1 ff O O CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 1924 086 99 548 DATE DUE _JAN__?7 YVlif^ gMipiPKIBIRK'V^^"*'''*****'' tsxn ^ ^ . -»w. GAYLORD PRINTED IN U.SA Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924086199548 This replacement volume is produced in compliance with current copyright law on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39.48- 1992 to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. This volume was reformatted as a part of a cooperative project to preserve archaeological reports undertaken by Cornell University Library, Columbia University Libraries, and the New York Public Library. Funding for this project was provided by the New York State Program for the Conservation and Preservation of Library Research Materials. 1999 THE MUMMY aonbon: C. J. CLAY and SONS, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AVE MARIA LANE. (iambtiUjic : DEIGHTON, BELL AND CO. Heipjig: F. A. BROCKHAUS. J^cfa gorii: MACMILLAN AND CO. THE MUMMY CHAPTERS ON EGYPTIAN FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY BY E. A. WALLIS BUDGE, Litt.D., F.S.A., ACTING ASSISTANT-KEEPER IN THE DEPARTMENT OF EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES, BRITISH MUSEUM WITH EIGHTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1893 [All Rights reserved] / v.; PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY M.A. AND SONS AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS from plates prepared by Messrs Harkison & Sons, London. DEDICATED TO JOHN PEILE, LiTT.D., MASTER OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE A MARK OF GRATITUDE AND REGARD PREFACE. The chapters contained in this book were originally written to form the Introdttction to the Catalogue of the Egyptian Collection in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, which I wrote for the Syndics of that institution ; they are intended to supply the information necessary for under- standing the object and use of the antiquities described therein. In the hope, however, that they may be of service to all such as are interested in the antiquities of Egypt, it has been decided to publish them in a separate form. The monuments and remains of ancient Egypt preserved in the great museums of Europe and Egypt are chiefly of a sepulchral character, and we owe them entirely to the belief of the Egyptians that the soul would at some period revivify the body, and to the care, consequent on this belief, with which they embalmed the bodies of their dead, so that they might resist the action of decay, and be ready for the return of the soul. The preservation of the embalmed body, or mummy, was the chief end and aim of every Egyptian who wished for everlasting life. For the sake of the mummy's safety tombs were hewn, papyri were inscribed with com- position.s, the knowledge of which would enable him to repel the attacks of demons, ceremonies were performed and services were recited ; for the sake of the comfort of the mummy and his ka, or genius, the tombs were decorated with scenes which would remind him of those with which he was familiar when upon earth, and they were also provided with many objects used by him in daily life, so that his tomb VI PREFACE. might resemble as much as possible his old home. Following up the idea that the mummy is the most important of all objects, I have given an account of the various methods of embalming ; of the amulets and other objects which formed the mummy's dress ; of the various kinds of coffins and sarcophagi in which he was laid ; of the ushabtiu and other figures, stelse, vases, etc., which formed the furniture of a well appointed tomb : and also of the most important classes of tombs hewn or built in different dynasties. In the series of articles which form this account I have given the information which the experience gained from the service of some years in the British Museum has shown me to be the most needed both by those who, though possessing no special knowledge of Egyptian antiquities, are yet greatly interested in them, and by those who have formed, or who are about to form, Egyptian collections. Frequent reference has been made to the great national collection in the British Museum because the an- tiquities there are accessible to all. With a view of applying the facts stated in these articles to a particular case, an account of an Egyptian funeral beginning with the process of mummifying the body and ending with its deposit in the tomb has been added. In the somewhat lengthy chapter on the Rosetta Stone, the evidence of the principal Greek writers on Egyptian hieroglyphics is brought together. The statement of the facts connected with the history of Egyptian decipherment, as well as the extracts from the papers on this subject col- lected by Leitch in his edition of the Miscellaneoics Works by the late Thomas Young, London, 1855, and by Dean Peacock in his Life of Tlwmas Young, London, 1855, seems to show that the labours of Akerblad and Young were of more importance than is usually attributed to them ; the views of Egyptologists quoted at the end of that chapter will indicate the prevailing opinion of experts on this matter. E. A. WALLIS BUDGE. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE The Pyramid of Medum . . . , . . . 12 Statue of Chephren . . . . . . . . 13 The Shekh el-Beled 16 The entrance to the tombs at Beni-hasan .... 20 The Colossi at Thebes 35 Seti I. in battle 39 Rameses II. when a child ....... 41 The Rosetta Stone inscribed in honour of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes ......... 108 Egyptian Funeral Procession. I. From the Papyrus of Ani . 168 Egyptian Funeral Procession. II. From the Papyrus of Ani . 170 View of the Coffin Chamber . . . . . . .172 Mummy of Artemidorus . . . . . .186 "Canopic"Jar 196 Ushabti figure of the Scribe Pa-mer-ahu . . . .211 Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure with stand for holding a portion of a mummied body or papyrus . . . . . .215 Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure which held the papyrus of Anhai, a priestess of Amen, about B.C. 900 ..... 216 Stele of Antef, son of Amen-set . . . , . .218 Egyptian gods :— Amen-Ra ......... 269 Amsu .......... 269 Ra 270 Heru(Horu^) 222 fieru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates) . . . . . .271 Chensu . . . . . . . . .271 Chensu Nefer-hetep 272 Atmu .,,,.<,„.,, 272 I.rST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Egyptian gods {continued) : — Nefer-Atmu . Ptah . Ptah-Tatenen I-em-hetep (Imouthis) Chnemu (Chnoumis) Chepera Tehuti (Thoth) . Set . . . Ausar (Osiri s) Ausetjlsis)_ . Nebt-het (Nephthys) Anpu (Anubis) SIiu . Hapi (Nile) . Hapi (Apis) . Ur-mer (Mnevis Bull) Mestha Hapi . Tuamautef . Qebhsennuf . Sati Anqet . Sebek . An-heru Bes . . . Bast Net (Neith) . Mut . Maat . Het-Hem (Hathor) Shu lifting Nut from Seb Nut . Seb Serq (Selk) Maahes Seker . Ta-urt (Thoueris) Sefech-Aabu . Sphinx . , 273 273 274 274 27s 27s 275 277 277 278 278 280 280 28r 281 283 283 284 284 284 285 285 286 286 287 289 290 290 291 291 292 293 293 294 29s 295 296 296 298 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. IX The lady Nai Woman kneading bread The Scribe Kha-f-Ra . Limestone statue Statue of Ti . Statue of Ra-nefer Section of the Tomb of Rameses 11. Plan of the Tomb of Rameses II. Three Mastabas at Gizeh Entrance to a Mastaba at Sakkarah Plan of a Mastaba with four serdabs Longitudinal section of a Mastaba Transverse section of a Mastaba . Transverse section at the bottom of a serdab Upper chamber, pit and sarcophagus chamber of Mastaba at Gizeh with double pit Figures in relief in a Mastaba at Gizeh . West wall of a chamber in the tomb of Ptah-hetep Winnowing wheat Netting wild fowl Bakers making bread ..... Cattle on the march The Great Pyramid and the three small Pyramids Section of the Pyramid of Cheops at Gizeh . MaS' taba PAGE 302 303 3=4 3°4 305 3°5 316 316 317 317 317 318 318 319 320 321 322 323 326 326 327 327 329 333 CONTENTS. -*>€>- PAGE. 1-6 7 lo 11-64 65 The Egyptian Race and Language The Land of Egypt Egyptian Chronology The History of Egypt, Dynasties L-XXX. „ Persian Rulers of Egypt „ Macedonian Rulers of Egypt ... ... 65 ,, The Ptolemies ... ... ... ... 66 „ The Romans ... ... ... ... 67 „ The Byzantines ... ... ... ... 68 ., The Muhammadans ... ... ... 68 List of Egyptian Dynasties and the dates assigned to them by Egyptologists ... ... ... ... ... ... 69 List of Nomes of Upper and Lower Egypt ... ... 7o-7S List of the Cartouches of the Principal Egyptian Kings 76-107 The Rosetta Stone : — Greek writers on hieroglyphics, Hecataeus, Hellanicus, Democritus, Herodotus ... ... ... ... 112 Diodorus, Strabo, Chaeremon, John Tzetzes, Hermapion, Clement of Alexandria, Porphyry, Horapollo... ... X13 Labours of Kircher and Jablonski... ... ... ... 125 Young and ChampoUion and their successors ... ... 127 Young's hieroglyphic alphabet ... ... ... ... 141 ChampoUion's method of obtaining a hieroglyphic alphabet... ... ... ... ... ... ... 145 Opinions of Egyptologists on the labours of Young and Champolhon 148-152 Modern hieroglyphical literature ... ... ... ... 153 An Egyptian Funeral 153-173 Mummy, Methods of Mummifying ... 173-189 Mummy Cloth and Akhmim Embroideries ... ... ... 189 Canopic Jars and the inscriptions upon them 194 Chests for Canopic Jars 201 The Book of the Dead 203 xii CONTENTS. Pillows Ushabtiu figures ... Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures... Sepulchral Boxes Funereal Cones or models of Loaves of Bread... Stel» Vases Objects fiDr the Toilet, Mirrors, Tweezers, Hair-pins, Combs, Fans, A'(?/^/-pots, Oils Necklaces, Rings, Bracelets, etc. Scarabs. Their signification. Funereal, ornamental and his- torical scarabs. Texts engraved on scarabs. Scarabs of Amenophis III. Phoenician Scarabs. Scarabs found at lalysos, Kamiros, Tharros, Arban, Babylon, etc. Scarabs used by Gnostics ... ... ... ... ... ... 231 Amulets : — The Buckle or Tie di — Hieroglyphic texts ... ... 256 The Tet ^ PAGE. 210 211 215 216 218 218 222 225 230 259 The Vulture V\ 260 The Collar ^^ 260 The Papyrus Sceptre jj ... ... ,.. ... ... 261 The Pillow^ 261 The Heart 1^ ... ... ... ... ... ... 262 The Anck^ 263 The Z7/f/4a/ ^; 263 TheM/er T 264 The Sam 1 264 The Horizon cQj 264 The S/ien Q ... ... ... ... 264 The Crown of the North V/ ■■- •■• ... ... 265 „ „ South/) 265 The Meftaf ^ 265 CONTENTS. XUl PAGE. The Cartouche c 3 1 ... ... ... ... ... 265 TheM/ta\j^ 265 The Serpent's Head 1^:3 265 The Disk and Plumes )(( ... ... ... ... 265 The Frog ^ 265 The Staircase j/J ... ... ... ... ... ... 266 Tiie Fingers ... ... ... ... ... ... 266 Figures of the Gods : — Amen-Ea [l^^^^^^^Ji 268 Amsu ^^ 270 ^'^°S, - Heru (Horus) V^ (Jf 271 Menthu-Ra '^^^^^ s=3 %^ ° _^ 271 Heru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates) ^^ A^ f^ wf ■ • ■ ■ • ■ ^ 7 ' Chensu (Chonsu) ® B^^ 272 AtmuO^|\%>J 272 Ptah°§J^ 273 Ptah-Seker-Ausar H '^^^=^ H J) 274 i-em-hetep (Imouthis) ^ ^\ ^ ^ ^ 274 Chnemu (Chnoumis) Q ^ y> j} 275 Tehuti (Thoth) ^^ 276 S^^Pal ^" Ausar (Osiris) AS^ 277 Auset (Isis) jj ^ il 279 Nebt-het (Nephthys) "n ^ J 279 CONTENTS. Anpu (Anubis) (j ^ ^^ Apuat V ^^^ I □ X Q I I Shu ^M Hapi(theNile)§— ^^ J Hapi (Apis) I ^ Ausar-Hapi (Serapis) r] J] Mnevis "^^ m ^^ ^ Mestha^]y Hapi A 1 1 I Tuamautef -^ Qebhsennuf If J |1 Sati *|p \\ and Anqet Sebek A Bes Sechet *-S§l Menhit r"-^"^ P .)l Mut ^^ ■k Nit(Neith)^^. Maat Het-heru (Hathor) (^ | A D Nu ODD and Nut The four children of Horus PAGF. 279 280 280 2»2 282 282 283 283 284 285 285 289 289 289 290 290 293 CONTENTS. XV Seb M ■ ■ Serq(Selk) p"^3SPs| Maahes Neheb-lca;^yU Seker ' Ta-urt (Thoueris) ^=^ Figures of Animals, etc., sacred to the gods ; Ape Hippopotamus Cow Lion Sphinx Bull Ram Cat Jackal Hare Hippopotamus Hedgehog ... Shrew-mouse Stag Ichneumon ... Crocodile ... Vulture Hawk Ibis Oxyrhynchus Phagrus... Fishes -{ Latus Silurus ... _ Lepidotus Frog Toad Scorpion Uraeus Beetle PAGE. 294 294 294 297 297 298 298 298 298 299 299 299 299 299 290 299 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 301 301 301 XVI CONTENTS. Figures of Kings and Private Persons Coffins Sarcophagi Egyptian Tombs : — Mastabas Pyramids Theban Tombs Egyptian Writing Materials : — The Papyrus Palette Reeds and Ink Egyptian Writing ; — Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic Coptic Writing and Language Mummies of Animals, Reptiles, Birds, and Fishes : — Apis Bull Antelope Cat ... Crocodile Shrew-mouse Ichneumon Ibis ... Hawk Frog Toad Scorpion Beetle Snake Fish ... Cippi of Horns The Egyptian Months, and Arabic Egyptian and Coptic Numbers A List of Common Hieroglyphic Characters A List of Common Determinatives and their names, in Coptic, Greek, PAGP 3OJ 306 310 328 343 349 350 352 353 356 356 356 356 356 356 357 357 357 357 357 357 357 357 358 363 364 366 375 THE HISTORY OF EGYPT/ The date of the period when the land of Egypt was taken Antiquity possession of by the race of people which we are accustomed Egyptians to call Egyptian is unknown. None of the researches which have been carried on by historians, philologists, anthropolo- gists and archaeologists has, up to the present, given us any information from which we may reasonably hope to arrive at a decision as to the time when this event took place. And just as we know nothing of the period of the advent of the invaders, so also we know nothing of the aboriginal people whom we may assume they found living there when they arrived. The Egyptian aborigines are thought by some to have been a dark-skinned race, and to have belonged to the negro family. Whatever may be the truth on these points, it is pretty clear that no traces of their works or buildings have come down to us, and as skulls belonging to their time have not been found, any statement as to their race characteristics must be based on pure assumption. About the race to which the Egyptian known to us from mummies and statues belongs and his characteristics, there is ' Among the books which derive their information about the history of Egypt from native sources, and are all important for the study of Egyptian History, must be mentioned: — Champollion-Figeac, Egypie Annenne, Paris, 1839; Rosellini, Monumniti Storici, Pisa, 1832-1844; Bunsen, Aegyptens Stelle in der Wellgeschichte, Gotha, 1844-1857 (English translation with -supplementary addi- tions by the late Dr. Birch, Vols. 1-5, London, 1857) ; Lepsius, Chronohgie der Aegypter, Berlin, 1849; Lepsius, Konigsbuch, Berlin, 1858; Brugsch, Geschichte Aegyptens, Leipzig, 1859 (English translation by Danby Seymour and Philip Smith, B.A., 2 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1881) ; Tiirch, Egypt from the earliest Times to B.C. 300, London, 1880; Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschichte, Gotha, 1884 ; Meyer, Geschichte des alien Aegyptens, Berlin, 1887, with Einleitjing. Geographie des alien Aegyptens, Schrift und Sprache seiner BcTvohner, by Dumichen; and Mariette, Aper(u de PHisioire Ancienne d! Egypie, Paris, 1867. Interesting and popular works on this subject are contained in Maspero, Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de V Orient, 1st ed., 1875, and Lenormant, Histoire Ancienne de rOrient, Paris, 1882. , B. M. B 2 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Asia the no doubt whatever. He was a Caucasian, and it would seem home of th^* ^^ came to Egypt from an original home in Asia. He the wandered, or was driven, forth from there, and travelling in a Egyptians. , , , ,. ' . - , ^ south-westerly or westerly direction, after a number of years arrived at a place to the north of the Red Sea, probably the Isthmus of Suez, the " bridge of nations." Of the time occupied by the immigrant in making his way from Asia to Egypt nothing can be said ; it is quite certain, however, that when he arrived he brought a high civilization with him. Following the statement of Diodorus Siculus,^ it was the fashion some years ago to state in books of history that the ancient Egyptian was a negro, and some distinguished historians still make the statement that "the fundamental character of the Egyptian in respect of physical type, language, and tone of thought, is Nigritic."^ That neither the Egyptian nor his civilization is of Nigritic origin is proved by the inscriptions and by the evidence of an ever-increasing number of starues of kings, and of high officials in their service, who lived during the earliest times of the rule of the invaders over Egypt. Prof. Owen's opinion on this subject is as follows : " Taking the Evidence sum of the correspondence notable in collections of skulls and Mi-^ from Egj'ptian graveyards as a probable indication of the tiquities. hypothetical primitive race originating the civilized conditions of cranial departure from the skull-character of such race, that race was certainly not of the Australioid type, is more suggestive of a northern Nubian or Berber basis. But such suggestive characters maybe due to intercourse or 'admix- ture' at periods later than [the] XHIth dynasty; they are not present, or in a much less degree, in the skulls, features, and physiognomies of individuals of from the Hlrd to the Xllth dynasties."^ If the pure ancient Egyptian, as found in mummies and represented in paintings upon the tombs, be compared with the negro, we shall find that they are abso- lutely unlike in every particular. The negro is prognathous, but the Egyptian is orthognathous ; the bony structure of the ' Bk. iii. 3. 1. (ed. Didot, p. 128). ^ G. Rawlinson, Aiuient Egypt, 1887, p. 24. ^Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. IV. p. 239. EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE. 3 negro is heavier and stronger than that of the Egyptian ; the Features hair of the negro is crisp and woolly, while that of the Eayptian. Egyptian is smooth and fine. The Egyptian was usually of slender build, with broad shoulders, sinewy arms and legs, and long hands and feet. His head was small, with large eyes, full cheeks, broad mouth, lips inclined to be full, and square chin. The nose was short and not aquiline. It will be observed, too, that if we add that the Egyptian was dark complexioned, the above particulars will agree very well with their general description by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxii. i6, 23) : " Homines autem Aegyptii plerique subfusculi sunt et atrati ^ magis quam maesti oris, gracilenti et aridi, ad singulos motus excandescentes " When an Egyptian had an aquiline nose, it indicated that he had Semitic blood in his veins ; the aquiline nose was hardly ever met with in Upper Egypt.2 But it is quite as impossible to show that the Egyptian was a Semite, as some have attempted to do, as that he was a negro. The language of the Egyptian as known to us by the Opinions inscriptions which he left behind him belongs wholly neither "„ ^^° "^ to the Indo-European nor to the Semitic family of languages, affinity of The only known language which it resembles is Coptic, and this is now pretty well understood to be a dialect of the language of the hieroglyphics. Benfey' endeavoured to show that the Egyptian had sprung from a Semitic stock, and De Rougd,^ Ebers and Brugsch^ have followed in his steps. ' See also Herodotus, ii. 104. ^ Here and elsewhere I have reproduced passages from my Prefatory Remarks 071 the unrolling the Mummy of Bak-ran, privately printed, London, 1890. See Ebers, Aegypten und die Biicher Moses, i. p. 46 ff. and Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geichichte, p. 25. ' The whole of the facts which favour the theory that the Egyptian is allied to the Semitic languages are collected in his work Ueber das Verhdltniss der Aegyptischen Sprache zum Semitischen Sprachstamme, Leipzig, 1844. ■* Memoire sur Vinscription du tombeau d'Ahmes, p. 195. " gt presque toujours un fait curieux a ete mis en evidence, i savoir, que la gramiiiaire de la langue antique se rapproche bien plus decidement des caracteres propres aux idiomes semitiques. " ' Worterbuch, I. Vorrede, ss. 9-12. " Es steht mir namlich fest, dass die altagyptische Sprache, d. h. die alteste Gestaltung derselben, im Semitischen wurzelt und dass wir von hieraus alle jene Erscheinungen zu erklaren haben, welche sonst ohne jede Ausflosung dastehen wiiiden." B 2 4 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. Barthelemy, de Guignes, Giorgi, de Rossi and Kopp pro- claimed unhesitatingly the identity of Coptic with Hebrew,' but Quatrem^re in his Recherches critiques et historiques sur la langiie et la litter ature de VEgypte, p. i6, declared that Coptic was without affinity with any other language, and that it was a mother tongue. Dr. Lepsius tried to show by the names of the numerals and alphabets that the Indo-European, Semitic and Coptic families of languages were originally identical,^ and Schwartze ^ asserted that Coptic was analogous to the Semitic languages in its grammar, and to the Indo-European languages by its roots ; but that it was more akin to the Semitic languages in its simple character and lack of logical structure. Bunsen and Paul de Lagarde thought that the Egyptian language represented a pre-historic layer of Semi- tism, and tried to show that the forms and the roots of the ancient Egyptian could be explained neither by Aryan nor Semitic singly, but by both of these families together, and that they formed in some way the transition from one to the other.* Stern in his Koptische Grammatik, p. 4, says : — " Es besteht eine alte Verwandtschaft zwischen der aegypti- schen, welche dem hamitischen Stamme angehort, und den semitischen Sprachen, wie sich unverkennbar noch in der pronominalbildung und in manchen gemeinsamen Wurzeln zeigt ; doch scheint sich das aegyptische von den asiatischen Schwestern friih getrennt zu haben und seinen eigenen Weg gegangen zu sein Die allgemeine Stammverwandtschaft der beiden Sprachen ist durch weitgehende Lautverschiebun- gen und Veranderungen verdeckt." Prof W. Wright thought that " we have not a few structural affinities, which may perhaps be thought sufficient to justify those linguists who hold that Egyptian is a relic of the earliest age of Semitism, or of Semitic speech as it was before it passed into the peculiar form in which we maybe said to know it historically." (Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, p. 34.) ' Renan, Histoire G^nh-ale des Langues Semitiques, p. 80. ^ Ueber den Ursprung und die Verwandtschaft der ZahhvSrter in der Indo- Germanischen, Semitischen und Koplischen Sprctche, Berlin, 1S36. ^ Das alte Aegypten, pp. 976, 1033. ■* Renan, op. cit., p. 82. EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE. 5 Quite recently Dr. Erman has discussed' the question of the affinity of the language of the hieroglyphics with the Semitic dialects, and he is of opinion that a relationship undoubtedly exists. To support this view he prints a list of Egyptian words with what he and I believe to be their Semitic equivalents, and he thinks that the number of such words might be considerably increased if we were able to recover the radicals which are hidden in their hieroglyphic forms. His arguments are carefully thought out and his facts ably put together, and he has made an important contri- bution towards the settlement of a difficult subject. On the other hand Renan, Max Miiller, and others, do not admit the connexion between Egyptian and the Semitic languages in any way whatever. Renan does not seek to deny that the proposed relationships between Coptic and Semitic dictionaries have something seductive about them, but he cannot admit that they form any scientific proof ; he considers them to be accidents rather than organic analogies, as shown by the following list : — ^ Egyptian. Coptic Sing. I. [I dnuk I «i.noK AAAAAA „ 2. m. Q g entttk thou ftOOK „ 2. f. ^ entut thou itOO ,, 3. m. "^^ ^ entyf he ftOOC| /VV\AAA „ 3. f. <^ (g entus she ftOOC Hebrew. n]n« for nri3« ^,,::_^\ an/a iriN for in?« ^\ a?iti ' Z.D.M.G., BandXLVI. pp. 93-129. ^ See however Wright {Comparative Grammar, p. 33), "An examination of the Coptic alone readily suggests several considerations in support of this view [i.e., that Egyptian is descended from the same stock as the Semitic languages]. For example, there is the marvellous similarity, almost amounting to identity, of the personal pronouns, both separate and suffixed — a class of words which languages of radically different families are not apt to Ijorrow from one another ' FUNKREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Egyptian. Plur. Coptic. enen we «l.noit Hebrew. T /•A'VA/VN I I I 2. ^tv ->A/wv> £«/«/^;z you ftetoxen QJjiISi for Djn?^ 3. ^TVi ««/M they neoooif Egyptian and Coptic. :^i^ ^ antuvi Egyptian and "Ha- mitic." The identity of the pronouns, and especially the manner in which they are treated in the two groups of languages, he considers a remarkable fact, and goes on to say that this identity is observed even in the details which seem the most secondary. Several apparent irregularities of the Semitic pronoun, as for example, the changing of the T\ into "T in the affix, even find in the theory of the Coptic pronoun a satis- factory explanation. The analogies of the nouns of number pointed out by Lepsius are not less striking, for example : — Egyptian. Ill sen. Coptic. two crt-l-nf (masc.) D^i^ttj /.a mer-ur, " great Moeris IS /V*AA/sA water." The Birket el-Kurun to the west of the Fayyiam was originally identified with Lake Moeris, but both it and the famous Labyrinth were situated in the eastern part of the district. The Labyrinth was also built by Amenemhat III., and is said by Herodotus (ii. 148) to have contained twelve courts, six facing the north, and six the south, and three thousand rooms: fifteen hundred above ground, and fifteen hundred below. In Egyptian it was called the "temple at the mouth of the Lake " <=■ "^^ "^P" \ '^ ^ ^i^^, and the stone EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 23 for building it seems to'have been brought from the Valley of Hammamat. The copper mines in the mountains of Sinai were diligently worked during this reign. Amenemhat IV. reigned conjointly with his sister Sebek- 2266 neferu, and beyond continuing the mining operations of his ancestors he seems to have done nothing. We may see in collecting the results of the rule of the Xllth dynasty over Power of Egypt, that its kings had extended their sway about 250 ^^^\j"i, miles south of the first cataract, and that they had lost dynasty, nothing of their possessions either in the eastern desert or in the Sinaitic peninsula. Mighty public works like the Laby- rinth and Lake Moeris had been successfully carried out, an active trade was carried on with the natives of Punt, and with the country to-day called Syria, and with the districts further east. Agriculture flourished, and the whole land was in a most prosperous condition. And if the living were well cared for, the dead were no less so. The tombs built for high Beauty of officials and gentlemen attest the care of the sorrowing ^^^j'^f relatives, while the sculptures and paintings employed to Xllth adorn them indicate that the artistic knowledge of the ^^^ ^' Egyptians had arrived at a very high pitch. Dynasties XIII-XVII. According to Manetho these dynasties were as follows : — Dynasty XIII, from Thebes, 60 kings in 453 years The XIV, „ chois, 76 „ „ 484 .. ^i^:;L7i „ XV, HyksOS, 6 „ „ 260 „ Kings." XVI, Hyksos, 10 „ „ 251 „ „ XVII, from Thebes, 10 „ „ 10 „ There are no monuments by which these figures can be checked, and there is no other authority for them besides Manetho. The Turin papyrus gives traces of 136 names for the period corresponding to that of the Xlllth and XlVth dynasties. Among the rulers of the Xlllth and XlVth dynasties were many who were not of royal descent. Se- mench-ka is known to us by his statues found at Tanis, and according to Mariette he seems to have been an officer who rebelled and then seated himself on the throne. Sebek- 24 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYrT. hetep II. was the son of a private individual, and Nefer- hetep's parents appear not to have been royal. This latter king built largely at Abydos, and as a worshipper of the local gods he is represented at Konosso and the islands of the first cataract. Of Sebek-hetep III., brother of Sebek- hetep II., Sebek-hetep IV., and Sebek-hetep V. little is known ; of Sebek-hetep VI. the best memorials are the rock tombs at Asyut. The names of many kings belonging to this period are known from the monuments, but a greater knowledge of the history of that time is necessary for arranging them in chronological order. It seems pretty certain that few of the kings reigned many years, and that the country was divided into a number of little states which were always at war with each other, and against whomsoever was king. Such a condition of things was, of course, highly favourable for a foreign invader, who would naturally be attracted by reports of the wealth of Egypt. The hardy tribes of desert dwellers, Semites and others, who crowded on the eastern and western borders of Egypt, delayed not to take advantage of the distracted and divided state of the Attacks of country, and making a successful attack on the north-east the Semites provinces of the Delta, they pressed in, and having taken upon the , r -nr t • t <- T^ rr-i Delta. possession of JVIemphis, became masters of Egypt. Their attack would probably be rendered less difficult by the fact that a great many of the inhabitants of the Delta were of Semitic origin, their ancestors having settled there in the Xllth dynasty, and their opposition to their kinsmen would be, in consequence, less stubborn. The sole authority for the Manetho history of this invasion is Josephus, who, quoting Manetho, "H*k " ^^y^' " There was a king of ours, whose name was Timaus. Under him it came to pass, I know not how, that God was averse to us, and there came, after a surprising manner, men of ignoble birth out of the eastern parts, and had boldness enough to make an expedition into our country, and with ease subdued it by force, yet without our hazarding a battle with them. So when they had gotten those that governed us under their power, they afterwards burnt down our cities, and demolished the temples of the gods, and used all the inhabitants after a most barbarous manner : nay, some they EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 2$ slew, and led their children and their wives into slavery. At length they made one of themselves king, whose name was Salatis ; he also lived at Memphis, and made both the upper and lower regions pay tribute, and left garrisons in places that were the most proper for them. He chiefly aimed to secure the eastern parts, as foreseeing that the Assyrians, who "Hyksns" had there the greatest power, would be desirous of that king- ^"^^' dom and invade them ; and as he found in the Saite [Seth- roite] Nomos a city very proper for his purpose, and which lay upon the Bubastic channel, but with regard to a certain theologic notion was called Avaris, this he rebuilt, and made very strong by the walls he built about it, and by a most numerous garrison of two hundred and forty thousand armed men whom he put into it to keep it. Thither Salatis came in summer time, partly to gather his corn and pay his soldiers their wages, and partly to exercise his armed men, and thereby to terrify foreigners. When this man had reigned thirteen years, after him reigned another whose name was Beon for forty-four years ; after him reigned another, called Apachnas, thirty-six years and seven months : after him Apophis reigned sixty-one years, and then Jonias fifty years and one month; after all these reigned Assis forty-nine years and two months. " And these six were the first rulers among them, who were Manetho all along making war with the Egyptians, and were very ^eriration desirous gradually to destroy them to the very roots. This of whole nation was styled Hycsos, that is, ' Shepherd-kings ' ; ^ ^°~' for the first syllable Hyc, according to the sacred dialect, denotes a king, as is Sos, a shepherd — but this according to the ordinary dialect ; and of these is compounded Hycsos : but some say that these people were Arabians." Now, in another copy it is said, that this word does not denote kings, but on the contrary, denotes Captive Shepherds, and this on account of the particle Hyc ; for that Hyc, with the aspiration, in the Egyptian tongue again denotes SHEPHERDS, and that ex- pressly also ; and this to me seems the more probable opinion, and more agreeable to ancient history. [But Manetho goes on] : — " These people whom we have before named kings, and called shepherds also, and their descendants," 26 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. as he says, "kept possession of Egypt five hundred and eleven years." ^ On the whole it seems that these observations of Manetho are correct. Of Salatis, the first Hyksos king, nothing is known historically, and there are no monuments known which can correctly be asserted to be the work of the kings of the first Hyksos dynasty. The country from which The the Hyksos came, also, is unknown. Some Egyptologists Kings. "^"^ consider the Hyksos to be Cushites, and some think they are to be identified with the Accadians; others, again, believe them to be Phoenicians or Semites. The features of the statues that have come down to us which are attributed to the Hyksos, have the following characteristics : The eyes are comparatively small, the nose is broad but aquiline, the cheek bones are prominent and the cheeks thick, the mouth is broad, the lips thick, and the chin protrudes slightly. From these facts some have stated decidedly that the Hyksos cannot have been Semites, but it must be proved that the monuments attributed to the Hyksos were really made by them, before this question can be considered to be definitively disposed of Of the two meanings of the name Hyksos put forth by Josephus, the first being Manetho's explanation, and the second that of Josephus, based on another copy of Manetho's work seen by him, the former seems to be the more correct, and we may perhaps give the Egyptian ||S- J^iM^flP J,^j -^-?--/^^^-^, as an equivalent of "Hyksos." **• ^^^ Shaasu are a well known enemy of Egypt, who came from the deserts east and north-east of Egypt, and " Hequ-shaasu " or " princes of the Shaasu " would be a name such as we might expect the Egyptians to bestow upon the invaders, just as they spoke of Heq Chetu, " Prince of Cheta." The kings belonging to this period, made known to us by the Egyptian monuments, are Apepa I., Apepa H., and Nubti. Of Apepa I. very little is known, but of Apepa II. a number of monuments remain, and among others one which records the submission to him of a number of Ethiopian tribes. Bar-Hebraeus relates that there " reigned in Egypt the fourth king of the Shepherds called Apapus, fourteen years. ' Josephus, Contra Afion, i. 14, translated by Whistoii, p. 610. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 2/ It was this king who dreamed dreams, and who made Joseph Joseph in ruler — according to the writings of Chaldeans — and it "^^^ ' seems that these kings were called " Shepherd Kings " because of Joseph's brethren." ^ It is known from a granite stele ^ found at Tani.s, a city formerly inhabited by the Apepa kings, that the four hundredth year from the reign of Nubti fell in the reign of Rameses II. Dr. Birch/ Wiedemann* and other Egyptologists, compare this period of 400 years with the 430 years of the bondage of Israel in Egypt, and, as Israel in the Exodus probably took place during the reign of the ^^^P'- immediate successor of Rameses II., we may assume that the statement of Bar-Hebraeus was based on some trustworthy tradition. It has also been pertinently remarked that it would be easier for Joseph to hold high office under the Shepherd Joseph and kings than under the rule of an ancient hereditary aristocracy. ^ d ^^ The Shepherd kings worshipped a god called Sut or Sutech, Kings.'' who was to the Egyptians a veritable abomination. They lived in the cities of Tanis and Avaris, on the east side of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile. They adopted the manners and customs and writing of the Egyptians, and whatever may have been their severity when they first began to rule, they were of great service to the Egyptians. It is doubtful, however, how far south their rule extended. The names of a number of kings whom Wiedemann attributes to this period are to be found in his Geschichte, pp. 295-297. The kings of the XVIIth dynasty were of Theban origin, xhe kings and are famous as those who defeated the Shepherd kings and of Thebes expelled them. According to Manetho, "under a king whose Hyksos. name was Alisphragmuthosis, the shepherds were subdued by him, and were indeed driven out of other parts of Egypt, .area.? ^oiQii] ^^>4Sd» U^^jo :V?^? lAoioAak) ^ ' Ed. Bruns, p. 14, at the top ; ed. Bedjan, p. 13, at the top. ^ iVn English translation is given by Birch in Records of the Past, V., p. 33 ff. ' Egypt, p. 76. "* Aeg. Geschichte, p. 294. 28 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. but were shut up in a place that contained ten thousand acres : this place was named Avaris." Manetho says that " the Shepherds built a wall round all this place, which was a large and strong wall, and this in order to keep all their possessions and their prey within a place of strength, but that Thummosis the son of Alisphragmuthosis made an attempt to take them by force and by siege with 480,000 men to lie round about them ; but that, upon his despair of taking the place by that siege, they came to a composition with them, that they should leave Egypt, and go without any harm to be done them, whithersoever they would ; and that, after Retreat of this composition was made, they went away with their whole "Hyksos " f^ini'iss and effects, not fewer in number than 240,000, and took their journey from Egypt, through the wilderness, for Syria : but that, as they were in fear of the Assyrians, who had then the dominion over Asia, they built a city in that country which is now called Judea, and that large enough to contain this great number of men, and called it Jerusalem." ' Of more Yalue than this account of Josephus for the expulsion of the Shepherd kings, is the mutilated papyrus^ in the British Museum which treats of Apepa and the native Theban Seqenen- king Tau-aa-qcii or Seqenen-Ra III. According to it, Egypt belonged to her foes and had no king, although Seqenen-Ra, who is described as a heq or prince, was master of a town in the south. Apepa received tribute from all parts of the Delta, and part of it he devoted to building temples to his god Set. He wished all Egypt, both south and north, to worship this god, and to pay tribute to himself, and he sent a messenger from Avaris to Thebes requiring Seqenen-Ra to worship Set alone. This king returned answer saying that he could worship no god but Amen-Ra. Some time after another messenger of Apepa arrived with threats, which caused Seqenen-Ra much trouble, and he gathered together his generals and councillors to decide upon a plan of action. What the decision was the mutilated state of the papyrus prevents us from knowing, but there is no doubt about the ultimate result of their deliberations. One of the officers of ' Contra Apion. I. 14, Whiston's translation, p. 611. ^ For the text see Select Papyri, ed. Birch, pi. 2. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 29 Seqenen-Ra was called Baba, the son of Re-ant, and he had a son called Aahmes who was born in the city of Eileithyia. Aahmes This Aahmes became an officer on board a ship of war called general, the " North," and in the inscription on the walls of his tomb it is said that he went with the king to besiege the city of Avaris. He was next promoted to a ship called Cha-em- Mennefer, and he took part in the battle fought upon the canal of Pat'etku of Avaris. Here he performed mighty deeds of valour, and he distinctly says, " We took Avaris, and I carried off as captives from thence one man and three women, in all four heads." ^ The war of independence begun Egyptians by Seqenen-Ra HI., was brought to a successful issue by Hyfj^os. '^ Aahmes or Amasis I., and Egypt was delivered. Seqenen-Ra probably lost his life in battle with the enemy, and must in any case have been seriously wounded, judging by the smashed skull and broken bones which his mummy exhibits. Dynasty XVHI. Aahmes I., son of Ka-mes and his wife Aah-hetep, was 1700 the first king of the XVHIth dynasty, and the first native ruler of all Egypt for a period of about five hundred years. Having captured Avaris, Am.asis marched into Asia, where he captured the town of .Sharhana, the 'jlll'^ty of Joshua xix. 6, and made himself master of the land of T'ahi. Returning Egyptian to Egypt he marched into Nubia and defeated several tribes ?°"1V^^'^ °-' ^ in Asia and who had rebelled systematically for many years past. Nubia. Having made the borders of his country safe from invasion, Amasis began to build at Memphis and Thebes and other places. Thebes, the home of the kings who had expelled the Hyksos, became the first town in Egypt, and Amen-Ra, who hitherto had enjoyed the reputation of a mere local god, became the head of Egyptian deities. Amenophis I., son of 1666 Amasis I., marched into Nubia, and brought it into subjection to him, and in the north of Egypt he defeated a people called the Aamu-kehak. In the reign of this king the horse is first represented on the monuments. • Records of the Past, VI. p. 8, 30 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. B.C. 1633 Thothmes I., like his father Amenophis I., marched into Nubia ^ and defeated the rebel tribes ; he made the people slaves and carried off much spoil to Thebes. Soon after his return to Thebes he set out with his army on an expedition to Mesopotamia, passing through the Arabian desert and Palestine by the way, and finally arrived on the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris. This expedition was the last in which the officer Aahmes took part, and he again distinguished himself by his personal bravery as on former occasions. To Limits of commemorate this expedition Thothmes I. set up two stelae temton'"in "^^'' ^^^ Euphrates to mark the limits of Egyptian territory. Asia. It would seem that no Egyptian king ever possessed per- manent hold upon the country of Mesopotamia, r— , ^^w>aa Nehern (compare .jcju A,^ or I^OJOU A.«-i ), and it is clear that Egypt only held even a nominal dominion over it as long as each king on his accession marched into the country to terrify the nomad tribes afresh, and to decide what amount of tribute each petty king or head of a tribe should pay to Egypt. The governors of cities in Mesopotamia and Ruthen, or Syria, made treaties among themselves and planned wars against each other, or a common foe, without any reference to the authority of Egypt over them. Each king of Assyria, if he wished to maintain his authority, found it necessary on his accession, or soon after, to undertake a series of military expeditions to punish the peoples who, on the death of a king, always revolted. If this were necessary for a power actually resident in Mesopotamia, how much more necessary would it be for a remote and shadowy power like that of Egypt. Thothmes I. continued the buildings at Thebes, and set up two granite obelisks. Towards the end of his reign he associated his daughter Maat-ka-Ra, or Hat-shepset, with him in the rule of the kingdom. 1600 Thothmes II. married his sister Hatshepset and became king of Egypt. The tribes of Nubia were again re-conquered, and the Shaasu were once more defeated. After a short reign, the greater part of which was occupied in continuing the buildings at Karnak, the king died and Hatshepset his sister- ' The o£&ce of "Prince of Cush" is first mentioned in the reign of Thothmes I. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 31 wife reigned in his stead. This queen was one of the most capable women who ever reigned in Egypt ; she is famous as the builder ^ of the beautiful temple at Der el-Bahari, and Hatshepset for the remarkable expedition to Punt planned by her and el-Bahari. carried out in the ninth year of her reign. Ships were made ready and sailors collected ; a multitude of gifts were stowed in each ship, and the necessary guard of soldiers for each told off; a number of Egyptian ladies and high officials prepared Expedition to accompany the expedition, and the direction of the whole was put into the hands of the queen's most beloved servant. The inhabitants of Punt received the expedition in a very friendly manner, and having loaded the servants of Hat- shepset with rich gifts of gold, ivory, balsam, precious stones, plants, trees, ebony, apes, greyhounds, etc., etc., sent them back to Egypt. When these things had been safely brought back to Thebes, Hatshepset received them with joy, and dedicated the greater part of them as an offering to her father Ainen-Ra. In the sixteenth year of her reign Thothmes III. became associated with her in her rule over Egypt. At Karnak she set up two magnificent granite Obelisks obelisks in memory of her father Thothmes I. According to an inscription on the base of the one still standing, the granite for it was hewn out of the quarry in Aswan, and was brought to Thebes, and was polished and inscribed and set up within seven months. The height of this obelisk is 105 feet, and if the weight be taken into consideration, and the difficult site, among a crowd of buildings, upon which it was to be set up, it will be easy to judge of the resources and skill of the Egyptian architect and mason of that period. Of the end of Hatshepset nothing is known. During her lifetime she wore male attire, and put on the robes and ornaments which belonged to kings only. In the inscriptions she is always described as king "of the North and South, Maat-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Hatshepset,'' and the verbs and pronouns relating to her are masculine. After her death her brother Thothmes III. caused as many traces of her rule as possible to disappear. ' The statue of her architect Sen-mut is preserved at Berlin. 32 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. Thothmes III. was one of the mightiest kings who occupied the throne of Egypt, and during his long reign of fifty-three years * he carried the arms of Egypt to the utter- most parts of the world as known to the Egyptians, and showed himself to be a wise and great king. While Hat- shepset was amusing herself with her expedition to Punt and the building of her temple at Der el-Bahari, the desert tribes on her eastern and western borders were making prepara- tions ready to revolt, and they showed their contempt for the authority of Egypt by refusing to pay tribute. The Meso- potamians, over whom the power of Egypt must ever have been of a shadowy nature, boldly declared themselves free, and their neighbours and kinsmen living in Syria and in the districts to the north and north-east of Damascus followed Conquest their example. The conquests made by Amasis I. and AsiTby^™ Amenhetep I. were all forgotten, and Thothmes III. had Thothmes practically to reconquer the world. In his twenty-second year he set out from Tanis, and passing through the desert of Sinai he marched to Gaza, a city which had remained faithful to his authority. A few days later he set out for Megiddo, which he found to be occupied by the governor of Kadesh, who had made a league with all the tribes living between the Mediterranean and Nineveh. Sixteen days after Thothmes left Gaza he engaged the enemy, who seeing that the Egyptian king himself was fighting against them, lost all heart, and leaping down from their chariots, decorated with gold and silver, fled to Megiddo, throwing away their arms as they went. As the gates of this town had been shut by those inside, the fugitives had to be pulled up over the walls. The number of the enemy slain by the Egyptians was Fall of enormous, and Megiddo was taken with little difficulty. The Megiddo. cjijefs of the allied peoples seeing that their league was destroyed, and that Megiddo was in the hands of the enemy, immediately brought offerings of gold, precious stones, horses, com, oxen, etc., etc., and submitted to Thothmes. The news of the defeat of the league reached the remote parts of Meso- potamia, and their governors, in due time, also sent gifts of ' This number includes the years which he reigned conjointly with his sister ; he reigned alone thirty-one years. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 33 propitiation to the king. The names of the places conquered Defeat of by Thothmes were inscribed by his orders on some of the league, pylons at Karnak ; of the 360 places there mentioned, com- paratively few can be identified with Biblical sites with any certainty. For the next few years the Retennu or Syrians and the Babylonians brought their appointed tribute regularly, and to make the relations between himself and the former nation of an amicable character, Thothmes married a princess of their country. In the twenty-ninth and thirtieth years of his reign he marched again to Syria and captured Tunep, Aradus, Carchemish and Kadesh on the Orontes. The remaining years of his life he employed in making expeditions against the Retennu and the Mesopotamians, into whose country he marched as far as Nl. The tribes of Ethiopia and Sinai sent him valuable gifts, which are duly enumerated in the inscriptions containing the annals of this king. A good idea of the different objects of the tribute sent from the various countries may be obtained from the paintings on the tomb of Rech-ma-Ra at Thebes, where we see depicted horses and chariots, collars of gold, vases weighing 2,821 pounds of gold, tables of cedar, plants, ivory, ebony, corn, cattle, copper, lapis-lazuli, silver, iron, wine, etc., etc. On the south the Egyptian empire reached to the southern confines of Nubia, on the north-east to Lake Van, on the east to the Tigris, and on the west to the great desert on the left bank of the Nile. Notwithstanding the warlike activity of Thothmes III., he was able to carry on great buildings at Heliopolis, Memphis, Thebes, Elephantine and nearly every town in Nubia. Four of the obelisks set up by Thothmes have come down to us : one is now near the Lateran at Rome, one at Constantinople, one in London, and one in New York. B.C. Araen-hetep II. had been associated with Thothmes III. 1566 in the rule of the kingdom, and immediately he began to reign alone he found himself plunged in wars with the tributary peoples, who on the death of Thothmes III. declared themselves free. He marched into Mesopotamia Conquest and captured Nl and Akati ; he made war on the Shaasu and ^sia."'^'" the Nubians, and defeated both peoples. Thothmes IV. maintained the authority of Egypt from 1533 B. M. D 34 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The Sphinx repaired. B.C. 1500 Conquest of Nubia and West- ern Asia. Serapeum at Sakkarah. The Colossi. Mesopotamia to the borders of Nubia, but he is better known as the repairer of the Sphinx at Gizeh. In the first year of his reign he removed the sand which had covered up the monument, in consequence of an after-dinner sleep in which Harmachis appeared to him and promised to bestow upon him the crown of Egypt if he would dig his image, i.e., the Sphinx, out of the sand. Thothmes set up between the paws of the Sphinx a tablet about fourteen feet high, in which he inscribed an account of this vision and a statement of the works which he carried out at Heliopolis and Memphi.s. In Amen-hetep III., or Amenophis, the Memnon of the Greeks, the successor of Thothmes IV., Egypt gained a king having some of the ability and energy of Thothmes III. In the fifth year of his reign he marched into Nubia to quell a mighty rebellion which had broken out against the Egyptian rule among a number of confederate tribes. He also held the Mesopotamians in subjection, for we learn from large scarabs inscribed during his reign that his empire extended from Neherna, or Mesopotamia, to Karei, or the land south of Nubia. From these same scarabs we learn that Amenophis was a "mighty hunter," and that during the first ten years of his reign he slew 102 lions with his own hand. He built the oldest part of the Serapeum at Sakkarah, a temple to Amen-Ra at Karnak, a larger temple to the same god at Luxor, with an avenue of Sphinxes leading to it, and the temple of Mut to the south of Karnak. On the western bank of the river he built a large temple, the dedication of which was described on a stele found behind the Colossi, which also were set up by this king. These wonderful statues were about 60 feet high, and from that on the north, called the Colossus of Memnon, a sound was said to issue each morning when the sun rose. The upper part of it was thrown down by an earthquake, it is said, about B.C. 27; the damage was partially repaired during the reign of Septimius Severus, about A.D. 160 who restored the head and shoulders of the figure by adding to it five layers of stone ; but after that Memnon's Colossus spake no more. At El-Kab, Aswan, and Soleb Amenophis III. also built temples. Four important events in the life and reign of this king are recorded by large steatite scarabs. The EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 35 The Colossi set up in honour of Amenophis III. Thebes. D 2 36 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. Historical icarabs of Ameno- phis III. The Tell el-Amarna tablets. Marriage with Thi. B.C. 1466 Heresy of the disk worship- pers. first records his lion hunts ; the second the coming of Thi, the daughter of an Asiatic father, to Egypt, accompanied by 317 of her women ; the third the marriage of Amenophis and Thi, and the fourth the building of a large lake 3,600 cubits long by 600 cubits wide for his queen near the town of T'arucha, which the king opened on the i6th of Choiak in the eleventh year of his reign, by sailing across it in his barge called Aten- neferu. The tablets inscribed in cuneiform recently found at Tell el-Amarna prove that Amenophis III. married a sister and daughter of Kallimma-Sin, king of Karaduniyash, a country probably lying to the north-east of Syria; Gilukhipa the sister of Tushratta, king of Mitani, and Satumkhipa daughter of Tushratta; and Thi the daughter of parents who were not royal. The country of Mitani also lay to the north- east of Syria, and we know that like Tiglath-Pileser I., king of Assyria, about B.C. 1120, Amenophis III. went thither frequently to hunt lions.^ The kings and governors of places as remote as Babylon promptly claimed the friendship of their new kinsman, and their letters expressing their willingness to make alliances offensive and defensive, are some of the most interesting objects of the " find " at Tell el-Amarna. Of Amen-hetep IV., or Chu-en-aten, the son of Amen- hetep III. and the Mesopotamian lady Thi, very little is known ; he built a temple at Heliopolis, another at Memphis, one at Thebes, and some in Nubia. He is famous, however, as the leader of the heresy of the " disk worshippers," that is to say of those people who worshipped the disk of the sun, Aten n'v>^^ in preference to Amen-Ra, the national god of Egypt. He showed how much he detested the god Amen, by setting aside his name Amen-hetep and adopting that of Chu-en-aten, " the brilliance of the disk." The worship of the disk was of some antiquity, and seems to have been a mono- theistic worship of Ra which originated in Heliopolis. Amenophis III. seems to have encouraged this form of religion somewhat, and it is certain that he named his barge Aten-neferu, " the most beautiful disk." The native Egyptian ' See The Tell el-Amarna tablets in the British Museum, by Bezold and Budge, p. xviii. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 37 priesthood disliked the foreign queen, and the sight of her Ameno- son with his protruding chin, thick lips, and other charac- quarrels teristics of a foreign race, found no favour in their eyes ; that ^Uh the such a man should openly despise the worship of Amen-Ra was a thing intolerable to them. In answer to their angry words and acts, the king ordered the name of Amen-Ra to be chiselled out of all the monuments, even from his father's name. Rebellion then broke out, and Chu-en-aten left Thebes and founded a new city for himself at a place between Memphis and Thebes, now called Tell el-Amarna. After a few Founding years the queen Thi came to live there, and there Chu-en-aten ^gn"^ ^^ passed the rest of his life with his wife and seven daughters. Amarna. In the twelfth year of his reign he celebrated his victories over the Syrians and Ethiopians, but it is doubtful if they were of any importance. After the death of Amenophis IV. there is some confusion in Egyptian history ; the immediate successors of the " heretic The king " were Se-aa-ka-Ra, Tut-anch-Amen, Ai, of whom but k';^"^'"^" little is known. The last king of the XVIIIth dynasty was Heru-em-heb, the Horus of Manetho, who seems to have been a native of Het-suten, the Alabastronpolis of the Greeks, or Tell el-Amarna. He made an expedition into Nubia and the lands to the south of that country, and he carried on buildings at various places, and restored temples at Heliopolis, Memphis, Thebes and elsewhere. The Nineteenth Dynasty. B.C. Of the events which led to Rameses I. becoming sole 1400 king of Egypt nothing whatever is known. Some suppose that he was connected with Horus, the last king of the XVIIIth dynasty, but there are no proofs which can be brought forward in support of this theory. He seems to have carried on some small war with the people of Nubia, and to have been concerned in a treaty with the Cheta ; he also built War with a little at Thebes. He is famous, however, as the father of Seti I., and grandfather of Rameses II. ; the former was probably associated v/ith him in the rule of the kingdom, but how long it is not possible to say. While Amenophis IV. was quarrelling with the priests of Chela. B.C. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 39 Amen about the worship of the disk, and during the rule of his feeble successors, the peoples of Nubia and the Shaasu and the nations of Syria and Mesopotannia became more and more independent, and as a result ceased to fear the arms of Egypt, and consequently declined to pay the tribute imposed upon them by the mighty Thothmes III. and Amenophis III. Under the rule of Rameses I. the Egyptians were forced to sign a treaty which fixed the limits of their country and those of the Cheta ; hence when Seti I. ascended the throne he 1366 found it necessary to make war against nearly every nation that had formerly been subject to the Egyptians. From the reliefs sculptured on the walls of the temple of Amen-Ra at Karnak we see that he attacked the people who lived north of Palestine, the Retennu or Syrians, the Shaasu, the Cheta, and in returning to Egypt passed through the land of Limanen. At the city of Chetam, on the frontier of Egypt, he was received by the priests and nobles of Egypt, who said to him : " Thou hast returned from the lands which thou hast conquered, and thou hast triumphed over thy enemies. May thy life be as long as that of the sun in heaven ! Thou hast washed thy heart on the barbarians, Ra has defined thy boundaries." Seti then sailed up to Thebes, where he presented his captives and booty to the gods in the temples there. From the lists of vanquished peoples inscribed by Conquests Seti it is found that his rule extended over Mesopotamia, Punt or Somali land. Nubia, and the lands on the west bank of the Nile. Cities like Kadesh on the Orontes, Tyre, Reseph, Migdol, etc., he not only conquered, but also built fortresses in them. During the reign of Seti the Cheta who, without, in my opinion, the slightest evidence for the theory, have been identified with the Hittites of the Bible, reappear in history. Seti set up an obelisk at Kantarah, "the bridge" uniting Asia and Africa, he built at Heliopolis, Memphis and Abydos, and at Karnak he began several buildings, some of which were finished by Rameses II. His name is often found in Nubia on rocks and stelse, and he worked the gold mines there, and sank wells in the rock to obtain water for his workmen. Seti associated his son Rameses II. with him in the rule of the kingdom when he was but twelve years old. According to the in Western Asia. 40 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. B.C. 1333 Sesostris. Pentaurt's poem on the defeat of the Cheta. The Cheta kings. monuments Seti reigned about twenty-seven years. The name Seti is connected with the god Set, who though at one time worshipped by the Egyptians, was subsequently consi- dered to be the father of all evil ; in several places it is seen that his name has been carefully chiselled out. Rameses II., the Sesostris o" the Greeks, was perhaps the greatest king that ever ruled over Egypt. He was a man of commanding stature, of great physical strength and personal bravery, a great builder and a liberal patron of the science and art of his days. Around his name has gathered a multitude of legends, and the exploits of other warriors and heroes who reigned hundreds of years after him have been attributed to him. Before he came to the throne he led an expedition into Nubia and defeated the peoples there ; and he brought back to Egypt much spoil, consisting of lions, gazelles, panthers, ebony, ivory, gold, etc., etc. In the fifth year of his reign he set out on a campaign against the Cheta, which was the most important event in his life ; his victory over this foe was considered so great a triumph that an account of it illustrated by sculptures was inscribed upon the temples of Thebes, Kalabsht and Abu Simbel, and a poetic description of the battle with a vivid outline of the king's own prowess was written down by Pen-ta-urt, a temple scribe. The Cheta were a confederation of peoples, nomad and stationary, who first appear in the time of Thothmes III., to whom they paid tribute. In the time of Rameses I. they made a treaty of friendship with the Egyptians, but in the time of Seti I. they fought with them. The kings of the Cheta at this period w^ere Sapalel and his son Maru-sar ; the latter had two sons Mautenure and Cheta-sar. Mau- tenure was king of the Cheta when Rameses II. marched against them in his fifth year, and Cheta-sar was king when the Cheta and the Egyptians made a new treaty in the twenty-first year of the reign of Rameses, at which time they seem to have reached the summit of their power. According to an inscription which appears to be the official statement concerning this memorable battle, Rameses II. was in the fifth year of his reign in the land of T'ah, not far from Kadesh on the Orontes. The outposts kept a sharp look-out. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 41 Rameses II., when a child. 42 FUNEREAL ARCIIiT.OI.OGY OF EGYPT. and when the army came to the south of the town of Shabtun, two of the spies of the Shasu came into the camp and pre- tended that they had been sent by the chiefs of their tribe to inform Rameses II. that they had forsaken the chief of the Cheta, and that they wished to make an alHance with his majesty and become his vassals. They then went on to say Defeat of that the chief of the Cheta was in the land of Chirebu to the north of Tunep some distance off, and that he was afraid to come near the Egyptian king. These two men were giving false information, and they had actually been sent by the Cheta chief to find out where Rameses and his army were ; the Cheta chief and his army were at that moment drawn up in battle array behind Kadesh. Shortly after these men had Rameses been dismissed, an Egyptian scout came into the king's warrior. presence bringing with him two spies from the army of the chief of the Cheta ; on being questioned, they informed Rameses that the chief of the Cheta was encamped behind Kadesh, and that he had succeeded in gathering together a multitude of soldiers and chariots from the countries round about. Rameses summoned his officers to his presence, and informed them of the news which he had just heard ; they listened with surprise, and insisted that the newly received information was untrue. Rameses seriously blamed the chiefs of the intelligence department for their neglect of duty, and they admitted their fault. Orders were straight- Capture of way issued for the Egyptian army to march upon Kadesh, Kadesh. ^^^ ^g they were crossing an arm of the river near that city the hostile forces fell in with each other. When Rameses saw this, he "growled at them like his father Menthu, lord of Thebes," and having hastily put on his full armour, he mounted his chariot and drove into the battle. His onset was so sudden and rapid that before he knew where he was he found himself surrounded by the enemy, and completely isolated from his own troops. He called upon his father Amen-Ra to help him, and then addressed himself to the slaughter of all those that came in his way, and his prowess was so great that the enemy fell in heaps, one over the other, into the waters of the Orontes. He was quite alone, and not one of his soldiers or horsemen came near him to help him. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 43 It was only with great difficulty he succeeded in cutting his way through the ranks of the enemy. At the end of the inscription he says, " Everything that my majesty has stated, that did I in the presence of my soldiers and horsemen." In the poem of Pen-ta-urt the king is said to have been sur- rounded by 2,500 chariots. The defeat of the chief of the Cheta and his allies was crushing, and Rameses was able to demand and obtain much tribute. In the eighth year of his reign he led an expedition against towns in southern Syria, and Ascalon among others fell into his hands, and within a few years Mesopotamians, Syrians, dwellers on the coast, Libyans, the Shaasu and Ethio- pians all submitted to him. In the twenty-first year of his reign he made a treaty with Mautenure, chief of the Cheta at Egyptian Tanis, the favourite dwelling-place of Rameses. This treaty the Cheta. sets out at full length the relations which had existed between the two nations for some time before, and each party solemnly promises not to make war on the other, and to assist the other in war if required ; to cement the alliance Rameses married a daughter of the chief of the Cheta called Maa-ur-neferu-Ra. Notwithstanding his activity in war, Rameses II. found Rameses time to make himself famous as one of the greatest builders builder, that ever sat on the throne of Egypt, and his name is found on stelae, obelisks, temples, etc., etc., from Beyrut in Syria to remote Napata. He built a temple of granite at Tanis, a town which seems to have been founded four hundred years before his time by Nubti, one of the so-called Hyksos kings. Near this city ran the wall from Pelusium to Heliopolis, which Rameses is supposed to have built to keep out the Asiatics. At Heliopolis he set up obelisks, none of which has come down to our time ; at Memphis he added largely to the temple of Ptah; and at Abydos he completed the temple begun by his father Seti I. At Thebes he finished the buildings begun by his father and grandfather ; he repaired the temples of Thothmes III. and Amenophis III., adding walls and doors, and occasionally usurping monuments of the kings who went before him; he set up statues of himself and two splendid obelisks before a building which he 44 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Rock temple at Abu SimbeL made adjoining the temple of Amenophis III.; on the western side of Thebes he finished the temple originally dedicated to Rameses I., and consecrated it to his father Seti I. ; he restored the temple of Hatshepset at D^r el-Bahari ; he built a temple at Medinet Habu, and at Thebes, his greatest work of all, the Ramesseum. The statues of himself which he placed in this last place are among the largest and finest known. At Bet el-Wall at Kalabshi in Nubia he built a beautiful little rock temple, on the walls of the court of which are some well executed sculptures representing the bringing of tribute to him by Asiatics and Ethiopians. At Abu Simbel, the classical Aboccis, he hewed out of the solid rock a large temple to Ra Harmachis to commemorate his victory over the Cheta ; it is the largest and finest Egyptian monument in Nubia, and for simple grandeur and majesty is second to none in all Egypt. It is hewn out of the rock to a depth of 185 feet, and the surface of the rock, which originally sloped down to the river, was cut away for a space of about 90 feet to form the front of the temple, which is ornamented by four colossal statues of Rameses II., 66 feet high, seated on thrones, hewn out of the living rock. The large hall inside contains eight columns with large figures of Osiris about 17 feet high upon them. Among other matters the inscriptions give a list of the children of Rameses. The gold mines in the land of Akita, now Gebel Alaki, which were worked by Seti I., appear not to have been very profitable, by reason of the scarcity of water. The well which he sank to the depth of 120 cubits supplied little or no water, and the works in the mines were stopped. In the third year of his reign Rameses sent men to bore another well, and they found abundant water at the depth of twelve cubits. Rameses II. is generally thought to have been the Oppression oppressor of the Jews in Egypt, and it was probably for him that they built the treasure-cities of Pithom and Raamses. Rameses reigned sixty-seven years, and at his death he left Egypt one of the largest and most powerful kingdoms upon earth ; under him this country reached its highest point of prosperity and glory. The tribute brought in by conquered nations enriched the country, the hosts of foreign workmen of the Jews, B.C. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 45 employed hy the king produced articles of luxury and beauty, art and literature flourished unfettered, and the tombs and sepulchres of the dead were scarcely less splendid than the palaces of the king or the houses of his nobles. After the death of Rameses Egypt declined rapidly, chiefly through the inertness and want of national spirit possessed by the hosts of foreigners who lived there, and the country became a mart and a home of traders rather than of warriors. Mer-en-Ptah, the thirteenth son of Rameses II., had been 1300 associated with his father in the rule of the kingdom before he ascended the throne. The chief event in his reign was an expedition against the Lebu, Kehak, Mashuash, Akauasha, Tursha, Leku, Sharetana and Shekelasha in the fifth year of his reign. The Lebu, thought by some to be the Libyans, under Maroi, the son of Titi, had advanced to the city of Pa- Bairo, and were preparing to march upon HeliopoHs and Memphis ; Maroi himself had reached Pa-aru-shep, when the god Ptah appeared to Mer-en-Ptah in a dream and promised Defeat of him victory. On the third day of Epiphi the hostile forces ^^.j^^^ joined in battle. Maroi fled, about thirteen thousand of his people were slain, and all his and their property fell into the hands of the Egyptians. The Akauasha have by some been identified with the Achaeans, the Sharetana with the Sardinians, the Shekelasha with the Sicilians, the Lebu with the Libyans, the Tursha with the Etruscans, the Leku with the Lycians, etc., etc. These identifications, based on a suggestion made by de Rouge, cannot be accepted, lacking as they do any historical evidence in support of them. It is quite certain, however, that the tribes against which Mer-en- Ptah fought were comparatively close neighbours of Egypt. The Exodus is thought by some to have taken place during The the reign of this king. Kxodus. Of Mer-en-Ptah's successor, Seti II., but little is known ; his reign was very short, and was not distinguished by any remarkable event. The rule of the XlXth dynasty was brought to an end by the reigns of Amen-mes and Se-Ptah. 46 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. n.c. 1200 Egyptians defeat the allied nations. Expedition to Punt, and open- ing of old trade routes. The Twentieth Dynasty. For some years after the death of Mer-en-Ptah Egypt was in a state of anarchy, " each man did as he pleased, and there was no one who had authority over his fellows. The Land of Egypt was under chiefs of nomas and each fought against the other." After a time " a Syrian called Arsu," (I ^ \^Tse7 Egyptian army had fled for protection. The reign of Psam- metichus lasted but a few months, and he was taken captive to Persia, where he suffered a miserable death. The Twenty-seventh Dynasty. Cambyses, the first king of the Persian dynasty, seems to 327 have been of a revengeful disposition, for, according to legend, when he arrived at Sal's he is said to have ordered the mummy of Amasis to be dragged from its tomb, and having caused it 6o FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Desecra- tion of mummies and tombs by Cam- byses. Restora- tion of Temple of Neith at Sais. B.C. 521 The coin- age and good govern- ment of Darius. Red Sea Canal. to be illtreated had it burned. Tradition, in general, states that this king caused many barbarous acts to be performed by his soldiers, and the wrecking of many tombs and statues in Egypt is said to date from his reign. His expeditions against the Nubians and the people of the Oasis proving disastrous, he returned to Memphis in exasperation and grief, and finding the whole town in festival, on account of the appearance of a new Apis bull, he ordered this god to be brought to him, and, in a fit of rage, stabbed it in the thigh. Another view of the character of Cambyses is, however, given by an inscription on the statue of a naval commander under Cambyses and Darius, preserved in the Vatican. This officer, called Ut'a-Heru-en- pe-resu, states that when Cambyses came to Sais he ordered the temple of Neith to be cleansed, he restored its revenues and sacred festivals, he performed all the rites there, and established the offerings according to what the kings before him had done. When Darius was king of Egypt the same official was appointed by him to re-establish the school of scribes in Egypt, and he seems to have had some influence in preserv- ing Sa'is from the destruction which Cambyses spread over the country, and he probably helped Darius to establish the beneficent government in Egypt for which he is famous. Cambyses died from a wound in the thigh, accidentally caused by his own dagger while mounting his horse. On ascending the throne Darius Hystaspes, the successor of Cambyses, set to work to improve the condition of the country, and to repair the damage done to the prestige of Persian government in Egypt by Cambyses. He deposed Ary- andes, the Persian satrap of Egypt, appointed by Cambyses, and caused him to be slain, because he had made an attack on Cyrene, and because of his cruelty and misgovernment. Darius established a coinage, rearranged the taxation of the country, and completed the canal to join the Red Sea and- the Medi- terranean which Necho had begun. The course of this canal can still be traced by the inscriptions in hieroglyphics, and in Persian, Median, and Assyrian cuneiform, which cover the rocks near which the canal passed. As stated above, Darius re-established the school of scribes in Egypt, and spared no pains to improve the condition of the people, and to increase EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 6 1 the trade of the country by land and sea. Towards the end of his reign, while the Persians were fighting the Greeks, Egypt threw off the Persian yoke, and set up Chabbesha as king ; Darius never recovered his hold upon Egypt, and died after a reign of about thirty-six years. Soon after Xerxes I. ascended the throne, he marched to 486 Egypt to reassert the Persian supremacy ; he broke through the defences which Chabbesha had set up on the mouths of Persians the Nile and in the marshes, and taking possession of the e™"^"^"^ country compelled the Egyptians to send a contigent of two hundred ships to assist him in his attack upon Greece ; the crews of these ships distinguished themselves by their bravery at the battle of Artemisium. After the murder of Xerxes by Artabanus, Artaxerxes I. became king of Egypt, but 465 towards the end of his reign the Egyptians, headed by Inarus, king of Lybia, assisted by a fleet of two or three hundred Athenian shipsj again revolted and refused either to pay taxes, or to acknowledge the Persian authority. Artaxerxes sent a force of 300,000 or 400,000 to put down the revolt, and a battle took place near Papremis ; the Persians, owing to their overwhelming numbers, were at first victorious, but were subsequently beaten, and those that escaped from the general massacre fled to Memphis for refuge, and were besieged there by the Egyptians. Soon after this Artaxerxes sent more Fall of troops to Egypt, and these having surrounded Memphis, the Memphis. Athenians were compelled first to withdraw, and secondly to burn their ships ; Inarus was wounded in an engagement and taken captive to Persia, where he was crucified or impaled. Amyrtaeus, the governor of a town in the Delta and an ally of Inarus, fled to the marshes, and the Persians appointed Pausiris and Thannyras, their sons respectively, rulers over the Delta in their stead. Xerxes II., the next king of Egypt, was murdered by his brother Sogdianus, and towards the end of the reign of Darius II., his successor, the Egyptians once more rebelled, and regained their independence under Amyrtaeus of Sais about B.C. 405. The Twenty-eighth Dynasty. Of Amen-rut or Amyrtaeus, the only king of this dynasty, 400 very little is known ; his native city was Sal's, but it is not 62 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. likely that he is identical with the Amyrtaeus who assisted the ill-fated Inarus to rebel against the Persians. The Twenty-ninth Dynasty. B.C. 399 Naifaarut I., or Nepherites, the first king of this dynasty, was a native of Mendes, and he associated his son Nectanebus with him in the rule of the kingdom. He supplied the Lacedaemonians with wood for building one hundred triremes and half a million bushels of grain at the time when Agesilaus was fighting against the Persians.^ He reigned six 393 years, and was succeeded by P-se-mut or Psammuthis, who was in turn succeeded by Haker. Of Haker, or Achoris, the inscriptions say nothing, although his name is found inscribed on buildings and temples at Thebes, and in the quarries of Ma'sara and Turah. Towards the end of his Egyptians reign Achoris became an ally of Evagoras, king of Cyprus, waragainst t>ut the king of Persia, against whom they began a war, Persians, succeeded in destroying their united fleet, and shortly after Achoris died, having reigned twelve or thirteen years. He 379 seems to have been succeeded by Naifaarut II., who was, however, soon deposed on account of his unpopularity with the people. The Thirtieth Dynasty. 378 To Necht-neb-f, or Nectanebus I., the son of Naifaarut I., the first king of this dynasty, fell the task of continuing the war which Achoris, his predecessor, and Evagoras, king of Persian Cyprus, had begun against Artaxerxes II. The Persian upon king attacked Cyprus with great determination, but Evagoras Cyprus. met his forces with about one hundred ships and six thousand soldiers, and succeeded in partially stopping the supplies of grain for the enemy, in consequence of which a rebellion broke out among them. He increased his fleet as much as he was able, and with the addition of fifty ships from Egypt, attacked the Persians with all haste ; in the great battle which followed, however, his ships were scattered or sunk, ' Wiedemann thinks that the king of Egypt who assisted the Greeks in this matter is, from chronological grounds, more likely to have been Achoris. {Ae^. Geschichte, p. 698.) EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 63 and the Persians sailed on to attack Salamis, Evagoras fled to Egypt to obtain supplies from Nectanebus to carry on the war, but when he returned he found that his capital was besieged, and that his allies had fled. He straightway tendered his submission to the Persians, who finally decided to accept from him a yearly tribute and to consider him a vassal of Persia. The war against Evagoras being at an end, the Persian king next directed his attention to an attack Persian upon Egypt, and placing the Persian troops under the com- ^ ^^ mand of Pharnabazus, and his Greek troops under that of Egypt. Iphicrates, he advanced against Egypt with nearly a quarter of a million soldiers and three hundred ships of war. Nec- tanebus on his part fortified each of the seven mouths of the Nile, giving particular attention to strengthening the defences Egyptians on the Pelusiac mouth, and he flooded the whole country D^jta. round. When the Persian generals saw this they deter- mined to make their attack by the Mendesian mouth of the Nile, and after a battle they succeeded in capturing the fort which commanded it, and reduced its defenders to slavery. A dispute next arose between Pharnabazus and Iphicrates as to an immediate attack upon Memphis, and while the former was opposing the march upon this city by the latter, the Egyptians themselves mustered a strong force there, and in the battles which followed the arrival of the allied army of Persians and Greeks were generally successful. Soon after this, owing to the inundation of the Nile, the Persians with- Retreat drew to Syria, and Iphicrates returned to Athens ; thus the attack of the Persians, notwithstanding their immense army, came to nought. Nectanebus restored and added to many of the temples of Egypt, and after a reign of eighteen years was succeeded by T'chehra, or Teos (Tachos), who reigned but 360 two years ; the Egyptian inscriptions make no mention of this king. From Greek historians we learn that Teos levied a tax on the Egyptians to carry on the war, and that, contrary to the advice of Agesilaus, one of his allies, he advanced to attack PhcEnicia. During his absence the Egyptians revolted, and sent messengers to Syria to invite Nectanebus II., the lawful heir to the throne of Egypt, to come and take pos- session of his country. The allies of Teos forsook him, and of the Persians. B.C. 64 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. B.C. Persian attack upon Phoenicia. Persians capture Cyprus. Persians capture Memphis. Flight of Nectane- bus. he fled to the court of Artaxerxes II. and of Ochusthe Persian kings, where, after a time spent in riotous living, he died. Necht-neb-f, or Nectanebus II., was the last native king of Eg>'pt, and having been helped by Agesilaus to overthrow a native of Mendes who aspired to the throne, he assumed the rule of the kingdom without further opposition. After the death of Artaxerxes II., Ochus determined to make an attack upon Egypt and Cyprus and Phoenicia, the kings of which had joined forces with each other and with the Egyptians to make themselves independent. Tennes, the king of Sidon, successfully expelled a number of Persians from Phoenicia, but when he heard that Ochus himself was coming to take vengeance upon him for this proceeding, he sent messengers to him to tender his submission, and to promise him his help in invading Egypt. The Persian king promised to overlook the past, but marched on Sidon, not- withstanding, and surrounded it ; Tennes betrayed the city and led Artaxerxes and his army into it, whereupon the Sidonians destroyed their fleet and set fire to their houses with themselves and their wives and families inside them. The treachery of Tennes availed him nothing, for he was put to death by Artaxerxes. Phoenicia, and soon after Cyprus, fell into the hands of the Persian king, who now made ready in earnest to conquer Egypt. In a few small preliminary battles fought on the north-east frontier of Egypt, victory rested with the Persians, and when Nectanebus learned this, and saw that Pelusium was attacked in a systematic manner, he and his troops withdrew to Memphis ; the Persians advanced through the Delta, and captured Bubastis, and their march to Memphis was a triumphal progress rather than the march of an enemy upon the capital of Egypt. Fear seized Nectanebus when he heard of the approach of the Persians, and having gathered together all the money that he could conveniently carry, he fled from his troubles, some say to Ethiopia, and some say to Macedon, where according to Pseudo-Callisthenes he became the father of Alexander the Great. Nectanebus, during his reign of seventeen or eighteen years, obtained the reputation of being a devout worshipper of the gods, and a sorcerer. The mines EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 65 in the valley of Hammamat were worked during his reign, and he added to and repaired many of the temples at Philae, Thebes, Edfu, Heliopolis, etc. With the flight of Nectanebus the history of Egypt as an independent country comes to an end. Persian Rulers of Egypt. B.C. When Artaxerxes III., Ochus, became sole king of 340 Egypt, he emulated the barbarous acts of Cambyses ; the principal towns were looted and destroyed, the temples were Ochus overthrown, and their sanctuaries pillaged, the Apis bull was ECT^t^"^^ killed and eaten by the king and his friends, and the ram of Mendes was slain. Ochus returned to Babylon with much spoil, and after a reign of twelve years was probably poisoned by Bagoas the Egyptian, who, it is said, thus avenged the slaughter of the Apis bull. Arses, the youngest son of Ochus, next sat on the throne of Egypt, but in the third year of his reign he and his family were slain by Bagoas. Arses was succeeded by Darius III., who narrowly escaped poisoning by the hand of Bagoas ; the plot was, however, discovered, and Darius freed himself from the traitor by causing him to drink poison, and he died. Darius was defeated Defeat of by Alexander the Great at Issus, and the Greeks marched on i^^"^^ ^' Egypt and took possession of it without any difficulty. Macedonians. Alexander the Great founded the Alexandria near Rakoti, 332 Eg. ^^~^ M cissi (111 ^ Rdqetit, Copt. p-i-Kcf", and endeavoured to make it the central market-place of the known world. He was tolerant of the Egyptian religion, and sacrificed to Amen, Alexan- the god of Libya, who greeted him as his son. After about a ^"^(jgj yeai" spent in Egypt, Alexander set out on his expedition against Darius king of Persia. Having conquered all the east, and travelled nearly alone into China, he came back to Babylon, where he was poisoned at a banquet ; his body was brought in great state to his city Alexandria and was buried there. B. M. F 66 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. B.C. 286 Alexan- drian Library founded. Septuagint made. 247 222 205 182 170 117 81 52 42 Death of Cleopatra. 27 Egypt be- comes a Roman Province. Ptolemies. Ptolemy I., Soter, son of Lagus, foanded the Alexandrian Library. Ptolemy II., Philadelphus, built the Pharos, founded Berenice on the Red Sea, and Arsinoe ; he employed Manetho to compile a history of Egypt and its gods from native autho- rities, and caused the Greek version of the Old T-estament to be made. Ptolemy III., Euergetes I. Ptolemy IV., Philopator, founded the temple of Edfu. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. Ptolemy VI., Eupator, died in this year. Ptolemy VII., Philometor. Ptolemy VIII., murdered by Physcon. Ptolemy IX., Euergetes II. or Physcon, reigned conjointly with Ptolemy VII. (B.C. 170 — 165). Ptolemy X., Soter II., Philometor II., or Lathyrus reigned conjointly with Cleopatra III. ; he was banished B.C. 106, and recalled B.C. 87. Ptolemy XL, Alexander I., made co-regent. He was banished B.C. 89 and slain B.C. 87. Ptolemy XII., Alexander II., is slain. Ptolemy XIII., Neos Dionysos or Auletes, became king of Egypt ; he died B.C. 52. Ptolemy XIV., Dionysos II., banished his co-regent Cleopatra VII., Caesar arrived in Egypt to support Cleopatra, and Ptolemy XIV. was drowned. Ptolemy XV., brother of Cleopatra VII., appointed her co- regent ; he was murdered at her wish. Ptolemy XVI., Caesarion, was named co-regent. Antony ordered Cleopatra to appear before him, and was seduced by her charms ; he killed himself, and Cleopatra died by the bite of an asp. Romans. Csesar Augustus became master of the Roman Empire, and Cornelius Gallus the first prefect of Egypt ; under the third prefect, Aelius Gallus, Candace, Queen of the Ethiopians, invaded Egypt, but was defeated. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 67 A.D. Tiberius. In his reign Germanicus went to Egypt, sailing H up the Nile from the city of Canopus to Thebes, where he visited the temples of Luxor and Karnak, and heard the priest read on the pylons the names of conquered nations which still exist on them by the score. Passing over to the other side of the river, Tacitus tells us (II., 61) that he saw the stone image of Memnon, which, when struck by the sun's rays, gave out the sound of a human voice, and there is little Germani- doubt that he visited the Tombs of the Kings, the Ramesseum through and the temples at Medinet Habu. He passed on to Syene, Egypt. where he visited the island of Elephantine, and either going up or coming down the river, he saw Lake Moeris and the Pyramids. Caligula. 37 Claudius. 41 Nero. In his reign Christianity was first preached in 55 Egypt by Saint Mark. The Blemmyes made raids upon the j^^ad?^^^ southern frontier of Egypt. -Egypt- Vespasian. Jerusalem destroyed, A.D. 70. 69 Domitian builds temples to Isis and Serapis at Rome. 82 Trajan. The Amnis Trajanus, or canal which joined the 98 Nile and Red Sea, re-opened. Hadrian. He visited Egypt twice. 117 Marcus Aurelius. 161 Commodus. 180 Septimius Severus. 193 Caracalla visited Egypt, and caused a large number of 211 young men to be massacred in Alexandria. Macrinus. 217 Elagabalus. 218 Decius. 249 Valerianus. 253 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, invaded Egypt. 268 Aurelian. Zenobia dethroned A.D. 273. 270 Probus. 276 Diocletian. " Pompey's Pillar " erected A.D. 302. The 284 Copts date the era of the Martyrs from the day of Diocletian's accession to the throne (August 29). Constantine the Great. 324 F 2 68 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. 337 Constantius. 379 Theodosius I., the Great, proclaimed Christianity the religion of his empire. Byzantines. 395 Arcadius, Emperor of the East. 408 Theodosius II. 450 Marcianus. In this reign Silco invaded Egypt, with his Nubian followers. 474 Zeno. 481 Anastasius. 527 Justinian. 610 Heraclius expelled the Persians from Egypt after they had held it, under Chosroes, for ten years. MUHAMMADANS. 638 'Amr ibn el-'Asi conquers Egypt, and the country becomes Arab con- a part of the Muhammadan empire for about nine hundred quest of Egypt. years. 1517 Selim I., of Constantinople, deposes Tumln Bey, and Egypt becomes a Turkish Pashalik. 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte stormed Alexandria, battle of the Pyramids, and French fleet destroyed off Abukir by the English. 1801 The French compelled by the English to evacuate Egypt. 1805 Muhammad 'Ali appointed Pasha of Egypt. 1848 Ibrihim Pasha. 1849 Death of Muhammad 'Ali. 1854 Said Pasha. During his reign the Bul^k Museum was founded, and the excavation of the Suez Canal began. 1863 Ismail, son of Ibrahim Pasha, made Khedive. Suez Canal opened, 1869. 1882 Massacre of Europeans at Alexandria, bombardment of the town by the English fleet in July ; Egypt was occupied by English troops, and 'Arab! Pasha defeated. 1885 Murder of Gordon, and abandonment of the Sudan. 1892 English troops continue to occupy Egypt. egyptian history. List of Egyptian Dynasties and the Dates assigned to them by egyptologists. 1 2 3 4 5 Dynasty. From Lepsius. ChanipolUon Figeac. Mariette. Wilkinson. Brugsch. 1 Thinis... 3.892 5,867 5,004 2,320 4,400 II Thinis... 3.639 5,615 4,751 2,300 4,133 III Memphis 3.338 S.318 4,449 — 3.966 IV Memphis 3.124 5,121 4,235 — 3,766 V Elephantine ... 2,840 4,673 3.9SI — 3.566 VI Memphis 2,744 4,42s 3.703 — 3,300 VII Memphis 2,592 4,222 3,500 — 3,100 VIII Memphis 2,522 4,147 3.500 — — IX Heracleopolis 2,674 4,047 3,358 — — X Heracleopolis 2,565 3,947 3,249 — — XI Thebes 2,423 3,762 3,o6i — 2,500 XII Thebes 2,380 3,703 — 2,466 XIII Thebes 2,136 3,417 2,851 — 2,233 XIV Chois 2,167 3,004 2,398 — — XV (Shepherds) ... 2,101 2,520 ) 1,830 — XVI (Shepherds) ... 1,842 2,270 V 2,214 1,740 1,800 XVII Thebes 1,684 2,082 ) 1,651 — XVIII Thebes 1. 591 1,822 1.703 ',575 1,700 XIX Thebes 1.443 1,473 1,462 1,269 1,400 XX Thebes \ Tanis 1,269 1 1,279 1,288 1,170 1,200 XXI (Thebes \ 1,091 1,101 1,110 1,068 1,100 XXII Bubastis 961 971 980 981 966 XXIII Tanis 787 851 810 908 766 XXIV Sals Ethiopia j 729 762 721 812 733 XXV Ethiopia 716 718 715 773 700 XXVI Sais 685 674 665 664 666 XXVII Persia 525 524 527 52s 527 XXVIII Sals 52s 404 406 414 405 XXIX Mendes 399 398 399 408 399 XXX Sebennytos ... 378 377 378 387 378 XXXI Persia 340 339 340 340 340 1 Xdnig:sbuch, Berlin, 1858, Synoptische Tafeln, taf. 4-8. 2 L'Univers. Egyfite Ancienne, Paris, 1839, p. 269. 3 Notice des Princifaux Monuments du MusSe h Boulaq, Paris, 1869, p. IJ. 4 The Ancient Egyptians, ed. Birch, 1878, Vol. I, p. 28 ff. 5 Egypt under the Pharaohs, ed. 1880, Vol. II, pp. 341-346. 70 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. LIST OF NOMES' NOME. I. Ca=sO -^ 6. //,or xo. ll-M Ta-kens Tes-Heru Ten Uast Herui Aati Sechem Abtu Amsu Uafet Sut Tu-hef Atef-chent At ef -fell CAPITAL. .4. nb^id TJ. \lh O o or y© M^P © ^ e o ^-5 Tebt Nexeb Sent Uast Annu qemdt Qebt Ta-en-tarert Het Abet Apu Tebt Shas-hetep Nut-enth-bak Saut Kes Un IN ®,orll||®||ll Chemennu ' See Brugsch. Diet. Geog., p. 1358, f. ; and Dumichen LIST OF NOMES. 71 (UPPER EGYPT) GREEK NAME. Elephantine Apollinopolis magna Eileithyia Latopolis, Esneh Thebes, or Hermonthis Coptos Tentyris DiospoHs parva Abydos PanopoHs S^^ AphroditopoHs Hypselis HieraconpoHs Lycopohs, Asyflt Cusae Hermopolis in Meyer, Geschichte des alien Aegyptens, p. 24, ff. DEITY. ^\\ Mil I Chnemu HeruBehutet. Ne-xeb. Amen-Ra Menthu Amsu Het-Heru, Hathor Het-Heru, Hathor An-her Amsu Het-Heru. Hathor Heru, Horus Ap-uat Het-Heru, Hathor Tehuti, Thoth 72 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. LIST OF NOMES NOME. i6. .7. M 19 ^.^^^ 21. (>_^ 22. ^ Meh-mahet Sepet Uab Am-cheni 1 Am-peh Maten CAPITAL. [^^© CD /^AAAAA 1^ 5 „)^ ®. w Hebenu Ka-sa Het-bennu Pa-tnat'et Suten-henen ^endxent Tep-ahet LIST OF NOMES NOME. -^ -IT 6. "^^^ Aneb-hsf Aa Ament Sepi-res Sepi-meht Ka-sei CAPITAL. A ® ^ cic D ■Si .«; IP (3© Men-nefert Sechem Nut-ent-Hdpi Teqd Salt Chasuut 1 In the western part of this nome was the FavyQm, |— ^ ^^ Ta-shet. LIST OF NOMES. 73 (UPPER ^GY?T)— continued. GREEK NAME. DEITY. Kynonpolis Hipponus Oxyrhynchus Heracleopolis Magna Nilopolis (?) Aphroditopolis D S D @ PS I d ^ r-^r~i « ^\i Heru, Horus Anpu, Anubis Anpu, Anubis Sut Her-hfiu Chnemu Het-Heru, Hathor (LOWER EGYPT). GREEK NAME. DEITY. Memphis °M Ptah Letopolis ^1 Heru Horn Apis . /wwvs 1 i__ Het-Heru Amen-Rd Hathor Sais TA Nit Chois Amen-Rd = See J. de Roug^, Giog. Aticienne d( la Basse E gypte, Paris, 1891. 78 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Dynasty III., from Memphis, b.c. 3966. 18. ^1 ® ck ^ \ tia Ka m T'at'ai. ■'■ m F^l Neb-ka. Ser. Mem Teta. 26. MC^Jul -90 22 Set'es. 23 Serteta. 24 Ahtes. 25- Neb-ka-Ra. s= ( 1 ^ s: Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Huni. Dynasty IV., from Memphis, b.c. 3766, Seneferu. xufu. (Cheops.) xa-f-Ra. (Chephren.) 30' ■Ud^W} u Men-kau-Ra. (Mycerinus.) 31- 32- J Tet-f-Ra. u Shepses-ka-f. 1 33. m ( oau I Sebek-ka-Ra. 34. 1^^ CRs^l I-em-hetep. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 79 Dynasty V., from Elephantine, b.c. 3366. Sah-u-Ra. uu Q Usr-ka-f. Nefer-ka-ari-Ra, son of the Sun, Kakaa. 1* O PPu 3,. 1^ ( T|1Z] Nefer-f-Ra, son of the Sun, Shepses-ka-Ra. D Nefer-xa-Ra, son of the Sun, Heru-a-ka-u. 39 l^. Q Q (MuS 40. « Pmp^I ¥ (1 Usr-en-Ra, son of the Sun, 41 An. | ttr i i i i | lTLJ Men-kau-Heru. ] 42. M C^Tul 1- C^~0 Tet-kaRa, son of the Sun, Assa. 43. m (MM Unas. Dynasty VI., from Memphis, b.c. 3266. 44 15^ (TT} nissii Teta or Teta-mer-en-Ptah. (Teta beloved ofPtah.) 8o FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. -MCZTEO ^° CFI l Usr-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Ati. 4^. m CXH ¥ QB 47- a a \ Meri-Ra, son of the Sun, Pepi (I.). O O Mer-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Heru-em-sa-f. •9 O J^ OD 48. M [ o Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Pepi (II.). 49. m (o^h^K^ i 5°. m R^i Ra-mer-en-se (?)-em-sa-f Neter-ka-Ra. Men-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Netaqerti. (Nitocris.) Dynasties VII. and VIIL, from Memphls ; Dynasties IX. and X., FROM HeRACLEOPOLIS, B.C. 3IOO. 52- m m m m (JV3 Nefer-ka. 53- cj^m: Nefer-seh .... 54- cy%; Ab. 55- (^5M3 Nefer-kau-Ra 56. m xarei. 57- (^j^: Nefer-ka- Ra. 58. Nefer-ka-Ra-Nebi. 59 (BuG^f Tet-ka-Ra-maa. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 8l Nefer-ka-Ra-xentu. Mer-en-Heru. - m Gdu] 0. m CZIu l Senefer-ka. .3. M K^ Ka-en-Ra 64. H Q^^j Nefer-ka-Ra-t-rer-l(?). Nefer-ka-Heru. Nefer - ka - Ra - Pepi - senb. Se-nefer-ka-Ra, U o Nefer - ka - Ra- an nu.* 68. l\ CO iW] Nefer-kau-Ra. "Mi WW Nefer-kau-Heru. Nefer-ka-ari-Ra. Dynasty XL, from Thebes. 71. o Erpat Antef. 72. \ 73- Men-[tu-hetep]. Antef. »■ ^ CiZ l Antef. 75- Antef (?). '^1 J (1^1 Neter nefer, Antef. Beautiful god, Antef. • After this name the tablet of Abydos had ^\^ ( ® ^ Ml 1 .... kau-Ra t Erpa, usually translated "hereditary prince" or "duke,'' is one of the oldest titles of nobility in Egypt. B. Mi. O 82 77- 79- 8o. FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. O m ¥ j^z '- m (¥1 Son of the Sun Antef. Son of the Sun An-aa. © FS=^ 3 ¥ (JW) Antuf. Nub-xeper-Ra, son of the Sun, Antuf. O Aha-Heru-Ra-apu-maat, son of the Sun, Antuf-aa. 82. 83- Aha-renpit-Ra-aput-maat, son of the Sun, Antef-aa. Antef. Tet-Ra-her-her-maat, son of the Sun, 8s^ H ( oj[l— ^ M RUuI Senefer-ka-Ra. Ra, O Usr-en-Ra. 86. ^1 I] Neb-nem-Ra. ^'- M ¥ (MIS] Son of the Sun, Men^u-hetep (I.). 88. i"^^.-Q^ ''N °J 89. 90. Se-Ra-Men0-hetep (II.). O Neb-hetep-Ra, son of the Sun, Men0-hetep (III.). 3 Neb-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Meti0-hetep (IV.) CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 83 91 -Mr°-n ¥ c LV] Neb-xeru-Ra, son of the Sun, Men0-hetep (V.). 9- m (ojwj Se-anx-ka-Ra. 93- Dynasty XII., from Thebes, b.c. 2466. dR o 1 — 0- 94, 95- ■l\ Selietep-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen -em-hat (I.). -9 O O ^ n ] xeper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Usertsen (I.). mQojw^ f^"^ M 96 97- 98. Nub-kau-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-em-hat (II.). ■MCZES ^ Q xeper-xa-Ra, son of the Sun, Usertsen (II.). xa-kau-Ra, son of the Sun, Usertsen (III.). Ck £> \^ ^/■.^Ay^ fl ^yj -JJ \_ 1 AAAiV^A _Cr^ ^i^ ^ f 99- ^\^ i Maat-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-em-hat (III.) Maa-xeru-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-em-hat (IV.). mCJmm} Sebek-neferu-Ra. G 2 FUNKREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Dynasty XIII., e.g. 2233. Xu-taiu-Ra. xerp-ka-Ra. . em-hat. -4. m ffi^^i Sehetep-ab-Ra. - M CCl] Auf-na. Seanx-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Ameni-Antef-Amen-em-hat. -7. m @M3 Semen-ka-Ra. =8. m (ZM5] Sehetep-ab-Ra. .»9. « dgu] ka. -3. M H^ mi ] Net'em-ab-Ra. Sebek-[hete]p-Ra. MdMI Ren Set'ef , Ra. 114. c^ a V El Ra-xerp(?)-xu-taiu Sebek-hetep (I.). 5 j|(3M^1h] ¥ III ] Semenx-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Mer-menfitu xerp-seuat'-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (IT.). iiy. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. O xa-seshesh-Ra, son of the Sun, Nefer-hetep. 85 „8. \} O Ra-het . . . . se, son of the Sun, Het-Heru-se. -9 r^ ^J ^9. m c^] xa-nefer-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (III.). -9 O -• m ( oQg^i T^Hci D ] xa-hetep-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (IV.). Uah-ab-Ra-aa-ab. 122. l\^ o Q xaa-xeru-Ra. c» c» \ '^ I -£gS^ I I I Neb-f-a(?) a-mer-Ra. 124. .5. m (W] Nefer ab-Ra. 1 O Q o xa-anx-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (V.). - m c°-fl O . -J Mer-xerp-Ra, O (nrl Men-xau-Ra, son of the Sun, Anab. 86 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. -8 m RT^ ^ c^k^i 9 V: 129. :^V^ 10 c^ ^ V xerp-uat'-xau-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-em-sa-f (I.)- ]=»c=^ ^ 3 xerp-seset-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-em-sa-f (II.). Sesusr-taiu-Ra, xerp (?)-Uast-Ra. CIS xerp-uah-xa-Ra, son of the Sun, Ra-hetep. - m CSD Dynasty XIV. •2 o am 134- Mer-nefer-Ra, son of the Sun, Ai ■f O mGS] Mer-hetep-Ra, son of the Sun, Ana. '35. m C^PtePil] Seanxensehtu - Ra. Mer-xerp-Ra-an-ren. .3,. M r°pf^ Seuat'-en-Ra. .38. m 5^ xa-ka-Ra. 139- 140. Ka-meri-Ra. Ka-meri-Ra. neter nefer. Mer-kau-Ra. 141. Seheb-Ra. SSI Mer-t'efa-Ra. Neb-t'efa-Ra Ra (5/r). Sta-ka-Ra. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 87 Uben-Ra. 145- W=^ 1 O ra ^ Her-ab-Ra. '46. H ( o^PTmI Neb- sen -Ra. ^47. M ( oPH-^ l Seuah-en-Ra. Sexeper-en-Ra. H9. H (311] ret-xeru-Ra. Dynasty XV., "Shepherd Kings." ■=°- M CMH Aa-peh-peh-Set, son of the Sun, Nub-Set (?). ^- M CliJOl -«€(I3M] .... Banan. Abeh (?) - en - xepes. -MQIMJ Apepa. Dynasty XVI., "Shepherd Kings." 154- 1 J C5= ] ¥ (JMV\ Neter nefer Aa-ab-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Apepa. Beautiful god. I 6 \ ^ /I ^^vwv^ _ J^ or neter nefer Aa-qenen-Ra. Dynasty XVII., from Thebes. o -mqh;] ¥ cssn Seqenen-Ra, son of the Sun, Tau-aa. 88 fUNERliAL AKCM/EOLOGV OF EGYPT. '56. m n O 157. 1^ Seqenen-Ra, son of the Sun, Tau-aa-aa. y1 /NAAW\ Seqenen-Ra, son of the Sun, Tau-aa-qen. Uat'-xeper-Ra, son of the Sun, Karnes. 159- ^ ^ a J Suten hemt Aah-hetep. Royal wife. - m dLSMS Aah-mes-se-pa-ari. Dynasty XVIII., from Thebes, b.c. 1700. '61. mmC O %1] ^ y ? CEia Neb-peh-peh-Ra, son of the Sun, Aahmes. (Amasis I.) 16: ■1 ^ i:=i4 ^ Neter hemt Aah-mes-nefert-ari. Divine wife. ■^3. m G^^ 3 0°:"ol Ser-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep. (Amenophis I.) '64. m C o u AM] Aa-xeper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-nies. (Thothmes I.) Cartouches of Egyptian kings. 89 .^s. m ( 31^1 ^ CMS] Aa-xeper-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Nefer-xau-Tehuti-mes. (Thothmes II.) Mat-ka-Ra, sonof theSun, Hat-shepset-xnem-Amen. (Queen Hatshepsu.) ■-'■ m G^W] ¥ CMD Men-xeper-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes. (Thothmes III.) 168. mCTI] 1- 0°-llil Aa-xeperu-Ra, son of the Amen-hetepneterlieq Annu. Sun, (Amenophis II.) ■''■ M (AMU o M Men-xeperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes xa-xau. (Thothmes IV.) - m GiE} f"^^ ■m Neb-mat-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep heq-Uast. (Amenophis III.) Suten hemt ees 0i. (The Mesopotamian wi'e of Amenophis III.) -mCjMS] ¥ (M^M Nefer-xeperu-Ra-ua-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep neter heq Uast. (Amenophis IV.) XU-en-Aten. 90 FUNEREAL ARCHyEOLOGY OF EGYrT. Suten hemt urt Nefer-neferu-aten Neferti-i0. Royal wife, great lady. - m Gm l ^ o U ^Vl l I7S- Anx-xeperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Seaa-ka-next-xeperu-Ra. Neb-xeperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Tut-anx-Amen heq Annu resu (?). ;^eper-xeperu-mat-ari-Ra, son of the Sun, Atf-neter Ai neter heq Uast. ^77. m (311^1 ¥ C^^^^^V^l Ser-xeperu-Ra-setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-meri-en-Heru-em-heb. Dynasty XIX., from Thebes, b.c. 1400, Q '»- m CXTl ¥ (3E ^ Men-pehtet-Ra, son of the Sun, Ra-messu. (Rameses I.) 179- 3J (3=) ¥° QSllEI Men-mat-Ra, son of the Sun, Ptah-meri-en-Seti. (Seti I.) - M GIffl ^° MB Usr-mat-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Ra-messu-meri-Amen. (Rameses II.) .».. I ^ mrj -'^^ v\{^Mg\ Suten hemt Auset-nefert. Royal wife. Suten mut Tui. Royal mother. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 91 "^■m(Mz^l ¥ (mmH Ba-Ra-meri-en-Amen, son of the Sun, PtaB-meri-en-hetep- her-mat. (Meneptah T.) 184. ^1 O .•-\ V I'^Ws'vA ^ ¥ ( mm ] Men-ma-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-meses-heq-Uast. (Amen-meses.) Usr-xepefu-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Seti-meri-en-Ptah. (Set; II). XU-en-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Ptah-meri-en-se-Ptah. (Meneptah II.) Usr-xau-Ra setep-en-Ra son of the Sun, Ra-meri Amen-merer meri-Amen, Set-ne;^t. (Set-Next.) Dynasty XX., from Thebes, b.c. 1200. -i^cgsii] ^ Cii 4 J] Usr-mat-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Ra-meses-heq-Annu. (Rameses III.) Usr-mat-Ra setep-en- son of the Sun, Ra-meses-meri-Amen- Amen, Ra heq mat. (Rameses IV.) -iiCSlS ¥ GiMH Usr-mat-Ra s-^eper- son of the Sun, Ra-mes-meri-Amen-Amen en-Ra, suten-f. (Rameses V.) 92 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. 191. ©^ ¥ Gil-1Ifl Ra-Amen-mat- son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-mesesneter meri-neb, heq Annu. (Rameses VI.) 192. -]M£\ ^ GmSD Ra-usr-Amen-meri- son of ihe Sun, Ra-Amen-meses-ta-neter- setep-en-Ra, heq-Annu. (Rameses VII.) 193- m C°«^-l ¥ (^Mm j Ra-mat-usr-xu-en- son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-meses-meri- Amen, Amen. (Rameses VIII.) 194. v^^_0_JJjWwv^ QUI V ai I O I Q A^ Neb ta S-xa-en-Ra Meri- neb xau Rameses-se-Ptah. Lord of the Amen, lord of crowns, (Rameses IX.) land, Nefer-kau-Ra son of the Sun, Ra-meses-merer-Amen- setep-en-Ra, xa-Uast(?). (Rameses X.) 196. ^^ (oQ^Jiv?^ ] Ra-xeper-mat setep- son of the Sun, Ra-mes suten (?) Amen. en-Ra, (Rameses XL ) 197. l^. ?0i? — -oN AAAAAA mji Usr-mat-Ra setep- son of the Sun, Amen mer-Ra-meses. nu-Ra, (Rameses XII.) ■'«MC4iE] ¥ (^ IMiWirl Men-mat-Ra son of the Sun, Ra-meses-merer-Amen xa setep-en-Ra, Uast (?) neter heq Annu. (Rameses XIIL) CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 9i 199. Dynasty XXI., from Tanis, e.g. hoc. I. o O I Ra-neter-xeper setep-en son of the Sun, Se-Mentu meri-Ra. Amen, (Se-Mentu.) Ra-aa-xeper setep- son of the Sun, Amen-meri Pa-seb-xa-nu. en-Mentu, (Pasebxanu I.) CTTD ¥ ( ] Aa-seh-Ra, son of the Sun, Setep-en-Mentu-Ra, son of the Sun, Meri-Mentu-Amen- em-apt. (Amenemapt.) -mOTID %? Oli^EI Het' lieq son of the Sun, Meri-Amen Pa-seb-xa-nu. (Pasebxanu II.) Dynasty XXL, from Thebes, b.c. hog. II -- m (iifW j ¥ C!M3] Neter-hen-hetep en- son of the Sun, Her-Heru-se-Amen. Amen, (Her-Heru.) Prophet first of Amen, -=■ 1 ! ? - fl= 3^ f 7 Neter hen hetep en Amen Pa anx Prophet first of Amen Pa anx. 94 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Pai-net'em (I.). Xeper-xa-Ra-setep- son of the Sun, Amen-meri-Pai- en-Amen, net'em (IL). Suten mut Hent-taiu. Royal mother, Hent - taiu. 209. ^"v" ^ ' Prophet first of Amen, Masahera & (^ o T rirmiiirri^^TTTN ■I 1 1 1 1 1 1. kUJ I 4; \ 1 j^.^/v^A^ \ iPv^ \ J 1 ftl'^^^^ Prophet first, Men-;^eper-Ra, child Royal, Amen-meri Pai-net'em. Neter hen hetep en Amen-Ra, Pai-nat'em (HI.)- Prophet first of Amen-Ra. ... ] w @D] Suten hemt Mat-ka Ra. Royal wife. Dynasty XXII., from Bubastis, b.c. 966. 214. xeper-sexet-Ra son of the Sun, Amen-meri-Shashanq. setep-en-Ra, (Shashanq I.) xerp-xeper-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen meri Uasat ken. setep-en-Ra, (Osorkon I.) CARTOUCHKS OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 95 .5. m C-^inifl ^^ CPojio]: Het'-Ra-setep-en-Amen son of the Amen-meri Auset-meri neter heq Uast, Sun, flekelefl. (Takeleth I.) N Ra-usr-mat setep-en- son of the Sun, Amen-meri Uasarken. Amen, (Osorkon II.) Xeper-sexem-Ra son of the Sun, Amen-meri Shash[anq]. setep-en-Amen, (Shashanq II. ) Het'-xeperu-Ra son of the Sun, Amen-Ra-meri Auset- setep-en-Ra, meri 9ekele9. (Takeleth.) -MGHS 1- Q r^ c^qj 3 Usr-mat-Ra son of the Sun, Amen-meri-se-Bast Shasha[n]q. setep-en-Ra, (Shashanq III.) Usr-mat-Ra setep- son of the Sun, Amen-meri Pa-mai. en-Amen, (Pa-mai.) Dynasty XXI 1 1., froim Tanis, b.c. 766. Se-her-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Peta-se-Bast. Aa-xeper-Ra son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-meri Uasarkena. setep-en-Amen, (Osorkon III.) 96 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. Dynasty XXIV., from Sais, b.c. 733. 223. mcEj^] ¥ C 1 Uah-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Bakenrenf. Dynasty XXIV., from Ethiopia, b.s. 733. -4. ] " (U^] I ^^^^/^ > /I Suten Kasta. King Kashta. "5. m C O ti^^ Sun, P-anxi- Men-xeper-Ra, son of the Sun, P-anxi- Amen-meri P-anxi, son of the Sun, P-anxi. Dynasty XXV., from Ethiopia, b.c. 700. Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Shabaka. (Sabaco. ) =-■ M GJ5£! ¥ (mWu} Tet-kau-Ra, son of the Sun, ■90 - M G5^S Shabataka. V rg ^ J Ra-nefer-tem-xu, son of the Sun, Tahrq. (Tirhakah.) Neter nefer Usr-mat-Ra setep- lord of two Cod beautiful, en-Amen, lands, Amenrut. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 97 Dynasty XXVI., from Sais, b.c. 666. Uah-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Psem^ek. (Psammetichus I.) Nem-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Nekau. (Necho II.) -mGEI ■^ Nefer-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Psem^ek. (Psammetichus II.) Haa-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Uah ab-Ra. (Apries. ) ^35. m C^J^ ^ CtIm] xnem- ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Ahmes-se-net. (Amasis II.) Anx-ka-en-Ra, son of the Sun, PsemSek. (Psammetichus III.) Dynasty XXVII. (Persian), b.c. 527. Mesu5-Ra, son of the Sun, Kemba^et (Cambyses.) B. M. H 98 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 238. ^\^ I O -£a il\\m Settu, son of the Sun, Antariusha. (Darius Hystaspes. ^ 239- Of] -SSi 3 Lord of two xshaiarsha. lands, (Xerxes the Great.) 240. -232., -J\ Artaxshashas. ( Artaxerxes. ) - m CMii QVff^ Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Anfiierirutsha. (Darius Xerxes.) Dynasty XXVIII., from Sais. Senen-en-Ptah-Mentu- son of the Sun, (xabbesha.) .setep, Dynasty XXIX., from Mendes, b.c. 399. ^43. m C^^ffif] Ba-en-Ra neteru- son of the Sun, Niafaaurut. meri, 344. M (^33 "^ (m^s^ xnem-mat-Ra, son of the Sun, Haker. -5. M ( -TXzX 90 GH] Ra-usr-Pta^-setep-en, son of the Sun, Psemut. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 99 Dynasty XXX. from Sebennytu.s, b.c. 378. S-net'em-ab-Ra son of the Sun, Next-Heru-hebt-meri- setep-en-Amen, Amen. (Nectanebus I.) H7. m C^jjj] xeper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Next- neb -f. (Nectanebus II.) Dynasty XXXI.,* Persians. Dynasty XXXIL, Macedonians, b.c. 332. m8. m (h u, ^^ c S:A- 249 Setep-ka-en-Ra-meri- son of the Sun, Aleksantres. Amen, (Alexander the Great.) dH ¥ (MiElME neb taiu Setep-en-Ra- son of the Sun, meri-Amen, Phiuliupuas. (Philip Aridaeus. ) 251. "^ Ra-haa-ab-setep- son of the Sun, Aleksantres. en-Amen, (Alexander IV.) Dynasty XXXIII., Ptolemies, b.c. 305. CSHID Setep-en-Ra-meri- son of the Sun, Amen, Ptulmis. (Ptolemy I. Soter I.) ^52. ^ -^ c^MM] Neter mut, Bareniket. Divine Mother (Berenice I.) * The word "dynasty" is retained here for convenience of classification. H 2 lOO FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. -wGMa] 1? QSW 2 54- Ra-usr-ka-meri Amen, son of the Sun, Ptulmis. (Ptolemy II. Philadelphus.) ^ 255- rsinc Sutenet set suten sent suten hemt neb taiu Arsanat. Royal daughter, royal sister, royal wife, lady of the two lands (Arsinoe), Suten set suten sent Royal daughter, royal sister Pilatra. (Philotera). Ncteru-senu-ua-en-Ra-setep-Amen-xerp {?)-en-anx, son of the Son, GZHSMH Ptualmis anx t'etta Ptah meri Ptolemy (III. Euergetes I.), living for ever, beloved of Plali. 257- r o 0' -Baa I a a Heqt nebt taiu, Barenikat. Princess, lady of the two lands, (Berenice II.) -=• m (nf]^li^yu^Mn A ^ Neteru-menx-ua-[en]-Ptah-setep-en-Ra-usr-ka-Amen-xerp (?) any, •9 O dfOFilEE] son of the Sun, Ptualmis an^ t'etta Auset meri. Ptolemy (IV. Philopator,) living for ever, beloved of Isis. ^59- II 1 Suten set suten sent hemt urt nebt taiu Royal daughter, royal sister, wife, great lady, lady of the two lands, Cl^lgl Arsinai. Arsinoe (III., wife of Philopator I.). CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. TGI 360. m C /W^AJ^A C^ mm! Netera-meri-ua-en-Ptah-setep-Ra-usr-ka-Amen-xerp-an,v, O iteli^M^] son of the Sun, Ptualmis anx I'etta Ptah meri. Ptolemy (V. Epiphanes) living for ever, beloved of Ptah. 261. Ptolemy VI. Eupator, wanting. 262 £\ D Suten set sen hemt Qlauaperat. Royal daughter, sister, wife, (Cleopatra I.) ^1 -3. M 11^:1 Netcru-xu (?)-ua-Ptah-xeper-setep-en-Ra-Amen-ari-mat (?), 1 O CSMSMIE] son of the Sun, Ptualmis anx t'etta Ptah meri. Ptolemy (VII. Philometor I.), living for ever, beloved of Ptah. 2 I Q Sutenet set suten sent hemt suten mut neb taiu Royal daughter, royal sister, wife, royal mother, lady of the two lands. 264. 1=^ 1 Qlauapetrat. (Cleopatra II. wife of Philometor I.) 265. Ptolemy VIII. Philopator II. wanting. ^men-ari-mat X' Neteru-xu (?)-ua-en-Ptah-setep-en-Ra-Anien-ari-mat x^rp anx, o son of the Sun, Ptualmis anx t'etta Ptah meri. Ptolemy (IX. Euergetes II.), living for ever, beloved of Ptah. I02 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 267. Suten net King of North and South, lord of two lands, r 1=1 Q a — " — K^JiQ "i Neteru-men;i(-mat-s-meri.net-ua-Ptah-xerp {?).setep-en-Ra- Amen-ari-raat, 00 Q ■^^^ III Ra-se neb x^u Son of the Sun, lord of diadems, Ptualmis an^ t etta Ptah meri. Ptolemy X. (Soter II, Philometor II.) 268. nOs Cm^ii D ■imm Suten net, NeLeru-menx-ua-Ptah-setep-en-Ra-Amen-ari-mat- King of North and senen-Ptah-an^-en, South, son of the Sun, Ptualmis t'etu-nef Aleksentres an^ t'etts Ptah meri. Ptolemy (XI.) called is he Alexander, living for ever, beloved of Ptah. -''■ loH HMMffl Heqt neb taiu Erpa-ur-qebh-Baaarenekat. Princess, lady of two lands, Berenice (III.) 270. Ptolemy XII. (Alexander II.), wanting. • m C3 271 AAi\AAA /VWWS El P-neter-n-ua-enti-nehem-Ptah-setep-en-ari-mat-en- Ra-Amen-xerp-an;^, Bon of the Sun, Ptualmis anx t'etta Pta^i Auset meri. Ptolemy (XIII.), living for ever, beloved of Isis and Ptali. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 103 272. A D ■ o ^ J Neb taiu Qlapetrat t'ettu-nes Trapenet Lady of two lands, Cleopatra (V. ), called is she Tryphaena. 'A 273 ■I: o Heqt taiu Queen of two lands, Qluapeter. Cleopatra (VI.). 274- Os Suten net neb taiu King of North and lord of two lands, South, Ptualmis Ptolemy (XIV.), €is O .e^ Q r^ffsi^ij o Ra se neb x^a. Kiseres anx t'etta Ptah Auset meri. son of the Sun, lord of diadems, Csesar, living for ever, of Ptah and Isis beloved. Dynasty XXXIV., Roman Emperors, b.c. 27. 275. ?Qj ^"^^ === Suten net neb taiu King of North and lord of two lands. South, Auteqreter Autocrator, ?Q Q) em IMMSI Ra se neb x3u Kiseres anx t'etta Ptah Auset meri. Sun's son, lord of crowns, Csesar (Augustus), living for ever, of Ptah and Isis beloved. 276, ^ ^ ^ Suten net neb taiu Sc. A' 30 V_^ Q QUI Ra se neb xau Auteqreter Autocrator, son of the Sun, lord of diadems. m ■f Tebaris Kiseres anx t'etta. Tiberius Caesar living for ever. I04 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Heq hequ Autekreter Ptah Auset-meri son of the Sun, Kinjj of kings, Autocrator, of Ptah and Isis beloved. CSSIEBSXI Qais Kaiseres Kermeniqis. Gaius (Caligula) Caesar Germanicus. 278. «QJ ^:=^ === Suten net neb taiu ^ a'- Auteqreter Kiseres Autocrator Caesar, 5QO III Ra se neb x^u Sun's son, lord of crowns. CXHES Qlutes Tibaresa. Claudius Tiberius. 279 -4 y ^ \. QTHKi neb taiu Heq hequ-setep-en-Auset meri Ptah King of North and lord of two Ruler of rulers, chosen one of Isis, South, lands, beloved of Ptah. O QUI se Ra neb x^-u Sun's son, lord of crowns. Autekreter Anrani. (Autocrator Nero). 280. Oj Merqes Au^nes (Marcus Otho). oao III ^ — ' Sun's son, lord of crowns. 281. Vitellius (wanting). Wf^l^^ ^1K®^ O ^ Kiseres netx Autukreter. Caesar .... Autocrator. D c;artouches of Egyptian kings. 103 282 (B (3 . \!\ ^[ Suten net (?) Suten net (?) Autukretur Kisares Autocrator Caesar, Uspisines netx Vespasianus 283. l'=>l ^_^ J Autekretur Tetis Keseres. Autocrator Titus Caesar, 5QO a "^ 7 a 2 Sun's son, lord of crowns (2 fe(lV1 Uspesines net^- Vespasianus .... 284. ds ?QO (3 a ■ u n- Autukretur Kiseres. Autocrator CjKsar, a ■ a s Sun's son, lord of crowns. Tumetines netx- Domitianus .... 285. (ac3op. 3F^ Autukreter Kiseres. Autocrator Csesar. son of the Sun, ] Neruas netx- Nerva 286. ?Q{ = (? (o. f3 ■B^dd :{]l Autukreter Kaiseres Neruaui. Autocrator Ctesar Nerva, lOO FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 5QOa 2 ■s the Sun's son, Traianes netx Arsut Kermineqsa Ntekiqes. lord of crowns, Trajan (Augustus) Germanicus. Dacicus. 2S7. Os © SJEMlHI Autukreter Kiseres Trinus. Autocrator Csesar Trajan, ?Q0 S a the Sun's son, lord of crowns, c 0(1-5 D Atrines netx. Hadrian S8. 1^3 c^jWMI] CSMl] Suten hemt Sabinat Sebesta anx t etta. Royal wife, Sabina, Sebaste living for ever. "^ §=S=f King of the North and South, lord of the world, ( l.^::^¥P:]^°qp::qqp"Hq°l Autukreter Kiseres Gites Alis Atrins. Autocrator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus, a the Sun's son, lord of crowns, 0(S \\ O' -im Antunines Sebes^esus Baus netixui. Antoninus Augustus Pius ] 290. CIS © VS^^M£1 Autekreter Kaiseres. Autocrator Cassar, tao a a K_^ 2 the Sun's son, lord of crowns, GkAMai^^i^ Aurelais Antanines netx anx t'etta. Aurelius Antoninus, .... living for ever. 291- CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS, Autekreter Autocrator s Kesers Cassar dl Luki Lucius 107 AuUi Aelius m Uara an^ t'etta. Verus, living for ever. !lCU <2 \>- i^wp ?i ;^ Autekretirs Kisaures Autocrator Caesar, 'c>.^ h D O D o n o <^~^ tlie Sun's son, lord of crowns, Kamtaus A-en-ta-nins netex. Commodus. Antoninus 293. Autocrator Cassar ( \j ar f X r:^ CiW Sauris net^. Severus .... 294. Autocrator Csssar G Antanenes netx. Antoninus [Caracalla] . . ] '^ 295. Autocrator Caesar W Kat netix. Geta 296. Autocrator Cassar r^^w Taksas netx. Decius io8 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Finding of the Rosetta Stone. Stele of Canopus and Rosetta Stone compared. The Rosetta Stone ' and the Stele of Canopus. The following remarks upon the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics may be fitly introduced by a des- cription of the remarkable objects of antiquity whose names stand at the head of this chapter. The Rosetta Stone is a slab of black basalt, which is now preserved in the British Museum (Egyptian Gallery, No. 24). It was found by a French artillery officer called Boussard, among the ruins of Fort Saint Julien, near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile, in 1799, but subsequently came into the possession of the British Government at the capitulation of Alexandria. It is inscribed with fragments of 14 lines of hieroglyphics, 32 lines of demotic, and 54 lines of Greek. A portion of the stone has been broken off from the top, and the right-hand bottom corner has also suffered injury. It now measures 3ft. gin. x 2ft. 4jin. x 11 in. We may arrive at an idea of the original size of the Rosetta Stone by com- paring the number of lines upon it with the number of those upon the Stele of Canopus, which is inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek, measures 7ft. 2 in. x 2ft. 7in. x ift. 2 in., and is inscribed with 36 lines of hieroglyphics, 73 lines of demotic, and 74 lines of Greek. The demotic inscription is on the edge of the stele. This stele was set up at Canopus in the ninth year of the reign of Ptolemy III., Euergetes I. (B.C. 247—222), to record the decree made at Canopus by the priesthood, assembled from all parts of Egypt, in honour of the king. It records the great benefits which he had conferred upon Egypt, and states what festivals are to be celebrated in his honour, and in that of Berenice, etc., and, like the Rosetta Stone, concludes with a resolution ordering that a copy of this inscription in hieroglyphics, Greek and demotic, shall be placed in every large temple in Egypt. Now the Rosetta Stone is inscribed with 32 lines of demotic, and the Stele of Canopus with 73 ; but as the lines on the Rosetta Stone are rather more than double the length of those on the Stele of Canopus, it is pretty certain that each ' a cast of the Rosetta Stone is exhibited in the Fitzwilliam Museum. ifvnrT, i©;ss:Ti(i!ii)s,i^mf[ii!llSHi»iYi!:?^!s^*r4V;isrtrTiivii ^i' \ vonoYIYNEITHKYIAI.THIA/AotT|otHTO^^ 1 4°KAoTlAI^XAM"llNTEkAl^TA4p^rkW ■KAkAZYNTETEAEEMENftiKMAN r4o>(ENTAlor^oA\E-rEll»J^HiVCAln(.£oTHIIIIo£KAl'£iri>lYI«!Exsl( "-"-^ '■' •■'-V/ANTAIKAlTAIErAAWKHIANTAinArArENoMENOieiEMEM^INEnNMtNnNx AKIKAIT/iNEYNTETEAEXMENSNTAnpoITONteirMATlEMON4IA».fAEAtTnNATTANX oNnN^^^^^^ )At?,«a-T'iL';fT'Anr»tHkoNTAN*MlMATHtnNrAAHtElTHElAEI^EIAEAtHKENiiEKMTAE>' :*,tg^A**f^AlTA£TIMAETnNMHSyNTETCAErMENANEliToBAIIAlt(OHRYIIINnWoo/a. ^$:SW^MENH£AFTA»HSTUlAfoYPAaHSIErA^H£KAlTHEAMnEAlTl^oZoMorf> AYTAilAnANT.ETAfESxA%TAjXlAYT:HNKAOHK0NfAOT<;iYi2;A+-«Al|,!,= .. >. — ^»-» MnANHrYrEJ>.NKAlT/l.NAAA-n-NTANN«Mr//e EKEYAXENxopHrHJAIEllAYTOxPYIloYTEl HjYEEYXAHiT*YEIKONAENEKAlT^UEPAlEMTJHEnl+A»4- YSAYTmor\A«NNIKHTlK«Nf;EITAlKA-rEm6YAIMEN/i. "P^Ji^^'^Jr'^'h^YNTEAElNicAoAKWToUAAAol£OEollEN4' ^>N0HZOEftN^IA,0T7A-T0p^H=»ANoNTeKAlNA»N>tfy*' « ^eAE10HlTAN0MlI°«ENATHInAr^AH+ElTHl»AIlAE\AiEni0EmNiEKKmnlTiYnErlTAll!AilAEIAlTETtArnN0tKATAT<'nf0ElPHMEN0NllAilAE|ON»TA/" ' nr,^^^ • J^VITlNT0YJAllAEAIToY6^^^NH^o|H£ANT02TBHTEAN'lXnPANKAITHH^ATAIAEIopHENHITArEN6oMAToYliAIUEnI/rETAI0M»|A^^^ « / SHinAtEAABENTHP4BAXlAEIANnAPTOYnA.TPO£EnANYMOY£NEN»MIKAilNENTO|£IEpo|iXjAHn»AAaNArAOANAtXHroirAIINEljmArElMTAIHMEfAITM « ( rwT<>NIEPol£KATAMHNAltAIZYNTEAEINBNAYTOI10YtlAtKAIlno«iAIkAlTAAAATANOMlIoMENMAlANoBlftmAmrA™MENAlYnoToY«SA|lAilAElnToAEMAJf^loEn\Eni«A^^^ - \ XApXNAnoTBlNOYMHNlAt^OYonYOEtHMEfAinENTEENAlEKAttTEHNHtofHIOYEWUYNTEAnNTEEOYEUlKAlInoNiAlKAlTAAAATAKAoHK'NTAnPO^ '.A !'';'TOYOEOYE.nl»AN»YtEYXA»aTOY;EPElEntoITO«AAA»lEOWMAI\NTi^oEnMANlEfATEYO'AYTOtJonArrNA(lMoNHIAIOTlolENAirYnTAlAYZoYt.lKAItlMAaYoNOEONEnl*ANHEYXAPIiToNl^^l^E'^l'TEPEoYA10oY-ro|I.TEIE!'o\EKAlErXfl.PloreKA\ENAHWiKOlirPAMMAtlN\KT> The RosETTA Stone, inscribed with a decree of the priests of Memphis, conferring divine honours on To face p. io8. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, King of Egypt, B.C. 195. THE ROSETTA STONE. lOQ document is of about the same length. The Stele of Canopus has 74 liHes of Greek to 54 on the Rosetta Stone, but as the letters are longer and wider, it is clear from this also that the Greek versions occupied about the same space. Allowing then for the difference in the size of the hieroglyphic characters, we should expect the hieroglyphic inscription on the Rosetta Stone to occupy 14 or 15 lines. When complete the stele must have been about twelve inches longer than it is now, and the top was probably rounded and inscribed, like that of the Stele of Canopus, with a winged disk, having pendent uraei, that on the right wearing Q , the crown of Upper Egypt, and that on the left %( , the crown of Lower Egypt ; by the side of each urseus, laid horizontally, would be ':^^>-, and above ^ ■f td dnck, " giver of life." The inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone form a version of a Contents decree of the priesthood assembled at Memphis in honour of stone. Ptolemy v., Epiphanes, King of Egypt, B.C. 195, written in hieroglyphics, demotic and Greek. A facsimile ^ of them was published by the Society of Antiquaries ^ in 1802, and copies were distributed among the scholars who were anxious to undertake the investigation of the texts. The hieroglyphic text has been translated by Brugsch in his Inscriptio Rosettatia, Principal Berlin, 185 1 ; by Chabas, H Inscription hieroglyphique de theRosetta Rosette, Paris, 1867 ; and by Sharpe, The Rosetta Stone in Stone. hieroglyphics and Greek, London, 1 87 1, etc. The Demotic text has been studied by M. de Sacy, Lettre a M. Chaptal stir I'in- scription egypt. de Rosette, Paris, 1802; by Akerblad, Letter a M. de Sacy sur I' inscription ^gypt. de Rosette, Paris, 1 802 ; by Young, Hieroglyphics (collected by the Egyptian Society, arranged by Dr. T. Young, 2 vols., fol., looplates, 1823-1828), pi. X ff. ; by Brugsch, Die Insckrift von Rosette nach ihrem dgyptisch-demotischen Texte sprachlich utid sachlich erkldrt, Berlin, 1850 ; Salvolini, Analyse Grammaticale Raisonnee de ' Other facsimiles are given in Lepsius, Auswahl, Bl. 18, and in Arundale and Bonomi, Gallery of Antiquities, pi. 49, p. 114. ■* The Greek version of the decree of the Egyptian Priests in honour of Ptolemy the Fifth, surnamed Epiphanes, from the stone inscribed in the sacred and vulgar Egyptian and the Greek characters, taken from the French at the surrender of Alexandria. London, 1802. Nichols. no FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. dijferents textes des anciens Egyptiens, Vol. I., Texte liierogly- phiqtie et dhnotique de la pierre de Rosette, Paris, 1836. This work was never finished. The Greek text has been edited by Heyne, Commentatio in inscriptionem grcBcam monumeiiti trims titidis insigniti ex Aegypto Londimnn apportati, in torn. xv. of Comment. Soc. R. Sc. Gott., pp. 260-280; Ameilhon, Eclair- cisse^nents siir ['inscription grecque du monument trouve a Rosette, Y2ix\s, 1803; Drumann, Commentatio in inscriptionem prope Rosetiam ijiventam, Regiomont, 1822; and Drumann, Historisch-antiquariscJie Untersiuhungen Uber Aegypten, oder die Inschrift von Rosette aus dem Griechischen ilbersetzt und ei-ldutert, Konigsberg, 1823; Lenormant, Essai sur le texte grec de r inscription de Rosette, Paris, 1842; Letronne, Recueil des inscriptions grecques et latines d'Egypte, Paris, 1842 ; by Franz in Boeckh, Corpus Inscriptionum Grcecarum, t. iii., 1853, p. 334 ff.. No. 4697, etc. Beneficent The inscriptions upon the Rosetta Stone set forth that PtolemyV. Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, while king of Egypt, consecrated Epiphanes. revenues of silver and corn to the temples, that he suppressed certain taxes and reduced others, that he granted certain privileges to the priests and soldiers, and that when, in the eighth year of his reign, the Nile rose to a great height and flooded all the plains, he undertook, at great expense, the task of damming it in and directing the overflow of its waters into proper channels, to the great gain and benefit of the agricultural classes. In addition to the remissions of taxes which he made to the people, he gave handsome gifts to the temples, and subscribed to the various ceremonies which were carried on in them. In return for these gracious acts the priesthood assembled at Memphis decreed that a statue of the king should be set up in a conspicuous place in every temple of Egypt, and that each should be inscribed with the name and titles of " Ptolemy, the saviour of Egypt." Royal apparel was to be placed on each statue, and ceremonies were to be performed before each three times a day. It was also decreed that a gilded wooden shrine, containing a gilded wooden statue of the king, should be placed in each temple, and that these were to be carried out with the shrines of the other kings in the great panegyrics. It was also decreed THE ROSETTA STONE. Ill that ten golden crowns of a peculiar design should be made and laid upon the royal shrine ; that the birthday and Festivals coronation day of the king should be celebrated each year of Ptolemy with great pomp and show; that the first five days of the Epiphanes. month of Thoth should each year be set apart for the performance of a festival in honour of the king ; and finally tiiat a copy of this decree, engraved upon a tablet of hard stone in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek characters, should be set up in each of the temples of the first, second and third orders, near the statue of the ever-living Ptolemy. The Greek portion of the inscriptions appears to be the original document, and the hieroglyphic and demotic versions merely translations of it. Although it is nearly certain that, without the aid of the Greek inscription found on the socket of an obelisk at Philse, and the hieroglyphic inscription found on the obelisk which belonged to that socket, the hieroglyphic alphabet could never have been recovered from the Rosetta Stone, still it is Rosetta around this wonderful document that all the interest in the base of decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics clings. For decipher- many hundreds of years the interest of the learned of all Egyptian countries has been excited by the hieroglyphic inscriptions of hierogiy- Egypt, and the theories propounded as to their contents were legion. Speaking broadly, the references to this subject by classical authors ' are not very satisfactory; still there are some remarkable exceptions which will be referred to presently. In- asmuch as the names of Roman emperors, as late as the time of Decius, were written in hieroglyphics, it follows that the Late use of knowledge of this subject must have been possessed by some Xi^'^' one, either Greek or Egyptian, in Egypt. " For a hundred and fifty years after the Ptolemies began to reign, the Egyptian hieroglyphics appear to have been commonly used, and the Egyptians were not prohibited from making use, so far as it seemed requisite, according to ritual or otherwise appropriate, of the native language and of its time-hallowed written signs." * Little by little, however, the Greek language dis- ' See Gutschmid, Scriptorum rerum Aegyptiacarum Series, in Philologtis, Bd. X., Gottingen, 1855, ss. 712 ff. - MotamseR, Provinces of the Roman Empire, Vol- II. p. 243. 112 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Greek writers upon Egyptian hierogly- phics. placed the Egyptian, and the writing in common use among the people, called to-day "demotic" or "enchorial," and anciently " epistolographic,'' completely usurped the place of the " hieratic " or cursive form of hieroglyphic writing. Al- though the Greeks and Romans appear not to have studied hieroglyphics thoroughly, only repeating, generally, whaf they were told about certain signs, nevertheless writers like Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Hermapion, Chaeremon, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Horapollo, contribute information on this subject of considerable value. To Hecataeus of Miletus,^ who visited Egypt betweei;! B.C. 513-501, we owe, through Herodotus, much knowledge of Egypt, and he must be considered the earliest Greek writer upon Egypt. Hellanitus of Mytilene, B.C. 478-393, shows in his Airjv7rTLaK.a that he has some accurate knowledge of the meaning of some hieroglyphic words. ^ Democritus wrote upon the hieroglyphics of Meroe, ' but this work is lost. Herodotus says that the Egyptians used two quite different kinds of writing, one of which is called sacred (hieroglyphic), the other common * (demotic). Diodorus says that the Ethiopian letters are called by the Egyptians " hieroglyphics." ^ Strabo, speaking of the obelisks at Thebes, says that there are inscriptions upon them which prjD- claim the riches and power of their kings, and that their rule extends even to Scythia, Bactria, and India.' Chaeremon of Naucratis, who lived in the first half of the first century after Christ,' and who must be an entirely different person from Chaeremon the companion of Aelius Gallus (B.C. 25), ' See De rerum Aegyptiacarnm scriptoribus Graecis ante Ahxandrum Magnum-y in Philologus, Bd. X. s. 525. ^ See the instances quoted in Philologus, Bd. X. s. 539. ^ Ilfpi tUv iv Mipoy Upuv ypafifiaTiov. Diogenes Laertius, Vi'i. Democ, ed. Isaac Casaubon, 1593, p. 661. ■• Kai TO. /iiv airuiv ipri, to. Si StifioTiKa Ka^itToi. Herodotus, IL 36, ed, Didot, p. 84. ' Diodorus, IIL 4, ed. Didot, p. 129. 6 Strabo, XVII. i, § 46, ed. Didot, p. 693. ' According to Mommsen he came to Rome, as tutor to Nero, in the reign cl Claudius. Provinces of Rome, Vol. II. pp. 259, 273. THE ROSETtA STONE. II5 derided by Strabo,^ and charged with lying by Josephus,^ Greek wrote a work on Egyptian hieroglyphics ^ irepl toiv lep&v ^ ypafifiaTcov, which has been lost. He appears to have been Egyptian attached to the great library of Alexandria, and as he was phics. a " sacred scribe," it may therefore be assumed that he had access to many important works on hieroglyphics, and that he understood them. He is mentioned by Eusebius* as Xaiptjficov 6 iepoypap,p.arevi;, and by Suidas,* but neither of these writers gives any information as to the contents of his work on hieroglyphics, and we should have no idea of the manner of work it was but for the extract preserved by John Tzetzes (T^ir^v;, bom about a.d. iiio, died after John A.D. 1 1 80). Tzetzes was a man of considerable learning and j^ptYan" literary activity, and his works ^ have value on account of the hierogly- lost books which are quoted in them. In his Chiliades' (Bk. v., line 395) he speaks of o AlyvTrrLos lepoypaixfiarev^ Xaiprj- ILwv, and refers to Chaeremon's hiZarjp,aTa rwv lepcov v km iSiurrig. Strabo, XVII. I, § 29, ed. Didot, p. 685. ^ Contra Apion., I. 32 ff. On the identity of Chaeremon the Stoic philo- sopher with Chaeremon the 'iipoypafi/Martii;, see Zeller, Hermes, XI. o. 431. ^ His other lost work, AiyvwriaKa, treated of the Exodus. ■* Praep. Evang., v. 10, ed. Gai-sford, t. I, p. 421. * Sub voce 'Iepoy\vfiKa. ^ For an account of them see Krumbacher, Geschichte aei Byzantinischen Literatur, Miinchen, 1891, pp. 235-242. ' Ed. Kiessling, Leipzig, 1826, p. 191. " Draconis Stratonlcensis Liber de Metris Poeticis. Joannis Tzetzae Exegesis in Homeri Iliadem. Primum edidit God. Hermannus, Lipsiae, 1812. B. M. I 114 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. the study of hieroglyphics, it is given here, together with the schoHa on it, from the excellent edition of the Greek text, by Lud. Bachmann, Scholia in Homeri Iliadem, Lipsiae, 1835, pp. 823, § 97 and 838, with an English translation. Extract "O^iy^os fie, vaihevOei's cucpi^uji Se iraaav fiaOriaiv tV tuiv avfi^oXt- T etzes' "■"^^ A.l0to'!rtKuiv r/pa/i/naTiof, Twura (prjaiv " ot ryap AtOcoTres o-Toi%eia work on rypafijLiaTivv ovk e-)(ovaiv, aXK avr av-vGiv ^iSa ii-avTola, Kal fie\,rj 70vtuiv Kal fjLopia • fiovXo/ievoi r^ap oi apx^^oTepoi tS>v iepo^paii,)i.aTiuiv tov Trepl Oeuiv (pvaiKOv Xor^ou Kpvwreiv, hi aXXrj'^optKwv Kac (7Vju,j3o\,u)i> toiovtuiu Kal r^pafi/idruiv Tots iSiocs tskvois avra TrapeSiSovv, u)s o cepo'ypafifiaTevs 'X.aipTj^uiv fpriGi' 1. Kal avyl pkv ■)(apai, r/vvaiKa TVfiTravl^ovaav erfpacpov ' 2. hnl Xvirrj^, avOpuitrov rij X^'P' ''° ^^Vefoi' KpaTodvra, Kal wpos r^TJv vevovra ' 3. dvrl Se (TV/ii/popdsy o(p9aXfiov daKpvovTa ' 4. di/Tl Tou fiTj ep^eii/, ^vo ^e£/)as Kevas eKrera/icva^ ' 5. dvrl dvaTo\7J9y ot^iv e^ep^d/^evov ek tcvo9 ottos' 6. dvrl Bvtreiv?^ elaepxdfiEvov ' 7- dvTi dvajScwcrewiy ^drpa^ov ' 8. avTi '^^XVh lepaKa' ert Kal dvTi yXtov Kat 6eov ' 9. dvrl GrjXvr^dvov f^vvatKO^^ Kal fiTjTpo? Kal XP^^^^ '^^^^ ovpavov, f^vTra ' 10. dfjl ^acrtXetvfy fie\iv Koi ovk ' Hermann, p. 123, 11. 2-29 ; Bachmann, p. 823, 11. 12-34. '' Hermann, p. 17, 11. 21-25 > Bachmann, p. 755, 11. 9-12. Il8 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. aKpi,^(o<; avToq eTriardfievo^ [et] Kal, Tiva rovrtov KareXe^ev mcrirep iv oh otSe ■jrapprja-id^erai. XaiprjfiQyv Se o lepoypa/ji- jjiaTeii^ oXrjv ^i^'Kov ivepi rcov rotovrav •ypafifidrav crvveTa^ev. ariva, ev roi? 7r/3o[(r^opois] tottok tmv 'Op,ripeLcov iirwv d\_Kpi\^ea-Tepov Kol ■7rXarvrepca<; e'pco." " Diodorus made mention of the Ethiopian characters and spoke particularly, yet as though he had learnt by hearsay from another and did not understand them accurately himself, although he set down some of them, as though he were talking confidently on subjects that he knew. But Chaeremon the sacred scribe compiled a whole book about the aforesaid characters, which I will discuss more accurately and more fully in the proper places in the Homeric poems.'' It is much to be regretted that Chaeremon's work, if he ever fulfilled his promise, has not come down to us. Greek One of the most valuable extracts from the works of of Egyp- Greek and Roman writers on Egypt is that from a translation ^n text by of an Egyptian obelisk by Hermapion, preserved by pion. Ammianus Marcellinus ; ^ unfortunately, however, neither the name of Hermapion's work nor the time in which he lived is known. This extract consists of the Greek translation of six lines of hieroglyphics : three lines are from the south side of the obelisk, one line from the east side, and a second and a third line from the other sides. A comparison of the Greek extract with any inscription of Rameses II. on an obelisk shows at once that Hermapion must have had a certain accurate knowledge of hieroglyphics ; his translation of the lines, however does not follow consecutively. The following examples will show that the Greek, in many cases, represents Compari- the Egyptian very closely. Ai'yei "HXio<; BaaiXel 'PaLLearn- son of f s ' ' . \ - . , , „ ^ , Greek oeoaiprjfiaL croi ava traaav OLKOv/j,evr]v fiera xO'P<^'> paaiXeveiv, translation a w tj>, . -, - V^ Q © .51 ^ ""'^ "^^^ ^CT^ r~^^ with the ov J:lA,io '■^^^^"g "P°" Law, lord of diadems, protector of Egypt, making splendid Heliopolis with monuments." "HXio? Oeb<; fterya^ SecrTroT??? »"'-"» = ii 1 : ^11 H -- ^ : ^^y\ ^ ""- machis, the great god, lord of heaven,'' TfXrjpdxra'; rov vecnv rov (f>oiviKO? d'yadcov, w 01 6eoX ^aifj'; ')^p6vov iBoopijaavro = 111 J if I ^1 '' filling the temple of the bennu (phcenix) with his splendours, may the gods give to him life like the Sun for ever," etc. The Flaminian obelisk, from which the Egyptian passages Flaminian given above are taken, was brought from Heliopolis to Rome ° ^ '^ • by Augustus, and placed in the Circus Maximus,^ whence it was dug out ; it now stands in the Piazza del Popolo at Rome, where it was set up by Pope Sixtus V. in 1589.^ This obelisk was originally set up by Seti I., whose inscriptions occupy the middle column of the north, south, and west sides ; the other columns of hieroglyphics record the names and titks of Rameses II. who, in this case, appropriated the obelisk of his father, just as he did that of Thothmes III. The obelisk was found broken into three pieces, and in order to render it capable of sustaining itself, three palms' length was cut from the base. The texts have been published by Kircher, Oedipus Aegyptiacus, t. iii. p. 213 ; by Ungarelli, Interpretatio Obeliscorum Urbis, Rome, 1842, p. 65, sgg., 1 Qui autem notarum textus obelisco incisus est veteri, quem videmus in Circo etc. Ammianus Marcellinus, XVII. 4, § 17. It seems to be referred to in Pliny, XXXVI. 29. 2 For a comparative table of obelisks standing in 1840, see Bonomi, Notes on Obelisks, in Trans. RoyalSoc. Lit., Vol. I. Second Series, p. 158. I20 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. plate 2; and by Bonomi, who drew them for a paper on this obelisk by the Rev. G. Tomlinson in Trans. Royal Soc. Lit., Vol. I. Second Series, p. 176 ff. For an account of this obelisk, see Zoega, De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, Rome, 1797, p. 92. The next Greek writer whose statements on Egyptian hieroglyphics are of value is Clement of Alexandria, who Cham- flourished about A.D. 191-220. According to Champollion, es^St'e of " u" ss"^ auteur grec, a d6m^l6 et signale, dans Clement's I'ecriture ^gyptienne sacr^e, les ^Idmens phonetiques, lesquels onhiero-^ en sont, pour ainsi dire, le principe vital ^ Clement glyphics. d'Alexandrie s'est, lui seul, occasionnellement attach^ a en donner une idee claire ; et ce philosophe chr^tien 6tait, bien plus que tout autre, en position d'en fitre bien instruit. Lorsque mes recherches et I'^tude constante des monuments egyptiens m'eurent conduit aux r&ultats precedemment exposes, je dus revenir sur ce passage de Saint Clement d'Alexandrie, que j'ai souvent cite, pour savoir si, a la faveur des notions que j'avais tirees d'un examen ' soutenu des inscriptions hi6roglyphiques, le texte de I'auteur grec ne deviendrait pas plus intelligible qu'il ne I'avait paru jusque- la. J'avoue que ses termes me sembl^rent alors si positifs et si clairs, et les idees qu'il renferme si exactement conformes a ma theorie de I'dcriture hidroglyphique, que je dus craindre aussi de me livrer a une illusion et a un entrainement dont tout me commandait de me d^fier."^ From the above it will be seen what a high value Champollion placed on the state- ments concerning the hieroglyphics by Clement, and they have, in consequence, formed the subject of various works by eminent authorities. In his Precis (p. 328), Champollion gives the extract from Clement with a Latin translation and remarks by Letronne.^ Dulaurier in his Examen dun passage des Stromates de Saint Clhnent dAlexandrie, Paris, 1833, again published the passage and gave many explanations of words in it, and commented learnedly upon it. (See also ' Pricis du Systime hiiroglyphique des anciens Egyptiens, Paris, 1824, p. 321. ' Pricis, p. 327. ' See also CEuvres Choisies, t. I. pp. 237-254. THE ROSETTA STONE. 121 Bunsen's Aegyptens Stelle, Bd. I., p. 240, and Thierbach, Erkldrung auf das Aegyptische Schriftwesen, Erfurt, 1846.) The passage is as follows : — avTLKa ol Trap Kif'^VTr'tioL^ iraih^vofx^voi irpunov liev iravTWV Jijv Clement of ,. r I 'n ■ y ni >> -\ JL ^ Alexandria XiyvTmuiv r^pafifiaTuiv fie.oo6ov eicfjiavoavovai rrjv e7ricrTOA.oypalKriv, Jjs ry /J.ev ioTL Sta tSiv TrpuJTivv moL-^eiu)v KVpioXoyiKrj, rj Be aVfJbpdXlKrj. ttjs Se av/i/3o\iKij9 7j fiev KVpmXoyetTai, Kara fJ,ip,7]aiV, rj S" wa-!rep TpoTriKO)'; (ypaxperai, rj Be avTiKpvi aWrj^opei-rai Kara Ttva? ai,VI,y/J-OV<;, rjXiov lyouv ^ jierai7'xrjfiaTi^ovTei ■)(a.par- TOVffiv. T0V9 (youv Ttjbv ^aaiKdiov eTralvov? deoXo^ovjievoi^ fX.vOoL's TrapaBiBovre^ ava^jpax^ovat Bia Tiov avay\\J(^(M)V, Tot) Be KaTa TOf? aiVliy/jiOVi rpiTov e't'Bov^ Bel^jLia earui roBe. la, jiev r^ap -ruiv akXtdU aGTpwv Bia Tfjv rropeiav rrjv Xo^rjv o(peujv awfiaaLV aTretica^oVy tov Be rjXiov Ttv Tou Kavdapov^ eTrecBtj KVKXorepe^ en, t^? jSoeia^- ovOov cT'X^tjjia TiXaad/nevos avTiirpoaiviro'i KvXlvBet. (paal Be xal e^a/MrjVov jJLev viro 7I/?, GaTepov Be tow erovs rjxTjfia to ^wov touto virep | kerh, is a Champollion, Precis, p. 278. THE ROSETTA STONE. I23 generic determinative. Phonetic signs are either Alphabetic as ^ «, J (5, ^^zz:^ k, or Syllabic, as i^^*^^ men, ^^ chen, etc. Porphyry the Philosopher, who died about A.D. 305, says of Pythagoras : ^ — TLai h) Ai'yvinai fjuev rot? lepevcn avvrjv Koi rrjv aocpiav Pytha- i^ifiade, Kol Tr}v A I'yvTnioiv (^wvrjv, 'ypafi/J.dT(oi> Be Tpi.aaa<; S?'^^ ^^'^ Bia —(0— OCi ^ —p— , etc. I — (D— C^^M l Re-stau Re-stau (i.e., the passages of the tomb)." and his translation runs: — "Vitale providi Numinis domi- nium, quadruplicem Mundani liquoris substantiam dominio confert Osiridis, cujus una cum Mendesio foecundi Numinis dominio, benefica virtute influente, omnia quae in Mundo sunt, vegetantur, animantur, conservantur." Other writers on hieroglyphics whose works Kircher consulted were John Peter Bolzanius Valerianus," and Mercati,^ but no good results followed their investigations. In the year 1770 Joseph de Guignes determined the existence of groups of characters De Guig- having determinatives,^ and four years later he published his zoSga. M^moire,* in which he tried to prove that the epistolographic and symbolic characters of the Egyptians were to be found in the Chinese characters, and that the Chinese nation was nothing but an Egyptian colony. In 1797 Zoega made a step in the right direction, and came to the conclusion" that the hieroglyphics were letters and that the cartouches contained royal names. A few years later Silvestre de Sacy published a Silvestre de Sacy and Aker- ' Hieroglyphica, sea de sacris Aegyptiorum aliarumqite gentium Hlieris blad. Commentatorium libri VII,, duobus aliis ab eruditissimo viro annexis, etc., Basil., 1556. 2 Degli Obelischi di Roma, Rome, 1589. ' Essai sur le raoyen de parvenir i la lecture et i I'intelligence des Hiero- glyphes Egyptians. (In Mimoires de F Academic dcs Inscriptions, t. XXXIV. pp. 1-56.) " Ibid., t. XXXIX. p. I ff. ' Ve Usu et Origine Oheliscorum, Rome, 1797, fol., p. 465. 126 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OP EGYPT. letter on the inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone,^ and the work of this learned man was soon after followed by that oi Akerblad who, in a letter to M. de Sacy'' discussed the demotic inscription on the recently discovered Rosetta Stone, and published an alphabet of the demotic characters, from which a large number were adopted in after times by Young and Champollion. It would seem that Akerblad never gained the credit which was due to him for his really clever work, and it will be seen from the facts quoted in the following pages, how largely the success of Young's labours on the Demotic inscription on the Rosetta Stone depended on those of Akerblad. But side by side with the letters of de Sacy and Akerblad and the learned works of Young and Champollion, there sprang into existence a mass of literature full of absurd statements and theories written by men having no qualifications for expressing opinions on hieroglyphic matters. Thus the Comte de Pahlin in his De I'^tude des Absurd Hieroglyphes^ hesitated not to say that the inscription on one theories of ^^ ^^ porticoes of the Temple at Denderah contained a tents of translation of the hundredth Psalm, composed to invite all texts^ '^° people to enter into the house of the Lord. The same author said that to produce the books of the Bible, which were written on papyri, it was only necessary to translate the Psalms of David into Chinese and to write them in the ancient characters of that language.'' Lenoir considered the Egyptian inscriptions to contain Hebrew compositions,'^ and Lacour thought that they contained Biblical phrases.^ Worse than all these wild theories was the belief in the works of the Kircher school of investigators, and in the accuracy of the Warbur- statements made by Warburton,' who, it must be confessed, ton's views on an Egyptian ^ Ldtre au Citoyen Chaptal, au sujei de t Inscription igyptienne du alphabet. Monument trouvi i Rosette, Paris, 1802. ' Lettre sur ^inscription igyptienne de Rosette, Paris, 1802. ' Published at Paris in 5 vols., 1812. * Lettres sur les Hilroglyphes, Weimar, 1802. * In Nouvelle explication des Hilroglyphes, Paris, 1 809-10, 4 vols.; and Nouveaux Essais sur les Hiiroglyphes, Paris, 1826, 4 vols. " See his Essai sur les Hieroglyphes igyptiens, Bordeaux, 1821. ' In his The Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated, to which is adjoint an Essay on Egyptian Hieroglyphics, London, 173^) 2 vols. THE ROSETTA STONE. 12J seems to have recognized the existence of alphabetic characters, but who in no way deserves the praise of Bailey, the Cambridge prize essayist, " Vir singular! quodam ingenii acumine praeditus, Warburtonus ; qui primus certe recenti- orum ad rectam harum rerum cognitionem patefecit viam." ^ Here naturally comes an account of the labours of Young Young and and ChampoUion, two men who stand out pre-eminently as poI^on. the true discoverers of the right method of decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics. As much has been written on the works of these savants, and as some have tried to show that the whole merit of the discovery belongs to Young, and others that it belongs to ChampoUion, it will not be out of place here to make a plain statement of facts, drawn from the best sources, and to give the opinions of the most eminent Egyp- tologists on this point ; a few details concerning the lives of these remarkable men must, however, be first given. Dr. Thomas Young was born at Milverton, in Somerset- shire, on the 13th of June, 1773. His parents were both members of the Society of Friends. He lived during the first seven years of his life with his maternal grandfather, Mr. Robert Davis, at Minehead, in Somersetshire. At the age of Early life two he could read fluently, and before he was four he had g" voung!^ read the Bible through twice. At the age of six, he learnt by heart in six weeks Goldsmith's Deserted Village. When not quite seven years of age he went to a school, kept by a man called King, at Stapleton near Bristol, where he stayed for a year and a half. In March 1782, when nearly nine years of age, he went to the school of Mr. T. Thompson, at Compton, in Dorsetshire, where he remained four years. Here he read Phaedrus's Fables, Cornelius Nepos, Virgil, Horace expur- gated by Knox, the whole of Beza's Greek and Latin Testa- ment, the First Seven Books of the Iliad, Martin's Natural Philosophy, etc., etc. Before leaving this school he had got through six chapters of the Hebrew Bible. About this time he learnt to use the lathe, and he made a telescope and a micro- scope, and the Italian, Persian, Syriac, and Chaldee languages Young's all occupied his attention. From 1787 to 1792 he was private gtudks! tutor to Hudson Gurney, at Youngsbury, in Hertfordshire, ' Hieroglyphicorum Origo ei natura, Cambridge, l8l6, p. 9. 128 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. where he seems to have devoted himself to the study of English, French, Italian, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Ethiopia, as well as to that of natural Philosophy, Botany, and Entomo- Young's logy.' In 1792 Young began to study Medicine and Anatomy studies '" London, and in 1793 he entered St. Bartholomew's Hospital as a pupil. In 1803 he read a paper before the Royal Society, and was elected a Fellow the following year (balloted for and elected, June ig). Shortly after he attended medical lectures in Edinburgh and Gottingen, and he subsequently went to Cambridge, where he took the degree of Bachelor of Medicine (1803), and afterwards that of Doctor of Physic (1808). In 1798 Young received a splendid bequest from his uncle Dr. Brocklesby, consisting of his house in Norfolk Street, Park Lane, his library, his prints, his pictures, and about ;£^ 1 0,000 in money ; hence he was free to form his own Discovers scheme of life. In May, 1801, he discovered the undulatory theory 0/^ theory of light, and his paper on this subject was read before light. the Royal Society in the November following ; in the same year he accepted the office of Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Royal Institution. In 1802 he was appointed Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society, and on the 14th of June, 1&04, he married Eliza, the daughter of J. P. Maxwell, Esq., of Cavendish Square, and of Trippendence, near Farnborough, Kent. The attention of Young was called to Egyptian inscriptions by Sir W. Rouse Boughton, who had found in a mummy case at Thebes a papyrus written in cursive Egyptian characters, and to a notice of this which Young prepared for his friend, he appended a translation of the demotic text of the Rosetta Stone. As the details of his studies on the Rosetta Stone belong to the history of the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics, they are given further on (p. 141 ff.), but the reader will understand Young's position better by reading Dean Peacock's chapter on " hiero- Young's glyphical researches'' printed in his life of Young, pp. 258-344, hiero-°^ and Mr. Leitch's notes in the third volume of the collected glyphs. Works of Dr. Young. In 18 16 Young was appointed ' For the list of books read by him at this time, see the Life of Thomas, Young, by G. Peacock, London, 1855, pp. 14-17. THE ROSETTA STONE. 1 29 Secretary to a Commission for ascertaining the length of the seconds pendulum, for comparing French and English standards, etc., and in 181 8 he was appointed Secretary of the Board of Longitude and Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. In 1825 he became Medical Referee and Inspector of Calculations to the Palladium Insurance Company. In 1826 he was elected one of the eight foreign Associates of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. In February, 1829, he began to suffer from repeated attacks of asthma, and by the April following he was in a state of great weakness ; he died on the Vonng's lOth of May, not having completed his fifty-sixth year. An excellent steel engraving of Young, by R. Ward, from a picture by Sir Thomas Lawrence, P.R.A., forms the frontis- piece to his life by Dean Peacock, which, according to J. J. Champollion-Figeac, "exprime fidelement la douceur, la grace, les traits d'une figure toute rayonnante d'intelligence." ^ Jean Frangois Champollion, surnamed le Jeune, the immortal discoverer of a correct system of decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics, was born at Figeac on December 24, 1790. His family came originally from Champoleon in the Cham-^ High Alps, where a branch of it still holds property. As a physil;"? boy he made rapid progress in classical studies, and he devoted ^"^ . himself at the same time to botany and mineralogy ; at a very studies, early date however he showed a natural taste for oriental languages, and like Young was, at the age of thirteen, master of a fair knowledge of Hebrew, Syriac and Chaldee.^ In 1805 his brother J. J. Champollion-Figeac brought him to Paris, and caused him to be admitted to the Cours de I'Ecole des Langues Orientales, and introduced him to Silvestre de Sacy. Soon after his arrival in Paris Champollion turned his attention to the study of the hieroglyphic inscription on the Rosetta Stone, but his powerful friend de Sacy advised the elder brother to warn the younger off a study which ne pouvait donner aucun resultat. In 1812 he was nominated Professor of Ancient History to the faculty of Letters at Grenoble, ■ Letire au Directeur de la Revue Britannique au sujet des Recherches du Docteur Young, Paris, l857> P- H- ^ On the subject of Champolliou's studies, at Grenoble, see Chroniques Dauphinoises, par A. Champollion-Figeac, t. III. pp. 153, 156, 157-238. 13. M. K 130 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. where he still carried on his oriental studies. When he arrived in Paris he found that the old Egyptologists maintained Cham- that hieroglyphics were a symbolic language, and seeking hiero°°^ to verify this theory, he wasted a year. He made up his glyphic mind, however, to work out this question without having studies.'' '"^ regard to the theories of others, and he sketched out a plan for a large work on Egypt in several volumes. The first part of this appeared at Grenoble in 1811, entitled Introduction; it was never sold, for only about thirty copies were printed, but it appeared, without the analytical table of Coptic geographical names, under the title L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, 8vo., 2 vols., 1 8 14. About this time Young, in England, was studying the texts on the Rosetta Stone, and had actually begun to make a translation of the demotic section, making use of the results obtained by de Sacy and Akerblad, to the latter of whom great credit is due for his acuteness and insight. Whatever may be said as to Champollion's ignorance of Young's results, it is quite certain that he must have known of those of Akerblad, and we know (see p. 135) that a printed copy of Young's paper on the Rosetta Stone had been put into Cham- Champollion's hands by de Sacy. In a very short time acquainted ChampoUion discovered where his predecessors had broken t^^"^ , down, and having already written Z>e Cecriture Hieratique des labours. Anciens Egyptians, Grenoble, 1821, on September 17, in the following year, he read his Memoire on the hieroglyphics and exhibited his hieroglyphic Alphabet, with its Greek and Demotic equivalents, before the Acaddmie des Inscriptions. Champollion's paper created a great sensation, and Louis XVIII. wished a statement concerning it laid before him, and M. le Due de Doudeauville determined that an Egyptian Museum should be formed in the Palace of the Louvre. In the same year ChampolHon published his Lettre d M. Dacier, relative a V Alphabet des Hi&oglyphes phonMques, in which he showed beyond a doubt that his system was the correct one. In a series of M^moires read at the Institut in April, May and June, 1823, he explained his system more fully, and these he afterwai-ds published together entitled Precis du Systkme Hi^roglyphique des Anciens Egyptians, Paris, 2 vols., 1824. A second edition, revised and corrected, appeared in 1828. In THE ROSETTA STONE. 13I June, 1824, Champollion arrived in Turin, where he devoted Cham-^ himself to the study of papyri. Early in 1825 he arrived in travels, Rome, and thence he went to Naples, where all the museums were opened for him. In 1826 he returned to Paris. In July, "^'^''^ 1828, he set out on his long planned voyage to Egypt, and returned in March, 1830, bringing with him a fine collection of antiquities, and a number of copies of inscriptions which filled about two thousand pages. As soon as he returned to France he set to work to publish the rich results of his travels, but while occupied with this undertaking, death over- took him on the 4th of March, 1832. Louis-Philippe ordered that busts of him, executed at the expense of the civil list, should be placed in the galleries of the palace at Versailles, and in the rooms of the Egyptian Museum of the Louvre ; he also ordered that marble for another bust should be given to Champollion-Figeac, and that the carving thereof should be entrusted to the famous sculptor Etex. An etched portrait of Champollion le Jeune will be found in Les Deux Cham- pollion, leur Vie et leurs CEuvres, par Aim6 Champollion- Figeac : Grenoble, 1887, p. 52. In addition to the works of Champollion mentioned above, the following are the most important : — Rapport a son Excellence M. le Due de Doudeaiiville, sur ^^f."^', ^^ _ ' polhon s la Collection Egyptienne a Livotirne, Paris, 1826. works. Lettres a M. le Due de Blacas d'Aulps relatives au Musie royal Egyptien de Turin {avec Notices chronologiques par Champollion-Figeac^ : Paris, 1824-26. Notice sur les papyrus hi^ratiques et les peintures du cercueil de P^tamenoph (Extr. de Voyage d Meroe par Cailliaud de Nantes), Paris, 1827. Notice descriptive des Monuments Egyptiens du Musife Charles X, Paris, 1827. Catalogue de la Collection Egyptienne du Louvre, Paris, 1827. Catalogue des Papyrus Egyptiens du Mus^e du Vatican, Rome, 1826. K 2 132 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Young's labours on the Rosetta Stone in 1814. Corres- pondence between Young and de Sacy. Monuments de VEgypte et de la Nubie, iv vols., fol., 440 planches. Public par ordre du Gouvernement, pour faire suite a I'ouvrage de TExpedition d'Egypte, Paris, 1 829-1 847. Lettres ecrites penda7tt son voyage en Egypie, en 1828, 1829, Paris, 1829; 2me edition, Paris, 1833; collection com- plete. A German translation by E. F. von Gutschmid vi^as published at Quedlinburg, in 1835. Grainmaire Egyptienne, aux Principes genh-aux de Vecri- ture sacr^e Egyptienne appliquh a la representation de la langue par lee ; Avec des prolegomhnes et un portrait de VMiteur, M. Champollion-Figeac, Paris, 1 836-1 841. Dictionnaire Egyptien, en ecriture hi^roglyphique, public d'apres les manuscrits autographes par Champollion- Figeac, Paris, 1 84 1. The results of Dr. Young's studies of the Rosetta Stone wrere first communicated to the Royal Society of Antiquaries in a letter from Sir W. E. Rouse Boughton, Bart. ; the letter was read on the 19th of May, 18 14, and was published the fol- lowing year in Archceologia,N o\. XVIII. pp. 59-72.^ The letter was accompanied by a translation of the demotic text on the Rosetta Stone, which was subsequently reprinted anonymously in the Museum Criticuin of Cambridge, Pt. VI., 181 5, together with the correspondence which took place between Dr. Young and MM. Silvestre de Sacy and Akerblad. In 1802 M. Akerblad, the Swedish President at Rome, published his Lettre sur V inscription Egyptienne de Rosette, adresse'e au citoyen Silvestre de Sacy, in which he gave the results of his study of the demotic text of the Rosetta Stone ; M. Silvestre de Sacy also had occupied himself in the same way (see his Lettre au citoyen Chaptal, au sujet de V inscription Egyptienne du monu- ment trouve d Rosette : Paris, 1 802), but neither scholar had made any progress in the decipherment of the hieroglyphic text In August, 18 14, Dr. Young wrote to Silvestre de Sacy, asking him what Mr. Akerblad had been doing, and saying, " I doubt whether the alphabet which Mr. Akerblad has given us can be of much further utility than in enabling us to decipher the proper names ; and sometimes I have ' Letter to the Rev. S. Weston respecting some Egyptian Antiquities. With 4 copper plates. London, 1814. THE ROSETTA STONE. 1 33 even suspected that the letters which he has identified resemble the syllabic sort of characters by which the Chinese express the sounds of foreign languages, and that in their usual acceptation they had different significations : but of this conjecture I cannot at present speak with any great confidence." ^ To this M. de Sacy replied : . . . . " Je ne vous dissimule pas, Monsieur, que malgr6 I'espece De Sacy's d'approbation que j'ai donnde au systfeme de M. Akerblad, ^^"^y^^j"^ dans la reponse que je lui ai adress6e, il m'est toujours reste works, des doutes tr^s forts sur la validity de I'alphabet qu'il s'est fait Je dois vous aj outer que M. Akerblad n'est pas le seul qui se flatte d'avoir lu le. texte Egyptien de inscription de Rosette. M. Champollion, qui vient de publier deux volumes sur I'ancienne g^ographie de I'Egypte, ^ et qui s'est beaucoup occup6 de la langue Copte, pretend avoir aussi lu cette inscription. Je mets assur^ment plus de confiance dans les lumieres et la critique de M. Akerblad que dans celles de De Sacy M. Champollion, mais tant qu'ils n'auront public quelque q^^™!'^ resultat de leur travail, il est juste de suspendre son juge- pollion's ment." (Leitch, Vol. III. p. 17.) Writing to M. de Sacy in '""'''" October of the same year. Young says : " I had read Mr. Akerblad's essay but hastily in the course of the last winter, and I was not disposed to place much confidence in the little that I recollected of it ; so that I was able to enter anew upon the investigation, without being materially influenced by what he had published ; and though I do not profess to lay claim to perfect originality, or to deny the importance of Mr. Akerblad's labours, I think myself authorised to consider my own translation as completely independent of his ingenious researches : a circumstance which adds much to the proba- bility of our conjectures where they happen to agree. It is only since I received your obliging letter, that I have Young on again read Mr. Akerblad's work ; and I have found that it ^tou^i?'''^ agrees almost in every instance with the results of my own ' For these letters I am indebted to the third volume of the Miscellaneous Works of the late Thomas Young, M.D., F.R.S. , &c., ed. John Leitch, London, 1855. ^ L'Egyfie sous les Pharaons, ou recherches sur la Geographie, la Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, et tHistoire de I'Egypte, Paris, 1814, 134 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. investigation respecting the sense attributed to the words which the author has examined. This conformity must be allowed to be more satisfactory than if I had followed, with perfect confidence, the path which Akerblad has traced : I must however, confess that it relates only to a few of the first steps of the investigation ; and that the greatest and the most difficult part of the translation still remains unsupported by the authority of any external evidence of this kind." (Leitch, p. 1 8.) Nearly three weeks after writing the above, Young sent another letter to M. de Sacy, together with a Coptic and demotic alphabet derived partly from Akerblad, and partly from his own researches, and a list of eighty-six demotic words with the words corresponding to them in the Greek version. Of these words, he says : " Three were observed by de Sacy, sixteen by Akerblad, and the remainder by himself." In January, 1815, Akerblad addressed a long letter to Young, together with which he sent a translation of some lines of the Rosetta Stone inscription, and some notes upon it. Regarding his own work he says : " During the ten years which have Akerblad's elapsed since my departure from Paris, I have devoted but a about^ ^^^ moments, and those at long intervals, to the monument his own of Rosetta For, in fact, I have always felt that the results of my researches on this monument are deficient in that sort of evidence which carries with it full conviction, and you, Sir, as well- as M. de Sacy, appear to be of my opinion in this respect I must however give you notice before- hand, that in most cases you will only receive a statement of my doubts and uncertainties, together with a few more plau- sible conjectures ; and I shall be fully satisfied if these last shall appear to deserve your attention and approbation If again the inscriptions were engraved in a clear and distinct character like the Greek and Latin inscriptions of a certain antiquity, it would be easy, by the assistance of the proper names of several Greek words which occur in it, some of which I have discovered since the publication of niy letter to M. de Sacy, and of many Egyptian words, the sense of which is determined ; it would be easy, I say, to form a perfectly correct alphabet of these letters ; but here another difficulty occurs ; the alphabetical characters which, without doubt, are THE ROSETTA STONE. 135 of very high antiquity in Egypt, must have been in common use for many centuries before the date of the decree ; in tlie course of this time, these letters, as has happened in all other countries, have acquired a very irregular and fanciful form, so as to constitute a kind of running hand." (Leitch, p. 33.) In August, 18 1 5, Young replied to Akerblad's letter, and dis- cussed the passages where his own translation differed from that of Akerblad. In July, 1815, de Sacy sent a letter to Young, which De Sacy contains the following remarkable passages : " Monsieur, Yowas, outre la traduction Latine de I'inscription Egyptienne que vous against mavez conimuniquee, fai requ posterieurement une autre tra- poUion. duction Afiglaise, imprini^e, que je n'ai pas en ce moment sous les yeux, I'ayant pretee a. M. Champollion sur la demande que son frkre nien a faite d'apres une lettre qu'il in' a dit avoir reque de vous Je pense, Monsieur, que vous ites plus avanc^ aujourd'hui et que vous Uses une grande partie, du moins, du texte Egyptien. Si fai un conseil a vous donner, c'est de ne pas trop communiquer vos d^couvertes d M. Champollion. II se pourrait faire qu'il pre'tendtt ensuite a la priorite. II cherche en plusieurs endroits de son ouvrage d faire croire qu'il a d^couvert beaucoup des mots de I'inscription Egyptienne de Rosette. J'ai bien peur que ce ne soit Id que du ckarlatanisrne ; f afoute m.eme que f ai de fortes raisons de le penser Au surplus, fe ne saurais me persuader que si M. Akerblad, Et. Quatreniere, ou Champollion av ait fait des progres reels dans la lecture du texte Egyptien, ils ne se fussent pas plus empresse's de faire part au public de leur de'couverte. Ce serait une modestie bien rare, et dont aucun d'eux ne me paratt capable" (Leitch, p. 51.) In a letter to de Sacy, dated 3rd August, 18 15, Young says : " You may, perhaps, think me too sanguine in my expecta- tions of obtaining a knowledge of the hieroglyphical language in general from the inscription of Rosetta only ; and I will confess to you that the difficulties are greater than a super- ficial view of the subject would induce us to suppose. The Young number of the radical characters is indeed limited, like °? ^^^y^' ' glyphics. that of the keys of the Chinese ; but it appears that these characters are by no means universally independent of each 136 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Other, a combination of two or three of theni being often em- ployed to form a single word, and perhaps even to represent a simple idea ; and, indeed, this must necessarily happen where we have only about a thousand characters for the expression of a whole language. For the same reason it is impossible that all the characters can be pictures of the things which they represent : some, however, of the symbols on the stone of Rosetta have a manifest relation to the objects denoted by them. For instance, a Priest, a Shrine, a Statue, an Asp, a Mouth, and the Numerals, and a King is denoted by a sort of plant with an insect, which is said to have been a bee ; while a much greater number of the characters have no perceptible connexion with the ideas attached to them ; although it is probable that a resemblance, either real or metaphorical, may have existed or have been imagined when they were first employed ; thus a Libation was originally de- noted by a hand holding a jar, with two streams of a liquid issuing from it, but in this inscription the representation has degenerated into a bird's foot. With respect to the epistolo- graphic or enchorial character, it does not seem quite certain that it could be explained even if the hieroglyphics were perfectly understood, for many of the characters neither resemble the corresponding hieroglyphics, nor are capable of being satisfactorily resolved into an alphabet of any kind : in short, the two characters might be supposed to belong to different languages ; for they do not seem to agree even in their manner of forming compound from simple terms." (Leitch, PP- 55) 56.) Writing to de Sacy in the following year (5th May, 1816) touching the question of the alphabetic nature of the inscription on the Rosetta Stone, he says: "Si vous lisez la lettre de M. Akerblad, vous conviendrez, je crois, qu'au moins il n'a pas ^t^ plus heureux que moi dans ses le9ons Coptes de I'inscrip- tion. Mais le vrai est que la chose est impossible dans I'^tendue que vous paraissez encore vouloir lui donner, car assur^ment I'inscription enchoriale n'est alphabMque que dans un sens tr^s born6 Je me suis born6 dernierement k I'^tude des hieroglyphes, ou plutdt a la collection d'inscriptions hiero- glyphiques Les caracteres que j'ai decouverts jettent d6j^ quelques lumieres sur les antiquites de I'Egypte. J'ai THE ROSETTA STONE. 137 reconnu, par exemple, le nom de Ptolemee dans diverses Voung de- inscriptions a Philae, a Esne et a Ombos, ce qui fixe a peu "am^of*^^ pres la date des Edifices oti ce nom se trouve, et c'est meme Ptolemy, quelque chose que de pouvoir distinguer dans une inscription quelconque les caracteres qui expriment les noms des per- sonnages auxquels elle a rapport." (Leitch, p. 60.) On loth November, 18 14, Champollion sent to the President of the Royal Society a copy of his L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, and in the letter which accompanied it said, " La base de mon travail est la lecture de rinscription en caracteres Egyptiens, qui est I'un des plus beaux ornemens du riche Musee Britannique ; je veux parler du monument trouve a K.osette. Les efforts que j'ai faits pour y reussir n'ont point 6te, s'il m'est permis de le dire, sans quelques succes ; et les resultats que je crois avoir obtenus apr^s une Young and 6tude constante et suivie, m'en font esp6rer de plus grands iion™or°- ' encore." (Leitch, p. 6^?) He asked also that a collation of respond. the Rosetta Stone with the copy of it which he possessed might be made, and suggested that a cast of it ^ould be presented to each of the principal libraries, and to the most celebrated Academies of Europe. As Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society, Young replied saying that the needful collation should be made, and adding, "Je ne sais si par hasard M. de Sacy, avec qui vous ^tes sans doute en corres- pondance, vous aura parle d'un exemplaire que je lui ai adresse de ma traduction conjecturale avec I'explication des derni^res lignes des caracteres hidroglyphiques. Je lui avals d6ja envoy^ la traduction de I'inscription Egyptienne au commencement du mois d'Octobre pass^ ; I'interpr^tation des hieroglyphiques ne m'est r^ussie qua la fin du mSme mois." (Leitch, p. 64.) In reply to this Champollion wrote, " M. Silvestre de Sacy, mon ancien professeur, ne m'a point donnd connaissance de votre m^moire sur la partie Egyptienne et le texte hi^roglyphique de I'inscription de Rosette : c'est vous dire, Monsieur, avec quel empressement je recevrai Cham- I'exemplaire que vous avez la bont^ de m'offrir." We have acquainted seen above from the extract from a letter of de Sacy that a ^i'li copy of Young's work was lent to Champollion between work ia May 9 and July 20, 1815. '^'S- 138 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. On August 2, 18 16, Young addressed a letter^ to the Archduke John of Austria, in which he reported further progress in his hieroglyphic studies, thus : " I have already ascertained, as I have mentioned in one of my letters to M. de Sacy, that the enchorial inscription of Rosetta con- tained a number of individual characters resembling the corresponding hieroglyphics, and I was not disposed to place any great reliance on the alphabetical interpretation of any considerable part of the inscription. I have now fully demonstrated the hieroglyphical origin of the running hand,^ in which the manuscripts on papyrus, found with the mummies " (Leitch, p. 74.) The principal contents of Young's letters, however, incorporated with other matter, were made into a more extensive article, which was con- tributed to the Supplement of the Encydopcsdia Britannica, Young's Supplement, Vol. IV. He made drawings of the plates, published, which were engraved by Mr. Turrell, and having procured separate copies, he sent them to some of his friends in the summer of 18 18, with a cover on which was printed the title, " Hieroglyphical Vocabulary." These plates, however, were precisely the same that were afterwards contained in the fourth volume of the Supplement, as belonging to the article Egypt. The characters explained in this vocabulary amounted to about two hundred ; the number which had been immediately obtained from the stone of Rosetta having been somewhat more than doubled by means of a careful examination of other monuments The higher numerals were readily obtained by a comparison of some inscriptions in which they stood combined with units and with tens.^ Young's article in the Encyclopcedia Britannica obtained great celebrity in Europe ; and was reprinted by ' This letter was printed in 18 16, and circulated in London, Paris, and elsewhere ; ii did not appear in the Museum Criticum until 1821. ^ " Que ce second systeme (I'Hieratique) n'est qu'une simple modification du systeme Hieroglyphique, et n'en differe uniquement que par la forme des signes." ChampoUion, De rEcriture Hieralique des Anciens Egyptiens: Grenoble, 1821. We should have expected some reference by ChampoUion to Young's discovery quoted above. ■'' Young. An Account of some recent discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature, p. 17. THE ROSETTA STONE. 1 39 Leitch in the third volume of the Works of Dr. Young, pp. 86-197 ; 't contains eight sections : — I. Introductory view of the latest publications re- lating to Egypt. II. Pantheon. III. Historiography. IV. Calendar. V. Customs and Ceremonies. VI. Analysis of the Triple Inscription. VII. Rudiments of a Hieroglyphical Vocabulary. VIII. Various Monuments of the Egyptians. This article is of very great importance in the history of Value of the decipherment of the hieroglyphics, and had Young taken „?icle in the trouble of having it printed as a separate publication, Encycio- there would have been less doubt in the minds of scholars as Sritan- to the good work which he did, and results borrowed from it "^"^• by Champollion would have been more easily identified.^ It has already been said (p. 130) that Champollion pub- lished at Paris in 18 14 the two first parts of a work entitled L'Egypte sous les Pkaraons, ou recherches sur la Geographie, la Cham- Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures et VHistoire de VEgypte on the avant l' Invasion de Cambyse ; these parts treated simply of g^°g''^P^y the geography of Egypt. In a note to the Preface he tells us that the general plan of the work, together with the introduc- tion of the geographical section and the general map of Egypt under the Pharaohs, was laid before the Soci^t/ des Sciences et des Arts de Grenoble, ist September, 1807, and that the printing began on the 1st September, 1810. On p. 22 of his Introduction, referring to the Rosetta Stone, he says : " Ce monument interessant est un decret des pretres de I'Egypte, qui decerne de grands honneurs au jeune roi ^ Ich halte mich daher verpflichtet, alles auf unsern Cegenstand beziigliche dem Leser nachtraglich genau mitzutheilen und zwar mit einer urn so grbssern Gewissenhaftigkeit, je hoher durch dessen Kenntniss die Achlung gegen den trefflichen Forscher steigen wird, der besonders in der Erklarung der symbolischen Hieroglyphen so Manches zuerst aussprach, was man ohne den Artikel der Encyclopaedie gelesen zu haben, meistens als das Eigenthum Champollion's zu betrachten gewobnt ist. Schwartze, Das AlU Aegypten, p. 446. I40 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Cham- polUon's hiero- glyphical studies in 1810. Akerblad attributes conect values to fourteen Demotic characters. Ptolemee Epiphane. Ce decret est ecrit en hieroglyphes, en langue et en ecriture alphab^tique Egyptiennes, et en Grec." Now by the words "en langue et en ecriture alphab^tique Egyptiennes" we are clearly to understand that part of the Rosetta inscription which is written in demotic. Having referred to the studies of de Sacy and Akerblad, and spoken of the words in demotic which the latter scholar had rightly compared with their equivalents in Coptic, " que nous y avons lus ensuite," Champollion adds in a foot-note, " Ce n'est pas ici le lieu de rendre compte du rdsultat de I'etude suivie que nous avons faite du texte Egyptien de I'lnscription de Rosette, et de I'alphabet que nous avons adoptd Nous nous occuperons de cet important sujet dans la suite de cet ouvrage. En attendant, nous prions le lecteur de regarder comme exacts les r^sultats que nous lui presentons ici." From this it is clear that as early as 18 10 Champollion claimed to have made progress in the decipherment of the demotic text (texte Egyptien) of the Rosetta Stone, and it is now time to ask how much he was indebted to Akerblad's letter for ideas and results. A comparison of Plate II. at the end of Akerblad's Lettre sur V Inscription Egypiienne de Rosette, with Plate IV. in ChampoUion's Lettre a M. Dacier relative a V Alphabet dcs Hieroglyphes Pkone'tigues, will show that sixteen of the characters of the alphabet printed by Akerblad in 1802 were retained by ChampolHon in 1822 ; also, if Akerblad's alphabet be compared with the " Supposed Enchorial Alphabet" printed at the foot of Plate IV. ac- companying Young's article Egypt, printed in 18 18 and published in 1819, it will be found that fourteen of the characters are identical in both alphabets. Thus it seems that a greater degree of credit is due to Akerblad than has usually been awarded to him either by Young ^ ' Mr. Akerblad was far from having completed his examination of the whole enchorial inscription, apparently from the want of some collateral encouragement or co-operation to induce him to continue so laborious an inquiry ; and he had made little or no effort to understand the first inscription of the pillar which is professedly engraved in the sacred character, except the detached observation respecting the numerals at the end ; he was even disposed to acquiesce in the correctness of Mr. Palin's interpretation, which proceeds on the supposition that parts of the first lines of the hieroglyphics are still remaining on the stone. Young, An Account, p. 10. THE ROSETTA STONE. 141 or Champollion/ or, indeed, by writers on Egyptology generally.^ Having seen what foundations Young and Champollion had for their own works on the demotic text to rest on, we may return to the consideration of Young's hieroglyphical studies. On the four plates which appeared with his article Egypt, he correctly identified the names of a few of the gods, Ra, Nut, Thoth, Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys, and he made out the meanings of several Egyptian ideographs. His identifica- tions of kings' names were, however, most unfortunate. Thus of Amenhetep, he made Tithons ; of Thi (a queen), Eoa ; of Usertsen, Heron ; of Psammetichus, Sesostris ; of Nectanebus, Proteus ; of Seti, Psammis ; of Rameses H., Amasis ; of Au- tocrator, Arsinoe, etc., etc. He correctly identified the names of Ptolemy and Berenice, although in each case he attributed Young's wrong values to some of the hieroglyphic characters which glyptic formed these names. The hieroglyphic alphabet given by alphabet Young was as follows : — 206.' ^ flip true value ba. 207. <=-. e „ R. 208. ■^ erte „ t'. 209- UU I „ I- KG, KH „ SE. JUL, JUl.^. M. ' " Feu Akerblad essaya d'etendre ses lectures hors des noms propres grecs, et il echoua complfetement. " Champollion, Precis, I ed., p. 14. " See Schwartze, Das Alte Aegypten, pp. 160, 162. ' No. 205, which is omitted here, is really two demotic characters the values of which are BA and R : to these Young gave the value bere, and so far he was right, but he failed to see that what he considered to be one sign was, in reality, two. In Nos. 213 and 214 his consonants were right but his vowels were wrong. We are thus able to see that out of a total of fourteen signs, he assigned correct values to six, partly correct values to three, and wholly wrong values to five. ChampoUion-Figeac in his Lettre au Directeur de la Revue Britannique att siijet des Recherches du Docteur Young sur les Hieroglyphes Egyptiens, p. 5, gives Young no credit whatever for the three partly correct values assigned to hiero- glyphic characters by him. 14.2 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Cham- poUion's system. 212, ^VNAA^VS 213- _®s> -4. p 2IS- a 216. a ;^ 217. Ci 218. ? It oXe ocy, DC n q T (JO true V alue N. R or L. s. p. F. T. CHA. his famous Lettre a 'eroglyphes Phonetiques, In 1822 Champollion published M. Dacier relative a V alphabet des Hie in which he stated his discovery of the Egyptian hieroglyphic alphabet in the following words : " Vous avez sans doute re- marque, Monsieur, dans mon M^moire sur I'^criture ddmotique Egyptienne, que ces noms Strangers ^taient exprimes phon^- tiquement au moyen de signes plut&t syllabiques qvlalpha- b^tiques. La valeur de chaque caract^re est reconnue et invariablement fix^e par la comparaison de ces divers noms ; et de tous ces rapprochements est r&ult6 I'alphabet, ou plutot le syllabaire demotique figur^ sur ma planche I., colonne deuxieme. L'emploi de ces caracteres phondtiques une fois constate dans I'^criture demotique, je devais naturellement en conclure que puisque les signes de cette Venture populaire dtaient, ainsi que je I'ai expos^, empruntes de I'ecriture hi^ratique ou sacerdotale, et puisque encore les signes de cette Venture hieratique ne sont, comme on I'a reconnu par mes divers memoires, qu'une repr&entation abreg^e, une veritable tachygraphie des ki^rograpkes, cette troisieme espece d'^criture, r hidroglyphique pure, devait avoir aussi un certain nombre de ses signes dou^s de la faculty d'exprimer les sons ; en un mot, qu'il existait dgalement une s6rie ^ hiiroglyphes phonetiques. Pour s'assurer de la v6rit6 de cet aper^u, pour reconnaitre I'existence et discerner meme la valeur de quelques-uns des signes de cette espece, 11 aurait suffi d'avoir sous les yeux, Merits en hi&oglyphes purs, deux noms de rois grecs pr^alable- ment connus, et contenant plusieurs lettres employees k la fois dans I'un et dans I'autre, tels que PtoUm^e et CUopdire, Alexandre et BMnice, etc." (p. 5). Throughout this work there THE ROSETTA STONE. I43 appears to be no mention whatever of Young's identification of any letters of the hieroglyphic alphabet, although on p. 2 Champollion says : " A I'egard de I'dcriture deinotique en par- ticulier, il a suffi de la pr^cieuse inscription de Rosette pour en reconnaitre I'ensemble ; la critique est redevable d'abord Cham- aux lumieres de votre illustre confrere, M. Silvestre de Sacy, admits et successivement a celles de feu Akerblad et de M. le docteur '^?^^^°},, Akerblad s Young, des premieres notions exactes qu'on a tirees de ce and monument, et c'est de cette meme inscription que j'ai d^duit i^^oufs! la s6rie des signes d^motiques qui, prenant une valeur syllabico-alphab6tique, exprimaient dans les textes ideo- graphiques les noms propres des personnages etrangers a I'Egypte.'' That Champollion should not have knovi'n of Young's article Egypt is a thing not to be understood, espe- cially as advance copies were sent to Paris and elsewhere as early as 18 18. From the facts given above we are enabled to draw up the following statement as to the amount of work done in the decipherment of the Egyptian language by the early workers in this field. Barth^lerhy ^ and Zoega ^ had come to the conclusion Statement long before the labours of Akerblad, Young, and Cham- ofjatours pollion, that the cartouches contained proper names. Aker- of Zoega, blad drew up an alphabet of the demotic character, in which Young and fourteen signs appear to have had correct values attributed Cham- ° '■ '^ pollion. to them. Young published a demotic alphabet in which the greater number of Akerblad's results were absorbed ; he fixed the correct values to six hieroglyphic characters, and to three others partly correct values ; he identified the names of Ptolemy and Alexander, the numerals and several gods' names. Champollion published a demotic alphabet, the greater part of which he owed, without question, to Akerblad, and a hieroglyphic alphabet of which six characters had had correct values assigned to them by Young, and the 1 Caylus, Recueil (V Antiquitis Egyptiennes, Etrusques, etc., Tom. V. p. 79. 2 In De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, p. 465. Conspiciuntur autem passim in Aegyptiis monumentis schemata quaedam ovata sive elliptica planae basi insi- dentia, quae emphatica ratione includunt certa notarum syntagmata, sive ad propria personarum nomina exprimenda, sive ad sacratiores formulas designandas. 144 FUNEREAL ARCH^OL'OGY OF EGYPT. values of three others had been correctly stated as far as the consonants were concerned. There is no doubt whatever that ChampoUion's plan of work was eminently scientific, and his great knowledge of Coptic enabled him to complete the admirable work of decipherment, which his natural talent had induced him to undertake. The value of his contributions to the science of Egyptology it would be difficult to over- estimate, and the amount of work which he did in his comparatively short life is little less than marvellous. It is, however, to be regretted that Champollion did not state more clearly what Young had done, for a full acknowledg- ment of this would have in no way injured or lessened his own immortal fame.^ Cham- Briefly, the way in which Champollion recovered the alphabet greater part of the Egyptian alphabet is as follows. It will be remembered that, on account of breakages, the only name found on the Rosetta Stone is that of Ptolemy. Shortly before Champollion published his letter to M. Dacier, he had published an account of an obelisk,^ recently brought to London, which was inscribed with the name of a Ptolemy, written with the same characters as that on the Rosetta Stone, and also contained within a cartouche. It was followed by a second cartouche, which should contain the name of a queen. The obelisk was said to have been fixed in a socket, bearing a Greek inscription containing a petition of the priests of Isis at Philae, addressed to Ptolemy, to Cleopatra his sister, and to Cleopatra his wife. Now, he argued, if this obelisk and the hieroglyphic inscription which it bears are really the result of the petition of the priests, who in the Greek speak The names of the dedication of a similar monument, it follows of necessity and^™^ that the cartouche must contain the name of a Cleopatra. Cleopatra. The names of Ptolemy and Cleopatra having, in the Greek, some letters which are similar, may be used for comparing ' We have seen above that Champollion did know of Young's work, yet in his Precis du Systime Hiiroglyphiqiie, p. i8, he says that he had arrived at results similar to those obtained by Dr. Y'oung, without having any knowledge of his opinion. - Observations sur VObilisque Egyptien de ttle de Philee, in Revue encyclo- pedique. Mars, 1822. THE ROSETTA STONE. 145 the hieroglyphics which are used in each ; and if the characters which are similar in these two names express the same sound in each cartouche, their purely phonetic character is at once made clear. A previous comparison of these two names written in the demotic character shows that when they are written phonetically several characters, exactly alike, are used in each. The analogy of the demotic, hieratic, and hieroglyphic methods of writing in a general way, leads us to expect the same coincidence and the same conformity in these same names, written hieroglyphically. The names Ptolemaios and Cleopatra written in hieroglyphics are as follows : — No. I, Ptolemy. GmSSl No. 2, Cleopatra. GSI^i^ Now in No. 2 cartouche, sign No. i, which must represent Recovery K, is not found in cartouche No. i. Sign No. 2, a lion lying 2['^^. ' s > / S Egyptian down, is identical with sign No. 4 in cartouche No. i. This alphabet, clearly is L. Sign No. 3, a pen, represents the short vowel E ; two of them are to be seen in character No. 6 in No. i cartouche, and considering their position their value must be A I of aio:;. Sign No. 4 is identical with No. 3 in No. i cartouche, and must have the value O in each name. Sign No. 5 is identical with sign No. i of No. i cartouche, which being the first letter of the name of Ptolemy must be P. Sign No. 6 is not found in No. i cartouche, but it must be A, because it is the same sign as sign No. 9, which ends the name KAEOFIATPA ; we know that signs 10 and 11 always accompany feminine proper names, because we see them following the names of goddesses like ]] q Isis, and Q g Nephthys. Sign No. 7, an open stretched out hand, must be T. It does not occur in No. i cartouche, but we find from other cartouches that o takes the place of c^> , and the reverse. Sign No. 8 must be R ; it is not in No. i cartouche, B M. L 146 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. and ought not to be there. In No. i cartouche sign No. 7 must be S, because it ends the name which in Greek ends with S. Thus from these two cartouches we may collect twelve characters of the Egyptian alphabet, viz., A, AI, E, K, K, L, M, O, P, R, S, T. Now let us take another cartouche from the Description de I'Egypte, t. III. pi. 38, No. 13, and try The name to make it out ; it reads : — Alexander. No. 3. Now signs Nos. i, 2, 4, 5, 7, and 8, we know from car- touches Nos. I and 2, and we may write down their values thus : — AA..ZE..TP. The only Greek name which' contains these letters in this order is Alexander, therefore let us assign to the signs t;^^, /v/wa, and —*—, the value of K, N and S respectively. We find on examination that the whole group corresponds, letter for letter, with the group which stands in the de- motic text of a papyrus in the place of the Greek name AAEXANAPOZ. We have, then, gained three new pho- netic signs K, N, and S, and have determined the value of fifteen in all. Again, let us take the cartouche of another lady : — h The name Now signs Nos. 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7 we know, and we may Berenice. ^^-^^^ ^j^gj^j ^^^^ jj^^g ._ . RNAI . . The only female name which contains these letters in this order is that of Berenice, and to ^ and Z5 we may therefore assign the values B and K respectively. Thus we have gained two more signs. THE ROSETTA STONE. I47 If we take two other cartouches, viz. : — C^l~^^^l '"^ c s we find that we are able to read the first at once KAISRS, which is clearly Katcra/ao? or Caesar ; in the second the only sign we do not know is ^. Writing down the values we know we have A.TAKRTR, which is clearly AvroKpuTop; thus the value of the second character must be U. In this manner Champollion worked through the names of all the Ptolemies and the Roman Emperors, and eventually succeeded in making out the value of one hundred and eleven signs. At the foot of Plate I., in his Lettre a Monsieur Dacier, he writes his own name in hieroglyphics thus : — Sha- M - PU - LL - I - o - n. The following are the letters of the Egyptian alphabet with their values as now accepted by Egyptologists : — ni h h a a i — P © J * |. s sh t th / f A/v^jv^ or \/ n .23,, <=> :^or/ S h L 2 148 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Opinions of Egyptologists on the Labours of Young and Champollion. In favour of Young. The first idea of certain hiero- glyphics being intended to represent sounds was suggested by Dr. Young, who, from the names of Ptolemy and Berenice, had pointed out nine, which have since proved to be correct ; the former taken from the Rosetta inscription, and the latter deduced with singular ingenuity from the enchorial of the same monument. [M. Champollion fils seems to be unwilling to allow this : but the fact is evident ; and surely he has accomplished too much to stand in need of assuming to him- self the merits of another. Note i, p. I.] Working upon this basis, M. Champollion, with happy suc- cess, made out four or five others, as also about thirty synonymes ; and by the ingenious application ot these, the merit of which is all his own, he has been able to turn to effect the discovery, and to decipher therewith a great number of the names of the Ptolemies and of the Roman emperors — Salt, H., Essay on Dr. Young's and M. Champollion's Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics ; London, 1825. Amidst this mass of error and contradiction, the application of the phonetic principle by Young, in 1818, had all the merit of an original discovery and it was only by a comparison of the three kinds of writing that he traced the name of Ptolemy up in his own way, In favour of Chainpollion. His [Young's] translations, how- ever, are below criticism, being as unfounded as those of Kircher. How far even, in the decipherment, he proceeded correctly, may be doubted. . . . But even here [in interpretation] there is much too incorrect in principle to be of real use ; much of it is beneath criticism. — Birch, Hieroglyphs., p. 196. It is even to this day a common habit of Englishmen to couple the name of their countryman. Dr. Thomas Young, with that of Cham- pollion, as sharing with him the glory of this discovery. No person who knows anything of Egyptian philology can countenance so gross an error But it is not true that he discovered the key to the decipherment of hieroglyphics, or even that his labours assisted Cham- pollion in the discovery. When the key was once discovered and re- cognized as the true one, it was found that one or two of Young's results were correct. But there was nothing in his method or theory by which he or anyone else could dis- tinguish between his right and his wrong results, or which could lead him or anyone else a single step in advance If anyone has a right to be named in con- junction with Champollion, it is not Young, but Akerblad, to whom he does full justice (as he does indeed to Young himself) at the very be- ginning of his letter to M. Dacier. — V^'E.noV's; Hibbert Lectures J- Lon- don, 1880, pp. 12-16. THE ROSETTA STONE. 149 In favour of Young. from the demotic into hieratic, into hieroglyphs. — Birch, Hieroglyphs, in Wilkinson, The Egyptians, pp. 195, 196. Fast gleichzeitig mit dem alten Jomard ; hatte Dr. Young das Gliick aus den hieroglyphi- schen Texten die Bezeichnungen fiir die Einer, Zehner, Hunderte, und Tausende richtig herauszuer- kennen und iiberdies den hierogly- phischen Konigsnamen — und KA-t ihre entsprechende griechische Form Ptolemaios und Berenike gegeniiberzustellen, eine Entdeck- ung, die ihm allein gebuhrt und die den Ausgangspunkt der spateren Entzifferungen bilden sollte Dr. Young's gliickliche Zusammen- stellungen der oben aufgefiihrten agyptisch-hieroglyphischen Eigen- namen mit ihren entsprechenden griechischen Vorbildern soUten ihm plotzlich die Augen offnen und ihn \_i.e., Champollion] auf den rechten Pfad fuhren.— Brugsch, Die Aegyptologie, pp. 9, 1 1. Ein solcher Ring mit Hiero- fand sich nun auch an den betref- fenden Stellen der Inschrift von Rosette und er musste den Namen des Ptolemaus bilden. Es war der bekannte englische Naturforscher Thomas Young, der im Jahre 1819 In favour of Champollion. Scccuh enim hujus et initium usque quum cognitio hieroglyph- orum, quibus veteres Aegyptii in sacra dialecto scribenda utebantur, densissimis tenebris scateret, ita quidem ut fere omnia, quae antea vel eruditissimi homines summo ingenii acumine explorasse sibi visi sunt, si hodie forte legimus risum vix tenere possimus : hoc lapide detecto postquam omnium animi ad spem enucleandi tandem istud monstruosum et perplexum per tot ssecula quasi involucris involutorum genus signorum arrecti sunt, unus vir ChampoUio Francogallus ex- stitit, qui mira sagacitate incredi- bilique studio adjutus totam hiero- glyphorum rationem nulla fere parte relicta luce clarius explanavit et exposuit. — Brugsch, Inscriptio Rosettana; Berlin, 1851, pp. i, 2. Unabhangig von Young kam gleichzeitig ein junger franzosischer Gelehrter, Frangois Champollion, zu der gleichen Vermutung und ihm war es beschieden, sogleich ein vollig richtiges Resultat zu erhalten. — Erman, Aegypten, p. 14. Young, qui, le premier, fit I'application du principe phone- tique k la lecture des hi^roglyphes. Cette id^e fut, dans la realite, le fiat lux de la science Toute- fois, malgr^ quelques succ^s re- marquables. Young ne sut pas la feconder ; il avait bien reconnu dans les hieroglyphes les noms de Ptol^mee et de Berenice, mais sans r^ussir k assigner k chacun des signes qui les composent leur verita- ble valeur ; ses autres lectures sont fausses, quoiqu'il ait rencontre juste dans la determination de la valeur 148 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Opinions of Egyptologists on the Labours of Young and Champollion. In favour of Young. The first idea of certain hiero- glyphics being intended to represent sounds was suggested by Dr. Young, who, from the names of Ptolemy and Berenice, had pointed out nine, which have since proved to be correct ; the former taken from the Rosetta inscription, and the latter deduced with singular ingenuity from the enchorial of the same monument. [M. Champollion fils seems to be unwilling to allow this : but the fact is evident ; and surely he has accomplished too much to stand in need of assuming to him- self the merits of another. Note i, p. I.] Working upon this basis, M. Champollion, with happy suc- cess, made out four or five others, as also about thirty synonymes ; and by the ingenious application ot these, the merit of which is all his own, he has been able to turn to efifect the discovery, and to decipher therewith a great number of the names of the Ptolemies and of the Roman emperors — Salt, H., Essay on Dr. Voting's and M. Champollion! s Phonetic System of Hieroglyphics ; London, 1825. Amidst this mass of error and contradiction, the application of the phonetic principle by Young, in 1818, had all the merit of an original discovery and it was only by a comparison of the three kinds of writing that he traced the name of Ptolemy up in his own way. Infavoicr of Champollion. His [Young's] translations, how- ever, are below criticism, being as unfounded as those of Kircher. How far even, in the decipherment, he proceeded correctly, may be doubted. . . . But even here [in interpretation] there is much too incorrect in principle to be of real use ; much of it is beneath criticism. — Birch, Hieroglyphs, p. 196. It is even to this day a common habit of Englishmen to couple the name of their countryman. Dr. Thomas Young, with that of Cham- pollion, as sharing with him the glory of this discovery. No person who knows anything of Egyptian philology can countenance so gross an error But it is not true that he discovered the key to the decipherment of hieroglyphics, or even that his labours assisted Cham- pollion in the discovery. When the key was once discovered and re- cognized as the true one, it was found that one or two of Young's results were correct. But there was nothing in his method or theory by which he or anyone else could dis- tinguish between his right and his wrong results, or which could lead him or anyone else a single step in advance If anyone has a right to be named in con- junction with Champollion, it is not Young, but Akerblad, to whom he does full justice (as he does indeed to Young himself) at the very be- ginning of his letter to M. Dacier. — 'R'ENOW, Hibbert Lectures J- Lon- don, 1 880, pp. 12-16. THE ROSETTA STONE. 149 In favour of Young. from the demotic into hieratic, into hieroglyphs.-^BiRCH, Hieroglyphs, in Wilkinson, The Egyptians, pp. 195, 196. Fast gleichzeitig mit dam alten Jomard ; hatte Dr. Young das Gliick aus den hieroglyphi- schen Texten die Bezeichnungen fiir die Einer, Zehner, Hunderte, und Tausende richtig herauszuer- kennen und iiberdies den hierogly- phischen Konigsnamen — D "is und c ^ A ■^^ B^ KA-t ihre entsprechende griechische Form Ptolemaios und Berenike gegeniiberzustellen, eine Entdeck- ung, die ihm allein gebiihrt und die den Ausgangspunkt der spateren Entzifferungen bilden soUte Dr. Young's gliickliche Zusammen- stellungen der oben aufgefiihrten agyptisch-hieroglyphischen Eigen- namen mit ihren entsprechenden griechischen Vorbildern soUten ihm plotzlich die Augen offnen und ihn {i.e., Champollion] auf den rechten Pfad fiihren.— Brugsch, Die Aegyptologie, pp. 9, 1 1. Ein solcher Ring mit Hiero- glyph en GilMIEl fand sich nun auch an den betref- fenden Stellen der Inschrift von Rosette und er musste den Namen des Ptolemaus bilden. Es war der bekannte englische Naturforscher Thomas Young, der im Jahre 1819 In favour of Champollion. Sa;culi enim hujus et initium usque quum cognitio hieroglyph- orum, quibus veteres Aegyptii in sacra dialecto scribenda utebantur, densissimis tenebris scateret, ita quidem ut fere omnia, quae antea vel eruditissimi homines summo ingenii acumine explorasse sibi visi sunt, si hodie forte legimus risum vix tenere possimus : hoc lapide detecto postquam omnium animi ad spem enucleandi tandem istud monstruosum et perplexum per tot ssecula quasi involucris involutorum genus signorum arrecti sunt, unus vir ChampoUio Francogallus ex- stitit, qui mira sagacitate incredi- bilique studio adjutus totam hiero- glyphorum rationem nulla fere parte relicta luce clarius explanavit et exposuit. — Brugsch, Inscriptio Rosettanaj Berlin, 1851, pp. i, 2. Unabhangig von Young kam gleichzeitig ein junger franzosischer Gelehrter, Frangois Champollion, zu der gleichen Vermutung und ihm war es beschieden, sogleich ein voUig richtiges Resultat zu erhalten. — Erman, Aegypten, p. 14. Young, qui, le premier, fit I'application du principe phone- tique k la lecture des hieroglyphes. Cette idde fut, dans la realite, le fiat lux de la science Toute- fois, malgr^ quelques succ^s re- marquables, Young ne sut pas la feconder ; il avait bien reconnu dans les hieroglyphes les noms de Ptolemee et de Berenice, mais sans r^ussir k assigner k chacun des signes qui les composent leur verita- ble valeur ; ses autres lectures sont fausses, quoiqu'il ait rencontre juste dans la determination de la valeur ISO FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. In favour of Young. diesen scharfsinnigen und vbllig richtigen Schluss machte und wenigstens fur einige Zeichen des Namens den Lautwerl feststellte. — Erman, Aegypten, p. 14. Der erste, der es that und von dem richtigen Grundsatze ausging, dass die Konigsnamen alphabetisch geschrieben sein miissten war der beriihmte englische Physiker Thomas Young (geboren 1773). Er erkannte in der haufigsten in dem Dekret von Rosette vorkommenden Gruppe den Namen Ptolemaus, er vermochte ein spater zum grossen Teile bestiitigtes hieroglyphisches Alphabet aufzustellen und sie iiber das System der agyptischen Schrift vollkommen richtige An- sichten zu bilden. So haben wir denn in Young den eigentlichen Entzifferer der agyptischen Schrift zu sehen, wenn es ihm auch nicht gelang, der Sprache selbst Herr zu werden. — Wiedemann, Aegypt- ische Geschichte, p. 29. In the first work of ChampoUion, his essay De VEcriture hiiratique des Anciens Egyptiens, published in i82i,he recognized the existence of only the first of these three ways of representing words, supposing that all the Egyptian characters represented ideas. When he dis- covered the erroneousness of this opinion, he used all possible efforts to suppress the work in which he had stated it. That work, however, contained a valuable discovery. . . In favour of ChampoUion. alphabetique de plusieurs carac- teres. Quelques minces qu'ils soient, ces premiers resultats con- stitueraient en faveur du docteur Young un titre considerable, s'il ne les avait pas compromis lui-meme en s'engageant dans une fausse voie, et en publiant des traductions tout aussi imaginaires que celles de ses devanciers. La solution du probleme etait reserv^e au genie de ChampoUion le jeune ; c'est un honneur que personne ne peut lui disputer. — Chabas, L Inscription de Rosette, p. 5. Wenn wir die Frage so stellen : Wer hat zuerst einige hieroglyphi- sche Zeichen in ihrem Lautwerthe richtig bestimmt ? oder besser gesagt, zufallig errathen, so miissen wir antworten : das war Th. Young ; den Schliissel zur Entzifferung der Hieroglyphenschrift jedoch hat er nicht gefunden. Frangois Cham- poUion, geb. den 23. December 1 790, gest. den 4. Marz 1832, er ist es, den die Wissenschaft der Aegypto- logie in dankbarer Verehrung als ihren eigentlichen Begriindernennt —D-uyilcn^-a, Geschichte des alten Aegypiens, Berlin, 1878, s. 304. Zwei grosse Manner, in England der auf vielen Gebieten des Wissens ausgezeichnete Thomas Young, in Frankreich Frangois ChampoUion, begaben sich zu gleicher Zeit, aber unabhangig von einander, an die Arbeit. BeiderBemiihungenlohnte schoner Erfolg. ChampoUion aber wird mit Recht vor seinem brit- ischen Rivalen als Entzifferer der THE ROSETTA STONE. 151 In favour of Young. In the year after this pub- lication, ChampoUion published his Lettre d. M. Dacier, in which he announced the phonetic powers of certain hieroglyphics and applied them to the reading of Greek and Roman proper names. Had he been candid enough to admit that he was indebted to Dr. Young for the commencement of his discovery, and only to claim the merit of ex- tending and improving the alpha- bet, he would probably have had his claims to the preceding and subsequent discoveries, which were certainly his own, more readily admitted by Englishmen than they have been. In 1819 Dr. Young had published his article "Egypt" in the Supplement to the Encyclo- paedia Britannica ; and it cannot be doubted that the analysis of the names "Ptolemaeus" and "Bere- nice," which it contained, reached ChampoUion in the interval between his publication in 1 821 and 1822, and led him to alter his views. . . . . . The Grammaire Egypiien?ie ought to have been given to the public as his sole bequest in the department of Egyptian philology. It was published from a manuscript written in 1831, immediately before his last illness. Shortly before his decease, having carefully collected the sheets, he delivered them to his brother, with the remark, " Be care- ful of this ; I trust that it will be my visiting card to posterity." Even the warmest admirers of Cham- poUion must admit that he left his system in a very imperfect state. Few, probably, will deny that he held many errors to the close of his life, both in what respects the In favour of ChampoUion. Hieroglyphen genannt werden miissen. — EberS, Aegypten in Bild tend Wort ; Leipzig, 1879, Bd. ii., s. 49. Un savant anglais du plus grand merite, Th. Young, essaya de re- constituer I'alphabet des cartouches. De 1814 k 1818, il s'exerga sur les divers systemes d'dcriture egyp- tienne, et separa mecaniquement les groupes differents dont se com- posaient le texte hieroglyphique et le texte demotique de I'inscription de Rosette. Apres avoir deter- mine, d'une mani^re plus ou moins exacte, le sens de chacun d'eux, il en essaya la lecture Ses idees etaient justes en partie, mais sa methode imparfaite ; il entrevit la terre promise, mais sans pouvoir y entrer. Le veritable initiateur fut Frangois ChampoUion — Maspero, Histoire Ancienne ; Paris, 1886, pp. 729, 730. Ce fut en 1819, que le Dr. Young d^clara le premier que les car- touches, ou encadrements ellip- tiques, dans le texte hieroglyphique de I'inscription de Rosette, corres- pondaient aux noms propres grecs et particuliferement k celui de Ptole- mee du texte grec, et aux groupes, du meme nom, dans le texte inter- mediaire en ecriture egyptienne demotique ou vulgaire, groupes qui avaient ete dejk reconnus et de- composes par MM. Silvestre de Sacy et Akerblad. II allait encore plus loin en supposant que chaque signe du cartouche reprdsentait un son du nom de Plolemee et en cherchant k les definir reellement un ci un par une analyse trfes in- genieuse Plusieurs signes 152 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. In favour of Young. reading of the characters, and in what respects the interpretation of the texts.— HiNCKS, On the Num- ber, Names, and Powers of the Letters of the Hieroglyphic Alpha- bet, in Trans. Royal Irish Acad., Vol. XXI., Section Polite Litera- ture, pp. 133, 134, Dublin, 1848. In favour of Champollion. avaient ete faussement interpretes et la preuve la plus evidente en etait qu'il ne reussissait pas h. lire d'autres noms que ceux de Ptolemee et de Berenice. II faut done avouer que, malgre cette ddcouverte, les opinions du Dr. Young, sur la nature du systeme hieroglyphique, etaient encore essentiellement fausses et que cette decouverte elle-meme serait probablement restee infruc- tueuse et k peine signal^e comme ddcouverte dans la science, si on avait suivi le chemin que son auteur lui-meme avait proposd — Lepsius, Lettre a M. le Professeur F. Rosel- Izni sur V Alphabet Hieroglyphique ; Rome, 1837, p. II. SeyfTarth and others reject Cham- poUion's system. It could hardly be expected that the system of decipher- ment proposed by Champollion would be accepted by those who had rival systems to put forth, hence we find old theories revived and new ideas brought to light side by side with Champollion's method of decipherment. Among those who attacked the new system were, Spolm, the misguided Seyffarth, Goulianoff and Klaproth. Spolm and Seyffarth divided hieroglyphics into emphonics, symphonies and aphonics, by which terms they seem to imply phonetics, enclitics and ideographics. Their hopelessly wrong theory was put forth with a great show of learning in De Lingua et Literis veterumySgyptiorumdXl^eipzig, 1825-31. Goulianoff"^ did not accept Champollion's system entirely, and he wished to consider the phonetic hieroglyphics acrologic ; this also was the view taken by Klaproth, who bitterly attacked Cham- pollion in his Lettre sur la decouverte des hieroglyphes acrolo- giques, adresse'e a M. de Goulianoff, Paris, 1827, and also in his Examen critique des travaux de feu M. Champollion sur les Hieroglyphes, Paris, 1832. To the first of these two works Champollion published a reply entitled Analyse critique de la ' Stetns Essai sur les Hieroglyphes cfBorafollon, Paris, 1827. AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 153 lettre sur la decouverte des hieroglyphes acrologiques par J. Klap- roth (Extr. du Bulletin de Ferussac), Paris, 1827, in which he showed the utter worthlessness of the theory. In 1830, when the correctness of Champollion's system was fully Persis- demonstrated, Janelli published at Naples his Fundamenta false Hermeneutica Hieroglyphicae, in three volumes, in which the ?ystems of interpre- old symbolic theory of the hieroglyphics was re-asserted ! tation. and there were many who hesitated not to follow the views of Fran9ois Ricardi, feu Charles d'Oneil, the soundness of which may be estimated by the title of one of his works, " Decouverte des Hieroglyphes domestiques pkonetiques par lesquels, sans sortir de chez soi, on pent deviner Vhistoire, la chronologie ( I ! ), le culte de tons les peuples anciens et modernes, de la wieme maniere, qu'on le fait en lisant les hieroglyphes ^gyptiens selon la nouvelle methode ; " Turin, 1824.^ Little by little, however, Champollion's system was accepted. In 1835 Leemans published his edition of Horapollo, in which the results of the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics were ably applied, and two years later Richard Lepsius published his famous Lettre a M. F. Rosellini sur Valphabet hierogly- phique, wherein he discussed the whole question of the decipherment, and showed that Champollion's method was, without any question, correct. About this time students, who worked on Champollion's plan, sprang up in Holland, Italy, France and England, and the misguided Seyffarth alone continued down to 1855 to write and protest against the new system. An Egyptian Funeral. The funeral of a poor Egyptian was, probably, very much like that of one of the present day. After the body had been steeped for a short time in bitumen or natron, or perhaps merely rubbed with these substances, the few personal orna- ments of the man were placed on it, he was wrapped in one ' Another of his works was entitled, Triotnphe sur les impies obtenu far les adorateurs de la trh-sainle Trinite et du Verbe eternel^ sous le gouvernement des sixihne et septiime r-ois (VEgypte au Vie siicle apris le deluge. Sculpti en signes hiiroglyphiques surV Obelisque Barberimis et viaintenant expligue ; Geneva, l82r. 154 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. piece of linen, and with his staff to support his steps,' and his sandals to protect his weary feet in the nether-world, he was laid in a hole or cave, or even in the sand of the open desert, to set out on his last journey. Trusting in the might of a few amulets that were buried with him, he feared not to meet his foes in the grave. The funeral of a king or a member of the royal family, or of a wealthy person, was a very magnificent ceremony, and it is, perhaps, impossible to realize exactly what an imposing sight it must have been. Treating of the burial of a king in Diodoras Egypt, Diodorus says (I. 72), that when a king died all the Uanlluial inhabitants of the country wept and rent their garments ; the temples were closed, and the people abstained from sacrifices and celebrated no festival for a period of seventy-two days. Crowds of men and women, about two or three hundred in number, went round about the streets with mud on their heads, and with their garments knotted like girdles below the breasts (a-irvBoyat; vTroKaTco rSv fiaarSv), singing dirges twice daily in praise of the dead. They denied themselves wheat, they ate no animal food, and they abstained from wine and dainty fare. No one dared to make use of baths, or unguents, or to recline upon couches, or even to partake of the pleasures of love. The seventy-two days were passed in grief and mourning as for the death of a beloved child. Meanwhile, the funeral paraphernalia was made ready, and on the last day of mourning, the body, placed in a coffin, was laid at the entrance to the tomb, and according to law, judgment was passed upon the acts of the king during his life. Every one had the power to make an accusation against the king. The priests pronounced a funeral oration over the body, and declared the noble works of the king during his life, and if the opinion of the assembled multitude agreed with that of the priests, and the king had led a blameless life, they testified their approval openly ; if, on the other hand, the life of the king had been a bad one, they expressed their disapprobation by loud murmurs. Through the opposition of the people many kings have been deprived of meet and proper burial, ' Compare Psalm xxiii, 4. AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 155 and kings are accustomed to exercise justice, not only Diodorus •because they fear the disapprobation of their subjects, but "ianbmal. also because they fear that after death their bodies may be maltreated, and their memory cursed for ever. It is very doubtful if the above description of the mourn- ing is not somewhat exaggerated, and there appears to be no authority in Egyptian inscriptions for the statement that many kings were deprived of their meet and proper burial because of the disapproval of their past lives shown by the people. This account by Diodorus is more valuable for the indication of the great and solemn respect which was shown to dead kings, as sons of the god Ra, and as lords of the land of Egypt, than for its strict accuracy of detail. The customs observed at the burial of kings would be respectfully imitated at the funerals of the nobles and officials of his court, and the account by the same writer of what happened after the mummy of an Egyptian gentleman was prepared for burial, must next be considered. According to Diodorus (1. 92), when the body is ready to be buried, the relatives give notice to the judges and the friends of the deceased, and inform them that the funeral will take place on a certain day, and that the body will pass over the lake ; and straightway the judges, forty in number,^ come and seat themselves in a semi-circle above the lake. Then the men who have been commissioned to prepare a boat called iSapi^," bring it to the lake, and they set it afloat under the charge of a pilot called Charon." And they pretend that Orpheus travelling in Egypt in ancient times, was present at a ceremony of this kind, and that he drew his fable of the infernal regions partly from his remembrance of this ' Is it possible that Diodorus has confused the forty judges at the lake with the forty-two judges or assessors of the Book of the Dead, before each of whom the deceased was supposed to declare that he had not committed a certain sin ? ■■' In Egyptian : J 1^^ 00 >Jm iard. ' Wiedemann compares the Egyptian kan, " Schiffer." The dictionaries give /i ^S. ^n^ If are, a. "ship," and ^iM^ qdre, "coach- man," "cart-driver." 156 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Diodorus ceremony,^ and partly from his imagination. Before the cofifin Hanbunai. Containing the dead man was placed in the boat on the lake, every person had the right to bring accusations against the deceased. If any accuser succeeded in showing that the deceased had led a bad life, the judges made a decree which deprived the body of legal burial ; if, on the other hand, the accusation was found to be unjust, the person who brought it was compelled to pay heavy damages. If no one stood forth to bring an accusation, or if an accusation seemed calumnious, the relatives of the deceased ceased to mourn and began to praise the dead man and his virtues, and to entreat the gods of the infernal regions to admit him into the place reserved for good men.Ttohe Egyptians never praised the birth of a man, as did the Greeks, for they believed that all men are equally noble. The people being gathered together, add their cries of joy, and utter wishes that the deceased may enjoy ever- lasting life in the underworld in the company of the blessed. Those who have private burial places lay the bodies of their dead in the places set apart for them ; but those who have not, build a new chamber in their house, and set the body in it fixed upright against the wall. Those who are deprived of burial, either because they lie under the ban of an accusation, or because they have not paid their debts, are merely laid in their own houses. It happens sometimes that the younger members of a family, having become richer, pay the debts of their ancestors, secure the removal of the condemnatory sentence upon them, and give them most sumptuous funerals. The great honours which are paid to the dead by the Egyptians form the most solemn ceremonies. As a guarantee for a debt, it is a customary thing to deposit the bodies of dead parents, and the greatest disgrace and privation from burial, wait upon those who redeem not such sacred pledges. In this account also there are many details given for which proof is still wanting from the Egyptian monuments. ' Thus Orpheus brought back from his travels in Egypt the ceremonies, and the greater part of the mystic rites celebrated in memory of the courses of Ceres, and the whole of the myth of hell. The difference between the feasts of Bacchus and of those of Osiris exists only in name, and the same may be said of the mysteries of Isis and those of Osiris. Diodorus, L 96. AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 1 5/ An attempt may now be made to describe briefly what Egyptian happened after death to the body of a man of high rank who ^j,^ "^' departed this life at Thebes towards the end of the XVIIIth according or beginning of the XlXth dynasty, that is to say about B.C. monu- 1400. The facts are all known, and therefore nothing need ™s"'s- be invented ; it is only necessary to gather them together and to bring them to a focus on the person of one man. We must imagine then that we are living on the east bank of the Nile, near the temple of Amen-Ra, "lord of the thrones of the earth," in the fifteenth century before Christ. One morning before the day has dawned, even before the officials who conduct the early services in the temples are astir, we are awakened by loud cries of grief and lamentation, and on making inquiries we are told that Ani, the great scribe of the offerings of the gods in the temple of Amen-Ra, is dead. As he was the receiver of the revenues of the gods of Abydos, as well as of Amen-Ra of Thebes, first prophet of Amen, and the precentor who stood on the threshold of the temple morning by morning to lead off the hymn of praise to the sun, his death naturally causes great excitement in the temples and the immediate neighbourhood ; as his forefathers for five or six generations have been temple officers of the highest rank, it is certain that his funeral will be a great event, and that numbers of the hereditary aristocracy and government officials will assist at the ceremony. He leaves no wife to mourn for him, for she is already dead, and is now lying in a chamber of a splendid tomb, not yet finished, however, nine miles away across the river, awaiting the coming of her hus- band. She was called Tutu, and belonged to one of the oldest and most honourable families in Thebes ; she was a member of the famous college of singers of Amen-Ra, and also a member of the choir of ladies, each one of whom carried a sistrum or a tambourine in the temple of that god. Ani began to hew out the tomb for himself and his wife many Tomb years ago, and during his lifetime he spared neither pains nor ° "'' expense in making it one of the largest and finest ever known for a person of lower rank than a king. Ani was not a very old man when he died, although his step was slow and his back somewhat bent ; in stature he was of middle height, and IJS FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. his features had a kind but dignified look, and though com- paratively few loved him, all respected him for his uprightness and integrity. He was a learned man, and knew the literature of Egypt well ; he himself wrote a fine, bold hand, and was no mean artist with his pencil. He was a tried servant of the king, and loved him well, but he loved his god Amen more, and was very jealous for his honour, and the glory of his worship in the temple of the Apts. All his ancestors had been in the service of the god, and it was even said that the oldest of them had seen Amen, who, until the expulsion of the Hyksos by the kings of Thebes, had occupied the position of a mere local deity, suddenly become the national god of Egypt. Whether Ani believed in his innermost heart any or all of the official religion is another matter ; his official posi- tion brought him into contact with the temporal rather than the spiritual affairs of the Egyptian religion, and whatever doubts he may have had in matters of belief, or concerning the efficacy of the magic of his day, etc., etc., he said nothing about them to any man. For some days past it had been seen that Ani's death was to be expected, and many of his colleagues in the temple had come to see him from time to time, one bringing a charm, another a decoction of herbs, etc., and a few had taken it in turns to stay in his room for some hours at a time. One Death night his illness took a decidedly serious turn, and early in the morning, a short time before daybreak, when, as the Orientals say, the dawn may be smelled, Ani died. The news of his death spreads rapidly through the quarter, for all the women of his house rush frantically through the streets, beating their breasts, and from time to time clutching at their hair, which is covered with handfuls of the thick dust of the streets, after the manner of Anpu in the Tale of the Two Brothers, and uttering wailing cries of grief In the house, parties of mourning women shriek out their grief, and all the members of the house add their tears and sobs. The steward of the house has, however, sent across the river to the cher-heb or priest who superintends and arranges the funerals of the wealthy and great, and informed him of Ani's death, and as quickly as possible this official leaves his of Ani. AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 159 house near the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings, and together with his assistants, makes his way with all haste to Ani's house. Having arrived there he takes Ani's body into Ani's his charge, and proceeds to discuss the method by which the given to body shall be preserved, and the style of the funeral. While ^^^^"^ his assistants are taking away the body to the embalming house, he sends quickly to the western bank of the Nile, and summons his chief mason to his presence ; after a short time he arrives, and the cher-heh instructs him to go to Ani's tomb with a body of men, and to finish hewing whatever chambers and pillars remain in a half completed state, to plaster the walls, and to paint upon them scenes for which he supplies him with details and notes. The cher-heb knows that for many years past Ani, and one or two of his friends among the scribes, had been writing and illuminating with vignettes a fine copy of the " Book of the Dead "; he remembers that this work remains unfinished, and he therefore sets a skilful scribe to finish it in the style in which Ani would probably have finished it. Parties of professional mourners are next organized, and these go round about the city at stated times, singing in chorus, probably accompanied by some musical in- strument, funereal dirges, the subjects of which were the short- ness of life and the certainty that all must die, and the virtues of the dead man. These dirges were sung twice daily, and Dirges for Ani's friends and colleagues, during the days of mourning, thought it to be their duty to abstain from wine and every kind of luxury, and they wore the simplest and plainest garments, and went quite unadorned. Meanwhile it was decided that Ani's funeral should be one of the best that money could purchase, and as while he was alive he was thought to be in constant communion with the gods, his relatives ordered that his body should be mum- mified in the best possible way, so that his soul ^, ba, and his intelligence ^^ %«, when they returned some thou- sands of years hence to seek his body in the tomb, might find Object Uof em- ka or " genius " there waitmg, and that all three might balmment. enter into the body once more, and revivify it, and live with it for ever in the kingdom of Osiris. No opportunity must l6o FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. be given for these four component parts of the whole of a man to drift away one from the other, and to prevent this the perishable body Z^ %« must be preserved in such a way that each limb of it may meetly be identified with a god, and the whole of it with Osiris, the judge of the dead and king of the nether world. The tomb must be made a fit and proper dwelling-place for the ka, which will never leave it as long as the body to which it belongs lies in its tomb. The furniture of the tomb must be of the best, and every material, and the workmanship thereof, must also be of the best. The cher-heb next goes to the embalming chamber and orders his assistants to begin their operations upon Ani's body, The em- over which formulae are being recited. The body is first balmment. ^^shed and then laid upon the ground, and one of the assistants traces with ink on the left side, over the groin, a line, some few inches long, to indicate where the incision is to be made in the body ; another assistant takes a knife, pro- bably made of flint, and makes a cut in the body the same length as the line drawn in ink by his companion. Whether this man was then driven away with sticks, and stones thrown after him, as Diodorus states, or not, is a moot point upon which the inscriptions give us no information. The chief intestines and the heart and lungs were then carefully taken out and washed in palm wine, and stuffed with sweet smelling spices, gums, etc. They were next smeared all over with an unguent, and then carefully bandaged with strips of linen many yards long, on which were inscribed the names of the four children of Horus ^ who symbolized the four cardinal points and of the four goddesses who took the intestines under their special protection. While this was being done a set of four alabaster jars was brought from the stores of the cher-heb' s establishment, and in each of these one of the four packets of . Compare ^[|p^^\„l^^[l^,=:J„„^^, , "^ g 7»wv? ^ , T Q -=^ /-;— '^ D ^ '^ yl "the four 1 vvwjP JS I children of Horus, in the form of four figures made of metal, with the face of a man, with the face of an ape, with the face of a jackal, and with the face of a hawk," AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. l6l embalmed intestines was placed. Each jar was inscribed with a formula, and all that was wanted to make it the property of Ani was to inscribe his name upon it in the blank spaces left for the purpose. Each jar had a cover made in Jars for the form of the head of the child of Horus to whom it was •"'^^''n'^^- dedicated. The jar of Mestha had the head of a man, and in it was placed the stomach ; it was under the protection of Isis. The jar of Hapi had the head of an ape, and in it were placed the smaller intestines ; it was under the protection of Nephthys. The jar of Tuamautef had the head of a jackal, and in it was placed the heart ; it was under the protection of Neith. The jar of Qebhsennuf had the head of a hawk, and in it was placed the liver ; it was under the protection of Serqet. The inscriptions on the jars state that the part of the deceased in it is identified with the child of Horus to whom the jar is dedicated, and that the goddess under whose charge it is protects it. The covers of the jars are fastened on by running in liquid plaster, and they are finally set in the four divisions of a coffer on a sledge with a vaulted cover and a projecting rectangular upright at each corner. It was of the greatest importance to have the intestines ^ preserved intact, for with- out them a man could not hope to live again. The brain is Removal next removed through the nostrils by means of an iron rod curved at one end, and is put aside to be dried and buried with the body ; at every step in these processes religious formulae are recited. The body thus deprived of its more perishable parts is taken and laid to soak in a tank of liquid natron for a period of seventy days. At the end of this time it is taken out and carefully washed and dried, and it is seen that it is of a greenish-grey colour ; the skin clings to the The body bones, for the flesh beneath it has shrunk somewhat, but the matron. '° hair of the body is well preserved, the nails of the hands and feet still adhere to the skin, and the face, though now drawn and very thin, has changed but little. Longitudinal slits are next made in the fingers and toes and the fleshy parts of the arms, thighs and legs, which are then stuffed with a mixture of sweet spices and natron, and sewn up again. The cavity in ' In mummies of the best period the intestines are sometimes found in packets beneath the bandages. B. M. M l62 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. the skull is now filled up with a mixture of spices, powdered plaster and natron, and the nostrils through which it was in- serted are plugged up with small linen pledgets dipped in some astringent ; obsidian eyes are also inserted in the eye- sockets. ( Large quantities of gums, spices, natron, as well as a very little bitumen, are pounded and well mixed together, and with them the breast and stomach are carefully packed through the slit in the side ; while certain formulae are being recited, a gold plate inscribed with the utchat, or eye of Horus, ^^; is laid upon it to indicate that this god watched over this body as he did over that of his father Osiris. The nails of the hands are stained with henna (Arab. 'Us-), and on the The orna- little finger of the left hand is placed Ani's gold ring, in the thrbod^ bezel of which is mounted a handsome steatite scarab in- scribed on the base with his name and titles. The ring was supposed to confer upon the deceased some power, but what that power was is not yet exactly made out ; it is certain, however, that no one was buried without one or more, and if the relatives of the deceased were not able to buy them in gold or silver, they made use of faience rings, glazed various colours, and even of small strings of beads which they tied on the fingers in lieu of rings. The legs are then brought closely together, and the arms are laid on the body with one wrist crossed over the other. The cher-heb next provides a large and handsome scarab made of green basalt which is set in a frame of gold, over the back of it is a horizontal band of the same metal, at right angles to which, on the side of the tail of the beetle, runs another band which joins the frame ; at the head of the scarab is a gold loop through which is now threaded a thick gold wire sufficiently long to go round Ani's neck. This scarab was part of the stock in trade of the cher-heb, and all that was necessary to do to make it Ani's property was to inscribe his name and titles upon it in the blank line left for the purpose at the head of the flat base. The scarab This done the scarab was covered with a thin gold leaf and the helrt. ^^^"^ upon Ani's breast at the neck.^ The inscription upon it ■ According to some rubrics of the thirtieth chapter the scarab was to be placed "within the heart" of a person after the ceremony of "opening the mouth" AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 1 63 was one of the verses of the 30th chapter of the Book of the Dead, and contained a prayer, addressed by Ani to his heart, that there might not be brought against him adverse evidence when it was weighed in the balance in the judgment hall of Osiris, that he might not be obstructed or driven back, and that his name might not be overthrown by those powers who made it their business to harass the newcomers among the dead in the nether-world. The prayer ends with a petition that no false evidence may be borne against him in the pre- sence of the god. And now the bandaging begins. The body is first of all Process of smeared all over with unguents. Pieces of linen are then '^^'^'i^ging- torn into strips about three inches wide, and one edge of each strip is gummed. On one end of each of these the name of Ani has been written in hieratic characters to facilitate the identification of the mummy during the process of bandaging ; a number of these strips are dipped in water, and the embalmers having bandaged the fingers, hands, and arms, and toes separately, begin to bandage the body from the feet upwards. The moist bandages cling tightly to the body, and the gummed edge enables each fold of the bandage to obtain firm hold ; the little irregularities are corrected by small pledgets of linen placed between the folds and gummed in position. These linen bandages are also held in position by means of narrower strips of linen wound round the body at inter\'als of six and eight inches, and tied in a double knot. Over these fine linen bandages passages from the Book of the Dead, and formulae which were intended to give power to the dead, are written. One end of a very thick bandage of eighteen to twenty-five folds of linen is laid under the shoulders, and the other is brought over the head and face, and rests on the upper part of the chest ; this is held in position by a bandage wound round the neck, and tied in a double knot at the back of the neck. The same plan is adopted with respect to the feet, but before the bandage (Naville, Bd. II, 99), had been performed ; this rite, however, took place in the tomb. M 2 l64 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. which secures all is tied, thick pads of linen are laid on the top of the feet to prevent any injury happening to them when Process of the mummy is made to stand upright.^ The bandaged arms an aging, j^^^jj^g been pressed closely into the sides, and the fore-arms and hands having been laid upon the stomach, the bandaging goes on again, while formulae are recited by the cher-heb. Names of Each bandage had a special name,^ each bandage gave power dages, to the deceased, and was inscribed with words and figures of gods, which also gave him power, and the adjustment of each in its proper position required both care and judgment. More folds of linen are laid on the body perpendicularly,' ' Referring to the embalming of the feet, the following extract is of interest. " After these things perform the embalming operations on his right and left arms, and then the and the children of Horus, and the children of Chent-aat, shall carry out the embalming operations on the two legs of the deceased. Rub the feet, legs, and thighs of the deceased with black stone (?) oil, and then rub them a second time with the finest oil. Wrap the toes in a piece of cloth, draw two jackals upon two pieces of linen with colours mixed with water perfumed with dnti, and each jackal shall have his face turned towards the other ; the jackal on the one bandage is Anubis, lord of Hert ; the jackal on the other is Horus, lord of Ilebennu. Put Anubis on the right leg, and Horus on the left leg, and wrap them up in fine linen. To complete the embalming of the legs, take six measures of anchamu flowers, natron and resin, and mix with water of ebony gum, and put three measures on the right leg and three measures on the left. Then put some fresh (?) senb flowers made into twelve bundles (?) on the left leg, and twelve bands of linen, and anoint with the finest oil." Maspero, Le Rituel de PEm- baumement, pp. 43, 44, in Memoirs sur Quelques Papyrus du Louvre (Extrait des Notices et Exiraits des Manuscrits, torn, xxiv., I" partie ; Paris, '875). ^ E.g., one of the bandages of the nostrils was called p— , (J[| ^ nehi, and the other 1 ^^^^^ ft 5 ^"^^" > ^ "^^^^ bandage ^^ (1 ll 1 X l^'hthethsu, the two bandages of the cheek "¥■■¥" jl A X Yr^ S-nchth dnchth su, the two bandages of the top of the head ^ V\ (I *^, rJ| Wl ' ^i^h'"*'ati. ' While the head was being bandaged the following petition was recited by one of the embalmers : — " O most august goddess, O lady of the west, O mistress of the east, come and enter into the two ears of the deceased ! O doubly powerful, eternally young, and very mighty lady of the west, and mistress of the east may breathing take place in the head of the deceased in the nether world ! Grant that he may see with his eyes, that he may hear with his two ears, that he may breathe through his nose, that he may utter sounds from his mouth, and articulate with his tongue in the nether world ! Receive his voice in the hall of truth and justice, and his triumph in the hall of Seb in the presence of the great coffin. AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 165 and more bandages are wound round the body horizontally, until, little by little, it loses its shape beneath them. "When a length of about three hundred cubits has been used in folds and bandages, a coarse piece of linen is laid on the body, and is sewn up at the back. Over this again a saffron- coloured linen sheet is laid, and this having been deftly sewn over the head, down the back, and under the feet, is finally held in position by a perpendicular bandage of brownish coloured linen, passing from the head to the feet and under them up the back to the head, and by four horizontal bandages of the same coloured linen, one round the shoulders, one round the middle of the body, one round the knees, and one round the ankles. Thus the mummy is complete. During the seventy days which have been spent in Ani's embalming Ani's body, the coffin makers have not been idle, and they have made ready a covering of wood to be laid on the mummy, and two beautiful coffins. The covering, in the form of a mummy, is slightly vaulted, and has a human face, bearded, on it ; it is handsomely painted outside with collar, figures of Nut, Anubis, and Ap-uat, the full names and titles of Ani in perpendicular lines of inscription, the cartouches of tne king in whose time he lived, and scenes in which Ani is adoring the gods. On the inside of the cover, on the purple ground, are painted in a light yellow colour pictures of the horizon, the spirits of the East, in the form of apes, adoring Ra, the lion gods of the morning and evening with a disk on their united backs, etc., etc.^ The inner coffin is equally god, lord of the west. O Osiris (i.e., the deceased), the thick oil which comes upon thee furnishes thy mouth with life, and thine eye looketh into the lower heaven, as Ra looketh upon the upper heaven. It giveth thee thy two ears to hear that which thou wishest, just as Shu in Hebit (?) heard that which he wished to hear. It giveth thee thy nose to smell a beautiful perfume like Seb. It giveth to thee thy mouth well furnished by its passage (into the throat), like the mouth of Thoth, when he weigheth Maat. It giveth thee Maat (Law) in Ileblt. O worshipper in Hetbenben, the cries of thy mouth are in Siut, Osiris of Siut comes to thee, thy mouth is the mouth of Ap-uat in the mountain of the west." (See Maspero, Le Riiuelde r Embmimement, p. 27, in Memoire sur Quelques rapyrus du Louvre (Extrait des Notices el Extraits des Manuscrits), tom. xxiv., I" partie ; Paris, 1875). ' A fine example of such a covering is that of Nesi-pa-ur-shefi, preserved at Cambridge. 1 66 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. handsome, and carpenter and artist have expended their best labour upon it ; before Ani was embalmed he was measured for it, and due allowance having been made for the bandages, it fits the mummy exactly. It is in the form of a mummy, and the sycamore planks of which it is made are about two inches thick ; the bottom is in one piece, as is also each of the sides, the rounded head-piece is cut out of a solid piece of wood, and the foot-piece is also separate ; all these parts are pegged together with wooden pegs about two inches long. On the cover is pegged a solid face, carved out of hard wood, which is thought to have a strong resemblance to that of Coffin Ani ; bronze eyelids and obsidian eyes are fixed in it, and a tation. " carved wooden beard is fastened to the chin. Solid wooden hands are next fastened to the breast. The whole coffin, inside and out, is next covered with a thin layer of plaster ; over this a coat of light yellow varnish is painted, and the Scenes Scenes and inscriptions are painted on it in red, light and thI"coffin" '^^^^ green, white and other colours. At the head is Neph- thys, and at the foot is Isis, each making speeches to Ani, and telling him that she is protecting him. On the cover outside is Nut, and between two series of scenes in which Ani is represented worshipping the gods, are two perpendicular lines of inscriptions recording his name and titles ; at the foot of these are figures of Anubis and Ap-uat. The sides of the coffin are ornamented with figures of gods in shrines, the scene of the weighing of the heart, Ani drinking water from the hands of a goddess standing in a tree, Shu lifting up Nut from the embraces of Seb, etc. Inside the coffin are painted figures of a number of gods and genii with instructions referring to them, and the goddesses Nut and Hathor ; the first covers Ani with her wings, and the second, as mistress of the nether-world, receives Ani into her arms. Around the edge of the coffin near the cover, from head to foot, run two lines of inscription, one on each side, which repeat at considerable length the name and titles of Ani. The outer edge of the coffin, and the inner edge of the cover are " rabbeted " out, the one to fit into the other, and on each side, at regular inter- vals, four rectangular slots about i^in. x 2in. x fin. are cut; to fasten the coffin hermetically, tightlyfitting Wooden dowels, four AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 1 67 inches long, are pressed into the slots in the coffin, and pegs driven from the outside of the coffin through them keep them firmly in position. Ani's body having been placed in this coffin, the cover is laid upon it, the ends of the dowels fit into the slots in the sides, and coffin and cover are firmly joined together ; wooden pegs are driven through the cover and dowels, the " rabbets " fit tightly, the little space between the coffin and cover is " stopped " with liquid plaster, and thus the coffin is sealed. Any injury that may have hap- The outer pened to the plaster or paintings during the process of sealing is repaired, and the whole coffin is once more varnished. This coffin is, in its turn, placed inside an outer coffin, which is painted, both inside and outside, with scenes similar to those on the inner coffin ; the drawing is, however, more free, and the details are fewer. The outer coffin being sealed in the same way as that inside it, Ani is now ready to be carried to his everlasting home in the Theban hills. On a day fixed by the relatives and friends, all the various articles of funereal furniture which have been prepared are brought to Ani's house, where also the mummy in its coffins now lies awaiting the funeral ; the cher-heb sees that the things necessary for a great man's funeral are provided, and arranges for the procession to start on the first auspicious day. This day having arrived, the cker-heb's assistants come, and gather- ing together the servants and those who are to carry burdens, see that each has his load ready and that each knows his place in the procession. When all is ready the funeral train sets The out from Ani's house, while the female servants wail and procession, lament their master, and the professional mourners beat their breasts, feign to pull out their hair by handfuls, and vie with each other in shrieking the loudest and most often. They have not a great distance to go to reach the river, but the difficulties of passing through the narrow streets increase almost at every step, for the populace of Thebes loved the sight of a grand funeral as much as that of any European country to-day. After some few hours the procession reaches the river, and there a scene of indescribable confusion happens ; every bearer of a burden is anxious to deposit it in one of the boats which lie waiting in a row by the quay ; the animals which i68 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Funereal offerings. Ani's personal property carried to the tomb. draw the sledge, on which Ani's bier is laid, kick out wildly and struggle while being pushed into the boats, people rush hither and thither, and the noise of men giving orders, and the shouts and cries of the spectators, are distracting. At length, however, the procession is embarked and the boats push off to drop with the current across the Nile to a place a little north of the Temple of Thothmes III., opposite Asasif After an hour spent in disembarking, the procession re- forms itself in the order in which it will march to the tomb, and we see for the first time what a splendid funeral has been provided. In the front walk a number of men bearing tables and stands filled with vases full of wine, beer, oil, perfumes, flowers, bread, cakes, ducks, haunches of beef, and vegetables ; one man carries Ani's palette and box of instruments which he used for writing and drawing, another carries his staff, another his bed, another his chair, others bring the ushabtiu figures in a box with a vaulted cover and made like a tomb ; and following them comes the stele recording his name and titles and prayers to the gods of the nether-world ; and behind them, drawn by two men, is a coffer surmounted by a jackal, on a sledge decorated with lotus flowers, in which stand the four jars which contain Ani's intestines. Next follow the men bearing everything which Ani made use of during his life, as, for example, the axe which he carried when he followed his king to war in order to keep the accounts of the army and to make lists of all the precious things which were brought to his lord as gifts and tribute, and the harp on which he played in his leisure hours. Next comes the chest j^^, in which is laid the mummy of Ani, placed in a boat which is mounted on a sledge drawn by four oxen ; at the head of the chest is a figure of Nephthys, and at the foot a figure of Isis, the boat is supplied with oars as if it were really destined to row down to Abydos, so that the body might be buried there, and its soul pass into the nether- world through the "Gap" 7\ li ® Peka {i.e., the ' Gap') the place whence, according to the Egyptian belief, souls, under the guidance of Osiris, set out on their last journey. At the head of the boat stands a white- robed Sam priest wearing a panther skin ; he holds a bronze -efic: /m^SSoSSSK-^^^-es? ? ?• r-^T^rij^n^ t""^' It"- If"- — 'it * ■» 'S' ii I 1 l> . S"":^ ^'li ^^33SS§F^^l?E^SSJFr:^ Between pp. 168—9, ?* Jj! M ainei VIEW OF ANI'S FUNERAL PROCJiESSION (From the Papyrus of Ani, Brit. Mus. No. 1*0,470, sheet 5). AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 1 69 instrument for burning incense in the left hand, and with the right he scatters water on the ground from a libation vase J. Behind the boat follow a number of white-robed priests, one of whom has his head powdered.^ Next follow more funereal offerings and flowers carried in boxes suspended from the ends of poles which the men who carry them balance on their shoulders. After these come a number of women with breasts uncovered and dishevelled hair, who in their wailing lamenta- tions lament the dead and praise his virtues. Among these would probably be the female servants of Ani's house, whose grief would be genuine, for they would feel that they had lost a good master and a comfortable home. Meanwhile the procession has moved on and has entered one of the rocky defiles to the north of D6r el-Bahari, whence, winding along through the valley of the kings, they hope to reach a remote place in the Western valley. The progress of the train is slow, for the ground is rough and rocky, and frequent halts have to be made ; on the right hand and on the left, kings and nobles are buried in splendid tombs, and almost every hill which they climb hides the mummy of some distinguished Egyptian. A few miles further on, at some Ani's tomb little distance upon a hill, a rectangular opening is seen, and '" ^^^ ■ when the procession arrives at the foot of it, a number of workmen, attendants, tomb-guardians and others are seen assembled there. The mummy in its coffin is lifted out ot the chest, and carried up the hill to the rectangular opening, which proves to be the mouth of Ani's tomb ; there it is set upright, and before it the attendants pile up tables with sepul- chral offerings and flowers, and animals for sacrifice are also brought there. The wailing women and the distant relatives of Ani here take farewell of him, and when they have des- cended the hill, the coffin is let down the slanting passage by ropes into the chamber, where it is hoped that Ani's friends will bring sepulchral offerings to his ka, at the appointed seasons. This chamber is rectangular and has two rows of square pillars in it. From it there leads a passage about six * In the papyrus of Ani, his wife is represented kneeling on the ground in grief by the side of the boat. AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 169 instrument for burning incense in the left hand, and with the right he scatters water on the ground from a libation vase J. Behind the boat follow a number of white-robed priests, one of whom has his head powdered.^ Next follow more funereal offerings and flowers carried in boxes suspended from the ends of poles which the men who carry them balance on their shoulders. After these come a number of women with breasts uncovered and dishevelled hair, who in their wailing lamenta- tions lament the dead and praise his virtues. Among these would probably be the female servants of Ani's house, whose grief would be genuine, for they would feel that they had lost a good master and a comfortable home. Meanwhile the procession has moved on and has entered one of the rocky defiles to the north of D^r el-Bahari, whence, winding along through the valley of the kings, they hope to reach a remote place in the Western valley. The progress of the train is slow, for the ground is rough and rocky, and frequent halts have to be made ; on the right hand and on the left, kings and nobles are buried in splendid tombs, and almost every hill which they climb hides the mummy of some distinguished Egyptian. A few miles further on, at some Ani's tomb little distance upon a hill, a rectangular opening is seen, and '" *ntains when the procession arrives at the foot of it, a number of workmen, attendants, tomb-guardians and others are seen assembled there. The mummy in its coffin is lifted out ot the chest, and carried up the hill to the rectangular opening, which proves to be the mouth of Ani's tomb ; there it is set upright, and before it the attendants pile up tables with sepul- chral offerings and flowers, and animals for sacrifice are also brought there. The wailing women and the distant relatives of Ani here take farewell of him, and when they have des- cended the hill, the coffin is let down the slanting passage by ropes into the chamber, where it is hoped that Ani's friends will bring sepulchral offerings to his ka, at the appointed seasons. This chamber is rectangular and has two rows of square pillars in it. From it there leads a passage about six ^ In the papyrus of Ani, his wife is represented kneeling on the ground in grief by the side of the boat. I70 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Statue and stele of Ani. Tutu, Ani's wife. feet wide by seven feet high, and passing through this we see to the right and left a series of chambers upon the walls of which are painted in vivid colours the pictures of Ani and his wife Tutu making offerings to the gods, and inscriptions recording his prayers and their answers. The walls of some rooms are occupied entirely with scenes drawn from the daily events of his life. As he was a scribe, and therefore no mean artist, we are probably right in assuming that he superintended the painting of many of them himself Some of the rooms have their walls unornamented, and it would seem that these were used for the living rooms of the priests who visited or lived in the tombs for the purpose of carrying out the various sepulchral rites at their appointed times. We pass through or by seven- teen chambers, and then arrive at a flight of steps which leads down to the chamber in which the mummy and coffin are to be placed. Hewn in the wall just above the top of the flight of steps is a square niche, in which, seated on one seat, are two stone figures of Ani and his wife ; he has an open roll of papyrus on his knees, and holds a palette in his hand, and she has lotus flowers in both hands, which rest on her knees. The plinth of the statues is inscribed with the names and titles of Ani and Tutu. Beneath, let into the wall, is a stone stele, the surface of which is divided into two parts ; the upper part contains a representation of Ani adoring the sun-god Ra, and the lower contains about thirty lines of inscription in which Ani prays that Ra, Osiris and Anubis will cause all kinds of sepulchral goods to be supplied for his ka or genius ; that they will grant his coming forth from and going into the nether- world whenever he pleases ; that his soul may alight on the trees which he has planted ; that he may drink cool water from the depths of the Nile when he pleases, etc. The mummy in its coffin has been brought down the steps, and is now carried into a large chamber on the left, where its final resting place is to be. As we pass into this room we see that a part of it is already occupied with a coffin and the funereal furniture belonging to it. When we come nearer we find that it is the coffin of Tutu, Ani's wife. Close by her is a table of alabaster covered with shapely vessels of the same substance, filled with wine, oil, and other unguents ; 4- 1-1 -Ji/t Between //. 170-1. VIEW OF ANI'S rUNERAL PROCESSION (Fron the Papyrus of Ani, Brit. Mus. No. 10,470, sheet 6). AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. I7I each of these fragile objects is inscribed with her name. On the table are spoons made of ivory of the most beautiful work • manship. They are shaped in the form of a woman. The body is stained a deep creamy colour, the colour of the skin of the Egyptian lady, who guarded herself from the rays of the sun ; the hair is black, and we see that it is movable ; when we lift it off we see the name of " Tutu, the sistrum bearer," engraved beneath. On a second stand, made of wood, we find the articles for her toilet, mirror, kohl pot in obsidian, fan, etc., and close by is the sistrum which she carried in the temple of Amen-Ra upon earth, and which was buried with her, so that she might be able to praise that god with music in his mansions in the sky. Chairs and her couch are there too, and stands covered with dried flowers and various offerings. Removing the lid of the coffin we see her mummy lying as it was laid a few years before. On her breasts are strings of dried flowers with the bloom still on them, and by her side is a roll of papyrus containing a copy of the service which she used to sing in the temple of Amen in the Apts, when on earth. Her amethyst necklace and other ornaments are small, but very beautiful. Just over her feet is a blue glazed steatite ushabti figure. While we have been examining Tutu's general furniture, the servants of the cher-heb have brought down the cofiin, which is placed on a bier along the east wall, and the chairs and couch and boxes and funereal offerings, and arranged them about the chamber. In a square niche in the wall, just over the head of the coffin, Ani's writing palette and reeds are placed, and by its side is laid a large roll of papyrus nearly go feet long, inscribed in Ani's hieroglyphics during his lifetime and under his direction, with ^°°^°a^ the oldest and most important chapters of the " Book of the Dead " ; the vignettes, which refer to the chapters, are beauti- fully painted, and in some as many as thirteen colours are used in this chamber ; and in every work connected with Ani's tomb there is a simple majesty which is characteristic of the ancient Egyptian gentleman. , At each of the four corners or sides of the bier, is placed one of the so-called Canopic jars, and at the foot are laid a few stone ushabtiu figures, whose duty it was to perform for the deceased such 172 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The giving the mouth to the deceased. The funeral feast. labours as filling the furrows with water, ploughing the fields, and carrying the sand, if he were called upon to do them. When everything has been brought into this chamber, and the tables of offerings have been arranged, a priest, wearing a panther skin, and accompanied by another who burns incense in a bronze censer, approaches the mummy, and performs the ceremony of "opening the mouth" ^^ "i™nr ■ , un-re ; while a priest in white robes reads from a roll of papyrus or leather. The act of embalming has taken away from the dead man all control over his limbs and the various portions of his body, and before these can be of any use to him in the nether-world, a mouth must be given to him, and it must be opened so that his ka may be able to speak. The twenty- first and twenty-second chapters of the " Book of the Dead " refer to the giving a mouth to the deceased, and the vignette of the twenty-second chapter (Naville, bl. xxxiii) represents a priest called the "guardian of the scale," W i^.M^i~^^^^ dri maj^et, giving the deceased his mouth. In the vignette to the twenty-third chapter a priest is seen performing the opera- tion of opening the mouth \J <=■ drit dpt re, with the instrument if^^ — ,, and the deceased says in the text, " Ptah ^ has opened my mouth with that instrument of steel with which he opened the mouth of the gods." ^ When the mouth of the deceased had been opened, his ka gained control of his speech, intelligence and limbs, and was able to hold inter- course with the gods, and to go in and out of his tomb whenever he pleased. When the formulae are finished and all rites performed, Ani's relatives and near friends withdraw from the mummy chamber and make their way up the stairs, through the long passage and into the first chamber, where they find that animals have been slaughtered, and that many of the assistants and those who accompanied the funeral are ' Some copies read Shu. w°m: J^mkV X .^ I in \% VIEW OF THE COFFIN CHAMBER (from Naville, Das Aegyptische TodteT.huch) . a. Address of Isis at the foot of the bier. g. b. Anubis standing on one side of the mummy ; on the other ^i is the soul. /. c. Address of Nephthys at the foot of the bier. k\ d. Speech of a statuette. ', /. e. Inscription of the tet. m. f. Inscription of the flame. \ To face p. 172. Inscription of the jackal. Addresses of the "living soul." Inscription of the ushabtiu figures. Speech of Qebh-sennuf. Speech of Hapi. Speech of Tuamautef. Speech of Mestha. MUMMY. 173 eating and drinking of the funereal offerings. When the last person has left the mummy chamber, masons bring along slabs of stone and lime which they have ready and wall it up ; the joints between the stones are so fine that the blade of a modern penknife can with difficulty be inserted to the depth of half an inch. We have seen Ani's body embalmed, we have watched all the stages of the manufacture of his coffin, we have seen the body dressed and laid in it, we have accom- panied him to the tomb, we have gone through it and seen how it is arranged and decorated, and we have assisted at the funereal ceremonies ; in his beautiful tomb then, let us leave him to enjoy his long rest in the company of his wife. Ani did not cause such a large and beautiful tomb to be hewn for him merely to gratify his pride ; with him, as with all educated Egyptians, it was the outcome of the belief that his soul would revivify his body, and was the result of a firm assurance in his mind of the truth of the doctrine of immortality, which is the foundation of the Egyptian religion, and which was as deeply rooted in them as the hills are in the earth. MUMMY.i Mummy is the term which is generally applied to the body of a human being, animal, bird, fish, or reptile, which has been preserved by means of bitumen, spices, gums, or natron. As far as can be discovered, the word is neither a Or gin of corruption of the ancient Egyptian word for a preserved body, "M,^^y.' nor of the more modern Coptic form of the hieroglyphic name. The word " mummy " is found in Byzantine Greek (fiovfiia, fj,a>fj,iov), and in Latin,^ and indeed in almost all European languages. It is derived from the Arabic Ij^^, "bitumen,"' and the Arabic word for mummy is aI^Jc , which means a " bitumenized thing," or a body preserved by bitumen. The Syriac-speaking people called it ].^qSo, the Greeks ■jrorrda-- ^ I have reproduced here many paragraphs from my Prefatory Remarks made on Egyptian Mummies, ontheoccasionof theunrollingof the Mummy of Bak-Ran, privately printed ; London, 1890. ^ It appears in Latin about a.d. iooo. Wiedemann, Herodots Zweites Bjis/i ; Leipzig, 1890, p. 349. 174 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. (f)aXTO<;, and the Persians call a drug used in medicine t^'Lu^ . The celebrated Arabic physician Ibn Betar (died A.H. 646), quoting Dioscorides/ who lived in the first century of our era, says that Mumia is found in the country called Apollonia, and that it flows down with water from the "lightning mountains," and being thrown by the water on the sides of the water courses, becomes hard and thick, and that it has a smell like that of pitch. Having further quoted the article by Dioscorides on Pittasphaltus, he adds, " What I say on this subject is as "Mummy" follows : The name miiniia ^Ij^yo is given to the drug of stance which mention has just been made, and to that which is called embalming 'Bitumen of Judaea,' ^j»^\^^l, and to the muniia of the "^ '^'' tombs i_?.,jjill (_flji_n-Amia or bitumen which had been taken out of the skulls and stomachs of mummies sold in the towns, and he adds that he bought "the contents of three skulls for half an Egyptian dirhem," i_£^ 6J^ ijU^ :'.y^^ ■^i ^yo^ (fi'\'^i 3-nd says that it varies very little from mineral pitch, for which it can be substituted if one takes the trouble to procure it. Mummy About three or four hundred years ago Egyptian mummy a°dru^. formed one of the ordinary drugs in apothecaries' shops. The trade in mummy was carried on chiefly by Jews, and as early as the twelfth century a physician called El-Magar was in the habit of prescribing mummy to his patients. It was said to be good for bruises and wounds. After a time, for various reasons, the supply of genuine mummies ran short, and the ' Materia Medica (ed. Kiihn, in Medicorum Graecorum Opera, torn, xxv., Leipzig, 1829, p. loi). 2 See Abd el-LatSf, Relation de TEgypte, tr. by De Sacy, Paris, 18 ro, p. 273, and Abdollatiphi liistoria Mgypti Compendium, Ed. White, Oxford, 1810, p. 150. MUMMY. 175 Jews were obliged to manufacture them. They procured the bodies of all the criminals that were executed in gaols, and of people who had died in hospitals, Christians and others. They filled the bodies with bitumen and stuffed the limbs with the same substance ; this done, they bound them up tightly and exposed them to the heat of the sun. By this means they made them look like old mummies. In the year 1564 a physician called Guy de la Fontaine made an attempt to see the stock of the mummies of the chief merchant in mummies at Alexandria, and he discovered that they were made from the bodies of slaves and others who had died of the most loathsome diseases. The traffic in mummies as a drug was stopped in a curious manner. A Jew at Damietta who traded in mummies had a Christian slave who was treated with great harshness by him because he would not consent to become a Jew. Finally, when the ill-treatment became .so severe that he could bear it no longer, the slave went to the Pasha and informed him what his master's business was. The Jew was speedily thrown into prison, and only obtained his End of the liberty by payment of three hundred pieces of gold. Every mummy. Jewish trader in mummy was seized by the local governor of the place where he lived, and money was extorted from him. The trade in mummy being hampered by this arbitrary tax, soon languished, and finally died out entirely.^ The hieroglyphic word for mummy is I- — flX Y\y"s\ Egyptian I A _a JLD name of Sahu, and the word used to indicate the act of making a dead the em- man into a mummy is -^ | 5 oi" _£_ ^==^ 1^^ > i* means to "wrap up in bandages." The Coptic forms of the latter word are kGC, KHC, KCJOC, KCJOOOC, KCUCUce, and they were used by the Copts to translate the Greek ivTa(f>i,aa-ij,o';, Tar], eVra^tafetj', ddiTTeiv, etc.; the word JULIoXuoit, "mummy," is also given by Kircher, Lingua Aegyptiaca Restituta, Rome, 1643, p. 183, at the foot. The mummifier was called pecJKtoc ; compare OTf Og, ^"TKCOC JUL ^ICp^.HX ftze nipeqKtbc ^ = Aral e^era- ^iacrav ol ivTa(pia<7Tal tov lapar/K.^ ' Pettigrew on Mummies, p. 4. ' Lagarde, Der Pentateuch Koptisch, Gen. 1. 2. " Lagarde, Librorum Vet. Test. Canon., Gen. 1. 2, p. 51, balmed body. 176 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Antiquity of em- balming. Ancient Egyptian work on anatomy. Whether the art of mummifying was known to the aboriginal inhabitants of Egypt, or whether it was introduced by the new-comers from Asia, is a question which is very difficult to decide. We know for a certainty that the stele of a dignitary preserved at Oxford was made during the reign of Sent, the fifth king of the second dynasty, about B.C. 4000. The existence of this stele with its figures and inscriptions entreating the god of the dead to grant sepulchral meals, points to the fact that the art of elaborate sepulture had reached a high pitch of perfection in those early times. The man for whom it was made was called ^^ 1| Shera, and he held the dignity of i neter hen or "prophet"; the stele also tells us that he was 1 5^^^ suten reck or " royal relative." The inscriptions contain prayers asking that there may be granted to the deceased in the nether world, " thousands of oxen, linen bandages, cakes, vessels of wine, incense, etc.," which fact shows that religious belief, funereal ceremonies, and a hope for a life after death, had already become a part of the life of the people of Egypt. During the reign of king Sent, the redaction of a medical papyrus was carried out. As this work presupposes many years of experiment and experience, it is clear that the Egyptians possessed at a remote period ample anatomical knowledge for mummifying a human body. Again, if we consider that the existence of this king is proved by papyri and contemporaneous monuments, and that we know the names of some of the priests who took part in funereal ceremonies during his reign, there is no difficulty in acknowledging the great antiquity of such ceremonies, and also that they presuppose a religious belief in the actual revivification of the body because of which hoped-for event the Egyptians took the greatest possible care to preserve and afterwards to hide the bodies of the dead. Though there exists, to my knowledge, no monument of a similar nature to that of the stele of Sent which would prove beyond doubt that mummies were rhade in the first dynasty, still it seems tolerably certain that they were made, and there is little doubt that the Egyptians possessed all the anatomical knowledge necessary for this purpose. We know from Manetho that Teta, the second king of the first dynasty, MUMMY. 177 about B.C. 4366, wrote a book upon anatomy, and that he busied himself in making experiments with drugs. The mother of this king, a lady called Shesh |-^ J,i earned fame for herself by inventing a hair wash. From the fact that the bodies of some ancient Egyptians who lived during the first four dynasties, have been found in a skeleton state in sarcophagi which had never been opened since the time they were cemented, some six thousand years ago, until the present day, it has been argued by some that mummification was not practised during the early dynasties in Egypt. Some system of preservation must have been adopted, however, because the bones are discoloured, and smell strongly of bitumen. The knowledge of the way in which the ancient Egyptians mummified their dead is obtained from the works of Greek historians, and from an examination of mummies. According to Herodotus,^ " When in a family a man of any consideration Account of dies, all the females of that family besmear their heads and ^y h«o"^ faces with mud, and then leaving the body in the house, they dotus. wander about the city, and beat themselves, having their clothes girt up, and exposing their breasts, and all their relations accompany them. On the other hand, the men beat them- selves, being girt up in like manner. When they have done this, they carry out the body to be embalmed. There are persons who are appointed for this very purpose ; they, when the dead body is brought to them, show to the bearers wooden models of corpses made exactly like by painting. And they show that Avhich they say is the most expensive manner of embalming, the name of which ^ I do not think it right to mention on such an occasion ; they then show the second. Three which is inferior and less expensive ; and then the third which ^"^em" ^ is the cheapest. Having explained them all, they learn from baiming. them in what way they wish the body to be prepared ; then the relations, when they have agreed on the price, depart ; but the embalmers remaining in the workshops thus proceed to embalm in the most expensive manner. First they draw out First the brains through the nostrils with an iron hook, taking part of ™^^^ balming. > Papyrus Ebers, Bd. II., Glossarium Hieroglyphicum, by Stern, p. 47. 2 Bk. II. 85. 3 i.e., Osiris. E. M. N 178 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. it out in this manner, the rest by the infusion of drugs. Then with a sharp Ethiopian stone they make an incision in the side, and take out all the bowels ; and having cleansed the abdomen and rinsed it with palm-wine, they next sprinkle it with pounded perfumes. Then having filled the belly with pure myrrh pounded, and cassia, and other perfumes, frankin- cense excepted, they sew it up again ; and when they have done this, they steep it in natrum, leaving it under for 70 days ; for a longer time than this it is not lawful to steep it. At the expiration of the 70 days they wash the corpse, and wrap the whole body in bandages of flaxen cloth, smearing it with gum, which the Egyptians commonly use instead of glue. After this the relations, having taken the body back again, make a wooden case in the shape of a man,^ and having made it, they enclose the body ; and thus, having fastened it up, they store it in a sepulchral chamber,^ setting it upright against the wall. In this manner they prepare the bodies that are embalmed in the most expensive way. Second "Those who, avoiding great expense, desire the middle o/em°- way, they prepare in the following manner. When they have balming. ' Really in the form of the god Osiris. ^ Compare raptx^vu 5k o XiyvimoQ' ovtoq fiev yf — \kyca 5* I'Swr — ^jipdvaQ rov ViKpbv ^vvdUTTvov Kal ^VfiTTOriiV eiroiiiaaTO, l^ucizUi De Z,uctUf §21 (ed. Dindorf, Paris, 1867, p. 569). AlyvnTioi 51 ra tvTipa l^t\6vTiQ Ti^pix^vovaiv avrovg, kui cfvv eavroic v-jrip yrjg txovaiv. Sextus Empiricus, Pyrrhoniarum Institulionam lib. III. cap. 24 (ed. J. A. Fabricius, Leipzig, 1718, p. 184). Mortuos limo obliti plangunt : nee cremare aut fodere fas putant : verum arte medicatos intra penetralia coUocant. Pomponius Mela, lib. I. cap. 9 (ed. Gronov., Leyden, 1782, p. 62). Aegyptia tellus Claudit odorato post funus stantia saxo Corpora, et a mensis exsanguem baud' separat umbram . Silius Italicus, Punicorum lib. XIII. U. 474-476 (ed. H. Occioni, Turin, 1889). Balsama succo unguentaque mira feruntur Tempus in aeternum sacrum servantia corpus. Corippi, De laudibus Jttstini, lib. III. 11. 22-25 (ed. Antwerp, 1581, p. 4). MUMMY. 179 charged their syringes with oil made from cedar, they fill the abdomen of the corpse without making any incision or taking out the bowels, but inject it at the fundament / and having prevented the injection from escaping, they steep the body in natrum for the prescribed number of days, and on the last day they let out from the abdomen the oil of cedar which they had before injected, and it has such power that it brings away the intestines and vitals in a state of dissolution ; the natrum dissolves the flesh, and nothing of the body remains but the skin and tKe bones| When they have done this they return the body without any further operation. " The third method of embalming is this, which is used Third only for the poorer sort. Having thoroughly rinsed the ^(^l^_ abdomen in syrmsea, they steep it with natrum for 70 days, balming. and then deliver it to be carried away."|^ According to Genesis 1. 3, the embalming of Jacob occupied 40 days, but the period of mourning was yo days. From Egj'ptian documents it is known that the length of the period from the death of a man to his burial varied ; in one case the embalming occupied 16 days, the bandaging 35 Period of days, and the burial yo days, i.e., 121 days in all. In a ^'^^^gnt second .case the embalming occupied 66 days, preparations varied in for burial 4 days, and the burial 26 days ; in all 96 days. ^"^ Elsewhere we are told that the embalming lasts yo or 80 days, and the burial ten months.^ The account given by Diodorus (I. 91) agrees with that Account of of Herodotus in many particulars, but some additional details ^y dI™"^ are given. According to it, if any man died, all his relatives dorus. and friends threw dust or mud on their heads, and went round about through the town uttering cries of grief as long as the body remained unburied ; during the interval between the death and the burial, they abstained from the use of baths and wine, they partook of no choice foods, and they put not on fine apparel. The methods of embalming were three in number ; the most expensive, the less expensive, and the poorest of all. The first method cost one talent of silver, about Cost of embalming a body. * Gary's translation, pp. 126, 127. ' For the authorities see Wiedemann, Herodots Zweiies Buck, p. 358. N 2 i8o FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. Details of em- balming. ^250; the second twenty minze, about £60; and the third cost very Httle indeed. The people who practise the art of embalming belong to a class of men in whose families this profession is hereditary, and they set down in writing a statement of the various methods of embalming practised by them and the cost of each, and ask the relatives of the dead man to decide upon the method to be adopted. When this question has been settled, the embalmers take the body into their charge, and they hand it to those who are fully acquainted with the process of embalming. The first of these called the "scribe" (ypafifxarev';) makes a mark on the left side of the body, which is laid upon the ground, to indicate where the incision is to be made. Next, a man, called the "ripper up" (■jrapaa-xtcrTJj'i), with an Ethiopian stone {Xidov AWlottikov) makes a cut in the side lengthwise of the size indicated by the scribe. Having done this, he flees away in all haste, pursued by his assistants, who hurl after him pieces of stone and call down curses, that vengeance may come upon him for this crime ; for the Egyptians hold in abomination anyone who wounds or commits an act of violence upon the human body. The embalmers (rapt^eiiTai) are held in high honour, and are treated with much conside- ration, because they are friends of the priests, and are allowed to enter the sanctuary as if they were ceremonially pure. Having assembled around the body, one of them puts his hand into it through the cut that has been made, and draws out everything that he finds inside, with the exception of the heart and reins (lungs .') ; others clean the intestines, and wash them with palm-wine and balsams. Finally, havin^g treated the body first with oil of cedar and other materials of this nature, and then with myrrh, cinnamon, and other sweetsmelling drugs and spices suitable for embalming purposes, they bring it into such a state of completeness, that the eye-lashes and eye-brows remain uninjured, and its form is so little changed that it is easy to recognize the features. The greater number of the Egyptians who keep the bodies of their ancestors in magnificent chambers, enjoy the sight of those who have been dead for several generations, and they feel great satisfaction in seeing the features and form of these MUMMY. l8l bodies, and look upon them, to a certain extent, as contem- poraries. With reference to the fleeing away of the paraschistes it is difficult to understand what Diodorus had in his mind. A little further on he says that the embalmers were great friends of the priests, and as this was certainly the case, the man who performed the operation probably merely fulfilled a reli- gious obligation in fleeing away, and had very little to fear. In some particulars Diodorus appears to have been mis- State- informed, and in any case the knowledge he possessed of Diodorus mummies could hardly have been at first hand. He lived too n°t wholly late (about B.C. 40) to know what the well-made Theban worthy, mummies were like, and his experience therefore would only have familiarized him with the Egypto-Roman mummies, in which the limbs were bandaged separately, and the contour of their faces, somewhat blunted, was to be seen through the thin and tightly drawn bandages which covered the face. A good example of a mummy made about this date is that of the lady Mut-em-Mennu, which is preserved in the British Museum, No. 6704 ; in this mummy the features of the face can be clearly distinguished underneath the bandages. A curious idea about the fate of the intestines taken from Fate of the the body obtained among certain Greek writers. Plutarch ^ '"'e^""^^- says, in two places, that when the Egyptians have taken them out of the body of the dead man, they show them to the sun as the cause of the faults which he had committed, and then throw them into the river, while the body, having been cleansed, is embalmed. Porphyry ^ gives the same account at 1 of Tov vexpov avaTefj-vovrcs eSei^av ra rjXia, eir aira fiiv els rbv irorafiov Kareffakov, tov 6e nXXou crv vfKpav rrjn Koikiav t^eXovTis Kui jrpos tov ip^iov dvairxlCovTes eK^aXKovaiV, mr aWiav aitavrav av 6 dvdptonos fjiiapTev. Plutarch, De Carnium Esu, Oratio Posterior, ed. Didot, p. 1219. " 'Ekeii/o iievToi oil TrapaiTeji.i!Teov, on Tovs mrodavovras rav ev yeyovdrau orav rapixfvuxTiv, 1819 Tr/v KoiXiav e^ekovTes Koi els Ki^arov ivBevres /ifra Tau aWav, av SianpaTTOVTOi vvep tov veKpov, Kal T^v Ki^arhv KparovvTes npos tow ij\tov [iapTvpovTai, fvor tS>v vnep tov vcKpov itoiovfiivov \6yov rav Tapixevrav. 1 82 FUNEREAL ARCtLEOLOGY OF EGYPT. greater length, and adds that the intestines were placed in a box ; he also gives the formula which the embalmers used when showing the intestines to the sun, and says that it was translated by Ekphantos into Greek out of his own language, which was presumably Egyptian. The address to the sun and the other gods who are supposed to bestow life upon man, the petition to them to grant an abode to the deceased with the everlasting gods, and the confession by the deceased that he had worshipped, with reverence, the gods of his fathers from his youth up, that he had honoured his parents, that he had neither killed nor injured any man, all these have a sound about them of having been written by some one who had a knowledge of the "Negative Confession" in the 125th chapter of the Book of the Dead. On the other hand it is difficult to imagine any Greek acquainted with the manners and customs of the Egyptians making the statement that they threw the intestines into the river, for when they were not placed in jars separate from the body, they were mummified and placed between the legs or arms, and bandaged up with the body, and the future welfare of the body in the nether-world depended entirely upon its having every member complete. General An examination of Egyptian mummies will show that the of state- accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus are generally ments of correct, for mummies both with and without ventral incisions and are found, and some are preserved by means of balsams and Diodorus. gums, and others by bitumen and natrum. The skulls of mummies which exist by hundreds in caves and pits at E(7Tt fie Koi 6 Xoyoff, ov jjpfi^v€V(r€V "EKCpavTos ^ €K r^ff TTarptov diaXeKTOv^ rowxJTOS, Q deairoTa ^Atc, Kal $eo\ ixcLvTts ot rr^v ^ajju Tols avSpatnoLS 6o»^T€ff, 7rpo(r8e^aa'0e fie Kal irapaSore toIs aidiois Beois avvoiKov. 'Eyoj yap Toiis &€ovSy oDi 01 •yoj/fif poi irapeSst^av, evcre^av StereKovv oo-ov -x^povov iv Toi CKeivco alavi TOP ^Lov €i)(ov, tovs re to aaipA fiov yevvrja-avras ertfitov act ' rav re aKXcav av&ptanoiv ^ oijTe airdKreiva, ovre 7rapaKaTa6rjKr]v dTreaTiprjcra, ovre aWo oiheu dyrjKcarov Sie7rpa^dp.r]V. Et fie Ti apa Kara rov ipavTov ^lov ijp.apTop ^ tfiayatu ^ 7ri(i>v <£)V pTj OeptTov ^v, ov fit epaVThv TJpapTOfy dWa 5ta ravTa [deltas rrjv KipaTOv, iv g r) yaarfip rjv). Porphyry, De Abstinentia, lib. IV., 10, ed. Didot, P- 75- ' Wilkinson reads " Euphantos " {^Ancient Egyptians, iii. 479). 2 Wiedemann {Herodots Zweites Buck, p. 354) adds ohlkva in brackets. MUMMY. 183 Thebes contain absolutely nothing, a fact which proves that the embalmers were able not only to remove the brain, but also to take out the membranes without injuring or breaking the bridge of the nose in any way. Skulls of mummies are found, at times, to be filled with bitumen, linen rags, or resin. The bodies which have been filled with resin or some such substance, are of a greenish colour, and the skin has the ap- pearance of being tanned. Such mummies, when unrolled, perish rapidly and break easily. Usually, however, the resin and aromatic gum process is favourable , to the preservation of the teeth and hair. Bodies from which the intestines have been removed and which have been preserved by being filled with bitumen are quite black and hard. The features are preserved intact, but the body is heavy and unfair to look upon. The bitumen penetrates the bones so completely that Bodiespre- it is sometimes difficult to distinguish which is bone and tritumen,^ which is bitumen. The arms, legs, hands, and feet of such natron, and aro- mummies break with a sound like the cracking of chemical matic sub- glass tubing ; they burn very freely, and give out great heat. ='^n<=^*- Speaking generally they will last for ever. When a body has been preserved by natron, that is, a mixture of carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, the skin is found to be hard, and to hang loosely from the bones in much the same way as it hangs from the skeletons of the dead monks preserved in the crypt beneath the Capuchin convent at Floriana, in Malta. The hair of such mummies usually falls off when touched. The Egyptians also preserved their dead in honey. 'Abd Bodies el-Latif relates that an Egyptian worthy of belief told him fn honey, that once when he and several others were occupied in exploring the graves and seeking for treasure near the Pyramids, they came across a sealed jar, and having opened it and found that it contained honey, they began to eat it. Some one in the party remarked that a hair in the honey turned round one of the fingers of the man who was dipping his bread in it, and as they drew it out the body of a small child appeared with all its limbs complete and in a good state of preservation ; it was well dressed, and had upon it numerous ornaments.* The body of Alexander the Great » 'Abd el-La tit, tr. 0e Sacy, p. 199 1 84 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Bodies preserved by bitumen and salt only. Oldest mummy in the world. Character- istics of mummies of different periods, was also preserved in " white honey which had not been melted." ' The bodies of the poor were preserved by two very cheap methods ; one method consisted of soaking in salt and hot bitumen, and the other in salt only. In the first process every cavity was filled with bitumen, and the hair disappeared ; clearly it is to the bodies which were preserved in this way that the name " mummy '' or bitumen was first applied. The salted and dried body is easily distinguishable. The skin is like paper, the features and hair have disappeared, and the bones are very white and brittle. The oldest mummy in the world about the date of which there is no doubt, is that of Seker-em-sa-f, ^ son of Pepi I. and elder brother of Pepi II., B.C. 3200, which was found at Sakkarah in 1881, and which is now at Gizeh. The lower jaw is wanting, and one of the legs has been dislocated in transport ; the features are well preserved, and on the right side of the head is the lock of hair emblematic of youth. An examination of the body shows that Seker-em-sa-f died very young. A number of bandages found in the chamber of his pyramid at Sakkarah are similar to those in use at a later date, and the mummy proves that the art of embalming had arrived at a very high pitch of perfection already in the Ancient Empire. The fragments of a body which were found by Colonel Howard Vyse in the pyramid of Mycerinus at Gizeh, are thought by some to belong to a much later period than that of this king ; there appears to be, howayer, no evidence for this belief, and as they belong to a man, and not to a woman, as Vyse thought, they may quite easily be the remains of the mummy of Mycerinus. The skeletons found in sarcophagi belonging to the first six dynasties fall to dust when air is admitted to them, and they emit a slight smell of bitumen. Mummies of the Xlth dynasty are usually very poorly made ; they are yellowish in colour, brittle to the touch, and fall to pieces very easily. The limbs are rarely bandaged separately, and the body having been wrapped carelessly in a ' Budge, History of Alexander the Great, p. 141. ' Maspero, Guide du Visiteur an Musie de Boulaq, 1883, p. 347. MUMMY. 185 number of folded cloths, is covered over lengthwise by one Character- large linen sheet. On the little finger of the left hand a mu^mL scarab is usually found; but besides this there is neither of different amulet nor ornament. The coffins in which mummies of this ''^"° ^' period are found are often filled with baskets, tools, mirrors, bows and arrows, etc., etc. Mummies of the Xllth dynasty are black, and the skin is dry ; bandages are not common, and in the cases where they exist they are very loosely put on. Scarabs, amulets, and figures of gods are found with mummies of this epoch. From the Xlllth to the XVIIth dynasties mummies are very badly made and perish rapidly. From the XVIIIth to the XX 1st dynasties the mummies of Memphis are black, and so dry that they fall to pieces at the slightest touch ; the cavity of the breast is filled with amulets of all kinds, and the green stone scarab inscribed with the XXXth chapter of the Book of the Dead was placed over the heart. At Thebes, during this period, the mummies are yellow in colour and slightly polished, the nails of the hands and feet retain their places, and are stained with henna. The limbs bend in all directions without breaking, and the art of careful and dainty bandaging has attained its greatest perfec- tion. The left hand wears rings and scarabs, and papyri inscribed with chapters of the Book of the Dead are found in the coffins, either by the side of the mummy, or beneath it. After the XXIst dynasty the custom arose of placing the mummy in a cartonnage, sewn or laced up the back, and painted in brilliant colours with scenes of the deceased ador- ing the gods and the like. In the period between the XXVIth dynasty and the conquest of Egypt by Alexander, the decoration of mummies reached its highest point, and the ornamentation of the car- tonnage shows the influence of the art of Greece upon that of Egypt. The head of the mummy is put into a mask, gilded or painted in bright colours, the cartonnage fits the body very closely, and the feet are protected by a sheath. A large number of figures of the gods and of amulets are found on the mummy itself, and many things which formed its private pro- perty when alive were buried with it. Towards the time of 1 86 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Character- istics of mummies of different periods. Gneco- Roman mummies. the Ptolemies, mummies become black and heavy ; bandages and body are made by the bitumen into one solid mass, which can only be properly examined by the aid of a hatchet. Such mummies are often wrapped in coverings inscribed with scenes and texts, copied, without any knowledge of their meaning, by an artist who altered them to suit his own fancy or purpose. About B.C. ICO mummies were very carefully bandaged ; each limb was treated separately, and retained its natural shape after bandaging, and the features of the face, somewhat blunted, are to be distinguished beneath the bandages. About A.D. 50 the desire on the part of relatives and friends to see the face of the deceased resulted in the inser- tion of a piece of wood, painted with his portrait, over the face of the dead man. The mummies, from this time on to the fourth century, are of little interest, for they become mere bundles ; scenes were painted, athwart and along the bodies, in which the deceased is represented adoring ill-shaped Egyptian deities ; but little by little the hieroglyphic inscrip- tions disappear, and finally those in Greek take their place. A remarkable example of a very late Grseco-Roman mummy, probably of the fourth century A.D., is British Museum No. 21,810. The body is enveloped in a number of wrappings, and the whole is covered with a thin layer of plaster painted a pinkish-red colour. Over the face is in- serted a portrait of the deceased, with a golden laurel crown on his head ; on the breast, in gold, is a collar, each side of which terminates in the head of a hawk. The scenes painted in gold on the body are : i. Anubis, Isis, and ISTephthys at the bier of the deceased. 2. Thoth, Horus, ursei, etc., referring probably to the scene of the weighing of the heart. 3. The soul revisiting the body, which is attempting to rise up from a bier, beneath which are two jars ; beneath this scene is a winged disk. Above these scenes in a band is inscribed, in Greek, "O Artemidorus, farewell." APTEMIAIjOPH, CYS'YXI ; and above the band is a vase ^ , on each side of which is a figure of Maat A . Mummies of children of this period have the hair curled and gilded, and hold bunches of flowers in their hands, which are crossed over their breasts. Mummy of Artemidorus. To face p. i86. MUMMY. 187 In the early centuries of our era, mummies of wealthy people Descrip- were wrapped in royal cloth made wholly of silk.^ When [Xnmies Pisentios, Bishop of Coptos, and his disciple John took up ^Y Pisen- their abode in a tomb in the " mountain of Tchemi " (niTtOOT n (ThjlJlI = t:S:g ^^ "^N. ™ the necropolis of Thebes) they found it filled with a number of mummies, the names of which were written on a parchment roll which lay close by them. The two monks took the mummies and piled them up one upon the other ; the outer coffins were very large, and the coffins in which the bodies were laid were much decorated. The first mummy near the door was of great size, and his fingers and his toes were bandaged separately (neqTHfi. ft XIX rteJUL neq(ri.Xpofiai irapa tov SuiTWoe a^Saprov avTO. — See Life of Antony by Athanasius. (Migne, Pairologiae, Ser. Grasc. lorn. 26, col. 972.) ^ De Bysso Anti quorum, London, 1776, pp. 70, 71. 3 Hirodote, Paris, 1802, p. 357. •• Beitrdge, Gottingen, 181 1, pt. 2, p. 73, igo FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Jomard thought that both cotton and linen were used for bandages of mummies ; ^ Granville, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1825, p. 274, also embraced this view. The question was finally settled by Mr. Thomson, who after a twelve years' study of the subject proved in the Philosophical Magazine (Ilird Series, Vol. V., No. 29, Nov., 1834) that the Mummy bandages were universally made of linen. He obtained for made of his researches about four hundred specimens of mummy imen. cloth, and employed Mr. Bauer of Kew to examine them with his microscopes. " The ultimate fibre of cotton is a transparent tube without joints, flattened so that its inward surfaces are in contact along its axis, and also twisted spirally round its axis : that of flax is a transparent tube jointed like a cane, and not flattened nor spirally twisted." ^ The coarse linen of the Egyptians was made of thick flax, and was used for making towels, awnings and sail-cloth ; ^ the fine linen, 'OOovrj, is thought by some to be the equivalent of the D^I^^P ptD« of Proverbs vii. 16. The Greek ^ivhmv = Heb. p19j was used to denote any linen cloth, and some- times cotton cloth ; but the a-ivS6vo<; ^vcraLvr]<; with which mummies, according to Herodotus (H. 86), were bandaged, is certainly linen. The Egyptian word usually translated by " byssus " is ^^ ^ g shens, Coptic cgeitc ; ordinary words for linen are ^^ '^ mak, '^^^^^ % M 5 metmui, Y 5 ^u, Coptic rtA.T = oOovLiov ^vcra-ivcDv (Rosetta Stone, 1. 17). One piece of very fine texture of linen obtained at Thebes had 152 threads in the warp, and 71 in the woof, to each inch, and a second piece described by Wilkinson {Ancient Egyptians, HI. 165) had 540 threads in the warp, and no in the woof.* One of the cities in Egypt most ' Description de PEgypte ; Mimoires sur les Hyfoghs, p. 35. ^ See Yates, Textrinum Antiquorum ; London, 1843, p. 262, where the whole subject is carefully discussed. ' Comp. iDll'll^n rrap-l^l tjjfij, Ezekiel, xxvii. 7. ■• See also an interesting letter by De Fleury to M. Deveri.T on " Les Etoffes Egyptiennes "in Rev. Arch., t. XXI, Paris, 1870, pp. 217-221. MUMMY CLOTH. IQI famous for its linen industry was D ^ © Apu, the Pane- Panopolis 1 -H the great polis of the Greeks,^ the ^jULijm. or cyjULirt of the Copts, centre of and Akhmim ^ of the Arabs ; but as Egypt exported great ^"^vers. quantities of this material, and also used immense quantities for bandages of mummies, it is probable that other cities also possessed large linen manufactories.' The length and breadth of mummy bandages vary from Mummy about 3 feet by 2^ inches, to 13 feet by 4J inches ; some are made with fringe at both ends, like a scarf, and some have carefully made selvedges. Large linen sheets several feet square are also found in tombs. The saffron coloured pieces of linen with which mummies are finally covered measure about 8 feet by 4 feet. Usually two or three different kinds of linen cloth are used in bandaging mummies. Mummy cloths are with very few exceptions quite plain, and it is only in the Greek times that the fine outer linen covering is decorated with figures of gods, etc., in gaudy colours. Several square pieces of linen in the Museums of Europe are ornamented with blue stripes, and it is pretty certain that the threads which form them were dyed with indigo before they were woven into the piece. As far back as the time of Amenophis III. it was customary to inscribe texts in the hieratic and hieroglyphic characters upon mummy cloths, and at that period large vignettes accompany the chapters from the Book of the Dead ; after the XXVIth dynasty hieratic only appears to have been used for this purpose, and the bandages, which are rarely more than four inches wide, are frequently so coarse that the text is almost illegible. Badly drawn vignettes, drawn in outline, usually stand at the top of each column of writing. The marvellous skill which the Egyptians displayed in Duration making linen did not die out with the fall of the native iinen^ industry * Haviiv ir6\if , KivovpySv Kai KiBovpyiov KaroiKia vaKaia, Strabo, XVII ., 1. 42. in Egypt. - Akhmim has a. population of about 10,000 souls, and of these looo are Christians. In the map published by Yates {Textrinum Anliqnorum, p. 250) to show the divisions ot the ancient world in which sheep's- wool, goat's-hair, hemp, cotton silk, beaver's-wool, camel's-wool, camel's-hair and linen are found, the only other districts where linen was made besides Egypt are Colchis, Cinyps, and a district ne^r the mouth of the Rhine. 192 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Discovery of Chris- tian necro- polis at Panopolis. Ornaments foundupon the bodies. Age of the necropolis. sovereigns of Egypt, and the Copts, or native Christians of that country, carried on the industry with splendid success until the twelfth century of our era. Although they ceased to mummify their dead, for the hope of the resurrection of the body given by Christianity practically killed the art of embalming, they continued to dress them in garments which are remarkable for the beauty of the embroidery and tapestries with which they are decorated. A great "find" of fine examples of this work was made at Akhmlm, the ancient Panopolis, in 1884. The graves at Akhmtm are about five feet deep, and are not indicated by any mound. The bodies appear to have been buried with natron sprinkled over them, for many of their garments are covered with crystals of this substance ; and they appear also to have been buried with their best clothes on. The head was provided with a band or cap, and was sometimes supported on a pillow. The body wore a tunic, and the feet had stockings, sandals or shoes upon them ; the head, breast, arms, and fingers were decorated with ornaments. The condition in life of the deceased was indicated by inscriptions on rectangular wooden tesserae (see p. 188), or by his tools, which were buried with him. The body was entirely covered over with linen and laid upon a board, and thus dressed was then deposited in the earth. The chief ornaments found in the tombs at Akhmim are: hair-pins and combs made of wood or bone; earrings of several shapes and forms made of glass ; silver and bronze filigree work, gold with little gold balls, and iron with pendent agates ; necklaces made of amber, coloured glass, and blue and green glazed faience beads ; torques, or neck-rings, made of bronze ; bracelets, open and closed, made of bronze, iron, glass and horn ; finger-rings of bronze ; and bronze belt buckles made in the form of a Christian cross. A large number of ivory crosses are also found ; the cross which is found so often on these objects was not used merely as an ornament, but as a special symbol and emblem of Christianity.^ The most ancient and the greater number of the tombs which 1 I owe these details to Forrer, Die Graber und Textilfunde von Achmim — Panopolis. Strassburg, 1891, pp. 12, 13. This book contains 16 plates on which are photographed, in colours, 250 pictures of the textile fabrics and the other most interesting objects found at Akhmim, MUMMY CLOTH. 1 93 contained these belong to the second or third century after Christ, and the most recent to the eighth or ninth century;^ they are taken from bodies of Christians and heathen which were buried with or without coffins, or in private or common burial places. The Museum of Gobelins possesses a piece of cloth, the threads of the woof of which are made of pure silk, and this is said by M. Gerspach,^ the Director of the National Manufactory at Gobelins, to belong to a period subsequent to the eighth century, because silk does not appear in Egyptian tapestries until that century. It may then be considered that the Coptic linen work found at Akhmim covers a period of eight centuries, viz., ii-ix. M. Gerspach adds, " II est fort probable que les Coptes ont continue, pendant plusieurs siecles encore, une fabrication dans laquelle ils excellaient ; ils ont vraisemblablement travaill6 k ces milliers de pifeces representant les grands hommes de I'lslam, montrant des villes, des paysages et des animaux que poss^dait le calif Mostansser-Billah et qui furent brulees au Caire en 1062 avec les immenses richesses accumulees dans le D6p6t des ^ten- dards " (p. 2). Of the character, style, design, and antiquity Gerspach of Coptic linen work he says, " Le style est plus ou moins pur, i;nen°work mais il denote constammentunegrande libertd decomposition andde- - -1 •• 1 1.1-/ A signs. et de facture ; il est exempt de mmuties et de subtilites, meme lorsque nous ne comprenons pas tr^s bien la pensde de I'artiste. Quand il ne se rattache pas a la decoration romaine ou a I'art oriental, il est original, il a un caractere propre, une saveur particuliere, qu'il soit fin comme nos dentelles ou ^pais et obtus comme les ornements des races infifrieures ; il constitue alors, dans une manifestation intime et populaire, un genre special qu'on nommera peut-etre bientdt le style copte. A premiere vue, en effet, on retrouve I'antiquitd dans les pieces les plus simples, qui sont aussi les plus anciennes ; en gdndral, ces morceaux sont d'une seule couleur pourpre ou brune, avec ' According to Forrer (p. 26), the foundation of the cemetery at Akhmim may be dated in the first or second century after Christ, and the decay of the art of the best kind is to be sought at the end of the seventh or in the course of the eighth century after Christ. ^ Les Tapisseries Coptes, Paris, 1890, p. 2. This most interesting work contains 153 reproductions in one or more colours of the most important designs found on Akhmim linen. B. M. O 194 FUNERKAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. des filets clairs en lin ^cru. Le dessin est sommaire, net, sobre, bien combing, harmonieux, d'une grande franchise plastique, dans le style qu'adoptera ultdrieurement I'art heraldique ; naturellement, dans la figure il est plus faible que dans rornement, car le tapissier, avec sa broche, ne trace pas aussi facilement que le cdramiste avec son pinceau ; nous devons excuser les tapissiers Coptes, leurs successeurs de tous les temps et de tous les pays ayant comme eux fait plus ou moins de fautes de dessin Les tapisseries polychromes^ sont g^n^ralement posterieures a cette premiere s6rie, mais il importe de faire remarquer que certains modeles primitifs n'ont pas et^ abandonn^s et qu'on les retrouve dans les tissus raodernes du bas Danube et de I'Orient Jusqu'ici ^ le dessin est clair et lisible ; maintenant nous arrivons a une suite inf^rieure ; les lignes se compliquent et les formes deviennent 6paisses ; Tornement est encore dans un bon esprit, mais les figures sont faibles Avec les si^cles suivants, nous tombons dans une decadence relative, moins profonde que celle de la mosaique au IX" siecle ; le corps humain est contourn6, strapass6 ; les t^tes sont bestiales ; les animaux sont difformes et fantastiques, pourvus de sortes de tentacules ; ils se transforment en ornements ; la flore n'est m^me plus ornemanis^e ni conventionelle ; certains motifs sont incompr^hensibles ; I'ornement, mieux tenu, prdsente toujours des combinaisons int^ressantes ; . . . . meme dans leurs fautes, les Coptes cotitinuent a prouver qu'ils sont decorateurs."- Canopic Jars or Vases. " Canopic jars " is the name given to the series of four jars in which the principal intestines of a deceased person were placed. They were thus named by the early Egyptolo- gists, who believed that in them they saw some confirmation of the legend handed down by some ancient writers that Canopus, the pilot of Henelatis, who is said to have been buried at Canopus, in Egypt, was worshipped there under the form^of a jar'with small feet, a thin neck, a swollen body, and ' Of the fourth century. ^ Fifth century. CANOPIC JARS. 19s a round back. Each jar was dedicated to one of the four genii of the underworld, who represented the cardinal points, and each jar was provided with a cover which was made in the shape of the head of the deity to whom it was dedicated. The names and characteristic heads 9f each are: — i. Mestha g^^^^lY or Amset |^P](|5|J^P'=^^> man-headed. 2. Hapi ^he dead. Ad(](J^, dog-headed. 3. Tuamautef^'^ "^ ^ jackal- headed. 4. J J ^ |y i^^ in 2?.=^ ^ Qebhsennuf, hawltheaded. Mestha represented the south, Hapi the north, Tuamautef the east, and Qebhsennuf the west. -These four gods are, in some texts, said to be the children of Horus, and in others the children of Osiris. Each jar' was hollowed out and re- ceived one of the larger intestines after it had been steeped in bitumen and wrapped up in bandages ; the covers of the jars were then fastened on by plaster. Mr. Pettigrew examined the contents of one set of vases, and if was found that _the vase dedicated to Mestha contained the stomach" and large intestines ; that dedicated to Hapi, the small intestines ; that dedicated to Tuamautef, the lungs and heart ; and that dedi- cated to Qebhsennuf, the liver and gall-bladder. Canopic jars -^ge of first appear about the XVIIIth dynasty, and they continue in jars. ' use until the XXVI th dynasty, after which time the Egyptians appear to have been somewhat careless about them, and either to have preferred to bury the intestines inside the body or to have forgotten the significance of their use. In the XVIIIth dynasty they are made of the most beautiful alabaster and arragonite, and fine calcareous stone ; in the XXVIth dynasty they are still made of these substances, but green and blue glazed faience and wood also appear. Later they are made of terra-cotta, and the covers are all made in the same shape ; sometimes they have the shape of a vessel of the same dia- meter at the bottom as at the top, the gods being traced upon them, in outline,- on the outside surface. Frequently the jars are made of wood, painted with bright colours, and sometimes solid wooden models only are found in the tombs, a fact which shows sometimes the poverty of the deceased, and some- times probably the dishonesty of the funeral furnisher. When • the intestines were not buriedjn jars they were returned to the O 2 rgS FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. body, and figures of Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf made of wax, sheet silver, gold or porcelain, were laid upon the parts which these gods were supposed to protect. On the alabaster and stone jars the inscriptions were incised, and on wood' and faience they were painted or traced in out- line in ink. In papyri of the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, the vignettes of the 17th chapter of the Book of the Dead show that Canopic jars werg placed in a sepulchral chest, upon the sides of which were painted figures of the four gods, in the form of men, but each having its characteristic " Canopic " Jar. CANOPIC JARS. 197 head. Out of the cover there rises the sun with the head and arms of a man, and in each hand he holds -f- dnch, " life." {Papyrus of Ani, pi. 8.) On papyri and coffins of a later period the jars ar-e shown arranged in a row under the bier. In the IS 1st chapter of the Book of the Dead the four gods are shown standing in the mummy chamber, one at each corner ; the inscriptions which refer to them read : — I. met' an Says ^ I i a 'Wt^'zm Meste Mesthai nuk MesSa " / am Mestha son thy, O Osiris. i^ Ausar Speech of Mestha. un a em sau serut Come have I thai may be I itt protection thy. Make to flourish I ca r*"^^ \\ ,D tw pa - k men sep sen utu en Ptah, ma utu en house thy, firm, firm, hath commanded Ptah, as commanded Ra t'esef Ra himself." "•ll \ A met' /an Hapi Says Hapi, nuk Hapi " / am Hapi ^^ se k Ausar Speech of son thy, O Osiris. ' w 1 A i na un - a em sau k Come have I that may be I in protection thy. Tie up [/] for thee I III sau ees k 1 m^ III c^ K o Speech of Neith. met' an Net setua a Ayj- Neith, "Make pass the morning I, ^ o .^ maket semaser a hru neb her ari maket en make pass the night I of day every in making the protection of ^'^-"^SS Tuamautef enti Tuamdutef which is flki i -- am a sa Ausar in me. The protection of Osiris D Tuamautef Speech of Serqet. Ausar pu [is\ the protection of Tuamdutef, [for] Osiris [i.s\ IV. Qebhsennuf. \% \ 1 met' an Serqet Says Tuamautef Tuamdutef." u p^- seqetet sa a hru neb ari maket en "protection my day every in making protection of SI Qebh-sennu-f Qebh-sennuf CHESTS FOR CANOriC JARS. 20I entet am a sa Ausar sa which is in me. The protection of Osiris \is'\ the protection of Qebh-sennnu-f Ausar pu Qebh-sennu-f Qebh-sennuf [for] Osiris [is] Qedh-sennuf." Frequently the first parts of these inscriptions read, ^^^'^^^ M ^\, nI 9^^^^ ^'^ aduz her enti ^ ^ y? •^ „ c> ^ /www f^ ra K^ readings. dm-d. " I embrace with my two arms that which is in me ;" the variants for H ( | being 1 (j se^en and N ^ «^^/ frequently also they only contain the names and titles of the deceased preceded by the words ^ [1(1 dm-xi %£^ " watchfully devoted to," which are followed by the names of the four gods. Often the same formula is repeated on all four jars. Chests for Canopic Jars. fi=S\ __The_chests, or coffers, which held Canopic jars were made of wood, and were usually painted black ; they were fitted on "aTKind of sledge with two runners, the ends of which were roilhded. They are about two feet square. On one end-are- traced in outline figures of Neith and $erqet, and on the other Isis and Nephthys ; on the one side are Mestha and Hapi, and on the other Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf By the side of each god is inscribed the formula which is given in the 151st chapter of the Book of the Dead, and by the side of each goddess is inscribed the formula which is , found on Canopic vases. (Excellent examples of chests on sledges are Nos. 8543 «, and 8543 3, 3rd Egyptian Room, British Museum.) The inside of the chest is divided into four equal spaces by wooden partitions, and in each stood a jar. The use of such chests is certainly as old as the Xllth dynasty. 202 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The Book of the Dead. The Book of the Dead not a 'Ritual.' Early printed copies of the Book of the Dead. The collection of chapters, or distinct compositions, which the ancient Egyptians inscribed upon pyramids, walls of tombs, sarcophagi, coffins and papyri, amulets and other objects which were buried in the tombs with the dead was called " Rituel Funiraire " by Champollion, and this mislead- ing name was adopted by De Roug6, who, in his Etudes sur le Rituel Fun^raire des Anciens Egyptiens,^ brought forward reasons for so doing, and considered that all he had said "justifie suffisamment, suivant nous, le titre choisi par Cham- pollion." Champollion's grammar shows that he had studied every part of the so-called Ritual, and the many short passages which he translated prove that he recognized the nature of its contents, and rightly appreciated its great value from a religious point of view ; it is quite clear, however, that he never completely analysed a single chapter of it, and that he never translated any passage from it of considerable length. Had this remarkable man lived to examine the work further he would have seen that it was not a " Ritual." ^ This collection of chapters was entitled " Todtenbuch " by Lepsius, in 1842, and by the name " BoOK OF THE Dead" it is now most generally known. The earliest publications of parts or whole copies of the Book of the Dead were made by Cadet (J. Marc), Copie figurie d'un rouleau de Papyrus, trouve a Thebes, dans un tombeau des Rois, Strassburg, 1805 ; Fontana, Copie figure'e d'un rouleau de papyrus trouv^ en Egypte, publiee par Fontana et expliquie par Joseph de Hammer, Vienna, 1822 ; Sen- 1 In Rervue Archiologique, N.S., torn. i. i860, pp. 69-100, 234-249, 337-365. 2 Dieser Codex ist kein Ritualbuch, wofur es Champollion's Bezeichnung " Rituel Funeraire" zu erklaren scheint ; es enthalt keine Vorschriften fur den Todtenkultus, keine Hymnen oder Gehete, welche von den Priestern etwa bei der Beerdigung gesprochen worden waren : sondern der Verstorbene ist selbst die handelnde Person darin, und der Text betrifft nur ihn und seine Begegnisse au£ der langen Wanderung nach dem irdischen Tode. Es wird entweder erzahlt und beschrieben, wohin er kommt, was er thut, was er hort und sieht, oder es sind die Gebete und Anreden, die er selbst zu den verschiedenen Gbttem, zu welchen er gelangt, spricht. Lepsius, Vorwort ( Todtenbuch), p. 3. THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. 203 kowski, Exemplum Papyri Aegyptiacce quam in peregrinatione sua repertain Universitati Cracoviensi dono dedit, Petropoli, 1826;^ Yo\xr\g,Hieroglyphics,\^ox\.Aor\, 1823, fol, plates I.-VI. ; Hawkins, Papyri in the Hieroglyphic and Hieratic character from the Collection of the Earl of Behnore, London, 1843, fol., plates 1-8 ; and Rosellini, iJr^w^ notizia intorno unframmento di Papiro funebre egizio essistente nel ducale museo di Parma ; Parma, 1839, 8vo ; Description de I'Egypte, ed. Jomard, Anti- quit^s, torn. ii. The most important publication, however, was that of Lepsius in 1842, who under the title of Das Lepsius Todtenbuch der Aegypter, reproduced the complete text of the Turin a papyrus at Turin, which contained 165 chapters. The Papyrus, custom of inscribing chapters of Books of the Dead upon the walls of the sarcophagus chambers of tombs is as old as the Vth dynasty, but at that epoch large, well-spaced hiero- glyphics, arranged between lines, occupy the walls conjointly with architectural decorations ; ^ towards the Vlth dynasty the space allotted for decorative purposes becomes narrower, the hieroglyphics are smaller, and the inscriptions overflow into the passages and chambers, the walls of which, in earlier times, were left blank. The pyramids of the Vth and Vlth dynasties which have inscriptions on their inner walls are those of Unas, Teta, Pepi I., Pepi II., and Seker-em-sa-f ; this set of inscriptions is usually called the " Pyramid Texts, " The Pyra- and they have been published with a French translation by ™' Maspero in Recueil de Travaux : Unas, tom. iii., pp. 177-224, and tom. iv., pp. 41-78 ; Teta, tom. v., pp. 1-60; Pepi I., tom. v., pp. 157-199, torn, vii., pp. 145-176, tom. viii., pp. 87-119; Pepi XL, tom. ix., pp. 177-190, tom. x., pp. 1-28, tom. xi., pp. 1-30, tom. xii., pp. 53-95. 136-195- During the Xlth dynasty the custom of writing chapters of the Books of the Dead upon wooden coffins or sarcophagi became common ; examples of the texts of this period, written upon coffins in the hieratic character, have been Texts in- scribed up- on coffins. ' This book was published at the expense of the Academy of St. Petersburg, and. never came into the market. ^ Maspero, La Religion Egyptienne, d'afrh les Pyramides de la V et de la VI' Dynastie (in Revue de rHistoire des Religions, Paris, 1885, p. 124). 204 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Texts writ- ten upon papyri. Vignettes and orna- mentation of papyri. published by Lepsius ^ and Birch.^ At this period Books of the Dead were also written upon papyrus.' After the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt by the kings of Thebes, copies of the Book of the Dead were usually written upon papyri, and these papyri are of various lengths and widths. The roll of papyrus was often placed in a rec- tangular niche in the wall of the tombs, or in the coffin by the side of the mummy ; sometimes it was placed between the legs, and sometimes it was fastened under the bandages. The length and style of execution of the work depended entirely upon the fancy of the relatives of the dead man. Books of the Dead, illuminated and plain, formed part of the stock in trade of the Egyptian undertaker. If the purchaser were rich he would probably select the best copy he could buy ; if poor he would be content with a simple undecorated text. In these " stock " copies blank spaces were left to receive the names of the deceased for whom they were purchased. Copies are extant in which, through omission or neglect, no name whatever has been inserted. The numerous badly-written and incorrect copies which are so common in the museums of Europe are probably the result of cheap work ; careless work, however, exists in the most beautiful papyri, and some of the finest known contain blunders which show not only that the scribe was careless, but also that he did not understand what he was writing. Books of the Dead are written in the hieroglyphic and hieratic characters, and are ornamented with pictures of the gods, sacred animals and birds, mythological scenes, re- presentations of the funeral procession, etc., etc., painted, at times, in as many as thirteen colours. The titles of the chapters, catch-words, and certain passages are written in red, and the text in black. Hieroglyphic texts are usually written in perpendicular lines, and those in hieratic in horizontal lines. The vignettes and scenes were probably executed by one class of men, and the text by another, and it seems some- times as if the relatives of the dead spent nearly all the * Aelteste Texte des Todtenlmchs, Berlin, 1867, 4to. ^ The Coffin of Amanm, London, 1886, fol. " For the fragments found with the mummy of An-Antef, see B.M. First Egyptian Room, Case D. THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. 20$ money which they could afford to spend upon a copy of the Book of the Dead on the artists' work for pictures, while they left the execution of the text to an inferior scribe. Although many of the faulty readings which occur in the Book of the Dead are to be attributed to the carelessness of the scribe, it is quite certain that a very large number were the result of his ignorance, and that, at times, he did not know which was the beginning or end of the text which he was about to copy. In proof of this M. Naville^ has reproduced from a papyrus the 77th chapter copied from the wrong end, and on the opposite page he gives the restored text in the right order. An examination of papyri shows that frequently more than one artist and scribe were employed in making a single copy of the Book of the Dead ; but it is also evident that in some instances both the vignettes and the text were the work of one man. According to M. Naville the Book of the Dead is known to us in four recensions : — 1. That of the Old and Middle Empires, which is usually The recen- written in hieroglyphics. B°ok°of ""^ 2. The Theban recension, which was much used from "^^ Dead. the XVIIIth-XXth dynasty, also written in hieroglyphics. 3. The redaction closely resembling that of Thebes which obtained after the XXth dynasty, and which was written in hieratic ; in it the chapters have no fixed order. 4. A text of the Sa'i'te and Ptolemaic periods written both in hieroglyphic and hieratic characters ; this text shows that the Book of the Dead at this epoch had undergone a thorough revision, and in it the chapters have a fixed order. The texts of the earliest recension are, for the most part, written in hieroglyphics upon tombs and sarcophagi, but texts written upon papyrus in hieroglyphic and hieratic characters took their place, probably because they cost less money, and ' In his Einleihmg, pp. 42, 43. 2o6 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. because the relatives of the deceased could make them as long or as short as they pleased. It is probable that Books of the Dead were not written in hieratic during the XVIIIth dynasty. Acorn- In September, 1874, at a special meeting of the second plete edi- International Congress of Orientalists, a resolution was passed Book of to the effect that for the furtherance of Egyptian studies an the Dead edition of the Book of the Dead, or the "Bible of the Old contem- . 1 1 j t plated. Egyptians," as critical and complete as possible, should be steadily kept in view. It was further resolved that such an edition should contain the text of the Book of the Dead in three forms : — i. Under the Old Empire ; 2. Under the Theban dynasties of the New Empire ; 3. Under the Psammetici (XXVIth dynasty).^ A Committee was formed which was composed of Messrs. Birch, Lepsius, Chabas and Naville, and M. Naville M. Naville undertook the labour of this work. At the instance undertakes Qf Lepsius the Berlin Academy voted a sum of 3,000 to make ^ _ _ ■' theedition. marks for preliminary expenses, and the Prussian Govern- ment voted 4,800 thalers for its publication. When M. Naville began to collect materials for his edition, he found that the texts of the Old Empire were so few while those of the XXVIth dynasty were so many, and had so few actual variants in them, that he abandoned the idea of making an edition of the texts of the first and third recensions, and at the Fourth International Congress of Orientalists held at Florence, in September, 1878, he asked the Committee to Change allow him to alter the original plan, and he stated his inten- of plan. ^Jqj^ q^ confining himself to collecting carefully all the neces- sary texts for a critical edition of the Theban recension of the Book of the Dead. He believed that in order to obtain a correct text of this recension, accurate copies of carefully written papyri must be published, from which, by comparison, the text may be emended. In 1886 M. Naville gave to the world the two volumes which contained the results of his twelve years' labour, under the title of Das Aegyptische Tod- tenbuch der X VIII. bis XX. Dynastie, Berlin,^ fol. The first ' Transactions of the Second Session of the International Congress of Orien- talists, held in London, in September, 1874, London, 1876, p. 442. ^ Lepsius unfortunately died before the work was issued. Egyptologists are indebted to Dr. Dillmann of Berlin for the issue of this valuable work. THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. 207 volume contains the text ^ and vignettes which were ably drawn by Madame Naville, and the second contains the variants. In a small quarto volume published a few months later, we have four chapters in which are discussed the Theban edition of the Book of the Dead, its history, its im- portance and the manner in which it was written ; the descrip- tion of the texts used by M. Naville, remarks on each chapter of the Book of the Dead, and a list of the chapters in hiero- glyphics. The texts of the Theban recension contain many corrupt readings, but it is of the greatest importance to have the material at hand from which a critical edition may one day be made, and M. Naville has rendered invaluable service to the science of Egyptology by bringing it together.^ Among the most valuable publications of texts of the Recent Theban recension of the Book of the Dead must be mentioned, copies of Plwtographs of the Papyrus of Nebseni^ in the British Museum, texts. 1876, fol. ; Facsimile of the Papyrus of Ani (published by the Trustees of the British Museum, 1890, fol.); Papyrus Funeraire de. Nebset, ed. Pierret, 1872 ; and the papyrus of Shuti-Qenna, by Leemans, Papyrus Egyptien Funeraire Hi^roglyphique du Mus^e a Leide, 1882, Livraison 5, Part III. A useful example of a hieroglyphic text of the Book of the Dead not earlier than the XXVIth dynasty, is that which Lepsius published in 1842 from a papyrus in Turin ; the text is full of blunders and difficulties but, notwithstanding this fact, the work is a standard one for reference, and is of consi- derable value. Of hieratic texts belonging to a period subse- quent to the XXVIth dynasty, the copy published by De Roug6 is an excellent example.^ An English translation of the Book of the Dead was Transia- published by Birch in the English edition of Bunsen's Egypt's Book°of ^ Place in Universal History, NoV V, pp. 161-333, aid a French the Dead, translation by Pierret, entitled Le Livre des Marts des Anciens • M. Naville bases his text chiefly upon British Museum Papyrus 9,900, and the papyri which he calls Ca and Vb. ^ See the review of this work by Maspero in Revue de THistoire des Religiojis, Paris, 1887, pp. 263-315. 2 B.M. No. 9900. ■• Rituel Funi-raire des Anciens Egyptiens, Paris, t86i, fol. 2o8 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Antiquity of the Book of the Dead. Egyptiens, appeared in Paris, in 1882 ; both these were, how- ever, made from the text of the Turin papyrus.^ A German translation of the first fifteen chapters was pubHshed by Brugsch in Aeg. Zeitschrift, 1872, pp. 65-72, iic^-i'iiAf, and specially interesting chapters have been discussed by Birch,^ Maspero,^ Lef^bure,^ Guieysse,' Pierret,* and others. A number of " supplementary " chapters were published by Pleyte {Cha- pitres siipplementaires du Livre des Marts, 162, 162*, 164-174) with translation and commentary, at Leyden in 1881, and Schiaparelli has translated and commented upon a large por- tion of one of the Books of the Dead in // libra dei funerali degli aiitichi Egiziani? The age of the Book of the Dead is unknown, but it is certain that parts of it are as old as the beginning of Egyptian civilization, and Theban tradition in Egypt asserted that the 130th chapter was as old as Hesep-ti, 4^^ ( i— j— j^^ | the fifth king of the 1st dynasty ; the 64th chapter is variously stated to belong to the time of this king and to that of Men-kau-Ra (Mycerinus) of the IVth dynasty." The 178th chapter must also be at least as old as the time of this last king, because it is inscribed on the cover of his wooden cofiin, which is now preserved in the British Museum (ist Egyptian Room, No. 6647).' The oldest chapters appear to have been composed at Heliopolis, the great sanctuary and home of religious learning in Egypt, which was to the ' A complete list of the words in this papyrus is to be found in Lieblein, Index Alphabitique, Paris, 1875. ' The Chapter of the Pillmv, Aeg. Zeii., 1868, p. 52; the Chapter of the Heart, ibid., 1880, p. 56 ; and the Chapter of the Tie, ibid. ^ Le Chapiire de la Boucle, in Memoire sur quelques Papyrus du Louvre, Paris, 1875. * Les yeux d'Horus, Paris, 1874. ^ Rituel funiraire Egyptien, Paris, 1876. ' Etudes Egyptologiques, p. 85. ' Estratto dal Volume VIII delle Meinorie della R. Accademia dei Lincei, Torino, 1882 and 1890. 8 Naville, Einleitung, p. 31. ' I am aware that doubts have been thrown upon the age of this cover by a French writer, but it seems to me that the appearance and condition of the wood preclude any possibility of the theory that this cover was " restoied " at a later period of Egyptian history being correct. THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. 209 Egyptians what Jerusalem was to the Jews and Mecca is to the Mussulmans. The growth in the length of the chapters and the increase in their number was probably slow but sure ; and that revisions should take place from time to time is only what was to be expected. The commonest name for the Book of the Dead in Egyptian ^-^ g, *\ f~. name of Egyptian is ^^ v\ fU Y> ^ peri em hru, which is gene- the Book "^— ^ J\ jS^ <::rr> _Zr I of the rally translated by " coming forth, or going out, by day ; " Dead, this was probably only a conventional name, and may account for the difficulty which scholars have had in agreeing as to its meaning. Another name is , — , I (I M'^l^ Re eii sedqerxu, "The Chapter of making strong the beatified spirit." (Naville, Einleitung, p. 24.) The author of the Book of the Dead was said to be the god Thoth. The Book of the Dead is composed of a series of chapters,^ each one of which formed a distinct composition, which could be added to or omitted from a papyrus according to the wish of those who were causing a copy to be made.^ Cham- pollion divided the book into three parts: — chapters 1-15, 16-125, and 126 to the end ; but had this scholar lived to devote more time and attention to the subject he would have seen that these divisions^ were purely arbitrary. The Book of the Dead treats of the dead man's journey The object through Amenti, and in it he speaks to the incorporeal gods Book of and beings who reside there, uttering the formulae which will "^^ Dead, deliver him from the foes who wish to impede his progress, reciting prayers, and chanting hymns to the great gods, with all of whom these compositions were supposed to enable him 1 A Theban papyrus never contains more than ninety chapters. 2 Es ist aber auch eine unrichtige Vorstellung, dass dieses Buch ein einziges Ganzes, eine in sich abgeschlossene von Anfang bis Ende fort schreitende Beschreibung der Seelenwanderung sei, welche von einem Verfasser so und in dieser Ausdehnung herriihre. Es ist vielmehr eine Sammlung verschiedener fur sich bestehender Abschnitte, die sich auf die Zukunft der Seele beziehen, unter denen einzelne mehr oder minder wichtige Stellen einnehmen, auch im Allgemeinen nach einer gevfissen Regel, die aber nicht immer unverbriichlich ist, angeordnet sind. Lepsius. 3 This subject is discussed by Lepsius in the Vorwort (p. 5) to his edition of the Todtenluch. E. M. P 2IO FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. to prevail. It contains texts which were ordered to be in- scribed upon amulets and bandages for the benefit of the dead ; it contains a plan of the mummy chamber and the arrange- ment of certain pieces of furniture in it ; it contains the text of the confession of the deceased in the presence of the forty- two assessors, and the scene of the weighing of the heart in the judgment hall of Osiris ; it has a representation of the Elysian Fields, etc. In our limited space here it is impossible to give the briefest summary of the chapters of the Book of the Dead and their contents ; the above notes are only in- tended to indicate the best books and chief authorities on a work which is so often referred to in these pages. Pillows. Materials The pillows ^ which the Egyptians w^ere accustomed to pillows are put under the heads of mummies were made of wood (syca- made. more generally), granite, alabaster and calcareous stone. They vary from six to ten inches in height, and are often made in three pieces, viz., the curved neck-piece, the column and base. The column is usually round or square, and the base is oblong. The neck-piece is sometimes supported by two columns or pillars, fluted (B.M. No. 17,102), but it may be joined to the base by six supports (B.M. No. 2543), or even by twenty-one (B.M. No. i8,iSS). Pillows are made also in the shape of animals, e.g., B.M. No. 20,753, which is in the shape of a stag, the horns being curved downwards to form the neck-piece. Neck-pieces and columns are sometimes ornamented with ivory studs (B.M. No. 2541). The base is frequently dispensed with, and the supports are made in the form of the necks of ducks, the ends terminating in their heads and beaks. Such examples have usually the ends of the neck-piece ornamented with carvings of figures of the god Bes (B.M. No. 18,156), and sometimes with grotesque figures (apes ?) wearing plumes, and being led along by chains (B.M. No. 2256c). Such animals greatly resemble those represented on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II. The column of a Omamen- wooden piUow is ornamented in various ways, and the name of tation of ).j^g deceased is often written upon it in hieratic or hierogly- phics. One example (B.M. No. 2529a;) is inscribed with lion- Usliabti figiu-e ot Pa-mer-ahu. To face p. 211. USHABTIU FIGURES. 211 headed gods, i^ T T T ^^^, and ut'at and neferu on the front, a figure of Bes ^ on the back, and a dog-headed ape holding an eye ^^ on each side. Another example (B.M. 25 56^:) is inscribed on the top of the neck-piece with lotus flowers and an ut'at — <^ ^^ ^1—- On each end of the base are also inscribed lotus flowers, and beneath are versions of the SSth, 6ist and 62nd chapters of the Book of the Dead ; this pillow Inscribed was made for Aaua, the son of Heru, a prophet of Menthu, ^' °"^^' lord of Thebes, the son of the lady of the house Nes-Mut. „ \ ^^\ J|- The use of the pillow is very ancient, and goes Amiquity back at least as far as the Vlth dynasty ; the beautiful pillow, example in alabaster from Abydos now in the British Museum, No. 2533, made for the high official 0^0 Atena, probably belongs to this period. For the use of models of the pillow as an amulet, see the article "Amulets." Pillows similar in size and shape are in use to this day among the tribes of Nubia, and they are found among the natives in several places along the west coast of Africa ; that the ancient Egyptians borrowed them from the peoples of the south is not likely, but that the use of them by the Ethiopians, copied from the Egyptians, spread from the Sudan southwards is most probable. UsHABTiu Figures.^ Ushabtiu, -Qi TtTtT fl ^ ^ t M was the name given by the The work- I ■ ^ C£ £LL Ji I ing figures Egyptians to stone, alabaster, wood, clay, and glazed faience in the figures of the god Osiris, made in the form of a mummy, worw! which were deposited in the tombs either in wooden boxes or laid along the floor ; sometimes they are found lying in the sarcophagi and coffins. They were placed there to do certain agricultural works for the deceased, who was supposed ^ Observations on these figures by Birch have appeared in Aeg. Zeit., 1864, pp. 89-103, and 1865, pp. 4-20 ; Mariette, Catalogue des Monuments tT Abydos, pp. 46-48 ; and by Loret, Recueil de Travaux, pp. 90, 91. P 2 212 FUNEREAL ARCHyEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Descrip- tion of ushabtiu at various epochs. Ushabtiu inscrip tions. to be condemned to sow the fields, to fill the canals with water, and to carry sand from the West to the East. The ushabtiu figures of the Xlllth dynasty are made of granite, wood, and calcareous stone ; the last substance was, however, that most commonly used. The use of faience for this purpose appears not to have been known at that epoch. Generally the hands are crossed over the breast, but sometimes they are covered up in bandages. The hands do not hold any agricultural im- plements as in the later dynasties ; and the inscriptions upon them consist usually of the name and titles of the deceased, and resemble very closely those on the stelae of this period. The breasts of sepulchral figures of this period are sometimes inscribed with a scarabaeus having its wings outspread. Blue, green, brown, and red glazed faience figures appear during the XVIIIth dynasty, and continue until the XXVIth dynasty, by which time this substance has taken the place of stone, wood, or metal. In this dynasty the figures first begin to carry a hoe, mattock and basket. During the XlXth dynasty the dress of these figures changes, and they are represented as wearing the garments which the people for whom they are made wore during their lifetime. In the XXVIth dynasty these figures still hold the hoe, mattock and basket, and they stand on a square pedestal and have a rectangular upright plinth down the back. They were cast in moulds, and are easily distinguishable by their light bluish-green colour. Between the XXI Ind and XXI Vth dynasties ushabtiu figures seem not to have been placed in the tombs, and after the XXVIth dynasty they are made with less care, the inscriptions grow gradually shorter, and finally the figures become very small and bear no inscriptions whatever. Ushabtiu figures are generally inscribed with the Vlth chapter of the Book of the Dead, which appears on them in three forms ; the following, from Marietta, Catalogue des Monu- ments dAbydos, p. 48, is an example of the first form : — ^Sm^J\|j^I.flTfl°^l • U I <2:^ I ^ /I\ Tl Fname ofl [_deceased J USHABTIU FIGURES. 213 .4. 5, ^ "^ n tk '^ \jy """^ CZED Vlth The second form (Marietta, Catalogue, p. 58) reads: — _ I I Q I flkk^--A^^--p?^w^""™* I I dynasty. /NA'S^AA 7]< 1 ^^,vw ^ Here some copies add (I (I r-vm \\ The third form, which agrees with the text of the 6th chapter found in papyri of the XXVIth dynasty, reads : — a usabti apen ar aptu Ausar er O ushabtiu ^^«x t/iese, if is decreed Osiris to XXVIlh Ci Q ifli' I I 1 Ci ^111 1 _i3 IIL etc., etc., arranged in symmetrical rows, above them being figures of Osiris, Isis, Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure which held the papyrus of Anhai, a priestess of Amen, about B.C. 900. To face p. 216. SEPULCHRAL BOXES. 21/ Nephthys, and other gods of the dead. The inscriptions sometimes resemble those found on chests for Canopic jars, but frequently they contain prayers in which the deceased entreats the gods to give him gifts of cakes, bread, beer, wine, ducks, oxen, wax, oil, bandages, etc., etc. Such inscriptions are at times very brief, at others they cover the whole box. An interesting class of sepulchral boxes comes from Boxes Ahmim, the ancient Panopolis, which deserves special Akhmim. mention. The largest of them in the British Museum (No. 18,210) is 3-g- feet long and 3 feet high. Each side tapers slightly towards the top, and is in the shape of a pylon. The hollow cornice is ornamented with yellow, black, and red lines upon a white ground. Beneath it are two rows of ornaments : the first is formed by fl fl fl ^^ 089' ^"^"^ ^^^ second by (i)H (i)H repeated several times. Beneath each line is a row of five-rayed stars ■^■^^^~^. The front of the box is ornamented with "T""T"T" and uraei wearing disks JL and a winged disk "n^^. Behind is a hawk upon a pedestal, before which is an altar with offerings. On the right hand side is Thoth with both hands raised, pouring out a libation ; and on the left is a hawk-headed deity with both hands raised also pouring out a libation. On the back of the box is a hawk, with extended wings, and sceptres -fr. On the right hand side of the box is a figure of the deceased, kneeling, having his left hand raised, and above him are two cartouches I ][ ]. Behind him are three jackal-headed deities, each having his left arm raised, while his right hand is clenched and laid upon his stomach. On the left hand side of the box the deceased is represented in the same attitude, and behind him are three hawk-headed deities. These six gods form the vignettes of the 1 1 2th and 113th chapters of the Book of the Dead ; the hawk-headed were called Horus, Mestha, and Hapi, and the jackal-headed Horus, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf ; they are figured in Lanzone, Dizionario, Tav. xxvi. In two sides of the box are two pairs of rectangular openings about six inches from each end ; ^ the use of these is unknown to ffle. ' For the description of a similar box see my article in Proc. Soc. Sib. Arch., 1886, pp. 120-122. 2l8 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Loaves of bread in the shape of cones. Funereal Cones. This name is given to a large number of burnt terra-cotta conical objects which are found near tombs chiefly at Thebes, in the districts cailed 'Asasif and Kurnah ; they were used from the Xlth to the XXVIth dynasties. They vary in size, but the ordinary length is ten inches, and the diameter three inches. The face, or flat part, of the cone at its thickest end contains inscriptions in relief which record the name and titles of the person in whose tomb they were found ; the inscriptions appear to have been made by a stamp with the characters incuse. The inscribed end of the cone is variously coloured blue, red, or white. Dr. Birch thought "- that they were used for working into ornamental architecture, or to mark the sites of sepulchres ; it is more probable, however, that they are merely models of bread or cakes which were placed in the tomb A A. It is not likely that they were seals, because they have been found of a rectangular shape with several copies of the same inscription stamped upon them. Use of stelae. Stelae of the Ancient Empire. Sepulchral Stel^ or Tablets Stelae is the name given to the tablets of granite, cal- careous stone, wood, or faience, which the Egyptians used in large numbers for inscribing with decrees and historical records of the achievements of kings, biographical notices of eminent officials, priests, and private persons, hymns to Ra and other gods, and notices of any events of importance. The greater number, however, of those which have been found belong to the class called sepulchral, and are inscribed with the names and titles of deceased persons, their pedigrees, and the principal events in their lives. They were placed inside tombs, either in the corridor leading to the mummy chamber, or at the door, or at the foot or the head of the bier, or let into the wall ; sometimes they are rectangular and sometimes they are rounded at the top. The styles of stelae, the arrange- ment of the scenes upon them, and the inscriptions, vary with ' Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, iii. p. 437. SJ ^^ f M^t^^'^rf^r^oTo^-ii \^fd%^ s tAitJ mmm^m^jM^m^riAtnf^i&^^dm, ^j^/j^^ wmi^^^Bsmm'^m'm2im'MBBm Stele of Antef, son of Amen-set. To face p. 218. SEPULCHRAL STEL^ OR TABLETS. 219 the different dynasties. From the Ist-VIth dynasty' stelse are rectangular in form, and sometimes are made to resemble the outer fagade of a temple. The inscriptions are comparatively short, and merely record the names of the relatives of the deceased who are represented on the stele, and the prayers to Osiris for cakes, bread, meat, wine, oil, milk, wax, bandages, ducks, oxen, etc., which are put into the mouth of the deceased. A remarkable inscription found in a tomb^ of the Vlth dynasty is that of Una, who was born in the reign of Teta, and held service under this king ; under Pepi, the successor of Teta, he brought stone from the quarries of Ruau, and conducted an expedition against the nomad tribes to the east of Egypt, and in the reign of the following king, Mer-en-Ra, he died full of days and honour. During the Xlth dynasty the stelas have many of the characteristics of those of the Vlth dynasty, but the execution is better. A large number Stela of of the stelse of the Xllth dynasty are rounded, the inscriptions Mi^d^le and scenes are carefully executed, and are often painted with Empire, many colours ; sometimes on the same stele the figures are in relief, while the inscriptions are incised. As a rule the contents of the inscriptions are repetitions of the titles of the deceased, praises of the king, bald statements of the work he has done for him, prayers to the god for sepulchral meals, and an address to those who pass by the stele to make mention of the dead man in appropriate funereal formulae. The scenes usually represent the several members of the family of the deceased bringing to him offerings of the various things for which he prays. From the Xllth-XVIIth dynasty.biographies on stelae ^ are rare. Stelse of the Xlllth and XlVth dynasties are characterized by their uniformity of colour, when painted ; the workmanship is, however, poor, the inscriptions are badly cut, and the hieroglyphics are thin and small. The stelse of the XVIIIth dynasty are usually rounded at the top, and have * The oldest stele known is preserved at Glzeh and at Oxford, and was made for Shera, a priest of Sent, the fifth king of the Ilnd dynasty, about B.C. 4000 ; it is figured in Lepsius, Auswahl, PI. 9. ^ Compare the interesting inscription published by Schiaparelli, Una toniba egiziana inedita, liome, 1892. ' The inscription of Chnemu-hetep, one of the most valuable of this period, is inscribed on the walls of his tomb. Amasis. 220 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. very little in common with those of older dynasties. In earlier times the deceased was represented as being surrounded by his parents, brothers and sisters, wife and servants, but at this epoch the gods take their places, and he stands alone before Osiris, god and judge of the dead. In many stelae of this period the name of the god Amen has been carefully chiselled out, by order of the " heretic king," Amenophis IV. A remarkable characteristic of stelse at this time is the length Stele of and fulnessof the inscriptions upon them. In the earlier times, private matters in the life of the deceased were passed over with little or no mention ; now, however, full biographies become the rule, and the inscriptions cover not only the stelse, but the walls of the chamber in which the mummies were laid. Sometimes such biographies are almost the only authorities for the history of a period, and the inscription of Amasis is an example of this class of documents. Amasis was a naval officer who was born about the time of the final war of the Egyptians against the Hyksos, and he was present at the capture of the town of Avaris, during the reign of Amasis I., king of Egypt. He was specially honoured by this king for his prowess in battle, and he served in various campaigns undertaken by his successors, Amenophis I., and Thothmes I. The stelse of the XlXth dynasty show a great falling off both in design and execution. The figures of men and women are poor, and their limbs are made out of all proportion to the rest of their bodies. The mode of wearing their clothes, too, has changed, a large portion of the body is entirely covered by the dress, and the figures wear a heavy head-dress, which falls squarely upon the shoulders. The hieroglyphics are carelessly engraved, and lack the spirit which indicates those of the XVIIIth dynasty. During the XXth dynasty the use of stelae appears not to have been so general, and from about B.C. 1000-650 they almost disappear. The stelse which belong to this period are few and small, and the designs are generally poor imitations of stelae of an older date. The cause of this decline is not quite evident, but it may be either the result of the disquietude caused by the unsettled condition of Egypt through foreign invasions, or the consequence of some religious schism. It will be noticed SEPULCHRAL STELAE OR TABLETS. 221 that usiiabtiu figures, as well as stelse, become fewer and poorer during this same period. The stels of the XXVIth Stelae of , 1 M • 1 r , . , 'he New dynasty exhibit the features which are characteristic of the Empire, sculptures of this period. They occur in large numbers, they are larger in size, the hieroglyphics are small, but cleanly cut, and they have a beauty which is in itself sufficient to proclaim the time to which they belong. The inscriptions are copied from ancient texts, and as neither the scribe nor the sculptor understood at times what he was writing, frequent mistakes are the result. After the XXVIth dynasty stelse were made of all possible designs and forms ; the hieroglyphics are badly cut, the inscriptions are the ordinary formulae, in which the deceased prays for sepulchral meals, and it is quite clear that the placing of a stele in the tomb had become a mere matter of form with the greater number of the Egyptians. In Ptolemaic times ancient models were copied, but the inscriptions are as often in Greek or demotic, or both, as in hieroglyphics. Stelse bearing bilingual inscriptions, in hieroglyphics and Greek, or hieroglyphics and Phoenician, are also known. Subsequently it became the fashion to make the figures of the gods on stelae in high relief, and the attributes and costumes of Greek gods were applied to those of Egypt. The greater number of the wooden stelae in European museums belong to the XXVIth and subsequent dynasties. They are rounded at the top, they usually stand upon two pedestals having steps on each side, and they vary in size from 6 in. by 4 in. to 3 ft. by 20 in. The inscriptions and Ornamen- 1 ti • 1 • 1 ■ •, tation of scenes upon them are usually painted in white, green, red, stete yellow, or black, upon a light or dark brown ground. On the xxvith back are at times figures of the sun shedding rays M and dynasty. standards of the east tk and west \. The large tablets have three registers ; in the first are the winged disk - .^^-w , with pendent uraei wearing the crowns of the north and south, the jackal-headed gods Anubis and Ap-uat, emblems of " life " and " power " 1 nr |. etc. ; in the second register are the boat of the sun, in which stand a number of gods, Ra, Horus, Chepera, Maat, Anubis, etc., and the deceased, or his soul, kneeling at a table of offerings in front of the boat 222 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Inlaid stelae. in adoration of Ra ; in the third register the deceased makes adoration to a number of gods, and below this comes the inscription. The smaller, and more numerous, tablets have in the rounded part, the winged disk with pendent ursei, and the inscription c=ss ® '^d^ ^S-° Behutet neb pet "[Horus of] Behutet, lord of heaven." The scene which follows is divided into two parts : in the one the deceased stands or kneels by the side of an altar in adoration before Ra-Har- machis m , and in the other he adores Nefer-Atmu. Below the scenes are two inscriptions which read from the middle of the tablet to the sides, and contain, the one an address or prayer to Ra when he rises, the other, an address to Ra when he sets. Frequently a tablet is inscribed with the prayer to Ra-Harmachis and Nefer-Atmu for sepulchral meals. Wooden stelse were sometimes inlaid with glass figures and hieroglyphics of various colours in imitation of the scenes and inscriptions on tablets of an earlier date. A remark- able example of this class of work is B.M. 5 — 25 which, Stelae in glazed faience. according to Dr. Birch, is inscribed with the name of Darius, and represents this king making offerings to Anubis, who is seated on a throne under a winged disk and stars ; behind the god is Isis, with horns on her head, and a sceptre in her hand. That sepulchral stelae were sometimes made of glazed faience, we know from B.M. No. 6133, a fine example of a light blue colour, in which the deceased Amen-em-apt, a royal scribe, is standing in adoration before the god Osiris, who holds a flail and crook. This interesting object was probably made about B.C. looo, when the art of making glazed faYence of a fine blue or green colour was at its greatest perfection. Vases. The Vases found in Egyptian tombs are made of alabaster, diorite, granite, basalt and other kinds of hard stone, steatite, bronze, wood, terra-cotta, faience, and glass. The shapes of vases are various, but the following are the most VASES. 223 common: fl,l, ^, ^, ^, -^,0, '0,^1, Ki:^. Vases were Use of U i vases. placed in the tombs to contain the offerings of wine, oil, unguents, spices, and other offerings made to the temples, or to the dead in their tombs. Among hard stones capable of receiving a high polish, granite, diorite and alabaster were those most commonly used for making vases. Granite and diorite vases are usually without inscriptions, and were made during all periods of Egyptian history. Vases of alabaster are very much more numerous, and as this material was com- paratively easily worked, and readily lent itself to form sym- metrical and beautiful shapes, it was a great favourite with the Egyptians. They were sometimes inscribed on the front, the flat part of the rim, or the top of the cover, with inscriptions recording the names and titles of the deceased persons with whom they were buried ; thus they are valuable as giving the Value of names of kings and officials of high rank, pedigrees, etc., and as tions on showing at the same time the wonderful skill of the Egyptian ™^"- alabaster worker at a period nearly four thousand years B.C. Alabaster vases were in use from the IVth-XXVIth dynasty, and the Persian kings had their names inscribed upon them in Egyptian and cuneiform. Arragonite, or zoned alabaster, was used for large vases and liquid measures ; a beautiful example of this material is B.M. No. 4839, which has two handles and a cover, and is inscribed with its capacity nHo " eight A^w and three quarters." Vases in glazed A/.AA/VI 1 I I I I I I steatite are not common, and I believe the oldest to be B.M. No. 4762, which is inscribed with the name of Thothmes I., B.C. 1633. Vases in bronze are ancient, tolerably numerous, and of various shapes ; among them must be classed those, in the shape of buckets with handles, which are ornamented with scenes in relief, in which the deceased is represented adoring various deities ; they belong chiefly to the period of the XXVIth dynasty. Models of vases in wood were also Models made and placed in the tombs. They were sometimes ° ^^^^ painted to resemble glass (B.M. No. 95291^), and were some- times covered with plaster and gilded, examples of which are B.M. No. 9529^ and 9529/"/ both were made for the tomb of Rameses II. ; the former is inscribed ]) O^ 1 uatchu. 224 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. ' Stibium,'' and the latter IP=°i I mestemet, " stibium.'' Glass vases. Vases in elazed faience. The use of glass for vases is very ancient, and Dr. Birch states that ^ the earliest dated example of Egyptian glass is a small dark blue fragment inscribed with the prenomen of Antef III., of the Xlth dynasty. The next oldest example is a small vase or jug with one handle, of a fine turquoise- coloured, opaque glass, ornamented in yellow, with a border round the neck, and three trees round the sides, and inscribed with the prenomen of Thothmes III.,^ B.C. 1600; the handle has stripes of white and dark blue, and round the neck where it joins the thick part of the vase, is a row of white spots. The vase is 3J in. high, and its greatest diameter is ly"^ in. ; the British Museum number is 4762. Vases made of varie- gated and striped glass are represented on the walls of tombs of the XlXth and XXth dynasties, and it seems that the terra-cotta and wood vases, or models of them, belong to that period. The next oldest examples are the small black, opaque glass vases, \j, mottled with white spots, which formed part of the funereal paraphernalia of the princess Nesi-Chensu, about B.C. 1000. ^ Transparent glass seems not to have been made in Egypt much earlier than the XXVIth dynasty. Vases in faience glazed with a blue or green colour are at least as old as the XlXth dynasty ; a beautiful example of this date is B.M. No. 4796, with lotus leaves, rosettes, and a line of hieroglyphics around the outer edge, in white or light yellow, upon a lavender-coloured glazed ground. The inscrip- tion records the name and titles of Rameses II., about B.C. 1333. About B.C. 1000, small vases o and libation jars "Q were glazed with a beautiful light bluish-green ; the vases of Nesi-Chensu are fine examples of this work (B.M. No. 17,402, and 13,152). During the XXVIth dynasty flat, circular, convex vases or bottles made of glazed faience became common ; the neck and lip were in the form of the capital of a papyrus column, with an ape at each side, and where the ' Catalogue of the Egyptian Antiquities at Alnwick Castle, p. 179, and ■Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, Vol. 11; p. 142. ^ | iM i rii, OT /AT "Beautiful god, Men-cheper-Ra, giver of life." ' The No. of the B.M. vase is 17,043. OBJECTS FOR THE TOILET. 22$ body of the vase joins the neck it is ornamented with rows of inscribed papyrus flowers and pendants. On the upper part of the flat band which goes round the vase, is inscribed X W -I I '^'^ " May Ptah open a happy new year for its owner," and v Xjf \ T '^^'^ " May Sechet open a happy new year for its owner." These vases were probably given as gifts, and they all appear to come from Lower Egypt. The oldest vases known are made of terra-cotta and red earthenware, and are of various shapes and sizes. They were sometimes glazed or painted and varnished, to imitate por- phyry, diorite, and variegated stone and glass, and sometimes they were ornamented with floral designs, figures of animals, geometrical patterns, etc., etc. Vases in this material were inscribed, in hieratic or hieroglyphic, with the names and titles of the persons in whose tombs they were found, and sometimes with sepulchral inscriptions. It is not possible, in the absence of inscriptions, to date terra-cotta vases accurately, and all the evidence forthcoming tends to prove that the various kinds of vases which were thought to belong to the XVIIIth or XlXth dynasty belong to the XXUnd or later. Objects for the Toilet. The Egyptian lady, in making her toilette, made use of the following objects : — Mirror, in Egyptian -^^ '^ y un-krd, " lifting up the Egyptian /v^~v\ I A mirrors. face," or --^ *^ *^ ^ y maa-hrd, " object for seeing the face.'' The mirror was made of bronze, and in shape was nearly round (B.M. No. 2728^), or oval (B.M. No. 2733), or oval flattened (B.M. No. 2732), or pear-shaped (B.M. No. 2728^). Mirrors were kept in bronze cases or wooden boxes. The handles were made of ivory (B.M. Nos. 22, 830, 2734), wood, bronze, or faience (B.M. No. 2736), and were usually in the shape of the lotus in flower | . Wooden handles were inlaid with gold (B.M. No. 2728.2:), or were painted with the colours of the lotus plant and flower (B.M. No. 18,179) > they B. M. Q mirrors. 226 FUNEREAL ARCH^^iOLOGy OF EGYPT. Descrip- were sometimes square, and sometimes terminated in a tionof hawk's head (B.M. No. 2733), or they were carved in the shape of a figure of Bes (B.M. No. 2728^). Bronze handles of mirrors were also made in the shape or the lotus plant and flower, but the flat space where the handle widens out into the flower was ornamented with the head of Hathor in relief (B.M. No. 2728a); they were also made in the form of figures of women, with their arms raised (B.M. Nos. 20,773, 2718(2:). The mirror was further ornamented by supporting the bronze disk on each side with a pair of ursei (B.M. No. 20,756), or with a hawk of Horus (B.M. No. 2731). The metal of which mirrors are made has been shown to be almost pure copper, a very small percentage of tin and other substances being present. The use of mirrors in Egypt appears to be of great antiquity, but the date of their first appearance is not known exactly. The greater diameter of the mirror varies from three to twelve inches. Tweezers. Pairs of tweezers, for removing hairs from the head or face, were made of bronze, the ends being, at times, in the form of human hands ; they vary in length from about two to six inches. Hair-pins are' usually made of wood, bone, ivory, metal, or alabaster, and vary in length and thickness ; the heads are sometimes ornamented with gold and silver bands or heads, and sometimes terminate in the figure of an animal or bird. Combs are made of wood or ivory, and when they have but a single row of teeth the back is carved into serrated edges, and its sides are ornamented with various devices, annular or otherwise. Double combs, i.e., combs with two rows of teeth, have the one row of teeth thicker and longer than the other. Combs used for merely ornamental purposes terminate with figures of animals, etc., etc. The date of the first appearance of combs in Egypt is unknown, and it has been thought that they were not introduced until a comparatively late period. Fan. The feathers of the fan were inserted in a handle made of wood or ivory, or both, having the same shape as the handles of mirrors jj ; both sides of the handle were OBJECTS FOR THE TOILET. 22/ sometimes ornamented with heads of Hathor in relief (B.M. No. 20,767). Kohl pots. Of all the necessaries for the toilet these Stibium objects are the most commonly found, and the varieties tubes.^" known are very many and very interesting. The object of the kohl jar was to hold the kohl, or stibium, or antimonj', or copper, with which ladies were wont to stain the eyelids and eyebrows. The simplest form consisted of a hollow tube of alabaster, steatite,^ glass,^ wood, or ivory, from three to six inches high; alabaster tubes are usually uninscribed (B.M. No. 2574), wooden tubes are made in the shape of a column with a palm leaf capital (B.M. No. 2591), ivory or bone tubes are Dififerent sometimes made in the form of figures of Bes (B.M. g'^j^^j^^ No. 2571), and sometimes are ornamented with spirals vases. (B.M. No. 6184). Faience tubes are white, blue, or green, and have inscriptions on them in black ; fine examples of this class are B.M. No. 25721^, inscribed with the prenomen of Amenophis III., and the name of his wife Thi; and B.M. No. 2573, inscribed with the prenomen of Tut-anch-Amen, and the name of his wife Anch-nes-Amen. B.M. No. 2589, is a fine example of kohl tube in glass, made in the form of a column with a palm leaf capital. Kohl tubes were some- times made of the common reed, and carried in a leather bag (B.M. No. 12,539) j the single tube was sometimes repre- sented as being held by a monkey or some other animal (B.M. No. 21,89s). The tube was often formed of a hollow sunk in a jar made of alabaster, stone, steatite, granite, or porphyry ; steatite jars are glazed, and ornamented with T and (^ in hollow work (B.M. No. 2645). Such jars often had the rim, which supported the cover, turned separately, and in the centre of the cover, inside, a small boss was made to enable it to rest firmly on the jar ; these jars rested upon square stands supported by four legs. The outsides of porphyry jars are sometimes ornamented with raised figures of apes and uraei. Kohl jars had sometimes two tubes, and Stibium vases ' B.M. No. 2736 is inscribed §^^^"^10^^?^ mo7e°fhan " Menlhu-em-hat, son of 9eq-ab, lord of watchful devotion." ' See B.M. No. 24,391, made of light blue glass banded with gold. Q 2 one lube. 228 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. were made of wood, with a movable cover on a pivot (B.M. No. 2595), of obsidian, with a figure of Bes in rehef (B.M. No. 2599), of ivory, with each tube in the form of a lotus column (B.M. 22,839), and of stone. Kohl pots with three tubes were also made, and an interesting example in terra- cotta is B.M. No. 2612, which is in the form of a "triple" crown. Kohl pots with four and five tubes are very common in wood, and several examples exist in faience. B.M. No. 2605 is inscribed on each tube,^ and contains two, or more, different powders ; and B.M. 2606a, with five tubes, probably a votive offering by a friend or relative of the de- ceased Amasis, a scribe and overseer of works, is inscribed : — Different kinds of eye-paint used at different seasons of the year. ■■ UM ^^^qL^' u— n; 3- 2- - ^m^ ® 5 ^v , /vvvvv\ , , , , IWW-A ^— ^ I I I I (V«/*/*'V\ I ^ 11110 I ' 0( 111! o = III6O 1" The following texts are inscribed upon a remarkable brown wood stibium-holder, in the possession of Sir Francis Grenfell, G.C.B. It contains five tubes, each of which held LJ I I -C2>- 3- ^ o * These inscriptions show that one kind of eye-paint was to be used from the first to the fourth month of the inundation season ; a second from the first to the fourth month of the season of coming forth ; <* third from the first to the fourth month of the period of growing ; and also that a fourth was to be used every day. OBJECTS FOR THE TOILET. 229 a different coloured substance ; on one side is a full-face figure of Bes, and on the other an ape. It came from Der el-bahari. u Ci D I n Jf Ci c^ o 111 ^ ^-J V ^AAAAA O I stick. A set of four or more kohl tubes were also formed by the compartments of a wooden box which was generally inlaid with ivory. The studs in kohl tubes were used for fastening the cover. The stick with which the kohl was applied to the eyes was The kM made of wood, bronze, glass, etc., and was thicker and more rounded at one end than at the other. The thick end was moistened, and dipped in the powder in the tube, and then drawn along the eyelid ; the stick generally remained in the tube, but often a special cavity, either between or behind the tubes, was prepared for it. The black powder in the tube was called in Egyptian mestem (var. [T| 1 ^^ "Vn ^ " mest'emuf), Copt. C^HJUL, CXHJUL, Arab. J^si) whence the word Kokl, Gr. cr7t/i^t, stibium ; it seems to have been the sesquisulphuret of antimony, but sulphide of lead, oxide of copper, || " black oxide of manganese, and other powdered substances were also used. The act of painting the eyes with kohl was called I ^.^ ' semtet, and the part painted l''^ =5:; semti^ The custom of painting the eyelids, or the parts immediately under them, is contemporary with the earliest dynasties, 230 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Antiquity of use of eye- Alabaster vases of Atena. and we know that in the Xllth dynasty^ mestchem was brought from the land of Absha, by people of the Aamu, as an acceptable gift to the king of Egypt. This custom seems to have been common all over the East, and it will be remembered that Jezebel "set her eyes in stibium'' (n"i2ii? TJlSl atol 2 Kings ix. 30), and that the daughter of Zion was told that her lovers would seek her life, even though "she rent asunder her eyes with stibium,"^ in allusion to the wide open appearance which stibium gives to women's eyes in the East. Oils, unguents, scents, etc., were kept in alabaster, diorite and porphyry jars, or vases, of various shapes, ^ '0' U X ^• Sets of alabaster jars and flat vessels were arranged on a table in the tomb, and sometimes contained unguents, sweetmeats, etc., and sometimes were merely votive offerings. A fine example of a votive set in alabaster is (B.M. No. 4694) inscribed with the name Atena, from Abydos, which com- prises a wide mouthed jar on a stand, five smaller jars with pointed ends, and four flat saucers, the whole standing on a circular table of the same material. The shapes of the jars are of great beauty, and the alabaster is of the finest. The custom of placing alabaster jars in tombs is, at least, as ancient as the IVth dynasty, and it lasted until the XXVIth dynasty ; examples are known inscribed with the names of Unas (B.M. No. 4602), Pepi I. (B,M. No. 22559), Mentu- em-sa-f (B.M. No. 4493), Amasis I. (B.M. No. 4671a), Thothmes III. (B.M. No. 4498), Amenophis II. (B.M. No. 4672), Rameses 11. (B.M. No. 2880), Queen Amenartas (B.M. No. 4701), etc. Necklaces, Rings, Bracelets, etc. Judging by the enormous quantity of beads which are found in Egyptian tombs, Egyptian ladies must have thought very highly of the necklace as an ornament. Beads are of all shapes, round, rectangular, oval, and oblong, and were made of ' In the sixth year of Usertsen II. The scene of the presentation of the mestchem is painted on the walls of the tomb of Chnemu-hetep at Beni-Hasan ; see Lepsius, Denkmdler, II. ff. 131-133. SCARAB. 231 mother-of-emerald, carnelian, agate, lapis-Iazuli, amethyst, rock crystal, onyx, jasper, garnet, gold, silver, glass, faience, clay, and straw. The necklace was ornamented with pendants Egyptian 1 c w 6 1 1 6 r V made in the form of figures of the gods, or of animals sacred to them, or of amulets to which magical powers were attri- buted. Each kind of stone was supposed to possess special properties, and the Egyptians arranged their necklaces in such a way that the wearer was supposed to be protected from the attack of all evil powers and baneful beasts. Breasts of mummies and mummy cases are painted in imitation of rows of beads of various precious stones, or of collars made of beads, interspersed with pendants in the shape of flowers, etc. Rings were made of gold, silver, bronze, precious stones or faience ; sometimes the bezels were solid and did not move, sometimes they were inlaid with scarabs, inscribed with various devices, or the name of the wearer, and revolved. During the XVIIIth dynasty, a very pretty class of ring was made at Tell el-Amarna, in blue, green, and purple glazed faience ; examples are very numerous, and every Egyptian collection of importance contains several. Bracelets were made of gold or silver, and were at times inlaid with precious stones and coloured paste ; after the XXVIth dynasty the ends of bracelets, owing to Phoenician influence, terminated in lions' heads. Scarab. Scarab,^ or Scarabaeus,^ is the name given by Egyptolo- Descdp- gists to the myriads of models of a certain beetle, which are Egyptian found in mummies and tombs, and in the ruins of temples and beetle, other buildings in Egypt and other countries, the inhabitants ^ Scarab, from the Greek sKopapog, or ffKOpnySeiof, perhaps a transcription of the hatin scaraiaeus ; compare Srivapiov, a transcription of denarius. The Copts called this beetle (TiXo'lfKC , and the Arabs 'l^uiAiU , plur. j^^Uii. , Jjt=^ 1 pluif- ii)l«r ^"fl ■rb'^' P'"""' f^)^)'^' See also Payne Smith, TAes. Syr., col. 1188, and Duval, Zex. Syr., col. 714. ^ The old plural scarabees we find in " You are scarabees that batten in dung." Elder Brother, Beaumont and Fletcher. 232 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. of which from a remote period had trading and other rela- tions with the Egyptians. The beetle which was copied by the Egyptians in this manner belongs to the family called by naturalists Scarabmdce (Coprophagi), of which the Scara- hcBus sacer is the type. These insects compose a very numerous group of dung-feeding Lamellicorns, of which, however, the majority are inhabitants of tropical countries. The species are generally of a black hue ; but amongst them are to be found some adorned with the richest metallic colours. A remarkable peculiarity exists in the structure and situation of the hind legs, which are placed so near the extremity of the body, and so far from each other, as to give the insect a most extraordinary appearance when walking. Habits of This peculiar formation is, nevertheless, particularly service- tian beeSe ^'^^^ ^° '^^^ possessors in rolling the balls of excrementitious matter in which they enclose their eggs ; whence these insects were named by the first naturalists Pilulariae. These balls are at first irregular and soft, but, by degrees, and during the process of rolling along, become rounded and harder ; they are propelled by means of the hind legs. Sometimes these balls are an inch and a half, or two inches in diameter, and in rolling them along the beetles stand almost upon their heads, with the heads turned from the balls. These manoeuvres have for their object the burying of the balls in holes, which the insects have previously dug for their reception ; and it is upon the dung thus deposited that the larvae, when hatched, feed. It does not appear that these beetles have the instinct to distinguish their own balls, as they will seize upon those belonging to another, in case they have lost their own ; and, indeed, it is said that several of them occasionally assist in rolling the same ball. The males as well as the females assist in rolling the pellets. They fly during the hottest part of the day.^ Latreille, in the Appendix to Cailliaud's Voyage d Meroe, Paris, 1823-27,^ ' See J. O. Westwood, An Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects ; London, 1839, Vol. L p. 204 fF. ^ Tom. ii. p. 311. " Get insecte est d'un vert parfois dclatant; son corselet est nuanc^ d'une teinte cuivreuse a reflet metallique. " Compare yElian, De Nat. Animal., iv. 49; Aristotle, Hist. Animal., iv. 7 ; Pliny, Nat. Hist., xi. 20 ff., and xxix. 6. SCARAB. 233 considers the species which he has named Ateuchus Aegypti- orum, or rfKiOKdv6apoe Nalura Animal., x. xv. ed. Didot, p. 172, Kavffopof -yaf wag dpprjv, Vox-phyry, De Abstinentia, iv. 9, ed. Didot, p. 74. 2 For the word scarabeus applied to Christ compare, " Vermis in cruce : scarabeus in cruce : et bonus vermis qui haesit in ligno bonus scarabeus qui clamavit ^ ligno. Quid clamavit? Domine, ne staiuas illis hoc peccatum. Clamavit latroni : Hodie mecum eris in paradise. Clamavit quasi scarabeus : Deus, Deus mens, quare me dereliquisti ? Et bonus scarabeus qui lutum corporis nostri ante informe ac pigrum virtulum versabat vestigiis : bonus scarabeus, qui de stercore erigit pauperem." See the exposition of St. Luke, by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (Opera, Paris edition, 1686, tom. I. col. 1528, No. 113). ^ " En comptant pour un doigt chaque article des tarses, on reconnajtra que cet insecte avait ^ii bien attentivement examine. " Mulsant, Histoire Nalurelte des CoUoptires de France, Lamellicornes ; Paris, 1842, p. 48. 234 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. Egyptian name for the beetle. The scarab an emblem ot Chepera. Classes of scarab. The Egyptians called the scarabseus O "^ " (1 "^v C/.'e- perd, and the god whom this insect represented was called ^ <=> W I Chepera. This god usually wears a beetle on his head, and sometimes he has a beetle, with or without outstretched wings, in the place of a head.-' The god Chepera was the "father of the gods," and the creator of all things in heaven and earth. He made himself out of the matter which he himself produced. He was identified with the rising sun, and thus typified resurrection and new birth generally. The word \ which is usually translated " to exist, to become, to make," also means " to roll," and the " roller," or " revolver," was a fitting name for the sun, according to the Egyptian ideas of that luminary. The abstract noun Efi \M ' cheperu, may very well be rendered by " evolutions." Scarabs may, for convenience of consideration, be divided into three classes : — i. Funereal scarabs ; 2. Scarabs worn for ornament ; 3. Historical scarabs. Of the first class the greater number found measure from half to two inches in length, and they are made generally of faience or steatite, glazed blue or green ; granite, basalt, jasper, amethyst, lapis- lazuli, ruby, carnelian, and in the Roman period glass also, are often used. Upon the flat base of the scarab the Egyptians engraved the names of gods, kings, priests, officials, private persons, monograms, and floral and other devices. Sometimes the base of the scarab takes the form of a heart, and sometimes the scarab is united with the u'tat ^^^, or eye of Horus ; it is also found united with a frog, the emblem of " myriads '' and of " revivification." Rarely the back of the scarab is ornamented with a pattern made up of a number of small scarabs. Such small scarabs were set in rings, and placed upon the fingers of the dead, or were wrapped up in the linen bandages with which the mummy was swathed over the heart. They represented the belief of the Egyptians in the revivification of the body, and See Lanzone, Dizionario, pi. cccxxix. SCARAB. 235 in the renewed life after death, which was typified by the Sun, who renewed his life daily. Among funereal scarabs must be mentioned those of DescHp- green basalt, which were specially made to be laid upon funereal the breasts of mummies. Of this class there are many s^^rab. varieties, but the form most approved by the Egyptians seems to have consisted of a scarab of fine, hard basalt, let into a gold border, to which was attached a fine gold wire for hanging round the neck. The folds of the wings of the beetles were indicated either by lines of gold painted on the back, or by pieces of gold inlaid therein. Occasionally, the scarab itself is let into a mount of solid gold (B.M. No. 7876), and sometimes the scarab is joined to a heart, and pierced for suspension, the heart being ornamented with hieroglyphics meaning " life, stability, and protection " ■yHl) (^■^- No. 7925). On the back of the scarab we at times have a figure of a bennu bird and the inscription | "^ 'O',,,^©^ "the mighty heart of Ra" (B.M. No. 7878), at others the boat of the Sun LCli , ufats '^^^^^^, the bennu or phoenix ^^ , and Ra ^ (B.M. No. 7883) ; and sometimes the scarab is human-headed (B.M. Nos. 15,516 and 7999). One instance is known where the back of the scarab is ornamented with incised figures of Greek deities (B.M. No. 7966). In late times this class of scarab was made of blue and green faience, and inserted in pectorals of the same material, upon which were painted the boat of the sun, and figures of Isis and Nephthys, one at each end of the boat ; the scarab occupied the middle of the boat (B.M. Nos. 7864 and 7865). The bases of large funereal scarabs were usually inscribed with the text of the 30th chapter of the Book of the Dead, but this was not always the case. Some scarabs have only scenes of the deceased adoring Osiris (B.M. No. 7931), and others figures of Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys (B.M. Nos. 7930, 15,500 and 15,507). At times Descrip- the inscriptions are merely written with gold or ink (B.M. |J,°"r°eal Nos. 7915 and 15,518). As such scarabs formed part of scarabs. the stock-in-trade of the Egyptian undertaker, the names 236 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. of the persons with whom they were buried are not found inscribed upon them, although blank spaces are left (B.M. No. 7877) ; frequently scarabs have neither figures nor inscriptions upon their bases. A remarkable example of funereal scarab is B.M. No. 18,190, which was taken from the mummy of Thothmes III., found at D6r el-Bahari. This object is made of steatite, glazed a greenish (purple in some places) colour. A frame of gold runs round the base, the two sides of which are joined by a band of the same metal across the back ; a thin layer of gold covered the back, but parts of this are hidden by the remains of the mummy cloth which adhere to it. The base is inscribed with a figures of Thothmes III., kneeling ; on his head is the crown ^Mj_ , in the right hand he holds the whip 4\ > and with the left he is making an offering. Before him is a dog (?) seated, and behind him a hawk. Above is the sign T nefer, and the legend " Ra-men-cheper, triumphant before the gods for ever." (©^^l^ ^ lH ^^ The surface of the base was covered with a layer of gold, parts of which still remain. This scarab is 3 inches long. On the upper end of the gold frame was a loop by which the scarab, by means of a chain, was attached to a bronze collar round the neck of the mummy. The The chapter from the Book of the Dead called 30B by of^he"^^ M. Naville {Das Aegyptische Todtenbuch, pi. xliii.), engraved heart. upon scarabs, is one of a series of seven chapters, relating to the heart, which are entitled : — Chap. 26. Chapter of giving a heart to N.' in the under- world. Chaps. 27, 28 and 29. Chapter of not allowing his heart to be carried off from him in the underworld. Chap. 29 B. Another chapter of a heart of carnelian. Chaps. 30A and 30B. Chapter of not allowing to be repulsed the heart of N. in the underworld. According to a papyrus in Berlin, Ba in Naville's edition, chap. 26 is entitled " Chapter of a heart of lapis-lazuli (_®_ J 5^ ' N. = name of the person for whom the scarab or papyrus was made. SCARAB. 237 chesbet) " ; chap. 27, " Chapter of a heart of opal (.'), ( 1^^^^ 1^ n I ^ neshem) " ; chap. 29 B, " Chapter of a heart of carneHan(?) (|l =3r_S^ en of tem ertat xesef not allowing to be repulsed [Name] 1 ii^ I ab the heart em en oj en neter xert t'et - f ab - a \ in the underworld. Says he, " O Heart mine of {Here comes name of deceased ' Goodwin, On a text of the Book of the Dead belonging to the Old Kingdom, in Aeg. Zeitschrift, 1866, p. 55 ! Lepsius, Das Todtenbuch, p. 12. 2 Naville, Das Todlenbuch, bl. xliii. SCARAB. 239 ^ ® II mut-a Sep sen mother mine. Twice. hati a en x^per-^^ em Heart mine of evolution mine. Not may 1 J\ aha (=Si er a em be obstruction against me in meteru evidence. L=/l em sexesef Not may be repulse D ci er - a to me er - a em t'at'anut' em ari requ k by the Powers. Not may be made separatio7i thy C=u) em bah ^1 k^4i an ma^et /■/VA^AA The chapter of the entek heart. from me in the presence of the guardian of the scale. Thou art ka-a genius my at a w. am in o I 'SI xat-a body my, ^%.\^ m\.\ Chnemu Chnem^ seuia making sound per J>i:si^B1 bu nefer hen limbs my. May est come forth thou to the felicity [to which] go I I I en n am em we there. Not may en the <^^^> ^Q f»AAAAA ^^^\A/^ '—^ I I I sexen overthrow ren name en n our ^enit Shenit I ariu [who] make xe.e men A III em ahau firm. ^ I.e., the four children of Ilorus. 5 Var. ^^ 240 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. I I I I nefer en n v. nefer setem ■0" I ab en heart at the ut'a weighing of \^\ metu words. s qemtu be told L. ker erma f=S> I 1 I Pleasant to us, pleasant [w] the hearitig of joy of em Not may 1 neter falsehood [against me] near the god, embah neter aa neb Amentet mak in the presence of the god great, lord of the underworld. How un^a 0en0 k un^a em matxeru great art thou rising up in trimnph 1 " Scarabs worn for ornament. Historical scarabs of Ameno- phis in. The second class of scarabs, i.e., those worn for ornament, exists in many thousands. By an easy transition, the custom of placing scarabs on the bodies of the dead passed to the living, and men and women perhaps wore the scarab as a silent act of homage to the creator of the world, who was not only the god of the dead but of the living also. To attempt to describe this class of scarabs would be impossible in anything but a special work on the subject. The devices and inscriptions are very varied, but at present it is not possible to explain one half of them satisfactorily. The third class of scarabs, i.e., the historical, appears to be confined to a series of four, extant in many copies, which were made during the reign of Amenophis III., to commemorate SCARAB. 241 certain historical events. They are of considerable interest, and the texts inscribed upon them refer to : — I. The slaughter of 102 lions by Amenophis III., during the first ten years of his reign ; the text reads: — f L=^ Q anx Heru ka next xa em maat May live tlu Horus, hull pcnverful, diademed with law, P=l W, PJ>i" 3. semen hepu sekerh taui 1 "'andS "th \ ' ^^(eiblisher of laws, pacifier of the two lands, i ~ - w '=^^°n Heru nub aa X^P^^ ^"^ sati Horus the golden, mighty of valour, smiier of foreign lands, suten net Neb-maa.t-Ra se Ra en xat-f {^'''indToufh,'''^^ ^'^-'^''"■^-^^^ ^on of the sun, of body his, Amen-hetep heq Uast ta anx suten hemt 6\ Amenhetep, prince of Thebes, giver of life, [and] royal spouse Thi. er xst mau an en hen-f em satet-f In respect of lions, brought majesty his from shooting his Historical S im^ '-k fo I \\\- •=■ fS " s5k| 2Sfi of Ameno- t'esef ^aa em renpit ua neferit er renpit met' mau phis III. own, beginning from year first up to year tenth, lions V^^\ I^ © II hesau saa sen fierce, one hundred and two. B. M. 242 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. II. The limits of the Egyptian Empire, and the names of the parents of Thi, wife of Amenophis III. ; the text reads : — - f ^ ^ U=^ Q anx Heru ka next x^ 6™ maat May live the Horus, bull powerful, diademed -with law of Ameno- ^^ ' "^'^ ^ D JI I <=> A phis III. _ _ _ semen hepu sekerh taui Y"''ifJsotar'^} "^'^^^"^'^'' ''■^ ^'^^^' pacifier of the two lands, ^K ~ •- 11 *=*1CI qN I I I Heru nub aa X^pes' hu Sati Horus the golden, mighty of valour, stniter of foreign lands. 1% ^-(Ml ¥o CBTIl suten net Neb-maat-Ra se Ra Amen-lietep heq Uast At 1 « »•? CM] f I ta anx suten hemt urt ei anx^ giver of life, \and'\ royal spouse, mighty lady, Thi, living one- t^'/i/\r^ 3. q^^q- ren en tef s luaa ren en the name of father her \was\ luda^ the name of mut-s 6'uau hemt pu ent suten mother her \was\ Thuau — the wife to wit of the king SCARAB. 243 Ci Ci I X -^ T W M ■= ■ c- n 4= '^=> 9- 1 ' W— n r-w-| ^^ X\> I I [^^1=3 next tes'-f resi er Karei powerful. Frontier his south [z>] as far as Karei^ [frontier'] . AAAAA^ > w^ 10. pg -^ .. 1^ I ciCia meht er N harina north [his is] as far as Neharina? III. The arrival of the bride of Amenophis III. in Egypt from Mesopotamia, with three hundred and seventeen of her women ; the text reads : — " [g n ^ \\ ^ -^^ ^=^ ^ Historical I-1rnllJL Yl 2. ^^^')f^W=iJ -^ scarabs of Ameno- renpit met' xer hen en Heru ka next x^ pli's III. Year tenth under the majesty of Horus, bull powerful, diademed em maat semen hepu sekerh with law, [^Zli^sZaf] ^^^'^^^"^^'' "/ ^«^-f. pacifier of Ci scarabs x of Ameno- phis III. ren en tef-s the name of father her \was'\ luaa luaa. ren en the name of 'X^-^-WXlUtA-'- \\\ mut-s mother her \_was'\ ^uaa bait an - it en Thuaa. A wonderful thing they brought to I- f i P ¥ hen-f anx ut'a senb set ser en majesty his, life, strength, health, the daughter of the prince of Neherna Mesopotamia, .o.®Jl Sa^arna Satharna, Z5 1 Kirkipa Kirkipa 1 iUl hetep en and the chiefs of n III xenra s women her. (SS III! set saa xemt met' sexef Wojnen, 300 +10 + 7 IV. The construction of the lake of Queen Thi in the eleventh year of the reign of Amenophis. The text of this scarab was first published in Rosellini, Monumenti Storici, tav. xliv. No. 2. It was partly translated by Rosellini, then by Hinks (in Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxi. Dublin, 1848, Sec. "Polite Literature," On the age of the Eigh- teenth Dynasty of Manetko, p. 7), and by Birch, Records of the Past, Vol. XII. p. 41. The text printed below is corrected from Stern's copy in Aeg. Zeitschrift, 1887, p. 87, note 2. The scarab is dated in the first day, the third month of sowing ^ ' Hathor. SCARAB. 245 of the eleventh year of Amenophis III., 1 (?) ■ 11 1 HM . • The first few lines of the inscription containing the king's titles are the same as the beginning lines of the scarabs of the series. The making of the tank is described as follows : — JTll i^^^ o I ^ t ^ ofAmeno- utu hen-f arit mar en suten hemt phis III. Ordered majesty his the making of a lake for the royal spouse. urt ^i em tema-s en T'aru .... mighty lady, Thi in town her (?) of T'aru .... =^ --^ III gg ^^^^^ ,^^ sg au - f meh ab - f meh Length its \ivas'\ cubits 3000 + 600, breadth its cubits 600. I [I I II o 111 ari en hen - f heb tep set em Made majesty his festival of the entrance of the waters on abet xemt sat hru met'-sas xent hen - f en- month third of sowing^ day sixteen. Sailed majesty his in uaa Aten - neferu em - xennu-f the boat [ « ^,-^^ of Beauties ") | WZt/itn tt. Of the inscriptions found on scarabs by far the greater Inscrip- number consists of the names of kings. Names of priests scarabs, and ladies who took part in the services connected with the ' 23| ^J@Taruxa(?). 2 Hathor. ^ Stem [1 ^'^^^^ l-ft|j4>l aten texen, "disk of saffron." 246 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Publica- tion of Catalogue of Scarabs by Birch. Loftie's Essay, Murray and Smith. various gods are common enough ; so also are those of the singers of Amen-Ra. Scarabs inscribed with the names of kings are important historically, because sometimes they form nearly the only memorials of kings and royal personages, and they fill up gaps in the lists of kings of Egypt of whom, otherwise, nothing would be known. The names of the kings most commonly found are Thothmes III., Amenophis III. and Rameses II., and of these that of Thothmes III. is the commonest. The u.se of the scarab by the Egyptians to denote the idea of resurrection is probably as old as their settlement in the Nile Valley, and scarabs are found inscribed with the names of nearly every king of every dynasty, beginning with that of Mena, the first king of the first dynasty, and ending with that of the Roman Emperor Antoninus. The first published classification of scarabs was made by the late Dr. Birch in his Catalogue of the collection of Egyptian Antiquities at Alnwick Castle^ pp. 103-167, 236-242, in which he described 565 objects of this class. The arrangement he followed in this subdivision was: — i. Names of mythological personages and emblems. 2. Historical inscriptions, names of kings, and historical representations. 3. Titles of officers. In 1884, the Rev. W. J. Loftie published his Essay of Scarabs^ which contained a description of his collection ^ of 192 scarabs, inscribed with royal names, and excellent drawings of each. His collection, like those of the Museum of the Louvre and the British Museum, was arranged chronologically ; '' the principle of the arrangement he ex- plained in his interesting preface. In my Catalogue of the Egyptian Collection of the Harrow School Museum,^ pp. 14-29, I gave a description of nearly one hundred and fifty scarabs, and translations of most of the inscriptions. In 1888 a cata- logue of the scarabs and scaraboids from Egypt, Kamiros, and ' Printed by the Duke of Northumberland for private distribution, London, ^ London, small 4to. , no date. 3 Purchased by the Trustees of the British Museum in 1890. < Loftie, op. cit., p. xxxi. ' Harrow, 1887. SCARAB. 247 Tharros was published by Dr. A. S. Murray and Mr. Hamilton Smith, in their Catalogue of Gems, pp. 46-58. In 1889 Mr. Flinders Petrie published a collection ^ of drawings of 2,363 scarabs, with a few pages of introduction. The idea of this work was excellent, but the plates should have contained a tolerably complete set of examples of scarabs, carefully indexed. The title Historical Scarabs was a misnomer, for the only, strictly speaking, historical scarabs known, the series of the four of Amenophis III., were omitted. Scarabs inscribed with certain kings' names were made Persis- and worn as much as a thousand years after the death of the certain kings whose names they bear. This fact is indisputable, names and if any proof were required it is furnished by the scarabs scarabs. dug up at Naucratis by Mr. Petrie. From the scarab-moulds found there, and the material from which they are made, and from the design and workmanship, it is clear that the scarabs of Naucratis are not older than the Vllth century B.C. ; yet many of them bear the prenomens of Thothmes III., Seti I. and Rameses 11.,^ etc. As the paste of which these are made is identical with that of scarabs bearing the names of kings of the XXVIth dynasty, there is no possible doubt about this fact. Scarabs inscribed with the names of two kings Double furnish another proof Thus in the British Museum, Nos. "'^™^^- 4033 and 403s bear the names of Thothmes III. and Seti I.; No. 16,580 bears the names of Thothmes I., Thothmes III., and Seti I.; No. 17,126 (a plaque) bears the names of Thothmes III. and Rameses II. ; No. 17,138 bears the names of Thothmes III. and Rameses III.; No. 16,837 bears the names of Thothmes III. and Rameses IX. ; and No. 16,796 bears the names of Thothmes III. and Psammetichus. That scarabs of a late period are found in tombs of the Vlth, Xllth and XVIIIth dynasties is not to be wondered at, for tombs were used over and over again for burial by families Exact who lived hundreds of years after they were first hewn out, scarabs" and who had no connexion whatever with the people who i«>pos- " ^ sible. ' Historical Scarabs ; A series of Drawings from the Principal Collections. Arranged Chronologically. London, 1889. 2 Naucratis, London, 1886, Plate XXXVII., No. 63, etc., PI. XXXVIII., No. 182. 248 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. were first buried in them. When a scarab is found bound up in a mummy, the date of which can be ascertained from the inscriptions upon it, that scarab can be used with advantage as an authority by which to compare other scarabs ; ^ when, however, a scarab is dug up with a lot of miscellaneous stuft" it is of little value for the purpose of comparison. From the lowest depths of the Vlth and Xllth dynasty tombs at Aswin, scarabs have been dug up which could not have been a day older than the XXVIth dynasty, if as old. In some of these tombs, carefully closed with beautifully fitting blocks of stone, were found also red terra-cotta jars inscribed in hieratic which could not have been a day older than the XlXth dynasty, yet the inscriptions on the walls proved beyond a doubt that the tombs were made for officials who lived during the Xllth dynasty. It must then be clearly understood that the objects found in a tomb do not, necessarily, belong to the period of the tomb itself, and all the evidence known points Chrono- to the fact that it is nearly impossible to arrange a collection arrange- °^ scarabs chronologically, except so far as the order of the ment of names is concerned. Comparatively little is known about the possible, various local manufactures of scarabs, or of their characteris- tics, and hundreds of examples of thepi exist which can neither be read nor explained nor understood. Scarabs What has been said of the scarabs of Naucratis applies Kamiro°^' equally to those found at lalysos and Kamiros in Rhodes, ^"d and at Tharros in Sardinia, places associated with the Phoenicians or Carthaginians. At lalysos, faience and steatite scarabs are rare. Of the three found there preserved in the British Museum, two are steatite and one is of faience. One of the examples in steatite is fractured, whereby the design or inscription is rendered illegible, and the other is inscribed with u tet, emblem of stability, on each side of which is an uraeus |A. The example in faience measures 1 1 inch in length, and is inscribed v/ith the prenomen of Amen-hetep III., ( o ^ "^d^l.^ Scarabs are rare in Kamiros ' Such a scarab, however, may quite well be older than the mummy upon which it is found. » Brit, Mus. Reg. Nos. 72-3-15, no; 70-10-3, 130 and 131. SCARAB. 249 also, so far as concerns the tombs, and in those in which black and red vases were obtained no scarabs were found ; many specimens were, however, found in a well on the Acropolis,^ and among them were some inscribed with the prenomen of Thothmes III.,^ having all the characteristics of those of the XXVIth dynasty found at Naucratis. The scarabs found at Tharros do not go farther back than the period of Carthaginian supremacy, that is, not farther than the middle of the Vf th century B.C." A steatite scarab, found at Thebes in Boeotia, inscribed with -r- dnch " life," and a winged gryphon wearing the crowns of Upper and I.ower Egypt ry ^ belongs to the same period.'' At Kouyunjik there were found two pieces of clay, of Impres- sion of the same colour and substance as that employed by Assur- scarabs banipal for the tablets of his library, bearing impres- ^"^^^^1^ sions of an Egyptian king slaughtering his enemies, and hieroglyphic inscriptions, probably from a scarab. The king holds a club or weapon in his raised left hand, and his right holds some instrument which rests on the heads of a number of captives. The inscriptions read | J ( T(T(T "^:^ \ ] | neter nefer Shabaka neb dri ■)(et, " Beautiful god, Shabaka, the lord, maker of things " (the first king of the XXVth dynasty, about B.C. 700). Behind the king are the signs °8»» sa " protection," ■+• dnck " life," and 'W ha " increase [of power]." In front of the king is the speech of some eod /\ ~^~^ "^^^^ 1 ta-na nek set nebu. I give to thee all foreign lands." The Brit. Mus. Registration Nos. of these interesting objects are 51-9-2, 43, and 81-2-4, 352 ; as there is on the former also the impression of the seal of an Assyrian king, it has been thought* that the impression ' No. 132 in Table-Case E in the Kouyunjik Gallery. 2 Murray, Catalogue of Gems, p. 13. 3 Brit. Mus. Reg. Nos. 64-10-7, 895, 915, 1998. '' Murray, op. at., p. 13, and King, Antique Gems and Rings, Vol. I. p. 124, ' See Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, London, 1S67, pp. 173, 174. 250 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Use of scarab by Phoeni- cians, Use of scarab in Babylonia. formed the seal of a treaty between the kings of Egypt and Assyria. Shabaka (Sabaco) was a contemporary of Senna- cherib, B.C. 705-681. The Phoenicians borrowed the use of the scarab from Egypt, and as their country was overrun by Shalmaneser II., King of Assyria B.C. 860-825, and by many of his successors, it is only natural that the scarab inscribed with devices to suit the Assyrian market should find its way to Nineveh and Babylon, the Phoenician adopting in return the form of gem commonly used by the Assyrians for seals. A good example of the Phcenicio-Assyrian scarab is No. 1029, exhibited in the table-case in the Phcenician Room of the British Museum. It is made of green jasper, and measures if in. in length. On the base is inscribed a man, who stands adoring a seated deity ; above is a seven-rayed star, and between them is ■¥" dnch, "life." Beneath is inscribed in Phoenician characters, «"1QD TTinS, "Belonging to H6d6 the Scribe." For other examples see the specimens exhibited in the same case. As an example of the adoption of the chalcedony cone by the Phoenicians, see No. 1022, on which is inscribed a man at a fire altar and the name Palzir-shemesh in Phoenician characters. The scarab in relief,' with outstretched wings inlaid with blue, red and gold carved upon an ivory panel found at Abu Habbah, about five hours' ride to the south- west of Bagdad, together with a number of miscellaneous ivory objects, is a proof of the knowledge of the scarab in Mesopotamia. That the panel was not carved by an Egyptian workman is very evident.^ Scaraboids in agate and crystal, etc., are a small but very interesting class ; at times the device is purely Eg^'ptian, and the inscriptions in Phoenician letters are the only additions by the Phoenicians. Brit. Mus. Nos. 1024 and 1036 are tolerably good examples of them. The former is inscribed on the base with three hawks with outspread wings, and two of them have disks on ' See Table-Case G in the Nimroud Gallery. 2 The two rectangular weights (?) found at Nimroud by Sir A. H. Layard (Nineveh and Babylon, London, 1867, p. 64) have each, on one face, the figure of a scarab inlaid in gold in outline ; the work is excellent, and is a fine example of Phoenician handicraft. SCARAB. 251 their heads ; these, of course, represent the hawk of Horus. The Phcenician inscription gives the name Eliam. The latter is inscribed with a beetle in a square frame, and on the right and left is an urseus TL ; each end of the perpendicular sides of the frame terminates in •¥- anck, and above and below it is a figure of Ra, or Horus, hawk-headed, holding a sceptre m . The name, inscribed in Phoenician characters, is " Mer- sekem." In 1891, while carrying on excavations at Der, a place about three and a half hours to the south-west of Bag- dad, I obtained a steatite scarab inscribed with an urseus fl, ^"^f^^^^?" dnck -¥■ , and an illegible sign, together with an oval green transparent Gnostic gem inscribed with the lion-headed serpent XNOYBIC. Both objects were probably brought from Lower Egypt, and belong to a period after the birth of Christ.^ Dr. Birch describes in Nineveh and Babylon (London, Scarabs 1853, pp. 281, 282) a series of eleven scarabs which Sir Henry Arban.^ Layard dug up at Arbftn, a mound situated on the western bank of the Khabur, about two and a half days' journey north of Der on the Euphrates, and about ten miles east of the 'Abd el-'Aziz hills. With one exception they are all made of steatite, glazed yellow or green or blue. Two of them are inscribed with the prenomen of Thothmes HI. (Nos. 304, 309") ^ ; one bears the prenomen of Amenophis HI. (No. 320), with the titles "beautiful god, lord of two lands, crowned in ■TQ. fS III till every land " ; one is inscribed t^^ O (I K^„ men Cheperd at Amen, " established of Chepera, emanation of Amen " (No. 322); two are inscribed p^J (No. 303) and J^^ (No. 318), and belong to the same period ; one is inscribed Scarabs with a hawk-headed lion and a hawk (No. 273) ; one bears Arban!' the legend, " beautiful lord, lord of two lands," i.e., the North and South (No. 321) ; one is inscribed with a human-headed ' The numbers are G. 475 and 24,314. 2 These interesting objects are exhibited in the Assyrian and Babylonian Room, in the Northern Gallery of the British Museum. 252 FUNEREAL ARCH.^OLOGY OF EGYPT. beetle, with outstretched wings, in the field are ursei and T T of beautiful workmanship (No. 302) ; and one is inscribed with <2:^ p and an urasus T)^ having -V- on its head (No. 307). The scarab in haematite (No. 313) is inscribed with the figure of a king seated on a throne, and a man standing before him in adoration ; between them is •¥•. With the exception of this last scarab, it is pretty certain that all belong to the period of the XVIIIth dynasty, for they have all the appear- ance of such antiquity, and they possess all the delicacy of workmanship found upon scarabs of this time. The design on the haematite scarab appears to be a copy from an Egyptian scarab executed by a foreign workman, but it may be that the hardness of the material made the task of engraving so difficult, that the character of the design was altered in consequence. The presence of these scarabs at Arban is not difficult to account for. Thothmes I., one of the early kings of the XVIIIth dynasty, carried his victorious arms into Mesopotamia, and set up a tablet to mark the boundary of the Egyptian territory at a place called Ni, on the Euphrates, and the authority of the Egyptians in that land was so great that when Thothmes III. arrived there several years after, he found the tablet still standing. The kings who immediately succeeded Thothmes I. marched into this land, and that their followers should take up quarters on the fertile banks of the Khabflr, and leave behind them scarabs and other relics, is not to be wondered at. The antiquities found at Arb^n are of a very miscellaneous character, and, among other things, include an Assyrian colossus inscribed "Palace of Meshezib-Marduk the king" (B.C, 700), and a Chinese glass bottle ^ inscribed with a verse of the Chinese poet KEIN-TAU, A.D. 827-831 ; it is possible that the scarabs described above may have been brought there at a period subsequent to the XVIIIth dynasty, but, in any case, the objects themselves appear to belong to this period. Use of The Gnostics inscribed the scarab on the gems worn by scarab by ^|^gp^^ g^,^^ partly adopted the views concerning it held by the Gnostics. ' British Museum, No. N. i ^8o. SCARAB. 253 Egyptians. On an oval slab of green granite/ in the British Museum, is inscribed a scarab encircled by a serpent having his tail in his mouth. The same design is found on another oval,'' but the beetle has a human head and arms ; above the head are rays, and above that the legend eiAAMS'; to the right is a star, to the left a star and crescent, and beneath the hind legs three stars. The scarab is an antiquity which is readily bought from the native of Egypt by modern travellers of every nationality ; it is easily carried, and is largely worn as an ornament by ladies in their necklaces, bracelets and rings, and by men in pins and rings. As the number of visitors to Egypt has been Modem steadily increasing for many years past, it follows of necessity jure of that the demand for .scarabs has increased also, and the price scarabs. of these objects has risen in proportion. The late Sir Gardner Wilkinson, during one of his visits to Egypt, anchored his dhahahiyyeh ' opposite Kurnah at Thebes, and in the afternoon a native brought him a bag full of scarabs, many hundreds in number, which he had that day taken out of the ground in a tomb from under the coffin of a mummy. These scarabs were of a fine green colour and made of steatite ; they were all inscribed with the name and titles of Thothmes III. Sir Gardner Wilkinson bought a handful of these for an English pound, but each scarab might now easily be sold for two pounds. The supply of scarabs varies year by year, some years but few are to be had, and some years they are very common. The supply cannot be inexhaustible, although the demand for them appears to be so. The native has discovered Modem that the European not only wants scarabs, but that he wants {JJ," V*^ scarabs inscribed with the names of particular kings ; and as scarabs. these are not always forthcoming, he has found out the way to make them. The imitation of scarabs by the modern native of Egypt began about sixty years ago. At first the number produced was few, and they were so clumsily made that it was soon apparent that they were forgeries. In later ' G. 455, Table-Case N, Fourth Egyptian Room. ^ G. 483, Table-Case N, Fourth Egyptian Room. ' Arab. IP Re en Set ent xs^^cmet tata er x^X Chapter of the buckle of red jasper placed on the neck I 1 I en X" senef ent Auset hekau of the deceased. The blood of Isis, the incantations % ^(t«Z J§°l iu^^- AMULETS. 257 j; ent Auset of Isis, I I I I XUt ike power /vvvw. I -— . ent Auset of his, ut'at em a charm. for the n 15^ (?. X pen ari protection of mighty one this, protecting [him front] the doing of betaut f what to him is hateful. pu The rubric of this chapter reads t'et-tu re Is to be said chapter ]' pen this her Set over a buckle ° Rubric of C^ ^ B^^m chapter ent x^ne™ of Book of , , . , the Dead. 0/ red jasper : ^ W mes - 6k anointed em with mau water o I nu of \ w w anxam ancham flowers. ^AM T menxu - ^a OTflife of her xati ent ra, nehet :M A D erta - ek • heart of a sycamore tree, and placed D •(s , c X^X ^" X^ P^" ^"^ aritu nef on the neck of deceased pei-son this. If makes one ^at f book 1 \ uiriting J ten un - nes XUt I J this. it en » power of Auset /«> ' See Birch, TAe Amulet of the Tie, Aeg. Zeit., 1871, p. 13: and Maspero, Mhnoire sur Quelques Papyrus du Louvre, p. 8. B. M. S 258 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT o o sail - f haa Heru se Auset maa - f protecting him, rejoices Horus, son of Isis, when sees he su an t'era en uat nebt er-ef //, not is blocked way any against him. I D -^ J D ^ ~-n 5 r a - f er pet a f er ta . . ar hand his is io heaven, hand his is to earth If \ y\ AAA/W* rex - tu ^at ten un - nef em ses en known is book this, is he in the following of Ausar Un-nefer maatxeru au untu nef sebau Osiris Unnefer, triumphant / Are opened to him the gates 1 ffl -- (]t^ iL_Jl AA/V\/V\ em neter-xertet au tatu nef x^ ta em of the underworld, is given to him an allotment of ground with Ill Twin ^ Hi i^T pertu beti em Sexet Aan re unen wheat and barley in Sechet - Aanre, IS oWJf^l zt^w w-^ in ren-f ma enen neteru enti am an name his like that of those gods who are there, say the ^1 ^P-li ^^"^ = ^=3 I I I Heru Sesu asex sen Horus followers, they [who] reap. AMULETS. 259 II. The Tet W. This object, which represents a mason's Thetetof lA Osiris. table and not a Nilometer, as a religious emblem symbolizes Osiris the lord of Tettu, great god of the underworld. The meaning of the word tet is " firmness, stability, preservation," etc. The tet had on it sometimes the plumes, disk and horns, [^ , and was painted on mummies and tombs. The amulet itself was placed on the neck of the mummy which it was supposed to protect. Tets are made of faience, gold, wood gilded, carnelian, lapis-lazuli, and many other substances, although the rubric of the iSSth chapter, of which u is the vignette, states that they are to be made of gold. This chapter is entitled : — I II re en tet en '■ Chapter of a tet of (%«<^ III nub tata gold placed er OJl the neck en of The Chapter of the tet XU the deceased" and reads : — y o uben - k - nek " Rise up thou, :M?^ urtu ab urtu ab pen O resting of heart this. 1 ^1 pest - k nek shine thou. ta © 1 1 tu her ma m. it na O resting of heart, place thou thyself upon place thy. Come I, I tet en nub an-na nek tet en nub ha k iring 1 to thee a tet of gold, rejoice thou am f initr^ ' Papyrus of Ani, pi. 33 ; the text given by Naville, Das Todtenhich, Bl. clxxx., differs from this. S 2 26o FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The Vul- ture of Isis. This chapter was to be " said over a tet of gold, made of the heart of sycamore wood, which was to be placed on the neck of the mummy." The tet enabled the deceased to enter in through the gates of the underworld, and if this chapter were known by him, he would " rise up as a perfect soul in the underworld, he would not be repulsed at the gates there, and cakes would be given to him, and joints of meat from the altars of Ra." III. The Vulture ^^- According to the rubric of the 157th chapter of the Book of the Dead, a vulture of gold was to be placed on the neck of the mummy on the day of the funeral ; it was supposed to carry with it the protection of " Mother " Isis. The chapter reads, " Isis has come, she has gone round about the towns, she has sought out the hidden places of Horus in his coming out from the .swamp of papyrus reeds. His son has stood against evil, he has come into the divine boat, he has commanded the princes of the world, he has made a great fight, he makes mention of what he has done, he has caused himself to be feared and estab- lished terror of him. His mother, the mighty lady, makes his protection and brings (?) him to Horus." Amulets of the vulture inscribed with this chapter are very rare. IV. The Collar %0^ usex- The rubric of the 158th chapter of the Book of the Dead orders a collar of gold to be laid upon the neck of the deceased on the day of the funeral. It was to be inscribed :— atf-a Father my. m ^=^ ill v«T^^ mut - a Auset mother my, Isis ! sent-a sister my^ vg.-^ sefexi ua Unbandaged am I, ,ik Vff °°L, /wvw lAlll —"^ I I I maa-ua nuk ua am sefexi maa-sen Seb see I. I am one among the unbandaged ones [who^ see Seb. Amulet collars are found made of red jasper, carnelian. etc. AMULETS. 261 V. The "Papyrus Sceptre" T uat' . This amulet is The papy- 1/ rus sceptre usually made of mother-of-emerald or of faience like unto it °^ ^hoth. in colour, and the hieroglyphic word which it represents, j P "I ^'^^' iTieans " verdure, flourishing, greenness," and the like ; it was placed on the neck of the deceased, and indicated the eternal youth which it was hoped he would enjoy in the underworld. This amulet was sometimes inscribed with the 159th chapter of the Book of the Dead, where it is described as o uat' en nesem, " an uat' of mother-of- r~vrn emerald." The next chapter says that a rounded tablet, on which is a figure of the | in relief, is to be placed on the neck of the deceased ; it was supposed to be given to him by Thoth, and to protect his limbs. VI. The Pillow ^'[l'^ urs} This amulet is usually made of haematite, and is generally uninscribed ; it is a model of the large pillows of wood, alabaster and stone which are placed under the heads of mummies to " lift them up." When inscribed the text is a version of that of the i66th chapter of the Book of the Dead. No. 20,647 i'^ the British Museum reads : — r:^ TL-\ 0es tu Jiise up from I I I «] pra mentu tton-exislence. st'er6» O prostrate one. seres Watch over The Chapter of the Pillow. sen tep-k er x^t they head thy at the horizon 'l-\ P<^^-" 6'es - u exalted. sexer k overthrowest thou I <^ I xeft k enemies thy. maatxeru - k her ari u erek triumphest thou over what do ihey against thee. ' See Birch, T/ie Chapter of the Pillnv, in Aeg. Zeit., 1868, rp- 52-54- 262 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. {sic) ►=?=< utu er ari nek Heru net' tef f [as] has commanded to be done for thee Horus, the avenger of father his D XDC- III I tepu nu I 1 1 Ausar pen at k tepu nu x^f' ^ an Osiris this. Cuttest off thou heads of enemies thy, not ^ L=^ O heh I nehem sen k erek er heh apt k shall carry away they from thee for ever head (?) thy I 'L=^ I] sat Ausar ari © Jii^ III I I mak sat Ausar ari em peru tepu Verily slaughter Osiris maketh at the coming forth of the heads L=Z) I 1 1 [®] nu xeft f an nehem sen [tep] f er - f of enemies his, not may remove they [head] his from him er for o heh ever I VII. The Heart \\| represents " myriads." This amulet is made of steatite, jasper of various colours, faience, etc. ; it 1 For a discussion on this amulet see Lefebure, Trans. Soc. Bib. Arch., 1891, PP- 333-349- 266 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The frog emblem of the resurrec- tion. Ring amulets. is often found with u and |, and was probably placed with these on the neck of the mummy, although examples are known which were taken from the chest The frog-headed goddess S j^ Heqt is a form of the goddess Hathor, the wife of Chnemu ; she was considered to be connected with the resurrection. On lamps of the Greek and Roman periods found in Egypt the frog often appears on the upper part, and one is known 'which has the legend €rU) €IMI ANACTACIC, "I am the resurrection." The use of this amulet appears not to be older than the XVIIIth dynasty. XXII. The Stairs X] or 2^- This amulet is usually made of glazed faience, but the use of it is unknown to me. In the vignette of the i lOth chapter of the Book of the Dead it is figured placed in a boat (Naville, Das Todtenbuck, Bl. CXXIII.) ; in the 22nd chapter the deceased says, "I am Osiris, lord of Re-stau (the passages of the tomb), and of those who are at the top of the stairs"; and in the 85th chapter the deceased says, " I am the lord of the stairs, I have made my nest on the borders of the sky." XXIII. The amulet of the two Fingers, the index and medius, is found in the interior of mummies, and is generally made of haematite or obsidian. The use of the amulet is unknown to me. In every Egyptian collection of importance a large number of rings, having a gap in each, will be found ; they are made of gold, red jasper, obsidian, red glazed faience, shell, stone, and glass. Those made of gold have a small ring at each end for a wire to pass through (?), and they may thus have been used as earrings or pendants for necklaces ; on the other hand they may have been used as amulets. Some believe that they were used as buttons. Figures of Gods. The gold, silver, bronze, wooden and faience figures of gods in Egyptian collections may be reckoned by thousands, and they vary in size from half an inch to fifteen inches or ' Figured in Lanzone, Dizionario, p. 853. FIGURES OF GODS. 267 more. Bronze statues were usually cast in moulds, in one or more pieces, the core being made of sand or earth. When cast in pieces the limbs were soldered together and the edges smoothed with a file or scraper. The core is frequently found Method of inside the statue, where it was left by the workmen to ture. strengthen the casting. Figures of gods in gold are com- paratively few, the gods most often represented in this metal being Amen-Ra, Chensu, and Nefer-Atmu ; figures of these gods were also made of silver and plated with gold, and a figure of the god Set, made of bronze plated with gold, is also known (B.M. No. 18,191). Bronze figures of gods were sometimes inlaid with gold, and the eyes were made of gold or silver with obsidian pupils. Glazed faience figures of gods are very common, and certain gods were made of this substance, which up to the present have rarely been met with in bronze. They were usually cast from moulds, and follow fairly closely the design and patterns of the bronze figures ; they do not occur earlier than the XXVth or XXVIth dynasty, and although wretched copies of them were made for hundreds of years after, they do not appear to have continued in use among all classes of people in Egypt. It may be mentioned in passing that the natives of Egypt at the present day make use of the old moulds, found chiefly in Upper Egypt, to cast figures of the gods in gold and silver which they sell to the traveller as genuine antiquities. Figures of the gods of Egypt are found among the ruins of houses and in temples and tombs. According to M. Mariette ' those found among the ruins of towns are of two kinds: i, those placed in a niche, cut in the form of a Uses o< shrine, which represented the divinity to the service of which fig°"es the inhabitants of the house were attached, and before which, on certain days, offerings were laid ; 2, those which were placed in crevices of the walls of the inner chambers of the house, and which were supposed to be able by magical influence to protect the inhabitants of the house from spells and the results of incantations, and from other malignant influences. The use of this latter class of statues or small ' Catalogue General des Monuments d'Abydos, p. I. 268 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. figures is as old as the XVIIIth dynasty, at least. The figures of gods found in temples are very numerous and are votive. The Egyptians seem to have believed that the gods inhabited statues or figures, made in their honour, and on this account they often made them very beautiful, so that they might form worthy habitations for them. On certain days prayers were said before them, and offerings were made to them. As figures of many different gods are found in the same temple, it follows that a worshipper wishing to place a figure of a god in a temple was not bound to offer one of the god to whom the temple was dedicated ; supposing the temple to be one of Ptah, he could offer a figure of Ra, or Chnemu, or of any god he pleased. Figures of gods were supposed to answer questions, for it will be remembered that when Chensu was asked if he would go to the land of Bechten to cure a daughter of the prince of that land of her sickness, he inclined his head in assent. When he arrived in that land, he held a conversation with the demon that possessed the maiden, and when the demon agreed to come out from her, provided that a feast were made in his honour, the god Funereal through his priest, assented. Figures of gods other than bronzes. Qsiris, Isis, and Nephthys are not commonly found in tombs ; it is true that many examples in faience are found in the wrappings of mummies, but in these cases they were simply used as amulets like the buckle, tet, pillow and many others. Figures of gods made of every sort of material were also buried in the sand around temples and tombs with the view of guarding them from every evil influence. The following is a list of the most important of the gods and goddesses of whom figures were made in bronze and glazed faience : — Amen-Ra (1 J| and Mut and Chensu formed the great triad of Thebes; the word Amen means "hidden." Amen was said to be the son of Ptah, and he seems to have Amen the usurped the attributes of all the other gods. Before the ex- eod°oT' pulsion of the Hyksos by Se-qenen-Ra his position was that Egypt- of the local god of Thebes ; subsequently he became the national god of Egypt. He was said to be the maker of things above and of things below, and to have more forms FIGURES OF GODS. 209 than any other god. He made the gods, and stretched out the heavens, and founded the earth ; he was lord of eternity and maker of everlasting. The Egyptians affirmed of him that he was ONE, the ONLY ONE. In bronze figures he stands upon a plinth, he holds the sceptre | in his left hand, and on his head he wears the disk- and feathers )\i ; at times he holds a scimitar (B.M. Nos. 28, 29). He is also represented seated on a throne, and the throne was some- times placed inside a shrine, the top of which was ornamented with ursei, winged disk, etc., and the sides and back with hollow-work figures of Isis, Nephthys, and Osiris (B.M. No. 11,013). On the pedestals he is called " Amen-Ra, lord of the thrones of the world, the president of the Apts (i.e., Karnak), lord of heaven, prince of Thebes." (1 ^ ^ZZ7 one of a triad consisting of Amen, Amsu, and Ra (B.M. No. 18,681). The faience figures of this god are similar to QDDQ 00 DO on Amen-Ra. Amsu. 2/0 FUNEREAL ARCHyEOLOGY OF EGYPT. the bronze ||, and he appears together with the other members of his triad, Mut and Chensu. Ames or Amsu (j-jj-_„_A ^ J, commonly read " Chem," is a form of Amen-Ra, and represented '• genera- tion " or the productive power in nature : figures of him, in bronze and faience, |r , are tolerably numerous. The god of procre- ation. Ra O Jf, the Sun-god, was also the creator of gods and men ; his emblem was the sun's disk. His worship was very ancient, and he was said to be the offspring of Nut, or Different the sky. He assumed the forms of several other gods, and is ^™^° at times represented by the lion, cat, and hawk. In papyri and on bas-reliefs he has the head of a hawk, and wears a disk, in front of which is an uraeus When he rose in the morning he was called Heru-chuti or Harmachis ;. and at night, when he set, he was called Atmu, or "the closer." Ra. ^3 jiA-^a-/ Heru (Horus). FIGURES OF GODS. 271 Horus '^ usually called defeat of Set. Rathe warrior. During the night he was supposed to be engaged in fighting Apepi, the serpent, who, at the head of a large army of fiends, personifications of mist, darkness, and cloud, tried to overthrow him. The battle was renewed daily, but Ra always conquered, and appeared day after day in the sky. Bronze and faience figures of this god represent him hawk- headed and wearing disk and urteus. Menthu-Ra ^^^^ v wi '"^ bronze figures is hawk- headed, and wears the disk, in front of which are two uraei, and plumes ; at times figures have two Iiawk's heads on a single body. ^, the morning sun, son of Isis and Osiris, is ' the avenger of his father," in reference to his Figures in bronze and faience represent him hawk-headed and wearing the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. This god was distinguished in name only from Heru-ur; the elder brother of Osiris. Harpocrates, or Heru-pa-Chrat '^^ t^^ ^> the morning The god Heru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates). Chensu. 2J2 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. sun, in bronze or faience wears the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt W^, or the triple crown ^&_, or the plumes %, or is quite bald ; over the right shoulder a lock of hair falls, and the tip of a finger of the right hand rests on his lips. He is represented naked, as being in the lap of his mother Isis. Chensu ' vwf ^^^ associated with Amen-Ra and Mut in the Theban triad, and was god of the moon. In bronze figures he is human-headed, and wears a crescent and disk ; in faience figures he is made like a mummy, and holds sceptres of different shapes in his hands. His second name was Nefer-hetep, and he was worshipped with great honour at Thebes. Chensu-pa-chrat 1 A^ % has all the attributes of Harpocrates, and figures of him in bronze are not rare. A very fine specimen is B.M. No. ii,0/)5 "T"^" ^ k ^ ^' °'' Atniu ^^^ ^ 51 the "Closer" The night- of the day or night, usually represents the night-sun. He Sua. Different fonns of Chensu. Chensu Nefer-Hetep. Atmu- FIGURES OF GODS. ^n wears the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt ; in the right hand he holds ■¥•, and in the left |. Nefer-Atmu, the son of Ptah and Sechet or Bast, represents the power of the heat of the rising sun. Figures of this god were made in gold, silver, bronze, and faience. In metal, he stands upright, wearing lotus flowers and plumes on his head, in his right hand he holds 1 and in the left ■¥•. Sometimes each shoulder is inlaid in gold with an ut'at (B.M. No. 22,921). In faience he has the same head-dress, but stands on a lion ; in faience, too, he is often accompanied by his mother Sechet or Bast (B.M. Nos. 2^ob, 260a). Ptah ° § y, the "Opener," perhaps the oldest of all the The oldest ^i A Jl god of gods of Egypt, was honoured with a temple and worshipped Egypt. at IVIemphis from the time of the 1st dynasty. He is said to be the father of the gods, who came forth from his eye, and of men, who came forth from his mouth. Nefer-Atmu. Ptah. B. M. 274 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The god of the resurrec- tion. Imouthis the scribe. He is represented in the form of a mummy, and he holds a sceptre composed of | usr, " strength,'' ■¥■ dnch, " life," and u iet, " stability." Bronze and faience figures of this god are tolerably common, and resemble each other in form and design. At the back of his neck he wears the mendt (w. With reference to his connexion with the resurrection and the nether world, he is called Ptah-Seker-Ausar, and is represented as a little squat boy, with bent legs, and his hands on his hips. Sometimes he has his feet on the head of a crocodile ; on the right side stands Isis, on the left Nephthys, at his back is a human-headed hawk emblematic of the soul, on each shoulder is a hawk, and on his head is a beetle, the emblem of Chepera, the self-begotten god. In faience figures of this god are very common, but in bronze they are rare. I-em-hetep ^s. i-^, the Imouthis of the Greeks, was the first-born son of Ptah and Nut. He is represented Ptah-Tatenen. i-em-hetep. (Imouthis). FIGURES OF GODS. 275 both standing and seated, holding a sceptre \ in the right hand, and -V- in the left ; at times he holds on his knees an open roll, upon which is inscribed his name. The bronze figures of this god are usually of very fine workmanship, often having the inscriptions inlaid in gold ; in faience, figures of this god are very rare. Chnemu ^ W, the "Moulder," the XvovfiK, The -L "mould- Xvov/3ts, Xvov^i,, Kvrj<^ or Kvovjii,<; of the Greeks, is one of er"of the oldest gods of Egypt, and was especially worshipped ™^"" in Nubia, at Philae, where he is represented making man out of clay on a potter's wheel, and at Elephantine. Like Amen-Ra he is said to be the father of the gods,^ and Chnemu. Chepera, Tehuti (Thoth). ' Father of the fathers of the gods, the lord who evolveth from himself, maker of heaven, earth, the underworld, water, and mountains "■ <-— '^'^ T 2 276 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Thoth the accurate scribe of the gods. The murderer of Osiris and opponent of Horus. with this god and Ptah and Chepera he shared the name of " creator of men." Chnemu put together the scattered Hmbs of the dead body of Osiris, and it was he who created the beautiful woman who became the wife of Bata in the Tale of the Two Brothers. In bronze and faience, figures of this god represent him with the head of a ram, and wearing plumes, til) ; these figures are tolerably common. Thoth, in Egyptian Tehuti ^>^ , the " Measurer," was the scribe of the gods, the measurer of time and inventor of numbers. In the judgment hall of Osiris he stands by the side of the balance holding a palette and reed ready to record the result of the weighing of the heart as announced by the dog-headed ape who sits on the middle of the beam of the scales. In bronze figures he is represented with the head of an ibis, but he has upon it sometimes horns and plumes. In faience figures he has also the head of an ibis, and occasionally he holds an ut'at ^^^ between his hands in front of him (B. M. No. 490rt). Set or Sut 1^3, Gr. 5^^, was one of the sons of Seb and Nut, and was brother of Osiris, and husband of Nephthys. His worship dates from the Vth dynasty, and he continued to be a most popular god in Egypt until the XlXth dynasty ; kings delighted to call themselves " beloved of Set," and to be compared to him for valour when the records of their battles were written down. He probably represented the destructive power of the sun's heat. Between the XXIInd and XXVth dynasties a violent reaction set in against this god, his statues and figures were smashed, his effigy was hammered out from the bas-reliefs and stelse in which it appeared, and from being a beneficent god, and a companion of Amen and his brother-gods, he became the personification of all evil, and the opponent of all good. His persistent enmity of Osiris will be mentioned below. Set, or Sutech, was chosen by the Hyksos for their god. Bronze figures of Set are very rare indeed. The British Museum possesses two examples, Nos. 18,191 and 22,897; each represents the god standing upright, in each he has the characteristic animal's FIGURES OF GODS. 277 head, and wears the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, each figure was originally gilded, and each has a hole drilled in a projecting piece of metal, from which it was suspended and worn. When I bought the larger figure it was bent double, evidently by a violent blow, given probably when the reaction against this god's worship set in. Faience figures of Set I have never seen. Set. Ausar (Osiris). Osiris, in Egyptian Ausdr A S\ , the great god and king of the underworld, the judge of the dead, was the son of Seb and Nut, and husband of Isis ; he was murdered by his brother Set, who was in turn slain by Horus, the son of Osiris, and the "avenger of his father." According to Plutarch {De Plutarch's Istde et Osiride, xii.-xx.) Osiris was the wise and good king osms° of Egypt, who spent his life in civilizing his subjects and in improving their condition. Having brought them out of degradation and savagery, he set out to do the like for the other nations of the world. Upon his return his brother Set, 278 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. together with seventy-two other people, and the queen of Ethiopia, made a conspiracy against him. They invited him into a banqueting room, and by an artful device made Osiris get into a box which Set had previously caused to be made to fit him. As soon as Osiris had lain down in it, the conspirators nailed the cover on it, and having poured molten lead over it, they carried it by river to the sea, the waves of which washed it up at Byblos. As soon as Isis heard of what had happened, she set out to search for her husband's body, and eventually found it ; but having carried it off to another place, it was accidentally discovered by Set, who forthwith broke open the chest, and tore the body into fourteen pieces, which he scattered up and down the country. Isis then set out to search for the pieces of her husband's body, and she found all but one ; wherever she found a piece she buried it, and built a temple over it. He was the type of all mummies, and the deceased is made like unto him, and named after him. Bronze figures of this god represent him as a mum- yj / on her head, and she is often represented armed with bow and arrows. In bronze and faience figures of this goddess are tolerably common. Net (Neith). Maat "^ ii J| , the " daughter of Ra and mistress of the gods," symbolized Law, and she is always represented with (j madt, emblematic of Law, upon her head ; in papyri two Maat are shown together, each wearing H, but sometimes this feather alone takes the place of the head. In figures of bronze, lapis- lazuli, and faience she is represented sitting down. Hathor, in Egyptian [^ , or ^ ■?" ^ Het-Hert, the "house of Horus," is identified with Nut, the sky, or place in which she brought forth and suckled Horus ; she was the wife of Atmu, a form of Ra. She is represented as a woman FIGURES OF GODS. 291 cow-headed, with horns and a disk between them, and shares with Isis and Mut many of their attributes.^ She is often represented as a cow coming forth from the mountain of the west. The worship of Hathor is exceedingly ancient, and The god- she was supposed to be the goddess of beauty, love, and joy, fine art. and the benefactress of the world. The forms^ in which she is depicted on the monuments are as numerous as the aspects from which she could be regarded. Full length figures of this goddess in bronze and faience are comparatively few," but plaques and pendants of faience upon which her head is inscribed or painted are common. For a fine example in bronze of Hathor, cow-headed, wear- ing horns, disk, urseus and plumes, see B.M. No. 22,925. The British Museum also possesses two interesting bronze hollow- work portions of menats in which Hathor is represented in Maat IJet-Heru (Hathor). ' A list of the gods with whom she is identified is given in Lanzone, Dia'onario, p. 863, 864. ^ On a pendant, B.M. No. 302, she is represented at full length, in relief. ' For a fine example, see B.M. No. 22,925. U 2 292 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. profile. No. 20,760 shows the goddess wearing an uraeus on her forehead, and four uraei on her head ; she has the usual head-dress of women falling over her shoulders. Beneath is a Hathor-headed sistrum, with pendent uraei, resting on pw^ . Beneath in an oval is the cow of Hathor, wearing X^i FIGURES OF GODS. 293 standing in a boat. Above, on each side, is an ursus. One wears the crown of Upper Egypt, , and the other wears the crown of Lower Egypt. This beautiful object was found at Der el-Bahari, and is inscribed with the prenomen of Amenophis III. (o ^ ■ No. 300 represents the goddess with a vulture head-dress, wearing X^. Below, in relief, are a figure of the goddess, and a floral ornament ; it is inscribed Nu of Nut. Nut :7f=q, " Hathor, lady of heaven." ^ was the god of the sky and the husband D o ' , the sky, the wife of Seb, and mother of The god- dess of Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys, Anubis, Shu, and Tefnut, was the sky. represented by a woman having a vase of water O on her head, and holding ■¥- in her right hand and | in her left. She was painted on the outside of cofEns, and was supposed Nut Seb. 294 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. to protect with her wings the deceased within. Figures of this goddess in bronze or faience are unknown to me. Seb "^^ J 3 , was the husband of Nut, the sky, and father of Osiris, Isis, and the other gods of that cycle ; figures of this god in bronze or fafence are unknown to me. Serq ''^^"^SSPrlj. daughter of Ra, wife of Horus, and identified with Sesheta and Isis, symbolized the scorching heat of the sun. A bronze figure in the Louvre (see Pierret, Pantheon Egyptian, p. 17 ; Lanzone, Dizionario, tav. ccclxii.), gives her the body of a scorpion, and the head of a woman wearing disk and horns, by which she is identified with Isis. There is a similar figure in the British Museum, No. 11,629, on the base of which is inscribed n ^ A ■¥■, " Isis, Giver of Life," and a small bronze scorpion. B.M. No. 18,667 also gives her the head and arms of a woman with disk and horns. The figures of this goddess, other than bronze, are usually made of lapis-lazuli. Serq. Maahes ^^ ' ^ ^^ represented as a man, lion- headed, wearing a disk and uraeus ; a few figures of this god in faience are known.* * See Lanzone, Dizionario, p. 272. FIGURES OF GODS. 295 Neheb-ka "^ |J V ^^ 5^ '^ ^ ^od mentioned in the Book of the Dead (chap. xvii. 61 ; chap. xxx. 3, etc.), and pictures of him are found upon coffins. In bronze figures he has the body of a man, and the head of a serpent ; in wood he has the body of an animal, and the head of a serpent, and holds ^^ in his paws (B.M. No. 11,779), in faience he has an animal's body and a serpent's head, and either holds O outstretched in his paws (B.M. No. 11,795), or raises them to his mouth (B.M. No. 1197). He sometimes wears plumes and horns. Maahes. Seker •^c^^ J) or Socharis, a form of the night-sun, is represented as a man, hawk-headed, holding /\, | and | in his hands ; for Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures, see page 215. There are among the Egyptian gods in the British Polytheis- Museum two examples (Nos. 1419 and 22,930) of a poly- q/ J,^"^^ theistic figure of considerable interest. They have hawks' 296 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. ithyphallic' bodies, human legs and feet, each of which stands on a crocodile, and human hands and arms ; the front of the head is in the form of a jackal's head, surmounted by plumes and disk, and the back is in the form of a ram's head, sur- mounted by a disk and urjEus. In the right hand is a whip J\^ and in the left an object which I cannot identify. Each group stands on a pedestal with a circle formed by a serpent having his tail in his mouth. These figures have much -in common with those described under the name Bes, and may be variant forms of this god. Another figure of interest is No. 24,385, which represents a seated woman, with the head of a sheep, surmounted by disk, uraeus, and horns; behind this head-dress is the tail of a scorpion. The right hand is laid underneath her left breast, which she touches with her finger and thumb, and the left rests upon her knee. The Museum of the Louvre possesses Ta-urt (Thoueris). Thoueris, lion-headed. Sefech-Aabn, or Sesheta. ' In No. 22,930, the hawk's body is more distinct, and has a head, sur- mounted by a disk, and the feathers of the tail rest upon a hippopotamus. FIGURES OF BIRDS, ANIMALS, AND REPTILES. 297 a similar figure with the addition of a naked child whom she holds upon her knees, and whom she is about to suckle. Lanzone {Dizionario, p. 841, for the figure see tav. cccxi.) thinks that the sheep and scorpion headed god represents Isis, and the child, Horus. Ta-urt c ^^^^ ^^ ^Ti f/p, , or Thoueris, was the wife of Set, and she is usually represented in bronze and faience with the head and body of a hippopotamus, the hind-quarters of a lion, and the tail of a crocodile. On her head she wears a modius which is sometimes surmounted by a disk, horns, and plumes [^ . Sefex-Aabu or Sesheta is a form of the goddess Hathor which was worshipped in Hermopolis, and was also adored in Memphis from the earliest dynasties. Figures of Animals, Birds and Reptiles, Sacred to THE Gods. The figures of animals found in the temples, tombs and ruined houses of Egypt may, like those of the gods, be divided into three classes : — i. Votive ; 2. Those worn as amulets either by the living or dead ; 3. Those which stood in houses. They are made of bronze, steatite, basalt, faience, wood, wood gilded, lapis-lazuli, wax, and many other materials. Those in bronze, stone, and wood were usually made for temples, and to stand in tombs ; those in faience, lapis-lazuli, and other precious stones were placed on the bead-work, or under the folds of the wrappings of mummies, or were worn suspended to necklaces, by the living ; those placed in the walls of houses, but which are not sufficiently well distinguished to give many details, were usually made of faience cast in moulds. The animals and reptiles of which figures are most commonly found are : — I. Ape, dog-headed, ^ , wearing disk and crescent, Animals sacred to Thoth and Chensu. Figures in bronze, stone, wood the gods, and faience, in which he is represented sitting, sometimes on a pedestal with steps, or standing, are common ; sometimes 298 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. he holds ^^ (B.M. No. 1442), and sometimes a goat (B.M. No. 11,910). 2. Hippopotamus ^ "^ "^* ^ , Ta-urt, Thoueris, standing on the hind-quarters of a lion, and holding the tail of a crocodile ; figures in bronze and faience are common. The most beautiful example of this composite animal in green basalt is preserved in the Museum at Gizeh, a cast of which is exhibited in the Egyptian Gallery of the British Museum, No. 1075. 3. Cow, sacred to Hathor, with disk between her horns, 4- Lion J®s , couchant or running, sacred to Horus. Examples are very common in faience. Frequently the body of the lion has a lion's head at each end of it, and sometimes there is a lion's head at one end, and a bull's head at the other ; on the back, between the two heads, is the disk of the sun, ,3va , the whole representing the sun on the horizon t^ , The two heads, facing in opposite directions, are supposed to represent the south and north, i.e., the sun's course daily. An example in which each lion's head has two faces, one looking towards the south and the other towards the north, is figured in Lanzone, Dizionario, tav. cvi. 5. Sphinx .S:^ , couchant or sitting on his haunches, sacred to Harmachis. Figures in bronze and faience are tolerably common. Sphinx. FIGURES OF BIRDS, ANIMALS, AND REPTILES. 299 6. Bull '^^, sacred to Apis or Mnevis, having disk and uraeus between his horns, and the figures of a vulture with outspread wings and a winged scarab on his back. Figures in bronze and stone are more common than in faience. 7. Ram, ^^, sacred to Chnemu or Amen-Ra ; figures in bronze and faience are tolerably common. 8. Cat IV, sacred to Bast, lady of Bubastis. Large Animals JS) -^ sacred to votive figures of the cat were made of bronze and wood, the "^^ S°^^- eyes being inlaid with obsidian and gold ; B.M. No. 22,927 has the eyes, and a large number of the hairs of the body, inlaid with gold. The smaller figures worn for ornament by the votaries of Bast are made of bronze, stone, rock-crystal, faience, &c. ; in the smaller figures the cat is represented with one, two, or more kittens, and the top of the I sceptre is often ornamented with a cat. 9. Jackal 'irh , sacred to Anpu (Anubis), or to Ap-uat In bronze figures, which are plentiful, he stands on a pedestal which fitted on to the top of a sceptre or staff ; faience figures are not very common. A large number of wooden models from the top of sepulchral boxes are known. 10. Hare ^^, sacred to Osiris Unnefer; figures in faience are common. 11. Sow '^^, sacred to Set (?), was the abomination of Horus Ja%"^Mil(]^^ ^. according to the 1 1 2th chapter of the Book of the Dead ; figures of this animal in faience are fairly common. B.M. No. 11,897 has a head at each end of its body. 12. Hippopotamus ^j^, sacred to Set or Typhon ; many large and beautiful examples of this animal in glazed faience and steatite exist in public and private collections. 13. Stag )^- Figures in which the animal is repre- sented with its legs tied together ready for sacrifice are known in bronze, e.£;., B.M. No. 1696. 14. Hedgehog, a few examples of which, in bronze and faience, are known. 300 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. IS- Shrew-mouse, sacred to Horus(?), examples of which are commoner in bronze than in faience. 1 6. Ichneumon. Examples in bronze, in which the animal wears disk and horns and plumes, are known, but figures in faience are rare. 17- Crocodile sacred to Thoth ; figures in bronze and faience are not rare. 21. Frog and Toad. Figures of both reptiles are common in bronze and faience. 22. Fish ' iL^^ . The facts here given on the subject of mastabas are derived from the excellent articles of M. Mariette in Revue Archiohgique, S. 2'"=, t. xix. p. 8 ff. THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS. 319 flat, for the face of each course of masonry, formed of stones laid vertically, is a little behind the one beneath it, and if these recesses were a little deeper, the external appearance of each side of the building would resemble a flight of steps. The stones which form the mastabas are of a moderate size, and with the exception of those used for the ceiling and architrave, have an average height of 18 or 20 inches. The Plan and height and length of the mastaba vary ; the largest measures ^"ast^bas? about 170 feet long by 86 feet wide, and the smallest about 26 feet long by 20 feet wide ; they vary in height from 13 to 30 feet. The ground at Sakkarah is formed of calcareous rock covered to the depth of a few feet with sand ; the foundations of the mastabas are always on the solid rock. The plan of the mastaba is a rectangle, and the greater axis of the rectangle is, without exception, in the direction from north to south. Moreover, at the pyramids of Gizeh, where the mastabas are ar- ranged symmetrically, the plan of their arrangement is like a chess-board, the squares of which are uni- formly elongated towards the north. Mastabas then are oriented astronomically towards the true north, and in the cases where they are a few degrees out, this difference must be attributed not to design but to negligence. It has been asserted that mastabas are only unfinished pyramids, but properly considered, it is evident that they form a class of buildings by themselves, and that they have nothing in common with the pyramid, save in respect of being oriented towards the north, this orientation being the result, not of a studied imitation of the pyramid, but of a religious intention, which at this early period influenced the construction of all tombs, whatever their external form. The mastabas at Sakkarah are built of stone and brick ; the stone employed is of two kinds, the one being very hard, and of a bluish-grey colour, and the other being comparatively soft, and of a yellowish colour. The bricks also are of two kinds, the 6. Transverse section at the bottom of a serdab. Orienta- tion of mastabas. 320 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The stele in mas- tabas. one yellowish, and the other black ; both sorts were sun-dried only. The bricks of a yellowish colour seem to have been used entirely during the earliest dynasties, and the black ones only appear with the second half of the IVth dynasty. However carefully the outside of the mastaba was built, the inside is composed of sand, pieces of stone thrown in without design or arrangement, rubble, rubbish, etc., and but for the outside walls holding all together many of them must have perished long since. The eastern face of the mastaba is the most important, for, four times out of five, the entrance - is in it ; it is sometimes, but very rarely, bare. Some yards from the north-east corner is, at times, a very high, narrow opening, at the bottom of which the masonry of the mastaba itself assumes the form of long vertical grooves, which dis- tinguish the stels of this epoch ; a stele, with or without inscription, sometimes takes the place of this opening. At a distance of some feet from the south-east corner is generally another opening, but larger, deeper and more carefully made ; at the bottom of this is sometimes a fine inscribed calcare- ous stone stele, and sometimes a small architectural facade, in the centre of which is a door. When the eastern face has the opening at the south-east corner which has just been described, the mastaba has no interior chamber, for this opening takes its place. When the mastaba has the fa9ade in the place of the opening, there is a chamber within. When the entrance to the mastaba is made on the north side, the fagade is brought back to the end of a kind of vestibule, and at the front of this vestibule are set up two monolithic columns, without abacus, and without base, which support the architrave, which supports the ceiling. The entrance to the mastaba is r The upper chamber, the pit, and the sarcopha^s chamber of a Mastaba. THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS. 321 sometimes made from the south, but never from the west ; the top of the mastaba is quite flat. The interior of the complete mastaba consists of three The parts, the chamber, the serdab, and the pit. Having entered ^amb«. the Chamber by the door in the side, it is found to be either without any ornamentation whatever, or to be covered with sculptures. At the bottom of the chamber usually facing the 8. Mastaba at Gizeh with double pit east, is a stele, which, whether the walls are inscribed or not, is always inscribed. At the foot of the stele, on the bare ground, is often a table of offerings made of granite, alabaster, or calcareous stone ; two obelisks, or two supports for offerings, are often found at each side of this table. Besides these things the chamber has no furniture, and it rarely has a door. B. M. Y 322 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Not far from the chamber, oftener to the south than to the north, and oftener to the north than to the west, is a lofty but narrow nook hidden in the thickness of the masonry, and built with large stones ; this nook is called the Serdab.' Sometimes Use of the serdab has no communication whatever with the other the serdah. p^rts of the mastaba, but sometimes a rectangular passage, so 9. Figures in relief in a Mastaba at Gizeh. Vth dynasty. narrow that the hand can only be inserted with difficulty, leads from the serdab into the chamber ; in the serdab statues of the deceased were placed and the narrow passage served ^Aserddb, <_;1 J^ , strictly speaking, is a lofty, vaulted, subterranean chamber, with a large opening in the north side to admit air in the hot weather. THE EGYPTIAN TOMES. 323 10. West wall of a chamber in the tomb of Ptah-hetep. Vth dynasty. Y 2 324 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The mas- taba pit and sar- cophagus chamber. Charac- teristics of the earliest mastabas. to conduct to them the smoke of incense or perfume. The interior of the serdab is never inscribed, and nothing but statues, inscribed with the names and titles of the persons whom they represented, have ever been found in them. Statues were at times placed in the court in front of the mastaba. The pit, square or rectangular in form, but never round, leads to the chamber where the mummy was laid ; it is situated in the middle of the greater axis of the mastaba nearer to the north than the south, and varies in depth from 40 to 80 feet. The top part of the pit where it passes through the platform on which the mastaba stands, is built of fine large stones. There was neither ladder nor staircase, leading to the funereal chamber at the bottom of the pit, hence the coffin and the mummy when once there were inaccessible. At the bottom of the pit, on the south side, is an opening into a passage from four to five feet high ; this passage leads obliquely to the south-east, in the same direction as the upper chamber, and soon after increases in size in all directions, and thus becomes the sarcophagus chamber. This chamber is exactly under the upper chamber, and the relatives of the deceased in standing there, would have the de- ceased beneath their feet. In one corner of the lower chamber stood the rectangular sarcophagus made of fine calcareous stone, rose granite or black basalt ; the top of the cover was rounded. The upper chamber contained no .statues, ushabtiu figures, amulets, canopic jars, nor any of the numerous things which formed the furniture of the tomb in later times ; in the sarcophagus were, at times, a pillow or a few vases, but little else. When the body had been placed in the sarcophagus, and the cover of the sarcophagus had been cemented down on it, the entrance to the passage at the bottom of the pit was walled up, the pit itself was filled with stones, earth and sand, and the deceased was thus preserved from all ordinary chances of disturbance. The tombs of the mastaba class stop suddenly at the end of the first six dynasties ; of tombs belonging to one of the first three dynasties, M. Mariette found 4 at Sakkirah ; of the IVth dynasty 43 ; of the Vth dynasty 61 ; and of the Vlth dynasty 25. The mastabas of the first three dynasties THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS. 325 have but one upper chamber, which is built of brick, the stelae are very deeply cut, the hieroglyphics and the figures are in relief, and display more vigour than at any other time ; the inscriptions are terse, and the use of phonetic signs less common than in later times. These tombs can hardly be said to be oriented at all, for they are, at times, as much as twelve degrees west of the true north. In the second half of the IVth dynasty, raastabas have a size and extent hitherto unknown ; they are either built entirely of black brick or of stone. Their orientation becomes accurate, the figures and hieroglyphics are well executed, the formulae become fixed, and the statues in the serdabs, which are very numerous, unite the vigour of those of the first half of the IVth with the delicacy of those of the Vth dynasty. The famous wooden statue of the ShSkh el-Beled belongs to this time. In the Vth dynasty mastabas are not so large, but they are always built of stone ; inside there are more chambers than one, approached by long passages, and the statues are not so characteristic as those of the latter half of the IVth dynasty. The mastabas of the Vlth dynasty show a decided decadence, and lose their fine proportions ; the figures are in light relief, the formulae become longer, and the chambers are built of brick and covered with thin sculptured slabs of stone. The walls of the upper chambers of mastabas were Ornamen- frequently covered with scenes which, according to M. 'r'"5" Mariette, are without any representation of divinities and mastaba. religious emblems, the names of deities, and characters em- ployed in the course of writing naturally excepted. The inscription which asks the god Anubis to grant a happy burial to the deceased, after a long and happy old age, to make his way easy for him on the roads in the underworld, and to grant the bringing to the tomb a perpetual supply of funereal gifts, is inscribed in bold hieroglyphics over the entrances to the tomb, and upon the most conspicuous places on the stelae in the upper chamber. The scenes depicted on the walls of the mastabas are divided by Mariette into three classes : 1, Biographical, 2, Sepulchral, and 3, those relating to funereal gifts. Biographical scenes are found in tombs of all periods. The deceased is 326 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Scenes and in- criptions. represented hunting or fishing, taking part in pleasure excursions by water, and listening to music played before him accompanied by the dancing of women ; he is also represented as overseer of a number of building operations in which many workmen are employed. It is tolerably certain that these scenes are not fictitious, and that they were painted while the person who hoped to occupy the tomb was still alive, and could direct the labours of the artist. The prayer that the deceased might enter his tomb after a ■til ^^ Id E o H m a >. ■o > 01 B o u o •a a THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS. 327 long and prosperous life has a significance which it could not possess if the tomb were made after his death. The sepulchral scenes refer to the passage of the mummy in a boat to Amenta. The scenes relating to sepulchral gifts Bakers making Bread. From a Vth dynasty Tomb at Sakkarah. Cattle on the March. From a Vth dynasty Tomb at Sakkarah, 328 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. represent the deceased, having colossal proportions compared with the other figures, sitting or standing with a round table before him, upon which fruits, flowers, vegetables, ducks, haunches of beef, etc., etc., are placed. These offerings are sometimes carried in before the deceased on the head or hands of servants and others, who often lead beasts appointed for slaughter ; they were brought into the tomb in an appointed order, and an endowment to ensure their pre- sentation in the tomb on the specified festivals and seasons was specially provided. The scenes in the tombs which represent agricultural labours, the making of wine, etc., etc.. Endow- all have reference to the bringing of funereal gifts ; and it ment of , . ® ® '^'>~^ [TD "l-^ , ^ tombs. seems that certain estates a.\ nut ent pa t'eita, © Ci O I . ... 'V ''estates of the house of everlasting" {i.e., the tomb), were set apart to supply palm branches, fruit, etc., for the table of the dead. The act of bringing these gifts to the tomb at the appointed seasons was probably connected with some religious ceremony, which seems to have consisted in pouring out libations and offering incense, bandages, etc., by the fli Q Y'^SP^^ cher heb ox ■^x'l&'sX. The Egyptian called the tomb ^r| pa i'etta, " the everlasting house," and he believed that the ka LJ or "genius" of the deceased resided there as long as the mummy of his perishable body, ^1 c/ia, was there. The ka might go in and out of the tomb, and refresh itself with meat and drink, but it never failed to go back to the mummy with the name of which it seems to have been closely connected ;' the i^ ia or soul, and the '^ cku or intelligence did not live in the tomb. The Pyramids. The royal tombs of the early dynasties were built in the form of pyramids, and they are, to all intents and purposes, merely mastabas, the greater parts of which are above ' Herr und Leib vereint bilden das I — 1 oder die Persbnlichkeit des Menschen, I das dem Individuum eigenthiimliche Wesen, die ihn von andern unterscheidet und mit seinem Namen in engster Verbindung steht. Brugsch, £>te Ae^ptologie, p. i8i. THE PYRAMIDS. 329 ground ; they consist of the chamber in which funereal gifts were offered, the passage and the sarcophagus chamber. The ^''J^^j^'^^j actual pyramid contained the passage and the sarcophagus chamber, but although the chamber, sometimes called temple or chapel, in which funereal gifts were offered, was a building separate from the pyramid, it nevertheless formed an integral part of the pyramid plan. On the western bank of the Nile, from Abu Roish on the north to Medfim on the south, is a slightly elevated tract of land, about twenty-five miles long, on the edge of the Libyan desert, on which stand the E a CU "it B m •a e CU ClJ 0) t-l o h 3 ! \ (K^' 330 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. pyramids of Abu Roash, Gizeh, Zawyet e]-'Ary4n, Abusir, Sakkarah, and Dahshur. Other places in Egypt where pyramids are found are El-lahun in the Fayyum, and Kullah near Esneh. The pyramids built by the Ethiopians at Meroe and Gebel Barkal are of a very late date (B.C. 600-100) and are mere copies, in respect of form only, of the pyramids in Egypt. There is no evidence whatever to show that they were built for purposes of astronomical observations, and the theory that the Great Pyramid was built to serve as a standard of measurement is ingenious but worthless. The significant fact, so ably pointed out by Mariette, that pyra- mids are only found in cemeteries, is an answer to all such theories. Tomb-pyramids were built by kings and others until the Xllth dynasty. The ancient writers who have described and treated of the pyramids are given by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 12, 17). If we may believe some of the writers on them during the Middle Ages, their outsides must have been covered with inscriptions ; these were probably of a religious nature.' In modern times they have been examined by Shaw (1721), Pococke (1743), Niebuhr (1761), Davison (1763), Bruce (1768), Denon and Jumard (1799), Hamilton (1801), Caviglia (1817), Belzoni (1817), Wilkin- son (1831), Howard Vyse and Perring (1837-38), Lepsius (1842-45), and Petrie (1881). The liuild- jt appears that before the actual building of a pyramid pyramid, was begun, a suitable rocky site was chosen and cleared, a mass of rock if possible being left in the middle of the area to form the core of the building. The chambers and galleries leading to them were next planned and excavated. Around the core a truncated pyramid building was made, the angles of which were filled up with blocks of stone. Layei after layer of stone was then built round the work, which grew larger and larger until it was finished. Dr. Lepsius thought that when a king ascended the throne, he built for himself a small but complete tomb-pyramid, and that a fresh coating of stone was built round it every ' " their surfaces exhibit all kinds of inscriptions written in the characters oi ancient nations which no longer exist. No one knows what this writing is or what it signifies." Mas'udi (ed. Barbier de Meynard), t. ii. p. 404. THE GREAT PYRAMID. 33 1 year that he reigned ; that when he died the sides of the pyramid were like long flights of steps, which his successor filled up with right-angled triangular blocks of stone ; and that the door of the pyramid was walled up after the body of its builder had been laid in it, and thus it became a finished tomb. The explanation of Dr. Lepsius may not be correct, but at least it answers satisfactorily more objections than do the views of other theorists on this matter. It has been pointed out that near the core of the pyramid the work is more carefully executed than near the exterior, that is to say, as the time for the king's death approached the work was more hurriedly performed. During the investigations made by Lepsius in and around the pyramid area, he found the remains of about seventy- five pyramids, and noticed that they were always built in groups. The pyramids of Gizeh were opened by the Persians violation during the fifth and fourth centuries before Christ ; it is °f P)"^- ^ ' mids by probable that they were also entered by the Romans, Khalif the Mamun (a.D. 813-833) entered the Great Pyramid, and ^"='^"=- found that others had been there before him. The treasure which is said to have been discovered there by him is probably fictitious. Once opened, it must have been evident to every one what splendid quarries the pyramids formed, and very few hundred years after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs, they were laid under contribution for stone to build mosques, etc., in Cairo. At the end of the twelfth century Melik el-Kamil made a mad attempt to destroy the pyramid built by Mycerinus ; but after months of toil he only succeeded in stripping off the covering from one of the sides. It is said that Muhammad 'Ali was advised to undertake the senseless task of destroying them all. The most important pyramids and groups of pyramids are the following : — The Great Pyramid. This, the largest of the three pyramids at Gizeh, was built by Chufu ( ® ^ "^-^^ ^ 1 °'^ Cheops, the second king of the IVth dynasty, B.C. 3733, who called it ^ ^i^ A, Chut. His 332 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. name was found written in red ink upon the blocks of stone Pyramid inside it. All four sides measure in greatest length about o . eops. ^^^ ^^^^ each, but the length of each was originally about 20 feet more ; its height now is 45 1 feet, but it is said to have been originally about 481 feet. The stone used in the construction of this pyramid was brought from Turra and Mokattam, and the contents amount to 85,000,000 cubic feet. The flat space at the top of the pyramid is about thirty feet square, and the view from it is very fine. The entrance (a) to this pyramid is, as with all pyramids, on the north side, and is about 43 feet above the ground. The passage A B C is 320 feet long, 3^^ feet high, and 4 feet wide ; at B is a granite door, round which the path at D has been made. The passage at D E is 125 feet long, and the large hall E F is 155 feet long and 28 feet high ; the pas- sage E G leads to the pointed-roofed Queen's Chamber H, which measures about 17 x 19 x 20 feet. The roofing in of this chamber is a beautiful piece of mason's work. From the large hall E F there leads a passage 22 feet long, the ante- chamber in which was originally closed by four granite doors, remains of which are still visible, into the King's Chamber, J, which is lined with granite, and measures about 35 X 17 X 19 feet. The five hollow chambers K, L, M, N, O were built above the King's Chamber to lighten the pressure of the superincumbent mass. In chamber O the name Chufu was found written The air shafts P and Q measure 234 feet X 8 inches x 6 inches, and 174 feet x 8 inches x 6 inches respectively. A shaft from E to R leads down to the subterranean chamber S, which measures 46 x 27 x 1O5 feet. The floor of the King's Chamber, J, is about 140 feet from the level of the base of the pyramid, and the chamber is a little to the south-east of the line drawn from T to U. Inside the chamber lies the empty, coverless, broken, red granite sarcophagus of Cheops, measuring 7^ x ^\ x 3^ feet. The account of the building of this pyramid is told by Herodotus^ as follows: "Now, they told me, that to the reign of Rhampsinitus there was a perfect distribution ' Bk. ii. 124-126. THE GREAT PYRAMIP. 333 a. O B >. > U. o o •a E Q. CO 334 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. building of the Great Pyramid. of justice, and that all Egypt was in a high state of prosperity ; but that after him Cheops, coming to reign over Herodotus them, plunged into every kind of wickedness. For that, having shut up all the temples, he first of all forbade them to offer sacrifice, and afterwards he ordered all the Egyptians to work for himself; some, accordingly, were appointed to draw stones from the quarries in the Arabian mountain down to the Nile, others he ordered to receive the stones when transported in vessels across the river, and to drag them to the mountain called the Libyan. And they worked to the number of 100,000 men at a time, each party during three months. The time during which the people were thus harassed by toil, lasted ten years on the road which they constructed, along which they drew the stones, a work, in my opinion, not much less than the pyramid ; for its length is five stades (3,021 feet), and its width ten orgyae (60 feet), and its height, where it is the highest, eight orgyae (48 feet) ; and it is of polished stone, with figures carved on it : on this road then ten years were expended, and in forming the subterraneous apartments on the hill, on which the pyramids stand, which he had made as a burial vault for himself, in an island, formed by draining a canal from the Nile. Twenty years were spent in erecting the pyramid itself: of this, which is square, each face is eight plethra (820 feet), and the height is the same ; it is composed of polished stones, and jointed with the greatest exactness ; none of the stones are less than thirty feet. This pyramid was built thus ; in the form of steps, which some call crossae, others bomides. When they had first built it in this manner, they raised the remaining stones by machines made of short pieces of wood : having lifted them from the ground to the first range of steps, when the stone arrived there, it was put on another machine that stood ready on the first range ; and from this it was drawn to the second range on another machine ; for the machines were equal in number to the ranges of steps ; or they removed the machine, which was only one, and portable, to each range in succession, whenever they wished to raise the stone higher ; for I should relate it in both ways, as it is related. The THE SECOND PYRAMID. 335 highest parts of it, therefore, were first finished, and after- wards they completed the parts next following ; but last of all they finished the parts on the ground, and that were lowest. On the pyramid is shown an inscription, in Egyptian characters, how much was expended in radishes, onions, and garlic, for the workmen ; which the interpreter,' as I well remember, reading the inscription, told me amounted to 1,600 talents of silver. And if this be really Herodotus the case, how much more was probably expended in iron building tools, in bread, and in clothes for the labourers, since they of the occupied in building the works the time which I mentioned, pyramid, and no short time besides, as I think, in cutting and drawing the stones, and in forming the subterraneous excavation. [It is related] that Cheops reached such a degree of infamy, that being in want of money, he prostituted his own daughter in a brothel, and ordered her to extort, they did not say how much ; but she exacted a certain sum of money, privately, as much as her father ordered her ; and contrived to leave a monument of herself, and asked every one that came in to her to give her a stone towards the edifice she designed : of these stones they said the pyramid was built that stands in the middle of the three, before the great pyramid, each side of which is a plethron and a half in length." (Gary's translation.) The Second Pyramid. The second pyramid at Gizeh was built by Cha-f-Ra, ( Q !^^ O |, or Chephren,, the third king of the IVth dy- nasty, B.C. 3666, who called it '^=f ^, ur. His name has not been found inscribed upon any part of it, but the frag- ment of a marble sphere inscribed with the name of Cha-f-Ra, ' Herodotus was deceived by his interpreter, who clearly made up a transla- tion of an inscription which he did not understand. William of BaMensel, who lived in the fourteenth century, tells us that the outer coating of the two largest pyramids was covered with a great number of inscriptions arranged in lines. (Wiedemann, Aeg. Geschichte, p. 179.) If the outsides were actually inscribed, the text must have been purely religious, like those inscribed inside the pyramids of Pepi, Teta, and Unas. 336 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Pyramid of Chephren. Pyramid of Chephren. which was found near the temple, close by this pyramid, confirms the statements of Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, that Chephren built it. A statue of this king, now in the Gizeh Museum, was found in the granite temple close by. This pyramid appears to be larger than the Great Pyramid because it stands upon a higher level of stone foundation ; it was cased with stone originally and polished, but the greater part of the outer casing has disappeared. An ascent of this pyramid can only be made with difficulty. It was first explored in 1816 by Belzoni (born 1778, died 1823), the discoverer of the tomb of Seti I. and of the temple of Rameses II. at Abu Simbel. In the north side of the pyramid are two openings, one at the base and one about 50 feet above it. The upper opening leads into a corridor 105 feet long, which descends into a chamber 46^ x 16-3- x 22^ feet, which held the granite sarcophagus in which Chephren was buried. The lower opening leads into a corridor about 100 feet long, which, first descending and then ascending, ends in the chamber mentioned above, which is usually called Belzoni's Chamber. The actual height is about 450 feet, and the length of each side at the base about 700 feet. The rock upon which the pyramid stands has been scarped on the north and west sides to make the foundation level. The history of the building of the pyramid is thus stated by Herodotus^ : " The Egyptians say that this Cheops reigned fifty years ; and when he died, his brother Chephren suc- ceeded to the kingdom ; and he followed the same practices as the other, both in other respects, and in building a pyramid ; which does not come up to the dimensions of his brother's, for I myself measured them ; nor has it sub- terraneous chambers ; nor does a channel from the Nile flow to it, as to the other ; but this flows through an artificial aqueduct round an island within, in which they say the body of Cheops is laid. Having laid the first course of variegated Ethiopian stones, less in height than the other by forty feet, he built it near the large pyramid. They both stand on the same hill, which is about lOO feet high. Chephren, they said, reigned fifty-six years. Thus 106 years are reckoned, during ' Bk. ii. 127. THE THIRD PYRAHUD. 337 which the Egyptians suffered all kinds of calamities, and for this length of time the temples were closed and never opened. From the hatred they bear them, the Egyptians are not very willing to mention their names ; but call the pyramids after Philition, a shepherd, who at that time kept his cattle in those parts." (Gary's translation.) The Third Pyramid. The third pyramid at Gizeh was built by Men-kau-Ra, f Ot^iiii ULjI' *^^ fourth king of the IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3633, who called it <^-^ ^^, Her. Herodotus and other ancient authors tell us that Men-kau-Ra, or Mycerinus, was Pyramid buried in this pyramid, but Manetho states that Nitocris, a cerinus. queen of the Vlth dynasty, was the builder. There can be, however, but little doubt that it was built by Mycerinus, for the sarcophagus and the remains of the inscribed coffin of this king were found in one of its chambers by Howard Vyse in 1837. The sarcophagus, which measured 8 x 3 x 2^ feet, was lost through the wreck of the ship in which it was sent to England, but the venerable fragments of the coffin are preserved in the British Museum, and form one of the most valuable objects in the famous collection of that institution. The formula on it is one which is found upon coffins down to the latest period, but as the date of Mycerinus is known, it is possible to draw some interesting and valuable conclusions from the fact that it is found upon his coffin. It proves that as far back as 3,600 years before Christ the Egyptian religion was established on a firm base, that the doctrine of immortality was already deeply rooted in the human mind. The art of preserving the human body by embalming was also well understood and generally practised at that early date. The pyramid of Men-kau-Ra, like that of Chephren, is '^^yT^ built upon a rock with a sloping surface ; the inequality of cerinus. the surface in this case has been made level by building up courses of large blocks of stones. Around the lower part the remains of the old granite covering are visible to a depth of B. M. z 338 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYrT. from 30 to 40 feet. It is unfortunate that this pyramid has been so much damaged ; its injuries, however, enable the visitor to see exactly how it was built, and it may be concluded that the pyramids of Cheops and Chephren were built in the same manner. The length of each side at the base is about 350 feet, and its height is variously given as 2IO and 215 feet. The entrance is on the north side, about thirteen feet above the ground, and a descending corridor about 104 feet long, passing through an ante-chamber, having a series of three granite doors, leads into one chamber about 44 feet long. In this chamber is a shaft which leads down to the granite-lined chamber about 20 feet below, in which were found the sarcophagus and wooden coffin of Mycerinus, and the remains of a human body. It is thought that, in spite of the body of Mycerinus being buried in this pyramid, it was left unfinished at the death of this king, and that a succeeding ruler of Egypt finished the pyramid and made a second chamber to hold his or her body. At a short distance to the east of this pyramid are the ruins of a temple which was probably used in connexion with the rites performed in honour of the dead king. In A.D. 1196 a deliberate and systematic attempt was made to destroy this pyramid by the command of the Muhammadan ruler of Egypt The account of the character of Mycerinus and of his pyramid as given by Herodotus is as follows: "They said that after him, Mycerinus,'. son of Cheops, reigned over Egypt ; that the conduct of his father was displeasing to him ; and that he opened the temples, and permitted the people, who were worn down to the last extremity, to return to their employments, and to sacrifices ; and that he made the most Pyramid j^g^ decisions of all their kings. On this account, of all the of My- ■" ° cerinus. kings that ever reigned in Egypt, they praised him most, for he both judged well in other respects, and moreover, when any man comjilained of his decision, he used to make him some present out of his own treasury and pacify his anger. This king also left a pyramid much less than that of his father, being on each side 20 feet short of three plethra ; it is quadrangular, and built half way up of ' Bk. ii. 129, 134. THE PYRAMIDS OF ABU ROASH AND ABUSIR 339 Ethiopian stone. Some of the Grecians erroneously say that this pyramid is the work of the courtesan Rhodopis ; but they evidently appear to me ignorant who Rhodopis was ; for they would not else have attributed to her the building such a pyramid, on which, so to speak, numberless thousands of talents were expended ; besides, Rhodopis flourished in the reign of Amasis, and not at this time ; for she was very many years later than those kings who left these pyramids.' (Gary's translation.) In one of the three small pyramids near that of Mycerinus the name of this king is painted on the ceiling. The Pyramids of Abu Roasii. These pyramids lie about six miles north of the Pyramids of Gizeh, and are thought to be older than they. Nothing remains of one except five or six courses of stone, which show that the length of each side at the base was about 350 feet, and a passage about 160 feet long leading down to a subterranean chamber about 43 feet long. A pile of stones close by marks the site of another pyramid ; the others have disappeared. Of the age of these pyramids nothing certain is known. The remains of a causeway about a mile long leading to them are still visible. The Pyramids of Abusir. These pyramids, originally fourteen in number, were Other built by kings of the Vth dynasty, but only four of them are ^f^h" VA now standing, probably because of the poorness of the dynasty, workmanship and the careless way in which they were put together. The most northerly pyramid was built by ( ©11^1 Sahu-Ra, the second king of the Vth dynasty, B.C. 3333; its actual height is about 120 feet, and the length of each side at the base about 220 feet. The blocks of stone in the sepulchral chamber are exceptionally large. Sahu-Ra made war in the peninsula of Sinai, he z 2 340 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. founded a town near Esneh, and he built a temple to Sechet at Memphis. The pyramid to the south of that of Sahu-Ra was built by C.g ^iP<=>] "^ 0^3 " Usr-en-Ra, son of the Sun, An." This king, like Sahu-Ra, also made war in Sinai. The largest of these four pyramids is now about 165 feet high and 330 feet square ; the name of its builder is unknown. Abusir is the Busiris of Pliny. The Step Pyramid of Sakkarah. This pyramid is generally thought to have been built by the fourth king of the 1st dynasty (called Uenephes by Manetho, and \\\ o ^ J Ata in the tablet of Abydos), who is said to have built a pyramid at Kochome {i.e., Ka-Kam) near Sakkarah. Though the date of this pyramid is not known accurately, it is probably right to assume that it is The oldest older than the pyramids of Gizeh. The door which led into pyramid. ^^ pyramid was inscribed with the name of a king called Ra-nub, and M. Mariette found the same name on one of the stelae in the Serapeum. The steps of the pyramid are six in number, and are about 38, 36, 34^, 32, 31 and 29^ feet in height ; the width of each step is from six to seven feet. The lengths of the sides at the base are : north and south 352 feet, east and west 396 feet, and the actual height is 197 feet. In shape this pyramid is oblong, and its sides do not exactly face the cardinal points. The arrangement of the chambers inside this pyramid is quite peculiar to itself. Pyramids inscribed with funereal texts. The Pyramid of UnAs C^qpl better known as " Mastabat el-Far'un," i.e., '' Pharaoh's Mastaba," called in Egyptian Nefer-as-u, lies to the south-east of the Step Pyramid, and was reopened and cleared out in 1881 by M. Maspero, at the expense of Messrs. Thomas Cook and Son. Its original height was about 62 feet, and the length of each side at the base 220 feet. Owing to the broken blocks of sand which lie round about it, Vyse was unable to give exact measurements. Several attempts had been THE STEP PYRAMID OF SAKKARAH. 34 1 made to break into it, and one of the Arabs who took part in one of these attempts, " Ahmed the Carpenter," seems to have left his name inside one of the chambers in red ink. It is probable that he is the same man who opened the Great Pyramid at Gizeh, A.D. 820. A black basalt sarcophagus, from which the cover had been dragged off, an arm, a shin bone, and some ribs and fragments of the skull from the mummy of Unas were found in the sarcophagus chamber. The walls of the two largest chambers and two of the corridors are inscribed with ritual texts and prayers of a very interesting character. Unas, the last king of the Vth dynasty, reigned about thirty years. The Mastabat el-Far'un was thought by Mariette to be the tomb of Unas, but some scholars thought that the " blunted pyramid " at Dahshur was his tomb, because his name was written upon the top of it. The Pyramid of Teta C ^ f] 1 , called in Egyptian Tet-asu, lies to the north-east of the Step Pyramid, and was opened in 1881. The Arabs call it the " Prison Pyramid," because local tradition says that it is built near the ruins of the prison where Joseph the patriarch was confined. Its actual height is about 59 feet ; the length of its sides at the base is 210 feet, and the platform at the top is about 50 feet. The arrangement of the chambers and passages and the plan of construction followed is almost identical with that of the pyramid of Unas. This pyramid was broken into in ancient days, and two of the walls of the sarcophagus chamber have literally been smashed to pieces by the hammer blows of those who expected to find treasure inside them. The inscriptions, painted in green upon the walls, have the same subject matter as those inscribed upon the walls of the chambers of the pyramid of Unas. According to Manetho, Teta, the first king of the Vlth dynasty, reigned about fifty years, and was murdered by one of his guards. The Pyramid of Pepi I., or f^ (](]1 "^ fSlf 1 " ^S- meri, son of the Sun, Pepi," lies to the south-east of the 342 FUNERKAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Step Pyramid, and forms one of the central group of pyramids at Sakkarali, where it is called the Pyramid of Shekh Abu Mansur; it was opened in 1880. Its actual height is about 40 feet, and the length of the sides at the base is about 250 feet ; the arrangement of the chambers, etc., inside is the same as in the pyramids of Unas and Teta, but the ornamentation is slightly different. It is the worst preserved of these pyramids, and has suffered most at the hands of the spoilers, probably because having been constructed with stones which were taken from tombs ancient already in those days, instead of stones fresh from the quarry, it was more easily injured. The granite sarcophagus was broken to take out the mummy, fragments of which were found lying about on the ground ; the cover too, smashed in pieces, lay on the ground close by. A small rose granite box, containing alabaster jars, was also found in the sarcophagus chamber. The inscriptions are, like those inscribed on the walls of the pyramids of Unas and Teta, of a religious nature ; some scholars see in them evidence that the pyramid was usurped by another Pepi, who lived at a much later period than the Vlth dynasty. The pyramid of Pepi I., the second king of the Vlth dynasty, who reigned, according to Manetho, fifty-three years, was called in Egyptian by the same name as Memphis, i.e., Men-nefer, and numerous priests were attached to its service. The Pyramids of Dahshur. The These pyramids, four of stone and two of brick. He about Pyramfd. t^''^^ ^"'^ ^ ^^'^ "''^^^ ^° *^^^ s>o\xl\y of Mastabat el-Far'un. The largest stone pyramid is about 326 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is about 700 feet ; beneath it are three subterranean chambers. The second stone pyramid is about 321 feet high, and the length of its sides at the base is 620 feet ; it is usually called the " Blunted Pyramid," because the lowest parts of its sides are built at one angle, and the completing parts at another. The larger of the two brick pyramids is about 90 feet high, and the length of the sides at the base is about 350 feet ; the smaller TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE. 343 is about 156 feet high, and the length of its sides at the base is about 343 feet. The Pyramid of Medum. This pyramid, called by the Arabs El-Haram el-Kaddab, Tombs of or " the False Pyramid," is probably so named because it is MMdle" unlike any of the other pyramids known to them ; it is said y^jfj;^^, to have been built by Seneferu (P J^^^l, the first king '"P'^"- of the IVth dynasty, but there is no indisputable evidence that he was the builder. The pyramid is about 115 feet high, and consists of three stages : the first is 70, the second 20, and the third about 25 feet high. The stone for this building was brought from the Mokattam hills, but it seems never to have been finished ; as in all other pyramids, the entrance is on the north side. When opened in modern times the sarco- phagus chamber was found empty, and it would .seem that this pyramid had been entered and rifled in ancient days. Tombs of the- Theban Empire. Egyptian tombs belonging to a period subsequent to the mastabas and pyramids, i.e., about the Xllth dynasty, usually have the three characteristic parts of these forms of tomb, viz., the chapel, the passage to the sarcophagus chamber, and the sarcophagus chamber itself excavated in the solid rock ; sometimes, however, the chapel or chamber in which the relatives of the deceased assembled from time to time, is above ground and separate from the tomb, as in the case of the pyramid. Tombs having the chapel separate are the oldest, and the best examples are found at Abydos.-* On a brick base about 50 feet by 35 feet, and four or five feet high, rose a pyramid to a height of about 30 feet; theo- retically such a tomb was supposed to consist of chapel, ' Abydos ^tant surtout une necropole du Moyen Empire, c'est la petite pyramide qui y domine. Des centaines de ces monuments, disposes sans ordre, herissaient la necropole et devaient lui donner un aspect pittoresque bien different de I'aspect des necropoles d'un autre temps. Mariette, Abydos, torn. II. Paris, 1880, p. 39. 344 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Tombs at Abydos. Tombs at Beni- Hasan. Tombs at Aswan. passage and pit, but at Abydos, owing to the friable nature of the rock, these do not exist, and the mummy was laid either in the ground between the foundations, or in the masonry itself, or in a chamber which projected from the building and formed a part of it, or in a chamber beneath. This class of tomb is common both at Thebes and Abydos. Tombs hewn entirely out of the solid rock were used at all periods, and the best examples of these are found in the mountains behind Asyut, at Beni-Hasan, at Thebes, and at Aswan. The tombs at Beni-Hasan are about fifteen in number, and they all belong to the Xllth dynasty ; they have preserved the chief characteristics of the mastabas at Sakkirah, that is to say, they consist of a chamber and a shaft leading down to a corridor, which ends in the chamber containing the sarco- phagus and the mummy. The tombs rise tier above tier, and follow the course of the best layers of stone ; the most important here are those of Ameni and Chnemu-hetep, which are remarkable for possessing columns somewhat resembling those subsequently called Doric, hewn out of the solid rock. The columns inside the tomb have sixteen sides. The bold headland which rises up in the low range of hills which faces the whole of the island of Elephantine, just opposite to the modern town of Asw5.n, has been found to be literally honeycombed with tombs, tier above tier, of various epochs. In ancient days there was down at the water's edge a massive stone quay, from which a broad, fine double stair- case, cut in the living rock, ascended to a layer of firm rock about 1 50 feet higher. At Thebes and at Beni-Hasan, where such staircases rriust have existed, they have been destroyed, and only the traces remain to show that they ever existed. At Aswan it is quite different, for the whole of this remark- able staircase is intact. It begins at the bottom of the slope, well above the highest point reached by the waters of the Nile during the inundation, and following the outward curve of the hill, ends in a platform in front of the highest tombs. Between each set of steps which form the staircase is a smooth slope, up which the coffins and sarcophagi were drawn to the tomb by the men who walked up the steps at each side. At the bottom of the staircase the steps are only a few inches TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE. 34S deep, but towards the top they are more than a foot. On each side of the staircase is a wall which appears to be of later date than the staircase itself, and about one-third of the way up there is a break in each wall, which appears to be a specially constructed opening leading to passages on the right and left respectively. The walls probably do not belong to the period of the uppermost tier of tombs, and appear to have been made during the rule of the Greeks or Romans. In the hill of the tombs at Aswan there are three distinct Tombs of layers of stone which have been chosen by the ancient dynasty at Egyptians for the purpose of excavating tombs. The finest •'^w^n. and thickest layer is at the top, and this was chosen princi- pally by the architects of the Vlth dynasty for the sepulchres of the governors of Elephantine. The tombs here belong to the Vlth and Xllth dynasties, and of the former period the most interesting is that of Sabben, which is situated at the top of the staircase. Sabben was an official who lived in the time of Pepi II., whose cartouche ( O I Lf ] Nefer-ka-Ra is found on the right hand side of the doorway. The entrance to this tomb is made through a rectangular opening, in which is a small doorway about one-third of the height of the open- ing, that is to say through a door within a door. The walls inside were covered with a thin layer of plaster, and upon them were painted scenes in the life of the man who was buried there. Of the Xllth dynasty tombs, the most interesting Tombs of is that of Se-renput, in the front of which there originally dyn^ty''at stood a portico. The scarped rock was ornamented with Aswan. inscriptions, rows of cattle, etc., etc., and passing through the doorway, a chamber or chapel having four rectangular pillars was reached. A passage, in the sides of which were niches having figures in them, leads to a beautifully painted shrine in which was a black granite seated figure of the deceased ; thus the serdSb and the stele of the mastaba became united. On the right hand side was a tunnel, which, winding as it descended, led to the sarcophagus chamber which was situated exactly under the shrine containing the figure of the deceased. Se-renput lived in the time of Usertsen I., and was an officer in the service of this king when he marched 346 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Tombs of the Xllth and XVIIIth dynasties similar in plan. Biban el-Muluk. into Ethiopia ; thus the date of the tomb is well known.* Like the tombs of the Vlth dynasty the walls inside were covered with a layer of plaster upon which scenes and inscrip- tions were painted. During the XVIIIth dynasty tombs on the plan of the rock-hewn tombs of the XHth dynasty were commonly built, but the inscriptions, which in ancient days were brief, now become very long, and the whole tomb is filled with beauti- fully painted scenes representing every art and trade, every agricultural labour, and every event in the life of the deceased. The biography of the deceased is given at great length; if a soldier, the military expeditions in which he took part are carefully depicted, and appropriate hieroglyphic descriptions are appended ; the tribute brought to the king from the various countries is depicted with the most careful attention to the slightest detail of colour and form. The mummy chamber was made exactly under the chapcl,^ but the position of the pit which led to it varied. Under the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties the tombs of kings and private persons possessed a size and magnificence which they never attained either before or since. The finest specimens of these periods are the famous Tombs of the Kings which are hewn in the living rock in the eastern and western valleys at Thebes; those in the latter valley belong to the XVIIIth dynasty, and those in the former belong to the XlXth dynasty. The royal tombs here consist of long inclined planes, with chambers at intervals, receding into the mountains ; according to Strabo these tombs were forty in number, but at the time of the death of M. Mariette, only about twenty-five were known. The tomb which we may consider to have been the model during the palmy days of the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, is that of Seti I. ; the walls of the staircases and chambers are covered with inscriptions and scenes from the "Book of being in the ' For a full account of this tomb, see my paper in Proc. Soc. Bib. Arch., November, 1887, p. 33 ff. A tomb of great importance was discovered at Aswan in 1892 by Signer E. Schiaparelli, who published the hieroglyphic text with a commentary in his valuable paper Una Tomba Egiziana Inedita delta Via Dinasiia, Roma, 1892. TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE. 34/ Underworld," and their excellence and beauty is such that they cannot be too highly praised. Under this king, Egyptian funereal art seems to have been at its culminating point, for neither sculptor nor painter appears to have produced anything so fine after this date. The tomb is The tomb entered by means of two flights of steps, at the bottom of which is a passage terminating in a small chamber. Beyond this are two halls having four and two pillars respectively, and to the left are the passages and small chambers which lead to the large six-pillared hall and to the vaulted chamber in which stood the sarcophagus of Seti I. Here also is an inclined plane which descends into the mountain for a considerable distance ; from the level of the ground to the bottom of this incline the depth is about ISO feet; the length of the tomb is nearly 500 feet. The designs on the walls were first sketched in outline in red, and the alterations by the master designer or artist were made in black ; this tomb was never finished. Each chamber in this tomb has its peculiar ornamentation, and there is little doubt that each chamber had its peculiar furniture ; it is thought that many articles of furniture, pieces of armour, weapons, etc., etc., were broken intentionally when they were placed in the tomb.' Of the tombs belonging to the period between the XXth and the XXVIth dynasty, nothing need be said, for they call for no special notice ; in the XXVIth dynasty, however, the renaissance of Egyptian Therenais- art naturally showed itself in the tombs of the period, and in ^^"'^^• some few instances an attempt was made to reproduce tombs after the plan and with the elegance of those of the XlXth dynasty. It must be noticed that the inscriptions on the walls are of a funereal character, and consist usually of a series of chapters of the Book of the Dead. That the tombs described above are those of wealthy people goes without saying ; it now remains to refer to the tombs of the extremely poor. They were sometimes buried in the crevices of the rocks, and at other times in the desert, either near the great necropolis of the town or in ' On les luait de la sorle afin que leur ame allat servir I'ame de I'homme dans I'autre monde. Maspero, L'Archeologie Egyptienne, p. 159. 34S FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The tombs of the poor. Graeco- Roman tombs. Egyptian tombs used by Christian monks. solitary places. A cave or hollow in the mountains afforded a place of sepulture unto many, and numerous rock caves exist in the mountains to the west of Thebes and other places, where the mass of decayed mummies and bones is several feet deep, and where skulls and skeletons, some with their skins shrivelled upon them, and others with bare bones, line the sides up to the ceiling. Sometimes pits were dug as common graves for the whole town, and sometimes the pit and passage of a forsaken tomb served to accom- modate hundreds of bodies. The absence of valuable fur- niture and ornaments rendered the bodies of the poor of no account to the pillager of tombs, and the inaccessible situation of the places where they were buried made it un- likely that they would be disturbed that others might be put in their places. The funereal furniture of the poor consisted of very little more than what they wore day by day, and, provided they were protected by a few amulets and figures of the gods in faVence to guard them against the attacks of evil-disposed demons, and by a scarab, the emblem of the resurrection and the new life, they probably laid down the burden of this life with as firm a hope in the mercy of Osiris as did the rich man in the mastaba or pyramid. Under the Ptolemies and the Roman Emperors the arrangement of the tombs changes greatly ; the outer chapel or chamber disappears entirely, and the character of everything appertaining to the service of the tomb shows that a great change has taken place in the religious views of the people, for although ancient forms and obser- vances are kept up, it is clear that the spirit which gave them life has been forgotten. In the early centuries of the Christian era the tombs in the mountains of Egypt formed dwelling-places for a number of monks and ascetics, and it would seem that the statues and other objects in them suffered at their hands. An instance of the use of a rock-hewn tomb by Pisentios, Bishop of Coptos, is made known to us by an encomium on this saint by his disciple John.' The tomb in which ' For the Coptic text and a French translation, see Amelineau, Ehide siir le Chrislianisme en Egypte au Septiime Sikle, Paris, 1887. EGYPTIAN WRITING MATERIALS. 349 Pisentios lived was rectangular in shape, and was fifty-two feet wide ; it had six pillars and contained a large number of mummies. The coffins were very large and profusely de- corated, and one of the mummies was clothed in silk, and his fingers and toes were mummified separately ; the names of those buried there were written on a small parchment roll (ft OTXOJU. 9 ^uP" die/i, etc., and was made from the byblus hieraticus, or Cyperus papyrus, which grew in the marshes and pools near the Nile. The height of the plant was from twelve to fifteen feet, and the largest diameter of its triangular stalk was about four or six inches. The roots were used for fire- wood, parts of the plant were eaten, and other and coarser parts were made into paper, boats, ropes, mats, etc., etc. It will be remembered that the boat in which Isis set out to seek for Osiris was made of papyrus,^ and the " ark of bulrushes"^ in which Moses was laid was probably made of the same material. When it was intended to make paper from the Prepara- plant, the outer rind was removed, and the stalk was divided p°p °us with a flat needle into layers. These layers, the length of for writing which depended upon the width of the roll to be made, and P"''P°^^^" the width upon the thickness of the stalk of the plant from which they were taken, were then laid upon a table, side by side, and upon these another series of layers was laid in a horizontal direction, and a thin solution of gum was then run between them ; the two series of layers thus united were ' Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, Squire's translation, p. 22. - Exodus ii. 3. sions of papyri. 350 FUNEREAL ARCH.-EOLOGY OF EGYPT. pressed and afterwards dried. It is clear that by joining a number of such sheets of papyrus together, a roll of almost any length could be made. The quality of the papyrus depended entirely upon the class of plant used in its manu- facture. The colour of the papyri that have come down to us varies greatly, from a rich brown to a whitish-grey ; the texture of some is exceedingly coarse, and of others fine and silky. The width of papyri varies from six to seventeen inches, and the longest papyrus known (Harris, No. i, B.M. 9999) measures 135 feet in length. The finest hiero- glyphic papyri of the Book of the Dead are about fifteen inches in width, and when they contain a tolerably full Dimen- number of chapters, are from eighty to ninety feet long. The papyri upon which contracts in Greek and Demotic are written are of a coarse fibre, and vary from ten to fourteen inches in width ; their lengths vary from one to ten feet. The usual width of papyri employed for literary compositions is about eight inches. The common name for a roll of papyrus was J *!^ <=x^ -^ famd, Copt. 2f OJJUL, " a book." Papyrus letters and legal documents were fastened by being tied round with a piece of papyrus string, and upon this a piece of clay was laid, which, being impressed with a ring or scarab, formed a seal, called in Egyptian ^^ J Q t'ebdt. The British Museum possesses among its seals impressions in clay of the seal of Shabaka, found at Kouyunjik (see p. 249) ; a seal (No. S585) ascribed to Shashanq by Dr. Birch (in Layard, Babylon and Nineveh, London, 1853, p. 1857), which reads J(T)T TtTtT -ffl- : an oval seal (No. 5584) bearing the name of a private person and the prenomen of Amasis II. ( oQ'0'|; and an oval seal (No. 5583), bearing the name of Naifaarut, the first king of the XXIXth dynasty. The palette of the Egyptian scribe, called "—^^ — 1 1| "■^^"^ mesthd, was made of basalt (B.M. No. 12,778), calcareous stone inlaid with lapis-lazuli (B.M. No. 24,576), and ivory (B.M. No. 5524), but more commonly of wood. In shape it was rectangular, and its size varied from 10 in. x 2 in. to 16 in. X 2\ in. ; its thickness was usually | of an inch. At one EGYPTIAN WRITING MATERIALS. 35 I end were circular, or oval, hollows to hold ink, the former being in the shape of Q, and the latter of a cartouche c — > . About a third of the length of the palette from this end a sloping groove was cut, which from about the middle of the palette to the other end had an equal depth, for holding the reeds for writing. These were kept in their place either by a piece of wood gummed into the palette about a third of the way above the groove, or by a piece of wood, forming a bridge, under which the reeds could pass freely, and which was left uncut when the groove was made. A sliding cover over the longer part of the groove protected the ends of the reeds from damage. The hollows in the palette for holding the ink are usually two in number, one for red ink and one for black ; these being the colours most commonly used for writing upon papyri. Some palettes have as many as a dozen hollows, and these probably belonged to scribes whose business it was to ornament papyri with scenes painted in many colours. The dates of palettes can often be determined with accu- racy because, in addition to the name of the owner, the name of the king in whose reign he lived is given. Thus Royal B.M. No. 12,784 was made in the reign of Amasis I., B.M. 5513 P^l^"^=- in that of Amenophis III., and B.M. 5514 in that of Rameses II. ; from these three examples we see that the form of the palette changed very little in a whole dynasty. The inscriptions upon palettes were usually in hieroglyphics, but B.M. No. 5524, made of ivory, is inscribed in hieratic, and B.M. No. 5517, made of wood, also has upon it an inscription in hieratic. The palette of a scribe was some- times placed in the tomb with its owner (see in the Papyrus of Ani, pi. 7, where it lies under the bier), and votive palettes are known, as for example B.M. No. 12,778. This object is made of green basalt, and at the end where the coloured inks were placed is a scene in outline in which the deceased is represented making an offering to Osiris, behind whom stand a goddess and Thoth. The places for the ink are outlined, but not hollowed out, and the groove is only cut a part of the length ; the reeds which still remain are fastened in with plaster, and it is perfectly clear that this 352 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. palette was never used by a scribe. On each side is an inscription in hieroglyphics, which records the name and titles of the deceased, and which prays that appropriate sepulchral meals may be given to the deceased, and that he may enter in, and come out from the underworld, without repulse, whenever he pleases. Inscriptions on palettes are often dedications to the god Thoth, "lord of divine words." Stone and faience palettes with eight, ten, or twelve small vases for ink were also used. Uan^e^^' ^^^ ^^^^' '" Egyptian '^ tw qesh, Copt. KA-OJ, with which the Egyptian wrote, was about ten inches long, rVth or ^th of an inch in diameter ; the end used for writing was bruised to make the fibres flexible, and not cut. After the XXVIth dynasty an ordinary reed, similar to that which the Arabs and other Oriental nations use for writing at the present day, was employed, and the end was cut like a quill, or steel pen. The average sized palette will hold about ten writing reeds easily. The ink which the Egyptian used was made of mineral and vegetable substances, mixed with a little gum and water. The substance which coloured the ink, black, red, blue, green, white, or yellow, was carefully rubbed down on a rectangular slab of granite, basalt, or marble, with a hard stone muller, and then thrown into a vessel, where the necessary quantity of water and gum was added to make it the consistency of moderately thin cream. The profes- .sional scribe probably carried about with him pieces of colour similar to the specimens in blue, green, and red which are preserved in European museums, and rubbed down a little at a time according to his need. The green and blue colours are preparations from copper, which can, I understand, be successfully imitated at the present time ; fine examples are B.M. 5565, 5571 <^, and small prepared lumps of colour exhibited in bronze bowl, B.M. 5556. The red and bronze colours were preparations from red ochre mixed with chalk ; an interesting example of the former is B.M. No. 18,337, and of the latter B.M. No. 5572. EGYPTIAN WRITING. 353 Egyptian Writing. The system of writing employed by the people called Great Egyptians was probably entirely pictorial either at the time of'hiero'- when they first arrived in Egypt, or during the time that they g'yphic still lived in their original home. We, however, know of no inscription in which pictorial characters alone are used, for the earliest specimens of their writing known to us contain alphabetical characters. The Egyptians had three kinds of writing — Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic ; soon after the preaching of Saint Mark at Alexandria, the Christian popu- lation made use of the Greek alphabet, with the addition of certain characters which they borrowed from the demotic ; this method of writing was called Coptic. Hieroglyphics, from the Greek lepoy\v(j)iK6';, were com- Oldest rnonly employed for inscriptions upon temples, tombs, coffins, giyphic in- statues, and stelse, and many copies of the Book of the Dead scription. were written in them. The earliest hieroglyphic inscription at present known is found on the monument of Shera, parts of which are preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford and in the Gizeh Museum; it dates from the Hnd dynasty. Hieroglyphics were used in Egypt for writing the names of Roman Emperors and for religious purposes until the third century after Christ, at least. Hieratic, from the Greek iepariKo'i, was a style of cursive writing much used by the priests in copying literary com- positions on papyrus ; during the Xlth or XHth dynasty wooden coffins were inscribed in hieratic with religious texts. The oldest document in hieratic is the famous Prisse papyrus, Oldest which records the counsels of Ptah-hetep to his son ; the com- inscti'p^ position itself is about a thousand years older than this t'on. papyrus, which was probably inscribed about the Xlth dynasty. Drafts of inscriptions were written upon flakes of calcareous stone in hieratic, and at a comparatively early date hieratic was used in writing copies of the Book of the Dead. Hieratic was used until about the fourth century after Christ. Demotic, from the Greek SrifioTiKO';, is a purely con- ventional modification of hieratic characters, which preserve little of their original form, and was used for social and business B. M. 2 A 354 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. purposes ; in the early days of Egyptian decipherment it was called enchorial, from the Greek i'^x'^pios. The demotic writing appears to have come into use about B.C. 900, and The it survived until about the fourth century after Christ. In kinds of ^^^ time of the Ptolemies three kinds of writing were inscribed writing side by side upon documents of public importance, hiero- Egypt. glyp'^''^> Greek, and Demotic ; examples are the stele of Canopus, set up in the ninth year of the reign of Ptolemy III. Euergetes I., B.C. 247-222, at Canopus, to record the benefits which this king had conferred upon his country, and the famous Rosetta Stone, set up at Rosetta in the eighth year of the reign of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes (B.C. 205-182), likewise to commemorate the benefits conferred upon Egypt by himself and his family, etc., etc. On the Rosetta Stone hieroglyphic writing is called a|l]'wwv^ li nd en neter met, "writing of divine words," Demotic, Sr >/ W ^""^ na en sdi, " writing of letters," and Greek R 1 00 ""^^^ W ^ yf ' sexaien Haui-nebu, " writing of the Greeks." A century or two after the Christian era Greek had obtained such a hold upon the inhabitants of Egypt, that the native Christian population, the disciples and followers of Saint Mark, were obliged to use the Greek alphabet to write down the Egyptian, that is to say Coptic, translation of the books of the Old and New Testaments, but they borrowed six signs from the demotic forms of ancient Egyptian characters to express the sounds which they found unrepresented in Greek. These signs are — eg = Mil SH ; q = ^ = I CH ; 2, = X = i TCH, like Turk. .:- ; (3^ = f; h; K. Coptic The knowledge of the ancient hieroglyphics was fast dying ^"""S- oy(-_ and the phonetic values of many of those in use at this period were altered. The name Copt is derived from kxi, the Arabic form of the Coptic form of the Greek name for MUMMIES OF ANIMALS, REPTILES, BIRDS, AND FISHES. 355 Egyptian, Alyinmo'; . The Coptic language is, at base, a dialect of ancient Egyptian ; many of the nouns and verbs found in the hieroglyphic texts remain unchanged in Coptic, and a large number of others can, by making proper allowance for phonetic decay and dialectic differences, be identified without difficulty. The Coptic dialect of Upper Egypt, called " Sahidic " Dialects of Coptic (from Arab, jo*.^), or Theban, was the older and richer dialect ; that of Lower Egypt was called Boheiric, from the province of Boheira in the Delta. The latter dialect has been wrongly called Bashmuric, and as it appears to have been exclusively the language of Memphis, it has obtained generally the name " Memphitic " ; the dialect of Bushmur on the Lake of Menzaleh appears to have become extinct about A.D. 900, and to have left no traces of itself behind. The Coptic translation of the Bible was considered by Renaudet, Wilkins, Woide, and George, to be as old as the second century of our era ; more modern scholars, however, are inclined to assert that it is not older than the eighth century. For an account of the revival of Coptic studies in Europe, see Quatreniere, Recherches Critiques et Historiques sur la Langue et la Litterature de I'Egypte, Paris, 1808, and for a list of the printed literature of the Copts, see Stern, Koptische Grammatik, pp. 441-447. The recognition of the fact that a knowledge of Coptic is most valuable as a pre- liminary to the study of hieroglyphics, probably accounts for the large and increasing share of the attention of scholars which this language receives. Mummies of Animals, Reptiles, Birds, AND Fishes. The most common of the animals, reptiles, birds, and fishes which the Egyptians regarded as emblems of or sacred to the gods, and therefore mummified with great reverence and care, were : — Bull, Antelope, Jackal, Hippopotamus, Cat, Monkey or Ape, Crocodile, Ichneumon, Hedgehog, Shrew- mouse, Ibis, Hawk, Frog, Toad, Scorpion, Beetle, Snake, and the Latus, Oxyrhynchus and Silurus fishes. 2 A 2 3S6 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Apis Bull, in Egyptian « ^ ^3 Hdp, mummies are tolerably common ; they were mummified with great honour, and buried in sarcophagi at Sakkirah. The oldest are pro- bably those of the XVIIIth dynasty. Antelope, in Egyptian S "^^ | P ^ kahes or 1^ "^K^ T ^--j mahet', mummies are rare ; a good specimen is B.M. No. 6783a. Cat, in Egyptian yi] ^^ 1^ tndu, mummies are very common, and exhibit many methods of bandaging with linen of two colours ; they were placed in bronze or wooden cases, made in the form of a cat, the eyes of which were inlaid with obsidian, rock-crystal, or coloured paste. Wooden cat-cases often stand on pedestals, and are painted white, green, etc. Mummified kittens were placed in rectangular bronze or wooden cases, which, at times, are surmounted with figures Greek of cats. Diodorus says (I., 83) that when a cat died all the conrernine inmates of the house shaved their eyebrows as a sign of the cat. mourning, and although the statement by the same writer that the Egyptians slew a Roman who had accidentally killed a cat may be somewhat exaggerated, there is no doubt that the animal sacred to Bast was treated with great respect in Egypt, and that dead bodies of the animals were sent to be buried, after embalmment, to Bubastis. The cat was fed with specially prepared bread soaked in milk, and chopped fish. Mutnmies Cfocodile, in Egyptian ^ P ^ | "^^ enisuh, mummies etc. of a large size are not common ; small crocodiles, lizards, and other members of that family were embalmed and placed in rectangular bronze or wooden cases, the tops of which were frequently surmounted by a figure of this reptile in relief Ichneumon mummies were placed in bronze cases, made in the shape of this animal. Shrew-mice mummies are not common ; they were placed in rectangular bronze cases, surmounted by a figure of this animal. MUMMIES OF ANIMALS, REPTILES, BIRDS, AND FISHES. 357 Ibis, in Egyptian [[] "^^^ J Y^ -^ Aadu, mummies, embalmed, and buried in earthenware jars, stopped with plaster, are very common. The Hawk, in Egyptian ] (] ■ci^ ^^ idk, when mum- mified, was placed either in a rectangular bronze case or in a bronze case in the form of a hawk. Frogs, in Egyptian | ^ ^ Aeget, and Toads, when em- balmed, were placed in cases made of bronze or steatite. Scorpion, in Egyptian l*^~^3^ Ser^, mummies are very rare ; they were placed in rectangular cases, inscribed with the name of Isis-Serq, which were surmounted by figures of the scorpion, with the head of a woman wearing disk and horns (B.M. No. 11,629). Beetle, in Egyptian m O or O ^^ X^P^^^ rarely a. *. {m abeb, mummies were deposited in cases of wood (B.M. No. 86543; or stone (B.M. No. 2880). Snake mummies are very common, and were either Mummies placed in rectangular bronze or wooden cases, or wrapped \^f^^ ' ^^' in many bandages and laid in pits. Bronze snake-cases usually have a figure of the snake coiled up in relief upon them, but sometimes the head, which is human and erect, wears the double crown and urseus (B.M. No 6881 f); one example having the head of a hawk is also known (B.M. No. 6879). The urseus serpent, in Egyptian «=r>1|UJ_ Arart, was the most commonly mummified. Fish were mummified largely, and were either placed singly in cases of bronze or wood, or several were bandaged up in a bundle and laid in a pit prepared for the purpose. Many fish were known to the Egyptians, and the commoner sorts were H X^ dnnu = i^dypo';, QV^ ^^ \^ dia, o ^ 6efu ; the usual name for fish in general was 358 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. rem. The tt J c^ ^ \^ abtu and the / were the boat of the Sun. '"^^^ ^"^ '^'^i were mythological fishes which accompanied CiPPI OF HORUS. These curious and interesting objects are made of basalt and other kinds of hard stone, and calcareous stone ; they are in the shape of a rounded tablet, and vary in size from 3 in. X 2 in., to 20 in. x \6 in.; the Metternich stele is, however, very much larger. The scenes engraved upon them represent the triumph of light over darkness, the victory of good over evil, and cippi were used as talismans by those who were initiated into the mysteries of magic, to guard them from the attacks of noxious beasts, and from the baneful influence of Set, the god of all evil. To give an idea of these magical objects, a description of an example, in a good state of preservation, now in the British Museum (No. 9S7<2) is here appended.' On the front, in relief, is a figure of Horus, naked, standing upon two croco- diles, which are supported by a projecting ledge at the foot of the stele. Horus has the lock of hair, emblematic of youth, on the right side of his head, and above him, resting on the top of his head, is a head of Bes, also in relief His arms hang at a little distance from his sides ; in the right hand he holds two serpents, a scorpion, and a ram or stag, Scenes on and in the left two serpents, a scorpion, and a lion. On the Horas"^" right is a sceptre, upon which stands the hawk of Horus wearing horns, disk and feathers,^ and on the left is a lotus- headed sceptre with plumes and two mendts^ (see p. 265). To the right and to the left of the god, outside the sceptres, are eight divisions ; those on the right represent : — I. Oryx, with a hawk on his back, in front is inscribed , " Horus, lord of Hebennu," i.e., the metro- polis of the sixteenth nome of Upper Egypt. ' A faulty copy is given in Wilkinson, The Ancient Egy/itums, Vol. IIL, pi. XXXIIL ' The inscription reads "^^^i" 1 A , " Behutet, great god." The inscription reads, o :t CIPPI OF HORUS. 359 2. Ibis-headed god, Thoth, -c:^ E E ^c::^ "^ |^ , "lord of Chemennu, lord of divine words,'' and the god Her-shef <3> 1 ^^ , hawk-headed, wearing the triple crown ^^K- 3. " Heka, lord of enchantments," -^ ^^^37 8 U, hawk- ey AMI headed, holding a serpent in each hand ; " Neith, mighty lady, divine mother, lady of Sais" Q ''fe=' ^^ | ^^37—'^'^.®. 4. Hawk-headed god, mummified, wearing disk and hold- ing a serpent in each hand ; the inscription is ® 1 ^ ^~^ 1 ,^ " Chensu, lord of Sam-behutet." 5. Isis, n '■^. o, with the body of a hippopotamus, holding a snake ; on her head she wears a disk and horns. 6. Ptah, in the form of a squat child standing on a pedestal with four or five steps; the inscription is Q TO v-^Ar| , "Horus, son of Osiris, born of Isis." 6. Hawk of Horus ^v, wearing horns and plumes standing on pss^ ; behind him is Q sen, and a goddess, wearing disk and horns, and having the body of a scorpion, called « Isis-Serqet " JI^P'^^- 7. Horus, in the form of a boy, holding /\ over his left shoulder, seated on a crocodile, under a canopy formed by two serpents ; the inscription reads, ^v^ ^ I 11 I fr^S^'^t- 8. The goddess Uatchet |~^^, wearing crown of Lower Egypt, on a papyrus sceptre ; behind her Hu » ■ and Sau ^mA , each holding a knife. Above the two crocodiles on which Horus stands are two small scenes in each of which is a crocodile, one being on a stand ; that to the right of Horus has on his head .S^ and that on the left 4M ; the former is called iT^ *l=— , "Hidden is his name," and the latter VCHrts^' "Horus in Uu." The inscription, which covers the front and base of the pedestal and back and sides of the cippus, contains an invocation to the god from whom the person for whom it was made seeks to gain power. Late date Cippi of Horus belong probably to the period which no"us^' "^ followed soon after the end of the rule of the XXVIth dynasty over Egypt, and the inscriptions on them are badly executed. They are generally found broken in half, or if not broken, the head of Horus has been hammered to deface the features ; these injuries probably date from ancient times. CIPPI OF HORUS. 361 The largest and finest specimen of the cippi of Horus is The Met- that preserved in the Museum of Metternich Castle at Konigs- '""'<=*» warth in Bohemia. It was found in the beginning of this century at Alexandria during the building of a fountain in a Franciscan convent there, and was given to Prince Metternich by Muhammad 'Ali in 1828. It is made of a hard, dark- green stone upon which the figures of the gods and the inscriptions are finely and beautifully cut. The inscriptions have much in common with the magical texts inscribed upon papyri in London, Turin, and Paris, and are of great interest ; this stele was made for Nectanebus I., about B.C. 370. A fac-simile of the stele and the text was published with a German translation and notes by W. Golemscheff, Die Mt^tter- nichstele .... zum ersten Mai herausgegeben, Leipzig, 1877. A long article is devoted to the consideration of the cippi of Horus by Lanzone, Z^2>/w2«rz^, pp. 583-594; and see Birch in Arundale and Bonomi, Gallery of Antiquities, p. 39 ff. The Egyptian Year. ^ The ancient Egyptians had : — I. The vague, or civil year, which consisted of 360 days ; it was divided into twelve months of thirty days each, and five intercalary days ' were added at the end. II. The Sothic year of 365:^ days. The first year of a Sothic period began with the rising of Sirius or the dog-star, on the ist of the month Thoth, when it coincided with the beginning of the inundation. III. The solar year, which was practically the same as the civil year, and which was a quarter of a day shorter than the Sothic year, an error which corrected itself in 1460 fixed years or 1461 vague years. The true year was estimated approxi- mately by the conjunction of the sun with Sirius. Dr. Brugsch ' The whole subject of the origin of the Egyptian year has recently been discussed with excellent results in Nature, Vol. XLV., 1892, p. 4S7, by Prof. N. Lockyer ; and Vol. XLVI., p. 1 04 ff. ■2 Called in Egyptian i',', i,, p nj | |, "five days over the year." The first was called the " birth of Osiris," the second " the birth of Horus," the third "the birth of Set," the fourth "the birth of Isis," and the fifth the "birth of Nephthys." The Greeks called these days, eirayoiiivat ruifpcii irevri, and the Copts ItI^..S-OT" ItKOTXI, " the little month." 362 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. thinks {Egypt Jinder the Pharaohs, Vol. II., p. 17) that as early as B.C. 2500 four different forms of the year were already in use, and that the " little year " corresponded with the lunar year, and the " great year " with a lunar year having intercalated days.^ The divisions of time of the Egyptians were „ ant, " one-sixtieth of a second," Q hat, "second," H^ at, "minute," '^=' unnut, "hour," O hru, "day," /-^ abet, "month," f^ renpit, "y^^'"'" ffi ^^^' "period of thirty years," ^^ hen, "period," ^ heh, "millions of years," |o| heh, and ^^ t'etta, " immeasurable time,'' or " eternity." The Egyptian week consisted of ten days (1 . ' See Lepsius, Die Chronologie der Aegypter, p. 147 ff. THE EGYPTIAN YEAR. 363 H O ;5 < H w o O O CO .1 o 3 o t; 3 3? 3 •Q" £ h o n - I— > 3 1) O > o 1) o Q 3 m J3 o 364 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Egyptian and Coptic Numbers. f- I II III nil Hill iii'ii 7 lllllll 8 IIIIIIII 9 III III III lo n 15 nmii 20 nn 30 nnn 4'' nnnn 50 nnnnn ^° nnn HIEROGLYPHIC. ma ' 7ieb I ua (fem. a aa/) — Q ca I COPTIC. Masculine. Feminine cj)i.cgi, xoc, (Too i'=a III Xemt Ml xemennu paut and — »— m /i?j/ f=^ met met tua Q. t'aut ;J mab 1"^^^^ Q hement taiu A. onri.1 ' S cnA-nr v cyOJULT X qTOOOT e 'for H cyjULHIt ■^IT" 1 JULHT le Ju.eT'f oTf K XOJX it TeoTi I ce OTfl cnonff qToe te coe ajju.HJti JUt-H-f" XOTCOTe ' See Eisenlohr, Ein mathematisches Handhuch der alien Aegypler, Leipzig, 1877, p. 15 IT. ' For the variants see Stern, Koptische Grammalik, p. 131 ff. 70 8o 90 100 200 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 EGYPTIAN AND COPTIC NUMBERS. sefex o cy^e 365 nnnn n nnn - |' nnnn n nnnn = |' nnnnn nnnn © =. I (J IJ x^'nennui sail D setau Xa 1 =i»Jl' d3 ^^ = q iticTeoTfi P ae c' cmjx ft eye I oKi. (3 "^^i. hefennu p^. Oje H. OJO fieh ^.^. OJO n ego ' T = 3oo, V = 4oo, c^ = 5oo, ^=600, 1^ = 700 (JD = 8oo, "^ = 900. A List of the Commonest Hieroglyphic Signs and THEIR Phonetic Values.' A. a i;. an (gi: at ^^^ at -e- ab ^,^,'0 aa u-°^ , ( 1 aau aah abet ap af e, 9 afet ausar -£r3- auset ij ...O ,a ■CM. amen u'M^ ament amsu an aneb anem aner ar ari aru as at ateh iter a.0\ hi' \ ^, .^.^.J. -^t^ K-s. • This list does not contain the values assigned to certain of the hieroglyphics in the Greek and Roman periods. LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. A. 1^7 "\\\\\\\'T 3u ^.l;a. ^'"l' ^> aba Q^ ' fl ' aper af am j^i::^ -l-f . ^. ■^. I — ^^> anx ■¥■ ar >,-ga>,/\ arq aha ahet ax at 5C< aq 1 MM, W la r?si ^ J ba "^.Ja^ ba ^,<^ bener bennu belj ^=, F=^ B. e>5 beha y behutet ' bah bex ^ beti S 368 betu bet LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. B — continued. bek bak beq j[,J, p a pa }ji pat o paut papa # per n,"^, '^ peh !].^>^ pex IC pest H pes IC pet peteh pet pek l.--r U (3, ua f] uas *! uat £^2 uat' fa U. ua Q::S>-' <^^, fent 63 uah uu X un A usr 1 ,x usex I^.O us ut uteb ^ u^es i^ LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. \i— continued. uten ,iU^ , , — e ut'eb ^\K M. 369 1-f^ ma 5^ maa ::Sr^ maa ,c::sa V ma Q 0, JZi 0, r==a) nia,U f\A/^f\r^ mak y._i) men if, ,. ti^^, menat meni 5 I meh \. m, '-'--Si, ^S mat a mes ^, I mesen 3 , taifca met r=Ti) , mut V nu O B. M. N. neb nub ^%S^ nef il_l 2 B 11 ml 1- J nefer nem « , i > \l ' nemmat enen nini ner neh [p neh nehem ^ nexeb _L LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. N — continued. next ^,^^ or\ ., _£ai ra ru r remen ..-~s> ren It ) nes n nest s net V' nut © net' K=f=' net' em j neter c neqe r © R. rer ^^ rex .^ res ll ' f ' i ret i,o4,e,^ H. h ra 1^^ "I heb ^ hru hen H ha ha ^,eee'^=^ ^^^ t LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. H — continued. 371 hap A hra <^ hu --'^'^ ^^^ S'-ffl heb ^'Xi hes 5,^ hep I'"^ heseb Q hefen s^ hesep -H+4- hem V^'^ het r ll hen ^g.^.^.f'^' '-■ 1.^ ^,^s>,-=^ - hetep ,_i2_, , @ henk n -n hetem r her heq X or heter ^>.^ heka ,r-^ CH. X ® xeper O xa ^■l- xepes tf^^ xai ^""'^ xem "^^S,! -='°^ xa Q xemt (^, £1, ;^ Xi i^ -i x» ft.^^.^s! f:-^,*^^)^ xu %'^'M ^.0 xabes J'^ xnem Q xeb xent S,(i,^, jJV xep ^ xer ^,ffl.| 2 B 2 372 LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. X or CH- -continued. xerp f xet s.^, /\, / , xus i xut cQd xesef 4- xaker s sa ^' ^' S' seb ~Tr , 'k sab -^ sebt A sebex ■=[] sebek 'S3=' sper /^-x sept -— -, A su ^, X sua 5r^' ! sem -c. 1.^=3 sent sent ^^ ser f|,^.|^>l5?'S serq gi|^ sah j^,Q. seher h^ sexem y, H se^ X, ^^ se^ep ^".^igiJ.c^ seset ■*=^ seseta ^^, X sta — (p— set seps Sep sati set [yx£], ,f_»_ P^, LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. S — continued. set'eb I 37; 4' setep sy — ^ setem, set'em >4- sek \ seq J, -s^, CS\ \ IP SH. ^em t^i] Werner -«-~^ sen _2as,Q,^,Q serau T. t o ta =^ taui ta ti teb tep ,K_.,^,O>8.0 tef ^ tem ■^J2=ir ten ter B tra I teh 2^ teh 374 e een eeh tex €=. ]• LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. T — continued. texen 1 tut e or TH. eehen ees 6»et !• t ta A—fl. A tu (ir3 tua ■^, teb teben :=^ j ^=^ tep '^, @ tebh ^.YY tern A , < ten ^ tena C:f> tenten i? tes \ teser ^ n ^' t^ iev y, teser tet t' t'a t'a 1 t'eba I t'ef % t'er B ^ T or TCH. t'aut -^ t'es \^ t'eser ^ t'etta t ^S) t'at'a 1—1—' ■'O LIST OF DETERMINATIVES. K. ka U, f=S), '5^ kep a<=^, <;S=i, kat 1^, \144. katu 375 q ^ qenbet [j— ' qa 1 qens cj=o qebh u qent ^ qem v^.^ qer i — ■ qema \ / qers t==^, J qen ^.^ qes ^ , S , "^ qet j, K. O ka t=aifc=i keb ^^^ ker A List of the Commonest Determinatives. 1^ Character. Determinative of. to cry, to call ' to address, to adore to exalt, to rejoice to turn back to dance M T Character. Determinative of. to skip to bow down f to make an agree- l ment I form, image, mummy, to establish fk majesty, dignity old age ^ 376 LIST OF DETERMINATIVES. Character. Determinative of. to beat, to strike 4 Character. \ d'_S joy to plough to make an offer- ing to sow to bear, to carry wickedness, enemy to build to support to pierce to run fto pour out a 1. libation man fto eat, to think, I to speak inertness, to rest rto hide, be \ hidden libationer ij Determinative of. millions of years to write dead body overthrow, defeat soldier rchild, youth, 1. growth king, prince (•ancestor, the 1^ blessed dead divinity Osiris Ptah Ptah-tenen Amsu Amen Shu Chensu Ra Heru (Horus) Anpu (Anubis) Chnemu Hapi (Nile) LIST OF DETERMINATIVES. Character. i'€ ® ^ Delerminative of. Set Tehuti (Thoth) Bes > woman, goddess Auset (Isis) fNebt-het 1 (Nephthys) fHet-Hert 1 (Hathor) Nut Maat Sechet Bast Sesheta Serqet pregnancy birth to suckle to dandle head, chief, best fhead-dress, skin, t colour, grief [to see, to watch, [ to sleep Character. ^0 ■.•Q" 177 Determinative of. [eye painted with 1 kohl to weep, to grieve eye of Horus feyes of Sun and I Moon eyebrows ear, to listen fnose, to smell, I joy lips teeth blood back-bone, to cut breast to embrace fto prohibit, ne- I gatioii, want, I need battle, to fight Cto seize, to beat, L to strike to write, paint to make an offer- ing, or gift 378 LIST OF DETERMINATIVES. Character. Q i J n ^'1 Determinative of. to grasp finger [phallus, the front l of, male testicles fto walk, stand, I to enter fto turn back, to 1 return leg, foot, to run foot and leg to break into knee flesh animals birth the front ( behind, power, (. to arrive at fthroat,tobreathe, \ to eat j horn, to resist, (. to attack fto taste, to eat, I to speak ftalon, to seize, \ to carry off skin, animal Character. T Determinative of. to shoot fflesh and bone, I. heir, offspring ly { tail, end all actions attri- buted to Set birds, to fly to hover, to stop fsmall size, l wickedness wing, to fly Jegg, feminine I. gender fish {crocodile, de- struction serpent goddess, urasus tree wood • flower [sweetness, plea- 1 sure [year, time, (. growth field LIST OF DETERMINATIVES. 379 Character. QQQ, OOo V 1^! H ^T^ W' O I Qy^ ^ffi I I, ffiHD ^,n Determinative of. grain wheat, barley, eU. [store house, I granary vineyard sky night, darkness rain, storm, cloud sun, time light, brilliance star, god earth, land mountain foreign land, foreign people island, sea-coast nome, district town road, to travel stone metal metal Character. Determinative of. J water, river, to I wash Gnna, % u II Q 1 liiiiuir liquid a collection of water lake, basin of water house pylon wall to overturn a fortified place angle staircase pyramid obelisk tablet to establish festival door, to open a bolt funereal coffer ^n^.^,)boat 38o LIST OF DETERMINATIVES. Character. ■r ei m M f 1 Determinative of. boat of Seker fto sail up the I river wind, breath to steer seat f bier, dead per- 1 son, mummy pillow to bandage seat, throne ! funereal box, tomb, sarco- phagus bandages fan mirror scales altar, table divinity crown and head- ■ / dress Character. a Q VI 'X M =o=,4> ^ # Determinative of. ciown and head- dress collar buckle, tie tongue, to taste ring to seal fto arrive, foreign I people to cut, to wound f block and I hatchet weapon arrow chariot to plough fcord, to bandage, 1 to wrap {book, to write, to read, know-, ledge oil, perfume libation oil, perfume, wine milk LIST OF DETERMINATIVES. 381 Character. o ,.n ^^o-^'D C3D 8.e.0>fl Determinative of. vase offering {the heart, in- telligence offering fire, to burn incense vase pouring out , J. cake, bread scribe, writing Character. 1,11 I W X IC> u. °,Q czzx C3 Determinative of. (book,writing,pic- ture, account, thought, ab- stract idea plural to repeat toadd,toincrease half, to divide [death, wicked- l ness name fto stink, to em- (. balm scent I a cutting tool, to make to shine, bone INDEX. The principal references are indicated by blacker-faced type. Aah-hetep 29 Aahmes, see Ainasis Aahmes the naval oiEcer 29, 30, 220 Aamn 17, 18, 21, 230 Aamu-kehak 29 Aaua, pillow of 211 Aauput 50 'Abd el- Aziz 251 'Abd el-Latif 174, 183 Aboccis 44 Absha 21, 230 Abu Habbah 250 Abukir G8 Abu Mansur, Pyramid of 342 Abu Roash 330, 339 Abu Simbel 40, 44 Abusir 330, 339 Abydos 9, Tablet of 9, 10, 17, 24, 39, 56, 71, 157, 168, 211, 230, 340 Abydos, Tombs at 343 Accadians 7, 26 Acliaeans 45 Achoris 62 Acropolis at Kamiros 249 Adikran 58 Adrammelech 54 AeUan 232, 233 Aelius Gallus 66, 112 Aelius Lampridius 187 Africa 39, 57 Agesilaus 63, 64 Ahmed 341 Ahrens quoted 255 Ai 37 AiyvTiTos, derivation of 11 Akati 33 Akauasha 45 Akerblad 109, 126, 132—138, 140, 143 Akhmim 191, 192, 217, 193 Akita 44 Alabastronpolis 37 Alexander the Great 64, 65, 183, 184 Alexandria 68, 108, 113 Alexandrian Library 66 Alisphragmuthosis 27, 28 Altekeh 53 Amada 22 Amamu 204, 307 Amasis I. 29, 32, 220, 230, 351 „ II. 58, 59, 350 Amasis the naval officer 220 Ambrose 187, 233 INDEX. 383 Ameilhon 110 Amelineau 187 Amen 39, 49, 65, 158, 220, 221, 251 Amenartas 230 Amen-em-hat I. 19 „ " II. 21 III. 22 IV. 23 Amentetep, see Amenophis Atneni 344 Ameni Amen-em-hat 21 A men-em-apt 222 Amen-mes 45 Amenophis I. 29, 32 II. 33, 230 „ III. 34—36, scarabs of 34, 37, 39, 43, 191, 227, 246,248,251, 303, 351 IV. 36, 37, 44, 220 Amen-Ra 19, 28, 29, 31, 34, 36, 37, 39,42,47,50,51,71,73,75,119, 157, 171, 246, 267,268,269 illus- tration A men-rut (Amyrtaeus) 61 Amen-set 219 Amenta 313 Amenti 209 Ames, see Amsu 270 Ammianus Marcellinus 3, 118, 119 Amnis Trajanus 67 'Amr ibn el 'Asi 68 Amset, see Mestha 195 Amsu 71, 269 illustration, 270, 363 Amulets 256 Amyrtaeus 61, 62 An 15 An-antef 207, 307 Anastasius 68 Anch-nes-Ameu 227 Anch-nes-nefer-ab-Ra 59, 313 An-her 75, 285, 286 illustration Ani, papyrus of 207, 351 Ani the scribe 157 Animals sacred to the gods 297 — 301 Animals mummied 355 Anpu, see Anubis Anqet 283, 285 illustration Antef Kings 18 „ III. 224 Antef, stele of, illustration 219 Antelope 356 Antoninus 246 Antony the Gi-eat 66, 189 Anubis 73, 158, 164, 165, 165, 170, 186, 189, 216, 221, 279, 280 illus- tration, 313 Apachnas 25 Apapus 26 Apepa I. 26 „ II. 26, 28 Apepi 271, 313 Aphroditopolis 8, 71, 73 Apion 9, 26 Apis Bull 11, 51, 60, 65, 281 illus- tration, 282 Apis, town of 73 Apollinopolis Magna 71 Apollonia 174 Apophis 25 Apries 58, 59 Apts 158, 171 Apu 191 Ap-uat 71, 165, 166, 221, 313 'Arabi Pasha 68 Arabians 25 Arabs 191, 231, 318, 331, 341 Aradus 33 Arban, scarabs from 251, 252 Arcadius 68 384 INDEX. Arcesilaus 59 Aristotle 232 Arsaces 288 Arses 65 Arsu 46 Artabanus 61 Artaxerxes I. 61 II. 62, 64 III. 65 Artemidorus, mummy of 186 Artemisium 61 Arundale 109, 361 Aryandes 60 'Asfisif 218 Asoalon 43 Asia 28, 29, 39, 176 Asiatics 19, 43, 44 Asi)baltites Lake 174 Assa 15 Assis 25 Assurbanipal 54, 55 Assyria 30, 53, 54, 55, 250 Assyrians 8, 28, 36, 53, 250 Aswan 8, 17, 22, 31, 34, 58 „ tombs of 344, 345 Asyut 24, 71 ,, tombs of 344 Ata 11, 340 Ataka 46 Aten. 36 Atena 211, 230 Aten-neferu 36, 245 Athenians 61 Athens 63 Athribis 75 Atmu 75, 272 illustration Augustus 119 Aurelian 67, 187 Avaris 25, 27, 28, 29, 220 Ba, or Soul 328 Baal 54 Baba 29 Babylon 36, 57, 58, 65, 250 Babylonians 8, 18, 33, 58 Bachmann 114, 118 Bactria 112 Bagdad 250, 251 Bagoas 65 Bailey 127 Bak-en-renf 52 Bakers 327 illustration Baldensel 335 Ba-neb-Tettet 75 Baqet 8 Bar-Hebraeus 26, 27, 256 Barth^lemy 4, 143 Bashmuric 355 Basil 187 Bast 75, 288 illustration Bata 276 Battus 59 Bauer 190 Beaumont and Fletcher 231 Bechten 48 Beetle 357 Begig 21 Belmore, Earl of 203 Belzoni 330, 336 Benfey quoted 3 Beni-hasan, tombs of 20 illustration, 21, ■230^,344 Bentresh 48 Beon 25 Beqet 7 Bes 229, 264, 285, 287 illustration Bet el-Wali 44 Berenice 66, 108 Berlin Academy 206 Beyrut 43, 54 INDEX. 38s Bezold 36 Biban el-Muliik 47 Bible, Coptic translation of 355 Birch, the late Dr Samuel 1, 27, 47, 113, 124, 148, 149, 207, 204, 206, 208, 211, 218, 222, 224, 237, 244, 246, 251, 257, 263, 284 Birds mummied 355 Birket el-Kurun 22 Bitter Lakes 56 Black Obelisk 210 Blemmyes 67 Blumenbach 189 Bocchoris 52 Bockh 10, 110 Boeotia 249 Boheira 355 Boheiric 355 Bonomi 109, 119, 120, 312, 361 Book of the Dead 11, 159, 163, 171, 172, 182, 185, 191, 196, 199, 202 —210, 211, 214, 217, 236, 238, 256, 260, 307, 309, 350, 353 Book of the Underworld 312 Boussard 108 Boxes, sepulchral 216 British Museum 15, 28, 47, 108, 181, 186, 188, 201, 204, 208, 210, 211, 217, 224, 246, 247, 250, 251, 252, 261, 297, 306, 327 Bruce 330 Brugsch, E. 49 Brugsch, H. 1, 3, 10, 19, 51, 69, 71, 109, 149, 208, 243, 328, 361 Bruns 27 Bubastis 11, 56, 64, 75, 287 Budge 15, 36, 184 Bulak Museum founded 68 Bui) sen, the late Baron 1, 3, 10, 121, 207 B. M. Burton 10 Busiris 75, 340 Buto 75 Cadet 202 Caesar Augustus 66 Cailliaud 232 Cairo 331 Caligula 67 Cambyses 59, 60, 65 Canaanites 50 Candace 66 Canopic Jars, 171, 192—201 „ ,, chests for 201 Canopus 67, 194 Stele of 108, 109, 354 Caracalla 67 Carchemish 33, 57 Carians 56 Carthaginians 248 Cartouche, amulet of 265 Cat, sacred to Bast 299 Cats mummied 356 Cattle marching, illustration of, 327 Caviglia 14, 330 Cha 12 Chabas 15, 109, 150, 206 Chabbesha 61 Cha-em Men-nefer 29 Chaeremon 112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 124 Chafra, see Chephren Chaldeans 27 Champollion Figeac 1, 10, 69 Champollion le Jeune quoted 120, sketch of his life 129—131, his works 131, 132, his work on Rosetta Stone 133 fF., his letter to Dacier 142, his Egyptian al- 2 C 386 INDEX. phabet 144 — 147, opinions of scholars of 148—152, 203 Chaptal 109 Charon 155 Chemennu 359 Chensu (Chonsu) 47, 48, 267, 268, 271 illustration, 272 Chensu-nefer-hetep 272 illustration Chens u-pa-chrat 272 Cheops 12, 15, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 338 Chepera 221, 234, 251, 275 illustra- tion Chephren 13, 14, 15, 335, 336, 337, 338 Cher-heb 162 Cheta 37, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 49 Chetam 39 Cheta-sar 40 Chiliades quoted 113 China 65 Chirebu 42 Chnemu 71, 73, 266, 268, 275 illus- tration Chnemu-hetep 21, 219, 230, 344 Chnoubis 251 Choiak 36 Chois 23, 73 Chosroes 68 Christianity in Egypt 310 Chronicles quoted 58 Chrysostom 187 Chu, or intelligence 328 Chu-en-aten, see Amenophis IV. Chufu, see Cheops Chufu-anch 311 Chut 331 Chut, amulet of 264 Cinyps 191 Clarke, G. W. 233 Claudius 67, 112 Clement of Alexandria 112, 121, 122, 187 Cleopatra 66 Coffins 306—310 Colchis 191 Collar, amulet of 260 Colossi, the 34, 38 illustration Colossus of Memnon 34 Combs 226 Cones, Funereal 218 Constantine 67 Constantinople 33, 63 Constantius 68 Cook, Thomas 340 Coptic language 3, 4, 354 „ dialects 354 Coptos 18, 46, 71, 187, 348 Copts 191, 192, 231 ,, era of 67 ,, literature of 355 Corippus 178 Cory 124 Critoboulos 59 Crocodile 356 Crocodilopolites 8 Cusae 71 Cush 30, 51 Cushites 26 Cynopolites 8 Cyprian 187 Cyprus 54, 59, 62, 64 Cyrene 60 Cyrenians 58 Dahshur 330, 341, pyramids of 342 Damascus 32 Damietta 175 Darius I. 60, 61, 222 „ II. 61 INDEX. 387 Darius III. 05 Davison 330 Decius 67, 111 De Pleury 190 De Guignes 4, 125 De Hammer 202 De la Fontaine 175 De Rossi 4 De Rouge 3, 45, 50, 73, 202, 207, 313 De Sacy 109, lfi5, 126, 133, 183 Delta 8, 10, 11, 24, 28, 46, 50, 54, 55, 61, 64 Democritus 112 Demotic 353 Denderah 11, 12, 126 Denon 330 Der el-bahai-i 31, 32, 44, 49, 169, 229, 236 Der on the Euphrates 251 Deveria 190 Dillmann 206 Dindorf 121 Diocletian 67 Diodorus Siculus 2, 8, 112, 118, 155, 179, 181, 183, 336, 356 Diogenes Laertius 112 Dioscorides 174 Diospolis magna 75 Diospolis parva 7 1 Disk-worshippers 37 Domitian 67 Drumann 110 Dulaurier 120 Diimichen 1, 9, 71, 150 Duval 231 Dynasties, Egyptian 9 Ebers 3, 151 Edfu 65, 66 Egypt, history of 1 — 68 „ land of 7, 8 „ names of 8 „ nomes of 8 Egyptian, the, physical characteris- tics of 1 — 3 ; was neither Negro nor Semite 3 Egyptian chronology, systems of 9, 69 dynasties 9, 77—107 funeral 153—173 language 3 — 7 race 1 writing, three kinds of 122 Eileithyia 29, 71 Eisenlohr 364 Ekphantos 182 Ekron 53 Elagabalus 67 Elephantine 15, 17, 22, 33, 67, 71, 275, 345 El-Haram el-Kaddab 12 Eliakim 57 Eliam 251 El-kab 17, 34 El-lahun 330 El-Magar 174 Elysian Fields 210 Epiphi 45 Erasmus 124 Erman 5, 149 Esarhaddon 54 Esneh 15, 71, 330, 340 Ethiopia 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 51, 54, 55, 64, 346 Ethiopians 37, 43, 44, 51, 53, 55, 57, 66, 211, 330 Etruscans 45 Euphantos 182 Euphrates 30, 251, 252 Europeans, massacre of 68 2C 2 388 INDEX. Eusebius 9, 113 Evagoras 62, 63 Exodus 27, 45, 113 Eye, symbolic 263 Ezekiel quoted 190 Fabricins 178 Fan, the Egyptian 236 Fayyum 21, 22, 72, 330 Fingers, amulet of 266 Fishes mummied 355 Flaminian Obelisk 119 Flavius Vopiscus 187 Floriana 183 Fontana 202 Forrer quoted 192, 193 Forster 189 Franz 110 Frog 265, 357 Gaisford 113 Gallns 66 Gaza 32 Gebel Alaki 44 „ Barkal 51, 55, 330 Genesis quoted 179 George 355 Germanicus 67 Gerspach 193 Gezer 60 Gibraltar 57 Gilukh5pa 36 Giorgi 4 Gizeh 34, 184, 219, 311, 317 „ pyramids of 12, 14, 15, 331 „ mastabas at 330 Gnostics 252, 287 Gobelins, Museum of 193 Gods of Egypt : — Amen 39, 49, 65, 158, 220, 221, 251 Amen-Ra 19, 28, 29, 31, 34, 36, 37, 39, 42, 47, 50, 51, 71, 73, 75, 119, 157, 171, 246, 267, 268, 269 Arasu 71, 269, 270 An-heru 285, 286 Anpu (Anubis) 73, 158, 164, 165, 166, 170, 186, 189, 216, 221, 279, 280, 313 Anqet 283, 285 Apis 11, 51, 60, 65, 281, 282 Ap-uat 71, 165, 166, 221, 313 Atmu 75, 272 Bast 75, 288 Bes 229, 264, 285, 287 Chensu (Chonsu) 47, 48, 267, 268, 271, 272 Chensu-nefer-hetep 272 Chensu-pa-chrat 272 Chepera 221, 234, 251, 275 Hapi (Apis) 11, 51, 60, 65, 281, ' 282 Hapi (Nile) 281 Hapi 284 Harmachis 14, 34, 270 Harpocrates 271 Hathor 71, 73, 264, 266, 290, 291 Heru-behutet 71 [Heru-chent-chati 75 Heru-pa-chrat 271 Heru-shefit 73 Horus 71, 73, 75, 186, 221, 251, 270, 271 Hu 75 I-em-hetep (Imouthis) 274 Isis 67, 75, 156, 166, 186, 216, 256, 268, 278, 279 INDEX. 389 Gods of Eg}'pt : — Maahes 294, 295 Maat 165, 221, 290, 291 Menhit 289 Menthu-Ra 42, 71, 211, 271 Mestha 283 Mnevis 281 Mut 34, 116, 268, 289, 290 Necheb 71 Nefer-Atmu 222, 267, 273 Neheb ka 295 Nephthys 161, 166, 186, 199, 217, 268, 278, 279, 307 Net (Neith) 58, 60, 73, 161, 199, 289, 290 Nu 292, 293 Nut 165, 166, 293, 306 Osiris 44, 156, 159, 162, 170, 175, 177, 211, 216, 219, 238, 268, 277 Ptah 21, 43, 45, 47, 225, 265, 268, 273 Ptah-Seker-Ausar 125, 274 Ptah-Ta-tenen 274 Qebhsennuf 284 Ea 36, 75, 170, 216, 221, 251, 268, 270 Ra Harmacliis 15, 44, 222 Sati 283, 285 Seb 165, 166, 293, 294 Sebek 284, 286 Sechet 225, 288, 340 Seker 295 Selket 199 Sept 75 Serapis 67, 282 Serq 294 Set 29, 40, 276, 277 Shu 165, 166, 172, 280 Sut 73 Gods of Egypt : — Tefnut 281 Tlioth 71, 75, 186, 209, 239, 275, 276 Thoueris 296, 297 Tuamautef 284 Hatch 75 Golenischeff 361 Goodwin 238 Gordon 68 Goulianoff 152 Granville 190 Greaves 189 Greece 185, 187 Greeks 34, 40, 58, 61, 63, 65, 191, their trade in Egypt 59 Grenfell, Sir Francis 228 Gronov 178 Guieyesse 208 Gutschmid 111 Gyges 55 Hadrian 67 Hair pins 227 Haker 62 Hamilton 330 Hamitio 6 Hammamat 18, 21, 23, 47, 59, 65 Hapi (Apis) 11, 51, 60, 65, 281, 282 Hapi (Nile) 281 Hapi 161, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200, 216, 217, 284 Harmachis 14, 34, 270 Harpocrates 271 Harris Papyrus 47 Harrow School Catalogue 246 Hathor 71, 73, 264, 266, 290, 291 Hatshepset 30, 31, 32, 44 Hawk 357 Hawkins 203 390 INDEX. Heart, amulet of 262 Hebennu 164, 358 Hebit 165 Hebx-ew languaare 4 Hebrews 8 Hecataeus 112 Heliogabalus 187 Heliopolis 19, 33, 34, 36, 39, 43, 46, 52, 56, 65, 75, 119, 208, 282 Hellanitus 112 Henna 162 Hennu 18 Heptanomis 8 Heq-ab 227 Heracleopolis 22 Heracleopolites 8 Heraclius 68 Her-Heruse-Amen 52 Hermann 113, 118 Hermapion 112, 118—120 Hermonthis 71 Hermopolis 52, 71, 75, 237 Hermopolites 8 Herodotus 3, 22, 59, 112, 177, 183, 190, 282, 332, 335, 336, 337, 338 Her-shef 359 Heru 211 Heru-behutet 71 Heru-chent-chati 75 Heru-em-heb 37, 303 Heru-men-kau 15 Heru-pa-chrat 371 Heru-sha 17, 18 Heru-ta-ta-f 237 Hesep-ti 11, 208, 238 Het-Hert-hent taui 49 Het-Heru 52 Het-Ptah-ka 11 Het-suten 37 Heyne 110 ilezekiah 53, 54 Hibbert Lectures 7 HieraconpoHs 71 Hieratic 353 Hieroglyphics 353 Hieroglyphic Signs, list of 366 (T. ,, Determinatives 375 — 381 Hincks 152, 244 Hipponus 73 Hittites 39 H6d6 the scribe 250 Hoffmann 187 Homer 113, 114, 117 Honey used in embalming 183 Hophra' 58 Horapollo 112, 115, 116, 123, 124, 233 Horse, the, in Egypt 29 Horus 71, 73, 75, 186, 221, 251, 270, 271 Horus, king 37 „ cippi of 358 „ children of 160, 164, 315 ,, followers of 9 Hoshea 53 Hu 75 Hycsos 25 Hyksos 9, 26, 29, 158, 204, 220, 276 Hypselis 71 lalysos 248 Ia6 Sabadth 288 Ibis 357 Ibn B^tar 174 Ibrahim Pasha 68 Ichneumon 356 I-em-hetep 274 Inarus 61 India 112 INDEX. 391 Ink, Egyptian 352 lonians 56 Iphi orates 63 Isis 67, 75, 156, 166, 186, 216, 256, 268, 278, 279 Isis-Sothis 284 Israel in Egypt 27 Issus 65 Isthmus of Suez 1 Jablonsti 124 Jacob 21, 179 Janelli 153 Jehoahaz 57 Jehoiachin 58 Jehoiakim 57, 58 Jeremiah quoted 58, 230 Jeroboam 50 Jerusalem 28, 50, 58, 67, 209 Jews 44, 53, 57, 174, 175, 209 Jezebel 230 John 187, 348 Jomard 190, 203, 330 Jonias 25 Joseph 27, 341 Josephus quoted 9, 24, 26, 28, 113 Joshua 29 Josiah 57 Judaea 28, 53, 54, 174 Judah 50, 53, 54, 57 Julien, Fort Saint 108 Julius Africanus 9 Justinian 68 Ka, or " double," the 328 Kabasos 75 Kadesh 32, 33, 39, 40, 42 Ka-kam 340 Ka-kau 282 Kalabshi 40, 44 Kallimma-Sin 36 Ka-mes 29 Kamii-os 246, 248 Kamt 7 Kantarah 39 Karaduniyash 36 Karbanit 54 Karei 34 Earnak 10, 21, 31, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 51, 53, 67 Kash 21 Kehak 45 Kein-tau 252 Kerama 50 Khabur 251, 252 Kiessling 113 King 249 Kings of Egypt, cartouches of ar- ranged chronologically : — - First Dynasty Mena (Menes) 77 Teta 77 kt&d 77 Ata 77 Hesep-ti 77 Mer-ba-pen 77 Semen-Ptah 77 Qebh 77 Second Dynasty Neter-baiu 77 Ka-kau 77 Ba-en-neter 77 Uatch-nes 77 Senta 77 Per-ab-sen 77 Nefer-ka-Ra 77 Nefer-ka-seker 77 Hetchefa 77 392 INDEX. Kings of Egypt : — Third Dynasty Tchatchai 78 Neb-ka 78 Ser (Tcheser) 78 Teta 78 Setches 78 Serteta 78 Ahtes 78 Neb-ka-E,a 78 Nefer-ka-Ra or Huni 78 Fourth Dynasty Seneferu 78 Ohufu (Cheops) 78 Chafia (Chephren) 78 Menkaura (Mycerinus) 78 Tetfra 78 Shepseskaf 78 Sebekkara 78 lemhetep 78 Fifth Dynasty Usrkaf 79 Sahura 79 Kakaa 79 Shepseskara 79 Heruakau 79 An 79 Menkauheru 79 Assa 79 Unas 79 Sixth Dynasty Teta 79 Ati 80 Pepi I. 80 Heruemsaf 80 Pepi II. 80 Ramerensemsaf 80 Neterkara 80 Netagerti (Nitociis) 80 Kings of Egypt :— Seventh — Tenth Dynasties Neferka 80 Neferseh... 80 Ab 80 Neferkaura 80 Cbai-tlii 80 Neferkara 80 Neferkara-Nebi 80 Tetkaramaa ... 80 Neferkaraxentn 81 Merenberu 81 Seneferkara 81 Kaenra 81 Neferkaratrer(l) 81 Neferkaheru 81 Neferkara-Pepi-senb 81 Neferkara-annu 81 Neferkaura 81 Neferkauheru 81 Neferkaarira 81 Eleventh Dynasty Autef 81 Mentu-hetep (?) 81 Antef 81 Antef 81 Antef (?) 81 Antef 81 An-aa 82 Antuf 82 Antuf-aa 82 Antef-aa 82 Antef 82 Seneferkara 82 Ra... 82 TJsr-en-Ra 82 Nebnemra 82 Menthuhetep I. 82 Menthuhetep II. 82 INDEX. 393 Kings of Egypt : — Menthuhetep III. 82 Menthuhetep IV. 82 Menthuhetep V. 83 Seanchkara 83 Twelfth Dynasty Amenemhat I. 83 Usertsen I. 83 Amenemhat II. 83 Usertsen II. 83 Usertsen III. 83 Amenemhat III. 83 Amenemhat IV. 83 Sebekneferura 83 Thirteenth Dynasty Chu-taiu-E,a 84 Cherp-ka-Ila 84 [Amenjemiiat 84 Sehetepabra 84 Aufna 84 Ameni-Antef-Amenemhat 84 Semenkara 84 Sehetepabra 84 ka 84 Netchemabra 84 Sebekhetepra 84 Ren... 84 Setchef...ra. 84 Sebekhetep I. 84 Mermenfitu 84 Sebekhetep II. 84 Neferhetep 85 Ketheruse 85 Sebekhetep III. 85 Sebekhetep IV. 85 Uahabra-aaab 85 Chacherui-a 85 Nebfaamerra 85 Neferabra 85 Kings of Egypt : — Sebekhetep V. 85 Mercherpra 85 A nab 85 Sebekemsaf I. 86 II. 86 Cherpuastra 86 Rahetep 86 Fourteenth Dynasty Ai 86 Ana 86 Seanchensehtu-Ra 86 Mercherpra-anren 83 Seuatchenra 86 Chakara 86 Kamerira 86 Sehebra 86 Stakara 86 Mertchefara 86 Nebtchefara 86 Ubenra 87 Herabra 87 Nebsenra 87 Seuahenra 87 Secheperenra 87 Tetcherura 87 Fifteenth Dynasty Nubset 87 ...Banan 87 Abehenchepesh 87 Apepa 87 Sixteenth Dynasty Apepa 87 Seventeenth Dynasty Tauaa 87 Tauaaaa 88 Tauaaqen 88 Kames 88 394 INDEX. Kings of Egypt :— Kings of Egypt : — Aahhetep 88 Twenty-first Dynasty Aahmessepaari 88 Se-Mentu 93 Eighteenth Dynasty Pasebchami 93 Amasis I. 88 93 Amenophis I. 88 Amenemapt 93 Thothmesl. 88 Pasebchanu 93 Thothmes II. 89 Her-Heru 93 Hatshepset 89 Pa-anch 93 Thotlimes III. 89 Painetchem I. 94 Amenophis II. 89 II. 94 Thothmes IV. 89 Masaherth 94 Amenophis III. 89 Mencheperra 94 Amenophis IV. 89 Painetchem III. 94 Seaakanechtcheperura 90 Twenty-second Dynasty Tutanchamen 90 Ai 90 Shashanq I. 94 Osorkon I. 94 Heruemheb 90 Thekelethl. 95 Nineteenth Dynasty Osorkon II. 95 Rameses I. 90 Shashanq 95 Seti I. 90 Thekelethll. 95 Rameses II. 90 Shashanq III. 95 Meneptah I. 91 Pamai 95 Amenmeses 91 Seti II. 91 Twenty-third Dynasty Meneptah II. 91 Peta-Bast 95 Setnecht 91 Osorkon III. 95 Twentieth Dynasty Twenty-fourth Dynasty Rameses III. 91 Bakenrenf 96 IV. 91 Kashta 96 V. 91 P-anchi I. 96 VI. 92 „ II. 96 VII. 92 Twenty-sixth Dynasty VIII. 92 Sabaco 96 IX. 92 Shabataka 96 X. 92 Tirhakah 96 XL 92 Amenrut 96 XII. 92 Psammetichus I. 97 XIII. 92 NechoII. 97 INDEX. 395 Kings of Egypt : — Psammetichus II. 97 Apiies 97 Amasis II. 97 Psammetichus III. 97 Twenty-seventh Dynastij Cambyses 97 Darius Hystaspes 98 Xerxes 98 Artaxerxes 98 Darius Xerxes 98 Twenty -eighth Dynasty Chabbeslia 98 Tioenty-ninth Dynasty TSTaifaarut 98 Haker 98 Psemut 98 Thirtieth Dynasty Nectauebus I. 99 II. 99 Kircher 119, 124, 175 Klaproth 152 Kochome 11, 340 A'o/Jpots 227 Kouosso 18, 24 Kopp 4 Kosseir 46 Kouyunjik 53, 249, 330 Krumbacher 113 Kiihn 174 Kullab 330 Kummeh 22, 218 Kurnah 218, 253 Kynopolis 73 Labyrinth 22, 23 Lacedaemonians 62 Lacour 126 Ladike 59 Lagarde 4, 175 Lagus 66 Lamellicorns 232 Land quoted 255 Lanzone 215, 217, 234, 265, 287, 291, 294, 361 Larcher 189 Lateran 33 Latopolis 71 Latreille 232, 233 Latus fish 300 Lebu 45 Leemans 7, 115, 124, 207, 233 Leftbure 208, 265 Leitch, J. 133 Leku 45, 46 Lenoir 126 Lenormant 1, 110 Lepidotus fish 300 Lepsius 1, 4, 6, 10, 19, 69, 109, 152, 203, 204, 206, 219, 230, 238, 307, 311, 330, 331, 362 Letopolis 73 Letronne 110, 120 Libya 61, 65 Libyans 43, 45, 57, 58 Lieblein 10 Linianen 39 Loftie, his work on Scarabs 246 Loret 211 Loudon 33 Louvre 246 Lucian 179 Luxor 34, 47 Lycians 45 Lycopolis 71 Lydia 55 Muahes 294, 295 396 INDEX. Maat 165, 221, 290, 291 Maat-ka-Ea 49 Maa-ur-nefem-Ra 43 Macedon 64 Macedonians 15 Macrinus 67 Maltata 12 Mahdi 22 Malta 183 Mamun 331 Manetho 9, 10, 11, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 37, 66, 77, 176, 340, 341, 342 Marcianus 68 Marcus Aurelius 67 Mariette 1, 9, 10, 14, 23, 69, 211, 212, 213, 282, 318, 324, 325, 330, 340, 341, 343, 346 Mark, Saint 67, 310, 353 Maroi 45 Marusar 40 Ma'sara 62 Mashuasha 45, 46, 50 Maspero 1, 49, 151, 164, 165, 184, 203, 209, 257, 306, 340, 347 Mastabas 317—328 Mastabat el-Far'iin 340, 341, 342 Mas'udi 330 Matui 19 Maty 189 Mautenure 40, 43 Mecca 209 Medinet Habu 46, 47, 56, 60, 67 Mediterranean 32 Medum, pyramid of 12, 343 Megiddo 32, 57 Meh 21 Mehen 301 Melik el-Kamil 331 Memnon 67 ,, Colossus of 34 Memphis 8, 9, 10, 19, 21, 24, 25, 29, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 46, 52, 54, 55, 56, 59, 61, 63, 64, 73, 109, 110, 185, 282, 309, 341, 342 Memphites 8 Memphitic Coptic 355 Mena 246 Menat amulet 265 Menat-Chufu 21 Mendes 56, 62, 64, 65, 75 Menelaus 194 Menes 9, 10, 11 Menhit 289 Menkaura, see Mycerinus Men-nefer 342 Men-nefert 10 Menthu-em-hat 227 Mentbu-em-sa-f 230 Menthu(Mentu)-hetep 18, 21, 307 Menthu-Ra 42, 71, 211, 271 Menzaleh, Lak 355 Mer-ba-pen 10, 11 Mercati 125 Mercator 8 Mer-en-Ptah 45 Mer-en-Ra 17 Mevoe 112, 330 Mer-sekem 251 Merseker 301 Mesopotamia 7, 30, 32, 33, 34, 39, 48, 50, 57, 243, 250, 252 Mesopotamians 32, 33, 34, 43 Mesori 51 Mestha 161, 195, 196, 197, 199, 216, 217, 283 Metelis 75 Metternich Stele 287, 361 Meyer 1 Migdol 39 MOetus 112 INDEX. 397 Mirrors 225 Misraim 8 Mitani 8, 36 Mnevis Bull 281, 283 Moeris, Lake 22, 23, 67 Mokattam 332, 343 Momemphis 58 Mommsen quoted 111, 112 Month, the little 361 Months, the Egyptian 363 „ names in Arabic 363 „ names in Coptic 363 ,, names in Greek 363 Moses 340 Mostansser-Billah 193 Muhammad 'Ali 68, 331, 361 Mukattam Hills 56 Miiller, Max 5, 7 Mulsant 233 Mummy, meaning of the word 173 cloth 189 Mummies, how made 174 ff. Murray, A. S. 247 Mushezib-Marduk 252 Musur 8 Mut 34, 116, 268, 289, 290 Mut-em-Mennu 181 Mycerinus 15, 17, 184, 208, 237, 306, 311, 331, 337, 338 Mytilene 112 Nahr el-kelb 54 Nai, illustration 302 Naifaarutl. 62 „ II. 62 Napata 43, 51, 52 Napoleon 68 Naram-Sin 18 Naucratis 59, 112, 247, 248, 249 NaviUe 163, 172, 205, 206, 214, 236, 237, 238, 259, 263, 266 Nebseni, Papyrus of 207 Neb-set (Nebqet), Papyrus of 207 Nebt^hetep 359 Nebuchadnezzar II. 57, 58 Necheb 71 Nechebet 359 Necho II. 56, 57, 60 Necht-neb-f 62 Nectanebus I. 62, 63, 314, 361 II. 63, 64 Nefer amulet 264 Nefer-as-u 340 Nefer-Atmu 222, 267, 273 Nefer-hetep 24 Nefer-ka-Ra 17 Nefer-ka-Seker 11 Negative Confession 182 Neha amulet 265 Neheb-ka 295 Nehern 30 Neherna 34 Neith 58, 60, 73, 161, 199, 289, 290 Nemart 50 Nepherites 62 Nephthys 161, 166, 186, 199, 217, 268, 278, 279, 307 Nero 67, 112 Nesi-Chensu 224 Nesi-pa-ur-shef 165, 308 Nes-Mut 211 New York 33 NI 33, 252 Nicholson, Sir Charles 288 Niebuhr 330 Nikii 55 Nile 7, 8, 10, 19, 22, 33, 39, 46, 52, 56, 58, 61, 63, 67, 108, 110, 168, 170, 315, 318, 334, 236, 344 398 INDEX. Nilopolis 73 Nimrod 50, 52 Nineveh 32, 53, 54, 55 Kitaqert 17, 59 Nitetis 59 Nitocris 17 Nomes of Egypt 71—76 Nu 292, 293 Nubia 21, 29, 30, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 44, 46, 54, 56, 211, 243, 275 Nubians 33, 60 Nubti 26, 27, 43 Numbers, Egyptian and Coptic 304, 365 Nut 165, 166, 293, 306 Kut-Ameu 55 Oases, the 8 Oasis 60 Ochus 64 Oi Meneptah 312 Orontes 33, 39, 40, 42 Orpheus 155, 156 Osiris 44, 156, 159, 162, 170, 175, 177, 211, 216, 219, 238, 268, 277 Osiris, Tomb of, at Abydos 9 Owen, the late Prof. 2 Oxyrhynchites 8 Oxyrhynchus 73 Oxyrhynchus fish 300 Pa-aru-shep 45 Pa-Bairo 45 Pa-Bast 289 Padi 53 Pahlin 126 Palestine 30, 39, 50, 54, 57 Palette, the Egyptian 350 Palmyra 67 Palzir-shemesh 250 Pamai 51 Panopolis 71, 191, 192, 217 Papremis 61 Papyrus, Egyptian 349 Papyrus amulet 261 Parma 237 Pa-seb-cha-nut I. 49 II. 49 Patchetku 29 Pausiris 61 Peka 168 Pelusium 43, 59, 64 Pen-ta-urt 40, 43 Pepi T. 17, 184, 203, 219, 230, 341 „ II. 17, 184, 203, 219, 345 Perring 330 Persia 59, 61, 62, 65 Persians 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 68, 174, 331 Peta-Bast 51 Peteti 363 Petrie 330 Pettigrew 175, 195 Phagrus iish 300 Phakussa 75 Pharaoh, meaning of the name 73 Pharnabazus 63 Pharos 66 Philae 65, 275 Philip 123 Philition 337 Phoenicia 53, 58, 63, 64 Phoenicians 26, 54, 248 Physiologus quoted 255 Pianchi, King of Egypt 51, 52, 53, 55 Pianchi 52 Piazza del Popolo 119 Pierret 207, 208, 263, 265 INDEX. 399 Pillows 210 Pi-netchem I. 49 II. 49 III. 49 Pisentios 187, 348, 349 Pithom 44, 56 Pleyte 208 Pliny 8, 232, 330 Plutarch 181, 277, 319 Pococke 330 Pompey's Pillar 67 Pomponius Mela 178 Porphyry 123, 181, 233 Price, F. G. Hilton 287 Prisse 10, 15 Probus 67 Proverbs quoted 190 Psammefcichus I. 55, 56, 247 II. 58 III. 59 Psamuiuthis 62 P-se-miit 62 Pseudo-Callisthenes 64 Psychostasia 238 Ptah 21, 43, 45, 47, 225, 265, 268, 273 Ptah-Seker-Ausar 125, 215, 216, 255, 274 Ptah-Ta-tenen 274 Ptah, temple of at Memphis 10 Ptah-hetep 323, 353 „ Precepts of 15 Ptolemies 66, 186, 306, 310, 314, 348 Ptolemy the Geographer 8 Ptolemy I. 9, 66, 99 II. 9, 66, 100 „ III. 66, 100, 108, 354 IV. 100 V. 101, 109,110, 301, 354 Ptolemy VI. 101 VII. 101 VIII. 101 IX. 101 X. 102 XI. 102 XII. 102 XIII. 102 Punt 18, 23, 31, 32, 39, 46 Pyramid, the Great 331, 333 „ the Second 335 „ the Third 337 „ the Step 340 the Blunted 342 of Pepi I. 341 „ ofTeta 341 „ of Unas 340 „ of Medum 343 Pyramid texts 203 Pyramids 67, 183, 328—343; battle of 68 Pythagoras 123 Qebhsenuuf 161, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200, 216, 217, 283, 284 Quatremere 4, 355 Ra. 36, 75, 170, 216, 221, 251, 268, 270 Ka-Harmachis 15, 44, 222 Raamses, city of 44 Rakoti 65 Ra-meri 341 Eameses I. 37, 40, 44 II. 9, 27, 37, 39, 40—45, 51, 54, 118, 119, 230, 246, 247, 303, 336, 351 ; plans of his tomb 316 III. 46, 47, 312 400 INDEX. Rameses IV. 47 V. 47 VI. 47 VII. 47 VIII. 47 IX. 47 X. 48 XI. 48 XII. 48 XIII. 48 Raniesseum 67 Ra-nefer, illustration 305 Ra-neferu 48 Ra-mib 340 Rawlinson, G. 2 Re-ant 29 Rech-ma-Ra 33 Bed Sea 2, 18, 46, 56, 60, 66, 67 Reed for writing 352 Rehoboam 50 Renan 4, 5, 6 Renaudot 355 Rennutet 363 Reptiles mummied 355 Reseph 39 Resurrection, the 266 Retennu 33, 39, 49 Rhampsinitus 332 Rhodopis 339 Roman Emperors 103 — 107 Romans 66, 306, 310, 314, 331, 345 Rome 33, 67, 119 Ronelle 189 Rosellini 1, 153, 244 Rosetta Stone 108—153, 190, 354 Ruau 219 Rut- Amen 55 Ruthen 30 Sabaco 52, 53, 55, 250 Sabben 345 Sahidic Coptic 355 Sahu-Ra 15, 339 Sa'id Pasha 68 Sais 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 73 SakMrah 9, 11, 17, 34, 184; Pyra- mids of 330, 342 Salamis 63 Salatis 25, 26 Salt 148 Salvolini 109 Sam-behutet 359 Sam amulet 264 Sam priest 168 Sapalel 40 Sarcophagi 310 — 315 Sardinia 248 Sardinians 45 Sarginu 50 Sargon 18, 50, 53 Sati 283, 285 Satumkhipa 36 Scarab 231—256, 301 Scarabs of Amenophis III. 240 — 245 Soaraboids 250 Schiaparelli 208, 219, 346 Schrader 53 Schwartze 4, 139, 141 Scorpion 301 Scythia 112 Se-aa^ka-Ra 37 Se-anch-ka-Ra 18 Seb 165, 166, 293, 294 Sebek 284, 286 Sebek-hetep II. 24 „ III. 24 IV. 24 V. 24 VI. 24 INDEX. 401 Seliek neferu 23 Sebennytlios 75 Sebennytus 9 Sechet 225, 288, 340 Sefex-Aabu 296, 297 Seker 282, 295 Seker-em-sa-f 184, 203, 306 Select Papyri quoted 28 Selim I. 68 Selket 199 Se-mench ka 23 Semites 24, 26, 50 Semneh 22 Seneferu 11, 12 Senehet 19 Senkowaki 203 Ben-mut 31 Sennacherib 53, 54, 250 Sent 11, 176, 219 Sept 75, 300 Seqenen-Ra III. 28, 29, 268 Se-Ptah 45 Septimius Severus 34, 67 Septuagint 66 Serapeum 34, 282, 340 Serapis 67, 282 Serdab 317, 322 Se-Renput 345 Serq (Serqet) 294, 301 Sesheta 297 Sesostris 8, 40 Set 29, 40, 276, 277, 297 Seti I. 9, 37, 39, 40, 43, 44, 119, 215, 247, 312, 336, 346, 347 Seti II. 45 Set-Necht 46 S7?6> 276 Sethroe 75 Severns of Antiooh 41 Sextus Empericus 178 B. M. Seyffarth 152 Shaasu 26, 30, 33, 37, 39, 42, 43 Shabaka 53, 249, 250, 350 Shabataka 53 Shabtun 42 Shalmaneser II. 210, 250 Sharetana 45 Sharezer 54 Sharhana 29 Sharpe 109, 124, 199 Shtruhen 29 Shashanq I. 50 II. 50 III. 51 „ IV. 51 Shaw 330 Shekelasha 45, 46 Shekh el-Beled 16, 304, 325 Shen amulet 264 Shep-en-apt 55, 56 Shepherd Kings 25, 26, 28 Shera 219, 353 Shesh 177 Shishak 50 Shrew-mice 356 Shu 165, 166, 172, 180 Shuti-Qenna 207 Sicilians 45 Sidon 58, 64 Sidonians 64 Silco 68 Silius Italicus 178 Silurusfish 300 Sinai 12, 15, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 32, 33, copper mines of 46, 339 Sirius 361 Smith, A. H. 247 Smith, Sir C. Holled 316 Smith, Payne, Dean 231 Smith, Philip 1 2D 402 INDEX. Snake 357 Soane Museum 312 Sogdianus 61 Solander 189 Soleb 34 Solomon 49, 50 Somali land 39 Sphinx, the 14, 15, 34, 298 Sphinxes, Avenue of 34 Spohn 152 Stelae 218—222 Step Pyramid 11 Stem 4, 117, 244, 355, 364 Strabo 112, 113, 191, 346 Strassmaier 7 Sudan 68, 211 Suez Canal 56, 68 Suidas 113 Sut 27, 73 Sutech 27, 276 Syene 8, 67 Syria 23, 28, 30, 32, 33, 36, 39, 43, 53, 63 Syrians, 33, 37, 39, 43 Tachos 63 Tacitus 67 Tafnecht 52 Taharqa, see Tirhakah Tale of Two Brothers 158 Ta-meh 8 Ta-mera 7 Tanis 21, 22, 23, 27, 32, 43, 75 Ta-qema 8 Ta-res 8 Ta-she 22 Ta-ta-nub-hetep 199 Tau-aa-qen 28 Ta-urt 296—298 Tchah 40 Tchahi 29 Tcharu^a 245 Tchehra 63 Tchemi 187 Teohi 363 Tefnut 281 Tehuti-em-heb 48 Tell el-Amarna 36, 37, 230 Tell el-Yahudiyeh 46 Tennes 64 Teiityris 71 Teos 63 Tertullian 187 Tet amulet 259 Teta 11, 17, 176, 203, 219, 341 Tet-asu 341 Tet-ka-Ra 15 Thannyros 61 Tharros 248, 249 Thebaid 8 Thebes 19, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 36, 37, 40, 42, 43, 46, 49, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 62, 65, 67, 71, 112, 157, 187, 218, 255, 268, 307, 309, 344 Thebes in Boeotia 249 Thekeleth I. 50 „ II. 51 Theodosius I. 68 11. 68 Thi 36, 37, 227, 242, 244 Thierbach 121 This 9, 10 Thomson 190 Thoth 71, 75, 186, 209, 239, 275, 276 Thothmes T. 30, 220, 222, 247, 252 II. 30, 31 III. 10, 14, 30, 31, 32, 39, 40, 46, 119, 224, 230, 236, 246, 247, 251, 253 INDEX. 403 Thothmes IV. 14, 33, 34: Thoueris 296, 297 Thummosis 28 Ti 305 Tiberius 67 Tiglath 50 Tiglatli-Pileser I. 36 Tigris 30, 33 Timaus 24 Time, divisions of 362 Tirhakah 54, 55 Titi 45 Tmu, see Atmu Todtenbuch 202 Tomb, the Egyptian 315 ff. Tombs of the kings 67, 159, 346 Tombs, Theban 343 ff. Tombs used by Christians 348 Tomlinson 120 Trajan 67 Tuamautef 161, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200, 216, 217, 283, 284 Tukulti 50 Tuman Bey 68 Tunep 33, 42 Turah 17, 62 Turin 203 „ papyrus 9, 2.3, 207, 208 Tursha 45 Tushratta 8, 36 Tut-anch-Amen 37, 227 Tutu 157, 170, 171 Tweezers 226 Tyre 54, 58 Tzetzes 113, 117 Hatch (Uatchet) 75, 359, 360 Uauat 19 Uenephes 340 Una 17, 219 Unas 17, 203, 230, 340, 341 Underworld, Book of 313, 347 Ungarelli 119 Ur 335 XTrdamanah 55 Usarken (Osorkon) I. 50 II. 50 III. 51 Userkaf 15 Usertsen I. 19, 21, 345 II. 21, 230 „ III. 21, 22 Ushabtiu figures 171, 211—215 Utcha-Heru-en-pe-resu 60 Utchat 264 Valerian 30 Valerianas 67, 125 Van, Lake 33 Vases 222 Vatican 60 Vespasian 67 Vulture amulet 260 Vyse 184, 306, 330, 333, 337, 340 Wadi Habib 39 Wadi Halfah 22, 316 Wadi Ma'arah 12, 17 Warburton 126 Westwood, 232 Wheat, winnowing of 326 Whiston 26, 28 White 175 Wiedemann 1, 3, 27, 49, 62, 150, 155, 173, 179, 182, 335 Wild fowl, netting of 326 Wilkins 355 Wilkinson 69, 190, 218, 224, 253, 330 William of Baldensel 335 Woide 355 404 INDEX. Wright, the late Prof. W. 4, 5 "Writing, Egyptian 353 Xerxes I. 61 „ II. 61 Yates 187, 190, 191 Year, the Egyptian 361 Young, Thomas 109, 126; sketch of his life 127—129; his work on the Ttosetta Stone 132 ff.; accouut of his discoveries 138 ; his alphabet 141; opinions of scholars upon 148 — 152 Zawyet el-'Arydn 330 Zedekiah 58 Z. D. M. G. quoted 5 Zeno 68 Zenobia 67 Zion 230 Zodiac 314 Zoega 120, 125, 143 CAMBBIBGE: printed by C. J. clay, M.A. and sons, at the DN1VEE3ITY PUKSS. nlM9 Ifi This book is a preservation photocopy. It is made in compliance with copyright law and produced on acid-free archival 60# book weight paper which meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (permanence of paper) Preservation photocopying and binding by Acme Bookbinding Charlestown, Massachusetts m 1999