m (WW ^W lll ll^M ll lll l ^ « * «^*»*» ^ ^*»»■»**^■'*^>^'^>^*^'^v^^^■^^*^<-^^^ , m\ , BDING ^ F AFt M ^ ANIMALS THOMAS SHAW iipHlHlilii^ m LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE ITHACA, NEW YORK Digitized by Microsoft® Cornell University Library SF 95.S53 Feeding farm animals, 3 1924 001 159 817 Digitized by Microsoft® This book was digitized by Microsoft Corporation in cooperation witli Cornell University Libraries, 2007. You may use and print this copy in limited quantity for your personal purposes, but may not distribute or provide access to it (or modified or partial versions of it) for revenue-generating or other commercial purposes. Digitized by Microsoft® S. E| Cornell University MM Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001159817 Digitized by Microsoft® James J. Hill. President Great Northern Railroad Systems. Digitized by Microsoft® Feeding Farm Animals By Thomas Shaw Late Professor of Animal Husbandry at the University of Minnesota Author of Animal Breeding, the Study of Breeds, etc. ILLUSTRATED '•//,'/,. ' ' o !? o K u Q < o w H H-, w < J (J Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER IX. THE VALUE OF TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Type may be defined as another name for form or conformation. But it differs from these in that, when used, it has reference to form or conformation, bearing upon adaptation to a certain end, whereas these terms apply to conformation in the abstract. In the strict sense it apphes : (l) To conformation within the breed rather than to con- formation within the class to which the breed belongs. For instance, the class cattle embraces many breeds. These differ from one another in form, hence they differ from one another in type. But within some of the breeds are cer- tain strains or families possessed in common of peculiarities of form. In Shorthorn cattle, there are the Bates, Booth and Cruikshank strains. Each of these constitutes a type which differs from the others in certain points of conforma- tion, hence these differ from one another in type; (2) to conformation within the class as determined by classifica- tion, or, to be more exact, as making classification possible. For instance, within the species cattle are known as the beef, dairy and dual purpose classes. Each of these em- braces several breeds, and also many animals of mixed breeding, possessed of certain peculiarities in form in com- mon, with reference to a certain end, notwithstanding other pecuharities of form in which they differ. Hence, they are also spoken of as beef, dairy and dual purpose types ; (3) to animals possessed of certain peculiarities of form which stand out more prominently than other peculiarities but without reference to breed or grade, as when cattle are referred to as being of the low-down, blocky, or of the longer limbed and more rangy form. They are then com- monly referred to as possessed of the blocky and rangy types respectively. 133 Digitized by Microsoft® 134 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Type is valuable as an indicator of utility or adaptation for a certain end. Peculiarities of form in horses indicate capacity for speed or labor respectively, or for a combina- tion of the two. In cattle these indicate capacity for meat or milk, or for a combination of the two. In sheep they indicate capacity for mutton or wool production, and in swine for producing meat of a certain quality. In a sense less pronounced, it is an indicator of breeding qualities, of general ruggedness or weakness, and of feeding capacity. But its chief value lies in what it indicates with reference to capacity for production, as of meat, milk, wool, speed or labor. Type, however, as an indicator of utility or adaptation is to be taken as a general, rather than as an absolute guide. In a general sense, it is an infallible guide. For instance, when a cow is possessed of pronounced dairy form, it is also known that she is possessed of far higher adaptation for producing milk than for producing meat. But this ex- act degree of her capacity for milk production cannot be known in the absence of actual proof, the result of perfor- mance. Hence, it is, that no judge living can go into an ex- hibit of dairy cattle, all the individuals of which are high performers, and tell to a certainty which stand highest in actual milk production. So it is with performance in all lines and with all classes of live stock. This is owing to the bearing which other qualifying influences have on pro- duction ; such as habit, use, training, and also to the wis- dom previously exercised in the application of the various known influences that have a bearing on development in performance or production. Type should be sought in the highest degree obtain- able in the line of what it indicates, providing it is not car- ried to that point where it begins to react prejudicially upon properties co-related and essential to highest perform- ance or production in the direction sought. For instance, should ranginess in the running horse be sought to the ex- tent of weakening staying power, the type thus sought is Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS I35 extreme. The same is true of dairy type that carries light- ness and spareness of forin to tlie extent of undue narrow- ness in the chest and hind quarters, of mutton type that carries blockiness to the extreme, which is prejudicial to breeding, and of bacon type which carries length of body so far as to produce unprofitable feeders. Type is the basis on which rests the classification of breeds with reference to production or performance. To be more precise, it is the interpreter of the indications of that utility on which classification rests. It divides cattle into the beef, dairy and dual purpose classes ; sheep, in a general way, into mutton and wool-producing classes ; swine, into producers of lard and bacon, that is, fat and lean pork ; and horses into draught, light and general purpose classes. Each of the individual breeds within the class is also char- acterized by its own distinguishing type features. It is very evident, therefore, that if food is to be util- ized to the greatest extent possible, this can only result when it is fed to animals possessed of the correct type for the end sought. To feed food to animals possessed of pro- nounced beef type in the hope of securing a high return in milk would be in vain, and vice versa. To feed food in harmony with correct type for the ends sought is positively fundamental, or these ends will not be obtained. This necessity has the strength of law as shown in Chapter III. To aid the student and indeed any who may desire to get a correct knowledge of form or type, what are termed ""standards of excellence" have been drawn up for the various breeds, as such, and also for the various types, grouped with reference to adaptation to a certain end. In some instances, these standards are known by the designa- tion "scale of points" and in others by the term "score cards." The scale of points is so designated because a cer- tain value is affixed to each expressed requisite relating to form, singly or taken in groups, and stated in figures. The sum of these for each standard is lOO, which indicates perfection. The score card is simply a scale of points. Digitized by Microsoft® 136 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS usually condensed in the terms in which it is expressed. It is intended to show the student the relative value of each particular factor or requisite of form, but it is not adapted for use in the show ring, because of the time con- sumed in using it thus. When judging by the score card blank spaces for the numerals are filled in by the student, according to his judgment of the merits of the various points of the animal which he is judging, and the sum of these indicates his judgment of the standing of the animal in relation to perfection. These standards, as usually drawn up, are intended and very properly so, to indicate the perfect animal of its kind or class. In some instances, indications of function are also given as well as those of form. It is very evident, however, that correct form in the same animal will apply very differently, at least in some phases thereof, according as the animal is in high flesh, moderately high flesh, or lean. This means that the standard of perfection for meat-mak- ing animals in good flesh as given in the standards, will not furnish a sufficient guide for the person who is select- ing animals for feeding. For instance, the standard for the beef cattle beast in good flesh calls for full crops. Should the animal be lower in flesh, the crops will not be full, and so of various other points of conformation. But the meas- ure of fulness in the crops of lean animals varies greatly, and the ability to distinguish between these, so as to know whether future good feeding will fill the crops or not, and how far it will fill them, is of great moment to those en- gaged in producing meat. The ability to judge animals prospectively with reference to future development is much more rare than ability to judge the standing of the finished animal. Cattle, sheep and swine, purchased with a view to growing or fattening them, or for both uses, are usually purchased while in moderate, or even in a low condition of flesh. To purchase these on the basis of standards drawn up to represent the animal in perfect condition as to flesh, would be misleading. Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS 1 37 In the hope of furnishing more exact guides to those who single out animals for future feeding, or who purchase them for the same, feeding standards will be submitted, which are intended to show the leading essentials of form which such animals should possess. This, however, will not be necessary in the case of animals not kept primarily for growing meat, as dairy cattle and horses. As these are supposed to be maintained simply in that moderate condi- tion of flesh most favorable to production of milk in the one instance and of labor in the other, the necessity for two classes of standards for these does not exist as in the case of animals grown for the block. Type will now be con- sidered in its relation to cattle, sheeo, swine and horses respectively. Type in its relation to cattle. — Type with reference to production, as already intimated, divides cattle into the beef, dairy and dual purpose breeds. The recognized beef breeds in America are, the Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen Angus and Galloway breeds. The vast majority of high class animals suitable for the best productions of meat are grades of these, which means that they are the progeny of sires of one of these pure breeds, and of females of common or mixed breeding. The dairy breeds are the Holstein, Dutch Belted, Ayrshire, Guernsey, Jersey, French Canadian and Kerry. Likewise, the great majority of good dairy cows in the country are grades of these, more especially of the Holstein, Ayrshire, Guernsey and Jersey breeds. The higher the grade, both in the case of beef and dairy cattle, that is, the greater the number of the successive generations of straight breeding from sires of one breed, the more valuable are the animals likely to be, up to a certain limit, for the ends for which they are kept. The dual purpose breeds are, the milking Shorthorn, the Brown Swiss, the Red Poll and the Devon. The bulk of dual purpose an- imals are not confined to the high grades of these breeds, but as found at present are composed of various blood ele- ments, in many instances, blended without much system. Digitized by Microsoft® 138 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS But they are produced with much more certainty and satis- faction as the direct progeny within dual purpose breeds or high grades of these. Type in cattle for feeding. — The standards of perfec- tion not only for beef cattle but for each of the recognized pure breeds in America, and also for each of the pure breeds of sheep, swine and horses, are intended to repre- sent what these should be in the perfected form. A correct SELECTED STEER FOR FEEDING [By courtesy of the owner, 111. Exper. Sta.l knowledge of the standard for any breed is invaluable to the person engaged in breeding the same. These stand- ards are given in the "Study of Breeds" written by the author. But the standard for the guidance of the breeder, as already intimated, in the case of animals designed for the block, is not the same as that for the feeder. For the guidance of the latter, therefore, when selecting cattle, sheep and swine, standards for these respective classes of Digitized by Microsoft® • TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS I39 animals will be submitted, each in its proper place. That for cattle is as follows : — Principal points in cattle for feeding. 1. Uniformity. — They should be selected with a view to uniformity in breeding, size and quality. 2. Size. — At least medium for the age and breed. 3. General Outline. — The body should be moderate In length, with good depth and width, and not high from the ground. 4. Head. — Of medium size, short, broad and clean cut. (a). Forehead, broad, (b). Muzzle, large, broad and moist, (c), Nostrils, large and expansive, (d). Eyes, large, full, clear, calm, (e), Horns, of medium size and good texture and oval in shape, (f). Ears, of medium size, short and broad for the breed, carried firmly and not unduly active. 5. Neck. — Moderately short, with indications of good muscling as shown in depth and thickness. 6. Back. — Straight from base of neck to tail-head, width and levelness depending somewhat on condition as to flesh, and having large loin area. 7. Fore quarters. — Wide and deep, fulness in front, also width and levelness at withers, depending largely on the flesh carried. (a), Shoulders ( broad, front and top shoulder points not too prominent, smoothness of shoulder being largely dependent on the amount of flesh present, (b), Chest, capacious, (c). Breast, broad and deep, fulness depending on flesh carried, (d). Brisket, broad but breadth is dependent largely on condition, (e), Arm, broad at elbow, well muscled, and taper- ing markedly toward the knee. Digitized by Microsoft® I40 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 8. Barrel or coupling — Large, wide and deep. (a), Ribs, good outward spring and good length, well spread apart and well muscled, (b). Crops, full preferably, but fulness is dependent largely on condition, (c), Foreflank, deep and moderately full, (d), Hindflank, deep, (e). Barrel depression, but moderate in size, (f), Underline, straight or nearly so, (g), Girth, good around flank and heart and about equal. 9. Hind quarters. — Long, deep and wide, (a). Hips, broad dud well muscled, (b). Rump area, large and broad from loin to tail- head and the more level the better, (c). Pin bones, wide apart and placed on a level or nearly so with the loin, (d). Thigh, broad and well muscled, (e), Twist, low. 10. Legs. — Both before and behind, short, straight, and set well anart with bone of fairly good size and qual- ity. 11. Handling qualities. — (a). Skin of moderate thickness and covered with a fair amount of hair, (b). Pliability of skin and softness of coat are de- pendent chiefly on conditions relating to food and flesh. Points especially objectionable. — These include, prob- ably in the order named, a narrow chest, a long, slim head and neck, flat ribs, a small loin and rump area, and a rough shoulder and hook points. Reasons may be given in minute detail why these in- dications of form and function should be present. But to give them in connection with each of the standards sub- mitted would unduly swell the contents of the book. For the fuller study of these, the reader is referred to "Animal Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS 141 Breeding," more especially the chapter therein on "Animal Form an Index of Qualities." However, as standards in previous works by the author have not been submitted re- lating to the proper furnishings of animals selected for feeding, the following brief explanations will be in order : — Uniformity is important because of its bearing upon even- ness in quality and attractiveness and through these on price. Size has an important bearing upon future possible increase. The head and neck indicate in various ways ca- pacity for development and the character and quality of the same. The back has an important bearing upon the character and hence upon the value of high-priced meat. The development of the fore quarters influences weight, and indicates measurably the degree of the stamina. The barrel development indicates capacity for food consumption, in its relation to possible produc^on. The hind quarters have an important bearing upon weight of relatively high- priced meat. Legs short, straight and wide apart, usually sustain compact and wide bodies. Handling qualities indi- cate the character of the digestion and more especially of the assimilation of food. The carriage is an indication of health, vigor and disposition. Development in the framework of all immature animals must continue until maturity, hence, the fattening of young animals carries on development of the frame but in a less degree relatively than of the flesh. In animals more ma- ture, the development relates mainly to the clothing of the framework with flesh and fat and in those mature entirely so. In the latter, therefore, fattening affects only in a slight degree the head in all its essentials, the chest capacity and the size of the limbs. With reference to the head, chest and limbs, therefore, the standards for the unfinished and finished animals are virtually the same. But in various other respects, the difference is marked. Promment among those differences are the follow- mg: — (i) In the finished animal the entire body becomes more massive and the carriage more labored; (2) the neck Digitized by Microsoft® 142 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS vein is more filled, the back is wider and more level, the breast is fuller, the brisket is wider, the fore flank becomes fuller and the hind flank thicker, the crops become fuller and the thighs increase within and without; (3) the cover- ing of the parts usually bare, or nearly so, in the lean animal, as the shoulder blade and loin is increased; (4) the points prominent in the lean animal, as the shoulder points, hooks. AAGGIE CORNUCOPIA PAULINE "World's Champion Holstein seven-day butter cow with her owner and breeder, H. D. Roe. Record 34 lbs. 5.2 ozs. [Photo by Prof. W. G. Johnson.] and pin bones, become less so, in some instances, to the ex- tent of being hidden and (5) the skin often somewhat harsh and adherent over the ribs in the lean animal, becomes much more pliant and loose, and the hair increases in mos- siness an brightness. Type in dairy cattle. — With dairy cattle the leading indications of form and function are essentially the same in all breeds and grades, from the time that the cow first Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS I43 comes in milk until she is sent to the shambles. Even be- fore lactation begins, the indications are virtually the same, except that in the heifer not yet in millc, the inclina tion to paunchiness in barrel is not so pronounced, and the milk veins are not so large, as they develop with age and use, and the udder is not sufficiently developed to furnish the opportunity for properly judging of the character of its glandular development. The one standard, therefore, will suffice for dairy cows, viewed from the standpoint of capac- ity for production. The variations arising from breed pe- culiarities may be found from the standards for the respec- tive dairy breeds given in the "Study of Breeds." Indications of correct form and function in dairy cows. 1. Size. — Medium to large for the breed or grade. 2. General outline. — What is known as the triple wedge-shaped formation, which means, (a). Increasing width from the withers downward, (b), Increasing width toward the rear parts, (c), Some increase in distance between the top and bottom lines as they go backward. 3. Head. — Medium to fine, clean cut, and relatively .onger, lighter and more dished than in the beef breeds. (a), Forehead, broad and dishing, (b). Nose, fine, (c). Muzzle, medium to broad and moist, (d). Nostrils, large and open, (e), Cheeks, clean and spare, (f), Eyes, prominent and lively, (g), Poll, medium to wide, according to breed, (h), Horns, fine, (i). Ears, medium with ample secretions, thinner than in the beef breeds and somewhat livelier. 4. Neck. — Inclining to long and light, almost slim, (a), It should be fine at the junction of the head and should widen and deepen only gradually, Digitized by Microsoft® 144 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS (b), The junction with the body should be well de- fined, almost abrupt in character. 5. Back. — Narrow at the withers, wide at the loin, and at least moderately so at the pin bones, and straight or swayed according to individuality. (a), A straight back is to be preferred, other things being equal, (b). The spinal column should be large, well de- fined and open spaced, (c). There should be more or less downward slope from the crupper to the outer edge of the hip. 6. Fore quarters. — Lighter than the hind quarters and spare. (a), Withers, narrow, (b), Shoulders, not heavy, pronounced in their up- ward slope toward one another, and more or less abrupt in front, (c). Chest, wide through the heart and capacious, (d). Breast, wide below, but not prominent, (e). Brisket, wedge-shaped, (f). Arm, inclining to light. 7. Barrel. — Long, deep, capacious, in a sense paunchy, (a). Ribs, broad, wide-spaced, with a deep, down- ward and outward spring, and much space between the last rib and hook point, (b). Crops, steep, but not necessarily depressed, (c). Fore flanks, fairly well filled, (d), Hind flanks, thin but not sunken, (e). Underline, more or less sagged, (f), Girth, at least fairly good around the heart, and increasingly so at the hind flank. 8. Hind quarters. — Long, but varying somewhat in the breeds, wide at top of the hips and coming well down, but without fulness. (a). Hips, not heavy, but more heavy in some breeds, (b). Thighs, inclining to light, thin and more or less incurved. Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS I45 (c), Buttock, upright or receding somewhat to- ward the thigh, (d), Pin bones, prominent and wide-spaced, (e). Twist, open, placed high, and roomy, (f). Tail, not coarse, tapering, of good length, and hanging at right angles to the back. 9. Escutcheon. — Well defined and well developed from the perineum to the udder and extending well out- ward on the thighs. (a), Breadth below the perineum is said to denote prolonged milking qualities, (b). Width at the thighs is said to indicate deep milking qualites. 10. Udder. — Long, broad and deep, extending well forward and well up behind, and evenly quartered. (a). It should be well let down, but not pendulous, and the skin should hang in loose folds behind when the udder is empty, (b). In quality it should be fine and elastic, glan- dular, not fleshy, (c). The hair on the udder should be soft and not plentiful, (d). The veins on the same well defined, (e). The teats of medium size and squarely placed or pointing slightly outward. 11. Milk veins. — Large, tortuous, preferably branched and entering the abdominal wall, well forward and through large orifices, usually called milk wells. (a). More commonly there are but two milk wells, but more are much prized, (b). The veins increase in size with advancing age in the animal. 12. Legs. — Medium in length, fine in bone and straight, at least fairly wide apart and yet well under the body. Digitized by Microsoft® 146 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 13. Skin. — Medium to fine, finer than in the beef breeds, easily movable, and covered plentifully with fine, soft hair. 14. General appearance. — The carriage should be active, the prominences at the angles and also the ribs dis- tinctly apparent, and there should be evidences of a ten- dency to spareness in form when in milk. Given in summary the more important indications in a good dairy cow and important perhaps in the order given are the following: — (i) Much length and depth in the barrel or coupling, indicating a large consumption and utilization of food; (2) refinement of form, as evidenced more particularly in the head, neck, withers, thighs and Hmbs; (3) good develop- ment of udder and milk veins; (4) constitution, as in- dicated by a capacious chest, much width through the heart, a broad loin, a full, clear eye, and an active carriage ; (5) downward and yet outward sprung and open spaced ribs, covered with a soft, pliable and elastic skin. Details relating to nerve power, or temperament, constitution and vitality, also quantity and quality in milk are given in the "Study of the Breeds," page 16. (See also XVIII.) The males differ from the females in the following es- sentials, as outlined in Extension Bulletin No. 9 of the Michigan Agricultural college : — 1. The general outline should be stronger, including more bone and should possess marked indications of mas- culinity, as shown in head, neck and fore quarters. 2. The head should be strong and full of character and vigor, as expressed in its pojse, clean cut outline, width at forehead and full active eye. 3. The neck should have less of length, more of muscling, and should be somewhat arched. 4. The fore quarters should be more strongly devel- oped and should have good width and depth of breast and chest as a strong guaranty of good constitution. Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS 147 5. The hack should be straighter, stronger and wider. 6. The barrel should be relatively shorter and more compact. 7. The hind quarters should be relatively longer and broader, the width being carried well back from loin to tail-head, and the hip bones set well apart. CHAMPION BROWN SWISS COW [Typical Dual Purpose Cow.) [By courtesy of the owner, B. M. Barton, Hinsdale, 111.] 8. The rudimentary teats should be well developed and the milk veins should be easily traceable. 9. The skin should be thicker and heavier and yet it should be loose, soft, pliable, mellow and elastic and covered with a good coat of soft, silky hair. 10. The general appearance should indicate what may be termed irrepressible action, but without any tendency to viciousness. As the indications of milk inheritance are not so easily traced in the dairy male as in the female, it is more im- portant relatively that he shall come from ancestry dis- Digitized by Microsoft® 148 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS tinguished for abundant dairy production in the near gen- erations thereof. It is also more important because of the more numerous progeny which comes from the male. Type in dual purpose cattle. — The essentials in form and function in dual purpose cattle are virtually the same in all the breeds and grades of this class. The chief differences are such as relate to breed and grade peculiari- ties. The differences pertaining to breed may be ascer- tained by consulting the standards given in "The Study of Breeds." Those pertaining to grades of those breeds are virtually the same, but may be less in degree. Indications of correct form and function in dual purpose cows. 1. Size. — Large in form and capacious in body, not massive like the high type beef animal, neither coarse nor unduly refined and possessed of what may be termed a happy equilibrium in development. 2. General outline. — The form should be parallelo- grammic rather than wedge-shaped, and nearly evenly de- veloped in front and rear. 3. Head. — Only moderately large and inclining to long, clean cut and free from throatiness. (a), Forehead, wide, (b). Nose, inclining to long and fine, (c). Muzzle, medium to strong and moist, (d). Nostrils, large and open, (e), Cheeks, lean, (f). Eyes, large, prominent and neither restless nor sleepy, (g). Poll, varying with the breed or grade, (h), Horns, inclining to fine when present, (i). Ears, of medium size, thickness and action, but varying with the breed or grade. 4. Neck. — Inclining to long and fine, but not slim, (a). Not coarse at the junction with the head. Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS 149 (b). Of medium increasing widtli and depth toward the shoulder, and joining the latter neither abruptly nor so smoothly as in the beef breeds. 5. Back. — Moderately wide at the withers, wide at the loin and pin bones, and straight. 6. Fore quarters. — Nearly equal in development with the hind quarters. (a). Withers moderately wide, (b). Shoulders large but not prominent, and pos- sessed of medium upward and forward slope, (c). Chest, wide through the heart, capacious, (d). Breast, wide, moderately deep and full, (e). Brisket, wide and but moderately full, (f). Forearm, broad and but moderately full, 7. Barrel. — Long, deep, roomy, capacious. (a). Ribs, at least fairly well sprung and deep, well spaced, easily discernible when the animal is giving milk, and possessed of good space between the last rib and hook point, (b). Crops, filled up nearly level with the shoulder, when in fair flesh, (c). Fore flanks, low and full, (d). Hind flanks, low, moderately full and of less than medium thickness, (e). Girth, good at the heart and at least good at the hind flank, (f). Underline straight, or slightly rounded down- ward. 8. Hind quarters. — Long, wide, deep and but slightly drooping away from the sacrum and crupper. (a), Hips straight on the sides, (b). Thighs, broad and in a line externally with the hips, and possessed of but little or no incurvature behind, (c), Buttocks, straight, or nearly so, (d). Pin bones, wide, but not prominent, (e), Twist, open and placed moderately low, Digitized by Microsoft® 150 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS (f), Tail, inclining to fine and long, smoothly set on and hanging at right angles with the body. 9. Udder. — Capacious, evenly quartered, coming well forward and backward and not too high or too low. (a). When empty it should be pliant, not fleshy, and with much loose skin hanging in folds at the rear, (b), The teats should be of good size and pointing slightly outward. 10. Milk veins. — Large, long, tortuous, all the better if branched, and they should enter the body through large orifices or milk wells. 11. Legs. — Medium in length and bone, straight and widely placed. 12. Skin. — Medium, inclining to fine, easily movable particularly on the ribs, and plentifully covered with soft hair devoid of coarseness or harshness. 13. General appearance. — The large, refined and fairly smooth form of the dual purpose animal carries with it evidences of producing capacity. (a), In movement, it is neither sprightly nor slug- gish, but easy, (b), When in milk, it is not high fleshed, but puts on flesh quickly when dry. Given in summary the more important indications in dual purpose cows and important, perhaps in the order named, are the following: — (i) Medium to large size for the breed or grade; (2) good length and depth in the barrel; (3) good development of udder and milk veins; (4) good constitution as indicated by good width through the heart ; (5) head and neck inclin- ing to long and fine and (6) ribs of medium spring, deep, open-spaced and covered with a good handling skin. The points of contrast between dual purpose cattle, dairy and beef cattle respectively are given in "The Study of Breeds," page 21. What has been said with reference to the points of contrast between the male and female in dairy cattle (see p. 146) will apply also to the dual purpose Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS I5I breeds, except that the indications of nervous energy are not so marked in the latter. In choosing males, much at- tention should be given to the dual qualities of the im- mediate ancestry. ■ B w^ t':|<£Sp^H B^M ^nii^^^v ''>H''''''isi'-'v\' ^^^1 ^^■^^B^^^V f i^^fl ■hh "BM ^^ ^'^^^BHIH GRAND CHAMPION CHEVIOT EWE AT STATE FAIR [By courtesy of American Agriculturist] Type in sheep for feeding. — As previously intimated, the standard for sheep selected for fattening is not the same as for sheep of the pure breeds. For the guidance of the feeder, the following standard is submitted: Principal points of sheep for feeding. I. Uniformity. — This should relate to breeding, size and quality. Digitized by Microsoft® 152 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 2. Size. — The size should be sufficient for the breed and the age, and linked with it should be bone, medium to strong but not coarse. 3. General outline. — Smooth, compact, cylindrical in shape and square at the ends. 4. Head.—Oi medium size, the shape varying with the breed, but a tendency to short, broad and tapering is pre- ferred. 5. Neck. — Short, round rather than flat, well muscled, and increasing in size toward the shoulders. 6. Body. — Long, wide, deep, round and equally bal- anced before and behind. (a). Back, strong, straight and broad, with large loin area, (b), Breast, broad and deep and the fuller the better, (c). Brisket, broad and rounded, (d). Shoulder, wide, deep ^nd smooth, (e). Forearm, strong and well-muscled, (f). Girth, at fore and hind flank large and about equally good, (g). Ribs, well-sprung from spinal column, well arched and deep. 7. Hind quarters. — Long, broad and deep. (a). Rump area, long, wide and level as possible, (b). Twist, low, (c). Hind flank, low, (d). Thigh, well-muscled. 8. Skin. — Of bright color and the more pliable, the better. 9. Legs. — Short, straight and strong, wide apart and well under the body, and standing firmly on hoofs of good shape and quality. ID. The whole body should be covered with bright lustrous wool and characteristic of the breed or grade. Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS 1 53 Points especially objectionable. — These include and probably objectionable in the order named: — (i) Indica- tions of lack of constitution as shown in long, slim head and neck, narrow chest and small heart girth; (2) lack of vigor, as shown in low carriage of head, dull eye, drooping ears, crooked legs with weak bone, short dry lusterless wool and sluggish movement and (3) lack of good flesh- ing qualities, as shown in weak back, small loin and rump area and small thighs. Except in animals not mature, fattening does not in- crease the size of head or limbs but it does influence materially the covering on all parts of the body. The neck vein is filled, the breast rounded out, the crops and flanks are filled much fuller, the spinal column is covered or nearly so in all parts, flesh is increased on the loin and the thighs increase within and without. The yoke is in- creased in the wool and with such increase comes increase in luster. Thus marked are the contrasts in the furnish- ings of the finished sheep, as compared with the one not yet fattened. Type in swine for feeding. — While the standard for swine chosen for being fattened is not the same as for the various breeds in perfected form, the difference is not so marked usually as with cattle and sheep, since swine are more commonly kept in a relatively better condition of flesh during the growing period. The standards for the different breeds are given in "The Study of Breeds." The standard now submitted applies more to the lard and inter- mediate types than to the bacon types. The essential dif- ferences will be given by way of contrast. Principal points of swine for feeding. 1. Uniformity. — This should relate to breeding, size, color and quality. 2. Size. — The size should be sufficient for the breed and the age of the animal. Digitized by Microsoft® 154 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 3. General outline. — Moderately compact rather than rangy, having the appearance of strength and vigor. 4. Head. — Medium size, short, broad, tapering and not coarse. 5. Neck. — Short rather than long, moderately wide and deep at the junction with the head and increasingly so at the junction with the shoulders. 6. Body.- — Long, deep and broad, with fore and hind quarters evenly balanced. (a). Back, straight, or slightly arched in the longer bodied breeds and even in width, (b), Shoulders, large, broad and deep, (c). Chest, wide and deep, (d), Brisket, broad, (e), Forearm, moderately short, broad, tapering and well-muscled, (f). Side, moderately long, deep, straight and even, (g), Ribs, springing out well from the spinal column, descending with a sharp curve and extend- ing well down, (h). Heart and flank girth, large and about equal. 7. Hind quarters. — Long, deep and wide. (a), Hams, large and at least moderately full, (b), Rump area, broad, level, retaining width from loin backward, and not much drooping toward the tail-head, (c). Thigh, moderately short, broad, tapering and well-muscled within and without, (d). Twist, low. 3. Legs. — Short, straight, set well apart, with strong hbtie and short, straight pasterns. 9. Skin. — Smooth, free from scurf, and covered with a moderate coat of soft hair of good quality. Points especially objectionable. — These include and probably objectionable in the order named: — (i) A long Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS 155 narrow, shallow body; (2) long fine legs with weak pas- terns; (3) a long, narrow head, neck and chest and (4) scurfiness of skin, indicating mal-nutrition. The bacon breeds differ from the lard and inter- mediate types in the following particulars :^(i) They are less compact in form and are longer in head, neck, body QUALITY, CHAMPION PERCHERON STALLION AT SPRINGFIELD, ILL., 1906, tA Typical Draught Horse] [By courtesy of the owners, Taylor & Jones, Williamsvllle, 111.] and limbs; (2) they are fully as deep in body but not so wide; (3) they have relatively lighter shoulders and hams; (4) they are more active in movement. Except with swine not mature, fattening does not increase the size of head except in the jowl, or of the limbs, but it does increase the covering on all other parts of the frame. It affects the width more than the depth. Type in its relation to horses. — As previously men- tioned, type divides horses into the draught, light and Digitized by Microsoft® 156 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS general purpose classes. This classification is general rather than specific, as the intermediate types between draught and light horses are many and various, and in some instances these are not distinctly pronounced. The minute discussion of these differences cannot be entered upon in this work. Draught horses are maintained primarily for drawing heavy loads in the cities and towns and for doing heavy work on the farm or elsewhere. For doing such work strength and endurance are the first considerations. Light horses are maintained primarily for driving or riding. While thus employed, speed and endurance are the first consideration. General purpose horses are main- tained primarily for driving and also for performing work. But such strength is not to be looked for as from draught horses, nor such speed as from light horses. Type in draught horses. — The four distinct breeds of draught horses in America are the Percheron, the Clydes- dale, the Shire and the Belgian. Each of these has its own distinct peculiarities. These can only be ascertained by the careful study of the literature pertaining to each. Notwith- standing these differences, there are certain essential points of form and function which they possess in common, to the extent of making it feasible to draw up a scale of points that will apply to each of these breeds. This has been done by Prof. John A. Craig in his excellent book "Judging Live Stock," and is reproduced here. Scale of points for gelding draught horses. General appearance. — Perfect Score Weight, over 1500 pounds. Score according to age, 4 Form, broad, massive, low set, proportioned, 4 Quality, bone clean, yet indicating sufficient substance ; tendons distinct ; skin and hair fine, 4 Temperament energetic, good disposition, 4 Head and neck. — Head, lean, medium size, I Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS 1 57 Perfect Score Muzzle, fine, nostrils large, lips thin, even, i Eyes, full, bright, clear, large, I Forehead, broad, full, i Ears, medium size, well carried, I Neck, muscled, crest high, throatlatch fine, windpipe large, I Pore quarters. — Shoulders, sloping, smooth, snug, extending into back, 2 Arm, short, thrown forward, I Forearm, heavily muscled, long, wide, 2 Knees, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly supported, 2 Cannons, short, lean, wide, tendons large set back, 2 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, I Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy, 3 Feet, large, even size, straight, horn dense ; dark color ; sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, heel wide, high, one half length of toe, 8 Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the shoulder should fall up- on the center of the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side a perpendicular line dropping from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints and back of hoof, 4 Body. — Chest, deep, wide, large girth, 2 Ribs, long, close, sprung, 2 Back, straight, short, broad, 2 Loin, wide, short, thick, straight, 2 Underline, flank low, i Hind quarters. — Hips, smooth, wide, 2 Croup, long, wide, muscular, 2 Digitized by Microsoft® 158 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS DAN PATCH 1.55 AT HOME [By courtesy of the owner, M. W. Savage, Minneapolis, Minn.] Perfect Score Tail, attached high, well carried, i Thighs, muscular, 2 Quarters, deep, heavily muscled, 2 Gaskins, or lower thighs, wide, muscled, 2 Hocks, clean cut, wide, sti'aight, 8 Cannons, short, wide, tendons large, set back 2 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, I Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy, 2 Feet, large, even size, straight, horn dense, dark color, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, heel wide, high, one half length of toe, 6 Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS (159 Perfect Score Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a perpendicular line from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle and a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should run parallel with the line of ^ the cannon. 4 Action. — Walk, smooth, quick, long, balanced,^ 6 Trot, rapid, straight, regular, 4 Total, 100 Type in light horses. — Light horses are commonly divided into three classes. These are the roadster, saddle and carriage types. In the pure form they are represented in the standard trotter or pacer, in the standard saddle horse and in the various breeds of coach horses. Because of variations in type more or less pronounced, it will not be possible to present a scale of points that will furnish an ab- solute guide for the selection of the various classes of light horses. Nevertheless they have in common certain essen- tial characteristics which may thus be given. These have been well summarized by Prof. John A. Craig, and are now submitted: — Scale of points for gelding light horses. General appearance. — Perfect Score Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish, 4 Quality, bone clean, firm, and indicating suffi- cient substance, tendons defined, hair and skin fine, 4 Temperament, active, kind disposition, 4 Head and neck. — Head, lean, straight, i Digitized by Microsoft® l6o FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Perfect Score Muzzle, fine, nostrils large, lips thin, even, teeth sound, i Eyes, full, bright, clear, large, I Forehead, broad, full, I Ears, medium size, pointed, well carried, and not far apart, I Neck, muscled, crest high, throatlatch fine, windpipe large, 1 Fore quarters. — Shoulders, long, smooth, with muscle oblique, extending into back, 2 Arms, short, thrown forward, I Forearms, muscled, long, wide, 2 Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly supported, 2 Cannons, short, wide, sinews large, set back 2 Fetlocks, wide, straight, i Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45 de- grees, 3 Feet, medium, even size, straight, horn dense, frog large, elastic, bars strong, sole concave, heel wide, 6 Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the shoulder should fall up- on the center of the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side a perpendicular line dropping from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints and back of hoof, 4 Body. — Withers, muscled and well finished at top, i Chest, deep, low, large girth, 2 Ribs, long, sprung, close, 2 Back, straight, short, broad, muscle^, 2 Loin, wide, short, thick, 2 Underline, long, flank let down, I Digitized by Microsoft® TYPE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS l6l Hind quarters.— Perfect Score Hips, smooth, wide, level, 2 Croup, long, wide, muscula., 2 Tail, attached high, well carried, i Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open angled, 2 Quarters, heavily muscled, deep, 2 Gaskin or lower thighs, long, wide, muscular, 2 Hocks, clearly defined, wide, straight, 5 Cannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back, 2 Fetlocks, wide, straight, i Pasterns, strong, sloping, 2 Feet, medium, even size, straight, horn dense, frog large, elastic, bars strong, sole concave, heel wide, high, 4 Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side a perpendicular Hne from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle and a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should run parallel with the line of the cannon, 4 Iction. — Walk, elastic, quick, balanced, 5 Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high, 15 Total 100 Type in general purpose horses. — Since general pur- pose horses have been variously bred and usually in a sort of aimless way, that is without any very distinctly defined purpose in view, it could not be otherwise than that the horses of this class should vary greatly. Some will be so heavy as to constitute what may be termed light draught horses and some so light as to carry no more weight than Digitized by Microsoft® 1 62 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS DAN PATCH, THE WORLD S RECORD PACER [By courtesy of the owner, M. "W. Savage, Minneapolis Minn.] the carnage classes. They will also vary much in con- formation, according to the character of the grade or cross used in obtaining them. Because of these differences, it -is scarcely possible to present a scale of points at the present time that would be of much service in describing horses of this class. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER X. PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN FEEDING. The discussion in Chapter X relates to the principles that govern the feeding of animals with reference to the chemical constituents which feeds possess, as adapted to the class and age of animals to which they are to be fed and the precise objects for which they are maintained. It differs from the discussion in Part I in that it is specific while the former is general. The principles in this chapter relate ro furnishing feeds that will contain the nutrients which they must have in due proportion if the end sought is to be reached. In theory, these principles have all the strength of law, but in practice it is very frequently not possible to apply them so that the results sought or that should be expected from such feeding, will follow, owing to the subtle influ- ences that frequently result from environment, from inter- nal causes that cannot always be discerned, and from varia- tions resulting from the physiological influence of feeds apart from the nutrients they c6ntain as given by chemical analysis. The elementary substances necessary to the growth of plants are essentially the same as the chemical elements of the animal body. These are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magne- sium and iron. In addition to these are chlorine and so- dium, the elements of common salt. These elements do not exist simply but are united into numberless compounds, both organic and inorganic. For convenience of reference, they are classified as nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous, ac- cording as the chemical compounds of which they are com- posed contain nitrogen or do not contain nitrogen. The water in foods must also be considered, but this is not so J63 Digitized by Microsoft® 164 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS important, since water can be supplied. These elements exist in varying degrees in plants and in the same plant a: different stages of development, and similarly they differ in the degree of the digestibility which they possess. The de- gree in which they are present and also the degree of the digestibility which they possess, can only be deteirmined by chemical analysis, hence the necessity for tables of feeding stuffs, which the feeder may consult when preparing or feeding foods. The proportions in which these elements should be supplied to animals also varies with the class of the animal, the age, the performance and the object for which it is kept. The adaptation of food to the needs of the animals to which it is to be fed virtually constitutes the great art of feeding. For convenience in reference, certain definitions per- taining first to the feeds themselves and second to the meth- ods of blending or compounding them for feeding, have come into common use. These are all considered in Chap- ter X. The definitions which pertain to feeds include the terms: (i) Food nutrient ; (2) food factor or feeding stuff ; (3) food or feeding ration and (4) table of feeding stuffs. Those which pertain to the blending or compounding of feeds, include the terms: (i) Nutritive ratio; (2) feeding standard and (3) table of feeding standards. Familiarity with these terms and the ability to reduce to practice what is implied in them, should prove helpful to all persons en- gaged in growing stock. Food nutrient. — A food nutrient is any single chem- ical compound capable of being assimilated by the body, for the purpose of producing new tissue, either for new growth or to replace that which is worn out. The body is com- posed of: (i) Nitrogenous organic substance; (2) non- nitrogenous organic substance and (3) mineral substance. Since a food nutrient in order to permit of easy assimila- tion, must in its composition be identical with the substances normally found in the body, the nutrients may be classified very similarly to the classification of the substances of the Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN FEEDING 165 body as given above. They are, therefore : ( i ) Nitrog- enous organic substances; (2) non-nitrogenous organic substances and (3) mineral or inorganic substances. Al- bumen, the essential constituent of the white of egg, is an example of a nitrogenous nutrient, starch of a non-nitrog- enous nutrient, and common salt of a mineral or inorganic nutrient. Nutrients are seldom found in an unmixed state, but are generally combined in one fodder. Food factor or feeding stuff. — The term food factor or feeding stuff is any natural or artificial product used as food for animals. Food factors usually contain two or more nutrients intimately blended but in varying propor- tions and also more or less substance that is indigestible and which, therefore, cannot be appropriated by the animal to which the food is fed. Feeding stuffs may be roughly clas- sified as nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous according as the or- ganic nutrients are more largely of one kind or the other. In nearly all instances they contain a sufficiency of mineral nutrients, the exceptions being common salt and in some in- stances ash and phosphate of lime. The principal nitrogenous constituents of feeding stuffs are the albuminoids, as legumin, the nitrogenous constituent of peas, beans and clover, and gluten, the nitrogenous constituent of wheat. Likewise the nitrogenous substances of the body consist largely of albuminoids. So in- trinsically important are they, that all the manifestations of animal life are dependent on them and on the organs which are composed of them. They also furnish the materials out of which the other important groups of nitrogenous substances are formed; viz., the gelatinoids and the horny matters. The albuminoids are found under various manifesta- tions in all the organs and fluids of the healthy body except the urine and they form the chief constituents of their com- position. Nearly all the vital processes of the body have for their object the effecting of changes upon the form, location Digitized by Microsoft® l66 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS or function of the albuminoid material. The principal al- buminoids of the body are albumen, found in nearly all its fluids, flesh fibrin, the chief constituents of muscular fibre, blood fibrin, the essential element of the clotting part of blood, and casein, the constituent of milk which forms the basis of cheese. The gelatinoids form the nitrogenous sub- stance of the bones and cartilages and also make up the larger part of the tendons, ligaments, connective tissue and the skin. The horny matters, which differ but little in chem- ical composition from the albuminoids or gelatinoids, are found chiefly on the outer surfaces of the body, that is, in the epidermis or scarf skin, the hair, the wool, the horns and the hoofs. The chemical composition of these three groups of nitrogenous substances is practically the same, and what is exceedingly important in this connection, the same chemical composition will hold good with respect to the nitrogenous substances found in foods. The further discussion of the many and exceedingly important functions of the nitrogenous substance in the animal body cannot be earned further in this work. The principal non-nitrogenous constituents of feed- ing stuffs are cellulose, starch, sugai", gum, fat, oil and the various vegetable acids. These are classified as carbohy- drates and fat. The carbohydrates, composed principally of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, include cellulose, starch, sugar, gum and the vegetable acids. The fat and oil are generally considered together as fat. The non-nitrogenous constituents of plants may, therefore, be considered as be- ing carbohydrates or fats. But a part of the cellulose of plants often becomes hardened into a more or less indigesti- ble fibrous condition. This is commonly separated from the remaining carbohydrates in the table of feeding stuffs (see p. 175) and placed in a class by itself as crude fibre. The non-nitrogenous substance also includes the ash, that is, the inorganic or mineral part which remains after the plant has been consumed by fire. These all play a more or less impor- tant part in the, economy of animal growth and production. Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN FEEDING 167 Fat is the most abundant by far of the non-nitrogenous organic substances of the animal body. It is found in vari- ous parts of the same, in some places as minute particles and in others as special deposits of considerable quantity. The sources of fat in the body are, first, the fat in the food ; second, the albuminoids or nitrogenous substance in the food, and third, the carbohydrates in the same. Whether the carbohydrates are direct sources of body fat is uncer- tain, but indirectly they certainly are. The presence of ani- mal fat in the animal body has the effect of decreasing the protein consumption and of retarding the tendency to nitro- gen equilibrium. Protein consumption means the removal of that por- tion of the nitrogenous substance, that is protein, taken into the body and digested through oxidation and the excretion of worn out nitrogenous tissue. Nitrogen equilibrium is that principle which inheres in the animal body through which it eventually puts itself into equilibrium with the nitrogenous constituents which it re- ceives in its food above what is necessary to maintain it in an average condition. This question, significant in its bearing on practical feeding, cannot be elaborated further in this work. The following are chief among the influences which fat in the food exerts : ( i ) It decreases protein consumption and thereby increases protein deposition. Protein deposi- tion means the retention and use of that portion of the ni- trogenous food consumed and digested which remains in the body for a longer or shorter time. It is assimilated as new nitrogenous tissue or as tissue which has replaced old worn out or waste nitrogenous tissue. (2) It decreases the protein consumption in the body and it does so indepen- dently of the protein supply. The protein consumption in- creases and diminishes with the protein supply in the food, and all that the fat does is to diminish it by a certain quan- tity, which will be the same no matter how large the protein supply in the food may be. (3) Like fat in the body it re- tards the tendency to nitrogen equilibrium. Its presence in Digitized by Microsoft® l68 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the food favors the formation out of the protein supply of stable tissue, in place of part of the circulatory protein, which means to some extent increase in flesh. Circulatory protein is that portion of the nitrogenous substance taken from the food which remains for a time in the blood, await- ing either conversion into stable flesh tissue, or oxidation and decomposition into the fluids of the excretory organs. In well-fed animals, it causes what is called the juiciness of the flesh. It should also be remembered that while the presence of fat in small quantities is favorable to the formation of flesh, in large quantities it is injurious, since it disturbs the digestion and thus impairs the appetite. Therefore, the ordinary feeding stuffs fed to farm animals should contain but little fat. The influence of carbohydrates in the food on the formation of flesh is very similar to that of fat in the same. Prominent among these influences are the following: (i) Carbohydrates in the food decrease the protein consump- tion and thereby increase the protein deposition (see p. 167) the protein consumption depending as regards quantity solely on the protein supply. (2) They retard the tendency toward nitrogen equilibrium and therefore cause a longer continued gain of flesh than would be affected by nitroge- nous foods alone. The carbohydrates are helpful in promoting growth, in producing fat, and in generating heat so necessary to the maintenance in healthy action of all the functions of the body. Experience has shown that the greatest gain of flesh is made when the proportion of carbohydrates in the food fed is large. In regard to flesh formation they produce about the same results as fat and are much cheaper, hence they should be fed to the greatest extent possible instead of fat, except in such instances as when it is necessary to feed fat in the food because of its greater power to produce heat (see p. 177). They are much more abundant than protein in foods and, therefore, cheaper than this element also, hence Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN FEEDING 169 their free use in feeding stuffs tends to cheapen the ration. Moreover, they are readily eaten and digested by all the ani- mals of the farm. And yet a sufficiency of protein must be fed since the nitrogenous substances constitute so large a proportion of the animal body, since many of the vital proc- esses are dependent on them, and since they are so neces- sary to performance as in the production of flesh, milk and muscular exertion. Crude fibre is that tough woody portion of the plant which constitutes its framework. It is the portion that re- mains after the softer parts have been dissolved and washed out. Young plants contain considerably less of crude fibre than those which have produced seeds, and the seeds of plants also contain much less than the stems and leaves. It is not easily digested, especially by animals which do not ruminate. The portion digested is thought to have prac- tically the same function as the other digestible carbohy- drates, and is supposed to equal them in value. The indi- gestible portion, oftentimes a tax upon the digestion, may sometimes serve a useful purpose in the bulk which it fur- nishes. Ash, the inorganic portion of plants and of animal bod- ies, is that part which remains after either has been con- sumed by flame. In plants it is most abundant in the leaves. These mineral matters are usually amply present in all foods to meet the needs of animals, with the exception of salt, which must be supplied. In the form of lime and phosphate they go to make bone, as soda and chlorine they aid the di- gestive juices, and as iron they probably help in the forma- tion of the red corpuscles in the blood. For reasons that will be manifest young and growing animals need them in largest supply. Importance of nitrogenous substances. — From what has been said, it will be apparent that the nitrogenous sub- stances of the body are by far the most important since they include nearly all the solid parts except the fat and the min- eral constituents of the bones. Therefore, for the sake of Digitized by Microsoft® 170 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS brevity, it is usual to speak of all the nitrogenous substance of the body as flesh, as distinguished from fat and bone. For a similar reason the word fat is used to denote all the non-nitrogenous substance of the body, both the real fat and the other substance. Likewise the word bone is fre- quently used to denote only the mineral constituents of bone, although much of the substance of bone is nitroge- nous organic matter. The flesh of the animal body is also referred to as protein substance and the fat as non-protein substance. It should be remembered that these various terms are only close approximations to the truth. The discussion of the various food factors in feeding stuffs should not close without some reference to their functions in producing heat and in sustaining muscular ex- ertion. The influence which they exert on milk production is touched upon elsewhere (see p. 413). Heat in the animal body results from the constant proc- ess of oxidation or burning of waste tissue and of food sub- stance which is going on everywhere in every part of the body to which the blood reaches. The heat supply is de- pendent on the food supply, for the tissues that are oxidized or burned come orignially from the food. This oxidation is maintained with no gain of substance but of loss, as the products of the combustion, carbonic acid gas, water and urea must be gotten rid of by the excretory organs. It is estimated that of the whole quantity of food eaten by an animal for maintenance about four-fifths are required to sustain the demand occasioned by the production of heat. Since the nitrogenous substance, the fats, and the car- bohydrates of the food are all oxidizable, they may be all used as sources of heat. But the fats and the carbohy- drates are the most suitable since their oxidation in the blood is much more readily effected than that of the ni- trogenous substance. They are also on the whole much cheaper, as previously intimated (see p. 168). Regulation of animal heat. — How the heat of the ani- mal body is regulated cannot be discussed here. But in Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN FEEDING l7t passing it may be said that the following are chief among the influences concerned in such regulation: (i) The kind and amounts of the food fed; (2) the temperature to which animals are exposed; (3) the warming of food and drink taken into the stomach; (4) the amount of the muscular ex- ertion allowed or demanded; (5) the conduction and radia- tion of heat from the skin; and (6) the evaporation of water from the skin and lungs. Muscular exertion may be classed as external and in- ternal. The former is the muscular exertion called for in effecting the movements concerned in the various vital processes within the body. The latter is the muscular exer- tion called for by animals when exercising or performing physical work. The relation between these is very close. Of whatever kind it may be, it calls for a constant supply of heat to maintain it, and the greater the exertion, of course the greater the supply of heat demanded. Of course this heat must all come directly or indirectly from the food. Be- yond this, the relation between food supply and muscular exertion is not well understood. It is certain, however, that the food given to the animal to support muscular exertion must be something more than fuel, that is, it must be partly ' nitrogenous and it must be liberal in supply. Stated in sum- mary : ( I ) Muscular exertion is dependent on the food sup- ply; (2) the greater the exertion to be made, the greater must the food supply be; (3) the greater the exertion, the greater also must be the proportion of the nitrogenous sub- stance in the food. Food or feeding ration. — The term food or feeding ra- tion more commonly means a combination of the food fac- tors used in feeding animals in any given instance, but sometimes it may mean but one food factor. When the proportion of the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous nutri- ents are present in a food ration in that degree that will best effect the ends sought when fed, it is said to be in bal- ance (see p. 172). When not fed in balance waste in some Digitized by Microsoft® 1/2 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS of the nutrients will follow since they cannot be all re- sorbed into the system, and energy is taxed in removing the excess from the same. Nor can that happy equilibrium in the process of digestion, assimilation and excretion be attained, which is necessary to the best utilization of all the food fed unless it is in balance, not only in its nutrients but in the proportion of the bulk that accompanies the nutrients. The definition of a balanced ration usually considers only the balance of digestible nutrients, while the balance in bulk and concentration may be of but little less importance. Cer- tain foods have also a physiological influence in addition to the nutrients they contain. The comprehensive definition, therefore, of a balanced ration may be made to read thus : A balanced ration is one in which the bulk and concentrates, the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous nutrients, and the physiological influence which these exert in addition to their food value, are present in that degree which will best pro- duce the results sought from feeding them. The great im- portance, therefore, of feeding foods in at least approxi- mate balance is very evident. Information regarding the balancing of rations is ob- tained from two sources ; viz., from the experience of feeders and from a table of feeding standards (see p. 184). The first of these sources is by no means to be despised, as an old and experienced feeder, without any knowledge of feeding standards, will frequently take foodstuffs and, guided only by his own judgment, will obtain superior results from feed- ing them to those obtained by the inexperienced feeder who blends them in exact accord with what is called for in the feeding standards. This result may not follow from any error in the standards, but from the presence or absence of the physiological influences referred to above, or because of lack of equilibrium between the bulk and nutrition, or from both causes combined. Notwithstanding, a knowledge of feeding standards and of the way in which they may be util- ized in feeding will always be of great service to those en- gaged in this work, because of the wide range of its general Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN FEEDING 1 73 practical application. The feeder who gains his knowledge only through experience and from tradition, is long in gath- ering it, and his knowledge of compounding rations is usu- ally confined to the productions of but limited areas. The definition of a feeding ration does not necessarily call for a balanced food. Nor does it imply that more than one kind of food shall be used. Grass pasture, though it may embrace but one variety of grass, is none the less a food ration than one formed by blending any number of foods. In some instances a single food may make a bal- anced ration quite as effectively as a combination of foods, since it may contain within it, not only the requisite propor- tions of both nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous constituents to efifect a given end, but it may also contain the requisite bulk that should accompany the feeding of the nutrients. Table of feeding stuffs. — Feeding stuffs vary greatly in their nutritive constituents, that is, they vary in the total dry matter which they contain and in the proportion of the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous factors, as carbohy- drates, fat and crude fibre, and in the proportions of these that are digestible. They also vary in the relative propor- tions of mineral matter which they contain, and in the pro- portion of the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous factors, as protein, carbohydrates, fat and crude fibre, and in the pro- portions of these that are digestible. They further vary in the relative proportions of mineral matter which they contain. Information regarding the relative amounts of each of these factors have been obtained through analyses made by the chemist of the various foodstuffs, and of the proportions of the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous factors digestible in each instance. The proportion of these that are digestible have been obtained from chemical analyses based upon actual experience in feeding the respective foods. The great value of such information to the practical feeder will be at once apparent. These proportions are stated in percentages, and for convenience of reference are collected and given in tables in orderly sequence. Such a collection is known as a table of feeding stuffs. Briefly then, a table Digitized by Microsoft® 174 ' FEEDING FARM ANIMALS of feeding stuffs is a table giving the chemical constituents of food expressed in percentages. In some instances these tables only give the relative proportions of the various fac- tors that are digestible. In others the total percentages of each factor is also given. It should be remembered, however, that these tables are only to be taken as general guides. The chemist and the scientist can ascertain the proportionate percentages of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous constituents in a feeding stuff or in the feeding stuffs fed in a given instance. But the following influences among others that may be named lead to variation: (i) Plants of the same variety differ in the nutrients which they contain at different stages of growth and of maturity. (2) These percentages vary with the inherent character of the soils on which the plants have been grown, with the manures applied or withheld, and with the cultivation given. (3) They further vary with the time and method of harvesting, with the degree and nature of the ex- posure while curing and in some instances in the way in which they are prepared for feeding. Moreover, (4) the various classes of animals differ in their ability to digest and assimilate foods, more especially the crude fibre, and the same is true of individual animals of the same class. These tables, therefore, are only to be taken as approximate esti- mates of the nutrients which the foods contain. But they are reasonably close approximations since with the more im- portant at least of the foods the constituents submitted are the averages of a number of analyses and their digestibility as stated represents as a rule the average of a number of feeding trials. Table of feeding stuffs. — Feeding stuffs vary greatly in the more important feeding stuffs mentioned in this work is now submitted and also their digestibility as far as both could be obtained from American sources. This table is based on the composition of feeding stuffs as given in the revised edition of Farmer's Bulletin No. 22 issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Those who desire to follow the subject further are referred to this bulletin. The figures Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN FEEDING I75 giving the digestibility of the various feeding stuffs submit- ted are based chiefly upon the digestion trials conducted by the experiment stations and compiled by bindsay in the re- port of the Massachusetts (Hatch) Experiment Station for 1896. Table I. GIVING THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ORDINARY FEEDIXG STUFFS AND OF THEIR AVERAGE DIGESTIBILITY. Note 1. The figures printed in ordinary type show the percentage of composition of each constituent. Note 2. The figures below in eacli instance sliow the percent- age of these quantities that are digestible. Cured fodders ■o aj Eed clover hay 78.2 61 Alsike clover hay — 90.3 62 Crimson clover hay 90.4 62 White clover hay... 90.3 66 Alfalfa hay 91.6 60 Cowpea hay 80.3 59 Vetch hay 88.7 66 Soy bean hay 88.7 62 Timothy hay 86.8 57 Orchard grass hay 90.1 56 Red top hay 91.3 60 Millet hay 92.3 65 Corn fodder 57.8 60 Corn stover 59.5 60 Sorghum fodder 20.6 67 Rye straw 92.9 46 V\''heat straw 90.4 43 Barley straw 85.8 53 Oat straw 90.8 ^ (D tfi (d 1* Food from cereals >, 0) ■SS'Ssc- and other seeds i3 3 ^ rbohy ther ibre ( en fr< xtrac rn C ■H C"" By Products go, bohydra ;her tha: Itrogen ;tract) 0) u c t^ •^ UJ ^ c « J3 e z fe D <; Wheat bran ..88.5 16.1 4.5 54.5 8.0 5.4 61 79 68 69 22 Wheat middlings ..87.9 15.6 4.0 60.4 4.6 3.3 79 82 85 85 36 Brewers' grains, wet 24.3 5.4 1.6 12.5 3.8 1.0 63 73 86 62 40 Brewers' grains, dry 92.0 24,1 6.7 44.8 13.0 3.4 62 79 91 59 53 Malt sprouts ..89.8 23.2 1.7 48.5 10.7 5.7 67 80 100 69 34 Corn and cob meal ..84.9 8.5 3.5 64.8 6.6 1.5 79 52 84 88 45 Gluten meal 91 4 30.0 8 8 49.2 88 2.6 0.8 87 88' 93' Gluten feed .92.2 23.4 8.3 53.2 6.2 1.1 84 85 83 87 72 Oil cake, old process 90.8 32.9 7.9 35.4 8.9 5.7 79 89 89 78 57 Oil c'ke, new pr'cess 90.1 35.9 3.0 36.8 g.g 56 SO 85 93 84 74 Cottonseed meal ... .91.8 42.3 13.1 23.6 5.6 7.2 76 88 93 64 32 Cottonseed hulls ... .88.9 4.2 2.2 33.4 46.3 2.8 41 6 79 34 47 Whole cow's milk.. .12.8 3.6 3.7 4.9 0.7 98 94 100 98 Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN FEEDING 1^7 Table I — Continued D 1 --. U m" ^ P ,„ o ^ C o Field roots 3a £ 3 a u 9 "3 f=5 > u K-^ C M s M ? H Eh B ■p Fh Z lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs ..17.5 0.7 1.2 8.25 10.6 0.15 0.2 9.1 12.0 1:12 . .20.0 1: 9 ..22.5 1.5 11.75 0.25 13.5 1: 8 ..24.0 1.6 11.7 0.3 13.6 1: 7.5 ..26.0 2.4 13.9 0.5 16.8 1: 6 ..22.5 1.8 12.0 0.6 14.4 1: 7 ..25.B 2.S 14.6 0.8 18.2 1: 5.5 ..24.0 •'' 5 13.1 0.4 16.0 18.75 1: 54 1: 6.5 . .27.0 2.5 15!75 0^5 ..26.0 3.0 15.8 0.7 19.5 1: 5.5 ..25.0 2.7 15.6 0.6 18.9 1: 6 ..26 3.0 16.0 0.5 19.5 1: 5.5 .25 3.5 15.15 0.6 19.25 1: 4.6 Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN FEEDING 185 Table Ill—Continued Non-nitrogenous substance vy in Sot. « tH oj C •2" CD cj ^ tog S ■a a 5 d 3 > 2 M £ s .Q 03 4-> CQ +J ri'^ ^ — h.^ rH ^ ^-. K — ,Q Cli ;3 c4." 3 cS cS d " P d 3 u ■S"- -a« ^ ^".S bo 0" 3 H H Eh s E^ Z lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs 8, Swine, fattening (1st period).. ..36.0 5.0 27.6 32.5 1: 5.5 Swine, fattening (2d period).. ..31.0 4.0 24.0 28.0 1: 6 Swine, fattening (3d period).. ..23.5 2.7 17.56 20.25 1: 6.5 9, Cattle growing: Age in I Average live wt months per liead 2- 3 165 lbs 23.0 4.0 16.8 2.0 22.8 1: 4.7 3- 6 325 lbs 23.4 3.2 15.0 1.0 19.2 1: 5 6-12 550 lbs 24.0 2.5 14.4 0.6 17.5 1: 6 12-18 750 lbs 24.0 2.0 13.6 0.4 16.0 1: 7 18-24 925 lbs 24.0 1.6 12.5 0.3 14.4 1: 8 10, Siieep gro'wing: Age in Average live wt monthi 3 per head 5- 6 62 lbs 28.0 3.2 16.8 0.8 20.8 1: 5.5 6- 8 74 lbs 25.0 2.7 14.52 0.6 17.82 1: 5.6 8-11 83 lbs 23.0 2.1 12.1 0.5 14.7 1: 6 11-15 91 lbs 22.5 1.7 11.5 0.4 13.6 1: 7 15-20 95 lbs 22.0 1.4 10.9 0.3 12.6 1: 8 11, Swine, growing and fattening Age in Average live wt months per head 2- 3 50 lbs 42.0 7.5 30.0 37.5 1: i 3- 5 110 lbs 34.0 5.0 25.0 30.0 1: 5 5- 6 137 lbs 31.5 4.3 23.65 27.95 1: 5.5 6- 8 187 lbs 21.0 3.4 20.4 23.8 1: 6 8-12 275 lbs 21.0 2.5 16.2 18.75 1: 6.5 Note— The weights given above represent German pounds, each of which is equal to 1 1-10 pounds avoirdupois. Practically this fact is of but little importance since the weights of the animals and of the foods given are relative. A careful study of the table of feeding standards will abundantly repay the labor thus expended. The truths which it teaches with reference to practical feeding are many and far-reaching. Prominent among them are the following : I. That for the maintenance of animals at rest, the nu- tritive ratios are the widest. For any kind of production, animals need more food and of a more nitrogenous charac- ter. The additional quantity of food required is principally Digitized by Microsoft® l86 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS for the production of heat, and the additional nitrogenous food for the production of muscular tissue or of muscular exertion. 2. From an examination of 9, 10, and 11 in the table, it will be noticed that for all growing animals the nutritive ratios are narrow and that the younger the animal is, the narrower is the ratio, for the reason that for the devel- opment of all the important parts of the animal, nitrog- enous food is absolutely essential and in sufficient supply to secure the necessary development needed above what will be oxidized and excreted. 3. While for animals at rest but a small amount of fat is required, it must be increased very considerably for ani- mals working or fattening, for the reason in the one case that heat is required which the fat readily supplies and in the other that fat in the food conduces both directly and indirectly to the formation of body fat. 4. An examination of the total nutritive substance as given in the table which appertains to the growing of cat- tle, sheep and swine respectively, will show that the total nutritive substance set down as being required for each age given per 1000 pounds live weight, decreases relatively more or less rapidly with advancing age in the animal. But with it the relative increase made decreases even more rap- idly (see p. 371). This indicates the great importance of securing, during the whole time of the animal's develop- ment, the largest increase consistent with economy. 5. Cattle that are reduced in flesh and fat cannot a: once be quickly fattened as before quick fattening can fol- low, the animals to be fattened must possess a certain pro- portion of both organized and circulatory protein before they are capable of rapidly storing up the protein and fat of the food as new fat (see p. 377). 6. The proportion of fat and also the proportion of the same in the standard ration for milch cows is less than in the rations for fattening. Since the fat of the ration does not increase the percentage of fat in the milk, but it does Digitized by Microsoft® PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN FEEDING 187 slightly increase the quantity of milk by protecting some of the nitrogenous suJastance of the food from oxidation and increasing the amount available for the formation of cells in the milk glands. 7. The nutritive ratio for the food of milch cows is comparatively narrow. The explanation is first, that pro- tein is necessary for the production of dry substance in the milk; and second, that within certain limits the percentage of the dry substance will be increased with an increase of the nitrogenous substance in the food. 8. Sheep require relatively more fodder than larger an- imals and fodder with a relatively narrower nutritive ratio, both for maintenance at rest and in fattening. They can bear a more concentrated food than cattle and the food should be less watery. For the production of wool only, it is only necessary to keep the animals in good condition, hence an excess of nitrogenous food would be waste when wool is the sole or even principal object sought. 9. Swine eat much more food relatively than other an- imals, especially during the early stages of growth and fat- tening, and they increase in weight correspondingly. But in both respects their ability to increase in relative weight diminishes with advancing age and with advancement in the fattening period. 10. Horses that work severely call for not only a pro- portionate increase in the amount of the food, but they also require food with a greater proportion of nitrogenous constituents. Notwithstanding the valuable assistance which these tables render to the feeder in choosing and balancing ra- tions suitable to the needs of the animals fed, the fact re- mains, that rations balanced from the standpoint of chem- ical analysis are only to be considered as approximate rather than as absolute guides. The following influences among others may lead to variations in the results from feeding rations so balanced : ( i ) The inherent and cultivated appe- tites of animals to take the same food vary greatly and Digitized by Microsoft® l88 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS these variations produce corresponding variations in the re- sults from feeding the same foods. (2) The inherent power of animals of the same age and class to digest certain foods also varies greatly, and with these variations the re- sults obtained will correspondingly vary. (3) Foods vary in their digestibility with variations in the soils on which they grew, and with the mechanical and chemical condition of the same, also with the degree of the development and maturity, hence the constituents of these will not be in strict accord with the chemical analyses given in feeding stand- ards. (4) Some foods have a physiological influence which is favorable or adverse to digestion, and this influence will lead to even important variations from feeding rations in equal chemical balance. (5) Adaptation or the want of this in the relative proportion of bulky food and concen- trates fed, will have an important bearing on the results ob- tained from feeding them. And (6) the degree of succu- lence in the ration has also a modifying influence. Digitized by Microsoft® ART III. The more important of the foods grown in the United States and Canada are discussed in Part III; also their preparation for feeding. The discussion of the various sub- jects is in the following order: Chapter XI discusses food from cured fodders; Chapter XII, food from cereals and other seeds ; Chapter XIII, food from by-products ; Chapter XIV, food from pastures ; and Chapter XV, food from field roots and tubers. Chapter XVI dwells briefly on preparing foods for feeding. Digitized by Microsoft® O Q O u M P4 W H H O « (n O O w H D u (J Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XI. FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS. The term fodders, as used in this chapter, means bulky foods such as hay, corn and sorghum stalks, also ftraw of the various small cereals. The necessity for feed- ing cured fodders is usually proportionate to the length of the winter, but under no conditions can their use be entirely dispensed with. Cured fodders only are discussed in Chap- ter XI. Fodders are also frequently fed in the green form. Those who desire further information in regard to feeding them thus are referred to the book "Soiling Crops and the Silo," by the author. The leguminous fodders discussed are: (i) Clover hay; (2) alfalfa hay; (3) cowpea hay; (4) hay from vetches, and (5) bean hay. Those derived from the grasses proper are: (i) Timothy hay and (2) hay from grasses other than timothy. Those derived from small grain bearing plants are : ( i ) Hay from the small cereals, (2) hay from cereals mixed and (3) millet hay. Those de- rived from corn and the sorghums are : ( i ) Corn fodder ; (2) sorghum fodder and (3) non-saccharine sorghum fod- der. Lastly, the discussion of straw as fodder includes straw furnished by all the small cereals. Clover hay. — In one or another of its varieties, clo- ver may be grown with more or less success in nearly all the arable areas of the United States and Canada, but it has higher adaptation 1 datively to conditions North, rather than South. Its distribution is wider and much more general than that of alfalfa since it may be grown on a greater variety of soils. It may be designated the standard fodder crop of the farms of the United States, and also of much of Canada, but it is not probable that it will ever become greatly popular when fed away from the farm. This is owing first, to the extent to which the leaves are lost while Digitized by Microsoft® 192 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS it is being handled in transportation ; second, to the dust it frequently contains, the outcome of curing too little or too much before it is stored, ancl third, to the fact that it is less satisfactory than timothy on the whole as a fodder for horses. The varieties of clover chiefly grown differ from each other in feeding value, but the elements of difference are physical rather than chemical. The common red, the stand- ard clover grown, is of medium fineness in both the cut- tings, which are commonly obtained the same season. The mammoth variety has stems so coarse that the waste in feeding may be considerable. The alsike, of fine growth, is usually fed with little waste. White clover with its small stems and leaves adds comparatively little to the bulk of the ordinary meadow. Crimson clover has a relatively large proportion of stem and the stems soon become woody, hence, as a hay, it is not so popular as the medium red or the alsike. Moreover, the stems are covered with hairs, and in these, on hay made from clover well advanced to- ward maturity before cutting, the danger is present, that when fed to horses, the hairs will gather into balls in the di- gestive tract and so lead to impaction. Japan clover, used for hay to some extent in the South, has proved about equal to Bermuda hay as food for cows. It would probably be correct to say, that clover provides more hay for live stock, and especially for cattle and sheep, than all other legumes taken together. Its preeminence in this respect is owing to the wide range in its distribution, its high palatability, and the richness of its nutrients. For cattle, clover hay is excellently adapted to their needs owing to the relish with which it is eaten and to the equilibrium in its nutrients. It is virtually in itself a balanced food for them, especially for making growth and producing milk, but, owing to its bulkiness, concentrates are fre- quently fed along with it for making quick growth and are commonly always fed along with it when seeking abundant milk production or rapid fattening. No better fodder can Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS I93 be given to calves, when the clover has been cut while young and tender. So excellent is it for such feeding that, where practicable, a supply of it should be specially stored for such feeding by those who need it. Like alfalfa it has high adaptation for being fed along with corn in fattening cattle. Since clover, however, is not quite so rich in pro- tein as alfalfa, some concentrate rich in protein should be added, though in limited quantity. Oil cake, gluten meal or cottonseed meal are very suitable. When it forms the sole fodder ration for cows in milk, as much as half the concentrate fed may be corn, but in proportion as corn fodder or corn stover is substituted for clover, the propor- tion ol the corn fed should be decreased. For sheep, clover of fine growth and well harvested is particularly excellent. Its value for such feeding is les- sened in proportion as it is coarse, over ripe when cut or over dried when cured. For breeding ewes, good clover hay alone may furnish a sufficient ration in itself until the lambing season. When it forms the sole fodder part of the ration, it is not necessary to add much protein to corn when fed as the concentrate, but 5 to 10 per cent of such food as oil cake will prove helpful. In feeding swine, especially in winter, clover nay may be made to serve a useful purpose ; first, as a source of pro- tein and second, to give distension to the digestive organs. It is particularly valuable in feeding brood sows to which such carbonaceous foods as corn and rye are being fed. It IS frequently fed simply as hay, but the ration is improved by chaffing the hay, adding the meal and steaming the mix- ture. Such food, however, should not be fed to swine be- ing fattened. For horses, clover has been assigned a lower place than is meet for such a fodder. This is owing chiefly to the dust so frequently found in it, as the result of over or of under-curing at the time of storing. This dust, penetrat- ing the lungs of horses to which such hay is fed for a pro- lono-ed period, is much liable to produce heaves. It is also Digitized by Microsoft® 194 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS claimed and probably with truth, that working horses fed on it are liable to sweat more than horses fed timothy or na- tive hay. Nevertheless, it furnishes fodder quite suitable for foals and brood mares when it is of good quality. The pre- judice to feeding well made hay composed of timothy with a goodly sprinkling of clover in it, is not well founded, as the clover really adds to the feeding value of the hay. Alfalfa hay is the principal reliance for hay in all the mountain states of the West. In the states of the Central West, between the Mississippi and the semi-arid region, it is also extensively grown for fodder, and in sections of va- rious other states, its growth is extending more or less rap- idly. As hay it is usually fed in the uncut form, but when run through a cutting box and mixed with cut straw, it in- sures a much larger consumption of the latter. Recently a preparation has been made from it known as alfalmo which consists of alfalfa hay, fine in character, cut early, cured in good form and ground more or less finely. It is sometimes fed to young calves when started on fodder. The value of alfalfa hay is largely dependent on the stage of growth at which it is cut, and on the nature of the curing. Alfalfa cut, when, say one-fifth of the blossoms have appeared and cured without loss of leaves or exposure to rain, may be fully 50 per cent more valuable than alfalfa cured under opposite conditions. When the conditions of growing and curing are correct, alfalfa is somewhat more valuable as a fodder than the clovers but if the stems have become woody before it is cut, and if in addition many of the leaves are lost in the curing, its feeding value may be much less than that of well made clover hay. For cattle, alfalfa hay properly made is unexcelled. Cattle are very fend of this fodder. It is easily masticated and digested, is fed with but little waste, and is very rich in protein. Hay made from it, of thick growth and cut early, makes unexcelled fodder for calves. Young cattle will come through the winter in good form on alfalfa alone, and will also make a good growth. It has special adaptation Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS I95 for being fed to cattle that are being fattened along with carbonaceous food such as corn. When corn is virtually the exclusive grain ration fed, alfalfa is so far superior as roughage to corn or sorghum, that feeding it should effect a saving of not less than 33 per cent in the grain fed. Its large protein content makes it highly suitable for pregnant cows or cows in milk. When fed to the latter as the sole fodder, fully 50 per cent of the grain fed may be corn. For sheep, it is quite as valuable as for cattle. Sheep grown chiefly upon it like cattle similarly grown, attain to a relatively large size. Breeding ewes may be successfully wintered on alfalfa of good quality without grain, up to the season for lambing. As when fattening cattle, it should effect a saving of fully ;^t, per cent in the grain ration when fed to sheep. As swine fodder, when of good quality, alfalfa hay is frequently fed to brood sows in the winter and also to other swine, but is relatively more suitable for the former be- cause of its bulkiness. In some instances it is fed as hay, in others in the cut form and in admixture with meal, steamed or not steamed, but preferably steamed where the cost involved is not excessive. The leaves are much prized for such feeding when they accumulate sufficiently for such a use. In corn and alfalfa growing areas, alfalfa hay may be made to furnish a very considerable proportion of the ration for swine in winter. For horses. — In some sections, as in areas where alfalfa grows very abundantly and the grasses grow less abun- dantly, alfalfa furnishes the chief fodder fed to horses. It has been found very suitable for colts, horses that are idle and also for brood mares both when carrying and nursing their foals. As it is more or less laxative when fed to horses driven faster than a walk, it produces too much looseness in the bowels, especially at first. Alfalfa hay and corn furnish a more suitable food for horses than timothy and corn, viewed from the standpoint of nutrients, since it is in better balance. Tests have shown that horses will Digitized by Microsoft® 196 ' FEEDING FARM ANIMALS maintain flesh better on alfalfa hay than on timothy hay. Like clover, unless due care is taken in curing it, the hay is much liable to be dusty; this lowers its value much as a food for horses which soon become very fond of it and may eat it to excess. Cowpea hay, not required in the North because of the large number of other hay plants that may be grown, is very commonly made in nearly all parts of the South. No other plant in the South of equal value for hay is grown over so wide an area. In many of its varieties it may be grown for hay after the removal of a crop grown previ- ously the same season. It furnishes hay of high quality viewed from the standpoints of palatability and nutrition. When well cured, live stock relish it quite as much as, or even more than alfalfa, and in nutrients it is very similar. The yields average about two tons an acre and run all the way from one-half ton to five tons. It has been claimed that two tons of cowpea hay an acre will furnish in total digestible nutrients more than a similar area yielding 40 bushels of oats or 30 bushels of corn. But the curing of cowpea hay is somewhat difficult, and in some varieties it is not easily handled because of the running character of the vines. By cattle, cowpea hay is not only relished, but for growing cattle, no fodder in the South is superior to it. In fattening cattle it feeds well along with corn stover or corn fodder, but its highest use in the South as food for stock, is found in producing milk. For this purpose it has proved fully equal to alfalfa and somewhat superior to clover hay and has been claimed to be even superior to corn silage. The value of the hay for such feeding is much influenced by the stage of maturity at which the crop is cut. Hay with grain well advanced toward maturity is more valuable for fattening cattle than hay cut during the period even of medium bloom and it is much more easily cured, but it may lose something in palatability. For the silo, they should be reasonably well advanced before being harvested. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS I97 In feeding sheep and lambs, cowpea hay, though not much used because of the relatively small amount of such feeding done in the South, has high adaptation. Of course, hay produced by the finer growing varieties is more valu- able than what is bulky. What is said about the value of vetch hay for fattening sheep (see p. 198) will apply about equally to cowpea hay. If additional grain were ad- ded, corn, barley, rye and even oats would prove very suit- able. For milk production, cowpea hay cut, say when the plants are in the late stages of bloom, should answer well for ewes nursing lambs. For swine, cowpea hay is not well adapted, owing to the relatively small amount of the vine consumed, except when the crop has been cut at an early stage of growth. But when it has been harvested at maturity and the fodder much injured by rain, it may be in order to feed the loose sheaves or bundles to swine that will search out and con- sume the peas. For horses. — This hay is considerably prized in the South, not only for feeding brood mares, weanling foals and indeed all young horses of the draught types and also of the standard bred classes. Such food adds to the size. For working horses and mules it serves about the same purposes as alfalfa (see p. 195) and answers well for being fed with a grain ration consisting of corn and oats. As with vetch hay, more or less dust is likely to be present. This, of course, is so far objectionable. Hay from vetches. — Vetches are frequently grown for hay, but more commonly in conjunction with one of the small cereals in order to furnish them the support neces- sary to prevent them from falling on the ground during the later stages of growth. For this purpose rye is some- times sown, but more commonly the cereal of support is wheat or oats. Hay from these is more relished than hay from rye. Vetch hay is thus grown from the winter and spring varieties of the common vetch and also from the sand or hairy vetch. Such hay is grown to a considerable Digitized by Microsoft® 198 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS extent in the Pacific states, and to a less extent in the South. In the former large yields of hay are obtained es- pecially from the common vetch which is highly nutritious and is much relished by stock. The feeding value is much influenced by the stage of maturity at which it is cut. The more grain the hay possesses and the more mature it is up to the limit of not lessening the palatability of the plant, the more valuable is it for fodder. By cattle, vetch hay is much relished. Grown thickly and cut when the first pods have formed, it makes a most excellent fodder for young calves. It is probably more val- uable for older cattle when more mature. When fed to beef cattle and also to dairy cattle, the most suitable vetch hay is obtained when the grain is a little short of maturity. Such hay is especially valuable for producing milk. Vetch hay made from vetches and oats grown together is also al- most equally good for producing milk. For sheep, it is admirably adapted. The growth is finer than that of the pea, hence there is even less waste in feed- ing vetch hay to sheep than in feeding pea hay. Vetch hay cut at any stage between that of full bloom and the filling of the pods makes admirable hay for sheep being carried through the winter and especially for ewes nursing lambs. Such hay will virtually suffice for nursing ewes without other food, and when the hay is almost mature before it is cut, sheep may be fattened by feeding vetch hay alone when it can be spared for such a use. As with peas, exposure to rain while being cured speedily reduces the feeding value. For swine, vetch hay pure and simple is virtually of lit- tle value, except when cut not later than the stage of early bloom. But when fed in the mature form, swine will, of course, find food in the grain to the extent even of fattening upon it, as when they are allowed to glean amid the mature though unharvested crop. But this makes no use of the vines for food, which would be a waste that in ordinary feeding could not be defended. However, should the har- vested crop be greatly injured by rain, it would be justifi- Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS I99 able to feed vetches to swine in the loose sheaves or bun- dles in which they are usually harvested, except when the straw is wanted for bedding. For horses, vetch hay stands much on a par with clo- ver hay as a food. It is richer in nutrients than clover and horses are fond of it, but like clover it is not easily cured so as to be free from dust. When grown in admixture, as with wheat or oats, the combination makes excellent fodder for horses when cut somewhat short of maturity. Bean hay. — Hay is seldom or never made from the common field bean (Faba vulgaris), but it is sometimes made from the soy bean {Glycine hispida), the velvet bean (Mucuna uHlis), and the horse bean, a variety probably of the species Taba vulgaris. It is more frequently made from the soy bean than from the other plants of the bean famil}', but soy beans also are more commonly grown to provide grain rather than hay. Soy bean hay which yields on an average about two tons an acre is much relished by stock when cut and cured so as to retain the bulk of the leaves. Owing to the intertwining nature of the vines, the harvest- ing of velvet beans is not easy nor is the crop easily cured, hence it does not stand as high, relatively, in the popular es- timate as it otherwise would. But its hay is said to be much relished by stock and in some instances the cutting may be so regulated as to give two of these crops a year. Horse beans are seldom harvested for hay. They are usually grown primarily for the grain and incidentally for the straw. They are slow in curing but may be made into hay: should occasion require this. As curing them thus us- ually calls for considerable work, it is oftentimes considered preferable when the facilities are present, to cure them in the silo along with other feed such as corn. By cattle, hay made from the crops named is much rel- ished, but it is not commonly fed to them in any considerable quantity nor in prolonged feeding, since in nearly all in- stances such fodder may be obtained with less labor from other plants that may be grown in the same locality. It is Digitized by Microsoft® 200 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS more commonly fed to dairy cows, as the high protein con- tent in each is conducive to free milk production. It is claimed that soy bean hay should be made before the plants approach the maturing period or much of the grain will es- cape mastication and will not be properly digested. In sheep feeding, hay from these plants is not much used for the reason just given as to why it is not much used in feeding cattle. But when cut early and well cured, sheep eagerly consume it, especially after they have become ac- customed to it. It is particularly useful in feeding ewes nursing lambs and which have not yet been turned out to pasture. When largely made up of coarse stems from which many of the leaves have been lost, the value of the hay for feeding sheep is proportionately lessened. In feeding szvine, bean hay is of but little value, owing to the small quantities of it the animals consume. But, of course, hogs may glean profitably in soy bean and velvet bean fields, when the crops are not to be otherwise har- vested. Common field beans and horse beans are too val- uable for such feeding. Swine are not so fond of beans in the raw state as they usually are of peas, corn and the small cereal grains. Horses and mules may be fed bean hay when available. To young horses and brood mares it may be fed with much freedom, when the proportion of grain in the hay is not too large. The horse bean, when fed as hay in the nearly ma- tured form, may be made to furnish a large proportion of the fodder and grain required. The additional grain should be corn when available. What has been said of the horse bean will probably apply also to the soy bean. Timothy hay. — This crop now grown most extensively in the northern part of the United States, and in nearly all of the arable areas of Canada, stands higher as a fodder for horses than any other plant grown. In states farther south, it is also grown more or less, but in these it is not relied upon to anything like so great an extent in providing fod- der for horses. No other kind of hay is so suitable for Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 201 shipping and none brings so high a price in the average market. For cattle, timothy does not rank high when fed alone. It is but little ahead of corn or sorghum in its protein con- tent. Usually the market value for timothy unmixed and of good quality, makes it too dear for such feeding. The yield of timothy is also relatively lowr compared with the fodders just named. Timothy of fine growth, cut early and well cured, may be fed to calves with suitable adjuncts, but when coarse and woody, the results from such feeding will not prove satisfactory. If fed as the exclusive fodder por- tion to Cattle that are being fattened, the concentrate fed along with it should be rich in such protein foods as oil meal, gluten meal, pea meal, cottonseed meal and wheat bran. When fed to cows in milk, even larger proportions of these foods should be fed. When grown on farms for such feeding, it is usually sown in conjunction with clover. The two grow admirably together and furnish a mixed hay well suited to the needs of cattle. The larger the propor- tion of the clover in such hay, the more valuable it is rela- tively for cattle and sheep, but the reverse of this is true though with some limitations with reference to horses. (See P- 193)- For sheep, timothy when fed alone, is even more un- suitable than for cattle. This is especially true of timothy that is coarse and overripe, as sheep will not readily eat such hay. Should they be compelled to eat it as the sole fodder ration, they will not maintain good form, unless con- centrates rich in protein are fed to them. It is quite ad- missible, however, to feed mixed timothy and clover to sheep when the crop has been cut at an early stage in the maturity of the timothy. For swine, timothy hay is quite unsuited. The swine do not care to eat it and it is also ill suited to their diges- tion. It is questionable if it will pay to feed it to them, even though chafifed and steamed. Digitized by Microsoft® 202 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS For horses, timothy is par excellence the fodder. No fodder grown on the continent will at all compare with it in popularity for this purpose. It occupies the place among horse fodders that oats does among grains. Timothy and oats are the standard and favorite foods for horses wher- ever they can be grown. The high estimate thus put upon timothy arises : First, from its freedom from dust; second, from the little loss re- sulting from handling it; and third, from the fondness which horses show for it. It does not, like clover and al- falfa, produce too much of laxness in the bov/els, and it seems to impart and sustain both nerve and staying power akin to the results that come from feeding oats. It has, moreover, peculiar adaptation for being fed to horses that are driven much and fast or worked hard. But mixed tim- othy and clover has higher adaptation for being fed to foals, young horses, brood mares and horses that are idle because of its higher protein content. Hay from grasses other than timothy. — Prominent among the grasses other than timothy that are grown in the United States for feeding as hay, are Redtop (Agrostis vulgaris), Russian brome (Bromus inermis), Orchard grass {Dactylus glomerata) , Meadow fescue (Festuca pra- tensis). Tall oat grass {Arrhcnatheritm avcnaceum) , West- ern rye grass {Agropynim tcncntm), Kentucky blue grass {Poa pratensis) , Canadian blue grass {Poa compressa) and in the South Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon). The wild grasses of the prairie are also an important source of hay in western and northwestern areas. Other grasses, as for instance. Perennial rye grass (Lolitim perenne), Italian rye grass (LoHitm Italicum), Texas blue grass {Poa ari- chnifera). Rough stalked meadow grass {Poa trivialis). Fowl meadow grass {Poa serofina), Rescue grass {Bromus unioloides) and Velvet grass {Holcus lanatus) are grown more or less largely for fodder, but because of the compara- tively limited areas to which their growth is restricted, they will not be discussed here further than to say that being Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 203 carbonaceous, they should be fed in conjunction with legumes. Redtop, probably more extensively distributed than any other grass, ranks high as a fodder. It is seldom grown alone to provide fodder in northern areas, save in land that is naturally slough-like in character. It is much grown along with timothy on congenial soils, to increase the total yield. The feeding qualities are much like those of timothy, and alone or in conjunction with timothy, it may be fed in much the same way (see p. 200). Russian broinc grass is popular as a dry fodder in large areas of the northwestern states and in nearly all of the cultivated areas of northwestern Canada. The yields are generally in excess of those obtained from timothy, and the feeding value is by many considered higher, owing to the greater leafiness and superior palatability of Russian brome. It is adapted to about the same uses as timothy (see p. 200), but is not so readily cured, nor is it so good a fodder for shipping, nor in all respects for feeding horses. Orchard grass has never become nearly so popular as timothy or redtop as a hay crop. This is owing to its coarse growth, to the greater woodiness of the stems, to the short period during which it may be harvested in season, to the greater degree of the injury it takes from rain, and to the less relish which animals have for it. It must not be under- stood, however, that it will not make good hay if cut and cured properly. It may be fed in substantially the same way as timothy. Meadow fescue is not grown alone to provide dry fod- der over large areas, as it takes longer to form a thick and strong growth than timothy. Nor can it be said that on average soils it produces more abundantly than the standard hay fodder mentioned, although in some of the central western states it has produced more abundantly than tim- othy. Its feeding value is much the same. Tall oat grass, more extensively grown in the South and in the central and far western states than elsewhere on Digitized by Microsoft® 204 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS this continent, has the merit of growing quickly and vigor- ously into hay. Its palatability is not so high relatively as that of timothy, owing to a somewhat bitter principle found in the hay, and to a greater extent in the pasture and to the coarseness of stem and leaf. Nor is it so easily cured as timothy, while it takes greater injury from rain. In feed- ing value it is scarcely equal to timothy, especially for horses, but like timothy it should be fed in conjunction with leguminous foods. Western rye grass, frequently called slender wheat grass, has special adaptation for the prairies of the West and the Northwest, and more particularly for areas too dry for growing other grasses at their best. It is native to much of the prairie region, and under cultivation will pro- duce large yields of hay. The hay is very easily cured, but it is not so much relished as timothy or Russian brome, ow- ing in part at least to its woody character, but it will furnish hay under cultivation on soils too dry for the growth of other cultivated grasses. Its uses are almost identical with those of timothy (see p. 200). Kentucky blue grass is not a good grass to furnish fod- der. Because of the fine and dwarfish habit of growth, the yields are relatively small and unless cut with much prompt- ness at the proper stage of growth, it becomes so dry and woody as to be little relished. Its habitat will ultimately embrace nearly all the tillable areas of the United States. It is very easily cured and may be fed in about the same way as timothy (see p. 200). It is seldom cut for hay ex- cept when it forms a part of another hay crop. Canadian blue grass, like the Kentucky variety, does not give large yields, but it produces more valuable hay, es- pecially for horses. It has so much of body to it, as it were, that it weighs heavily. When the conditions for growth are not really favorable, this grass may frequently be grown with profit for hay. Like all the grasses, when cured it has highest adaptation for feeding horses, especially when at work. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 20S Bermuda grass is by far the most valuable grass grown in the South. It is, stnckly speaking, a summer grass, and one for mild latitudes, as it turns brown with the first frosts of autumn. It will not live in a soil that is penetrated deeply by frost. It will also grow, though by no means equally well, on nearly all the soils of the South. Strickly speaking, it is a pasture grass, but it also makes palatable and nutri- tious hay, although the yields are not large relatively. The aim should be to feed it in conjunction with such fodder as alfalfa or cowpea hay, or with such a concentrate as cotton- seed meal. Wild prairie hay is largely fed in both the American and Canadian Northwest. Of course it is a gradually dimin- ishing quantity, but for many years it will still continue to be an important source of hay in the areas named. It varies greatly in quality with the grasses which compose it, the soils on which it grows, the stage at which it is cut, and the character of the curing. It usually embraces a number of grasses and other plants, some of which partake of the character of the weeds. On the upland the general charac- ter of the growth is fine, but in the sloughs it is usually rank and dense. Harvesting prairie grass is very frequently so long deferred that the value of the hay is lessened although it will bear such treatment better than most grasses. It is also very frequently injured by over exposure in the swath. It is very evident that such hay will vary so much in charac- ter that its feeding value cannot be given in any other than a general way. In tests made, upland prairie hay has been found to possess feeding properties about equal to timothy and to be adapted to the same kinds of feeding (see p. 200). The presence of foreign substances will of course reduce the value of such hay in proportion as they are present. Hay from the small grains. — Hay is sometimes made from the various kinds of small grains grown singly, or in various combinations. When grown singly the hay takes its name from the grain which furnishes it. There is, therefore, rye hay, speltz hay, wheat hay, barley hay, oat Digitized by Microsoft® 206 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS hay, pea hay and vetch hay. The oat is more commonly made to furnish hay than any of the small grains . The ne- cessity for growing hay from these sources is based on the needs of the localities where they are thus grown, and on the attendant conditions of soil and climate. Hay from these crops is made in the same way as hay from the grasses. The time of cutting varies with the use that is to be made of it. The aim, however, in cutting it seeks to retain the green color in the hay without sacrificing entirely the grain product. In other words it seeks to cut the crop as soon as the plants are possessed of a maximum of nutrition and before the crop has matured. Rye hay is probably the least valuable of the kinds of hay made from any of the small cereals. At a very early stage of growth it becomes woody in character and so un- profitable that live stock do not eat it readily unless when chaffed and mixed with other fodders. The matured grain of rye is usually more valuable than the grain and fodder together when harvested short of maturity. Rye hay is less relished by sheep than by other live stock unless it has been cut at or before the early earing stage. Spelts hay is sometimes made in semi-arid regions where hay from other sources is not easily obtained. That it does not produce high yields of fodder is so far an ob- jection to its use. Care must be taken not to allow it to be- come so mature that it will get over-woody. Wheat hay is grown to a considerable extent in certain 01 the Pacific states and in some of the semi-arid country to provide hay chiefly for horses and more particularly for horses at work. On the bench lands of these states it may usually be harvested and cured in the absence of rain. When cut a little short of maturity it makes excellent hay for horses at work, but for other classes of animals on the farm it is usually too costly for such feeding. In other words, other plants may usually be grown that will furnish hay more cheaply. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 207 Barley nay is frequently grown in the western moun- tain and Pacific states, and as with wheat, chiefly for the purpose of providing food for horses. For such a use ii stands high in favor, especially for horses that are being driven. In regions where alfalfa grows, such hay would be too costly for feeding cattle, sheep or swine. If allowed to become mature before it is cut, the beards will make trouble. Oat hay is probably grown more than hay from all the other grains combined. In all parts of the United States where oats can be grown, more or less oat hay is also grown. This hay may be fed with profit under certain conditions to all classes of farm animals except swine. It is chiefly grown to provide food for dairy cows and the aim in grow- _ ing it thus is to furnish fodder and a part of the grain in the same plant, without the necessity for threshing or grind- ing the grain. Such hay usually ranks next to clover hay as fodder for dairy cows. The crop is usually cut with the binder when the grain, is in or nearing the dough stage, tied in small sheaves and cured in the shock. When fed to sheep it should be cut not far beyond the heading out stage. Pea and vetch hays are not usually grown alone, but rather in combination with some other cereal. For the dis- cussion of growing peas thus see p. 208. For the discus- sion relating to vetches see p. 208. Hay from cereals mixed. — Hay is sometimes grown from a mixture of the seed of certain of the cereals. Such fodders are usually more valuable relatively, at least for cer- tain uses, than they would be if grown singly. This arises first, from the finer growth that usually characterizes the hay because of the thicker stand of the plants ; second, from the larger yields that result from the thick stand; third, from the variety in the hay which whets the appetite, and fourth, from the better balance given to the fodder when legumes are grown with non-legurnes. , ' ' ' 1 These mixtures may be varied ii)defin,ite'(y ; the most popular by far are mixtures 'df oats aijid pe^sj oats and Digitized by Microsoft® 208 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS vetches, or of the three combined. In other instances wheat, oats, barley and flax are grown together. When legumes are grown with non-legumes, the aim usually is to have not more of the latter in the mixture than will sustain the le- gumes, but this of course may be varied at the will of the grower. In order to obtain the desired proportions of each plant, the seed must be sown with that end in view, and it may take some time to ascertain how much of each will fur- nish the best fodder. Peas and oats grown together furnish excellent fodder when the crop has been kept from lodging. If cut a little underripe the hay is excellent for all kinds of growing stock. But when fed to growing animals it may be neces- sary to add other fodder as the peas and oats may contain too large a proportion of grain for the needs of the stock. For dairy cows, such food is excellent. It also meets in fine form the needs of sheep. When breeding ewes are fed such fodder usually they do not require any additional grain. This fodder when properly grown may be cut with the binder and fed from the sheaf or it may be cured like hay. Oats and vetches are grown similarly to oats and peas. The proportions of each that ought to be sown can only be determined by experiment, but the vetch is the mo.re val- uable fodder of the two, and should, therefore, furnish the bulk of the fodder. The relatively high cost of the seed is the most serious objection in the way of growing such hay in the meantime. It furnishes a grand fodder for milch cows and ranks even higher as a fodder for sheep. Such hay can be obtained from the common vetch and also from the sand or hairy vetch. The latter cannot be harvested satisfactorily for hay, unless grown with some grain crop owing to the intertwining nature of the vines. Oat, pea and vetch hay is much relishea and when properly grown is of fine growth. Usually the seed of the Vetch must be used freely in the mixture or the vetches will be overshadowed by the growth of the other plants. Some variety of oats, 'short and stiff in the straw, is to be preferred Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 2O9 to oats tall and coarse. It is important that the crop snail be prevented from lodging, otherwise its quality will be proportionately lowered. In wheat, oat, barley and flax hay, the flax is sown to furnish what is the equivalent of oil meal to the fodder. The amount to sow must be determined by the conditions of each locality. The more rank the growth of the other plants in the mixture, the more the amount of the flax re- quired and vice versa. Usually from 2 to 4 quarts an acre will suffice. Hay properly made from these grains, much relished by cattle and useful in feeding sheep, is of highest value relatively for horses. Millet hay. — Millet in all its varieties is more com- monly grown as a catch crop in the United States and Can- ada than as the principal crop of the season. It is pecu- liarly adapted for being grown thus, owing to the short period it occupies the land. It will usually mature a hay crop in from 60 to 75 days from the date of sowing. It grows best during the warm weather of summer, and it may be successfully grown on any land that will grow good corn. Its value for hay depends much on the season of cutting and also on the method adopted in curing the crop. If cut too early, the hay is lacking in body and yield, and when fed freely tends more or less to induce scouring. If cut too late, it becomes so woody that more or less of the coarser parts will be left uneaten by the stock to which it is fed. Much of the seed will also shatter, and that which does not is so hard that it may cause more or less irritation in the digestive organs. To make hay suitable for feeding to live stock generally, it should be cut when a golden tint begins to show in the heads on looking over the field. The curing should be about the same as would be suitable for curing first class quality of clover hay. When properly cured the hay should be green rather than brown. No class of hay varies more in value because of variations in the modes of making it. When made as outlined, it is an excellent fod- der adjunct for cattle, horses and sheep. But, usually, it Digitized by Microsoft® 2IO FEEDING FARM ANIMALS should form not more than 50 per cent of the fodder fed, for the reason first, that its protein content is not high; and second, that it has not proved entirely satisfactory or safe when fed continuously as the sole fodder ration. Fed to cattle, the aim should be to alternate the feeding with clover or some other legume. Though not equal to clover or alfalfa as a food for calves, when finely grown and well cured, it may, with much propriety form at least one half the fodder ration. It may also be fed thus to beef cattle, the other fodder in all such instances being legumi- nous. Cut and cured in good form, it is superior to timothy as a milk producer, but when overripe it is of little value for such feeding and may do harm. Fed to sheep, it is highly important that it shall be of fine growth. When thus grown and well cured, sheep eat it with avidity, but when coarse, overripe or overcured, it is less valuable than straw of some of the small cereals. Fed to lambs at the Michigan experiment station, it proved less valuable than clover hay and oat straw fed together, the grain fed being corn. For swine, it has low feeding value. Unless when it contains seed, it has practically no feeding value as the an- imals will not eat enough of it to make it in any considerable degree even a food of support. But in some instances, they have been carried through the winter by allowing them to eat the heads of matured millet, when other food was not obtainable. For horses, millet, if well cured, may usually be made to form half the fodder ration, but if fed continuously for any considerable period, serious complications may follow. In the prairie sections of the Northwest where considerable millet is grown for hay, it is claimed that horses have died from the exclusive feeding ot millet hay. Experiments con- ducted at the North Dakota experiment station apparently Justify the following conclusions : ( i ) That feeding millet increases unduly the action of the kidneys; (2) that it causes a swelling of the joints that leads to lameness, which Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 211 may, however, disappear when the feeding of millet is dis- continued; and (3) that it injures the texture of the bone by rendering it softer and less tenacious. Corn fodder. — This is an elastic term which may be applied to corn cut at any stage of growth and fed in the green or cured form, with or without the removal of the ears. It thus applies to the crop grown so thickly or cut so early that it has no ears, to the mature crop fed along with the ears which it has borne and also to the crop from which the ears have been removed, but the stalks from which the ears have been taken are usually spoken of as stover. Shock corn means the cured product as fed from the shock or stack and without husking. Snapped corn is a term applied to ears which are pulled from the standing stalks and fed without being husked. In estimating the value of corn fodder for feeding, the following considerations should be taken into account; viz., (i) The proportion of ear to stalk; (2) the object sought from feeding the corn; (3) the stage of maturity at which the crop is harvested and (4) the time that has elapsed since harvesting the corn. Of well matured corn grown for the ears, it would probably be correct to say that more than half the entire weight of the crop and considerably more than half of the nutrients is in the ear. Consequently when cattle and sheep are being fattened, the greater the proportion of ears to the fodder fed the more suitable is it for such fattening. But, as usually fed, the proportion of the stalks rejected will be greater than from corn grown rather to produce fodder than ears, because of the coarse and harsh character of the former. When corn is fed simply for maintenance, to promote growth without fattening, or for milk production, the con- sumption of the entire product will be greater when the fodder has been grown so thickly as to reduce the size of ear and stalk. When thus grown, the total yield to the acre of nutrients will also be greater than if grown to produce the largest amount of ears. Consequently the food value of Digitized by Microsoft® 212 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS an acre of corn of the former class, should be greater for such feeding than of the latter class. There is a limit, how- ever, to the extent to which corn should be crowded in growth in order to increase fineness and leafiness with a view to increase palatability in the fodder. Ordinarily that limit is the point at which the yield of total digestible nu- trients per acre would be decreased, if thick growth were carried further. Where this point is, cannot be definitely stated, since it will vary with variations in varieties of corn, soils and temperatures. It is possible, however, to grow corn fodder so fine and leafy as to insure its entire con- sumption when fed. The stage at which corn should be cut for feeding when cured is greatly important. The increase in weight from the time the corn is fully silked until mature is very great, and the increase in nutrients is much greater. Corn should never be cut to be made into cured fodder or for the silo, until the grain has reached the glazing stage, except when such cutting is necessary to protect the crop from impend- ing frosts. It is even better when the crop passes the glaz- ing stage. Nevertheless, corn that has not passed the milk stage of the grain when it must needs be cut for the reason given, is by no means to be despised for fodder, notwith- standing that pound for pound well matured corn fodder has a higher feeding value. The maximum of nutrition is in the corn crop when it has matured. When shocked in the field in well put up shocks, the loss from deterioration in feeding value is not great for a time. Soon, however, there is loss though the fodder should not be injured by rain, and this loss increases in an acclerated ratio and with increase in duration subse- quently to the time of harvesting. The losses in dry mat- ter and in such substances as protein, sugar and starch are heavy, especially after the winter months, nor will stacking or storing under cover prevent such losses. They are thought to result from chemical changes brought about by fermentations. Add to such loss the incidental losses from Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 21 3 fodder exposed and from decrease in palatability, and the feeding value of the crop in time becomes greatly lessened, hence the advisability of feeding the fodder when practi- cable in the autumn and early winter, reserving the fodder for later feeding. For feeding calves, corn fodder is suitable when of fine growth, but not so suitable as clover hay or alfalfa. When not too coarse, it furnishes excellent food for young cattle of any age, but it is too low in protein to produce results entirely satisfactory when fed alone. Stover is less s?iitable for such feeding, being lower in nutrients, but may be so used when shredded. For cattle that are being fattened, corn fodder is in- creasingly suitable as the grain which it contains increases. Feeding corn from the shock is regarded as more econom- ical than feeding from the crib, as the labor of husking is saved, more or less of the fodder is consumed, and the ten- dency to scouring often resulting from the heavy feeding of ear corn is lessened if not entirely prevented. The benefits resulting from feeding snapped corn are somewhat similar though less in degree, as when feeding it the consumption of coarse material is not so great. Fodder corn is fed by strewing it over grass pastures daily, or by feeding in slatted racks in yards or sheds. The distance between the slats should be enough to permit the cattle to insert their heads when feeding. The aim should be when feeding such fodder to have two pastures or two feeding lots, and to al- low other cattle to glean after those that are being fattened. When fodder with but few ears or stover is being fed to such cattle, the aim should be to feed it in the shredded form, and to make not less than half the ration clover hay. For dairy cows in milk, corn fodder furnishes excellent roughage when not too coarse on the stalk. With much ad- vantage it may form 50 per cent or even more of the entire roughage fed, according to the nature of the other fodder used. When possessed of a fair amount of nubbins, it is not necessary to add any more shelled corn. Even mature Digitized by Microsoft® 214 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS corn, grown so thickly as to furnish virtually no nubbins has been found excellent for milk production, and also one of the most economical of foods, owing to the ease with which it may usually be grown and to the relatively large yields obtained. Good corn fodder is fully as valuable ton for ton, if not more so, than good timothy. In trials at the Wisconsin station, one ton of corn stover fed to dairy cows was found to be equal in feeding value to three tons of mixed clover and timothy hay. Fully one-third of the sto- ver was left unconsumed. Cows in milk may be fed about 12 pounds of corn fodder per day, and mature cattle that are being wintered a much larger amount. For sheep, the value of corn fodder depends largely on the character of the growth. For ordinary feeding the fod- der should be of fine growth, but some feeders prefer corn with full sized ears when sheep are being fattened. In such instances, a large proportion of the fodder is left uncon- sumed. Corn stover is less valuable relatively for feeding sheep than for feeding horses and cattle, and largely because of its coarse character. In the shredded form it has not al- ways proved entirely satisfactory as a food for sheep, as they do not consume it with the same relish as the larger animals. For swine, particularly in some of the sweet varieties, corn fodder apart from the grain and in the cured form, is comparatively valueless. The stalks of the sweet sorts may be made to furnish some food, but not nearly so much as sorghum (see p. 216). Green corn fodder will of course be partially consumed by swine. They will also find succu- lence in corn ensilage, but no large amount of food apart from the grain. For horses, fodder corn has a high feeding value. When it is grown so thickly that the ears are half the size or less, it makes excellent fodder for young horses in the growing stage, idle horses and brood mares. It may even form half the fodder ration for horses that are worked mod- erately. Even the stover, quite suitable for growing colts Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 215 and idle horses, may sometimes form a part of the ration of working horses. Pound for pound, good stover has been found to have a feeding value about equal to timothy. Shredding stover will usually insure a larger consumption of the fodder by cattle and horses, and the same is true of running it through a cutting box. Feeding tests have shown that an average acre of corn stover well preserved is fully equal in feeding value to an average acre of timothy hay. Sorghum fodder. — Sorghum has proved valuable as a fodder in regions too dry for the successful growth of corn. But where corn may be profitably grown, it is not probable that it will supplant the former as a fodder plant since it is more delicate than corn when young and it also involves more labor to keep it clean in the early stages of growth. In certain areas of the dry West, it is much used as a fod- der plant, but in states further east it is not prized so highly. The feeding value of sorghum, judged from the standpoint of nutrients, is much the same as that of corn with the dif- ference that sorghum has more sugar and less starch. Con- trasted with corn fodder, sorghum will in many instances, produce a larger tonnage per acre, is not so easilv harmed b; exposure when harvested, and is more palatable because of the high sugar content that it contains. But it heats in the stack much more readily than corn, and after the stalks have frozen and thawed out again, the juices still remaining in them become more or less acid to its detriment as a fod- der. Its highest feeding value occurs in the period between the maturing of the crop and the advent of hard freezing weather. It may be also made into good ensilage if allowed to become practically mature before putting it into the silo. By cattle, young and old, sorghum, especially when of fine growth, is much relished, when fed from early maturity until the ground freezes solid. To obtain fine growth, it must be grown thickly in rows not distant, or on the plan followed in growing grain. It is usually fed to cattle by drawing it from the shocks or cocks in the field where it Digitized by Microsoft® 2l5 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS grew and strewing it on a grass pasture. But it may also be fed in mangers or feed boxes in the stables or yards. The aim should be to feed it in conjunction with leguminous hay, because of its highly carbonaceous character. Sor- ghum bagasse, the substance which remains after the juices have been removed for the production of syrup, has consid- erable value as a fodder for cattle, should facilities for feed- ing it be present. For sheep, sorghum fodder of fine quality, frequently spoken of as sorghum hay, is quite as valuable as in feeding cattle, and it may be fed to them also on the pastures or by strewing it in clean paddocks. But there would be much waste in feeding coarsely grown sorghum to sheep. When the stalks are not too coarse, both sheep and cattle will con- sume sorghum with but little waste. The waste is usually less than in the case of corn fodder. As with cattle, the aim should be to feed hay of some legume once a day when feed- ing sorghum hay. In feeding swine, sorghum fodder has been made to render good service. For such a use, coarse stalks are bet- ter than fine. They usually contain more juice relatively .and more sugar. When feeding upon them, swine simply extract the juices, leaving the stalks a mass of shreds. When stalks are fed to sheep or cattle so coarse in character that much of the coarser portions are left uneaten, if swine can be given access to the feed yards at suitable seasons, they turn to good account the food thus rejected. Some con- centrate rich in protein, as shorts or bran, should accompany such feeding. For feeding horses, in some areas as in the semi-arid region, sorghum is much used as hay. If in such areas sorghum hay may be made to alternate with alfalfa, the combination is a good one. Where this cannot be done, some -such concentrate as wheat bran fed along with the grain would improve the ration. Horses are quite as fond of sorghum as other classes of live stock and because of this, it may be turned to good account in feeding them. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 217 Non-saccharine sorghum fodders. — The chief of the non-saccharine sorghums grown for fodder in the United gtates are: Kafir corn, Jerusalem corn, durra and Milo maize. Of these, Kafir corn in one or the other of its vari- eties is by far the most extensively grown. Broom corn, much akin to these plants, may also be grown for fodder, and also pearl millet, although it is not strictly speaking a non-saccharine sorghum. Teosinte also bears some resem- blance to them in its growth, but it also is not really a non- saccharine sorghum. The growth of these plants, unless it be broom corn, is confined chiefly to areas that are con- sidered too dry for the safe and abundant production of corn and sweet sorghum. All these plants are less highly relished than sweet sorghum, and are so far less valuable for feeding. For cattle, Kafir corn is extensively used as a fodder in areas where it is much grown. Its value for such feeding is much influenced by the way in which it has been grown and in which it is fed. When grown thickly and fed from the sheaf or cock, it contains more or less seed, which, of course, adds to its palatability and feeding value. When the fodder only is fed after the heads have been removed from a crop grown primarily for the grain, not a little of the coarser portion will be rejected. The palatability of such fodder will be so far improved by shredding, that its consumption will be much increased, thus reducing the waste, and because of the dry conditions amid which it grows, Kafir corn does not usually spoil readily in the shredded form. Because of the relatively small amount of protein which this fodder contains, it is important when practicable that it shall be fed in conjunction with alfalfa, as the latter can usually be grown on areas favorable to the growth of Kafir corn. To sheep, when fed as fodder after the grain has been removed, much of it will be rejected unless when shred- ded, because of the stocky character of the growth. When grown like grain it makes more suitable fodder for sheep. Digitized by Microsoft® 2l8 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS When fed to cattle, it ought to be fed in conjunction or alternating with leguminous fodder, as for instance, alfalfa or cowpea hay. In feeding swine, Kafir corn fodder is of but little use'. In this respect it would be about on a par with corn stalks (see p. 214). But when the crop contains more or less seed, swine may consume some of the stalk, especially if fed while still possessed of succulence in considerable de- gree. For horses, Kafir corn fodder in certain areas serves a useful purpose. As when feeding cattle, it is more valu- able when the stalks are not coarse. With horses as with cattle and sheep, it may form fully half the fodder fed when fed in conjunction with leguminous fodders. What has been said about Kafir corn will apply in the main to Jerusalem corn and durra. These are quite stocky in growth, even more so than Kafir corn. As they are grown chiefly for the grain, fodder from them is a very secondary consideration. Milo maize, except in the dwarf varieties, is of much taller growth and has more abundant leaves around the portion of the stalk from which the seed head emerges. In the experiments conducted by the au- thor, it was found that Milo maize was eaten by cattle even with as much avidity as sweet sorghum. When fed as fod- der, these plants are more commonly grown thickly and are fed from the cock. Broom corn, which grows up very quickly, may be used for fodder, but when thus fed should be grown for the purpose. When grown for the brush to be used in making brooms, the stalks are usually ploughed under where they grew. Other plants of this class are considered more valu- able than broom corn in furnishing fodder, hence it is scarcely ever grown for such a use. Pearl millet may be made to produce enormous crops of fodder in the milder portions of the continent. In ex- periments conducted by the author, however, the live stock did not take kindly to the fodder. They did not relish it Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 219 nearly so well as corn, sorghum, Kafir corn or Milo maize. Its growth for fodder, therefore, where any of these plants can be grown in good form is not to be commended.. Teosinte produces an enormous amount of long, slen- der leaves. A large tonnage of fodder may be obtained per acre from one or more cuttings in the season, but, owing to the character of the growth, it is not easily handled nor readily cured, nor does it seem to be more highly relished than pearl millet. However useful, therefore, it may prove for regions far south, its growth is not to be recommended for fodder in the northern or central states. Straw as fodder. — Straw from the small cereal grains, so generally used for bedding, is also frequently used for fodder. When used as fodder, it should usually be as a part of the fodder ration only, owing to the large bulk which it possesses in proportion to the nutrition and also to the large amount of the crude fibre which it contains. Although the feeding value of nearly all kinds of straw is low relatively, it may frequently be fed with profit to ma- ture or store animals that are being simply carried through the winter, or along with concentrates to cheapen the ration, when hay is dear. The necessity for and the ad- vantage from feeding straw, is largely dependent on the rel- ative value of other fodders. Straw has considerable value for feeding on the farms of New England and on those of the eastern provinces of Canada, while in wheat growing areas of the American and Canadian Northwest, it is usu- ally burned to get 'rid of it. Rye, wheat, barley, speltz, oats, peas, beans and flax are the principal sources from which straw is obtained in America. The feeding value of straiv is much influenced by what may be termed its physical condition, by the way in which it is cured and by the extent to which it has been in- jured by such diseases as rust. The physical condition of straw has reference among other things to the stage of ma- turity at which it was cut, the fineness of stem and abun- dance of leaves, and the extent to which beards are present Digitized by Microsoft® 220 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS or absent. Straw cut at early maturity is much better rel- ished than when cut late and has less crude fibre. The finer the stems and the more abundant the leaves, the more highly is straw relished. Beards in it are more or less objec- tionable as they sometimes influence mastication adversely, especially when the crop is fully matured, as harshness, so to speak, in the beards, is enhanced by increasing maturity. The methods of curing straw afifect it similarly to the way in which methods afifect the curing of hay. When straw is overcured and bleached by exposure, live stock do not care to eat it and heavy rains wash out of it soluble nutrients. The feeding value of pea and bean straw may be almost destroyed by such exposure, and to a less degree that of oat straw. Such parasitical diseases as rust may greatly lessen the value of straw. Smut acts similarly and also mildew, which frequently attacks some kinds of leguminous plants. It may not be safe to say that straw thus affected will produce positive troubles in digestion, but it is safe to say that such visitations afifect its palatability adverselv in proportion as they are present. The composition of straw, as may be expected, dififers much with the class, the variety, the soil in which it is grown, the nature of the stand, whether grown alone or in combination, and whether leguminous or otherwise. Rye straw stands lowest in feeding value because of its unpala- table and woody character, unless in the case of speltz. Next in feeding value is wheat straw, based on palatability and nutrients. Then follow oat straw, flax straw, pea straw and bean straw in the order named. Varieties of the same kind of grain, naturally of fine growth and leafy, fur- nish straw more valuable than those opposite. Soils well supplied with nitrogen furnish straw more rich in protein than those ill supplied with the same. A thick fine stand of grain furnishes more palatable fodder than a stand thin and coarse. Straw from grains grown together furnishes a vari- ety, and hence larger quantities will be eaten of some of them at least, than if grown alone. The straw of legumes, Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 221 as peas for instance, differs from the straw of other cereals much as clover hay differs from that made from the grasses, that is, it is richer in protein and is more palatable. For stock — Straw is by no means equally well adapted to the feeding of the various classes of farm animals. It is better adapted relatively to the feeding of ruminants than to feeding horses or mules, owing to the relatively larger stomach of the former and to the greater length and com- plexity of their digestive canal, which gives them more time and greater power to digest bulky products of low relative nutrition. Notwithstanding, straw may furnish a consid- erable proportion of the fodder ration of work horses when occasion calls for it, providing the amount of the concen- trates is increased so as to furnish the requisite nutrition. Horses that are idle may be entirely, or almost entirely, wintered on good straw of certain of the cereals. Cattle that are being fattened and cows in milk may also utilize considerable quantities, providing concentrates are used to maintain equilibrium in nutrients. The free and judicious use of straw may frequently effect a considerable saving in the wintering of young cattle beyond calfhood without ap- parently checking growth, and, as with idle horses, straw alone, or almost alone, may be made to sustain cattle at rest, for considerable periods. Sheep utilize straw to better ad- vantage even than cattle. They can more readily pick out the finer portions. Straw fodder is quite unsuited to the needs of swine. Rye straw is so unpalatable and woody, that it ranks low in feeding value. In nutrients it is fully equal to wheat straw, but is not equal to it in palatability. The economy of forcing animals to eat rye straw unless in in- stances when fodder is scarce and dear is at least open to question Spelts straw is somewhat more valuable than rye straw for feeding, but the hard, stiff character of the straw and beards present discounts its feeding value not a little. Digitized by Microsoft® 222 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Wheat straw when bright and good may, under certain conditions, form a very considerable proportion of the diet of cattle, sheep and horses in winter, but cattle and sheep that are being fattened, cows in milk and working horses should not be required to consume it in large quantities, owing to its low protein content, its relatively low digesti- bility and its want of palatability. Barley straw is somewhat more valuable than wheat straw. It is eaten with more relish than the former. Nevertheless, what has been said of wheat straw will apply in a considerable degree to barley straw. Both barley and wheat straw may be made to form a considerable part of the fodder fed along with heavy grain feeding. Oat strazv is in nearly all respects more valuable than wheat and barley straw. In fattening cattle and sheep, and in feeding milch cows, also working horses, it may fre- quently furnish half the fodder ration, and in wintering store stock it may furnish the sole fodder ration. When bright and clean it is eaten with a reHsh, and when available may be fed so as to economize in the feeding of more ex- pensive hay. Flax straw has considerable feeding value as the analy- sis shows. Live stock are fond of it and will eat it in considerable quantities when well cured. The small grains which are blown out into the chaflf increase its feeding val- ue. Flax straw like the grain, though to a much less ex- tent, tends to relax the bowels. The objection has been raised to flax straw that because of the toughness of its fibre, it tends to disturb digestion by forming indigestible masses of the nature of impact substances, but the facts do not sustain the objection. The feeding of flax straw does away with the objection to burying it in the soil because of its slow decay in climates with insufficient rainfall. Pea straw, when of fine growth and properly harvested and cured, ranks almost as high for feeding as clover hay, but in moist climates it is frequently injured in the curing, as it is easily damaged by rain. Exposure to two or three Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CURED FODDERS 223 showers in succession but with an interval between them, will so lower the palatability of the straw that it becomes of little account for feeding. The nutrients, as with clover hay thus exposed, are also measurably lost. Pea straw has special adaptation for being fed to sheep which are so fond of it that previous to the lambing season good pea straw may be the only fodder required. It may also form the bulk of the fodder fed to cattle that are being carried through the winter, and a part of that fed to milch cows. Horses also are fond of it, but the dust which frequently accumulates on the plants while growing and sometimes in curing renders it more or less unsuitable for the prolonged feeding of horses. Machine threshing also lowers the feeding value since it breaks up the straw and removes many of the leaves. Bean straw is possessed of high relative feeding value, but the yield of straw to the acre is proportionately small. As much of this product consists of leaves and pods, the proportion rejected when fed is not usually large. The straw is also more commonly well saved as in order to insure good quality in the grain, it is necessary to harvest promptly when mature and to protect the crop as far as pos- sible from injury by rain. When available, bean straw stands high in favor as a fodder for sheep, and it may also be fed with decided benefit to cattle. The earth that some- times adheres to the product is an objection to feeding it to horses. The straw of the horse bean is considerably used in feeding live stock in Scotland and some other countries, but in England it is not so commonly fed. Straw of good quality and well cured is more valuable for feeding than hay, coarse and ill cured. When fodders are scarce and dear, the harvesting of straw fodders with a view to conserve their good feeding properties is well wor- thy of attention. It is frequently admissible to use certain varieties of straw as principal portion of the fodder fed in order that hay may be sold when the price is dear. But when straw is made to supplement hay, more grain must be fed when grain is required. Digitized by Microsoft® 224 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS When grasses are sown with a cereal nurse crop, it sometimes happens as in seasons of good growth that grass is abundantly present in the grain, and when it is, the straw thereof is nearly as valuable as hay. But when grass is thus abundantly present, the yield of grain may be lowered. Timothy sown in a grain crop in the autumn, in some in- stances furnishes a large proportion of the reaped crop and especially when the grain crop partially fails. Chaif from wheat and oats is more valuable than an equal weight of straw, not only in food constituents but also in palatability. Wheat and oat chaff are usually eaten with avidity by farm animals, but rye and barley chaff, especially the latter, are less valuable because of the presence of the beards. Some feeders of barley straw aim to separate the chaff from the straw as far as this may be practicable. Even where the straw is used solely for bedding, the plan which saves the chaff for feeding when practicable is to be com- mended. When straw is fed in the uncut form and especially when the supply is plentiful, the amount fed should be so liberal that the unconsumed portion may be used for litter. This method of providing litter is to be commended, as much of the straw thus fed is turned to higher account than if the whole were used as litter. This method of us- ing straw is especially to be recommended in feeding sheep, as they are sure to pick out and consume the finer portions. The uneaten portion is thus used to furnish fresh litter every day. When straw furnishes a large or principal portion of the ration for live stock, it frequently tends to produce more or less a dry condition of the fjeces indicative of constipa- tion. When a limited amount of field roots can be fed daily along with the straw, this condition will be corrected. Ten to 12 pounds of roots fed daily will suffice for a mature cat- tle beast. Where roots are not available, oil cake will an- swer the same end. It also adds protein, so much lacking in nearly all kinds of straw. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XII. FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS. The seeds of plants are primarily the source of all the concentrates fed to farm animals. These are discussed in Chapter XII from the standpoint of their feeding value, and uses. The small cereals discussed include: (i) Wheat; (2) oats; (3) barley; (4) rye; (5) peas; (6) buckwheat and (7) speltz. The seeds distinctly leguminous considered are: (i) The common field bean; (2) soy beans; (3) the horse bean; (4) cowpeas and (5) vetches. Those usually primarily grown for oil production and included are: (i) Flax; (2) cottonseed and (3) sunflower seed. Seeds discussed as derived from the sorghums are : ( i ) Sweet sorghum seed; (2) Kafir corn seed and (3) other non-saccharine sorghum seeds. Those discussed as miscellaneous are: (i) Corn or maize; (2) broom corn seed and (3) millet seed. Rice is not discussed because of the small extent to which it is fed to stock save in the by-products obtained from it. Wheat. — Wheat in its many varieties is more common- ly grown primarily to provide food for man. So important is the place which it fills in this respect that it has been called the "staff of life." The increase in its growth, therefore, will probably keep pace with increase in population in all civi- lized communities where the conditions are favorable to growing it. Although it furnishes an excellent food for all kinds of domestic animals on the farm, it is generally con- sidered too valuable for being thus fed unless when of low grade. But its by-products, especially bran and middlings, comprising nearly one-third by weight of the cereal, are of great value in feeding live stock, and are always likely to be much sought after for such a use. Digitized by Microsoft® 226 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Wheat, though a hardy grain, is not so hardy as rye, nor can it be grown in so short a season as barley. The macaroni varieties are among the largest yielding sorts and have more of adaptation for being grown under hard and dry conditions than other varieties. Vigorous and pro- ductive varieties may frequently be grown with profit along with oats or barley, or both, to provide food for stock. The chief advantage from growing these grains thus consists in the larger yields that are usually obtained. Wheat is of two classes, winter and spring, and each has its own sphere for most successful growth. Usually it ought to be fed in the ground form except to sheep, otherwise a considerable proportion of it will not be digested. Because of the sticky and pasty character of the meal, the outcome of its high gluten content, the aim should be to mix it with some coarse substance as bran, when it constitutes the sole grain fed. For calves and growing cattle, wheat furnishes an ex- cellent food, when the price will admit of its being so fed. To the former it may be fed alone. The addition of oats, however, to the extent of one-half the grain part of the ra- tion, will improve it except in the case of calves during the first two or three weeks after they begin to take meal. For beef cattle, ground wheat has been found about equal pound for pound, to ground corn. When the two are fed in conjunction, however, they make a better food than either fed alone, especially when the wheat element prepon- derates during the first part of the fattening period and the corn element during the last. The bran present in ground wheat exerts an influence more or less helpful in keeping the bowels in tone. Some bran added, also oil meal, makes it less sticky in character. For cows giving milk, wheat meal fed with suitable ad- juncts has been found fully equal to corn meal. Mixed grains, however, of which wheat meal is a part, will doubt- less prove superior to wheat meal fed alone for prolonged feeding. But for milk production, the by-products of wheat ,are more suitable than wheat, as they contain a higher Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 227 relative protein content, and usually they are considerably cheaper. It is in order to feed a higher proportion of wheat meal to cows giving milk than would be admissible of corn meal, the fodder adjuncts being the same. For sheep, wheat is superior to corn when fed to young lambs and breeding ewes. Wheat and oats in any desired proportions make an excellent grain food for them. It is also superior to corn when fed alone or as a factor during the early stages of fattening, but corn will result in some- what quicker gains in' the later stages of the same. It is ex- cellent as a food for preparing sheep for show purposes, as it produces flesh, plentiful and firm. For young and grozving swine, wheat is much superior to corn. For swine that are being fattened, they are about equal, pound for pound, in production, but the quality of the meat made from wheat is superior. Tests have shown that greater gains have been secured from feeding ground wheat and corn or barley to swine that are being fattened, than from feeding either alone. Such swine should produce one pound of increase from rather less than five pounds of wheat, and greater relative increase should result from feed- ing it to pigs previous to the fattening season. It should be fed ground and soaked in milk or water for six to 12 hours, according to the season. Skim milk and ground wheat make an excellent food for young pigs. If wheat is fed unground to swine it should be soaked 18 to 24 hours. Thus prepared, it had been found nearly if not quite equal to ground wheat when the cost of the grinding is also con- sidered. If fed in the natural state, a large per cent will appear in the voidings. Although swine will make a good growth while gleaning amid wheat stubbles where they con- sume the fallen heads, they do not fatten readily on un- threshed wheat, though it should be plentifully supplied to them in the sheaf. For feeding horses, wheat has not been much tested. The tests made have tended to show that when wheat has Digitized by Microsoft® 228 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS been fed as the sole grain ration to working horses, a con- siderable proportion of the grain was voided undigested, and in time there was a decided tendency to digestive de- rangement. It would seem probable, however, that wheat ground and fed with oats ground or unground, up to the ex- tent of one-half the ration, would make an excellent grain food for horses. Contrasted with corn, it may be said that wheat is su- perior; (i) As a food for young animals and for cows in milk, since it is richer in protein and ash; (2) as being a safer grain food during the early stages of fattening, be- cause it is relatively lower in its fat content, and, therefore, does not tend so much to put animals off feed; (3) it is equal or about equal to corn in making increase with cat- tle, sheep and swine while being fattened, and it furnishes meat somewhat superior to that furnished by corn, having more muscle in it. Corn is superior to wheat : ( i ) In its fattening quali- ties; (2) in that it may usually be fed without grinding and (3) in that it may usually be obtained more cheaply. They are about equal in palatability. Wheat is grown over a wider area than corn and can be grown in a drier and cooler climate. While it is probable that it will seldom be found advisable in the future to feed wheat of good quality to stock, because of the price, it will always be in order to feed damaged wheat as when shrunken by rust or by frost. Such wheat has a higher muscle-producing content than good wheat. In some localities, it may be found that.grow- ing wheat with other grain for food for stock will be the cheapest method of obtaining bran or its equivalent. Oats. — Viewed from the standpoint of general adapta- tion for feeding live stock, no cereal grown in this country will compare with the oat. It is preeminently the grain food for horses. In milk production, it is almost equally valuable. It may be made to constitute a large proportion of the ration in fattening cattle and sheep, and it is useful as a factor in feeding swine, but not so useful relatively as Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTIIER SEEDS 229 in feeding other classes of stock because of the relatively- large amount of hull which it possesses, ill adapted to the digestion of swine. In suitability for young stock, it is without a rival among concentrated foods. No other cereal can be fed to stock with entire safety or in quantities so large for an equally prolonged period. It is also a valuable breakfast food for man. The high relative value of the oat for general feeding is the outcome of the high palatability which it possesses, the equihbrium in the nutrients which give it balance as a food, and the relation between the hull and kernel which gives it a proper amount of concentration and not too much for safe feeding. The chief obstacle in the way of its more extensive use on the farm is the high relative value which it usually commands on the market. While the oat grows reasonably well in some parts of all the states of the union, it grows much better relatively in the northern states. All the provinces of Canada have high adaptation for growing oats. The weight of a measured bushel varies from 20 pounds in some varieties in the south to 50 pounds in others in the northwestern states and prov- inces of Canada. As the adaptation for corn production de- creases because of low temperature, that for oat produc- tion increases. To provide food for stock, the crop may be grown alone, with wheat or barley or with both. For calves and growing cattle, oats are a grand food. In the ground form, they are excellent for young calves and for calves more advanced in age, they are equally good. For such feeding they may be fed alone with wheat bran, ground barley or ground corn, according to the degree of the flesh sought and in proportions to suit the needs of the animals. When fed alone or with bran, the calves may be allowed to partake of them at will, when the cost is not too great. To young cattle that are older, about the only limitation that may be put on the feeding of oats is that which is usually present, resulting from the relatively high value of this cereal. Digitized by Microsoft® 230 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS For beef cattle, they make an excellent adjunct to corn, barley or rye, rather than a substitute for these, when ground and mixed with one or more of the foods named. The hulls as in the case of bran add so much to the bulk that the juices of the stomach more readily penetrate the meal thus fed. When oats are not too high, they may con- stitute from one-half to one-fourth of the entire grain fed, more being given during the early stages of fattening and less later. For cows in milk, oats are at least as valuable as bran, pound for pound. If there is a difiference, ground oats is probably the superior. The extent to which they may be fed to cows in milk depends in a considerable degree on market values. They may be made to constitute the whole of the grain fed or any part of it. Even when oats are somewhat more expensive than corn, it will be found profit- able to combine them with corn in the ration. With such fodders as clover hay and corn stover fed in conjunction, wheat bran, ground oats and ground corn, barley, or rye, fed in about equal parts by weight, make an excellent grain ration. For sheep, oats make a most excellent grain food. There is probably no better grain food on which to start young lambs than ground oats with the hulls sifted out. Even unsifted, they serve the purpose reasonably well, and later it is not necessary even to grind them. For milk-lambs that are being fattened, oats, cracked corn and oil cake in the nut form or as meal, in the proportions of 2, 2 and i parts by weight, make a suitable grain ration. To lambs that are being fattened, oats, cracked corn and oil cake in food, in quantity from one-fourth of a pound upward daily, or they may furnish the bulk of the grain given, the other part consisting of wheat, rye, barley, corn or peas, or of a mixture of these. To breeding ewes, they may be similarly fed up to the amount of one pound per day, before the lambing season, and practically without stint, subsequently, as long as the ewes are on dry feed. To sheep that are Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 23 1 being fattened, they may constitute the sole grain ration, under some conditions, but gains considerably higher will result if corn is fed along with them. From the standpoint of increase, it would probably be within bounds to say that the proportion should vary from two-thirds oats and one- third corn at the commencement of the fattening season to two-thirds corn and one-third oats at its close. No grain food has higher adaptation for sheep, while they are being led up to full feed than oats. Other grain, as wheat, barley, rye or peas may be substituted for corn, but except in the case of wheat, the results will not usually be quite so good. For swine, and especially for young swine, the adapta- tion is not high, unless the hulls are sifted out. When so sifted, the reverse is true. For swine subsequent to wean- ing, the adaptation of unsifted oats is not more than medium, and for swine that are being fattened, ground oats are con- siderably inferior to corn. When the price will admit of so feeding them, they make a good food for brood sows that are nursing pigs. They should.be ground and soaked when fed to swine. For horses, no substitute has been found that will equal them, none has been found so healthful or that will give and maintain the same degree of mettle and staying power. Oats, therefore, usually fed unground except to young foals or to horses whose teeth have failed, may make the sole grain food for all animals of this class, or they may make a part, preferably a principal part, usually not less than two- thirds of the same. For American feeding, when the prices will admit of it, the other third may be corn, barley, rye or wheat. In some countries of northwestern Europe, horse beans are freely fed with oats. More corn may be fed in winter, particularly to horses and mules at work, than would be advisable in summer. The opinion that newly matured oats should not be fed in very large quantities to horses is held by many, but all authorities are not agreed as to whether there is hazard in so feeding them. Digitized by Microsoft® 232 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Barley. — Barley, at one time a principal source of food for the human family, is grown almost exclusively in the United States for brewing and as food for live stock. It has been grown successfully as far north as Alaska and as far south as the tablelands of New Mexico. In altitudes where the grain fails to fully mature, it is sometimes grown and fed as hay. Westward from the eastern Rockies and southward from Montana where corn and oats do not flourish equally well, it is more largely fed to live stock than elsewhere in the United States. The relatively high price paid for bright barley for brewing tends greatly to restrict its use for feed- ing. When stained by unpropitious weather at the harvest season, and thus injured for malting, it is not injured, at least to any appreciable extent, for feeding. For the latter purpose, it is an excellent substitute for corn where corn cannot be successfully grown. For calves and growing cattle, barley should seldom or never form the sole grain ration, unless when fed sparingly with adjuncts rich in protein. It seldom constitutes more than one-fourth to one-third of the entire meal ration fed, the other portion being bran alone, oats alone or both with a trace of oil cake when profitably obtainable. Other ni- trogenous foods, as gluten meal or cotton seed, may some- times be substituted for bran and oats. For beef cattle, ground barley furnishes an excellent meal adjunct. With luguminous fodders as clover and alfalfa, it may be fed when the season is short rather than long, so as to furnish up to three-fourths of the entire meal ration, the other portion being preferably ground oats or wheat bran. For prolonged feeding, corn added to the barley in any proportion desired, somewhat improves the ration in palatability and also for fattening. For cows in milk, ground barley has been found about equal to com. It is somewhat richer in protein than corn, but has more crude fibre and is not quite so palatable. It is too concentrated to furnish the exclusive grain food for milch cows, but gives excellent results when fed with Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 233 ground oats or wheat bran, the barley furnishing about one- third of the grain by weight or even a larger proportion. The mixture of oats and barley may be obtained in many instances with greater profit by growing the two together; when fed freely with large quantities of field roots, it tends to counteract undue laxity of the bowels. For sheep, unground barley is valuable when fed in suitable combinations. Fed as part of the grain ration to lambs while nursing or subsequently, especially in conjunc- tion with oats, the results are satisfactory. It may suitably form from one-third to one-half the grain ration for breed- ing ewes, the other portion being preferably unground oats and a small proportion of wheat bran or oil cake. To sheep that are being fattened, the fodder being rich in protein, it may furnish the sole grain ration, but when not less than one-third of the grain ration is oats or corn, according to the advancement of the feeding, better results may be looked for. For swine, barley stands at the head of all cereals in producing high quality pork, because of the firmness and flavor which it imparts. Experiments carefully conducted have shown that ground barley when fed to swine produced 8 per cent less increase than corn. Ground and soaked, it has special adaptation for being fed along with skim milk and clover, alfalfa or vetch pasture up to the fattening pe- riod. During the fattening period, it may furnish the sole grain food, but corn in such proportion as will suit the end sought will add to the palatability of the food, and conse- quently will improve the gains. Barley will probably be much more used in the United States for feeding swine as it is now in Canada, when the bacon idea in pork production becomes more pronounced. The bald varieties, pound for pound, should also be more valuable than the other varieties, because of the less amount of hull in the former. For horses, barley stands next to oats in suitability as a grain food. Where the prices will admit of so doing, it may be used as the principal or even sole grain ration, as Digitized by Microsoft® 234 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS has been shown in the practice of Bedouin Arabs, of certain peoples of northwestern Europe and now in Cali- fornia, and other mountain states. It has been claimed that barley, pound for pound, is more valuable as a food for horses than oats, because of the much larger percentage ot hull in oats, a claim that has not been sustained by evidence based on experiment. It is not equal to oats for colts, being somewhat lower in protein and ash, nor is it so palatable as oats for long continued feeding. It may, however, be prof- itably fed with oats to working horses, either whole or in the crushed form in any proportions that the attendant cir- cumstances will justify. Steamed until the grain has swollen to maximum possible distension, and fed with a little bran or oil cake added to it as frequently as may be found nec- essary, tends to make flesh quickly and to improve the coat, as when preparing horses for exhibition. Rye. — Rye is probably the hardiest of the cereals, pro- duces the best crops on poor land and grows over the widest area. It is much grown on lands too low in fertility to yield good crops of wheat, oats or barley. It is grown not only to furnish grain but also pasture and green manure. Of the two classes, winter and spring rye, the former is grown to a far greater extent than the latter. In Europe, especially central Europe, it is much grown as food for man and also for live stock, including horses. In the United States, it is grown almost entirely to furnish food for stock. It may be grown successfully in almost every state in the Union. While its constituents are much the same as those of wheat in prac- tical feeding, it has been found from 5 to 10 per cent less valuable, owing, it is thought, to the less degree of the pala- tability. It is fed to horses and sheep in the unground form but is ground when fed to cattle and also to swine, except when swine are allowed to harvest it in the field. To calves and growing cattle, the aim should be to feed rye in conjunction with some other grain product. Whit has been said about feeding barley to these classes of ani- mals will apply about equally to rye (see p. 232). It should Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 235 seldom form more than one-third of the meal fed in pro- longed feeding. To beef cattle, rye may be fed with much freedom, where the necessity exists for so feeding it. This necessity is, however, seldom present, as corn is usually cheaper, hence the larger the proportion of the corn fed, the more economical is the ration. It is also better relished. Wheat bran in the proportions of say one part by weight to three or four parts rye meal tends much to improve the ration. It renders the meal less adhesive and adds to the protein content. The same is measurably true of ground oats which, however, are usually too valuable to be much used in such feeding. Other nitrogeneous by-products as oil cake may sometimes be fed in the place of bran, but the necessity of adding these to the rye meal and the advantage from the same are much dependent on the extent to which protein is present in the fodder. To cows giving milk, rye meal may be fed in reason- able quantities, but if more than 3 pounds are fed per cow daily, hazard may be present that the quality of the butter product will be affected adversely, hence when fed, it is common to give a less quantity than that named. Equal parts by weight of ground rye, ground oats and wheat bran with ordinary fodders make a very suitable grain ration, also equal parts of rye, oat and corn meal and wheat bran with clover or alfalfa hay. If fed with wheat bran only, the bran should furnish not less than one-third of the meal ration. To lambs, rye is not commonly fed, but may be so fed with oats even with benefit, where the latter furnish the larger portion of the grain ration. Similarly it may be thus fed to breeding ewes and in larger proportions, when the roughage is rich in protein elements. To sheep that are being fattened, it is not usual, nor would it probably be wise, to feed rye, making it more than half the ration for pro- longed feeding, since sheep, in common with all other do- mestic animals, are less fond and tire of it sooner than of Digitized by Microsoft® 236 ' FEEDING FARM ANIMALS " some other kinds of grain. Rye, corn and oats in the pro- portion of one, two and one parts respectively make an excellent grain ration for sheep on full feed along with clover or alfalfa. To swine, rye may be fed about the same as barley (see p. 233), except that for prolonged feeding, it should not fur- nish the sole grain portion, since thus fed, swine tire of it more quickly even than of barley. Corn, fed along with it in such proportion as will furnish the quality of pork de- sired, will add to the palatability of the food and also in some degree to the gains. Experiments conducted in Den- mark have shown that rye and barley are almost equal in value in making pork, when fed with dairy by-products, both with reference to gains and to the quality of the pork. In the tests made in that country, it was found that com made pork less firm as a rule, in proportion as it was fed, and therefore less suitable for high class bacon. In ordi- nary fattening, however, the aim should be to add corn freely to the rye. To horses, rye is seldom fed in the United States and largely for the reason probably, that it is seldom sufficiently plentiful and cheap to admit of feeding it thus. But it is quite suitable for being so fed, especially to horses at work in conjunction with oats. A mixture of one-third rye and two-thirds oats is suitable for even prolonged feeding. Peas. — The peas in the United States, usually desig- nated the Canada field pea, should be far more widely grown than it is at the present time, because of its excellent feed- ing qualities, and also for the reason that it is a legume, and, therefore, leaves the land on which it grew rich in ni- trogen. Its protein content is high, hence it has peculiar adaptation as food for animals in process of development. Being adapted to climates with only moderate summer tem- peratures, the pea grows best in this country in the northern states and on reasonably high plateaus of the mountain states. Nearly all the provinces of Canada have high adap- tation for the growing of peas. One chief obstacle to the Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 237 extension of their growth in the United States is the labor involved in harvesting them, which is more relatively than with other cereals, except corn. This may be met by growing peas and oats together in proportions that will not preclude the harvesting of the mixed crop with the binder. The mix- ture thus grown furnishes an excellent grain food for many kinds of feeding. The relatively high price of peas in this country also stands in the way of their more general use in feeding stock. To calves and young cattle, peas furnish an excellent grain food when fed as a meal adjunct. The meal is heavy and lies compactly, hence, when fed to cattle and other ani- mals, it should be along with bran, ground oats, corn, bar- ley, rye or a mixture of these according to the nature of the feeding. Ground peas and oats in equal parts by weight, make an excellent meal ration for calves. Later the propor- tion of oats or bran, if bran is fed, should be increased, chiefly on the score of economy in feeding. To beef cattle, peas may be fed in proportions varying from 25 to 75 per cent of the meal fed, the proportion of peas being increased with the advance of the feeding period when fed with oats. From the standpoint of increase, ground peas, oats and corn, barley or rye, in equal propor- tions by weight, furnish an. excellent grain food. Bran may be substituted for oats if cheaper. For cows in milk, a mixture of ground peas and oats grown together, so that about two-thirds of the mixture will be oats, furnishes an ideal grain food. Here also bran may be substituted for oats. In northern areas, this mix- ture may be readily grown on many farms and it has the further value of furnishing fodder that is much relished when well saved. For sheep that are being fattened, a grain mixture fed unground, and consisting of peas and oats, the peas making from 25 to 75 per cent of the grain ration according to the stage of the fattening, will give excellent results. For breeding ewes on dry feed, as much as 50 per cent of the Digitized by Microsoft® 238 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS grain fed may be peas, whether fed before or after the lamb- ing season. The same mixture is also good for feeding lambs, and if the lambs are being forced for the early mar- ket, the addition of cracked corn will improve the grain ra- tion. On certain plateaus of the Rocky mountain states, the fattening of sheep and lambs on mature peas grazed down by the sheep, is becoming an industry of no little impor- tance. Enough oats are sown with the peas to sustain them. The dry autumns in the areas named, make such feeding en- tirely feasible and with but little waste. For swine, peas have special adaptation. A mixture of peas and oats ground, or peas and bran soaked from six to 12 hours according to the weather, furnish a grand food for brood sows nursing their young. Unground or ground they may be fed with much freedom to brood sows that are pregnant, the other portion of the diet consisting largely of field roots or pasture. For swine, during the growing pe- riod, they may be made to furnish the sole grain supplement or a part of it. When swine are grazed on alfalfa or clover pasture, equal parts of peas and corn, both fed unground, will furnish excellent supplemental grain food. Swine may be fattened in the pens or in the fields where they harvest the crop, on peas alone. The peas may be fed dry or soaked. Peas may also be fed during the fattening period along with corn, barley, wheat or rye, so as to form any part of the fattening ration that may be desired. The bar- ley and rye, however, must be ground. The few experi- ments conducted tend to show that peas make more increase than corn, pound for pound, when fed to swine and they make a somewhat superior quality of pork. When swine are fattened on peas harvested by them, they may be admitted to the peas, when they have neared the maturing stage. They may glean at will after the first few days and only require a plentiful supply of water in ad- dition. In wet climates, peas cannot be profitably gleaned thus, as the swine shell out many of the peas and these will sprout Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 239 in moist weather, which soon renders them useless for feed- ing. In some locaHties, however, this method is eminently practical. Swine not being fattened should finish the glean- ing. In some of the western mountain valleys, it is claimed that swine can be made to gather their own food all the year by growing peas, alfalfa, bald barley and artichokes. Some peas, stacked so that they are accessible to the swine on alfalfa, during the early summer months, furnish the needed grain food at that season. To horses, peas are not usually fed to any considerable extent. But there is no reason why they should not be fed in certain proportions to horses young and old, when suf- ficiently plentiful. Peas and oats go well together, the pre- ponderating factor being oats. For foals, and even for horses, the results will be more satisfactory if the grain has been ground. Buckwheat. — Buckwheat may be grown in nearly all the various states and provinces of Canada. It is not grown to any considerable extent, however, in the southern, south- western and western states, or in the western provinces of Canada. More is grown in the New England states and those adjacent to them elsewhere. Maine leads the states in the yields obtained, the average for the last ten years being 30 bushels an acre, whereas for the United States it has been less than 20 bushels in the same period. It is a strong point in favor of buckwheat that it may be grown as a catch crop in the early summer on land that might otherwise be idle. It may also be grown successfully on land that has been neg- lected or low in fertility. It matures in about 75 days from the date of sowing. It is usually fed to live stock in the ground form, save when fed to sheep, horses and poultry. Its highest adaptation is found in feeding poultry. Owing to the demand for it to make flour to be used in making cakes for the table, its use as a food for live stock is much circum- scribed. Digitized by Microsoft® 240 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS To cattle of any kind, buckwheat has not been much fed, but may be so fed when it can be spared for such a use. Being low in protein and rich in starch, it is better adapted relatively for fattening than for milk production. When fed for the latter use, it should be with grain or meal rich in nitrogen, as for instance, bran. For fattening uses, it is preferably fed with some coarse meal, as ground oats, since as meal it is dense in character and inclined to be clammy when moistened. It is seldom that it may be prof- itably fed so as to make more than half the ration. For sheep. — Although not much used for the purpose, buckwheat may be satisfactorily used in feeding sheep kept for breeding or that are being fattened. For a breeding flock, the aim should be to feed the buckwheat with such grain as oats, the oats preponderating in the ration, but in fattening sheep the buckwheat should rather preponderate, especially as the fattening period is advanced. For swine, buckwheat is more used than in feeding cat- tle, sheep and horses. To swine also it ought to be fed as a grain factor rather than as the sole grain food. In ex- periments conducted at Ottawa, Canada, more rapid growth and gains were made from feeding buckwheat as half the ration than when wheat was similarly fed, but to make 100 pounds of gain, called for feeding 6 per cent more buckwheat. The other half of the ration was meal mixed in character. The result shows a relatively high feeding value in buckwheat for swine, but it should be re- membered that it is rather adapted to feeding for fat than for growth. The meal should be well soaked before feed- ing it to swine. For horses, it has been fed as a conditioner rather than for sustenance and growth. It has proved fairly satisfac- tory for such a use, as it not only improves the flesh when it makes any considerable proportion of the grain ration, but it also exercises a marked influence on the glossiness of the coat. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 24I The opinion prevails that when the feeding of buck- wheat is prolonged, and especially when it forms any con- siderable proportion of the ration, that it tends to induce more or less of irritation in the skin and to the extent of be- ing a disturbing factor. This opinion would seem to rest upon a real basis. It is also claimed that the hulls have made trouble when buckwheat meal has been fed very freely to swine. The hulls are not readily digested. Speltz. — This grain is really Emmer, Triticum dicoc- cum, rather than Triticum spelta, but it is better known by the name speltz or spelt. It has special adaptation for areas where the short season for growth and the lack of moisture is such as to make the production of the common cereals more or less precarious. It is, therefore, grown chiefly in the semi-arid belt of the West and in the country adjacent thereto. It is more drought resistant than either corn or wheat, is not easily injured by rust and does not lodge read- ily. Notwithstanding these good qualities, it is not likely that it will ever supplant the more common cereals where these can be grown at their best, as it is not fully equal to these in all round feeding value and, under the conditions named, will not prove relatively more productive. It is fed in the unground form to sheep and poultry and may be so fed to horses, but when fed to other live stock it should first be ground. In composition it is somewhat similar to barley, but the hull which constitutes about 25 per cent of the grain is somewhat more pronounced and it has more crude fibre than barley. The trend of experiments shows that it is not fully equal to barley in feeding value. For calves and cattle, during the growing period, its adaptation is much the same as barley only a little below it. For continued feeding to the former, a mixture of oats and barley in the proportions of two and one respectively, by weight, should prove satisfactory. For the latter, the pro- portion of speltz may be larger. Along with say 33 per cent bran by weight and 5 per cent oil meal or cake, it will also prove very suitable. Digitized by Microsoft® 242 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS For cattle that are being fattened it has not been mucn tested in this country but should be nearly equal to barley. It may constitute at least half the grain fed, the other half being corn, or wheat when the prices will admit of feeding the latter. Five to 20 per cent of wheat bran especially dur- ing the early feeding will improve the ration. For cozvs in milk, speltz has proved a useful food, but not quite equal to barley. It would not be excessive to make one-half the grain ration speltz, the other halt being ground oats or bran or a mixture of the two. Even better than the above, especially for cows in low flesh, is a mix- ture consisting of equal parts by weight of ground speltz and corn. For sheep, speltz has been found a valuable adjunct, whether fed to lambs at the weaning season, to breed- ing flocks or for fattening purposes. For breeding ewes, the mixture is improved by adding oats in any propor- tion desired or by adding a small percentage of bran. The tests in fattening sheep with speltz as the sole grain food, have given results differing materially. It will doubtless be found that much better results will follow when corn, wheat or rye is added to the ration, especially the for- mer. The proportion of the corn should increase as fatten- ing progresses. For swine, the same objection applies as when feeding oats. Because of the large proportion of the hull, ground speltz, unsifted, is too coarse a food for young pigs before or shortly after the weaning season. It answers better for swine that are growing and still better for brood sows nurs- ing their young. As a fattening food for swine, it is about 20 per cent less valuable than corn. The aim should to add corn or wheat to the ration, especially the former. For horses, young or old, like barley, speltz may be fed with propriety, but as in the case of barley, the aim should be to make oats constitute at least two parts of the ration. But for foals, the speltz should be ground. In the semi- arid belt, speltz may prove a cheaper feed than oats. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 243 It has been recommended in some instances to feed speltz with oats. The mixture may frequently be obtained by growing the two together. The advantage in so doing may prove very decided. Usually by growing them thus, the yield will be increased and on lands where oats are much liable to lodge, the speltz will aid in sustaining them. Field beans. — The common field bean is somewhat ex- tensively grown in certain sections of the northern states and in various provinces of Canada. It is grown primarily as food for man, hence, unless the beans have taken injury during the harvesting from adverse weather or subse- quently from heating in storage, they are too valuable to permit of their being fed to live stock. However, since they stain readily from rain during the harvesting and curing process, and since the injury thus sustained greatly depre- ciates the market value, the most profitable use that can be made of such beans usually is to feed them to live stock. To sheep and horses they are more commonly fed unground but are ground for cattle and are usually cooked for swine and poultry. To cattle of any kind in this country they have been so little fed that testimony based on experience in feeding them is almost entirely wanting. The nutrients which they contain give them a high feeding value for pro- ducing growth and also milk. But bean meal like pea meal, will be improved for feeding by adding bran to lessen its density when moistened by saliva. It may also be necessary sometimes to introduce the meal gradually to make cattle take kindly to it. With corn meal and ground oats or bran in the proportions of two, one and two parts respectively, it should make a good concentrated food for calves. For beef cattle the mixture may be bran or ground oats and corn in the proportions of one, one and three parts by weight. For cows in milk, with ordinary fodders, bran meal may form as much as 33 to 50 per cent of the ration. Equal parts of ground beans, ground oats and ground corn, by weight, should make a very suitable grain ration. Digitized by Microsoft® 244 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Sheep are fond of beans in the unground form and when fed with suitable grain adjuncts, they make an excel- lent food for them. Beans and oats go well together as grain food for breeding ewes, but when the fodder is legu- minous, the proportion of beans fed should be small or the protein in the ration will be excessive. To sheep that are being fattened, corn or barley and beans make quick and large gains. The beans may form from 25 to 50 per cent of the grain ration according to the conditions. For growing swine, beans make an excellent ration, cooked or ground and soaked, but some other grain as corn or barley added, improves the ration. To swine that are be- ing fattened, beans and corn in equal parts make an excel- lent food. The claim that beans alone will fatten swine as quickly and satisfactorily as beans and corn, has been dis- posed of at the Michigan experiment station. At the said station, beans and corn fed in equal proportions by weight, gave an increase of 50 per cent higher than beans alone. To horses, beans have been but little fed. For such a use, along with oats, corn or barley, and especially along with the latter, they should furnish an excellent food for horses. What is said with reference to the value of horse beans as a food for horses, should apply about equally to common beans (see p. 24). Beans that have heated to the extent of inducing mould, are very hurtful not only to horses but to all kinds of stock. Soy beans. — The soy bean is now grown as a source of protein in several of the central and southern states, espe- cially the former. The states highest in adaptation include Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky. This warm weather plant is not much grown in the North, but even in New England it has been grown with considerable success as a source of protein for the silo, in the unthreshed form. In the northern states, the Canada field pea will usually furnish protein more cheaply and surely, and the same is true of clover and alfalfa in many sections, but the amount of the bulk in these in relation to Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 245 the protein may render them insufficient of itself as a source of protein. Soy beans yield from, say 12 to 20 bushels an acre under average conditions in states suited to their growth, hence it is quite feasible in these to grow them as a source of protein. The mature grain is only fed to cattle in the ground form, except when fed as ensilage. It is also ground when fed to swine except when harvested by the swine in the field, which is sometimes done, but it is not usual to grind them for sheep or horses. For fattening cattle, soy bean meal though not much used, may be so used as a part of the grain ration, but only as a moderate portion, owing to the high percentage of the oil which it contains. For this reason it should be fed with a prudent caution to milch cows. But it has been found quite satisfactory as a source of protein in feeding both beef cattle and dairy cows. When from 20 to 33 per cent of the silage is composed of soy beans reasonably well matured, the balance being corn also well grown, the protein in the ration will probably be found ample for cows in milk, pro- viding the fodder is alfalfa or clover. It would furnish an excellent meal adjunct, at least as good as linseed meal for calves during the milk period, whether fed in the milk or along with other meal. Much of what is said about the feeding of ground flax will also apply to the feeding of soy bean meal (see p. 249). For sheep that are being fattened, the grain should only form a small part of the ration, but how much would depend, first, on the relative value of the beans and, second, on the protein in the fodder. In the absence of experi- ment, it would seem- safe to say that soy bean meal should not be fed to sheep in larger quantity than oil meal (see p. 277). For sivine the meal is expensive, too expensive in the meantime to be fed in competition with some of the other sources of protein. But the beans may, under some condi- tions, be profitably harvested by swine. Before turning in the swine, the beans should be practically mature. When Digitized by Microsoft® 24b FEEDING FARM ANIMALS thus gleaned, corn or some other carbonaceous food should be fed along with the beans. To horses, soy beans have only been fed in a limited way. But when corn is the principal grain fed, a consider- able proportion of soy bean seed may be added. Some lo- calities favor the growing of soy beans so much more than others, that the wisdom of growing these as a source of protein for any kind of feeding will be largely dependent upon the cost of the same. The horse bean. — The horse bean {Vicia faba), though much grown in Great Britain and also in the more moist and temperate areas of continental Europe, has not succeeded well when tried in the United States and Canada, except in comparatively limited areas. These include certain areas in proximity to the Great lakes, especially in the more north- erly sections where the summers are reasonably moist and cool, and also on the Pacific coast from Oregon to Alaska. This plant is a great yielder of protein, hence it is to be re- gretted that it does not succeed better where the summer temperatures are warm. It furnishes food that is highly prized for stock when fed in proper combinations. It is al- ways fed in the form of meal to cattle except vi^hen fed as ensilage, usually in the unground form to sheep, as meal or cooked to swine, and unground, ground or boiled or steamed to horses. For cattle this crop when ground furnishes excel- lent food for young cattle when fed along with such ground food as barley, rye or corn, the beans preponderating in the ration. For beef cattle, 33 per cent or even less will usually prove ample in the grain ration, but for dairy cows with or- dinary fodders fully 50 per cent of the meal ration may con- sist of bean meal. The best method by far, however, of feeding it to dairy cows is in the form of silage which con- sists of say one part by weight of the entire bean crop to two parts of the entire corn crop. For sheep, what was said of the common bean will also apply to the horse bean (see p. 244). When fed to swine that are being fattened, 50 Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 247 per cent or more of the ration should be corn, barley or rye meal. As the name would indicate, it stands high in favor as a food for horses. It has been claimed that as a part of the ration it puts spirit into horses subjected to violent ex- ertion, as for instance, horses used in the chase. It has also been used as a grain adjunct and even as the principal grain fed in fattening horses. It has peculiar adaptation for be- ing fed along with corn to horses when the latter is freely fed. For fattening horses, the combination is probably un- rivaled. Wolfe places the comparative feeding value of corn, horse beans, also oats as 4, 4.5 and 5. Covirpeas. — The cowpea is the great soil restorer of the southern states. It may be grown with entire success south of parallel 40 degrees and in many localities with measurable success much further north. While it is likely that it will be much grown to furnish pasture for live stock, and also hay for the same, it would seem probable that the amount of grain fed will continue to be more or less lim- ited, owing first, to the tendency in the crop to ripen un- evenly, and second, to the considerable labor in handling it because of peculiarities of growth after it has matured. Nevertheless, it will furnish excellent food for live stock where it can be devoted to such a use. Generally the grain in the threshed form is too dear to admit of its being fed thus with profit. It is usually ground when fed to cattle, but is fed in the unground form to sheep. To swine and horses it is fed ground or unground. Owing to the high protein content possessed by cowpeas, they furnish a suit- able concentrate for young stock. For cattle, when ground and fed along with suitable adjuncts, they furnish excellent food. The meal, like that of Canada field pea, is usually somewhat heavy for being fed alone, hence, for nearly all kinds of feeding and especially for cattle, it is improved by mixing with it ground oats or wheat bran. Such a mixture, containing say 50 per cent of cowpea meal is excellent for calves and dairy cows, but a percentage much less than that named will Digitized by Microsoft® 248 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS prove very helpful. For cattle that are being fattened, cow- peas and corn in almost any proportions will answer as the concentrate fed, but when corn forms 50 per cent of the grain ration, more rapid increase may usually be looked for than if it should form a less proportion of the same. Sheep, doubtless, may be fattened on this grain alone, just as they may be fattened on the Canada field pea alone. The peas may also be fed thus to breeding ewes. Never- theless, for the latter use, the addition of oats will improve the ration materially. But for fattening sheep, corn and cowpeas, during the later stages of fattening, are superior to cowpeas and oats. These three fed together in equal proportions by weight, should furnish an excellent food for fattening sheep. To swine, cowpeas are more commonly fed than to other kinds of live stock. At the Alabama experiment sta- tion, located at Auburn, it was found that cowpeas alone called for 481 pounds to make 100 pounds of increase, corn alone, 487 pounds, and equal parts of each, 433 pounds. The peas and corn may be fed unground. Rye or barley could be substituted for corn, but not quite so satisfactorily. The peas ground and soaked and fed with skim milk, a lim- ited proportion of corn meal being in the ration, make quick growth. Cowpeas and sweet potatoes also feed well together, especially when fattening swine. To horses, although cowpeas are not usually fed because of relative cost, they may be so fed. As in the case of soy beans, they go well with corn. When fed as meal, pea meal and ground oats in equal proportions go well together. The oats lighten up the meal in the sense that they render it more porous. Vetches. — The leading varieties of vetches grown in the United States are known as common winter or spring vetches, also the sand vetch, which, properly speaking, is a winter vetch. The distinction between winter and spring vetches is not very sharply defined. The highest adaptation Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 249 for the common vetch is found west of the Cascade moun- tains and northward from California to Alaska, in areas with cool summer temperatures, especially northward from the Great lakes, and in the maritime provinces of Canada and some portions of the New England states. The sand vetch is more commonly grown on light soils south of say 40 degrees. Vetches are chiefly grown to produce pasture, soiling food or hay, but in some instances the grain is the chief con- sideration. In such instances they are chiefly harvested by sheep or swine where they grew, but more especially by the former, as then much of the vine is consumed as well as the grain. When sown for such harvesting by sheep, enough oats should be sown with them to sustain the crop. Such grazing is only adapted to conditions where dry weather prevails during the harvest season, as for instance, where irrigation is practised. The seed separate from the grain has usually too high a market value for being fed in that form. The grain has much the same feeding value as peas (see p. 236), and may be fed in much the same way. It is particularly valuable as a concentrate for young stock, ow- ing to its high protein content. Flax. — In limited quantities, flax may be grown with a reasonable measure of success in almost every state in the Union, but in the northwestern states and provinces of Can- ada the relative adaptation is higher for it than elsewhere, and in these areas the greater portion of the American crop is grown. Because of the abundance of the oil which it pro- duces, and the high commercial value of the same, flax is more commonly fed as cake or meal after the oil has been extracted, and for the further reason that the high content of the oil makes it too rich a food for prolonged feeding in large quantities. Nevertheless, there are conditions in which the grain may be fed with advantage and profit, in limited quantities, whether fed directly or indirectly, as by grinding it with other foods. Digitized by Microsoft® 250 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS By sowing the flax with the grain or grains with which it is to be fed, it may be obtained virtually without cost other than the seed sown. More than 5 to 10 per cent of flax in the grain fed would usually be unnecessary, and to ascertain how much seed to sow to furnish this amount, can only be found through actual experience in any given locality. When flax seed is thus grown, it precludes the necessity for purchasing oil cake. The favorable influence on digestion of a small quantity of flax seed in the ration, is the strong argument in favor of feeding it thus. But it can only be fed in limited quantities, otherwise the appetite will be gradually lessened To cattle, when thus grown, the grain, with the flax in it, is ground and fed for fattening. When present only In limited quantities, the presence of the flax in the grain does not seriously interfere with successful grinding in home farm mills as would be the .case with flax alone because of its oily character. Meal similarly prepared may also be fed to milch cows. When thus fed, the flax adds protein to the ration and aids digestion, and is not present in sufficient quantities to af- fect adversely the quality of the butter. Flax seed in the unground form has been used more for feeding young calves during the milk period when fed skim milk than for any other class of cattle. It is pre- pared by making it into a gruel by soaking and boiling and adding to the skim milk while hot. The object of heating is to raise the temperature of the milk. Tiiough excellent for such a use, it is not so necessary to add heat to the milk, now that newly separated milk is coming to be much used for feeding calves. The seed in the ground form, usually spoken of as linseed and fed with the milk or otherwise, serves the purpose equally well except in instances in which the temperature of the milk will be improved by raising it. The quantity fed, a very small amount at first, may be gauged by the condition of the voidings. Fed in excess, the bowels become too lax. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 25 1 For sheep, flax when grown with oats in suitable quan- tity, makes an excellent food for breeding ewes, in the un- ground form, the amount of grain fed being not more than one pound daily until after lambing. Grown with oats and barley, or oats, barley and wheat, an excellent mixture is furnished for fattening sheep, without adding any other grain. The gruel mixture and the linseed also are particu- larly excellent for lambs that are hand-fed as they can prob- ably utilize much fat in the ration. For szi'inc, a small amount ground with a suitable grain mixture, will improve the ration but the amount should be very small or the appetite will be lessened. For horses, a small quantity of the ground flax may be added to the food to prevent constipation but wheat bran is usually preferred for such a purpose. In limited quantity, it may also be thus used in feeding young horses and brood mares but oil cake is more suitable. Cotton seed. — Nearly all the cotton grown in the United States is produced in the Gulf states and in the states adjacent to them. It is by far the most valuable crop grown in the South. Subsequently to its introduction into the United States, cotton was grovi^n for several decades for the sole purpose of producing fibre to be used in making cloth. Previously to i860, it is said that nearly all the seed was wasted. It was an enormous waste, as the cotton plant produces about two pounds of seed for each pound of fibre. Since the great value of the seed in furnishing food for live stock and for fertilization have come to be known and ap- preciated, virtually all the seed grown is fed to live stock, chiefly in the form of meal or cake after the oil has been extracted, but it is also fed to some extent while yet un- ground, in the natural condition or steamed, boiled roasted. For cattle, cotton seed furnishes an excellent concen- trate. In the production of beef, no grain grown in the United States is equal to cotton seed, pound for pound, in producing value. When fed in the raw or natural form to Digitized by Microsoft® 252 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS cattle that are being fattened along with Bermuda hay, it has produced meat even more cheaply than when fed as meal, but larger gains have been obtained from feeding it steamed, and also from feeding in some combinations along with other concentrates. The comparative profit, however, from feeding cotton seed as compared with cottonseed meal, will depend on the relative prices of the two. Being an exceedingly concentrated food, ordinarily not more than four to five pounds of the daily ration are composed of cot- ton seed, the other portion of the grain or meal being made up from some other concentrate, but in some instances, in the cotton states, more than 10 pounds of the seed are fed daily. Cattle have been successfully fattened on cotton seed and cotton seed hulls without hay. Excellent results follow the feeding of raw cotton seed, a moderate amount of corn, corn silage and Bermuda hay. For coii's in milk, cotton seed has been found even more profitable than when fed for meat, owing, doubtless to its high protein content. It is more commonly fed to dairy cows in the form of meal, but in instances not a few, is fed raw or steamed. At the Mississippi experiment station, butter made by feeding boiled cotton seed, Bermuda hay and silage stood first in cheapness of production, that from raw cotton seed and the same adjuncts came second and that made from cottonseed meal and these adjuncts was third. Here also, relative profit from feeding the seed and meal will depend upon relative values. The claim has been made, and it is probably correct, that no cheaper feed for producing milk can be fed in the southern states. For milk production as much, as 10 pounds per day per cow have in some instances been fed, but the aim should be rather to feed not more than half the quantity named in prolonged feeding and to add some other concentrate, preferably one grown in the South. It would seem probable that in the fu- ture, cotton seed will be more and more fed as meal rather than as seed, as the value of the oil pressed from seed is greater for some other uses than as food for stock. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 253 For calves, cotton seed is usually fed in the form of meal. As they become more advanced in age, however, it may be fed to them raw or steamed, and thus also it may be used with advantage as a source of protein in growing young cattle, more especially when the fodder is made up largely of corn stalks and the non-saccharine sorghums. To sheep, cotton seed in the raw form is fed freely when fattening them in proximity to the mills, and is a good fattening food fed along with Bermuda or other hay, or even along with the hulls in lieu of roughage feeding three to four pounds of hulls to one pound of the seed. It has not been much fed to breeding ewes, but doubtless it would be perfectly legitimate to feed it to them in moderate quantities. To swine, it is not common to feed cotton seed in any form, but when so fed it is usually in the form of meal. In the unground form it is not well suited to the digestion of swine, even though it should not injure them, as the meal does in prolonged feeding (see p. 278). At the Texas ex- periment station, even when fed boiled, the mortality of the animals eating it was 25 per cent. To horses, neither cotton seed nor cottonseed meal have been much fed. The meal has been fed with safety to working horses to the extent of one to two pounds a day, and it would seem reasonable to suppose that at least as large amounts of the raw seed could be fed without hazard. Sunflower seed. — The sunflower calls for a climate somewhat similar to that required by corn. This means that it can be grown successfully in nearly all parts of the United States that are tillable, and also in several of the provinces of Canada. The yields from reasonably good crops are about 2,000 pounds per acre. The growing_ of the plant calls for about the same amount of labor as the grow- ing of a crop of corn, and the yield of the grain is not far different. The seed is also possessed of high feeding value. Notwithstanding, the growing of sunflowers as food for Digitized by Microsoft® 254 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS farm animals, unless it be for poultry, is not likely to be- come popular in the near future, owing, first, to the hand la- bor required in harvesting the crop, and second, to the little ■ food value possessed by the stalks. Sunflower seed may be fed in the unground form to sheep, swine, horses and poultry. When fed to cattle they are commonly ground, except when fed as ensilage. This is probably the most popular way of feeding them to cattle. When so fed, it is common to ensile only the heads and a small portion of the stalk which supports them. When thus ensiled with corn and horse beans, an excellent ration is obtained for feeding milch cows. When fed to cattle, sheep, swine and horses, only a limited percentage of the grain ration should be sunflower seed, because of the high content of oil which they contain. Even when fed to fowls, it should be along with other grain. Cake made from sunflowers is about as valuable as oil cake. Sweet sorghum seed. — Sorghum may be grown for pasture, soiling food, fodder, or for making syrup, in nearly all localities where corn will mature paying crops of the grain. Sorghum syrup has been made in considerable quan- tities as far north as southern Minnesota. This crop is sel- dom grown primarily for the seed obtained from it, but when grown to furnish syrup, the seed also is an important consideration. Yields approximating 30 bushels per acre are frequently obtained and in some instances considerably more than the quantity named. As with Kafir corn and in- deed with all the seeds of the sorghum family, much care is necessary to prevent them from heating to their injury as food when stored. Nearly all of what is said with reference to the feeding of Kafir corn seed will also apply to the feeding of sor- ghum-seed (see p. 25s). The composition of the two is very similar. This means that sorghum seed may, under certain conditions, be fed with advantage to beef and dairy cattle, to sheep, swine, horses and poultry. For cattle and swine it is decidedly preferable to feed the seed as meal, but to Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 255 sheep and horses there is probably no better way of feeding it than by simply chopping off the heads from the sheaves and feeding them unthreshed. In this form, under proper conditions of storage, this seed is but little liable to ferment. Well preserved seed when threshed, will usually command so high a price for planting that it cannot be profitably use 1 for feeding in a large way to live stock. Kafir corn seed. — Kafir corn will • successfully with- stand much more drought than corn and considerably more than sorghum, but it cannot withstand temperatures so low as some varieties of these plants. It has special adaptation, therefore, for certain areas of the semi-arid belt from say parallel 40 degrees southward. In these it produces more grain and fodder per acre than either corn or soi'ghum. At the Kansas experiment station located at Manhattan, it has produced about 25 per cent more grain than corn. Where, however, the yields of corn are equal to or greater than those of Kafir corn seed, the former should be grown in preference, as it is not only somewhat better relished but has a higher feeding value. Except when fed to sheep and fowls, Kafir corn is usually ground before feeding it. For cattle, Kafir corn has not been found quite equal to corn. For fattening cattle, the feeding of corn is about 6 per cent greater. The difference in favor of corn for milk production is probably even more. Cattle tire more quickly of Kafir corn than of corn. Twenty to 30 per cent of soy bean meal greatly im- proves the Kafir corn for making beef and a still larger per- centage further improves it for milk production when the fodder is carbonaceous in character. Wheat bran also is well suited for being fed to cattle with this meal, as it not only increases the protein content, but adds to the bulk. It should be fed somewhat sparingly to calves except when they are being fattened, and to young cattle in process of development. For fattening sheep, Kafir corn has proved at least fairly satisfactory It is fed to them in the unground form Digitized by Microsoft® 256' FEEDING FARM ANIMALS and very frequently without separating the seed from the heads. These are removed from the stems and run through a cutting box which prepares them for being fed in a very suitable form. In other instances the seed is fed directly and unmixed, but a small percentage of oats a Jed im- proves the grain ration. When fed to breeding ewes, the percentage of oats should be large, even when the fodder consists of alfalfa.- For swine, Kafir corn, finely ground and soaked, has proved fairly satisfactory when fed to swine that were being fattened. It was not equal to corn, however. Swine tire of it more quickly and it has more of a tendency to produce constipation. When from 20 to 33 per cent of the grain mixture is soy bean meal, Kafir corn is not much behind corn similarly fed in fattening swine. When fed to sows suckling their young, from 30 to 50 per cent of soy bean meal will furnish a suitable ration. The same is true when not less than 50 per cent of the meal is composed of shorts. When fed along with skim milk to young swine before or after the weaning period, the development should be satis- factory, but it will be even more so if wheat middlings are added. To horses, the few trials made in feeding Kafir corn have shown that it may be so fed with safety and profit under certain conditions, especially to horses at work. It is frequently fed while yet unthreshed, by simply cutting off the heads of the sheaves and feeding the heads. It is believed, however, that better results will be obtained from first grinding the seed. What has been said about feeding corn in conjunction with other grains, will also apply in the main to Kafir corn seed. It is relished at least fairly well by horses. Other non-saccharine sorghum seeds. — Besides Kafir corn (see p. 255), the non-saccharine sorghums known as Jerusalem corn, Milo maize and Durra, are grown to some extent and in some instances largely if not chiefly for the grain obtained from them. They are grown sectionally as Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 257 it were, and mainly in limited , areas and in states more or less centrally located west of the Mississippi river. As a rule these have not proved equal to Kafir corn in yields of seed, but to this there are some exceptions. Nor has the fodder as a rule proved equal to that obtained from Kafir corn or sorghum. Where corn grows in fine form, it would seem safe to say that it can be more profitably grown to furnish food for live stock than any of these. The seed of each of the non-saccharine sorghums has about the same feeding value as that of Kafir corn. This means that none of them are quite equal to corn for general feeding, although they may exceed it in some special line or lines of the same. It means also that they are better adapted relatively for fattening than for promoting growth in young animals. As in the case of Kafir corn, these should ordinarily be ground when fed to cattle and swine, but may usually be fed with more advantage to sheep, horses and fowls by feeding them while yet on the un- threshed heads, or at least in the unground form. Corn or maize. — Indian corn or maize is unquestion- ably the most important single food plant grown in the United States to provide sustenance for domestic animals. In localities where it can be successfully grown, it usually furnishes more nutrients per acre than can be obtained from any other plant for the labor involved, and this holds true of it even in many instances where it is not considered prof- itable to grow it primarily to produce grain. It is not so exhaustive to the soil as many other plants and no other crop can be used to better purpose as an aid in cleaning the land, when the labor involved is considered. While corn can be grown with more or less profit in every state in the Union, the greatest corn growing states are those embraced in the Mississippi basin. Although in some of its varieties it may be matured in 90 days from the date of planting, it is not usually grown to a very large ex- tent primarily for the grain, unless in areas that are free Digitized by Microsoft® 258 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS from frost for 120 days. As a fodder crop, its growth has been pushed far northward during recent years. Corn fed as grain is preeminently a fattening food for all kinds of domestic animals. In this respect, it is without a rival. As shown in the table, it is essentially a carbo- naceous food, its leading characteristic being the large amount of starchy matter which it contains. It is low in protein and quite low in ash. It is a heat-producing food and quite low in those materials that furnish muscle and bone. It should always be fed, therefore, with a prudent moderation to young animals, to animals at work and to those producing milk, and in conjunction with foods rich in protein. It is nearly all digestible, is much relished by an- imals, and is one of the most healthful of cereals, even for prolonged feeding, providing it is fed with judgment. The number of varieties of corn is in a sense without limit. These are divided into the two classes known as common and sweet. The sweet varieties are richer in al- buminoids and fat, but they do not usually yield as much, as a rule, as the common varieties. The latter are sub- divided into what are termed flint and dent varieties. The flint varieties are characterized by the flinty hardness of the grain and the dent varieties by an indentation on the outer end of the kernels. The flint varieties are smaller and hard- ier, and are, therefore, better adapted relatively to condi- tions with seasons too short for producing the dent vari- eties with equal profit. There is no marked difiference in the chemical analysis of the common sorts of corn based on the terms flint and dent. The nutrients do not seem to be materially influenced by color nor by latitude and longitude. Corn is fed as grain in various ways. More commonly it is fed after removal from the cob when it is spoken of as "shelled" corn or simply corn, but frequently it is fed on the cob after the husk has been removed when it is known as "ear" corn. Sometimes the whole crop is put into the silo and fed as "silage," at other times it is fed unhusked from the shock when it is known as "shock" or "fodder" corn. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 259 In some instances the ears are broken off and fed without husking when it is designated "snapped" corn. The stalks, with the ears removed, are known as "stover." When these are torn into strips by a suitable machine, the product is called "shredded" corn. The discussion at this time relates primarily to the grain. To young animals, corn is usually fed cracked or ground. By "cracked" is meant broken up into coarse particles that they may masticate it more easily. In some instances, the corn and cob are ground together before be- ing fed, the product being spoken of as corn and cob meal. When prepared thus, it should be finely ground, as when the particles are coarse, they are not easily digested. When properly prepared, corn and cob meal has about the same feeding value as corn meal, notwithstanding the small amount of nutrients in the cob. The result is owing prob- ably to the more easily penetrable character of the mass in the stomach when fed directly. When fed to cattle that are being fattened, corn is given ground or unground, soaked or unsoaked, as snapped corn and also as shock corn. It is usually given to cows in the form of meal. It is more com- monly fed to sheep shelled and unground, but may be fed, in part at least, as ear corn or as shock corn. It is usually fed to swine in the shelled or ear form and unground. In some instances it is first soaked. For young swine and sows that are nursing their young, it is made into meal and the meal is soaked. To horses it is more commonly fed in the shelled form. The degree of the moisture in corn has a material in- fluence on its feeding value. In new corn the moisture con- tent varies from 20 to 25 per cent. In old corn, thoroughly air dried, it is about 12 per cent. It loses moisture slowly, hence the necessity for great care in storing, or it will mould. In such a condition its value as food is greatly im- paired. If fed in large or even in moderate quantities it is positively dangerous. Digitized by Microsoft® 26o FEEDING FARM ANIMALS To calves and young cattle, corn must be fed with some reserve, owing to its carbonaceous character, unless when they are to be fattened. It may then be made the principal, almost the sole grain food fed, otherwise it should not as a rule form more than one-third to one-half the grain fed, the balance being preferably oats and bran. The latter quan- tity is only admissible when fed along with legumes or what is better, with these and field roots. For cattle that are being fattened, corn is par excel- lence the food. It is not only much relished but it is much laden with starch, well calculated to fill the tissues of the body with fat. It may be used as the sole grain food or as any part of it, according to the nature of the other food fac- tors. In the corn belt, it has been much used as the sole ra- tion, the stalks supplying the roughage, but this method is only admissible when the prices of grain rule low, as it is not a balanced food. It is fed to such cattle as corn meal, corn and cob meal, the ears snapped, as shock corn and sometimes soaked. When fed with clover or alfalfa, corn may legitimately form 75 to go per cent of the concentrated food, the balance being some food rich in protein, as cotton- seed meal, oil cake, bran or gluten meal. When the grain is fed whole, swine are made to glean amid the droppings to consume the corn that has escaped being digested. For cows in milk, corn will easily maintain its position as the basic ration, in localities where it grows readily. It can be produced cheaply, and in the form of silage furnishes the necessary succulence. More commonly the grain is fed to cows in the form of corn meal or corn and cob meal, but sometimes it is fed as shock corn, more especially when the fodder is not coarse. When thus fed, it is usually necessary to add more grain, as in the case of feeding silage. It is sel- dom wise to make corn comprise more than 50 per cent of the grain fed, even when a legume is used as fodder. For sheep that are being fattened, corn is equally as good as for fattening cattle. For winter lambs, fed as meal or cracked, along with 20 per cent of oil meal, the gains Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 261 should be satisfactory when the milk supply from the dams is also liberal. For weaned lambs and mature sheep that are being fattened, it may be fed unground as the sole grain ration for short periods of feeding, the fodder being legu- minous, but when from lo to 25 per cent of the grain is a protein food, the results are usually more satisfactory. For breeding ewes, the corn should not be more than 50 per cent of the concentrate fed, and usually not more than 25 per cent. For swine that are being fattened, corn alone answers well. It is about as profitable fed as shelled or in the cob, as in the form of meal. If so hard as to injure the mouths of the animals, it should be soaked for 18 to 24 hours. For brood sows, it may profitably form 33 to 50 per cent of the grain fed, the other meal having more of protein in it. In such instances, it is fed as meal, after having been soaked, and is thus prepared also for unweaned pigs. To these it should seldom form more than 33 per cent of the meal, the other portion being preferably wheat middlings. To grow- ing pigs on clover or alfalfa pasture, it may furnish 50 to 100 per cent of the grain fed. For horses, corn is not so good a food as oats, when fed as the sole food. It is not so good for building muscu- lar tissue or in making bone in young horses, or in sustain- ing muscular energy in horses at work. It fattens the ani- mals more than oats, as one result of which they sweat more readily, and yet corn may be fed as a considerable propor- tion of the grain ration, especially to horses at work, with both economy and profit. To these it may be fed so as to form from 25 to 50 per cent of the grain, according to the season and to the protein in the other food. Oats go well with corn. A little wheat bran added to corn meal is a ma- terial aid to the digesting of corn. Corn and cob meal is better than corn meal fed without admixture. Corn should seldom form more than 33 per cent of the grain food fed to Digitized by Microsoft® 262 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS foals, young horses or brood mares that are pregnant or while nursing their foals, because of its low protein and ash content. Broom corn seed. — The seed of broom corn has fre- quently been wasted under the impression that it was not possessed of any considerable feeding value. This view may rest upon the fact that broom corn may be most prof- itably harvested when a little short of maturity. Neverthe- less, under such conditions, the' value of the seed is consid- erable, since it is usually allowed to reach the dough stage before it is harvested, and in some instances to go beyond it. Its feeding value is, of course, much affected by the degree of the maturity when harvested, but under almost any con- ditions, the value of the seed for feeding is much more than the cost involved in it. Where the seed is allowed to mature before the brush is cut, as much as a ton is frequently ob- tained per acre. As the feeding value is much the same as that of Kafir corn, food from such a source should not be underrated. In some instances it has been reported that the seed not fully matured has been drawn into a pasture as soon as ob- tained, where horses, cattle, sheep and swine were allowed to eat of it at will, except that for a few days at the first, they were accustomed to it gradually by allowing them to take increasing quantities from day to day. The wisdom of feeding it thus is to be questioned, as under such condi- tions, unnecessarily large quantities will be consumed. It may be fed much the same as Kafir corn (see p. 255), re- membering that, as the immaturity in the seed is increased, the relative quantity fed should also be increased. There is probably no way in which immature seed may be fed more profitably than by feeding it to sheep or fowls in the un- ground form. Much broom corn seed is lost by throwing it in heaps and allowing it to ferment, a result that will quickly follow when it is treated thus. Millet seed. — Millet may be grown in many states and provinces of Canada, but the prairie states of the northwest Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM CEREALS AND OTHER SEEDS 263 in this countr}^ and of the west in Canada, have highest adaptation for it. In these areas, it may frequently be grown with much appropriateness to furnish not only hay but also grain for live stock in the seed which it matures. Since it grows best in warm weather and will mature in about 75 days, according to the variety, it may furnish a crop of seed on land where crops sown earlier may have failed, or where early spring sowing was not practicable be- cause of excessive moisture. Yields of not less than 30 bushels of seed per acre and weighing 48 to 56 pounds per bushel are easily obtainable from such lands. As the com- position of millet is much like that of oats, and as it has but little hull, its feeding value for live stock, especially where corn is not successfully grown for the grain, will be at once apparent. Owing to the hardness of the grain, it is fed only in the ground form, except when fed to sheep and fowls. For calves and young cattle, ground millet furnishes a suitable concentrate. IMore especially when fed in conjunc- tion with oats, millet meal should be quite suitable for young calves, since the proportion of hull is small. Along with oats, say in equal parts by weight, calves may be given about all of the mixture that they will take during the milk For cattle being fattened, ground millet is a useful food when it forms from 33 to 50 per cent, according to the stage of the fattening, less being fed as the season advances. The other factor is preferably corn, but may be barley. Mil- let and wheat may also be similarly fed. For cows in milk, ground millet may profitably form any portion of the grain ration up to 50 per cent of the grain fed, should occasion require it. Ground oats and wheat, barley, rye or corn, in equal parts by weight, may ap- propriately furnish the other portion. To sheep, millet seed furnishes suitable food. More commonly it is fed to them unground. It may be fed alone, but oats mixed with it, add to the bulk and porosity of the Digitized by Microsoft® 264 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS mass, and so far as they do, improve it for ordinary fatten- ing. For fattening sheep, it blends well with corn, about equal parts being used, but may also be fed with other ce- reals, as wheat, barley or rye. For swine, ground millet is a better food than ground oats, especially for young swine, a large proportion being digestible. Alone it furnishes good food for sows nursing their young, but is, of course, irnproved by feeding with various other grains. In tests made at the South Dakota station, millet alone did not prove equal to wheat or barley, pound for pound. In fattening swine, ground millet may be fed with corn, in any proportions desired, but the aim should be to have more than 50 per cent of corn in the ra- tion. To horses, ground millet may be fed with appropriate- ness. Fed to foals and young horses, as when oats are fed, it produces muscular development, and fed to horses at work, it promotes muscular strength. The ration is im- proved by adding oats, but in the absence of oats, it may be made to take their place in a mixed ration. For exclusive feeding, it is not equal to oats, being a somewhat heavier feed. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XIII. FOOD FROM BY-PRODUCTS. By-products are residues from the manufacture of products primarily grown for some more important use. The by-products of food stuffs are the residues left from the manufacture of these various products for which they are more commonly grown. Thus bran is a by-product of wheat manufactured into flour. Cottonseed meal is a by- product of cotton seed from which the oil has been ex- tracted. Skim milk is a by-product of whole milk from which the cream has been removed for being made into but- ter. These by-products are usually fed to live stock, and in the aggregate they are of immense value. The three rnost valuable by-products in furnishing food for animals are, wheat bran, oil meal, and cottonseed meal, but many others are also highly valuable. The more important of the by-products discussed in Chapter XIII, obtained from the cereals, are the by-products from: (i) Wheat, (2) barley, (3) flax and (4) corn. The discussion of the by-products of other cereals follows. These are of minor importance and include the by-products : (i) Of rye, (2) of oats, (3) of peas, (4) of buckwheat and (5) of rice. The by-products obtained from certain food "products other than cereals are then discussed, and they in- clude residues from: (i) Cotton seed, (2) sugar beets, (3) milk and (4) the by-product molasses obtained in the man- ufacture of sugar. Lastly, miscellaneous by-products are discussed. They include the following: (i) Tankage, (2) dried blood, (3) dried flesh meal and meat scrap and (4) fish scrap, also various kinds of cake other than oil cake and cottonseed cake. Several of these by-products are exceedingly rich in the elements of plant growth, as well as in food nutrients. Digitized by Microsoft® 266 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Prominent among these are cottonseed meal, oil meal and wheat bran, rich in the order named. As but a small por- tion of these elements are appropriated by the animals to which they are fed, when the voidings are carefully saved and promptly applied, they furnish fertilizer of much value. So important is the value of this residue, that it should never be lost sight of in determining the foods that shall be fed. The wholesale exportation of these food products, therefore, from this country, is to be deplored. It means that these resources of production are fast being sent away to other lands. Wheat by-products. — Wheat furnishes by-products of great value in feeding live stock. The chief of these are bran, shorts and middlings, but in some instances a low- grade of flour is also fed. It would also seem correct to speak of frosted wheat, much shrunken wheat and screen- ings, as by-products. Bran consists of the three outer mem- branous coats of the kernel and also the rich protein layer just underneath them. Shorts is simply reground bran. Middlings contain the finer bran particles and more flour than shorts. The distinction between these is not clearly drawn in all instances either in the composition of the two products or in the more or less interchangeable way of re- ferring to them. The low grade of flour fed is commonly referred to as "red dog" and in some instances as "dark feeding flour." Frozen or frosted wheat is wheat that has been injured by frost before maturity. It may be perfectly pure but lacks in plumpness and hardness, according to the stage of the growth at which it was frozen. Shrunken wheat is that which is small and shrivelled, though hard in the berry, owing to some injury sustained by the stalk and leaves, before the completion of the ripening of the grain, as when stricken by the black rust. Such grain may make good flour though low in quantity, hence it is heavily dis- counted by buyers. Screenings consist of small and light or broken kernels and the seeds of weeds that may have ripened in the grain, also in some instances minute pieces Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 267 of broken straw. From 25 to 33 per cent of wheat is made into by-products, of course not including tWe frosted or slirunken grain or the screenings. Wheat bran is pi-obably more extensively used in feed- ing live stock than any single by-product of any kind of grain. There are but few instances in which it may not be fed to live stock with decided benefit. It is richer in protein than the whole grain which gives it high adaptation to the needs of growing animals and to milk production. It con- tains a large proportion of the mineral matter and a con- siderable proportion of the gluten which makes it good bone making food. It has the requisite bulkiness necessary to make it feed well with highly concentrated foods such as corn. The germ remnants in it to some extent promote diges- tion. It is also a mild laxative. The feeding value of bran, except perhaps for young swine, is higher than chemical analyses would indicate. Moreover, the fertilizer from feeding it is rich in plant food. The best interests of agri- culture, therefore, demand that this by-product shall be re- tained and fed in the country to the greatest extent possible. For calves, bran is excellent from the time that they be- gin to take food other than milk. It is specially helpful when feeding some concentrated food as corn or rye meal, but is not so necessary when feeding ground oats. For growing calves, the bran should usually form not less than two-thirds of the meal when fed along with corn, rye or barley meal, but for calves that are being fattened, it should not form a large proportion of the meal ration and in some instances none at all. For young cattle that are being win- tered on dry fodder other than clover hay, two or three pounds of bran fed daily, or even a less quantity with other meal, will produce excellent results. There is perhaps no kind of meal that will not be improved as food by its pres- ence, and the more dense and concentrated the meal, the more beneficial it is to mix bran with it and the larger is the quantity of bran that may be mixed into it. Digitized by Microsoft® 268 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS For cattle being fattened, bran may be fed with much benefit as a part of the ration from the beginning to the end of the feeding period when it is not too costly, but it should be used in very gradually decreasing proportions. When sufficiently cheap, it may form as much as one-half the grain ration by weight, in the first stages of fattening. By the middle of the period, it should seldom form more than one- third of the ration and even a less proportion is preferable. By the end of the fattening period, only a small amount is needed, and when oil meal is fed, none at all. In forced feed- ing with strong concentrates as corn, bran so lightens the mass in the stomach that digestive disturbances are warded off, but when oats form a considerable proportion of the food fed, it is not needed except in so far as it exerts a wholesome influence on the digestive tract. Bran has been used with considerable success in fattening animals along with good prairie hay when the bran was low in price. For cows in milk, wheat bran is specially well adapted since it furnishes abundantly protein and ash and also a fair amount of starchy matter. Moreover, its bulky char- acter, as in fattening cattle, tends to make more porous the mass of the heavy concentrates when mixed with them. Even cottonseed meal is improved by such admixture, al- though the nutritive constituents are approximately the same. Bran may form any part of the meal ration or the whole of it, according to the relative cost. When fed alone, from eight to ten pounds may be given to a cow daily. Fed along with such concentrates as corn, rye and barley, the fodder being carbonaceous in character, as corn, sorghum or any of the grasses, one-half the meal fed by weight may consist of bran, but should the fodder be leguminous, as clover hay, it will suffice if bran forms say one-third of the mixture. Usually not more than nine pounds of such a mix- ture are needed daily. Bran, ground oats and ground corn, in equal parts by weight, furnish a grand concentrate for dairy cows. No other by-product is so much used in feeding for milk in this country as bran. Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 269 For sheep, bran serves a good purpose and for breed- ing ewes when fed as a part of the grain ration, but it is rather coarse for being fed to very young lambs. It is par- ticularly helpful to breeding ewes when the fodder consists largely of corn or the grasses. With such roughage, as much as one-half the grain ration may be composed of bran, when such grain as corn, barley, or rye are being fed, but usually a less proportion will suffice. A mixture which is two parts oats and one bran by weight is very valuable for such feeding. When fed along with leguminous fodders, but little bran is needed. Subsequently to the lambing pe- riod, the free feeding of bran will be found highly conducive to milk production. The feeding value of bran is not so high relativel}' for sheep that are being fattened. Sheep are not so fond of bran as of some other kinds of meal or grain, hence care should be taken not to feed it to them in excess while fattening or the gains will not be entirely satisfactory. And yet, in the absence of oil cake or field roots, a small proportion of bran will be found beneficial. Along with heavy corn feeding it is really essential. For swine, bran has not so high adaptation as for feed- ing cattle, horses or sheep and yet may frequently be used with profit in the judicious feeding of swine. For young swine it is too coarse and bulky and has in it too large a proportion of crude fibre. Nor is it the best food that can be given to swine during the growing period, but with advance in age it becomes increasingly suitable for them. It is seldom fed, even as a part of a ration, to swine that are being fattened. It may, however, be fed as a factor of the meal ration along with concentrated grains to brood sows before or after farrowing and to the extent of forming when necessary at least 50 per cent of the meal fed. For horses, bran is frequently given a place in the diet of animals, young and old, but the amount fed daily is usually quite small. In other instances it is fed not more frequently than once or twice a week, when it is scalded and Digitized by Microsoft® 270 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS fed as a mash with a view probably to render it more laxa- tive. In other instances it is not fed at all. A small quan- tity fed daily exercises a salutary influence on the digestion of horses of all classes when on dry feed and not worked severely, including weanling foals, yard horses, brood mares, stallions and horses at moderate work. It is too laxa- tive and not sufficiently nutritive for horses that are worked severely, but in some instances they have been worked some- what severely for a considerable period on bran as the sole concentrate. Bran is rather preferred to middlings when feeding an- imals that are being fattened, whether cattle or sheep, as it makes a more desirable blend with fine meals as corn and cottonseed meal and is less pasty when being masticated. Bran and shorts have been found about equal for milk pro- duction when fed to cows, but as a food for swine, bran is far below middlings. Bran is not quite equal to oats pound for pound for producing milk, or to a mixture of ground oats and barley, but the difference is slight. Swine fed chiefly on bran will not thrive so well nor keep healthy so long as swine fed chiefly on ground barley or rye. It should not be much used in fattening cattle when the relative value per pound is more than one-half that of oil meal and kindred feeds. Bran, when fed daily to horses, is commonly fed dry, but when fed occasionally, as mash. It is also fed in the dry form to cattle and sheep but is soaked before being fed to swine. Middlings and shorts are so nearly alike in their com- position and feeding qualities, notwithstanding some differ- ences, that it will be in order to discuss them together. They have more starchy matter and less crude fibre than bran and are therefore better adapted relatively to animals whose digestive capacity unfits them for taking large quan- tities of bulky food. Although it is considerably more con- centrated than bran, it is no richer in protein and is even less rich in mineral matter. Middlings have never stood so high relatively for feeding cattle and sheep as bran, but they Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 27I may be so fed in due admixture with considerable benefit. They are less satisfactory as a diluent of the heavier kinds of meal and when fed, the quantity given is less than in the case of bran. The results from feeding middlings and corn to cows has proved quite satisfactory, the quantity re- quired being about 25 per cent less than when feeding bran. Middlings are preeminently adapted for feeding to swine. No kind of meal is better for swine of all ages when due re- gard is had to the quantity fed. When the prices admit of such feeding, they may be made the sole meal ration for pigs before weaning; a large proportion of the same dur- ing the growing period, and 50 to 75 per cent of the ration of brood sows suckling their young. Even when pigs are being fattened they are sometimes fed so as to form from 25 to 50 per cent of the ration. Shorts and corn have been found to make increase about 25 per cent greater than corn alone and considerably greater than shorts alone. When fed alone during the finishing period, they produce pork somewhat soft. Middlings and skim milk are two of the standard foods in areas where bacon pork of prime quality is produced. Because of the high adaptation of middlings to pork production, under some conditions, it is in order to purchase them in large quantities for feeding swine. When fed to horses, unless duly admixed with other concentrates, it is said that they tend to induce colic. Red dog flour is rich in protein and fat. It contains much of the germs of the wheat and because of its compo- sition and fineness is preeminently adapted for feeding to growing swine. In limited quantities it has also been found quite useful for feeding to horses that are worked hard and to milch cows. Frosted wheat has much the same feeding qualities as matured wheat, unless the freezing takes place several days before the wheat is matured, and is probably quite as useful pound for pound for feeding purposes. The same is true of shrunken wheat. It is even richer in protein than wheat not shrunken, and because of this and of the higher bran Digitized by Microsoft® 2/2 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS element it contains, it is more valuable relatively for some kinds of feeding than plump wheat. These facts are im- portant to the grower of wheat since frosted and shrunken wheat are much discounted in the market. These may be fed in the same way as matured wheat (see p. 225). Wheat screenings is a sort of indeterminable quantity, owing to the great difference in the composition of the vari- ous grades. Screenings that consist largely of broken ker- nels and small and shrivelled grains, are usuaHy as valuable for feeding as pure wheat, whereas screenings that are light and chaffy in character may prove of out little use for any kind of feeding. Sceenings in the ungrouna form are usually fed to sheep that are being fattened alone or in con- junction with other kinds of grain. They have been found eminently suited to such feeding, as they are a safe and healthful food. Moreover, they usually contain a variety of weed seeds that are rich in fattening properties, and that are much relished by sheep. They may be fed in restricted quantities or in self feeders, and in some instances but little fodder is fed along with them. They may be fed in con- junction with any of the cereals and in any quantity de- sired. Sometimes they are fed along with wheat shorts. They are also fed with good results to cattle and swine in the ground form and soaked when fed to the latter. Barley by-products. — Barley is extensively used in the manufacture of beer and other spirituous liquors. Conse- quently the by-products obtained from it are large in vol- ume. Chief among these are brewers' grains, distillers' grains and malt sprouts. Brewers' grains are the residue left after the soluble dextrin and sugar have been extracted from the malt. Barley is valuable for malting in proportion as it is rich in starch and bright in color, hence barley, rich in protein, and, therefore, of high value for feeding, may grade low for malting, as the starch is the valuable element for making beer. Nearly all the protein is left in the grain. The residue, therefore, is richer relatively in nitrogen than the original barley, although in the wet form it is very much Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 273 more bulky. Lawes and Gilbert have shown, however, that barley is worth more for feeding uses than the malt and malt sprouts obtained from it. Brewers' grains are fed in the wet form when fed within a reasonable distance of the brewery, otherwise they are dried before feeding them. If not soon fed in the wet form, they will spoil, but in the dried form they may be kept indefinitely. Distillers' grains are the residue left after the alcohol has been separated from the grain by distillation, following the fermentive processes. They have much the same composition as brewers' grains, but are more watery. They contain only eight or nine per cent of dry matter, whereas brewers' grains contain about 24 per cent. Malt sprouts are essentially very young barley sprouts, about two-thirds as long as the grain. They are obtained by sprouting barley when preparing malt. Fur- ther sprouting is stopped by drying the malt when the sprouts fall off or are separated by a winnowing process. As shown in the table they are very rich in protein. For cattle of all ages, brewers' grains are much rel- ished and as a source of protein they rank high. They are generally fed to cows with a view to milk produc- tion, but may also be fed to other cattle when the price will admit of so feeding them. In the dry form they rank along with such foods as bran and oil meal for dairy cows and are no more perishable than either. They are most extensively used in New England dairies and much is also exported to Germany. Four to five pounds may be fed daily to a ma- ture cow, and in the wet form five to six times these amounts. They should be fed along with, say two to four pounds of such concentrates as corn or corn meal per day, dependent somewhat on the fodder. When fed in the wet form every care should be taken to keep the mangers and feed boxes in a clean condition, especially in warm weather, or offensive odors may arise which will affect adversely the quality of the milk. Inattention to these particulars has in some instances led to the prohibition of the sale of such milk by boards of Digitized by Microsoft® 274 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS health. Brewers' grains may sometimes be fed with de- cided profit to calves and young cattle, but usually other foods may be obtained more cheaply for fattening, unless in the immediate vicinity of the brewery. For feeding sheep, brewers' grains are not considered so suitable as for feeding cattle, especially in the wet form. Sheep do not take so kindly to sloppy food as swine or even cows. But where the cost will admit of such feeding, dry brewers' grains should answer well as a part of the ration for breeding ewes. To swine, brewers' grains are not much fed at any con- siderable distance from the place of their production, but feeding them to young swine will tend much to promote growth, and for sows nursing their young, they should be quite as good as for cows nursing theirs. But, as a source of protein, they will probably be found too costly for feed- ing swine. To horses, trials made on brewers grains, even when at work, have proved satisfactory. The general condition and also the energy were pronounced as good as when oats were fed. At the New Jersey station it was found econom- ical to feed them to street car horses, but the outcome from such feeding is largely dependent on relative values. As a food for foals, young horses and brood mares, the results should be satisfactory from the judicious feeding of brew- ers' grains. Distillers' grains, being a very watery food when fed in the wet form, are best adapted for being fed to cattle for milk or for beef. The stables in which the animals are fat- tened are usually not far distant from the place of distilla- tion. For both uses these grains have high adaptation when fed with suitable adjuncts. They are not so well adapted for being fed to sheep, swine and horses, but under certain conditions may answer well for swine. Malt sprouts are commonly fed to cows for milk pro- duction. They are highly adapted for such a use, since they contain about 20 per cent of digestible protein. Moreover, Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 275 when properly prepared for feeding, they are a succuient food. But they may also be used in feeding various other domestic animals by adding them to the ration in moderate quantities, to increase the protein in the same. Live stoc)< are not usually so fond of malt sprouts as of brewers' grains, hence they must needs be fed with more moderation. From two to three pounds will usually answer daily in the ration for milch cows. As they absorb much water, they are usually soaked several hours before feeding them. Flax by-products. — The principal by-product of flax seed is oil cake, more commonly spoken of as oil meal. It is used as food for live stock. Oil cake is the residue left after the oil has been removed. When removed by hy- draulic pressure only, it is known as old process oil cake. When chemicals are used in extracting the oil, it is known as new process. It is sold as oil cake or as oil meal, both terms being applied to it in a somewhat loose sense. Oil cake, properly speaking, is the residue pressed into large flat cakes after the oil has been removed from the seed and the moisture from the residue. Oil meal is the cake finely ground. Adulterants are sometimes mixed with the meal. The cake cannot be thus readily adulterated, hence the preference for it in foreign markets. For a similar reason, many feeders prefer to feed it in the "nut" form, that is, in the form that is broken up into small pieces about the size of mixed nuts as ordinarily found in the market. The meal is usually fed to animals that are quite young. It is not well suited to outdoor feeding as it may be lifted by the wind. The old process meal contains a little more oil than the new and a little less relatively of total protein. But it has a higher per cent of digestible protein, as cooking the meal in the new process reduces somewhat the digestibility of the protein. The two kinds of meal may be distinguished by placing a small quantity of each in separate glasses and pouring on a small quantity of hot water. The old process meal thus treated will form a jelly-like mass, and, since the new process meal has been already cooked, it does not jelly Digitized by Microsoft® 276 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS again. In feeding value, the old and new process meals do not differ greatly. The former has probably a higher feed- ing value for young calves and lambs, owing to its higher content of oil or fat. Oil cake is one of the most valuable and useful, if not the most generally valuable and useful of all the by-prod- ucts of the farm. It is not only rich in protein, but it is preeminently a safe food. When fed judiciously, there is no class of animals kept upon the farm to which it may not be fed with profit for a longer or shorter period. It is much relished by all classes of domestic animals, and it is to some extent an appetizer as well as a food. It is mildly laxative and exercises a salutary influence on the digestive tract. There is no kind of meal with which it may not be fed satisfactorily should occasion call for such feeding. As stated elsewhere, its real feeding value is considerably high- er than chemical analysis would assign to it. It also gives to the hair a glossy appearance indicative of thrift on the part of the animal possessing it. For cattle of all ages and of all classes, oil cake fur- nishes an admirable food. Its value for feeding calves dur- ing the milk period has already been referred to (see p. 250). To all classes of growing animals, it may be fed with much benefit in the winter season along with grain or meal, when not too dear for such feeding. It may form as much as 10 per cent of the concentrate fed. Its use is equally helpful in the winter grain ration for cattle that are to be finished on pasture. But it is not so necessary to feed it, nor will the benefits be so great relatively, when field roots are being fed at the same time. In fattening cattle, it is a favorite food, but rather as an adjunct to the meal ra- tion than as a principal portion of the same. In other words the benefits are relatively greater when the oil cake is fed in moderate quantities of say one to three pounds rather than as a principal factor in the same. But should the cost jus- tify it, oil cake may be fed to the extent of forming half the meal ration, the other portion being some carbonaceous Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 277 food as corn. From such feeding, rapid gains are secured. It is more common to feed oil cake in small quantities and toward the close of the fattening season, as then the sooth- ing effects of this food are more needed than at other times. When feeding for show purposes, it is almost considered in a sense a necessity, because of the favorable influence which it exerts on digestion under forced feeding, and also be- cause of the fine, glossy coat which results from feeding it. As a food for cows in milk, oil cake up to a certain limit is most satisfactory. Beyond that limit it is thought to affect the quality of butter adversely, both in regard to firmness and keeping properties. The limit may be fixed at, say three pounds per animal per day. Carefully conducted tests have shown that the increase in milk production did not keep pace with increase in amount of oil cake fed, when fed in large quantities. In tests at the Pennsylvania experiment station, it was found that rather more milk resulted from feeding cotton seed meal, but that a little more butter re- sulted from feeding oil meal, pound for pound. As a regu- lator of digestion, oil meal is, of course, as helpful with dairy cows as with animals that are being fattened. The necessity for feeding it decreases with decrease in the amount of carbohydrates fed, and also in the forcing char- acter of the ration, and with increase in the amount of bran, field roots or other succulent food fed For sheep, oil cake is quite as satisfactory as for feed- ing cattle. It furnishes an excellent food for feeding to lambs, even at an early age or as a part of the grain ration subsequently to the weaning season. A limited amount is excellent for sheep that are being wintered on dry food and for breeding ewes. When fattening lambs and mature sheep on dry food, it is equally beneficial, and may be fed to them in larger quantities, proportionate to the forced character of the feeding. More commonly it is not fed to form more than 10 per cent of the meal ration, but may be in a much larger proportion when the price will justify such feeding. Digitized by Microsoft® 2/8 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS For swine, oil cake is probably not so valuable rela- tively as for feeding cattle and sheep, especially when fed in relatively large quantities, as when thus fed it seems to affect adversely the appetite. But when fed to form not more than 5 per cent of the meal portion, the results will be beneficial. Small amounts may be fed with profit to swine under all conditions, except when they are being given an abundance of succulent food. In feeding horses, oil cake is quite as helpful as in feed- ing cattle and swine. Under all conditions, moderate quan- tities may be fed with benefit to horses of all classes and of all ages, except when they are on pasture or are being given other succulent food as field roots. The grain ration given to foals, to horses not yet mature and to brood mares, will be improved by adding to it say 5 per cent of oil meal. Work horses may be fed say one-fourth of a pound per day under average conditions. Quantities considerably larger should be given to horses that are being prepared for spring work. Under almost all conditions this food tends to give a gloss to the coat which materially improves the appear- ance. Corn by-products. — Chief among the products of corn are starch, sugar, glucose, alcohol and beer. These are not used as food for live stock. In their manufacture, however, certain residues are left which are of much value in feeding certain classes of live stock. Prominent among them are gluten meal and gluten feed. The minor by-products fed lo stock include corn bran, corn germ and corn oil meal. Glu- ten meal is a residue from the manufacture of starch and glucose. It is what remains after the hull, starch and germ have been removed. It is separated from the starch by the action of water. As the analysis indicates, it is rich in pro- tein and has a feeding value equal to that of oil cake. Glu- ten feed is virtually what is left of the corn germ after the starch has been removed. It, therefore, contains both the hull and the germ and as a result is lower in protein and higher in crude fibre than gluten meal. Gluten meal and Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 2J\) gluten feed, because of their concentration, are usually fed in conjunction with foods less concentrated, as wheat bran. Corn bran is composed of hulls removed from the kernels. From 5 to 6 per cent of the grain consists of hull or bran. Corn bran contains practically all the crude fibre found in the grain. Its feeding value is low, but it may be used with advantage in diluting concentrated foods by mix- ing it with them. Corn germs are very rich in protein, ether extract and in mineral matters, hence their adaptation for being fed with caution to young animals. They com- prise about lO per cent of the kernel. Corn oil meal is the residue of the germ that is left after the oil has been ex- tracted from it. It may be fed in considerable quantities to young animals. For such feeding it is valuable. When the products of the factories are disposed of in a wet condition, they are known as wet starch or wet glucose feeds. To cattle of all classes and ages, gluten meal has been found not only a safe food, but also one that is relatively economical. It is palatable also as well as safe. It may be fed with much freedom to calves during the milk period and subsequently, and also to growing animals to which concen- trates are fed. The other foods to be fed with it will de- pend on the object sought in feeding. When growth only is sought, the complement of the gluten should be such food as oats. When fattening also is sought it should be such food as corn. As a food' adjunct in fattening cattle at the Ohio experiment station, it was found fully equal to oil meal in making increase on the basis of relative cost when the price paid for oil meal pound for pound was twice that of gluten meal. For feeding cows it has been found fully equal to cottonseed meal when fed so that the nutrients are equal. When feeding gluten meal to cattle the aim should be to feed it with some more bulky concentrate unless when it is being fed to young calves. For sheep, glviten meal has not been much used as concentrate. It should, however, because of its reasonably fine character and high protein content, make an excellent Digitized by Microsoft® 280 i'EEDING FARM ANIMALS food for young milk lambs. It should also feed well with such foods as corn in fattening sheep when a little.bran also is fed to increase the bulk and to prevent constipation. For young swine, gluten meal furnishes an excellent food. When thus fed, its concentration and fineness are beneficial rather than otherwise. For such feeding it may take the place of wheat middlings when the cost is not too much For growing swine of all ages it is also excellent. In trials made at the Vermont experiment station, gluten meal fed along with corn was found to be 7 per cent more valuable than wheat. To horses, gluten meal is not much fed for the reason probably that it is thought to be more valuable relatively for growing animals and for milk production. Nevertheless, it may be fed with much propriety as a part of the ration for foals, when the price will admit of it. It will also go well along with corn when the latter furnishes the bulk of the ration for work horses. To young animals, when gluten meal is fed, a small amount of oil meal should improve the ration, as the for- mer does not contain the mildly laxative principle found in the latter. For a similar reason, a small proportion of wheat bran will be found helpful when gluten meal is fed to animals going on toward maturity or matured. If field roots are being fed, the advantages from feeding oil cake or wheat bran will be less apparent if at all in evidence. Much that has been said about gluten meal will apply nearly as well to gluten feed, the proportion of protein be- ing less and of crude fibre more than in gluten meal. Glu- ten feed is not quite so suitable for young animals. On the other hand, its somewhat greater bulk makes the addition of some such food as bran less necessary when it is fed to animals well grown. The use of gluten meal and gluten feed will certainly increase much in the future since much increase in the manufacture of by-products from corn is assured. Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 28t Other cereal by-products. — The by-products of rye, oats, peas, buckwheat and rice, are possessed of some feed- ing value, but they are not so valuable relatively as the by- products of wheat, barley, corn and flax. Rye. — Rye by-products; viz., rye bran and rye shortc, are chemically not far different from those of wheat. In some of the countries of northwestern Europe, they are used to a considerable degree in feeding stock. In America, rye is not extensively manufactured into bread, consequently its by-products are not to be had in large amounts for feeding. Rye, bran and shorts are sometimes fed for milk produc- tion, but they are not so highly prized for such a use as the by-products of wheat. It is said that when these products are thus fed in large quantities, they affect adversely the flavor of both milk and butter. Rye shorts have not proved equal to rye or barley for making pork, viewed from the standpoint of production. The pork also made from rye shorts has been pronounced inferior in quality, being softer and also shrinking more than pork made from ground rye or barley. Oats.— The principal by-products of oats are known ao oat feed and oat dust. These are variable in their compo- sition, but not infrequently the former is composed of oat chaff and the latter of minute hairs found at one end of the kernel. Broken grains add to the value of such food. When composed entirely of hulls, it is not worth much more than an equal weight of oat chaff. It is not infre- quently used to adulterate mill feed, the presence of the hulls being intended to show that the mixture contP'io ground oats. Oat meal, such as is used for porridge, i an excellent food on which to start young animals when be- ginning to take food other than milk. Peas. — The chief by-product of peas comes frona 03- tablishments where they are commercially prepared as hu- man food. It is frequently referred to as split peas. It consists of broken and defective kernels and any foreign Digitized by Microsoft® 282 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS food substances found in the grain as it comes to the fac- tories. Such food in the unground form is excehent for feeding sheep and in the ground form for feeding cattle and sheep. Buckwheat. — The principal by-product of buckwheat is the hulls. They are of low feeding value, so low as to be of questionable utility for ordinary feeding. Unscrupulous dealers sometimes use them in a finely ground form for adulterating mill feed. When used thus in considerable quantities, they give a brownish or dark tint to the food. Rice. — The chief by-products of rice are known as rice hulls, rice grain, rice polish and rice meal. Rice hulls are very woody and are possessed of but little feeding value when used alone, but they may serve a useful purpose by mixing them with certain kinds of meal to increase their porosity. Rice grain is composed of the outer portions of the kernel and a part of the germ. As a food for cows and pigs it is possessed of considerable value. Rice polish, which is a dust-like powder, is rich in the elements of nutri- tion, and has proved valuable in feeding cows and pigs. Rice meal is said to be excellent for milk production, and for such a use may be freely fed with safety. Cotton seed by-products. — Cotton seed as it comes from the gin consists of hull, kernel and fibre. The hull is the hard, tough, leathery covering. The kernel is the soft part of the seed within, of a yellowish color and of oily con- sistency. The lint, more commonly known as "linters," consists of short fibres not removed by the gin. The by- products of cotton seed are meal, hulls, oil and lint. Ac- cording to the tenth census of the United States, 35 per cent of the seed consists of meal, 48.9 per cent of hull, 12.5 per cent of oil and i.i per cent of lint. Other authorities give the percentage of oil as being somewhat greater. The meal and hulls only of these by-products are used for feed- ing live stock. Until within a comparatively recent period the hulls were used as fuel by the oil mills. Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 283 Cottonseed meal is the finely ground residue of the kernel after the oil has been removed from it. In color it should be a light yellow. A dark color in the meal indicates the presence of ground hulls. This may be definitely ascer- tained by putting a small quantity of the meal in a glass, pouring over it hot vv^ater accompanied or follow^ed by stir- ring, allowing it to settle for but a few seconds and then pouring off the unsettled portion. If the residue is darker in color than the untreated meal, ground hulls are present, and if successive treatments intensify the dark color of the sediment, the adulteration is proportionate. Cottonseed meal is probably the richest protein food in the market. It contains about 27 per cent of digestible protein. When fed in reasonable quantities and in proper combination with other food stuffs, it furnishes a satisfactory food for all classes of farm animals except swine, and in some instances calves. When damaged by mould or wet, or by undue heat- ing, it should not be fed. For cattle, cottonseed meal has been found of gre.it value except in feeding calves. While in some instances calves do well on it, in other instances death has resulted from feeding it even in small quantities over prolonged periods. The difference in the methods of feeding the meal and in the combinations in which it is fed, may account for the difference in the results referred to. Two or three pounds daily fed to young cattle when not on pasture, will prove very helpful in promoting growth. When the accom- panying fodders are leguminous, not less than 50 per cent of the meal should consist of corn, barley or rye. A small amount of wheat bran or oats fed along with it lightens up the ration. This meal is excellent for fattening cattle. The proportion of the cottonseed meal and corn to be fed will depend upon the stage of the fattening and the charac- ter of the fodder. The proportion of the corn should in- crease with the advancement of the feeding period and with increase in the carbonaceous character of the fodder and vice Digitized by Microsoft® 284 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS versa. Usually not more than 4 or 5 pounds per ani- mal are fed daily at any stage of the fattening to a mature cattle beast. In some instances in the South, large numbers of cattle are fattened at the mills on cotton seed and hulls. At first, they are not fed more than 3 or 4 pounds of the meal daily, which is gradually increased to 6 to 10 pounds according to the capacity of the animals. They are given in addition all the hulls that they will consume, and in 90 to 120 days are ready for the shambles. Cottonseed meal has proved a very satisfactory food for dairy cows. In certain trials made, it has been found superior even to wheat bran, pound for pound, in sustaining the milk flow, at least for a limited period. As much as 6 pounds per day may be fed for short periods of feeding, but not more than 4 pounds per day should be given in prolonged feeding for milk or butter production, and 3 pounds would probably be a safer amount. It is a strong concentrate, and if fed in excess, deranged digestion will certainly follow. It has been claimed that cottonseed meal should be fed with a prudent caution to cows within two or three months of calving, and for three or four weeks sub- sequently. It feeds well along with ground oats, as the oats furnish the necessary bulk. From the standpoint of nutrients, cottonseed meal and corn make an excellent com- bination, and cotton seed and rye or barley are suitable, but the addition of some bran to add to the bulk will improve the ration. Cottonseed meal adds to the firmness of butter, a fact of no little importance in warm climates. For sheep, cottonseed meal judiciously used is quite helpful. Fed along with oats it makes a good concentrate for breeding ewes, more especially when the fodder is car- bonaceous. One part of cottonseed meal and three parts of oats, or one and two parts of each when a small amount is fed, should prove satisfactory. At all times, however, it should be fed with a prudent caution to pregnant ewes, lest it should cause abortion. If the roughage were leguminous, corn could be fed instead of oats. For sheep Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 285 and lambs that are being fattened, cottonseed meal and corn have been found to answer well in the South, when oats are fed instead of corn in whole or in part until the animals are on full feed. The safer plan is to start them on oats and then to add corn gradually. After about three weeks of feeding, add say % pound of cottonseed meal per day, and gradually increase the amount until the meal ration consists of one part cottonseed meal and two parts corn by weight. For swine, cottonseed meal is not an entirely safe food when fed to them in any considerable quanti- ties, and for a prolonged period, would seem to be a conclusion justified by the results of experience and also by those of experiment. It has been noticed that swine to which cottonseed meal is fed for prolonged periods eventu- ally begin to show lack of thrift, and finally a large pro- portion of them sicken and die, unless the feeding of the meal should be discontinued when the first symptoms of sickness appear. These results sometimes follow, but not in all instances, when the meal is obtained through the medium of the droppings of cattle when cottonseed meal forms a considerable proportion of the concentrate fed to them. When only a small amount is fed, the injurious in- fluences to the swine are seldom if ever manifested. The sickness in swine to which meal is fed directly, usually be- gins in 30 to 50 days, according to the inherent vigor of the animals, the amount fed, and the losses increase with the prolongation of the feeding. If swine thus affected are re- moved from cattle yards and fed on other food for a few weeks, they may again be allowed to glean for a time in the cattle yards without hazard. The symtoms of the sickness include moping and sluggishness in the victims, a tendency to lie apart and loss of appetite. There is labored breathing and weak heart action. Post mortems have shown that the digestive tract has been highly inflamed. These results follow when not more than 25 per cent of the regular ration is composed of cottonseed meal. Roasted Digitized by Microsoft® 286 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS seed has been found about equally harmful, but boiling the seed very greatly reduces the danger. The ill effects have been ascribed to the lint, to moulds, and to changes in the composition of the meal through exposure. Others think they are due to the presence of some principle in the meal itself that is poisonous to swine, and cumulative in its action Notwithstanding, some feeders affirm that cotton- seed meal may be fed to swine with safety when it is fed in the form of a thin slop, about the consistency of buttermilk. This they clam will prevent injury from the lint which they believe to be the source of the danger. For horses, as a concentrate, cottonseed meai should be fed only as a small part of the ration. In trials made, as much as 2 pounds per animal per day have been fed with safety, but when the amount fed was in- creased much beyond 2 pounds per day, the outcome was not entirely satisfactory. Experience in feeding it up to the present would indicate that it should only be fed in lim- ited quantities to horses and mules. Cotton seed hulls, in the ground form, are fed with much freedom to cattle and sheep that are being fattened, also to cows giving milk (see p. 425). To cows in milk as much as 14 or 15 pounds per day have been fed for each 1000 pounds of live weight in the cows, without produc- ing harmful results. Feeding large amounts has resulted in deranged digestion, evidencd in some instances in a lax condition of the bowels, and in others in a constipated condition of the same. When fattening cattle and sheep in proximity to the mills, they are frequently given hulls to take the place of roughage and are allowed to consume virtually all that they will eat up clean. While cottonseed meal is possessed of great value for feeding live stock, from what has been said, it will be evi- dent that there are restrictions which must be observed in feeding it. Its highest value is found in fattening cattle and in feeding cows for milk. It should only be fed in small quantities to horses, while the wisdom of feeding it Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 287 to calves quite young and to swine, is at least problematical. These restrictions upon feeding this by-product lower its value somewhat relatively, when comparing it with such foods as oil cake and gluten meal. Sugar beet by-product. — Sugar beet pulp is the resi- due left from sugar beets after the sugar has been ex- tracted. It is fed in the fresh form as taken from the fac- tory, as ensilage and also in the dried form. It is probable that it will be a food product of much importance relatively in this country, as the sugar beet industry promises to be- come one of much magnitude in the near future. Owing to the bulky nature of the pulp in the fresh form and to the large amount of water that it contains, it should be fed at or near the factories, but in the dried form it is not more costly to transport than concentrated foods. Farmers who live near the factory may feed the fresh pulp with profit during a limited portion of the year. Feeders who save it by ensiling at the factory, may feed it with advantage dur- ing the major portion of the same, as it is not difficult to preserve it. It may be ensiled in the same way as corn and other green fodders, but it may also be preserved by putting it into large, basin-like pits excavated in the ground, into which it is dumped to the depth of several feet and allowed to remain until it is fed. Decay follows to the depth of a few inches from the surface. Underneath this decayed mass, the pulp will keep indefinitely. In proximity to the factories it is fed from these pits or silos to large numbers of cattle and sheep that are being finished for the market. The undried pulp is not only too costly to transport, but it soon ferments when exposed. About 90 per cent of the pulp is water. But little of the protein is removed in the juice, hence, the pulp is particularly valuable as a food for young animals, and for producing milk. As it exercises a salutary influence on digestion, the pulp has a feeding value in excess of the nutrients which it contains, when ju- diciously fed and along with dry food. This physiological value, so to speak, decreases with increase in the quantity Digitized by Microsoft® 288 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS fed, and may be lost entirely by excessive feeding. When fed heavily, it induces a lax condition of the bowels, hence the wisdom of feeding dry fodders along with it. Wheat bran, clover and alfalfa make very suitable complementary foods. The pulp is not equal to the beets in feeding value, and for fattening its value is considerably lower. For cattle, sugar beet pulp, like sugar beets, is excel- lent and for all classes of cattle. It -is particularly valuable as a food for young animals, and it may be fed to them with much freedom, that is, from say five to 20 pounds a day, ac- cording to size and the other food fed. To cattle that are finished, as much as 75 pounds per day may be fed to ma- ture animals under some conditions. Good, tender and juicy meat may be made from sugar beet pulp and alfalfa hay only, but usually some grain may be profitably fed in addition. The pulp is particularly valuable for dairy cows. As much as 50 pounds per day may be fed for long periods, and for short periods much more than that amount. The cost of the pulp should, of course, have an important bear- ing on the amount fed, and when fed, the usual meal ration may be proportionately reduced. In the dried form, as much as 3 to 5 pounds per day may be fed along with say 30 pounds of corn ensilage. For feeding sheep, beet pulp is excellent, whether kept for breeding uses or in fattening them. A very fair qual- ity of mutton may be made from pulp and clover or al- falfa without grain, but under average conditions, a limited amount of grain will tend to cheapen the ration. It will be seldom found profitable to feed sheep more than 10 pounds daily, and usually a less amount will be more profitable. For swine, sugar beet puip is useful especially during the growing period and for sows when not on pasture. Young and growing swine may be allowed to partake of the pulp with much freedom. Brood sows may be wintered on the same with the addition of a moderate amount of sfrain. Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 289 It should not, however, be fed to pigs that are being fat- tened in any considerable quantities, owing to its bulk- iness. For horses, sugar beet pulp in the undried form is not so valuable relatively as for feeding cattle or sheep, but a few pounds daily may be fed with considerable benefit to young animals and brood mares on dry feed. If fed in any considerable quantities to horses hard at work, it induces too lax a condition of the bowels. Milk by-products. — The chief of the by-products of milk that are used in feeding live stock, are skim milk, buttermilk and whey. Skim milk is the residue left after the cream has been removed from the whole milk. But- termilk is the residue left from churning the cream after the butter has been removed. Whey is the residue left in making cheese after the curd has been removed. Skim milk is chiefly fed to calves and swine, but is not infre- quently fed to foals, and may also be fed to lambs. But- termilk is chiefly used in feeding swine but may also be fed to calves. Whey is chiefly used in feeding swine, but is not infrequently used also in feeding calves. The value of these by-products, more especially the first, as a source of food for live stock, is very great. Skim milk is obtained by two processes ; viz., by hand skimming and by removal through the aid of cen- trifugal machines. By the first process, the whole milk, as soon as obtained, is strained and left in shallow pans or dishes, or in deep cans set in water, until the fat glob- ules rise to the top of the milk, when they are removed by pouring off the cream. By the second process, the milk runs through a centrifugal machine termed a sepa- rator, which is driven at a speed so high that the fat globules are quickly separated and drawn off as cream. By the process of hand skimming, about twice as much butter fat remains in the skim milk as when removed by the centrifugal process, but even with hand skimming, it is seldom that more than .7 of one per cent of the fat is Digitized by Microsoft® 290 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS left in the milk and by the other process, more than one- half of that amount. This preponderance in its fat con- tent gives skim milk obtained by the gravity process, some superiority for fe-^ding to stock, but it is probably more than offset by the fresh and warm condition in vi-hich separator skim milk is usually fed. For calves, skim milk is virtually the standard food during the first months of their existence, when they are not allowed to suck the dams, and it will become so more and more as the conditions of farming intensify. The market value of whole milk is such that under many conditions of feeding, it will not be profitable to feed it to any class of animals on the farm except when of ten- der age. The exceptions are, when range or semi-range conditions prevail, where high class beef producers are grown to provide baby beef (see p. 402), and where young animals of beef types are being prepared for the show ring. It would be approximately correct to say, that during the first three months of the life of a calf, from 9 to 10 pounds of milk would be required to make one pound of increase. During the first weeks, such in- crease should be made from half the amount named, but the gains which accrue from such feeding, will be much influenced by the individuality of the calves. Notwith- standing the high value relatively of whole milk, even when calves are grown substantially on skim milk, it is greatly advantageous to feed whole milk for a time, be- ginning, of course, with the birth of the young animal as no substitute has been found for whoje milk that so completely meets the needs of young animals. The duration of the period for feeding whole milk will depend first, on the use that is to be made of the calf, and second, on its inherent vigor. When the calf is to be sold for veal, the greatest profit will result probably from feeding it all the whole milk that it can profitably take, and selling it at the earliest age at which it will take the market. When it is to be sold between the ages, Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 29I say of 6 and 15 months, the whole milk ration may con- tinue for say two or three weeks longer. It may then be gradually changed to skim milk, taking two to three weeks to make the transition. It is made by withholding new milk in gradually increasing quantities until none is given, and by increasing the quantity of skim milk fed in due proportion. When the animals are reared for producing dairy products, whole milk is sometimes fed for a period not to exceed one week before beginning to feed skim milk, and frequently not more than one week is occupied in making the change from all new milk to all skim milk. In more instances, however, the period of transition covers two weeks. When the animals are to be grown for meat and finished when approaching ma- turity, it may frequently be profitable to feed all new milk for say three weeks, and to make the period of change to extend over two or three weeks more. Habit in digestion is tisually influenced at an early age. The earlier the animal is to be disposed of when reared chiefly on skim milk during the milk period, the m.ore should the habit of fat production be encouraged by feeding new milk and vice versa. When grown for the dairy, muscular development is sought rather than fat, hence no more whole milk should be fed than is nec- essary to start the calves aright in the way of correct de- velopment. The duration for feeding whole milk should be de- termined largely by the inherent stamina of the animal. It is greatly important in the development of both ani- mals and plants, that growth at the first shall start vig- orously. Should the digestion become impaired at an early age, satisfactory development subsequently sel- dom follows. Whole milk, therefore, should be fed for a period sufficiently long and enough of it should be fed to insure to the young animal a vigorous start. The amount to feed will depend on the capacity of the animal to take the food, on its age, and on the extent Digitized by Microsoft® 292 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS to which the milk is supplemented by other food. Wh^n milk can be spared, it may be fed up to the limit of the capacity of the calf to take it without deranging the di- gestion, one of the first indications of which is a lax con- dition of the bowels. Usually 8 to 10 pounds per day will prove ample during the first week of feeding skim milk, that is to say, about the third week of the life of the calf. This quantity may be increased at the rate of, say % pound per week up to the age of say 15 or 16 weeks, or as long as the milk period continues. V/hen desired, however, the skim milk may be so supplemented by other foods, that amounts considerably less than those named may be fed without serious detriment to the calves. The duration of the milk feeding period may be in- fluenced by such conditions as the milk supply, the needs of the animals, and the extent to which cheaper foods are substituted. Usually calves may be more cheaply reared on small or moderate amounts of milk than on larger amounts of the same, but such feeding calls for an intelli- gent selection and use of supplemental foods. When skim milk is abundant, it may be fed to calves for many months. Some feeders have fed it to yearlings when seek- ing much growth while preparing them for exhibition. The nature of the supplementary foods to be given with the skim milk will vary somewhat with the purpose for which the calves are reared. But, whatever that end may be, it will be found advantageous to add ground flax seed, oil meal or flax seed gruel to the milk, as soon as the change from whole milk to skim milk begins. In this way, fat may be supplied from a cheap source in lieu of that removed from the skim milk that is f§d. The amount of the meal required at the first may not ex- ceed a heaped teaspoonful, but this should be increased as the calves are able to take it, but not to the extent of inducing too lax a condition of the bowels. The gruel is Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 293 made by soaking flax seed for several hours in a plenti- ful supply of water, and then boiling it for one hour. It is then fed to the calves in the milk and when the milk is cold it will be advantageous to add the gruel while it is yet warm. When the calves are grown for veal or baby beef, no meal given in addition is more suitable than ground corn. Ground corn and ground barley are ex- cellent. In such instances the calves may be fed grain to the limit of their capacity to consume it as long as they are fed milk, and in some instances for a period con- siderably longer. For sheep, skim milk is not much used nor is it proba- ble that it will ever be thus fed to any considerable extent. As sheep suckle their lambs, it is not required for such feed- ing. But should necessity require it, skim milk fed to lambs in the fresh form, will be quite as helpful to them as to calves. Such food may aid materially in the development of lambs that are being grown for exhibition. For swine, skim milk is of great value. It may be fed to them with advantage and profit at all, or nearly all stages of growth, and under nearly all conditions of feeding. It is equally good for pigs not yet weaned, be- tween the weaning and fattening period, and for brood sows during pregnancy and while nursing their young. It is probably true, that, as with calves, the relative profit from feeding it decreases as the birth period is re- ceded from, and for the reason that other protein foods may be fed, adapted to such feeding, that may be ob- tained at less cost, from other sources. For the same reason it is also true, that more relative profit is usually obtained from feeding skim milk to swine subsequently to weaning in moderate rather than in large amounts. Even during the fattening period, skim milk is very suit- able for feeding along with corn, but it can seldom be spared for such feeding. When judiciously fed, the feeding value of lOO pounds of skim milk is fully equal to that of one bushel of corn. But to obtain such value Digitized by Microsoft® 294 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS from it, very moderate amounts should be fed. In certain trials made, it has been found that the best results have been obtained when not more than 3 pounds of milk were fed along with i pound of meal. For horses, skim milk is not much used, but m cer- tain instances where the supply was plentiful, it has been fed to them in considerable quantities with results that were satisfactory, even when fed to horses at work of no little severity. It has been found highly useful in feed- ing foals that are being reared by hand, and also in some instances subsequently to the season of weaning. The condition in which milk is fed to young animals exercises an important influence on the results that fol- low from feeding it. The aim should be to feed it as nearly as possible at the heat which milk possesses when drawn from the cow, that Is at a temperature of 100 to 102°. While yet sweet it is considered superior for feeding to young animals to milk that is sour, but the experiments to determine this have not been entirely uniform. That milk which is curdled even has considerable feeding value when fed to animals well started in growth, cannot be gainsaid. The vessels in which it is fed should be kept scrupulously clean, otherwise they may readily prove the medium of conveying bacteria to the animals that may prove harmful. Buttermilk, when undiluted, has about the same feed- ing value as skim milk, viewed from the standpoint of the chemist. Equally good results have been obtained from feeding it to swine when not of tender age, but it has not proved so generally satisfactory for all kinds of feeding as skim milk. It may be fed successfully to calves by those who are skilled in such feeding, but it has not proved so highly satisfactory as skim milk. Some cau- tion is also necessary in feeding it to young pigs and to brood sows nursing them. Loss has been incurred by such feeding with sufficient frequency to render apparent the presence of an element of hazard. It may, however, Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 295 have resulted from feeding the milk when not in the best of condition. Buttermilk is frequently diluted with water especially at creameries, and when so diluted, its value is, of course, proportionately lessened. Whey is so bulky a food that it ranks relatively low in nutrition. Its value for feeding is influenced by the source from which it comes, by the class of animals to which it is fed, and by its condition at the time of feeding. Whey obtained from the manufacture of full cream cheese has considerably more fat than that obtained from the man- ufacture of skim cheese. Certain feeding trials conducted have shown that for feeding swine, about 800 pounds ob- tained from the former and about 1200 pounds obtained from the latter source are equal to 100 pounds of grain. The best results have been obtained from feeding whey to swine in conjunction with such adjuncts as ground corn, wheat, barley or rye. It is less valuable for young animals than for those that are older. Calves reared on whey do not thrive so well as those reared on skim milk. The whey is so bulky and withal so low in nutrition, that calves thus reared carry an undue amount of paunch, and are charac- terized by a more or less unthrifty condition. Both may, of course, be measurably counteracted by feeding a liberal amount of such adjuncts as oil meal and other meal from nutritious grains. The outcome is more satisfactory when the calves are well started on whole or skim milk or both. It is important that whey shall be fed while yet sweet and fresh. The acid or semi-acid condition in which it is fre- quently fed, especially when returned from cheese factories, is in a considerable degree responsible for the unsatisfac- tory results obtained from feeding it. The aim should be to feed it while yet sweet and care should be taken to scald the vessels daily in which to keep the feed. Molasses by-product. — Molasses is a product ob- tained in the manufacture of sugar from cane and also from beets. Formerly much of this valuable feeding product was wasted, but during recent years its real worth is coming to Digitized by Microsoft® 296 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS be more generally understood. As the sugar beet industry increases, so will the use of this by-product in feeding in- crease, consequently it would not be possible at the present time to forecast the extent to which it may yet be used in feeding live stock. Its highest use is found in feeding horses at work and in fattening cattle and sheep, but it has also proved helpful in feeding in certain combinations for milk production. The real value of molasses in feeding is greater than chemical analysis assigns to it, since when mixed with other foods it adds to the palatability and so in- creases consumption. The belief is common among practi- cal feeders, and it probably rests on a basis of truth, that the free feeding of molasses tends to sterility in males and to barrenness in females. It is probable that henceforth nearly all the molasses made at sugar beet factories will be mixed with the pressed pulp and dried before it is put upon the market. The product thus prepared is ready for feed- ing by simply mixing it with other foods or adding it to them dry, but more commonly with all the water added that it will absorb. The objection to feeding a substance so sticky as liquid molasses poured over the feed is thus avoid- ed, more or less of which adheres to the feed boxes and in summer attracts many flies. For cattle, molasses is being used in increasing quanti- ties. Mixed with dried blood, it aids development in calves that are being prepared for the block. They furnish an ex- cellent complement to such food as cottonseed meal when fed to cattle that are being fattened. The product has been much used in preparing animals for exhibition. It has thus led to increased consumption of the other food and im- proved the gloss of the coat. It is commonly poured over meal or what is better, over meal and cut fodders mixed. It is frequently diluted with water before thus mixing it. As a food for milk production, it is fed in smaller quanti- ties. Dried molasses beet pulp may yet be used extensively as a supplementary food for dairy cows, summer and winter. Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 297 Until more light has been obtained, however, as to its innii- ence on the breeding properties of animals, it should be fed with prudent caution, more especially to young animals in- tended for breeding. In feeding sheep molasses has not been mucn used, but recent experiments at the Michigan experiment station have shown that dried molasses beet pulp had a feeding value for fattening sheep even higher than that of corn. To swine, molasses has been fed successfully along with skim milk. Its use, however, in feeding swine will probably be limited, as an appetizer is less necessary for swine than for the other classes of farm animals. For horses, molasses is probably more valuable in feeding them when at work than in feeding any other class of farm animals. Not less than two quarts per day of cane molasses may be fed with advantage to work horses and mules for prolonged periods. The molasses is diluted with three times its bulk of water and poured over the morning and evening ration. It is common to feed a little bran along with cane molasses to correct a tendency to constipation which is said to result from feeding it. It is claimed that it is nutritious, healthful and economical. It may yet be- come popular to feed it to horses that are being wintered on products coarse and cheap, and fed in the cut form. Miscellaneous by-products. — Certain by-products have been used in feeding which merit some attention, but the limited extent to which they are used in this country will scarcely justify discussing them at length. For convenience of treatment they are grouped as miscellaneous. These in- clude tankage, dried blood, dried flesh meal and meat scrap, fish scrap, and various kinds of cake. Tankage is made from certain waste products of slaughter-houses, as meat scraps and fat trimmings. The tallow is removed by cooking, and the residue when dried is put upon the market as tankage. Tankage varies with variations in the waste products which it contains, and also with the relative proportions of these, hence the need for Digitized by Microsoft® 298 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS careful discrimination as to the amount that shall be fed. It is used chiefly as a source of protein in feeding swine, more especially when the other food consists mainly of corn. For such feeding it has been found decidedly profitable even when the price of tankage is 30 to 40 per cent greater than that of corn. Tankage must be fed with some care as it is a highly concentrated food. Usually it is not fed so as to make more than 10 per cent of the ration. When feeding tankage it should be carefully mixed with the food, thus se- curing an even distribution. It must be kept dry or putre- faction will set in, which makes it offensive to handle and harmful to the stock, and it should not be allowed to soak very long before it is fed. Dried blood is simply blood from slaughtered animals from which the water or liquid has been removed. In the process of drying enough heat is applied to kill any disease germs that may be present. Formerly it was used chiefly for fertilizing, but now it is more commonly used in feeding calves and swine. As shown in the table it is exceedingly rich in protein and the relative digestibility is high. It has been found highly useful in feeding calves. To some extent it is thought to be a corrective of scours. It may be fed in the milk or meal, beginning with say a teaspoonful and gradually increasing with the needs of the animals. It has also been fed to lambs with profit, the blood to some extent taking the place of milk. Its highest use probably is found in feeding swine, when fed in conjunction with carbo- naceous foods as corn. Swine at three months may be given say one tablespoonful daily, younger animals being given a proportionately less quantit}'. Dried flesh meal and meat scrap are more or less anal- ogous in their composition. The former, properly speak- ing, is composed of the ground flesh of animals after the melted fat and moisture have been removed. The latter consists of the better grades of slaughter-house waste, somewhat similarly prepared. The preparation of flesh meal Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 299 as a commercial food product was first undertaken in Uru- guay at the instigation of Baron Liebig, in days when many animals were slaughtered simply for their hides. It has been used more for feeding swine than any other class of live stock, but it has also been fed successfully to rumi- nants. By feeding small quantities at first and increasing very gradually the amount fed, they will at length take with safety as much as 2 or 3 pounds per day. Lambs and sheep come to rehsh it in time, and they thrive on a due pro- portion of such food. Mixed with ground grain and made into cakes, it is claimed that horses, to which these are fed, show increased vigor and nerve power. Fish scrap is the residue from fish that are being dried or canned after the oil has been expressed and the product dried. In some instances it is composed in part or alto- gether of fish that are not suitable for human food. It is fed as cake and also in the ground form. Because of its high fertilizing value, it has been designated fish guano, and is not infrequently applied directly to the land for its en- richment, but where the facilities are present, it will be found profitable to feed it to live stock and then to apply the resultant fertilizer to the land. Both fish scrap and fish meal are fed to live stock in certain of the maritime areas of northwestern Europe. Good gains have resulted from feeding 3 to 4 pounds per day to mature steers of good size, and the quality of the meat was considered good. It is thought that incautious feeding to dairy cows will produce undesirable taint in the milk and butter but it may certainly be fed in reasonable quantities, that is, up to the limit of say 2 pounds per day without producing such results. It has been but little used in feeding cows in America, but in Norway it is freely used for such feeding. Mature sheep have made good use of as much as one-half to two-thirds of a pound fed daily along with suitable adjuncts. It may be fed more freely to swine Digitized by Microsoft® 300 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS than to cattle or sheep. Along the coast of Maine, it is used to some extent in feeding sheep, and to a considerable ex- tent in feeding swine. Sundry meals. — In addition to oil cake and meal and cottonseed cake and meal, already discussed (see pp. 275, 283), are certain other kindred products more or less freely fed in certain areas, but not much used as food for stock in the United States or Canada. Prominent among these are peanut meal, sunflower meal, cocoanut meal and palmnut meal. All these are valuable chiefly as a source of protein and a means of increasing the amount of the same in a ration. As with oil meal and cottonseed meal, all these are valuable for milk and meat production, and also in improving the tone of the digestion when judiciously fed. But for work- ing animals, no kind of oil meal can take the place of grain. Peanut meal, made from peanuts after the oil has been expressed, is one of the richest among foods in protein. In certain trials made it was found to have a feeding value fully equal to beans. " Owing to the rapid increase in the growth of peanuts in the United States, and to the increase in the manufacture of oil from the same, peanut meal may yet become a food factor of considerable importance for live stock in the southern states. Sunflower cake and meal are manufactured somewhat extensively in Russia, and are prized as food for stock in some of the countries of western Europe. As a source of oil, however, sunflowers are not grown in the United States to any appreciable extent, if indeed at all. Nor is their growth for such a use likely to increase in the near future, owing to the amount of hand labor called for in harvesting the crop. The equivalent in food nutrients can be obtained more cheaply in other forms. Cocoamit meal, sometimes called cocoa meal, is the res- idue from the manufacture of cocoanut oil. This meal has been found useful as a concentrate adjunct in feeding cat- tle, sheep, -swine and horses. The price restricts its use in the United States. It is considerably used, however, in Digitized by Microsoft® FOODS FROM BY-PRODUCTS 3OI feeding dairy cows in the coast regions of California. It is claimed that good, firm butter may be made from it even when it is fed with some liberality. It answers well as a food adjunct for sheep and swine. Palmnut meal is the residue from the manufacture of palm oil. The oil palm is extensively cultivated in the West Indies and South America, also Africa, but not on the North American continent. In some countries of Europe, it is extensively used in feeding stock. It has good keeping qualities, and is much prized as a food for dairy cows. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XIV. FOOD FROM PASTURES, In the United States and Canada tame pastures as a source of food for live stock have not, as a rule, been taken at their true worth, owing probably to the large area of new or rugged lands that have furnished native pasture and to the very large area covered by the ranges of the West. The rich- ness of the virgin soils, during the early years of their culti- vation, encouraged the growing of crops on them, other than grass, to the comparative neglect of the latter. Hence it is, that the continent is possessed of but limited areas of per- manent mixed grasses, and that but little attention has been given relatively to the improvement of pastures of any kind. Notwithstanding, food from pastures will always be one of the cheapest sources from which it can be obtained. The sources of pasture may be said to be fourfold. These are: (i) The pastures of the range country; (2) pastures on rugged land in areas where tillage is common; (3) per- manent pastures natural or made; (4) temporary pastures. Those, from the source last named, are by far the most im- portant, not only because of the large areas devoted to their growth but because of the renovating influence which nearly all of them exert upon the soil, and because of the fertility which many of them bring to it. The pastures of the western ranges will always be of large extent, though more and more circumscribed with the passing of the years. That the production of wide areas has already been greatly reduced by over depasturing is a m.atter of history. That even range pastures are suscep- tible of renovation is also being demonstrated. To discuss the methods by which they may be renovated would be foreign to this book which treats of foods rather than of growing them. 302 Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM PASTURES 3O3 Native pastures on rugged or low lands, too low for suc- cessful cultivation until drained, are of course indigenous to the locality in which they grow. Usually those on forest land have come in, as it were, spontaneously on the cutting away of the trees. On wet lands they have grown un- changed, it may be, for centuries. Kentucky blue grass is one of the most common and valuable of the former and redtop of the latter. It is possible to transform some native pastures by simply sowing the seeds of other grasses at an opportune time, and in the case of wet lands by changing the conditions as .to the extent of the satura- tion. Permanent pastures include native pastures both on rugged and low lands referred to above, and also pastures specially prepared with a view to permanency. These may include only a single variety of grass, but usually they include a number of varieties of grasses grown together. Blue grass in the North and Bermuda grass in the South fur- nish instances of the former. More commonly, mixed grasses grown with a view to permanency, are sown on lands natur- ally moist and favorable to grass production. They are grown in combination, the better to furnish grazing at all times through the growing season and to furnish more grazing than would be obtained from a single variety. Temporary pastures include, first pastures grown but for one season and frequently as a catch crop, and second, those grown for a longer term of years. The former in- clude the small cereal grains grown alone or in mixtures; plants of the Brassica family; the sorghums, saccharine, and non-saccharine, and certain root crops. The tem- porary pastures usually grown for a longer term than one year include various grasses and clovers. These may be grown singly, but are usually grown in combinations. These are sometimes mown one or more years and are then grazed one or more years. Those readers who desire Digitized by Microsoft® 304 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS further information with reference to pastures are referred to the book, "Grasses and How to Grow Them," by the author. The further discussion of this question will consider: (i) The leading grass plants; (2) the leading clover plants; (3) plants of the Brassica family used in grazing; (4) the saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums, and (5) cereals grown to provide grazing, more especially winter rye. These will be considered with reference to their feeding value and adaptation for grazing. Some- thing will be added more or less general in character, with reference to the grazing of pastures and their care. The leading grasses. — The leading pasture grasses are Kentucky blue {Poa pratensis) , Russian brome {Bro- mus incrinis), Timothy (Phleiim pratense), Western rye grass (Agropyrum caninmn), Redtop (Agrostis vulgaris) and in the South, Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon). These are probably generally valuable for pasture in the order named. Kentucky blue, king among pasture grasses on this continent, is characterized by a reasonably early and late growth, and by a resting period in midsummer. It is probably the finest in its habit of growth and the most generally palatable of all the grasses. Althougli soils that have sustained forests have usually the highest relative adaptation for growing this grass, it is fast spreading over all the areas embraced in the western prairies. Close graz- ing tends materially to lessen the production. When done in the autumn, it very much tends to retard growth in the spring. Even though grazing should be deferred until the autumn, it still furnishes pasture that is much relished, owing to the abundance of the fine leaf growth amid the relatively light production of matured stems. Such a pasture, held in reserve for autumn grazing, will tend to prolong materially its season, and to curtail proportionately the season for winter feeding. At least two or three Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM PASTURES JOj seasons are required to bring this grass to a maximum of growth; hence it is illy adapted for temporary pastures. Owing to the close, firm nature of the sod which it makes, it will better resist injury from severe treading than any other valuable grass. Russian brome grass, most highly valuable on prairie soils, is coming to be much prized as a pasture grass. Its season of active growth is longer probably than that of any other grass grown in northern areas. It grows up early in the spring and continues to grow until the coming of severe frosts. The leaf growth is very vigorous and is relatively abundant and no grass is more highly relished by stock. It will stand close cropping better than most grasses and when once established is not easily injured by treading. Its carrying power under favorable conditions is probably greater than that of any other grass. Its growth on aver- age soils is greatly stimulated by top dressings of barnyard manure. Timothy, king among the hay grasses, is more widely grown on this continent than any other grass, but is not so suitable for pasture as the grasses named above, as it does not produce so much growth relatively in the autumn. In palatability it is average. Nevertheless, it has higher adaptation for producing temporary pasture than either Kentucky blue or Russian brome grass as it can be fully established in a single season though sown with a nurse crop. Since maximum growth with timothy is reached in a relatively short period, as temporary pas- ture it is usually grown with clover. The aim should be to graze timothy so that it will not throw up any considerable proportion of seed stems. Should it do so, cutting them off before the seed matures with the mower set high will add to the carrying power of the pasture. Western rye grass, frequently called slender wheat grass, is probably the most hardy among the useful grasses. It is grown over wide areas and is preeminently the grass Digitized by Microsoft® 306 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS for dry conditions in the semi-arid belt. It tends somewhat to grow in bunches and shoiild therefore be sown some- what thickly. Although highly nutritious, it is not quite so much relished as some of the other grasses. Growth is chiefly made in the early part of the season. If allowed to throw up stems, these quickly become woody and are not eaten with much relish. Redtop, valuable both as a hay and pasture plant, is more grown for pasture in some of the central and southern states than in those north. Though not so valuable in the Gulf states as Bermuda grass, it is grown over wider areas much further north than would be suitable for that grass. In northern areas it is also grown for pasture, but usually in combination with other grasses. It is permanent and endur- ing and eventually makes a good sod, but it starts a little slowly in the spring and also after it has been mown. In midsummer it loses much in palatability. In the states that circle around Tennessee and Kentucky, and also in other areas, it is much esteemed for winter grazing when the grazing has not been close during the summer and autumn. Bermuda grass is a creeping perennial, the plants from which multiply through underground rootstocks and also through the rooting of the creeping stems where the nodes come in contact with the soil. Because of this habit of growth, new pastures are usually obtained through planting the stems and rootstems at certain intervals. It is strictly a summer grass and makes all its growth vir- tually in the portion of the year when frosts are absent. It is very enduring and stands grazing well, but it is diffi- cult to completely remove it from the soil. It has much power to produce, even on worn soils. Reasonably close grazing during the season of growth is to be commended, as even slight frosts injure the palatability of the grass. Chief among the other grasses, useful in providing pasture under American conditions, are Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) , Meadow fescue {Festuca pratensis), Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM PASTURES 307 and Tall Oat grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum), but these are not so extensively grown as the former. Orchard grass grows best in various centers all across the continent between parallels 35° and 45° north latitude. It is a leafy grass and a vigorous grower on good soils, and it will endure shade better than other grasses. It has the habit of growing in tussocks which may be modified by growing it with blue grass. It is not so palatable as blue grass, but is. more productive. In the spring the grazing should be measurably close to keep the seed stems in check. The autumn growth is usually abundant and may be made to furnish much grazing for winter where the climates are reasonably mild. Meadow fescue is hardy, palatable and nutritious. It has been grown in various centers widely distant from one another. It is slow in becoming established so as to pro- duce a maximum amount of pasture; hence it is better suited for permanent than for temporary pastures. It grows better than blue grass in summer and has more power also to make growth in the cool and cold weather of autumn. It is prized for winter grazing in some of the Middle Atlantic states. Tall Oat grass will grow north, south, east or west, but in climates not really severe it has proved of highest value. It comes up very early in the spring, grows quickly and is persistent in growth. The foliage is abundant but coarse and, owing to a bitter property which it possesses, is not so much relished as several other grasses. It should be kept from throwing up seed stems, which of course, are less palatatable even than the leaves. Three other grasses are capable of providing much pasture, but they are so difficult of eradication that it is at least questionable if ever they should be sown under arable conditions. These are Quack grass {Agropyrum re- pens), Johnson grass {Sorghum/ halpense),' and Crabi grass {Panicum sanguinalis) . Digitized by Microsoft® 3d8 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Quack grass is in a sense a scourge to the farmers, especially those whose lands, naturally rich and friable, are infested by it, owing to the great labor involved in cleaning it out of the land. Notwithstanding, when properly man- aged, it will probably furnish more grazing' during the sea- son than any other grass grown in the locality. In serai- arid regions this grass may have a useful mission. It mul- tiplies chiefly by means of the creeping rootstocks which it sends out in great numbers in the soil. Johnson grass, which grows luxuriantly in the south- ern states, cannot endure the cold winters of the North. When grazed it should be eaten down before the heads are formed. Heavy pasturing has the effect of injuring sub- sequent growth for a time. It is a better hay than a pas- ture crop. It is exceedingly difficult of eradication. Crab grass is an annual which infests southern soih. It springs up luxuriantly in grain fields from which crops have been removed. The grazing which it thus furnishes is frequently considerable. This weed-like grass may be grown, it is said, in alternation with bur clover, the former furnishing grazing in winter and the latter in summer. The ground is simply plowed and harrowed between the crops, where both have obtained a foothold. The leading clovers. — The leading clovers for pasture are the Common or Medium Red (Trifolium pratense), the Mammoth {Trifolium maximum), the Alsike {Trifolium hybridum), the White (Trifolium rcpens) and Alfalfa {Medicago sativa). These are probably valuable for pas- ture in the order named. Common Red clover, is now grown in portions of almost every state in the Union. The great clover belt, however, is in the Upper Mississippi valley, and in the higher mountain states that lie to the west. This plant, biennial or perennial according to the soil and climatic conditions under which it is produced, grows during nearly the entire growitig season. The growth is more vigorous and persistent when the plants are not allowed to go to Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM PASTURES 3O9 seed, and they will also live for a longer period. No other variety of clover furnishes so much pasture in one season, and none is so highly palatable. When clover is very rank and succulent, cattle and sheep must be grazed on it with caution, especially at first, otherwise loss may result from bloating. This danger is lessened, (i) by giving the animals dry food before turning them on the clover to graze; (2) by leaving them on the clover subsequently where this is practicable; (3) by giving them access to some dry food all the while and (4) by so arranging that some kind of grass will be pres- ent in the clover in that degree that will reduce the danger incurred to a minimum. Where clover is not grazed too closely in the autumn, on some soils it reseeds itself and thus perpetuates its growth. Mammoth clover will grow virtually in about the same areas as the Common Red variety. The habit of growth, however, in the two, differs considerably. The Mammoth requires several weeks longer to reach a maximum of growth, does not grow so rapidly after midsummer, and is coarser in stem than the former. The danger to cattle and sheep from bloat is much the same as with the Com- mon Red. Close pasturing in the late autumn is usually more or less harmful to all clovers, but not equally so under all conditions. Where seed is much grown from either the Common Red or Mammoth clovers, they are frequently grazed closely for a time after growth has begun. Such grazing is not only grateful to the stock, but it has been found favorable to abundant seed production. Alsike clover is perennial in its growth and increas- ingly so as the conditions become more favorable. It grows best in moist soils. It is even more hardy than the Common Red and is fully as wide in its distribution. Though of finer leaf growth than the Common Red, it is not more palatable, takes longer to attain a maximum of growth, and makes less growth relatively late in the season. Digitized by Microsoft® 3IO FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Small White clover has a wider distribution than any other variety. It seldom requires resowing on soils where it has once grown unless where sown for seed production. It is seldom grown for any other purpose than to pro- vide pasture. Spontaneously as it were, it grows along with blue grass and some other grasses, and is most in evi- dence in moist seasons. It is reasonably palatable, but less so probably than the clovers referred to above, although of finer growth, and it is charged with inducing slobbering in horses that graze upon it in the early summer. This useful and harmless weed-like plant considerably in- creases the producing capacity of pastures in which it grows. Alfalfa grows on certain soils in nearly all the states and in nearly all the provinces of Canada. It is rather a hay than a pasture plant as it does not stand grazing well, and very frequently the grazing of cattle and sheep upon it is attended with loss. The danger from bloat is not present when it is grazed with swine and horses. When grown for grazing the aim should be to grow some grass along with it as Orchard grass or Russian brorae, or to grow it as a factor of a pasture more or less permanent. The grazing of alfalfa usually shortens its life term, though the reverse is frequently true of clover. The chief of the clovers of less importance in pro- viding grazing than those referred to above, are Crimson clover, (Trifolium incarnatum), Japan clover {Lcspedeza striata) and Bur clover (Medicago maculata). Sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa) may prove highly valuable in fur- nishing pasture, but it has not been grown on areas of any considerable extent in this country. Crimson clover, usually sown in the summer or early autumn is grown chiefly in the Central Atlantic states and in some states westward and southward from these. This plant, which lives but one year, makes much and quick growth under congenial conditions, but it cannot endure severe winters unless protected by snow. It may be Digitized by Microsoft® • FOOD FROM PASTURES 3I I grown alone or along with other winter crops that will provide grazing, as vetches or rye. It may be grazed in the autumn or spring or at both seasons but close grazing in the autumn frequently endangers the life of the plants. They furnish grazing very early in the spring. Crimson clover is more grown as a fer^lizer than as a pasture. Japan clover is grown chiefly in the southern states. It is an annual but, Hke White clover, it has much power to reseed itself, and thus to remain in soil where it has once been grown. It is much prized as a pasture plant in considerable areas of the South, whether grown alone or in yearly alternation along with such plants as turf oats and sand vetches. The oats and vetches furnish spring grazing and the Japan clover grazing in the summer and early autumn. Stock do not take kindly to it at first, but soon become fond of it. If allowed to form seed before the grazing begins, it is less relished than if grazed earlier. It starts late in the spring and is easily injured by autumn frosts. Bur clover, like Japan clover, is grown only in the South. Unlike Japan clover, which furnishes grazing in the summer and early autumn, Bur clover furnishes the same in the winter and early spring. It has sometimes been grown for successive years in alternation with Crab grass, the latter being used for hay or pasture. Both have much power to reseed themselves. Bur clover is not highly palatable, but in time animals become accus- tomed to it. It is most relished when the plants are young. Plants of the Brassica family. — The most important of these, beyond all comparison, grown for pasture in America, is the Dwarf Essex rape plant. To a limited extent kale is grown for the same purpose especially on the slopes of western Oregon and Washington, beside the Pacific. Cabbage is also grown to a very limited ex- tent to provide grazing for sheep. When fed to Other stock, it is more as soiling food than as grazing. Digitized by Microsoft® 312 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Dwarf Essex rape, grown on rich soils in all the states and in all the provinces of Canada, is sown alone, broad- cast, or in rows and cultivated, along with the small cereal grains, or in the last cultivation given to corn. After the grain and corn respectively are harvested, the rape pro- vides abundant food according to the soil. It may be grazed by any kind of stock, except cows in milk, and these also may be grazed upon it for a short time after one or both daily milkings, but if allowed to remain on it long, the milk will be tainted. The plants may be grazed as soon as they will furnish much feed and will grow again, but the largest amount of grazing will be obtained, as a rule, when growth in the plants is nearly completed before the pasturing begins. The rape plant is greatly relished by cattle, sheep, swine and horses. It is excellent for producing growth, fat, and also milk. These properties, along with its pro- ductiveness and wide adaptation, make it the most valuable fodder plant that has come into general use in this country during recent years. It furnishes excellent grazing for calves and older cattle, but the latter, when feeding on it, cause considerable waste through treading down the plants. For fattening sheep, no grazing is equal to it. It may be made to furnish good grazing for swine through all the growing season, except during the first six or eight weeks of growth subsequently to the opening of spring. Horses are fond of rape but, like heavy cattle, they injure it by treading. It furnishes food too succulent for horses at work. Cattle or sheep should never be turned in to graze on rape while hungry, lest they should take harm through bloating. The aim should be, when either are grazed on it, to have a well-grown pasture at all times accessible, as this supplemented by a plentiful supply of salt, tends materially to prevent and also to lessen scouring. When Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM PASTURES 3I3 once turned into graze, it is tlie common practice with many not to liinder freedom of access to the rape again until it is all grazed down. Grain may be fed to cattle or sheep on rape, but such feeding is not indispensable with them as it is with swine that are being grazed on it. The grazing may be continued tnitil the coming of hard frost, but in some instances digestive troubles arise from grazing sheep in the early morning on rape covered with white rime. Feeding them on grain previously is a safeguard. Kale is frequently grazed in the spring in latitudes with mild winters, the kale having been started the previous autumn. The grazing of cabbage by sheep may begin as soon as growth is completed, and may continue later than in the case of rape. The amount of good grazing that may thus be furnished by an acre of cabbage is very large. The saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums. — In some localities the saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums are frequently used to provide grazing, more especially in areas where, because of drouth or for other reasons, cul- tivated pastures are not so productive. Sorghums may be grown for pasture wherever corn can be successfully grown, but the non-saccharine sorghums, including Kafir corn, Jerusalem corn, Milo maize and Durra, can only be grown where the summer temperatures are warmer than those which prevail in the northern states and Canada. Pearl millet is somewhat akin to these in its adaptation and also in its habits of growth. When grazed by cattle, the grazing should be deferred until the plants are old enough so as not to pull out of the ground while being grazed. The aim should be to keep them grazed down so closely that the grazing will not be greatly injured by the animals. This result is sure to follow when the stalks become so far advanced that they break down when the cattle walk through them. Such grazing is not so palatable as some kinds of grass, and yet cattle are fond of it. In some instances serious loss Digitized by Microsoft® 314 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS has occurred from grazing both saccharine and non-sac- charine sorghum by cattle. This it is thought is due to the presence of a poisonous principle known as prussic acid, which collects in the plants usually, if not always, when the growth has been checked by drouth. These results, in some instances serious, are more frequent when grazing down the second growth but they are not entirely confined to such grazing. Sheep are relatively better adapted than cattle to such grazing. With sheep the grazing may begin at an earlier age. They may be so grazed that but little waste will follow. None of the sorghums are so much relished by sheep as rape or certain of the grasses. Nor do they produce so much increase in the animals. But they furnish a large amount of grazing relatively in proportion to the area grazed. In the central Mississippi states, these plants are fre- quently grazed by swine. Some writers praise them for such a use, but it is probably true, that, as with sheep, the grazing is not so completely satisfactory as that furnished by alfalfa, clover, rape and certain of the cereals, but such grazing may be furnished quickly in warm, dry weather These plants may also be grazed by horses and mules but to such grazing there is the objection that the plants may be injured by treading. No instances of loss have been reported from grazing horses, sheep or swine upon the sorghums. Corn may be grazed when sown on the broadcast plan, but when so grown it is best grazed by sheep ; larger ani- mals injure it much by treading and breaking it down. If sheep are turned in to graze upon it when it is about a foot high or even higher, they will get much grazing from it, but after it has reached the first joint it will not grow up again when grazed down. In some localities Squaw corn or some other small variety is grown and fed off by sheep or swine. In the northwestern states this method of fattening cheep and swine, especially the former, is attaining some Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM PASTURES 315 popularity. Rape sown along with the corn at the last cultivation given to it improves the grazing. Pasture from the small cereals. — Pasture is frequently obtained from the small cereals sown singly or in combina- tion. Of these winter rye is more commonly sown alone, and because of its importance in grazing will be discussed separately. In some instances winter wheat is grazed in the winter season with benefit to both the stock and wheat. Such crops as winter vetches may also be sown alone in the early autumn to provide early spring grazing for all classes of farm stock. But such grazing, even under favorable con- ditions, must be conducted with a prudent caution or the grazing may injure the grain. On stiflf clays it cannot be done at all. The same is true of the grazing of spring-sown crops by sheep in the spring on the northwestern prairies. In seasons unusually favorable to growth, such grazing benefits the crop but if it is continued too long it will lessen yields. On the western and northwestern prairies spring grains are sometimes sown in combination to provide grazing when grass pastures are not available. The choice of varieties may depend somewhat on relative cheapness. A mixture, however, provides more grazing than a single grain, and also tends more or less to prolong the grazing. These grains sown thickly and in the usual way, are ready to graze as soon as the grazing is abundant. Such pastures have highest adaptation for milk production, owing to their succulence. They should be grazed so closely that no stems can be formed, otherwise the grazing will be lessened and also the palatability. Sowing the seeds of grasses and clovers with these mixtures still farther prolongs the graz- ing. Pastures may be grown from the small cereals for sheep singly or in combination, and in a succession that may be made to cover the entire season of growth. When sown alone these pastures may consist of winter rye, winter vetches and winter oats where the winters are not too Digitized by Microsoft® 3l6 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS severe. When sown in combination, the mixtures may consist of winter rye or turf oats and sand vetches, of peas and oats, and of several of the small grains sown together. The winter crops are of course sown in the autumn and the other crops in the spring. These may be sown in various alternations with each other and also with corn, sorghum and rape, more especially the latter. Thus sown, at least two crops of grazing per year may be grown on the same land. The grazing should begin reasonably early, on the principle that sheep prefer succulent grazing. It should not be deferred so long that the pasture will be seriously harmed from the tramping while being grazed. Cropping off the plants thus early tends to increase the stooling. The small cereals more commonly grown to provide grazing for swine, are winter rye, barley, oats, peas and vetches. These are sown singly or in mixtures. The more common of the mixtures are, barley and oats and rye and winter vetches. The grazing of these plants should begin while they are still young, at least before the time of forming the seed bearing stems, except in the case of peas. These are allowed to near maturity before being grazed. The grazing of winter rye and barley is also sometimes carried into the maturing stages of the grain, but such grazing can scarcely be said to be entirely satisfactory in all instances. Winter rye for pasture. — Winter rye is, beyond all comparison, the most valuable of the small cereals in fur- nishing pasture, as it can be grown in almost every part of the United States and Canada. It is the hardiest of the cereals, will grow on poor soils, comes earliest in the spring and may under many conditions, be made to fur- nish grazing both in the autumn and spring. But when sown quite early in the autumn, under some conditions, it becomes affected with leaf rust, and when sown too late, where the winter climate is rigorous, the plants become so weakened frequently, that the growth in spring is not of much value. Notwithstanding, under all conditions where Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM PASTURES 317 winter rye is sown for pasture in the autumn, it is possible to obtain some kind of a crop after the rye the following season. The practice of sowing winter rye in the spring to pro- vide grazing is not to be commended, but it is admissible when the seeds of the grasses and clovers are sown at the same time with a view to prolong the grazing. Winter rye may be grazed by horses, mules, cattle of all kinds and ages, and sheep and swine. It is made to supply pasture to a much greater extent than any other cereal when this is short from other sources. Although rye is frequently grazed in the autumn, the results are variable. In some instances close autumn graz- ing tends to weaken growth in the spring ; in others, it does not seem to harm it. The difference may arise from a dif- ference in winter temperatures. When sown very early, it is safer to pasture the rye in the fall. When sown later, but not in time to make too advanced a growth in the autumn, more grazing will usually be obtained in the spring, if the rye is not grazed in the fall. Grazing in the spring should begin as soon as growth has really started. The aim should be to graze the rye some- what closely, for if the plants are allowed to form heads, the grazing becomes woody and distasteful to live stock. Rye will furnish grazing for a much longer period when eaten closely than if not so grazed. In many instances the crop is grazed for a time in the spring, and the stock are then removed so as to allow the plants to mature a crop. Good crops of grain are thus frequently obtained when the graz- ing is not carried too far. When cows in milk are grazed on winter rye and the grazing is abundant, the milk will be possessed of an odor and taste more or less offensive. This may be avoided by only allowing cows to graze on the rye for a short period after the time for milking. Owing to the succulence of young rye and to its tendency to relax the bowels, it is a good plan to feed more or less of grain, when practicable, Digitized by Microsoft® 3lS FEEDING FARM ANIMALS to animals that graze upon it. It furnishes excellent grazing in the early spring for ewes that are nursing lambs and also for brood sows nursing their young. The grazing of pastures. — The grazing of pastures should not begin as a rule until pasturing can be done with- out poaching the land, until the grass or other crop has made sufficient growth to meet the needs of the animals without an excess of expended energy in supplying the same, and until it has parted with an excess of succulence. The injury from poaching is found, in part, in making the surface uneven, in part, in destroying some of the plants by pushing them down into the soil, and in part, in the ex- cessive hardening of the soil after the excess of moisture has left it for the time being. Clay soils suffer the most from poaching and they suffer increasingly with the lack of firmness in the sod, with increase in the excess of mois- ture in the soil, with increase in the clay content in the same, and with increase in the poaching. All excess of energy expended by animals in supplying their needs when grazing means loss. It means the utiliza- tion of unnecessary energy to enable the animal to graze. The expenditure of energy in excess of what may be nec- essary to keep the animal in good health while grazing is ex- cessive, and should be avoided. It should be avoided for the further reason, that it involves unnecessary injury through needless treading on the plants. Grass or other grazing is possessed of an excess of suc- culence when it induces a condition of the bowels so lax as to hinder increase in whole or in part. That excess of succu- lence varies in plants themselves with the advancement of the same in growth, and with the character of the season. Grain pastures would seem to be more succulent when quite )'0ung as a rule than grass pastures. Pastures that may phy- sic animals at an early stage to the extent of preventing all increase, may lead to rapid increase at a later stage of devel- opment by which time they have parted with much of their Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROiVi l^ASTURES 3Iy succulence. Some seasons, pastures have much more succu- lence than in other seasons, owing to a difference in the amount of rainfall. The greater the degree of moisture in the air also, the more relatively of succuknce will the pastures possess Excess of succulence, however, is not to be measured alone by the degree of the succulence. That degree of suc- culence which removes an unduly dry condition from the fasces, is not excessive or harmful, but helpful. The trained eye quickly detects what is correct or otherwise in such con- dition. Succulence is excessive when it leads to a condition of the bowels so lax as to hinder production in milk, meat or labor. The degree of succulence in pastures that would be best suited for milk production would be excessive for meat production, and that which is best suited for meat production may be excessive for the best results from labor. This ex- plains in part at least why summer pastures, green and suc- culent, are best suited to the needs of milch cows, and why, when they become unduly dry, supplementary succulent food is necessary in order to properly maintain the milk flow. It explains why pastures well matured make beef much more quickly than pastures less matured and more succulent. It also throws light upon the necessity for feeding reasonabl" dry food to horses at hard labor. The aim should be not to graze pastures close at any sea- son of the year, for the reason, first, that when thus grazed, growth is hindered by reducing too much the breathing ca- pacity of the plant through the leaves, and by removing the shade and protection furnished to the roots by the grass blades. When this covering is removed, the sapping of moisture is so far accelerated by the sun and wind. This loss of moisture increases relatively with increase in dry- ness of the climate. There is also loss of energy in search- ing for food by animals that are being oastured in order to supply their needs Of course, the closeness of the grazing cannot always be regulated. When pasture is abundant, animals will Digitized by Microsoft® 320 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS sometimes graze close where growth is least luxuriant, be- cause the pasture there is less coarse than in other parts and also probably sweeter, while they will not graze at allj or but little, on the ranker portions of the grass. Sheep es- pecially, are much prone to graze thus. Notwithstanding, while the less productive portions are being grazed, grass is accumulating in the ungrazed portions of the fields, and this will be consumed readily when that season comes, which it usually does every year, when the close grazed portions of the field have practically ceased to produce grazing. In the autumn, the aim should be to avoid grazing so close that fields will be left without any winter protection. This, of course, is more important in .climates where the frost is intense, where the fields are much swept with bleak winds when bare, and where the snowfall is light. When the grass covering has been entirely removed in the fall, the blades are slow in starting in the spring, more espe- cially where frosts are intense, and the early grazing is less suitable to the needs of plants than it would otherwise be. (See p. 319.) There are instances, however, in which want of grazing would result in the smothering of the plants to their complete destruction, especially where the snowfall is heavy, and there are other instances where the unre- moved covering would be so much, that it would check the growth of the grass in spring even though it should not be killed by the covering. Whether different classes of animals should be grazed together on the same pasture is a disputed question. Many are opposed to it. Notwithstanding, it would seem to be a question largely of conditions. When the pastures are not abundant sheep, for instance, should not graze with cattle. Because of their habit of close cropping, they will get the lion's share of the pasture, and through their habit of tread- ing much while grazing, would render the grass more dis- tasteful to the cattle. But when the pasture is abundant through all the season, grazing difl^erent classes of animals together is probably an advantage, as one class from Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM PASTURES 32 1 choice eats portions that the other class will reject. A few sheep on such a pasture will aid materially in checking the growth of weeds, and a few goats in checking the growth of bushes, should they be present. The care of pastures. — The care of pastures has ref- erence: (i) To the extent of the depasturing; (2) to pro- tection from weeds; (3) to improvement by drainage; {4) to improvement by fertilization; (5) to improvement by a renewal of the grasses. Due attention to these matters will greatly increase the carrying power of pastures. Very fre- quently pastures are kept eaten down too bare. Usually the power of plants to grow for the time being is crippled in proportion as the top growth is removed and in proportion to the earliness of such removal. Surface evaporation is always more rapid in proportion as the covering is removed from the soil, whether 'that covering consists of living or dead vegetation. Close grazing injures growth because it makes unnececsary treading by the hoofs of the animals grazing, and when winter comes, it injures through undue exposure of the vital power of the plants. It is perhaps an open question whether close grazing injures most the animals that graze or the pastures that they graze upon. If pastures must be grazed closely, such grazing should take place in the spring rather than in the autumn, as then the fields so grazed may reclothe themselves before the advent of winter. Weeds injure pastures by drawing on their fertility for no useful end, by excessive shading and by crowding. Even bushes and shrubs become weeds in pastures when they hinder the growth of grass. Weeds that grow burs which adhere to stock are especially annoying. These evils may be mitigated by the free use of the field mower and in some instances of the scythe and spud. Annuals and bi- ennials may thus be prevented from going to seed, and in some instances perennials may be thus destroyed, but not in all. Dense rooted grasses like Kentucky blue and Rus- sian brome will crowd out many kinds of weeds through the density of their root growth. Digitized by Microsoft® 322 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The possible improvement of pastures by means of drainage is only limited by the opportunity furnished for making the drainage complete. The following are some of the benefits that accrue from it : ( i ) Drainage alone may completely change the character of the production, the change being from grass less valuable to that more valu- able, because of increased growth, higher palatability and superior nutrition; (2) it may prolong the season of pas- turing more or less each year; (3) the harbor for parasites, so prejudicial to the sheep industry where stagnant water abounds is so far removed; (4) the injury from poaching is reduced, if not entirely obviated. The methods of drain- ing will not be discussed here, but it should be added that the benefits accruing from draining the wet places in pas- tures are usually far beyond the cost of the work. But little attention has been given to the improvement of pastures on this continent through the medium of ferti- lization, owing largely, it would seem, to an extensively pre- vailing idea that more profit will result from applying fer- tilizer to other crops. The idea would not seem to be well grounded, especially where temporary pastures are grown. Dressings of farmyard manures and also of commercial fertilizers stimulate growth in the roots as well as in the leaves and stems, consequently when the pastures are bro- ken up the humus in the soil is proportionately increased. Farmyard manures also act as a mulch, and the fresher and more bulky the manure and the more of it applied up to a certain limit, the more beneficial will be the result to the pasture. A threefold benefit results from applying farmyard manure thus. The wisdom of aiming to apply as large a proportion of the fertilizer as can be made available to pastures is to be commended. Grasses may in many instances be renewed in pastures without breaking them up and resowing. This question is discussed in the book on "Grasses" by the author (p. 392), to which the reader is referred Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XV. FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS. Field roots are distinguished from tubers first, in pro- ducing but one bulb or root, whereas tubers produce sev- eral ; second, in usually making much of the growth above ground, whereas tubers grow wholly under the soil; and third, in larger average production than can be obtained from tubers. They also differ in chemical composition. Roots are relatively richer in protein and tubers in starch, and the starch in the two is found under different condi- tions. The value of field roots and tubers in furnishing food for live stock has not been appreciated in the past by the growers of live stock in the United States as it has been b-y the growers of the same in Great Britain and Canada. The greater amount of hand labor required in growing them as compared with corn, has led to the centering of attention on the growing of corn. Nevertheless, the fact remains, that American supremacy in growing live stock is largely de- pendent on the extent to which iield roots shall be fed to them while in process of development. No other food ad- junct has yet been found that will equal field roots in secur- ing the development of large frames and in covering them abundantly with fleshy tissue. The American exhibitor of cattle and sheep must continue to import his leading pri.ze winners from Great Britain and Canada until he feeds his young animals more largely on field roots. Those who have investigated with reference to the comparative cost of nutrients in corn and field roots re- spectively, have concluded, and correctly, that nutrients in corn can be grown in greater quantity and much more cheaply under average conditions than in field roots. But when the conclusion is reached, that in consequence, the net 323 Digitized by Microsoft® 324 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS returns from an acre of field roots cannot be made as large relatively or as profitable as those from an acre of corn under some conditions of growth, that conclusion may be safely challenged. The favorable influence that the moder- ate or even light feeding of field roots exercises on the di- gestion of the animals (see p. 51), gives field roots a value far in excess of the nutrients which they contain. The following conclusions with reference to the rela- tive value of these and of corn will probably be found cor- rect: (i) That in the main, under United States condi- tions, corn should be made the leading food crop for live stock rather than roots, but in some parts of Canada, be- cause of climatic conditions, the reverse should be true. (2) That corn has much higher adaptation for fattening than field roots, hence they should be fed sparingly if fed at all to animals being fattened. (3) That field roots are so well adapted to milk production that, under many conditions, they may be fed for such a use, even in conjunction with corn and more especially with dry corn fodder. (4) That field roots have higher adaptation for young animals than corn, and that in consequence, the farmer should aim to provide young animals with such food even in areas well suited to the growing of corn. The root crops discussed are: (i) Mangels, (2) sugar beets, (3) rutabagas and turnips and (4) carrots. The tu- bers dwelt upon are: (i) Irish potatoes, (2) sweet pota- toes, (3) artichokes and (4) cassava. The miscellaneous crops included in the discussion are: (i) Cabbage, (2) pumpkins, (3) squash and (4) peanuts. The tops of roots and tubers are also considered with reference to their feed- ing value. Mangels. — Mangels may be successfully grown in some portion of every state in the Union and of every province of Canada. Although they grow best where the temperatures are moderate and the climate is reasonably moist, they will stand more heat and drought than rutabagas or turnips. The yields ordinarily run all the way from ten Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 325 to 20 tons an acre, the average under American conditions being about 15 tons, but far higher yields are easily attain- able. The yields are usually higher than those of sugar beets and the labor of growing them is much less. Mangels, when grown, are easily injured by frost, even before they are harvested. The longer that mangels can be kept, the more they improve for feeding. This at least is true of them for several months subsequent to maturity, and it results from chemical changes which take place in the roots. If fed in large quantities for some weeks subsequently to maturity, they tend to produce scouring. The highest use of mangels when fed to stock, is to promote growth in young animals and to stimulate milk production. As with all classes of field roots, mangels have a higher feeding value than chemistry assigns to them, especially when fed in small quantities. More commonly they are sliced or pulped before being fed, except when feeding them to swine. For cattle of all classes, when on dry food, mangels are excellent and more especially when much of the food fed is carbonaceous, as in the case of corn. A few pounds fed daily to calves before and subsequently to weaning, and to grow- ing cattle in winter, will tend to promote increase in frame and muscle in a marked degree. Usually not more than 20 to 30 pounds per day are fed to cows giving milk, but larger amounts may be fed without harm. They do not taint the milk, hence they are preferred to rutabagas and turnips for milch cows. The quantities named will also be suitable for animals that are being fattened under ordinary conditions in America, although as much as 100 pounds daily per animal is sometimes fed to cattle that are being fattened in Great Britain. For sheep, mangels are nearly or quite as valuable relatively as in feeding cattle. Finely sliced, they are much relished by lambs. Two to four pounds a day fed to breed- ing ewes previous to lambing and larger amounts subse- quently, prove very helpful to them. As much as 20 pounds per day is in some instances fed to large sheep that are be- Digitized by Midrosoft® 326 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS ing fattened but such feeding would seem excessive in cold climates and under American conditions would prove costly. Even when fed to breeding ewes in very large quantities, there is some hazard that urinary troubles may follow, and such hazard is increased in the case of rams. For swine of all ages, mangels may usually be fed with profit, when not getting other succulent food. They are too bulky for feeding in large quantities to young swine or to swine that are being fattened, but to brood sows in win- ter they may be fed so freely as to form the bulk of the ra- tion. When swine are first put upon a ration of new corn, a few pounds of mangels daily help to balance the ration. The Michigan experiment station has demonstrated the feasibility of harvesting mangels with swine so as to cheap- en materially the cost of production. The swine are given grain in addition. The amount required is less than 50 per cent of what would otherwise be needed during the first part of the grazing, but toward its close, more grain would be required to properly finish the swine. Under all condi- tions of forced feeding or fattening with grain, a pound or two or even more of mangels fed daily will aid in regulat- ing the digestion. Swine feeding after cattle that are being fed corn heavily, will be more healthy and thrifty if given mangels in addition, and will also withstand a visitation of hog cholera better than those not so fed. Swine are more fond of mangels than of rutabagas, turnips or carrots. To horses, mangels are not much fed under American conditions, but there are no good reasons for not feeding them more or less when obtainable. Moderate amounts will aid in keeping the digestion of horses in tone as well as in the case of other stock. A few pounds fed daily with dry food will materially aid in giving draft foals that development of bone and muscle that is so much desired in this class of horses, and will prove greatly help- ful to idle horses and brood mares in winter, but small amounts only should be fed to horses at hard work. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 327 Sugar beets. — Compared with other field roots, sugar beets have a high feeding value, but the cost of growing them as grown for the factory, is considerably more than that of growing mangels under similar conditions. It is also more than would furnish an equal tonnage of rutabagas where the conditions are favorable to the growth of the lat- ter. For feeding live stock, therefore, it is usually considered preferable to grow mangels or rutabagas. The labor involved in thinning and harvesting sugar beets is much more than that called for in thinning and harvesting either of the crops named. But there are varieties of sugar beets that have special adaptation for being grown for live stock, owing to their large size. The sugar content of these is higher than that of mangels, hence they are more suitable for certain kinds of feeding. Sugar beets, like mangels, may be grown in some portions of almost every state in the Union, and in many of the provinces of Canada. Owing to the high sugar content of sugar beets, they are more highly relished than other field roots and are also more valuable for fat pro- duction, but they are not more valuable for feeding young animals to promote growth, and are probably less valuable for producing milk. As in the case of mangels they are usually fed sliced or pulped, but when fed to swine and especially to brood sows, they are generally fed whole. In practice, the difference in the feeding value of sugar beets and sugar beet pulp is less than chemical analysis would assign to these. By cattle, sugar beets are highly relished. From 10 pounds downward may be fed daily to calves ac- cording to their age with gratifying results. Young cattle on dry roughage will take larger amounts. Milch cows wdl make good use of 20 to 30 pounds per day in the absence of corn ensilage, and smaller amounts in conjunction with the same. But, of course, it is not absolutely necessary to feed sugar beets to dairy cows that are being given a liberal al- lowance of corn ensilage. To cattle that are being fattened, large amounts may be fed daily, limited only by the cost and Digitized by Microsoft® 328 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS .the capacity of the animals to consume them. Economy, however, points in the direction of the very moderate feed- ing of roots under American conditions, owing to the cost of growing them. For sheep, sugar beets are excellent when fed to breed- ing ewes on dry feed. They are also particularly good for milk lambs that are being pushed for the market. For fat- tening sheep and lambs, sugar beets should be fed along with grain, notwithstanding their high sugar content. They are too bulky a food to admit of feeding them alone for fatten- ing along with hay. For swine of all ages, sugar beets are excellent, espe- cially for growing swine. They are greatly relished by young animals and furnish an economical food for them when fed as part of the ration. Brood sows will winter nicely and cheaply on them with a small amount of grain added. A small quantity will be found helpful far beyond the cost, to animals that are being pushed along by heavy feed- ing of grain. Experiments conducted in feeding sugar beets to swine, have shown that from 4 to 8 pounds of sugar beets are equal to i pound of barley. To horses, sugar beets are not much fed, but when available, moderate quantities will be as helpful relatively to young horses as to young stock of other classes. To horses that are at work, the same limitations in feeding should be observed as in feeding other roots, which means that they should not be fed to the extent of relaxing the bowels unduly. Rutabagas and turnips. — The rutabaga is a variety of turnip which it is thought originated in Sweden, hence in Great Britain and Canada they are commonly designated Swedish turnips. They are by far the most commonly grown and also the most valuable of the turnip family, ow- ing to the firmness of the bulbs and the long period during which they may be kept. Turnips, as distinguished from rutabagas, grow more quickly than the latter, are less firm in flesh, and do not retain their good feeding qualities so Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 329 long as the former. The methods of growing the different varieties is substantially the same, although on suitable soils and at proper elevations, they may be grown over wide areas of the United States, the conditions best suited to their growth being on good, sandy loam soils where the tem- peratures in the growing season are moderate to cool, and where the atmosphere is moist. Large areas in Canada are admirably adapted to the growing of both. All kinds of turnips are at their best for feeding when the crop is first harvested, but rutabagas especialy retain their good feed- ing properties for a long period. More commonly these roots are sliced or pulped before feeding them, except, of course, when they are fed off by sheep where they grew. This practice, very common in Great Britain, is quite feas- ible in those portions of the United States where the soil is not heavy, and where frost does not lock the ground early in the season, but more commonly it is necessary both in this country and in Canada to store the crop for future feeding. For cattle of all classes and ages, as a food adjunct both rutabagas and turnips are excellent, except that when fed to cows giving milk, both the milk and butter resulting will possess the odor of the roots unless they are fed with caution. From say lo pounds downwards, fed daily to calves, according to age, will aid materially in the absence of other green food in maintaining them in good thrift, and in securing satisfactory development of bone and muscle. To young cattle, yarded in winter, and maintained chiefly or wholly on inferior hay or straw, they may be fed with much benefit up to that limit which would make feed- ing them too costly. Along with straw, lo to 15 pounds a day will insure both thrift and growth in such animals. To cattle that are being fattened, 100 pounds per day is some- times fed in Great Britain. Such feeding of roots would be too costly under American conditions. Such cattle in this country, if fed rutabagas or turnips at all, are seldom fed more than 10 to 20 pounds per animal, daily. Milch cows may Digitized by Microsoft® 330 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS be fed similar amounts without much hazard of taint in the milk, providing thev are fed night and morning just after each milking. For sheep, rutabagas and turnips have been used to a greater extent probably than in feeding any other class of live stock. When fed freely to young lambs, in a finely sliced condition, they aid materially in starting them into vigorous growth. When pregnant ewes are being given leguminous fodders, it is thought that large quantities of rutabagas or turnips in addition tend to produce lambs abnormally large, but deficient in vitality. From 2 to 4 pounds a day will probably be enough, but subsequently to lambing they may be fed in much larger quantities. Sheep may be fattened almost entirely on grain and turnips. When so fattened, the roots may be fed up to the limit of the capacity of the sheep to consume them. But such fattening is far too costly for American condi- tions. Only a few pounds daily are usually fed to such sheep when fed at all. To swine, rutabagas and turnips may be fed as a part of the ration when not on succulent pasture, and more especially while they are being grown, but they are not so fond of them as of sugar beets or mangels. They may be fed sliced, pulped or whole and with or without the tops. There may be instances in which they may aid in har- vesting the crop, as when turnips are sown along with the small cereals. Brood sows turn them to good account in win- ter when a small amount of grain is fed in addition. When the labor conditions will admit of it, they may sometimes be fed with profit to pigs that are being fattened, when cooked and mixed with meal. To horses of all ages, though not commonly fed, both rutabagas and turnips may be so fed. They are commonly sliced or pulped when fed thus. When pulped they are usually mixed with cut fodder. One pound of bay has a feeding vah:e equal to 4 pounds of rutabagas. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 33 1 Carrots. — The carrot is one of the surest root crops that can be grown in the United States, and it may also be grown under the greatest variety of conditions. It is also one of the most valuable when it is grown. Nevertheless, it is probably grown to a less extent as a food for live stock than any other root crop devoted to such feeding. This arises, first, from the relatively large amount of labor in- volved in keeping the crop clean, and second, from the rel- atively large amount of the same called for in harvesting and storing the roots, which do not usually grow so large as other field roots. They furnish an excellent and safe food for all classes of farm animals. As with other field roots, they have a physiological value, so to speak, in addi- tion to their feeding value, especially when the other food fed is dry. To produce this effect, it is not necessary to feed a large quantity. Notwithstanding, carrots are so safe a food that they may be fed in large quantities where such feeding will prove economical. It is not necessary to slice them for feeding unless when they are being fed to young calves or to lambs. For cattle of all classes, carrots furnish an excellent food. A few pounds fed daily to calves will add greatly to their development, especially when the fodder fed is dry. They may be fed with the utmost freedom to milch cows, and without any fear of tainting the milk. They tend greatly to stimulate milk production in cows on winter ra- tions. For milk production they may be fed up to the limit of at least 30 pounds daily, when they are not too costly. When they can be spared for such a use, a few pounds fed daily to cattle that are being wintered on dry fodder will result in great benefit to them. They will also tend to pro- duce rapid gains when fed to cattle that are being fattened, but they are usually too costly a food to admit of feeding them thus. For sheep, carrots are as valuable relatively as for cat- tle. From I to 3 pounds daily in the winter will add much to the thrift of store sheep and breeding ewes kept on Digitized by Microsoft® 332 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS dry food. For sheep that are being fattened, carrots will usually be found too costly, but a few pounds fed daily way be in order under some conditions. For swine, tests conducted in Denmark have shown that on the basis of dry matter, carrots and mangels were about equal in feeding value. This would mean that pound for pound, carrots would be more valuable than mangels for such feeding, but the difference is not great. On the other hand, carrots are not so much relished by swine as mangels. The highest value from feeding carrots to swine will probably come from feeding them to brood sows in winter along with grain. Nutriment in the carrots will usu- ally be furnished more cheaply than an equal amount of nu- triment in the grain. For horses of all classes, carrots have been found valu- able. In Ontario, Canada, considerable quantities of carrots are grown for such feeding. A few pounds per day are excellent for promoting thrift and growth in weanling foals and also in those of more advanced age. They are excellent for keeping in tone the digestion of horses wintered on dry food, more especially when it is composed mainly of straw. Horses at work can also use a moderate amount to advan- tage, but, owing to the large amount of water which they contain, the quantity fed should be moderate, usually not more than a few pounds per day. They are also much prized in providing food for stallions when fitting them for service and also for the show-ring. Usually not more than 12 to 15 pounds per day are fed. They act beneficially on the glands of the skin and thereby improve the coat. Irish potatoes. — Potatoes of a quality that would fit them for the market may ..sometimes be fed with profit to various classes of farm animals when market values run so low as to justify such feeding, but they are seldom or never grown primarily for feeding live stock. Field roots, as mangels and rutabagas, can usually be grown so as to pro- duce more nutrients per acre than potatoes and at less cost. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 333 while the former are also more highly relished. Those re- jected for cooking, however, because of insufficient size or because unshapely, may always be turned to good account when judiciously fed to farm animals. Potatoes are rick in starch and, therefore, may be used with profit under some conditions in fattening animals, more especially swine. They are so bulky, however, and contain so much water, that it has been found more profit- able when feeding them for fat production to remove much of the water by first cooking them. To other classes of stock they are more commonly fed raw. But potatoes, old and shrivelled, or that have sprouted, should not be so fed, as they contain a principle, solanim which is dangerous to live stock and which is removed by boiling the tubers. Like all classes of tubers and field roots, they have a beneficial influence on the digestion apart from the nutritive value, consequently when fed to farm animals maintained on dry food, they aid in keeping the digestion in tone. Except when fed to swine and grown sheep, they should usually be sliced. Cattle may choke on them when fed whole. To cattle of all classes, potatoes may be fed with more or less benefit when they can be spared for such feeding, unless when the animals are being maintained on succulent food. A few pounds only should be fed to calves daily. Cows in milk should not be given potatoes in large quanti- ties except in conjunction with protein foods, owing to the".r highly carbonaceous character, otherwise they may tend too much to the production of fat rather than milk. With such foods in plentiful supply, as many as 15 to 20 pounds per day may be fed without harmful results. Cattle that are be- ing fattened will take as much as 30 pounds per day, but usual!}' smaller quantities will suffice. To sheep, a few pounds fed daily when on dry feed will aid materially in promoting thrift in the flock. Usually 2 to 4 pounds may be fed with benefit to breeding sheep not on grass. Twice these amounts and even more may be fed to sheep that are being fattened. When sliced they may Digitized by Microsoft® 334 FEi-JiNG FARM ANIMALS be fed with satisfaction to milk lambs that are being pushed for the market. There may also be instances in which they may be allowed to feed on cull potatoes in the field. For swine, especially when they are being fattened, po- tatoes are relatively more valuable than for other classes of live stock. They may be fed raw, but experience has shown that when cooked, the gains resulting are materially in- creased. They may be cooked by steaming or boiling. If cooked by boiling, as little water should be used as will suf- fice. Meal is then added and the whole is made into a mash. If cooked squashes or pumpkins are added, the ration will, be cheapened, but such food is rather adapted to growing swine. Danish experiments have shown that 4 pounds of potatoes were required to make as much increase with swine as i pound of grain. Wisconsin experiments have shown that 45^ pounds fed raw are required to make as much increase as i pound of corn. Swine do not relish them when made into a thin slop. When cull potatoes are left as they fell from the digger, swine may be used in gathering them up, but should be given some grain also in addition. Horses at work may be given from 10 to 12 pounds of raw potatoes daily. If fed larger quantities, there would be some tendency to an unduly lax condition of the bowels. Even larger amounts may be fed to brood mares and horses not at work, especially when they are in a low condition. Half the amounts named above should suffice for weanling foals. Sweet potatoes. — These are primarily grown as food for man and yet they may be profitably grown as food for live stock in certain areas of those portions of the United States that are favored with a mild climate, so mild that no frost is present for 150 days during the period of growth, and the midnight temperatures do not reach lower than 45". Although they have highest adaptation for being fed to swine, they are frequently fed also to cows, and may be fed to all classes of domestic animals on the farm. The yields of Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 335 the coarse growing varieties are sometimes very large, as large as 9 to 12 tons of tubers per acre, and in some instances the enormous production of 18 tons per acre has been reached. The average yields, however, are considerably lower than 9 tons per acre. To grow the crop at its best, requires a loam soil, inclining to sandy, porous and natu- rally fertile or made so. Sweet potatoes may be grown even for live stock, southward from the Potomac and Ohio riv- ers, in the East, and southward from the latitude of Des Moines, Iowa, and in the mountain valleys, southward from say Walla Walla in Washington in the West. They are usu- ally fed in the sliced form except when fed to swine. The perishable nature of sweet potatoes tends to shorten the sea- son for feeding them, and to encourage the feeding of the crop as soon as is reasonable after it has matured. For cattle, the aim should be to feed leguminous ad- juncts along with sweet potatoes. Though relatively better adapted for fattening than for milk production, they are more commonly fed for the latter end. A few pounds fed daily to calves and young cattle will aid them materially. Large quantities may be fed with safety to beef cattle, but moderate quantities will probably be found relatively more profitable. In some instances 40 to 45 pounds per day have been fed to cows in milk. But these quantities would seem excessive of a food so rich in carbohydrates. The results will probably be more satisfactory when not more than 15 to 20 pounds are fed daily along with concentrates such as soy bean or cottonseed meal. To sheep, sweet potatoes are seldom given, largely for the reason that where they are grown most extensively, sheep are not much grown. They may be used with ad- vantage in feeding off the tops before the crop is har- vested. For sheep that are being grazed on such pas- ture as cowpeas or Japan clover, especially with a view to fattening them, sweet potatoes should furnish a very suit- able complement. A few pounds fed daily should suffice, but heavier feeding may also sometimes be in order. Digitized by Microsoft® 336 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS For swine, sweet potatoes are better adapted to fur- nishing food than for other classes of live stock, as in addition to being very much rehshed by swine, they are a good food for fattening them, and they may also be harvested by the swine. Being a bulky food, some concen- trated food should be fed along with them. For such feed- ing cowpeas and soy beans are very suitable, but corn may also be fed so as to form one-half the concentrate. When swine are thus fattened on sweet potatoes, they should not be required to glean closely lest the exertion thus made should be too much for the best gains to result. Such gleaning should be done by store swine. For horses and mules, at work in the South, sweet potatoes are frequently fed. For such feeding they have been found quite suitable when fed sliced along with corn or other grain, in the proportion of say 3 pounds of potatoes to i pound of grain. There would seem to be no reasons why they should not be fed in moderation to foals and to young horses not yet matured, when they can be spared for such feeding. Jerusalem artichokes. — These may be successfully grown in nearly all parts of the United States and Canada. The tops are sometimes used in providing food tor stock where intensive conditions prevail, but even under such con- ditions, the chief value of the crop lies in the tubers. They are more watery than potatoes, but are richer in protem. In feeding value they have been found fully equal to potatoes, viewed from the standpoint of practical results. Their abil- ity to resist frost without injury adds much to their eco- nomic importance, as it makes it possible to harvest them with swine or otherwise even after the winter has gone. The yields vary greatly with varying conditions, but 200 to 300 bushels per acre may be readily grown under average conditions. The persistency with which artichokes remain in the soil is one objection to growing them. For cattle, the feeding value of artichokes is much the same as that of potatoes, and about the same quantities may Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 337 be profitably fed. It is not probable, however, that they will ever be much grown as food for cattle because of the labor required in handling them for winter feeding, when they are more valuable relatively than at other seasons. They furnish good food for calves, for store cattle in win- ter and for cows in milk, also for cattle that are being fat- tened, when they can be spared for such feeding. For sheep, both the roof; and tops of the plants may be used in providing food. Sheep soon come to be fond of both, but, of course, they do not consume the woody portion of the stalk. Store sheep and breeding flocks will be much benefited from supplementing the other dry food fed with 2 or 3 pounds of artichokes per day. The less cost, however, of handling field roots, will to a great ex- tent, preclude the growing of artichokes as a food for sheep. For swine, the best and chief use of artichokes con- sists in furnishing them with food. They may be fed to swine at any age subsequently to the weaning period. When used as a part of the fattening ration, they may be fed in the same way as potatoes, that is cooked and fed along with meal. (See p. 334.) But their highest use in feeding swine is found in the food which they furnish to growing swine and brood sows when harvested by these. Ordinarily the labor of harvesting artichokes by swine that are being fattened is so much that it- would so far prove adverse to laying on flesh. This labor, however, is very beneficial to brood sows, especially when they are pregnant. It furnishes them that degree of exercise which tends so much to promote stamina in the young animals when born. Swine that are being grown will be much aided in their development by having access to a field of artichokes, but a grain supplement is necessary to promote quick growth and it is also nec- essary though not in quantity so large for brood sows that are feeding thus on artichokes. The milder the climate, the more prolonged may be the feeding season, because of the shorter period during which the ground is frozen. Digitized by Microsoft® 338 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS For horses, tests made in feeding artichokes have shown that they are excellent. They are also fond of them. They have been fed to horses to the extent of making a reduction of 50 per cent in the hay required with results that were satisfactory. They may be fed whole to all classes of stock, but in some instances they are sliced. Cassava. — This is a tropical or sub-tropical American shrub of the genus Manihot and the order Euphorbiaceas. It is a shrub-like plant at the base of which grow prong-like tu- bers. These are more or less extensively used in feeding live stock in the Gulf states. It is best grown on sandy land, and the yields range from 2 or 3 tons to 15 tons per acre. The tubers are exceedingly rich in starch, and they have been much grown during recent years to supply mills erected for the express purpose of manufacturing starch from them. As the plants may be grown as annuals or perennials, and as it is not usual to dig them as food for stock during the active period of growth, they are seldom extensively used in feeding animals from May i to November i. In other words, it is usual to feed them during other months of the year. As under ordinary conditions of exposure, they do not keep long when unearthed, they are usually dug as wanted for feeding. Should the supply be in excess of the needs for feeding, the vtnharvested residue may be left in the soil to increase for feeding the following season. The increase made, however, is partly counterbalanced by increase in woody fibre in the tubers. In addition to fur- nishing wholesome food for quadrupeds on the farm, they are coming to be much prized as a food for poultry. The tubers do not call for any other preparation than slicing, when they are being made ready for feeding. For cattle, cassava tubers are very valuable, more especially when they are to be fattened. When properly fed to milch cows they also aid materially in the produc- tion of milk. Such feeding should only be done in con- junction with a liberal supply of protein foods, such as Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 339 cottonseed meal and cowpea or other leguminous fod- der. It is said that the free feeding of cassava to cows tends to give the milk a reddish tint and high color to the butter. Cottonseed meal fed with cassava aids in firming the butter. For beef production, as much as 20 to 25 pounds is sometimes fed to one animal daily. When thus fed, the cassava will go far to take the place of corn. For such feeding, the roots may be sliced with a spade in the absence of a cutting box. For sheep, cassava has not been much used, but for such feeding it will doubtless be found quite as useful as for feeding cattle. Its highest use in feeding sheep will be in fattening them. From 4 to 6 pounds per day would probably be found ample for mature sheep along with suitable adjuncts. For szvine, cassava has proved an excellent food. They become very fond of it, and it may be fed to them even to the extent of producing excessive fatness. For young and growing swine it should be fed along with such foods as shorts or cowpeas. It should only be fed in moderate quantities to brood sows that are pregnant, but may be fed with much freedom to swine that are being fat- tened. Swine should never be allowed to harvest the crop, as the portions brought to the surface and unused by the swine would soon spoil, but the practice of allowing swine to glean in fields from which a crop has been harvested is commendable, as they search out and consume portions of broken prongs that have been left in the ground. For horses and mules at work, when cassava is fed, the grain feed may be reduced proportionately. Cassava and corn do not make so suitable a food as cassava and oats, since the latter have a higher protein content than corn. If cottonseed meal is fed to horses (see p. 286), a small amount fed daily should answer well to feed with cassava. When large amounts of cassava are fed daily to horses, the aim should be to feed leguminous fodders along with it. Should it be fed to young animals also, the aim should be the same. Digitized by Microsoft® 340 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Cabbage. — This plant is usually primarily grown as food for the human family, but in some instances it is also grown as food for live stock, and even when grown primarily as food for the human family, the residue of leaves furnishec; excellent food for some classes of live stock. No kind of green crop is grown over a wider area. The soil and climate, however, of northwestern prairies have highest adaptation for the growth of this plant. On such soils as many as 24 tons of heads per acre have been grown, not including a large amount of leaves. The leaves may be gathered and fed to live stock after the heads have been removed, or they may be fed off by sheep or even by swine where they grew. In some instances the entire crop is grazed down by skeep in the late autumn. Cabbage furnishes excellent food for some kinds of farm animals in winter, but the labor in- volved in storing them is such as to make the feeding of cabbage too expensive, unless when they are fed to milk lambs in order to hasten their development for the market. In some latitudes, however, the winters are so mild that cab- bage will not take serious harm though left exposed where they grew. In such instances, the leaves and soft heads may be fed with profit to cows, ewes and brood sows. For cattle, the highest use of cabbage is found in feeding them to cows for the production of milk. The leaves and soft or immature heads may thus be fed with satisfactory results, at least in a limited way. They are excellent for stimulating milk production. The plan of grazing cows on areas from which a crop of cabbage has been removed is not to be commended, as such grazing is likely to result in too lax a condition of the bowels, and it may also result in tainting the milk, more especially when decayed or partially decayed leaves are present. Such food will be helpful to calves, but even for them, the results are more satisfactory when the amount of cabbage or leaves fed is restricted. They are seldom or never fed to cattle that are being fattened. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 34I For sheep, the best results, all things considered, are probably obtained from feeding cabbage, and in no way- can they be more profitably fed than by grazing them off where they grew. An enormous amount of food per acre can thus be furnished from a crop of cabbage grown under favorable conditions, more than can be obtained from rape, but more labor is involved in growing cabbage. The grazing of cabbage may be continued later than the graz- ing of rape, as cabbage take less injury from frost. As when grazing down rape, the results will be more satisfac- tory when the sheep may have access also to a grass pas- ture in an advanced stage of growth. Sheep also answer admirably for gleaning in areas from which the merchant- able heads have been removed. In mild latitudes sheep may be thus grazed far on into the winter, but on stiff clay soils, such grazing would tend to impact the land. For swine, rejected cabbage may be profitably uti- lized at any season and under nearly all conditions of feeding, but the crop is never grown primarily for such a use. Cabbage leaves and soft cabbage may be fed to swine at all times, or they may be allowed to glean amid the unharvested portions of a crop after removing the market- able heads, but the waste will be greater than when sheep are used for such grazing. The rejected heads from stored cabbage may be better utiHzed by swine than by other stock, as they are less harmed by consuming partially decayed heads than other classes of live stock would be. To horses, cabbage are seldom fed, but there are no reasons why they should not be fed to colts and brood mares except those which arise from inconvenience in feeding them. To work horses they would have to be fed with prudent caution. Pumpkins. — This crop may be grown successfully un- der any conditions that are favorable to the growth of a crop of corn. They are very frequently grown in the corn crop, and they may be grown thus without in any way retarding the growth of the corn, but they are also frequently sown as Digitized by Microsoft® 342 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the sole crop occupying the land. The small varieties are gen- erally used as food for man, but more commonly the large varieties are fed to the various classes of animals kept upon the farm. The use of the binder in cutting corn will prob- ably tend to lessen the growth of pumpkins in this crop, as unless removed in advance of the binder, they are much li- able to be broken by the same. They are easily injured by frost, and when so injured will soon spoil, hence, the aim should be to feed them in the autumn and early winter, as the labor of storing them is considerable in proportion to their feeding value. Those immature will decay more read- ily than pumpkins fully matured, hence, the aim should be to feed them first. When feeding pumpkins, they are usu- ally cut open with the spade, and for some kinds of feeding are cut into smaller pieces. For cattle of all classes, pumpkins furnish excellent food, but they are most highly prized for feeding cows in milk. When so fed, the practice is common of drawing them daily or twice a day from the place where they grew to the pastures. They are then tossed out of the wagon, and in falling, the concussion usually breaks them open, so that further division' is not necessary. Cows are exceedingly fond of them, and may with safety be allowed to consume them in large quantities. The claim has been made that the seeds are adverse to free milk giving, but this claim has not been sustained by the experience of feed- ers. The free feeding of pumpkins is highly favorable to abundant milk production. Pumpkins should always be fed in a clean place, hence, when fed to cattle in pastures, the exact place of feeding should be changed from day to day. They should be finely sliced when fed to calves. For such feeding they are highly suitable. By sheep, pumpkins are much relished and also by lambs, as soon as they become accvtstomed to them. They will learn to eat them more quickly if first sliced and salted. They may be fed to sheep in the same way as to cattle. Ex- cept for a few days at the first, they may be allowed to eat Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 343 them with much freedom. They will be found of much value in promoting development in lambs kept for breeding uses. To swine, pumpkins are frequently fed with new corn. When so fed, they correct impaired digestion and improve the appetite. The portion of the crop that is immature is more commonly fed to swine than to other stock, as swine will consume pumpkins even when in partial decay which would be rejected by other farm stock. The practice which grows low-growing varieties of corn that produce ears abundantly, with pumpkins plentifully inter- spersed, and which consumes both crops with swine, is to be commended. It is labor saving and the combination makes excellent food for fattening swine. By horses, pumpkins are much relished but they are seldom fed to them, as it is usually more con- venient to feed them to other classes of live stock. In the absence of other green food, they render good service when fed to weanling foals. They must, of course, be fed with some caution to horses at work, as they may relax the bow- els too much when fed over freely. Squash. — This plant, commonly grown to provide food for man, is in some instances grown to specially pro- vide food for swine. On ground properly prepared, when all the conditions are suitable, many tons may be grown on an acre. Preference should be given to the soft shelled va- rieties when of suitable size, otherwise the rinds may prove so hard as to make it difficult for animals to consume them, unless they are first softened by cooking. As considerable care and labor are involved in storing them so that they will keep into and through the winter months, and as they are easily injured by frost, the aim should be to feed them in the autumn, and to feed first any that may be immature, as they are the most perishable. Unless when feeding them to swine, it is necessary to slice or break them open as with a spade, and even when fed to swine, the hard shelled varie- ties should be thus prepared. When squashes are fed to Digitized by Microsoft® 344 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS live Stock on dry food, as in the case of field roots, they have a physiological value in addition to the food which they furnish (see p. 51). For cattle of all classes, squash may, of course, be fed when they can be spared for such feeding, but they are most prized for producing milk and are, therefore, more frequently fed to cows than to other classes of cattle. Where large areas are grown for the market, rejected squash, usually available in large quantities, may be turned to good account by feeding them to cows in milk. No harm probably will result from feeding them in liberal supply when they can be spared, unless the amount fed should too much relax the bowels. Usually, however, the most profit is made by feeding such adjuncts in moderate quantities, otherwise the benefit resulting in addition to nutrients fur- nished, may not be secured to the fullest extent. When the pastures dry in the autumn, squashes make an excellent supplementary food. By sheep, squashes are much relished, though for a time they may refuse to eat them if not accustomed to them. Es- pecially is this true of lambs. When fed to sheep in the autumn before the rinds have too much hardened, they will materially aid in promoting growth in lambs that have been weaned, and in bringing flesh to breeding flocks. For swine, squash are an excellent adjunct when fed in the autumn. The most profit, when the labor in- volved is considered, is probably obtained from feeding them in the autumn along with new corn fed in the stalk or in the snapped form. The squashes are available at such a time, the rinds are less hard than later, and when fed at that season the cost of storing is avoided. Moreover, they fur- nish an excellent adjunct to such corn feeding, as they have a corrective influence on the digestion. A few weeks of such feeding aids in a marked degree in fitting the system for the heavy grain feeding that follows during the fatten- ing period. For such feeding, one good sized squash fee! daily to an animal weighing about 150 pounds will serve a Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 345 good purpose, but more, of course, may be fed with benefit if available. For later feeding, especially to swine that are being fattened, they are frequently cooked by steaming along with meal, and when so prepared, the mixture is fed as a mash. Rejected squash with the hardest rinds may thus be turned to good account. By horses, although some kinds of squash are eaten, in 'the nature of things they are not likely to be much used for such feeding. Relatively they are usually more valuable to feed to swine or to cows giving milk. Peanuts. — This tuber has been grown chiefly to provide lood for man, in the United States, but during recent years, they are also grown for live stock, more especially for swine, which harvest the crop in the fields where they grew. The tops also furnish hay that is much relished by live stock. The peanut crop may be grown successfully as far north as parallel 43'^, where the soil conditions are suitable, but it has centered heretofore in the light soils of the At- lantic and Gulf states. That more food for swine may be grown from an acre of peanuts on the light soils of the South than from an acre of corn, is generally conceded by those who are conversant with the conditions for growing the two crops. With skillful cultivation, as many as 50 bushels of peanuts per acre may be grown on soils of only moderate fertility, weighing from 22 to 28 pounds per bushel. The nuts furnish one of the richest protein foods for live stock that is grown in this country. After the oil has been expressed, the cake resulting is fully equal to oil cake (see p. 300). The hulls also, when ground, furnish a valuable food. (See p. 346.) For cattle, the nuts are not much used as food, for the reason that unless stained or otherwise injured for sale, they are too valuable for such feeding. In some instances, however, more or less of the nuts adhere to the vines which are fed as hay, dependent upon the mode of harvesting. If the vines are not removed before the crop is harvested, the rejected peanuts are sometimes fed as hay Digitized by Microsoft® 346 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS along with the vines. When thus fed, the value of the hay is proportionately increased. Without any peanuts adher- ing, the hay is nearly equal in value to peanut hay. Re- jected nuts, in the form of meal, may be ground alone or along with hulls and fed to cattle and other stock. The richness of such meal will be proportionate to the amount of nuts and hulls respectively which the meal contains. By sheep, the fodder and also the defective nuts will be turned to good account as soon as they become accustomed to such food. They may also be used with advantage in graz- ing oflf the tops before the crop is harvested. No class of live stock will effect such grazing with so little waste as sheep. Peanut meal may be fed to them also as to cattle, but the same necessity does not exist for grinding them for sheep. The cake may be fed to sheep in about the same way as oil cake. For swine, peanuts have higher adaptation in fur- nishing food than for any other class of live stock, as swine only, of all the domestic animals .of the farmj may be employed in harvesting the crop. When thus harvested, the tops are first removed by grazing them down with cat- tle or sheep, preferably the latter, or they are mown to be made into hay. When thus harvested by swine, it is greatly advantageous at the same time to give them access to about an equal area of corn, or to feed them a supplement of corn daily. It has been claimed that a bushel of peanuts, weigh- ing from 22 to 28 pounds, will make 9 pounds of pork, in other words, that 3 pounds of peanuts will make i pound of pork, whereas about 5 pounds of corn are re- quired to make the same. The crop may, of course, be fed to swine when confined in pens. When so fed, the tops are first removed and the roots are then dug and placed before the swine with the nuts adhering to them. Peanuts alone make soft pork, hence the necessity for feeding a supple- ment of corn in order to firm the pork. For horses, peanuts whole or ground are not much used. The hay from peanuts is frequently fed to them, and Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 347 the same is true of peanut cake or of the meal made from the same. (See p. 300.) When peanut hay is fed to horses with the nuts adhering, some caution should be exercised owing to the richness of the food. Tops of roots and tubers. — The various roots and tu- bers, the tops of which may be used as food for stock, in- clude mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas and turnips, carrots, sweet potatoes, peanuts and artichokes. The tops of Irish po- tatoes and cassava are possessed of little or no value for feed- ing. The value of the tops of roots in feeding live stock is measurably dependent on the way in which they are fed, and on the relative cost of handling them. The tops of field roots when fed, are either consumed in the field after the crop has been removed, or are drawn daily and strewn over pastures where live stock may gather them, or they are fed in man- gers. When gleaned by the stock in the field, they are much liable to induce scouring because of their succulence and the extent to which they are consumed, but this tendency lessens proportionately with the wilting of the leaves. Because of this hazard, many growers simply spread them and then plow them under for the benefit of the soil. Sheep will con- sume them with less waste than other classes of live stock, and if given access to an old pasture while thus consuming the tops, the tendency to scours will be measurably removed. When drawn and fed, the amount consumed, may of course, be controlled. The tops of roots are specially valuable in furnishing milk. Mangel tops. — The proportion of the tops to the roots of mangels varies much with the variety. With most vari- eties it is probably less, rather than more than 20 per cent. The leaves of mangels are removed without any portion of the root adhering to them, as in the case of sugar beets, hence, they are less valuable relatively for feeding. Under intensive conditions, the lower leaves are sometimes re- moved from the growing crop and fed to live stock. This may be done as it approaches maturity with little or no det- riment to the crop. The leaves of both mangel and sugar Digitized by Microsoft® 348 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS beets have considerable purgative properties, caused by the large proportion of organic acids which they contain, a fact that must be recognized when feeding them Sugar beet tops. — With sugar beets, the proportion of the tops to the beets is large, usually more than 25 per cent, owing to the fact that a considerable proportion of the root is removed with the top when preparing the roots for the factory. The feeding value of the tops, therefore, is very considerable, but, because of the presence of oxalic acid in the leaves, they should be fed with moderation. In some countries of Europe, lime is sprinkled over the successive layers which form the earth-covered heaps in which they are sometimes kept for feeding, with a view to neutralize the acid. Turnip tops. — The tops of rutabagas and turnips are usually from 20 to 25 per cent of the entire crop. Live stock are very fond of them and they do not possess purga- tive properties to nearly the same extent as beet leaves. But they must be fed with caution and discretion to cows in milk, or they will taint the same and also the butter made from the milk. To avoid such a result, they should be con- sumed only after each milking. Carrot tops.—Th.t tops of carrots furnish from 20 to 25 per cent of the total weight of the crop, but the dry mat- ter in the tops is somewhat greater than in the roots. Car- rot tops, like those of turnips and rutabagas, do not relax the bowels nearly as much as the tops of beets or mangels. Nor do any of these taint milk as do rutabagas or turnips. Szveet potato tops. — The tops of sweet potatoes, though possessed of considerable feeding value, are seldom fed to live stock, owing in a considerable degree to the difficulty of harvesting the vines, because of the trailing character of their growth. This does not apply to the vineless sorts, which may be cut with the mower. In some instances they are grazed down before the tubers are dug. Sheep are best adapted to such grazing. Digitized by Microsoft® FOOD FROM FIELD ROOTS AND TUBERS 349 Peanut and artichoke tops. — These are sometimes fed both in the green and dry form. The former make excellent hay when cured with care (see p. 345). In some instances they are grazed off by sheep. The latter are too woody to allow of complete consumption, but the finer portions are much relished by stock (see p. 336). Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XVI PREPARING FOODS FOR FEEDING, In the discussion of this question, foods are considered first, witli reference to curing; second, to mechanical prep- aration ; third, to blending ; and fourth, to softening before feeding them. The discussion on curing considers: (i) Curing in the green form, (2) curing in tlie dry form and (3) storing. The discussion on their mechanical prepara- tion considers: (i) Grinding or crushing grain, (2) pulp- ing or slicing roots, and (3) chaffing and shredding fodders. The discussion on blending considers : ( i ) Blending me- chanically, and (2) blending chemically. The discussion on softening considers: (i) Soaking foods, and (2) cooking them before they are fed. Curing foods green. — Foods are sometimes cured, that is preserved, in the green form. When so preserved, the curing, so to speak, is accomplished by excluding the air. In some instances curing is done by placing the fodder while yet green in a large mow and tramping so as to make the mass lie closely. In other instances it is placed in stacks and subjected to heavy pressure while these are in process of erection. The aim is to exclude the air as far as possible. That remaining in the mass is removed by the heat which develops through fermentation. Preserving green fodders thus, though sometimes practiced in America, is not likely to become popular in the near future for several reasons that may be given. Chief arhong these is the reason that green fodders may usually be preserved in silos with less of labor and more of effectiveness, and they may also in nearly all instances be more easily fed from the same. A silo is simply a structure in which green food is pre- served, usually in the cut form, and through the walls of 350 Digitized by Microsoft® PREPARING FOODS FOR FEEDING 35 1 which the air cannot penetrate, at least to the extent of ap- preciably injuring the fodder. When the food is cut, it is the more easily preserved without waste and may also be more easily fed out. Silos are built of wood, bricks, stone or concrete. The circular form is preferred as it favors quick and even settling of the contents. Almost any kind of _ fodder may be preserved in the silo by those who follow the correct methods peculiar to the proper curing of each. But corn is used to a far greater extent in filling silos than any other food. This is owing to the large production per acre, to superior adaptation for being cured thus, to the ready means which it furnishes for disposing of the crop without husking out the corn, and to its great value in general feeding. Next in adaptation are the sorghums. In some instances fodders are mixed in the silo while filling it with a view to aid in bringing the food more nearly into balance. For instance, such nitrogenous foods as soy beans are sometimes mixed in with corn. The advantages from curing fodders and especially corn in the silo are the following: (i) The silo preserves food with but little waste even though the weather should be unpropitious. (2) It preserves such fodders as corn and the sorghums with little waste and insures for them more complete consumption than would be ordinarily possible from any other mode of curing. (3) It furnishes an ex- cellent medium, and all prepared, with which to feed meal. (4) It puts fodders, particularly such coarse fodders as corn and the sorghums in a condition that admits of feeding it at a minimum expenditure of labor. And (5) it may be made to furnish succulence at all seasons of the year. In feeding corn silage, unless it is removed at the rate of one to two inches of the surface daily, the parts exposed may take harm from the exposure. It is seldom advisable to feed more than 30 to 40 pounds a day, even to a dairy cow. Should ensilage become frozen, as it does some- times around the edges of the silo, it may still be fed, if fed Digitized by Microsoft® 352 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS at once after the frost has left it. Any who may desire fur- ther information with reference to silos and silage, are re- ferred to the book "Soiling Crops and the Silo," by the au- thor. Curing foods dry. — It is only fodders that require to be cured in the dry form. The curing of these in detail cannot be discussed at this time. The curing of each is dis- cussed at some length in other works written by the author as, "Clovers and How to Grow Them," "Grasses and How to Grow Them," "Cultivated Crops and How to Grow Them," and "Corn, the Sorghums and Sugar Cane." Only some points of superlative importance and general in char- acter can be here given. In curing fodders, whatsoever their character, the aim should be to retain as far as possible the natural color of the fodder when harvested, to cure with the least possible ex- posure to rain, and to avoid an excessive loss of moisture. Of course, the curing of the fodders must be carried far enough to prevent them from moulding when stored The natural color of the plants will be lost in proportion as they are exposed to sunshine and to dew and rain. A certain amount of exposure to sunshine is unavoidable and is ab- solutely necessary to the curing of fodders,, but the aim should be not to expose them to sunshine longer than will admit of completing their cure in the cock or shock. Un- necessary exposure to sunshine results in loss of aroma in all plants and leaves of legumes. The loss of aroma means loss in palatability and serious loss in nutrition. Clo- vers, for instance, properly cured, retain in a marked degree the natural color of stem, leaf and blossom. When the curing of fodders is completed in the cock or shock, only the outer portions are thus injured by sunshine. Dews and rain not only tend to darken the color in pro- portion as they are heavy, but also in proportion as the ex- posure is prolonged and severe. They also dissolve and wash out of the plants much of the nutrition. The loss in aroma, as in the case of exposure to sunlight, also increases Digitized by Microsoft® PREPARING FOODS FOR FEEDING 353 with the exposure to these influences. Legumes suffer the most readily from exposure to rain and dews, and corn fod- ders are more easily harmed than sorghum. Legumes ex- posed to much sunshine and to frequent wetting, at length become almost valueless as food. The grasses, proper, will suffer much less from such exposure and sorghum much less than the grasses. The loss of moisture is excessive when it goes beyond the point at which the plants will keep without harm when stored. Loss of moisture virtually means loss of succu- lence. Plants fed in the natural condition are more bene- ficial to animals than the same plants fed in equal quan- tity in the dry condition. Were it not so, succulence in foods would have no specific value. Thus it is that hay, lying exposed for a long season on the ground, even in the entire absence of rain and with little exposure to dew, will at length become comparatively valueless for food, not- withstanding that when it was first cut it was possessed of high feeding value. It also explains why the desire is so prevalent to put corn in large shocks in the field after it has been husked, although other reasons may, and do exert an influence in favor of the practice. The fact, however, must not be lost sight of, that the mistake of storing fodders so little cured, that they heat so much as to make them dusty, the feeding value becomes greatly impaired, and if stored so uncured as to induce mould, to feed them even in moderate degree is attended with more or less of hazard to the health and it may be to the life of the animals. Storing foods. — The proper storing of foods calls for attention: (i) To protect them from injury which follows undue exposure while yet in the fields, (2) to protect them from injury after storage, whether from exposure or from storing while yet undercured, and (3) to placing them in storage where they will be convenient for feeding. All kinds of fodder suffer harm and loss, and increas- ingly so, with increase in the duration of the exposure sub- sequent to that time when they are ready for being stored. Digitized by Microsoft® 354 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Hay, for instance, when left unduly long in cocks, takes harm from the absorption of ground moisture and from undue drying and weathering of the outer portions. The straw of certain cereals, useful for being fed to stock when well saved, will soon become practically valueless for feed- ing if left standing in shocks for any considerable time after ready for being stored. Corn stalks gradually lose more or less and in various ways, from the time they are put in shock and probably in an accelerated ratio as the season ad- vances. Cull potatoes soon deteriorate materially in food value if left exposed after being dug. The rule is a safe one that invariably aims to store foods at the earliest mo- ment practicable after they are ready. Fodders can in no other way be protected so per- fectly after storage as when they have been stored under cover. Nor can they in any other way, as a rule, be stored so as to involve less labor while feeding them. The benefit from such protection increases with increase in the precipitation, increase in damp, snowfall and sleet, and increase in the rawness rather than in the degree of the cold. The extent to which such protection will be profitable must be determined in a considerable degree by the cost of materials used in building. When legumes are stored in stacks, they cannot be protected in a rainy climate from seri- ous loss unless other materials are used in topping out the stacks that will completely shed rain. Field roots of all kinds, including parsnips and artichokes, must be protected from frost or they will take injury varying in degree from a slight lessening of the feeding value to a total loss. They must also be kept so cool that they will not begin to sprout. The storing of food where it will be convenient for feeding, is greatly important. If it can be stored so that further handling is not necessary until given to the animals for consumption, the economy in handling will be apparent, as compared with an 'intermediate handling in addition. But intermediate handling cannot always be avoided. In the case of corn fodder, in some instances it is necessarv Digitized by Microsoft® PREPARING FOODS FOR FEEDING 355 to incur the cost of the intermediate handling involved in stacking the fodder rather than to draw from the shock and feed directly. Climatic conditions, more than anything else, determine which course is the better to adopt. When such fodder as hay must be stacked in the open, the aim should be to have it near the place for feeding, as when it must be drawn far from the place of storage during the winter sea- son, the roads are frequently in a bad condition, notwith- standing there may be vahd reasons for stacking such fod- ders on the fields where they grew. In storing roots, the aim should be not only to have them near the place of feed- ing, but also to avoid, as far as possible, the necessity for carrying them up steps in order to feed them. Supplies of ensilage and meal also should be obtained from the same plane as that on which the animals stand which are to con- sume them. The wisdom of storing litter, not only where it will be properly protected but also where it is conveniently acces- sible, is very apparent. There are instances in which the proper storing of bedding may be quite as important as the storing of fodders. The conditions of storage are ideal when all the fodder and bedding required to carry the ani- mals through the winter are stored above them when they are housed in a well constructed basement, but such build- ings are becoming too costly where materials for construct- ing them are dear. Grinding or crushing grain. — The necessity for grind- ing and crushing grain is dependent : ( i ) On the nature of the grain; (2) the animal to which it is to be fed; (3) the combinations for feeding of which it forms a part; and (4) the amount and kinds of noxious weed seeds present. As the grinding of grain when cured will cost from 5 to 10 cents a hundred pounds, to say nothing of the cost of con- veyance and handling during the process, it becomes a mat- ter of considerable importance that unnecessary grinding shall be avoided. Digitized by Microsoft® 356 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The necessity for grinding grain, based on the nature of the grain, is greatest with seeds naturally small and hard, as the seeds of the sorghums and of those that in addition contain large quantities of oil, as flax seed, millet seed and foxtail seed. Both properties resist the action of the gastric fluids when unbroken in mastication, hence they pass through the digestive tract to no good purpose, while meantime they have put a tax upon the energies of the sys- tem while in transit through it. The small cereal grains, which are most improved by grinding, are those which are smallest and hardest and which are possessed of the least amount of soft hull. The necessity for grinding wheat, for instance, is much greater than that for grinding oats. Corn, more than any other grain except oats, may be fed without grinding, but when it is to be fed in combination with other grain, it is usually profitable to grind it. It is absolutely nec- essary to do so when corn and cob are both fed. Virtually all kinds of grain should be ground when fed to calves, the exception under some conditions being oats. All kinds of grain when separated from the straw, should be ground for beef cattle. The exceptions, but under some conditions only, are corn and oats. Unless when swine may glean among the droppings, the corn should usually be ground. Virtually all kinds of grain are improved by grinding when fed to dairy cows. Nearly all kinds of grain are improved by grinding for feeding to lambs quite young, but this is not necessary when they be- gin to eat grain freely, except in the case of corn, which is improved by cracking it to enable them the more readily to eat it. For lambs, subsequent to weaning, and all mature sheep, it is not necessary to grind grain free from noxious weed seeds. Grinding improves nearly all kinds of grain for swine, when fed unsoaked. The exception is corn when fed alone. For horses, oats and corn in the shewed form are usually fed unground. Barley, rye, speltz and wheat, especially the latter, are frequently, if not always, improved by grinding, and the grinding of sorghum and millet seed Digitized by Microsoft® PREPARING FOODS FOR FEEDING 357 is simply indispensable when these are fed to horses. The necessity for grinding grain for horses is much greater when they are hard at work than when idle. When grains are fed in combination, which is a com- mon way of feeding them, they are usually ground. This is true of them whether fed in the form of meal directly or in admixture with cut fodders. The ad- vantage from grinding them is based, first, on the necessity for grinding some of them ; second, on the greater ease with which some of them are ground when blended before grinding, and third, on the more complete character of the mastication, when thus prepared. Some grains, as intimated above, must be ground under all conditions of feeding. Flax is much more easily ground with other grains than alone and especially when the mixture contains just enough of the same for ordinary uses and no more. Oats are ground more easily when blended with corn. The same is true of other mixtures. Especially is the mastica- tion more perfect when the meal is mixed with cut fodders, because of the re-grinding given during the rumination that follows. No kind of grain containing the seeds of nox- ious weeds should be fed unground. If so fed, they are much liable to escape mastication because of their small size, and to escape digestion because of their hard and oily character, hence, when carried to the fields, they grow, and thus infest the land. Even when weed seeds are fed to sheep, they ought to be ground, as many of them will fall amid the litter while the sheep are feeding up- on the grain. Grinding is usually not more costly than complete winnowing, and it is much safer. The crushing of grain, accomplished by passing it be- tween heavy rollers, in preference to grinding, has some ad- vocates. It calls for less power than to grind the grain, and in the case of grains that are pasty in character, and li- able to adhere to the gums in mastication, as wheat, and to a less extent barley, it is preferable to crush than to grind Digitized by Microsoft® 3S8 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS for some kinds of feeding. When the crushed grain is soaked or mixed with cut fodder before being fed, the ad- vantage from crushing is lost. Grinding grain, rather than crushing it, will always be more practiced on the farm, since the machinery for grinding is now in place on nearly \11 farms where grinding is done, since such machinery is better adapted to preparing small and hard grains for feed- ing, and since it has higher adaptation for varying the de- grees of fineness in the grinding. The degree of fineness to which grain shall be ground, should be determined by the kind of the grain, the way it is to be fed, and the animals which are to consume" it. It will probably be correct to say, that the smaller and harder the grain is, the more finely should it be ground. Corn and cob meal should be more finely ground than corn meal for aver- age uses, the cob'being less digestible. When meal is to be fed directly to animals in the unsoaked form, it should be finely ground so that the digestive fluids may the more readily act upon it; but when thus ground, some kinds of meal call for admixture with some substance to render the mass less adhesive in the stomach. When meal is to be soaked sufficiently long to soften it, fine grinding is noc necessary, and the same is true of meal which is first mixed with cut fodders before being fed to ruminants. Very young animals call for meal more finely ground than will suffice for those that are older. Whether the meal should be ground on the farm and by the farmers own machinery, by portable ma- chines which travel from place to place, or by stationary mills which take in custom work, is an economic ques- tion that must be determined by such considerations as the volume of the work to be done, the distance of the sta- tionary mills, and the customary charges for grinding. When the volume of the work done v/ill justify it, the aim should be to grind the feed at home. The power to be used in each instance is a question of no little importance. This, too, should be largely determined by the amount of the grinding Digitized by Microsoft® PREPARING FOODS FOR FEEDING 359 called for. When this amount is not very large, wind power will probably prove the cheapest. The old-fashioned tread-mill, as a source of power, is perhaps not sufficiently prized. There is also a place, however, for motor, for gas- oHne and for steam power, under certain conditions. Pulping and slicing roots. — Pulping roots means put- ting them through a machine, known as a root pulper. It is run by hand or by other power as desired and reduces them to a pulpy or finely comminuted condition. Slicmg, in the true sense of the term, means cutting them into thin slices by put- ting them through a machine known as a root sheer, and run as in pulping, by hand or other power. In the absence of a sheer, they are frequently thrown into a box and chopped in- to pieces with a spade. Under some circumstances they are fed without either pulping or slicing. Whether to feed them thus, or to slice or pulp them, must be determined by the conditions present. Whether roots or tubers may be fed whole is determined by the kind and size of the variety, the class of animals to which they are to be fed, the age of these, and the degree of the temperature at the time of feeding. Carrots are about the only class of field roots which it is practicable to feed to all or nearly all kinds of farm stock without first cutting or slicing them. Arti- chokes, owing to their shape, and peanuts, owmg to their small size, may be similarly fed. The danger is present in some degree, that when medium-sized potatoes are fed to cattle, they may choke upon them. The aim should be to avoid feeding all kinds of roots and tubers to cattle and even to horses in the unprepared form, notwithstanding that both will feed upon them in the natural state, but not with the same ease. Sheep will feed upon all kinds of uncut roots, but not so readily as when they are sliced, and the same is true of swine, but it is scarcely necessary to slice roots for swine well grown or for brood sows. They should be sliced or pulped for all kinds of young animals. When fed to animals exposed to low temperatures, they should be Digitized by Microsoft® 360 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS given in that form in wliich they can be consumed quickly, lest they should freeze more or less before they are all con- sumed. Roots and tubers are more commonly sliced when they are simply being prepared for feeding in the direct form, that is, without admixture with other food. This method of preparing them is followed rather than that of pulping, because it takes less power and because slicers have been longer in use. But there is no objection to pulping even for direct feeding when it is as convenient or more so to pre- pare them thus. When field roots or tubers are to be mixed with meal or cut feed, it is necessary that they shall be pulped rather than sliced, in order to obtain a more per- fect blending of the foods. Field roots thus prepared and mixed v/ith cut fodders, add greatly to their palatability and value. If the plan of pulping roots at the time of lift- ing and then storing the pulp after the manner in which en- silage is stored should prove successful, the questions of storing, keeping, and feeding would be simplified. No data can be gathered bearing upon the question, but the behavior of sugar beet pulp when ensiled, encourages the hope that such storing would be quite practicable. Chaffing and shredding fodders. — By chaffing fodders is meant running them through a cutting box. The ob- jects sought in chaffing food are : ( i ) To insure the con- sumption of a fodder low in palatability by admixing it with a chaffed fodder high in palatability, as when straw and clover hay are cut and mixed before feeding them. (2) To insure a larger total consumption of fodders by putting them in that condition in which they may be fed after being mixed with meal or field roots or both. (3) To prepare foods in that condition in which they will keep best in the silo, and in which they may be fed out with the least expenditure of labor. Straw fodders are also chaffed in some instances in order to put them in the best condition for being used as litter. When thus chaffed, straw absorbs Digitized by Microsoft® PREPARING FOODS FOR FEEDING 3'5l liquid manure more perfectly than when long, and the ma- nure is also in a better condition for being easily handled and promptly applied to the land as soon as made. But it will not be found profitable, as a rule, simply to run fodders through a cutting box and to feed them without admixture in order to increase consumption in the same. When large quantities of meal are to be fed in the ab- sence of silage, the plan is frequently adopted of chaffing only enough of the fodder to furnish bulky materials with which it is mixed before feeding it to ruminants, in order to insure its most thorough mastication while undergoing rumination. The plan is to be commended where the facil- ities are present for carrying it out. On some farms, the small cereal grains are threshed and chaffed by the one op- eration, all the straw grown upon the farm being cut in that way. Where the facilities are present for storing the chaffed material, the plan is excellent. The blowers now used on threshers will be greatly helpful in such instances as aids in storing such food. Shredding fodder means tearing it into strips or shreds by machines made for the purpose. It is used only in preparing such coarse fodders for feeding as corn and the sorghums. Shredders husk the corn and separate the ears in the same while shredding the stalks. Opinions dif- fer greatly as to the value of shredding, some regarding them with much favor, and others who have used them, have ceased to use them longer. These differences in opin- ion are due largely to a difference in the conditions under which they have been used. They can be used with more advantage in a climate naturally dry than in one naturally moist, as in the former the shredded fodder is much less liable to spoil through fermentation than in the latter. Prominent among the benefits from shredding are the following: (i) The corn is husked, and thus made avail- able for feeding as desired, which may not be possible in the absence of shredding. (2) The fodder is put in that condition which insures a much larger consumption of the Digitized by Microsoft® 362 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS stalfo, and (3) it makes it possible to store the fodder where it is safe from injury from storms. The following are chief among the objections to shredding: (i) The ac- cidents while running the shredders have been unusually numerous, but possibly the element of risk, in this respect, may yet be eliminated. (2) In moist climates it has been found difficult to keep the shredded fodder from moulding. But this may be obviated by mixing with straw. (3) The expense is said to be too great in some instances at least to justify the outlay and (4) the lower portions of the stalks, when very large and coarse, according to some authorities, will not repay the energy expended in digesting them. The difference in the character of the stalks before shredding as coarse or fine, probably accounts for the great differences reported in the amount of fodder left unconsumed when fodder is shredded. Corn fodder is sometimes prepared for feeding by run- ning the corn while yet unhusked through a threshing machine on the approach of winter. To this method of handling corn, the same objections apply as when shredding it, except that which applies to cost. But in addition to these objections are the large portions of stalk unreduced, and the broken condition of cob, which makes it difficult to preserve it. Blending foods mechanically. — Foods are frequently blended in what may be termed the mechanical sense, in or- der to insure a larger consumption of those which, though plentiful are less palatable than the foods blended with them'. The utilization for food of the straw of cereals and of corn and sorghum stalks, may not be a question of much mo- ment at the present time in many parts of the United States, but the time is coming and is not very far distant, when in none of the states will such products be destroyed as now, as the best means of getting rid of them. Where the supplies of hay are scarce and of fodders plentiful, when both are run through a cutting box and mixed before being fed, a much larger consumption of straw Digitized by Microsoft® PREPARING FOODS FOR FEEDING 363 or of corn or sorghum stalks will be secured, than if these foods had not been so prepared. In this way, animals at rest may be carried through the entire winter season on rel- atively cheap food. Even in the absence of hay, when pulped roots are mixed with cut straw and other coarse fodders, results equally good, if not indeed superior, will follow, de- pendent upon the proportion of field roots fed. Should the dry food thus mixed be dampened, as by sprinkling, in the absence of field roots and a small amount of meal sprinkled in during the process of dampening and mixing, the con- sumption will be further increased. Where molasses is cheap, the addition of a small amount of this ingredient will tend much to add to the palatability of the food and, there- fore, to increase the possible consumption of coarse fodders. Food prepared as outlined above, has special adapta- tion to the needs of cattle and horses. It is not so well adapted to the needs of sheep, as they are more expert than cattle or horses in rejecting portions even of the cut food that may not suit them, but even with sheep, the relative consumption of cheap foods may thus be greatly increased. Similarly the consumption of dry fodders by swine, as clo- ver and alfalfa, may be much increased by chaffing the fod- der, adding meal to the mixture and then cooking it by boiling or steaming. Thus, also, the proportion of field roots or tubers may be increased. The following method of preparing food for ruminants is common in some portions of Ontario. Hay and straw or fodders are chaffed, pulped and mixed in a feed room conveniently situated. The chaffing and pulping are done simultaneously that the mixing of the food may be as desired. Enough is prepared at one time to last for several days. The fermentation which follows tends to soften the fodder. Meal is added proportioned to the needs 'of the various animals as the food is fed. This method of feeding is economical of food and is eminently adapted |o the needs of cattle, sheep and horses. Digitized by Microsoft® 364 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Much of what has been said applies mainly to the feed- ing of animals at rest. Should performance be sought from them as in the production of increase in meat or the pro- duction of milk or labor, it will usually be necessary to add concentrated food to make up for the deficiency in the nutrients. It should also be borne in mind that a large proportion relatively of the nutrients in straw and coarse fodders are relatively low in digestibility. Because of this, it would be easily possible so to tax the energies of the system by feed- ing so large a proportion of such foods, that the most de- sirable results would not follow. This, however, is much less likely to occur with animals that are being simply car- ried through the winter at rest. Blending foods chemically. — The mechanical blend- ing of foods discussed in the preceding section did not in any sense consider the chemical blending of the same, and yet the aim should be so to blend them, that the ration shall be in at least approximate balance. For instance, when cut hay is added to the cut straw of the small cereals, or to cut corn or the sorghum stalks, the aim should be to add clover or other leguminous hay, as the straw of these are carbo- naceous. Likewise, when molasses is added, the aim should be to make the addition when practicable to a mixture of cut fodders relatively rich in protein, as, for instance, when composed largely of pea straw. Field roots go well with straws rich in carbohydrates especially when fed in con- siderable quantities. Steamed potatoes and clover or alfalfa also go well together when fed to growing swine. In the absence of the clover or alfalfa, meal rich in protein should be fed. When meal is added to enrich the ration for cattle, sheep and horses, a due regard should always be had to the character of the fodder. Usually it will be advantageous to add meal rich in protein to mixtures composed mainly of straw fodders or of com or sorghum stalks. The proportions in which these shall be added cannot be discussed here. The aim, of course, should be to feed Digitized by Microsoft® PREPARING FOODS FOR FEEDING 365 them so that the ration shall be in approximate balance, and yet there may be good reasons for feeding a ration not strictly in balance (see p. 187). The nature of the ad- ditions will, of course, be dependent on the ration. Where leguminous fodders are plentiful, the balancing of the ra- tion is usually much easier than when the opposite is true, owing to the fact that the great food grain, corn, is so rich in carbonaceous elements. Soaking food for stock. — The value of soaking food for stock will depend on the kind of food, the kind of stock to which it is to be fed, and the object sought from feeding it. As a rule food is seldom soaked when fed to horses, cattle or sheep, but is very frequently soaked when prepar- ing it for swine. It would seem correct to affirm that green fodders are never soaked to prepare them for being fed to live stock, and the same is generally true of dry fodders, but to this tiiere are some exceptions. When horses are hard at work, it has, at least in some instances, been found advantageous to feed meal on chaffed and moistened hay, as when so fed the food could be more quickly consumed, that is, more of it could be consumed during the limited time allotted to horses for feeding, especially during the noon hour. With cattle, no such necessity exists. When fodder is fed dry, as compared with feeding it soaked, it is usually preferred by cattle and also by sheep, and it is amply softened in the various processes of digestion. Such food, however, will better answer the end sought in feeding swine if it is first soaked or steamed. Field roots and tubers also being of the nature of green fodders, are not soaked preparatory to feeding them, but in many instances cereals are soaked either in the unground form or as meal, more especially when fed to swine. Grain of any kind is seldom soaked for horses or cattle, and the same is true of meal. Bran is sometimes made into a mash for horses by adding water, frequently hot, and stirring Digitized by Microsoft® 266 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS until it is all moistenea. They can eat such food more read- ily, and so fed it may have a more laxative effect with them. It was believed at one time that meal moistened and even fed as slop to dairy cows tended to increase the yields of milk. It cannot be said that tests made to determine the question sustain this belief. Corn is in some instances soaked before feeding it both to cattle and swine. When long fed on dry ear corn, soreness of the mouth may arise. In such instances the corn should be shelled and soaked for not less than 12 hours, except when the weather is unusu- ally warm. Under normal conditions, the increase from corn soaked 24 hours and fed to swine is much the same as when dry. All the small cereal grains are made more easy of digestion for swine by soaking them from 12 to 48 hours, but usually the results are more satisfactory when they are first ground before soaking them. When thus prepared, there is practically no waste in feeding. None of the food escapes undigested, as when feeding it whole, and a larger consumption of food is usually secured. From what has been said, it is apparent that when food is soaked or moistened before feeding it to cattle and horses, the objects sought are specific rather than general, and that they are thus fed more because of the exigencies present in the feeding than because of the more favorable influence which, as such, they exercise on digestion. It is different with swine. They digest more perfectly food thus prepared. There are times, however, when almost any kind of a cereal may be fed to swine unground in limited quan- tities, as when fed to brood sows in winter on a hard sur- face. Cooking xoo^ .or stock. — Years ago the cooking of food for live stock was thought to be helpful to its diges- tion. Because of the prevalence of this view, large steaming plants wer^ erected in various centers where it was proposed to steam practically all the dry food fed to cattle before it was fed. Usually it was first run through a cutting box and then mixed with meal, and fed Digitized by Microsoft® PREPARING FOODS FOR FEEDING 367' directly to the stock. The fact that the practice has been virtually discarded is pretty certain evidence that it did not prove profitable. This is in agreement with the results ob- tained from the tests conducted by the experiment stations and it is all the more surprising in the face of the strong claims put forth even by some of the scientists of for- mer generations as to its value. In some of the tests made, the cooking of the food seemed to reduce rather than to en- hance its digestibility. This was true more especially of the protein, hence the adverse effects were most pronounced in foods rich in protein. Until recent years this practice was common with the exhibitor of cattle to prepare the food for them by chaf- fing the hay, and after adding meal, to pour over the mass while still hot, such food as boiled peas. The box or trough containing the food was then covered and the mass allowed to steam. It was believed that such food added to the mel- lowness of the flesh and probably with some reason. It is pretty certain, however, that it does not add to the increase made, and it does add materially to the cost of feeding. In these facts it is probable that the explanation lies for dis- carding, at least to a great extent, such feeding during re- cent years. Years ago it was matter of common belief that grain food fed to swine would give better results if fed in the cooked rather than in the soaked form. This explains why cooking such food was so common in those days. But ex- periments conducted at the experiment stations have rudely shattered this belief. They have shown that, as a rule, cooked meal does not produce greater gains than soaked meal. Nevertheless, under some conditions, as when the cooked meal may be fed warm in cold weather, the cooked food is superior to the other. The added value, however, arises rather from the warming effect which the food has upon the system than from any superior digestibility which it possesses. Under such conditions, the profit from cook- ing food may be considerable. It is also true that certain Digitized by Microsoft® 368 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS grains, as barley and speltz, will give better returns when cooked or steamed than when fed dry. Certain vegetable substances may be improved as food for swine by cooking them, for the reason first, that they are rendered more digestible and second, that thus pre- pared, they will be consumed in larger quantities. Pota- toes are of the former class. Fed alone, they are an indif- ferent food for swine, but when cooked and fed along with meal in the form of a mash, they furnish a cheap food for growing swine, viewed from the standpoint of the food nu- trients. Alfalfa and clover, when chaffed and mixed with meal, with or without vegetables, makes a good food for growing swine and for brood sows. A limited amount of boiled grain, especially barley, possesed of much water rel- atively, poured over cut fodder to soften it, and then fed to horses while still warm two or three times a week, will have a helpful influence on the digestive tract when the horses are on dry feed. Whether the additional labor and cost of fuel will justify such feeding, must be determined by the conditions under which the work is done. There can be no doubt, however, about the utility of the practice of boiling hay and feeding the extract thus obtained to calves when the milk supply is not sufficient to meet their needs. Digitized by Microsoft® PART IV. • The more important of the considerations that relate to successful feeding are discussed in Part IV. These consider- ations have not the strength of law and yet they are so im- portant that they cannot be ignored by the successful grower and feeder of live stock. The benefits from having correct type in the animals to be fed and from feeding a balanced ration based on a wise selection of foods, will be discounted in proportion as these considerations are ignored. They are discussed as outlined below : Chapter XVII dwells upon considerations that relate to meat production; Chapter XVIII on those that relate to milk production; Chapter XIX on those that relate to general feeding ; Chap- ter XX on those that relate to the care of animals; and Chapter XXI on considerations that are miscellaneous in character. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XVII. CONSIDERATIONS THAT RELATE TO MEAT PRODUCTION. Prominent among the considerations that relate to meat production are the following : 1. Increase at different ages. 2. Increase during finishing period. 3. Leading up to full feeding. 4. Food consumed and increase. 5. Cost of increase. 6. Gains when fattening not worth their cosi. 7. Duration of finishing period. 8. Season for marketing. 9. Marketing when ripe. 10. Shipping finished animals. 11. Loss of weight in marketing. 12. Feeding in stalls, sheds or yards. 13. Finishing animals on pasture. 14. Financial returns from purchased feeders. 15. Baby beef. 16. Winter lambs. 17. Growing bacon. These are discussed in the order in which they are given. Increase at different ages. — It has been stated previ- ously (see p. 64), that with the exception of swine dur- ing the nursing period, and for some time subsequent to it, domestic animals may be made to increase more rapidly the nearer to the birth period the gains are made. The greater practical importance of this question and the bearing which it has upon profits, is a sufficient justification for enlarging upon it. The figures now submitted approximate the increase in weight that may be obtained from the different classes of S71 Digitized by Microsoft® 372 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS domestic animals at different ages : It has been founa easily possible to secure 2 pounds of increase per day, not in- cluding the birth weight, from cattle of the large breeds at the age of one year. During the second year it requires careful feeding to secure an average increase of one and three-fourths pounds per day, and during the third year, equally careful feeding to secure an increase of one and one-fourth to one and one-half pounds per day. In other words, 730 pounds of increase can be secured as readily as 639 pounds of further increase the second year, and as, say 504 pounds the third year. It would be approximately cor- rect to say that lambs of the medium-sized mutton breeds of sheep, if well nourished, will make a daily gain of 0.7 pound during the first month ; 0.6 pound during the first three months ; 0.45 pound during the second three ; 0.3 pound during the third three and 0.25 pound during the fourth three. In other words, including the birth weight, the lamb will attain to a weight of 21 pounds at one month, and of 54 pounds at three months. During the second period it will gain 40.5 pounds, 27 pounds during the third, and 223^ during the fourth, at which time the weight will be 144 pounds. The subsequent gains will gradually decrease until the animal is mature. With well sustained swine of the middle breeds, it would be approximately correct to say that during the first 70 days of growth, about the average suckling period, the pigs would make an average daily in- crease of say 0.6 pound ; during the second period of 70 days, one pound, and during the third, one and one-half pounds. In other words, they would make an increase dur- ing the first period, including the birth weight, of 42 pounds, 70 pounds during the second period, and 105 pounds during the third, when they would weigh 217 pounds at the age of seven months. The daily gains would probably be maintained and possibly increased for a month or two longer, after which they would decline until matu- rity was reached. Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 373 The figures submitted are based on the supposition that the animals are fed to their full capacity on suitable foods, but without excessive forcing. It pre-supposes that the foods fed are suitable for the production of the highest average gains that may ordinarily be looked for from such feeding. But in practice, such feeding is seldom followed during the entire period of growing and rearing the ani- mal. In fact, it is never followed except when very high quality meat is sought from animals that are disposed of at ages less advanced than animals of the same class usually reach the market. This, however, does not apply to swine to the same extent as to sheep and cattle, more especially the latter. In a great majority of instances, during what is termed the growing period, animals are sustained on food less costly than that given during the period of feeding milk which precedes it, and the fattening period which fol- lows. Such foods include pasture and coarse fodders, much of which, if not consumed thus, would be wasted. The conditions amid which animals are grown, will therefore, have a markedly important influence on increase in the same, as it actually occurs in practice. If animals are grown so as to make only moderate gains during the grow- ing period, and if they are then put upon a finishing ration, the gains made will, of course, exceed those made at a younger age. This, however, does not affect the contention that the possible capacity to make gains is greater before than during the finishing period. The statement is sometimes made that the capacity to make increase in weight is a question of type and not of breed. The statement is only partially correct. It is to some extent a question of breed, and also to some extent a question of individuality within both breed and type. Take, for instance, two lambs of the Southdown and Hamp- shire Down breeds. Push the growth of both on a suitable forcing ration until they reach the age of 12 months. 1 1, would seem correct to say that the inherent capacity tr. make increase in a Hampshire Down lamb would carry him Digitized by Microsoft® 374 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS to a weight of i6o pounds as readily as inherent capacity in the Southdown would carry him to a weight of I20 pounds at the age named. The same line of reasoning will apply to all the large and small breeds of beef and dairy cat- tle, the large and small breeds of sheep, and the large and small breeds of swine. But it is more than probable that the difference in the capacity of the large and small breeds to make increase, lessens as the birth period is approached, and widens as it is receded from. Nor is it true that increase in weight during the finish- ing period is almost wholly a question of type. Individual- ity within type exercises an influence on capacity to make increase only secondary to that exercised by type. Animals of similar conformation not infrequently show a difference in capacity to make increase that exceeds 50 per cent, though fed alike. It will also be found true that animals of the small dairy breeds of cattle and of some breeds of sheep, as the American Merino, will have less average capacity for making increase under prolonged feeding than heavier breeds of cattle and sheep, and the same is true, also, of large and small breeds of swine. Capacity to make gains, therefore, is influenced by age, breed and individuality. Increase during the finishing period. — The increase made during the finishing period and also the rate at which it is made is determined by such conditions as the follow- ing: (i) The age of the animals; (2) their condition as to flesh when put on feed; (3) the nature of the previous feed- ing; (4) the character of the food fed; (5) the intensity of the feeding and (6) the duration of the feeding period. That animals of uncompleted growth have capacity to make larger increase than those whose growth is com- pleted is in a sense self-evident. The latter can only make increase by putting on fat, whereas the former make it by additional growth as well as by laying on fat. They may also be expected to make it more cheaply by that law of de- velopment which claims that increase can be made more rapidly and cheaply, the nearer to the birth period that it is made. Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 375 It is also evident that animals that are low in flesh or carry but a moderate amount when put on feed, and whose digestion has not been impaired, will make more gain under prolonged feeding than animals in good flesh, but not really fat when put on feed. They will also usually make such gains more rapidly and for the reason among others that in the system there is more room for increase. But increase during the fattening period is increased or retarded by the nature of the diet given previous to its commencement. The system must be brought into what may be termed a sappy condition, that is, a condition in which the fluids of the body are abundant before gains can be rapid. It must be amply stocked with circula- tory protein. It has been found that swine, for instance, grown largely on succulent pasture such as alfalfa or rape, will make subsequent increase more rapidly than swine equal in weight that had been fed chiefly on grain. Some foods that cannot be classed as being in themselves fatten- ing foods are, nevertheless, highly useful in putting the system in a condition for fattening. Such are field roots and various other succulent and nutritious foods. The character of the food as to its constituents, influ- ences gains in a marked degree. The largest increase may be expected from foods fed in balance, and that balance will vary with the needs of the animal. An animal of incom- pleted growth, for instance, requires more of protein in the food than one of completed growth. When fattening only is wanted without growth, this will be best attained by a ration as rich in carbohydrates as may be safely fed for the purpose sought. Intense feeding, that is, feeding a large propor- tion of concentrates to the roughage and concentrates rich in the nutrients that aid in producing fat, will produce the most rapid gains when properly fed, though not necessarily the most economical gains. Such feeding also tends to shorten the period in which gains are made. Digitized by Microsoft® 3/6 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The richer the ration and the more intense the feeding, the shorter will be the period for making gains, for then tliat condition of the system is sooner reached when quick increase is not possible. Such feeding judiciously done, insures more rapid increase for a time than more moderate feeding, but it also makes increase slower when the feeding is in any sense prolonged. The daily increase secured does not necessarily vary greatly until the period is approached when animals under judicious feeding are coming near that condition of finish known as ripeness (see p. 389). Then it decreases, it may be gradually at first, but with accelerated quickness the longer the feeding is continued, and would at length reach a point when further increase would altogether cease. The daily gains made will vary with the variations men- tioned above. They are usually from the nature of things most rapid during short periods of forced fattening. When good cattle well grown are on feed for 150 days, the aver- age gain for the entire period should be one and one-half to 2 pounds per day. The average will not be more than one and one-third pounds. Young animals not yet grown, with most careful and suitable feeding may make an increase of 2 pounds per day or even more than that amount. Cattle fed large amounts of corn for 100 to 120 days may increase even more rapidly, but usually such gains are relatively costly when corn is dear. Aged animals usu- ally make a less gain than one and three-quarters pounds daily. Lambs of good types between six and 12 months when fed for 100 to 120 days will make a daily gain under normal conditions of fattening of 0.3 pound or 9 pounds a month. With all the conditions favorable an increase of 12 pounds may be made, but such gains are exceptional. Ordinarily lambs will not gain more than 0.25 pound daily or 7I/2 pounds per month. On rape pasture the gains should be 10 pounds per month. Mature wethers may gain as quickly as lambs, but the rate of increase will not be so long maintained. Swine Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 377 when fed for 60 to 75 days should make an average daily gain of one and one-fourth to one and one-half pounds, providing they are not of less weight than 150 pounds when the fattening season begins. In a few instances a gain of 2 pounds per day has been made. Leading up to full feeding. — With reference to this question, it may be said: (i) That animals which are somewhat thin in flesh cannot be fattened quickly for some time after the commencement of the fattening period, how- soever suitable and liberal the feeding may be; (2) that when such animals are first put on a fattening ration, they are not capable of digesting quantities of concentrated foods so large as at a later period and (3) that in conse- quence, it is necessary to bring them up gradually to what is termed full feeding, which means, feeding all the concentrates and roughage that the animals can digest and assimilate after having been given gradually increasing quantities of concentrates from the commencement of the fattening period onward. As explained by Dr. H. P. Armsby in the "Manual of Cattle Feeding," cattle that are much reduced in flesh and fat cannot be fattened quickly until they are first brought into a well nourished condition. The animal body must first contain a sufficient amount of organized and circula- tory protein, without which it cannot digest, resorb and store up protein and fat. To bring about this condition it is most economical usually to feed freely some legumin- ous fodder, as clover or alfalfa hay. This, however, may be supplemented with some grain or by-product, or the two combined, also reasonably rich in protein. Such foods as oats and bran, or oats and oil cake are well adapted to such feeding. The aim should be to feed foods that will give a nutritive ratio of say i :5.5. Such food increases the stock of circulatory protein, and thus paves the way for laying on fat. When fattening begins, animals are not capable of di- gesting and assimilating large quantities of grain, for the Digitized by Microsoft® 3/8 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS reason chiefly, that the digestive system requires time to accommodate itself to the changes of food, and also to the additional tax put upon it. All changes should be gradually made (see p. 459). Digestion and assimilation in a certain direction become strengthened by use or repetition. It is evident that animals accustomed to grain previously can be more quickly led up to a full ration than those to which it has never been fed. In some instances, as when growing baby beef, so much grain is being fed all the while, that the difference in the respective amounts fed before and during the finishing period is not marked. It is more a difference in kind than of quantity, and the same is true of cows that are fattened at once, when they cease to give milk. If undue haste is shown in putting animals on full feed, the digestion becomes deranged, and time is lost in recovering digestive tone, while in some instances it is never again fully restored. The time required to bring the different classes of animals up to full feed varies. It is longest in the case of cattle and shortest in that of swine, in keeping with the time required in finishing the different classes. It varies also with the condition of the animals and as to whether they were given grain previously, and especially when the finishing period began. When cattle are lean and unused to grain, from 3 to 4 pounds would suffice at the first. This may usually be increased at the rate of say one and one-half to 2 pounds per week, for four to six weeks according to the kind of grain fed and the duration of the fattening period. The less concentrated the grain fed and the shorter the prospective period for feeding, the more quickly may the animals be brought up to full feed, and vice versa. As the fattening progresses, the grain fed is usually increased in the degree of its concentration up to a certain limit. Sheep and lambs that have not had grain previously may be given say from one-fourth to one-third of a pound of grain daily at the first, preferably oats or mainly so, Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 379 and this may be increased at the rate of one-third of a pound per week from three to six weeks, according to the kinds of food fed, the age of the animals and the probable duration of the feeding period. As with cattle, the grain fed may be more concentrated as the fattening progresses. Swine may usually be led up to a full grain ration much more quickly than cattle and sheep. This is owing to the fact, first, that grain has probably been fed to them all along, and second, that before the final fattening be- gins, they have probably been given not less than half a full grain ration. In but few instances, therefore, is it necessary to take more than one to two weeks to bring them up to a full grain ration. Food consumed and increase. — The relation between the food consumed and the increase from it widens from birth to maturity, that is, the more advanced the age of the animal, the greater is the amount of the food required to make the increase. That it should be so is the outcome, first, of the more active character of the digestive and assimilative organs near the birth period; and second, of the increase called for in the food of maintenance as the animals grow older. That it should be so is what may be expected from the gradual decrease in relative gains in cattle and sheep, as the birth period is receded from. But it has also been found true with swine, where the daily in- crease is less rapid during the first three or four months than subsequently. With cattle and sheep it is not easy to draw the com- parison between relative increase and the amount of food used in making it, between animals that are being grown and those that are being fattened, owing to the diflference in the relative proportion of grain and concentrates fed to these. It is much easier to draw the comparison as to relative cost, and the difference in cost may be taken as an approximate basis, but not an exact basis of the differ- ence in the amounts of food consumed. In "Profitable Digitized by Microsoft® 380 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Stock Feeding," Prof. H. K. Smith states, that in six dif- ferent trials made with cattle, each 100 pounds of increase made during the first 12 months cost $3.45, during the second 12, $7.42, and during the third 12, $11.50. At the Kansas experiment station it was found that steers which were being fattened consumed 730 pounds of grain for every 100 pounds of increase made during the first 56 days of feeding. During the entire period of feeding which covered 182 days, they consumed 1,000 pounds of the same, which was an increase of practically 37 per cent. The testimony of other experiments is in keeping with the above. The average results from several trials in feeding lambs which weighed approximately 75 pounds when put on feed, show that to make 100 pounds of increase calls for approximately 500 pounds of grain and 400 pounds of hay. To make similar increase with shearlings it has been found that from 25 to 45 per cent more food was required. Similar is the trend of testimony of the American Fat stock shows. Unfortunately, however, some of the testimonies from these must be accepted with much caution, as for in- stance the statement that in 1881, a Southdown lamb shown weighed 213 pounds at the age of 213 days, which means that up to that age it had made a daily gain of 0.9 pound. In Denmark many experiments have been conducted by the Copenhagen station which throw light upon the relative amounts of grain or its equivalent, consumed by swine of different ages in order to make 100 pounds of in- crease. A large number of animals was included in these experiments. The results showed that pigs weighing 35 to 75 pounds consumed 376 pounds of such food when making 100 pounds of gain, while pigs weighing 195 to 235 pounds consumed 543 pounds to make the same. The average results from a number of experiments conducted in America show that with swine not more than 50 pounds in weight, 100 pounds of increase may be made from each 300 pounds of grain and grain equivalents fed, while with pigs from 200 to 250 pounds, about 500 pounds of the same were required to make similar increase. Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 381 Of course the relative amounts of grain consumed by animals, both when growing and during the finishing period, will be influenced by the amount of coarse fodder fed, whether fed in the green or dry form. The assumption is safe, nevertheless, that to finish animals properly on grain, the amount of the same required increases, first, with increase in the age of the animals, and second, with the continuance and prolongation of the fattening period. This, however, does not make it certain that long periods of feed- ing will be attended with less profit. That will only follow in instances where the degree of the finish is not superior in character. Cost of increase. — It has been shown that animals as a rule make gains more slowly as the birth period is re- ceded from (see p. 371). It has also been shown, that notwithstanding the slower gains, more food relatively and absolutely is consumed in making them, and that this al.^o applied to the fattening period (see p. 379). It naturally follows, therefore, that the cost of increase is greater as the birth period is receded from, and as the fattening period advances. But to this there are some exceptions, especially during the growing period, as is shown below. Many instances, all based on experiment, may be cited to show increasing cost in the gains made with increasing age. The following only can be given here : At the Wis- consin experiment station, it was found that with animals up to the age of 12 months, 100 pounds of beef, live weight, cost $4.20, while with the same animals during the next 12 months, it cost $6.13. At the Massachusetts station. With animals in the two-year form, 100 pounds of beef, live Weight, cost $7.49, and with the same animals in the three- year form, it cost $12.38. At the Iowa experiment station lambs that were fattened cost $3.61 for every 100 pounds of live increase made, and wethers on the same feed cost $5.33 for each 100 pounds of the same. At the Wisconsin experi- ment station, swine which averaged 222 pounds when put on feed consumed 418 pounds of meal to make 100 pounds Digitized by Microsoft® 382 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS of increase the first four weeks of feeding, 461 pounds the second four, and 559 pounds the third four. The difference in relative cost was proportionate. Under some conditions, however, it is possible to make 100 pounds of increase more cheaply at some distance from the birth period, and also from the commencement of the fattening period, than earlier. The growing of young animals, especially cattle, during the milk period, is more costly relatively than at a later period, because of the difference in the relative value of the foods. Milk and grain furnish the principal portion of the food of young animals for a time. Later they are usually maintained on coarser and cheaper foods, more especially on pasture. One hundred pounds of increase may, therefore, be made more cheaply on the coarser food thus given, because of its relative cheapness, notwithstanding the increase in the amount consumed. Likewise when cattle are partly far- tened on dry food and are then finished on grass or grass and grain, the increase made on the latter may be made more cheaply than that made before turning out on grass. At the Iowa experiment station, it was found that from March to May, covering 92 days, steers fed on a ration of corn meal, oil meal, hay and roots, made 100 pounds of increase at a cost of $5.93. The same steers maintained for a similar period immediately following on a ration of corn meal and clover pasture made similar increase at a cost of $4.31. The cost of increase varies with variations in the cost of food. Because of this, the same class of meat will cost much more in one locality than another. It has been estimated that during recent years the cost of making 100 pounds of increase during the fattening period was from $2 to $3 more than the cost of the same in the Mississippi states. Gains when fattening not worth their cost. — During the finishing period, the increase made is more or less in- fluenced by the following conditions, viz: (i) The in- dividuality of the animal; (2) the stage in development at Digitized by Microsoft® MfiAT PRODUCTION 383 which the fattening begins; (3) the amount of flesh carried at the tin.e; (4) the cost of the foods used; (5) the char- acter of the feeding and finish made and (6) the relative value of the fertilizer resulting. Individuality is a most potent influence in hastening or retarding increase. That it is so is shown in the fact that two animals of similar age and fed alike will differ greatly in the gains made, though consuming practically the same amount of food. This difference sometimes exceeds 50 per cent The stage in development at which fattening begins influences the cost, first, by the greater relative increase made by animals that are not yet matured, by the less amount of food required to make these gains, and by the greater relative cost of maintenance in mature animals. It follows, therefore, that immature animals should make greater and cheaper gains than those that are mature. The less flesh that animals carry when the fattening begins, providing leanness is not carried to the point of weakening the bodily functions, the more they will in- crease in weight, for the reason that there is more room for such increase. But of course the less flesh carried when fattening begins, the more prolonged must be the period of fattening, a fact which may go far to offset the consideration first named when purchasing animals for fattening. No influence is more potent in determining relative cost of increase in fattening than the relative cost of the foods fed. It will be at once apparent without argument that with the same foods, cost in the gains made will fluctu- ate with cost in the foods fed. Forced feeding beyond a certain degree will result in a waste of food. On the other hand under-feeding will result in loss through increased cost in the food of maintenance. Reasonably liberal feeding, therefore, is likely to give the best results. The character of the finish influences cost of increase so far as it influences the price paid for the fin- ished product. Digitized by Microsoft® 384 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The value of the fertilizer made is a factor of much importance in some localities, in other places it is not an important consideration. While of course it does not in- fluence gains, it does influence profits, and just in proportion to the grade of the fertilizer made and the relative value of the same in the locality. Usually the increase during the fattening period costs more than it will sell for in the market. This gener- ally holds true in fattening cattle, sheep and swine, but to a less degree probably in swine than in the other classes named. Such increase in fattening mature cattle usually costs not less than i to 3 cents per pound more than it will sell for in the market. But to this there are some ex- ceptions as when the price of foods is relatively low and that of meat relatively high. The same is true also in many instances of growing baby beef, under normal conditions because of the quick gains made by the animals. The testimony, however, of nearly all experiments in fattening live stock in this country have shown that the cost of In- crease during the fattening season has been greater than the cost of the food. Wherein is the profit from fattening live stock under such conditions? It arises from the increase in the value of each pound of the live weight of the animal when the fattening began. Suppose, for instance, that a steer is purchased and put on feed. Suppose that he weighs 1,200 pounds live weight and costs 4 cents per pound ; suppose that the increase in weight from six months feeding is 300 pounds, each pound of which costs 6 cents to make it. The steer when finished is sold for 5 cents per pound live weight. Allowing the manure made to oflfset the cost of feeding and other incidental expenses, the transaction will stand as follows: $75 the selling price when finished, less $48 the purchase price, less $18 the cost of increase during fattening, leaves $9 as the net profit from the transaction. But what of the cost of grow- ing the steer up to the time of fattening? It should Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 385 be considerably less than 4 cents per pound, lor, if grown on the range, he would be grown virtually on free pasture. If grown under extensive farm conditions he would be grown largely on cheap pastures. If grown under more intensive conditions he would be grown largely on coarse and cheap foods. Duration of the finishing period. — Since, during the finishing period, the cost of increase made during its con- tinuance seldom equals in value the cost of the food used in making it, the time covered by this period becomes a question of prime importance to the feeder. Its profitable duration will be influenced by such considerations as : ( i ) The condition as to flesh of the animals when the feeding period begins; (2) the character of the food fed; (3) the intensity of the feeding; (4) the relative cost of the food; (5) the season of the year when the finishing occurs, and (6) capacity in the animals for making high finish. If animals are in a low condition of flesh when the feeding period begins, it is manifest that a proportionately longer period must elapse before they can be profitably sent to the block, than if they were in good flesh at the same time. Animals low in flesh when fatten- ing begins cannot be brought to a high degree of finish in a short time. The digestive powers can adjust themselves only gradually to the changed conditions of feeding, and the same is true of the assimilative powers. This is shown in the fact that animals will digest and ap- propriate much larger quantities of concentrated food without injury when on what is termed "full feed," than when the feeding period begins (see p. 377). In some instances, as in making baby beef sold under the age of two years, the feeding has been of such a high character all along, that the transition to what may be termed the finish- ing period is scarcely discernible through any increase in feed (see p. 402). Some kinds of food bring to a finish much more quickly than others, because of their constituents. Corn will fatten Digitized by Microsoft® 386 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS animals more quickly probably than any other cereal, anil when fed in large quantities it will ripen them sooner. A ration consisting mainly of roots and grain will not fatten so quickly as one consisting mainly of corn and dry fodder. Similar differences may be thus shown in various other foods used in fattening. The intensity of the feeding exercises an important influence on the length of the feeding period. Intensity of feeding has reference to strong feeding. It means feed- ing concentrates rich in nutrients for producing fat, and feeding to the full capacity of the animal to take such food. But little roughage is fed. Such feeding leads to increase more quickly than feeding concentrates less rich, or if rich, in moderate quantities, and along with these feeding con- siderable quantities of roughage. But it also leads more quickly to cessation of profitable increase, and the attendant danger is greater that the derangements in digestion will be of more frequent occurrence than when feeding is less intense. The value of foods in relation to meat values should always be considered. When food values are high and meat values low, the shorter the period of feeding within reasonable limits, the greater will be the relative profit. Seasons do occur, but usually at rare intervals, when finish- ing is nof attended with any profit, unless when it can be accomplished through some cheap food such as grass. Capacity in the animals to make a high finish and to furnish a carcass that will command a high price is also important. When a steer for instance of dairy form is placed upon the market in high finish and sells for more than one cent less per pound live weight than the steer of orthodox type in equally high finish, it is very evident that it will not pay equally well to bring the former to so high a finish as the latter. The great advantage in high finish from the latter comes from the advance in value which it puts upon every pound of the weight possessed when the finishing period began (see p. 384). The advance thus Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 387 made in the value of the animal of dairy conformation is much less as markets have ruled during recent years, not- withstanding that at least as large amounts of food rela- tively will be consumed in making it. It is less necessary therefore because less advantageous, to feed such animals and also aged cows, ewes and sows for long periods, that they may thus be brought to a high finish, than to feed well furnished animals with the same end in view. But a certain amount of feeding with them is necessary, that they may bring a respectable price. The season of the year at which the finishing period draws near should also be duly weighed. If the finishing process draws near toward, or at the close of the grazing season, it would be better to close it then than to continue it only for a short period on food so radically different as a change from grass to dry food would involve, or if the finish was nearly completed when grass arrives and to complete it would involve turning the animals out to grass for a short period, it would be better to close it with the end of the dry feeding season (see p. 397). It will be apparent from the above, that the duration of feeding periods cannot be definitely stated so many are the conditions that cause them to vary. It may be said, however, that cattle can seldom be finished properly in less than 120 days, sheep in less than 70 days, and swine in less than 40 days, and that high finish seldom calls for more than 180 days of feeding with cattle, 120 days with sheep and 60 days with swine. More commonly feeders err on the side of unduly curtailed feeding, accompanied by lack of finish than on that of feeding unduly prolonged and accompanied by over-finish. The aim should be to bring good animals to high finish, unless there are good reasons for not so doing. It has been estimated by competent authorities, that from 75 to 90 per cent of the cattle mar- keted in the United States are not properly finished. Season for marketing. — The grower and feeder of live stock should aim as far as it may be practicable to Digitized by Microsoft® 388 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS have them ready at that season which yrill enable them to reach the market in the absence of a glut in the same, or even in the absence of supplies sufficiently plentiful to cause considerable depression in values. The exercise of timely forethought will usually make this feasible. There are two seasons when the values of the common classes of meat are usually low. The first is that period covered by the entire season beginning with the middle of September, and extending over a considerable portion of January following. The second is embraced within the first and includes more particularly the holiday season during which poultry to a considerable extent substitutes the use of other kinds of meat. Only the best classes of beef and mutton at such times command good prices relatively. Two classes of persons are compelled to sell at such seasons. The first is, ranchmen who may be unable to finish stock because of the entire absence of finishing foods which may not be shipped in because of cost. The surplus stock must be disposed of at the approach of or during the au- tumn. The second class includes all farmers who may not have the necessary food or necessary conveniences to enable them to finish surplus stock at home. So large and so constant is the supply from these two sources, at the sea- sons named, that it has a depressing influence on values. But it may be more profitable to market animals, as sheep which make a late finish on such foods as rape, at such a season, than to attempt to further finish them on dry food involving greater relative cost. The values of meat are relatively higher at all other times of the year than those named, but there are seasons that are especially favorable to marketing viewed from the standpoint of relatively high values for meat. These include the late months of spring and all the summer months. But during those months lighter animals are wanted and morft especially when the weather becomes hot. Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 389 The individual who has high class meat and of weights inclining to light at such seasons may expect good values for it. But to meet the conditions named requires fore- thought all along the line of development, and more es- pecially with reference to the duration of the finishing period. What may be termed timehness in marketing is of much moment to the producer of live stock. Christmas beef must be of high quality and ready at the proper season. Milk lambs will ordinarily bring higher values in the inter- val between Christmas and Easter than at an earlier or a later season. When ready earher they must be sold when supplies of meat are excessive. When marketed later, they must compete with early spring lambs. Heavy weight animals of all kinds usually command the best prices when the weather is cool or cold. While light weight animals of good finish are in demand at all times, they are most prized during the warm season. Swine mar- keted in the spring usually sell at higher rates than those sold in the fall, but they also cost more to produce them. Marketing vi^hen ripe. — Ripeness as applied to live stock is a relative term. In one sense, it may mean mar- keting, when ready to meet the needs of a certain market, in the absence of completed growth and even of high finish, viewed from the standpoint of the amount of fat carried. Winter lambs are ripe when plump and fat at weights running from 35 to 45 pounds. Baby beef is ripe, when well grown for the age and fat, at weights varying from 900 to 1200 pounds in the yearling form. Bacon swine are ripe when they attain to weights varying from 160 to 220 pounds and carry but a moderate amount of fat. In another sense, ripeness means that stage of development reached by ani- mals that are being fattened, when they become incapable of making increase proportionate to the food fed to them. This latter is the sense in which the term is more commonly used. Digitized by Microsoft® 390 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS When animals become thus ripe, it is self-evident thai further feeding, viewed from the standpoint of increase, will be done at a loss, hence the wisdom, under normal conditions, of putting them on the market promptly when they are ripe. When animals are being fattened, the in- crease as a rule is less rapid as the fattening period ad- vances, and the cost of making increase continually ad- vances. In fattening steers at the Kansas experiment station for 182 days, it was found that during the first 56 days, 73c pounds of food were required to make 100 pounds of gain., while for the whole period 1,000 pounds were required to make the same. At the Wisconsin experiment station, swine that were being fattened made 100 pounds of gain during the first four weeks from 418 pounds of food, during the second four from 461 pounds, and during the third four from 559 pounds. The average weight at the commencement was 222 pounds. In an experiment conducted by the author in fattening swine, at the Ontario experiment station, 1890-91, it was found that during the experiment proper which covered 90 days, the cost of making 100 pounds of increase was $4.65. The swine were then regarded as iinished, but they were fed for 47 days longer on the same kind of a ration. During this period, the cost of making 100 pounds of increase was $14.93. The average weight of the swine, when the experiment proper began, was 150 pounds. If such feeding is continued long enough, increase will entirely cease, and in time retrogression will begin, on the principle, that after ripeness, deterioration begins. Prominent among the indications of ripeness are a good covering of flesh on parts more usually bare, firmness of flesh as indicated by resistance to gentle pressure in the muscles of the body, and a plumpness of form which reveals a finished condition to the practiced eye. The weight scale, of course, is the surest indicator of that decrease or cessation of growth that accompanies ripeness and the service that it may thus render when used judiciously may be very sub- stantial. Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 39I The necessity for selling animals promptly as soon as finished should certainly be given due regard. It would not seem justifiable to hold them longer in any instance, except to avoid marketing in a glut or when advance in price within a short time is practically assured. By exercising proper forethought, they will be made ready so that they may reach the market when prices for such meat are usu- ally relatively good. Shipping finished animals. — Since live stock have, in very many instances, to be shipped long distances to the market, both as stockers and in the finished form, and since the condition in which they reach the same materially influences the sale, it is a matter of much importance to the shipper that they reach the place of consignment under con- ditions that will be attended with a minimum of shrinkage and loss of bloom. To secure these results requires: (i) That they shall be fed properly in preparing them for ship- ment and when in transit; (2) that the transit shall be as rapid as possible and (3) that they shall be promptly un- loaded and cared for when they reach the place of consign- ment. Before shipping finished cattle and sheep, the usual grain allowance should be reduced gradually and materially, for two to three days before shipping, and in transit may cease altogether. Hay of good quality should be supphed and in quantity as much as they will consume. If they are on pasture and also receiving grain, they should be yarded a day or two before shipping, and fed hay, the grain al- lowance also being reduced. Stockers may be taken from well matured pastures and shipped at once. The continued full feeding of grain before shipping finished animals, in connection with the more than usual amount of exercise, and the excitement resulting from changed conditions, is much liable to result in scouring. This means much shrink- age in weight and a soiled appearance. Bedding should be plentifully supplied before loading. Unless driven far before loading, in a warm atmosphere, animals will not drink to excess when fed as indicated. Digitized by Microsoft® 392 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS When loaded, the transit should be as rapid as possible. This of course is mainly in the hands of carriers, but it may be materially influenced by the choice of season made by the shipper, when traffic is not congested. Every additional hour spent on the road means additional shrinkage, as ani- mals will not eat or drink freely when in transit by rail. When shipped long distances, the animals will take less harm if hurried on to the place of sale, than if the journey is prolonged by unloading at feeding stations every 24 hours. Experience has shown that runs considerably longer than 24 hours conduce to the well being of the cattle by reducing the time in transit, thus shortening the period of privation, notwithstanding the contrary view held by many humane societies. Watchfulness is necessary on the part of the attendant, especially in case of sheep lest they should get down and suffer injury by being trodden on, especially in crowded cars. Overcrowding of cars is, of course, a mis- take, but no harm comes from filling cars to their full capa- city. In shipping long distances weather probabilities should be considered at certain seasons. A blizzard may cause serious loss in transit, and the same is true of ex- cessive heat, especially in the case of swine. Delay in unloading is avoided when the animals have been consigned to a commission firm when shipped. The aim should be to unload them not later than 8 o'clock in the morning, before the buyers make their rounds, and hay and water should be present in ample supply. Any effort to induce the animals to drink excessively by giving salt previously or by withholding water, is to be deprecated. Loss of weight in marketing. — The extent to which finished animals shrink in weight on the way to market is influenced chiefly: (i) By the time occupied in transit; (2) the foods used in fattening and the degree of the finish; (3) the age of the animals; (4) the extent to which they have been exercised while being fattened and (5) the character of the weather. Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 39^ The time occupied in tlie journey from the feed lot or other place of fattening to the market is probably the most potent influence in causing shrinkage, even though the ani- mals should be rested, fed and watered on the way. This arises from the little inclination which they evince to take food or water while in transit. The rate of the shrinkage, however, decreases with increase in the time occupied in conveyance, as the more prolonged the journey, the less the amount of food and water is there in the digestive organs to pass out of the system. The more succulent the foods used in fattening and the less the degree of the finish, the greater will be the loss of live weight in transit on the supposition that the animals are given fair treatment on the way. Of course if the animals were driven to market, the more perfect the finish, the greater would be their distress in traveling, and this might result in a greater loss in weight. The flesh of ani- mals fed watery foods, such as succulent grass and field roots, contains a higher per cent of water than that of ani- mals brought to high finish on dry foods, and this is more readily lost than the fat in the system. Young animals lose more in transit relatively than ammals that are mature and that are possessed of an equa'. degree of finish. This arises first, from the larger per cent of water in the system of the former, and second, from the greater relative activity of the excretory organs. But this tendency may to some extent be counteracted by the greater power possessed by young animals to accommodate them- selves to disturbing conditions. The extent to which animals exercise while being fat- tened exerts a marked influence on the shrinkage in transit. Cattle finished in yards or feed lots will shrink much less than those tied in the stall and given but little or no ex- ercise. Wethers fattened on alfalfa hay, wheat, corn and roots at the Colorado experiment station shrank 9 per cent of the live weight in transit to the Chicago market. Se- lected lambs shrank 9.4 per cent, and lighter and more active Mexican sheep shrank but 6.5 per cent. Digitized by Microsoft® 394 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The more comfortable the weather is, the less will animals lose in transit. Where they must be driven several miles to the shipping point the character of the weather is of much moment. If it is warm, the journey should be made in the night. In the experience of the author, fat steers weighing between 1400 and 1500 pounds lost on an average 75 pounds each in a journey of 15 miles made in the night. While it is not possible to state exactly the amount of shrinkage from shipping finished animals, it will be more or less of an approximation to say that cattle loaded one day, the next day occupied in transit, and tne third day sold and weighed, will shrink somewhere in the neighborhood of 5 per cent of the live weight, sheep about 4 per cent and swine 4 to 5 per cent. Locally, cattle are sometimes pur- chased on the basis of a shrinkage of 4 to 5 per cent on the weight in the stall or feed lot. Feeding in stalls, sheds or yards. — Looking at this question from the standpoint of theory only, the conclusion would be reached that the largest and also the cheapest gains would be made from feeding in the stall as, when thus fed, the animals are kept absolutely at rest and the individual wants of each animal as to food may be exactly met. Until recent years, the view was almost universal that feeding cattle in the stall would be attended with the greater profit. The trend of the results obtained, how- ever, from the experiments conducted is rather in the op- posite direction. Of course the attempt is never made to feed sheep or swine in the stall. The former are almost invariably fed in sheds under average farm conditions, and are given access to well bedded yards at will. The latter are, in nearly all instances, finished in pens under cover, and are given access to small yards at will. But both sheep and swine are in some instances finished on certain kinds of pasture. The chief arguments in favor of finishing in the stall are the following: (i) The food fed can be controlled Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 39$ at will. Where it is desired to feed a relatively large pro- portion of roughage to concentrates on the ground of econ- omy, this is more easily accomplished than when animals are fed together in a wholesale way. In such feeding to animals, not confined in the stall, the stronger would get more than their rightful share of the concentrates, and the weaker less. (2) The food can be more perfectly ad- justed to the needs of each animal. It frequently happens that some variation in the kind and quantity of food fed is helpful to the individual animal. This cannot be con- trolled when animals are fed loose. (3) The temperature can be more perfectly adjusted to the needs of the animals, as undue cold may thus be excluded, and in this way un- necessary waste avoided. (4) The degree of the exercise can be so completely controlled that no energy will be thus wasted at the expense of the food. (5) The resultant fertilizer can be saved without waste where an ample supply of litter is used. The chief arguments in favor of finishing in the shed or yard are : ( i ) The saving effected in the labor of feed- ing. This cannot be gainsaid, as the difference equals that which results between doing work in a wholesale and retail Way. (2) The saving in the labor of handling the manure. This is an important item. It is to some extent offset under certain conditions by the leaching which takes place in open yards in times of heavy rainfall, but this may be largely prevented by restricting the size of the yards and supplying ample litter. Manure made under cover with an ample supply of litter by animals at liberty is of the best, as it conserves all the liquid portion and does not suffer loss readily by excessive fermentation. (3) Experience has shown it to result in a majority of instances in larger returns absolutely and relatively in proportion to the food fed. This reason is very potent. That it is so arises probably from the fact that the more exercise taken by the animals at liberty causes them to take more food, which Digitized by Microsoft® 396 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS' results in greater relative gains through the saving ef- fected in the food of maintenance, and probably also through the more perfect assimilation of the nutrients. This increase is more than sufficient to overcome the increased loss of bodily heat by the animals that are loose, since they are more exposed to the cold. Animals confined are fre- quently allowed to become too warm and the discomfort resulting is adverse to their gains. To secure the best results, however, from feeding cattle loose, it would seem correct to say that the following con- ditions should all be present: (i) They should be horn- less, either naturally or made so to prevent bodily injury. (2) They should be fed under cover, unless in climates quite mild and dry. (3) The concentrated food should be fed in mangers in which the animals could be kept in place by stanchions adjusted by one movement of a lever until the meal is consumed. In this way the amount of meal fed could be virtually controlled. Unless fed thus, the strong may get more than their rightful share. (4) The yards should be small and kept well bedded to avoid unnecessary leaching of the manure. The litter should be sufficiently ample to prevent discomfort to the animals when at rest, either from the presence of frozen lumps or of miry or even unduly saturated conditions. Finishing animals on pasture. — In the discussion of this question the following points necessarily come up for consideration : ( i ) The degree of the finish that may be expected from pasture alone; (2) the season for finishing to secure the greatest profit; (3) the amount of grain that may be used with highest profit in supplementing pastures ; (4) the relative profit from such finishing and (5) the mistake of finishing on sparse pastures. The degree of the finish that may be expected from pastures is influenced by the character of the pastures and duration of the pasturing period. Some pastures furnish decidedly more nutriment than others in proportion to the food consumed. The short pastures of the western ranges Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 397 are proverbial for their fattening properties. All grass pastures are better adapted for finishing when reasonably well advanced in growth than earlier in the season, notwith- standing that early growth when abundant may produce more weight. Grasses alone, therefore, will not produce high finish on a period of grazing that does not cover sev- eral months. Nor will it give so perfect a finish as when grain is fed, as is evidenced in the extent to which range cattle are purchased and placed in feed lots for further finishing, after having grazed on the ranges during much of the entire season. The season for finishing to secure the greatest profit will, of course, vary with such conditions as the flesh car- ried when the grazing begins, the influence of the season on growth and on the markets for meat. It would seem correct to say that the aim should be to finish grazed cattle not later than September, when they have been given a grain supplement, and not later than July when they have been given a reasonable grain portion from the beginning of the previous winter onward. After September the mar- kets are frequently over-supplied with meats of somewhat inferior ades, which has a depressing influence on the same. The amount of grain that may be fed with highest profit to cattle on pasture will vary with the age of the animals, their condition, the nature of the pasture, and the price of grain. The younger the animal up to maturity, the leaner when grazing begins, and the more sparse the pasture, the greater is the necessity for feeding grain and the larger the amount required. The cheaper relatively that grain is, of course, the greater is the profit from feeding it. Clearly then, it is impossible to formulate any hard and fast rules that will serve as infallible guides to those who finish animals on grass. The best feeders are not in agreement on this question. The following conclusions based on the experience of practical feeders and on the results of trials made at the Digitized by Microsoft® 398 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS experiment stations, would seem to be correct : ( i ) That when cattle are turned out on grass to be finished not later than mid-summer, the grain ration given to them before the grazing season should be continued, and in- creased if necessary. (2) That when cattle are to be grazed through the season and sold from ofif the grass in finished form, it is questionable if the grain fed for two or three months while the pastures are at their best will give an adequate return, viewed from the standpoint of in- crease in weight, but as soon as the grasses begin to fail the reverse of this is true. (3) That the profit will probably be found greater relatively when a light grain ration is fed to animals grazing, rather than a full ration of the same, as grass is relatively cheaper than grain. It should also be noted, that when estimating the result from feeding ^rain on pastures, the influence exerted on the increase in the weight of the animal, on the quality of the meat and on the saving effected in the pasture should be considered. Whether it will be found profitable to feed grain to sheep that are being fattened on pastures has not been made the subject of experiment to any very great extent in this country. The necessity for so doing, and the advantage from the same will probably be based, ( i ) on the character of the pasture; (2) on the shortness of the period in which the fattening is to be done and (3) on the extent to which fertilizers have to be purchased. Sheep and lambs may be finished in good form on well matured rape in 60 to 90 days from the commencement of the grazing. In the experience of the author feeding a grain supplement to lambs thus grazed did not secure enough additional in- crease to cover all the cost of the grain. Notwithstanding, when it is remembered that a light grain supplement, run- ning from ^ to I pound per animal, per day, is to some extent a safeguard against certain digestive troubles that are liable to affect sheep thus grazed, more especially after hoar frost begins to settle on the rape, it would not be thus fed at a loss. When fattened on clover or amid grain Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 399 Stubbles, from ^ to i pound of some such grain mixture as corn and oats would be a necessity for quick finishing. When large sums are paid out annually for commercial fertilizers, to feed such a supplement freely as corn and oil cake to sheep while being grazed on arable pastures, would probably be found one of the cheapest possible methods of securing fertility. It is doubtless correct to say that a light grain supplement fed to immature swine on pasture will prove profitable in all instances in which the grazing does not consist of mature grain. Growing swine cannot consume enough pasture to insure quick growth. The amount of the supplement will vary with the size of the swine and the character of the pasture, but it is ap- proximately correct to say that not less than half the amount of grain should be fed that would be necessary if the swine were wholly dependent on grain. The relative profit from finishing stock on pasture with a grain supplement as compared with the same under con- fined conditions has been made the subject of experiment, and the conclusions reached favor the view that more profit results from finishing thus on pasture. This view is doubtless correct where the conditions favor such grazing but the fact remains, nevertheless, that very much of the live stock fattened must continue to be so fattened in the winter season, otherwise much coarse food would be vasted that is now turned to excellent account. It would be a mistake to try and finish live stock on sparse pastures, even when a grain supplement is in ample supply, owing to the over abundant expenditure of energy on the part of the animals in searching for grass, which, when succulent, is always appetizing. Such expenditure would be at the expense of supplemental food. But it may be in order to feed breeding or store animals a supplement of grain rich in the elements of fertilization. When the object is to enrich the land as well as to benefit the animals, sheep are best adapted to such feeding, because of the even way in which their droppings are distributed, and Digitized by Microsoft® 400 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the small amount of loss that accompanies such distribu- tion. It would also be a mistake to require animals that are being fattened to consume closely shock corn fed on grazing lands in the autumn. The aim should be to have two pastures, and to allow store cattle and swine to glean after the animals that are being fattened. The two classes of animals would thus be alternated from day to day. Like- wise it would be a mistake to compel swine that are be- ing finished on unharvested corn or peas, to glean closely. That should be done by store swine that are admitted later. Financial returns from purchased feeders. — When animals are purchased for feeding, the financial results from fattening them will be influenced: (i) By the age at the time of purchase; (2) by the weight; (3) by the condition as to the flesh they carry; (4) by the value of the food fed and the duration of the feeding period, and by the difference between the price paid at the time of purchase and received at the time of sale. It has been shown (see p. 371), that animals young and immature make greater increase when being fattened than mature animals. But age also influences market val- ues more or less. Of course with all animals, there is an age below which the market demands them only in limited numbers and to meet some special need, as in the case ot "milk lambs" and "baby beef;" but when this age is past, the younger the animals are when put on feed, other things being equal, the larger are the profits likely to be, not only because of the greater and cheaper increase made, but because of the higher relative price which such animals bring when sold. - With cattle the highest price and widest sale are made by animals from say 1,200 to 1,400 pounds when finished ; with sheep from 90 to 100 pounds ; with the lard types of swine, from 200 to 250 pounds, and with the bacon types, from 160 to 200 pounds. In former years animals much heavier were more in favor. Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 4OI When animals are being fattened, it has been shown that the profit usually made comes from the increase m value of each pound of the live weight at the time of purchase (see p. 384). Theoretically, therefore, the high- est profit should come from animals which weigh the most, but to this there is the offset; first, that animals lighter because younger gain more on less feed, and second, that they usually sell for more, relatively, when finished. It is probably true that generally more is paid relatively per pound for the lighter animals, which so far offset the -eturns. It has been shown that condition as to the amount of flesh carried by animals when put upon feed influences gains (see p. Z77)- ^^'^ it usually influences profits in another way, that is, through the lower price for which such animals can be purchased. Because of this, more profit is sometimes made from feeding animals so mature that they are no longer profitable for breeding uses. When cattle are purchased young and lean, in the opening of the' grazing season, they usually make large gains relatively and give profitable returns for the season's grazing be- cause of the light weight of the sparely covered frame at the time of purchase The influence of the cost of food is discussed on page 382. The duration of the finishing period is largely influenced by such considerations as the flesh condition when the animals are put on feed, by the relative cost of food and the finished product resulting from it, and by the comparative fitness of the animals for medium or high finish. The higher the condition of animals when fattening begins, the shorter relatively is the period re- quired in which to finish them and vice versa. The sav- ing thus effected in the food of maintenance may go far to offset the difference in cost between lean and less lean animals when purchased for feeding. The higher the value of the foods fed and the lower the value of the finished product, the greater the necessity for curtailing Digitized by Microsoft® 402 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the period of feeding and vice versa. The less fitness possessed by the animals for making a high finish, the shorter relatively should be the feeding period and the higher the degree of such fitness, the more may it be pro- longed under normal conditions, as high finish usually in- sures a high selling value. The difference between the price paid for animals when bought for fattening and when sold as finished, probably exercises a greater influence on returns than any single influence which bears on the fattening process. The difference between the buying and selling price to insure profit from fattening animals, especially sheep and swine, is influenced by the character of the animals, the cost of foods and the nature of the feeding. In this very com- plicated and many-sided problem, it will be found that the better the class of animals, the younger they are, the cheaper the foods and the cheaper the system of finishing, the narrower may be the margin of difference between buying and selling values. Finishing on grass with a supplement of concentrates is usually cheaper than finish- ing on dry food (see p. 397). With dry fodders worth 54 to Yi cent a pound, and concentrates at i cent a pound, some net profit should be made when the margin of difference between the buying and sell- ing prices is I cent per pound live weight. Considerable profit should result when it is 114 cents and a good profit when it is i^^ cents. Baby beef. — During recent years the production of what is termed "baby" beef has increased materially. The discussion of the question involves the consideration of the following: (i) What is baby beef? (2) The objects sought in growing it and (3) where and how it should be grown ? Baby beef may be defined as beef made from animals subsequently to the milk period and not yet two years old. The animals are kept growing rapidly from birth and are then marketed in a high condition of flesh, more Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 4O3 commonly in the one-year form, and between the ages of 15 and 21 months. The term has also been applied to animals marketed when a little beyond the age of two years, but clearly it should not be so applied, as animals beyond that age may be made to produce carcasses, approx- imating average carcass weights. The following are chief among the objects sought from growing baby beef: — (i)To meet the demand for well finished carcasses of light weight and possessed of quality that commands ready sale. Such meat is juicy and tender; (2) to prevent the over-stocking which may result from maintaining meat making animals of a more mature age. Such overstocking may easily occur both on the range and on the arable farm; (3) to secure increase from a minimum expenditure of food, on the principle that in- crease calls for more food to make it as the birth period is receded from. Baby beef can only be finished on the arable farm or under arable farm conditions, although its growth may be commenced and maintained on the range up to the weaning period. Dropped in the spring, the calves are pur- chased when weaned, pushed rapidly onward and disposed of during the following summer. Localities in which corn and alfalfa or corn and clover grow abundantly, have high- est adaptation for such feeding, since they furnish grow- ing and fattening foods in balance and cheaply, but in all localities where growth is abundant, baby beef may be grown from start to finish. On the arable farm two methods of growing baby beef have been followed. By the first, the calves are dropped, preferably in the autumn or early winter, reared upon their dams, pushed rapidly forward by generous grain feeding, subsequently to weaning, and marketed the second spring from the stall or what may usually be preferable, from the pastures of early summer, a season when such meat is much in demand. Animals reared thus will prob- ably bring more profit usually in the two-year form, since Digitized by Microsoft® 404 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the proportion of cost to be charged against the dam will be materially less. By the second method, they are reared essentially on skim milk and adjuncts, the adjuncts con- sisting chiefly of concentrated foods and high class fodders. Baby beef from this source will be scarcely equal to that from calves that v/ere suckled by their dams, but it will be made more cheaply, as none of the cost is to be charged against the dam, since maternity in her case was necessary to bring her into milk, and its cost, therefore, would have to be incurred, regardless of what would become of the calf. The grain during the milk period in the case of hand- reared calves, ought to contain not less than 33 per cent of fattening food, such as corn, barley or rye from the first, when the fodders are leguminous, and this propor- tion should be materially increased, for several months previous to the disposal of the animals. Where non-legu- minous fodder must be relied on, the protein equivalents being purchased, as oil cake and such foods, the cost of production will be materially increased. The necessity for an ample supply of protein when growing such meat is well brought out in an experiment conducted by the Nebraska experiment station in 1904. When yearling steers were fed alfalfa and corn, the daily increase was 1.97 pounds. When fed prairie hay and corn it was 1.35 pounds. The net profit with the former was $8.66, with the latter 38 cents. The test covered a period of six months. Winter lambs. — By winter lambs is meant" Iambs that are born, say from November i onward until mid-winter, and are pushed forward rapidly in their growth and are then sold while yet suckled by their dams. The aim should be to have them fill the place in the market between the time of abundant fowl consumption at the Christmas season and the ordinary season for selling early spring lambs. To bring the relatively high prices usually paid for them, they should be made plump and fat and to reach 40 to 50 pounds in live weight at the age of 60 to 80 or 90 days. Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 4OS To raise winter lambs, or as they are sometimes called, milk lambs, successfully, the following requisites must be present, viz: — (i) Ewes that will drop lambs at the proper season; (2) quarters sufficiently protected to shield the young lambs from harmful exposure; (3) food suitable in kind and ample in quantity and (4) facilities for marketing with dispatch and on easy call. If any of these are lacking, the success of the work will be proportionately increased. The breeds at present in this country which have the habit of dropping lambs in the late autumn or early winter are the Dorset and the Tunis and high grades of these. If lambs of one or the other of these breeds are crossed upon common females of breeding more or less mixed, the habit of producing lambs at the desired season may be engrafted on the progeny in a limited number of generations. The change may be facilitated by judicious feeding and selection. Experiments conducted by the author at the Minnesota station, showed that in two gen- erations of such breeding, the change was secured in a majority of instances. As in northern climes, winter lambs are dropped in weather that is usually more or less severe, it is necessary in growing them to have shelter provided sufficiently warm to protect the young lambs from hazard through exposure until they are a few days old. Such shelter may be pro- vided by a basement of a barn, dry, airy and sunny, or by a lambing pen or house built or fitted up for such use. As soon as the lambs are well started, it is not especially necessary that they shall be kept in quarters much warmer than would be suitable for a breeding flock, but of course temperatures lower than a certain degree will retard in- ;rease and will make it more costly. The dams should be in reasonably good condition when the lambs are weaned, and must then be heavily fed on foods suitable for milk production until the lambs are sold. The fodder should be leguminous, fine in growth rather than coarse, Digitized by Microsoft® 406 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS and well cured. The grain should be rich in protein. Equal parts of bran, oats and corn or barley make a good grain ration, and it should be fed nearly to the limit of the capacity of the dams to consume it. Field roots sliced or corn silage are excellent, especially the former. The roots may be fed with much freedom, but usually not more than 3 or 4 pounds of silage are fed daily. The lambs are started on such food as sifted ground oats and oil cake or oil meal. This food and that which follows it, is fed inside a creep, which the dams may not enter. Ere long the lambs will take unground oats, cracked corn and oil meal, and these properly blended aid in pushing them rapidly. Corn may usually be profitably fed to the extent of making half the grain ration, as quick fattening is wanted. The other factors may be fed in equal propor- tions where the prices will admit of such feeding. As winter lambs are usually sent to a market that furnishes meat for a special and high class trade, they are frequently ordered as wanted. To fill such orders with dispatch, it is essential that the shipping facilities shall be of a reasonably high order. This means that winter lambs can be most profitably reared in proximity to rail- road stations. Growing bacon. — To grow bacon of high quality, the following requisites are essential: (i) The animals must be possessed of correct form; (2) they must be managed on correct principles and (3) they must be grown on foods that will secure the end sought. The question of form is discussed elsewhere. (See p. 153). Correct management calls for feeding that will secure the requisite growth within a reasonable age, for steady and continuous rather than fitful development, for that amount of exercise that will insure the requisite amount of muscle in the carcass, and for that degree of finish that gives the desired firmness and thickness to the carcass without ex- cess in either of these. Digitized by Microsoft® MEAT PRODUCTION 4O7 The most desirable weights in high class bacon run from, say i6o to 220 pounds. Other things being equal, the lighter weights are preferred. These weights should be attained in from six to seven months. To reach them more quickly would involve feeding that would produce meat with an excess of fat and softness. To produce them more slowly would cut in seriously on the profits. Unless the growth is steady and continuous, the desired weights will not be attained. It should average about 30 pounds a month during each month. Of course it will not average that much the first three months, but will average more during the months that follow. Food that will produce very quick development, especially during the later stages of growth, will produce meat more or less lacking in firmness. Exercise is essential to the development of muscle. Too little exercise accompanied even by ordinary feeding would result in the production of too small a percentage of lean meat. The bacon carcass should possess not only a large proportion of lean in the sides but also in the hams and elsewhere. Too much exercise will retard growth unduly. Because of the exercise which it furnishes, the pasturing of bacon swine during the season of growth has an important bearing upon the development of muscle. With bacon swine, the fattening or finishing period IS less pronounced than with the other types of swine. It is more a firming and thickening of the carcass than a fattening of the same, and yet it is not to be understood that a bacon carcass is synonymous with a lean and thin carcass. The finishing of bacon is accomplished through feeding foods which contain a reasonably high percentage of protein and carbohydrates, but not an excess of either. During pregnancy and the nursing period that follows, the food fed to the bacon and lard types qf swine is es- sentially the same, that is to say, in both instances it shduM be essentially nitrogenous m character (see p. 124). But during the growing period subsequently to weaning, the Digitized by Microsoft® 408 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS bacon types call for food more nitrogenous than the lard types, and during the finishing period the food fed to the former should be considerably less carbonaceous. Legumin- ous pastures are in order. Corn may form say 33 per cent of the grain fed while the swine feed upon such pastures. During the finishing period it should not furnish more than that proportion of the same. Skim milk and barley furnish an excellent ration for growing bacon, and no grain furnishes bacon of a higher quality than barley if fed as the sole or principal food during the finishing period. In the absence of skim milk, shorts is one of the best sub- stitutes, while skim milk, shorts and barley are particularly excellent when fed in reasonable combination. These are the standard foods fed in Denmark, so justly noted for the high quality of its bacon. Other grain, as peas, oats and rye, when available, may be fed along with barley and with much success. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XVIII. CONSIDERATIONS THAT RELATE TO MILK PRODUCTION. Prominent among the considerations that relate to milk production are the following: — 1. Formation of milk. 2. Composition of milk. 3. Foods and milk production. 4. Milk production and cost. 5. Quantity in milk production. 6. Quality in milk production. 7. Breeds and milk production. 8. Lactation and milk production. 9. Age and milk production 10. Large and small cows. 11. Relative milk giving capacity. 12. Protection for cows in summer 13. Shelter for cows in winter. 14. Feeding grain to cows on pasture. These are discussed in the order given. Formation of milk. — As has been pointed out by Armsby, milk is not simply a secretion from the blood, as urine is in the kidneys, or as the digestive juices are in the stomach and intestines. That it is not a transudate, that is a variant, a filtrate of the blood, the result of the pas- sage of its fluid constituents through membrane, is shown in its composition. Milk differs from blood : ( i ) In that it contains factors not found in blood; (2) in the marked contrast in the ash in blood and milk respectively and (3) in the sustaining power of each. Cow's milk contains from 2 to 5 per cent protein, and from 3 to 5 per cent milk sugar. But the protein of the blood exists as al- bumin or fibrin, while the greater portion of that in milk exists as casein, which is foiind in considerable quantity 409 Digitized by Microsoft® 410 FEEDING FARAI ANIMALS only ill milk. Milk sugar has not been met with else- where in the animal organism. The ash of milk contains from three to five times as much potash as soda, while the ash of blood contains from three to five times as much soda as potash. Milk, therefore, cannot be a secretion, in the ordinary use of the term. Moreover, milk contains within itself all the essential constituents for sustaining animal life and in due balance which is not true of blood. Milk is secreted in the mammary glands. It is formed in the milk glands and from the cells of the same. That its formation shall be possible, it is essential that the ani- mal which has not heretofore produced it shall become pregnant. When conception takes place, the cells begin to enlarge and to fill with fat globules. New cells also are formed, a process which increases until the birth period, at which time it becomes very rapid. The secretions first formed are those also first drawn from the udder, and form the colostrum of milk (see p. 411). In three or four days, this is followed by the true milk. After a period in lactation, the glands decrease in size, and the milk flow is reduced, hence the necessity for recurring periods of pregnancy to secure corresponding periods of abundant milk production. Milk elaboration does not proceed at a uniform rate between milkings. It is most rapid by far while the milk is being withdrawn. It is greatly accelerated by the manip- ulation of the udder in the act of milking, and is also much influenced by the nervous condition of the cow. The char- acter of the manipulation exerts an important influence as well as the fact of the same, as is shown from the in- crease or decrease which frequently results from a change of milkers. The results from nervous influence are shown in the marked difference in quantity and to some extent in the quality of milk withdrawn by those whose work is gentle and kind, as compared with the same withdrawn by milkers harsh and rough. That the quantity and quality of the milk are not dependent entirely on the food, is evidenced in the great Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 4II difference in the amount and character of the milk from two cows fed on precisely the same kind of food, the other conditions being similar. These are determined by the size and quality of the milk gland. But the relation be- tween food and milk is very close, nevertheless. The milk cells consist largely of protein. The fat also and probably a part of the milk sugar is formed from albuminoids, hence it is to be expected that their formation will be more or less dependent on the protein in the food. This logical expectation has been abundantly verified by experiments, which have shown that the most abundant milk yields have been obtained from a fodder rich in protein. Before leav- ing the subject, it may be said that, notwithstanding all that is known about milk elaboration, many things about it are not yet understood. The composition of milk. — Milk is the opaque whitish liquid secreted by the mammary glands of female animals, and primarily designed for the nourishment of their young, but in every age, it has also been made to furnish food for the human family. In America about the only milk used for man is that taken from the cow, but the milk of sheep and goats and even of mares is also used thus in various countries. Cow's milk is easily digested, and con- tains in equilibrium all the constituents requisite for main- taining life and promoting growth in bovines and also in the human family, at least during the earlier periods of development. Notwithstanding considerable and even wide variations in the composition of milk from individual ani- mals, the following may be given as approximately the aver- age constituents of the milk of cows, sheep and mares respectively: — Bigestive nutrients in 100 lbs. ~ " Ether Extract lbs. 6.86 I.2I Digitized by Microsoft® indof milk Dry matter in 100 pounds lbs. Protein li lbs. Carbo- lydrates lbs. From cows 12.80 3.60 4.90 From ewes 19.18 6.52 4.91 From mares 9.22 1.99 S.67 412 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Because of the difficulty in obtaining samples, but few analyses of sow's milk have ever been made. At the Wis- consin station the average of nine samples gave the fol- lowing in ICO pounds of milk: Dry matter 19.65 pounds, protein 6.4 pounds, carbohydrates 4.75 pounds and ether extract 8.24 pounds. The protein is found in the above tables as casein and albumen, the proportions being as about 5 to i. When the casein is coagulated, as by the use of rennet, it forms curd which is made into cheese. The greater portion of the fat also enters into the curd. The albumen does not coag- ulate, and in making cheese, along with the milk sugar, passes into the whey. The carbohydrates are formed as milk sugar, which in chemical composition closely resembles cane sugar, but is not equal to the latter in sweetening power, and it is less soluble. It is thought to have about the same feeding value as an equal weight of starch. When milk sours coagulation is caused by some of the milk sugar being changed to lactic acid. The ether extract, which is simply fat, exists m the form of minute globules, which are essentially a mixture of several fats. These are exceedingly minute, so much so that their number is almost incredible. When the milk is left at rest, these rise to the surface and form cream. They are also separated by what is known as the centrifugal system, which subjects the milk to a rapid whirling motion, at least soon after it is drawn from the cow. By churning the cream thus gathered, butter is obtained. Whole milk is also rich in mineral matter. Were it otherwise, it would not furnish sufficient material for the further development of the bony structure in young ani- mals. Cow's milk contains about seven-tenths of a pound of mineral substance in each 100 pounds of milk, spoken of as ash. It consists chiefly of phosphates and chloride of potash, soda and lime. Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 4I3 As a food for young stock, whole milk is without a rival. Substitutes are of course frequently used as supple- ments or substitutes for it, but none of these have been found to answer quite so well the purposes of rapid growth. This explains why it is so generally given without stint to young animals that are to be fitted for exhibition purposes, far beyond the usual age for weaning. Although by far the safest food for young stock, some caution must be exercised in feeding it, especially when very rich in fat, or digestive troubles may follow. From the table it will be noticed that ewe's milk has in it a much higher proportion of protein and fat than cow's milk. This would suggest the wisdom of adding cream to cow's milk used in starting lambs quite young on the same, or of using strippings for such feeding. As mare's milk contains only about one-half the protein and fat of cow's milk, but considerably more sugar, when cow's milk is given to -young foals, it should be diluted with water and sugar added. These additions may of course be reduced gradually as the digestion becomes ac- customed to the change. Sow's milk is much richer in fat and sugar than cow's milk, hence it would seem prudent to add cream and sugar for a time, when cow's milk is substituted for the former with quite young pigs. Foods and milk production. — To furnish milk eco- nomically the cow should be supplied with food : ( i ) In balance as to chemical constituents and of easy digestibility ; (2) in quantity limited only by the consuming power of the cow; (3) obtained from sources relatively cheap and (4) possessed of at least a reasonable amount of succulence. The yield in milk production, other things being equal, will be reduced in proportion as these essentials are lacking. The Wolff-Lehmann standards recommend the following organic and digestible nutrients for milk production per day, in a cow possessed of 1,000 pounds live weight and producing 22 pounds milk daily: Digitized by Microsoft® 414 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Digestible protein 2.5 pounds. Digestible ether extract 0.5 pound. Digestible carbohydrates l3-0 pounds. Total dry niatter 29.0 pounds. This gives a nutritive ratio of 1:5.7- In nearly all foods the inorganic or mineral constituents are sufficiently present to supply all the needs of the animals. The one common exception is salt. The above constituents are much the same as those contained in good pasture grass, and this fact constitutes a strong presumptive argument in favor of its approximate correctness. Good pasture grass, when at its best for milk production, constitutes more nearly a perfect ration for cows giving milk than any single food that can be furnished for them. This is evidenced in the doubt that exists in the minds of many practical men as to whether anything can be added to such a ration, as grain for in- stance, that will make it more effective in producing milk. Good pasture for milk production may be defined as pastui^e so far advanced in growth that it will not induce under-laxity of the digestion, not far enough advanced in growth to make it in any marked degree less palatable or less digestible, and sufficiently abundant to supply the needs of the animals without calling for any unnecessary exertion from it while grazing. The tendency with some American investigators, how- ever, is to reduce somewhat the protein requirement in the food for dairy cows as given in the Wolff-Lehmann standards. Some of these favor a reduction of as much as 10 per cent of protein. This would make the digestible protein requirement 2.25 instead of 2.5 pounds per day, and would in no inconsiderable degree cheapen the ration. The wisdom of making such a reduction has found considerable support. The difference in the protein reqirement thus advanced for the respective countries may be owing to a difference in the condition of the foods as to the amount of Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 4I5 moisture which they contain, or to some otlier difference. Nor should it be overlooked that heifers immature require more protein relatively than mature cows to aid in complet- ing growth, and large milk producers more than those which produce less freely, since with the former more is required for the larger yield of milk furnished. Much depends on the relative digestibility of the food. Concentrated foods as grain and the by-products of grain are not only richer in the per cent of nutrients which they contain, but the per cent of these digestible is also larger. This explains in part, why it is advantageous and even necessary to feed more or less grain or meal along with dry fodders. The cow is unable to consume enough bulky fodder to produce maximum milk yields, and with increase in the relative proportion thereof fed to, cows, comes in- crease in the energy expended in digesting the ration. For instance, a ration that produces a given return on the basis of nutrients when 60 per cent of the nutrients are digestible, will not produce the same return if but 55 per cent are digestible. Nor should the same return be expected if the nutrients in the less digestible ration were increased so as to make the total digestible nutrients in the two equal. In the latter instance, there would be a diversion of energy in digestion from milk production to the mastication of the extra digestible matter in it, and in carrying the same through the various digestive organs. But, on the other hand, as a matter of economy and to maintain sufficient distension in the digestive organs, a certain proportion of roughage is necessary. The necessity for feeding cows freely in milk produc- tion will be apparent when it is remembered that more than half the food fed in many instances is required as the food of maintenance before any return can be obtained for the same. Production can only begin from the food fed after this requirement has been satisfied, and is only limited by the amount consumed and the capacity of the cow to produce milk from it. The only limit to be observed in Digitized by Microsoft® 4l6 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS feeding cows applies to tlie relative proportion of con- centrates fed. This should not be so high as to react in reducing digestive capacity, which will certainly follow pro- longed and excessive feeding of concentrates (see p. IIS). That the aim should be to feed foods relatively cheap when efficient, does not require to be argued. But how to secure and feed them thus stirs a large and ever recurring question in the experience of dairymen. Grass and soil- ing foods, as well as dry fodders, are usually cheaper than concentrates, and therefore should be fed to the great- est extent compatible with the highest profit attainable. To secure this it may be necessary first, to sacrifice something in highest yields, attainable through feeding more grain, and second, to feed more carbohydrates relatively than the feeding standards call for, because of their greater relative cheapness. That succulence in foods exercises an important in- fluence on milk production has already been noticed. Why it does so is not so well understood. This relation is con- stant in the sense that it is always present, though varying in degree with the foods that contain the succulence. The influence thus exerted is greater with some foods than with others of equal succulence. The result follows probably from the favorable influence which they exert on tht digestive tone, as when they lessen the tendency to consti- pation, and also because of the more favorable condition in which they are for being suitably acted upon by the gastric juices, because of their soft condition. Green corn is cer- tainly more favorable to milk production than the same amount of dry matter in corn fed in the cured form, not- withstanding that the amount of water taken into the sys- tem should be the same in the two instances. Milk production and cost. — The cost of producing milk will depend on such conditions as the following: (i) The value of the food fed; (2) the capacity of the cow to turn food into milk; (3) the season of the year at which the milk is obtained ; (4) the cost of the plant and the value of labor involved. Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 4I7 So far as food is purchased, it is of course to be charged not at the value in the open market but at the price paid, with the cost of conveyance added. When grown upon the farm, it is to be reckoned not at the market but at the home vahie, which may be set down as approximately 20 per cent less than the market value under average con- ditions. This important factor should be taken into the account when studying the reports of experiment stations on animal production, as these usually charge food at market values. Variations in the value of foods, the result of location and other conditions may make a difference of not less than 50 per cent in the cost of production. Fertility or the lack of this has an important influence on the cost of home grown foods. The proportion of roughage to concentrates fed, especially when succulent and nutritious, as silage, tends to cheapen production. In an experiment at the Utah station, the cost of maintaining a dairy cow for a year was $22.28; while at the Cornell university it was $4S-25- The influence of adaptation in the cow for production is, in some instances, greater even than that of food values on the cost of production. In the test referred to above at the Cornell university, the particulars of which are given in Bulletin No. 32, issued by that institution, there were 20 cows. The cost of producing 100 pounds of milk varied all the way from 44 cents to $1.07 per cow. The cost of food with the former was $43.12 for the year and with the latter $36.24. In the case of a very young heifer, the cost of producing 100 pounds of milk was $1.46, but be- cause of her tender age she is excluded from the compari- son. The cost of producing butter fat varied from 11 cents to 27 cents per pound. Excluding the heifer referred to, the yields of milk for the year varied from 3,387.75 to 11,165 pounds. To produce the former cost in food $36.24, and to produce the latter $52.06. Valuing the milk at 70 cents per 100 pounds, the difference in the net production Digitized by Microsoft® 4l8 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS would be $51.04 and in the cost of the food but $15.82. The wisdom of careful selection and close culling in the dairy are thus emphasized. Experiments have shown that production costs more in winter than in summer, in keeping with the relative change in food values. The maximum of cost is usually reached in March and April, and the minimum in the early months of pasture. As winter approaches, the cost again increases. This does not mean that summer dairying is more profitable. It is usually less so, owing to the ■relative!}' cheaper value of dairy products. On the average farm it would be correct to say, that winter dairying, all things considered, is the more profitable and generally ad- vantageous. As the cost of the plant, that is, the cost of rent of land and buildings, cows and dairy utensils increases, so does the interest on the investment. The difference in this respect on cheap land and fertile, and dear land and not much fertile, is very considerable. The difference in wages may also vary materially in localities. The cost of trans- portation must be considered, and the difference here also may be material in the case of milk. In the face of influences which thus vary, it is impossible to give mean averages of the cost of producing 100 pounds of milk, or one pound of butter fat. With a whole herd it has seldom been found possible during recent years to produce the former at a less cost than 50 cents and the latter at a less cost than 12 cents. Quantity in milk production. — The influences that affect quantity in milk production include the following: (i) The food fed; (2) the breed or grade; (3) type; (4) inheritance; (5) size; (6) age; (7) time from calving; (8) exercise; (9) discomfort arising from any source, and (10) habit in milk giving. It is not possible to state the relative degrees of the influence thus exercised, since it will vary with variation in the attendant conditions. Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 419 That the food fed exercises a most potent influence on the quantity of milk produced is evident from the fact, that though all the other influences should be present in the most desirable form, the quantity of milk produced can only be proportionate to the suitability of the food ration. The essentials in foods favorable to milk production are : A high relative pf otein content, enough of succulence, sufficient concentration, and at least a reasonable degree of palatability. The influence of the breed or grade on milk produc- tion, more especially with reference to quantity in produc- tion, is recognized in the classification of cows, as dairy, dual purpose and beef breeds. This classification carries along with it the thought that the class first named pos- sesses dairy qualities in the highest degree, including, of course, quantity in milk production. Experience in grading has also shown that the influence of breed on production in the grade is so marked, that a limited number of genera- tions of up-grading will so effectively enstamp milking qualities, that these will bear a close resemblance to the same in the breed from which the sires have been chosen. When accompanied by careful selection, this result should follow within, say four to six generations of careful breed- ing. For the standing of the dairy and dual purpose breeds with reference to production see page 135. That type or form exercises a most potent influence on quantity in milk production cannot be questioned. (See p. 143.) It is possible nevertheless that some writers on dairy form have assigned a higher relative value to it, as gen- erally outlined, than it is entitled to, and that some breeders have sought it to an extent that has led to a lessened pro- duction. The most that can be claimed for it is, that it is an indicator of quantity in milk production, so reliable, as to furnish a reasonably safe general guide when select- ing or judging dairy cattle. That it is not an infallible guide is shown first, in the inability of the best judges to certainly determine the rank of the various animals in a Digitized by Microsoft® 420 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS dairy nerd in the order of tne relative milk yields obtained from each. This inability is based on the fact that highest type, as based on generally recognized interpretation, is not always associated with highest milk yields. Second, with some breeds, notably the Brown Swiss, large milking capacity is associated with some indications of form, nota- bly strong shoulders and heavy hams, that are usually looked upon as being antagonistic to large milk production. Furthermore, some essentials of the recognized dairy type in what may be termed the extremest form, are to some extent antagonistic to the retention of the highest de- gree of inherent stamina. These include thin, and long necks, sharpness and steepness at the withers and down- ward spring of rib, beyond a certain degree. Extreme in degree, these point to and are associated with a vitality not of the strongest and most vigorous type. Some regard must be had then to the law of equilibrium in dairy form, even though it should be necessary to sacrifice something in milk yields in order to maintain it. The influence of inheritance on quantity in milk production is very potent. As with all other forms of transmission, such inheritance is not invariably uniform and certain, but it is sufficiently so to enable the skillful breeder to maintain high averages in milk yields, and even to increase them. In up-grading, the increase from such transmission is most marked. That there is a relation between large size up to a certain limit and quantity in milk production cannot be questioned. What may be regarded as phenomenal milk yields have nearly all been made by cows of large size. Such a result is in harmony with the known laws of physi- ology, as, with increase in size, other things being equal, there is increase in capacity to take the food from which milk is made. The proportion of the food nutrients di- verted for maintenance is also relatively less. The relation between size, milk production and cost is discussed else- where. (See p. 433.) Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 421 That age influences production is potent to everyone conversant with dairying. During the first years of lacta- tion, general experience has shown that the milk yields, though advancing from year to year toward maximum, are lower than maximum, and that when the meridian of vigor is passed, they gradually decline. The time re- quired to reach maximum yields and to maintain them, varies with such influences as individual vigor, based upon individual or breed inheritance, care and management. In nearly all instances maternity is a pre-requisite to milk production in any degree, and in all instances, it is a pre-requisite to the same under normal conditions. Uni- formity in the quantity of the milk flow cannot be main- tained for any considerable period. The largest milk yields are obtained during the weeks which follow the first week or two subsequently to parturi- tion. They then gradually decrease, howsoever suitable for milk production the food may be, until finally they cease entirely. The duration of the period of lactation is influenced by several conditions and may be greatly pro- longed but it cannot be maintained indefinitely in the absence of the renewing influence of maternity. ( See p. 429. ) Exercise, in so far as it tends to maintain normal vigor, is favorable to increase in the amount of milk given. When, however, it draws upon the energies beyond the necessity mentioned, it tends proportionately to reduce milk yields. Cows in milk do not call for much exercise when kept under proper sanitary conditions. Every step taken in pastures when grazing beyond actual health re- quirements, tells so far adversely on milk production. When given it should always be gentle in character. Discomfort to cows during the period of lactation may arise from many sources. Prominent among these are : ( i ) Exposure to the extent of producing unrest whether from cold or heat; (2) irritating influences such as lice, mange and flies; (3) irregularity in feeding, water- ing or milking and (4) disturbance of equilibrium in the ner- Digitized by Microsoft® 422 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS vous system. Anyone of these influences acting singly wlien present in any considerable degree may result in a marked reduction in the milk yield. For the discussion of the influence of cold and heat see pages 439 and 436. In a well ordered dairy, lice and mange may give but little or no trouble. In fact where cows are not bought in to any extent, they may never be present. Not so, however, with flies (see p. 437). From the two sources of irrita- tion first mentioned, they may with the exercise of due precaution be protected, but no precaution of an entirely practical nature can altogether protect them from flies. The remedies for such visitations do not come within the plan of this work, but the absolute necessity for removing lice and mange when present, or any other form of skin disease, is emphasized, as also the wisdom of protect- ing from flies as far as practicable. The absolute necessity for observing the strictest regu- larity in furnishing food and drink to cows, if highest milk yields are to follow, cannot be too strongly em- phasized. It has not been shown that the hour for giving food or drink exercises any special influence, providing the time is the same from day to day. Of course such hours should be chosen for giving food and drink as will best suit the purpose of the individual, providing they do not interfere with the natural season in which the cow is ac- customed to rest. Two feeds a day, ample in quantity, have been found quite as satisfactory as three. When these are given twelve hours apart, it is reasonable to suppose that equilibrium in digestion will be more perfect and more easily maintained, than when the intervals between feed- ing are of unequal length. When they are unequal, the digestive organs are more severely taxed during the short- er interval, and in proportion as it is shorter. But regu- larity in feeding is more important than duration between the periods of feeding or even the number of feeds per day. Irregularity in milking interferes with function in the milk gland. (See p. 480.) When milk is being elaborated Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 423 in large quantities, the retention of the same beyond the usual time produces discomfort. No more certain method of reducing the milk flow can be adapted than that which withdraws the milk from the udder at irregular intervals, and the reduction is further increased when the milk is not all taken from the udder, a neglect of which careless milkers are frequently guilty. Milk elaboration is more or less influenced by the nervous system preceding and accompanying such elabora- tion. Nervous calm is favorable to the process, and nervous unrest unfavorable. This explains in part at least why it is so harmful to chase cows in milk with dogs. It also explains why noisy and rough herdsmen, even though not necessarily cruel, cannot bring the herd up to highest possible capacity in milk-giving. It also makes it plain why gentle milkers who are uniformly so when milking, will get more milk from cows than those opposite in their ways. The influence of habit on quantity in milk production is shown in various ways. Among these are the following : (i) In the tendency in the average cow that suckles her calf to produce no more milk than the calf can utilize when the feeding is not forced; (2) in the relatively short period during which she provides food for her calf and this period usually does not cover more than six to seven months; (3) in the relatively large quantity of milk produced by the average dairy cow properly cared for; (4) in the difficulty frequently found in drying off good dairy cows to give them a period of rest before calving; (5) in the great increase in milk production that may be obtained even from a cow possessed of what may be termed the beef form, through patient, persistent milking from year to year. The relation between the influence of habit on quantity in milk production and inheritance is close. The same may be said of the various influences that offset quantity in milk production. In fact they are in a sense Digitized by Microsoft® 424" FEEDING FARM ANIMALS a more or less complicated inter-related whole, which re- act upon each other, so closely that it would be impossible to tell the degree of the influence that should be assigned to each. Quality in milk production. — Quality in milk, relates chiefly to its composition as to constituents, also to taste, flavor and color. The more potent of the influences which affect quaHty in the milk of the cow and also probably in that of other domestic animals are: (i) Food; (2) breed or grade; (3) individuality within the breed or grade; (4) the time of the lactation period and also of the milk- ing season when it is taken from the udder and (5) quantity in the milk flow. The milk of mares is in- fluenced to some extent by work. Food affects quantity in milk to a far greater extent than quality (see p. 419). But it also affects quality to some extent with reference to constituents of the miik as to the proportion of the solids and other components which it contains, and in a greater degree, taste and flavor in the same. Food rich in protein may considerably in- crease the proportion of solids but the increase relates to other factors rather than to fat. This would seem to explain how the quantity of butter may to some extent be increased by correct feeding without increasing the propor- tion of the butter fat. The popular view that watery food increases the proportion of water in milk, has not been sus- tained by experiments conducted to throw light upon this question. That food exercised an important determining in- fluence on the percentage of butter fat in milk was matter of universal belief until recent years. So deeply rooted is this belief in the minds of a considerable number of practical dairymen, that they still cherish it in the face of evidence based on experiment to the contrary. Many es.- periments carefully conducted have shown that while food may and .does increase or decrease materially the total yield of fat, that it does not essentially increase or decrease Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 425 the percentage of the fat. It is true, nevertheless, that if a cow has been fed so long on innutritions food that her condition as to flesh and bodily vigor have been greatly reduced, and if such food is supplanted by a ration rich in character, there will in time be some increase up to a certain limit in the fat in the milk. Under normal con- ditions there may be slight variations in the percentage of butter fat following a change of food, but these are more or less temporary in character. It is also true that food may in the course of generations exercise some in- fluence on the normal quality of milk as to butter fat, ar, witnessed in the essential difference in this respect witli reference to the milk of cows maintained on the bulky and watery foods of moist lands of the Netherlands, and those maintained on foods less bulky and watery as grown in the Channel islands. But selection also with the cows in the two countries has had its influence. How much is to be attributed to each can never be known. Food also in- fluences the mechanical condition of the butter fat and to some extent its chemical condition, as shown in its keep- ing qualities. Some foods, as cottonseed for instance, ren- der butter more firm, and others as oil cake when fed in very large quantities, render it less so. The influence of food also extends to taste, flavor and color. Taste and flavor are so closely allied, that usually if not indeed always, what influences one also influences the other. Among the foods that influence both favorably are fresh succulent grasses, nutritious in character. Among those that influence both unfavorably, when eaten in large quantities are rye and rape among pastures ; turnips, ruta- bagas and the tops of these, and to less extent potatoes among roots and tubers; and leeks {Allium tricoccum) and penny cress (Thalsapi arvense) among weeds. The taint thus imparted to the milk extends also to the butter. Color in milk is more influenced by breed than by feed as shown below, but it is true also that foods which furnish the most palatable milk also furnish it of good color. Digitized by Microsoft® 426 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Breed influences the constituents of milk more prob- ably than anything else, with the exception of species. The difference in the components of the milk of mares and of cows is greater than the difference in the same between cows of one and the same breed. Some breeds produce milk with a higher percentage of butter fat than others. The difference is marked, averaging in many instances as much as i per cent. Milk richest in butter fat comes from the Channel island breeds. Breed also affects color in milk and in some degree taste, since increase or decrease in percentage of fat influences taste. Taste may vary in in- dividuals, but, usually the more fat the milk contains, the more agreeable is the taste considered. The bright straw colored tint in milk increases with the percentage of fat and vice' versa. The influence on color extends also to butter made from the milk. The Guernsey breed is pro- verbial for producing butter that is rich in color, that is butter of a bright yellowish hue. The influence of grade on milk in the cows is the same in kind as that of breed but less in degree. This means for instance that the higher the percentage of Jersey blood in Jersey grades the higher relatively will be the percentage of fat in the milk. But not until quite a number of generations of Jersey grades have been produced will the per cent of fat in the milk test as high on the average as the milk of the pure Jersey, (seep. 41). The difference in the quality of milk, more especially with reference to the amount of butter fat which it contains is sometimes greater within the breed or grade than it is between breeds. In extreme instances it may average as much as 2 per cent. The immediate cause is the char- acter of the milk gland. One cow of the same age and breed, fed on precisely the same kind of food, and under exactly the same conditions, will furnish much less milk and milk also less rich in butter fat than another cow and no amount of forcing can make the former produce equal to the latter since the milk gland has not the same capacity Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 427 for producing milk equal in quantity or quality to the milk gland of the other. But the primary cause must trace back to the variations which accompany inheritance. As the time of calving is receded from, the quantity of the milk produced decreases more or less gradually. With such decrease comes an increase in the proportion of casein and to some extent decrease in the. proportion of fat. The fat also contains a larger proportion of volatile fatty acids during the earlier periods of lactation, hence the butter made from it is more highly flavored. The variations found in the percentage of fat in the same animal from whatever source they may arise are sHght, compared with those found in milk as it is drawn from the udder. That first drawn is lowest in butter fat and the increase in the per cent of the fat is continuously progressive, the richest milk being taken last. The differ- ence is in some instances considerably more than 100 per cent. Quantity in the milk flow influences the proportion of solids in the milk. It may be affirmed that as a rule: (i) Large yields of milk from cows are more watery than small ones; (2) that milk is less watery as the lactation period advances and (3) that the longer the intervals between the milkings the more watery is the milk. Breeds and milk production. — Breed influences: (i) Quantity in production; (2) quality in the same and (3) adaptation for production with reference to environment. It is by no means the only influence bearing upon any one of the phases of production just mentioned, but it does bear upon each of them sufficiently to entitle it to careful consideration when deciding upon the breed or high grade of the same that shall be chosen for dairying. That breed influences quantity in milk production is well brought out in the considerably higher averages ob- tained from Holstein-Friesian cows as compared with the Jersey. The same is true of high grades of these respec- tive breeds. The difference in this respect cannot be Digitized by Microsoft® 428 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Stated in percentages, owing to the great variations in in- dividuality in single animals and in whole herds, the oui- come of breeding, selection and other influences. It has been sufficiently recognized, however, by practical men, to influence them in establishing their herds. When milk is wanted for sale, as in cities, the preference has been in favor of the Holstein rather than the Jersey. The same preference has been shown on many farms where large quantities of skim milk are wanted for feeding swine and kindred uses. Of the four distinct dairy breeds in America, the Holstein, the Ayrshire, the Guernsey and the Jersey, it would be correct to say that the Holsteins rank highest for quantity in milk production, the Ayrshires second, and if there is a difl^erence the Guernseys will rank third. The dual types, including the milking Shorthorn, the Red Poll, the Brown Swiss and the Devon, all rank at least medium in the quantity of milk produced, higher probably than the Guernsey and Jersey, and lower than the Holstein. For quality in milk based on the percentage of the butter fat, the Jersey and Guernsey are unquestionably en- titled to first place. If there is a difference in the balancing, it would probably incline toward the Jersey. Next in the percentage of butter fat comes the Ayrshire, and the Holstein stands lowest. Where cream and butter are the chief considerations, aside from the influences of adaptation to environment, it is very evident which of the breeds will best answer the purpose. Without additional light it would not be possible to classify the milk of the dual types in the order of richness in butter fat. The milk of each of these rante at least medium in this respect. Like that of the Ayrshire it is equally well adapted to the production of butter and cheese. For the last named purpose, the milk of the Holstein also ranks at least medium. The milk of the Jersey and Guernsey are not so much used in cheese making as that of the other breeds named, not from any want of adaptation for such a use, but from the smaller relative yields frequently obtained. Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 429 The adaptation of breed to the environment should never be ignored. That relatively light breeds fare better on rugged lands and pastures extensive in production is now generally conceded. It is also generally accepted that the Ayrshire and the Devon have higher adaptation for stern climates than some at least of the other breeds. The milk of high grades of all the breeds named lias essentially the same peculiarities as that of the breeds in the pure form, but probably they do not possess these in the same degree. It would seem to be true that changing the quality of the milk produced is not so easily or quickly accomplished as changing the animal form. Lactation and milk production. — With reference to milk giving it may be said: (i)That the period of the lactation exercises an important influence on production ; (2) the milk yield is greatest a short time subsequently to the time of calving; (3) after a time it lessens gradually under normal conditions, until finally it ceases ; (4) it is, of course, chiefly dependent on the food fed, but not entirely so. Milk giving is dependent on maternity, first with refer- ence to its possibility, and second, with reference to its re- newal. The instances are exceedingly rare though not en- tirely unknown, in which cows can be made to produce milk, in the absence of maternity. It is a provision arranged for by nature, whereby suitable food is prepared by the cow for her progeny to sustain it from birth until it is old enough to live upon other food. In cows left to the in- fluences of nature only, it ceases entirely as soon as the calf is able to provide otherwise for itself, but, subject to man's control, it may be prolonged indefinitely within cer- tain limits. Beyond these, no power or skill can prolong its continuance, hence the necessity for renewal from time to time through the production of progeny. Such renewal is customary with the cow, under normal conditions, about once a year, but frequently it occurs at irregular periods, owing to various causes. Digitized by Microsoft® 430 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS -The milk yield is greatest a short time subsequently to the time of calving. That it is not greatest at the time of calving is also a wise provision of nature, otherwise the calf could not take a sufficiently large quantity of the milk from the udder, in consequence of which disaster might result to the cow. When deposited beyond a certain quantity in the receptacles of the udder and not removed at such a time, milk fever and other ills may follow. The increase is gradual and continuous until maximum produc- tion is reached. The duration of this interval varies in cows and in the same cow, owing in part at least to the condition of the udder. The greater the degree of in- flammation, which to some extent is frequently present at the time of calving, the longer is the time required. Usually maximum yields are reached in from two to three weeks from the date of calving. Maximum yields having been reached, they remain normal for a time. This period is usually short, only cover- ing a few weeks at the longest. Its continuance is de- pendent to a considerable degree on the food fed, but it would seem also to be itifluenced to some degree by in- heritance and habit as well. Declension then begins grad- ually and continues at a ratio more or less regular, until milk giving finally ceases. Professor Sturtevant concludes that the average decrease in the milk yields from month to month is about 9 per cent. While the absolute amount of milk produced is largely dependent on the kind and amount of the food fed, it is by no means entirely so. No amount of food fed to two cows practically equal in milk giving power, can secure from them equal milk yields, when one is considerably more advanced in lactation than the other. Milk yields are largely dependent on the activity of the milk gland, which is greatest shortly after parturition, and which grad- ually lessens until finally it ceases altogether. Food that is eminently suitable and persistent and careful milking may greatly prolong the milk-giving period in the absence of Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 43 1 renewal in the natural way, sometimes to the duration of two or three years, but in such instances the yields become so small after a time as to prove unprofitable. It is also important that the milk yields shall be well sustained during the normal season for milk-giving, by feeding liberal supplies of suitable food. Should declension in milk yields result at a period unnecessarily soon, from Want of food suitable and sufficient in quantity, and should the attempt be made to advance the milk, yields subsequently by giving proper food, it will be only partially successful. The yield may be increased but not to what it would have been under proper management. The increase possible would be proportionate to the extent of the declension in the milk yields, and to the duration of the period covered by such declension. During the period of highest milk yields, the cow and a.so other females generally lose more or less in flesh. The loss in body weight is proportionate to the relative milk yields, but it may be affected to some extent by other in- fluences such as inheritance and the nature of the food. As the milk yields decline, the lost weight is gradually re- stored under normal conditions, until it reaches the former level. Age ana milk production. — Milk producing capacity in cows may be divided into three periods, as follows : ( I ) The period which leads up to maximum yields; (2) the period of maximum yields; and (3) the period of declen- sion which follows. These vary in individual animals and to some extent in breeds. A good cow properly managed should be profitable in the dairy for nine or ten years. This period, however, is longer than the average dairy cow is retained in the average herd. Assuming that the cow produces profitably for, say nine years, the three periods above referred to will cover three years each. The discus- sion that follows is based on the assumption that cows come into milk when two years old, which is usually the case with dairy cows. Digitized by Microsoft® 432 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS During the first period; viz., from two to five years, there is gradual increase in milk-giving capacity. This in- crease is material, frequently amounting to considerably more than 50 per cent. The relatively low production dur- ing this period is caused in part by the diversion of food nutrients to promote increase in growth. This, however, does not furnish a complete explanation, as milk produc- tion increases more relatively than weight, and it continues for a time after increase in weight has ceased. It would seem fair to assume, that there is increase in capacity of function in the milk gland, the outcome in part at least of use, on the same principle that use strengthens any other organ of the body up to a certain limit. During the second period ; viz., from six to nine years, the yields should not vary much, but toward the latter portion of the same, the tendency toward declension is accentuated in many instances. On the whole, however, the years covered by this period are those of the most prof- itable production in the cow, notwithstanding the greater activity of the digestive and assimilative functions during the previous period. During the third period; viz., from nine to 12 years, the decline in production continues, although it is not rapid, not nearly so marked as a rule as the increase during the first period'. The value of a cow in the dairy, therefore, is greater during the third period than during the first. It is to be understood, however, that in actual ex- perience, the variations may be considerable, owing to the way in which a cow is fed. The machinery of digestion may be driven at a rate so rapid through high feeding, that the first period may prove the most profitable, and that a cow's usefulness may be at an end before the close of the second period. In some instances maximum produc- tion may not be reached until the seventh year, in other instances it is reached at five years, and yet again produc- tion may be more profitable in the ninth year than in the eighth. Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 433 The relation between actual and profitable production is close and intimate. Actual production in the first period has been found by experiment to be less profitable the first period than the second, and more profitable the second than the third. In other words more food relatively is re- quired to produce loo pounds of milk during the first than the second period and less food relatively during the second than the third. Large and small cows. — Authorities are not all agreed as to the relative profit from large and small cows, respec- tively. Sucl\ disagreement results probably from the ob- served fact that experience has shown that the bearing of size on production if operative at all, is much less so than that of various other influences apart from size, such as inheritance and individuality. The balance of testimony, however, favors the view that, other things being equal, large cows of the breed or grade are on the whole more profitable relatively than smaller ones. Three experiments conducted by Brandl with small and large sows, respectively, gave the following results : The small cows gave less milk relatively than the large ones, and consumed more food relatively in making it, but the milk was somewhat richer in fat. The result last stated is in keeping with the general relation between quantity in milk production and the fat which it contains, (see p. 427). The large cows not only produced more milk relatively and absolutely than the small ones and on less feed relatively, but when farrow they proved more persistent milkers and sold at a greater relative profit per head, after having been kept almost a year. Fifteen of each class were included in the experiment, the average weight of the fighter cows be- ing 979 pounds and of the heavier 1,205 pounds. Woll gives a summary of the results of breed test No. I, conducted at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago, 1893, and bearing on this question. The cows, 75 in num- ber, are divided into three groups, and each group con- tained the same number of Jerseys, Guernseys and Short- Digitized by Microsoft® 434 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS horns respectively. They are classified as light, medium and heavy. The cost of producing lOO pounds of butter fat with these respective groups was $17.93, $i7-79 ^^'^ $17.42. The following facts are noteworthy : ( i ) The 25 Jer- sey cows entered in the competition at the Lousiana Pur- chase Exposition in St. Louis, 1904, were considerably larger in size than the average of the breed. They weighed 91 1.2 pounds on an average at the commencement of the test and 983 pounds at its close. These cows were used in a test of which economic production was a prominent factor. (2) The cows that have proved the world's record makers are considerably above the average in size. (3) The same is true of a majority of the cows entered in the vari- ous advanced registry associations. While the difference in relative profit from large and small cows respectively is not large, it unquestionably be- longs to those of large size. It is probably the outcome of the relation between size and the relative amount of the food maintenance required. This in mature animals is even more than one half the entire ration. Probably more than nine-tenths of the heat generated by the food goes to supply the loss through radiation, perspiration and respi- ration. The loss through radiation is greater relatively in the small than in the large animal, owing to the relatively larger body surfaces in the former. But aside from relative milk production, there are some reasons why breeders should aim to produce relatively large rather than small cows for the breed. These include the following: (i) Good constitution and stamina are more frequently associated with well developed animals, in- cluding cows, than with those less well developed. (2) Uni- formity in size should be the aim of the breeder as an evidence of good and skilful breeding, and the standard thus set should favor at least average size for the breed, as a guaranty of the absence of degeneracy. (3) Animals of full size, or rather more, take the market more readily than those under size, whether sold for the dairy or the shambles. Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 435 Relative milk-giving capacity. — But little information can be given with reference to tlie milk-giving capacity of any of the classes of live stock, except cows, tliat is based on American experience. Nor can it be said that the question is greatly important except in the prospective sense, that is, in so far as it relates to the possible sources other than cows, from which ■ milk may be obtained. In discussing the question, therefore, something may be said: (i) Regarding the milk-giving capacity of cows; (2) the probable milk giving capacity of other domestic animals, as mares, ewes, and female goats, usually spoken of as nannies and (3) the probable sources of milk production in the future. The difference in capacity in cows to give milk, is simply surprising. In well regulated dairies, 6,000 pounds a year per cow may be set down as the minimum of pos- sible production. It would be safe to affirm that the average annual yield of all the cows milked at the present time in the United States and Canada is not more than half that amount. With individuals of some breeds and also of some grades, it is easily possible to obtain 10,000 pounds of milk a year without resorting to feeding unduly forced. For the facts regarding maximum production, see page 418, and for the discussion of the influences that affect quantity in production, see page 424. While no data based on American experience with reference to the amount of milk produced by mares dur- ing lactation "is available, the average amount given by a mare is fully equal to and probably more than that given by the cow which merely suckles her calf up to the period of weaning. Basing the amount of milk given on the 'in- crease in the weight resulting, the average foal will con- sume more milk than the average calf. It would seem probable, therefore, that mares could be so managed as to produce milk yields fully equal to those of cows. At the Wisconsin experiment station it was ascertained that through weighing the lambs, both before and after nursing. Digitized by Microsoft® 436 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS certain grade Shropshire ewes gave from 2.51 to 3.96 pounds daily. Experiments at the same station conducted similarly with sows of the lard types, found that they gave from 4.1 to 5.8 pounds daily. The tests were made at in- tervals during the nursing period. Under American conditions, it is more than probable that the cow will continue to be the source from which the greater portion of the milk needed will come. Mare's milk is not likely to be used as food for man, if for no other reason than the much greater ease with which cow's milk can be drawn from the udder. The milk breeds of sheep in certain areas of West Central Europe are credited with giving in response to hand milking, fully 8 pounds per day soon after coming into lactation. But, should even greater yields be obtainable, as doubtless they could be under judicious management, it may be said that, under American conditions, ewe's milk is not likely to supplant cow's milk for the reason, first, that cow's milk is more readily obtained; second, it is more difficult to rear lambs under artificial conditions than calves, and third, the sheep is much liable to be preyed upon by dogs. It may be different, however, with milking goats which have been recently introduced into America. It is not improbable that, in the future not distant, many artisans on the outskirts of cities may yet each keep his goat to supply fresh milk for the family. They are much less dainty of their food than sheep, and are much less liable to be harmed. Protection for cows in summer. — In surnmer cows re- quire protection : ( i ) From the sun's rays when these are so warm as to produce discomfort; (2) from flies during the fly season and (3) from rain storms, cold, prolonged and severe. Neglecting to furnish any one of these will seriously lessen milk yields. While such protection is mark- edly beneficial to all classes of domestic animals, its im- portance is especially emphasized in the case of cows, be- cause of the relatively high value of the milk product which they furnish. Digitized by Microsoft® MILK PRODUCTION 437 Cows are, of course, protected from the sun s rays when they are furnished with shade. This may come from trees growing in the pastures, singly or in clumps, or in places accessible to them, by a cheap roof in the pasture sustained by poles and covered with straw, or by the stables in which they are kept in winter. Trees and roofs provided in the pastures answer the purpose until the season of flies. To shade from either of these sources during the continu- ance of the fly season, is the strong objection that they furnish breeding places in which flies multiply with great rapidity. This is owing to the droppings which accumulate in such centers in which the flies deposit their eggs. Be- cause of this, shade furnished by the stable is preferable, since when properly provided it is cooler, and as shown below, flies may be in a great measure excluded. Basement stables are especially suitable for summer "rotection because of their greater relative coolness. Absolute protection from flies in the fly season is not practical without excessive outlay in the materials used in spraying the animals, or in the labor involved in applying them, or in the two combined. Nevertheless very much may be done with profit to promote their comfort at such seasons. These methods of protection are adopted: (i) They are kept in stables during the day. These are thoroughly ventilated and yet kept so dark that flies do not care to stay, much less to work in them; (2) they are sprayed with some preparation offensive to the flies, either through its odor or its sticky character, with sufficient frequency to effect the purpose and (3) they are covered with blankets, light, coarse and cheap, and these are kept in place by elastic bands, so that the underline also is protected. Of these three methods, the first is unquestionably the best, as it furnishes more of coolness than the other forms of shade, gives the most perfect of the three forms of protection from flies, and makes it easily practicable to give the cows supplemental food which is necessary during Digitized by Microsoft® 438 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS much of the grazing season. The chief objection to it is the labor involved in removing the droppings, but this is largely offset by the increased value of the same as com- pared with having it deposited in the pastures where much waste follows. Much may also be done to prevent the multiplication of flies by promptly removing all the manure from the yards in the spring, and by drawing daily or at quite short intervals that made subsequently and applying it when needed. A free use of lime in the yards is also further helpful. The methods of darkening and ventilating the stables, the mixtures used in spraying and the exact nature of the blankets are foreign to the design of this work and will be discussed in one that is to follow on the Feeding and Management of Cattle. Gentle summer rains do not harm cows in milk while in the pastures. They may prove grateful to them. It is different with violent rains. Even though not cold, they are in some degree harmful. But most of all is exposure to long and cold rains harmful, and all the more so when these are intense. Such rains occasionally occur both in the late spring and the early autumn, lasting in some in- stances for three days at a time. Prolonged exposure to one such storm may result in a lessened milk flow which may not be recovered from for many days. The wisdom of housing milch cows at night as soon as the nights are cool enough to produce any discomfort, will be readily apparent. Shelter for cows in winter. — The necessity for provid- ing cows with suitable shelter in winter is based : ( i ) On the relative inability of the system to resist the influences of low temperatures when not in high flesh; (2) on the marked susceptibility of the function of miik secretion to changes of temperature, especially to those that bring cold, and (3) because of the favorable influence which furnish- ing such protection exerts on the economy of production. The cow in milk usually carries onl}' a moderate amount of flesh and but little fat. On the other hand, the Digitized by Microsoft® MILK TRODUCTION 439 cattle beast that is being fattened usually soon lays on a covering of external fat, which goes far to protect the system from the penetrating influences of cold. Expose a milch cow in moderate or lean flesh to cold beyond a certain degree, and soon she stands with the back drawn up as an evidence of her discomfort. The fat steer similarly exposed will show no signs of discomfort. The susceptibility of the function of milk secretion to the influence of low temperatures is shown by the quick- ness of the reduction which takes place in the milk yields consequent upon such exposure, and by the constancy of the same. The effect of such exposure will be manifest in the shrinkage in yield in the first milking following, and in every succeeding milking during the continuance of the exposure. If continued for a period of considerable length, the result will be that the yields will not become normal again, though the cause of the reduction should be removed. It is probably caused to some extent by the relaxed and somewhat reduced condition of the system consequent up- on maternity, and in part by the diversion of a portion of the nutrients that would otherwise be concerned in making milk to the defense of the system against the cold. In an experiment conducted at the Indiana experiment station, it was found that the cows that were housed during the 48 days of the experiment, gained in flesh considerably, while the latter lost flesh. The former also gave consid- erably more milk on less feed. Professor Plumb, who conducted the experiment, concludes that a saving of $4.26 per cow was effected by the shelter furnished, not- withstanding that the cows exposed were given the pro- tection of an open shed in a sheltered place, and that they were not confined to it daily for a longer period than eight hours in the warmer portion of the day. In view of the above, the following practices are to be deprecated: (i) Allowing cows in milk to roam through corn stalk fields in winter in search of what is at best in- ferior milk producing food; (2) allowing such cows to Digitized by Microsoft® 440 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS remain out on pasture after the nights begin to turn cold or even during the day in weather that produces discom- fort because of its inclemency; (3) allowing them to stay in the yard during the larger portion of even mild days in winter, because of the fact that they rest more con- tentedly in their accustomed stalls. The nature of the protection required will depend upon such conditions as the character of the climate and the cost of providing it. The question cannot be discussed here further than to say, that it matters not what the nature of the materials may be which furnish it, providing it secures a temperature between 40 to 60° in winter, ample light, freedom from dampness and a constant supply of pure air. It should also be mentioned that cows not in milk gather more reserve power for the milking period which follows when given large liberty and more exposure dur- ing the non-milk-giving interval. Feeding grain to cows on pasture. — The discussion of this question involves the consideration: (i) Of the direct return in milk and butter fat from feeding the grain ; (2) the residual effect from such feeding; (3) the saving effected in the pasture and (4) the influence on fertiliza- tion. Notwithstanding that several trials have been con- ducted at various experiment stations, practical men are much divided in their opinions with reference to the ad- vantage from feeding grain to cows on pasture. Judged by the direct results obtained from feeding grain to cows on succulent and abundant pastures, the conclusion would be reached that there is no profit in such feeding. In nearly all the trials made there was in- crease in the milk yields and consequently in the butter fat, but not in the percentage of the same. The increased return did not in all instances pay for the grain, but it did in some instances. Little or no direct profit, however, re- sulted. But there was more increase in weight from the animals to which grain was given, which so far meant a Digitized by Microsoft® MILIi PRODUCTION 44I laying up as it were of reserve power in the system, to be utilized in future production. By the residual effects from feeding grain to cows on pasture is meant the influence which such feeding exerts on future production, more especially on production the following season. An interesting trial was conducted at the Cornell experiment station in order to throw light upon this question. Six cows which had been fed grain somewhat freely the previous summer and six that had not been so fed were grazed in the same pasture. In the test now considered no grain was given to either lot. The return from the lot which had been fed grain the previous season was i6 per cent greater than that from the cows in the other lot. The heifers in the grain-fed lot also made better development, which meant the promise of superior future usefulness. These results coincide with the opinions of many practical men regarding the utility of feeding a light ration of grain to cows in milk through all the season of pasturing. The saving effected in the pasture is in some instances an item of material importance, although in some of these trials it has apparently been lost sight of. It is fair to assume that a pound of dry matter fed in the form of grain will effect a saving of an equal amount of dry matter in the form of pasture. This would be of little or no importance where the pasture is superabundant, but when pasture is insufficient in supply as is frequently the case, the importance of such a saving would be material. The influence on fertilization would also mean some- thing. It would depend on the kind and amount of the grain or meal fed. If cottonseed meal or wheat bran were fed, the enrichment added in the droppings would be ma- terial. The advantage, however, from such fertilization, would be much less than would result from feeding the same amount of grain or meal to sheep that are being grazed. The whole question may be summed up as -follows: (i) When cows are first turned out on grass in the spring, Digitized by Microsoft® 442 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS grain feeding should be continued at least for a time because of the corrective influence which it has on the tendency to undue laxity in the bowels caused by the gras-s; (2) whether grain is fed or not during the weeks when grass is abundant and succulent, it should be fed as soon as the pasture becomes insufficient in quantity or dry in character; (3) that when pasture is abundant and succulent no direct profit will be obtained in the return in milk. But, (4) when the residual effects are considered on future production, the saving that is effected in the pasture, and also the re- sults on fertilization, it would seem profitable in all or nearly all instances to feed more or less grain at all times to cows on pasture. The only exception would be, instances in which the pasture supply for the season exceeded the needs of the cows. But, the amount fed should, of course, be much less when pasture is at its best than at other times. Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XIX. CONSIDERATIONS THAT RELATE TO GENERAL FEEDING. Prominent among the considerations that relate to general feeding are the following. 1. Generous feeding during pregnancy. 2. Feeding the first milk. 3. Food for maintenance. 4. Growth and future production. 5. Foods vary in adaptation. 6. Foods that influence digestion. 7. When to feed concentrates. 8. Proportion of concentrates to roughage. 9. Changing foods. 10. Adjusting foods and needs of animals. 11. Foods, home grown or purchased. 12. Relative food values. 13. Sustaining power of pastures. 14. Condimental foods. 15. The place for self-feeders. 16. Relative profits from domestic animals. These are discussed in the order named. Generous feeding during pregnancy. — The opinion has become widely prevalent that what may be termed high condition or fleshiness in the pregnant dam tells adversely on reproduction. It has been claimed that it tells adversely on the development of the young animal in utero and that it is the harbinger of trouble at the time of parturition. This opinion rests doubtless on the observed facts, that the progeny of very fat dams when born is of small size, and that trouble does arise more frequently with such dams and also with their progeny at paturition than with dams less fleshy. But it fails to take into account the source from which the fat has come, as is shown below. In discussing 443 Digitized by Microsoft® 444 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS this subject, it will be safe to affirm: (i) That the food of dams that are pregnant should be generous; (2) that it should be richer for pregnant dams that are immature than for those that are mature, and (3) that when harm comes to such dams or their progeny from liberal feeding, it is because the ration is unsuitable in kind, rather than in quantity. Dams that are pregnant should be fed generously for the following reasons : First, at such a time they are sus- taining two animals. The food which results in develop- ment of the embryo comes, of course, from the dam. Oth- erwise she would utilize it herself as far as necessary to meet her needs. Second, because of the heavy drain upon the system of the dam in supplying the progeny with milk after birth. She is almost certain to loose flesh at such a time and all the more so if she is a generous milker. This loss in some instances is not less than 100 pounds within say 150 days of the time of calving even though the feeding is generous. This means that to some extent she draws upon certain of the organized constituents or materials of her system, particularly the fat to furnish food for her young offspring. The more fleshy she is at the time of parturition, the more of this reserve is there to draw from, the less will she suffer from emaciation, and the more generously will the progeny be maintained. Third, it is almost im- possible to prevent some loss of flesh in a generous milk- ing dam for a time at least, during the early part of the milk, giving period, howsoever liberal the feeding may be. If such a dam is in low flesh at the time of parturition, the further loss of flesh which follows lowers her vital energies to such an extent that her progeny is not so well sustained, and her future usefulness is so far lessened. Her system must be built up again before profitable conception will follow. When pregnant dams are immature, a threefold burden is put upon them. The first is, that of maintenance ; the sec- ond, that of nourishing the embryo, and the third, that of Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 445 iurther development. It is very evident that more food rela- tively must be given to such an animal than to one mature, and that it should also be richer relatively in protein to sus- tain properly the dual development that is required. With such a division of the energies of the system, poor feeding would be doubly harmful. It would seem correct to say, that when pregnant ani- mals are supplied with food rightly balanced as to its nutri- ents, and with proper adjustment between the roughage and concentrates, they are not much likely to accumulate flesh to the extent of working harm to themselves or to their young. It is when the nutrients are not rightly balanced that such harm occurs. This may and does happen, when sows for instance are fed mainly on corn while pregnant, or when cows in a similar condition are fed mainly on carbonaceous food, such as rye and corn fodder. In ad- dition to possessing a large proportion of protein, the food for such animals should be of such a character as to keep the digestion correct. Constipation is to be carefully avoided. The judicious feeding of such supplements as bran, oil cake and field roots at such a time is to be strongly commended. Instances may also occur when the animals would become so fleshy as to disincline them to take enough exercise for the well-being of their unborn progeny, but usually this occurs only when the carbonaceous elements in the ration are in excess. Feeding the first milk. — The properties of the milk first drawn from the dam after parturition are very differ- ent, in degree at least, from those which it possesses when normal. This milk, known as the colostrum, is more dense in its consistency and yellow in color than natural milk. The protein, that is the casein and albumen, in the first milk of the cow, is about five times the amount of these products in ordinary cow's milk and may considerably exceed the proportions named. But it is much lower in milk sugar and is also lower in fat. The composition of the first milk is a provision of nature to meet the needs of the newly born Digitized by Microsoft® 446 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS progeny. In addition to providing nourishment, it tends to cleanse the intestines, and thus to pave the way for the natural processes of digestion. The importance of giving such milk to the young ani- mal as its first meal cannot be over-estimated. In its ab- sence, constipation is likely to follow, which will terminate fatally, unless relieved. No substitute can be given that will in every respect take the place of colostrum. Even though it is known that the dam is tubercular, it would be a mistake to withhold her milk from her young calf, until the processes of digestion have been properly begun. The laxative properties of the milk would seem to make such feeding safe. But it sometimes happens that colostrum cannot be ob- tained from the dam of the young animal, as in instances when the dam dies while bringing forth her progeny. In such instances, if colostrum can be obtained from some other dam of the same species, it will usually effect the end sought. This, however, is seldom possible, hence, it may be necessary to administer some substances that will cleanse the digestive tract before any food is given. Castor oil is generally used for this purpose. The ordinary dose for a colt or a calf is an ounce; for a lamb, a teaspoonful, and for a young pig, about half a teaspoonful. Sometimes an injection of warm water will effect the end sought. In other instances, an injection should accompany the ad- ministering of the purgative, as the latter, especially in the case of foals, will not in all instances effect the end sought without such aid. When accident occurs so that the dam's milk cannot be given, the substitute on which nearly all domestic animals must be reared is cow's milk. This differs materially in its constituents from the milk of other domestic animals. Cow's milk is much richer in casein and albumen, also in fat than mare's milk, hence, when it is substituted for mare's milk, it is customary to add one part water to two or three parts of the milk, and also to add a teaspoonful of common sugar Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING ' 447 to each quart of the milk thus diluted. Ewe's milk is much richer in protein and fat than cow's milk. When cow's milk is substituted, cream ,added is helpful as intimated previ- ously, but the strippings from the cow will probably be even more suitable. Sow's milk is richer in all constituents than cow's milk, hence when the latter is fed to pigs quite young, the addition of some cream and sugar would probably make it more suitable for them. It should be noticed, however, that such feeding ap- plies to the first days and it may be weeks of feed- ing, rather than to giving the first meal. The additions mentioned will not make cow's milk to closely resemble colostrum in its properties. It only makes it to approximate the milk of other animals in its constituents under normal conditions, hence the wisdom of the treatment referred to when colostrum cannot be obtained. Food for maintenance. — Food for maintenance means the amount of food that will keep an animal from gaining or losing when at rest, that is, when not producing in the form of meat, milk or labor, and when not taking more exercise than is really necessary in order to maintain health. It is frequently referred to as the food of support. To find the food for maintenance, as practically applied to animals of all classes and ages, furnishes a complicated problem, owing to the variation caused by growth and in- dividuality. Because of this, experiments in regard to it have been conducted more frequently with mature animals. However, the following may be safely affirmed with regard to it : ( I ) It increases with reference to the total nutrients required with advancing age; (2) production is not pos- sible, unless the food given exceeds the amount required for maintenance; (3) the profit from food consumed is proportionate to the amount of the same that is properly assimilated when suitable in kind. That more food would be required for maintenance up to maturity is apparent, from the larger bulk in the animal economy to be maintained. That more is required Digitized by Microsoft® 448 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS also after maturity has been reached and as age advances, is evident as a result of the less perfect assimilation of the food consumed as the animal grows older. Individuality also exercises an influence, as animals of the same breed, sex and age, differ much in their ability to assimilate food. Armsby, quoting from German investigations, gives the following with reference to the food of maintenance called for to support i,ooo pounds of live weight with oxen and sheep: Oxen required daily, 0.6 pound digestible protein and 7.5 pounds digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients. The coarse wooled breeds of sheep required, 1.2 pounds and 10.8 pounds, and the fine wooled breeds, 1.5 pounds and 12 pounds respectively, of these nutrients. That production of any kind is not possible unless the amount of food given exceeds the amount for maintenance is self-evident. Notwithstanding, the instances are frequent on the farm where the food of support is all that is required. Such is frequently the case with horses that are being car- ried through the winter. There may be instances when it is judicious to feed a quantity somewhat short of main- tenance as when animals designed for breeding carry an excess of flesh, or when show animals are to be reduced temporarily, subsequently to the season during which they have been exhibited. That the profit from the food consumed is proportion- ate to the amount that is properly assimilated, is also self- evident, hence the wisdom of feeding animals in excess of the needs of maintenance, according to the production re- quired of them. Pregnant animals must be given more than the food of maintenance to develop the foetus which they carry. Horses at work must be given food in excess of maintenance according to the work required of them. Cows in milk should be given all the suitable food that they can properly digest without overtaxing the di- gestion, and the same is true of animals that are being fattened. Growing animals should be given enough suit- able food to produce full development and proper in kind Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 449 within the shortest period that this may be attainable. To withhold rations from animals up to the limit stated is false economy. In the aggregate the amount thus lost in the maintenance of live stock is very great. More than half the food fed to live stock is used as food for maintenance. Growth and future production. — If maximum produc- tion is to be obtained from domestic animals, they must be fed and managed at all times with reference to future production. This principle applies: (i) To the nourish- ment of the foetus carried by the pregnant animal; (2) to periods of arrested development at any time prior to ma- turity; (3) to the growing of animals with reference to the production of milk, meat or labor; (4) to the foods used in making growth with reference to future growth, and ( 5 ) to the over-taxing of the physical powers, whether digestive or muscular. Unless the young animal in ntero is properly sustained through suitable food taken by the dam, it begins life with a handicap, which no food or care subsequently can ever completely overcome. The food and management of the dam, therefore, during the entire period of pregnancy will exert an influence on the producing capacity of the progeny during the whole of the life period. (See p. 124.) For the discussion of arrested development and the in- fluences that result from it, see page 65. If the heifer is to produce milk abundantly in the dairy during development, the habit must not be encouraged of laying on fat beyond a certain limit. But this idea in practice must not be carried to the extent of in any way hindering a vigorous and robust development. On the other hand, if the young animal is grown to furnish meat, good steady growth which carries along with it a reason- able amount of fat will influence favorably future produc- tion. If food is insufficient in quantity or nutrition, or excessive in both respects, the influence on future produc- tion will be unfavorable. Likewise if the growing colt is fed improperly for the end for which it is being grown, the results will be disappointing. Digitized by Microsoft® 450 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The influence which food has upon future develop- ment is very potent. Feed a young animal on food low relatively in mineral matter and protein and the framework is deficient and weak, while it carries too large a propor- tion of fat. The outcome is dwarfed development. Corn when fed to excess produces these results. This has been abundantly shown by experiments at the Wisconsin station and also in the experience of individual feeders. Swine grown largely on pasture, succulent and nourishing, as clover, alfalfa or rape, will make greater and more pro- longed gains than those grown entirely on grains. Suc- culent foods also put cattle and sheep into that "sappy," condition of flesh that is favorable to quick gains and pro- longed fattening. Present results, therefore, are not the only returns obtained by feeding certain foods. The skilled fitter of show animals feeds foods that will insure size, and enough but not too much of flesh to ripen the animal too soon. It is thus prepared for the highest pressure feeding, until within a reasonable time of the show season. Such feeding is reserved for the last spurt, as it were, since if this were done too soon, the necessary bloom, that is fine ap- pearance, could not be maintained. The influence of driving the machinery of the digestion at too rapid a rate is discussed elsewhere. (See p. 115, al- so p. 377). Overwork in the young animal hinders develop- ment and correspondingly hinders useful performance. Overwork in the mature animal lessens future usefulness and shortens the period of the same. Foods vary in adaptation. — Foods vary in their adap- tation not only for animals of the same class at diflferent ages, but also for animals of different classes. Due recogni- tion must be given to those variations by those who are to make a success of growing live stock. That foods vary in their adaptation for animals of the same class at dif- ferent ages is self-evident, but the precise nature of the adaptation calls for careful thought and forethought, that a proper supply of each factor may be on hand when wanted. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERA-L FEEDING 451 It is important, for instance, that calves shall be given hay, fine and well cured. Cattle one or two years old may utilize, without any loss, fodders much coarser and rougher. To have a supply of such hay for calves, calls for forethought in growing the same, in cutting it at the proper stage of growth, in curing it, and in storing it so as to be accessible when wanted. The same is true of food provision in other lines. The variations in foods for the different classes of live stock are much greater than for those of the same class. They are : ( i ) Such as grow out of the necessities arising from original bestowment; (2) such as relate to digestive peculiarities and the needs growing out of these, and (3) those which are at least measurably qualified by the nature of the production required. These are additional to varia- tions called for by variations in age. Nature made the ox graminivorous, hence, grasses and grains are the proper food of cattle. Likewise it made the pig omnivorous, hence, swine may properly be given a much wider range of foods than would be suitable for cattle. Ani- mal food may be fed with advantage betimes to calves in the form of blood meal, but flesh is so foreign to the needs of cattle that it is ill-adapted to supplying these. Not so, however, is it in regard to swine. Tankage has proved a profitable food for swine, and it is possible to maintain them- on the offal of slaughter-houses alone. Nature has made the sljeep dainty as to the condition in which food is given to it, hence, unless good in quality, it will reject it, except under the pressure of hunger. On the other hand, swine will consume offal to such an extent that they may be regarded as scavengers. The greater relative ability of cattle and sheep to di- gest bulky foods as compared with horses, and especially with swine, is discussed elsewhere, (see p. 456). Experience has shown that meal is best administered to cattle in the dry form, but to swine after having been soaked.- It should Digitized by Microsoft® 452 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS be given to swine directly and without admixture, where- as for cattle, it is deemed preferable to mix it with a cer- tain amount of more bulky food. Nearly all kinds of grain are ground before being fed to cattle, a process of prepara- tion not deemed necessary when feeding them to sheep. The kind of production called for has a powerful in- fluence in determining how foods may best be used. Tim- othy hay, for instance, has high adaptation for feeding horses, since it is well adapted to furnishing heat and energy, and is not so laxative as alfalfa and some other foods. As a fodder for horses, it is considered inferior to clover. For cows it is not considered equal to clover, and for sheep its adaptation is considerably lower, especially if coarse and harvested late. Succulent food such as soil- ing foods, corn silage and field roots, are admirable for milk production, also young grass, whereas to give the same in large quantity to horses when hard at work would be very unwise. In furnishing pasture such adaptation should also be studied. The rape plant, for instance, is probably with- out a rival in its adaptation in providing pasture for sheep, whereas, it is ill-suited to providing pasture for horses at work. The importance of using foods in the best line of their adaptation cannot be easily over estimated. Foods that influence digestion favorably. — (i) Some foods in addition to the sustenance which they furnish, ex- ercise an influence on digestion so salutary as to place their value as foods far away above what is represented by the nutrients which they contain and the digestibility of the same; (2) the influence thus exerted tends to correct the harmful results that grow out of constipation or un- due laxness of the bowels, according to the kind of food ; (3) because of this, when used mainly to give proper tone to the digestion, the real value of such foods is usually far above their market value; (4) when fed mainl)' for such a use, small and moderate rather than large quantities should be fed. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 453 The list of these foods includes all kinds of field roots, as turnips, rutabagas, mangels, sugar beets, carrots, and parsnips. It also includes such by-products as wheat bran, oil cake of various kinds; such fodders as alfalfa and clover; such green foods as grass and rape; grass in dif- ferent stages of maturity and condiments of a salutary character, as salt and mixtures that act as a tonic when fed. \11 kinds of field roots, bran and oil cake have a tendency to relieve constipation and are possessed of high- est value when fed with dry food, as straw for instance, in winter. The real value of these foods fed to animals on succulent pastures would therefore be much less than the value when fed with foods that tend to constipate. Al- falfa and clovers tend' to correct digestion according as they are fed. When fed along with a food too constipating, they exercise some influence in correcting such a condition, but when fed along with green food such as tends to produce scouring, the effect is the opposite. Grass, rape and also alfalfa and clovers fed in the green form in suit- able quantities all tend to counteract constipation, but grass more or less matured, on the other hand, tends to correct scouring. Salt, though not a food at all in the sense of furnishing nutrients, exercises, nevertheless, a salutary in- fluence on digestion when fed in due proportion, (see p. 521). And the condiments referred to tend to stimulate the digestive organs to increased action (see p. 469). The real value of such foods will vary in proportion to the extent to which they tend to correct digestion. When the necessity for such a correction is not present, the nu- trients which they possess and the digestibility of the same is the true measure of their value. Because of this, the aim should be to feed them in a way that will add to their value. Field roots, for instance, may be fed to the extent of being a chief source of nutrition, but when so fed they will probably prove relatively an expensive food, whereas if they were fed in limited quantity as a corrective to di- gestion, they would be found relatively a very cheap food. Digitized by Microsoft® 454 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The wisdom, therefore, of feeding foods when thus used in moderate quantities will be apparent. The amounts required will of course vary with the necessities which each individual instance gives rise to, hence no hard and fast rules can be formulated in regard to feeding them. It would seem approximately correct to say, however, that from one-fourth to one-third of the amount fed on the basis of the nutrients contained, will usually effect the end sought. To illustrate: Should a dairy cow be fed 8 pounds of bran when bran is fed alone as the meal portion, from 2 to 3 pounds along with other meal would act as a regulator of digestion. When to feed concentrates. — Nutrients in tlie form of concentrates are usually more costly than an equal quan- tity of the same in the form of roughage. The supply of the latter is also generally more abundant on the farm than the supply of the former. Because of this, practical growers of live stock have erred in the extent to which they -have fed roughage and withheld concentrates. This is especially true in corn-growing areas where much of the fodder grown is never reaped, and in grain-growing areas where much of the straw grown is still burned. It is important, therefore, to know when to feed concentrates and when to withhold them. It will always be in order to feed grain : ( i ) To foals that are nursing and especially at, and subsequent to the weaning period; (2) to dams that suckle them when not • on pasture, plentiful and succulent and (3) to horses when at work. If the pastures are particularly good, nursing foals may do without grain without detriment, till toward the weaning season, but grain fed to them would not in any sense be wasted. With good protein fodders and corn ensilage in winter, nursing dams may require but little grain. The amount required by horses at work is gauged chiefly by the character and amount of the work done. It will usually be in order to feed a limited amount of grain to foals that are growing in the winter season, more es- Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 455 pecially during the first winter. The amount called for will depend chiefly on the character of the roughage fed, but the necessity for feeding more than 2 to 4 pounds per animal seldom exists. As a rule mature horses that are idle do not require grain until within a few weeks of the time labor begins. It will in nearly all instances be found profitable to feed concentrates to cattle under the following conditions : (i) To calves that are being reared on skim milk and to all calves from the weaning period onward for a time; (2) to young animals that are being grown to furnish baby beef (see p. 402) ; (3) to cattle that are being fattened under all conditions of fattening; (4) to cows in milk during the entire period of lactation. A liberal supply will be in order for calves grown on skim milk (see p. 404), and those grown for baby beef should be given practically all they will consume without injury. The amount fed to cattle that are being fattened may be much reduced when they are on good grass, and possibly withheld for a time, (see p. 398). The necessity for feeding large amounts of grain to cows in milk on good pasture is still in a way, an open question (see p. 440), but it is about cer- tain that to feed a limited amount to 'cattle that are being fattened and to cows in milk will be at- tended with some profit. It will usually be profitable to feed calves 2 or 3 pounds of grain per animal per day the first winter, and also the second winter, if they are to be finished on grass the following summer. It may not be profitable to feed grain to young cattle after the first winter where the grazing is abundant. It is not usually necessary to feed it to heifers intended for the dairy, except for a time, sub- sequently to weaning. Nor is it usually necessary to feed g-rain to cows not in milk. Sheep will profit from being given concentrates under the following conditions : ( i ) It will always be in order to feed grain to lambs before the season of grazing and subse- quently if they are to be sold as milk lambs ; (2) to lambs for Digitized by Microsoft® & 456 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS , a time subsequently to the weaning period under arable con- ditions, unless they can be provided with rich pasture such as rape furnishes ; (3) to pregnant ewes when in the yards and also after parturition and (4) to sheep and lambs that arc being fattened except when grazed on rape. Milk lambs may be given all they will consume, and pregnant ewes a small allowance before lambing, but liberal feeding subse- quently. Whether grain will be profitable if fed to sheep and lambs that are being fattened on rape, will depend upon such conditions as relative values. Shearling ewes do not usually require grain winter or summer, nor do breed- ing ewes ordinarily need it when on good pasture. It will be found profitable to feed grain to swine at all times, with one exception. The exception is that of ma- ture, brood sows on good pastures, when only one litter is required of them each year. Young pigs that are nursing and for some weeks subsequently should be given all the grain that they will take. Later when on good pasture, about half the normal grain ration that would be necessary Were they confined will suffice. During the fattening pe- riod, they should be given all they will consume with a relish. Proportion of concentrates to roughage. — In dis- cussing this question it may certainly be assumed: (i) That roughage has a mission in addition to furnishing nutriment to animals; viz., the proper distension and en- largement of the digestive organs in all animals, especially ruminants; (2) that roughage is more plentiful relatively than concentrates and because more plentiful it furnishes nutrients relatively more cheaply than grain and (3) that because of the above the aim should be to utilize roughage to the greatest extent consistent with highest profit in the live stock so fed. The necessity for feeding roughage to horses, cattle, sheep and swine is based on the need for proper distension of the digestive organs to enable animals to consume larger quantities of food than would otherwise be utilized. The Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 457 necessity for feeding it in relatively larger quantities to ruminants than to horses or swine is indicated in the rela- tively greater capacity they have for storing it and also for grinding large quantites of it in the process of rumina- tion to prepare it for digestion. When young animals arc given too large a proportion relatively of concentrates dur- ing the growing period, for want of sufficient distension in the digestive organs, they are unable to take sufficiently large quantities of food and especially of roughage, com- patible with highest production. This is evidenced in the want of largest attainable growth, even in swine that are reared entirely on a concentrated grain ration in addition to the food furnished by the dam during the nursing period. Such distension is of highest relative importance in the dairy cow, because of the necessity that requires her to consume relatively large quantities of food in proportion to her weight to properly sustain the milk flow. It is pos- sible to sustain ruminants that are mature for considerable periods without apparent injury, as was shown several years ago in the experiment of Mr. Linus W. Miller of New York, who successfully wintered during several sea- sons dry dairy cows on a ration of corn meal and water. But that such feeding is practical is of but little economic importance, because of the greater cheapness relatively of roughage. The greater plentifulness and subsequently greater relative cheapness of roughage arises, first from the fact that large quantities are furnished along with grain when growing the latter; second, large quantities may be grown and cheaply which furnish little or no grain relatively, as in the case of corn fodder grown thickly; and third, the entire grass and hay crops consist of roughage without grain, except when grown to provide seed for sowing. Roughage, therefore, will always furnish nutrients rela- tively cheaper than concentrates with rare exceptions. But this is in some degree ofifset by the higher relative diges- tibility of concentrates. Digitized by Microsoft® 458 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The wisdom of trying to utilize roughage to the great- est extent practicable will be apparent from what has been said. It is simply impossible to lay down rules that wiii apply in every case as to the proportion of roughage and concentrates that shall be fed respectively. Much must be left to the judgment of the intelligent feeder, but some things may be said that should prove helpful to the less experienced. These include the following: (i) Young- animals including foals, calves, lambs and pigs should be provided with all the roughage that they will consume from the time when they begin to feed upon it to insure the requisite distension in the digestive organs; (2) to encour- age them to take such food, it should be provided for them superior in quality and possessed of high palatability ; (3) with animals grown for future breeding or labor the rela- tive proportion of roughage to concentrates should increase until they are matured; (4) the proportion of concentrates to roughage in feeding mature horses may extend from none at all with idle horses to considerably more than 50 per cent in digestible nutrients with horses at hard labor ; (5) the proportion with mature cattle that are being fat- tened or with those nearing maturity may run all the way between ^^ and 66 per cent according to the character of the nutrients in the roughage and the duration of the feeding period; (6) the proportion with cows in milk may range between 33 and 50 per cent of all the nutrients, according to the nature of the roughage fed, but when on pasture it may be less than 33 per cent even to the extent of not feeding any; (7) the proportion with sheep that are being fattened should range between 33 and 66 per cent of all the nutrients, also based on their character and the duration of the feeding period; (8) the proportion with swine be- tween weaning and fattening should be in the neighbor- hood of 50 to 65 per cent of all the nutrients, and for all other swine, save breeding animals when not producing, it should run from 75 to 100 per cent; (9) roughage fed in Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 459 the form of legumes of high palatability lessens the re- quirement in concentrates in proportion as the former are fed; (10) this reduction may in some instances be fully 50 per cent, as when cattle and sheep that are being fat- tened and cows in milk are being fed freely on high class clover or alfalfa hay. It is to be borne in mind that the figures submitted above are to be regarded as only approximate. They are intended to be general rather than specific guides. Changing foods. — In discussing this question, it is safe to affirm: (i) That any marked change in the diet of farm animals should be made gradually; (2) that a change from dry food to pasture in the spring will result in a loss in live weight if made suddenly and (3) that changing from plentiful pastures in the autumn to dry feed will also result in lessened gains for a time, unless made with great care. Sudden changes in the food given to animals are to be avoided, for the reason that the digestive system has in many instances shown that it is unable to accommodate itself at once to such a change, hence digestive derangement follows, which in all instances means loss. Such changes sometimes result in scouring, as when animals are changed suddenly from a dry to a watery diet, as for instance from winter to summer food, or when large quantities of field roots are quickly added to the winter ration, also when large quantities of the tops of field roots are added to the autumn pastures. Sometimes they induce constipation, as when changing from autumn pastures to a diet without any succulence in it. In other instances they overtax the diges- tion so as permanently to weaken it, as when animals unused to grain are too quickly led up to a full feed of the same. If the change is gradually made, after the lapse of a sufficient time, the system can digest without hazard or harm, quanti- ties of the newly introduced food elements that would as- suredly have produced serious digestive derangement had they been given at the first. Digitized by Microsoft® 460 li'EEDING FARM ANIMALS Moreover, such changes affect the quality of the milk of dams to such an extent as in some instances to be seri- ously harmful to the young which they are nursing. This may happen when the change is made to a diet that is well adapted to the production of good milk. Should brood sows, for instance, be suddenly put on abundant clover pasture when young and fresh, the danger is present that scours will affect the young that they are nursing. It some- times happens also, that when ewes nursing young lambs are quickly changed from dry food to abundant pastures, the change in the quality of the milk and its superabun- dance lead to derangement in digestion so serious that death may follow. When herbivorous animals are changed suddenly from a dry diet to one of succulent pastures, the change is prob- ably accompanied in all instances by a loss of weight. This results from the lax condition of the bowels. This loss may be so serious as to call for three or four weeks grazing before the weight is recovered that was thus lost. Even though the change is made prudently with animals on a full grain ration, the gains will probably be lowered more or less for a time. Cows also will be reduced in flesh somewhat, notwithstanding that the milk flow may be greater. The change, therefore, should be made from dry food to succulent pastures very gradually. It is considered good practice to turn cattle that are being given a full grain ra- tion out on pasture just after the noon meal has been consumed, and to leave them on the grass for not more than an hour the first day. The period of grazing is then lengthened each day, and not less than 15 days should be covered in making the change. The grain ration is in the meantime continued, and the animals are encouraged to eat fodder suitable in kind. If, however, the fresh young grass is mixed with dead grass uneaten from the previous year's growth, the time occupied in making the change may be shortened, as the tendency to scouring will not be so marked. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 461 A second method sometimes adopted is to turn the animals onto the pasture so early in the season that they cannot eat grass to excess, because it is not present in sufficient quantities. This method may be commendable in some instances with sheep, which are usually benefited by taking much exercise, but it is not to be commended in the case of cattle, as they injure the pasture by poaching. They hinder growth through too early cropping, and the over exercise taken by them is adverse to increase in flesh. The change from autumn pastures to dry food is less difficult to make. If the animals have been given a daily supplement of dry fodder on the pastures before yarding them, the check to increase should be but little felt. A constipated condition of the bowels, however, should be guarded against by feeding some food, as oil cake or field roots in sufficient quantity to prevent such a result. Adjusting foods to the needs of animals. — The prop- er adjusting of foods to the needs of the animals so that they will be fed with the greatest economy as to the utiliza- tion of food and the utmost benefit to the animals, requires much forethought and judgment on the part of the feeder. It calls for the adaptation of foods: (i) To animals of different ages; (2) to those of different classes and (3) to the purposes for which they are kept. With reference to young animals during the milk pe- riod, in nearly all instances it will be profitable to supple- ment the milk with grain or meal that will promote the proper growth of bone and muscle, and to feed in addi- tion, unless in the case of swine, fodder, the finest and most palatable that can be obtained. Subsequently to the milk period the grain ration should be increased and the quality of the other food maintained for several months. The period between the age of, say one year, and maturity in the case of foals and cattle, eight months and maturity in that of lambs, and three months and maturity in the case of swine, is the period when they can be fed most cheaply, because of the small amount of grain required Digitized by Microsoft® 462 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS relatively and of the extent to which the more coarse fod- ders can be fed. The only exception is in the case of ma- ture animals that are not producing. When kept to that age beyond which the teeth begin to fail, then foods richer and prepared so as to reduce the labor of mastication are essential. It should also be noted that, viewed from the standpoint of age only, the necessity for foods rich in pro- tein and mineral matters gradually decreases with advanc- ing age, hence, the nutritive ratio widens proportionately. With reference to the different classes of animals, it may be said that cattle and sheep can profitably consume larger quantities of bulky foods relatively than horses and swine, owing to the greater relative capacity they have for storing the same and to the better equipment they have for thoroughly masticating the food when preparing it for digestion. The average capacity of the stomach of the horse has been given as 19 quarts, of the ox as 266.9, the sheep 24.7 and the hog 8.5. To some extent, however, this is offset by the greater relative intestinal capacity of the horse and the hog. It follows, therefore, that horses re- quire as a rule, more concentrated food relatively than cat- tle and sheep, and that because swine are not so well equipped as horses for masticating coarse fodders, they require a still larger proportion of concentrated food. With reference to the various purposes for which ani- mals are kept it may be said : ( i ) That horses at work call for increased concentration in the food fed with increase in the amount and severity of the work done; (2) that with cattle, the need for protein is greatest during the milk taking period, that the diet of cows in milk must be richer in protein and possessed of more succulence than that for cattle that are being fattened, and that the food of the latter must be increasingly rich in the main in fat producing elements as the fattening process advances; (3) that the same reasoning applies equally to sheep and swine and (4) that while swine between the weaning and fatten- ing period can utilize pasture to much advantage the food Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 463, should be concentrated and rich in protein during the former period, and in carbohydrates during the latter. It may also be added that mature animals not producing re- quire but little grain, hence, the aim should be to maintain them on relatively cheap foods. Foods home grown or purchased. — Whether the foods fed should be entirely grown upon the farm or pur- chased in part or in whole will depend upon several con- siderations. These include: (i) The relative area of the land holdings on which foods may be grown; (2) the rela- tive values of foods; (3) the natural adaptation of the country for certain lines of production, and (4) the neces- sity for applying fertilizers from some outside source. It is evident that where the holdings are small, the amount of live stock kept cannot be large, unless foods are purchased in addition to those grown. The purchase of foods to supplement those grown may in certain instances not only be necessary but also commendable. Nevertheless the fact remains that the profit from feeding home-grown foods should be greater than from feeding those purchased. It will probably be correct to say that the home value of foods is 20 per cent less than the value of the same on the mar- ket. In other words, other things being equal, a food can usually be grown for about 20 per cent less than it can be purchased, hence, the advantage to the grower and feeder of live stock of being able to grow all or nearly all the food which he needs. This should be his aim to the great- est extent possible, but of course all the food needed can- not be grown on small farms when they are heavily stocked. The relative value of foods exercises an important qualifying influence on the amount and kinds that it will pay to purchase, and also on the conditions under which they may be fed. In some instances, as when the prices of food products are low, when live stock of suitable age and at moderate prices for feeding can be obtained and when the demand for the properly finished product rules Digitized by Microsoft® 464 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS reasonably high, it may be possible to buy both food and live stock and feed them at a profit. Feeding sheep and cattle at stockyards and other centers has been made possible under the conditions named. More commonly such feeding has centered at various points in the Mississippi basin and in proximity to the great grain growing centers of the central west and northwest. Sheep especially from the western ranges have been thus fat- tened oftentimes in very large numbers and on screenings taken out of the grain and supplemented. Fattening animals thus, of course, effects a saving in labor. But, viewed from the standpoint of the influence which it exerts upon farm- ing in states where it is practiced, it is open to the fol- lowing objections: (i) It centers feeding at a limited num- ber of points which should be done on the farm, because of the profitable employment that it would furnish to the farmers on many farms during the leisure season; (2) it consumes fodders and frequently grains drawn from the farm which should be fed on the same for its enrichment; (3) the fertilizer made at the various feeding centers is usually in a large degree wasted. In certain sections, it is possible to grow one product in great abundance for a certain kind of feeding, while its best complemental food does not grow well there. Under these conditions, it may be profitable to buy that food which helps to balance the ration. In alfalfa areas in the western valleys, it may pay well, under certain conditions, to buy corn and other grain to feed with the alfalfa. In corn-grow- ing areas where protein is much wanting, it may pay well to purchase some protein food as bran or cottonseed meal to feed along with the corn. In other areas which may be made to grow corn ensilage in food form but which produce grain shyly, it may be well to purchase the latter to add to the silage rather than to try to grow them. When it is necessary to supplement the fertilizer made on the farm by purchasing fertility, this may sometimes be obtained more cheaply through foods purchased and fed Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 465 than through purchasing the fertilizer directly. Where the soil is low in fertility, this may frequently answer the purpose much better than the application of commercial fertilizers, since the manure resulting will act as a mulch and also as a fertihzer when spread on the surface, and when buried it will furnish the soil with .humus and also with fertility. Commercial fertilizer only enriches the soil. It does not act as a mulch nor does it supply humus. One of the best methods of enriching soil thus is by feeding to sheep on pasture some supplemental grain product, rich in fertilizing elements (see p. 398). The pasture may be composed of grass, clover or other plants sown for the purpose. Relative food values. — It has been stated elsewhere that the aim should be to grow the foods fed upon the farm to the greatest extent possible upon the same. (See p. 463.) But it frequently happens that foods need to be purchased to make it possible to feed them in balance. It is also necesary in some instances to purchase them to make production profitable in the highest degree, because of the limitations in the variety of the foods grown in the locality. In such instances a due regard should be had, first, to the relative values of foods, and second, to their relative suit- ability for the end sought. In yet other instances, because of a difference in the relative values of foods, it may be profitable to sell grains grown upon the farm and purchase other products to feed in lieu of those sold. A due regard must be had to the relative values of foods. These vary with the seasons. In one instance, bar- ley may be low in price and corn relatively high. In an- other, the opposite may be true. This may be brought about by some peculiarity in the weather during the period of growth. One season is may be more profitable to pur- chase corn, another season, barley, and yet again rye. In some instances, oil cake may be freely purchased and fed with profit, and yet again the cost of this food may put it out of the reach of the feeder. The same is true of other Digitized by Microsoft® 466 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS by-products. In some instances bran may be purchased and fed with great advantage. In other instances it would be fed at a loss. But because of the favorable influence of bran and oil cake and some other products on digestion apart from their feeding value, it may be profitable to purcha.se and feed them in small quantity when the price gets be- yond the value of profitable feeding based on the nutrients which these foods contain. The relative suitability of foods purchased to the use that is to be made of them should be duly considered when purchases are made. The cheapest concentrate viewed from the standpoint of nutrients may not be the cheapest, because it does not contain the requisite nutrients to furnish a balanced ration along with the other foods already on hand with which it must be fed. In yet other instances, the food thus purchased may not be the cheapest, though it is the best balancer of the ration, because of its relative ex- pense. Another food which does not furnish so perfect a balance may be cheaper because of its low price or because it exercises a favorable influence on digestion. Grains may sometimes be sold with profit in order to purchase other foods to feed in their stead. The grower for instance may have an -abundant supply of oats and be short of corn for feeding. Oats may be relatively high and corn relatively cheap. In such instances profit may result from selling oats and buying corn, rather than from feed- ing oats without corn. Another who is a swine grower may have an abundant supply of both corn and oats. Since neither of these fed alone is suitable for young pigs as the sole ration, and since the same is true of them when fed in conjunction, it will usually be profitable to sell a certain amount of one or the other of these grains and to purchase wheat middlings to be fed in its stead. That, of course, should be sold which will bring the best price. But when these exchanges, so to speak, are made, a due regard must be had to the cost of transportation of the food sold and also of that purchased. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 467 Sustaining power of pastures. — The sustaining power of pastures is a question of much moment to the stoclc- man. With reference thereto it may be said : ( i ) That it will be found to vary greatly with varying conditions; (2) that under average conditions, it may usually be greatly increased and (3) that the effort to increase the carrying power of pastures in this country has seldom been given that attention which its importance demands. The sustaining power of grazing lands will vary with climatic and soil conditions, with the grasses that grow on them, with the method of grazing and with the fertiliza- tion bestowed. The sustaining power of the best grazing lands of the United States and Canada has apparently not been tested in a systematic way. It has been estimated that from 10 to 30 acres of land comprised in the western ranges are required to graze a mature cattle beast through all the season, practically through all the year. In striking contrast is the statement of Sir J. B. Lawes, to the effect that in a certain pasture in Leicestershire, England, which comprised 14 acres, 17 oxen were grazed throughout the entire season and that from 500 to 600 pounds of increase was secured from each acre. The averge fertility of the range lands referred to is probably greater than that of the Leicestershire grazing lands, the difference in the outcome being caused mainly by lack of rainfall. In support of this statement it may be mentioned, that Prof R. S. Shaw se- cured 904.8 pounds of increase per acre in one season at the Montana experiment station, from grazing young cattle on alsike clover pasture subject to irrigation. A mixture of grasses will usually produce the largest amount of pasture, since these grow more or less at dif- ferent seasons and they usually occupy the ground more fully than one variety. Such pastures, however, should be permanent in character, and they should only be made on soils good and naturally moist, and in localities favored with occasional rains during the period of growth, because of the expense and time required to secure them. Digitized by Microsoft® 468 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The method of grazing exercises a most important in- fluence on the production of pastures. This is particularly- true of pastures essentially composed of blue grass. In practice they are usually eaten too bare. When not cropped too closely, the covering of grass tends to shield the ground from the evaporating rays of the sun in summer, and from the severe freezing of the roots in winter. By prudent grazing, the sustaining power of pastures may certainly be considerably increased, but the author has not been able to find figures bearing on such increase. Nor can data be found based on American experience to show the increase that may be obtained in pastures from suitable fertilization. Reasoning from analogy, however, it would seem correct to assume that the fertilization of pastures would increase production relatively as much as it increases the production of meadows in the same locality similarly treated. In many instances, the production of New England meadows has been increased two-and three- fold, by dressing them annually with compost, farmyard manure or commercial fertilizers, or with two of these or all three combined. The prevailing pasture on arable farms in the northern and central states is blue grass, in the southern states, Bermuda grass, and in the Canadian Northwest, Russian brome. The claim has been made for all these, that in some instances one acre has been found capable of sustaining a cattle beast between the ages of one and three years dur- ing the period of grazing, that is for, say six months. This would mean that one acre of such grass would furnish from 300 to 400 pounds of increase. Usually, however, it would seem correct to say, that from two to three acres are required to carry one such animal through the season. One average acre of well-grown rape will produce from 200 to 250 pounds of mutton. One acre of irrigated alfalfa with a suitable grain supplement will make from say 600 to 900 pounds of pork in a single season, to be credited to the alfalfa. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 469 It would probably be safe to affirm that under average conditions on arable farms, the sustaining power of pastures could be doubled, and that this would be possible of ac- complishment in a way that would add much to the revenue • accruing. Securing meat through pasture to a very con- siderable extent eliminates costly labor. The little attention that has been given to increasing the sustaining power of pastures has doubtless arisen in a measure from the extensive character of the farming. Along with the advent of intensive farming, it is reasonable to suppose that the improvement of pastures will be given that increased attention of which its importance is deserving. Condimental foods. — Condimental foods are certain preparations added to the usual food ration for longer or shorter periods. They are mixed with some kind of meal as a basis and certain ingredients added. Some of the latter are of the nature of spices, some possess medicinal properties and yet others possess both. Of the first class is ginger; of the second, gentian, and of the third, anise. They are thus blended and fed usually with concentrated food to increase the relish for the food and to tone up the system. As put upon the market they are proprietary, and are generally sold as "Foods" or "Stock Food," with some distinguishing name prefixed to indicate the ownership. In many instances, the claims made for them are extravagant, and they are frequently sold at a price unreasonably and un- necessarily high. The foods moie commonly used as the basis of the mixture are corn meal, wheat middlings, oil meal and locust bean, but other kinds of meal are also used^ alone or mixed. The ingredients added more commonly include several of the following; viz., gentian, fenugreek, ginger caraway, anise, cumin, saltpeter, common salt, charcoal, and sulphur. Sometimes they include others of a similar class. It is absolutely necessary to use some common food as a base, otherwise the mixture would have so little bulk that it would not be practical to spread it over prepared Digitized by Microsoft® 470 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS food or to mix it with the same in order to inqjrove its palatability. As the amount fed is usually not more than a tablespoonful at one time, and in some instances it is less, the necessity for such blending will be apparent. At the present time, it is popular to write and speak against the use of such foods. The more vehement char- acterize them as absolute frauds. The more temperate argue that when animals are in health and provided with good wholesome food, condiments are not needed, and that since wholesome food is always accessible, they are never needed. As a result of various experiments con- ducted to test their worth, the conclusion has been reached in some instances, that they are practically valueless, and in nearly all instances that to feed them is unprofitable. In the judgment of the author, all three classes have erred in the conclusions reached. To grant the correctness of the first view would be to assume that no honest person could engage in compounding them, a conclusion that is not tenable as some of these foods have merit for certain lines of feeding as is shown below. To grant the correct- ness of the second view, would imply by parity of reasoning that foods are always good, that animals are always healthy, and that when members of the human family are ailing, they should use no stimulant or tonic to promote recovery. To grant the correctness of the third view would be sub- stantially to sustain the correctness of the first and second views. The author believes that these so-called foods as a rule contain ingredients' that are seldom, if ever harmful, when judiciously fed to animals, and that on the other hand, they may be so fed that they will be helpful and in some instances profitable, dependent on the conditions that at- tend the feeding. They are appetizing, stimulating, and act as tonics, consequently, they should not be fed when animals are in good health. But when domestic animals are ailing, or unthrifty, a suitable condiment given to them for a time will frequently aid in restoring normal conditions. Some Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 471 of these foods fed for a short time may prove very helpful in fitting yard horses for spring work, in stimulating the milk flow in a cow whose stomach is out of tone, and in toning up the digestion of cattle and other animals near the finishing period, when it has become deranged through over-heavy feeding. No sooner, however, is the object ac- complished, than all such feeding should cease. Tonics long continued cease to be operative both in men and lower animals. The findings of the experiment stations would seem to be based on the untenable view that they are foods, and they have so been fed to animals in good health. The idea of feeding them as foods is far from correct, as the amount of nutriment which one feed contains is not worth mentioning. But those who compound them have no right to complain, as they usually speak of them as foods. Nearly all feeders of long experience use more or less of such ingredients, but not necessarily in the proprietary form. More frequently probably they buy two or three of the more important ingredients and compound them at home. Such preparations should cost less than proprietary foods, but the makers of the latter have a very great ad- vantage in the opportunity they have to purchase wholesale. In any event it would seem that such foods should yield a reasonable profit to the owner when sold in large lots at not more than 5 cents per pound. It is not necessary to use more than a few pounds of the costlier ingredients to make 100 pounds of the mixture. The place for self-feeders. — Self-feeders have been used in feeding cattle, sheep and swine, but more com- monly they are used in feeding sheep. They are simply covered boxes of any desired length and width, but wider at the eaves than at the base. They are supported by legs or frames and may be stationary or movable. They have troughs along one or both sides as desired, the bottom of the trough being on a level with the bottom of the box, and Digitized by Microsoft® 47^ FEEDING FARM ANIMALS of suitable height to allow the animals to eat without dis- comfort. The food comes into the troughs as fast as eaten, through an opening along the side, and just above the bottom of the box. Cattle are frequently fed in flat boxes with low sides, the meal or corn being replenished to the extent of always keeping food before them. It has been found practicable to fatten live stock when fed thus, with results that have been, at least, fairly but not eminently satisfactory. It has been practiced more commonly at feeding centers, where animals are fattened in a wholesale way, and to a far greater extent with sheep and lambs than with any other class of live stock. The chief object sought is to save labor. The roughage fed in such instances is also replenished in suitable racks, so that it also is constantly before the animals. To this method of feeding there are the following ob- jections: (i) Animals may not be fed thus with safety until that time is reached when they are on full feed, that is on a full allowance of grain. To feed them in this way at the beginning would disturb digestion to their serious detriment (see p. 2i77)- This period of preliminary feed- ing usually covers several weeks, in some instances one- third of the entire finishing period. (2) It is less economical of food. Animals fed thus will live chiefly on concentrates, and just to the extent that they do, they consume a less amount of roughage, which in nearly all instances, furnishes nutrients more cheaply than is furnished by concentrates. In areas where concentrates are relatively high and rough- age cheap, as is usually the case where alfalfa grows at its best, such feed would add materially to the cost of increase. (3) The increase made is not usually quite so satisfactory as from the other system of feeding. Such has been the trend of the results of trials at the ex- periment stations. While taking the food, the animals breathe on more or less of the unconsumed portion, which makes it less appetizing for them and leads to decreased consumption. (4) Digestive troubles are less frequent when Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 473 the food IS proportioned out from meal to meal, and in quantity just sufficient to keep the appetite in tone. In this way surfeiting is prevented. The author found when feeding sheep at the Minnesota station, by the two systems, digestive troubles were much less frequent with the ani- mals on a limited grain ration. While it is quite practicable to fatten animals on unhm- ited feed, from what has been said above, it would seem undesirable to follow this method on the arable farm or western ranches, where alfalfa grows abundantly. Where animals and more especially sheep are congregated at feed- ing centers, and where screenings of grain are used as the ■;hi^f concentrate in fattening, it may be the cheaper method. Finishing on the farm, however, is to be encouraged rather than at feeding centers, because of the favorable in- fluence which it exerts on fertility, and also for other reasons, as furnishing employment in winter that should prove profitable, and utilizing coarse foods that may other- wise be to some extent wasted. Relative profits from domestic animals. — The rela- tive profit from producing milk, beef, mutton and pork has been discussed, and frequently to but little purpose. With reference to economy in production the following conclusions will be found correct: (i) Judged from the standpoint of the return in nutrients for food consumed, the cow is the most economical producer of food for man, but (2) the relative profit in producing milk or meat is in a marked degree the outcome of conditions, hence (3) un- der some conditions^ the time is never likely to come when milk, beef, mutton, or pork cannot be produced at the greatest profit. That the cow is a more economical producer of food (or man, than the steer, the sheep or the pig, cannot be questioned, if considered only from the standpoint of the nutrients consumed in producing the same. Lawes and Gilbert have shown that in the milk of a cow giving 10 quarts of milk daily, there are 6.6 pounds of nitrogenous Digitized by Microsoft® 474 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS substance, 6.33 pounds of fat and 1.35 pounds of mineral matter produced in one week, whereas during a similar period a steer gaining 21-7 pounds daily will produce 1. 13 pounds nitrogenous substance, 9.53 pounds of fat and 0.22 pound of mineral matter. The cow also pro- duces 8.32 pounds of milk sugar for which there is no equivalent in the ox. The ox will call for as much food as the cow, if not indeed more, while thus producing. The showing made is strongly in favor of the greater economy in production from the cow. It should be noticed, however, that the comparison re- lates to production from mature animals, which is, so far, against meat production. Meat is usually produced much more economically by the cattle beast not yet mature. It makes no allowance for maintenance while the cow is dry, which usually covers from one-sixth to one-fifth of the year. Nor does it consider the items of labor, which is greater in the case of milk production. The necessity also for meat in the human dietary, will make its production imperative in progressive communities. That conditions largely govern profits in milk and meat production cannot be gainsaid. Under range conditions, meat is produced at a very low cost, whereas, in the very nature of things, milk cannot be produced at all under the same conditions. On the other hand, nutrients can cer- tainly be produced more cheaply in the form of milk under intensive conditions, but even under these, much coarse food can be made into meat, not well suited to making milk. That the time will never come when producing beef, mutton or pork under all conditions will be less profitable than producing the other classes of meat, or less economi- cal, will be evident to the reflecting mind. A small flock of sheep, for instance, can be kept during the grazing season on the average farm on the food grown in by-places. This food in the absence of sheep would probably be wasted. The nutrients in mutton thus grown are furnished more Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL FEEDING 475 cheaply than they could be furnished in the milk of dairy cows kept on the same farm. Again, suppose swine are grown largely on alfalfa pasture and fattened on peas which they harvest in the field, while being fattened, food nutri- ents will doubtless be furnished more cheaply in the pork thus made, than they could be furnished by harvesting the food and feeding it to other animals. It is not wise to con- clude, therefore, that because as stated by Lawes and Gil- bert, a mature cattle beast calls for 12 to 13 pounds of dry matter to make a pound of increase, and mature .sheep call for but 8 to 9 pounds to make the same, growing mut- ton is under all conditions more profitable than growing beef. Under some conditions beef can be profitably grown where mutton cannot and vice versa. Again, there* are conditions where either can be more profitably produced than milk or milk products. The important matter is to produce each of these products with reference to highest adaptation for producing them Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XX. CONSIDERATIONS THAT RELATE TO THE CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Prominent among the considerations that relate care of domestic animals are the following. 1. The feeder. 2. Regularity in caring for stock. 3. Water for domestic animals. 4. Amount of water required. 5. Furnishing water to animals. I, 6. Shelter from weaning onward. 7. Shelter for young animals. 8. Protection for stock in summer. 9. Temperature in stables. 10. The sources of litter. 11. The uses of litter. 12. Preparing and using litter. 13. Amount of exercise. 14. The season of breeding. 15. The dam at parturition. These are discussed in the order given. The feeder. — The importance of adaptation in live stock to the end for which they are kept, and to the environ- ment surrounding them has already been discussed. (See p. 31.) It is further discussed on page 74. The ad- vantage from feeding foods in approximate balance has also been pointed out. (See Chapter X.) But no matter what the adaptation may be, or the suitability of the foods fed, adequate results will not follow unless the feeder, who has the animals in charge is in every respect at least reasonably qualified for his work. The qualifications of a feeder are many. They in- clude: (i) Some knowledge of animal physiology and 476 Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 477 cnemistry; (2) an industry and patience tiiat are untiring; (3) a fidelity that is unswerving; and (4) an innate love for the work. The feeder who has some knowledge of animal physi- ology is better qualified to adjust the foods fed to the needs of the animals than the feeder without such know- ledge. He will understand better the necessity for main- taining relative adjustment between the proportion of con- centrates and bulky fodders fed. He will also have a more correct idea of the treatment suitable for ailments and diseases not sufficiently important to call for the skill of the veterinarian. Some knowledge of chemistry will prove valuable in the compounding of the food factors of the ration and also preparing them for feeding. This does not mean, however, that some men are unable to make their mark as feeders without such knowledge. This has been done in instances not a few. But it does mean that, other things being equal, the feeder possessed of the knowledge referred to should succeed better in his work than the one not possessed of it. The successful feeder must be a man of industrious habits. His work, like that of woman, is in a sense never done. Her ministrations to the needs of humanity are never ending and his likewise to the needs of the live stock which he feeds are continuous. Giving food and water to the animals which he has in charge, though an important part of his work, is by no means all of it. The necessity for attentions in various ways is ever present during his waking hours, and at certain seasons, as when animals bring forth their young, giving these attentions frequently de- prives him of his accustomed slumbers. In no line of work is fidelity of greater importance. This is owing to the ever present necessity of furnishing the animals in charge with food and protection. In some lines of work the neglect of one day may in a considerable degree be made up the next, but in caring for animals it Digitized by Microsoft® 478 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS is different; with them injury resulting from neglect is al- ways attended with loss, and in many instances, it cannot be atoned for even by extra care subsequently. So im- portant is fideHty on the part of the feeder that without it he cannot make a success of his work. An innate love for the work is an important bestow- ment on any feeder, on the principle that a liking for the work in hand is a great aid to anyone prosecuting a definite line of work. Its importance is enhanced in the case of feeders by the influence which it exerts on the degree of the attention bestowed, and the character of the same, and on the self-control of the individual. The feeder who has no love for 'his work does it in a perfunctory way. Food is fed by rule regardless of the individual needs of the animal. He is much prone also to be impatient with waywardness in animals, in some instances to the extent of being positively cruel. The feeder who loves his work has a most careful regard to the individual needs of the animals. If any is to wait for a meal beyond the usual time, it will be himself rather than the animals under his care. He will be gentle, though firm in dealing with them. The animals in charge will go to meet him on his approach rather than flee from him as in the case of the other type of feeder. It has been said that feeders are born, not made, and there is a large measure of truth in the adage, but a love for feeding may also be cultivated to a marked degree. Good feeders are always in demand. This is one of the lines of work which is never over-filled. It is shunned by many when deciding upon their life work because it is in a sense confining work. It calls for continued atten- tion during much of each of the 365 days in the year, and it is exacting in the long hours called for and at certain seasons additional hours are taken from the usual time for sleeping. To such an extent is this line of work shunned by the average American youth, that his adventurous spirit prevents him from choosing it. As a result, it would seem Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 479 safe to say, that a majority of those in this country ex- clusively engaged in feeding animals have come from certain countries in western Europe, especially Great Britain, Denmark, Holland and Germany. The demand for this class of work is likely to continue, indefinitely, and the remuneration will be more, relatively, than is paid for other lines of physical labor. The calling is also less subject to change than in any other line of work, since a change of feeders frequently brings with it more hazard than change in many other lines in which animal life is not a factor. The skilled feeder is practically assured of work, liberal maintenance, and in some instances compe- tence through all the changes of the times. Regularity in caring for stock. — The importance of regularity in everything that pertains to the keeping of live stock cannot be easily over-estimated. While this ap- plies to every phase of management, it does not so apply equally. While giving food and salt irregularly are. both to be deprecated, animals will take greater harm from ir- regularity in supplying the former. This source of hind- rance to well doing is especially significant when it applies, (i) to the giving of food; (2) to the giving of drink; (3) to the milking of cows and (4) to the working of horses. Opinions do not always agree as to the number of times that food should be given daily. This probably should be gauged by the age of the animal, by the nature of the digestive organs, and by the amount of work performed. There can be no question but that young animals should be fed more frequently when young than at a later period, ow- ing in part, at least, to the greater activity of the digestive organs. Animals with relatively large stomach capacity do not of necessity call for food supplies so frequently as those in which such capacity is not so large. Two feeds a day have been found sufficient for cows, even when in milk, and also for animals well grown that are being fattened, though a considerable number adhere to the practice of giving a light feed of fodder in the middle of the day in addition to Digitized by Microsoft® 480 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS the morning and evening feeds, which should be given 12 hours apart, as nearly as may be found practicable. The stomach of the horse and pig being less capacious than that of cattle and sheep, would seem to demand three feeds per day, rather than two, and given as nearly as practicable six hours apart. But there can be no disagreement with reference to the wisdom of giving food regularly. The digestive system of animals is such that it adapts itself at least measurably to the system of feeding adopted. To change that system for even a single meal, produces more or less of digestive disturbance in the animal, as in the individual. If food is not forthcoming at the accustomed time, animals will proclaim their sense of deprivation, each in its own pe- culiar way. The neighing of the horse for food, the low- ing of the ox, the bleating of the sheep and the squealing of swine, are simply echoes of the outcome of the desire for another meal. Undue fasting is followed by taking an excessive supply, which in turn calls for excessive drink- ing, hence, digestive disturbance follows. The effects from irregular feeding and changed conditions are well brought out in the fact that animals usually lose in weight when making the circuit of the autumn fairs. When water is withheld beyond the usual time, a sense of deprivation is felt, then it is taken to excess. Disturb- ance follows in secreting the digestive fluids, and just in proportion to the irregularity will be the loss that follows. Warm temperatures and hard work may and do call for taking water more frequently than at other times, but under normal conditions, the aim should be to supply it at stated times. Nowhere in the management of domestic animals is the importance of regularity more clearly shown than in the milking of cows. A single instance of milking deferred for any considerable length of time will be followed by decrease in the next milking and in some instances in several milkings. It has been noticed that to defer milking for an hour or more. Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS " 481 as for instance on Sabbath morning, will tend to diminish the yield perceptibly for more than one milking immediately following. For the discussion of other influences that af- fect milk yields, see page 419. The exertion of work calls for more food and for tak- ing it more frequently than when animals are at rest. Be- cause of this, while horses that are idle and that are simply being carried through the winter, may fare well enough on two feeds a day, it is imperative that those at work shall have three feeds, and it is important that food shall be given on time. Work carried bej'ond the usual time for taking food means a more rapid expenditure of energy than at other times, and this means so far a lowering of digestive capacity when food is given. Hence it is, that irregularity and want of uniformity in feeding are always followed by results not entirely satisfactory. Water for domestic animals. — Water is furnished to domestic animals for the three-fold purpose of aiding the digestive processes, cooling the body and allaying thirst. Of these uses, the first is probably the most important. Be- fore food can be digested that portion of the nutrients ap- propriated by the body must first be reduced to a soluble condition before they can be so utilized and to effect this end, water is usually necessary in addition to that contained in the food. Where the supply of water is insufficient for the needs of the body, the tissues are not kept sufficiently moist, nor is there enough to maintain proper action in the excretory glands of the skin, consequently the temperature rises and thirst is induced in proportion as the water supply is insufficient. In hot weather, water applied externally to the bodies of swine tends to cool the same in a marked degree and is, therefore, conductive to thrift. Thirst is always present when the supply of water is insufficient. It is a source of irritation and unrest. It also hinders more or less the digestive processes and so fa- hinders performance. When animals become thirsty be- yond certain limits, they drink abnormal amounts of water Digitized by Microsoft® 482 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS and this also is adverse to performance. The necessity, therefore, for furnishing them with an ample supply of water is ever present, notwithstanding that water is in no sense a food. The primary source of water is of course the clouds. The natural channels by which it is conveyed to animals are two-fold; viz., directly, as in the act of drinking, and indirectly in the plants consumed as food. The sources of supply from the clouds may be classed as natural and artificial. The natural sources include springs, running streams and basins made by nature. The artificial sources include ordinary, and artesian wells, cisterns and basins made in the earth. The supply furnished in plants is con- siderable. The amount thus furnished is influenced by the class to which the plant belongs and the condition in which it is fed. Succulent grass, green corn and field roots con- tain about 90 per cent of water, speaking roughly, and the concentrated grains about 10 per cent. The amount of water called for from other sources will of course be re- duced in proportion as water is present in the food. Be- cause of the amount of water in the food, some classes of animals may not need water from other sources. This is true in some instances of cattle and sheep that are fed a large amount of roots, and of sheep grazing on succulent rape pasture. Water is helpful to animals in proportion as the supply is abundant, sweet, pure and of the right temperature. The necessity for a plentiful supply is self evident. Water is sweet when it does not contain any chemical substances distasteful to live stock. In some areas of the range, water is so strongly impregnated with alkali and other sub- stances, that animals will not drink it. Water is pure when it does not contain any foreign substances that render it in any degree unwholesome. The sources of the purest water are springs, runnmg streams and, in some instances, surface and artesian wells. When first collected in cisterns and in natural or artificial Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 483 basins, it is pure, but when it remains long in these, in a stagnant condition and without renewal in the supply, its purity lowers, unless in cold latitudes. Motion is necessary in water under normal conditions in order to maintain its purity. Of the sources of supply named, water obtained from artificial basins or ponds, as they are sometimes called, in which large numbers of animals are allowed to drink from time to time, is the most impure. Such water will not furnish good flavored milk when drunk by cows, and it is prejudicial to the health of sheep. The same is true of water in basins into which the soakage of or seepage from barnyards finds its way. Nor is the stagnant water which collects in marshes wholesome in hot weather, and es- pecially late in the season. Such water is especially injurious to sheep, since it seems favorable to the growth of parasites which prey upon them. Swine seem to be less injured by impure water than other animals, but unquestionably pure water is best for them also. They are oftentimes greatly wronged by the impurities in the water given to them. Amount of water required. — The amount of water re- quired by animals is influenced: (i) By the character of the food; (2) by the nature of the Weather; (3) by the copious- ness of the dews and (4) by the nature and extent of the performance. Sometimes these influences act singly, but more commonly they act more or less in conjunction. Food influences the consumption of water more through the presence or lack of succulence than in any other way. But the proportion of protein in the food, it is thought, exercises some influence, and the same is unques- tionably- true of salt. Salt increases the circulation of the juices of the body and thus favors increase in protein con- sumption. Many experiments have shown that the addition of field roots, corn ensilage or soiling food reduces the consumption of water in at least approximate propor- tion to the extent to which they are fed and to the amount of water they contain. Such food may be given Digitized by Microsoft® 484 FEEDING FARM ANJMALS under some conditions to the extent of satisfying the needs of the animals as to water. Experiments conducted at the Kansas and also at the Wisconsin station showed that in- crease in the protein in the food increased the consump- tion of water. Salt consumed in excess by animals salt hungry, will invariably lead to the consumption of a large amount of water. But there is something in the nature of certain foods that influences the consumption of water apart from the amount of water they contain. Corn and barley, for in- stance, contain virtually the same amounts of water and in experiments conducted at the Wisconsin station, it was found that the swine fattened on barley meal required about 3 pounds of water for every 2 pounds required by those fed on corn meal. The water used in soaking the meal is in- cluded in both instances. Bran and oil cake when freely fed lead to increased water consumption. The weather exercises a potent influence on the con- sumption of water. The quantity of water consumed in- creases as temperatures rise, other things being equal. This is owing in part at least to the greater activity of the ex- cretory organs especially the glands of the skin as previ- ously intimated. The necessity for water is so great in hot weather that it is probable no diet, however succulent, will completely obviate the necessity for taking it. The copious character of the dews or the opposite ex- ercise an important influence on water requirement, but no amount of dew will preclude the necessity of any class of domestic animals for taking water when the grazing has but little succulence. The moistness or dryness of the atmos- phere exercises an influence on the consumption of water both directly and indirectly. The indirect influence comes through increase or decrease in the succulence of the plants. The same plant grown in a dry atmosphere has less of moisture in it than if grown in a moist atmosphere. It would seem correct to say that the consump- tion of water increases relatively with increase in per- formance. A horse at labor takes much more water Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 48^ than one at rest or that is idle, and a horse severely exercised will take more than one moderately exer- cised. A cow giving milk wiH drink more water than one dry. A steer that is being fattened will take more water than a store steer and the same is true of sheep and swine when going through the fattening process, as com- pared with animals of the same class that are simply being grown. More water is called for as exercise increases in the horse to replace the amount lost through a corresponding- increase in the activity of the glands of the skin and of th^ respiratory organs. With cows giving milk and animals that are being fattened, the increase is due to increase in food*t:onsumption which calls" for corresponding increase in water consumption to carry on properly the digestive proc- esses. From what has been said, it will be apparent, that it is not possible to state the exact amount of water required by animals. It has been claimed that cattle require about 4 pounds of water for each pound of dry matter in the food and that sheep call for half that amount. A number of experiments have been conducted to throw light upon this question and findings may be given, but why give them? As a rule the water supply is unlimited. It is also certain that under normal conditions, animals will not drink it to excess. It is equally true that they should have access to it with reasonable frequency and to the extent of their needs. The important considerations, therefore, are not such as relate to the amount that will be consumed, but rather such as have a bearing on the abundance of the supply, its easy accessibility and its temperature. The temperature of water for stock is of considerable importance both winter and summer. In winter it is too cold for best use when ice forms on it. Especially is this true of water for cows giving milk. On the other hand, experiments have shown that but little advantage comes from heating water for dairy cows that is entirely free from ice, when taken in a comfortable place. Water should Digitized by Microsoft® 486 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS be heated, however, for animals when given immediately subsequently to the time of parturition, lest a chill should follow taking it when the system is thus fevered. In winter water heated more or less will be found more suitable for swine than ice cold water. In summer cold water is more agreeable to animals than warm water, but horses in a much heated condition should not be allowed to drink it in large quantities at the close of a labor period, lest it should re- sult in producing that stiffening of the limbs often spoken of as "founder." Furnishing vi^ater to animals. — In the pastures, water is best supplied from springs and running streams, also by flowing wells, where one or the other of these can be obtained. Next to these in suitability and convenience are wells of limited depth, from which the water is pumped up into troughs by wind power which works automatically. When the supply must be secured from artificial basins, the aim should be to construct these on elevations so high as to admit of conveying the water by gravity to the place or places where -it is wanted. In the winter when the stock is confined to stables or sheds, the aim should be to have the drinking tanks or troughs under cover as matter of protection for the ani- mals while drinking in stormy weather, and also to insure more warmth in the water. When the tanks are in the yards, it will be found profitable to furnish them with heaters to prevent the temperature of the water from fall- ing too low. For the proper temperature, see page 485. When the water is pumped by hand, if the pumping is done im- mediately before the animals which drink are given access to it, the temperature will be about right. The same is true of water supplied automatically in basins in the stalls. For work horses and cattle that are being fattened, this method of supplying water is not really objectionable, if the basins are kept reasonably clean, but it has been found difficult to keep them clean enough to meet the needs of dairy cows, because of the traceable adverse influence some- Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 487" times exerted on milk flavor. For nearly all kinds of do- mestic animals, water of swift current running through a yard will meet their needs, and at a minimum expenditure of labor. But sheep cannot always be induced to drink from such a source. In large lots they are best supplied with water in a low tank and where it will not congeal. Where it does, the tank should be in a yard and supplied with a heater. In small lots, the water is best supplied in a shallow tub in each compartment, from pails or hose, and these can be overturned in cold weather after the sheep have been supplied. It is simply cruel to deprive sheep of water in winter, except in so far as they can take it from the snow, although the practice is common. Water is usually supplied to swine not on pasture, in conjunction with the food. The frequency with which water should be furnished to animals is dependent upon such conditions as: (i) The nature of the food fed; (2) the amount of performance required as to labor or the production of meat or milk, and (3) the temperature of the weather. The food may be given so succulent as to entirely ob- viate the necessity for giving water in addition, as when sheep are grazed on succulent pastures. When animals are fattened on field roots and meal only, with a very small addition of fodder, they require but little additional water. It would probably be correct to say, however, that no class of domestic animals except sheep can be kept long on pastures so succulent as to entirely eliminate the necessity for giving additional water, When labor or road driving is required of horses, they should be given water more frequently than when at rest. There are conditions when water supplied once a day for horses is ample when at rest and the same is true of other classes of domestic animals, but when exercised severely, especiall}^ in warm weather, a moderate amount furnished between meals in addition to what is furnished at other times is helpful. Ordinarily work horses are given water three times daily, that is, morning, noon and evening. Once Digitized by Microsoft® 488 FEEDING FARM ANIMAI a day may be sufficient to furnish water to store cattle, es- pecially when on moderately succulent pasture and in cool weather, but when kept entirely on dry food, they should have it twice a day. When bemg fattened or fed heavily for milk production, and largely or chiefly on dry food, they should be given water at least twice a day to meet the largely increased demand the increase in such food calls for. Similarly the demand for water increases with sheep and swine, with increase in grain fed. It is usually easily possible to supply water to sheep where it will be accessible much of the day or all of it, and this is the ideal way of furnishing it to them. Ordinarily water is supplied to swine in the slop fed to them, that is, it is given to them three times a day, but generally when pushed as in fattening, they should be given water additional to the extent of their needs. The excretory organs, especially those of the skin, are so active in hot weather that much water is needed to sup- ply the loss. This means that it should be given more frequently in proportion as the heat increases, otherwise it is liable to be taken to excess. Opinions dififer as to whether water should be given to horses before or after meals. The preponderance in opinion favors watering before meals to avoid washing out much of the food too soon from the small stomach of the horse, into the intestines. This would follow more or less, watering deferred until after meals. Some persons favor of- fering water before and after meals. With cattle, water is more commonly given between meals. They seem better sat- isfied when food is given before water. The stomach of cattle and sheep being large and therefore capable of holding large quantities of water, there would seem to be no physio- logical reasons why water should be given at one time rather than another. Shelter from weaning onward. — The degree of the shelter required from the weaning period onward, va- ries in the dififerent classes of animals. It is decreasingly Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 489 necessary with swine, cattle, sheep and horses, in the order named. It is more necessary for cows (see p. 438) than for growing cattle beyond calf-hood, and more necessary for growing cattle than for cattle that are being fattened. In fact it is more necessary for all classes of growing animals than for those of the same class that are being fattened, as the food which produces fat generates much heat, and the layer of fat underneath the skin is an ad- ditional protection. Climate also exercises an important influence. Stock exposed in latitudes where the air is dry and where the sunshine is relatively abundant, will suffer much less than animals exposed at equal temperatures where the air is damp and the weather dark and gloomy. Shelter for swine must be of a character to protect them from draughts and also from low temperatures. The temperature of the pens like that of the stables for dairy cows should range from, say 40 to 60°. Trials conducted at certain experiment stations show very clearly the benefit from fattening swine with suitable shelter as against fatten- ing under conditions the opposite. In a trial conducted at the Kansas experiment station, it was found that swine fur- nished with shelter during the 10 weeks of fattening, made 100 pounds of increase on 25 per cent less corn than those exposed to yard conditions. The feeding began No- vember 27. The following includes some of the essentials best suited to furnishing shelter for stock cattle: (i) A suitably ven- tilated shed or dry and well lighted basement, warm enough to practically exclude freezing temperatures; (2) doors on the sunny side facing a yard protected from wind, and that may or may not be left open; (3) a well bedded yard that may at all times be kept dry. But even with these condi- tions it may be necessary to tie some of the weaker animals in stalls to adapt the food to their special needs. Succes- sive experiments conducted with yearlings at the Missouri station resulted markedly in favor of such protection as against yard conditions, with open shed. With cattle that Digitized by Microsoft® 490 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS are being fattened it may be different (see p. 395), unless care is taken not to keep the sheds too warm. The following includes some of the essentials best suited to furnishing shelter for a breeding flock of sheep-: (i) A well-ventilated building enclosed and facing on the leeward side a sunny and protected yard; (2) except for the lambing-pen it is not necessary to seek additional warmth to that furnished by one thickness of matched boards; (3) doors cut across the center and hung on the yard side, to be kept open above or below as may be de- sired; (4) a yard at all times dry and kept well bedded when occupied. For sheep that are being fattened an open shed will suffice. An open shed will also suffice to furnish protection for colts subsequent to the age of one year and for idle horses. These should face protected yards, and the latter should have communication with paddocks or pastures to enable them at suitable times to take larger exercise. Work horses and foals need enclosed quarters in winter. The former be- ing tied, usually profit by blanketing in addition. Shelter for young animals. — The degree of the shelter required for young animals, more especially during the first few days of life, is much greater than in the case of animals that are older. This is true of all classes of animals, as foals, calves, lambs and pigs, but it is by no means equally true of them. The smaller the animal, the larger relatively the amount of surface for the radiation of body heat, and consequently the loss of heat is relatively greater. The leaner the young animal is also, the more intensified is this condition. Foals, of all young farm animals, can best endure cold, owing first, to the greater relative size, and second to the naturally more active habits which they possess. But, in cold climates, the protection of an open shed which may be ample for colts more than one year old, would not be sufficient for the sucking foal. Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 49I Young calves would fare badly under conditions of ex- posure that would bring no harm to cattle that are older. If tied and thus prevented from taking exercise, the neces- sity for protection is considerably increased. One course of sheeting, in the absence of some additional covering as tar paper, on the side of a stable, does not in all instances make it warm enough for such calves. The necessity for better protection continues until they have passed the first winter, at whatsoever season they may have been born. Lambs are much more tender than calves during the first few hours of existence. When born in winter in cold climates, it is imperative that they come into life under con- ditions that will protect them from intense cold, as for in- stance in a lambing-pen or apartment, or in some portion of a dry basement. After lambs are a few days old, they do not take much harm from low temperatures, and when they reach the age of two or three weeks, they seem capable of enduring about as much cold as the older sheep. The explanation is found in part in the covering of wool given to them by nature, and in part in their active habits. Young swine are the most tender of the young quad- rupeds kept upon the farm. This arises in part from the sparse covering with which nature has furnished them. Under some climatic conditions, it may not be easy at all times to preserve life in the newly born pig, unless the apartment is specially well fitted to shut out extreme cold.' A division of a well ordered basement may furnish such a place. In cold weather the quarters suitable for swine dur- ing the suckling period should be at least as warm as those suitable for dairy cows in milk. It is especially important that young animals be given the benefit of ample sunshine, that the pla,ces on which they rest shall be well bedded and dry, and that they are not exposed to falling storms, as snow, sleet or rain. The more of sunshine they enjoy, the better relatively will they prosper, but when they are to be slaughtered young, it is not necessary to provide sunlight or even much light. Damp Digitized by Microsoft® 492 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS sleeping places are greatly injurious, and exposure to a cold rain or sleet storm may prove fatal. It should also be remembered, that the degree of the protection required in climates naturally damp is greater than in those naturally dry. Protection for stock in summer. — Although the neces- sity for protecting stock in winter is more important rela- tively than in summer, yet certain forms of protection in summer exercise an important influence on the returns vi^hich they will give for the food. They require protection : (i) From excessive heat; (2) from the disturbance caused by flies, and (3) in some instances from prolonged storms. Protection from heat in the case of horses, cattle, sheep and swine, can only be secured by shielding them from the hot rays of the sun, under conditions that will not tend to check the movement of air currents. With swine, the addi- tional provision of a wallow will add much to their com- fort. Protection from excessive sunshine is secured by means of shade in, or accessible to the pastures, and from the same buildings that furnish protection in winter. The ideal conditions for shade in pastures are found in a natural grove beside running water. A remnant of forest included in a permanent pasture and made accessible to other pastures is very suitable for providing shade. Clumps of trees are to be preferred to single trees, as they interfere less with cultivation. In planting trees to furnish shade, they do not virtually interfere with cultivation when planted in the corners of the pasture or field, and when planting them, those varieties should be preferred that grow quickly and that send their roots so far down as not to take harm readily because of the treading of stock. For this purpose no other tree excels the American elm. In the absence of trees, shade may be provided usually without much cost, by making a flat roof of poles sustained by posts and covered with straw. The stables used for shelter in winter, when properly ventilated, are usually cooler than groves in very hot Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 493 weather. Basement stables are also cooler than ordinary stables. The stable protection has the further advantages of being less wasteful of the droppings and of protecting from flies. Where it can be arranged, especially during the season when flies are numerous, the ideal way for keep- ing cattle and sheep is to house them in the heat of the day and to give them the liberty of the pastures at other times. When stock are housed to protect from flies the stables or sheds must be darkened and yet ventilated. This is ac- complished by opening the windows to make air currents and by covering them at the same time with material, as coarse sacking, that will exclude much of the light, keep out flies, and that will at the same time, admit the air freely. Much may also be done to keep down flies by promptly re- moving the manure made which is a favorite breeding ground for flies, and strewing lime occasionally where it may do good around the buildings. Cattle are sometimes further protected from flies by spraying them every few days with some preparation, as sheep dip, or kerosene emulsion appHed as a very fine spray. Where the number of animals is limited, it is applied with a brush. Such offensive preparations as fish oil, have also been used with good efifect. These preparations are only effective for a few days at a time, hence, unless special apparatus has been fitted up for applying them quickly, as in a narrow passageway through which the animals are forced to pass, the labor involved is very considerable. To apply them thus, however, has been found perfectly feasible. Horses that are being driven are protected, of course, by covering them with suitable netting. The darkened sheds which furnish protection for sheep at the season indicated, would seem to furnish a safe asylum from the assaults of the gadfly, (Tabanus ruficornis) , which is the source of that trouble known as "grub in the head." The wallow for swine is a great source of comfort in hot weather, and is to some extent a protection from flies. Digitized by Microsoft® 494 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS Usually in the hot summer season, it is not very often that such stock as horses, cattle, sheep or swine, need protection from storms. In some instances, they may, how- ever, when these are prolonged, and especially when the rainfall is of the drenching character. In the late spring and early autumn, storms sometimes occur so prolonged and severe as to result in much harm to live stock that are not housed during their continuance. The reference is to cold rains. They are more harmful to stock than many of the snow storms of the winter. Lambs and young swine, and animals of all classes that are weakly, suffer much from them. The pastures also may suffer much from treading at such times, especially should the animals be possessed of much weight. Temperature in stables. — The degree of warmth re- quired by domestic animals differs: (i) With the species (see p. 98) ; (2) with condition in the animals (see p. 395) ; (3) with the age (see p. 490), and (4) with the climate (see p. 79). In many instances those differences have not been sufficiently regarded in the management of live stock. From what has just been stated, it will be manifest that the proper degree of temperature to be maintained in stables for domestic animals will vary considerably. For work horses that are tied and blanketed, the temperature should not go below, say 36°, nor above 60°, with, say about 48° as a mean. When not blanketed it may properly range higher by a few degrees. When loose in box stalls, it may be a few degrees lower. The degree of temperature named would also be suitable for foals, while young animals but older than foals would do as well or better with temperatures a few degrees lower. The temperature suited to dairy cows would run from, say 40 to 60°, with say, 50" as a mean. For animals fattening it would run from 32 to 50°, with- 40° as a mean. The more advanced the fattening period the lower should be the temperature. For calves Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 495 the temperature should be the same as for cows, and for young animals that are older about the same as for cattle that are being fattened. For sheep unshorn, the nearer the temperature is to the freezing point but without freez- ing, the better. The aim should be to have the same range between 32 and 50°, the latter being sufficiently warm for even newly born lambs and also for sheep that are newly shorn. For swine the temperature should be about the same as for dairy cows, 60° being sufficiently warm for newly born swine. Of course, in practice, it is not possible to keep tem- peratures within the ranges named either in winter or sum- mer, but much may be done to approximate them to the figures submitted, which are only given as general and not as absolute guides. The temperature in stables may rise higher than those named and no harm come to the animals, but they should not fah in any instances below the freezing point, where this can be avoided, except probably in the case of unshorn sheep which will take no harm though the temperatures should be lower. The lower the tempera- tures can be kept without harm to the animals, the better, because of the relatively greater abundance of the oxygen supply. To secure proper temperatures in winter in the absence of artificial heat, is no easy matter, and to provide artificial heat is not practical. Warmth must be secured through proper construction in the buildings, and not through air heated by the breathing of the animals in the absence of suitable ventilation. The temperature will then be regulated through ventilation, but the construction of buildings and ventilation cannot be discussed in this work. It may be said, however, that good ventilation in buildings is absolutely essential to highest performance in animals that are housed. To secure suitable temperature in summer is more difficult than in winter. At certain times it may be im- possible because of atmospheric conditions without. But ir.uch may be done to regulate temperatures by keeping Digitized by Microsoft® 496 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS animals in airy stables by day, and outside at night. Base- ment stables are relatively the cooler in summer. The sources of litter. — The following are the principal sources from which bedding or litter is obtained: (i) The straw of cereals in all the varieties thereof used direct- ly; (2) the rejected portions of straw and hay material supplied as food; (3) the uneaten parts of corn stalks and the sorghums when properly prepared; (4J refuse from certain manufactures; (5) the leaves of trees; (6) certain kinds of soil; (7) peat, in various stages of decay. The straw of cereals is by far the most important source of litter, and also the most suitable all things considered. Viewed simply tfrom the standpoint of suit- ability, oat straw probably stands at the head, because of its softness. Rye straw does not break up so much as some varieties in threshing, is less soft, and is slower of decay, hence it is so far less suitable. The straw of peas does not shake apart so readily as the straw of non-legumi- nous cereals, and this is so far against it. So convenient and suitable is the straw of the cereals for litter, that to grow an ample supply of this to be used alone or with other absorbents, as loam and peat, is worthy of the care- ful consideration of the grower of live stock. The fore- thought which holds over straw for litter and properly protected, from seasons when it is abundant against the need of seasons when it is scarce, is to be commended. Many kinds of straw are considered too valuable, more especially in old settlements, and justly so, for being used directly as litter. They are first fed and the refuse portions are then used as litter. This applies most markedly to the straw of legumes, which, when harvested properly, is more valuable as fodder than hay overripe or damaged. When hay is overripe at the time of harvesting, when it is damaged in the curing to the extent of lessening much of its palatability, and when it grows so as to be coarse and possessed of many large stems, live stock well fed will reject more or less of it. This may generally be used with Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 497 highest profit as litter, although in some instances it will be more profitable when cleaning out the feed boxes to give such refuse to animals that are being carried through the winter on a less palatable fodder ration. Hay rejected by Work horses, cows or cattle that are being fattened, may thus be utilized by store cattle fed in sheds or otherwise. The rejected portions of corn stalks or of the sorghums do not furnish suitable litter when fed in the unprepared form, that is, when fed as they grew. Because of their stifl^ness and shape, they are not well suited for bedding, and there is the further objection that they add much to the labor in handling the manure. The objections to such litter may be in a great me^isure, and in some instances entirely overcome, by shredding or cutting up the stalks before they are fed. Prominent among the refuse from manufacturing es- tablishments used as litter, are sawdust, shavings and spent tan bark. The supply of these is more or less limited. Saw- dust has the merit of being clean and easily handled and will absorb three times its weight of liquid, but it is low in fertilizing ingredients, decays slowly and promotes fire- fang in manure heaps when present in the same, unless the contents are speedily applied to the land. Shavings do not fork readily and decay slowly. Spent tan bark is quite low in fertilizing constituents and may generally be better applied as a mulch. Leaves furnish suitable litter and rank considerably higher than straw in absorbing liquid, but they are not equal to straw as fertilizers. Moreover, the labor of gather- ing and storing them is considerable. The profit from using them, therefore, as litter, is sometimes to be ques- tioned, unless where cheaper sources of the same are not obtainable, or when they are necessary for the absorption of urine, much of which would otherwise be lost. Loam may answer for bedding in the absence of other materials, and may be used in conjunction with them, as when used in stables to absorb the liquids. Humus soils are Digitized by Microsoft® 498 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS also good because of their relative lightness and absorptive power. Clay soils are ill-suited to such a use, because of the tendency in them to bake when handling or tramped on while wet. One chief objection to soil as bedding is the labor involved in handling it. Moss and peat are frequently used for litter. Both stand high in their power to absorb liquids, but peat is richer in the elements of plant food than moss, although in this respect it varies much, dependent on the sources from which it is obtained and the stage of reduction which it has reached. It must, of course, be secured, allowed to dry and stored, before it can be thus used, which means considerable labor, but there may be instances in which its use, especially as an absorbent, is to be commended. The uses of litter. — The principal objects sought in using litter are: (i) To add to the comfort of animals, more especially when they are taking rest; (2) to absorb the urine and to arrest volatile gases as ammonia ; (3) to increase the quantity of the manure. The first of these is, of course, primary, but usually all three are im- portant. Bedding or litter adds to the comfort of animals by furnishing them with a soft and dry bed, and in many in- stances by increasing the warmth of the same. From choice, animals will soon learn to select places where soft litter is most abundant, when given such liberty, thus plainly indicating that benefit will result from furnishing them such a bed. Animals also instinctively shun taking rest on a wet bed. Rather than do so they will go for long periods without lying down, hence the importance of keeping yards well bedded and also sheds, when animals must take rest in one or the other. Litter supplies warmth in cold weather. It is particularly helpful in this respect when animals in the stall must take rest on cement or concrete floors, and when its presence in yards or sheds removes dampness. It is also very helpful in increasing warmth in swine when abundantly supplied. Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 499 The liquid portion of the manure is very valuable, and the plant food in it is readily available, hence the im- portance of saving it in a way that will conserve its proper- ties and make its application easily possible. The old method of draining it into tank and drawing it from these is objectionable, first, because of the expense and second, because of the extent to which nitrogen is lost when it is kept for any considerable time in these. It is considered preferable to absorb the liquid by using some kind of litter which may then be applied to the land. Certain gases, as ammonia, escape from manure in considerable quantities, especially from horse and sheep manure, and to prevent the same through fixation, certain substances are used. These are also used in cow stables to lessen the presence of odors that are injurious to milk. To absorb the liquids, straw is more commonly used because of its plentifulness, but leaves, moss, peat, and dry loam or muck, may also be used. Peat, loam, and muck in addition to their absorptive powers also lessen the extent to which odors are present. To prevent the escape of am- monia, land plaster has been much recommended and used. But the question of the profit resulting is not fully settled. Some good authorities claim that acid phosphate is superior to gypsum. Others claim that, cost considered, the use of dry peat, loam or muck is superior to either gypsum or acid phosphate. In localities where fertilizers are much prized, the free use of the absorbents named adds greatly to the quantity of fertilizing materials saved and also made. The increase is usually more cheaply secured than it would be by com- posting, more especially when the manure thus made is drawn at once and spread on the land. A saving is thus effected. in labor, and the loss of plant food in the manure through leaching and excessive fermentation is reduced to the lowest minimum possible. But, of course, it is not always practicable to apply manure to the land thus quickly. Through the use of suitable absorbents, it should be easily Digitized by Microsoft® 500 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS possible to more than double the amount of the fertilizing ingredients made and saved in the absence of these. Preparing and using litter. — The proper preparation for use will, of course, vary with its nature, and the source from which it is obtained. Prominent among the processes to be followed are: (i) The proper housing or stacking of straw; (2) the chaffing of straw and the shredding of the stalks of corn and sorghum, and (3) the storing of earth, the gathering of moss and the drying and storing of peat. Wet litter is worse than none, as it is prejudicial to the well-doing of all kinds of domestic animals. Straw may most easily be kept dry by housing it, but frequently this ' may not be practicable. When it is not, it should be stacked with care and conveniently to where it will be used. The "blowers" used .so extensively in threshing, as generally used make careful stacking almost impossible, with the result that a large proportion of the straw is made useless for bedding through the rain which penetrates it. Straw of the small cereal grains is more commonly used without being chaffed, but where this can be done in conjunction with the threshing of the grain, the benefit which results from the less quantity called for, and the superior condition of the manure for immediate application, more than pay for the added cost. When thus chaffed, the length of the pieces are from, say 2 to 4 inches. Corn and sorghum stalks are greatly improved as litter by shredding, a process which tears them up into strips and makes them in a sense like straw. The shredding is primarily done to prepare them for food, and only the rejected portions are ordinarily used for litter. In moist climates it is not easy to preserve fodder shredded thus, but it is quite practicable in the more dry regions of the West. Earth must be drawn and stored when dry to be properly serviceable, light loamb and humus soils are t6 be preferred and clays should be rejected. Moss must, of course, be gathered and stored when the condition of the marshes which supply it makes Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 5OI this practicable, and the same is true of peat. In some in- stances, the peat must first be dried by laying it open to the sun. The mode of using litter will vary with its nature and with the conditions under which the animals are kept. Earth and peat are more commonly used as absorbents in con- junction with other litter used to provide a suitable bed on which the animals may lie. When thus used, they are more commonly spread in the trench behind the stalls in which the droppings and urine accumulate. But in some instances, especially in western Europe, these substances are used as the sole sources of litter. They are placed in the stall to the depth of several inches and are removed at intervals. When straw or fodder is first fed, and the rejected portion used as bedding, the source of supply is very con- venient since the labor involved consists simply in removing the refuse from the manger or food box and spreading it in the stall in the one instance or in the shed or yard in the other. Cattle that are being fattened or cows fed plenti- fully on good food will not eat any considerable quantity of straw, but this does not hold true of cattle or horses that are being carried through the winter, and it is even less true of breeding flocks of sheep. When fed at the noon hour, the refuse is ready for use as litter just when it is most wanted, that is as night approaches. When animals are confined in stalls the larger por- tion of the day, care should be taken by the attendant to throw back the droppings that may have fallen upon the platform several times during the day, to insure greater cleanliness. When they run at large in sheds and yards, the frozen droppings should be removed occasionally, when they cannot be deeply covered with litter. It is usual to supply litter but once a day. The amount of litter required will vary with the class of animals, the food fed and the materials used. Horses call for the least in proportion to their weight and swine probably for the most in cold weather. Show animals Digitized by Microsoft® 502 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS must be supplied plentifully with bedding. Animals loose in box stalls, sheds or yards call for more than those tied in the stall. The minimum supply of straw bedding for a horse, has been put at 5 pounds by some authorities. For a mature cattle beast in the stall, it has been put at about one-fourth to one-third of the dry matter fed, or at, say 7 to 10 pounds. When earth only is used, as much as 150 pounds daily will be wanted. A bushel basket full of dry peat daily per animal will usually suffice as an absorbent of the liquids. The season for breeding.^The season when the young animals may be produced with best advantage will depend : ( i ) On the use that is to be made of them, and also of the dams; (2) on the conveniences available in properly caring for them, and (3) on the time that may be secured in giving them the necessary care. Foals are usually born in the spring, a result that is probably to be attributed to custom more than to anything else. The reasons are weighty, however, why the aim should be to have them produced in the autumn. In a majority of instances idleness, from the very nature of farm work is enforced on the dams in winter, and work is de- sired of them in summer, which means that such mares can better sustain their foals in winter and can also render more efficient service in summer. The work thus given, if not excessive, would be beneficial to the foal in embryo which she might carry at such a time. There has been complaint that conception in the autumn is not so sure as in the spring, and it is probably well grounded, but if true, there are no good reasons why this greater shyness of con- ception on the part of brood mares at that season may not be overcome. The advantages of having cows produce their young in the autumn include the following : ( i ) It secures abundant milk in winter which is more profitable than at any other sea- son; (2) more time can be secured for taking care of the calves during the period of feeding milk, and (3) the wean- Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 503 ing season comes at a propitious time, that is, when grass is succulent. The second and third of these advantages ap- ply equally to foals. The season for lambs to arrive is from November I to June I, according to the market for which they are grown and as to whether they are grown for breeding uses. Milk lambs are best in season when produced between November i and February i. Eas- ter lambs are best produced from January i to March i. Spring lambs for the general market come most oppor- tunely in March and April, and lambs for autumn and win- ter feeding, from April onward. For breeding uses they usually develop somewhat better when born in the early rather than the late spring. When but one litter of swine is reared in a season it may be produced any season that may be most convenient after settled cold weather is gone, which will give the pigs time to develop sufficiently for the market for which they are intended. When two litters are wanted, March and April are auspicious months for the first litter, and Sep- tember and October for the second. The eariier month in each instance is to be preferred. Where the conveniences are not at hand for properly protecting young animals from inclement weather, or for furnishing them and the dams with suitable food, they should not be brought forth under such conditions. These conditions sometimes exist on the arable farm and are very frequently present in range areas. Young animals, from the nature of their necessities, call for more attention than animals that are older. The time for giving it is less easily secured from the beginning of seed time to the end of harvest, when farm work is al- ways pressing. Because of this and for other reasons, the aim should be to avoid having young animals brought into existence at such a time. The season at which young animals shall be born can- not be completely controlled by the owner of the stock, but Digitized by Microsoft® 504 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS usually it can. He can control the time of mating, but of course, not in all instances the time of conception. The ex- tremes in the duration of the period of gestation in the mare may be set down approximately as 295 to 370 days; in the cow as 265 to 300 days; in the ewe as 145 to 154 days, and in the sow as no to 118 days. The average dura- tion approximately of the period of gestation in the mare is 330 days ; in the cow, 282 days ; in the ewe, 149 days, and in the sow 113 days. Usually when breeding animals are in a normal condition as to health and flesh and are properly fed and of sufficient age, they may be depended upon to breed with much certainty and near to the time desired. The dam at parturition. — The time of parturition is a more or less critical one with the dam. Neglect or in- judicious feeding at such a time may readily prove fatal to both the dam and her offspring. With reference to it, the following recommendations will always be in order : (i) The food preceding parturition should be more or less succulent and slightly laxative; (2) the owner or per- son in charge should aim to be present when it occurs, and (3) the dam should be fed with a prudent caution for some time subsequently. Succulence in the food is beneficial: (i) In the tendency which it exerts on the digestion in preventing con- stipation, (2) in the influence which it exerts in con- sequence in counteracting all tendency to feverishness such as a constipated condition of the system is sure to induce, and (3) in furnishing in plentiful supply, food for the progeny as soon as born. Some caution, however, is neces- sary in the case of cows known to be free milkers, lest the strong tendency to superabundant milk secretion should so react on the vital forces of the system as to result in milk fever, that dread malady, which, until recently, proved so fatal to dams when it appeared. In summer, no food is superior to grass, and at other seasons, such food adjuncts as field roots, wheat bran, oil cake and corn ensilage with but little of the grain in it, are all good. Digitized by Microsoft® CAKE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 505 The advantage from the presence of an attendant may result from various occurrences. These include an abnormal presentation which may call for assistance ; feebleness in the progeny such as may require aid without which it would succumb ; and in rare instances a viciousness on the part of the dam which would result in harm to her offspring. In inclement weather, the necessity for the presence of an at- tendant is proportionately increased. The profits that oc- cur from keeping live stock are probably influenced more by the results at the time of parturition, than by those oc- curring at any other period. The condition of the dam at parturition is always more or less fevered. This fever creates thirst. To relieve this, water should be suppHed to the extent of the desire of the dam to take it. But in no case should the water be cold. In all instances the chill should be removed from it to pre- vent a chill being given to the system, which, at such a time, would almost certainly prove fatal. This caution should be observed for some time subsequently to parturition. No harm is likely to result from allowing dams to eat all the dry fodder they will consume after the birth of their progeny. But in no instance should they be given large quantities of concentrates for several days after parturition. Feeding them thus freely at such a time tends to produce disturbances in the udder which may readily prove fatal to both dam and progeny. Any excess of milk in the udder should be taken from it by hand milking, where this is practicable. The time required to put dams on a full grain ration subsequent to parturition varies from one to three weeks, according to the conditions present. Amount of exercise. — Live stock cannot be grown to ■ maturity with highest success unless they are given the op- portunity to exercise according to their needs during the process of development. The necessity for exercise varies, as also the amount of the same: (i) With the age of the animals ; (2) with the class of the same 1(3) with the object for which they are kept, and (4) with the nature and amount of the food given to them. '^ Digitized by Microsoft® 506 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS The necessity for exercise is greatest when animals are young and decreases with advancing age. It is based on the relation that obtains between exercise and the removal of waste matter that would otherwise accumulate in the system, and also between exercise and the firming of the muscles, to enable them to fulfill effectively the respective functions required of them. It stimulates the circulatory blood flow and quickens all the vital processes. The necessity for taking it is indicated in the eagerness with which young animals exercise, and the amount of it which they take when the opportunity for the same is furnished. Young animals, therefore, should in ho instances be closely confined unless they are to be slaughtered at an early age. The importance of exercise is greatest in the horse. This arises in part from the fact that he is kept for pur- poses of labor and travel. The measure of the ability for both has been found to co-ordinate in a marked degree with the amount of exercise taken during development and also subsequently. Exercise for sheep comes next in importance, as a result of inherent original endowment. The sheep by nature is much inclined' to travel while grazing. Swine can be reared with less exercise relatively than cattle, but the}' also must be given large liberty to exercise if they are to maintain sufficient health and vigor. Animals kept primarily for labor require the largest amount of exercise. Those kept primarily for breeding come next, and those that are being fattened call for the least. The necessity for proper exercise with horses is only second in importance to the necessity for proper food. Ex- perience has invariably shown that the larger the amount of exercise taken by breeding animals up to that point at which exercise would begin to draw on the energies of the system, the more valuable are they as breeders, and the more successfully do they breed. With animals that are being fattened, exercise beyond a limited amount would draw on the energies of the system, and as a result there would be antagonism between exercise beyond this point 5»nd the most abundant laying on of flesh. Digitized by Microsoft® CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 507 When animals are kept for purposes of labor, or for breeding, or for both uses, it is very evident that a low con- dition of flesh calls for less exercise than a condition the opposite, sustained by high feeding. Every pound of flesh in excess of the complete needs of the animal becomes burdensome and should be removed by increased exercise or reduced feeding, or both. On the other hand, a condition of flesh below the complete needs of the animal should be strengthened by increased feeding and curtailed exercise. It is impossible to formulate rules for exercising an- imals that will exactly meet the needs of all conditions that may arise, but some things may be said that will in a sense serve as a general guide under some conditions. Much must be left to the judgment of the owner or attendant. The aim should be to give young and growing animals, grown for labor or for breeding, all the exercise they will take voluntarily, under favorable conditions for taking the same. Horses, when mature, if given liberty, will take enough of exercise voluntarily, except it may be in the case of pregnant draught mares (See p. 120.) Stallions should be exercised daily, especially in the breeding season. Draught stallions will profit by being walked half a dozen miles a day, and other stallions will profit by a longer journey and a somewhat quicker but easy gait. All pregnant animals should be given the opportunity to move about daily in a yard, paddock or field, except in stormy weather, and the same is true of stock males. When snow is deep, it may be beneficial to give sheep a part of their food at some distance from the sheds, in a shel- tered place, to encourage them to take exercise. Roads may have to be opened in some instances with snow ploughs. Likewise it may be advantageous to encourage brood sows to take exercise by strewing grain in various places that will give the sows exercise while gathering it Pregnant cows seem to take harm less readily from con- fined conditions than pregnant dams of other farm ^pifnalsJ Digitized by Microsoft® 5o8 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS In some instances, these have produced progeny with rea- sonable success when tied in the stall uninterruptedly for months in succession. It is questionable, however, if the plan is a wise one. The amount of exercise that cows in milk should have, is in some respects an undecided question. When out on pasture, every step taken in excess of the needs of the cow, viewed from the standpoint of good health is taken at the expense of milk production. But in winter another factor, viz., cold, has to be contended with. This beyond a certain degree is antagonistic to milk production, even when cows are taking outdoor exercise that would otherwise be bene- ficial to them. The best solution of this question probably is, to turn them daily into a well lighted and well bedded closed shed, in which they may exercise daily in cold weather, and to give them access to protected yards in warmer weather. Animals that are being fattened for the block do not require much exercise, and yet experience has shown that even with them, some exercise is helpful rather than an- tagonistic to increase, and that they also ship better when given some exercise. The more forced the feeding, the more beneficial will exercise be up to a certain limit. Ani- mals with some exercise do not get "ofif feed" so readily as those with none:- Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER XXI. MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS. Prominent among the miscellaneous considerations are the following: 1. The weigh scale as an educator. 2. Weight of animals at birth. 3. Variation in weights of animals. 4. Influences that affect palatability. 5. Feeding subsequent to weaning. 6. Feeding for quick conception. 7- Salt and its uses. 8. Silage a varying quantity. 9. Feeding miscellaneous products. These are discussed in the order given. The weigh scale an educator. — When animals are be- ing fed large quantities of food with a view to the produc- tion of milk or meat, it is of prime importance to the owner that they shall give an adequate return for the same. The exact nature of this return cannot be known, without frequent recourse to the weigh scale. Even the skilled feeder may be deceived as to the nature of J;he gains, when animals are being fed liberally, and more especially when they are nearing the finishing period. The weigh scale, therefore, aids in the economical feeding of live stock: (i) In making the comparison of foods possible and prac- ticable; (2) in indicating exactly the product resulting from the food, and (3) because of the information thus given, it tends to make the person who uses it- a student of the science of feeding. The benefit last named is by far the greatest, because of the influence which it exerts on future feeding and management. Without the weigh scale, the, feeder cannot tell exactly which of two or more rations that he may choose from will 509 Digitized by Microsoft® 5IO FEEDING FARM ANIMALS best suit his purpose. He may have an approximate idea from the results obtained by previous experimenters in feeding the same rations, in the same way and under the same conditions. But, should the conditions be changed, or any of the ingredients in the rations, or the amounts of these fed, factors are introduced which will lead to different results, how far different, the weigh scale only can ac- curately determine. In the fattening processes, the various foods fed are usually relatively costly, so costly that the increase in live weight seldom equals in value the foods used in making it. (See p. 384). This result follows, even though the food and feeding are both well adapted to the end sought. It is greatly important, therefore, that the gains shall bear a due relation to the cost of the food, and that they shall be liberal and continuous. The daily cost of food for a mature cattle beast, while being fattened, runs all the way from 10 to 25 cents per day. Where only partial gains re- sult, the loss resulting piles up rapidly. The same is true when cows in milk are liberally fed without making cor- responding returns. In stables where the milk, of each cow is weighed as soon as taken throughout the year, relative capacity in the cows for production soon becomes known. This of course, does nof tell the whole story, unless the food also is weighed that is given to each cow, which is scarcely prac- ticable in the ordinary stable. But it gives an approximate idea of relative production in proportion to cost of food, so approximately accurate that it enables the keeper of cows to weed out those, least profitable and to supplant them with others without the hazard of serious mistake. Likewise, the weigh scale may be made to indicate the degree of the return for food fed at any stage of development. But when taking the weights alive, the liability to fluctuations in the same must not be overlooked. (See p. 514.) When due at- tention is thus given to the extent of the production that is being secured, the invariable result is to stimulate the Digitized by Microsoft® MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 5II « owner to increase these. To do so, he becomes a student of methods. It would be safe to say that no person who weighs daily the milk of all his cows will long be content with low average production in his herd. Weight of animals at birth. — The following are chief among the influences that affect the weight of animals at birth: (i) The size of the dam; (2) the age of dam; (3) the breed of both sire and dam; (4) the food given to the dam during gestation ; ( 5 ) the performance of the dam dur- ing the same period; (6) the nun'.ber produced at one birth, and (7) the size of the sire. It is but reasonable to suppose that there is a relation between the size of the dam and her offspring. This rela- tion may not be uniform and constant, owing to the many influences that affect size in the progeny. The belief in such a relation on the part of practical breeders is shown in the preference which they give to well developed dams when seeking progeny of superior development. This fact is also recognized by scientists who have studied the ques- tion, when they seek to establish an approximate relation between the weight of the dam and her offspring based upon her weight. It has been observed that the best averages in size have been obtained in progeny from females in the meridian of vigor and maturity. Since it has been noticed that progeny of the first birth from a dam not yet mature is usually of less size at birth than the progeny of future births, prac- tical men are chary about rearing such animals for future breeding. They give the preference to the former. That progeny of animals yet immature or past the meridian of vigor would be of less average size, is in accord with the known laws of physiology. The food given to the former is more or less diverted from the foetus to complete growth. That given to the latter is less perfectly assimilated than at a later period. That breed exercises an influence on the relative size of the progeny at birth is in accord with the first law of Digitized by Microsoft® 512 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS breeding; viz., that like produces like. It is omy reasoriable to suppose that the average size of the progeny at birth- would be larger from the Clyde mare than from the mare standard bred; that from the Shorthorn cow, larger than progeny from the Jersey; that from the Lincoln, larger than progeny from the Southdown, and that from the large Yorkshire, larger than progeny from the small Yorkshire. And so it is on the average in these respective instances. It could not be otherwise than that the food given to the dam during pregnancy exercised a determining in- fluence on the size of the progeny at birth, since foetal de- velopment is a direct result of the constituents contained in the food. An excess of carbohydrates is adverse to develop- ment and an excess of protein is liable to result in impaired vitality. Performance in the pregnant dam influences size through the diversion of the energies of the system. Nor- mal and ordinary exercise of those energies is favorable to foetal development, through the healthy influence ex- erted by use in the various functions of the system. For instance, regular breeding not excessive in frequency, will produce more desirable progeny as a rule than fitful breed- ing. But should the energies of the system be over-taxed during pregnancy, as when the cow is carried through a high pressure milking test, or the pregnant mare is over- worked, or the pregnant ewe is put into high show condi- tion, the influence is adverse to both size and vigor in the progeny. That the number produced at a birth mfluences size at birth is sustained by the evidences of observation and experience. Although the results are not constant, and in the nature of things cannot be, the average weight of single lambs at birth, is greater than that of twin lambs in the same flock. This -also is true of the average weight of pigs in large litters as compared with those of small litters. Digitized by Microsoft® MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 513 That the sire exercises an influence on the size of the progeny at birth has been denied. Of course, such influ- ence is less on the part of the sire than on that of the dam in the very nature of things. But that the sire does exercise such an influence is clearly shown in cross breed- ing where the size of the sire is much in excess of that of the dam. The influence thus exerted by the sire, however, in determining the limit of possible development in the progeny at maturity is greater than in determining actual size at birth because of the various influences intra uterine in character that offset foetal development, and that cease to be operative subsequently. In other words, ultimate development, the outcome of influence exerted by the sire, may be greater relatively at maturity than at the birth of the progeny. It follows, therefore, that possible size at maturity is not fixed by relative size at birth, although there is doubt- less some relation between these. Possible size at maturity is determined by inheritance from both sire and dam, and to some extent from the ancestry of these. Illiberal feeding may result in possible development being unattained. But no feeding, however liberal, can result in development be- yond the limit set by inheritance, that is to say, feeding more food than would be regarded as a sufficient ration will not carry development beyond what it would attain by giv- ing simply a sufficient ration, but it may reach such develop- ment more quickly. It is evident, therefore, that it is not possible to state exactly the maximum, minimum or average weights of young animals at birth. However, basing the es- timates on records of weights that have been taken, it would be approximately correct to say that the average weight of standard bred foals whose dams and sires range between looo and iioo pounds would be somewhere in the vicinity of lOO to no pounds, and that draught foals would be proportionately heavier ac- cording to the weight of the parents, in normal condition as Digitized by Microsoft® 514 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS to flesh. The weight of calves runs all the way from 50 to 125 pounds, the average being somewhere in the neigh- borhood of 80 pounds. The average weight of lambs, large, intermediate and small breeds, is somewhere in the vicinity of 7 to 8 pounds. The average weight of pigs of the dif- ferent breeds is somewhere between 2 and 2^ pounds. Variations in weights of animals. — The live weight of animals varies so much from day to day, that in experi- ments which call for frequent weighings, it becomes a dis- turbing factor to the extent of leading to incorrect con- clusions, unless the weights are taken as the average of several weighings rather than as single. These variations occur in weights taken at different hours the same day or on successive days, insomuch, that even with animals that are neither gaining nor losing in flesh, the same weight precisely can seldom or never be attained from weighing at different times. These variations are relatively more pronounced in cat- tle and sheep than in horses and swine, owing probably to the less relative capacity in the digestive organs of the latter to hold large quantities of food, and to the shorter period during which it is retained in the system. But even in the case of horses, the difference in live weight from day to day has been not less than 25 pounds, though weighed at the same hour each morning and before any food or water had been given to them. The difference in the daily weigh- ings of mature cattle similarly weighed has, in some in- stances, exceeded 50 pounds. These variations are the outcome chiefly: (i) Of the different amounts of food consumed and retained in the system, and (2) of the different amounts of water drunk and also retained beyond the time when the weights were taken. They are also influenced to some extent by the in- crease or loss in flesh, by the water content of the tissues, and in the case of animals in milk by the amount of milk withdrawn. Digitized by Microsoft® MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 515 The variarions resulting from food is caused more by irregular movement in the evacuations than by a difference in the amount of food consumed. The difference in the amount of solids excreted, by mature cattle at rest has been found, in some instances, to vary fully 25 pounds per day. With animals that are exercised, the difference may be greater. It has also been noticed that the movement of food in digestion is less regular when the diet has recently been changed. Tiie difference in the amount of water consumed from day to day is likely to be much greater than that in the food consumed. It is more likely to be influenced by a change of temperature in the atmosphere. It is also in- fluenced by a change of temperature in the water itself. When it is called to mind that the stomach of a mature ox is capable of holding from 100 to 150 pounds of water, and that the excretion of urine is more or less irregular, it will be readily apparent how the amount of water con- sumed may lead to variations in the live weight of animals. These variations account for the extravagant gains that are sometimes claimed for animals on full feed. A well grown steer at the Kansas experiment station showed, in one instance, a loss of 2 pounds as the result of seven days feeding on a fattening ration. At the end of the following seven days he showed a gain of 47 pounds or nearly 7 pounds per day. They also show the necessity for the utmost care in drawing conclusions based on weights while conducting experiments with live stock that relate to in- crease or decrease. Some stations have adopted the safe plan of weighing three days in succession under exactly the same conditions and taking the average of these as representing the true weight. Influences that affect palatability. — The great im- portance of palatability in foods has already been dis- cussed (see p. 51). The influences that affect it will now be considered. These include: (i) The in- trinsic properties of the plant; (2) the nature of the Digitized by Microsoft® 5l6 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS growth; (3) the inherent tastes of the animals to which the foods are fed, and (4) the extent to which those tastes have been cultivated by feeding upon plants different from those to which the animals have been accustomed. The intrinsic properties of the plants are influenced: (i) By the class to which they belong; (2) by the amount of leaf growth; (3) by the extent to which woodiness is present or absent, and (4) by the aroma. Legumes are usually more palatable than other plants but this does not always hold true, as blue grass when young is* more palatable than red clover at the same stage of ad- vancement in growth. Usually, however, domestic ani- mals show a fondness for legumes. Sugar in plants also affects their palatability. This in part accounts for the fondness of domestic animals for corn and more par- ticularly for sorghum, both of which are non-leguminous. The more abundantly that leaf growth is present, the greater is the degree of palatability in plants. This is owing in part to the absence of woodiness, in part to the fine char-, acter of the growth, and probably in part to the higher nutrition which they possess. As plants become woody, they lose in palatability. This is very clearly shown in the consumption of the leaves and finer portion of the stems of coarse clover hay, while the coarse stems will be re- jected in the same. The same is true of corn plants. In nearly all instances, plants which are rejected by animals for which they are the natural food when far advanced in growth, will be eaten by the same when young. Foxtail {Alopecurus pratensis) for instance, is readily consumed by sheep when young, but when advanced in growth they will not eat it at all if they can secure other food. The same is true of some other plants even of plants as valuable as timothy. The aroma of plants also influences their pal- atability in a marked degree. The presence of this prop- erty is conveyed through the yielding up or giving off of certain volatile odors, which are gratifying to the sense of smell. These are emitted in a marked degree by new Digitized by Microsoft® MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 5I7 mown hay. When much exposed, as by bleaching, or when wet with dew or rains, these properties are dissolved or washed out of the plants, and in proportion as they are they lose in palatability. The nature of the growth affects the palatability of plants: (i) Through the rapidity or slowness of the growth; (2) through the relative amount of the bulk pro- duced, and (3) through the proportion of the stem to the leaf growth. The more quickly that plants grow as a rule, the more palatable are they, as quick growth is favorable to succulence and adverse to woodiness. The more bulky the foods are, the coarser are the fibres of the plants, and the coarser the fibres are, the less is the degree of the pal- atability. Slow growth is unfavorable to a large propor- tion of leaf growth, and a large proportion of stem growth is adverse to palatability. The inherent tastes of animals have an influence on the degree to which foods are palatable to them. The horse, for instance, is fond of timothy hay, but the sheep does not take kindly to it. The goat is more fond of leaves and small twigs than of grass while sheep are much more fond of grass, and cattle will consume leaves only to a small extent except under pressure of hunger. Horses are usually more fond of carrots than of other field roots, while swine are less fond of these than of any other varieties of roots. In- stances illustrating this subject could be multiplied in- definitely. Palatability in foods may be influenced by cultivating the taste so to speak of the animals which feed upon them. Sheep grown upon the western ranges will usually refuse to feed upon rape when first turned in upon it if they have access to grass at the same time. Soon they become so fond of it that they prefer it to grass. Cattle in north- ern areas will not feed upon sweet clover unless compelled to do so through hunger, but catttle in the southern states in certain areas will eat it with more or less relish. The Digitized by Microsoft® 518 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS liking for certain products may thus be cultivated to the extent of engrafting it as a permanent feature of the or- ganization. Feeding subsequent to weaning. — The importance of keeping animals intended for meat pushing without any- period of stagnation in growth, or even without any period of seriously retarded growth, has already been dwelt upon. (See p. 371.) Such a period is more likely to occur just after weaning than at any other time during growth. It is of considerable importance, therefore, that it shall be pre- vented. This is quite possible where the necessary measures are taken to prevent it. The hazard at such a time arises, first, from cutting off a supply of food that is greatly relished by the young ani- mals, that the digestive system is accustomed to, that is easily digested and that is very nourishing; second, sub- stituting therefor a diet that is less relished, that the diges- tive system is less accustomed to or not accustomed to at all, and that is not so easily digested. And third, because the weaning season frequently occurs at a season when the graz- ing has lost much of its succulence and when cold weather, with its rigors, is approaching. The earlier the age at which the weaning occurs, the greater is the degree of the hazard referred to. Arrested development at such a time, may be almost or entirely prevented, by gradually accustoming the young animals before weaning, as far as may be practicable, to the foods that will form their diet afterward. This may not be easily practicable in all instances, as for instance, when cows suckle their calves on the range or even on the farm, or when lambs are born in the pastures, the dams in neither instance being given grain during the nursing period. But, when the dams are fed grain, it is easily possible to get the progeny which they suckle accustomed to eating the same, by allowing them to learn to eat it, at first apart from the dam, and later if thought best, as a matter of convenience, with the dam. Digitized by Microsoft® MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 5ig The weaning will, in such instances, be so gradual that it will not in any way hinder growth. When animals are hand-fed, the conditions that relate to feeding may be easily and completely controlled. When weaning animals, the aim should be to secure the following conditions, as far as may be practicable : ( i ) Shutting off the milk supply gradually. This is most easily done by giving it less frequently, as by feeding but once a day instead of twice; (2) furnishing a liberal supply of concentrated food such as is best adapted to the needs of the animals. Oats should furnish the basic grain food for foals and lambs, and even for calves when not too expensive, but some corn and a small amount of oil cake added will be an improvement. Shorts is the basic food for young swine, but here also, corn will improve the ration, and it may be freely fed along with skim milk. The supply of grain ought to be liberal; (3) fodder of high quality should be provided to encourage large consumption of the same, or if in sea- son, the pastures should be succulent and nutritious. When weaning takes place in the spring, as soon as the pastures become abundant, the grain allowance may be gradually re- duced. In the case of young animals not accustomed to wean- ing, the best that can be done is to place grain in the fields, paddocks or stables in which they are kept. In time they will begin to eat it, but not until some loss may have oc- curred in development. If one or more animals of nearly similar ages are turned into the enclosure, the example which they set will lead the others to eat grain sooner than they would without such example. The age for weaning will, of course, vary. Foals should be allowed to suck their dams for not less than six months, and the same is true of calves. Lambs are us- ually weaned in four to five months from birth. Swine should take nourishment from their dams for 10 to 12 weeks, unless when two litters per season are required of the dams, in which instances, the nursing period is cut Digitized by Microsoft® 520 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS down to eight weeks. When calves are hand-fed, the period of milk feeding is not usually extended to beyond four months. The more completely the young animals are accustomed to food supplemental to the milk taken, the earlier the age at which they may be weaned without hin- dering development. Feeding for quick conception. — It is frequently a matter of considerable importance that females shall breed at a certain season of the year and within the limit of a somewhat short period. The object sought is to meet the demands of the market better than if the progeny are produced at other seasons. These demands relate in some instances to the progeny itself, and in others to the ac- companying or resulting milk product. This may fre- quently be attained, though not in all instances, by the na- ture of the food given to the dam for a short time previously to the mating season. Mares and cows maintained in reasonably high flesh will usually come in heat at regularly occurring periods, beginning with the former within a few days subsequently to the birth of the foal, and with the latter within three to six weeks of the birth of the calf. But in a considerable proportion of instances, cows do not breed that suckle their calves until a considerable proportion of the nursing period has passed. Ewes and sows will not breed as a rule, while nursing their young. Nor will females of any class breed when the condition of the system is reduced beyond a cer- tain point. But when thus reduced and nourishing, suc- culent food is given to the extent of making a marked im- provement in the vigor possessed by the animal, all the vital forces share in such invigoration, and also all the functions that may be operative at such a time, including those which pertain to conception. From what has been said, it will be apparent that it is much more difficult to influence con- ception in animals already in good flesh. To secure quick conception in cows of moderate or low flesh, they should be given more stimulating and nour- ishing food rich in protein. It is in a sense imperative Digitized by Microsoft® MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 52 1 also, that it shall oe possessed of a considerable degree of succulence. Usually the object sought will be accompHshed within a few weeks from the time when such feeding be- gins To secure the same in ewes, they are usually put on rich and juicy pasture subsequently to the weaning of the lambs. The pasture is supplemented with a fairly liberal allowance of nutritious grain. For this purpose oats and barley have been found superior to corn or rye. Wheat also answers the purpose well. Rape pasture is particularly adapted to such feeding and if well advanced in growth, it may not be necessary to supplement it with any grain. The result with generously fed brood sows, subsequent to the welaning of the pigs, will be similar. When females are well nourished and yet do not come in heat, they may in some instances be made to breed by re- ducing the flesh in a considerable degree, through with- holding food and enforcing exercise, and then giving again enough of suitable food to commence again building up the reduced energies of the system. The success follow- ing will be dependent on the cause or causes that prevented the animals from breeding previously. Salt and its uses. — The desire for salt in nearly all classes of domestic animals is so strong as to amount to a craving, if it is withheld from them for any considerable period. That it serves an important end in the animal economy would seem to be thus indicated by nature. Swine seem to crave it less than other domestic animals, but they also profit by its moderate use. Salt is not a nutrient in the sense of furnishing food, nor is it certain that' it adds directly to the digestibility of foods, as such, nevertheless, it plays an important part in sustaining the animal by the influence which it exerts on the digestive processes. When supplied in suitable quanti- ties, it increases the energy of the vital processes. It does so by facilitating the passage of albuminoids from the diges- tive tract into the blood, and by increasing the secretion of the juices of the body and quickening their circulation. In doing so, however, it increases protein consumption. Digitized by Microsoft® 522 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS A second and important use of salt is the favorable in- fluence which it exerts upon the appetite. It renders foods more palatable and, therefore, when judiciously used in preparing them, increases their consumption. But, to feed quantities abnormally large would lead to harmful results as shown below. The craving for salt is influenced to some extent by natural location and also by the food. Animals grazed near the sea frequently secure a sufficient supply from the herbage upon which they feed. Relatively large quantities seem to be required by animals grazing on plants watery in character, as young grass and succulent rape. A third action of salt is to increase the excretion of urine, which may probably in part explain the craving for much salt by animals on watery food. This explains also why animals which are given much salt, drink much water. The consumption of much salt accompanied by an insuffi- cient supply of water, would result in diverting to the kid- neys water that would otherwise pass off through the organs of respiration, and in consequence there would be a more or less quick loss of weight. When abnormally large quantities of salt are taken, this is followed by the drinking of abnormally large quantities of water, which re- sults in a waste of nutrients in the body through increased protein consumption. Death has even resulted from al- lowing cows to drink large quantities of brine, which had been used in salting pork. It is particularly desirable, therefore, that domestic ani- mals shall be given enough salt at all times to meet their needs, and that they shall not be given an excess of the same. It is scarcely possible to adjust the amount of salt given to the exact needs of the animals in any other way than by giving them constant access to it, that they may take it at will. If supplied only at intervals, they take it to excess, but not otherwise, although it has been claimed that some horses will eat it in excess even under the conditions stated above. Digitized by Microsoft® MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 523 That it would not be quite practicable in any otlier way to adjust exactly the amount of salt given to the needs of the animal will be apparent from the different amounts called for by animals of different classes, different ages, fed under different conditions as to performance, and on different kinds of food. It would not be quite pos- sible, therefore, to name amounts to be thus fed except in the most general way. The amount mentioned as suitable for a dairy cow is % of an ounce per day, and for a steer of 1,000 pounds weight as i ounce per day when fattening begins, and an increase of the same up to more than Ij4 ounces before the finishing period. That the exact amounts of salt required cannot thus be perfectly adjusted, however, is not inconsistent with feeding salt in small quantities in the food to make it more appetizing, providing it is not thus fed in excess of the needs of the animals. This is not the place to discuss the exact mode or modes of giving salt to animals. But it may be mentioned that the aim should be to have it accessible to them at all times, whether in the stall, the yard, the feed lot or in the pasture. It is given in the form of common salt or of rock salt. When given as common salt, it must be protected from rain, which dissolves it. The objections have, in some instances, been raised against rock salt that animals do not always get enough of it and that sometimes the process of licking it makes the tongue sore. Silage a varying quantity. — Corn silage is one of the most important fodders in feeding dairy cows, and that it will become more important relatively cannot be questioned. But in feeding it to cows and also to other stock the fact should not be overlooked that relatively its value varies so much, that the character of its nutrients should be carefully taken into account when deciding upon the other food factors that shall be fed with it. These variations arise: (i) From the method of growth adopted; (2) from the de- gree of maturity at which the crop has been harvested; (3) Digitized by Microsoft® 524 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS from the proportionate amount of the grain which it con- tains, and (4) from the way in which it has been preserved in the silo. Tests conducted at different experiment stations have shown that the method of growth has a marked influence on the bulk product per acre. At the Illinois experiment station, it was found that corn grown with the stalks 3 inches apart in the rows, the latter being 44 inches distant from one another, produced 4.8 tons of stover per acre, while corn with the stalks 9 inches apart in rows equally dis- tant produced but 3.1 tons. But with the former, the pro- portion of the stover to each pound of ears was 3.6 pounds, and with the latter 1.5 pounds. The difference, therefore, in the feeding value of equal quantities of silage grown thus will be at once apparent. The increase in the dry matter in corn between the milk and the grazing stage is very great. At the experiment station at Geneva, N. Y., it was found that the dry matter in an acre of corn increased from 4,643 pounds when in milk, to 7,202 pounds when glazed. When matured, the dry matter was 7,918 pounds. Since it is claimed that a pound of the dry substance of well matured ensilage has , a higher nutritive value than at any previous period in its growth, the influence of maturity on the feeding value of ensilage will be apparent. In some localities, corn cannot be taken past the milk stage for ensilage because of early frosts. The proportionate amounts of grain and stover vary exceedingly in ensilage. Corn may be grown so thickly, that it will not produce ears at all, and yet it may make good silage. Again, it may be grown so as to produce nubbins, varying from ears not much below the normal size down to very small. When grown to furnish a maxi- mum amount of ears, more than half the weight of the en- tire crop will be ears. Here again the difference in the feeding value of a pound of silage will be clearly evident. The bearing which this should have upon the amounts of Digitized by Microsoft® MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 525 grain or meal to feed with tlie silage should not be lost sight of, more especially when feeding large quantities of silage. Silage differs considerably in the degree of the acidity which characterizes it. The difference may be so much as to justify the use of the terms, "sweet" and "sour," as applied to silage, with all manner of gradations between these. The differences are usually owing in great part, at least, to a difference in the stage of maturity in the corn when it is put into the silo. In other words, it is owing to a difference in the amount of water which it contains. Corn so immature that it carries much water is likely to make sour ensilage, unless the quantity of this has been re- duced by wilting the corn. Sour ensilage cannot be fed with safety in quantities so large as sweet ensilage. Feeding miscellaneous products. — Certain products are occasionally fed as food to stock which do not constitute a part of any regular ration in prolonged feeding These in- clude eggs, weed seeds, sugar, oil of various kinds, and nuts. Certain other products are sometimes fed for a time with sundry kinds of food, to increase the supply of some ele- ment or elements lacking in the food. These include hard- wood ashes, charcoal and bone meal. Eggs contain all the essential elements of body growth. Although too valuable as human food to admit of their be- ing much fed to live stock, in some instances they are fed to calves in the uncooked form as a corrective to scours, and in other instances to improve the gloss of the coat. For both uses, other ingredients may be used that are less costly and even more effective. They are sometimes used also in feeding stallions undergoing the strain of severe service, and the benefit resulting will probably justify the outlay. Weed seeds are grown in large quantities in grain- growing areas of the Northwest. Usually they are sold as screenings and are largely used in feeding sheep, (see p. 272). Many weed seeds are rich in oil, and because of this. Digitized by Microsoft® 526 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS should not be fed without admixture. The seeds of foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), more commonly called pigeon grass, usually constitute a principal portion of the weed seeds found in western grains. Experiments conducted at the Wisconsin experiment station showed that this food was not relished by swine when fed uncooked, that for such feeding it should be both cooked and ground, and that when so fed along with 33 per cent of corn meal, it is a superior food to the latter when fed alone. All kinds of weed seeds should be ground for swine and also for cattle, otherwise many of them will escape digestion. Sugar, such as is used in the human dietary, but of lower grade, is oftentimes fed directly to live stock. When so fed it is commonly mixed with the grain or meal fed to them. Animals are very fond of it, and when fitting them for exhibition it not only aids in quick fattening but also improves the coat. Mixed with other food, it increases the consumption of the same. For ordinary fattening, it has a place when not too costly, but it is thought to exert a dele- terious influence on the breeding powers of both males and females when fed to them in any considerable quantities, in prolonged feeding. Oil of various kinds has been tested in feeding difiEer- ent classes of stock. At the Massachusetts experiment sta- tion, it was found that very small quantities of some kinds of oil, as corn and cottonseed oil, could be fed to calves on milk with benefit, but when any considerable quantity was fed, indigestion followed. None of these are so completely satisfactory for feeding calves as ground flaxseed or oil cake. It has also been ascertained that the fat in milk can- not be permanently increased by feeding oil or tallow, even when fed to the extent of affecting adversely the appetite of the animals. Nuts, more especially acorns, in some areas furnish considerable quantities of food for swine. The same is true of beech nuts. These promote quick growth and rapid fattening when plentiful in supply, but the latter produce Digitized by Microsoft® MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 527 oily pork. In order to firm it such animals should be fed for 20 to 30 days or even longer, on some such grain as corn, barley or peas. Ashes have been found highly useful in feeding swine that are much restricted to a diet of corn. In trials made at the Wisconsin experiment station, swine to which ashes were fed freely with a reasonable amount of salt added, the other food being corn meal, made increase much supe- rior to that made by swine fed on corn meal only, with salt added. The bones of the former were not only larger and stronger than those of the latter, but they contained fully 30 per cent more ash. Foods other than corn and the sor- ghums usually supply potash in quantities sufficient to obviate the necessity of feeding ashes. Charcoal serves about the same use in feeding swine as wood ashes (see paragraph preceding). Swine, insuffi- ciently supplied with ash in the food, v^ill consume con- siderable quantities of charcoal. This in corn-growing areas, and in these the principal need for such feeding ex- ists, may be cheaply supplied by charring corncobs in a hole in the ground of any convenient size, and covered with a metal cover, after the mass of cobs have become suffi- ciently aglow with flames coming up from beneath. Wood charcoal or charred corncobs may be most conveniently fed from self-feeders from which the swine may partake at will. Bone meal when pure, fresh, and made from healthy animals, may be fed with profit under some conditions to both swine and cattle. It will serve about the same purpose in feeding swine as hard-wood ashes, when about one-third •of the quantity is fed. When cattle are much prone to chew bits of bone or wood, which happens in some in- stances, it indicates an insufficient supply of phosphates in the food. This deficiency may be made up by the ju- dicious feeding of bone meal. The necessity for such feed- ing, however, exists but seldom. Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX. PAGE A.daptatlon to requirement in animals 24 Albuminoids discussed . . . 165 Alfalfa hay 194 For cattle 194 For horses 195 For sheep 195 For swine 195 For pasture 310 Alfalmo, defined 194 Analysis of foods not a complete guide 51 Ash, discussion of 169 Ashes, wood for stock .... 527 Assimilation, principles that govern 89 Balancing rations, informa- tion concerning 172 Barley 232 For calves and growing cattle 232 For heef cattle 232 For cows in milk 232 For horses 233 For sheep 233 For swine 233 Bean, common or field .... 243 Horse 246 Soy 244 Hay 199 Hay for cattle 199 Hay for horses 200 Hay for sheep 200 Hay for swine 200 Benefits from live stock . . 1 Body heat, influences upon 81 Bone development, influence of food upon 78 Meal for stock 527 Bran, wheat 267 For calves 267 For cattle being fattened 268 For cows in milk 268 For horses 269 For sheep 269 For swine 269 Breeding, food Influences harmful to 122 Food influences helpful to 122 528 PAGE Breeding — Continued. Too high flesh adverse . . 127 Too immature harmful... 113 When sought too early . . 112 Breeds, beef and dairy con- trasted 40 Brewers' grains 272 For cattle 273 For horses 274 For sheep 274 For swine 274 Broom corn seed 262 Buckwheat 239 For cattle 240 For horses 240 For sheep 240 For swine 240 Buttermilk . . ; 294 By-products of Barley 272 Buckwheat 282 Cereals, small 281 Corn 278 Cottonseed 282 Flax 275 Milk 289 Miscellaneous 297 Molasses 295 Oats 281 Peas 281 Rice 282 Rye 281 Sugar beets 287 Wheat 266 Cabbage 340 For cattle 340 For horses 341 For sheep 341 For swine 341 For pasture 313 Carbohydrates, influence of in food 168 Discussed 168 Carrots 33] For cattle 331 For horses 332 For sheep 331 For swine 332 Cassava 338 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 529 PAGE Cassava — Continued, For cattle 338 For horses, mules 339 For sheep 339 For swine 339 Cattle, difference in form between finished and unfinished 141 Chaff, discussed 224 Charcoal for stock 527 Cheap foods and live stock 7 Clover hay, varieties 192 For cattle 192 For horses 193 For sheep 193 For swine 193 Clovers for pastures 308 Alfalfa 310 Alsike 309 Bur 311 Common red 308 Crimson 310 Japan 311 Mammoth 309 Small white 310 Cocoanut meal 300 Considerations relating to care of domestic ani- mals 476 Relating to general feed- ing 443 Relating to meat produc- tion 371 Relating to milk produc- tion 409 Miscellaneous in character 509 Corn or maize 257 For calves and growing cattle 260 For cattle 260 For cows in milk 260 For horses 261 For sheep 260 For swine 261 For pasture 314 Fodder defined 211 Shock 211 Snapped 211 Corn fodder 211 For calves 213 For cattle 213 For horses 214 For sheep 214 For swine 214 Cotton seed 251 For calves 253 PAGE Cotton seed — Continued. For cattle 251 For cows in milk 252 For sheep 253 For swine 253 Cottonseed meal 283 For cattle 283 For dairy cattle 284 For horses 286 For sheep 284 For swine 285 Hulls 286 Cowpeas 247 For cattle 247 For horses 248 For sheep 248 For swine 248 Cowpea hay 196 Crude fibre 169 Dairy cattle, type in 142 Cows, Indications of correct form and function 143 Cows contrasted with sires 146 Sires contrasted with cows 143 Steers and production . . 39 Dams, condition at birth of progeny 128 Good condition during pregnancy 12D Decadence discussed 84 Definitions in feeding .... 164 Dehorning cattle, benefits from 106 Development and capacity 65 And decadence 84 And decrease in relative gains 62 And food 74 And inferiority 86 And live stock 17 And more food 64 And ripeness 70 And wksted energy .... 80 In equilibrium 87 Influences that retard ... 66 Principles that govern . . 62 Digestion, principles that govern 89 Distillers' grains 274 Domestic animals, care of 476 Amount of exercise for . 505 Amount of water for .... 483 Dam at parturition 604 Feeders, the 476 Digitized by Microsoft® 530 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS PAGE Domestic Sinima.ls-~— Continued, Furnishing water to .... 486 Preparing and using litter 500 Protection for, in sum- mer 492 Regularity in care of . . 479 Season for breeding .... 502 Siielter for, when young . 490 Shelter from weaning on- ward 488 Sources of litter for .... 496 Temperature in stables 494 Uses of litter for 498 Water for 481 Draught horses, scale of points 156 Dried blood 298 Flesh meal and meat scrap 298 Dual purpose cows, correct form and function 148 Dwarf Essex rape for pasture 312 Eggs as food for stock . . . 525 Elementary substances for growth in plants and animals 163 Environment and live stock 32 And selection 33 The power of 33 Equilibrium, foods in ap- proximate 46 Changes in 46 Foods not in 48 In foods, age variation in 47 In food constituents .... 43 Influences that disturb 45 Exercise, amount of for pregnant animals 126 And pregnancy 125 And usefulness 116 Injury from lack of .... 117 Farm life and live stock 20 Fat, discussion of 167 Feeding, general 443 Adjusting foods in 461 Changing foods when .... 459 Condimental foods 469 First milk 445 Food for maintenance . . 447 Poods, home grown or purchased 463 Foods that vary in adap- tation 450 Poods that influence di- - gestion favorably .... 452 PAGE Feeding — Continued. For growth and future production 449 Generous, during preg- nancy 443 High pressure, injures cows 115 Moderate 115 Of concentrates 454 Place for self-feeders in 471 Proportion of concen- trates to roughage in . . 456 Relative food values .... 465 Relative profits from do- mestic animals in .... 473 Sustaining power of pas- tures for 467 Standard 180 Standard, calculation of a. 181 Standards discussed 183 Standards, influences that affect varying results in. 187 Stuffs, tables of 173 Fertility and live stock .... 2 Field beans 243 For cattle 243 For horses 244 For sheep 244 For swine 244 Roots and corn compared. 323 Roots, discussed 324 Fish scrap 299 Flax 249 For cattle 250 For horses 251 For sheep 251 For swine 251 Flour, red dog 271 Fodder 211 Broom corn 218 Corn 211 Jerusalem corn and durra 218 Non-saccharine sorghum. 217 Pearl millet 218 Sorghum 215 Straw 219 Teosinte 219 Fodders 191 ChafBng and shredding . 360 Excessive loss of mois- ture in 353 Influence of dew and rain upon 352 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 531 PAGE Pood, influencing transmis- sion 42 And foetal development 124 And pregnancy 124 Factor defined 165 From by-products 265 From cereals and other seeds 225 From cured fodders 191 From field roots and tubers 323 From pastures 302 Influences of on meat pro- duction 74 Influences of on milk pro- duction 76 Nutrient defined 164 Or feeding ration defined 171 Of niaintenance increases with age 63 Requirements and growth 53 Foods, nitrogenous con- stituents of 165 Blending chemically .... 364 Blending mechanically . . 362 Bulk and concentration in. 52 Bulky and concentrated 53 Cooking for stock 366 Curing, dry 352 Curing, green 350 Influence of cost on meat and milk 65 Influence on development and production 60 Influence on other 52 Necessity for variety in . 58 Non-nitrogenous constitu- ents of 166 Relative manurial value of 61 Soaking for stock 365 Storing 353 Suitability for end sought 59 Value in 59 "Variety in 57 Form and function In dairy cows 143 And function in dual pur- pose cows 148 Gluten feed 280 Meal 278 For cattle 279 For horses 280 PAGE Gluten meal — Continued, For sheep 279 For swine 280 Grain, grinding or crushing 355 Grasses, influences of, on bone of horses 79 For pasture 304 Bermuda 306 Crab 308 Johnson 308 Kentucky blue 304 Meadow fescue 307 Orchard 30Y Quack 308 Redtop 306 Russian brome 305 Tall oat 307 Timothy 305 Western rye 305 Growth and food required. .-. 53 Habit, influences of, on di- gestion 91 Modifications of, on di- gestion 92 Modifications, not equally easy 94 Handling domestic animals defined 30 Hay from grasses other than timothy 202 Barley 207 Bermuda 205 Canadian blue grass 204 Cereals mixed 207 Kentucky blue grass 204 Meadow fescue 203 Millet 209 Oats and vetches 208 Oats, peas and vetches . . 208 Oats 207 Orchard grass 203 Peas and vetches 207 Peas and oats 208 Redtop 203 Russian brome 203 Rye 206 Small grains 205 Speltz 206 Tall oat grass 203 Western rye grass 204 Wheat 206 Wheat, oats, barley and flax 209 Wild prairie 205 Digitized by Microsoft® 532 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS PAGE Health, conditions of good 34 Indications and live stock 34 Indications of prospective good 36 Horse bean 246 For cattle 246 For horses 247 For sheep 246 For swine 246 Horses, draught, scale of points 156 Light, scale of points 159 Industry and live stock .... 14 Inferiority and pre-natal in- fluences 86 Influences affecting palata- bility 515 Inheritance in selecting ani- mals 26 Insects that cause unrest . . 103 Irregularity in caring for stock 101 Jerusalem artichokes 336 For cattle 336 For horses 338 For sheep 337 For swine 337 Kafir corn seed 255 For cattle 255 For horses 256 For sheep 255 For swine 256 Kale for pasture 313 Labor and live stock 11 When excessive in the horse 105 Litter sources of 496 Uses of 498 Maintaining equilibrium in fertility 4 Malt sprouts . : 274 Mangels 324 For cattle 325 For horses 326 For sheep 325 For swine 326 Marketing promptly when ripe 73 Meat production 371 Baby beef in 402 Cost of increase in 381 Duration of finishing pe- riod in 385 Feeding in stalls, sheds or yards for 394 PAGE Meat production — Continued. Financial returns from purchased feeders in . . 400 Finishing on pastures for 396 Food consumed and in- crease 379 Gains when fattening not worth their cost in .... 382 Growing bacon 406 Increase at different ages in 371 Increase during finishing period in 374 Leading up to full feed- ing in 377 Loss of weight in market- ing for 392 Marketing when ripe in .. 389 Season for marketing in. . 387 Shipping finished animals in 391 Winter lambs in 404 Middlings and shorts from wheat 270 Milk, infiuence of succulence upon production of 56 Undesirable flavors in.... 78 Production 409 Age and relative milk giv- ing capacity in 435 Breeds and 427 Composition of milk in. . 411 Feeding grain to cows on pasture in 440 Foods and 413 Formation of milk in .... 409 Lactation and 429 Large and small cows for 433 Cost and 416 Protection for cows in summer for 436 Quality in 424 Quantity in 4ig Shelter for cows in winter for 438 Millet seed 262 For calves and growing cattle 263 For cattle being fattened 263 For cows in milk 263 For horses 264 For sheep 263 For swine 264 Miscellaneous considerations in feeding live stock . . 509 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 533 ,„ PAGE Miscellaneous — Continued. Feeding for quick concep- tion 520 FeedinK subseauent to weaning 518 K e e d 1 n er miscellaneous products 525 Molasses 295 For cattle 296 For horses 297 For sheep 297 For swine 297 Muscular exertion 171 Nitrogen equilibrium 167 Nitrogenous substances .... 170 Non-saccharine fodders 217 For cattle 217 For horses 218 For sheep 217 For swine 218 Nutritive ratio 177 Nuts as food for stock .... 526 Oats 228 For calves and growing cattle 229 For beef cattle 230 For cows in milk 230 For horses 231 For sheep 230 For swine 231 Oil cake and oil meal .... 275 Cake, old and new proc- ess 275 Cake for cattle 276 Cake for horses 278 Cake for sheep 277 Cake for swine 278 Oil as food for stock 526 Palatability, importance of 51 Pasturing and fertility ... 6 Pasturing plants of Brassica family _. 311 Cabbage 313 Dwarf Essex rape 312 Kale 313 Saccharine and non-sac- charine 313 Sorghums, hazard from . . 314 Pastures from small cereals 315 And fertilization . 322 Avoid close grazing in autumn 320 Care of 321 From wmter rye iilb Grazing of 318 PAGE Pastures — Continued. Improved by drainage . . 322 Leading grasses for .... 304 Sources of 302 Bermuda 306 Crab grass 308 .Tolmson grass 308 Kentucky blue grass .... 304 Meadow fescue 307 Orchard grass 307 Quack grass 308 Redtop 306 Russian brome 305 Tall oat grass 307 Timothy 305 Western rye grass 305 Leading clovers for 308 Alfalfa 310 Alsike 309 Bur 311 Common red 308 Crimson 310 .Tapan 311 Mammoth 309 Small white 310 Palmnut meal 301 Pea, Canada 236 Cow 247 Peanut meal 300 Peanuts 345 For cattle 345 For horses 346 For sheep 346 For swine 346 Peas 236 For calves and growing cattle 237 For beef cattle 237 For cows in milk 237 For horses 239 For sheep 237 Foi swine 238 Potatoes, Irish 332 For cattle 333 For horses 334 For sheep 333 For swine 334 Potatoes, sweet 334 For cattle 335 For horses 336 For sheep 335 For swine 336 Pregnancy, principles relat- ing to 121 And exercise 125 Digitized by Microsoft® 534 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS PAGE Pregnancy — Continued. And food 124 And good flesh 126 And impregnation 123 And nursing 128 And time of mating .... 121 Influenced by food and ex- ercise 121 Influenced by parents .... 123 Preparing foods for feeding 350 Prepotency, guarantees of desirable 37 Definition of desirable . . 38 Preventing soil depletion . . 3 Principal points in cattle for feeding 139 In sheep for feeding .... 151 In swine for feeding . . . 153 Objectionable in cattle for feeding 140 Principles that govern feed- ing 163 Governing selecting foods 43 Relating to restfulness . 96 Relating to prolonged use- fulness 110 Relating to pregnancy . . 121 That govern selecting ani- mals 24 That govern development 62 That govern habit in di- - gestion and assimila- tion 89 Profits from live stock .... 2 Protein consumption 167 Production influenced by bulky and concentrated foods 55 Deferred and usefulness 110 When sought too early . . 112 Protection from cold and storms 81 Differs with difterent classes 82 When excessive 80 Pumpkins 341 For cattle 342 For horses 343 For sheep 342 For swine 343 Quality in live stock 29 In beef cattle 31 In dairy cattle 31 In horses 32 In sheep 31 PAGE Quality in live stock-continued. In swine 31 Relation between farming and live stock 3 Relative importance of In- heritance and type or form 29 Restfulness, principles re- lating to 96 Ripeness in meat-making 70 Methods of determining . 71 Roots, pulping and slicing. . 359 Rotation and live stock .... 6 Rutabagas and turnips .... 328 For cattle 329 For horses 330 For sheep 330 For swine 330 Rye 234 For calves and growing cattle 234 For beef cattle 235 For cows in milk 235 For horses 237 For sheep 235 For swine 236 Salt and its uses 521 Scrub steers and produc- tion .■ 39 Sheep, injury from chasing 107 Principal points In feed- ing 151 Objectionable points for feeding 153 Shorts and middlings 270 Silage a varying quantity. . 523 Silo, the 350 Skim milk 289 And supplementary foods. 292 Sorghum seed, non-sacchar- ine 256 Seed, sweet 254 Fodder 215 Fodder for cattle 215 Fodder for horses 216 Fodder for sheep 216 Fodder for swine 216 Sorghums, saccharine and non-saccharine 313 Soy beans 244 For cattle 245 For horses 246 For sheep 245 Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX 535 -AGE Soy beans — Continued. For swine 245 Speltz 241 For calves and growing cattle 241 For cattle 245 For cows in milk 242 For liorses 242 For sheep 242 For swine 242 Sauash 343 For cattle 344 For horses 345 For sheep 344 For swine 344 Standards for selecting ani- mals 26 Steers, scrub production. . . 39 Dairy and production ... 39 Straw, influence affecting value of 219 Difference in composition 220 For stoclt 221 Barley 222 Bean 222 Flax 222 Oat 222 Pea 222 Rye 221 Speltz 221 Wheat 222 Succulence and millc pro- duction 55 And reproduction 56 Succulent foods, list of 57 Sugar as food for stock . . 526 Beet pulp 287 Beet pulp for cattle 288 Beet pulp for horses 289 Beet pulp for sheep 288 Beet pulp for swine 288 Beets 327 Beets for cattle 327 Beets for horses 328 Beets for sheep 328 Beets for swine 328 Sundry meals 300 Sunflower cake and meal.. 300 Seed ; • 253 Swine, principal points in feeding 153 Points objectionable for feeding 154 Table of feeding stuffs dis- cussed 173 PAGE Tables of feeding stuffs only general guides .... 17i Table I, giving nutrients and digestible foods . . 174 Table II, giving dry matter, digestible food ingre- dients, and fuel value in foods 178 Table III, giving feeding standards 184 Tankage 297 Timothy hay 200 For cattle 201 For horses 202 For sheep 201 For swine 201 Tops of roots and tubers . . 347 Of carrots 348 Of mangels 347 Of peanuts and artichokes 349 Of sweet potatoes 348 Of sugar beets 348 Of turnips 348 Transportation of live stock. 8 Transmission and breeding habit 41 Pat in milk 41 Influence of on digestion. 38 Live stock 37 Quality 40 "Wool production 41 Tuberculosis at Rockland, Ontario 35 Type or form In selecting animals 27 A basis of classiflcation. . . 135 And form contrasted 27 And form, discussed 133 And scale of points .... 135 And score cards 135 And standards of excel- lence 135 Extent to which sought . 134 In dairy cattle 142 In domestic animals 133 In draught horses 156 In dual purpose cattle . . 148 In general purpose horses 161 In light horses 159 In relation to horses .... 155 In relation to cattle .... 137 In relation to cattle for feeding 138 In sheep for feeding .... 151 In swine for feeding. . . . 153 Digitized by Microsoft® 536 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS PAGE Type — Continued* Modified by condition. ... 136 Only general in showing use 134 Valuable as indication of utility 134 Unrest and improper feed- ing 98 And undue exposure 97 And insect pests 102 And irregularity 101 And labor 104 And metliods of prevent- ing sexual desire 108 And vicious animals 106 From lack of litter 100 From sexual desire 107 Usefulness, age limit, not fixable 119 And exercise 116 And moderate feeding . . 115 Deferred and production. 110 Extent of prolonged .... 118 Period of highest 85 Principles of 110 PAGE Usefulness — Continued. Prolonged benefits from. 110 Variations in weights 514 Vetch hay 197 Vetches 248 For cattle 198 For horses and mules.... 200 For sheep 198 For swine 198 Weed seeds as food for stock 525 "Weight of animals at birth 511 Weigh scale an educator... 509 Wheat 225 Contrasted with corn 228 For calves 226 For beef cattle 226 For cows in milk 226 For horses 227 For sheep 227 For swine 227 Frosted 271 Screenings 272 Whey 295 Winter rye for pasture .... 316 Digitized by Microsoft® STANDARD BOOKS PUBLISHED BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO Ashland Building People's Gas Building 315-321 Fourth Avenue 150 Michigan Avenue /4nij of these books will be sent b'\) mail, postpaid, to any part of the world, on receipt of catalog price. We are always happy to correspond with our patrons, and cordially invite them to address us on any matter pertaining to rural books. Send for our large illustrated catalog, free on appli- cation. First Principles of Soil Fertility By Alfred Vivian. There is no subject of more vitai importance to the farmer than that of the best method of maintaining the fertility of the soil. The very evident decrease in the fertility of those soils which have been under cultivation for a number of years, combined witli the increased competition and the advanced price of labor, have convinced the intelligent farmer that the agriculture of the future must be based upon more rational practices than those which have been followed in the past. We have felt for some time that there was a place for a brief, and at the same time comprehensive, treatise on this important subject of Soil Fertility. Professor Vivian's experience as a teacher in the short winter courses has admirably fitted him to present this matter in a popular style. In this little book he has given the gist of the subject in plain language, practically devoid of technical and scientific terms. It is pre-eminently a "First Book," and will be found especially valuable to those who desire an introduction to the subiect, and who intend to do subse- quent reading. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 265 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.00 The Study of Com By Prof. V. M. Shoesmith. A most helpful book to all farmers and students interested in the selection and im- provement of corn. It is profusely illustrated from photo- graphs, all of which carry their own story ani.' contribute their part in making pictures and text mattet a clear, con- cise and interesting study of corn. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth Net, $0.50 (1) Digitized by Microsoft® Farm Grasses of the United States of America By William Jasper Spillman. A practical treatise on the grass crop, seeding and management of meadows and pastures, description of the best varieties, the seed and its impurities, grasses for special conditions, lawns and lawn grasses, etc., etc. In preparing this volume the author's object has been to present, in connected form, the main facts con- cerning the grasses grown on American farms. Every phase of the subject is viewed from the farmer's standpoint. Illus- trated. 248 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00 The Book of Corn By Herbert Myrick, assisted by A. D. Shambia, E. A. Burnett, Albert W. Fulton, B. W. Snow, and other most capable specialists. A complete treatise on the culture, mar- keting and uses of maize in America and elsewhere for farmers, dealers and others. Illustrated. 372 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.50 The Hop — Its Culture and Care, Marketing and Manufacture By Herbert Myrick. A practical handbook on the most approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing and selling hops, and on the use and manufacture of hops. The result o£ years of research and observation, it is a volume destined to be an authority on this crop for many years to come. It takes up every detail from preparing the soil and laying out the yard, to curing and selling the crop. Every line represents the ripest judgment and experience of experts. Size, 5x8; pages, 300; illustrations, nearly 150; bound in cloth and gold; price, postpaid. ?i-50 Tobacco Leaf By J. B. KiLLEBREW and Herbert Myrick. Its Culture and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture. A practical handbook on the most approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing, packing and selling tobacco, with an account of the opera- tions in every department of tobacco manufacture. The contents of this book are based on actual experiments in field, curing barn, packing house, factory and laboratory. It is the only work of the kind in existence, and is destined to be the standard practical and scientific authority on the whole sub- ject of tobacco for many years. 506 pages and 150 original engravings. 5x7 inches. Cloth $2.00 (9) Digitized by Microsoft® Animal Breeding By Thomas Shaw. This book is the most complete and comprehensive work ever published on the subject of which it treats. It is the first book which has systematized the sub- ject of animal breeding. The leading laws which govern this most intricate question the author has boldly defined and authoritatively arranged. The chapters which he has written on the more involved features of the subject, as sex and the relative influence of parents, should go far toward setting at rest the wildly speculative views cherished with reference to these questions. The striking originality in the treatment of the subject is no less conspicuous than the superb order and regular sequence of thought frorn the beginning to the end of the book. The book is intended to meet the needs of all persons interested in the breeding and rearing of live stock. Illustrated. 405 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $1.50 Forage Crops Other Than Grasses By Thomas Shaw. How to cultivate, harvest and use them. Indian corn, sorghum, clover, leguminous plants, crops of the brassica genus, the cereals, millet, field roots, etc. Intensely practical and reliable. Illustrated. 287 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . $i.oo Soiling Crops and the Silo By Thomas Shaw. The growing and feeding of all kinds of soiling crops, conditions to which they are adapted, their plan in the rotation, etc. Not a line is repeated from the Forage Crops book. Best methods of building the silo, filling it and feeding ensilage. Illustrated. 364 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.50 The Study of Breeds By Thomas Shaw. Origin, history, distribution, charac- teristics, adaptability, uses, and standards of excellence of all pedigreed breeds of cattle, sheep and swine in America. The accepted text book in colleges, and the authority for farmers and breeders. Illustrated. 371 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth fi.So Clovers and How to Grow Them By Thomas Shaw. This is the first book published which treats on the growth, cultivation and treatment of clovers as applicable to all parts of the United States and Canada, and which takes up the entire subject in a systematic way and consecutive sequence. The importance of clover in the econ- omy of the farm is so great that an exhaustive work on this subject will no doubt be welcomed by students in agriculture, as well as by all who are interested in the tilling of the soil. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 337 pages. Cloth. Net . . $1.00 (13) Digitized by Microsoft® Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture ^ ^ A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Prac- tice on Farm, Orchard and Garden Crops, and the Feeding and Diseases of Fartn Animals Bj^ EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, Ph. D. and CLARENCE BEAMAN SMITH. M. So Associate Editors in the Office of Experiment Stations^ United States Department of Agriculture THIS is a new, practical, and complete presentation of the whole subject of ag- riculture in its broadest sense. It is de- signed for the use of agriculturists who desire up-to-date, reliable information on all matters pertaining to crops and stock, but more particularly for the actual farmer. The volume contains Detailed directions for the culture of every important field, orchard, and garden crop grown in America, together with descriptions of their chief insect pests and fungous diseases, and remedies for their control. It contains an ac- count of modern methods in feeding and handling all farm s'-ock, including poultry. The diseases which affect different farm animals and poultry are described, and the most recent remedies sug- gested for controlling them. Every bit of this vast mass of new and useful information is authoritative, practical and easily found, and no effort has been spared to include all desirable details. There are between 6,000 and 7,000 topics covered in these references, and it contains 700 royal 8vo pages and nearly 500 superb half-tone and other original illustrations, making the most perfect Cyclopedia of Agricul- ture ever attempted. Mandjomely bound in ctolh, ^3. SO; half morocco {•iJery jumpixtouj), ^4', SO, postpaid ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, ^'S.^^SLl'S.-ILr ■K,.^- (19) Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® i 1 1 I i I ; i ; ; / ; J -matHUMHHtfHutHHHHHiiimiimmii