ALPERTR.rVINNUMMKr m CORNELL MNIVCRjnT CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 1924 073 872 768 S5 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924073872768 Production Note Cornell University Library produced this volume to replace the irreparably deteriorated original . It was scanned using Xerox software and equipment at 600 dots per inch resolution and compressed prior to storage using CCITT Group 4 compression. The digital data were used to create Cornell's replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39. 48-1992. The production of this volume was supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities. Digital file copyright by Cornell University Library 1995. Scanned as part of the A. R. Mann Library project to preserve and enhance access to the Core Historical Literature of the Agricultural Sciences. Titles included in this collection are listed in the volumes published by the Cornell University Press in the series THE LITERATURE OF THE AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, 1991-1995, Wallace C. Olsen, series editor. Cornell Wniversit^ Xibrarp OF THE mew Wovh State College of agriculture fojhllfc , A-S^Hqi^* AGRICULTURAL DRAWING AND THE DESIGN OF FARM STRUCTURES ■■ mum McGraw-Hill BookCompaiiy Pu/>fis/iers cf3oo£§/br Electrical World TheEngineering aidMining Journal Enjyneering Record Engineering News Railway Age Gazette American Machinist Signal Engineer American Engineer Electric Railway Journal Coal Age Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering Power m& AGRICULTURAL DRAWING AND THE DESIGN OF FARM STRUCTURES BY THOMAS E. FRENCH, M. E. PROFESSOR OP ENGINEERING DRAWING, THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY AUTHOR OF "ENGINEERING DRAWING," "ESSENTIALS OF LETTERING," ETC. AND FREDERICK W. IVES, B. S., M. E. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY First Edition McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 239 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK 6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E. C. 1915 Copyright, 1915, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. THE KAFLK P»KSS YORK PA PREFACE As the title implies, this book is intended primarily for students in agriculture and agri- cultural engineering. Engineering Drawing is a required subject in practically all college agricultural courses. It is not given in these courses with the idea of making professional draftsmen, but is regarded as an important subject for increasing the efficiency of the farm owner or manager, by giving him what is in reality a new language in which to express and record his ideas. Aside from mechanics and builders, there is no class to whom the value of technical draw- ing should appeal with as much force as to the progressive farmer. His literature is full of illustrations and technical sketches, which to be read intelligently require a knowledge of technical drawing. Government bulletins, State bulletins, agricultural periodicals and books, even trade and machinery catalogues, cannot be fully understood without this knowl- edge. In order to build properly, or to pass upon a set of plans, he should be able to read architectural drawings. The man with the ability to draw "to scale" can plan his buildings, "take off" his bill of materials, estimate the costs, and mentally see the finished structure before it is built. He can make sketches of broken parts of machinery, or of special pieces which he wishes to have made, he can make a layout 'of his buildings or a plat of his farm. In short, he has an asset of distinct advantage and value. This book is a text book* rather than a " course in drawing." The principles and proc- esses involved are described and illustrated, and a variety of problems of various kinds and of progressive difficulty have been arranged, with outlines for a considerable number of additional ones, not- only giving suggestions to the farm owner, but also supplying class material, which may thus be varied from year to year. Drawing courses vary in length, and the instructor may make his choice from these numerous problems to cover the different divisions of the subject matter included in the text. These problems have been selected for their practical value, and all are dependable in design. Many are from work designed and built by the authors. The freehand method of introducing projection drawing has been used with marked success in agricultural classes. A number of formulas, tables, etc., have been grouped in one chapter, to give in con- venient form information necessary in designing some structures; and other items of mis- cellaneous information useful in drawing and designing have also been included. In the last chapter is given a list of books and bulletins on allied subjects. The assistance of Mr. C. L. Svensen and Mr. W. D. Turnbull is gratefully acknowledged. The authors will be glad to cooperate with teachers using the book as a text book, and to suggest or furnish supplementary problems. * Some of the material in it has been condensed from the larger text book "A Manual of Engineer- ing Drawing." Columbus, August 10, 1915. T. E. F. F. W. I. CONTENTS Page Preface . v CHAPTER I Introductory ... .... ... 1 Importance of drawing — Different kinds of drawing — Pictorial drawings — Working drawings — Topographical drawing — Examples. CHAPTER II Theory and Technique .... . .... 6 List of instruments and materials — Principles of orthographic projection — Sketching — Draw- ing with instruments — Alphabet of lines— Inking — Lettering. CHAPTER III Working Drawings .... ... . 26 Classes of working drawings — Sectional views — Turned sections — Auxiliary views — Use of scale — Dimensioning, Rules for dimensioning — Title — Bill of material — Checking— Conven- tional symbols — Fastenings — Bolts and screws — Pipe — Developed surfaces — Method of working — Sketching from the object — Problems. CHAPTER IV Farm Structures . . . . .... . 47 Designing — Symbols — Plans — Elevations — Sections — Dimensions — Wood construction — Framing, the timber frame, the plank frame, joints and details of construction, roofs, fire stop- ping and rat proofing — Concrete, composition, reinforcing, forms, a concrete water tank— Brick, kinds, symbols, bonds — Stone — Stucco — Hollow tile — Roofing materials, shingles, slate, tile, composition roofing, galvanized roofing — Method of preparing plans — The dairy barn, require- ments, lighting, ventilation, space required, storage — Complete plans and specifications of a dairy barn, bill of material, estimate — The horse barn — The general purpose barn — The swine house — Dipping vat — The sheep barn — The poultry house — Implement sheds — Corn cribs — Granaries — Ice houses — Garages — Smoke houses — The dairy house — The silo — The manure pit — The septic tank — Fences, paddocks, hurdles, pens and gates — The farm house and its requirements — Plans of a farm house — Problems. CHAPTER V Maps and Topographical Drawing ... . . . 90 Instruments — Plats — A farm survey — Farm office map — Topographical drawing — Contours — Quadrangle sheets — Landscape maps — Profiles — Problems. CHAPTER VI Pictorial Drawing. . 100 Uses — Isometric drawing — Oblique drawing — Cabinet drawing — Sketching — Problems. vii vill CONTENTS CHAPTER VII Page Construction Data . . . . 112 Stock and commercial sizes, lumber, mill work, sash, glass, sheet metal, wire, pipe, rope, drain tile, slate, metal roofing, ready roofing — Weight of roofing — Weights of materials — Space re^ quired for storage — Space required for farm implements — Ration for beef feeders — Table for the selection of native woods — Strength of timbers, tables— Concrete, table of proportions for. different uses — Silos and silage, table — Sunshine table — Dairy score card — Kitchen score card — Estimating, cubic estimates, other approximate methods, detailed estimates, taking off quantities, units of measurement, present prices — Heating, lighting, ventilation and sewage disposal — Blue printing — Problems. CHAPTER VIII Selected Bibliography .... 122 Books on allied subjects — Government bulletins — State Experiment Station and Agricultural College bulletins — Trade publications. Index . . .... ... ... . . . . . 125 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY There are two general methods of describ- ing things, one by using words, spoken or written, the other by drawing pictures. The first is ordinary language, the second method is often called the universal graphical language. picture from his own imagination; and the stronger his visualizing power the fuller and more interesting picture does he have. But probably no two persons reading the same story ever see exactly the same picture. In fact some very able people are almost lacking Fig. 1. — A pen-and-ink perspective drawing. Some writers are so skillful in their use of words, that when describing some scene or event their writing is called a word-picture, and the interested reader feels in imagination that he can see it all vividly before him. But he has simply taken the author's sug- gestions and has filled in the details of the in the power of mental imagery, and in reading a story do not construct any imagi- native picture at all. It would evidently be almost impossible to describe the appearance and construction of a proposed new machine or building so that it could be built, by using words alone. AGRICULTURAL DRAWING Fig. 2. — An isometric drawing. FRAME — Fig. 3. — An isometric illustration. INTRODUCTORY Thus in technical description, where nothing can be left to the imagination, the second method, drawing, becomes by far the more important. The shape of even the simplest object can be explained much more accu- rately and quickly by a drawing than by verbal description. But this descriptive drawing may not be simply like an artist's picture, because the artist's method of drawing is again only suggestive, ' and while it shows what the object looks like, it leaves much to be sup- plied by the observer's imagination. Tech- nical drawing must describe accurately every able to think in space, and an increasing power to represent and explain what he has in his mind. Different Kinds of Drawing There are several different kinds of draw- ing used in technical work. They may be divided broadly into pictorial drawings and working drawings. Pictorial Drawings. Drawing an object as it actually appears to the eye is called perspective drawing. This is used by architects in showing the zs: ZZl I ^4i ?V zzz *-sf - 4 l-^4i' Z'No.lO Wood Screws Fig. 4. — A working drawing and a picture. detail of the structure. (The ordinary con- tractor has no imagination that will supply something not shown on the drawings, with- out being paid an "extra" for it!) Thus this method of describing objects by lines becomes a real language, to be studied in the same way as any other language. Its thorough mastery is necessary for the pro- fessional engineer and architect, but every- one who has anything to do with building or machinery should know the elementary principles of the subject, that is, should be able to read and write in the language. It is not a complicated nor mysterious subject, but is very simple in its principles, and the ability to learn it does not depend upon any natural talent. As one studies it he feels a growing consciousness of being appearance of a proposed building or group of buildings. Artists and illustrators draw in perspective directly from the object or landscape before them. The architect in drawing a building not yet erected, assumes the observer to be standing at a certain point and works out the perspective from the plans by somewhat complicated methods, finishing it (or rendering as he calls it) in water color, pen and ink or pencil. This drawing shows the building just as a photo- graph or sketch taken from the same point would do; but as it cannot be measured, the drawing is of no value to build from. Per- spective drawing is, moreover, too involved and difficult to be of general use. Fig. 1 illustrates the appearance of a perspective drawing rendered in pen and ink. AGRICULTURAL DRAWING en £ & _P !^ Si o , c- £" C N.A'-O E. 2149. U jff-*y— Fig. 5. — A topographical drawing. INTRODUCTORY A simpler way of making pictorial draw- ings suitable for some purposes is by iso- metric or oblique drawing. These systems are very useful in showing details of con- struction, and are also used very commonly for illustrations in bulletins and books. They are not difficult to make, and the method is fully explained in Chapter VI. Fig. 2 is a typical isometric illustration from a Government bulletin, and Fig. 3 a more complicated example as used in an imple- ment catalogue, and which shows the con- struction more clearly than any other kind of drawing would do. Working Drawings. A working drawing is a drawing that gives all the information for the complete con- struction of the object represented. — Thus the essential difference between a pictorial drawing and a working drawing is that the pictorial drawing shows the object as it appears, while the working drawing must show it as it actually is, giving the exact shape and dimensions of every part. This is done by making different "views" of the object, in a system known technically as "orthographic projection," the principles of which are explained in the next chapter. This is the basis of all industrial drawing, mechanical and architectural, and may be called the grammar of this graphical language. Architectural drawings are working draw- ings, as they are used to build from. The architect makes perspective drawings, pre- viously referred to, principally to show his clients, who are unable to read the working drawings, what the building is going to look like. Fig. 4 illustrates a pictorial drawing and a working drawing of a simple object. Topographic Drawing. Still another kind of drawing, with the rudiments of which we should be familiar, is topographic drawing. This includes the drawing of maps and plats, showing the method of representing land and water features, and is the kind of drawing used in connection with surveying. Its particular value and interest to the farmer is explained in Chapter V. Fig. 5 is a topographic drawing of a farm and farmstead, and shows not only the location of the various features, as buildings, fields, ditches, etc., but also the contour, or as it is sometimes called, the lay of the land. CHAPTER II THEORY AND TECHNIQUE Of the several kinds of drawing just re- ferred to, each has a particular use. For constructive drawings, that is for drawings of things which are to be made, the system known as orthographic projection is used almost exclusively, as being the method best adapted for showing an object exactly as it is to be. As it does not show the object as it will appear to the eye, one must be trained in reading it, and in exercising the visualiz- ing power of the imagination to see the objecf from its projections. It is our purpose in this chapter to study the principles of this system and the tech- nique of its execution. Constructive drawing is sometimes done freehand, when it is called "technical sketch- ing," but for designing structures and making accurate working drawings it is necessary to use instruments and work to dimensions. Preliminary studies and schemes for new structures or machines are usually sketched first freehand, and often the final working drawing of a simple object wanted is made without instruments. Our first work in studying the principles will be done as free- hand sketching, after which the technique of instrumental or mechanical drawing will be taken up. Instruments For instrumental drawing an outfit of drawing materials must be at hand. Profes- sional draftsmen use expensive, high-grade instruments. Those who will do only oc- casional drawing can get along with a com- paratively inexpensive outfit. The following is a list of instruments and materials needed: 1. A set of drawing instruments, con- taining a 6 inch compass with pen, pencil and lengthening bar, a pair of dividers, a ruling pen and a bow pen. A bow pencil and bow spacer are de- sirable but not necessary additions. 2. A drawing board of soft pine, cleated to prevent warping Cor a drawing table with pine top). 3. A T-square. These come in various lengths and grades. For the work outlined in this book a 30" blade is long enough. 4. A 45° triangle and a 30°-60° triangle. Transparent amber is the best. 5. An architect's scale, either one tri- angular shape or two flat ones. (An engineer's scale of decimal parts is needed in map work, and a protractor should also be at hand.) 6. Thumb tacks. 7. Drawing pencils. 8. Waterproof drawing ink. 9. Eraser. 10. Sandpaper pad for sharpening pencils. 11. Drawing paper. Most working draw- ings are made on buff or cream- colored "detail paper" which is sold by the yard, in rolls, and are after- wards traced on tracing cloth or tracing paper. Orthographic Projection Orthographic projection is the theoretical name given to a method of drawing two or THEORY AND TECHNIQUE more views of an object in order to show the exact shapes of its parts and their relation to each other. It means practically that we draw one view of the object as it would appear if we looked directly down on the top of it, another view looking straight at the front, and if necessary, a third looking directly at the end or side of the object. Thus if we were asked to make the projec- Pictorial view of block. tions of the block shown in pictorial view in Fig. 6, we would have, by looking straight down at it from the top, a top view as shown in Fig. 7(a), on which the faces A, C and E would show. Looking at it directly from the front would give the front view (b) , on which the face B only would be visible, while on the side view (c) the faces D and F only would show. Evidently the width of c A E (a) /■" 1 C-y B / £ D (b) Fig. 7. — Three views of block. (C) the side view is the same as the width of the top view. Similarly the lengths of the front and top views are equal, and the heights of the front and side views are equal. These three views describe completely the form of the object. In combination the top view is always placed directly above the front view, and the side view directly across from the front view. Fig. 8 is the pictorial view of a bracket, and Fig. 9 the three views of the same bracket. Study and compare these views. Explaining, perhaps more accurately and carefully, the theory of orthographic pro- Fig. 8. — Pictorial view of bracket. jection is that the object (Fig. 10) is con- ceived to be surrounded by transparent planes perpendicular to each other (as if it were inside of a box with glass sides). If lines perpendicular to these planes be ex- tended or "projected" to them from every 1 B ! 1 i i i \F — F ~T Fig. 9. — Three views of bracket. point of the object, the resulting figures on the planes will be the "projections " of the object, Fig. 11. These planes are then imagined to be opened up into one surface, represented by the drawing paper (as if the 8 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING sides of the glass box were hinged, and opened out). Thus the flat view of these opened planes would be like Fig. 12, and, leaving off the outlines of the edges, and the lines of the hinges, the three views would appear as in Fig. 13. Fig. 10. This shows the reason for the rule already given, that the top view is directly above the front view, and the side view directly across from the front view. Notice particularly that on the side view the front of the object is facing the front view. Sometimes two side views are necessary, and in compara- ^^z^/ Pig. 11— The "glass box." tively rare cases a bottom view is desirable (as if the other end of the glass box, and the bottom of it were opened on their hinges until flush with the front). From a study of these projections the following principles will be noted. 1. A surface parallel to a plane of pro- jection is shown in its true size; as B on the front view of Fig. 7. 2. A surface perpendicular to a plane of projection is projected as a line; as o o re-n 1 t i*Tl In ■ ! =1 ■ i 1 i 1 • i \ \2/ CJ t Pig. 12. — The box opened. faces A, C and E on the same view (Fig. 76). A surface inclined to a plane of pro- jection is foreshortened; as face C on the top view of Fig. 7, and K on the side view of Fig. 13. o A B o C 1 I Fig. 13. — The three projections Similarly — 4. A line parallel to a plane of pro- jection will show in its true length. 5. A line perpendicular to a plane of projection will be projected as a point. THEORY AND TECHNIQUE 9 6. An inclined line will have a projection shorter than its true length. As a general rule to be followed, the view showing the characteristic contour or shape of a piece should be drawn first; thus in Figs. 6 and 8 the front view would be the Fig. 14. — Sketching a vertical line. first one to be made, while in Fig. 21o on page 13 the top view would be drawn first, to advantage. In architectural drawing the top view is always called the plan, and the front and side views the front elevation and elevation respectively. Fig. 15. — Sketching a horizontal line. Sketching. Training in freehand sketching is so im- portant that there should be much practice in it. Our first work will be sketching in orthographic projection from pictorial views and models. An H, F, or No. 3 drawing pencil, sharp- ened to a long conical point, not too sharp, a pencil eraser, to be used sparingly, and paper, either in note book, pad, or single sheet clipped on a board, are all the materials needed. Sometimes coordinate paper, ruled in faint lines, is used. The pencil should be held with freedom, not close to the point, vertical lines drawn downward, Fig. 14, and horizontal lines from left to right, Fig. 15. In beginning a sketch, after studying the object until the views are clear, mentally, always start with center lines or base lines, and remember that the view showing the contour or characteristic shape should Fig. 16. be drawn first. This is generally the view showing circles if there are any. Get the main dimensions and proportions first, blocking in the necessary number of views so that they will fit the sheet. In such a figure as Fig. 16 the sketch would be started by drawing a vertical center line ; on which would be spaced the principal points of the front and top views. The side view would then be blocked in, and the sketch at this stage would be something like Fig. 17. The holes would then be added and the outlines brightened, so that the finished sketch would look like Fig. 18. 10 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING Figs. 19, 20 and 21 are collections of pictorial views of various familiar objects, which are to be sketched in orthographic projection, making the views necessary to describe the object fully and clearly. This is primarily for practice in projection but is also a test of the student's judgment in observing and recording proportions. zX\ First stage of sketch. Drawing with Instruments. As has been said, instrumental drawing is necessary in all accurate work in designing and drafting, and the first requirement is the ability to use the drawing instruments correctly. With continued practice will come a facility in their use which will free the mind from any thought of the means of expression. Our further work in the subject will be done chiefly with instruments, and in the exercises given in this chapter careful atten- tion should be paid to the explanations and hints on the methods of handling the differ- ent instruments. It is very easy to get into bad habits in using the instruments unless good form be observed at the start. These habits once formed are very difficult to overcome. ■0 X •' i " I i ' • It • " •' l " l f l Fig. 18. — Finished sketch. Alphabet of Lines. As the basis of the language of drawing is the line, a set of different kinds of lines needed may properly be called an alphabet of lines. The ones in general use are given in Fig. 22. The weight of line for the visible outline will vary with the kind of drawing. Archi- tectural and structural drawings are made with a line not heavier than shown at (1), THEORY AND TECHNIQUE 11 Fig. 19.— Problems for working sketches. 12 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING U e M A Fig. 20. — Problems for working sketches. THEORY AND TECHNIQUE Fig. 21.— Problems for working sketches. 14 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING while drawings of machine parts are usually Use of T Square and Triangles, outlined with a much wider line. The T square is for drawing parallel hori- Center lines, dimension lines and cross zontal lines, and is always used with its head (1) visible outline (2) invisible outline (3) center line (3a) center line in pencil (4) dimension line (5) extension line (6) alternate position (7) line of motion (8) cutting plane -Ar- ^\Ai/ M 'Wl't-'IH (9) break line -^ * ^w (10) limiting break (11) cross hatching line Fig. 22. — The alphabet of lines. Fig. 23.— The alphabet illustrated. hatching lines should be clean fine against the left edge of the drawing board, uniform lines. Fig. 23 shows these and The triangles are used against the T square the various other lines as used on a for drawing vertical lines and lines at 30, drawing. 45 and 60 degrees. THEORY AND TECHNIQUE 15 With the two triangles together, lines at 15 degrees and 75 degrees may be drawn. Fig. 24 illustrates these combinations. edge (the paper should preferably be a little larger than the finished drawing is to be). Lay the scale down on the paper close to the Fig. 24. — Use of triangles. The detailed construction of the two following sheets is given to illustrate the method of procedure in making a drawing, and the use of some of the instruments. If these drawings are made following the in- structions carefully, making them over if necessary until a satisfactory result is ob- tained, the use of the instruments and the method of laying out a drawing should be sufficiently familiar to the beginner, so that succeeding work can be done without hesi- tation or fault in execution. Sharpen a hard pencil (4H or 6H) to a long sharp point, cutting away the wood and pointing the lead by rubbing it on the sand- paper pad. (For straight line work some prefer a flat wedge-shaped point, as it stays sharp longer.) Have the sand-paper pad always at hand and keep the pencil point sharp. Fasten a piece of paper to the board, squaring the top edge with the T square, and putting a thumb tack in each corner, pushing the tacks down to their heads. Suppose the size of the drawing is to be 12" X 18" with a border line %" irom tne Fig. 25. — Drawing a vertical line. lower edge and measure 18", marking the distances with the pencil, at the same time marking Y 2 " for the border fine. Always 16 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING use a short dash, not a dot, in laying off a dimension. At the left edge mark 12" and Y 2 " border line points. Through these four points on the left edge, draw horizontal lines with the T square, and through the points Fig. 26. — Setting the compass. on the lower edge draw vertical lines with the triangle against the T square in the position illustrated in Fig. 25. Horizontal lines should always be drawn from left to right, and vertical lines upward. Fig. 27. — Starting the circle. Use of the Compasses. In drawing a circle the radius should be measured and marked on the center line and the compass adjusted to it by first pinching the instrument open with the thumb and second finger, then setting the needle point (shoulder point) in position at the center and adjusting the pencil point to the mark, using one hand only in opening and closing the compasses. The needle point may be guided to the center with the little finger of the left hand, Fig. 26. When the lead is Fig. 28. — Completing the circle. adjusted to pass exactly through the mark, the hand should be raised to the handle and the circle drawn (clockwise) in one sweep by twirling the handle with the thumb and forefinger, keeping the compasses inclined Fig. 29. — Position for large circle. slightly, Fig. 27. The position of the fingers after completing the circle is shown in Fig. 28. Circles up to perhaps 3 inches in diameter may be drawn with legs straight but for larger sizes the legs are bent at the THEORY AND TECHNIQUE 17 Use of lengthening bar. joints paper, reach so as to be perpendicular to the Fig. 29. Circles too large for the the compass are drawn with of Fig. 31. — Setting the bow pen. the lengthening bar as shown in Fig. 30. Small circles, particularly when there are a number of the same diameter, are made Fig. 32. — Correct and incorrect tangents. with the bow-pen. In changing the set- ting, to avoid wear and final stripping of the thread, the pressure of the spring against the nut should be relieved by holding the points in the left hand and spinning the nut in or out with the finger. Small adjust- ments are made with one hand, with the needle point in position on the paper, Fig. 31. Notice particularly, in drawing tangent circles, that two lines are tangent to each other when their centers are tangent, and not when the lines simply touch each other; as illustrated in enlarged form in Fig. 32. Fig. 33. — Bisecting a line with dividers. Use of Dividers. The dividers are used for transferring measurements from one part of the drawing to another, for stepping off distances, and for dividing lines by trial. They are handled in the same way as the compasses. Fig. 33 18 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING illustrates the method of bisecting a line by- trial, first opening the dividers at a guess to one-half the length of the line and stepping the distance off. If the division be short, the leg should be thrown out to one-half the remainder, estimated by the eye, without removing the other leg from its position on the paper, and the line spaced again with the new setting. Avoid pricking unsightly holes in the paper. The position of a small prick point may be preserved if necessary by drawing a little ring around it with the pencil. between front and side views, and subtracting these 15" from the length of the sheet, 17", we find that the left edge of the front view should be started an inch from the left border. Now with the scale measure along the base line the horizontal dimensions for the front view, marking points for the thickness of the end boards. At the same time measure on the base line the width of the side view, leaving an inch between views. Through the first point on the front view draw a long perpendicular, measure on this the height of the front view and the thickness of the bottom board. On the same line mark the width of the top view, leaving about 1M" between views. Through these points draw horizontal and vertical lines, thus blocking out the three views. Next draw on the side Fig. 34. — Feeding stick for birds. PROBLEM 1. The first sheet is to be three views of the feeding stick 1 for birds shown in Fig. 34. Lay off a 12" X 18" sheet with J^" border as described on page 15. The first requirement of a good drawing, after deciding on the requisite views, is to have the views well spaced on the sheet. A quick preliminary freehand sketch will aid in this study. In adding the width of the top view, 4", and the height of the front view, 2J4", and leaving say 1J£" between views, we would have 7J£". Subtracting this from the width of the sheet inside the border, 11", and dividing this space between top and bottom, we find that the base line should be drawn about 1J£" from the bottom border line. Adding the length, 10", and the width, 4", and allowing an inch 1 Such a feeding stick, with the holes filled with suet is greatly enjoyed by birds in winter. view, the slant line of the end boards and a dotted line showing the block behind. This block will show as a full line on the top view. On the front view draw the center line A-B for the holes, and on this measure the distances for the centers, and at one of the centers mark the radius (%") of the circle. At this stage the drawing will appear something like Fig. 35. When the circles are drawn and the short line formed by the chamfer of the end boards is pro- jected across from the side view, the front view is completed. The top and side views of the holes, showing their depth, are hidden lines, shown as indicated in the alphabet of lines, and are projected from the front view. When the drawing is finished in pencil it is to be inked. It is shown in finished stage in Fig. 36. Over-running pencil lines should not be erased until after the drawing is inked. THEORY AND TECHNIQUE 19 /? Fig. 35. — First stage of penciling. i i i r i i 1 i 1 1 1 l 1 l_ J BIRD FEEDING STICK OAK J JOHN W. BLACK Fig. 36. — Finished ink drawing. 20 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING Inking. Finished drawings are either inked on the paper or traced on tracing cloth, or some- times on tracing paper. Straight lines are inked with the ruling pen, which is filled by Fig. 37. — Correct pisition of ruling pen. touching the quill filler attached to the cork of the ink bottle, between the nibs of the pen, being careful not to get any ink on the outside of the blades. Not more than three- sixteenths of an inch should be put in or it Pen pressed against Tsquare /do ha/d fkn s/oped aivay from Tsqt/are Pen foo c/ose to edge /n/cran under ink on oufs/de of 6/ade, ran vnder w m* flenb/ac/es nof kept para//e/ to Tsquare Tsquare (or tr/ang/ej s/ipped into wet //he TTT I I I II U HI D ' I IM I H imF— —WW W A/of enough /nk to finish tine Fig. 38.— Faulty lines. will drop out in a blot. After adjusting the nibs with the screw to give the correct thick- ness of line, the pen is held as illustrated in Fig. 37. Keep it in a plane perpendicular to the paper and draw the lines with T square and triangle. If the ink refuses to flow it is because it is dried and clogged in the extreme point of the pen. This clot or obstruction may be re- moved by touching the pen on the finger or by pinching the blades slightly. If it still refuses to start it should be wiped out and fresh ink added. The pen should always be wiped clean after using. Faulty Lines. If inked lines appear imperfect in any way, the reason should be ascertained im- mediately. Fig. 38 illustrates the char- acteristic appearance of several kinds of faulty lines. The correction in each case will suggest itself. +&r — i — H4h Fig. 39. — Windmill brake shoe. PROBLEM 2. The next sheet, three views of a windmill brake shoe, Fig. 39, is an exercise in straight and curved lines. Draw the border lines, figure the spacing as was done on Sheet 1 and lay out base line, and a vertical center line for the front view. Evidently the front view is the one to make first. On the base line of the front view set off the centers A and B 1J4" from the vertical center line. Measure up }i" on the vertical center line and draw the horizontal line DE. On this mark the 1" radius for the middle circle, whose center is at C. Measure up from the center C l%" and draw the upper horizontal line. Next draw vertical lines through A and B. With the radii indicated draw the circle arcs with A, B and C as centers. The construction for the arcs from the centers F and G is suggested on the figure. Complete the measurements for the front view, then draw top and side views, measuring the widths and projecting the other dimensions from the front view. Fig. 40 illustrates a partially completed stage of the drawing, and Fig. 41 the finished drawing. Remember as a fundamental rule that THEORY AND TECHNIQUE 21 Fig. 40. — First stages in penciling. WINDMILL BRAKE SHOE CAST IRON JOHN W. BLACK Fig. 41. — Inked drawing. 22 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING circles and circle arcs are always inked before the straight lines are inked. Lettering A working drawing requires the addition of dimensions, notes on material and finish, only by continued and careful practice. Working drawings are lettered in a rapid single-stroke style, either vertical or inclined, and usually all capitals. The term "single- stroke" or "one stroke" does not mean that the entire letter is made without lifting the ABCDEFGHIJKLMN OPQRSTUVWXYZ& 1234567890^ Fig. 42. — Upright single-stroke capitals. and a title, all of which must be lettered free- hand in a style that is perfectly legible, uniform and capable of rapid execution. So far as its appearance is concerned, there is no part of a drawing so important as the letter- pen, but that the width of the stroke of the pen is the width of the stem of the letter. For large sizes in this style, a comparatively coarse pen such as Hunt's No. 512 or Leonard's ball point No. 516 F is used. Fig. 43. — Position for lettering. ing. A good drawing may be ruined not only in appearance, but in usefulness by lettering done ignorantly or carelessly, as illegible figures are very apt to cause mistakes in the work. The ability to letter well can be acquired Single-stroke Vertical Caps. The upright single stroke "commercial gothic" letter shown in Fig. 42 is one of the standard forms. To practice this letter draw a page of guide lines % 6 " apart, hold the pen in position shown in Fig. 43 and THEORY AND TECHNIQUE 23 practice each letter a number of times, Single-stroke Inclined Caps following the order and direction of strokes Many draftsmen prefer inclined letters to given in F lg . 44, and watching the copy vertical letters. They should be practiced Hill =E = ////\\\YOOO |, ,|4 1_ ,,p g j mj„ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ : .-V.V.. •a. -a ■/>•.• .:* if.'*', v.' y-k WOOD C C/fffSS SECTION) LIQUID CONCffETE Fig. 55. — Symbols for materials in section. surface is to be "finished" or machined, and the placing of the check mark. Do not be afraid to put notes on drawings. Supplement the graphic language by the English language whenever added infor- mation can be conveyed, but be careful to word it so clearly that the meaning cannot possibly be misunderstood. The title to a working drawing is usually boxed in the lower right hand corner, and its contents will vary according to the kind of drawing. In general it should contain the name of the structure, name of manufacturer or owner, date, scale, and drafting record including number, initials or name of drafts- man, tracer, checker, etc. Various titles are shown in Chapter IV. The bill of material is a tabulated form on the drawing giving the name, number wanted, size and material of each piece. First, put yourself in the place of the one who is to work from the drawing, and see if it is easy to read. Second, see that each piece is correctly illustrated. Third, check all dimensions by scaling, and also by calculation where necessary. As each dimension is verified, put a check mark (vO in pencil above it. Fourth, see that all specifications for material are correctly given. Fifth, see that stock sizes of materials have been used as far as possible. Sixth, add any explanatory notes that will increase the efficiency of the drawing. Conventional Symbols In technical drawing there are certain signs and simplified outlines called "con- ventions " which are adopted and recognized WORKING DRAWINGS 31 as standing for materials or commonly used constructions. Screw threads and gear wheels for example are not drawn in their actual outline but are shown conventionally. Other conventions are used for electrical ROUND SECTION It ROUND SECTION PIPE OR TUBING WOOD (square, section) I I BEAM X ± ANGLE IRON ^S CHAIN ROPE OR CABLE Fig. 56. — Conventional breaks and symbols. wiring and apparatus, for sections of con- crete, wood, etc., and for topography. Such of these as may be useful in agricultural drawing have been given in various places in this book. In specifying materials it is much safer to add the name of the material as a note than to depend on a symbol. The drawing is easier to read however if generally recog- nized sections are used for the commoner materials. Fig. 55 shows some of the con- ventional section lining symbols, and Fig. 56 a number of conventional breaks and other symbols. Symbols used in building construction are shown in Fig. 96, page 48. A long object of uniform section may be shown to larger scale and thus to better ad- vantage by drawing it as if a piece were broken out of the middle and the ends pushed up together, indicating the break by the symbols of Fig. 56 or by the "limiting break line " (line 10 of the alphabet of lines), and giving the over-all dimension. Fig. 126, page 74, is an example of this principle applied to the drawing of a building. Fastenings. In every working drawing will occur the necessity of representing the methods of fastening parts together. Fastenings are either permanent, as rivets and nails, or removable, as bolts, screws, keys and pins. In drawing ordinary wooden structures the nails are not shown, unless there is some special reason for their location or number. Other fastenings, such as rivets, bolts, etc., are indicated by conventional symbols. Bolts and Screws. Bolts and screws are used for fastening parts together, for adjusting, and for trans- mitting power or motion. There are many different forms of bolts, and several different kinds of threads, for these different purposes. In drawing, we should know the conven- tional method of representing the ordinary types used. The usual form of screw thread is the U. S. Standard, a V thread at 60 degrees, with the tip flattened and the root filled in. Among other forms are the sharp V, the square thread and the buttress thread, Fig. 57. When not otherwise specified, the U. S. Standard is always understood as required. 32 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING In ordinary drawing, threads are not drawn in actual form but are indicated con- ventionally. Fig. 58 shows several methods used. That shown in A is the simplest and best. It is not necessary to have the lines US. STANDARD SHARP V SQUARE BUTTRESS Fig. 57. — Some forms of threads. ABC Fig. 58. — Conventional threads. and the only dimensions required are the diameter, the length (under the head) and the amount of thread, Fig. 59. In drawing a hex. head three faces are shown, and in a square head, one face. Figs. 60 and 61 are full size %" bolts, given to show the pro- portions and method of drawing a hex. head and a square head bolt and nut, with the con- struction of the chamfer finish. Fig. 62 illustrates a number of common forms of screw fastenings. Pipes. Pipe threads are cut on a taper, which is usually exaggerated slightly in drawing. Pipe is designated by the nominal inside diameter, which differs slightly from the actual diameter, so that in drawing pipe we should know the outside diameter, and in figuring sizes needed, we should know the actual inside diameters or areas. The fol- lowing table gives these sizes. Pipe Sizes Nominal inside Actual outside Actual inside Internal diameter diameter diameter area M .54 .36 .10 Vs .675 .49 .19 H .84 .62 .30 H 1.05 .82 .53 l 1.315 1.05 .86 m 1.66 1.38 1.49 i^ 1.9 1.61 2.03 2 2.375 2.06 3.35 2M 2.875 2.46 4.78 3 3.5 3.06 7.38 Fig. 59. — Dimensioned bolt. spaced exactly to the pitch, or distance apart, of the actual threads, but to look well they should somewhat approximate it. To Draw a Bolt. There are adopted standards for standard hexagonal and square head bolts and nuts, hence in drawing, one view only is necessary, The method of drawing the usual fittings to different scales is shown in Fig. 63. Developed Surfaces. Sometimes it is necessary to draw a full sized pattern to which a piece of sheet metal may be cut, which when rolled or formed up will make a required piece. The operation of laying out the pattern from the drawing is called the development of the surface. In WORKING DRAWINGS 33 D= DIAM. OF BOLT Fig. 60. — Construction of hexagonal head bolt. d = wam. of bolt. s = i£d+s' H=I414S Fig. 61.— Construction of square head bolt. 34 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING our limited space we can only suggest the fundamentals of this branch of working drawings. The pattern for a cylinder would evidently be a rectangle, whose width would be the length of the cylinder and whose length would be equal to the circumference, Fig. 64, I stove: bolt To develop a Cylinder. Fig. 66. In rolling a cylinder out, the base will develop into a straight line, called the "stretchout line." Divide the base into a number of equal parts. Project these points as elements on the front view. Draw the stretchout line and step off the divisions of TIRE BOLT ill M CARRIAGE BOLT PLOW BOLT S)-(0^=hO ^ S 3 ft 1 "^-^ \ / EYE BOLT F "' a+ Round Fillister Straight ocoooCT J MACHINE SCRE.W5 Round -ooeco 3nmm> f LAG SCREW HANGER BOLT EXPANSION BOLT Bent =: SCREW HOOKS «© •o h [iiiiiiiiiimniinii CAP SCREW W,Ne NUT 1 TURN BUCKLES DRIVE SCREW \s /. St V_^ STUD U © Sutton Head Pan RIVET Head fMl WOOD SCREWS V -J" Sq. Head Headless Safety — •SET SCREWS EjJH ffl WAGON BOX BOLT Fig. 62. — Various bolts and screws. Steel WASHERS Cast Iron and the pattern for a cone would be a sector, with a radius equal to the slant height and an arc equal in length to the circumference of the base, Fig. 65. In the development of any object we must first have its projections, and in prac- tical applications must allow for seams and lap. the base on it. Through these points draw the elements and project their lengths across in order from the front view. Connect these points by a smooth curve. To develop a Truncated Cone. Fig. 67. Divide the base as before. Draw the stretchout line with a radius equal to the WORKING DRAWINGS 35 Pipe fittings, as drawn in small scale and large scale. slant height of the completed cone, O'A'. Step off the divisions of the base on the stretchout line as shown and connect the two end points with the center 0'. Then draw the arc for the small end with the radius O'B'. on EA. Complete the pyramid, finding the apex 0. Since the edge EA is not shown in its true length on the front view, it must be revolved about the axis of the pyramid until it is parallel to the vertical plane, by swing- ing the top view of the line from OA to OA" To develop a Prism. Fig. 68 illustrates the development of the surface of a square prism with a sloping top, with the seam at the corner EA. The con- struction is evident from the figure. To develop a Pyramid. Fig. 69 shows the method of developing a truncated square pyramid with the seam Fig. 65. and projecting the point A" down to A' Project E across to the line O'A', then E'A.' will be true length of the edge EA. (The pyramid may be imagined to be slipped in- side of a cone having the same slant as the edges of the pyramid, and O'A' will be the true length of an element of this cone.) With O'A' as a radius, draw an arc as in the development of the cone and on this step off 36 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING IS /9 2° / S 3 4 5 e 7Q 9 10 H 12 13 14 IS 16 17 & /3 SO & 2Z 23 Z4 / Fig. 66. — Development of a cylinder. Fig. 67. — Development of a cone. WORKING DRAWINGS 37 GC FB DC AB A B C Fig. 68. — Development of a prism. DC AB A.' A' Fig. 69. — Development of a pyramid. 38 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING the four edges of the base of the pyramid ABCD. Connect the points ABCDA with giving the folding edges. Find the devel- opment of the upper end by drawing an arc with the radius O'E'. Method of Working In making a working drawing, after the scheming and inventing has been done in freehand sketches, the order of procedure in penciling should be about as follows: first, lay off the sheet with border line, and block out space for the title; second, plan the sheet, deciding upon the number and ar- rangement of views, always selecting as large a scale as possible; third, draw center lines for each view and lay off the principal dimen- sions; fourth, complete the projections; fifth, draw the dimension lines, and put in the dimensions; sixth, lay out the title; seventh, check the drawing carefully. Order of Inking. First, ink all circles, then circle arcs; sec- ond, ink the straight lines in the order — horizontal, vertical, inclined; third, ink cen- ter lines, extension and dimension lines; fourth, ink the dimensions; fifth, section line cut surfaces; sixth, ink notes, title and border line; seventh, check the tracing. Sketching from the Object. In our previous consideration of freehand sketching from pictorial views (page 9), we were concerned with the projections only. In connection with working drawings, it is often necessary to make a dimensioned sketch from the object itself, as for example, in the case of a broken piece of machinery. The procedure would be somewhat in the order indicated. First, study the object and determine the necessary views; second, sketch center lines, observe the proportions and block in principal parts of the outline; third, finish the projections; fourth, draw all dimension lines and arrow-heads, before put- ting any figures in; fifth, measure the object and put the dimensions on the sketch; sixth, check for errors and omissions; seventh, date and sign the sketch. Sometimes it requires considerable ingenu- ity to get accurate measurements. A two foot rule and calipers would be required for castings and small objects, and a steel tape for larger structures. A plumb line is often of service, and other devices will suggest themselves as the occasion demands. The commonest fault in sketching is the overlooking of some important dimension whose omission is discovered as soon as the working drawing to scale is started. PROBLEMS In application of the principles of this chapter, selections from the following prob- lems are to be made, and the complete working drawings with all necessary dimen- sions, notes, and title are to be drawn. Use a standard sized sheet (either 12" X 18" or 18" X 24"), and follow the method of working as outlined on the previous page, selecting suitable scale, deciding upon the views necessary, and making prelimin- ary sketch plan for the sheet. The draw- ings may be inked, or preferably traced on tracing cloth for blue printing. Some of the problems have complete data and di- mensions given, others are intended to be designed by the student. Be particularly careful to follow the rules for dimensioning. Problems 1. Make the working drawing of a box for fence repair kit, from the sketch, Fig. 70. (Of course the words "hammer," etc., will not appear on the drawing.) 2. Working drawing of germinating or corn testing box, from the sketch, Fig. 71. The bottom is rabbeted so as to be water tight, and the saw cuts are to hold cords for making divisions. 3. Working drawing of heavy clevis, Fig. 72. Specify wrought iron or mild steel. 4. Working drawing of sheep feeding rack, Fig. WORKING DRAWINGS 39 73. Decide length wanted and space sills not more than six feet apart. 5. Working drawing of sheep feeding rack using alternate form shown in Fig. 74. This has larger capacity than Fig. 73, and the flaring boards pre- vent dirt from getting into the wool on the sheep's neck. 6. Working drawing of milk stool, Fig. 75. Fig. 70.— Toolbox. Fig. 71. — Corn tester. Fig. 72.— Clevis. 7. Working drawing of sack holder, Fig. 76. A mortised wood brace may be substituted for the wrought iron brace. The hooks may be made of finishing nails. 8. Working drawing of gang mold for test pieces, Fig. 77. This mold is for making standard 1%" X IH" X 6" test specimens used in the rough determi- '** '6- Fig. 73. — Sheep rack. 40 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING nation of the breaking strength of cement. Detail such parts as are necessary for showing construction. 9. Working drawing of forms for concrete hog trough, Fig. 78 (the trough is cast inverted). 10. Working drawing of plank road drag, Fig. 79. Use conventional symbol in showing a %" chain 7 ft. long, attached to hooks. Fig. 74. — Sheep rack. 11. Working drawing of split log drag, using same dimensions as in Problem 10. 12. Working drawing of low-down silo rack, Fig. 80. The wrought iron end plates are %," stock with 1J4" hole and fastened with %" bolts. The rack is swung under the axles of a wagon from which Ae'W Fig'. 75.— Milk stool. the bed and reach have been removed. The bed pieces are hung to the rear axle by clip irons. 13. Working drawing of stone boat, Fig. 81, using auxiliary projection for nose. 14. Working drawing of boot jack, Fig. 82 (side view and auxiliary projection are the only views needed). material.- white: pine., apply a mixture op equal papts bo/led l/mseed oil. aivo kerosene Fig. 77. — Gang mold. "OKKim mAWlms F ™. 78.~p OTi m ** concrete trough. 41 toMon? of Fig. 79.- Road dfag _ 42 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING 15. Working drawing of fly wheel, Fig. 83 (front view and section). Fig. 80. — Silo rack. 16. Working drawing of flanged roller, Fig. 84 (front view and section). 17. Working drawing of home made muffler for 19. Working drawing of ice box, Fig. 87. This design is called the Rochester cold box, and is easily built and very efficient. 20. Working drawing of farm gate, Fig. 88. Length may be varied if desired. 21. Working drawing of farm gate of your own design. Suggestions of different forms may be had from Fig. 133, page 81. 22. Working drawing of grindstone and frame, Fig. 89, making assembly and detail drawings. 23. Working drawing of sheave, Fig. 90. Show right half of side view in section. 24. Working drawing of cattle breeding crate, Fig. 91, including bill of material. 25. Working drawing of fly trap, Fig. 92. The bait holders d are can lids. 26. Develop patterns for three piece elbow, Fig. 93. MAPLE. OAK 3/ffCH BEECH Fig. 81. — Stone boat. gas engine, Fig. 85 (for dimension of pipe, see table of pipe sizes). 18. Working drawing of road, or community ■ S§& Boot jack. bulletin board, Fig. 86. This drawing may be fully completed by adding in upright Gothic letters, the lettering to be painted on the board. 27. Develop pattern for conical reflector, Fig. 94. 28. Develop pattern for hexagonal lamp shade, Fig. 94. 29. Develop pattern for funnel, Fig. 95. 30. Develop patterns for sheet metal hopper, Fig. 95. Models may be made of problems 26 to 30 by cutting the patterns out of paper and rolling or forming them up and pasting. If this is done, allowance must be made for lap. 31. Make a working drawing of a hay rack. The two bed or body pieces are to be 2" X 8" hard pine sixteen feet long set on edge. Across these place on edge five 2" X 6" pieces seven feet long for narrow rack, or eight feet for wide rack. Floor the whole with 1" material. For securing the cross pieces to the bed, use clip irons as shown in Fig. 20 (M and WORKING DRAWINGS 4.3 N) page 12. The bed pieces should be placed so as to overhang the front bolster eighteen inches, and should be twenty-four inches apart in front to allow a wide turning radius for the front wheels, and flare back to full width, forty-two inches, at the rear bolster. The front should be provided with a Fig. 83. — Flywheel. false bolster to prevent shifting from side to side. A standard, made of 2" X 4" pieces six feet long will be required. 32. Design a basket rack. A simple basket rack may be made as follows. On the hay rack described in Prob. 31, erect 2" X 4" pieces thirty-eight to forty-two inches long at each end of every cross- piece, securing them with bolts or irons. To these fasten three fence boards lengthwise and spaced evenly up and down. On the end standards nail similar boards and secure the corners with large hasps and staples. Fig. 84. — Flanged roller. 33. Make a working drawing of a gate post mold for 12" X 12" X 8'-0" concrete post. The post to be reinforced by four %" rods wired at each foot of length. 34. Working drawing of gang mold for fence posts seven feet long with 4 X 4 top and 4X6 bottom, posts to be reinforced with four 1 /i" rods. Rods not to be closer than 1" to outside. 7 Standard f*//?e r~/ange for 3 Standard pipe fvsrred fa df/rrens/orrs sh*""" - Fig. 85. — Muffler. 44 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING 35. Design a work bench 34" high, using the following material — Top 2 pes. 1 X 14 X 8'- 0" Aprons 2 pes. 1 X 12 X 8'- 0" Cross Boards. . 4 pes. 1 X 12 X 2'- 2" Legs 4 pes. 2 X 4X2'- 9" Cross Ties 2 pes. IX 4X2'- 2" Wood vise screw 8" from top. P \ fre WHITE ■PtN£,MATCHEC AND DRESSED 4"f/=oST or LOCUST Oft CHESTNUT HOLE 3'-Q~OEEP Fig. 86.— Bulletin board. 36. Design a pipe railing for the approach to a bank barn — use 1J£" pipe and the following fittings : cross, tee, 90° ell, flange. 37. Design a layout of the water piping for a farm where the water is piped from a well to a sink in the kitchen; from the well to a tank in the barn yard, and off this line three outlets, one to horse stable, one to hog house and one to dairy house. The house supply pipe is 1", that to tank 2"; all others \&" pipe. Note on drawing and make list of all necessary fittings. SIDES. ENDS AND BOTTOM OF INSIDE OF -WOODEN BOX LINED WITH . ■WIHE FLY SCREEN. \ SPACE AROUND ZINC TANK TO BE FILLED AND ^K PACKED TIGHT WITH FINE WOOD SHAVINSS ZIHC TANK 23"LONS l5g'WlD£ IS "OEEP Fig. 87. — Icebox. 38. Design a cold frame, using 34" X 52" sash. 39. Design a suitable wood box for firewood. Box to be of neat design to match woodwork in kitchen. A sloping, hinged lid should be provided. Fig. 88. — Farm gate. WORKING DRAWINGS 45 /. Left fJ.AT£, CJ. BEARING. C. /. « r Drill~ /'sa.J&J- K/" ' ' — ^ f,l "' r '' '' " ""■ "im- S3- 1,1 nJUT r •IMj/!' T Vik % ■'/?■ £ •I -i $ CRANK, W.I. SHAFT, STEEL. Fig. 89. — Grindstone frame details. Fig. 90. — Sheave. Fig. 91.— Cattle breeding crate. 46 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING 40. Design and draw a trap nest. The Connect!- chest. The two till chest shown in Fig. 180, page cut trap nest is illustrated in Fig. 2, page 2. Nest 110, may serve for suggestion, should be at least 12" square in the clear. Additional working drawing problems may be Fig. 93. — Three-piece elbow. r*H Fig. 94. — Reflector and lamp shade. Fig. 92. — Homemade fly trap. Fig. 95. — -Funnel and hopper. 41. Design a wash bench 16" high, 3 ft. long, made from Figs. 160 to 181 in Chapter VI, and may with wringer board in the middle. be suggested by other illustrations throughout the 42. Design and make working drawing of a tool book. CHAPTER IV FARM STRUCTURES Under the head of farm structures would properly be included any structural work built for confining, enclosing or covering animals, machinery, or materials, and of course including dwellings. Thus fences, paddocks, pens, gates, etc., would be called confining structures, while enclosing and covering structures would include houses, barns, and sheds, together with any building work which would improve them or make them more efficient; for example, a manure pit and a silo would add to the efficiency of a dairy barn. In this chapter we are to consider the methods of designing and drawing these structures. Designing is simply suiting form to function. Thus in the design of any struc- ture we must first consider the reasons and uses for it, following mentally in detail all through the operations which will be performed in it, and making it to such form that it will serve its full purpose to the best advantage possible, and be practical and economical both in construction and opera- tion. After the general design has been thought out, the drawing of it is the ap- plication of the principles of the language which we have been studying. Training in this systematic process of reasoning, and in the ability to think on paper is of particu- lar value to the farmer. It gives him the power to plan for improvements, to esti- mate costs, and to read intelligently plans presented to him. The actual execution of these structural drawings is comparatively simple, as they are made up principally of straight lines. After one is familiar with the instruments and the theory of working drawings, all that is needed in making drawings of struc- tures is a facility in the use of the scale and a knowledge of the conventional symbols used in representing different materials and different parts. The drawing of larger structures must be done to such small scale that the details of these parts can not be shown but are only indicated by standard signs. Their construction is shown by de^ tail drawings to larger scale, which are usu- ally grouped on separate sheets. Symbols. On page 30 the use of conventional symbols was explained, and examples used in working drawings were illustrated. In structural drawing we need to know the conventional symbols for doors, windows, etc., as well as the symbols for sections of different materials. Fig. 96 gives a number of these symbols, whose application will be needed in reading the drawings following, and in drawing the problems given. Plans. As mentioned in Chapter II the terms plan and front, side or end elevation are used instead of top view, front view and side view. The plan of a building is really a horizontal section as if the building were cut through at the height of the windows and the top lifted off. This cutting plane may be 47 48 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING RUBBLE JTONE INJECTION CUT JTONE IN JECTION gps^^a i wmmmimm ROUGH LUMBER, ID JECTION r- v — nz^ 1 i i v — ir FINIJHED LUMBER- IN JECTION h i i r —v. i ii y Ij *y It y- 1 -vw BR.ICK. IN ELEVATION. Laige Scalt, BR.ICK.irf ELEVATION. Small 5cale 3 r- A ". ■ . ■ ■ . A-t! Ly — I FRAME WALL IN JECTION I ■•"T CEMENT and PLASTER- IN JECTION EARTH IN JECTION CONCRETE IN JECTION r>- '-t\f~— _/\^_ ^J CUT JTONE IN ELEVATION WOOD IN ELEVATION BRJCK- IN JECTION TER.RA COTTA WALL IN JECTION 4 •.-.•■f-i-a- JTAGEJ IN DRAWING CONCRETE JYMBOL Ceiling Outlet; Electric only Numeral in confer indicates number of Standard 16 CP 'Incandescent Lumps Getting Outlet; Combination £ indicate* 4'I6 CP Standard Incandescent Lamps and 2 (Sas Lamps Bracket Outlet; Electric only. Numeral in center indicates number of Standard I6.CP Incandescent Lamp* Bracket Out/et ; Combination g indicates 4-t6 C P Standard incandescent i-Omps ona* £ Gas Lamps. Ffoor Outlet; Numeral in center- indicates number of Standard 16 C P Incandescent Lamps WINDOW./ Fig. 96. — Architectural symbols. DO e °" °""" t^| T 1°P>»»" Outlet FARM STRUCTURES assumed to vary in height at different points in order to show the parts of the plan to the best advantage. This is illustrated in Fig. 97 where it passes through the fireplace, then through a high window. Plans of houses and larger buildings are usually drawn to the scale of y±' = 1 ft. (sometimes written 1" = 4 ft.), and gen- erally one view only is placed on a sheet. Drawings of smaller structures may be made to W or even 1" scale, and all the views shown on one sheet. ''wall section" should always first be laid off at one side, in order to determine the heights of windows from the floor, heights of floors, cornice lines, etc., and these points projected across to the elevation. This wall section is often left on the finished drawing, to show heights, and cornice construction. Sections. Vertical sections are often necessary to show interior construction, such as framing, Fig. 97. — Pictorial illustration of a "plan." In planning a new building the thinking and scheming should be done with the aid of rough freehand sketches, using single lines for the walls, before a scale drawing is started. Cross section paper is often used in sketching, to aid in getting correct pro- portions. No drawing should be finished in ink until all the sheets are complete in pencil, as often a change on one view will necessitate changing several others. Elevations. An elevation is a front or side view of a building, showing the exterior appearance, and is of use in indicating the location of windows and doors, glass sizes, heights of floors, etc. In drawing an elevation, a stairways, trusses and other details. Nu- merous examples of vertical sections are given in this chapter. The terms "longi- tudinal section" and "transverse" or "cross section" are sometimes used to indicate that the section is taken lengthwise or crosswise. Dimensions. As in other working drawings, dimensions and notes are most important. The rules for dimensioning given on page 29 should be applied, and the needs of the builder always kept in mind. Thus dimensions should always be given to and from acces- sible points so that they may be laid off accurately and without computation. 50 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING Dimensions for building work should be given in even feet and inches, avoiding fractions of inches as far as possible, except as they may be necessary in details. Commercial and stock sizes should be used as far as possible on account of economy. For example, a piece of glass 7" X 10" costs more than one 8" X 10" because the latter is a stock size while the former has to be cut to order. Some tables of commercial sizes for reference will be found on page 112. Plan of the Chapter. In the plan of this chapter, a short dis- cussion of different building materials and their uses, and of general methods of pre- paring drawings, will be followed by a dis- cussion and illustration of each of several typical farm structures, representing modern practice in design and construction; the first one giving complete plans, specifica- tions, bill of material, and estimate, as an example to be followed. The application of the principles explained is to be made in the problems given at the end of the chapter. Many variations of the problems as stated, will suggest themselves to the student, and it is hoped that the varied selection of ex- amples and the description of requirements and present practice will enable him to adapt the principles and make dependable working drawings of any ordinary structure needed. Wood Construction. By far the greatest number of farm struc- tures are at present built of wood. The wood used is largely from local timber, but its gradual diminution in many sections, is leading to the use of southern and western lumber. Wood is classified in a general way com- mercially, as hard wood and soft wood, hard wood being from deciduous trees, and soft wood from cone-bearing trees. The de- signer will select, and specify on the drawing, the available wood best suited to the par- ticular purpose. If used for carrying load or stress, the sizes needed in the wood selected must be figured for safe load. The table of comparative strength of timbers and the loads they will carry given on page 114, will be of use in these computations. A list of the kinds of wood used for differ- ent purposes, somewhat in the order of their desirability and availability, is given on page 113. In making a drawing for a framed struc- ture it is necessary to show clearly the method of construction. The sizes and lengths of timbers must be given in order that the quantities may be taken off, and to prevent the cutting up of special timbers in places where shorter lengths have been designed. The kinds of joints intended must be shown, and if necessary supplemented by details. In large construction, such as barn fram- ing, there are two general systems, the braced, pin-joint frame, made of heavy timbers, and the plank frame, made up of two inch planking, either in the form of the "plank truss" or the "balloon frame." In the structures which follow, these different methods of framing are illustrated. The braced frame is shown in the horse barn, Fig. 116, the plank truss in Fig. 114, and the "balloon frame" in Figs. 117 and 127. The timber frame is the older type and is very substantial and reliable. It is used in localities where large squared timber of good quality and sufficient length is readily available. The plank frame is adapted to sections where timber is purchased or must be hauled long distances. Regarding the advantages and disad- vantages of the two systems, workmen through the country are more familiar with timber framing. Often they are not at all familiar with plank frame construction. In- stances of collapse are numerous, due to FARM STRUCTURES 51 faulty workmanship and lack of information the time saved in cutting out and erection. regarding plank frame requirements. Also fewer men are required for raising. The advantages of the plank frame are While it is comparatively simple to obtain Bridging of Floor Joists ^___^-g^ 1^=2 Stamped Joist Hanger Forged Joist Hanger Fish Plate Splice Gained Joint Halved Joint Balloon Frame Plate Fig. 98. — Joints and framing details. I 1 Ia HALF -HON I TOR. ROOF FULL MO N I TOR_ RCOF BR.OK.Ef1 GABLE ROOF SAHBREL OJ.CUR.B ROOF Fig. 99. — Forms of roofs. MAN.SAR.D ROOF that it is constructed at some saving in mow space partially free from timbers in timber (perhaps 10% of complete cost of pin-joint construction, it is possible to get barn). A greater advantage in cost is in a mow practically free from obstruction with 52 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING the plank frame, or the self-supporting roof of the balloon frame. In deciding upon the kind of framing to be used these advantages and disadvantages must be weighed and local conditions taken into account. of the rise to the span, thus when the height of the ridge is one-half the span the slope, evidently 45°, is called "one-half pitch." Fig. 100. — Comparative diagram of roof shapes. In smaller structures the stresses from loads and wind pressure are not so large a factor, and the framing becomes a much simpler problem than that of the barn. A few examples of the more common % m Drick M 'f Horizontal Bridge ^Slud Brick? ,Jp j5t Pier Fig. 101. — Fire-stopping and rat-proofing. joints and details of construction used in framing are illustrated in Fig. 98. Fig. 99 shows some of the different forms of roofs used. The pitch, or slope of a gable roof as usually spoken of, is the ratio Roof Sheathing* Fig. 102. — Detail of frame construction. Fig. 100 is a diagram showing the com- parative mow capacity of a }/§ pitch and H pitch gable roof, and a gambrel (or curb) roof of the same span. FARM STRUCTURES 53 Fig. 101 illustrates details of fire-stopping and rat proofing, which are important con- siderations in plank frame construction, par- ticularly so in granaries and residences. If not already familiar with them, the student should learn the builder's names of the various pieces used in building, as joists, I i I P Ship L fc ? TlUaqcn/ J'-l." — 1 — 1 — 1 — " ' * ill t ■^Utcfc, 1* una*, a oh ^giS z * 2 5 — LS" -i to w Hm 2 S ^ x H o u FARM STRUCTURES 59 60 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING ^ i oil z> ° i- u-„o CO "^a DC ul > OU. _ UJ 3 ^ g 5 b" *■ Shi ;8 tnxz 3$ ^ £y o t = ~V d- o El \ 2 "1 5 £ 3 (- a o 2 J U. o ip = y L = ^ r O O- u4 c Ct u-l > £< '1 * O O -.0-32 - -.0-.8- -,.0 -,W- *. tn (S fl u IT -5 a n JS o ^ V 2 O Id H Z o U, @ c o u 2 < P- QO IE V _i_eb 74 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING Corn Cbibs A corn crib should be constructed so as to allow the air to circulate freely through and one-half cubic feet should be allowed for a bushel of ear corn. Rat, mouse, and bird proof cribs are easily constructed. A concrete floor will practi- Roof covering may be V-crimped galvanized metal, shingles, or3-ply • prepared roofing. | li'*3'Hardmxd\ i Slats spaced '^ i-Z'-4 Ccncrei *\ m )j! H! B Hi ■ 1 l3.ffi%3— ^FIFl END ELEVATION SIDE ELEVATION. Fig. 125. — Double corn crib, stright sides, wood floor. SECT/ON CAPACITY Length BusheSs I0-O' I6--0* 20'- 0' ZS--0" ■4O0 ffOO I0OO Roof covering may be V-crimped galvanized metal, shingles, or 3 pit/ prepared roofing. !4'Cent SECTION END ELEVATION SECTION' r/«T SIDE ELEVATION SECTION Fig. 126. — Double corn crib, flaring sides, concrete floor. the grain. In regions where it is very moist, as in Ohio, cribs should not be built more than five feet in width. In dry localities they may be eight to ten feet wide. Two cally eliminate the two former pests. Tight construction about the eaves will prevent annoyance from the birds. One-fourth inch wire mesh screen placed under the floor FARM STRUCTURES 75 slats of wood floors, and between slats and studs on the walls, will effectually stop rodents and birds. Figs. 125 and 126 show suggested construc- tion for two types of double crib. In addi- tion to shelter and stability, the double crib M M ~E M M M TS~ -M-0-- -I5-0- ICE I rx4 > = HI \f30'\ — »] TORAGE SAW \DU5T BIN Open\ L/nderneafh m w I PLAN Sheet Me/a/, 3hingle, or Composition Roof. This space to be filled with cinders or gravel --*- SIDE ELEVATION SECTION A-A ings the use of the "limiting break" line is illustrated. Granaries The important consideration in the con- struction of granaries and bins for loose ROCHESTER MODEL ICE H0U5E- /5T0N5 CAPCY. BUREAU OF HEALTH ROCHESTER. NEW YORK. 1909. Ice lobe packed in solid mess with broken joints, at feast 12'of tightly rammed saw dust all around ice. 5ide boards of hemlock to he hid so the shrinkage will provide %'space between each board to insure .drying of outside layer ofsatr dust All air lo be excluded from underneath the ice. Tree circulation of air over ice. Drainage must he provided; but drain should he blinded with send and broken stone, gravel, or cinders. Thus warm air rvill not find .its way in along the drain and melt the ice. Do not build this house in a sheltered place . T/ie sun and Kind dry the outer layer of sair dust. Dry &wefusf is a food non-con- ductor. All sfudd/ng ?"' 4' hemlock. Corner posts 4'*4'. Siding l'*6"or l"*0' hemlock fence boards Foundation l-??:S Concrete. END ELEVATION MID-SECTION Fig. 127. has the advantage of providing space which may be utilized for winter storage of farm implements. One of the two examples is shown with concrete floor construction and the other with a wood floor. In these draw- grain is to be sure that the structure is designed with sufficient strength to prevent bulging of the sides and springing of the floors. In elevator and large bin construc- tion this becomes a real engineering problem, 76 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING but in any case the weight of the maximum grain contents should be figured and the structure designed to suit. The numerous recorded accidents from failure of elevated bin floors serve as warnings. Concrete, properly reinforced, is the ideal material for granaries. Concrete floors laid directly on earth should be well underdrained and damp-proofed. In any granary construction rat proofing is essential. Incidentally, rats and mice will not gnaw hemlock. The growing tendency to build com- munity elevators is lessening the number of farm granaries. Ice Houses Ice storage, formerly regarded as a luxury, is, for dairy farms at least, a necessity. The proper cooling of milk and the storage Hbferproof Paper. 'Inside inside (3) Ventilation of space above ice. The elaborate and expensive insulated walls, with many thicknesses of different materials, are being replaced by simpler con- struction, the limit of simplicity being reached in the Rochester ice house illustrated in Fig. 127, which is being built by many farmers, and shows remarkable results in efficiency. In it the entire insulation is the layer of saw dust, which, when the building is properly located in an exposed position, is kept dry by the free air circulation through the openings between the boards, and dry saw dust is one of the most effective insulat- ing materials known. The requirements for the successful construction and packing of this house are given on the drawing. In designing a building of specified ca- pacity, figure on the basis that a cubic foot y Inside Fig. 128. — Insulated walls for ice-house construction. of dairy products demands the use of ice in summer. The average dairy requires a storage of from one-half to one and one-half tons of ice per cow. The requirements for ice house construc- tion are simple but they must be carried out very carefully. (1) There must be ample drainage, and the drainage so arranged as to exclude air. (2) Careful insulation of walls. of ice weighs about fifty-seven pounds, or roughly one ton of ice will require forty cubic feet, including packing. Twelve inches should be allowed on top, bottom and sides for saw dust. Several approved types of insulated walls are shown in Fig. 128. Garages A simple problem in building construction may be made in the design of a garage. FARM STRUCTURES 77 78 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING It may be built of wood, brick, stucco or even galvanized iron. The size of machine or machines to be housed is of course the first consideration. Provision for a work bench or shelf, the method of gasoline storage, the desirability of a repair pit, convenience of entrance and exit, conformity of the ex- terior to the surrounding architecture, ma- terials for walls and roof, provision for water and drainage, best location for windows, and method of artificial lighting will all be decided in the preliminary study of the problem. Fig. 129 shows a garage for a small car, built of brick, with a hip roof. The symbol for brick in elevation to small scale is used on the drawing. Smoke Houses The smoke house, formerly found on every farm, is not so common a farm structure at the present day, but the problem of its design may be used, as many still prefer to smoke their own meats. It may be built of frame, brick, concrete, con- crete blocks, or hollow tile, although the frame smoke house has an undesirable fire risk. A small building, five feet square, has a capacity for eight hams. The meat should be hung at least five feet above the fire. For an average farm, a brick house 6' by 8', having a grate arranged for burning cobs or chips, and with vents near the roof, is a common type. A safeguard in the form of an arch or sheet of metal above the fire to prevent loss of meat from blazing fat or unexpected flares, is desirable. A suspended iron rack on which the meat is laid is an improvement over the usual sticks and strings. The alternative of sharp steel hooks for suspending the meat will eliminate the unsightly holes usually made when stringing hams. The moral effect of a good strong lock should not be overlooked. The Dairy House The dairy house is an adjunct to the dairy barn, and in its simplest form is used for the temporary storage of milk. It is sometimes built in combination with the ice house; but probably oftener the cooling of the milk depends upon a water supply from a spring or well, flowing con- stantly through a tank in which the milk cans are set. It must be of a type that will protect against heat, dust and flies, and necessarily of simple construction so that it may easily be kept clean and sanitary. Concrete or concrete blocks, hollow tile, and brick are particularly well adapted for dairy house construction, but the ice-house type of insulated frame wall is satisfactory. Concrete floors and tanks are sanitary, per- manent and easily constructed. A very common type for keeping the night milking until the following morning, is a house eight by ten feet inside, with a tank ex- tending across one side, opposite the door, and provided with a window, and a ventila- tor in the roof. A dairy house in which an aerator, cooler, separator, and churn are to be used, be- comes a problem in design, in the arranging of the equipment in the most convenient and economical form, and planning a build- ing to suit. The Silo Much has been written in recent years on the silo and its desirability, some has even been written against it, and the average farmer is well informed as to its advantages and limitations. Regarding the silo from the point of view of design and drawing it seems unnecessary to include the details of construction, either of the forms for building concrete silos, or the method of construction of wooden ones, as in the former case forms may be secured from those who make a specialty of building and rent- ing them, much more cheaply than they can FARM STRUCTURES 79 be made for use on one job, and stave, tile, and galvanized iron silos are purchased ready for erection. In connection with a barn problem our interest is in the required capacity, and our drawing simply circles of the required di- ameter on the plan, and the exterior outline on the elevation. Finish top to suit kJnd ofsj/o. 1:2:4 Concrete •H 7s RdRods 6"apart *o • • ' a.' Fig. 130. — Silo foundation of concrete. The thickness of the wall, as indicated on the plan, will depend upon the material and size. Concrete block and vitrified tile varies from 4 to 8 inches, monolithic con- crete 6 inches, stave silos 2 inches, lath and plaster, or Gurler type 6", and galvanized iron a single black line. Fig. 130 shows a section of concrete founda- tion adaptable for silos of any type. Silo tables of use in this connection are found on page 115. The Manure Pit The value of the covered manure pit for the preservation and conservation of stable manure is becoming more and more ap- preciated. Manure pits are simply large tanks or vats to which the manure is taken and stored until finally used on the fields. The pit should be built not less than 100 feet from the dairy stable, although most dairy requirements permit a minimum of fifty feet, and should be so arranged as to be easily accessible for wagon or spreader. It is desirable that it be roofed, and if pos- sible screened against flies. Fig. 132 shows a manure pit designed for twenty head of stock. The small appended table gives the size and capacity required for herds of various sizes. The Septic Tank The introduction of water supply, and laundry and bath conveniences in country homes has made the provision for suitable and sanitary means for taking care of house wastes and sewage, a necessity. The open cesspool is at best a temporary affair, un- satisfactory and dangerous to health. Scien- tific study of bacteria and bacterial action on sewage has resulted in the recommendation of the use of the septic tank, a simple under- ground receptacle with inlet and outlet, in which the sewage is purified by natural bacterial action. ^ Manhole Cover. C. I. Inlet P™*!^** DIMENSIONS OF TANK NO. OF PERSONS WIDTH INSIDE A B 6 4-0" 6-0" 3-6' 8 4-0" 6-6" 4- Of IZ 4-0" 7-0" 5-0" Fig. 131. — Double chambered septic tank. The type shown in Fig. 131 is known as the double chambered septic tank, and gives better results than the single tank. Pa- tented improvements are sometimes added. A table of sizes is appended. Fences, Paddocks, Pens and Gates The fence to be effective must be strong, durable, tight, and high enough for its pur- pose. When a fence is made of posts sup- porting wire, the corner posts must be set 80 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING * & § s S 8; % Si 5 1 ^J S 8 fs § 1 1 § 8 s? 8 S FARM STRUCTURES 81 deeply and be firmly anchored. All corners or ends must be thoroughly braced. The average wire fence is 48" high with posts 16 feet apart and in the ground from 18" to 3 feet, depending upon the nature of the soil. Corner and brace posts are set 4 feet deep. Paddocks are designed for close confine- ment of animals, and are usually constructed are common heights, and the sections may be of any length convenient for handling. Pens are used for smaller enclosures than paddocks, intended for a single animal or a few animals. The construction will vary according to the animals to be confined. Gates, as a rule should be made stronger than the fence of which they form a movable section, as they receive harder service than Fig. 133. — Some forms of gate construction. of boards or planks, nailed, screwed or bolted firmly to the posts. They are made from 5 to 8 feet in height. Wire paddocks are seldom used on account of liability of injury to the animals. Hurdles are simply movable or portable fence or gate sections constructed so as to stand alone. They are used for temporary confinement, or for aid while separating animals, and are a necessary part of the equipment of sheep barns. 36" and 42" the fence. A 12 foot opening will accom- modate most machinery, but 14 feet is better for the passage of large loads of hay. The height should conform to the fence. Gate posts should be large enough to bear the weight of the gate without allowing it to sag. There are numerous forms of gates as built on the farm, and many types for sale in the market. Fig. 133 illustrates in diagram the lines of several different designs that may be used. The bracing in 82 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING each case is designed to form a truss and prevent deformation. The Farm House In the design of the buildings previously- considered, the principles of planning and construction involved were based on the consideration of the uses and functions of each, and the securing of the maximum of convenience, economy of space and labor, and durability. In designing the farm resi- dence there must be added to these the items of beauty, and architectural correctness, with not only the general requirements of a farm house considered, but also the in- dividual requirements, wishes and taste of the particular family which is to occupy the one proposed. Thus this problem becomes the most interesting as well as the most complicated of all the structures about the farm. The house must be planned to fit both the surroundings and the family. The "lay" of the land, the direction to the road, the views toward the house and from the house, and the planting, all have a bearing on the shape and the architectural style to be de- termined upon. The house must look as if it belonged in its location, and should express in its appearance the individuality of the owner. To secure all this, the service of a compe- tent architect should be engaged, who will be able to work up the owner's ideas into a harmonious design, exterior and interior, and whose knowledge and advice on the technical points of construction will protect from mistakes. The architect is the owner's representative in dealing with the contractor. There is a temptation sometimes to accept a contractor's offer to furnish plans free, but the fee of a good architect is more than saved in his protection of the owner, to say nothing of the satisfaction of having a pleasing house. A greater mistake is to buy a set of ready- made plans made with no reference as to where the house is to be placed or who is to occupy it. Our discussion of the farm house is in- tended to assist the prospective owner in setting down his ideas, so as to present work- able sketch plans to the architect, as a basis for the final plans and specifications. Planning is simply a process of reasoning, and the thought of the needs of the family, collectively and individually, gives the reason for everything put in the plan; and success in it depends upon one's knowledge of these needs and the ability to correlate arid adapt them into a well-balanced design. Where interests conflict, the advantages and disadvantages are weighed, and sometimes a desired feature must be omitted, because of inability to adapt it. The first floor plan is the first to be made. A list of the rooms desired is written, and preliminary freehand sketches tried until an apparently satisfactory arrangement is obtained. This is worked up in a 1/8" scale drawing. These are usually made on tracing paper. Part or all of the following rooms may be included in the first floor: 1. Kitchen (and pantry). 2. Dining room. 3. Living room. 4. Wash room. 5. Den, office or bed room. 6. Stair hall. 7. Screened work porch. 8. Living porch. The kitchen is in many respects the most important room in the house, and much thought should be given to its arrangement. The reasoning mentioned should be applied, in making a list of the stores and supplies and planning the most convenient place for each, and in locating the table, range, cupboards, pantry, and sink, with thought of the purpose of each, mentally answering the question, "why is this the best place, will any steps be. saved?" Women walk FARM STRUCTURES 83 FIRST' FLOOR-PLAN - scale: «/ s ' = ift- Fig. 134. — First floor plan of farm house. 84 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING miles of useless steps because the men who planned their kitchens did not think! The kitchen should have cross-ventilation, be well lighted and sanitary, not too large, and should open to a rear porch. The kitchen score card given on page 117 has been used in checking the desirable points in existing kitchens, on a scale of 100. In nearly all city and suburban houses, the kitchen is connected to the dining room through a serving pantry, which provides an air lock, keeping out odors and heat, but many in building farm houses prefer a direct double swinging door. The dining room should preferably face east, should be light and cheerful, and rectangular rather than square in shape. The size can be figured accurately from the number to be accommodated, by knowing the size of a dining table and the space needed for each person. Group windows are more effective and pleasing than single windows. The living room is the largest room in the house. It should have a south and west exposure, be convenient of access, have quiet continuous lines, and if possible a fire-place. The sentiment of the home centers about the fire-place. The wash room is an important considera- tion that should not be omitted. It should open to the rear, and have ample lavatory facilities for men's convenience in coming from the field. Provision for plenty of coat hooks should not be forgotten. A first floor bed room is often desired, sometimes for continuous use and sometimes for emergency use in case of illness. In the latter case a room may be designed as an office or den, and used as an emergency bed room. It should be somewhat isolated in location, and if planned for an office should be easily accessible from the outside. The amount of space given to stairs and stair hall depends upon the economy necessary. In large houses the main stair- way is made a feature of the house, and rear stairs are always provided as well. In small houses one stairway may serve all purposes. Stairs should never be less than 3 feet wide. In planning the stairway the number of risers should be figured, and the rule may be used that the sum of the rise and tread should be 17^ inches. Thus if the rise is 7% inches the tread would be 10 inches, and on the plan the lines representing the risers would be drawn 10 inches apart. The entire run is never shown on one plan, but is broken to show what is under. Good comfortable porches should be re- garded as a necessity in farm house planning. A working porch off the kitchen should be screened, and a screened living porch, conveniently arranged for summer dining is a desirable consideration. In a large house other rooms, such as a library, music room, reception room, helps' dining and sitting rooms, etc., may be added, according to the owners' desires and financial ability. It will be noticed that the isolated and generally unused "parlor" has been omitted from the list of first floor rooms. The second floor should contain 1. Hall, on which all rooms should open. 2. Sleeping rooms, with ample closet space in each. 3. Bath. 4. Linen closet. 5. Rooms for help. 6. Sewing room. 7. Sleeping porch. In planning the second floor it is not nec- essary that all walls run through from the first floor partitions. The outside walls, stair well and chimneys are traced from the first floor, and the space cut up to the best advantage. No room should be made to serve as a passageway to another room. Bed rooms should have at least two win- dows, with cross-ventilation if possible. The first consideration in a bed room is a well- FARM STRUCTURES 85 •SECOND -FLOOR- PLAN- -SCALE: Vg"-IFT- Fig. 135. — Second floor plan of farm house. AGRICULTURAL DRAWING planned space for the bed, the second is ample closet room. External angles should be avoided, that is, closets should not break into the rectangle of the room, nor should they be cut off across corners. The bath room should be located so as to make the plumbing simple and economical.. It need not be larger than 6' X 9'. All the fixtures should be drawn, to show their location. For a farm where much help is employed it is very desirable to have more than one bath room. A large linen closet opening to the hall is very desirable. A clothes chute to the laundry may be provided. Rooms for help are best arranged to be reached from a rear stairway and isolated from the rest of the second floor. A small sewing room is a convenient addi- tion. A sleeping porch is becoming a popular addition to every house plan. It should be tightly screened, and canvas curtains pro- vided for inclement weather. These may be fastened with carriage buttons, or mounted on rollers. The porch may open from the upstairs hall, or a private sleeping porch may open to a bed room or dressing room. Attic stairs should always start from the hall, and not from any room. Generally on house plans the attic plan and roof plan are combined in one figure. The basement should extend under the entire house, with concrete floor and drains. It should have an outside grade entrance as well as the inside cellar stairs. If a furnace is used, the furnace and fuel room should be separate from the storage room. A basement laundry and drying room, with water and flue connections should be ar- ranged. A clothes chute opening into the laundry is a convenience. Modern farm houses often have the lighting and water supply systems in the basement. The probable cost of a proposed house may be estimated roughly by cubing it, as ex- plained under "estimating" on page 118. If after drawing the preliminary sketch plans the estimate runs higher than the owner wishes to go, the process of "cutting" must be resorted to, by simplifying construc- tion, changing materials, cutting down sizes of rooms, or omitting some. The mistake should not be made of having many small rooms. It is better to have fewer and larger ones. Radical cutting may mean the entire revision or discarding of the first plan. Figs. 134, 135 and 136 show the basement, first floor and second floor plans of a farm house, embodying some desirable features. These plans illustrate the use of the symbols and the appearance of the usual set of plans. Problems. The following problems are to have com- plete working plans drawn, with dimensions, title and bills of material. The sizes of buildings are not given, but are to be deter- mined from the requirements stated, figuring the space required for animals and storage and planning its practical and economical distribution. Some of the problems are suggestive rather than definite, and the data is to be assumed by the student, or assigned by the instructor. Before starting a problem read the discus- sion carefully, look up other reference read- ing, and supplement the information found from your own practical knowledge and experience. PROBLEMS. 1. Design and make working drawings for the forms of a concrete watering trough to hold ten barrels of water when filled within two inches of the top. Provide concrete paving six feet wide on three sides of the tank. Select suitable scale and follow directions for working given on page 38. 2. Draw an "A" type of hog cot, with 6'-0" X 8'-0" floor. Make end view first and project side view from it. If necessary, use an auxiliary pro- jection. 3. Design a machine shed for the following imple- ments: Two wagons, one grain binder, one corn binder, one grain drill, one mower, one side delivery hay rake, one hay tedder, one common rake, one hay loader, one disc harrow, two peg tooth harrows, one gang plow, one sulky plow, one ensilage cutter, FARM STRUCTURES 87 BASEMENT* PLAN- - SCALE : V&'= 1 FT - Fig. 136. — Basement plan of farm house. 88 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING PORCH /0\37' U.S. Gorr. Tet/ANT House "^ 5= PORCH 8'"40' PO/SCH D Fig. 137. — Sketch plans of farm houses. FARM STRUCTURES two 2-row cultivators, one single row sulky culti- vator, one walking plow, one small cultivator, one 2-row corn planter, one manure spreader, one spring wagon, and miscellaneous small tools. Add twelve feet for a tool repair room. 4. Design a machine shed for the implements in use on your farm. 5. Design a laying house for 50 hens. 6. Design a poultry house for 200 birds. This may be divided into two compartments. 7. Design a sheep shed for 200 breeding ewes. (There will be 50% more lambs than ewes in the average flock.) 8. Design a colony type house for ten brood sows. In the plan show runs and dipping vat. Provide feed room, and bedding storage. 9. Design a colony type house for twenty brood sows. Provide central storage and feed house. 10. Design a single corn crib, 500 bushels capacity. 11. Design a double corn crib, 1200 bushels capacity. 12. Design a dairy barn for 12 cows, making provision for box stalls and calf pens. Feed room to be separated from, but accessible to dairy stable. 13. Design a dairy barn for 30 cows. Compute sizes and add silos, hay storage and grain bins. To the barn attach a straw shed, the first floor of which is a covered yard, the shed capacity to be two tons of straw per animal. The shed may be arranged either to form an ell, or may be parallel to the main structure. 14. A farmer has 8 milch cows, 8 work horses, and is feeding 25 steers. Design a general purpose barn to house this stock and provide necessary feed. Allow 25 sq. ft. of floor space for each steer. (Try L or T shape in preliminary sketches.) 15. Design a rectangular general purpose barn for 6 regular horse- stalls, four box stalls for brood mares, and a dairy stable for 16 cows. The dairy stable must conform to the score card on page 116. It is suggested that this be made a bank barn, with a bridge leading to the approach, so that there may be no interference with light on the bank side. 16. Design a manure pit for the barn of Problem 13. 17. Design a manure pit for the barn of Problem 15. 18. Design a garage for a machine. 19. Design a combination garage and carriage house, using stucco on 8" hollow tile walls. 20. Design an ice house for 10 tons of ice. 21. Design an ice house for a dairy farm having 24 cows, and a dairy house provided with cold storage room and cooler. 22. Design a brick smoke house. 23. Design a septic tank for a family of 6 persons. 24. Design a root cellar of 600 bushels capacity, built four feet below ground; the top a concrete or brick arch, to allow of covering with earth. The concrete arch should be at least 6" thick and strongly reinforced, with a span of not over 8 feet. Have the entrance on south end. 25. Design a storage barn for 75 tons of hay. 26. Design a dairy house, made of concrete blocks 8" X 8" X 16", figuring sizes and spacing of openings to fit these blocks. Provide a tank 18" deep and not less than 17" wide. Show piping for continuous flow of water. (If tank and floor are elevated above grade it will save labor in handling cans.) 27. Design a water storage tank with a capacity of 50 barrels, having a base 6 feet square, or 6 feet in diameter, inside. The tank should have a floor Fig. 138. — A real example of poor planning. 8" thick, reinforced in both directions with %" rods spaced 6" apart, and bent to extend up into the walls 2'-6". The walls should taper (on the inside) from 10" thick at the base to 5" at the top, and a footing must be provided. The walls should be reinforced with %" vertical rods spaced 16" apart, and %" horizontal rods spaced 6" apart for first 30", 8" apart for next 30", and above this %" rods spaced 7" apart. If square or rectangular tank is made the horizontal rods should be bent so as to turn corners. 28. Design a granary to hold 1200 bushels of wheat and 600 bushels of oats. 29. Make a sketch and bill of material for a paddock for horses, to enclose one acre. Have it 6 feet high, using 2" X 6" X 16' plank, bolted to posts 8 feet from center to center; and provide suitable gate. 30. Design a farm house, selecting the scheme from one of the sketches of Fig. 137. 31. Design a tenant house, containing a kitchen, combined dining and living room, and two bed rooms. 32. Remodel the house shown in Fig. 138, to make it more convenient and comfortable. (This figure was taken from an actual house!) CHAPTER V MAPS AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING An important consideration in both the ownership and management of a farm is to have accurate maps and plats, in ownership so that there may be no question nor dispute regarding lines or boundaries, and in manage- ment, in order to plan work, and keep a record of crop production, soil fertility, rota- tion of crops, etc. A farm map gives at once a comprehensive idea of the entire farm and the relative areas, sizes and locations of the parts composing it; and imparts to the owner or manager, and incidentally to the interested visitor, a better conception or mental picture of these relations than can be gained without it. It gives a kind of birdseye view which is of great assistance to him in planning his work, in showing the most desirable locations for roads and lanes, for division of fields, and for the addition of improvements. This chapter takes up briefly the methods and application of this branch of the lan- guage of drawing. Instruments. A surveyor uses a transit for turning off angles and for obtaining magnetic bearings or directions of lines. It is an expensive instrument and, while desirable, is not a necessary investment on the farm; but a small farm level (prices of which range from ten to forty dollars) will be of constant value on every farm, for laying out drains, leveling building foundations, determining fall of streams for water power, and laying out road and fence lines. If provided with a horizontal circle, as many are, it will be found very valuable in laying out fields. For rough determination of levels for grading or ditching, a hand level may be used. An "A" frame for this purpose is illustrated in Fig. 172. Land measurements were formerly given in rods, and measurements made with a "Gunter's chain" of 4 rods (66 feet), divided Fig. 139. — Engineers' scale and protractor. into 100 "links" of 7.92 inches. Lengths are now given in feet and tenths of feet. For general use on the farm a 100 ft. steel tape, graduated in feet and inches will be of constant service in laying out and measuring fields, buildings and boundaries; and for the few times when tenths of feet are needed they may be calculated from inches. A farm office should have on hand a protractor for laying off angles on the map, and a 12 inch engineer's scale, divided into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 parts to the inch. With it a map may be made to any desired 90 MAPS AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 91 scale, or number of feet to the inch; or if the old-style measurements are preferred, may be made to such a scale as 10 chains to the inch. The protractor and engineer's scale are illustrated in Fig. 139. A map is virtually a top view of the area represented, showing the natural features and the works of man, and the imaginary lines representing divisions of authority or ownership. The relief, or relative elevations and depressions of the surface of the ground, is sometimes added, to give the complete description of an area, in which case the map is called a contour map. The scale of a map varies of course with the extent of territory to be shown on a sheet of given size, but in any map the scale is relatively so small that objects are shown symbolically. The map of an ordinary farm may be drawn from 40 feet to 100 feet to the inch. Plats. A map plotted from a plane survey, and having the relief omitted, is called a "plat" or "land map." Under this head would come the plat of a farm survey, made from the surveyor's record, or from the description in the deed to the property. A Farm Survey. The plat of a farm survey should give clearly all the information necessary for the legal description of the parcel of land. It should contain: (1) Lengths and bearings of the several sides. (2) Acreage. (3) Location and description of monu- ments found and set. (4) Location of highways, streams, etc. (5) Official division lines within the tract. (6) Names of owners of abutting property. (7) Title and north point. (8) Certification. Under these heads, (1) a survey to be legal must be made in " metes and bounds." The bearing of a line is its deviation from north and south. Thus a line N. 15° W. would be a line deflecting at an angle of 15 degrees to the west of the north and south line. (2) The acreage of a farm or field is calculated by well-known methods. (3) Monuments are markers set in the ground, or sometimes on the older surveys, blazed on a tree. The importance of good monuments should be emphasized, and wooden stakes should be avoided. An iron pin or pipe is sometimes used. A better marker is a gas pipe stake set in concrete in a land tile. When it is necessary to move and put back a monu- ment, as for example in road improvements, witness stakes should be set first, with which the monument may be aligned. (4) High- ways and streams should be indicated by the symbols of Fig. 142. Waterlining if at- tempted, should be done carefully. If a boundary runs up the middle of a stream on a farm survey, it is best to omit the water- lining. (5) Official division fines would mean township and range fines, or other legal divisions. (6) Adding the names of the owners of abutting property aids in fixing the location of the land in relation to adjacent property holders. (7) The title to a map is a concise formal statement of general information, giving name of owner, location, purpose of the map, when made and by whom, scale, date, and key to symbols. The North Point serves to orient the map, and a note should state whether the true or magnetic meridian is referred to. (8) A survey to be legal must be made by a sur- veyor, and be certified as correct by the County Surveyor's office. The owner should familiarize himself with the State laws of his state. Fig. 140 is an example of a farm plat. A Farm Office Map. In addition to the items of tne farm survey, a map for office use should contain — (1) Location of buildings. 92 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING (2) Location of all drains and underground pipes. (3) Division lines of all fields, fenced or unfenced. This map, with the fields numbered and recorded in a farm book will be a valuable aid in recording crop rotation, production, state of fertility, soil tests, dates of improve- /. / The fear/hps are ca/cis/aSeo' fiv/77 .- //vecear//7^s are ccr/ct//c//&c/ r/vm # / 'hereby cerf/fy the above p/e>t to be correct PLAT TH£J. C.WARD FARM tor 6 TKACT/2 S.I.OT-* TRACTS MAD/SO W TWP. ^^S__ LAKE CO. scAie /•-zoo JVA/£S,/9I5 3.3/ p 29 crtK Co. Sun Fig. 140. — Farm plat from plane survey. (4) Numbers on all fields. (5) All lanes and drives. ments, etc. It will also serve in directing farm labor, and planning work ahead, such MAPS AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 93 -X K X r-5C X X- ir-X X X- v— v -K X X M- -I " X X K- X . K \ \ \ \ i\ \ \ \ \* \ \ \ \ \ \ b \ v *S£ *AOC — V — *■ X X W X M X- 5: I I ' A ,<\^ k ' / A ^ ■X 9f <-* H i' x- nh3 ^-T <* K K K- ~5&&T~V^T 1~ 5 si S © S 3 \ N \ V \ \ \ S ,> \ \ *\ \-\\ \ ♦AN \ N \ \ V." I I-' I /I / i ; .- / i / / - f ^ t f f f f I f 1 t * * f t f Willows o a o o 13 © w O O <3 © 13 S «} G s u a o & o a r « o «5 o o> o a e £ c * * ^ ¥ f oooaooco Orchard a * ■*■ Q ' * » t - O €? .v.. t <3 -^ Pine t Willow t & Brush \ \ \ \y\\\ I 4HHJH f Corn VEGETATION Oak Trees ^ ... Evergreen Trees -afiU. -' fe ..(.. a^ f* x. **. A:* Cleared Land >j^ -o<- -j*. ^ -j- -^ >i^ il« ^1 .fc. -^t- ^v^ -,(« njrt 4. -\U iU ->l, * -J- ^- 'Jf* «|r> r^r\ olrt fll« ^vlr» ntl »>F|* "Jrt *sl»\ «1^ ol^ olrt /^J/- Air , r^ "*- »J^ ^ rl^ f^ *^ ^ **y ->tN 'Xr r** /^- nt- nt* i- Tobacco |:!:iE:-:^i»i«ft. S^x.r:-.- | :,vr..'i:ri.M:i:,:i:['.i i±.'i--Jri..-iV.,:i:.:,ni:li'i:i|.i:i.| Cultivated Land ntiiH Mini i if ii ii II M I I f M M I Vineyard Fig. 142. — Topographic symbols. MAPS AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 95 as fence repairs, plowing, etc. Some use such a map, mounted on soft pine, or cork board, by using pins with variously colored heads in locating and recording operations. Sometimes the contour lines are drawn on the farm map to aid still further in its use, particularly in planning drainage. If the map is made on tracing cloth, blue prints or blue line prints may be made, and the original tracing kept up to date in regard to permanent improvements, while the lines, the positions of natural land and water features, and the " culture" (as topographers call the works of man), but also the relative elevations and depressions, or the slopes of the hills and valleys. The different kinds of planting and vegetation are indicated by symbols, and the relief is generally shown by contour lines. Fig. 142 is a page of standard symbols used in topographic drawing. They should be made with a fine pen and not overworked. 62°50' Fig. 143. — Contour map. prints are used to work from, and filed from year to year. In extensive operating a print may be given to each tenant. Fig. 141 shows a farm map for office use. Topographical Drawing. A topographic map is a more nearly com- plete description than a land map, in that it gives not " only the imaginary division Contours. A contour is a line on the surface of the ground which at every point passes through the same elevation, that is, the same "level." Thus the shore line of a body of still water represents a contour. If a portion of a farm should be flooded, the edge of the water would be one possible contour. If the water went down one foot in depth, the new shore 96 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING line would form a new contour, with a con- tour interval of one foot. Fig. 143 illustrates a contour map, in which the contour intervals are ten feet for the light lines and fifty feet for the heavier lines. Contour lines are also shown in Fig. 5, page 4. Quadrangle Sheets. The U. S. Government, in cooperation with the different states, and under the direc- tion of the Geological Survey, is mapping each state, in sections called quadrangles, on separate sheets of about 16" X 20", and mostly to the scale of approximately one inch to the mile. These maps show all features in inclined letters. For plats, the letters of Fig. 42 are well adapted. Notes on contour and profile maps are generally made in Reinhardt letters; Fig. 46. On landscape maps the Roman of Fig. 47 may be used. Profiles. If a vertical section is taken along the line ABCD of Fig. 143 the view is termed a pro- file, as shown in Fig. 144. Here it is seen that the vertical distances are exaggerated, or plotted to a larger scale in order to show the grades to better advantage. Profiles are usually made on ruled profile paper, that known as "Plate A" paper, with 4 Fig. 144. — Profile from contour map. roads, houses and other topography, together with the contours, and give the elevations of all cross roads, in feet above mean sea level. They are distributed at the nominal cost. of ten cents each, and will be found of much value and interest to any land owner. To find if a particular section has been com- pleted, write to the Director, U. S. Geolog- ical Survey, Washington, D. C. Landscape Maps are used in the study of improvements for estates, country places, parks and additions, and for showing the artistic effect to be gained in the arrangement and planting. Some degree of embellish- ment is permissible, and color is sometimes used on them. Fig. 145 illustrates a land- scape map of an addition. The lettering done on maps should be simple and legible. Land features are usually indicated in vertical letters and water horizontal divisions and 20 vertical divi- sions to the inch, being generally used. They are of value in grading drains and highways. The gradient, or grade of a line is the per- centage of its vertical rise or fall, thus a road of 7 per cent, grade would rise seven feet in a distance of 100 feet, and a drain with —0.5 per cent, grade would have a fall of 6 inches in 100 feet. Tile drains should not have less than —0.1% grade. Open ditches vary from 2 to 8 feet fall per mile. Problems. The following problems illustrate the type that may arise in connection with this branch of drawing, and will serve as sugges- tions for the student or farm owner; and will give a familiarity with the symbols, and the method of using maps. MAPS AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 97 CLEVELAND OHIO MAPLE HEIGHTS ADDITION THE FOREST CITY LAND CO Fig. 145. — Landscape map. 35 Survey of Truck Farm of A.G.Harter Oswego, Ohio. PT Bailey, Surveyor J.H.Pugh.Chain Tap?e 24 Compass 17 36 51a. Bearing Distance July 26. 1915 Fa/r N7Z18E- 760.32 iron Pin inConcrek Monument cor. A. Harfer, J.Brown, A -Lloyd. N7Z"B8'E 1149. 72 Iron pipe driven in ground. 5 7°26E 1834.20 Stone rr, onumenl £ of Highway 5 79"Z8'W 1074.48 Iron pi g t of H : ghway N34°00'W I80S. 76 Large < vrk tree i>/a zed. 5pike driven in b/aze. 6Z££r s xZg ,4&t?4f a£ ^** ~wz: Fig. 146. — Page from field book. 98 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING MAPS AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 99 PROBLEMS. 1. From the note book page shown in Fig. 146, plat the farm, recording all data as outlined on page 91. 2. Draw a map of your home farm, from deeds, or measurements, showing location of all buildings, and natural and cultural features. 3. Redesign the above, to secure if possible, better and more economical arrangement of plant. 4. From the contour map shown in Fig. 5, page 4, locate the best place for a drain or drains. Draw the map, locating each stretch, and indicate the grade of each. To obtain the grade, draw on Plate A profile paper, a profile of the chosen location. On profile show gradient and depth of ditch at each 50 feet of length. Locate these 50 ft. points or "hubs" on the location map. 5. Locate on the contour map, Fig. 147, a farm- stead, bearing in mind drainage, proximity to highway, accessibility to fields, and a prevailing westerly wind. 6. It is proposed to build a 40 ft. road from P to Q, Fig. 147. Choose a location bearing in mirid grades, natural obstacles, divisions of ownership etc., and draw a strip map 300 feet wide showing the proposed road. Draw a profile, showing all drains, bridges, culverts, etc. 7. Draw a farm map for office use, of Fig. 147, showing all the items referred to under this head. The western half of this farm needs drainage. 8. On Fig. 147 locate a dam at an advantageous position. Plot the impounding reservoir. 9. Enlarge a portion of Fig. 141, and make a finished drawing, showing planting of different fields by symbols. 10. Enlarge the farmstead of Fig. 5 to the scale of 20 ft. = 1 inch, and draw a landscape map, with proposed planting, walks and drives. CHAPTER VI PICTORIAL DRAWING In Chapter I a general division was made between pictorial drawings and working drawings. Perspective drawing was denned, and reference was made to the simpler pictorial methods of isometric and oblique drawing, which are designed to combine the advantages of both orthographic and per- spective. Although they have disadvan- tages and limitations, familiarity with these two methods is very desirable, as they are often used both to illustrate some object or detail more clearly and to make working sketches and drawings. Working drawings, as we have seen, are generally made in ortho- graphic projection, but often a working drawing of simple construction may be drawn to better advantage in isometric or oblique. Although theoretically these two systems are somewhat different, the method of con- struction is very much the same for both. In orthographic projection we had vir- tually a separate view for each face of a rectangular object. In these pictorial repre- sentations the object is so placed that three faces of it are visible on one view. To avoid confusion each system will be explained separately, and the student should be careful not to confuse the two methods in the same drawing. Isometric Drawing. Isometric drawing is based on a skeleton of three lines at 120 degrees apart, called the isometric axes. One is drawn vertically, the others with the 30° triangle, as shown in Fig. 148(A). When it is desired to show the under side of an object the axes are reversed, as at (B). The intersection of these three lines would be the front corner of a rectangu- lar object. If the length, breadth and thick- Pig. 148. — Isometric axes. Pig. 149. ness of the object be laid off on the three axes, the figure may be completed by drawing through these points, lines parallel to the axes, Fig. 149. A line parallel to an isometric axis is 100 PICTORIAL DRAWING 101 called an isometric line. A line which is not parallel to an isometric axis is called a non-isometric line. The one important rule is measurements can be made only on isometric lines. Thus all the lines of an object which has square corners can be object composed entirely of isometric lines, and illustrates the method of making meas- urements on the original isometric axes and on lines parallel to them. To draw an object which has non-isometric lines in it, a skeleton of isometric construc- Fig. 150. — Object with isometric lines Fig. 151. — Object with non-isometric lines. measured directly. Non-isometric lines can not be measured. For example, the diag- onals of the rectangle on Fig. 149 are of equal length on the object but evidently of very unequal length on the isometric drawing. Fig. 150 is the isometric drawing of an tion lines must be built up, upon which measurements can be made. Often it is necessary to draw one or more orthographic views first and box them with rectangular construction lines, which can be drawn iso- metrically and measurements upon them 102 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING made and transferred. Fig. 151 illustrates this construction. To draw intelligently in isometric it is only necessary to remember the direction of the three principal isometric planes, repre- sented by the three visible faces of a cube or Fig. 152. B -Approximate isometric circle. rectangular figure. Hidden lines are always omitted except when necessary for the de- scription of the piece. A circle on any isometric plane will be projected as an ellipse, and the isometric square circumscribing the circle must always Fig. 153. be drawn first. The usual construction is to make a four centered circle-arc approxima- tion, finding the centers for the arcs by draw- ing 60 degree lines from the corners A and B to the middle of the opposite sides, giving centers A, B, C, and D for the ellipse, as shown in Fig. 152. Thus to get the isometric of any circle-arc the isometric square of its diameter should be drawn in the plane of the face with as much of this construction as is necessary to find centers for the part of the circle needed. Fig. 153 illustrates this construction on the isometric of a shelf, which has been drawn with reversed axes to show the under side. Fig. 154. — An isometric section. Isometric sections as illustrated in Fig. 154 may sometimes be used to good advan- tage, the cut faces always being taken in isometric planes. Oblique Drawing. Oblique drawing is similar to isometric in having three axes representing three mutu- ally perpendicular lines upon which meas- urements can be made. It differs in that two of the axes are always at right angles to each other, while the third, or cross axis may be at any angle, Fig. 155, though 30 degrees is generally used. Thus, the face drawn on the plane of the two axes at right angles will appear without distortion, a circle on it for example showing its true shape. This gives oblique drawing a distinct advantage over isometric for the represen- tation of objects with curved or irregular outlines, and the first rule would be, place PICTORIAL DRAWING 103 the object with the irregular outline or con- the apparent distortion, which is noticeable tour on the front plane. Fig. 156. both in oblique and isometric drawings, If there is no irregular outline the second objects in oblique drawing always appearing Fig. 155. — Oblique axes illustrated. s/or THUS Fig. 156.— Illustration of first rule. 5 v. — 5 5> THUS NOT THUS Fig. 157. — Illustration of second rule. T^=^ NOT THUS rule should be followed-always place the to be too wide or thick. Other rules for object with the longest dimension parallel drawing in oblique are similar to those tor to the front, Fig. 157. This is on account of isometric. 104 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING Cabinet Drawing. Cabinet drawing is a modification of oblique drawing in which all of the measure- ments parallel to the cross axis are reduced one-half, in an attempt to overcome the appearance of excessive thickness. Fig. 158 illustrates the comparative appearance of a figure drawn in isometric, oblique and cabi- net drawing. The numerous examples of pictorial draw- ing used in illustration and explanation throughout this book will serve to suggest various practical applications of the subject that may be made after the student has acquired a facility in its use. Keep dimension and extension lines in the plane of the face. Do not confuse the drawing with dotted lines. Problems. The following problems are intended to serve two purposes: 1st, for practice in isometric and oblique drawing. 2nd, for practice in reading orthographic projection. In reading a drawing remember that a line on any view always means a corner or edge and that one must always look at the other Fig. 158. — Isometric, oblique, and cabinet drawing compared. Sketching. One of the valuable uses of isometric and oblique is in making freehand sketches, either dimensioned to form working sketches, or for illustrating some object or detail of construction. The following points should be observed. Keep the axes flat. The beginner's mis- take is in spoiling the appearance of his sketch by getting the axes too steep. Keep parallel lines parallel. Always block in squares before sketching circles. In isometric drawing remember that a circle on the top face will be an ellipse with its axis horizontal. view to find out what kind of a corner it is. Do not try, nor expect to be able, to read a whole drawing at one glance. The sketches are dimensioned, and it is expected that some will be made as finished drawings, with instruments, while others may be taken as reading problems to be sketched freehand. This translation from orthographic to pictorial form is, it will be noticed, just the reverse of what was done in our preliminary study of working draw- ings, when, in Figs. 19, 20 and 21 we made orthographic projections from the pictures. To the dimensions and scales given, a 12" X 18" sheet will contain any four of the first sixteen problems, thus a sheet may be PICTORIAL DRAWING 105 Fig. 160. — Work bench drawer. / § HOLE -4 i 1 1 ^ U-2- ~ i re it *- , I 1 v > ^ ^^"^^ _ 1 in, L_ t • Fig. 162. — Corner plate. ■< ;?*-— 1 f X 1 ■ i j ^ ^ 1 1 1 . r » ,. «> Fig. 163.— Washer. 5*/? Fig. 164. — Countersunk washer. 4 , A3' ■ 1 — ■— -.. ^ 1 i **; /oi - *1II& 1 Fig. 161.— Button. Fig. 165.— Shelf. 106 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING Fig. 166. — Corner bracket. IWITEfflAL WROUGHT IfJOM OK M/ICH/N£Fl>r STEEL, Fig. 168. — Bolster stake iron. Fig. 169. — Adjustable spacing block. MATERIAL LENGTH TO SL/JT SPACE Fig. 167. — Section of barn door track. Fig. 170.— Bench. PICTORIAL DRAWING 107 M L__ Fig. 171. — Two forms of saw horse. made up of Nos. 1, 3, 5 and 7, or an alternate pictorial problems such as 24 and 25, may be of 2, 4, 6 and 8. Selections from problems made from the problems at the end of r ' ■— ~" ■ ■■ Chapter III, selecting scale to fit the space allowed. PROBLEMS. 1. Isometric drawing of angle stop, Fig. 159. Full size. 2. Isometric drawing of drawer, Fig. 160. Scale IK" = l'. 3. Isometric drawing of button, Fig. 161. Full size. 4. Isometric drawing of corner plate, Fig. 162. Full size. 5. Isometric section of washer, Fig. 163. Full size. „ 7 _„ „ , „ f 6. Isometric section of washer, Fig. 164. Full size. 7. Isometric drawing of shelf, Fig. 165. Scale in x r.r> i i i , i i i 6" = 1'. Use reversed axes so as to show under 17 to 22 may be placed two on a sheet, and . , 23 should preferably be made large enough 8 i sometr i c drawing of corner bracket, Fig. 166. to occupy a sheet alone. Numerous other Scale 3" = 1'. Use reversed axes. Fig. 173.— Sheep hurdle. 108 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING 9. Oblique drawing of section of bird-proof track for rolling door. Fig. 167. Full size. Have break line follow form of section. 10. Oblique drawing of bolster stake iron, Fig. 168. Scale 6" = 1'. c — 9£ ^ "T "! Il 1 II 1 — II 1 1 1 I 1 1 J ■/O ■ g M/tTERIAL Fig. 174. — Bird house, L£H&TH TOSl/lT \-IS~^ H ^3 ■ Fig. 175. — Book rack. 13. Isometric drawing of horse, Fig. 171. Scale 1" = 1'. Notice construction for non-isometric lines. 14. Isometric drawing of horse, alternate form B of Fig. 171. Scale 1" = 1'. 15. Oblique drawing of land level frame, Fig. 172. Scale H" = V. 16. Oblique (or isometric) drawing of sheep hurdle, Fig. 173. Scale y 2 " = V. 17. Oblique (or isometric) drawing of bird house, Fig. 174. Scale 6" = 1'. 18. Oblique (or isometric) drawing of book rack. Fig. 175. Scale 6" = 1'. 19. Oblique (or cabinet) drawing of wheel, Fig. 176. Scale 3" = 1'. 20. Isometric (or oblique) drawing of angle brace, Fig. 177. Full size. 21. Isometric (oblique or cabinet) drawing of kitchen step ladder, Fig. 178. Scale 3" = 1'. 22. Isometric (or oblique) drawing of stone rake, Fig. 179. Scale %," = 1'. 23. Oblique (isometric or cabinet) drawing of two-till tool chest, Fig. 180. Scale 3" = 1'. Draw with lid open, or break out a section, in order to show interior. 24. Isometric or oblique drawing of milking stool, Fig. 75. 25. Isometric or oblique drawing of gang mold, Fig. 77. 11. Oblique (or isometric) drawing of spreader m , ,. , ,-,. 101 , , , , , for concrete forms. Fig. 169. Scale 3" = 1'. , The ° b J ects of Fl S" 181 are to be sketched 12. Oblique (or isometric) drawing of bench, Fig. freehand in the most suitable pictorial 170. Scale 1^" = l'. system. Fig. 176. — Wooden wheelbarrow wheel. PICTORIAL DRAWING 109 Fig. 177. — Angle brace. Fig. 178. — Kitchen step-ladder. 110 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING £-j?*6*0oits with washers £-g*6 Bo/ts with washers Fig. 179. — Stone rake. ■.*1jgV?__,, =£= -■mi- U£ -*?ss»j>j9. SAW /fACK W/»/SS//S///////SSS/S>/S77J& 15 T/LLS TO BE MADE OF J JHATE/tlAt. Fig. 180.— Tool chest. PICTORIAL DRAWING 111 ©a-iiui'"!^ C£i 1 J — 1 y c n ^ Fig. 181. — Reading problems. CHAPTER VII CONSTRUCTION DATA In designing structures, and preparing working drawings and specifications, the designer needs certain information as to materials and commercial practice. A number of tables, and items of miscellaneous information are assembled in this chapter, for ready reference; and as suggestions in their use a few problems are appended. Stock and Commercial Sizes. For economy, and avoidance of trouble in procuring, stock sizes of materials should be used as far as possible. As these com- mercial sizes and standards vary somewhat in different parts of the country, one should be sure that grades and sizes of any mate- rials specified are locally recognized, and obtainable. Lumber. Lumber comes in standard lengths of 10-0", 12'-0", 14'-0", etc., up to 24'-0". ' Over 24-0" and under lO'-O" is special. In width and thickness the following nominal sizes are obtainable. Thickness Width 1" 4", 6", 8", 10", 12" 2" 4", 6", 8", 10", 12" 3" (local) 4", 6", 8", 10",etc.,tol6" 4" 4", 6", 8", 10", 12", 14" 6" 6", 8", 10", 12", 14", 16" 8" 10", 12", 14" 10".: 10", 12", 14", 16" 12" 12", 14", 16" 14" 14", 16" These sizes are called nominal, as the actual measurement varies with different woods and in different localities. A piece of 2" X 4" Y.P., for example, may be not larger than \%" or 1%" X Z%". Dressed lumber is indicated SIS, S2S, S4S, according as it is surfaced on one side, both sides, or all over. A 1" SIS board is thus i^ 6 " thick, and an S2S, %" thick. Shingles are termed ^ or % according as 5 butts or 6 butts measure 2" thick. They are 16" long, and there are 4 packs to M (the letter M is always used for 1000.). Mill Work means work prepared at the planing mill. It is charged for by the linear foot, or by the piece. Doors have standard thicknesses of lj-^", 1%" and iy±". Their widths and heights vary in even two inches. Sash has the same standard thicknesses as doors, and is specified by the glass sizes. To obtain the width of frame add 4^" to the glass width for a 2-light window, and for the length add 6" to the length of the two panes. Windows are made either "check rail," "plain rail," or "casement." An order would read 2 Lt, 24" X 24" X 1% D.S. Glass comes in single and double strength window glass, plate glass of different thicknesses, and a variety of obscure glass, such as "frosted," "chipped," "Florentine," etc. Sizes run in inches as 6 X 8; 7 X 9; 8 X 10; 8 X 12; etc. Sheet Metal is sold by gauge number 10 to 30 (thick to thin). Galvanized iron runs in size from 24" X 72", the widths advanc- ing by 2" to 30", then by 6" to 48", and the lengths by 12" to 120". Tin comes in two weights IC and IX, of which the lat- ter is heavier, and in sizes 20" X 28" and 14" X 20". Wire is measured by wire gauge number, 00 to 36, thick to thin. Pipe is measured by the nominal inside diameter, as explained on page 32. It comes in lengths of about 20 ft. and either plain or galvanized. Screws, nails, etc., are too various to be enumerated. One not familiar with the trade sizes and classifica- 12 CONSTRUCTION DATA 113 tions should at once become so, with the assistance of a hardware store man. Rope is measured by its largest diameter, and specified by its number of strands, as 3 strand or 4 strand. The best sash cord is braided. Drain Tile comes in lengths 12" and 24". The smallest practical size is 3", and diame- ters advance by inches up to 10" then by 2" up to 24". Slate is sold by the square, 100 sq. ft. There are various kinds and grades. Widths advance by inches and lengths by two inches. Metal Roofing comes in sheets or rolls, the sizes the same as galvanized iron. Ready Roofing comes under various trade names, and is usually a composition of bituminous or resinous compounds and felt or paper. It is sometimes coated with coarse sand or slate. It is sold in rolls of 108 sq. ft., making one square with allow- ance for laps. Weight of Roofing. The approximate weights of different roof coverings are needed in determining the strength of rafters. The snow load, and wind pressure are also factors to be added in figuring roofs, and an important problem should not be attempted without assistance. Shingles run about 250 lbs. per square. Slate 750 to 900, tile 1100 to 1400, ready roofing 40 to 150, galvanized iron 100 to 300. Weights of Materials. The weight per cubic foot of different materials is often required. The following table gives the weight of some of the com- mon materials. Lbs. per cu. ft. Oak 52 Yellow pine 45 White pine 25 Hemlock 2S Maple 49 Brick (average) 125 Concrete (average) 140 Lbs. per cu. ft. 95 130 130 450 480 170 53 62.5 lbs. and contains Sand, dry Sand, wet Gravel Cast iron Wrought iron Granite Ice Water A gallon of water weighs 231 cu. inches. Space Required for Storage. Hay, one ton occupies 512 cu. ft. Straw, one ton occupies 600 to 800 cu. ft. Hay, pressed, 25 lbs. per cu. ft. Small grain, 1 bu. = l}i cu. ft. Corn on cob, 1 bu. = 2)4 cu. ft. Space Required for Farm Implements. The following table gives the over-all allowance for some common implements. Add to the list for your own requirements. Side delivery rake 10H' X 12' Corn planter 6' Mower 6 Hay loader 9 Rake (common 2 horse) 5 30 H.P. tractor 8 Corn cultivator 5 Corn binder 9 Grain binder (7 ft. cut) 9 Manure spreader 8 Grain drill (8 hoe) 5 Roller 8 Ration for Beef Feeders. 12 lbs. shelled corn 2 lbs. cotton seed meal 20 lbs. corn silage 5 lbs. clover or alfalfa per 1000 lbs. weight of live animal. Table for the Selection of Native Woods. The following list gives the suitable woods for different purposes, arranged somewhat in the order of their desirability and availability. Light framing— hemlock, poplar, spruce, oak. Heavy framing — yellow pine, oak. Joists — yellow pine, oak, redwood. Siding — cypress, redwood, yellow pine, poplar. Shingles— cypress, red cedar, redwood, white cedar, pine. ' X5' ' X6' ' X 10M' X 10' ' X 11' ' X 17' X 12' ' X 7' ' X14' ' X14' ' X16' ' X 9' ' X 3' 114 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING Flooring — oak, maple, edge grain yellow pine, birch (cypress for porch). Interior finish — oak, birch, cypress, yellow pine; cherry, walnut, mahogany, etc. Tanks — cypress, redwood, fir. Fence posts — (in order of durability) osage orange, black locust, red cedar, mulberry, white cedar, catalpa, chestnut, oak, black ash. Vehicles — hickory, oak, ash. Strength of Timbers. The following tables give the safe load in pounds that can be carried by long leaf yellow pine timbers, as figured from the formulas indicated. To find the compara- tive strength of other kinds of wood take 75% of the amount for white oak; 60% for white pine and 55 % for hemlock. Table I Beam fixed at one end and concentrated load at the other end. Formula W = ,r , where W is the safe load in lbs., B the breadth of the beam in inches, D its depth in inches and L its length in feet. A is the constant, 100 for yellow pine, and as indicated above, 75 for white oak, etc. Table II Beam fixed at one end and uniformly loaded. BD 2 A Formula W = „ L B D L W 2 4 4 400 2 8 4 1600 * (Continued.) 1 * The values of W in this table are evidently just double those of Table I. Table III Beam supported at both ends and uniformly loaded. Formula W = — y — B, in. D, in. L, feet W, pounds 2 4 4 200 2 6 4 450 2 8 4 800 3 4 4 300 3 6 4 675 3 8 4 1200 3 8 6 800 4 4 4 400 4 6 4 900 4 6 6 600 4 6 8 450 4 8 6 1066 4 8 8 800 6 6 6 900 6 6 8 675 6 6 10 540 6 8 6 1600 6 8 8 1200 6 8 10 960 6 10 10 1500 8 10 10 2000 8 10 12 1666 8 12 10 2880 8 12 12 2400 10 12 10 3600 B, in. D, in. L, feet W, lbs. 2 4 8 800 2 4 10 640 2 4 12 532 2 6 12 1200 2 8 12 2132 2 10 12 3332 2 10 14 2856 *2 10 16 2500 *10 2 4 2000 2 12 12 4800 3 8 12 3200 3 10 12 5000 3 12 12 7200 3 12 16 4800 4 8 12 4266 4 10 12 6666 4 12 12 9600 6 8 12 6400 6 10 12 10000 6 12 12 14400 8 8 12 8532 8 10 12 13332 8 12 12 19200 8 12 16 14400 10 12 12 24000 10 12 16 18000 ' Note difference between edgewise and flat. CONSTRUCTION DATA 115 Table IV Beam supported at both ends, with concentrated load in the middle. Formula W = — f — B D L W 2 2 *(Cont 4 4 inued.) 10 12 320 266 *The values of W in this table are evidently one-half of those in Table III. Concrete. The following table will serve as a guide as to the proportions of cement, sand and stone used in making concrete for different pur- poses. It also gives the amounts of each in a cubic yard of concrete of the different mixtures, which is necessary to have in figuring the. quantities needed for a piece of work. Table V Proportions Cement, bbl. Sand, cu. yd. Stone, cu. yd. Use Cement Sand Stone i 2 3 1.70 0.52 0.77 (A) i 2 4 1.46 0.44 0.89 (B) i 2H 5 1.19 0.46 0.91 (C) i 3 6 1.01 0.46 0.92 (!>) i 4 8 0.77 0.47 0.93 (E) (A) 1:2:3 for tanks; silos; reinforced beams and columns; fence posts. (B) 1:2:4 for concrete blocks; piers; silos; small culverts; foundations; single course walks. (C) 1:2J^:5 for stable floors; foundation walls (light). (D) 1:3:6 for footings; barnyard paving; first course of two course walks. (E) 1:4:8 for footings; mass work where great strength is not required. (F ) Top course of two-course floors and walks made of 1:2 cement and sand. Cement is usually sold in sacks of 96 lbs. or 4 sacks = 1 bbl. Silos and Silage. The following table gives the capacities in tons of silos of different sizes; the approxi- mate number of acres required to fill each size; the number of cows, on a 40 lb. ration, to keep the ensilage fed down the minimum amount per day; and the capacity in number of cows, based on 180 days feed with 40 lb. ration. All data refers to settled ensilage. Table VI Diam., feet. Height, feet. Capy., tons No. acres to fill No. cows, to feed off 2" No. cows for 180 days feed 10 20 26 3- 5 13 7 10 30 47 5- 8 13 13 10 32 51 6- 8 13 14 11 32 62 7-10 15 16 12 32 74 8-10 19 21 12 36 87 9-12 19 24 14 30 91 9-12 25 25 14 34 109 11-15 25 30 14 38 128 11-16 25 35 16 32 131 12-17 33 36 16 36 155 15-21 33 43 16 40 180 16-22 33 50 16 44 207 18-26 33 55 Sunshine Table. Table VII is compiled from Farmers' Bulletin No. 438, U. S. Department of Agriculture and is of use in designing swine houses, in showing the relation between windows and width of pen so that the sun's rays may strike the floor. A is the height of top of window, and B the horizontal dis- tance from window to rear of pen. Dairy Score Card. The score card for dairy inspection given on the next page will be of value in checking the plans of a dairy barn, or in examining an existing plant. It is printed in Circular 199, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry. 116 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING Dairy Score Card Equipment Score Perfect Allowed Methods ' Score Perfect Allowed Co/ws Health Apparently in good health 1 If tested with tuberculin within a year and no tuberculosis is found, or if tested within six months and all re- acting animals removed 5 (If tested within a year and react- i ng animals are found and removed, 3.) Food (clean and wholesome) Water (clean and fresh) Stables Location of stable Well drained 1 Free from contaminating surround- ings 1 Construction of stable Tight, sound floor and proper gutter . 2 Smooth, tight walls and ceiling 1 Proper stall, tie, and manger 1 Provision for light: Four sq. ft. of glass per cow (Three sq. ft., 3;2sq. ft., 2; 1 sq. ft., 1. Deduct for uneven distribu- tion.) Bedding Ventilation Provision for fresh air, controllable flue system 3 (Windows hinged at bottom, 1.5; sliding windows, 1; other open- ings, 0.5.) Cubic feet of space per cow 500 ft (Less than 500 ft., 2; less than 400 ft., 1; less than 300 ft., 0.) Provision for controlling tempera- ture 1 Utensilb Construction and condition of utensils. . . . Water for cleaning (Clean, convenient, and abundant.) Small-top milking pail Milk cooler Clean milking suits Mile Room or Milk House Location: Free from contaminating sur- roundings - Construction of milk room Floor, walls, and ceiling 1 Light, ventilation, screens 1 Separate rooms for washing utensils and handling milk Facilities for steam (Hot water, 0.5.) Total. 40 Cows Clean (Free from visible dirt, 6.) Stables Cleanliness of stables Floor 2 Walls 1 Ceiling and ledges 1 Mangers and partitions 1 Windows 1 Stable air at milking time Freedom from dust 3 Freedom from odors 2 Cleanliness of bedding Barnyard Clean 1 Well drained . s 1 Removal of manure daily to 50 feet from stable Milk Room ob Milk House Cleanliness of milk room Utensils and Milking Care and cleanliness of utensils Thoroughly washed 2 Sterilized in steam for 15 minutes. . . 3 (Placed over steam jet, or scalded with boiling water, 2.) Protected from contamination 3 Cleanliness of milking Clean, dry hands 3 Udders washed and wiped 6 (Udders cleaned with moist cloth, 4; cleaned with dry cloth or brush at least 15 minutes before milking, 1.) Handling the Milk Cleanliness of attendants in milk room Milk removed immediately from stable without pouring from pail Cooled immediately after milking each cow Cooled below 50° F (51° to 55°, 4; 56° to 60°, 2.) Stored below 50° F (51° to 55°, 2; 56° to 60°, 1.) Transportation below 50° F (51° to 55°, 1.5; 56° to 60°, 1.) (If delivered twice a day, allow per- fect score for storage and trans- portation.) Total 60 Equipment + Methods = Final Scoret Note 1.— If any exceptionally filthy condition is found, particularly dirty utensils, the total score may be further limited. Note 2.— If the water is exposed to dangerous contamination, or there is evidence of the presence of a dangerouB disease in animals or attendants, the score shall be 0. CONSTRUCTION DATA Table VII. — Sun in Rear at 10 a. m. and 2 p. m. 117 Lat. Jan. 1st Feb. 1st Mar. 1st Apr. 1st A B A .B A B A B 4'-10" lO'-O" 6'-4" lO'-O" 9'-4" 10' lo'-6" 10' 38°N. 5'-10" 12' 7'-7" 12' U'-3" 12' 18'-7" 12' 4'-5" 10' 5'-10" 10' 8'-9" 10' 14'-4" 10' 40°N. o'-4" 12' 7'-0" 12' 10'-6" 12' 17'-2" 12' 4'-0" 10' 5'-5" 10' 8'-2" 10' 13'-4" 10' 42°N. 4'-10" 12' 6'-6" 12' 9'-9" 12' 16'-0" 12' 3'-7" 10' 4'-ll" 10' 7'-7" 10' 12'-5" 10' 44°N. 4'-4" 12' 5'-ll" 12' 9'-l" 12' 14'-11" 12' 3'-3" 10' 4'-6" 10' 7'-0" 10' ll'-6" 10' 46°N. 3'-10" 12' 5'-5" 12' 8'-5" 12' 13'-10" 12' 2'-10" 10' 4'-l" 10' 6'-6" 10' 10'-9" 10' 48°N. 3'-5" 12' 4'-ll" 12' 7'-10" 12' 12'-11" 12' Kitchen Score Card. The kitchen score card given may be used in connection with the planning of a new kitchen or in remodeling an old one. In this method of judging, the ideal kitchen would score 100 points, and cuts are made under each of the four heads for any items failing to reach the standard indicated. Some of these depend on actual measure- ments, while others are matters of judgment. (Kitchen score card, cont.). Kitchen at Scored bt .. 1. Plan — 35 Points. I — Arrangement of space for equip- ment 15 Sink — convenience of; Stove — convenience of; Table — conven ience of. 2 — Storage 15 Stores Pantry, size, convenience; Serving Pantry, convenience ; Refrigerator, convenience ; Shelv- ing, adequate; Clock Shelf. Distances — If any two (sink, table, stove, pantry) are farther apart than 12 ft., cut M P*- for each ft. 3 — Doors If more than 4,cut 1 point for each. Outside door direct to covered porch, if no covered porch, cut. Door to Dining Room double swung if direct. Accessibility to front door. Accessibility to upstairs. Accessibility to cellar. If rear stairs go up from Kitchen, 3pts. 11. Light and Ventilation Two exposures; if only one cut 5 points. 25 118 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING (Kitchen score card, cord.). Glass area = 20% of floor area. cut 1 point for each 1 % under. Window in Pantry, cut 2 pts. if none. Satisfactory daylight — at stove, at sink, at table, 3 points each. Satisfactory artificial light — at stove, at sink, at table, 3 points each. Transom on outside door, 1 point Height of sills — If under 34" cut 1 point. Ventilating hood or flue — 1 point III. Floors and Walls — 10 Points. 1 — Floor Resilient and grease proof Hardwood, Monolith or Lino- leum, O. K. Cut for cracks, softwood,"oil cloth, carpet, etc. 2— Walls Light, cheerful, sanitary. Cut for wall paper or dark color. 3 — Woodwork Cut for dust catching mouldings or projections — 1 point. Cut for wood wainscot — 1 point IV. Equipment — 30 points. 1 — Stove — adequate size and con- dition If oven is less than 10" from floor cut 1 pt. per inch. If no broiler, cut 2 points. If no thermometer, cut 1 point. 2— Sink Enamel or Porcelain O. K. Cut for iron, tin, etc., 3 points. Drainboard double, cut 3 points if single. Splashboard, cut 2 points if wood. 3— Table Size — cut 1 pt. if smaller than 6 sq. ft. Height — cut 1 pt. if uncom- fortable. 4 — Refrigerator Size, material, condition,drainage. 5 — Fireless Cooker 6 — Chair and stool Total. 12 100 If no water in Kitchen, cut 40 points. If no hot water in Kitchen, cut 20 points. If Kitchen is used as Laundry, cut 15 points. Remarks Suggestions for Improvement Estimating. In making an estimate of the cost of a proposed structure, there are two general methods, the approximate estimate, and the detailed estimate. Approximate estimates are used for de- termining the size possible for a given cost, or for getting the approximate cost after preliminary sketches are made. The methods are based on a knowledge of the cost of similar structures, and are fairly accurate and reliable if all conditions, such as the relative cost of labor and materials, are known. The cubic method is the one generally used. It consists simply in figuring the cubic contents of the entire building, meas- uring to the outside of the walls, and mul- tiplying by a unit price per cubic foot, which has been determined by dividing the cost of one, or a number of similar structures by the number of cubic feet contained. The following list of unit costs may be taken as giving safe general averages at the present time. The cost of building is steadily increasing, with the rise in prices of materials and labor, and a house built for 8 or 100 ten years ago would run 12 to 180 now. Dwellings, small frame, no plumbing 5 to 6 frame, good " " 8 to 9 " plumbing, heating, etc . . . 10 to 12 brick, plain, complete 12 to 15 " good " 15 to 20 Barns, small 3 to 4 " large (with stables) 4 to 5 CONSTRUCTION DATA 119 Other approximate methods for pre- liminary estimates are the square foot method, based on the area in square feet covered by the plan, and the unit methods of cost per room, per animal to be housed, or per ton of material to be stored. Average costs per unit are listed below. Unit costs Dwellings, per sq. ft $1.50 to $10.00 Stables, complete, per sq. ft $2 . 50 to $ 3 . 25 Dairy barns (large), per sq. ft $1 . 50 to $ 2 . 00 Residences, per room $400 . 00 Stables (horse or dairy), per animal . $200 . 00 Swine houses, per pen $25.00 Hay storage barns, per ton capacity. $12 . 00 Silos, per ton capacity $1 . 50 to $4 . 50 Concrete floors and walks, per sq. ft. 7 to 12 £ Concrete work in place (no forms), per cu. yd $5.00 Concrete work in place (forms), per cu. yd $5. 00 to $10.00 Concrete work in place (reinforced), per cu. yd $8.00 to $10.00 Detailed Estimates. The accurate method of estimating is to "take off" from the finished drawings, the amounts of all the different materials enter- ing into the structure, and with ascertained local prices on materials and labor, add the totals of the cost of each item in place. To this total should be added say 10% for con- tingencies, and in the case of a general con- tractor, 10% for profits. Materials are measured in the following units of measurement. Lumber Feet of board measure (B.M. = 1" X 12" X 12") Brick Thousand (M) Brick work sq. ft. wall surface Stone work cu. ft. (or sometimes cord or perch) Concrete and masonry cu. yd. Excavation cu. yd. Roofing square (100 sq. ft.) Paint square Shingles • ■ -thousand Cement bbl. (4 sacks) Sand, gravel andcrushed stone yd. (cu. yd.) (sometimes sold by the ton) As a general guide to present prices, the following figures, from actual costs, were used in the estimate of the dairy barn whose plans were given in Figs. 112 to 115. All figures refer to work in place. Excavation $0 . 30 per cu. yd. Foundation $7 .20 per cu. yd. Concrete floor $0.11 per sq. ft. Frame $35 .40 per M Floor $25.40 per M Sheathing $30.54 per M Windows, average $5 .68 each Doors $0.48 per sq. ft. Siding $59.00 per M Slate $11.00 per sq. Painting $2 .25 per sq. The total cost of barn as estimated is $4320.00. In a cubic estimate this would give H P er cubic foot > or $2 - 00 P er S( l uare foot. Heating, Lighting, Ventilation, Plumbing, and Sewage Disposal. It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss these subjects, except to call atten- tion to the need of considering . them care- fully in connection with the planning and design of farm structures, and to provide on the drawings for the systems pro- posed. Thus in planning a residence we have to decide whether stoves and fireplaces will be used for heating, and if so to see that flues and chimneys are arranged in the most convenient and economical way; or if a hot- air or hot- water furnace is to be installed, to place furnace and fuel rooms to the best advantage for runs of pipe and location of air intake, and to locate registers or radiators where desired in each room. In lighting, if gas or electric plants are to be installed, suitable provision must be made and shown on the plans for location and outlets. The advantage of an inde- pendent electric plant for both light and 120 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING power for the entire farmstead should be considered, particularly if water power is obtainable. The ventilation of dairy and horse barns has already been referred to, and is a very important consideration in modern con- struction. King's "Ventilation" should be procured and studied. It is not usual in residence construction to provide a ventilating system, except as fresh air is introduced through furnace reg- isters. The open fireplace has a distinct value as a ventilator, apart from its senti- mental value as the spot about which home memories cluster. A ventilating flue and hood is a desirable addition to the kitchen. In planning for plumbing, pipes should be on inside walls if possible, and should for economy be kept in vertical runs. Thus the bath room is best located somewhere over the kitchen. There are various state codes to be observed regarding soil pipes, vents, etc. In sewage disposal the advantage of the septic tank has already been referred to. The dangerous cesspool should be abandoned. A general estimate of $30.00 per person for a family of ordinary size may be made in figuring the cost of an approved type. Blue Printing. Practically all working drawings are made in pencil on detail paper and traced on trac- ing cloth, a transparentized fabric, or some- times on tracing paper. These tracings are blue-printed by exposing a piece of sensitized paper in contact with the tracing to sun- light or electric light in a printing frame made for the purpose. The resulting print has white lines on a blue ground. Any number of prints may be taken from one tracing. Blue print paper is bought ready sensitized and may be had in different weights and degrees of rapidity. To make a blue print, lay the tracing in the frame with inked side toward the glass and place the unexposed paper on it with the sensitized surface against the tracing, Fig. 182. Lock up in the frame, seeing that no corners are turned under, and expose to sunlight for from one-half to three minutes, depending upon the speed of the paper. Then take out exposed paper and put it. in a bath of water for about five minutes, and hang up to dry. In almost any town one is able to have blue prints made at comparatively slight cost. Problems. The following problems are suggestive of a large number that can be made, using the data given, either alone or in con- nection with the illustrations or problems in Chapters III and IV. PROBLEMS. 1. Hay is taken in at the end of a barn in loads varying from 500 to 1200 pounds. The track is supported by a yellow pine timber projecting 6'-0" without support. What should its dimensions be? 2. A grain bin with a capacity of 500 bushels of wheat is 12'-0" X 8'-0". The joists are of white pine spaced 12" from center to center. How large must they be to support the load safely? 3. How much cement, sand, and stone will be necessary to construct the water tank shown in Fig. 104 if its capacity is 15 barrels of water? 4. At $5.00 per cubic yard, estimate the cost of the foundation for the machine shed shown in Fig. 124. Footing 30" below grade. What will the floor cost at 9jS per sq. ft.? 6. Silage (compacted) weighs approximately 40 pounds per cubic ft. How many tons of silage will be contained in a silo 14' X 38' if 6' is allowed for settlement after filling? 6. A farmer is feeding 40 steers the ration given on page 113. How large must his silo be to allow 200 days' feeding, supposing that the ration is the same for the whole period? 7. At 300 per cubic yard, what will be the cost of excavating for the house shown in Fig. 134? Make a sketch of wall section showing grade line, and basement 7' in the clear. 8. The dairy barn shown in Figs. 112 to 115 is to CONSTRUCTION DATA 121 be painted two coats. Allowing 1 gal. to 300 sq. ft. for priming coat and 1 gal. to 500 sq. ft. for second coat, how much will the paint cost at $2.00 per gallon? 9. Make a cubic estimate of the cost of the house shown in Fig. 134. 10. Make an estimate of the cost of the horse barn shown in Fig. 116. Use approximate methods to check your detailed estimate. 11. What will be the dimensions of a storage barn to hold 120 tons of hay? Make allowance for one- half of space above plate. 12. What is the weight of the wrought iron bolster iron shown in Fig. 168? 6/oss 7roc//1ff Fig. 182. — Blue-print frame. CHAPTER VIII SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY A short list of books and pamphlets on allied subjects is here included, as a possible aid to those wishing to investigate further into some of the branches referred to in the present work. It is not to be regarded at all as a complete list, but simply as a representative selection of recent publications. On account of the rapid strides in scientific and sanitary research, and the use of new or improved building materials and methods of construction, a large portion of the books and other material now in print may be regarded as practically obsolete. The list is classified into books; bulletins of the U. S. Department of Agriculture; bulletins of State Colleges and Agricultural Experiment Stations; and books or pamph- lets issued by manufacturing concerns. Government and state bulletins are pub- lished with some frequency, and much information may be gained from them. A monthly list of the bulletins published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C, may be had on applica- tion to the Editor and Chief, Division of Publications. State bulletins may be se- cured by applying to the Agricultural Ex- periment Station of the State. Manufacturers are compiling valuable and interesting data and information in their catalogues of materials or appliances, and while intended for advertising purposes, some of these publications are well worth securing and preserving. BOOKS. Hopkins, Alfred. — Modern FarmBuildings. 206 pp. ill. $2.00. McBride Nast & Co., N. Y. 1913. "Farm buildings of practical, sanitary and ar- tistic lines." A book designed for large es- tates or country places, rather than the average farm. Ekblaw, J. K. T. — Farm Structures. 347 pp. ill. $1.75. MacMillan & Co., N. Y. 1914. A text book for Agricultural Engineering courses, with a general discussion of materials, construction and engineering of farm struc- tures. . — Farm Buildings. 354 pp. 637 ill. $2.00. Sanders Publish- ing Co., Chicago. 1914. A compilation of articles appearing in the Breeder's Gazette, contributed by practical men and dealing with actual structures. Radford, W. A. — Practical Barn Plans. 172 pp. ill. $1.00. Radford Architec- tural Co., Chicago. 1909. "A collection of common-sense plans of barns, out-buildings, and stock sheds." . — Poultry Houses and Fixtures. 95 pp. ill. $.50. Reliable Poultry Jour- nal Pub. Co., Quincy, 111. 1913. A compilation of articles appearing in the Reliable Poultry Journal. " Poultry house suggestions for every breed, every climate, every fancy." Child, Georgie Boynton. — The Efficient Kitchen. 242 pp. ill. $1.25. McBride Nast & Co. 1914. A discussion of the planning of the kitchen from the standpoint of economy in operation. . — The Rochester Ice House. Board of Health, Rochester, N. Y. A bulletin describing in detail the construc- tion and operation of the ice house illustrated in Fig. 127. Ellis, A. R. — Making a Garage. ■> $.50. McBride Nast & Co. 1913. One of the series of "House and Garden Mak- ing" books. 122 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 123 White, C. E., Jr.— Successful Houses and How to Build Them. $2.00. MacMillan Co. 1912. An extensive discussion of planning, specifi- cations, fixtures and devices. • — Book of Little Houses. 107 pp. $.50. MacMillan & Co. 1914. Ives, H. C. — Surveying Manual. 296 pp. $2.25. Jno. Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1914. A short treatise on surveying, especially de- signed for a brief course, or for home study. Elliott, C. G. — Practical Farm Drainage. 188 pp. $1.50. Jno. Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 1908. The essentials, principles, and practice of drainage. Foetiek, Samuel. — The Use of Water in Irrigation. 265 pp. $2.00. McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 1915. Methods and structures pertaining to irriga- tion, principally of arid lands. French, Thos. E. — A Manual of Engineer- ing Drawing. 289 pp. $2.00. McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 1911. A reference book on the different branches of technical drawing. Handbooks. Valuable "pocket size" reference books with engineering data and information are pub- lished for architects, civil, mechanical and electrical engineers. The student who ex- pects to work along these lines will find such a book almost necessary. Bulletins U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 57. — Water Supply, Plumb- ing, and Sewage Disposal for Country Homes. 46 pp. 38 figs. Discussion of Farm Sanitation. Farmers' Bulletin No. 574. — Poultry House Construction. 20 pp. 13 figs. Covers average conditions met in this field. Farmers' Bulletin No. 589.— Homemade Silos. 47 pp. 37 figs. Workable explanation of concrete, stave and modified Wisconsin types of Silo. Farmers' Bulletin No. 438. — Hog Houses. 29 pp. 21 figs. Tables of position of sun's rays at different times of the year. Valuable for the design of sunlight type of swine house. Farmers' Bulletin No. 607. — The Farm Kitchen as a Workshop. 20 pp. 6 figs. Of interest principally to farm women. Farmers' Bulletin No. 475. — Ice Houses. 20 pp. 11 figs. Brief discussion of ice houses and application. Farmers' Bulletin No. 623. — Ice Houses and the Use of Ice on the Dairy Farm. 24 pp. 17 figs. The use of ice on the dairy farm for keeping of milk and cream in the best marketable condition is discussed. Suggested designs for six ice houses. State Experiment Station and Agricultural College Bulletins. Bulletin No. 132. — Farm Poultry Houses. Agricultural Experiment Station Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. 26 pp. 7 figs. 8 pi. Bulletin No. 152. — Movable Hog Houses. Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. 43 pp. 37 figs. Bulletin No. 141. — Modern Silo Construc- tion, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. 68 pp. 62 figs. These three bulletins are excellent compre- hensive treatments, in each case with working drawings and cost based on actual experience. Bulletin No. 179. — Construction and Equipment of Dairy Barn, Kentucky Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky. 82 pp. 50 figs. While this discussion is intended primarily for the State of Kentucky, it is wide enough to be of interest to dairymen generally. Monthly Bulletin No. 8, Vol. XII. — ' ' The Missouri Silo. ' ' Missouri State Board of Agriculture, Columbia, Mo. Well adapted to southern conditions. 124 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING Bulletin No. 110. — Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment, Ga. 26 pp. 9 figs. Able discussion of types of silo suitable to region. Bulletin No. 143. Economy of the Round Dairy Barn. Illinois Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Urbana, 111. 44 pp. 42 figs. Presents arguments for round barn as a type. Bulletin No. 274. — Building Poultry Houses. Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 44 pp. 66 figs. Covers the subject in a thorough manner. Trade Publications. Lowden's Barn Plans. Lowden Mfg. Co., Fairfield, Iowa. The James Way. (How to build a Dairy Barn.) James Mfg. Co., Fort Atkinson, Wis. King, F. H. — Ventilation. King Ventilat- ing Co., Owatonna, Minn. 126 pp. 63 figs. A standard work on stable ventilation, adapted by a manufacturer of stable venti- lators. The Modern Farmer. Lehigh Portland Cement Co., Allentown, Pa. 64 pp. ill. Small Farm Buildings of Concrete. Universal Portland Cement Co., Chicago, 111. 158 pp. 136 figs. Concrete in the Country. Alpha Port- land Cement Co., Easton, Pa. 112 pp. ill. Successful Stucco Houses. Clinton Wire Cloth Co., Clinton, Mass. 94 pp. ill. Concrete Silos. Universal Portland Ce- ment Co., Chicago, 111. 104 pp. ill. Concrete Construction, about the Home and on the Farm. Atlas Portland Cement Co., New York. 128 pp. ill. ' The Concrete House and its Construc- tion. American Association Portland Ce- ment Mfrs. $1.00. INDEX Adjustable spacing block, 106 Agricultural college bulletins, 123 Alphabet of lines, 10, 24 Approximate estimates, 118 Architect, service of, 82 Architect's scale, 28 Architectural drawing, 5, 9 lettering, 24 symbols, 48 Artist, 3 Assembly drawing, 26 Auxiliary views, 27 Axes, isometric, 100 oblique, 103 B Balloon frame, 50 Barn-yard, covered, 68 Barns, cost of, 118, 119 dairy, 56 general purpose, 68 horse, 64 Basement, 86 plan, 87 Bath-room, 86 Beams, strength of, 114 Bed rooms, 84 Bench, 44, 106 Bill of material, 24, 30 for dairy barn, 63 for implement shed, 73 Bird house, 108 Blue prints, 95 printing, 120 Bolster stake iron, 106 Bolts, 31 in section, 27 standard, 33 to draw, 32 Book rack, 108 Books, list of, 122 Boot jack, 42 Bow pen, 17 Braced frame, 50 Breaks, conventional, 31 Breeding crate, 45 Brick, 54 bonding, 54, 55 cork, 64 symbols, 48 weight of, 113 Bulletin board, 44 Cabinet drawing, 104 Cattle breeding crate, 45 Cautions, 25 Cement, 115 Certification, of a survey, 91 Chain, Gunter's, 90 Checking, 30 Circle, isometric, 102 to draw, 16 Clevis, 39 Colony swine house, 70 Commercial sizes, 50, 112 Compass, 6 lengthening bar, 17 use of, 16 Concrete, 53 cost of, 119 fence post, 43 gate post, 43 hog trough, 41 proportions for, 115 specifications for, 63 symbols, 48 watering trough, 53 weight of, 113 Cone, to develop, 34 Connecticut trap nest, 2 Contour map, 4, 95, 98 profile from, 96 Contours, 95 Conventional lines, 14 symbols, 30, 31, 94 Corn crib, 74 tester, 39 Crosshatching, 26 Cubic estimating, 118 125 126 INDEX Culture, 95 symbols, 94 Cylinder, to develop, 34 D Dairy barn, cost of, 119 estimate for, 64 plans for, 58, 59, 60, 61 requirements for, 56 specifications for, 62 house, 78 problem, 89 score card, 116 Detail drawings, 26 Detailed estimates, 119 Developed surfaces, 32 problems, 46 Dimensioning, of bolt, 32 rules for, 29 structures, 49 Dining room, 84 Dipping vat, 69 Ditches, fall of, 96 Dividers, 6 cautions, 25 use of, 17 Doors, 112 symbols, 48 Drain, tile, 113 Drains, grade of, 96 Drawing, assembly, 26 cabinet, 104 detail, 26 isometric, 2, 5, 100 oblique, 5, 102 orthographic, 5, 6, 7, 26 perspective, 3 Drawing paper, 6 Dwellings, cost of, 118 E Elevations, 9, 49 Engineer's scale, 90 Ensilage, 62, 78, 115 weight of, 120 Estimate, for dairy barn, 64, 119 Estimating, 86, 118 approximate, 118 cubic, 118 detailed, 119 Extension lines, 29 Experiment station bulletins, 123 Farm house, 82 plans of, 83, 85, 87, 88 implements, space required, 113 level, 90 map, 90, 91 structures, 47 survey, 91 Fastenings, 31 Faulty lines, 20 Feeding stick, 18 Feed alleys, 61, 62, 64 Fence posts, 12 concrete, 43 proportions for, 115 wood for, 114 Fences, 79 Field book, 97 Finish mark, 30 Fire-stopping, 52 Flooring, woods for, 114 Floors, concrete for, 115 Fly wheel, 43 trap, 46 Form, for concrete trough, 41 Foundation, silo 79 concrete for, 115 Framing, 50 balloon frame, 66, 68 braced frame, 50, 64 details, 51 pin joints, 50, 68 Freehand sketching, 9 G Galvanized iron, 56, 112 roofing, weight of, 113 Gang mold, 40 Garage, 76, 77 Gates, 44, 81 General purpose barn, 68 plans for, 66, 67 Glass, 112 Good form, 10 Gradient, 96 Grammar, 5 Granaries, 75 Grindstone, 45 Gunter's chain, 90 Half-section, 27 Hall, stair, 84 INDEX 127 Hay rack, 42 basket, 43 Heating, 119 Hog cot, 69 problem, 86 Horse barn, 64 plan for, 65 House, dairy, 78 farm, 82 ice, 75, 76 implement, 73 poultry, 71 smoke, 78 swine, 70 Hurdles, 71, 81, 107 Ice boxes, 44 houses, 76 weight of, 113 Implement sheds, 72, 73 Implements, space required for, 113 Inking, 20, 25 order of, 22, 38 Instruments, civil engineering, 90 drawing with, 10 list of, 6 measuring, 38 Insulated walls, 76 Interior finish, woods for, 114 Isometric, circle, 102 drawing, 2, 5, 100 lines, 101 problems, 104 Joints, framing, 51 Joists, 113 K Kitchen, 82, 84 step ladder, 109 score card, 117 Lettering, single stroke inclined, 23 roman, 24 upright, 22 Level, farm, 90 frame, 107 Lighting, 119 symbols, 48 Lines, alphabet of 10, 14 bearing of, 91 dimension, 29 faulty, 20 grade of, 96 isometric, 101 section, 26 sketching, 9 tangent, 17 to divide by trial, 17 Living room, 84 Lumber, sizes of, 112 symbols, 48 M Machine shed, 72, 73 problem, 86 Mangers, cow, 62, 67 horse 64 Manure pit, 79, 80 Maps, 5, 90 farm office, 91 landscape, 96, 97 problems, 99 quadrangle, 96 topographic, 95 Markers, 91 Metal roofing, 113 Milk stool, 40 Mill work, 112 Miter box, 3 Monuments, 91 Mufller, 43 N Nests, poultry, 2, 72 Non-isometric lines, 101 Notes on drawings, 30 O Landscape maps, 96 Language, 1 Lengthening bar, 17 Lettering, 22 on maps, 96 Bernhardt, 23 Oblique drawing, 5, 102 Office; 84 map, 91 Order, of inking, 22, 38 of penciling, 38 128 INDEX Order of preparing plans, 56 Orthographic projection, 5, 6, 7, 26 Paddocks, 81 Painting, 121 cost of, 119 Patterns, 32 to make, 42 Paving, concrete for, 115 Pencil, 15 sketching with, 9 Penciling, order of, 38 Pens, animal, 81 lettering, 22 ruling, 20 Perspective drawing, 3 Pictorial drawing, 3, 100 Pipe, 32, 112 fittings, 35 Pit, manure, 79, 80 Plank frame, 50 Planning, 82 Plans, 9, 47 Plats, 91 Plumbing, 120 Porches, 84 sleeping, 86 Portland cement, 53 Posts, wood for, 114 Poultry houses, 71 Prism, to develop, 35 Problems, elementary, 18, 20 isometric, 104 map, 99 sketching, 11, 12, 13 structural, 86, 89 working drawings, 38 Profiles, 96 Protractor, 90 Pyramid, to develop, 35 Quadrangle sheet, 96 Q R Rat-proofing, 52, 74, 76 Ration for beef feeders, 113 Record, farm, 92 Reinhardt letters, 23 Rendering, 3 Revolved sections, 27 Road drag, 41 Rochester ice house, 75, 76 Roman letters, 24 Rope, 113 Roofing, materials, 56 metal, 113 ready, 113 tile, 56 weight of, 113 Roofs, forms of, 51 diagram, 52 Rules, for checking, 30 for dimensioning, 29 for oblique drawing, 103 Ruling pen, 6 use of, 20 S Sack-holder, 40 Sash, 112 Saw-horse, 107 Scale, 6 architect's, 28 engineer's, 90 of a map, 91 use of, 28 Score card, dairy, 116 kitchen, 117 Screened porch, 84 Screws, 31, 34 Sectional views, 26 Sections, 26, 49 turned, 27 isometric, 102 Septic tank, 79 Sewage disposal, 79, 120 Sheave, 45 Sheep, barn, 71 hurdle, 107 rack, 39, 40 Sheet metal, 112 Shingles, 56, 112 suitable woods for, 113 weight of, 113 Siding, forms of, 53 selection of woods for, 113 Silo, 78 cost of, 119 foundations, 79 proportions of concrete for, 115 rack, 42 tables, 115 Single stroke, inclined letters, 23 roman letters, 24 vertical letters, 22 INDEX 129 Sizes, lumber, 112 pipe, 32 stall, 57, 64 Sketching, 9 from objects, 38 pictorial, 104 problems, 11, 12, 13 Slate, 56, 113 weight of, 113 Smoke houses, 78 Space required, for storage, 113 for farm implements, 113 Specifications, 26 for dairy barn, 62 Spring house, 78 Stables, cost of, 119 Stairs, 84 Stalls, size of, 57, 64 detail of, 61, 67, 68 Steers, space for, 89 Stock and commercial sizes, 112 Stone, 55 boat, 42 rake, 110 Storage, space required for, 113 Strength of timbers, 114 Structures, farm, 47 problems, 86, 89 Stucco, 55 Sunshine table for swine houses, 115, 117 Survey, a farm, 91 certification, 91 Swine house, 68 cost of, 119 sunshine tables for, 115, 117 Symbols, architectural, 48 conventional, 30, 31 lighting, 48 materials in section, 30 topographic, 94 Threads, TJ. S. Standard, 31 Tile, drain, 113 hollow, 56 roofing, 56 weight of, 113 Timber, specifications for, 63 strength of, 114 weight of, 113 Tin, 112 Titles, 24 map, 91 working drawing, 30 Tool box, 39 chest, 110 Topographic drawing, 5, 90, 95 symbols, 94 Trade publications, 124 Trap nest, 2, 72 Triangles, 6 use of, 14, 15 Troughs, concrete, 41 Turned section, 27 U Unit costs, 118, 119 Units of measurement, 119 U. S. Government, bulletins, 122, 123 quadrangle sheets, 96 standard threads, 32 Use of compass, 16 dividers, 17 scale, 28 T-square and triangles, 14 Vat, dipping, 69 Vegetation symbols, 94 Vehicles, wood for, 114 Ventilation, 120 W T-square, 6 use of, 14 Table, concrete proportions, 115 pipe sizes, 32 selection of woods, 113 silo, 115 strength of timbers, 114, 115 sunshine, 115, 117 Tangents, 17 Tanks, proportions of concrete for, 115 woods for, 114 Threads, forms of, 32 Walks, concrete for, 115 Wash room, 84 Water features, 94 storage tank, 89 weight of, 113 Weight, roofing, 113 Weights of materials, 113 Wheelbarrow wheel, 108 Windmill brake shoe, 20 Windows, 112 detail of, 61 symbols, 48 130 INDEX Windows, ventilating, 67 Work bench, 44, 111 Wire, 112 drawer, 105 Wood, construction, 50 Working drawing, 3, 5 selection of, 113 classes of, 26 strength of, 114 definition, 5, 26 weight of, 113 method of making, 38