the hatred of their hundred cousins to flee the kingdom. They made their way to the king of Panchala, whose daughter, Draupadi, Arjuna won by a feat of arms. They soon formed an alliance with Krishna, the hero of the Yadavas, who from this time became the friend, adviser, and champion of the brothers, especially of the most warhke of them, Arjuna. Because of their powerful alliances their rmcle now divided his kingdom with the five brothers in order to placate them. Through the machinations of one of their cousins a con- flict was precipitated. With the account of this conflict the epic action begins. There were battles, victories, defeats, the loss of a kingdom by gambling, banishment, ' Hopkins, The Great Epic of India (New York, 1901), p. 398. ' Macdonell, op. cit., p. 287. i88 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD and wars again. To the original story of war other stories have been added in the lapse of time. The differ- ent strata represent many var)dng religious conceptions. In parts of it the Vedic custom of animal sacrifice is described with approval, as in the case of the horse sacri- fice in Book xii, quoted at the head of this chapter. In other parts philosophic speculations and anti-priestly utterances are enthusiastically set forth. The most significant religious feature of the epic is the way in which Krishna developed from an earthly hero to an incarnation of Vishnu. We learn from the Greek writer Megasthenes, who was in India about 300 b.c, that at that time the two gods Vishnu and fiva were already very prominent, and that people were divided into Vishnuites and ^ivaites. fiva was originally the Vedic god Rudra, a god of storm and vengeance, fiva means "auspicious" and was a euphemistic epithet given to Rudra. The new name seems gradually to have changed to some extent the character of the god, who became the auspicious deity to many, and vied with Vishnu, one of the Vedic sun-gods, for the devotion of the Indian peoples. The division into Vishnuites and Qivaites, noted by Megasthenes, became one of the most far- reaching distinctions in Hinduism. The Mahahharata is one of the great products of a part of the Vishnuites. Krishna was, it is thought, a real man, a nephew of Kamsa, king of the Yadavas. He was born at Mathura, between Delhi and Agra. An oracle warned Kamsa that a son of his brother would kill him; he therefore put his nephews to death as fast as they were born. Krishna's parents secretly conveyed their son to the other side of the river, where, with an older brother who HINDUISM 189 had also escaped, he was brought up by a herdsman and his wife. The brothers became famous for their fights with demons and dragons. Their fame reached the uncle, who summoned them to his court, when the uncle was put out of the way, and Krishna became king. After many other victories he became the charioteer of the prince Arjuna, and took part in the wars which form the central theme of the Mahabhdrata. Many years later internecine strife broke out among the Yada- vas, when they killed one another to the last man, Krishna perishing with the others. Why this hero became Vishnu incarnate we can now only conjecture. One plausible theory is that he was a religious reformer, who taught people to worship Gk)d under the name of Bhagavata, "the Adorable," and that he was afterward regarded as an incarnation of God, the Brahmans interpreting God as Vishnu. 159. The Bhagavad-Gita, or "Song of the Blessed," lends probabiUty to the theory just mentioned. It is inserted as an episode in the sixth book of the Maha- bhdrata. It is placed at a point in the epic where Arjuna was compelled to lead the forces of the sons of Pandu against his cousins, the sons of Dhritarashtra, in fratri- cidal strife. Arjima hesitated and Krishna proceeded to instruct him in the true doctrine of sacrifice — the sacrifice of the lower self to the higher self. The out- ward war of the brothers was thus made to interpret the inwa'rd war of the two natures in every man. The teaching is given in the form of a dialogue. Arjima asked many questions, to which Krishna gave illumi- nating replies. In these replies the spiritual religion of the Krishna- Vishnuites is clearly set forth and at the 190 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD same time is given practical application to the affairs of real life. Krishna, in the passage quoted at the begui- ning of this chapter, as the embodiment of Vishnu, is the all-embracing immanent deity. In him pantheism is made personal. The great struggle of life is the struggle between one's lower and higher natures. In carrying on this struggle one should not flee arduous manly duty (not even the war which confronted Arjuna could be shirked), but one should stand up manfully to that which the immanent God laid upon him. The transmigration of the soul is assumed as an underlying philosophy all through the poem, and the philosophies of different schools find expression ui different parts of the work.' The poem was in some form present in the epic, it is thought, as early as 250 B.c.,^ though in parts it has been expanded siace. Although an eclectic work, the Bhagavad-Gita is the finest ethical and religious product of non-Buddhistic Indian religious thought. Certain strains remind us of words of Jesus, as the following from Krishna: Who doeth all for Me; who findeth Me In all; adoreth always; loveth all Which I have made, and Me, for love's sole end, That man, Arjuna! unto me doth wend.' Some modern Hindu sects and their admirers have had the Bhagavad-Gita printed in many translations, and cir- culate it as Bible societies circulate the New Testament. ' These philosophies are outlined in sec. 156. " So Garbe in the article "Bhagavad-Gita" in Hastings' Encyclo- paedia of Religion and Ethics, II, 535 ff. i Bhagavad-Gita, Sir Edwin Arnold's The Song Celestial, end of Book XI, pp. 128 ff. HINDUISM 191 Such incarnations or descents (avatdras) of Vishnu and other deities are supposed in India to have occurred many times. These avatdras were sometimes in animal as well as in human form. Vishnu was believed to have manifested himself in this way nine times. Thus old cults were reinterpreted as ancient forms of later ones. In time it was supposed that whenever religion was in danger or iniquity was triumphant the god was incar- nated to set things right. This view is expressed in the Bhagavad-Gita. 160. The Ramayana is another epic poem that has had great religious significance in India. In its present form it consists of seven books, and is said to have been composed by a poet named Valmiki. Jacobi has shown that the original kernel of the poem consisted of Books ii-vi, and there are reasons for supposing that these five books were composed before 400 B.C. and some think they antedate the beginning of Buddhism.^ The scene of the Ramayana was the vicinity of Ayodhya, the modern Oudh, about 170 miles northwest of Benares. Daga- ratha, king of Ayodhya, had three sons by three wives: Rama, son of Kaugalya; Bharata, son of Kaiieyi; and Lakshmana, son of Sumitra. Rama was declared the heir apparent, but Kaikeyi, anxious that her son Bharata should be the next king, persuaded Dagaratha to grant her any boon she might ask. Having obtained her request she asked that Bharata might be made heir apparent and Rama be banished for fourteen years. Rama was accompanied into exile by his wife Sita and his half-brother Lakshmana. All three lived happily in the forest of Dandaka. Upon the death of Dagaratha, ' Macdonell, History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 309. 192 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Bharata refused to reign, but sought out Rama and implored him to return. When Rama refused, Bharata went back, placed a pair of Rama's shoes on the throne, and himself dispensed justice by their side. Rama con- tinued to dwell in the forest, having various adventures, engaging in various wars, and making alliances with the monkeys. Once he was compelled to rescue his wife Sita from captors somewhat as King David did his.' The original poem had to do with these adventures, but by the addition of Books i and vii Rama has been made an embodiment of Vishnu, so that the poem, like the Mahabhdrata, is a glorification of Vishnu. In con- sequence of this, some Hindu sects regard the Ramayana as their Old Testament and use it for reUgious edification. Rama, the incarnate deity, is the type of the filial son; Sita, of the faithful wife; Lakshmana, of the devoted brother. The story of Rama and Sita is thought by some to have been heightened by an infusion of Vedic myth; others regard them as simply humanized mythical characters. The sects that reverence Rama are not as numerous as those that reverence Krishna. i6i. The Institutes of Vishnu, not earlier than 200 A.D., is a law book that affords interesting evidence that such pantheistic theology as that of the Bhagavad- Gita was unable to expel the old ceremonies from any considerable section of even that part of Hindu fife affected by the Vishnuite sects. In the Institutes it is still made obligatory to offer burnt offerings to Agni, Soma, Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and others;^ such was the influence of Vedic scripture. Nevertheless in another 'Cf. I Sam. 30:1-6. ' See Sacred Books of the East, VII, chap, kvii, p. 3. HINDUISM 193 chapter the pantheistic doctrine of the all-embracing Vishnu is set forth/ While such sacrifices are inculcated in one chapter, another declares that a "Brahmana may beyond doubt obtain final emancipation by solely repeat- ing (prayers), whether he perform any other religious observance or no; one who is benevolent towards all creatures (and does not slay them for sacrifice) is justly called a Brahmana (or one united to Brahman)."^ Each of the twenty-one hells of Manu is declared to be the residence for a specified time of sinners who have not performed the proper penance,' but such sinners will be reborn, each as a different animal. One who steals vege- tables containing leaves wiU become a peacock; one who steals a horse, a tiger; one who steals a woman, a bear," etc. Nothing could better illustrate the confusion that arose from perpetuating the old, developing it at some points, and at the same time attempting to combine with it a philosophy which denied the validity of the old. Many influences have ui the course of centuries made themselves felt in Vishnuite thought and many sects have developed. This has been due in part to the phi- losophies described in section 156. Some of the sects stand for lofty ethics and real theism; some of them have degenerated to immorality. Those of the last- mentioned type are found most often among the sects that have substituted love of Krishna for intellectual contemplation of him. They frequently manifest this love by imitating his relations with his various wives. A good example of these is the sect of Vallabhacaris, named for its founder Vallabhacarya, who was born ' Ibid., chap, xcviii. ^Ibid., chap, xliii. ' Ibid., chap. IV, 21. < Ibid., chap. 3div. 194 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD about 1478 A.D. The members of the sect work them- selves up into great emotional manifestations, in which they frequently roll unconscious on the ground. They hold that love for Krishna should be manifested by imitating his devotion to his favorite concubine Radha, and, as they have abolished the rules of caste, many loose characters are found among them. Emotionalism thus naturally degenerates into hcense. The priests of the sect are regarded as representatives of Klrishna on earth and claim and receive honors due to him. Women are taught that the highest bliss is secured to them and their famiHes by receiving the caresses of Krishna's representatives. The priests also claim and receive the jus primae noctis. 162. The Civaites. — Side by side with the evolu- tion of the worship of Vishnu the worship of QbfZ, developed. As already noted, Qiva was Rudra under another name. Unlike Vishnu, Qiva is not believed to have become incarnate. Another divergence is found in the fact that with Qiva many goddesses appear to be associated. There is not only his wife Devi, but Gauri, the bright one; Sati, the faithful wife; Parvati, the daughter of the mountains; Kali, the black one; Bhai- ravi, the terrible; Karala, the horrible. Perhaps these were originally but various names of Devi. The con- ception of Qiva and his goddesses is not purely Aryan. Many elements from the aboriginal races of India have been gathered into it. To these goddesses the terrifying powers of the Vedic Rudra are now largely attributed, so that fiva liimself is more nearly the auspicious one. The most common emblem of ^iva is the phallus {lingam) and its female counterpart, the yoni. The philosophical af&nities of fivaism are with the dualistic philosophies HINDUISM 195 of Sankhya and Yogi rather than with the monistic systems. Though the ^ivaite sects are not so numerous as the Vishnuite, there are several. To some of these fiva is the "Great Yogin," who, besmeared with ashes and with matted hair, sits under the Pipa-tree, and who through meditation has become a god. Such worshipers imitate him. Megasthenes, when in India, saw another side to Qiva., whom he identified with the Greek Dionysios. In fiva as worshiped by the Qakta. sect the baser side of Vedic reUgion — that element that worshiped Soma — has survived and been reinforced by other ele- ments drawn from aboriginal Indian cults. Man is recognized as a creature of passions, and it is held that it is by means of these passions that he is to cross the region of darkness to union with Qiva. Passion is poison, but poison can be killed only by poison. Hence the five things that have caused man's ruin — wine, flesh, fish, mystic gesticulations, and sexual indulgence — are employed by them in religious orgies. In this sect the gakti, or female principle, assumes the leading place. 163. The triad. — ^Although there is much rivalry between the worshipers of Vishnu and of Qiva, this rivalry is not universal. In the south of India the two are often coupled together under the name Hari-Hara and worshiped as one god. In other places their temples are often in the same sacred inclosure. In certain circles Brahman was added, and the three adored as a triad. Thus Kahdasa, the Shakespeare of India, sang: In those three persons the one God was shown — Each first in place, each last — ^not one alone; Of Civa, Vishnu, Brahma,' each may be First, second, third, among the Blessed Three. ' Another spelling of Brahman. 196 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD It was by the formation of a triad that certain thinkers reconciled the rival claims of various sects. 164. Temples. — ^While the Vedic religion had no permanent holy places, Hinduism has long erected temples all over India. Benares, the Jerusalem of India, has the largest number. There are at least two thousand temples there, not counting smaller shrines. The temples vary greatly in size and splendor.^ Each contains one or more idols, except temples of Qiva, whose emblem is the lingam. The larger temples support extensive priesthoods as well as bands of musicians and dancing girls. In temples where there are idols it is the duty of the priests to awaken them each morning, make their toilets, burn incense before them, and offer them food. The number of temples and shrines is continually increasing. The scene of some unusual event, or the abode of some person accoimted sacred, is sufficient to mark out a spot for a shrine. There is not an object in heaven or on earth that the Indian is not prepared to worship. He holds all life sacred, plant as well as animal. All Mving things are venerated, but the cow is regarded as most sacred. She typifies the all-yielding earth, and is the chief source of nourishment of every Hindu. The ox is the indispensable agent of agricultural labor. Images of the typical cow of plenty are sold in the bazaars and bought as objects of reverence, and sacred cows are found in many temples. 165. The Sikhs. — Early in the fifteenth century a reformer, Kabir by name, assailed idolatry and broke away from all authority, whether Hindu or Mohamme- dan. His followers were to conform to no rites. Several ' For pictures of some of these, see V. A. Smith, Early History of India, pp. 428, 465. HINDUISM 197 sects trace their spiritual ancestry to him. Of these the Kabir Pan this regard Kabir as a god. The most impor- tant of them are, however, the Sikhs, founded toward the end of the fifteenth century by Nanak, a professed follower of Kabir. Under the influence of Islam he endeavored to purge Vishnuism of superstition. He taught a monotheistic faith. God is Supreme Lord by whatever name he is called. Dehverance from the round of rebirths and reabsorption into God was, he held, an act of free grace, communicated by means of a formula which could be taught only by one who stood in apostolic succession to Kabir and himself. Nanak's son, Arjun, compiled the Granth, or Sikh Bible. It contains utter- ances of Kabir, Nanak, and of many of the older Hindu saints, to which Arjun added some of his own. The Sikhs became a wealthy and militant community, which played an important part in Amritsar in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The fourth in succession from Nanak built a temple at Amritsar. 166. Modem Hindu reforms. — The impact of Chris- tianity and Western civiKzation upon India has led to at least two noteworthy efforts to adjust Hinduism to modern conditions. The earliest of these efforts is the Brahma Samaj (Society of God), foimded in 1828 by Ram Mohan Ray, a distinguished, broad-minded Brahman. It has had since his death two other dis- tinguished leaders, Debendra Nath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen. As each of these leaders stood for a some- what different rehgious position, and as there were some members of the society who, at each new departure, pre- ferred the older view, the Brahma Sarnaj is now composed of three wings. All branches of it agree that God is 198 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD a personal being, that he never became incarnate, that he hears and answers prayer, that he is to be worshiped only in spiritual ways, that men of all castes may worship him acceptably, that repentance and cessation from sin are the only way to forgiveness and salvation, and that nature and intuition are the sources of the knowledge of God, no book being authoritative. The branch of it led by Keshab Chandra Sen is known as the "New Dispensation Samaj." It adds to the articles already mentioned belief that the soul is immortal; that God is a Trinity, Father, Son, and Spirit; that God is Mother as well as Father; that God speaks through inspired men as well as through nature and intuition; that Brahmanism is a universal religion ; and that the Brahma Samaj is God's latest dispensation and its missionaries his apostles. In 1901 there were but 4,050 members in all three branches of the society. The Arya Samaj (Society of the Noble) was founded in 187s by Mul Sankar, better known as Swami Daya- nand Sarasvati, who was born as a member of the Qiva cult, broke away from it for the Vedanta philosophy, and finally became a religious reformer on the basis of the Sankha-Yoga philosophies. Dayanand Sarasvati had come in contact with modern civiUzation through many channels, and endeavored to reform Hinduism to meet the conditions of modern life. He taught belief in a personal God, who is all-truth, all-knowledge, incor- poreal, almighty, just, merciful, unbegotten, unchange- able, all-pervading, and the cause of the imiverse. The Vedas are the books of true knowledge; one should always be ready to accept truth; all ought to be treated with love, justice, and in disregard of their merits; HINDUISM 199 ignorance should be dispelled; and everyone should regard his prosperity as included in that of others. His great cry was "back to the Vedas." He professed to derive all his teaching from them, but the method of interpretation by which he extracted the true doctrine and put aside all that contradicted it was peculiarly his own. It conformed neither to Hindu canons of inter- pretation nor to those of scientific exegesis. According to him salvation was to be accompHshed by effort. No distinctions of caste are regarded vaHd. It is estimated that the adherents of the Arya Samaj now number about 100,000. The Samaj is now divided into a " cultured ' ' and a conservative party. The former eats meat and fosters modern education, maintaining a creditable college at Lahore; the latter is vegetarian, and adheres to the ancient ideas of education. 167. Summary. — Hinduism, which is still the rehgion of some 200,000,000 people, presents almost endless variety of faith and practice. These diversities have been created by the various influences, internal and external, that have swept over India since the Vedic age. Ithasnorallying-point; it stands for no one great idea or ideal. Some of its ideas are beautiful; many of its ideals noble; but in general it lacks consistency and coherency. In most of its varied manifestations Hindu- ism suffers by the divorce of religion from hfe. Salva- tion is to be attained by intellectual absorption or by some ritual acts. That it should affect conduct most of the systems deny or ignore.' The ideals of the ' The separation between religion and morals is implied in chap, vi of the Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics used in the Central Hindu College at Benares, where emphasis is also laid upon religion as a contemplation of God. See pp. 221-37. 200 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Bhagavad-Gita are noble, but Krishna as he is worshiped in Bengal fosters prostitution in his temples, while the cult of ^iva often degenerates to immoral orgies. For the most part Hinduism is ethically impotent and many of her holy men are gross. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sec. 155: cf. V. A. Smith, Early History of India, Including the Campaigns of Alexander (Oxford, 1914). On sees. 156, 160: Hopkins, Religions of India, chap. xiv. On sees. 157, 159: Hopkins, The Great Epic of India (New York, 1901); or J. C. Oman, Indian Epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata (London, 1906); and the translations in 'Dntt, Mahdbharata, The Epic of Ancient India (London, 1899). On sec. 158: SirEdwin Arnold, The Song Celestial {Boston, igog). On sec. 161: Hopkins, The Great Epic of India, chap, iii; or G. F. Moore, History of Religions, I, chap. xiii. On sees. 162-65: cf. Jacobi, "Brahmanism" in Hastings' Ency- clopaedia of Religion and Ethics, II; or NicoU Macnicol, Indian Theism (Oxford University Press, 1915), chaps, vii-xi; or M. Monier-WiUiams, Hinduism (14th ed., London, 1901), chaps, vii-xii. On sec. 166: cf. "Brahma Samaj" and " Arya Samaj" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, II. CLASS B G. F. Moore, History of Religions, 1, chaps, xiii-xv. CHAPTER XI THE RELIGIONS OF CHINA Always and in everything let there be reverence; with the deportment grave as when one is thinking (deeply) and with speech composed and definite. — Li Ki, I, i, i'. If a man observe the rules of propriety, he is in a condition of security; if he do not, he is in one of danger. — lA Ki, I, i, 6'*. That which I do not wish others to put upon me, I also wish not to put upon others.— Confucius, Analects, Book V. The Way (Tao) that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Way (Tao). The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name. — Tao Teh King, I, i, i. Always without desire we must be found. If its deep mystery we would sound; But if desire always within us be. Its outer fringe is all that we shall see. — Tao Teh King, I, 1,3. The highest excellence is like that of water. The excellence of water appears in its benefiting all things, and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low place which all men dislike. Hence (its way) is near to (that of) the Tao. — Tao Teh King, I, 8, I. 168. The land, people, and history. — The cradle of Chinese civilization appears to have been the provinces of Shan-si and Kan-su in Northwest China — ^provinces watered by the Hwang-ho or Yellow River. The greater portion of these provinces Ues between 35° and 40° north latitude; they possess a dry and bracing 20X 202 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD climate. Millet grows here, as do apples, pears, grapes, melons, and walnuts. Sheep and cattle are raised, and the two-humped camel furnishes transportation. The date at which this civilization developed is uncertain. Chinese chronographers have transmitted a list of dynasties that, added end to end, take us back to 2850 B.C.' and tell us of long-lived mythological beings who ruled before this time and who invented the chief features of civilization. Some scholars count all this material mythological down to about the tenth century B.C.," though the lengths of the various reigns as given in the Usts are not impossibly long. The material is neverthe- less most uncertain before 2258 B.C., when the Hia dynasty ascended the throne. It is said to have ruled until 1766 B.C., when it was displaced by the Shang or Yin djmasty, which is said to have held the scepter until 1122 B.C. As both Babylonian and Egyptian sources exaggerate the lengths of the reigns of the early rulers of those coimtries, it is quite possible that the Chinese sources do the same. It may well be, therefore, that the begumings of its civilization do not extend farther back than 2500 B.C. The Chinese have no traditions concerning the entrance of their ancestors into the country. Efforts have been made by some scholars to connect them with the Sumerians of Babylonia,^ or the Elamites,'' but the efforts are far from convincing. It is probable that the ' See F. Hirth, Ancient History of China (New York, igii), pp. 7 and 329. " So H. A. Giles, History of Chinese Literature (New York, 1901). 3 C. J. Ball, Sumerian and Chinese (Oxford, 1914). »w,p. 365. ' Ibid., pp. 64 ff. 3 Famell, Higher Aspects of the Greek Religion, p. 14. THE RELIGION OF GREECE 249 loved, hated, quarreled, intrigued, and fought, just as did their princely worshipers. Nevertheless, the artistic instinct banished from the poems much that was horrible in the earlier ceremonies and conceptions. (2) Hesiod, a Boeotian farmer, who wrote about 750 B.C., was a very different person from the poets who sang at the courts of Asiatic princes. He was less gifted as an artist and his interests were those of the soil. He endeavored to arrange the Homeric gods into a pantheon. The effort took the form of a poetic genealogy, the Theogony. It is really an account of the origin of the world, a cosmogony, as well as an account of the origin of the pantheon. In it the past is idealized. The world is represented as growing steadily worse. The Gold Age was followed by the Silver Age, that by the Bronze Age. The present is the Iron Age, and deterioration is still in progress. What was noble in the past was glorified and its harsher features forgotten. Hesiod's account of the origin of the universe begins with the emergence of Chaos. Earth next came into being, in the recesses of which was Tartarus. Then came Love. From Chaos were born Erebos and Night; from Night, Aether and Day; from Earth, the starry Heaven. From Earth and Heaven were born Okeonos, Thea, Rhea, Themis, and other goddesses. In Hesiod's Works and Days the rules and taboos relating to agriculture are collected. It thus preserves many of the earlier customs and superstitions of the people. As the Iliad mirrors the religion of the aristo- cratic warrior, the Works and Days mirrors that of the peasant fanner.^ ' See Gilbert Murray, op. cit., p. 85. 2 so THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD 183. Religion in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. — (i) Conditions: These centuries constitute a period of commercial expansion. In the seventh century Greeks were welcomed in Egypt by the kings of the Twenty- sixth Dynasty. The dynasty established by Gyges in Lydia eventually brought imder its sway all of Asia Minor west of the Halys, and opened the country to Greek ideas and Greek enterprise. The Greek states themselves began to establish colonies in different parts of the Eastern Mediterranean, from the Black Sea and the Propontis to Cyrene in Lybia. They also swept westward and colonized Southern Italy and Sicily. This expansion created a fusion in religion and a new form of society. The colonies carried their home gods with them, but soon grafted on to the worship of these the local cults of their new homes. With the estabhsh- ment of the colonies there came into being an extensive commerce, which soon created a class of wealthy mer- chants. Older Greek society had been agricultural; the aristocracy were the owners of large country estates. Little by Httle the wealthy city merchant took the place in popular esteem made vacant by the dwindling importance of the possessors of improductive acres. The peasantry flocked to the cities, many foreign slaves were brought in, and the older social fabric was transformed. (2) Dionysos: This transformation was accompanied by important religious changes. One of the most strik- ing of these was the introduction and naturalization of the cult of the Thracian god Dionysos. In Thrace this god was a god of general fertility, not strikingly differ- ent from the deities of the old Aegean cult. He was worshiped at festivals with ecstatic orgies characteristic THE RELIGION OF GREECE 251 of such cults. In Greece he became the god of the vine, but carried with him the festivals and orgies of his native land. The transfer of his cult to Greece, combined with the changing social conditions of the period, led to the introduction of a more personal element into rehgion. Gods had before been the deities of clans or cities in whose favor all members of the clan or city- shared. The potency of the god had up to this time been confined to the present hfe. The imderworld was a cheerless abode, such as is pictured in the Odyssey, Book xi, where the departed dragged out a shadowy existence. The cult of Dionysos as introduced into Greece held out the hope of a personal salvation. Individuals were initiated into its mysteries. Benefits unknown to others came to those so initiated, and those benefits extended to a happier Hfe in the underworld. While a part of that world was peopled with terrifying monsters, there were in other parts deUghtful abodes for the initiated.^ (3) Demeter: Under the spur of the mysteries of Dionysos, those of Demeter at Eleusis developed into a similar cult. Demeter, though a Hellenic goddess, probably supplanted one that had her beginnings in Mycenaean times.^ In Homer she appears as an earth-goddess whose daughter, Proserpine, who repre- sents vegetation, was carried down to Hades. Deme- ter sought her daughter and brought her up again. At Eleusis she was the goddess of a minor tribe, but in competition with the cult of the foreign Dionysos her ' See Famell, The Cults of the Greek States (Oxford, 1896-1909), V, chaps, iv-vii. ' C£. ibid., Ill, 31. 252 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD mysteries developed apace. People from outside the tribe became initiates; salvation was promised them, and the cult became popular. The Elysian fields of this cult were portrayed in more refined terms than those of the cult of Dionysos, and the cult appears to have appealed to a different class. (4) Orpheus: Intermingled with these two cults were some that bore other names. The most important of these were the Orphic mysteries, which appear to have been in some way coimected with those of Dionysos, but are found at Eleusis also. Orpheus was the half- mythical primitive poet who, by the power of his l3Te, had brought his wife Eurydice back from the under- world. Verses of varying degrees of excellence were attributed to Orpheus and became the scriptures of the Orphic sect. Orphism endeavored to satisfy the human longing for a supernatural good, a foretaste of which might be enjoyed now. Among the doctrines prominent in the system was that of the transmigration of the soul. These mystery-sects offered to everyone a personal sal- vation that accorded with every taste and temperament. The mysteries of Demeter at Eleusis were stately and restrained; those of Dionysos were boisterous and ec- static. In the fourth century the Orphists sent mission- aries about the country with drums and tambourines after the manner of the Salvation Army. They carried a donkey load of fawnskins, tame snakes, and other paraphernaUa employed in the initiations.* (5) Philosophy: The period which witnessed the rise of these personal rehgions witnessed also the rise of ' The description of this given by Demosthenes in his De corona 259 is very vivid. THE RELIGION OF GREECE 253 philosophy. This began in Miletus, an Ionian city in Asia, where, in the sixth century, Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes sought, apart from religion, to explain the external world. They started speculations that lasted on through the fifth century, but which we may conveniently sum up here. They perceived the unity of the world, and each sought to find some one element that was original, the transformations of which would account for the phenomena of nature, for life and death. Thales believed the original element to be water, Anaximenes, air. Pythagoras of Samos, probably in- fluenced by Babylonian mathematical lore, held that numerical relations explained all things. Other philoso- phers viewed the world from still different angles. Heraclitus of Ephesus held that all nature is in a state of flux; nothing is stable; the one permanent thing is change. Parmenides of Elea denied this view, holding that the one permanent thing is being. Empedocles held that there were four primal elements: earth, air, fire, and water. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae taught that there were countless substances, that these substances were in confusion till mind came and set them in order. Democritus of Abdera hit upon an atomic theory of the universe that is strikingly similar to the atomic theory of modern physics. The only one of these philosophers whose theory appears to border on religion was Xeno- phanes of Colophon. He held that God is one and not like mortals; all things are one, and nothing comes into being or perishes.' The effect of these philo- sophical speculations was to imdermine the faith of ' For a fuller statement of their views see Wilmer Cave Wright's Short History of Greek Literature (New York, 1907), pp. 145-51. 254 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD the more thoughtful in the old gods and the old reUgion. i86. The religion of poets and philosophers. — Greece's great contribution to the religious thought of the world was made through the great poets and philoso- phers, Pindar, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristoph- anes, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Aeschylus was born in 525 B.C., Pindar in 522, and Aristotle died in 322. The Hves of these men accordingly extended across just two centuries. These writers were not religionists in any narrow sense. They were connected with no priesthood or religious order. The hterature which they created was altogether of a secular character, but it was pervaded by conceptions that were so fundamentally religious that they have molded much of subsequent religious thinking in the Mediterranean basin, whether Greek, Jewish, Christian, or Mohammedan, and the religious thought of the rest of the world in so far as it has been subjected to Mediterranean influences. (i) Pindar, who Hved for a time at S3T:acuse in Sicily, wrote forty-four odes which have survived. He was devoutly religious. The old gods appear on his pages as on the pages of the Iliad, but they are more civilized. When Pindar is compared with Homer, his gods appear as much more refined than those of the epic as Homer's were more refined than those of primitive Greece. The passions of the gods are obHterated, their rule of the world is portrayed as righteous and just, and there is a tendency to exalt Zeus to a point where he embodies the moral order of the world. (2) In Aeschylus this tendency appears in still greater clearness. He says in a fragment quoted at the THE EELIGION OF GREECE 255 head of this chapter, the genuineness of which there is no reason to doubt: The air is Zeus, Zeus earth, and Zeus the heaven, Zeus all that is, and what transcends them all. If this language is more than the momentary utterance of poetic feehng, it impUes that Zeus is above and apart from other gods, differing from them, not only in degree, but in kind. The same thought is expressed in various ways in his tragedies. It is not bHnd fate that brings retribution in the wake of crime, but Zeus working his supreme and just will. (3) Sophocles stood nearer than Aeschylus to the popular point of view. In his plays no one god over- shadows the rest of the pantheon. He is more inter- ested in portrajdng the possible benefits of suffering, and depicts in such instances as Oedipus and Antigone how character is purified in the crucible of life. (4) Euripides, 480-406 B.C., manifested a very differ- ent attitude in his plays. Aeschylus and Sophocles were aristocrats who were interested in maintaining the old reHgion and the old order; Euripides was a man of the people. He was a critic of the old reHgion — not the kind of critic that a consistent thinker would be, but a critic of artistic moods and poetic feeling. For fifty years he Hved in Athens. He is said to have written ninety-two plays, only eighteen or nineteen of which have survived. In these he assumes toward religion and the gods the various attitudes of a man who is, on the whole, skeptical and yet possesses an artistic feeling that is akin to religious emotion. The myths which attributed inunoraUty to the gods repelled him, while 2S6 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD the conventions of his art compelled him to employ them. He took no pains to conceal the revolting aspects of these myths, though he took care so to portray them that they should prove unattractive to the crowd. Faithlessness, vengefulness, lust, and brutality were called by their right names when gods exhibited them. At times his characters express doubts as to the exist- ence of the gods, though this usually occurs imder circumstances such that the dramatic situation demands it. At times it is hinted that Zeus may be mere law. These plays undoubtedly did much to undermine the popular faith in the gods. Just at the end of his life Euripides spent two years in Macedonia, where he came in contact with the genuine Dionysian orgies. Those he had witnessed at Athens were but faint imitations. Under the spell of these he wrote his Bacchae. Some have foimd evidence in this that he who had been a skeptic all his hfe at last "found religion" and became a devotee of this cult. It is doubtful whether it is right to see in the play more than a complete artistic abandon to his theme. But even if his faith were awakened by the Dionysiac cult, he abated nothing of his lofty con- ceptions, for in this very play he exclaims : It fits not that in wrath gods be as men.' (s) Aristophanes, who died in 385 B.C., was the antithesis of Euripides, whom he dishked personally. He was an aristocrat, devoted to the old order of things. Aristophanes was a comic poet, whose aim was to catch the popular ear and raise a laugh. One of the surest ways to do this is to denounce the tendencies of one's ' Bacchae 1. 1348. THE RELIGION OF GREECE 257 own time. After allowance is made for this, there nevertheless remains in Aristophanes a genxiine dislike of the tendencies of the age both in philosophy and in religion. His influence was, therefore, regressive. (6) Socrates (469-399 B.C.) was a great critic of his age. His aim was to show men the shallowness of much of their pretended knowledge, to bring them to self- realization, to lead them to a philosophy of hfe that had been tested by experience. His method of doing this by drawing out the pupil with questions still bears the name Socratic. One should, Socrates thought, know himself, know whither he is aiming, and know the means that will bring him to his goal. Socrates believed he had a good spirit, a daimon he called it, that guided him. It told him when he was on the right track; it warned him when he was going wrong .^ Xenophon calls this daimon a god, but probably it was thus that Socrates personified conscience. Skeptic as Socrates was in practical matters, he nevertheless was a devout believer in the gods. Xeno- phon, his pupil, who knew him well, bears abundant testimony to this in the Memorabilia. Socrates devoutly offered sacrifices to th^ gods according to his means; he faithfully followed every intimation that he believed to be of the divine wiU; he "undervalued everything human, in comparison with counsel from the gods."" Xenophon reports a conversation that he heard between Socrates and Aristodemus in which Socrates argued for the reality of the gods, though they are imseen, from the reality of the mind in the body, which, though ' See the Memorabilia i. 1.4. ' Ibid. i. 3. 4. 2S8 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD unseen, directs it.' He also employed an argument from design, based upon the wise adaptation of means to ends in the structure, of the bodies of animals and men. Reverent in religion, Socrates expended his dialectic, not in an attempt to explain the universe and nature, but in the endeavor to ascertain the best way of living. His philosophy was pragmatic rather than speculative. He beheved that the gods knew all things, what was meditated in silence as well as what was done,^ that the divine nature was perfection, and that to be nearest to the divine nature was to be nearest to per- fection.3 He lived a simple hfe, always helpful to the common people, and, when xmjustly condemned to death, died bravely and cheerfully. Whether death was a dreamless sleep or an opportunity for converse with the heroes and sages of the past, he declared he did not know, but in neither case could it be an evil. (7) Plato, born in 427 B.C., became a pupil of Socrates at the age of twenty, and enjoyed his instruction for eight years before Socrates was put to death. Plato lived until 327 B.C. His activity as an author extended over fifty years, and as a teacher over more than forty. Although he had studied the works of all preceding philosophers, his system was in reahty a development of the basic principles of that of Socrates. "Socrates had explained that only the knowledge of concepts guarantees a true knowledge. Plato goes further, and maintains that it is only by reflection in concepts, in the forms of things, or 'ideas' that true and original Being can be attained." "From this point of view the reality of ideas becomes the necessary condition of the possi- ' Memorabilia i. 4. 'Ibid.i. i. 19. ^Ibid.i. 6. 10. THE RELIGION OF GREECE 259 bility of scientific thought. The same result follows from the contemplation of Being as such."' All things outward are subject to ceaseless change; only ideas are permanent. Plato was thus led to hold that ideas only are eternal. Sensuous existences have originated from attempts, only partially successful, to express an eternal idea. This lack of success is due to the nature of the second principle, matter, which enters into the structure of all sensuous things. This second principle Plato regarded as "unlimited, ever-changing, non-existent, and unknowable."^ The soul, in Plato's view, stands mid- way between ideas and the corporeal world and unites both. "It is incorporeal and ever the same, like ideas, but spread abroad throughout the world, and moving it by its own original motion."' Plato "recognizes the true cause of the world in reason, in ideas, and the deity .... but the distinction of the creator from the ideas (or more exactly from the highest of the ideas)" is not very clear. In Plato's conception "deity coincides with the idea of good, the beUef in providence with the conviction that the world is the work of reason and the copy of the idea, while divine worship is one with virtue and knowl- edge.""* He was a philosophical monotheist, and makes it clear that he regards the gods of mythology as creatures of the imagination. In Plato's view the soul belongs to "the world above the senses, and in that only can find its true and lasting ' E. Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy (New York, 1890), p. 140. ' Zeller, op. cit., p., i;^6, s Ibid., p. 149. < Ibid., p. 161, 26o THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD existence; the possession of good or happiness which forms the final goal of human effort can only be obtained by elevation into that higher world. The body, on the other hand, and sensual life, is the grave and prison of the soul."' The mission of man is therefore to escape from this lower Hfe into the higher world. This is accomplished "by the habit of the soul gathering and collecting herself into herself, out of aU the courses of the body; the dwelling in her own place alone, as in another life, so also in this, as far as she can; the release of the soul from the chains of the body."^ Plato did not, however, recommend the avoidance of the sensuous world as some oriental religions did; rather, sensuous phenomena were to be employed as a means of attaining to an intuition of the idea. Plato's conception of the soul led him to adopt the Orphic doctrine of transnoigration. As the idea is anterior to a soul, and a soul to a body, beUef in the pre- existence of souls naturally followed. His conception of the soul gave a new meaning to life after death; a real doctrine of immortality was now possible. Plato also adopted the Orphic conception of hell, the terrors of the pimishments in which were greatly intensified by his doctrine of immortality. , .,, ■ (8) Aristotle (384-322 b.c.) was a pupil of Plato, but when he attained to intellectual independence he differed from his master at many points. He found reahty, not in the realm of ideas, but in things. He recognized that forms change, that individuals come into being and perish, but he noted that the genera or species remain. These correspond to the forms which make up our ' Zeller, op. cit., p. 155. ' Plato, Phaedo 67 ff. THE RELIGION OF GREECE 261 concepts. Individuals are to be referred to these con- cepts and are derived from them. Far more than Plato he confined his philosophy to natural science. The heavenly bodies and their movements led Aristotle to his conception of the world. The earth, he held, is in the center of a number of concentric spheres which revolve aroimd it. These are moved by a Being who is apart and above them — a. Being who is not material — ■ who is Mind. The material world he distinguished from this Being even more sharply than Plato. Man is a creature intermediate between the material world and the eternal Mind, or God. Like several of his predecessors, he rejected the old mythology. He endeavored to put ethics on a scientific basis, and found the chief end of man in well-being. This weU-being he foimd in the proper exercise of the specifically himian faculties and the attainment of those virtues which constitute the distinctive human excellencies. He has nothing to say of the life after death. These great Greek philosophers have profoimdly influenced all subsequent philosophy and religion in the western world. 187. Later philosophical development took first the form of a reaction against the dualism of Plato and Aristotle. Passing by the Peripatetic school, of the doctrines of which httle is known, this reaction found expression in the Stoic philosophy. (i) The Stoic school was founded by Zeno of Citium in Cyprus, who died about 270 B.C. at the age of seventy- two. The Stoics elaborated the idea set forth by Hera- clitus of Ephesus, that the world is penetrated by the divine logos or reason. In Stoic hands this became a 262 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD doctrine of the immanence of God. God was not a being outside the framework of the universe and apart from it, but One who interpenetrates its every part. The aim of the Stoics was purely ethical; their speculations accordingly revolved around the problems of life. Their great contention was that man should hve according to nature. Nature was interfused with God; to live in accordance with nature was to live in accord with God. As God is the single causal force of the universe, one cause nms through all things and determines all. This view constituted the Stoic doctrine of fate. It was not a mechanical fate, but a fate directed by intelHgence for wisest ends. The Stoics accoimted for the presence of evil in a world pervaded by God on the theory that good cannot be perceived or even exist apart from its opposite. The Stoics held the soul to have a corporeal nature like the body, but its material is a part of the divine fire which descended into the bodies of men when they first arose out of the ether. It is a particle of God. Man is moved by brute impulses, but it is the business of the soul to pass judgment upon these and to bring them into subjection to reason. Stoic virtue is a battle with passions. They are irrational and must be eradicated. It is the duty of men to attain apathy, or freedom from passions. The virtuous man's happiness consists in "freedom from disturbance, repose of spirit, and inward independence." The attitude of the Stoics toward the gods of mythology and the popular religion was one of tolerance. They were unwilling to deprive ordinary men of the ethical support afforded by religious beliefs, and it was possible to see in the gods different manifestations of THE RELIGION OF GREECE 263 the one philosophic God. By means of allegorical interpretation the myths were rationalized, philosophi- cally interpreted, and the system justified. (2) Epicurus was a contemporary of Zeno. Epi- curean philosophy is at nearly every point the antithesis of the Stoic. Epicurus adopted the atomic theory of Democritus as to the composition of physical nature; in ethics he made the individual the aim of all action. In his view the only absolute good is the pleasure of the individual. He found pleasure, however, not in things low or base, but in virtue. It alone gives happiness. From this point of view a theory of society was worked out. The individual sought happiness in the society of others. Epicurus recognized the existence of gods, but their happiness required that they should not be burdened with the care of men. He also sought to reUeve men from the oppression of fear of the gods. 188. General results. — The philosophies at which we have glanced were the most important ones which occupied men's thoughts up to the time when the Hfe of Greece was merged into that of the Roman Empire. These philosophies attracted only the educated classes. Side by side with them the older beliefs survived. The common people had faith in the old gods, believed the old myths, offered the old sacrifices, and perpetuated the old mysteries. The philosophic systems were too tolerant to disturb the old religion; they were too coldly philosophical to be among the masses real substitutes for it. There was never such a sifting of the old from the new as the historical misfortunes of the Hebrews wrought for that nation, so that the primitive and the lofty existed side by side till the end. In this respect 264 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD the religious history of Greece finds a parallel in that of India. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sec. 180: cf. J. H. Breasted, Ancient Times (New York, 1916), pp. 221-405. On sec. 181: C. H. and H. Hawes, Crete the Forerunner 0} Greece (New York, 1909), pp. 135-143- On sees. 182, 183: Hesiod Theogony (in translation). On sec. 184: Gilbert Murray, Four Stages of Greek Religion (New York, 191 2), chap. ii. On sec. 185: Famell, "Greek Religion," § II, g-ii, in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, VI. On sec. 186: Famell, ibid., § II, 12 — § III, 6; andE. ZeUer, Greek Philosophy (New York, 1890), pp. 101-221. On sec. 187: Zeller, op. cit., pp. 228-73. CLASS B G. F. Moore: History of Religions, I, chaps, xvii-xx. CHAPTER XIV THE RELIGION OF ROME Since there is nothing better than reason and since this exists both in man and in God, man's first communion with God is one of reason. — Cicero De legibus i. 7. 22 ff. 189. The Romaa people belonged to that part of the Indo-European race which entered Italy and is, for that reason, often called Italic. At the beginning Rome was only an insignificant village community of Latium, the land of the Latins. The Italic stock were not the first inhabitants of Italy; they were preceded by the Mediterranean race whose presence in the Mediterranean basin is of imknown antiquity. The Italic stock was apparently scattered through the hiUs and valleys of Central Italy by 1000 B.C. or earlier. These people lived ia huts and protected themselves as best they could. The beginnings of Rome consisted of collections of such huts. The site was selected because its seven hills could each be surrounded by palisades and be defended. Archaeological discoveries in the Forum seem to show that the site was occupied as early as 1000 B.C. About 800 B.C. that part of Italy now called Tuscany was invaded by a people from Asia, whom we call Etruscans. They were apparently kindred to the people of Lydia, for their art was similar to that of Lydia and they employed the same alphabet as the Lydians. The new- comers mingled with the Italic stock and formed the Etruscans of history. They were more civilized than the Italic population to the south of them. 26s 266 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD The city-state of Rome came into existence about 750 B.C. During its early history it was one of the members of the Latin League, a number of kindred cities that were banded together. Representatives of these met yearly at Alba Longa. About 600 b.c. the Etruscans surged southward and conquered a good por- tion of Italy, submerging Rome also. An Etruscan line of kings occupied the Roman throne for about a century. Under these kings citizenship was made less exclusive and a strong mihtary organization was developed. After the expulsion of this foreign line, Rome was ruled by an aristocracy, which, through the pressure of the populace from beneath and the vicissitudes of various wars, was transformed gradually into a repubUc. Little by little Southern Italy was conquered. It had been colonized by Greeks. Their sovereignty Rome swept away, and the struggle with Carthage for control of the western Mediterranean began. The story of the Carthaginian wars, of Rome's extension of power, the establishment of her colonies throughout the Mediter- ranean region, the transformation of the republic into the empire, 31-27 B.C., and the history of that great empire to its fall in 476 a.d., are too well known to be recounted here. Throughout their history the Romans were noted for their practical efi&ciency rather than for philosophical or speculative gifts. 190. The earliest religion of the Romans was of a simple, animistic nature. They were an agricultural folk to whom it was of prime importance to be on good terms with the spirits of the soil. Before their settle- ment on the land the clan, or gens, was the unit, but with the settlement in permanent abodes the family THE RELIGION OF ROME 267 emerged. To maintain the family was, after that, the maia desire; it was for this that the fields were tilled. The spirits that presided over the procreative power of the family, over its dwelling, and over its nourishment were thus added to the spirits of the land as the objects of the earliest worship. Thus each individual man was believed to have a Genius and each individual woman a Juno, to whom each did homage. The Genius was the personified power of procreation; the Juno, of con- ception. The worship of these powers had for its motive the perpetuation of the family. Among many peoples the door or threshold has been regarded with reverence; its importance to the household as a means of entrance, exit, and defense is very great. Janus was the spirit of the door. The life of every household depends upon the hearth and centers about it; Vesta was the spirit of the hearth. The penus was the store- house of the family; the di penates were the spirits who guarded the stores. Similarly the spirits which presided over agriculture were venerated. There were the Lares, originally the spirits of the family farm;' Faunus, who gave increase to the cattle; Pales who made the flocks breed; Saturn who presided over the sowing of seed; Robigo, who prevented mildew; Consus the protector of harvests, and many others. The departed members of a family or clan became spirits and were known as Di Manes who dwelt in the under- world. Each spirit was at once the object over which it presided, and more than the object. Thus Vesta was the hearth, but much more than the hearth. " See Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1911), pp. 77 ff. 268 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD These spirits were apparently worshiped in festivals, though but little knowledge of the feasts has survived. One such was the Laralia, celebrated soon after the winter solstice, on a day set by the head of the family or the heads of families. All the family, including slaves, took part in it; it was free and joyous in char- acter. Each family had its own altar on its own land. Some of the festivals were accompanied with singing and revelry. Marriage was a religious festival, for which a cake made oijar was offered to Jupiter, the spirit of the sky. It is thought that the bride and groom partook of the cake as a sacrament. Apart from the festivals the common daily life was attended by religious ceremonies. On every family table there was a salt-cellar and a salt cake baked by the daughters of the family. After the first course of the midday meal, which was the principal course, in a solemn silence a part of the salt cake was thrown on the fire from a sacrificial plate. This was a sacrifice to Vesta. Other spirits were doubtless propitiated in appropriate ways, so that religion pervaded fife. 191. Religion of the city-state. — In course of time the exigencies of self-defense caused the agricultural commimities to merge themselves into the city-state of Rome. Knowledge of the earliest religion of this state is obtained by studjong the so-called calendar of Numa.' This calendar indicated the days on which it was "religiously permissible to transact civil business" and the days when to do so would be sacrilegious. There is reason to believe that the basis of this calendar ante- dates the coming of the Etruscans. The religious ' See Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, chap. v. THE RELIGION OF ROME 269 ceremonies prescribed for each month show what the occupations in that month were. These ceremonies were designed to secure the blessing of the gods upon the work of the month. April was the month of agri- cultural beginnings. At the Fordicidia on the fifteenth a pregnant cow with her unborn calf was sacrificed to the Earth to insure fertility. On the nineteenth occurred the Cerealia, or festival of Ceres, the goddess of fruits. On the twenty-first, the Parilia, or festival of Pales, the tutelary deity of shepherds and cattle. On the twenty-third, the first Vinalia, or wine feast; and on the twenty-fifth, the RobigaHa, or festival of the spirit that protects from mildew. The calendars of certain other months, when agricultural interests would naturally occupy the people, are in like manner agri- cultural. Thus there was a series of festivals in August that had to do with the harvest. Martial interests also occupied the attention of the state, for ia March there were festivals for the consecration of implements of war before the beginning of the fighting season, and in October festivals for purification from the taint of bloodshed.' The agricultural feasts sought to maintain the Hfe of the state; the martial feasts, to protect it. In this period, as in the former, life was hedged about with numerous taboos, and reHgion was supplemented by magical practices. 192. Etruscan influence profoundly modified Roman reHgion. Tradition ascribed the occupation of Rome by the Etruscans to the sixth century before Christ, but their expulsion from the city may have occurred considerably later than the traditional date, 509 b.c. ' Ibid., pp. 96 f . 270 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Until the Etruscan period Rome had no wall; such fortifications as there were had been erected on the hilltops. The Etruscans gave the city both a mihtary and a religious wall. The latter consisted of a furrow plowed in a circle outside the walls of the city. The plow was drawn by a bull and a cow yoked together and the furrow was turned toward the center of the circle. Inside this circle, called the pomerium, no gods except those of the state could be brought. During the Etruscan period the Capitoline hill was crowned with a temple in which Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva were worshiped. These deities were essentially Italic rather than Etruscan. Jupiter had had a long history in Latium before he became supreme in Rome. Although he is the old Indo-European sky-god,' and was brought into Italy by the Italic immigrants from their primitive cradle-land, he did not hold the first place in the religious life of the primitive Romans. Janus took precedence of him. Juno and Minerva were also Italic deities,^ each of whom had her separate ceUa in the temple on the Capitoline. The Etruscans worshiped them because they foimd them in the land into which they had come, and were compelled to propitiate them. As the Roman state developed, the figure of Jupiter far overtopped that of the goddesses and of all other deities. Success in war led the Etruscans at times to worship him as Jupiter Victor and to deify Victoria (Victory). Another goddess that came to Rome in the Etruscan period was Diana. Originally she was a wood-goddess ' See above, p. 146. " Cf . Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, p. 238. THE RELIGION OF ROME 271 of Nemi who in time became the great goddess of Aricia, which was not far distant. Aricia afterward became powerful in the Latin League and Diana became the goddess of the League. The Etruscans accordingly erected a temple to her on the Aventine Hill and Diana came to Rome. From the earliest times the Romans had practiced augury, but from the Etruscans they learned to draw certain imaginary lines in the heavens and to observe the flight of birds in relation to these. The earthly counterpart of the quadrangle thus created in the heavens was called a templum and became the ritual inclosure of a temple. The Etruscans also secured oracles by consulting the livers of victims. This they had learned, probably in some indirect way, from the Babylonians. This method of divination the Romans learned also from the Etruscans, though it never was completely naturalized among them. To the end they regarded it as a foreign art. 193. The early republic, or the period between 500 and 200 B.C., witnessed great changes in the Roman state and in its religion. At the beginning Rome was but one member of a league of city-states; at its close she was mistress of Central and Southern Italy, of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as of Spain. The struggles incident to this expansion and the commerce that followed in its train brought many new gods to Rome. The most important of these were of Greek origin. Greeks had colonized Southern Italy, but in the war with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, early in the third century, Rome became mistress of the Greek territories. Even before this, trade had begun to bring Greek gods 272 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD to Rome, though the earliest of them were not recognized as Greek. Merchants brought the worship of Hercules to Tibur (Tivoli), and from there his worship spread to Rome as that of a native Italian god. Castor and Pollux, gods of the cavalrymen of Greeks in Italy, had established themselves at Tusculum in Latium. After- ward, thinking them native deities, the Romans wel- comed them as such to their city. During this period the Sibylline oracles were introduced among the Romans. As these were consulted in times of dif&culty, suggestions for appeal to other Greek gods were naturally received. Apollo was introduced from Cumae as a physician in the sixth century B.C. and given a place in the Campus Martins. Others came, but were kept outside the pomerium; such were Demeter, Dionysos, and Kore. They were given Latin names: Ceres, Liber, Libera. As knowledge of Greek deities increased, old Latin divinities of a shadowy nature took on the character of the corresponding Greek gods. Thus Mercury was understood to be Hermes, and Neptune, Poseidon. On account of a pestilence at Rome in 292 B.C., the worship of Aesculapius was introduced from Epidaurus. In 249 B.C. the worship of Pluto and Persephone was also established in the Campus Martins. They were called Dis and Proserpina. Along with new deities came a knowledge of Greek mjd;hology, which the Romans assimilated with great eagerness. They rapidly adapted their own deities to the conceptions of the new myths. Many of the Greek legends were taken over bodily, but all of Roman Hfe was measured against a Greek background, and new stories concerning it were invented according to the THE RELIGION OF ROME 273 Greek pattern. It was thus that the story of the founding of Rome by Romulus came into existence. The influx of foreign cults was accompanied by the influx of foreign immigrants. This fact, together with the experiences through which the Romans were passing, led to a great increase of the emotional element in religion. This new emotional element in its eagerness for satisfaction prompted the people to lay hold upon whatever promised to afford new experiences. Thus it happened that from this time to the end of the republic the Roman religion was characterized by what was called superstitio. 194. The later republic. — ^At the close of the Second Punic War Rome found herself a world-power. She was mistress of the western Mediterranean, and through her championship of the Greeks and her defeat of Antiochus III on Asiatic soil in 190 B.C., she assumed the position of arbiter of eastern Mediterranean affairs, which ultimately subjugated to her the countries of that region. It is often said that political expansion called into being an extensive trade, and that Rome was gradually transformed from an agricultiural to a com- mercial city. In course of time the character of its population was greatly changed. According to this view the change was effected by the influx of small farmers from the country and of foreigners from across the sea. A world-wide commerce is supposed to have created a capitalistic class. Before corporations were known there was little opportunity for such a class to invest surplus funds except in land. Many of the farmers found themselves in straits, for the invasion of Hannibal had destroyed the equipment of their farms, 274 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD and they had Uttle choice but to sell. In a land where all labor was performed by slaves, those who had lost their property could not work as laborers. They gravi- tated to Rome to swell the ranks of the unemployed. This view has recently been called in question, and it seems probable that, while there is no doubt about the change in the character of the population, it was brought about almost entirely by the importing of foreign slaves to Rome. These were set free and gradually formed about 90 per cent of the population.^ In any event the dignity and sobriety of the populace of the older time was more and more replaced by the emotional and explosive qualities of oriental peoples. This composite populace possessed the ballot and each successful politician was compelled to gain its good will. In time, through the increase of luxury and lax standards, the family began to decay. Divorce became common, and many who were married avoided the responsibility of parenthood. These conditions produced profound reli- gious changes. The decay of the family led to the decay of the old family religion. The Genii and Manes of ancestors could not be worshiped when there were no descendants to perform that ofl&ce. With the decay of the family an element of stability vanished from the state. The older priesthoods of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus were retained, as well as the rex sacrorum or the official who had taken over the priestly duties that in earlier cen- turies had been performed by the king, but all these were carefully excluded from poHtical influence. When 'See T. Frank, "Race Mixture in the Roman Empire,'' American Historical Review, XXI, 689-708. THE RELIGION OF ROME 275 these officials were prohibited from touching the affairs of real life, popular interest in their functions waned. These cults accordingly became in some degree cere- monial survivals from the past. Along with the decay of the old, new forms of rehgion were introduced. The cult of Cybele, the Magna Mater of Phrygia, was brought in, in 204 B.C., to aid Rome in repelling invaders. Later the Egyptian Isis and other oriental goddesses were welcomed. The cult of the Thracian Dionysos was also introduced from Greece. The god was called Bacchus, and his orgiastic festivals were known as BacchanaHa. It was not at first recognized that this god was identical with Liber. The emotional character of the BacchanaKa accorded well with the growing emotionalism of the time. Cruder forms of Greek philosophy, such as that of the neo- Pythagoreans with its doctrine of the transmigration of the soul, were also taught. All this led to the production of very diverse states of mind in different people. Some regarded all religion as superstition; others, having lost faith in the old national forms, eagerly welcomed those of the foreign goddesses, hoping that they might find some source of supernatural help. Meanwhile the rulers, feeling that for the common people the forms of religion were necessary, rigidly supported the old national ceremonies. The two systems of philosophy that were so powerful in Greece at this period found their way into Italy. Epicureanism became popular in Italy only in the last century b.c. In the Epicurean system the gods were really superfluous; the universe was mechanical. Nevertheless, many an Epicurean continued to worship 276 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD in order that some subtle influence from the idea of each god might enter his soul. It is difficult to tell how far the practical Romans were capable of being influenced by such ideas. One of them, Lucretius, seems, however, while dissolving the old religious thought in the acid of his phflosophy, to have attained a true mystic feeling for the Power unseen which manifests itself in nature.' Stoicism, in some respects the most rehgious of the Greek philosophies, was introduced into Rome by Scipio about the middle of the second century B.C. Two great thoughts dominate Stoicism. The first is that the whole universe in all its forms shows unmistakably the working of reason and mind; the second is that man alone of all creatures shares with God the full possession of reason. Cicero, though an Eclectic, leaned to the Stoic school. In his De natura deorum he sets forth a view of God that is kindred to that of the eighteenth- century Deists. His conception of the relation of man to God is lofty, and his conception of human duty noble, but it is doubtful whether they had sufficient definite- ness to grip the conscience of a Roman in his daily deahngs with others. In the face of the disintegration of the old religion which all these causes produced, Varro, the most learned of the Romans,^ endeavored by learning to revive faith in the old religion. He interpreted its forms as parables of the Stoic philosophy, but the older faith was dead, and mere antiquarian erudition was powerless to bring it back to life. 'SeeJ. B. Carter, The Religious Life of Ancient Rome (Boston, 191 1), pp. 60 B. ' He died in 28 B.C. at the age of eiglity-nine. THE RELIGION OF ROME 277 195. State religion of the early empire. — One of the marvels of history is the rehgious revival wrought by the emperor Augustus/ Called to fight for his existence at the age of nineteen, he soon crushed his enemies, and proceeded to rule not so much by force as by tact. Augustus was gifted with insight to understand that no motive is so powerful in human affairs as the rehgious motive. He accordingly set himself to revive the cults that had been permitted to fall into decay. The temple of Jupiter on the CapitoHne and that of Apollo on the Palatine rose again in renewed splendor, as did many others. He asserts, indeed, that he rebuilt eighty-two temples in and about the city of Rome. The priest- hoods were reorganized, purged of pohticians, and taught their religious functions. The religious festivals were revived and were made by their splendor to appeal once more to the populace. The worship of the Lares at the corners of the streets, which Juhus had sup- pressed because it had afforded opportunity for political intrigue, was revived, and with the Lares the Genius of the emperor was associated as an object of veneration. To a degree faith in the older religion came back, and loyalty to the emperor was fostered. Augustus also gave to the whole empire a religion. Each of the many nations under his scepter acknowl- edged the sway of a different god. In order that there might be a common religious bond he organized emperor- worship. In the East it was no new thing to worship a king. Many kings had claimed, even while Hving, to be gods. In the West, however, this deification of the ' See Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, Lecture XIX; Carter, The Religious Life of Ancient Rome, pp. 66 ff. 278 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD living man was more difficult. As the imperial religion demanded only the worship of the Genius of the living emperor, it was adapted to both East and West, though int the East the distinction between the Genius and the emperor was usually meaningless. Temples for the worship of the emperors grew up in the capitals of all the provinces, and in time in the smaller cities. To the temples organized priesthoods were attached. In time these grew into a hierarchy. The priests in metropolitan towns assumed authority over those in outlying districts. At first sight the worship of Jupiter appears to be coextensive with the worship of the emperors, but this appearance is deceptive, for, while temples to Jupiter were found everywhere, they were temples to the local god under the Latin name. 196. Philosophies under the Empire. — The Stoic philosophy continued to influence a small but select circle. As the social religion of the family and the city- state had disappeared, and the empire was a vast agglomeration of different peoples, an individualism in religion arose. Men began to think of individual sin and of individual salvation. In Stoic circles, influenced by Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius, sin was ignorance; knowledge was salvation. The holy man was the wise man. It was assumed that he who knows the truth will do it. This philosophic gospel was, how- ever, for the few. Of far wider influence were the bands of wandering Cynic philosophers who on the street corners or on temple steps preached to the people the salvation of common sense and the return to nature. In the Cynic view knowledge is courage, justice, and wisdom. The con- THE RELIGION OF ROME 279 tent of virtue is one's will. According to this teaching each one has the means to salvation in his own power. The satirist, Lucian, portrays these Cynics as preaching with earnestness and genuine enthusiasm, and even through his satire one detects a degree of respect. They sought to teach men the way of hfe, and exerted a wider influence probably on the masses than the aristocratic Seneca, or the imperial moraUst, Marcus Aurelius. Another philosophy of considerable influence in certain parts of the empire was the neo-Platonic. Its precursor, if not its founder, was Plutarch, who was born in Greece about 50 a.d. In philosophy he was eclectic, adopting some ideas from Plato, some from the Pytha- goreans, some from the Stoics, etc. He regarded the gods of the nations as different names for the one divine nature. He held to a doctrine of demons which accounted for the evils of the world and even for the disgusting usages of some religions. He regarded the gods as "our chiefest friends"; he coupled with faith in them the great "hypotheses of immortahty"; he kept faith in an ultimate good. He pointed the way which many, with deepening emotion, followed. We call the way neo-Platonism. It was a "strange medley of thought and mystery, piety, magic, and absurdity." It had little to do with Plato. 197. Mystery Religions. — In the quest for personal salvation, which was inaugurated by the emergence of individualism, oriental mystery-religions ultimately outstripped philosophy in popularity. These religions appealed to the imagination on account of their great antiquity, their elaborate myths, their mystic rites, 28o THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD their promises of regeneration and of salvation. Those that exerted a wide influence were three in number : the cult of Cybele of Phrygia, of Isis of Egypt, and of Mithra of Persia. (i) The cult of Cybele had been introduced into Rome in 204 b.c. It was the cult of the Asiatic Phry- gians. The goddess personified the fertility of the earth. She was supposed to have a son, Attis, who, like similar gods in matriarchal cults, was subordinate to her. In Phrygia it had been customary from time immemorial to mourn the death of the god during the winter, when vegetation languished. In the springtime, when it was reviving, the Phrygians celebrated festivals on wooded hilltops to the goddess and her son. These festivals were often orgies of wild excitement. Great emotion was experienced because the god now lived again. Sacrifices were offered to the two deities; men cut them- selves that their own blood might mingle with that of the sacrifice; they even sacrificed their virility, and became priests of the goddess. Such was the religion that unwittingly the sedate Romans of the republic admitted to their midst. As soon as its character was known, it was hedged about by laws which prevented its spread among the people. It did not become popular until the time of the empire. Claudius is said to have bestowed imperial sanction upon the Phrygian cult, and thereafter it spread rapidly. It seems from the begin- ning to have sought to bring the worshiper into harmony with deity by ecstatic and mystic ceremonies. One of these was the taurobolium. A pit was dug, the initiate was placed in it, the opening was covered with planks, and a bull was slaughtered above. Through the crevices THE RELIGION OF ROME 281 of the planks the blood dripped down upon the novice. He received it on his face, in his ears, his eyes, his nostrils; he even let it touch his palate and swallowed it. Of course it flowed over his body. When he emerged he was congratulated as one who had put away his old nature and been united in life to the goddess. Revolt- ing as the ceremony was, many sought salvation in this way, and the cult was introduced into most of the provinces of the empire.' In time, however, the bar- baric character of the ceremonies and the revolting nature of the myths connected with the cult — features that even allegory could not render attractive — caused it to lose its hold upon the people. (2) Another mystery-rehgion that became popular was that of Isis. This goddess was the Egyptian mother of fertility, of immemorial antiquity, who, with her son or husband Osiris, was worshiped throughout Egypt. Her worship in early Egypt had been attended with ceremonies which had set forth in a crass way the idea of the propagation of life, but these features had been greatly toned down in the time of the Ptolemies. In the religious estabhshment brought about by Ptolemy Lagi, Osir-Api (corrupted to Serapis) had taken the place of Osiris, and a ritual in the Greek language had been established. While the Eg)^tians quickly recognized in Serapis their old god Osiris, the older features of the cult which were repugnant to Greek sensibilities were eliminated. During the Ptolemaic period the cult of Isis spread through the Mediterranean world. Temples to her ' See F. Cumont, The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism (Chicago, 1911), pp. 46-72. 282 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD were built in Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, the Aegean islands, and even in Italy. Though the grosser features of early Egyptian days had been suppressed, Isis was still regarded as a patron of illicit love. These features of her worship were repugnant to the sturdy Romans, and of the devotees of such cults the followers of Isis only suffered persecution. In 48 B.C. the chapels of Isis were demolished, and in 28 B.C. it was forbidden to erect her altars within the pomerium. Aversion to her worship appears to have waned under the empire, for Caligula about 38 a.d. erected a great temple to Isis on the Campus Martins, of which Domitian later made one of Rome's splendid monuments. About 215 a.d. Caracalla built the goddess a temple still more mag- nificent. The third century marks the cHmax of the power of Isis in the empire. The Serapeum at Alex- andria was destroyed by the patriarch Theophilus in 391, yet the processions of Isis were witnessed on the streets of Rome as late as 394 a.d. It is difficult at this distance to understand the exact features of the Egyptian cult which made it so popular. Egyptian theology, or rather mythology, was always in a fluid state, and it appears that during the centuries of her worship by the Romans Isis lost her early character and became the chaste protector of virginity. It seems probable, however, that the great attraction of the cult lay in its conception of the life to come. In the older Egyptian religion Osiris had become the judge of the dead; each person, after death, must pass an examination before Osiris before entering upon his career in the other world. Serapis had taken the place of Osiris, and in a period when the other life was very real, men sought THE RELIGION OF ROME 283 eternal salvation in a cult that especially prepared them for the great assize of the judgment day. Like all early religions, this cult had its ceremonial purifications and ablutions. These in time came to have a deep significance. They were regarded as having power to wash away the stains of sin and to purify character. Thus the cult of Isis came to be popular among those who were earnestly seeking personal salvation.' (3) Perhaps even more popular than these was the cult of Mithra. Mithra was an old Aryan sun-god.^ His cult was a survival of those heathen elements of Persia which Zoroaster had been unable to suppress. As it developed on Persian soil, it took on the dualistic tendencies of later Zoroastrianism — the belief in Ahri- man, and in angels and demons, together with the idea of perpetual strife between the good and the evil. By the time the cult reached the West it had been deeply penetrated by Babylonian influences. It had absorbed the Babylonian sidereal conceptions, as well as its systems of conjuration. Mithraism also brought from Persia the general features of Zoroastrian eschatology. Its devotees believed in a very real heaven and hell. It developed a rich Hturgy, with initiations, sacraments, and love-feasts.' It recognized in an emphatic way the evil of the world with which men were impressed in the early centuries of our era, and offered a plausible expla- nation of it; it confronted the individual with the ' See Cumont, The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism, pp. 73- 102; T. G. Tucker, Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul (New York, 1910), pp. 372 ff. = See above, p. 121. 3 Cf. Cumont, Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism, pp. 135-61; The Mysteries of Mithra (Chicago, 1903), passim. 284 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD alternative of a happy heaven or an endless hell; and it offered mystic means of grace by which heaven could be secured. Moreover, the cult was very adaptable. In Babylonia, Mithra was Shamash under another name; in Rome he was Jupiter; in Syria, Baal. Wher- ever it spread it adapted itself to the local surroundings and absorbed the important features of the local cult. The introduction of Mithraism into Rome dates from her conquests of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia. Though there is said to have been a congregation of Mithra's votaries in Rome in the time of Pompey in 67 B.C., the real diffusion of his mysteries began with the Flavians in the last quarter of the first century a.d. Mithraism became more important under the Antonines in the second century, and still more so under the Severi in the third. At the beginning of the fourth century Mithra seemed on the point of echpsing all rivals, for in 307 A.D. Diocletian, Galerius, and Licinius met at Carnuntum on the banks of the Danube and dedicated a sanctuary to Mithra, "the protector of their empire."' Indeed, when Constantine accepted the sign of the cross, as told in the well-known legend, it is doubtful whether he was able to distinguish between the cross of the Galilean and the wheel-like sim disk, the symbol of Mithra. Of all the mystery-religions the cult of Mithra was the purest and most austere. It contained no impure ceremonies and nothing ethically repulsive. It exceeded the others in moral elevation, and was well calculated to gratify the imagination, appeal to the heart, and stimu- late the moral instincts. Soon after the famous meeting of Diocletian, Galerius, and Licinius, Constantine gave • See Cumont, Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism, p. 150. THE RELIGION OF ROME 285 to Christianity that imperial patronage which helped to make Christianity dominant. After that the history of the religion of the Roman Empire is merged in the history of Christianity. 198. Summary. — The rehgion of Rome began in a vague worship of spirits — as vague as that of the Japanese. This worship had for its center the family and the perpetuation of the family. The struggle for existence merged this family rehgion in course of time into the rehgion of the state. Both were restrained, ethical according to the standards of the time, and devoted to practical ends. As the city-state expanded into the empire the social and commercial changes created conditions which undemained the old religions, and foreign influences and manners found a ready welcome. Decay of faith, and a growth of superstition and skepticism followed. Augustus called into exist- ence the state rehgion, to which many in the empire responded, but the rise of individualism with the thirst for personal salvation opened the door to the mystery- religions of the East, and also to Christianity, which ultimately triumphed over them all. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sec. 189: cf. J. H. Breasted, Ancient Times (New York, 1916), pp. 484-713- On sees. 190-195: W. Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 191 1), Lectures IV-XIX. On sec. 197: F. Cumont, The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism (Chicago, 191 1). CLASS B G. F. Moore, History of Religions (New York, 1913), chaps, xxi, xxii. CHAPTER XV CHRISTIANITY For the Son of Man came to seek and to save that which was lost. — ^Luke 19:10. Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God. — ^I Cor. i : 24. And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us (and we beheld his glory, glory as of the only begotten from the Father), fuU of grace and truth. — John i : 14. 199. Jesus was born in Palestine in the reign of Herod the Great shortly before the year i of our era. The exact year of his birth is unknown.^ His mother was the wife of a carpenter in Nazareth, and he was brought up to the same trade, which he followed until about thirty years old. Shortly before he reached that age John the Baptist had begun to preach that the Kingdom of God^ was near and to baptize men in token of their desire to be ready for its coming. Jesus went to be baptized of John, and as he was coming out of the water a voice from heaven spoke in his soul declaring that he was the Son of God — the expected Messiah. He had been reared among those who shared the messianic expectations of his people, and probably had shared in the behef in such a Messiah as that portrayed in Enoch, chaps. 46 and 48. The conviction that he was to fulfil ' For a discussion of the data see G. A. Barton, Archaeology and the Bible (Philadelphia, 1916), Part II, chap. xxvi. " See above, chap, v, sec. 90. 286 CHRISTIANITY 287 these messianic expectations overwhelmed him, and he withdrew to the wilderness to think out what it meant. The story of his struggle there is embodied in the narra- tives of the temptation.' From this struggle he came forth with a new conception of the messiahship and the Kingdom of God. He had put the poKtical ideal definitely behind his back. That ideal involved the establishment of a rule over the bodies of men by force of arms; he chose to do the will of God in establishing a rule over men's hearts by self-sacrifice and love. He still held to a messianic mission, but it was as a king of the spiritual and not the political realm. He chose as his self -designation the term "Son of Man," a term that had been employed in a messianic sense in Enoch,^ but which in the dialect employed in GaHlee also means simply "man." In his teaching concerning the King- dom, Jesus taught that it is every man's privilege to come under the direct personal guidance of God. The Kingdom was no longer simply a monarchy with God as a far-off sovereign; it was a family, of which God is the loving Father. All men are brethren. The parable of the Prodigal Son gives us the heart of his message. In his person Jesus exhibited the ideal of one who enjoyed to the full personal relations with the Father. He was thus a fitting Messiah of the Kingdom which he pro- claimed. He chose twelve peasants to be his disciples and companions, and spent some fifteen months or a little more, traveling here and there in their company, preach- ' For a fuller interpretation of the temptation, see G. A. Barton, The Heart oj the Christian Message (New York, 1912), pp. 8-10. ' In Enoch 46 : 2, 4; 48 : 2. 288 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD ing and healing.' Not until toward the end of this period did he disclose even to them that he claimed to be the Messiah, and ^ven then they did not understand how his conception of messiahship differed from current Jewish conceptions. His uncompromising denuncia- tions of sham, his emphasis upon personal righteousness, the light value that he set upon ceremonial, and his popularity with the poor set the hierarchy against him, and they accomplished his crucifixion about 28 or 29 a.d. On the third day after this his disciples were convinced by experiences that came to several of them that he was still alive; they were filled with joy, and formed a little group of Jews who held that the Messiah had come in the person of Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus himself wrote nothing. His matchless dis- courses and parables, in which he revealed the depth of his penetrating insight into the nature of man and God, were treasured in the memories of loving disciples. Perhaps memory was aided here and there by hastily made notes, but the Gospels were not written until later. 200. The early Jewish church. — ^The Kttle band of followers that Jesus left had no thought that loyalty to him demanded a separation from their fellow-Jews. They believed that Jesus was the Messiah, but, in accordance with the messianic expectations^ of some of their Jewish brethren, they believed that he had been caught up to heaven to be revealed in power at some future time. Christians differed from their Jewish ' This is the chronology of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. As these were composed considerably earlier than John, they are generally thought to be more authoritative sources in matters of history. ^ Apoc. of Baruch 30: i. CHRISTIANITY 289 brethren simply in believing that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah, and that, when the Messiah was revealed, he would be their loved Master. In their thought of him and his Kingdom the spiritual con- ceptions which he had taught and which they had only half understood fell into the background. The current Jewish apocalyptic expectations took their place. Among Christians the Kingdom of God took on a wholly Jewish coloring. The Jewish belief in a Paradise for the righteous and a Gehenna for the wicked, which Jesus had confirmed, assumed the form given to it in the Jewish apocalypses. Christianity was for a time a Jewish sect. Its leaders punctiliously observed Jewish ritual.' 201. Paul, whose Hebrew name was Saul, was born in Tarsus in Cilicia. His family appears to have settled there when the city was reconstructed by Antiochus Epiphanes in 171 B.c.,^ and probably obtained Roman citizenship in the transition from the republic to the empire. Saul was sent to Jerusalem to be educated, and was trained by Gamaliel in the liberal wing of Pharisaism. Later he returned to Jerusalem to live. His logical mind led him to attempt to eradicate Chris- tianity as a curse to Judaism. He connected the crucifixion of Jesus with the statement in Deut. 21:23, that he that is hanged is cursed of God, and' that the curse might spread to the land. In his view all who became Christians shared the curse of Jesus.' Then he " See Acts 3 : i fif. 'See W. M. Ramsay, The Cities of St. Paul (New York, 1908), pp. 180 ff. 3 See Gal. 3 : 13 and its interpretation in Barton, The Heart of the Christian Message, pp. 29 f. 290 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD had a vision which convinced him that Jesus had risen from the dead. His whole rabbinical education led him, in consequence of this, to regard Jesus as a man especially honored of God. God did not honor Mars; Jesus must, accordingly, be the Messiah, as he had claimed. Paul thus became a Christian. Moreover, he recognized that Jesus occupied a place where, in spite of the ceremonial curse of the law, God bestowed his favor. Paul concluded, then, that all who identify themselves with Jesus shared this favor, even though they did not keep the Jewish law.^ He accordingly became the Apostle to the Gentiles, and by a stormy ministry of more than thirty years broke the Jewish bonds. During this period there was evolution in Paul's thought. For a long time he continued to think of Jesus as the Jewish Messiah and to accept the Jewish apocalyptic.^ In time, however, contact with the world of Greek thought, and especially the necessity of com- bating incipient Gnosticism, led him to discard apoca- lyptic views, and to regard Jesus as the incarnation of the creative power by which God had made the world, and the World-Soul that holds all things together.' This was the first step in that development of thought about Jesus that led to the formation of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. Throughout his entire career Paul was a profound mystic. He held that the believer may be so filled with Christ — so united to him in fellowship — that he is one with Christ; what the believer does Christ 'Barton, The Heart of the Christian Message, pp. ^i S. 'Ci. I Thess. 4:13 ff-l II Thess,, chap. 2. 3Cf. Col. 1:15-17- CHRISTIANITY 291 does.' Paul found Christianity a Jewish sect; he left it a religion universal in its scope. 202. The Gospel of John was composed about 100 A.D., probably at Ephesus in Asia Minor. The pur- pose of its author was so to tell the story of the Hfe and teaching of Jesus as to commend the Christian rehgion to the complex thought of his time. Gnosticism, incipient in the time of Paul, was now more thoroughly developed. At its base lay the late Zoroastrian con- ception of two gods, a god of good and a god of evil. Matter was the creation of the evil god. Judaism was by this time in open opposition to Christianity, and it was necessary to repulse its attacks. The disciples of John the Baptist stUl formed a separate sect that sought to rival Christianity. In the church itself there was a tendency to lay too great stress upon organization and the magic influence of the sacraments. In his endeavor to meet this situation the writer of the Gospel of John took up and elaborated Paul's idea of Jesus as the World- Soul. This he expressed by the term Logos, or Word — a term that had played a great r61e in Greek thought from Heraclitus^ down, and had also been prominent in Hebrew thought. Philo' had made considerable use of it. Gnostic thought was squarely met by the state- ment that the Word was God,'' and that the Word became flesh and dwelt among us. This conception of ' Cf . Barton, The Heart of the Christian Message, pp. 41-50. " See above, sec. 185. ' See above, sec. 95. 4 John 1:1. A more accurate translation of the Greek would be, "the Word was divine.'' It means that the Word belonged to the same order of being as God, not that he was identical with God. 292 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Jesus as the Word underlies the whole portrait of Jesus in this Gospel, although the term "Word" does not occur after the preface. Jesus is portrayed throughout as superhuman. His temptation is omitted. The dovelike descent of the Spirit occurred for the benefit of John the Baptist.' Jesus knew what was in man;^ at the grave of Lazarus he gave thanks to the Father, not to meet any need in himself, but for the sake of the people.' Jesus is represented as proclaiming his mes- siahship at the beginning of his ministry to a perfect stranger," and as debating it publicly with the Jews on many occasions. In thus portraying Jesus the fundamental conception of Gnosticism was combated, and his discourses with the Jews were made the vehicle of combating the leaders of that religion. John the Baptist was made to bear witness to the superiority of Jesus and the conquering power of Christianity ,5 while, to meet the overemphasis on the Eucharist, all record that Jesus established such a rite was omitted. Instead of it the account of Jesus washing the disciples' feet was introduced in chapter 13, while in chapter 6, in a discourse on eating his flesh and drinking his blood, Jesus, we are told, declared that the flesh is of no profit, but that his words are spirit and Hfe.* In the Gospel the thesis is set forth that Christ is Jesus, and that the disciples may be one with him and with God. They are to be sent into the world as Christ was sent into the world.' In the First Epistle of John, ' John 1 :33. s John 1:15; 3 : 27-30. 2 John 2:25. 'John 6 163. 3 John 11:42. 'John 17:18. 'John 1:48!. CHRISTIANITY 293 in which his thesis is that Jesus is the Christ, the union of the believer with Christ is powerfully set forth. This writer gave Christianity its three best definitions of God, the metaphysical, the moral, and the religious. They are: "God is spirit";' "God is light ";^ and "God is love. "3 203. Christianity in the second century was influenced by its conflict with Gnosticism and its contact with Greek culture. In this conflict it developed its episcopal form of government, its tendency to rely upon written creeds, and it placed the New Testament books on a par with those of the Old Testament. It also developed some writers of wide breadth of vision and culture, whose views of Christianity exhibit great philosophic insight. There were also reactions against these developments. (i) Gnosticismx manifested itself in many sects in a great variety of forms. As Docetism it reduced all the facts in the Hfe of Christ to illusions. In antagonizing it Ignatius of Antioch (11 2-1 15 a.d.) proposed the monarchic episcopate as the government of the church— a view that ultimately prevailed. Valentinus, Basihdes, and Marcion, though they differed radically from one another in doctrine, referred to alleged apostoKc writings in proof of their views. Marcion made a canon consist- ing of one gospel and ten epistles. By silent processes which we cannot now trace, a list of New Testament books was agreed upon by 170 a.d., as the Canon of Muratori'' bears witness. In combating Marcion the church at Rome adopted a baptismal formula about 'John 4:24. ^ I John 1:5. ^ i John 4:8, 16. * See B. W. Ba.con,\An Introduction to the New Testament (New York, 1900), pp. so ff. 294 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD 150 A.D., which afterward grew into the symbol now called the Apostles' Creed. (2) The best fruits of the combination of Christianity and Greek culture appear in the Epistle to Diognetus and the writings of Clement of Alexandria. These men recognized that God had not made the Hebrew people his only channel of revelation; that Greek philosophy was also a vehicle by which his truth was transmitted. Clement held that God is immanent in his world; that man is akin to God; that sin has marred the divine image in man, but has not effaced it; that God has always been educating man; that Christ came to com- plete the education by reveahng clearly to man's con- sciousness the God who has always been here. (3) Certain Jewish elements of Christianity with- stood all this advance and gradually separated from the church. Such were the Ebionites, the Nazarenes, and the Elkasites. They maintained that Christianity should be simply a reformed Judaism. Paul was the object of their especial dislike, and in the so-called Clementine Homilies, Recognitions, and Epitome Paul is roundly denounced under the name of Simon Magus. 204. The Eastern church and the councils.— While the church rejected Gnosticism, it was profoundly affected by it. The idea that matter is inherently evil gradually permeated Eastern Christendom. As early as 200 A.D. it began to drive men to the desert. Marriage was an indulgence of the flesh; life's ordinary occupa- tions were a snare to the soul. The common life of man was, they thought, beyond redemption. They would be free; they would save themselves from the wreck of CHRISTIANITY 295 the world. Little by little the number of anchorites increased. They were gradually organized into mon- asteries. The Eastern church was fond of definitions; it cast its faith in the terms of thought. During the third century two great schools of Christian thought and learning developed — one at Antioch and one at Alex- andria. At Antioch they taught that God dwells apart from his world; at Alexandria, that he interpenetrates it. At Antioch they held that the Son was created by the Father, not begotten of him; that he is not of the same substance as the Father, but only of Kke substance. About 318 A.D. Arius, a disciple of the school of Antioch, began to teach in Alexandria. His teachings seemed heretical to the Alexandrian Christians, and he was deposed. Immediately all the East was aflame. Constantine, who had become nominally Christian in 312 A.D., without, perhaps, clearly understanding the difference between Christ and Mithra, became sole master of the Roman Empire in 324. He desired to employ the church to bind together his empire, but found it rent by the Arian controversy. He accordingly summoned in 325 a.d. the Council of Nicea, the first of the ecumenical councils. To it came bishops and others* from many parts of the church, and after long dehberations it adopted the Nicene definition of the nature of the Son, declaring that he is of one substance with the Father. Although the Alexandrian view prevailed in the council, much of the church was Arian, and the controversy raged for fifty years. When it had about spent itself, Theodo- sius I called the First Council of Constantinople in 381 A.D. It reaffirmed the Nicene declaration as to 296 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD the Son's nature, and declared that the Holy Spirit pro- ceeds from the Father. Early in the next century another controversy arose between the school of Antioch and that of Alexandria. The Antiochians held that Christ had two natures, a divine and a human; the Alexandrians, that, after the incarnation, the two natures became one divine nature. These last dehghted to call Mary the Mother of God. The third ecumenical council, called by Theodosius II, met at Ephesus in 433 a.d. to settle this matter, but the difference of opinion ran so high that the council separated into two, each of which condemned the other. The Council of Chalcedon, in 451 a.d., sought to solve the difficulty by declaring that he possesses two natures, which, unmixed, unconverted, undivided, were combined into one person, but its definition satisfied neither of the extremes. The Mono- physites, who beheved in one nature, separated from the church. These form the Egyptian (or Coptic), the Abyssinian, and the Armenian churches to the present time. The radical Dyophysites, who beheved in two natures, also separated and formed what is known as the Nestorian church. For some centuries they flourished, spreading eastward to Turkestan and China, but have now dwindled to a small remnant in Persia. The main body of the Eastern church accepted the decree of Chalcedon and kept on its way. In 553 a.d. in the reign of Justinian at the Second Council of Con- stantinople, the works of Theodore of Mopsuestia, the real thinker of the Dyophysite party, were condemned. The Third Council of Constantinople was held in CHRISTIANITY 297 680 A.D., which, in logical sequence from the Council of Chalcedon, declared that Christ had two wills. The last of the ecumenical councils, the Second Council of Nicea, in 787 A.D. sanctioned the use of pictures and images in churches. The act of this last council indicates to what extent the church had absorbed the customs of pre-Christian heathenism. Old gods were in many places christened as Christian saints, and their cults were maintained under a Christian name. By the year 800 A.D. the main lines of the Eastern church were fixed. 205. The Western Church. — From the beginning the genius of the West was different from that of the East. The East was given to speculation and definition, the West to organization and administration. In the West practical problems absorbed men's minds; here the doctrines of tradition and the church were worked out. The doctrine of tradition had been stated in substance in the Pastoral Epistles, written probably from Rome before the end of the first century. In them the true faith is something committed to a disciple by an apostle, which the disciple is to guard and hand on to others.' This doctrine was revived at the end of the second century by Irenaeus,^ who held that the true doctrines of the church were left by the apostles as a "deposit" with the bishops whom they appointed, and that these bishops had passed the "deposit" on to their successors, withholding no part of it. Thus the true " deposit" was still to be found in the faith of the churches in the large cities, where any deviation from apostolic standards 'See I Tim. 6:20; II Tim. 1:13, 14; 2:2. ' CI. his work Against Heresies iii. 3. 298 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD would be quickly detected. This argument, he held, applied with especial force to the church at Rome, since Rome was the capital of the empire and any variation from the "deposit" at Rome would be detected more quickly than elsewhere. This argument concerning tradition was elaborated by TertuUian of Carthage, a younger contemporary of Irenaeus, and became the basis of the claim of Rome to the right to rule the church. Cyprian of Carthage developed the doctrine of the bishopric, as Irenaeus had that of tradition. He held that the bishop is the representative of Christ, and as such he possesses over his congregation the same authority that Christ has over the church universal. Christ was a priest; he offered himself in sacrifice. The bishop is a priest who at the celebration of the Eucharist repeats the sacrifice of his Lord. Christ can remit sins; hence his representative can remit sins. The views of Cyprian ultimately prevailed and transformed the Christian ministry into a priesthood. The foundations of the theology of Latin Christianity were completed by Augustine of Hippo (d. 430 a.d.). Augustine's thought was developed through three con- troversies, that with the Manichaeans, that with the Donatists, and that with the Pelagians. The Mani- chaeans denied that the church is the sole depositary of the truth; the Donatists, that the church has a right to rule the conscience; the Pelagians, that human nature needs no such church as the Western Fathers believed in. In the course of these controversies Augustine set forth the doctrine of original sin, holding that man has been completely separated from God. It was this that gave the church its reason for existence. The divine image CHRISTIANITY 299 can, he taught, be renewed in man only by the rite of baptism; in the act of baptism regeneration occurs, if it can occur at all. Christ had come to estabHsh the church, and had gone away again to the distant heavens, leaving the church to rule. There was no salvation outside her, but not all within her will be saved, for salvation depends upon the will of God and is granted only to the elect. This was the form of Christian thought which ruled Western Europe for a thousand years. The personal piety of Augustine reflected in his "Confessions," the greatest religious autobiography ever written, is wonderfully attractive. 206. The early Middle Ages formed a period of increasing ignorance. The coming of the barbarians gradually submerged the finer characteristics of the earher time. In a rude way these barbarians were gradually Christianized, though many of their old behefs and customs were continued under Christian names. By 800 A.D. the pope at Rome was able to assert his authority over the civil power, and the church became in name at Iteast supreme. With the decline of culture crude doctrines sprang up. One of these was the doctrine of purgatory. Until this time the almost universal behef of antiquity, that the dead reside in a subterranean cavity, still prevailed. To this had been added the Jewish-Christian faith that before the Judg- ment Day the dead will be raised. Little by little it had come to be held that this period of waiting would be occupied with expiatory sufferings, and that whether these sufferings were to be long or short depended upon the will of the priesthood. 300 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Another doctrine that emerged in this period was that of trans-substantiation — the doctrine that at the consecration of the elements of the Eucharist the bread and wine are miraculously transmuted into the body and blood of Christ. Alchemists at the time believed that lead could be transmuted into gold, if one could only find the secret, and theology traveled in the same path. 207. The later Middle Ages began with the eleventh century. The second migration of the barbarians (the later Huns, Northmen, Danes, and Saracens) had caused extended suffering. This suffering, together with the widespread expectation that the end of the world would occur in the year 1000, sobered and deepened the life of Europe. After the year 1000 it was a more reHgious world; its happy, thoughtless childhood had passed. Gothic cathedrals began to express the aspira- tions and longings of the age. It soon became an age of intellectual activity. The leaders of this activity were the "schoolmen," who occupied themselves in justifying to the intellect the dogmas of the church. Anselm (1038-1109 a.d.), the first and greatest of the schoolmen, gave to the church its first worthy doctrine of the atonement. It had been held from the begirming that the death of Christ some- how accomplished the salvation of men, but how it accompHshed this had not been definitely explained. Some had taken Christ's figure of a ransom' literally, and held that God gave his Son to Satan in order to redeem men from his grasp. Anselm changed all this. He explained the death of Christ on the analogy of feudal 'Matt. 20:28. CHRISTIANITY 301 law. Man owed God a fealty which he had failed to pay; the debt was infinite because God is infinite. Man could not pay the debt because he is finite. He was accordingly doomed to endless woe. But if man perished, God's love would be thwarted. The infinite Son of God accordingly became man, in order to die and satisfy God's honor. According to this view the sacrifice of Christ was a sacrifice of God's love to God's justice. Not all schoolmen were as considerate of the Latin church. Abelard was led to hold many of the views of the Greek theology, and became a martyr for his independence. With the dawning of new intelHgence several sects sprang into existence, the adherents of which sought greater satisfaction for the soul than the church afforded. The church took alarm and in 1229 closed the Bible to the laity, and in 1232 invented the inquisition to enforce the decision. Thomas Aquinas (1227-74) propounded a little later the doctrine of two kingdoms, the kingdom of nature and the kingdom of grace, which for a time gave the church an intellectual triumph also. According to this view nature is a kind of hierarchy, rising through the lower orders of hfe to its culmination in man. Rising above this is the king- dom of grace, which has its outward embodiment in the church, and is continued by the angels in heaven. It culminates in the throne of God. In the kingdom of nature the thought of man was said to be free to act; in the kingdom of grace man must accept what God reveals. These measures and doctrines were not, however, permanently successful. In the fourteenth century Wycliffe (1324-84) translated the Bible into the ver- nacular for the people and preached an evangehcal 302 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD doctrine. In Germany in the same century Eckhardt (d. 1329), Tauler (d. 1361), and Thomas a Kempis (1380-147 1), while they remained in the church, taught the possibility of a direct union with God, a view which was contrary to what had come to be regarded as fundamental doctrines of the church. John Huss in Bohemia, an evangeHcal preacher of the same type as Wycliffe, held to liberty of conscience, and died a martyr's death in 1415. After the conquest of Con- stantinople by the Turks in 1453 many Christians from the East fled to Italy. They brought with them the Greek Testament and a knowledge of classical learning, which created such a ferment that a new type of Chris- tianity was created. 208. The Reformation was a declaration of the liberty of the individual conscience, and a shift of the basis of authority from the church to the Bible. While it presented great varieties of form, the forms which attracted most adherents did not differ radically from the CathoKcs as to the transcendence of God, the depravity of man, and a standard of authority external to the conscience. Luther (1483-1546), the first pro- tagonist of the Reformation, made much of the doctrine of Justification by faith. He was not a consistent theologian. His system retained many features and conceptions of the church, while departing from it in other respects. Zwingh (1484-1531) departed more widely from the Latin church in thought. He revived from another point of view Augustine's doctrine of election. John Calvin (1509-64) formed the most com- plete system of theology, giving to Protestantism its fighting armor. To him as to Augustine God was an CHRISTIANITY 303 absent sovereign. He differed from Augustine in finding the will of God expressed in the Bible rather than in the church. Menno, Schwenkfeld, Arminius, and others took positions that departed in many respects more widely than those of Luther and Calvin from the posi- tions previously occupied by the church. Many founded sects or parties in Protestantism which continue to the present day. The period of the Reformation was the period of expanding knowledge, when our modern world was born. The religious impulse of the Reformation lasted through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It produced many types of thought and of Christian organization, varying from the Anglican church, which retains the Episcopal organization, but discards five of the Roman sacraments, to that of the Friends or followers of George Fox (d. 1690), who dispensed both with an ordained ministry and with all outward sacraments. The most widely accepted theology was, however, that of John Calvin, in which man is regarded as a totally depraved being, whose sins were vicariously borne by Christ. Christ, however, did not, according to Calvin, redeem all of humanity, but the elect alone. In countries where the Reformation gained sufficient power, as in England and Scotland, a state church was substituted for the Roman church. 209. The eighteenth century was one of reUgious reaction. This was in part due to the fact that the enthusiasm of the Reformation had spent itself, and in part to the trend given to philosophy by John Locke. According to this philosophy everything was to be tested by the understanding, and the effort to make religion not mysterious reduced it at times to a cold 304 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD intellectual system. This century saw, nevertheless, the evangelical revival inaugurated by John Wesley. This revival stood quite apart from the thought of the century in which it occurred. The philosophy of the time thought of God as far away; those who partici- pated in the Methodist revival held that he is near and that everyone can approach him. 210. The nineteenth century was in many ways the most remarkable century since the first in the history of Christianity. Intellectually Christianity had to find itself in the midst of new systems of thought. The philosophies of Kant and Hegel were especially influ- ential with Christian thinkers. Never in the history of man had scientific knowledge been so rapidly acquired. Nearly all our sciences were born in the nineteenth century. But along with new explanations of Christian theory, and in spite of doubts raised by new knowledge. Christian life had never been more intense or more' vital. With an enthusiasm unknown since the Apostolic Age, efforts were undertaken to convert the world to Christ, and were successfully prosecuted. Though modern methods of studying history were applied to the Bible itself — methods which revealed its history in aspects hitherto unsuspected — though the basis of faith was shown to be wider than was formerly thought, the adjustment was made in many quarters, and Christ appeared to his followers secure as Master in the realm of religion. In parts of Protestantism, but especially in the Church of Rome, there have been reactions. One of these led to the proclamation in 1870 of the dogma of the infallibility of the Pope. This was but natural. CHRISTIANITY 305 The Roman church stands for the mediaeval form of Christianity and is bound to carry to a logical conclu- sion the principles that were formulated in the Middle Ages. 211. Modem Christian thought in Protestantism is still endeavoring to adjust itself to the new intellectual universe called into being by modem science. The adjustment is not fully accomplished and there is, con- sequently, much variety." Certain tendencies may be noted. God is now conceived as the Infinite Soul of a universe that surpasses the Hmits of human imagination. He is still defined as Spirit, Light, and Love. He dwells, not apart from the universe, but interpenetrates it. Man has "felt after" God in all the reUgions of the world. God has been manifest in the religious experi- ence of all peoples. The great rehgious teachers, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Zoroaster, Gautama, Lao-tze, Confucius, Socrates, Plato, Mohammed, have each in their degree grasped more than their fellows of truth about God or Ufe, and have helped men to larger knowl- edge or larger experience of God, or to both. Jesus is the greatest of all teachers. He knew so much more of God and truth and the soul than they that he stands supreme in the rehgious sphere. None has revealed God as he did. The Christian doctrine of the Trinity is seen by many to stand for a truth, the eternally social nature of God — that nature which makes it possible for God to be eternally knowing and eternally loving. It is in this fundamentally social nature of God that there is found a basis of faith for the realization of the social aspirations of man for a perfect social state — the Kingdom of God. 3o6 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD f For a time the doctrine of evolution seemed to destroy the ancient doctrine of the fall of man into sin. It now appears that the third chapter of Genesis and the stories of a Golden Age are human recollections of the way the world of man's innocence seemed to him to be destroyed, when his brain had developed to such a degree that he could imagine how his acts affected others, and conscience was born. It was then that sin began. The suffering of the good for the bad, espe- cially the suffering of the Christ, is thought to be the divinely appointed means of awakening, in accordance with psychological laws, the spirit of man to recognize his sin, the goodness of God, and his own possibiUties. Righteousness is conceived to be the highest ethical Hfe lived in companionship with God by one who is doing God's will in the world — who is seeking to estabUsh God's Kingdom of peace and righteousness. Such a religion has ijji it the capabilities of satisfying the aspirations of the most cultured, and of becoming universal. 212. Summary. — There are three main divisions of Christendom: the Eastern churches, the Roman church, and Protestantism. The Eastern churches crystallized at the beginning of the Middle Ages and have since contributed Httle to Christian progress. The Roman church crystallized at the end of the Middle Ages and adjusts itself to modern progress with the greatest difficulty. Protestantism presents the greatest variety. Some sections of it have not passed beyond the semi- mediaeval point of view of the early Reformers, while other sections of it have welcomed the new knowledge and in its light see light. To these last the great religious CHRISTIANITY 307 truths seem more beautiful and more fundamental than ever. Of all the rehgions we have studied three aim at universality — Mohammedanism, Buddhism, and Chris- tianity. Without disparaging or underestimating either of the others, it must be said that in spite of all the un-Christian things that have marred its history, and its failure to realize its ideals in Kfe, the best hope of the world hes in the possibility that. Christianity may come to have universal influence. iThis is because the Christian conception of God is capable of becoming adequate to the needs of man's expanding knowledge of the universe, while it satisfies the highest personal and social aspirations of man; it is also because the ethical standards of Jesus, combined with the Christian conception of God, afford the best basis for a universal brotherhood; and also because it was the aim of Jesus to make the whole world such a brotherhood — one family. SUPPLEMENTARY READING CLASS A On sec. 199: Cf. Burton and Mathews, The Life of Christ (Chicago, 1901.) On sec. 200: B. W. Robinson, The Life of Paul (Chicago, in preparation)..^ On sees. 201-210: G. B. Smith, editor, A Guide to the Study of the Christian Religion (Chicago, 1916). On sec. 211: G. A. Barton, The Heart of the Christian Message, 2d ed. (New York, 191 2), chap. viii. CLASS B G. A. Barton, The Heart of the Christian Message, 2d ed. (New York, 191 2). APPENDIX I ADDITIONAL BOOKS FOR THE USE OF THE TEACHER ETHNOLOGY Keane, A. H. Ethnology. Cambridge University Press, 1896. Brinton, D. G. Races and Peoples. New York, 1890. Hutchinson, Gregory, and Lydekker. The Living Races of Mankind. New York, 1902. SAVAGE RACES Spencer and Gillen. The Northern Tribes of Central Australia. London, 1904. Howitt, A. H. The Native Tribes of South-East Australia. London, 1904. Dowd, Jerome. The Negro Races. New York, 1907. Haddon, A. C. The Head Hunters. London, 1901. Gomes, E. H. Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo. London, 191 1. Codrington, R. H. The Melanesians. Oxford, 1891. Lopez, V. F. Les Races aYyennes du Perou. Paris, 1871. Payne, E. J. History of the New World Called America. 2 vols. Oxford, 1899. Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, chaps, xiii and xiv. Cambridge University Press, 1908. Frazer, J. G. The Golden Bough, 3d ed. London, 1914. ■ — ■. The Belief in Immortality. London, 1913. — . Lectures on the Early History of Kingship. London, 1905. . Totemism and Exogamy. 4 vols. London, 1910. Webster, H. Primitive Secret Societies. New York, 1907. Lang, Andrew. The Making of Religion. London and New York, 1900. 308 APPENDIX I 309 Morris, M. "The Influence of War and Agriculture upon the Religion of the Kayans and Sea Dyaks of Borneo," Journal of the American Oriental Society, XXV, 231-47. Conard, L. M. "The Idea of God Held by the North American Indians," American Journal of Theology, VII, 635-46. ChamberHn, A. F. "Haida" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, VI, 469-77. Gray, L. H. "Iroquois," ibid., VII, 420-22. RELIGIONS IN GENERAL Jevons, F. B. Introduction to the History of Religion. London, 1896. Toy, C. H. Introduction to the History of Religions. New York, 1913- Menziez, A. History of Religion. New York, 1895. Carpenter, J. E. Comparative Religion. New York and London, 1912. Jevons, F. B. Comparative Religion. Cambridge University Press, 1913. Brinton, D. G. The Religion of Primitive Peoples. New York, 1897. King, I. The Development of Religion, a Sttidy in Anthropology and Social Psychology. New York, 1910. Moore, George F. The History of Religions. New York: Scrib- ner, 1913. Morris, M. "The Economic Study of Religion," Journal of the American Oriental Society, XXIV, 394-426. SEMITIC RELIGIONS Smith, W. R. The Religion of the Semites, 2d ed. London, 1894. Barton, G. A. A Sketch of Semitic Origins, Social and Religious. New York, 1902. Curtiss, S. I. Primitive Semitic Religion Today. New York, 1902. Barton, G. A. "Tammuz and Osiris," Journal of the American Oriental Society, XXXV, 213-23. 3IO THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN HISTORY King, L. W. History of Sumer and Akkad. London, 1 910. . A History of Babylon. London, 1915. Goodspeed, G. S. A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians. New York, 1902. Rogers, R. W. History of Babylonia and Assyria, 6th ed. New York, 1915. Jastrow, Morris, Jr. The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria. Philadelphia, 1915. BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION Jastrow, M., Jr. Religion of Babylonia and Assyria. New York, 1898. . Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens. 2 vols. Giessen, 190S, 1912. . Aspects of Religious Belief in Babylonia and Assyria. New York, 1911. -. Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions. New York, 1912. Rogers, R. W. The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria. New York, 1908. King, L. W. Babylonian Religion and Mythology. London, 1899. Hehn, J. Die biblische und babylonische Gottesidee. Leipzig, 1913. Jeremias, A. Handbuch der altorientalischen Geistkultur. Leipzig, 1913- Mackenzie, D. A. Myths of Babylonia and Assyria. London, 1915. TRANSLATIONS OF BABYLONIAN RELIGIOUS TEXTS Harper, R. F. Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, pp. 282-460. New York, 1901. Rogers, R. W. Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament. New York, 1912. Barton, G. A. Archaeology and the Bible, Part II. Philadelphia, 191s- Thompson, R. C. Reports of the Magicians and Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon, II. London, 1900. . The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia. 2 vols. London, 1903, 1904. APPENDIX I 311 King, L. W. The Seven Tablets of Creation, Vol. I. London, 1902 . Jastrow, M., Jr. Babylonian and Assyrian Birth-Omens. Gies- sen, 1 9 14. EGYPTIAN HISTORY Breasted, J. H. History of Egypt, 2d ed. New York, 1909. . History of the Ancient Egyptians (condensed). New York, 1908. Petrie, W. M. Flinders. History of Egypt. 3 vols. New York, 1895-1905. Budge, E. A. W. History of Egypt. 8 vols. London, 1902. Mahaffy, J. P. The Empire of the Ptolemies. London, 1895. EGYPTIAN RELIGION Erman, A. Handbook of Egyptian Religion, translated by A. S. Griffith. 1907. Steindorf, G. Religion of the Ancient Egyptians. New York, 1905. Petrie, W. M. Flinders. Religion and Conscience in Ancient Egypt. New York, 1898. NaviUe, E. The Old Egyptian Faith, translated by C. Campbell. London and New York, 1909. Breasted, J. H. Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt. New York, 1912. Mackenzie, D. A. The Myths of Egypt. London, 1914. Budge, E. A. W. The Book of the Dead. London, 1898. . The Gods of the Egyptians. London, 1904. . The Literature of the Egyptians. London, 1914. THE RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS Carpenter, J. E., and Harford-Battersby, G. The Hexateuch. London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1900. Addis, W. E. The Documents of the Hexateuch. London, 1898. Kent, C. F. The Studenfs Old Testament. New York, 1910-14. . The Historical Bible, Vols. I-IV. New York, 1908-13. Driver, S. R. "Leviticus," W. H. Bennett, "Joshua," and G. F. Moore, "Judges,'' in P. Haupt's Sacred Books of the Old Testament. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 312 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Nowack, W. "Richter, Ruth und Biicher Samuelis," and R. Kittel, "Die Biicher der Konige," in Nowack's Eand- kommentar zum Alien Testamenl. Gottingen. Box, G. H. The Book of Isaiah. New York, 1909. Budde, K. The Religion of Israel to the Exile. New York, 1899. Addis, W. E. Hebrew Religion to the Establishment of Judaism under Ezra. New York, 1906. Marti, K. The Religion of the Old Testament. New York, 1907. Smith, H. P. The Religion of Israel. New York, 1914. Peters, J. P. The Religion of the Hebrews. Boston, 1914. Barton, G. A. The Religion of Israel. New York (in press). Fowler, H. T. The Origin and Growth of the Hebrew Religion. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1916. Wallis, Louis. Sociological Study of the Bible. Chicago, 1912 JUDAISM The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York, 1901-6. Montgomery, J. A. The Samaritans. Philadelphia, 1907. Hereford, R. T. Christianity in Talmud and Midrash. London, 1903. Abrahams, I. A Short History of Jewish Literature. New York, 1906. . Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. Philadelphia, 1906. . Judaism. London, 1910. Friedlander, M. The Jewish Religion. London, 1900. Drummond, J. Philo Judaeus. London, 1888. Montefiore, C. G. Judaism and Saint Paul. London, 1914. Rosenau, W. Jewish Ceremonial Institutions and Customs. Balti- more, 1903. MOHAMMEDANISM The Qur'an, translated by E. H. Pahner (Oxford, 1880), being Vols. IV and IX in the Sacred Books of the East edited by F. Max MuUer. Oilman, A. The Saracens. New York and London, 1887. Lane-Poole, S. The Moors in Spain. New York and London, 1891. . The Speeches and Table-Talk of the Prophet Mohammed. London, 1905. APPENDIX I 313 All, Ameer. A Short History of the Saracens. London, 1899. Muir, Sir William. Mahomet and Islam. London, 1895. Margoliouth, D. S. Mohammed and the Rise of Islam in the "Heroes of the Nations" series. . Mohammedanism, in the "Home University Library." . The Early Development of Mohammedanism in the "Hibbert Lectures." New York, 1914. Macdonald, D. B. Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Consti- tutional Theory. New York, 1903. . The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1909. . Aspects of Islam. New York, 191 1. "The Life of Al-Ghazali," Journal of the American Oriental Society, XX, 71-132. New Haven, 1899. Nicholson, R. A. The Mystics of Islam. London, 1914. BHss, F. J. The Religions of Modern Syria and Palestine, chaps, iv-vi. New York, 191 2. Goldziher, I. Mohammed and Islam, translated by Kate Cham- bers Seelye. New Haven, 1917. ZOROASTRIANISM Jackson, A. V. W. Zoroaster the Prophet of Ancient Iran. London and New York, 1901. Miiller, F. Max. The Sacred Books of the East, Vols. IV, V, XXIII, XXXI, and XLVII. Moulton, J. H. Early Zoroastrianism. London, 1913. Jackson, A. V. W. "Zoroastrianism," in the Jewish Encyclo- pedia, XII. Moore, G. F. "Zoroastrianism," Harvard Theological Review, V, 180-226. Kapadia, S. A. The Teachings of Zoroaster and the Philosophy of the Parsi Religion. London, 1913. Jackson, A. V. W., and Gray. L. H. "The Religion of the Achaemenian Kings," Journal of the American Oriental Society, XXI, 160-84. Dhalla, M. N. The Nyaishes, or Zoroastrian Litanies. New York, 1908. 314 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Moulton, J. H. "The Zoroastrian Conception of a Future Life," Journal of Transactions of the Victoria Institute, XLVII, 233-52. London, 1915. RELIGION or THE VEDAS Grassman, Herman. Rig-Veda uebersetzt. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1877. Deussen, Paul. Sechsig Upanishads des Veda. Leipzig, 1897. MiiUer, W. Max. Sacred Books of the East, Vols. I, XV, XXXII, XLII, XLVE. Lanman, C. R. Atharva-Veda Samhita. 2 vols. 1905. Macdonnell, A. A. A History of Sanskrit Literature. New York, 1900. . "Vedic Mythology" in Grundriss der indo-irenischen Philologie. Bloomfield, M. The Religion of the Veda. New York, 1908. Hoenle, A. F. R., and Stark, H. A. History of India. Cuttack, 1904. Hopkins, E. Washburn. The Religions of India. Boston, 1895. BXJDDHISM Muller, W. Max. Sacred Books of the East, Vols. X, XI, XIII, XVU, XIX, XX, XXI, XXXV, XXXVI, and XLIX. Warren, Henry C. Buddhism in Translations. Cambridge, 1896. Smith, V. A. Asoka the Buddhist Emperor of India. Oxford, 1901. . Early History of India Including Alexander's Campaigns. Oxford, 1914. Cunningham, A. The Ancient Geograpy of India. London, 1871. Beal, S. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures in China. London, 1871. . Abstract of Four Lectures on Buddhist Literature in China. London, 1882. Rockhill, W. W. The Life of the Buddha and the Early History of His Order Derived from Tibetan Works, etc. London, 1884. Grimblot, M. P. Sept sulfas pdUs. Paris, 1876. Neumann, K. E. R^din Gotamo Buddho's. 4 vols. Leipzig, 1896-1905. APPENDIX I 315 Fausboll, W. The Dhammapada. London, 1900. Copleston, R. S. Buddhism. London, 1892. Davids, T. W. Rhys. Buddhism. London, 1903. . Buddhist India. New York, 1903. Edmunds, A. J. Buddhist and Christian Gospels, 4th ed. Phila- delphia, 1908. Davids, Mrs. Rhys. Buddhism in the "Home University Library." . A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics. London, 1900. Hopkins, E. W. The Religions of India. Boston, 1895. JAINISM Jacobi, H., in MiiUer's Sacred Books of the East, Vols. XXII and XLV. . "Jainism" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, VII. Hopkins, E. W. The Religion of India. Stevenson, Mrs. S. The Heart of Jainism. Oxford University Press, 1915. HINDUISM Miiller, W. Max. The Sacred Books of the East, Vols. II, VII, VIII, and XXXIV. Hopkins, E. W. The Ordinances of Manu. London, 1884. . The Great Epic of India. New York, 1901. . The Religions of India. Boston, 1895. Monier- Williams. Brahmanism and Hinduism, 4th ed. London, 1891. Oman, J. C. Indian Epics, the Ramayana and Mahdbhdrata. London, 1906. . Cults, Customs, and Superstitions of India. London, 1908. Dutt, R. Mahdbhdrata the Epic of Ancient India Condensed into English Verse. London, 1899. Arnold, Sir Edwin. The Song Celestial, or the Bhagavad-GUA. Boston, 1909. (Arnold's translation conveys poetic feelmg; that in Sacred Books of the East, Vol. VIII, gives the original with literal fidelity.) 3i6 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Hastings, James. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, II, the articles "Arya Samaj," "Bhagavad-Gita," "Bhakti-Marga," "Brahman," "Brahmanism," and "Brahma Samaj," by different authors. New York, 1910. Macnicol, N. Indian Theism. Oxford University Press, 1915. Ehnore, W. T. Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism. Hamilton, N.Y., 1915. Advanced Text Book of Hindu Religion and Ethics. Benares, 1904. RELIGIONS or CHINA Hirth, F. The Ancient History of China. New York, 1911. Williams, S. Wells. A History of China. New York, 1897. Boidger, D. C. The History of China. 2 vols. London, 1898. Giles, H. A. A History of Chinese Literature. New York, 1901. Miiller, W. Max. Sacred Books of the East, Vols. Ill, XVI, XIX, XXVII, XXVIII, XXXIX, and XL (translations by Legge of Chinese Canonical Books and Life of Buddha). Wilson, E. Chinese Literature (translations of the Analects of Confucius, the Shi-King, and the sayings of Mencius). New York, 1900. De Groot, J. J. M. The Religious Systems of China. 6 vols. Leyden, 1892-1910. — ■ . Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China. 2 vols. Amsterdam, 1903-4. . The Religion of the Chinese. New York, 1910. Religion in China. New York, 191 2. Legge, James. The Religions of China. New York, 1881. Douglas, R. K. Confucianism and Taoism. London, 1900. GUes, H. A. The Civilisation of the Chinese. London, 1911. . China and the Chinese. New York, 1902. . Chinese Poetry in English Verse. London, 1898. SoothiU, W. E. The Three Religions of China. London, 1913. RELIGIONS OF JAPAN Asakawa, K. "Japan" in H. C. Lodge, The History of the Nations, Vol. VII. Philadelphia, 1906. Brinkley, F. A History of the Japanese People. London, 1915. APPENDIX I 317 Nitobe, I. Bushido, the Soul of Japan. Philadelphia, iqcxj. . The Japanese Nation. New York, 1912. Armstrong, R. C. Light from the East: Studies in Confucianism. Toronto, 1914. Ashton, W. G. A History of Japanese Literature. London, 1899. GriflBs, W. E. The Religions of Japan. New York, 1895. Knox, G. W. The Development of Religion in Japan. New York, 1907. Ashton, W. G. Shinto {the Way of the Gods). London, 1905. Ashida, K. "Japan" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, VII. RELIGION OF GREECE Wright, Wihner Cave. A Short History of Greek Literature. New York, 1907. Famell, L. R. The Cults of the Greek States. 5 vols. Oxford, I 896-1 909. . The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion. New York, 1912. . " Greek Religion ' ' in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. •Fairbanks, Arthur. Handbook of Greek Religion. New York, 1910. Harrison, Jane E. Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, 2d ed. Cambridge, 1908. . Themis, a Study of the Social Origins of Greek Religion. Cambridge, 1912. Murray, GUbert. Four Stages of Greek Religion. New York, 1912. Rouse, W. H. D. Greek Votive Offerings. Cambridge, 1902. Moore, Clifford H. The Religious Thought of the Greeks. Cam- bridge, 1916. RELIGION OF ROME Wissowa, George. Religion und Kultus der Romer, 2te Aufl. Munchen, 1912. Fowler, W. Warde. The Religious Experience of the Roman People. London, 1911. . Roman Ideas of Deity in the Last Century before the Christian Era. London, 1914. 3i8 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Carter, Jesse B. The Religion of Numa and Other Essays on the Religion of Ancient Rome. New York, 1906. . The Religious Life of Ancient Rome. Boston, 191 1. Cumont, F. The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism. Chicago, 191 1. . The Mysteries of Mithra. Chicago, 1903. . Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans. New York, 1912. Glover, T. R. The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire. London, 1909. Herbig, G. "Etruscan Religion" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, V, 532-40. Wenley, R. M. " Cynics " in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, IV, 378-83. CHRISTIANITY Burton and Mathews. The Life of Christ, 2d ed. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1901. Holtzmann, Oscar. The Life of Jesus. London, 1904. Case, S. J. The Historicity of Jesus. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 191 2. Sabatier, A. The Apostle Paul. New York, 1893. Bruce, A. B. St. Paul's Conception of Christianity. New York, 1894. Stevens, G. B. Pauline Theology. New York, 1892. . Johannine Theology. New York, 1894. Scott, E. F. The Fourth Gospel. Edinburgh, igo6. Fisher, G. P. History of the Christian Church. New York, 1887. . History of Christian Doctrine. New York, 1896. Rainey, R. The Ancient Catholic Church. New York, 1902. Case, S. J. The Evolution of Christianity. Chicago, 1914. Adeney, W. F. The Greek and Eastern Churches. New York, 1908. Workman, H. B. Christian Thought to the Reformation. New York, 1911. Allen, A. V. G. The Continuity of Christian Thought. Boston, 1884. . Christian Institutions. New York, 1897. APPENDIX I 319 Briggs, C. A. Theological Symbolics. New York, 1914. Barton, G. A. The Heart of the Christian Message, 2d ed. New York, 1912. Hatch, E. The Organization of the Early Christian Churches. London, 1892. Lindsay, T. M. The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries. New York, 1902. . A History of the Reformation. 2 vols. New York, 1906-7. Jones, R. M. Studies in Mystical Religion. London, 1909. . Spiritual Reformers of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. London, 1914. McGifEert, A. C. Protestant Thought before Kant. New York, 1911. Moore, E. C. Protestant Thought since Kant. New York, 1912. Clarke, W. N. Outlines of Christian Theology, isth ed. New York, 1907. . The Use of Scripture in Theology. New York, 1905. Orr, J. The Ritschlian Theology and the Evangelical Faith. 2d ed. New York, iSgSC?). McGifiert, A. C. The Rise of Modern Religious Ideas. New York, 1915. Ward, W. H. What I Believe and Why. New York, 19x5. TOPICS FOR FURTHER STUDY, CLASSROOM DISCUS- SION, OR ASSIGNED PAPERS CHAPTER I 1. The Function of Mythology in Religion. 2. The Extent and Significance of the Belief in Immortality. 3 . The Rise of the Belief in Pantheons and Departmental Gods. 4. Different Theories of Sacrifice. 5. The Place of Prayer in Early Rehgions. 6. The Conceptions of Sin in Early Religions. 7. The Nature of Salvation in Early Religions. 8. The Nature of Priesthoods in Early Religions. 9. The Characteristic Features of the ReUgion of the Primi- tive Hamites and Semites. 320 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD CHAPTER n 1. The Relation of Babylonian Views of the Supernatural to Those of Primitive Men. 2. Are There Traces of Totemism in Babylonia? 3. At What Period Did Astrology Develop in Babylonia ? 4. How Do Babylonian Hymns Compare with Hebrew Psahns ? 5. The Nature of the Babylonian Conception of Sin. 6. To What Extent Did Babylonian Religion Influence Morals ? CHAPTER rn 1. The Relation of Egjfptian Animal- Worship to Totemism. 2. The Various Theories Concerning the Cult of Osiris. 3. The Nature of the Egyptian Social Conscience and Ethics and the Relation of These to the Economic and Political Life of the Covmtry. 4. The Relation of the Eg3fptian Conceptions of the Life after Death to Egyptian Ethics. 5. What Conception of Sin and Atonement Did the Egyptians Hold? CHAPTER IV 1. Was Yahweh Originally Akin to Other Semitic Gods? 2. The Relation of Israel's Early Religious Development to Her Social Development. 3. Modem Views of the Messianic Hope in Pre-exilic Times. 4. The Influence of the Assyrian and Babylonian Wars on Israel's Religion. 5. Modem Views of the "Servant of Yahweh" in Second Isaiah. 6. The Contrast between the Pi'ophets and the Law. CHAPTER V 1. The Composition of the Psalter. 2. The Religious Point of View of the "Wisdom" Books. 3. The Nature and Function of the Apocalyptic Books. 4. The Rise of the Pharisees and Their ReUgioug Influence. APPENDIX I 321 5. Philo and Judaeo-Greek Philosophy. 6. Jewish Literature in the Middle Ages. 7. Jewish Scholars in the Middle Ages. 8. Jewish Influence in Modem Life. CHAPTER VI 1. Comparison of Mohammed with the Hebrew Prophets. 2. The Ethics of the Koran. 3. The Mohammedan Tests of the Genuineness of a Tradition. 4. The Life of Al-Ghazali. 5. Ibn Khaldun's Metaphysics. 6. Islamic Mysticism. 7. The Druses and Babists. 8. Has Mohammedanism Contributed Any Great Truth to the World's Stock of Religious Knowledge ? CHAPTER vn 1. The Relation of Iranian Heathenism to the Vedic Religion. 2. The Ethics of Zoroastrianism. 3. The Ritual of Later Zoroastrianism (Vendidad, Yashts, and Pahlavi Texts). 4. The Zoroastrian Conception of the Last Things. 5. A Comparison of Zoroastrianism and Judaism. CHAPTER vni 1. The Nature of the Hymns Addressed to Indra. 2. The Nature of the Hymns Addressed to Varuna. 3. The Mixture of Priestcraft and Nature-Worship in the Veda. 4. The Influence of the Climate of India on the Upanishads. 5. The Contrast between the Philosophy of the Upanishads and Christianity. CHAPTER rx 1. The Relation of Buddha's Conception of the World to That of the Upanishads. 2. A Comparison of Buddhist and Christian Ethical Teaching. 3. A Comparison of the Buddhist and Christian Scriptures. 322 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD 4. A Comparison of Buddhism and Jainism. 5. A Comparison of Modern Buddhism with Primitive Buddhism. CHAPTER X 1. The Relation of the Sankha-Yoga Philosophies to Bud- dhism. 2. The Influence of Buddhism and Jainism upon the Develop- ment of the Vishnu-ReUgion. 3. The Differences and Resemblances of the Vishnu- and Civa-Religions. 4. A Comparison of the Bhagavad-Gita with the New Testament. 5. A Comparison of the Vedanta Philosophy with That of Spinoza. 6. A Comparison of Ram Mohan Ray, Founder of the Brahma Samaj, with Martin Luther. CHAPTER XI 1. The Chinese Conception of the Supernatural. 2. Chinese Divination. 3. To What Extent Is Confucianism a Religion? 4. The Mysticism of Lao-tze and Kwang-tze. 5. The History of Buddhism in China. 6. Chinese Popular Religion Today. 7. A Comparison of the Chinese Religious Tempetement with the Semitic and Indian. CHAPTER xn 1. A Comparison of the Chinese and Japanese Conceptions of the Divine. 2. A Comparison of the Reception Accorded Buddhism in the Sixth Century and That Accorded Western Culture in the Nineteenth. 3. The Causes That Produced Bushido. 4. The Differences between Confucianism in China and in Japan. 5. Catholic Christianity in Japan in the Middle Ages. APPENDIX I 323 CHAPTER Xm 1. The Extent of the Influence of Aegean Civilisation on the Religion of Greece. 2. The Growth of Greek Mythology. 3. The Relation of the Development of Greek Religion to the Expanding Life of the Nation. 4. A Comparison of Greek Philosophical Monotheism with Hebrew Monotheism. S- A Comparison of Greek Religious Philosophy with the Religious Philosophies of India. 6. A Comparison of Greek Religious Philosophy with That of China. 7. The Influence of Greek Philosophy upon Judaism. CHAPTER XIV 1. A Comparison of Roman FamUy Religion with the Earliest Forms of Other Indo-European Religions. 2. A Comparison of Early Roman Religion with Early Japanese Religion. 3. Etruscan Religion and Its Influence upon Rome. 4. The Influence of Imperialism on the Religion of Rome. 5. The Organization of Emperor- Worship. 6. The Birth and Development of IndividuaUsm in Roman Religion. 7. Oriental Influences in the ReKgion of the Empire. CHAPTER XV 1 . The Nature of Gnosticism and Its Influence on Christianity. 2. The Influence of the Mystery-Religions upon Christianity. 3. The Influence of Greek Thought on Christianity. 4. The Influence of the Decian Persecution upon Christian Thought. 5. The Rise of Manichaeism, Its Nature, and Its Influence on Christianity. 6. The Influence of Roman Imperial Ideals upon the Church. 7. The Causes of the Reformation. 324 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD 8. The Influence of the Philosophy of Locke on Christianity. 9. The Influence of the Philosophy of Kant on Christianity. 10. The Mystic Elements in Christianity. 11. The Influence of Modern Science on Christianity. 12. The Rise of Modern Missions. 13. The New Theology. APPENDIX II OUTLINE OF A BOOK TO BE WRITTEN BY THE STUDENT CHAPTER I 1. Evidence for the Psychological Unity of the Race. 2. The Place of Ritual in Early Religions. 3. The Function of M)^hs in Early Religions. CHAPTER n 1. The Prevalence of Animism. 2. The Conceptions of the Soul Entertained by Early Men. 3. Diffusion of the Belief in Transmigration of the Soul. 4. Conceptions of the Life after Death. CHAPTER III 1. The Development of Gods. 2. Their Connection with Specific Localities. 3. Effects of Social and Economic Conditions upon the Ideas Entertained of Them. 4. Fetishism and Idols. CHAPTER IV 1. Totemism. 2. Taboo. 3. Sacrifice. CHAPTER V I. Early Ideas of Sin, Atonement, and Righteousness. CHAPTER VI 1. The Babylonian Conception of the Supernatural, and Man's Relation to It, Including Sin, Sickness, Atonement, and Healing. 2. The Influence of Rehgion on Morals. 325 326 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD CHAPTER Vn I. The Babylonian Conception of Nature as Reflected in the Myths, Including the World, Its Structure, the Abode of the Gods and the Under-World, the Heavens and the Heavenly Bodies. CHAPTER vm 1. The Egyptian Gods and Their Development. 2. The Egyptian Conception of the Supernatural and Man's Relation to It. 3. The Place of Priesthood and Sacrifice in the Egyptian Religion. 4. The Reform of Ikhnaton and Why It Failed. CHAPTER rx 1. The Evolution of the Social Conscience in Egypt. 2. The Standards of Conduct in Egyptian Ethical Systems. 3. The Influence of Egypt upon Christian Theology. CHAPTER X 1. The Formation of Israel. 2. The Pxurpose and Value of the Patriarchal Narratives. 3. The Covenant at Sinai. 4. The Effects of the Settled Life in Palestine on the Religion. 5. The Social and Religious Life in the Time of Elijah and Elisha. CHAPTER XI 1. The Religious Ideals of the Eighth-Century Prophets. 2. Their Social Ideals. 3. The Messianic Hope in Isaiah. 4. The Conditions That Led to the Deuteronomic Reform. 5. The Religious Ideals of Jeremiah. 6. Ezekiel and the Codifiers of the Priestly Law. 7. The Second Isaiah's Religious Conceptions. APPENDIX II 327 CHAPTER Xn 1. The Standpoint of Legalism. 2. The Standpoint of the Sages. 3. The Religious Passion of the Psalmists. 4. The Rehgious Need Supplied by the Synagogue. 5. The Religious Need Supplied by the Apocalypses. 6. The Forces Which Developed Pharisaism. 7. The Effects of Greek Philosophy upon Judaism. CHAPTER xm 1. The Religious Need Supplied by the Talmud. 2. The Influence of Early Christianity upon the Development of Judaism. 3. The Influence of Mohammedanism upon Judaism. 4. The Blossoming of Jewish Genius in the Middle Ages. 5. The Influence of the Ghetto upon Judaism. 6. The Influence of Modem Thought upon Judaism. 7. The Contribution of Modern Judaism to Modem Life. CHAPTER xrv 1. The Methods and Aims of Mohammed's Ministry at Mecca. 2. The Methods and Aims of His Ministry at Medina. 3. The Ideals of the Medina Caliphate. 4. The Transformation of Those Ideals in the Omas^ad and Abbasside Caliphates. 5. The Islamic State, and Islamic Law. CHAPTER XV 1. The Rift between the Shiites and Simnites. 2. The Religious Conceptions of the Shiite Sects — How Many of Them Are Foreign to Islam ? 3. Mohammedan Scholastic Theology, Its Aims and Methods. 4. The Islamic Ascetic Orders, Their Nimiber, Aims, and Influence. 5. The Principles of Mohammedan Mysticism. 328 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD CHAPTER XVI 1. Ancient Iran, Its People, and Religion. 2. Zoroaster, His Preparation for His Work. 3. His Prophetic Career. 4. Zoroastrianism under the Achaemenians. 5. Under the Greeks and Parthians. 6. Under the Sassanians. 7. Since the Mohammedan Conquest. CHAPTER xvn 1. Zoroaster's Doctrine of God and Angels. 2. Angra Main)ai and Demons in Zoroastrianism. 3. The Doctrine of Man in Zoroastrianism. 4. Zoroastrian Ethics. 5. Zoroastrian Ritual and Priesthood. 6. The Zoroastrian Eschatology. 7. The Development from the Founder to the Later ReUgion. CHAPTER xvm 1. The Land and Climate of India. 2. The People of the Vedas and Their Social Organization. 3. The Strata of the Vedic Literature. 4. The Gods of the Rig-Veda. 5. The Ritual of the Rig- Veda. 6. The Vedic Conception of Salvation. CHAPTER xrx 1. The Demonology and Magic of the Atharva-Veda. 2. The Development of Thought in the Brahmanas. 3. The Philosophy of the Upanishads. CHAPTER XX 1. The Life of Vardhamana, the Founder of Jainism. 2. The Jain Conception of the Universe and Salvation. 3. The Rules of the Jain Order. 4. The Later Development of Jainism. APPENDIX II 329 CHAPTER XXI 1. The Early Life of Gautama. 2. The Religious Experience of Gautama. 3. The Ministry of Gautama. 4. The Philosophical and Ethical Teaching of Gautama. 5. Buddhist Monks. 6. The Buddhist Laity. 7. The Apotheosis of Gautama. 8. Mahayana Buddhism. CHAPTER xxn 1. The Sankha and Yoga Systems of Philosophy. 2. The Religion of the Lawbooks of Gautama, Apastamba, and Manu. 3. The Development of the Krishna- Vishnu Religion in the Mahabharata, Including the Bhagavad-Gita. 4. The Development of the Ramanya and the Rama Sects. 5. The Religion of the Institutes of Vishnu. CHAPTER xxm 1. The Vedanta Philosophy. 2. The Philosophy of Ramanuja and Other Systems. 3. The Civaite Sects. 4. Indian Temples and Their Ritual. 5. The Sikhs and Other Mediaeval Sects of India. 6. Modem Reformed Sects of India. CHAPTER XXrV 1. The Animism of the Chinese. 2. Ancestor-Worship in China. 3. The State Religion of China. 4. Confucius and His System. 5. Mencius and the State ReUgion. CHAPTER XXV 1. The Taoism of Lao-tze. 2. The Taoism of Kwang-tze. 330 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD 3. The Degeneracy of Taoism. 4. The Introduction of Buddhism into China. 5. The History and Character of Chinese Buddhism. 6. Popular Religion in China. CHAPTER XXVI 1. The Social Organization of the Early Japanese. 2. The Primitive Beliefs and Practices. 3. The Organization of Shinto. 4. The Influence of Shinto on the History of Japan. CHAPTER XXVn 1. The Coming of Buddhism to Japan. 2. The Influence of Buddhism on the Country. 3. The Buddhist Sects in Japan. 4. The Various Waves of Confucian Influence in Japan. 5. The Differences between Japanese and Chinese Confu- cianism. CHAPTER XXVm 1. The Religion of the Aegean Civilization. 2. The Religion Brought by the Greeks. 3. The Religion of the Epic Poems. 4. The Religion of Hesiod. 5. The Rehgion of the Sixth and Fifth Centuries B.C. CHAPTER xxrx 1. The Religion of the Tragedians. 2. The Rehgion of Socrates. 3. The Rehgion of Plato. 4. The Religion of Aristotle. 5. The Religion of the Stoics. 6. The Religion of the Epicureans. CHAPTER XXX 1. The Family Religion of the Romans. 2. The Rehgion of the Etruscans.' ' See "Etruscan Religion" in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, V, 532-540. APPENDIX II 331 3. The Development of the Roman State Religion. 4. Religion from 500 to 200 B.C. 5. Religion from 200 to 31 B.C. CHAPTER XXXI 1 . The Worship of Roman Emperors. 2. The Systems of Philosophy in the Empire. 3. The Mystery-Religions in the Empire. CHAPTER XXXn 1. The Life and Teachings of Jesus. 2. Christianity before Paul. 3. Paul, the Man, His Thought and Work. 4. The Johannine Christianity. 5. Other Currents of Thought in the New Testament. CHAPTER xxxm 1. The Character of Gnosticism. 2. The Church Struggling with Gnosticism. 3. The Christian Apologists. 4. The Broadening Influence of Greek Philosophy upon Christianity. 5. The Development of the Idea of the Church in the West. 6. The Christological Controversies. 7. The Later History of the Eastern Churches. CHAPTER XXXrV 1 . The Rise of the Papacy. 2. The Theology of Augustine. 3. The Rise of Scholasticism. 4. The Closing of the Bible to the Laity. 5. The Christian Saints of the Middle Ages, St. Bernard, St. Francis of Assisi, etc. CHAPTER XXXV 1. Causes Leading to the Reformation. 2. The Work of Luther and Zwingli. 332 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD 3. The Work of Calvin. 4. Minor Sects, Mennonites, Schwenkfelders, Anabaptists, Socinians, etc. 5. The Reformation in England and Scotland. 6. The Seventeenth-Century Christianity. CHAPTER XXXVI 1. Christian Thought and Life in the Eighteenth Century. 2. The Revival of Interest in the Nineteenth Century. 3. Christian Missions in the Nineteenth Century. 4. The Influence of Hegel on Christianity. 5. The Tractarian Movement. 6. Reactionary Movements in the Church of Rome. 7. The Influence of Expanding Knowledge on Christianity. INDEX INDEX Aaron, 62. Abbasside caliphate, 103 £. Abelard, 301. Abrahams, I., 96, 312. Abu Bekr, loi. Abu Hanifa, 91, 107. Abydos, Egyptian city, 37, 40. Achaemenian dynasty, 119, 127 £., 130. Acts of the Apostles, 289. Afvins, 146. Adapa, 29. Adda, Babylonian storm-god, 23, Addis, W.E., 7S, 78, 3", 312- Adeney, W. F., 318. Aegean civilization, 243. Aeschylus, 242, 254 f. Aesculapius, 272. Aeshma Daeva, 133. Agade, Babylonian city, 20, 22, 23- Agathias, 131. Agni, fire-god, 122, 138, 145, 184. Ahab, 65. Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 108. Ahriman, 133, 134, 135. See also Angra Mainyu. Ahura, 121. Ahura Mazda, 121, 123 f., 125 f., 128, 130, 133, 135. Ajatasatru, 169. Akiba, Rabbi, 88. Akkad, 24. Al-Ashari, 112. Al-Bokhari, 106. Alexander the Great, 81, 131, 169. Al-Ghazali, 112 ff. Ah, Ameer, 313. Ali, fourth caliph, 102 f. Allen, A. V. G., 318. Al-Mohads, 115. Al-Moravides, 115. Altars: Hebrew, 65; Indian, 178. Alu-ellu, 19. Amen (Amon), Egyptian god, 36, 37. 47, SO i- Amesha Spentas, 133, 134. Amitabha, 220. Amorites, 23. Amos, 66, 67, 305. Amurru (Amorites), 23. An^hita, 129, 133. Analects of Confucius, 201, 211. Anath, Syrian deity, 49. Anaxagoras, 253. Anaximander, 253. Anaximenes, 253. Angra Mainyu, 126, 130, 133, 134, I3S- Animal worship, 37. Animism, 6 f. Anselm, 300 f . Antiochus IV, 83. Anu, god, 22, 25, 27. Ap^stamba, 178, 184, 185. Aphrodite, 242, 247. Apis bulls, 49. Apocalypses, 83. Apocalyptic literature, 83. Apollo, 242, 247, 272, 277. Apostles' Creed, 294. Arabia, 97 f. 33S 336 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Arahat and Arahatship, 164. Aralu, 6. Archangels, Zoroastrian, 123 f., 126, 133. Archdemons, Zoroastrian, 134. Arian controversy, 295. Aristophanes, 256 £. Aristotle, 260 £. Anus, 29s. Arjun, 197. Arjuna, 187, 188, 190. Ark of Yahweh, 62. Arminius, Jacobus, 302. Armstrong, R. C, 302. Arnold, Sir Edwin, 179, 190, 200, 315- Artaxerxes Mnemon, 129. Artemis, 242. Aruru, goddess, 28. Aryaman, 138. Aryans, 118, 139. Arya Samaj, 198, 200. Asakawa, K., 225, 241, 316. Asher, tribe o£> 61. Ashera, goddess, 61. Ashera, post, 60, 70. Ashida, K., 317. Ash-Shafl'i, 107. Ashtar, 18, 49. Ashtart, 18. Ashton, W. G., 223, 317. Ashur, city and god, 25. Ashvagosha, 159, 160, 169. Asoka, 160, 170, 179. Assassins, no f. Assyria, 25. Astar, 18. Asura, 121. Atharva-Veda, 141, 153. Athene, 242, 247. Athtar, 18. Atman (Absolute Self), iSS- Aton, sun-god, 47 f. Atonement: Babylonian, 31; Anselm's doctrine of, 300 f.; modem view of, 306. Attar, 18. Atum, Egyptian god, 37, 42. Augury, 271. Augustine of Hippo, 298, 299, 302, 303- Augustus, 277. Auharmazd (Ahura Mazda), 123. Australian tribes, 4, 5. Avatars, 191. Avicibron, 92. Baal, Syrian god, 49. Baals, 64. Babism, inf. Babylon, 24. Babylonia, 17; Semitic back- ground in, 18. Bacchanfilia, 275. Bacchus, 275. Bacon, B. W., 293. Bagoses, 80. Bahaism, in. Bahaullah, in. Ball, C. J., 202. Baruch, apocalypse of, 288. BasUides, 293. Bastet, goddess, 37. Bau, goddess, 21. Beal, S., 160, 314. Bedhet, 39. Bel (Enlil), 24; in creation story, 27. Benares, 160, 165; temples in, 196, 199. Beni Hasn, 49. Bennett, W. H., 311. Berossos, 28. Bethel, 64. Bhagavad-Gita, 179, 190, 191, 200. INDEX 337 Bible closed to laity, 301. Bibliography, 308 £E. Bimbisara, 165 f. Bindusara, 169. Birth ceremonies, 10. Bliss, F. J., 313. Blodget, H., 208, 222. Blood-revenge, 60. Bloomfield, M., 121, 140, 150, 152, IS7, 314. Boddhidharma, 217. Boddhisattwas, 173, 218, 232. Borsippa, 24. Bo-tree, 162. Boulger, D. C, 316. Box, G. H., 312. Brahma Samaj, 197, 200. Brahman, Absolute Self, 139, 155, 182, 18s, 19s. Brahmanas, 142, 153. Brahmanism, 200. Brahmans, 162. Brazen sea, 23 f. Breasted, J. H., 35, 36, 43. 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 5°, S3, S7, 264, 283, 311- Briggs, C. A., 319. Brinkley, F., 232, 237, 316. Brinton, D. G., 3, 15, 308, 309. Bronze age, i f. Bruce, A. B., 318. Bubastis, 37. Buckley, E., 227. Budde, K., 312. Buddha, 162. Buddhas, 173 f. Buddhism, 158 £.; sources of, IS9 f.; doctrines of, 163; men- dicant order of, 166; early history of, 168 f.; spread of, 170 f.; transformation of, 171; connection with Christianity, 172; Mahayana and Hinayana, 172; in China, 217 ff.; monks of, 218; in Japan, 232 ff. Budge, E. A. W., 55, S"- Bundahishn, 119, 133, 134, 133. Bur-Sin, 24. Burton, E. D., 307, 318. Busiris, 37, 40. Buto, 37. Qakta sect, 195. Calendar at Lagash, 22. Caliphates: Medina, loi f.; Da- mascus, 103; Abbasside, 103 f.; Fatimite, 104. Calvin, John, 302, 303. Cambyses, 129. Canon: Old Testament, 88; New Testament, 293; of Muratori, 293- Captivity, Jewish, 80. Camoy, A. J., 128. Carpenter, J. E., 74, 7s, 309, 311. Carter, J. B., 276, 277, 318. Carvakas philosophy, 184. Case, S. J., 318. Castes, Indian, 154, 178. Castor, 272. Ceralia, 269. Ceremonies, 9 f. Ceres, 269, 272. Chalcedon, Council of, 296. Chamberlain, A. F., 309. Chandragupta I, 169. Chandragupta II, 180 ff. Chang Tao Ling, 217. China, 225; its history, 201 ff. Christianity, 286 ff.; in second century, 293 ff.; in eighteenth century, 303 f.; in nineteenth century, 304; reactionary move- ments in, 304; modem thought, 305; universai elements in, 307. Chronology, Vedic, 142. Chu Hsi, 212, 240. 338 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Church: early Jewish, 288 f.; Eastern, 294 £.; Egyptian or Coptic, 296; Armenian, 296; Abyssinian, 296; Nestorian, 296; Western, 297 ff.; Roman, 299 ff.; Anglican, 303. Cicero, 265, 276. Circumcision, 13. Civa and givaites, 188, 194, 198, 200. Clarke, W. N., 319. Clement of Alexandria, 129, 294. Codrington, R. H., 308. Colossians, Epistle to, 290. Conard, L. M., 309. Confucianism in Japan, 237 f. Confucius, 201, 206, 209 f., 215, 216, 240 f., 305. Constantine, 295. Constantinople: first Council of, 295; second Council of, 296; third Council of, 297; fall of, 302- Copleston, R. S., 315. Copper age, i f . Corinthians, first Epistle to, 286. Comill, H., 82. Cosmogony: Babylonian, 27; Vedic, 148 f. Council of Nicaea, 295. Councils, Oecumenical, 294 f . Covenant of Yahweh, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67; book of, 69. Creation myths: Babylonian, 27, 28; Vedic, 148 f. Creed: Apostles', 294 f.; of Nicaea, 29s; of Chalcedon, 296. Crete, 243. Cult, Egyptian, 51. Cumont, F., 281, 283, 284, 285, 318. Cunningham, A., 175, 314. Curtis, S. I., 12, 309. Cybele, 275 f., 280 f. Cynics, 278 f. Cjrprian, 298. Cyrus, king of Persia, 73, 127. Dagon, 23. Dalai Lama, 174. Damascus Caliphate, 103. Dan, 64. Daniel, Book of, 84. Darius I, 128, 129. Davids, Mrs. T. W. Rhys, 315. Davids, T. W. Rhys, 159, 163, 165, 166, 169, 177, 315. Dead, Book of, $$. Decalogue: earliest, 63; ethical, 66. DeGroot, J. J. M., 204, 222, 316. Deification of Babylonian kings, 23. Demeter, 251 f., 272. Democritus, 253. Demosthenes, 252. Dendereh, 37. "Deposit," doctrine of, 297. Deussen, Paul, 314. Deuteronomy, 69 f. DhaUa, M. N., 313. Diana, 271. Di Manes, 267. Diognetus, Epistle to, 294. Dionysos, 250, 272, 275. Di penates, 267. Dis, 272. Divination: Babylonian, 30 f.; in China, 220; Etruscan and Roman, 271. Docetism, 293. Doctrine: of Mohammed, 99 f.; of Zoroaster, 125 f.; of Buddha, 163 f.; of Jainism, 17s f.; of Confucius, 212 f.; of Lao-tse, 213 f.; of Soc- rates, 257 f.; of Plato, 258 f.; of Aristotle, 260 f.; of the Stoics, 261 f.; of Epicurus, 263. INDEX 339 Donatists, 2g8. Douglas, R. K., 222, 316. Dowd, J., 9, 308. Dravidians, 139 f. Driver, S. R., 74, 311. Drummond, J., 312. Druses, no. Dungi, 24. Dutt, R. C, 178, 179, 200, 315. Dyaush pitar, 146. D3fnasties, Egyptian, 40 f., 44 f., Sof. Dynasty, of Babylon, 24. Dyophysites, 296. Ea, Babylonian god, 27; in crea- tion, 27; imparts knowledge, 28; feared man's wisdom, 29. Eastern churches, 295, 307. Ebionites, 294. Ecclesiastes, 82, 88. Eckhardt, Meister, 301. Eddy, S., 221. Edfu, 37. Edmunds, A. J., 160, 172, 315. Egypt, 36; Upper and Lower, 39; united, 40; empire period of, 46 f. El-Amarna, 48. Elephantine, 37. Elijah, 65. El-Kab, 37. Elkasites, 294. Elmore, W. T., 316. Elysian fields, 6. Emancipation, Jewish, 93 f., 96. Emperor-worship, 277. Enhor, 40. Enki, 20, 21, 22, 27. Enhl, 20, 21, 22, 27. Enneads, Egyptian, 42 f. Enoch, Book of, 286, 287. Environment, 9. Enzu, 23. Eos, 242. Ephesus, Council of, 296. Epictetus, 278. Epicureanism, 263; in Italy, 27s f. Epicurus, 263. Erech, 19, 20, 22. Eridu, 19, 20. Erim, 19. Erman, A., 38, 52, 311. Essenes, 85. Etana, 29. Ethical monotheism, 67. Ethics: Babylonian, 32; Egyp- tian, 56; Japanese, 231, 238 f.; Chinese, 238 f. Etruscans, 265 f., 268; influence on Rome, 269 f., 271. Eucharist, 292, 300. Euripides, 255 f. Evolution, doctrine of, 306. Exodus of Israel, 62. Ezekiel, 72. Fa Hien, 217. Fairbanks, A., 317. Fall of man, 306. Farnell, L. R., 246, 248, 251, 264; 317- Fatimite caliphate, 104. FausboU, W., 315. Fayum, 37. Feasts, 9 f.; Roman, 268 f. Fetishism, 8. Fires, sacred, 129. Fisher, G. P., 318. Flood, Babylonian account of, 28. Fordicidia, 269. Fowler, H. T., 78, 312. Fowler, Ward, 267, 268, 270, 277, 285,317. Fox, George, 303. Frank, T., 274. 34° THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Fravashi, 126, 135. Frazer, J. G., 9, 38, 308. Friedlander, M., 96, 312. Friends, the, 303. FuUerton, K., 68. Future life in Greek thought, 251. Gad, tribe of, 61. Galatians, Epistle to, 289. Garbe, R., 172, 190. Gardiner, A. H., 45. Gathas, 120, 122 f. Gautama, author of Institutes of Sacred Law, 178, 184. Gautama, founder of Buddhism, IS9 f-. 233, 30s; life of, 160 f. Ge, 242, 246. Geb, 42. Gemara, 89 f. Genius, 267; of emperor, 278. Geonim, 90, 96. Ghetto, 93, 96. Giles, H. A., 202, 203, 316. Gillen, J., 6, 308. Oilman, A., 116, 312. Gimil-Sin, 24. Girsu, 19. Glover, T. R., 318. Gnosticism, 293 f. Gods: ingeneral, 7 f.; multiplied by epithets, 21; Babylonian, 20 f.; Egyptian, 37 f.; Vedic, 144 f., 148; Greek, 246 f. Golden rule: Confucian, 201, 211; Taoist, 216. Goldziher, I., 116, 313. Goliouth, 80. Gomes, E. H., 308. Goodspeed, G. S., 310. Gothic cathedrals, 300. Granth, 197. Grassmann, H. G., 151, 314. Gray, L. H., 137, 309, 313. Greece, 243 f. Greek culture and Christianity, 293, 294- Greek influence on Roman religion, 272 f. Greek philosophy, 252 f., 257 f., 27s f- Gregory, J. W., 308. Griffis, W. E., 230, 234, 317. Grimblot, M. P., 159, 314. Gudea, 23 f. Gula, 24. Gutium, 23. Hadad, 23. Haddon, A. C, 308. Hades, 6. Haggai, 75. Haoma, 122, 147. Harford-Battersby, G., 74, 75, 311. Har-khent-khenti, 37. Harper, R. F., 33, 34, 128, 310. Harrison, Jane E., 242, 245, 248, 317- Hastings, James, 316, 317, 318. Hatch, E., 319. Hathor, 37. Haupt, Paul, 311. Hawes, C. H., and H., 243, 245, 264. Heaven; Vedic, 151; Chinese wor- ship of, 207; Chinese belief in, 218, 219, 221; among Japanese, 228. Hebrews, 58 f.; formation of nation, 60 f . Hebron, 64. Hegel, G. W. F., 304. Hehn, J., 310. Hel, 6. HeliopoUs, 37. See On. Helios, 242. Hell: Mohammedan, 97, 100; Zoroastrian, 136; Vedic, 151; Chinese belief in, 218, 219. INDEX 341 Hera, 247. Heraclitus, 253. Herbig, G., 318. Hercules, 272. Hereford, R. T., 96, 312. Hermes, 247 f., 272. Hermonthls, 49. Hermopolis, 37. Herodian, 131. Herodotus, 52, S7, 128, 129. Hershon, 96. Herzl, T., 94 £., 96. Hesiod, 242, 249, 264. Hezekiah, 68. HiUel, 86. Hindu reform, 197 f. Hindu textbook of religion and ethics, 316. Hinduism, 178 ff., 199. Hirth, F., 202, 222, 316. Hittites, 118. Hoemle, A. F. R., 157, 314. Hogarth, D. G., 244. Holiness code, 74 f. Holtzmann, Oscar, 318. Homer, 248. Hommel, F., 121. Hopkins, E. W., 176, 177, 187, 200, 314,315- Horus, 37, 39. Hosea, 66, 67, 305. Howitt, A. W., 4, 308. Hrihor, Egyptian priest and king, SO- Hsiao King, 206. Hunter, W. W., 157. Hutchinson, H. N., 308. Hymns: Babylonian, 31; Egyp- tian, 36; Vedic, 141. Ibn Ezra: Abraham, 92; Moses, 92. Ignatius of Antioch, 293. Ikhnaton, 47 f. Iliad, 242, 247. Images of gods in hiunan form, 40. Incantation, Babylonian, 16, 31. Incarnations, 191. India, 139 f.; its history, 169 f., 179 f. Indra, 118, 138, 143 f., 174, 192. ]^niu, 21. Inquisition, 301. Intercession, 32. Ipuwer, 45, 56. Iran, 117, 118. Irenaeus, 297, 298. Isaiah, 66, 67, 68, 305; second, 73; third, 75. Ishtar, 18, 20; identified with star, 25; goddess of Nineveh and Arbela, 25; war-goddess, 25; in creation, 27; descent to under- world, 28, 43. Isis, 281 f. Islam, meaning of, 99. Ismailites, no. I Tsin, 217. Izanagi, 225, 229. Izanami, 225, 229. Jackson, A. V. W., 118, 123, 124, 137, 313- Jacobi, H., 175, 200. Jainism, 175 f. Jamnia, 88. Janus, 267, 270. Japan, 223 fE. Jastrow, M., Jr., 33, 34, 310, 311. Jatakas, 159. Jehovah. See Yahweh. Jeremiah, 70 f., 305. Jeremias, A., 310. Jerusalem, 64, 69, 100. Jesus, 286 f., 305, 307. Jethro, 62. 342 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Jevons, J. B., 12, 13, 15, 309. Jewish Christianity, 294. Jews: in Persia, 80; in Egypt, 81. Jezebel, 65. Job, 80. Jodo, Japanese sect, 233. Jodo Shin Shu, Japanese sect, 233. John the Baptist, 286 f., 292. John, Gospel of, 286, 291 f., 292, 293- Jones, R. M., 319. Josephus, Flavins, 80, 131. Josiah, 70. Jowett, B., 242. Judah, tribe of, 61. Judaism, 76, 79 f., 93, 96; con- nections with Zoroastrianism, 13s f- Judgment day, Zoroastrian, 133 f. Juno, 267, 270. Jupiter, 268, 270. Justin, 131. Ka, 33. Kabir, 196 t. Kalidasa, 193. Kami, 226, 228, 237, 240. Kant, Emanuel, 304. Kapadia, S. A., 313. KapUa, 181. Kapilavastu, 160. Karaites, 90 f., 96. Karma, 136, 164, 163. Kassites, 25. Keane, A. H., 308. Kenites, 61. Kent, C. F., 311. Kharejites, 108. Khnum, 37. Khons, 37. Kimchi, David, 92. King, I., 309. King, L.W., 33, 34, 310, 311. Kingdom of God: Jesus' concep- tion of, 287; as the perfect social state, 303. Kingdom: Old Egyptian, 41, 31; Middle Egyptian, 44. Kish, 20, 22. Kittel, R., 311, 312. Knox, G. W., 173, 227, 228, 232, 234, 233, 239. 241, 317- Koptos, 37. Koran, 97, loi f. Kore, 272. Krishna, 188, 189 f., 192, 193 f., 200. Kuan-yin, goddess of mercy, 220. Kugler, F. X., 22. Kutha, 22. Kwang-tse, 216, 217. Lacouperie, J. de, 202. Lagash, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23. Laity, Buddhistic, 168. Lama, 174. Lane-Poole, S., 312. Lang, Andrew, 308. Lanman, C. R., 314. Lao-tse, 210, 213, 303. Laralia, 268. Lares, 267, 277. Law, Jewish, 80 f.; Mohammedan, 103 f. Leah tribes, 60, 62. Legge, J., 222, 316. Leontopolis, 37. Levites, 72, 73. Liber, 272. Liberia, 272. ^ Life after death, 3; in Babylonia, 28; in Egypt, 54; among Hebrews, 76 f.; Vedic, 132. Li Kt, 201, 206, 207. Lindsay, T. M., 319. INDEX 343 Liver divination, 271. Locke, John, 303 f. Lodge, H. C, 157, 241, 316. Lopez, F. v., 308. Lugal-erim, Babylonian god, 21. Lugalzaggisi, Babylonian king, 22. Luke, 286, 288. Luther, Martin, 302, 313. Lyddeker, R., 308. Maccabaean revolt, 83 f . Macdonald, D. B., 113, 116, 313. Macdonnell, A. H., 143, 151, 152, IS7, 186, 187, 191, 314. McGiffert, A. C, 319. Mackenzie, D. A., 57, 310, 311. Macnicol, N., 200, 316. Magadha, 160, 161, 165, 169. Magi, 129. Magic, 13 f.; Egyptian, 52; Vedic, 152. Mahabharata, 152, 179, 186 f., 188, 189, 192. Mahaffy, J. P., 311. Mahavira, 175 f. Mahayana Buddhism, 217, 219. Maimonides, 92. Malik ibn Anas, 106. Malkatu, Babylonian water-god- dess, 23. Manasseh, king of Judah, 69. Manichaeans, 298. Manu, ordinances of, 178, 184, i8sf. Marcion, 293. Marcus Aurelius, 278, 279. Marduk, Babylonian god, 24, 26, 27. Margoliouth, D. S., 116, 313. Mark, 288. Marti, K., 78, 313. Maruts, Vedic storm-gods, 138, 148. Matthew, 288. Mathews, S., 307, 318. Mecca, 98, 99. Medes, 119. Media, 119. Medina, 100. Medina caliphate, loi f. Megasthenes, 188, 195. Melqart, 65. Memphis, 37, 40, 41. Mena (Menes), 40. Mencius, 206, 211, 216. Mendelssohn, Moses, 93 f. Mendes, 49. Menno, Simons, 303. Menziez, A., 309. Mercury, 272. Messiah: Egyptian, 45; Hebrew, 67 f.; Zoroastrian, 135; Jesus' conception of, 286 f.; Jewish Christians accept Jesus as, 289; Paul accepts Jesus as, 290. Messianic hope in Israel, 67. Methodists, 304. Meyer, Eduard, 17. Micah, 66. Middle Ages, Christianity in, 299, 300. Midianite-Kenites, 61, 62. Mimansa, 184. Min, Egyptian god, 37. Minerva, 270. Ming Ti, 217. Minoan religion, 244 f. Minoans, 243. Mirza Ali, iii. Misanthrope, an Egyptian, 46. Mishna, 88 f., 96. Missions: Mohammedan, 105; Buddhistic, 170; modem Chris- tian, 304. Mitanni, 118. Mithra, 118, 121, 131, 133, 283 f. 344 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Mitra, 121, 138, 145, 148, 184, 192. Modem Christian thought, 305. Mohammed, 98, 99, 100, 305. Mohammedanism, gyf.; estimate of, IIS i- Mohammedans under Zoroas- trians, 132 f. Monier-Williams, M., 200, 313. Monks, Buddhistic, 166 f. Monophysites, 296. Monotheism, none in Babylonia, 26; in Egypt, 47 £.; Hebrew, 67 f., 71; Zoroastrian, 125 f.; supposed monotheism in China, 205. Montefiore, C, 312. Montgomery, J. A., 81, 96, 312. Moore, C. H., 317. Moore, E. C, 319. Moore, G. F., 34, 57, 133, 137, 157, 177, 200, 222, 241, 28s, 307, 3", 313- Morris, M., 309. Moses, 60, 61, 62. Moses ibn Ezra, 92. Moulton, J. H., 120, 128, 129, 137, 313, 314- Miiller, F. Max, 122, 312, 313, 314, 31S, 316. Muir, Sir William, 116, 313. Mummified animals, 49 f. Murray, Gilbert, 246, 247, 248, 249, 264, 317- Mut, Egyptian goddess, 37. Mutazelites, 104, 112. Mystery-religions, in _ Greece, 250 f.; in Roman empire, 279 f. Mysticism of Paul, 290 f. Mystics, Mohammedan, 114 f. Myths: their nature, 2; Baby- lonian, 27 f.; Egyptian, 54. Nabu, Babylonian god, 24. Nana (Ishtar), 20, 22. Nanak, 197. Nannar, god of Ur, 22, 24. Naram-Sin, Babylonian king, 23. Naville, E., 311. Nazarenes, 294. Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, 72. Nehemiah, 72, 79. Nekhbet, Egyptian deity, 37. Neolithic, i. Neo-Platonism, 279. Nephthys, Egyptian goddess, 42. Neptune, 272. Nergal, Babylonian god, 22. Neumann, K. E., 314. New Testament Canon, formation of, 293. Nicaea: first Council of, 29s; second Council of, 297. Nichiren, Japanese sect, 236 f . Nicholson, R. A., 116, 313. Nidaba, Babylonian goddess, 23. Nin4, Babylonian city and god- dess, 19, 21, 25. Nineteenth-century expansion of knowledge, 304. Nineveh, 25. Ningirsu, Babylonian god, 19, 21, 25- Ninib, Babylonian god, 25. Ninkharsag, Babylonian goddess, 21, 27. NinlU, Babylonian goddess, 21. Nintu, Babylonian goddess, 27. Nippur, 20, 22. Nirvana, 164 f., 173, 174. Nisin, Babylonian city, 24. Nitobe, I., 230, 231, 233, 238, 317. Noble Truths, Buddhistic, 163 f. Nomes, Egyptian, 37. Nowack, W., 312. Numa, calendar of, 268. Nuns, Buddhistic, 166 f., 168. INDEX 345 Nusari, 109 f. Nut, Egyptian goddess, 42. Nyaya, 184. Cannes, name of god Ea, 28. Oecumenical Councils, 294 f. Oman, J. C, 200, 315. Omayyad caliphate, 103. Ombos, 37, 39. Omens, Babylonian, 30 f. On, Egyptian city, 41, 42, 49. Opet, Egyptian goddess, 37. Oral law, 86. Ormuzd (Ahura Mazda), 123. Orphic mysteries, 252. Orr, J., 319. Osiris, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, 45, 49, SI, S4, 55, 281 f. Othman, third caliph, 102. Outline of a book to be written by students, 325 f. Pahlavi-texts, 119, 122. Paleolithic, i. Pales, 269. Palestine, 58 f. Palmer, E. H., 312. Pantheon: Babylonian, 19 f.; Egyptian, 39 f., 42; Vedic, 144!.; Greek, 242, 274 f. Papyrus Harris, 50. Paradise: Egyptian, 43; Moham- medan, 97, 100; Zoroastiian, 136. Parilia, 269. Parmenides, 253. Pastoral Epistles, 297. Patanjali, 182. Paton, L. B., 34, 60, 78. Patriarchal narratives, 59. Paul, 289 f.; Judaism in time of, 87; mysticism of, 290. Payne, E. J., 308. Peasant, the eloquent, 45. Pelasgians, 298. Persephone, 272. Persia, 117 f. Persian Gulf, 17, 19. Peters, J. P., 95, 312. Petrie, W. M. F., 57, 311. Pharisees, 85. Philo Judaeus, 87, 96. Philosophers: Indian, 181 f.; Greek, 252 f., 257 f., 261. Philosophy: Indian, 181 f.; Greek, 252 f., 257 f. Pillars: Semitic, 60, 70; Aegean, 246, 247 f. Pindar, 254. Pitakas, Buddhistic sacred books, 159- Plato, 242, 258 f., 279. Plumtre, E. H., 242. Pluto, 272. PoUux, 272. Pomerium, 270, 282. Pope, asserts authority over civil power, 299; infallibility of, 304. Poseidon, 272. Polydaemonism, 204, 206. Pragipati, 139 (same as Pra- japati). Prajapati, Vedic creator, 148, 184. Prayer wheels, Tibetan, 175. Prayers: Babylonian, 31; Jap- anese, 231. Priesthoods: Babylonian, 29 {.; Egyptian, 51; Hebrew, 75, 76; Zoroastrian, 129; Indian, 154. Primitive peoples, 1. Primitive religions, importance of, 14. Prithivi, Mother Earth, 147. Prophets, Hebrew, 66 f. Proserpine, 272. Protestantism, 302 f. 346 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Proverbs, 82. Psalter, Hebrew, 80, 81, 84. Psychological unity of man, 2. Ptah, Egyptian god, 37, 40, 45. Ptah-hotep, precepts of, 35, 46, 56. Puberty ceremonies, 10. Punjab, 144. Purgatory, doctrine of, 299. Pushan, Vedic sun-god, 148. Pyramid texts, 35, 43. Pythagoras, 253. Rabbi Akiba, 88 f . Rabbi Judah, the Prince, 88. Rachel tribes, 60, 62, 64. Rahula, the Buddha's son, 166. Rainey, R., 318. Ram Mohan Ray, 197, 322. Ramanuja, 183. Ramayana, 191 f. Ramsay, W. M., 87, 289. Ramses II, king of Egypt, 49. Rashi, Jewish scholar, 92. Rawlinson, George, 132, 137. Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 121. Rg, Egyptian sun-god, 42, 45, SS, S6. Reactions in Christianity, 304. Reform Judaism, 94 f . Reformation, the, 302 f . Religion: universality of, 3; nature of, 4; importance of primitive, 14; Babylonian and Assyrian, 16 f.; Egyptian 35 f.; Hebrew, 60 f.; importance of Hebrew, 77; Persian before Zoroaster, 121 f.; Vedic, 144 f.; Chinese: primitive, 205; state, 206 f.; present, 219; Japanese, primitive, 226 f.; of Greece, 242 f.; Roman, 265 f. Resheph, Syrian god, 49. Resurrection: Jewish, 85; Zoro- astrian, 135 f. Rhea, 242, 243. Rig-Veda, 140, 141, 185. Rimush, Babylonian king, 23. Ritual, Vedic, 149. Robigalia, 269. Robinson, B. W., 307. Rockhill, W. W., 160, 314. Rogers, R. W., 33, 34, 68, 310. Roman church, 299, 304, 307. Roman people, 265 f. Roman religion, 266 f.; of city- state, 268 f.; influence of repub- lic on, 271 f.; social changes and, 272 f.; early empire period, 277 f.; individualism in, 278 f. Rome, 266 f. Rosenau, W., 312. Rouse, W. H. D., 317. Rudra, Indian god, 148, 184, 188, 194. Sabatier, A., 318. Sacrifice, 11 f.; theories of, 12 Egyptian, 51 f.; Vedic, 149 f. in Mahabharata, 178 f., 188 Vishnuite, 192; Chinese, 207 f., 220; Japanese, 230 f. Sadducees, 83. Sakyas, Indian tribe, 160. Salvation: Vedic, 150; in Upanishads, 156. Samaritans, 81. Sama-Veda, 141. Samuel, 64. Sangha, the Buddhistic order, 166 f. Sankhya philosophy, 181 f. Sargon, Babylonian king, 22. Sasanian dynasty, 119, 131 f. Savitar, Vedic god, 148. Schechem, 64. Schools, Babylonian, 30. Schrader, E., 119. Schwenkfeld, Caspar, 302. INDEX 347 Scott, E. F., 318. Secret societies, 10. Sects: Mohammedan, 108 f., 113 £.; Buddhistic, 172 £.; Hindu, 180 f., 184, 186 f., 192, 194; Japanese, 233 f. Seelye, Kate Chambers, 313. Sekhmet, Egyptian goddess, 56. Semites, 17 f., 19, 20. Seneca, 278, 279. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 68, 69, 70. Serapeum, 49. Serapis, Egyptian god, 51, 281 £. Servant of Yahweh, 74. Set, Egyptian god, 37, 39, 42. Seti I, Egyptian king, 49. Shamash, Babylonian god, 23. Shammai, 86. Shang-ti, 205, 220. Shara, Babylonian god, 22. Shema, 79. Sheol, 6. Shi King, 206. Shiites, 108. Shiloh, 64. Shingon sect (Japanese), 234 £. Shinto, 225, 229 £., 238; ritual, 223. Shrines of Yahweh in Palestine, 64. Shu, Egyptian god, 37, 42. Shu King, 204, 205, 206. Shukamuna, Kassite war-god, 25. Sibylline oracles, 272. Sikhs, 196. Simon, the Maccabee, 84. Sin: Babylonian conception of, 31; Chinese view of, 219, no consciousness of in Japan; 228; Christian view of, 306. Sin, Babylonian moon-god, 25. Sir, Babylonian serpent deity, 21. Sirach, 82. Sirius, 22. Siut, Egyptian nome, 37. Skepticism: Egyptian, 46; Roman, 276. Smith, G. A., 59, 69, 78. Smith, G. B., 307. Smith, H. P., 312. Smith, V. A., 175, ig6, 200, 314. Smith, W. R., 12, 15, 98, 309. Sobk, Egyptian god, 37. Social organization: influence of, 8f.; Vedic, 143 f.; life in Japan, 224 f.; changes in Greece, 250; in Rome, 273 f. Socrates, 257 f., 305. Solomon, 65. Soma, intoxicating drink, 122, 147. Soma, Vedic god, 138, 145, 147, 184, 192. Song of Songs, 88. SoothiU, W. E., 212, 217, 218, 220, 221, 222, 316. Sophocles, 255. Soshyans, Zoroastrian Messiah, 135- Soul, the, 4; in Eg5^t, $4', exist- ence denied by Gautama, 164 f. Spanish caliphate, 103 f. Spencer, B., 6, 308. Spirits, 6 f.; Hebrew, 77; Chinese, 204 f. Standards, prehistoric in Egypt, 38. Stark, H. A., 157, 3i4- State religion of China, 206 f. Steindorf, G., 40, S4, S7, 31 1- Stevens, G. B., 318. Stevenson, Mrs. S., 177, 315. Stoicism in Rome, 276 f., 278 f. Stoics, 261 f. Stone Age, i. Strabo, 131, 245. Sumerians, 17 f., 19, 20. 348 THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD Sunnites, 109. Surga, Vedic sun-god, 148. Suttas, 159. Synagogue, 84 f . Syria, 23, 84. Taboo, 10. Talmud, 88, 90, 96. Tammuz, Babylonian god, 19, 43. Tanis, Egyptian city, 50. Tao, 213 f. Too Teh King, 201, 213, 214, 215. Taoism, 213 f., 220. Tauler, John, 302. Taurobolium, 280. Teachings: of Zoroaster, 125 f.; of Confucius, 209 f.; of Lao-tse, 213; of Jesus; 287 f. Tefnut, Egyptian goddess, 42. Temples: Babylonian, 29; Egyp- tian, 50 f.; Hebrew, 64 f.; rebuilding of, 75; Hindu, 196; Shinto, 230. Temptation: of Zoroaster, 124; of Gautama, 162; of Jesus, 287. Tendai, Japanese sects, 233. TertuUian, 298. Thales, 253. Thebes, Egyptian city, 37, 45, 48, 49. Theodore of Mopsuestia, 296. Theologians, Mohammedan, iii f. Thessalonians, Epistles to, 290. This, Egyptian nome, 40. Thomas ^ Kempis, 302. Thomas Aquinas, 301. Thompson, R. C, 310. Thoth, Egyptian god, 37. Thothmes HI, Egyptian king, 47. Tiamat, Babylonian sea-dragon, 27. T'ien Fei, 220. Tiglath-pileser IV, Assyrian king, 68. Tigris-Euphrates Valley, 17. Timothy, Epistles to, 297. Tobit, book of, 133. Topics for further study, 319 f. Totemism, 11, 37; symbols, 60. Toy, C. H., 3, 6, IS, 37, 61, 309. Tradition, doctrine of, 297. Transmigration of souls, 7, 155 f., 190, 252, 260. Trans-substantiation, 300. Triad of gods: first Babylonian, 24; second Babylonian, 25; third Babylonian, 26; Egyp- tian, 42; Hindu, 19s. Trinity, doctrine of, 295 f., 305. Tucker, T. G., 283. Umma, Babylonian city, 22. Underworld, s; Babylonian, 28; Eg)rptian, 54; Hebrew, 76; Vedic, 152; Japanese, 228; Greek, 251 f. Urns, king of Egypt, 3s, 42- Universality of religion, 3. Upanishads, 142, 152, 154 f., 163, 179, 181, 182, 185. Ur: Babylonian city, 19; dynasty of, 19, 22. Ur-Bau, Babylonian ruler, 23. Urkagina, Babylonian king, 22. Uru-azagga, Babylonian city, 19, 21. Ushas, Vedic Aurora, 146. Vaisali, Indian town, birthplace of Vardhamana, 175; Buddhistic council at, 169. Valentinus, 293. VaJlabhacSris, Hindu Vishnuite sect, 193. Vallabhacirya, founder of the VaUabhacaris sect, 193. Vardhamana, founder of Jainism, also called Mahavira, 175. Varro, 276. INDEX 349 Varuna, Vedic god, ii8, 138, 14s, 151, 152, 192- Vata or Vayu, Vedic atmospheric god, 48. Vedanta, 182, 198. Vedas, 121, 140 f. Vendidad, 117, 119, 130. Venus, planet, 25. Vesta, 267. Victoria, 270. Vimilia, 269. Vishnu, Vedic god, 148, 188, 189 f., 191, 192; institutes of, 192 f. Vishtaspa, 124 {. Visp^rad, 120. Vogelsang, F., 45. Volcanic theory of Yahweh, 61. Wahabites, 114. Wallis, Louis, 312. Ward, W. H., 319. Warren, H. C, 314. Webster, H., 10, 308. Wenley, R. M., 318. Wep-wat, Egyptian god, 37. Wesley, John, 304. Williams, S. W., 222, 316. Wilson, E., 316. Winckler, H., 118. Wissowa, G., 317. Workman, H. B., 318. Wright, W. C, 253,317. Wto, Egyptian god, 37. WycklifEe, John, 301, 302. Xenophanes, 253. Xenophon, 257. Xerxes, 128. Yahweh: God of Israel, 58 f.; Kenite god, 61; agricultural god, 63; God of all, 67; dwell- ing-place Zion, 69; God of love, 71; servant of, 74. Yajur-Veda, 141. Yama, Vedic god of underworld, 152. Yang, Chinese spirit, 204 f. Yashts, part of the Avesta, 119 f., 130; Mihir-Yashts, 128. Yasna, part of the Avesta, 1x7, 120. Yasodhara, wife of the Buddha, 166. Yi King, 206, 208. Yin, Chinese spirit, 204. Yuan Chwang, 217. Zamama, Babylonian god, 20, 22. Zarathustra (Zoroaster), 122. Zecheriah, 75. Zeller, E., 259, 264. Zen, Japanese sect, 236. Zeno, founder of stoicism, 261 f . Zeus, 242, 245, 246, 247, 248, 255. Zionism, 94, 96. Zoroaster, 122 f., 136 f., 305. Zoroastrianism, 117, 136 f. Zwemer, S. M., 98, 116. Zwingli, Ulrich, 302. ^lil^JKHJitiliJiJil