RS I ft HN 675 . T8e .\^iSJ.ML,L:. ITHACA, iM' Y f4853 A;-- 4'i 1)' f Charles W. WasouCcllectio onEastAuia 3 1924 074 488 564 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924074488564 In compliance with current copyright law, Cornell University Library produced this replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1984 to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. 1994 STUDIES IN HISTORY, ECONOMICS AND PUBLIC LAW EDITED BY THE FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Volume L] [Number 1 Whole number 125 THE SPIRIT OF CHINESE PHILANTHROPY A Study in Mutual Aid YU-YUE TSU, Ph.D. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., AGENTS London: p. S. King & Son 1912 FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE Nicholas Murray Butler, LL.D., President. J. W. Burgess, LL.D., Professor of Political Science and Constitutional Law. Munroe Smith, LL.D., Professor of Roman Law and Comparative Jurisprudence. F. J. Goodnow, LL. D., Professor of Administrative Law and Municipal Science. E. R. A. Seligman, LL.D., Profes- sor of Political Economy and Finance. H. L. Osgood, Ph.D., Professor of History. Wm. A. Dunning, LL.D., Professor of History and Political Philosophy. J. B. Moore, LL.D., Professor of International Law. F. H. Giddings, LL.D., Professor of Sociology. J. B. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Political Economy. J. H. Robinson.Ph.D., Professor of History. W. M. Sloane,L.H.D., Professor of History. H. R. Seager, Ph.D., Professor of Political Economy. H, L. Moore, Ph.D., Professor of Political Economy. W. R. Shepherd, Ph.D., Professor of History. J. T. Shotvsrell, Ph.D., Professor of HUtory. G. W. Botsford, Ph.D., Professor of History. V. G. Simkhovitch, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Economic History. E. T. Devine, LL.D., Professor of Social Economy. Henry Johnson, Ph.D., Professor of History. S. McC. Lindsay, LL.D., Professor of Social Legislation. C. A. Beard, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Politics. H. R. Mussey, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Economics. C. H. Hayes, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of History. A. A. Tenney, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Sociology. E. E. Agger, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Economics. E. M. Salt, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Public Law. R. i. Schuyler, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of History. R. E. Chaddock, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Statistics. G. J. Bayles, Ph.D., Associate in Ecclesiology. C. D. Hazen, Ph.D., Lecturer in History. . SCHEME OF INSTRUCTION GROUP I. HISTORY AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY. Subject A. Ancient and Oriental History, nine courses. Subject B. Mediae- val History, twelve courses. Subject C. Modem European History, nineteen courses. Subject D. American History, sixteen courses. Subject E. History of Thought and Culture, twenty-three courses. Courses in Church History given at the Union Sem- inary are open to the students of the School of Political Science. GROUP II. PUBLIC LAW AWD COMPARATIVE JURISPRUDENCE. Subject A. Constitutional Law, eight courses. Subject B. International Law, four courses. Subject C. Administrative Law, seven courses. Subject D. Roman Law and Comparative Jurisprudence, seven courses. Courses in Law given in the Columbia Law School are open to the students of the School of Political Science. GROUP in. ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE Subject A. Political Economy and Finance, twenty.two courses. Subject B. Sociol(^ and Statistics, twenty-three courses. Subject C. Social Economy, twelve courses. Courses in Social Economy given in the School of Philanthropy are open to students in the School of Political Science. The greater number of the courses consist of lectures ; a smaller number take the form of research imder the direction of a professor. The degrees of A.M. and Ph.D. are given to students who fiilfil the requirements prescribed. (For particulars, see Columbia University Bulletins of Information, Faculty of Political Science.) Any person not a candidate for a degree may attend any of the courses at any time by payment of a proportional fee. Four University fellowships of S650 each, two or three Gilder fellowships of §650 — §800 each, the Schiff fellowship of $600, the Curtis fellowship of S600, the Garth fellowship in Political Economy of $650, and University scholarships of 8150 each are awarded to applicants who give evi- dence of special fitness to pursue advanced studies. Several prizes of from 850 to 8250 are awarded. The library contains over 475,000 volumes ^nd students have access to other great collections in the city. 1 THE SPIRIT OF CHINESE PHILANTHROPY STUDIES IN HISTORY, ECONOMICS AND PUBLIC LAW EDITED BY THE FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Volume L] [Number 1 Whole Number 125 THE SPIRIT OF CHINESE PHILANTHROPY A Study in Mutual Aid BY YU-YUE TSU, Ph.D. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., AGENTS London: p. S. King & Son 1912 Copyright, 1912 BY The Faculty of Political Science of Columbia University, New York THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED TO DR. F. L. HAWKS POTT PRESIDENT OF ST. JOHN's UNIVERSITY SHANGHAI, CHINA PREFACE In this monograph the writer has endeavored to de- scribe Chinese Philanthropy and to interpret its char- acteristics and ideals as he understands them. The subject is greater than can be adequately treated in a work of the present scope, but it is hoped that no injustice has been done to the subject and that further study of it may be stimulated by this presentation. The writing was begun before the change of govern- ment in China took place. Some parts of the mono- graph, touching the political organization of the country may not therefore exactly fit the new conditions, but as they are true representations of conditions that obtained in the immediate past and went far into a remote past, we have allowed them to stand, as first written. The problem of population in China in its intimate re- lation to social wellbeing and progress is of vital interest not only to China but also to the world. The writer's interest in it was first aroused by Professor A. A. Ten- ney's lectures at Columbia University. Professor E. A. Ross' book, The Changing Chinese, contains an illumi- nating study of it, perhaps the most thorough one that bears upon present conditions in China. The problem will repay further study. The writer wishes to record his indebtedness to Pro- fessor F. H. Giddings, Professor Friedrich Hirth, Dr. 7] 7 8 PREFACE [8 R. M. Binder and Mr. Parker Vanamee, for valuable suggestions in the preparation of the monograph, and to Professor E. R. A. Seligman, for assistance in put- ting it through the press. Y. Y. T. CHELSEA SQUARE, NEW YOHK CITY. April, 1912. CONTENTS FACE Preface -j Introduction by Dr. Friedrich Hirth 13 CHAPTER I Chinese Philanthropy, in Thought and Practice The study of philanthropy 15 I. Philanthropy in Chinese Thought Philanthropy as a virtue 16 Philanthropy, natural to man 16 Acquirement and development of philanthropy 17 The state and philanthropy 19 The goal of state philanthropy 19 Opposition to philanthropy 20 Philanthropy unnatural to man .... 21 Conclusion 23 II. Chinese Philanthropy in Practice Historical notices 23 Ancient old-age pensions 23 Poor-relief 24 The beginnings of institutional charity and social legislation 24 The poor law of China . . 26 Ineffectiveness of the law 26 Legal status of popular philanthropic institutions 27 Relative efficiency of state and popular control 28 Present organization of philanthropy in China 28 Scope and character of Chinese philanthropy 29 CHAPTER II PopulaticJN and Social Well-being Incipient poverty and its chief cause 31 The population of China 32 Causes of density 33 Present causes of prolific reproduction 34 1 . Rural conditions 34 2. Ancestor worship 34 3. Early marriage 35 Effects of surplus population 35 Equilibration between population and means of subsistence : four aspects . . 35 1. Population and tillage of the soil 35 9] 9 lO CONTENTS [lO PAGE z. Population and migrations - ■ 37 3. Population and plane of living 3^ 4. Population and physical energies ... . -39 Regulation of population ... . . 4° Indirect methods ... . . 4° Direct methods .... . 4^ CHAPTER III Charity Causes of dependence 42 The care of the poor ... .42 Present stage of charity in China ... ... . . . 43 I. Care of Aged Ateti Attitude toward the aged . 43 Public institutions ..... 44 Home aid .... 45 Home for the aged ..... . 45 A monastic house for the aged ... . . 46 II. Care of Aged Women and Widows Status of woman and civilization . . . . . 48 Woman in early times . . 48 Widowhood ... . , 49 Status of woman in China . 49 Widowhood in China . . 50 Honor for female virtue ... . .... 51 Public aid . . 52 House of Pure Widowhood . . 53 Concluding remarks ... . . 56 III. Care of Dependent Children Desertion of infants 5^ Public care of dependent children 59 Home aid . eg The placingout system . 60 Adoption of foundlings ... . . . 62 Administration g-j Finances . , , g^ State encouragement gc Institutional care 66 Modern methods 66 IV. Care of the Destitute Sick Public health 6y Public responsibility _ OS Ilj CONTENTS II The free dispensary . . Asylum for the sick ... Isolation of the diseased Care of defectives .... , Free burial The need of a national health campaign . . . CHAPTER IV Mutual Benefit Mutual benefit and social consciousness The value of mutuality I. TAi dan Organization What it is Localization The social value of clan organization . Clan charities The Van Clan estate ..... Objects Administration Distribution of aid ... Special grants . . . . Conclusion II. The Village Community Local spirit . . . . . . The village government . . Village charities Mutual loan societies Mutual providential associations III. Provincial and District Clubs The basis of association Functions of the clubs : social and charitable IV. Trade and Crafts Guilds The basis of association Functions of the guilds : trade and charity Voluntary assessment for charitable purposes Conclusion <. CHAPTER V Civic Betterment Philanthropy as promotion of social welfare The Chinese government, in theory and in practice .... The district municipality 69 69 70 70 72 72 74 75 75 76 76 78 79 80 80 81 82 83 83 84 85 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 91 94 95 12 CONTENTS [I2 PAGX Patemalifm 95 Defects in administration 9° State neglect 97 Practical democracy 97 Popular co-operative undertakings 9^ I. J^ree Educational Opportunities Government education 9^ Free charity schools 99 Public lectures 99 Literary censorship loo II. Public Safety and Protection The life-saving association at Wuhn . . loi Life boats . . io2 Management and finances . . . 103 The red boats of Ichang 105 Fire protection .... 106 III. Free Public Service Roads, lights, bridges .... 107 Free ferry service 107 IV. Municipal Self-government by the People Its evolution 108 The case of the Newchwang Guild 109 Local self-government, a growing movement 1 10 The new political regime iii CHAPTER VI Conclusion : Rise of National Self-consciousness and Solidarity Chinese philanthropy, a product of national genius 113 Its democratic foundation 113 .£f/*r«V Chinese Rel^ository, vol. xv, pp. 409-410. I07] CIVIC BETTERMENT 107 III. FREE PUBLIC SERVICE In free public service we include not only agencies of transportation, such as ferries, but also means of com- munication, such as roads and bridges, maintained by voluntary subscription to serve a public free of charge or for a nominal fee. Thus it has been observed by foreign travelers in China: It is also worthy of remark that most of the roads and fine archbridges, as well as the public buildings of China, are con- structed by voluntary donations. In connection with these public works, it is very common to see stone tablets erected, containing the names of the donors and the amounts of their subscriptions.^ Such undertakings are usually entrusted to local charity societies and sometimes to special societies. Lights and Bridges : The Hall of United Benevolence maintains lights at four places along water-ways around Shanghai, and pays for the services of four men engaged in taking care of the lights. It repairs roads and pave- ments, cleans sewers, and keeps up the bridges. Dur- ing 1909, besides miscellaneous repairing, it paid for 574 yards of road-paving, replaced a bridge-railing, and repaired eight bridges.' Free Ferry Service : The Life Saving Association at Wuhu ran a free ferry across the river, according to its report 3 for 1875. It possessed six boats for this service, two having a capacity of 60 passengers each, two forty passengers each, and two ten each. The boats were manned according to their sizes. For the large ones, ' J. L. Nevius, China and the Chinese, p. 224. ' Report of the Hall for 1909. ' China Review, vol. vi, pp. 277-283. Io8 T^E. SPIRIT OF CHINESE PHILANTHROPY [io8 there was a helmsman and four sailors ; for the middle- sized, a helmsman and three sailors, and for the small ones, a helmsman and two sailors. On both sides of the river there were landing stations and ticket offices. A flag raised upon a pole indicated the period during which the service was in operation. It was limited to the day-time. In the night and in severe storms, the boats would not run and the flag was not hoisted up. Each passenger went aboard with a ticket. When the full number of tickets was collected, the boat proceeded for the other shore. But for special parties, such as a funeral party, a physician in his professional visitation, a marriage party, the boats would cross the river without the full number. These boats were maintained by voluntary subscrip- tions. As an inducement, a subscriber for a certain sum of money would be given a ferry pass, if he had use for one, which entitled thie holder to prompt service. IV. Municipal Self-government by the People lis Evolution : The work of the philanthropic and co-operative associations for civic betterment, as de- scribed above, belongs to the class of municipal func- tions and has been undertaken by the people themselves because of neglect by the Government authorities, as we have already pointed out. Beginning in volun- tary co-operation for mutual benefit, these undertakings gradually become established by custom and finally are recognized as public institutions, both by the people and the civil authorities. At first scattered and uncoor- dinated, the agencies for these undertakings gradually coalesce and consolidate into one system. Thus results what is virtually municipal self-government by the people. lOg] CIVIC BETTERMENT 109 Instead of the civil authorities protesting against the en- croachment on their authorities, they encourage this de- velopment of popular self-rule by giving it full recognition and freedom of action. The Case of the Newchwang Guild: An early case illustrating this evolution is that of the Local Guild of Newchwang, Manchuria, recorded in the Decennial Re- port of Imperial Maritime Customs for 1882-1891.' The Local Guild is made up of the principal native mer- chants of the city, and practically combines in itself the duties of a municipal council and those of a chamber of commerce. It maintains order in the streets, takes care of the roads, drains and reservoirs, controls public lands, administers poor relief, subsidizes charitable institutions, controls banks, regulates exchanges of trade, marts and transportation. It finances its activities by taxation upon transactions between merchants not natives of the city but residing and doing business therein, by collect- ing bridge-dues upon carts transporting goods, and shop dues ; for all of which the guild has the authorization of the local civil officials. The authority of the g^ild and its method of administration is shown in the proclama- tions it issues. The following is one concerning bridge- dues : It is generally understood that living traffic is a sure sign of a town's prosperity. To encourage traffic, therefore the public thorough- fares must be kept in good repair. A former president of the Guild built bridges across the streams and tidal creeks in the vicinity of Ying-tsu for public use, but as nothing was done to keep them in repair, the strong current gradually undermined the supports, so that many bridges were in danger of collapsing. ' Pp. 34 et seq. no THE SPIRIT OF CHINESE PHILANTHROPY [no The roads, too were the cause of universal complaint. A subscription was consequently raised from the resident merchants to defray the annual outlay for repairing the roads and bridges in the neighborhood of the port. During the Summer of the second year of Emperor Kuang Hsu {1876) continued rains did much harm to the public thoroughfares, suspending thereby a great deal of the cart traffic. This state of affairs coming to the ears of the Taotai, he issued orders to the Guild that the roads and bridges were to be promptly put in thorough repair. This was done at great expense, and the ordinary subscription not proving sufficient to meet the unusual outlay, a plan was devised to tax all carts carrying merchandise. Permission having been re- ceived from the Tartar General and the Civil Governor at Jloukden, through the influence of the Taotai, a tax was then instituted, which has been continued up to the present time. The Guild now informs the public that beginning with to- day, the First of the Ninth Moon and ending with the First of the Third Moon of the following year, bridge-dues will be levied on all carts laden with produce of any kind at the following rates : ^ Local Sell-Government, A Growing Movement : Dur- ing recent years, local self-government by the people is developing in many cities and towns. It is distinctly encouraged by the Imperial Government as a step in the preparation toward Constitutional Parliamentary Govern- ment. A short time ago the writer sent out some ques- tions to his friends at Shanghai in regard to municipal self-government in that city. The replies are significant. They show that self-government is directly sanctioned by the local civil officials and indirectly by the Imperial Government ; that local government is in the hands of the franchised citizens of the city, who elect the officers of the ' Ihid., p. 37. 1 1 1 J CI VIC BE TTERMENT 1 1 1 local administration, but that the district magistrate acts as a director and advisor and that it practically takes over all the functions of a municipality, including the powers of taxation and police. The new local self-government supervises the educational institutions, opens free schools, undertakes sanitation, street-cleaning, public works, light- ing, police, traffic regulation, supervision of commercial amusements, inspection of food-markets ; it makes its own laws and enforces them, and collects taxes. The taxes are called Public Welfare Taxes, and consist of house and shop tax, license of vehicles and of boats, tax on advertisement spaces, commercial amusements, and food-markets. An interesting fact is that the budgets of the Shanghai Municipal Self-government contain an estimate of the yearly incomes and expenditure of the charitable institutions of the city, indicating that the municipality is aiming at including among its functions supervision and support of these hitherto voluntary and independent institutions. The new self-government ad- ministration does not displace the old civil govern- ment of the city. That is to say, the magistrate who is the appointed representative and agent of the provincial and imperial administrations still retains his office, col- lects the land taxes and forwards them to the higher ad- ministrations. There is a division of labor. The magis- trate takes care of the city as far as it is an administrative unit of the empire ; while the new local government takes care of the city as such for the satisfaction of its local needs. The New Political Regime : In the famous constitution of 1908 promulgated by the Imperial Government, local self-government is fully instituted and defined. In principle it aims to preserve the functions and powers which the district magistrate now exercises intact, and 112 THE SPIRIT OF CHINESE PHILANTHROPY [i 12 to superadd upon the existing regime, the new organiza- tion for local self-government, along the lines we have already described in connection with the local self-gov- ernment of Shanghai city. It is thus apparent that by successive and almost im- perceptible gradations, what was, in the beginning, mere voluntary co-operative measures on the part of the people for mutual protection and civic betterment on the occasion of official omission in a political organization, wherein popular franchise was unknown, has become one of the fundamental features of a new order of political life, wherein popular franchise and self-government are the essential features. The outward suddenness, ap- parently suggested by the promulgation of the new Con- stitution and the transition from an Absolute Monarchy to a democratic form of government is therefore more apparent than real. Silent causes have been working for generations under the shadow of the old regime, and the new regime is their natural consummation. CHAPTER VI Conclusion : Rise of National Self-consciousness AND Solidarity Chinese Philanthropy , the Product of National Genius : Chinese Philanthropy is a product of the genius of the Chinese Nation. It is organically related with the life, tradition and ideals of the nation, and from them has de- rived its energy, its guiding principles and character- istics. It is an expression of Chinese civilization. Democratic Foundatio7i : The notable characteristic of Chinese Philanthropy is its democratic foundation. Instead of being a state institution, it has been more a popular one ; instead of being fostered under the pater- nalism and direction of the state, it has been developed by the co-operation and initative of the people. Esprit de Corps of Minor Social Groups : The spirit of Chinese Philanthropy indicates a developed social consciousness in the hearts of the people. There is a strong sense of social solidarity, which shows itself in the many sharing the burden of the poverty, want and misfortune of the few, in the readiness to give mutual aid, and in the voluntary co-operative undertaking for civic betterment. The sense of social sohdarity is strongest in the esprit de corps of the minor social groups within the nation, such as the clan, the village, the District, the Province, and the guilds. Absence of National Consciousness in the Past : Until the beginning of the present century, there had not 113] "3 114 THE SPIRIT OF CHINESE PHILANTHROPY [114 been a national self-consciousness and solidarity com- parable in strength with the spirit and solidarity of the minor social groups. This is attributable both to the presence of unfavorable conditions, and to the ab- sence of favorable conditions for the development and sustenance of the spirit of nationalism. The gigantic territory of the empire, the want of convenient and rapid means of communication between widely-separated parts, the resulting effect in the diversification of local dialects, and to a less extent of local customs, and the absence of a powerful, aggressive, centralized national Govern- ment have been some of the conditions which deterred the rise of national consciousness and solidarity in the people. Geographical Isolation and Absence of Conflict : But there was a condition, whose presence in the national experience of China exercised an even greater influence than the above-mentioned conditions in the determent of the rise of national consciousness and solidarity, namely, geographical isolation. During historic times since the occupation of the empire in its present dimensions in the second century B. C. and until the last century A. D., China was practically cut ofT from intercourse with the other historic peoples of the world by physical barriers, the oceans and the mountains. The only im- portant people with whom China came into hostile con- tact for any considerable number of times during the 2000 years down to the middle of the nineteenth century were the Tartars from the north and northwest. Geo- graphical isolation has meant, therefore, absence of inter- national conflict. History seems to show that conflict between nations is the chief, potent condition for the rise of national consciousness and solidarity. Governmental Decentralization : The absence of inter- 115] CONCL US ION 1 1 5 national conflict also furnishes a reason for the non-ap- pearance of a powerful, aggressive, centralized national government. So long as China remained an isolated country, having enough productive land and possessions to satisfy its political ambitions, and having the natural physical barriers to protect it from foreign attack, it did not need a very strong, aggressive and centralized na- tional government. There was need only for so much of organized government as would insure the primary conditions of social well-being within the realm, such as peace, order, security of property, safety of life, and freedom for lawful pursuit of livelihood. For the assurance of these primary conditions of social well- being, decentralization of government may be just as favorable a policy as centralization, and moral authority may be more successful than authority of force, if social- ization is sufficiently advanced and the social population sufficiently homogeneous. DecentraHzation and moral authority would be preferred both for their economy and their compatibility with the purpose of organized gov- ernment in such a country. The final picture of the country would be something as follows : the country would be divided into administrative units, such as provinces, prefects and districts ; each political division would be held responsible to the next higher division for the fulfilment of certain administrative duties, but otherwise It would be semi-independent; the central government would be an organ for balancing the works of the various political units, rather than be their task- master ; the laws of the land would be Httle more than the crystallization of the customs of the nation; the peo- ple would be given great freedom and opportunities of self-government ; the government would utilize some popular national ethical system or religion as the means Il6 THE SPIRIT OF CHINESE PHILANTHROPY [ii6 of ruling the people and keeping them in their legitimate spheres of life and activity. Such has been actually the case with China until recently. Mayers, writing in 1878 says, "the central government of China, so far as a system of this nature is recognized in the existing institutions, is arranged with the object rather of registering and checking the action of the various provincial administrations, than that of assuming a direct initiative in the conduct of afifairs." ' As to the practical freedom and democracy of the Chinese nation, we have already indicated it in Chapter V. The New National Consciousness and Solidarity : In- ternational Relationships : But since the beginning of the 19th century, the conditions of the national life of China have undergone great change. Geographical isolation has disappeared on the advent of ocean steamers; China has become part of the world system of commerce and international relationships; she has measured strength with other peoples, and has compared her civilization with theirs; and so through these international, inter- racial and inter-cultural contacts, the Chinese nation has attained self-consciousness, and the national government is being consolidated and centralized. Thus Morse says : "The hammering of twenty years has welded the Empire together, and the Imperial Government was compelled, in its foreign relationships, to act as a ruler and not as a mere supervisor, and to adopt a more centralized policy."" Improved Internal Communication : Besides, new means of communication have been introduced into the country, such as railroads, steamships, and the telegraph ; and the distant parts of the empire are brought closer ' Morse, Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire, p. 53. ' Ibid., p. 55- 117] CONCLUSION iiy to one another and to the national center, the Capital; and so there is better intercourse and intelligence among the people in the different provinces and dis- tricts. Again quoting Morse : In the old days, too, the communication was slow, and two or three months might elapse before the authorities at Canton could receive a reply to their request for instructions, with the result that much must be left to the man on the spot. The in- troduction of steamers brought Canton, Nanking and Hankow, the seats of the most important viceroyalties, within a week of the Capital; and the extension of the telegraphs which directly resulted from the Russian difficulty of 1880, brought the most remote of the high provincial authorities into im- mediate touch with the central administration, and furthered the centralization which had already become established; and now the Empire is ruled from Pekin to an extent unknown while China still played the hermit.^ The New Education: There is yet another factor, which is directly fostering the growth of the spirit of nationalism. Speaking of this new factor, as awakening the people to a sense of their citizenship in the nation. Professor Bevan says: There are two forces that are welding the Chinese people and their government into a single nation, one from without and one from within. Contact with foreign nations has com- pelled the Chinese nation to assert itself as the actual govern- ing power throughout the whole empire. Increase of knowl- edge and the birth of a new ' education have brought the people to a real and truer self-realization; and this realiza- tion of self is driving the people to demand a civilization similar to the civilizations which they have discovered around '^ Morse, o/>. cit., p. 56. Il8 THE SPIRIT OF CHINESE PHILANTHROPY [ng them. On the one side, there is a movement in the direction of strengthening the central authority and drawing closer the ties between the central administration and the administra- tions of the constituent parts of the empire, while on the other side there is a demand that the people shall have a share in the making of the laws and in their carrying out when made. The central power is attempting to govern either im- mediately by itself, or indirectly through its agents more di- rectly and more closely responsible to itself. The people is trying to make its voice heard in the government councils; they are making a distinct attempt to obtain for themselves a share in the legislative and administrative functions of the empire. The Constitution is an effort to combine these two forces. 1 7he Nation- Wide Basis of Philanthropy : With the rise of national self- consciousness and solidarity, philanthropy will acquire a nation-wide basis of operation. On the one hand, the extension of social consciousness throughout the whole nation, uniting the people in all parts of the empire will extend the field of philanthropy, and facilitate its application; on the other hand, the centralization of the Government, the assumption of definite responsibil- ities and powers by it will ultimately mean a more active participation of the Government in social welfare. Al- ready we find the people of all sections of the country responding to appeals for aid of some particular section in times of misfortune with greater readiness than was obtainable ten or twenty years ago. Already, we see the Government taking up the problem of public education, and initiating other reforms. Furthermore, whereas there was estrangement between the Government and ' " The New Chinese Constitution," in China Mission Year Book, 1911. 1 1 9] CONCLUSION 119 the people formerly, there seems to be a conscious co- operation between the two now, such as has been shown in the co-operation for public education and for the suppression of opium, because it has been for the first time clearly realized that the Government and the people have identical and not variant interests. In other words, the Government is logically bound to assert itself in the promotion of the social welfare of the nation. But in so doing, it will not be so unwise as to discourage the people's activities along the same lines. Rather the Government will co-operate with the people by under- taking those works which lie beyond the power of private voluntary institutions and associations, or beyond that of particular cities, and localities, because of juristic and financial conditions, and by further developing existing undertakings of the people through financial assistance and legislative standardization. This seems to be the new ideal that is actuating the conscience of the people and the government to-day. A New National Personality : And so a new era in China's life has begun. The social consciousness which was in the past confined within the limits of minor social groups and associations and political divisions has broken forth and merged into the larger consciousness of the nation. The loyalty which people in the past gave un- conditionally to their immediate clans, localities, guilds, and provinces, has now found its proper subordination in the new alignment of allegiance to the nation. In this transition from the old to the new era, there is, therefore, a readaptation of the habits of mutual aid and co-opera- tion, trained in the social functioning and experiences of smaller associations, for the functioning and experiences of the larger association, the nation. As a historical fact, and not as a mere figure of speech, the Twentieth Gen- I20 THE SPIRIT OF CHINESE PHILANTHROPY [120 tury B. C. witnessed the birth of the Ancient China, and the Twentieth Century A. D. is witnessing the birth of the New China, — the evolution of a new National Per- sonality through new national experiences. BIBLIOGRAPHY A partial list of publications cited L. R. O. Bevan. Article: "The New Chinese Constitution," in China Mission Year Book. Shanghai, 1911. H. C. Chen. Economic Principles of Confucius and His School. N. Y., 191 1. China Review. Vols. II, III, VI. Shanghai, 1873-187S, 1877-1878. Chinese Repository. Vols. XIV, XV, XVI, XVII. Canton, 184S-1848. Chuang Tsu, Mystic, Moralist and Social Reformer. Tr, H. A. Giles. London, 1889. Decennial Reports, 1882-1892; 1892- 1901. China, Imperial Maritime Customs. Shanghai. E. T. Devine. Principles of Relief. N. Y., 1904. F. H. Giddings. Principles of Sociology. N. Y., i8g6. J. H. Grey. Walks in the City of Canton. 1875. A. E. Hecker. A Short History of Women's Rights. N. Y., 1910. Hsin Tzu. Essay on Human Nature. E. Huntington. Pulse of Asia. Boston and N. Y., 1907. F. H. King. Farmers, of Forty Centuries. Madison, Wis, 191 1. E. Legouve. Moral History of Women. Tr. from Sth Paris Ed. by J. W. Palmer. N. Y., i860. Li Ki. Collection of Treatises on the Rules of Propriety or Cere- monial Usages. Tr. J. Legge, in " Texts of Confucianism,'' Sacred Books of the East, ed. F. Max MuUer. Vols. XXVII, XXVIII. Oxford, 1885. Liu Hsian. Lives of Virtuous Women. Mencius. Tr. J. Legge, in Chinese Classics, and Ed. Rev. Vol. II. Oxford, 1895. S. Merwins. Drugging a Nation. N. Y., 1908. H. B. Morse. Gilds of China. N. Y., 1909. Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire. London, 1908. J. L. Nevius. China and the Chinese. N. Y., 1869. E. H. Parker. China, Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce. Lon- don, 1901. China, Past and Present. London, 1903. Studies in Chinese Religion. N. Y., 1910. E. A. Ross. Changing Chinese. N. Y., 191 1. 121] 121 122 BIBLIOGRAPHY [122 A. H. Smith. Village Life in China. A Study in Sociology. N. Y., 1899. H. Spencer. Principles of Biology. Principles of Ethics. N. Y., 1904. Ta Tsing Lett Lee, Being the Fundamental Laws and a Selection from the Supplementary Statutes of the Penal Code of China. Tr. G. T. Staunton. London, 1810. To-i-lu. Rules and Regulations of Benevolent Institutions. 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[105] Ohio Politics during the Civil War Period. By George H. Porter, Ph.D. Price, $1.75. 3. [106] The Territorial Basis of Government under the State Constitutions. By Alfred Zantzingbr Reed, Ph.D. Price, f 1.75. VOLUME XLI, 1911. 514 pp. Price, cloth, $3.50 ; paper covers, $3.00. [107] JSfew Jersey as a Royal Province. By Edgar Jacob Fisheb, Ph. D. VOLUME XLII, 1911. 400 pp. Price, cloth, $3.00; paper covers, $2.50. [lOS] Attitude of American Courts In Labor Cases. By George Gorham Groat, Ph.D. VOLUME XLni, 1911. 633 pp. Price, cloth, $4.50. 1. [109] 'Industrial Causes of Congestion of Population In Sfevr Tork City. By Edward Cwing Pratt, Ph.D. Price, $2.00. 2. [1101 Education and the Mores. By F. Stuart Chapin, Ph.D. Price, 75 cents 3. [Ill] The British Consuls In the Confederacy. By Milledgs L. Bonhak, Jr., Ph.D. Price, $2.00. VOLUMES XLIV and XLV. 1911. 745 pp. Price for the two volumes, cloth, $6.00 ; paper covers, $5.00. [lis and. 113] The Economic Principles of Contnclns and his School. By Chkn Huan-Chang, Ph.D. VOLUME XL VI, 1911-1912. 623 pp. Price, cloth, $4.50. 1. [114] The Rlcardlan Socialists. By Esthhr Lowewthal, Ph.D. Price, Ji.oo. 8. £115] Ibrahim Pasha, Grand Vizier of Snlelman, the Masnlflcent. By Hbster Donaldson Jenkins, Ph.D. Pnce, $i.oo. 3. [116] *The Labor Movement In Prance. A Study of French Syndicalism. By L.OU1S Lbvine, Ph.D. Price, f z.50. 4. [117] AHoosier Village. Bt Newell Lekoy Sims. JPrice, 51.50. VOLUME XLVn, 1912. 544 pp. Price, cloth. $4.00. 1. [118] The Politics of Michigan, 1865-1878. By Harriette M.Dilla, Ph. D. Price, $2.00. a. [119] *The United States Beet-Sugar Industry and the Tariff. By Roy G. Blakey, PhD. Price, $z.oo. VOLUME XLVin, 1912. 480 pp. Price, cloth, $4.00 1. [130] Isldor of Seville. By Ernest Beehaut, Ph. D. Price, f2.tx. 8. riSl] Progress and TTnlformlty In Chlld-Iiabor Legislation. By William Fielding Ogburn, Ph.D. Price, $1.75. VOLUME XLIX, 1912. 592 pp. Price, cloth, $4.50. 1. [132J British Radicalism 1791-1797. By Walter Phelps Hall. Price, $2.00. 3. [133] A'Comparatlve Study of the La-w of Corporations. By Arthur K. KuHH, Ph.D. Price |i 50. 3, [1S4] The Negro at TVork In New York City. By George E. Haynes, Ph.D. Price, ^x.25. VOLUME L, 1912. 1. [135] The Spirit of Chinese PhUanthrophy. By Yai Yde Tsn, Ph.D. Price, $i.oo. 3. [136] The Allen in China. By Vi Kydin Wellington Koo. {In press) VOLUME LI, 1912. 4to. Atlas. Price; cloth, $1.50; Paper covers. $1.00 1. [137] The Sale of Liquor in the Sonth. By Leonard S. Blakey, Ph.D. VOLU]y[E LH, 1912. 1. [138] *Provlnclal and Xiocal Taxation In Canada. By Solomon Vinbberg, Ph.D. Price, fi.50. The price for each separate monograph la for paper-covered copiee; separate monographs marked*, can be supplied bound In cloth, for BOc. additional. All prices are net. 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