'•% A'^" / \......'' \ %,„(iF ^i,„ C sllWIM AMD S^tate (SolUge of Agritttlturi? At (ftarnell MttitJerBitH HF5381.G8T"""'""'""-"'"'^ Occupations; a textbook in vocational gui 3 1924 013 821 677 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924013821677 Building an American " skyscraper " Two thousand men worked twelve months in the construction of this splendid office building. Thirty million dollars was spent for land, materials, and labor ; 40 stories were built; and offices were provided for 15,000 persons. A structure worthy the men of various vocations — architect, contractor, workman, business man — who cooperated to produce it OCCUPATIONS A TEXTBOOK IN VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE DY ENOCH BURTON GOWIN ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF COMMERCE, SCHOOL OF COMMERCE ACCOUNTS, AND FINANCE, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY WILLIAM ALONZO WI^EATLEY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MIDDLEToWn, iCONNECTlCUT GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON ATLANTA ■ DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO vi OCCUPATIONS brings about a natural adjustment of the young man to his hfe career; and the immediate reason for writing this text was the belief that similar results might quite readily be duplicated in other classrooms. Each chapter of the book contains numerous exercises, readings, and references, the special purpose of the exer- cises being to localize information. In the Appendix are given lists of selected volumes for vocational libraries. A collection of the most helpful books can be secured for a few dollars, and for twenty to twenty-five dollars one can buy a very good working library treating all the leading vocations. Considerable material can be secured without cost ; mention of this is made both in the chapter references and in the Appendix. By pupils in the first or second year of the high school the course here presented can be completed in a half year with daily recitations, or in a whole year with recitations com- ing two or three times a week. The text permits considerable freedom on the part of the teacher, however, both as to the length of the course and the relative emphasis to be placed on the different vocations. Each teacher naturally will con- sider first his own community and the needs of his class, and, while requiring all pupils to study the text as a whole, will omit certain exercises and references and assign special topics as may seem advisable. We are confident that such a study of vocations, besides being intrinsically interesting to the pupils, gives them greater respect for all kinds of honorable work, helps them later to choose more wisely their life work, convinces them of the absolute necessity for a thorough preparation before entering any vocation, and holds to the end of the high-school course many who otherwise would drop out early in the race. These results have actually been realized in our practice, and we believe that such service should have a place in all high schools, which are the people's elementary colleges. PREFACE vii The personal information of vocations gained on our part through practical experience and study has been consider- ably extended by the experience of others. People in general have been found to be very much interested in this vocational study and ready to place at our disposal their own occupational experience. It was the plan to give credit in the Preface to all these persons, but the list of those who have contributed either information or criticism worthy of note has grown so extensive that considerations of space compel its omission, though this does not lessen our appreciation of the service rendered. At the time the reprint of this book has been called for we are in the midst of the Great War, under whose influence vocations are being profoundly reshaped. The demand for increased productivity of the things essential in carrying on the war and for the curtailment of all less essential activities has altered greatly the emphasis which the author, writing in peace times, placed upon the various vocations. Manufactiiring, machine and related trades, and the engineering profession are now, in view of the changed conditions, undermanned ; the learned professions, real estate, advertising, and the building trades are for the time being less attractive ; millions of our men are in military service ; wages in most cases have advanced far beyond the figures cited in the text ; and women in unusually large numbers are taking up many of the positions described in this book. How long these and other decisive changes will persist cannot be known at this time, since the duration of the war itself is a matter involved in many uncertainties. It is our plain duty, however, to produce with all possible effec- tiveness under these new war conditions, and to be ready, after the war is over, to readjust ourselves to the different but interesting days which will then lie ahead. THE AUTHORS CONTENTS PART I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF VOCATIONS CHAPTER PAGE I. Importance of Vocational Information .... i II. Characteristics of a Good Vocation 7 III. How TO STUDY Vocations 21 PART II. DETAILED STUDY OF THE MOST IMPORTANT LIFE VOCATIONS IV. Agriculture 31 V. Commercial Occupations 66 VI. Transportation 99 VII. Civil Service 127 VIII. Manufacturing 140 IX. The Building Trades 163 X. Machine and Related Trades 196 XL The Engineering Professions 221 XII. The Learned Professions and Allied Occupations 245 XIII. Miscellaneous and New Openings 275 PART III. VOCATIONAL ADJUSTMENT XIV. Choosing your Life Work 301 XV. Securing a Position 321 XVI. Efficient Work and its Reward 338 APPENDIX 349 Vocational Libraries 349 Reference Works . . . 3So Free Material Available . 351 INDEX 353 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Building an American " slcyscraper " Frontispiece Plowing with a gas tractor 32 Harvesting grain with a binder 39 A trained farmer at work 43 Cutting and threshing wheat in Oregon 49 A dairy farm 51 A poultry farm 54 The organization of a commercial concern 83 A through express train too A powerful freight locomotive 102 The operating department of a railroad 105 A railroad roundhouse 107 A switch yard 109 " King of the telegraphers " 111 Organization of traffic department 113 Financial and accounting department 117 A railroad's headquarters 118 Conductor giving engineer the " high-ball " 122 Factory work 142 Interior view of a modern factory 143 Diagram of the production department 1 47 Operating a disc grinder 149 Studying a turntable lathe 152 A factory process requiring trained men 1 54 Apprentices at school 158 George Westinghouse — inventor, engineer, and business man . 1 60 At work on a skyscraper . . 176 The building contractor begins work 188 An insurance company's home office 191 A machine tradesman 197 The machinist at work 201 A fine example of the machinist's skill 203 Turning car wheels 2ro Driving a motor truck 216 xi xii OCCUPATIONS PAGE The Pennsylvania Station, New York City 222 Tunnel under the Hudson River 226 A modern power plant 228 A public-service power house 233 The Grand Central Terminal, New York 237 A famous technical man 240 The engraver 287 A modern printing press 288 OCCUPATIONS PART I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF VOCATIONS CHAPTER I IMPORTANCE OF VOCATIONAL INFORMATION There is no greater blessing- in this world than a steady job, with increasing efficiency and hence increasing wages as time goes on. — Paul H. Hanus The average man must earn his own livelihood. He should be trained to do so, and he should be trained to feel that he occupies a contemptible position if he does not do so. — Theodore Roosevelt The boy's duty and necessity of self-support. No duty comes closer home to a young man than becoming able to support himself. He may dream dreams and talk grandly of what he is to do, but unless he is able first of all to take care of himself he fails. This fact is recognized by all ambitious boys. They scorn to think of always looking to their fathers for support ; instead they plan careers of usefulness and seek earnestly to make these plans real. Self-support is something many are obliged to face early in life. Thrown upon his own resources, Horace Greeley mounted step by step from humble printer to founder and editor of the New York Tribune. Albert J. Beveridge entered college with only ^50 loaned by a friend, and during vacations 2 OCCUPATIONS cut wheat in the harvest fields. Many of our recognized "Captains of Industry" began at the bottom as poor boys, and our greatest national hero, Abraham Lincoln, inspires because he conquered so many and such difficult obstacles. What those men, and scores like them, have accomplished is being done to-day in a more humble yet praiseworthy way by millions of men. Whoever performs useful labor, does it well, and lives honestly and sincerely, shares the glory of doing the world's work. The opportunities in the world's work. This work of the world now lies before you. In it you are eager to play a large and worthy part. And you wonder, just as boys for generations have wondered, " Is there any place for me .■' " There certainly is much to be done. This is preeminently the age of big tasks for all who will qualify. The farmer in 191 2 raised a crop which sold for ^9,S32,oo'o,ooo, an increase over the year before of more than ;^ 1,000,000,000. The man- ufacturer, as well, has much to do. Into his factory pours a large part of this enormous stream of raw materials, and from the shipping room issues an annual product of necessities, com- forts, and luxuries worth ;^20,767,ooo,ooo. Manufacturing has added enough value to the raw product to make a string of five- dollar bills that would go around the world eight times, and it furnishes employment for an army of nearly 8,000,000 men. To carry these products back and forth demands railroads. We have them, the greatest in the world, requiring 2,000,000 freight cars and manned by 1,600,000 employees. Other activities are on the same gigantic scale. Our mer- chants have their bales of goods piled high in the warehouses of China and South Africa, and at home every American is able to buy of his local dealer products formerly denied a king. The engineer with mathematical formulas and transit directs the building of tunnels under rivers, through which thousands of people daily ride, or throws great dams across Nile or Mississippi. The chemist discovers new food products and VOCATIONAL INFORMATION 3 renders valuable what was formerly waste, and thus becomes the right-hand man of the manufacturer. Then there are the millions of builders, machinists, factory employees, doctors, lawyers, teachers, civil-service employees and countiess other workers, a vast army — and what mighty tasks are theirs. The boy's eagerness to begin work. Boys of red blood are eager to take hold, to feel coursing through their veins the joy of profitable effort. While most of them are obliged to earn money, all will agree with Dean Davenport that " every man is a better man if he feels the power to earn his way, whether he needs to do it or not." They see idlers and loafers and despise them. They see the industrious and the efficient doing things and reaping rewards and with these they choose to be. Millions of young men everywhere are as ready to play the game well on life's field as on the high-school gridiron. And yet why about us are so many failures ? ' It is sad but true that boys of promise often fail miserably in adult life. Not long ago [says Dr. O. S. Marden] three college graduates were found working on a sheep farm in Australia, one from Oxford, one from Cambridge, and the other from a German university — college men tend- ing brutes ! Trained to lead men they drove sheep. The owner of the farm was an ignorant, coarse sheep raiser. He knew nothing of books or theories, but he knew sheep. His three hired graduates could speak foreign languages and discuss theories of political economy and philos- ophy, but he could make money. He had made a fortune, while the college men could scarcely get a living. Results of purposeless drifting. Would you consider wash- ing dishes proper work for the college-trained man ? Yet we are told that in a certain dishwashers' union of 700 mem- bers, 100 are college graduates. One member of this union, himself formerly a college instructor, says : Naturally I do not care to reveal my name. We represent a class of men who have found ourselves unable to cope with the harsh require- ments of life. We are absolutely unfitted for business life, but I might 4 OCCUPATIONS have succeeded if I had had even a rudimentary knowledge of business affairs. I was unmarried and came West with just enough money to last me a week. At first I tried the rough work, but I was unable to endure its hardships, so I became a dishwasher. The foregoing is the confession of a drifter, and drifters are found everywhere. If you come to know some harvesting gang which migrates over the Western wheat fields, you will find in it men who should themselves be owning rich farms instead of seeking chances to work on one. If you study tramps as they use old tomato cans for coffee and discarded railroad ties for seats, you will find that many are men who should be driving trains instead of stealing rides. If you stand in sympathetic mood beside the Bowery bread line, visit employment agencies, look over " want ads," hold in your hand the many applications received for the most ordi- nary position, it is clear that here, too, are men whose fine ability has been feebly or unwisely directed. The longer you ponder over this matter the more deeply will the truth be burned into your mind, that the world has many drifters and that drifting is dangerous. Do you know that by drifting you can get into just such a plight as these men .'' But such failure is not for boys who have set out to make good. You must take a positive attitude toward life and its work. You must be a pilot who takes firm grip of the tiller and sends the good ship straight to her goal. The simplicity heretofore of choosing one's vocation. But that raises a most serious question, the old, old question over which generation after generation of young men has puzzled. What is my goal 1 What am I going to be .? This question, too, is becoming harder and harder to answer. A boy in one of the little villages of one hundred years ago knew something of practically every vocation. His father, perhaps, was a tradesman, with close acquaintanceship with other tradesmen of the village. The boy could watch the blacksmith at work, he could see the weaver weave and the VOCATIONAL INFORMATION 5 baker bake. He had some understanding of what was done by the minister, the doctor, and the lawyer. His teacher and the whole community knew him twenty-four hours of the day, and were interested in what he was going to be. So, mak- ing use of their well-founded advice and of his knowledge of what the few simple vocations offered, he usually made his choice wisely and was fitted into his life work. The complexity of choosing a life career nowadays. But this simple industrial system has changed and has become wonderfully complex. Men no longer do things, but they do one thing, and in many cases only part of one thing. Instead of there being a place in the crossroads store, where one may find out if he likes it, mercantile life to-day has so many different kinds of establishments and so great a variety of work in each that the average boy is simply bewildered and would waste much time in trying to find out from first- hand experience what he is best fitted for. No boy of to-day can work up to a responsible position in the field of trans- portation by becoming a stage driver or a yard boy for the freighter. No boy learns to-day what industry holds for him by watching the blacksmith or the cobbler. Their work is now done by the specialist ; there are so many different posi- tions in engineering and manufacturing, and so definitely is the work partitioned off that in a modern shoe factory, for example, one man may spend his life simply making heels. Our economic and social system is like a gigantic watch into which myriads of men, as wheels, must be adjusted. But, unfortunately, there are no all-skilled adjustment makers, and the danger is great of round boys getting into square holes. Placing a round boy in a square hole means a misfit for a time or for life. Cowper tried to be a lawyer ; Goldsmith tried to be a physician. Both failed miserably, but they made bril- liant successes in literature. A. T. Stewart was unsuccessful as a minister and did not find teaching congenial. The failure of a friend to whom he had loaned money left him the 6 OCCUPATIONS possessor of a dry-goods store. Here was something for which he was fitted, and consequently his name came to adorn the greatest department store of New York. Schiller started to train himself for surgery. Handel, according to his father's plans, was to be a lawyer. Claude Lorraine was apprenticed to a pastry cook. But the drama, music, and painting claimed them and were enriched by their genius. Every man is good for something. He must put forth effort, but this effort should be directed toward that for which he is fitted. You wish no tragedy of a misfit life ; you, too, purpose to make the most of yourself and to find and fill your proper calling. Appreciating this desire and need of young men, the authors have written this work for the express purpose of helping you to make the best choice of a vocation and to realize the most successful life career. EXERCISES 1. Make a list of the principal vocations in which the people of your community are engaged. What vocation do you know most about? What vocation are you most interested in ? 2. Instead of studying many life-vocations and considering a choice of the most suitable, would it be wise to take the first job offered and work up from that? 3. Has any striking example come to your attention of a man who is doing what he seems best fitted for ? of a man who has not yet " found himself " ? of a man who is a misfit ? 4. Give reasons for some of the many vocational failures we see about us. 5. Why is it harder to-day than it was fifty years ago to choose wisely a life career? 6. What benefits do you expect to gain from taking this course in vocational guidance? CHAPTER II CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD VOCATION Occupations determine the fundamental modes of activity, and hence control the formation and use of habits. — John Dewey The situation sifts down to this ; energizing work is decreasing ; ener- vating work is increasing. Yet it is fundamental that mankind must do stimulating work or retrogress. — Hermann Schneider Boys all want good positions. But would they know one if they found it? Many men have thought that they had the question answered and have secured what they thought to be a good position, only to learn in middle life that it meant disappointment instead of satisfaction, narrowness instead of growth, and failure instead of success. Since this is a complex world, there are many things to consider before deciding what a good vocation is, and just because Mr. Smith, the barber, looks prosperous or Mr. Jones, the real-estate dealer, says there is nothing like selling land, you must not jump at conclusions in this important matter. Let us, then, try to unravel this question, What is a good vocation ? Whether a vocation is good or bad, as we shall soon see, does not depend on one thing only, but upon a number of different elements. In other words, we might say that there are several characteristics of a good vocation, not one characteristic. And among these let us consider at once the one which no doubt comes to your mind first. Remuneration. You are naturally interested in a salary check ; you want to know what pay there is in a particular vocation. You hear much of wages — how one of your friends gets ;^2.SO a day in a piano factory and another friend ^20 a week in a big department store. We are apt to conclude 7 8 OCCUPATIONS that friend No. 2 is luckier than friend No. i, or that the store owner is better to work for than the factory operator. But upon what does the amount of wages depend .? There are several points to consider in answering this question. One is, Why is the employer able to pay you any wages at all .? 1 . Productive work and wages. The reason is, your work is productive. If you take a team and cultivator and spend several weeks at work, next fall there are many more bushels of corn as a result of your work. If you touch briskly the keys of a typewriter, day after day, a profitable business is better able to continue than if your work had been left undone. The employer can afford to pay you because he makes money out of your work. How much can he afford to pay you 1 This depends very largely on what you can produce. Here is some- thing which every young man aiming at a high salary should never forget : Yoti must tiot expect more wages than you are worth, and you are not worth m.ore than you can produce. The very plain duty of every young man, therefore, is to make his work productive. This is the royal road to the employer's heart. If you knew that by investing in Toledo knives at 50 cents you could sell any number of them in your home town for ^i, would you not hasten to buy .? Would not Toledo knives stand high in your estimation .? In the same way your employer considers you. If you are such a good pro- ducer that from the wages he invests in you large sums are re- ceived, will he not feel that he has a most desirable young man in his employ .? Will he not value you highly t Would you continue to buy Toledo knives at 50 cents if you could sell them for only 35 cents ? With no more right can the employer be expected to esteem highly the clerk upon whom he is con- stantly losing money. You must keep it clearly in mind, conse- quently, that you are paid because you can produce and that it is to your advantage to become constantly a better producer. 2. The amount of wages and its relatioft to the supply of workmen. Again, if your employer can get at a less wage CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD VOCATION 9 somebody else who will produce as much as you and as well, will he continue to pay you the same wages ? This, you see, is the other side of the wage bargain, the amount of wages depending upon the supply of laborers. If there are many wishing to do a certain kind of work, wages will be low be- cause the supply is plentiful. If, on the other hand, the supply of workers is too few, then wages will be relatively higher. What helpful things can we learn from the supply-and- demand-side of the worker ? Chiefly these : to recognize the important factors that contribute to an undersupply of workers in certain vocations, and then to enter a vocation where the supply of workmen is comparatively limited, is in the follow- ing cases : (i) Special qualifications may keep most men out. The designer, for example, requires gifts so unusual that the supply of first-class designers is never too great. (2) Expen- sive training, which parents are often unable to give, may allow only a few to qualify. A high-school graduate can com- plete in four years his medical education in some schools, but it requires a college education and five years' medical training, with hospital practice and possibly further study abroad, in order to become a high-grade specialist. (3) Or, changing de- mands may render the supply inadequate. The advent of the automobile — its sale soon amounting to millions annually — found the supply of mechanicians limited. But should large numbers of people take to aeroplanes or return to horses, it would quickly lower garage rates and swell the supply of mechanicians. Good advice is to shun vocations decreasing in importance and enter those which have an expanding but safe future. If, in addition, you possess the special qualifica- tions or can secure the necessary training, you will be more certain to find numerous openings at fair salaries. 3. Other factors entering into the amount of wages re- ceived. But you may neither possess the special qualifications nor be able to take the required training. Your rate of pay then will depend largely upon how good a bargainer you are. lO OCCUPATIONS You have a right to demand what your services are worth. Your employer has a right to offer what someone else could be hired for to do the same work. The actual wage, conse- quently, is somewhere between these two points, the precise figure usually being the result of much discussion. Collec- tive, not individual, bargaining is the plan of the labor unions. No locomotive fireman, for instance, ever talks with a railroad president concerning whether his daily wages shall be ^2.85 or ^3.15. Representatives of thousands of firemen meet representatives of many railroads and the wage schedule is arranged. In whatever way wages are regulated in the vocation you will enter, you should see to it that you are paid as nearly as possible what you deserve. In writing this book we have had many letters from, and interviews with, both employers and employees. The em- ployer often says, " We always have numerous vacancies," "We can't get enough applicants of the right sort," etc. What he means is that for the prices he is willing to pay applicants are few. Or, more precisely, he has difficulty in getting production carried on at the price he desires. The employee just as often says, "Good jobs are scarce," "The demands are hard to meet," " I would not encourage young men to enter this work," etc. What he means is that for the wage he desires to receive positions are few. Or, more precisely, he has difficulty in selling his production power at the price he desires. Young men should not be unduly elated over the prospects painted by the one, nor should they be unduly dismayed by the difficulties voiced by the other. The truth of the matter is, the young man who is a good producer in any vocation not crowded and who is willing to make fair terms with his employer is practically assured of employment at good wages. 4. Comparison of daily, yearly, and life earnings. But which is more important, daily wage or yearly income? * Young men are apt to be swayed by the special earning CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD VOCATION il the high harvest wage, the league pitcher's salary, the big law fee. But as you live all the time, so you should earn all the time. It is the total amount received during the year that counts. In the large wage-earning class Dr. Scott Nearing estimates that the average worker is unemployed 20 per cent of the time. For example, instead of considering $2.50 a day the wages received by a certain workingman, we would, after deducting this 20 per cent, really be dealing with a $2 wage. Irregular work does not pay in the long run. Conse- quently, one of the tests that young men must apply to any particular vocation is. Does it afford constant employment.? Yearly wage, however, is not enough. Annual earnings are more important than daily earnings, but life earnings are more important than either. This truth leads us to consider three matters of importance, all closely related to remunera- tion. These are healthfulness, safety, and the likelihood of advancement, which we shall treat in the sections that follow. EXERCISES 1. "The company doesn't pay enough," said a boy who had quit his position as secretary to the roundhouse foreman. Upon what should the amount of the boy's wages depend? 2. " I have Sam Holton beaten," said a boy to his father. " He gets jf 1.50 and I get jSi.75." What questions should the father ask? 3. Have you ever heard employers and employees talking over wages? If so, in what ways were their views, different? 4. What are the average weekly earnings of all wage earners? See page 1 1 of the census bulletin mentioned at the end of the chapter. Could you live the way you wish on that amount? How can you earn more than the average worker ? Healthfulness. i. The difference in the healthfulness of vocations. Do you know that by choosing some vocations, unless under the most improved conditions, you will shorten your life five, ten, or fifteen years } Some of our decorated pil- low covers are made in factories where the workers unprotected 12 OCCUPATIONS breathe constantly the arsenic fumes, the spray frequently being so dense as to resemble a mist. Paint and pottery workers find that lead poisoning destroys the appetite and leads to nausea, loss of weight, and low vitality. In a Cali- fornia factory unequipped with respirators men who were willing to shovel in the lime pit received double the usual pay, and workingmen were found foolish enough to do it. Foolish .? Yes, for at such work they could last only from four to six years, being forced at that time to leave the lime pit injured for life. If one of your classmates were shot down in cold blood it would create a sensation. But until recently thousands of young men were actually killed every year, the murderers being flying bits of sand, steel, and dust. When a granite worker turns on the sand blast the air is filled with the fine, sharp particles. If these reach the lungs they are a fruitful source of that dread occupational disease, tuberculosis. Grind- ing cutlery and polishing the moldboards of plows have been found so injurious that only foreigners ignorant of the effects would do such work. And they lasted but from five to ten years. 2. The constant hnprovement of conditions in unhealthful vocations. So dreadful have the ravages of tuberculosis and other occupational diseases proved that a united movement is now well under way to lessen the danger. Respirators, devices placed over the workmen's noses through which the air is filtered, afford part protection against fumes and dust. The offending particles may not only be screened out but also drawn away by means of exhaust pipes over the emery wheels, saws, vats, etc. Improved ventilation and lighting systems are being installed, and in many industries the use of the most injurious poisons is being prohibited by law. In whatever ways em- ployees find their occupations unhealthful, they should demand from their employers the best means of health protection known, and should themselves exercise every possible pre- caution both in their work and in their habits of living. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD VOCATION 1 3 Thus we see that the pubHc at large has awakened to the fact that the healthfulness of the worker is a vital matter that must be safeguarded, and, as a result, practically all occupations dangerous to health are gradually being rendered more safe. However, there are still many decidedly unhealthful vocations that should be shunned by those who can avoid them until they have been made far less dangerous than they now are. This may not always be possible, however. You may be obliged to work near dangerous machinery or in a badly ven- tilated room. But these things you can do : use caution when near the machinery, try your best to secure more healthful conditions in the workroom, and during nonworking hours plan to restore your vitality daily by proper habits of rest, sleep, and recreation. EXERCISES 1. If your lungs are weak, what occupations should you especially avoid .'' 2. If your eyes are poor, what occupations should you especially avoid .'' 3. In some high-grade stores, banks, office buildings, and factories you have visited, what arrangements were made for ventilation, lighting, heating, drinking water, wash rooms, janitor service .'' 4. Of what importance are these essentials of hygiene.' Have you ever visited a store, factory, or the like, where they were neglected ? 5. What conclusions from this discussion of healthfulness can you draw for your personal guidance as to a choice of vocation? as to a choice of a particular firm with which to work in this vocation ? Safety, i. The difference in the safety of some voca- tions. Some vocations are not safe. Do you know that it is more dangerous to work in certain occupations than it was to be a soldier in the Civil War — that insurance companies refuse to take such risks .■" In Allegheny County, Pennsyl- vania, the county in which Pittsburgh is located, the month of January, 1907, saw 60 death accidents ; February, 36 ; March, 43 ; April, 51. If it had not become so common 14 OCCUPATIONS as to be no longer " news," every daily paper could tell of switchmen being crushed between cars, firemen mangled in train wrecks, structural workers falling from high girders, hurrying messengers run over by automobiles, factory em- ployees losing arms in heavy machinery. Death lurks in unprotected belts, big stamping machines, buzz saws, the haste and confusion of building operations, street crossings, and switch yards. Your life represents your most valuable investment, it is your most precious possession. And when insurance companies, composed of shrewd, farsighted men whose specialty it is to estimate danger, refuse to accept your risk, is it good business on your part to ignore these dangers in selecting your vocation ? 2. The improvement of conditions of safety in dangerous vocations. While, some vocations are by nature safer than others, still even the dangerous ones can be made safer than they are now. A number of years ago brakemen were com- pelled to step over the rails and stand between the cars when coupling them. So many brakemen slipped or stumbled and were run over by the car trucks, or had their hands crushed by the bumpers, that automatic couplers have for some years been required by law. The United States Steel Corporation, alarmed at the death toll in their mills, organized commit- tees of safety to inspect the shops regularly. By guarding belts, gear wheels, etc., and impressing all employees with the slogan " Safety First," they have very much reduced the number of accidents. What the Steel Corporation has done is also being done by hundreds of other manufacturing and railroad companies. Most states have passed laws for safety, and inspectors see that the requirements are carried out. It is to your interest, as a young man about to enter a vocation, to consider safety as one of the desirable elements. And if you decide to work in a somewhat dangerous occupa- tion, give preference to the employer who considers the safety of his employees and do your part by cooperating with him. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD VOCATION 1$ EXERCISES 1. Mention several occupations in which a workman might have his hand crushed or might lose an arm or a foot. 2. Which occupations are especially dangerous? Which ones are especially safe ? (Your local insurance agent will help you on this. Ask him how his company classes risks.) 3. What is meant by " workmen's compensation laws " which state legislatures are passing .' Secure a copy of such a law if your state has one. 4. What rules can be drawn up on how to avoid accidents.? (See Tolman and Guthrie, Hygiene for the Worker, pp. 151, 152.) Advancement. i. Andrew Carnegie's advancement. Andrew Carnegie began his manufacturing career as a "bobbin boy" at $1.20 a week. He tells the story himself in his "' Empire of Business " : I have had to deal with great sums. Many millions of dollars have since passed through my hands. But the genuine satisfaction I had from that one dollar and twenty cents outweighs any subsequent pleas- ure in money-getting. It was the direct reward of honest manual labor ; it represented a week of very hard work — so hard that, but for the aim and end which sanctified it, " slavery " might not be much too strong a term to describe it. For a lad of twelve to rise and breakfast every morning, except the blessed Sunday morning, and go into the streets and find his way to the factory and begin to work while it was still dark, and not be released until after darkness came again in the evening, forty minutes' interval only being allowed at noon, was a terrible task. But I was young and had my dreams, and something within always told me that this would not, could not, should not last — I should some day get into a better position. As we all know, he did get a better position. He soon be- came a fireman in another factory, was next set to keeping the books, and at fourteen became messenger boy in a Pitts- burgh telegraph office. Then he learned teldgraphy, became clerk and operator for the superintendent of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, and later advanced to a division superin- tendency on the same road. 1 6 OCCUPATIONS He invested in some Adams Express stock, took a part interest in the compariy which made the first sleeping cars, finally resigned his railroad position to organize a new steel- bridge-building company, and thus developed into the world's foremost steel king. And this is the way Andrew Carnegie worked his way up. 2. The responsibility of the young worker. You also purpose to become a man of importance. You may find a promising position which not only pays well at the start but offers steady advancement. Or it may be that the only position open to you will be a very humble one like Andrew Carnegie's first job. In either case, in order to rise you must grow. Much depends on yourself.' Are you willing, if need be, to toil hard with little pay at the start, to go out of your way to do things, and to learn things that touch your present work on all sides 1 Are you determined to please your em- ployers and all whose labors interlock with yours } Are you industrious, studious, thoroughgoing, gentlemanly, honorable 1 — for much depends 6n yourself. 3. The opportunity in the position. Much also depends on the position. In some positions a young man learns nothing and cannot grow. Ten years finds him receiving the same wage, and with his mind cramped and distorted like a twisted tree. So, while we are naturally interested in good pay, we must not be misled by too large wages at the start in a vocation which does not offer us steady growth, added responsibility, and a decided advancement in salary. There are positions and vocations in which an ambi- tious young man is ever advancing ; as in a good school, he goes from class to class until finally he graduates, but in this case he passes up into a membership of the firm or into some other position that has been his goal for years. Truly, we must bear in mind in choosing our life work that a good start is not enough; it is the steady advancement and a worthy goal that all should seek. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD VOCATION 1 7 EXERCISES 1. Explain how good pay at the start is of less importance than the opportunity for continued advancement. 2. What is meant by a "blind-alley" position? Why do so many young men accept such a position ? 3. If you should secure a position that offered a promising future, how would you plan to work up to the top ? 4. If you, as president of some large corporation, needed a general manager, would you employ some manager working for a competing company or would you place your assistant general manager in full charge, raise the superintendent to assistant general manager, and so promote all along the line? Social standing, i . Its partial dependence upon the vo- cation. There was a time when a young man ambitious to stand high socially thought that he must enter one of the professions. This conception probably came as a tra- dition from England, where for generations the clergyman, the doctor, and the lawyer have ranked socially near the aris- tocracy. And to win this social advantage many a young man has entered professional life only to fail miserably when he could have succeeded admirably as a merchant, a machinist, or perhaps as a farmer. The traditional social standing accredited to some of the various life occupations still persists to a degree, and influ- ences many boys unwisely in the choice of their life work ; but fortunately in democratic America men are now receiving more and more that esteem from the public which their serv- ices and personal worth entitle them to receive, regardless of whether they have served their fellow men in a professional calling, in manufacturing, or as skilled artisans. Naturally there is still, and perhaps always will be, a sort of vocational aristocracy composed of those callings which demand native ability of a high order and a prolonged and expensive educa- tion, and which thus exclude all but a comparatively few who can meet their exacting requirements. Again, there is the 1 8 OCCUPATIONS other extreme, that multitude of occupations which require no special qualifications nor education and whose workmen are termed unskilled labor — these occupations are generally over- crowded and naturally offer the least promise of social standing. 2. Its greater- dependence upon the worker.- As a rule, a young man in any life work requiring some special native ability and a fair education may expect to attain with reason- able surety that social standing for which his financial suc- cess and his personal traits, including his public-spiritedness, entitle him. So we can say with assurance, do not be afraid because of social considerations to follow the life calling for which you seem to be best adapted in native ability, personal inclination, and special preparation. Again, in the long run, the community usually esteems most highly that man who has lived and worked with human welfare nearest his heart. EXERCISES 1. What vocations that you know something about seem to possess good social standing? Is it the vocations themselves that give this standing or the excellence of the men engaged in them? 2. In your community is it the professional men or the successful men in other life occupations who seem to receive the most respect from the public? 3. Draw up a list of at least ten vocations which you think from their requirements and from the service they render deserve good social standing. 4. Make a list of ten prominent Americans of to-day. What does each do for society ? What, broadly considered, does he receive for his services ? Personal suitability, i. Patrick Hemys personal apti- tude for law. As a youth Patrick Henry was an idler. Historians now say splendid things about him, but there was a time when his neighbors called him a vagabond. He tried one thing after another, but every venture failed miserably. He was foolishly married when not yet out of his CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD VOCATION 19 teens, and at the age of twenty-three the usual failure of his every project — this time a country store — left the youthful Patrick, now with a wife and three children to support, in sorry straits indeed. He turned to law. The beginning was slow, but the Parsons' Case fired him with enthusiasm for his new calling, and he forged ahead to become the most cele- brated lawyer of his day. Patrick Henry failed for a time, and failed miserably, until he entered the vocation for which he was fitted. You too will find remuneration, healthfulness, safety, advancement, social esteem, all to be important, but do not forget personal suitability. 2. Natural aptitude plus training as factors in a suc- cessful career. All men are not alike. As boys, some by nature take to mechanics. They like to work with hammer and chisel and the clock that won't run. How dull to them would life be in a library working over names which fairly thrill another boy — Scott, Shakespeare, Stevenson, Kipling! Natural qualifications may peculiarly fit you for some one vocation. Out of it you are ill at ease, in it all goes well. But natural qualifications are not everything. Training, education, cultivation are important. They take the crude natural qualifications and shape them for success. You may have the taste for accuracy, neatness, and figures. Training can make of you a high-grade accountant. In other words, education may further fit you, may adjust you to a vocation when natural qualifications alone would not suffice. 3 . The importance of an easy access to special prepara- tion. Now it may be that you have ready access to the special preparation required for some calling. Other boys, perhaps, must travel far, hold mean positions, and struggle for years to learn what you can easily gain from your father. All his life he has been storing up this valuable information. It is yours for the asking. Therefore, if your father's calling ap- peals to you as a life work, your father's being in it may be a considerable advantage. A somewhat similar advantage may 20 OCCUPATIONS be in your location. You may live in a great manufacturing center ; the attraction then would i»e toward a manufactur- ing career. Or your home may be in a great city ; com- merce would now make a strong appeal. Or your home may be just across the street from a famous technical school; a technical education here would be tempting. Other things being equal, going into a vocation where you have the best chance for preparation simply means taking advantage of the opportunities which are peculiarly yours. EXERCISES 1. Should a boy follow his father's vocation.'' Discuss the pros and cons. 2. Does your community afford special training advantages for entering any particular calling? If so, is there a liability that many local boys personally unqualified for this' calling will take the training and become vocational misfits? READINGS AND REFERENCES Earnings of Wage-Earners. Bulletin gj, Bureau of the Census, Wash- ington, D.C., 1908. Eastman, Crystal. Work-Accidents and the Law. Charities Publica- tion Committee, New York, igio. $1.50.1 Nearing, Scott. Wages in the United States. The Macraillan Com- pany, New York. $1.25.1 ToLMAN and Guthrie. Hygiene for the Worker. American Book Company, New York, 191 2. 50 cents. WiNSLOW, C. E. A. Health of the Worker. Printed and distributed by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company for the use of its policy holders, 191 3. 1 In the Readings and References prices are given merely as conven- ient guides to the user of this book in estimating the probable cost of the books he will need. Although care has been taken in ascertaining these prices, responsibility is disclaimed for any inaccuracies. CHAPTER III HOW TO STUDY VOCATIONS It is at all times to be kept sharply in mind that th» schools are not only to educate people in order that they may be educated, but also to educate them in order that they may do things. — Andrew S. Draper The best social service which the average man can perform is to do his regular work well. — Thomas N. Carver To hold a position which suits you in eveiy way is surely ideal. Like all ideals worth while this may be hard to real- ize, yet in the measure that it is attained a successful career results. Such a career, however, is not gained by mere dream- ing. It is well to think of the future, of the great position with high salary, power, and social position ; but do not stop at that. If you do, you are a visionary, and visionaries never succeed in life. Dream grand dreams — then go out and hustle to make them real. While your desire is to be a great merchant, banker, or contractor, your opening job may be as humble clerk, office boy, or apprentice. The investigation of many vocations before selecting a life calling. It is because you are thus obliged to start at the bottom and only after several years can work up into a really satisfactory position that care must be taken to put this hard preliminary work into the particular vocation you will later on occupy as a man of influence. If you knew that in a certain place the gold ore became richer the deeper the picks went, would you not be very deliberate about selecting the particular place to sink the shaft ? It would be clear that a miner who dug five years in one place, two years in another, three years in a third, would be the loser by so 22 OCCUPATIONS much because his efforts were spent on inferior ore. So we say, do some prospecting before you begin to sink deep shafts in the vocation mines. At the start let us take a brief survey of the whole field. There is first to be considered agriculture. Then the various openings in commercial occupations are to be investigated. Next comes railroading, followed by civil service and manu- facturing. After these we shall pass to trades — the building and the machine trades. Engineering, too, must come in for due consideration. Then we shall study the learned profes- sions, such as medicine and law. Finally there are a number of miscellaneous and new openings to be investigated, and our survey of vocations is then completed. An extensive field, is it not.'' It would have to be such since it concerns the life work of millions of men. The study of both interesting and uninteresting vocations. It is very likely J:hat some vocations interest you more than others ; that you have long thought of some one, or maybe two, of these vocations ; that you have visited, more than once, places where men worked in this vocation, and have talked with several of these men. Perhaps, when the new magazine is laid upon the drawing-room table or you sit down before the row of magazines in the library, you read first of all the article telling about the new bridge, or the lawyer's big case, or the wonderful methods of farming being worked out in a school of agriculture. Every month it is the same. You enjoy articles telling about a certain vocation because this life career captivates you. In studying this book, when you come across positions which interest you particularly, give them special attention. This does not mean, however, that you are to turn hastily through the book, decide offhand which are important, and plan to give little study to others. These "' others " repre- sent callings followed by millions of men. Hence you will find that a study of vocations is going to be extremely HOW TO STUDY VOCATIONS 23 valuable to you outside of the help it will be in your own life work. " No man liveth unto himself alone." The really large life is that which overflows self at every turn. And that sympathetic understanding needed by the man who deals with others can in no way be more quickly gained than through a study of the daily work these other persons do. It is in this daily work that long hours are spent, and around it their life interests revolve. The study of the vocations of others. It is not only the altruistic man who should study vocations but any other man who would be efficient. In order to do business, men must enter into relations with other men. The merchant studies his customers, their tastes, needs, earnings, special peculiari- ties, since in order to meet their demands he must know them. He studies the manufacturer as well, how his goods are made, the various patterns and styles, and the prices either direct or by way of the wholesaler. Again, he is obliged to study transportation, the rates and service af- forded by freight, express, or parcel post. In fact, if all his business relations were mapped out on a chart, it could be readily seen that the successful merchant needs a wide range of information concerning people and their various occupations. The same is true of a manufacturer : as one of them expresses it, " My business gets me into a little of every- thing." The cases of men in other vocations do not differ greatly. The lawyer, when his client is a farmer bringing suit against another farmer, needs the viewpoint of the rural man, and because his clientele represents many different classes of people he must be a well-informed man. The clergyman too should understand the banker, the butcher, the broker, the liveryman, else how can he most wisely min- ister to their needs ? Every man's business connects him with many other men : society is a network of relationships ; and whoever wants to serve society well must know people 26 OCCUPATIONS forget that the carpenter, the plumber, the grocer, and the station agent all have much valuable information that you should be eager to hear. But bear in mind that most of these men are used to doing things, not to talking about them. Do not expect as much of them in skilled speaking as of lawyers and ministers, whose vocations constantly require them to speak in public. They come to give you facts about a business, a trade, or a profession. And upon what they say in this connection you must bring your best judgment to bear. Some speakers will tell only the good things about their vocation ; they will paint it in glowing colors. Others see many disagreeable features, and the general tone of their talk is discouraging. And when it happens sometimes that the same vocation is dis- cussed by both the optimistic and the pessimistic tradesmen, it is fortunate for the class ; since the result is likely to be a well-balanced picture. 4. Learning of vocations from people you meet. Think how many vocations daily fall under your observation. The milkman, the paper boy, the mail carrier, are around before you leave home in the morning. In walking down the street or riding on the trolley, can you not learn something about the vocation of the man at your side .? You go into a store ; customers are few, the manager may be in a talkative mood ; what can you learn about the business } Most people are so interested in what they are doing that they are willing to tell about their work. Moreover, they are usually interested in young men and are willing to discuss with them the pros and cons of their own vocation. How- ever, much depends on the spirit in which a person is ap- proached. If he feels that his private affairs are being pried into, he will become suspicious and stop talking. But if he understands your motive, usually he will be found willing to disclose everything except what is of a purely confidential nature. HOW TO STUDY VOCATIONS 27 5. Visits to places of vocational interest. Benjamin Frank- lin in his "Autobiography" gives the following quaint ac- count of how his vocation was selected : I continued thus employed in my father's business for two years, that is, 'till I was twelve years old ; and my brother John, who was bred to that business, having left my father, married, and set up for himself at Rhode Island, there was all appearance that I was destined to supply his place, and become a tallow-chandler. But my dislike to the trade continuing, my father was under apprehensions that if he did not find one for me more agreeable, I should break away and get to sea, as his son Josiah had done, to his great vexation. He, therefore, sometimes took me to walk with him, and see joiners, bricklayers, turners, braziers, etc., at their work, that he might observe my inclination, and endeavor to fix it on some trade or other on land. . . . My father at last fixed upon the cutler's trade, and my Uncle Benjamin's son Samuel, who was bred to that business in London, being about that, time established in Boston, I was sent to be with him some time on liking. But his expec- tation of a fee with me displeasing my father, !• was taken home again. From a child I was fond of reading, and all the little money that came into my hands was ever laid out in books. . . . This bookish inclination ■ at length determined my father to make me a printer, although he had already one son [James] of that profession. . . . In a little time I made great proficiency in the business, and became a useful hand to my brother. The world is much indebted to the influences that made Franklin a printer. Had he become a sailor as he threat- ened to be, or a cutler as he narrowly escaped being, it is speculation to say how greatly this change in his life work would have influenced American independence, but that its effect would have been considerable is safe to claim. The best place to find out about work is where it is being done. It may be that (as in Franklin's case) much of the value of such trips will be in the general information ob- tained, and that so far as finding a suitable vocation is concerned, the chief result will be in showing the boy what he does not want to do. But he should keep on looking. Every community is a valuable vocational laboratory. Many 28 OCCUPATIONS occupations are represented and much can be learned, even though it be a small town. The use of the exercises and trade literature. In order to make the general information of this book more helpful, numerous exercises have been provided in connection with each chapter. It may not be possible to obtain all the in- formation called for by these exercises. Your recitation hours may be too few, or it may be that you have no factory in your town, or no railroad, or no farms near at hand. But at least give careful and first-hand study to as many voca- tions as are- accessible, since certain of these are almost sure to bear directly upon what is to be your life-career. At the end of each chapter you will find listed various books and periodicals. Lack of space forbids a description of these, but their value for the study of vocations can scarcely be overestimated. Published for the workers in a particu- lar trade, each of these publications will prove a first-class means of learning its ins and outs. So when you become interested in a certain vocation buy one of its books or sub- scribe for one of its periodicals. Your local book dealer can secure this for you, or if it is one listed in this book it may be ordered directly of the publisher, since his address and the price are given in each case. The cost, ;^i.25, i^i.SO, or even ^3, is slight when compared with the benefit received. It is by no means a waste of money, but rather an invest- ment. Reading such a book or magazine will mean real growth to you. Your producing capacity will be increased and advancement made more certain. The profit in reading vocational books and magazines. An assistant to one of the big advertising managers in New York City complained to a friend recently that he had not been advanced during the last three years. This friend hap- pened to know the assistant's superior, and at an advertising- club meeting casually asked him what progress the assistant had been making. " Funny thing," he replied, "that chap HOW TO STUDY VOCATIONS 29 looked to me like a live wire. Bright, industrious, careful, and all that; but the moment we loaded responsibility on his shoulders he fell down. Thought he knew enough. I can't seem to make him see that if he wants to go ahead he'll have to study mighty hard. I had to do it, and I am still at it — I read every book on business subjects that can possibly help me. Why should n't he .'' " A certain young business man well known to us, and one of the brightest we have met, began his bookstore in a small college-dormitory room and has now built up an annual trade of several thousand dollars. He has all sorts of up-to-date ideas, and is known among the college boys as a " live wire." But in his office is a shelf containing over thirty dollars' worth of business books ; he is always on the lookout for a new one of any value ; and he reads regularly the best business man's magazine published. " You don't mean to tell us that a busy man can afford to spend the time to read all those books you are talking about .? " a middle-aged man objected during an address by a success- ful business man. " Personally," replied the speaker, " I am interested in reading to-day what men who do not read will be finding out ten years from now." In a foot race, " getting the jump on the other fellow " is considered well worth while, often is the deciding factor in the race. How much more important it is in life's race, if it can be done, to get a ten-year jump on competitors. It is sometimes lightly said of a book, "It's worth its weight in gold." But of many vocational books listed in the following pages this is literally true. For instance, there is S. Roland Hall's little book, " How to Get a Position and How to Keep It." It costs 50 cents, but on a scalepan it would balance just 144 gold dollars, and the young man who could not make that much out of it should read it again. It is safe to say that its information if secured at 30 OCCUPATIONS sixteen will have made one's earnings $500 greater by the time one is thirty-six. And there are other books in these lists which perhaps will mean far more even than that. Do they not represent investments that are worth while .■' Since this chapter has concerned itself with explanations and directions, it may be concluded without the usual exercises, readings, and references. You have doubtless come to see what sort of a study it is in which we are engaged and also something of how to use the text and the methods of securing supplementary information. The problems of life which we shall consider are real problems, and solving them demands ability. They will develop your power as a student, and in studying them you will have the added satisfaction of dealing with something of immense practical importance. PART II DETAILED STUDY OF THE MOST IMPORTANT LIFE VOCATIONS CHAPTER IV AGRICULTURE Look up I the wide extended plain Is billowy with its ripened grain, And on the summer winds are rolled Its waves of emerald and gold. — William H. Burleigh When tillage begins, other arts follow. The farmers, therefore, are the founders of human civilization. — Daniel Webster Agriculture and other occupations. If all the people of the United States were drawn up before you on one im- mense plain, three out of every ten would be farmers — and by the side of these farmers there would be enough other rural dwellers to equal the combined population of Chicago, Philadelphia, Saint Louis, and Boston. Upon the work done by these country people we are all dependent ; for from them the miller gets his grain, the textile manu- facturer his cotton and wool, the packer his cattle — in short, the necessities of life are largely a result of their daily toil. Agriculture is certainly of basic importance, both in its product and in number of workers. What per- sons in other occupations are doing fills so many columns in the daily papers that we are apt to forget that beyond 31 32 OCCUPATIONS the roar of factories and crowded streets one third of all our people live on farms. When these farmers set out to harvest a bumper crop, there is a movement of men and machines on a scale so big that not even the marshaling of great armies can rival it. The extra men hired for the annual wheat harvest alone number 860,000. The strength of both armies at Gettysburg was only 175,000 men. Both armies at Waterloo numbered 400,000 men. But over one million hired men are already Plowing with a gas tractor This powerful engine pulls ten plows and readily turns over as much as 30 acres of stubble per day. It is another sign of the American farmer's progressiveness at work on the farms before they are joined by the extra harvesters, and the men who own or rent these farms number over two million more. This makes a total force annually in the harvest fields of 4,230,000 men. So agriculture, although carried on in the country, has more workers than any other occupation, whether of country or of city. The immensity of one year's agricultural productions. The number of bushels in a year's crop is so incompre- hensibly large that it has become merely a row of figures. The American cornfield alone is nearly as large as either AGRICULTURE 33 France or Germany, and the yield in 19 14 was estimated at 2,676,000,000 bushels. From the wheat farms in the same year came 892,000,000 bushels, a golden stream which would make a river as wide as Fifth Avenue and five feet deep, reaching from Chicago to New York. Oats, barley, rye, rice, and buckwheat also were produced in enormous quantities. The Department of Agriculture in 191 2 stated that "the total production of the seven cereals amounts to 5,609,807,000 bushels, a bulk of food so large as to be entirely beyond understanding." If this grain were put into two-bushel sacks three feet long and sack after sack laid end to end, these sacks would go round the world sixty-three times — and there would be enough grain left over to make a row of sacks around the entire border of our country, from Maine to Washington, to California, to Florida, back to Maine again. And this is merely the cereal crop for one year. Add to this the enormous productions of cotton, tobacco, flax, sugar. Consider also that the annual dairy products are worth about $800,000,000. Do not overlook the poultry industry either, for although an egg, when sold in hundred- dozen quantities, may be worth only a cent and three quarters, the 1,700,000,000 dozen eggs of 1912 totaled $350,000,000, and the use of poultry as food brought $220,000,000 more. It is by products such as these that the American farmer has taken from the soil and added to the national wealth billions of dollars. And a business of which such things as the fore- going are true deserves the consideration of young men. Some attractions of rural life. But there are many addi- tional reasons why agriculture may offer you a most attrac- tive life work. The farmer, cooperating with nature from seeds sown in prepared soil and by careful cultivation until the har- vest time, produces by far the most of mankind's food and clothing materials — the two great necessities of human life. While we might dispense with the telephone, the trolley, the 34 OCCUPATIONS railroad, the factory, the department store, and the services of the various professions, we could not live at all without the food and clothing provided by the farmer. We see, therefore, that his services are fundamental and must always continue in demand. We have all heard such expressions, or slogans, as " back to nature" and "the simple life," which mean that human beings cannot live healthy, happy, or complete lives amid the complexity of artificial city conditions as they could easily and naturally do in the country, close to God's great out of doors, and away from the confusion, competition, and confined quarters of the crowded centers. The simple life, near to nature's creatures, whether birds, cattle, pets, flowers, grain, fruit, vegetables, and under the elevating and enlarg- ing influence of great stretches of landscape on all sides and of the limitless sky above — this simple living in childhood and youth has furnished our cities and our whole country with the largest part of their great men. The varied qualifications demanded for agriculture. To work with living things, to see them grow and to help them develop into as nearly perfect creatures as possible, and to feel that one is producing and providing the necessities of human existence, such an occupation to a thoughtful person must be highly ennobling. To re-create poor or worthless fruit or vegetables into delicious, nourishing, and almost per- fect specimens, to improve milch cows so that one animal can produce more cream than two or three formerly pro- duced, to make two ears of corn grow where before only one grew, to transform thousands of square miles of desert land into highly productive farms, and to put into operation such marvelous labor-saving machines as the binder, the thresher, and the gas tractor — such are a few of the mighty works wrought by our agricultural specialists. Clearly, to be an expert in such profound and far-reaching activities requires natural ability, education, special training, and skill of the AGRICULTURE 3S highest order. Indeed, many of ou'r most successful farmers to-day combine in one person the qualifications of scientist, engineer, and business man. Therefore, if you enjoy simple fare, the open country, the brooks and woodlands, the meadows and the hills, the com- panionship of plant and animal life, and if you have a good quality of brain and brawn and executive ability, then farm- ing in some of its many openings may suggest to you an attractive life-career. THE GENERAL FARMER By far the greater number of farmers have not specialized in growing any one- of the particular products discussed in later pages under Specialized Farming, and hence they may be termed general farmers. In this section, while we shall have in mind primarily general farming in our discussion of the social advantages, of the nature of the occupation and its remuneration, and of starting and succeeding in agricul- ture, still much that we shall say will be equally true of the various forms of specialized farming. And since so many of our young people have a greatly mistaken notion of the farmer's social condition and advantages, we shall first of all discuss this important phase of his life work. Social advantages, i . Improved transportation. Although here and there we may find a few backwoodsmen to-day, the modern farmer no longer lives " forty miles from no- where." Railroads have crisscrossed the continent until only on frontiers are homes far from sight of train or sound of whistle. Trolley lines in New England spread out like a spider's web ; Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois are served by thousands of miles of track, and other states are witnessing a similar extension of trolley service. Along railroad and trolley line may be found thousands of little villages, centers of the thought of the countryside 36 OCCUPATIONS as well as markets for-produce. Farmers can make trips to these villages more comfortably now than heretofore. The times are past when it took a whole day to drive the ox team and lumber wagon to town, and when getting stuck in a mudhole or breaking down on the bad roads was a frequent experience. Big, roomy spring wagons now carry most fami- lies to town. Top buggies are used by the young swains or the old folks. And in Minnesota more automobiles are owned by farmers than by villagers ! In these trips to town there is much visiting, a social activity which may develop into a farmer's grange ; and much bargaining, which often ripens into a cooperative grain elevator, store, or creamery. Longer trips than to the village may include picnics, reunions, carnivals, county and state fairs, and, occasionally, an exposition or a visit to the old home. These things broaden the farmer's horizon. 2. Communication by telephone and rural free delivery. But even on his farm the rural dweller may be linked with the world. One of the ways of doing this is to have a rural telephone. There is a sense of community life in knowing that you can talk readily with your neighbors. In Iowa, for example, no farmer can very well feel " out of the world " when the number of telephones is about the same as the number of farms. A recent United States census report on the telephone makes the following statement : In many parts of the country at a certain prearranged signal, such as two long rings, everyone on the farm lines goes to the telephone; and when central is assured that practically everybody is on the line, she reads out any important matters of general news which may have come in during the day, and also gives out the weather report. In this way, throughout large stretches of the country the farmer is better informed as to the events of the day than the busy city resident whose reading of the morning paper consists of a -glance at the headlines over his coffee. The farmers are reading, too. Rural free delivery is spreading so rapidly that there are now more than 40,000 routes over which mail is daily taken to those living in the AGRICULTURE 37 country. By 1903 this rural mail service had increased the amount of United States mail handled by 40 per cent. In addition to the local paper, metropolitan dailies and agricul- tural magazines are subscribed for and carefully read. Both the state and the national departments of agriculture send out bulletins. In 1902 the Department at Washington sent out 2,000,000 of these bulletins; by 191 2 the demand had increased over five times. If the sheets of farmers' bulletins sent out from Washington during the three years 19 10- 191 2 were laid edge to edge, they v^rould make a sidewalk 4 feet wide, down which you could walk 20 miles every day fof a whole year and still have it stretching out before you for 2300 miles. Surely an immense amount of reading is being done on farm subjects. 3. Improvement of social advantages. While the social advantages enjoyed by the farmer are constantly improving, it should be added that they depend quite largely upon the particular community and the particular man. If the com- munity is stagnating, the soil poor, cooperation dead, and the farmer, like his community, slovenly and ignorant, then, of course, his social condition will be decidedly in- ferior to that enjoyed everywhere by thriving, up-to-date people in other occupations. But even such drawbacks as these can in many cases be improved, and in hundreds of instances so prosperous is the community and so success- ful .is the farmer that he occupies a position of high social esteem in his ceunty, and very often is a respected state and national figure. Nature of the occupation and its remuneration, i. Inde- pendence without large means. In the first place, the farmer is independent. If he is at all successful, he is never troubled with sheriff's writs of attachment. There are no violent changes in prices with disastrous panics. He has no competitor trying to get his position away from him. When he becomes old he does not live in constant dread of the day when he will be 38 OCCUPATIONS called into the general manager's office and told, " I am very sorry, but we shall have to put a younger man in your place." His expenses, moreover, need not be high even though he lives well. A garden, an orchard, a few chickens, some pigs, a cow or two, and his food is practically all raised at home. If his wife and daughters are good cooks, his table may have food whose liberal quantity, variety, and wholesomeness are denied many city dwellers much more wealthy than he. Fresh eggs and vegetables, chicken and strawberries, dehcacies to the city man, may all be his, and are his in thousands of cases. He lives, for the most part, among his equals. Very few immigrants — in 1900 there were only 85 foreign-born per thousand white farm laborers in the United States — menace his standard of living. Very few idle rich rouse his envy. Naturally, since our farmers are so fortunately situated, they form the democratic ballast of our country. 2. Lightening the hard work of the farm. The hard work of the farmer can be lightened, and is being lightened, by labor-saving machinery. In the last sixty years, for in- stance, there have been continual improvements in corn- growing machinery. The amount of work demanded of human muscles has been steadily cut down. This was because inventors [says George K. Holmes^] had given to the farmers the gang plow, the disk harrow, the corn planter drawn by horses, and the four-section harrow for pulverizing the topsoil ; be- cause they had given to the farmer the self-binder drawn by horses to cut the stalks and bind them ; a machine for removing the husks from the ears and in the same operation for cutting the husks, stalks, and blades for feeding, the power being supplied by a steam engine ; because they had given to the farmer a marvelous corn sheller, operated by steam and shelling i bushel of corn per minute instead of the old way of corn shelling in which the labor of one man was required for one hundred minutes to do the same work. The result of this labor-saving machinery has been that whereas the farmer of 1855 had to work on an average a 1 Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, igio. AGRICULTURE 39 total of four hours and thirty-four minutes to raise i bushel of corn, the farmer of 1894 could produce it in forty-one minutes of labor. In raising wheat, likewise, an even greater saving of labor has been reached. It took on an average a total of three hours and three minutes for the farmer of 1830 to produce I bushel of wheat ; the farmer of 1 894 could do it in ten minutes. How .■' " The heavy, clumsy plow of 1830 had given way to the disk plow that both plowed and pulverized the soil mr: Harvesting grain with a binder The self-binder is rightly regarded as one of the world's great inventions. It has done more than any other one machine to save labor on the farm and cheapen the cost of our bread in the same operation ; hand sowing had been displaced by the mechanical seeder drawn by horses ; the cradling and thrashing with flails and hand winnowing had given way to reaping, thrashing, and sacking with the combined reaper and thrasher drawn by horses." Iron and steel do not tire like muscles, and horses are cheaper than men. Rural life need not stagnate under the burden of labor. A man may be a farmer and advance intellectually. 3. Increasing the yield per acre and diversified farming. The number of bushels, and consequently of dollars, per acre 40 OCCUPATIONS can also be increased. In the medieval ages the average yield of grain was only 6 or 8 bushels an acre. Walter of Henley, who lived in the thirteenth century, said that " threefold the seed was an average harvest, and that often a man was lucky to get back his seed corn and as much again." But the present American yield is from two to three times this medieval yield. And our most successful farmers do not feel satisfied unless they receive at least fifteen times their seed. There are farmers, too, who prove year after year that the average yield of American farmers is a very low average indeed. While agricultural science has had a wonderful development during the last twenty-five years, our experts tell us that much greater results are still ahead of us. There is. such a thing as mixing brains with the soil — and growing more dollars. Closely related to this increase in the yield per acre is diversified farming. No wide-awake farmer to-day raises only wheat, or corn, or rye. He grows some of each of these, but in addition he raises numerous other products, such as hay, potatoes, vegetables, live stock, poultry, bees, etc. Some special consideration will be given several of these products in later pages under Specialized Farming. 4. Other ways of increasing profits. The farmer may in- crease his profits in two other ways : One is by cutting down the marketing expense. There is considerable difference be- tween the selling price of wheat, corn, and other products in the city market and on the farm. This expense may be reduced and the farmer made more prosperous in three ways : {a) Securing better roads. The Department of Agriculture estimates that hauling a bushel of grain to town costs almost five and a half cents and getting cotton from the plantation to the local shipping point 16 cents per hundred pounds. Think what a saving it would be if by better roads the same team of horses or mules could haul twice as big a load ! (3) Holding his products for better prices. The farmer is too often forced to sell his crops as soon as harvested for whatever AGRICULTURE 41 he is offered. Ready money for running expenses or better credit arrangements would help him a great deal in being able to sell his products when prices were higher, (c) Joining with his brother farmers in a selling association — as is often done by the fruit growers. — and securing favorable rates and com- missions. Better prices will be secured when the farmer is not obliged to drag his products over miserable roads and take at once whatever he may be offered for them. By these three plans, in which great progress is now being made, the farmer becomes a better marketer. A second way in which the farmer gets richer is by the increase in the value of his farm. In the ten years from 1900 to 19 10 farm lands rose in value from ^15 to ^32 per acre. The man who owns a quarter section may thus, even though he be a poor farmer and hardly able to make both ends meet, become richer every year and, eventually, perhaps well-to-do. It seems to be clear, consequently, that if you become a farmer you enter a calling in which the man of ability has an increasingly good opportunity to advance. There are farmers in the great Northwest, for instance, who, begin- ning with scarcely a dollar, now have farms so large that a single crop from one of their wheat fields would provide about 20,000,000 loaves of bread — enough to give every man, woman, and child in Belgium three loaves apiece. Starting and succeeding in agriculture, i. Possibilities of earning a farm. Let us suppose that you are an able- bodied young man of twenty. Can you earn a farm .? Dur- ing the harvest season on the farm — this comes in vacation time, and it is certainly good experience for any boy to hire out for the summer to an up-to-date farmer — wages (including board and lodging) are about ^2 a day in the West, not much more than half that in the South, and about 25 cents less than that in the East and Middle West. If you work as a hired hand all the year round, the monthly rate is from ^20 to 1^30. While this may not seem like 42 OCCUPATIONS high wages, it includes board, lodging, and laundry, and your other necessary expenses, such as clothing, are not a serious item. If the farm laborer is married, with the lower rent in the country and a garden on which to produce much of his food, he receives a larger actual wage at ^30 a month than the motorman or street-car conductor in the city at a salary nominally much higher. Nevertheless, the prospects of saving enough for a good farm on a ^30-a-month salary alone would not be particularly encouraging. Other ways are open. Many young men work for awhile as farm laborers, learn all they can, save every dollar possible, and then begin as tenants. After farming for a few years and giving the owner a share of the crops or paying him a cash rental, they have laid by enough to purchase a small farm of their own. They may, however, buy it after having saved only a part of its cost, the remainder of the selling price being secured to its former owner by a mortgage on the farm. The United States Department of Agriculture made an investigation several years ago, in which their correspondents were asked whether it was reasonably possi- ble for farm laborers and tenants to save enough to buy a farm that would support a family even with the help of a mortgage, and the replies indicated that 72 per cent of farm laborers and tenants find it reasonably easy to acquire farm ownership. The percentages for the different geographic divisions of the United States were all between 70 and 80 — a remarkably uniform condition of affairs when the whole country is under consideration. Perhaps you now live in a town or small city and already have some capital. If you know nothing of farming, it is wise to go slowly. Do not be led astray by stories of wonder- ful opportunities " way off somewhere." The chances are ten to one that there are better opportunities near you. Nor should you invest all your money in land. Remember that there are other things to buy, such as buildings, machinery, AGRICULTURE 43 and live stock, and that the running expenses must be pro- vided for until the crops are harvested. Be cautious. Spend less than you would like to on machinery. Do not try to have a fully equipped farm from the start, but make it pay for its improvements as you go along. 2. Education and training required. While it is true that most farmers in the past have had only a common-school edu- cation, this is no argument for such a limited training now. On the other hand, we find many of our most successful A trained farmer at work This man understands machinery, soil, crops, and markets. He is a graduate of an agricultural college and knows how to make farming both profitable and pleasant young farmers to-day combining in one person the qualifi- cations of scientist, engineer, and business man. Such ex- tensive qualifications as these require a liberal education, including considerable training in agricultural and business subjects. Without question, if a prospective farmer can make the necessary arrangements, he should complete a four-year college course in agriculture. At any rate he ought not to consider himself adequately prepared for farming until he has taken at least a four-year agricultural and business course in his local or county high school. 44 OCCUPATIONS The traditional high school as a rule does not prepare boys for a successful career on the farm. So fully has it been realized that the average course in high school, and college as well, does not meet the needs of young farmers that the last few years have witnessed a tremendous move- ment for agricultural education. While eighteen years ago not one public high school taught agriculture, now over two thousand schools are teaching it. In 1897 there were only seventy institutions of any sort teaching this subject. In 19 1 2 the number of state and private colleges, public and private agricultural schools, and public and private high schools in which agriculture was taught numbered two thou- sand six hundred. In two years this number of agricultural- teaching schools had increased three times. Now over thirty states permit or require instruction in agriculture in their public schools. In about half as many states the law re- quires that it shall be taught in the elementary schools. In Nebraska, for example, no teacher for the last ten years has been able to secure either a first-grade or a second-grade cer- tificate unless prepared to teach the elementary principles of agriculture. A number of excellent textbooks have been published, and an earnest effort is being made to convince the country boy that he does not leave practical life behind when he enters the little white schoolhouse. 3 . Ways of securing a knowledge of successful farming. So if you are planning to be a successful farmer we advise you while in the high school to read some of the interesting little textbooks that are used in the elementary schools. Complete the agricultural course in your local high school, if such a course is offered. Better yet, attend the nearest agricultural county high school. There you will hear lectures on soils, seeds, crops, live-stock judging, dairying, fruit rais- ing, farm mechanics, etc., which, with the demonstrations, discussions, readings, and laboratory work, will help you to become a prosperous farmer. Be sure to join one or more AGRICULTURE 45 of the boys' agricultural clubs that are springing up all over our country, such as the corn, the potato, the gardening and canning, the dairy, and the poultry clubs. These organiza- tions are for the most part under the direction of the state and federal agricultural departments and are doing a won- derfully interesting and helpful work. We should perhaps add that there are decided advantages to be gained in com- peting for prizes offered to members of agricultural clubs rather than' for those to be won at county fairs, because in the case of the clubs a boy is competing with other boys and girls and not with experienced farmers, and also because many helpful directions and much instruction are freely furnished all competing club members. Graduated from high school, do not rest content with the advantages just mentioned. Some winter — the sooner the better — attend the short course at your state agricultural college. There you will meet boys from all over the state, and professors who know agriculture thoroughly. It will not cost you very much ; it occupies the six to eight weeks of the slack winter season, and it will be one of the best investments you ever made. Or, better still, if you want to reach the top notch in scientific agriculture, enroll at your state agricultural college for the four-year course. Write be- forehand to the president of the college asking him for a cat- alogue. Look the course of study through, and see how all the tough farm problems that you never could straighten out alone are here presented by experts. Bear in mind, too, when you come to finish the course that one of the criticisms passed upon the agricultural college is that its graduates are usually men too valuable to go back to running ordinary farms, but'secure better positions as managers of large farms, creameries, or ex- perimental stations. It means considerable for any young man to have such a practical, much-in-demand education as this. 4. Adding to your success. In whatever way you get your education, once on the farm do not go to seed 46 OCCUPATIONS mentally. Keep on growing. Subscribe for several first-class agricultural papers. These periodicals are numerous, and many of them can be depended upon as fully reliable. The references on pages 63-65 list several good papers. Subscribe for a year, or if in doubt as to whether they will meet your needs, write to the publishers for sample copies. Good books, too, are abundant. Is it not absurd to keep on making the same costly mistakes year after year and perhaps worrying a great deal as to what can be done about it, in many cases losing hundreds of dollars and suffering an amount of dis- satisfaction which can never be counted up, when the whole difficulty could be solved by a ^1.25 book ? Authors of such books have faced successfully the same problems that con- front you ; they have written down the answers, and it is a mistake not to let them help you when you are in trouble. In every state there is an agricultural experiment station. Write to the one in your state, asking to have your name placed on the mailing list for all the bulletins they publish. The United States Secretary of Agriculture will mail you on request a list which tells what subjects are treated. There will certainly be several that will interest you. You can then send for the ones you desire, and they will be mailed you free. Keep your eyes open for new information from any source. Attend farmers' institutes. The speakers will have something of value for you even after you have become an experienced farmer. If a " seed-corn special," an agri- cultural lecturer, or a dairy demonstrator is booked for your village, be on hand. While you may not agree with all that is said, you will surely hear something that you can use with profit. When in doubt, write your troubles to the principal of the nearest agricultural high school, the editor of your farm paper, the director of the state experiment station, the president of the state agricultural college, or the secretary of the United States Department of Agriculture. Is it not effort AGRICULTURE 47 thrown away to keep on working so hard in the broiling sun trying to raise a bumper crop of corn when a short letter to the state agricultural college asking about seed corn, for instance, might increase the yield more than ten days' extra toil with the cultivator ? The farmer who gets ahead mixes brains with the soil. He will get ahead faster if he improves his mixture by drawing in from the outside some superior brains. If the county, the state, and the United States gov- ernments are paying salaries to experts, who are anxious to help you free of charge, why not let them do it ? You will certainly be the gainer. The question. How can one enter and make a success of agriculture .? can be answered in a number of practical ways. The young man with the proper qualifications can become the owner of a farm, and the farmer who pushes his business can succeed. In the sections on Specialized Farming that follow, much additional light will be thrown upon this vital question. EXERCISES 1. Talk with a successful general farmer in your community. How many acres has his farm ? What is the value per acre ? the value of the improvements? of the live stock? What are his most paying crops? How much are his gross receipts during a year? What are his net profits? What particular points about his farm impress you most favorably ? 2. Talk with some rural mail carrier. How many papers are his farmers reading? What sort of papers? Is the amount and quality of this reading material increasing or decreasing? 3. Mention some ways in which the parcel post is benefiting the farmer. 4. Describe some farming community that you believe is thoroughly progressive. What schools has it ? What social features ? Is there any cooperation among the farmers in work ? in selling their products ? 5. Will the condition of the Eastern farmer be made better or worse by the disappearance of free land in the West? 48 OCCUPATIONS 6. Diversified farming has what effect on soil fertility? on the seasonable demand for labor? 7. Describe the general appearance of some farm that seems successful. What conveniences are to be found in the house? 8. Is your region well adapted for general farming? In what way can you become a general farmer ? 9. What disadvantages of farm life seem to you the \vorst ? How can they be overcome ? 10. What advantages of farm life appeal most to you? How can these be increased? SPECIALIZED FARMING There are several lines of specialized farming that you should know about, since any one of them may be developed into a substantial business. The general farmer, as was mentioned before, does not devote his entire attention nowa- days to any one crop, but practices, to some extent at least, diversified farming. He may find, for instance, that he takes more interest in fine milch cows than in anything else on the farm and thus he gradually becomes a dairyman ; or he may plant a part of his farm to apples and peaches instead of wheat and to this extent become a horticulturist. Or while the father continues to run the farm the son may take charge of the bees and develop into a practical bee- keeper ; or he may give his attention to chickens and eggs and thus become the poultryman of the family. A third and more common way in which people come to take up some form of specialized farming is by discovering that this par- ticular branch of farming can be best adjusted to their needs or limitations. Is your capital small > Then do not attempt wheat farming in the Dakotas ; raising vegetables on a two- acre plot near some city would be better suited to your purse. Are you unable to do hard physical work ? Do not buy a quarter-section corn farm in Missouri ; perhaps caring AGRICULTURE 49 for several rows of beehives would be just adapted to your strength. Do you like a warm, dry climate ? Then do not become a cotton planter in Louisiana ; try the orange indus- try in southern California. Several of these openings will be described briefly. Think over the various lines of farming and decide which interests you most. If you believe you would like gardening, sub- scribe for one of the gardening magazines or read some of ---^^ ^# LIBWs ^^^^^a ^'^^M Cutting and threshing wheat in Oregon These great machines are not so common as they once were in the West. The 10,000- acre grain fields are giving way to diversified farming, with better profits per acre and homes for more people the books on the subject. Visit some of the gardens near at hand. In this way you may get into just what suits you. The stockman. The stockman is a farmer who raises cattle, horses, mules, and sheep for the market. There has always been a steady demand for his products, particularly for the last ten years, during which timie their aggregate value has increased 56 per cent. Not in all states, however, can they be raised profitably. Considerable space is required for the animals to range over, and in some sections land is so OCCUPATIONS too expensive to permit this. The great range country is west of the Mississippi ; while the great corn-growing region, where cattle are fattened before shipment to the stockyards, is the north Mississippi valley. Consequently New England has only 2 per cent of the cattle, — these being chiefly dairy cattle, — while the states leading in value of live stock are Iowa, Texas, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska, in the order named. The usual scenes of cowboy life shown in the motion- picture shows are rarely true of the stockman to-day. He is more a farmer than a bronco-busting cowboy. Still, the life is a vigorous, out-of-door one, and the young man who is naturally a good judge of live stock and lives in the proper region should certainly take up stock raising in connection with his general farming. However, should he desire real ranch life and nothing else, he must go into certain parts of Wyoming, South Dakota, Montana, Oklahoma, or Texas. There he can get work almost any summer putting up hay, and if he stays long enough he may eventually be called upon to rope a few steers. EXERCISES 1. Why are the great stock ranges being pushed into the mountain states ? Why are they steadily becoming smaller ? 2. Describe the life on a typical Western cattle ranch. (See article by Theodore Roosevelt in the Outlook, May 24, 1913, pp. 148-171.) 3. Find out from your local butcher where he gets his meat. 4. Trace a beef steer from its home range until it reaches your local market. 5. Would raising beef cattle be profitable near where you live.? 6. What are some of the best breeds of beef cattle ? of sheep ? 7. Does it pay a farmer in your county to raise a few colts each year .? to keep a few sheep ? The dairyman. The dairy business, unlike stock raising, flourishes best near the great cities. New York leads all states in the number of dairy cows. New England, its small size AGRICULTURE 51 considered, has almost twice as many cows as other parts of the United States. Should you plan to sell fresh milk and cream, care should be taken to locate either within dri\'ing distance of a good market or near a railroad or trolley line. The dairying business can be carried on profitably, however, at a distance from consumers. In this case you can sell milk to the condensed-milk companies or make the cream, though sour, into butter either at home or in cooperative cream- eries, or turn it over to local agents of the big creameries which are, perhaps, two or three hundred miles away. A dairy farm This dairyman keeps only choice blooded stock in his herd. Twice each day the milk is taken by automobile to the local station, where it is shipped by express to the city I. Advantages of scientific testing of milch cows. Dairy cows vary in cost from $30 to over $100, their value de- pending chiefly upon the richness and amount of their milk. The past few years have shown great strides in the scientific testing and evaluation of milch cows. At times it has been found that a large proportion of cows did not pay for their feed, to say nothing of yielding a profit. Consequently our wide-awake farmers are removing these low-standard cows as rapidly as possible and are filling their places with high- grade milkers, so as to make every cow in their dairies a 52 OCCUPATIONS unit of profit. The number of cows that dairy farmers keep runs all the way from eight or ten to as high as one hundred and fifty or two hundred. Fewer than sixteen cows, unless you have other work, would not be enough to keep you busy and to make a profitable business. In New England the dairy- man has for every cow from one to three acres of pasture, with varying amounts of tillable land. With a good system of crop rotation, the soil fertility of his farm may be kept up year after year. The work on a dairy farm is exacting, but it is not particu- larly hard physically and is very satisfying to one who loves good animals. For the young man who studies his business, replaces poor cows with high-bred ones, and develops his dairy along modern sanitary lines the outlook is good. The first- class dairyman has long suffered because consumers could not readily tell his product from inferior milk. But under a better system of testing milk, inspection of dairy farms, and licensing, the high-grade dairyman is getting his proper returns. People are learning that " milk is milk " does not hold true when part of it is water and part dirt, and they will pay a higher price per quart for superior milk and buy more of it. 2. Occupations in creameries and related lines of busi- ness. There are also many openings for young men in every department of the creamery business and related lines, such as cheese making, ice-cream making, and city milk stations. Some of the positions are those of butter maker and helper in creamery, factory manager, butter buyer, and traveling salesman for dairy products. Good butter makers receive from ;^6o to ^125 per month, and there are numerous attractive features to this work. "The country boy," says the editor of the Butter, Cheese, and Egg Journal, "often gets a place to work as helper in the local creamery, where he gets his first training in butter making and in keeping things scrupulously clean. After he has saved some money, he may take the AGRICULTURE S3 winter course for three months [in the nearest agricultural college] and thus fit himself to run a creamery or cheese factory for himself. If he can show himself industrious and reliable in a small factory, his advance to positions of more responsibility in larger factories is assured." EXERCISES 1. Why have people come to appreciate as never before the value of good milk? What laws and ordinances regulate the dairy business in your town? 2. Is dallying well adapted to your particular locality? 3. Interview some dairyman. How many cows has he ? How many acres of pasture? of tilled land? What is the total amount he has invested? What are his annual profits? In what ways could his busi- ness be improved and made more profitable? 4. What is the difference between the beef type and the dairy type of cow? 5. What are some of the best dairy breeds? 6. How can you find out on which cows your greatest profits are made? How could you use this information to advantage? 7. What are the local opportunities for employment in the creamery business and related lines ? The poultryman. i. T/ie mormoits value of poultry products. The value of the poultry found on the farms by the census enumerators in 19 lo, if expressed in dollar bills and these laid end to end, would make a row of green- backs reaching from New York to Boston thirty-six times, to New Orleans four times, plus a string of bills across the continent to San Francisco and reaching as far back again as Chicago. During 1909 a billion and a half of eggs were received in the city of New York alone. The Secretary of Agriculture says in his 1908 report that "the eggs and poultry produced on the farms are worth as much as the hay crop or the wheat crop," an amount of some ^620,000,000 ! 54 OCCUPATIONS The majority of the eggs are produced in the Mississippi valley, not by professional poultrymen but by farmers to whom the business is incidental. These farmers in general pay little attention to the careful handling of eggs. The rural buyer for the commission merchants in most cases offers the same price for good and bad alike. Since the distance these eggs H^^ ^7\>^ 1 ^^£^. ''4 . iH| i ^- . ^^H|HBi^^«ir;r--^i^^^^^ 1 A poultry farm The number of chickens and the amount of equipment shown in this picture indicate that laclc of capital need not long deter a young man from becom- ing owner of such a farm are shipped is often great, the time before they are con- sumed adds another difficulty. In Kansas alone the loss on spoiled eggs amounts to 14 per cent of the price paid the farmer. The total loss on bad eggs each year in the United States is ^45,000,000. Consumers, too, are "afraid" of eggs, and would eat more of them and willingly pay larger prices if certain of procuring fresh ones. AGRICULTURE 55 2. The opportunities of the scientific poultry-man. This incidental production and careless marketing of eggs by the general farmer gives the professional poultryman an opening. His usual location is either in the far East or the far West, but a first-class market can be developed near any large city. A fancy price and a steady demand are assured whenever consumers learn that they can depend upon " strictly fresh " eggs, that are never anything but what this phrase implies. Some poultrymen enter into profitable contracts with com- mission men supplying a fancy trade, or with hotels and restaurants catering to the better class of diners. To one who wants to specialize in raising poultry for meat a differ- ent breed of hen is desirable, although there are several admi- rable breeds equally good for egg production or meat purposes. While the work is light, it requires careful attention to details. The capital needed is small ; in fact, a start can be made on a small lot and with a limited equipment. The profits in many cases are splendid, and a steady income is assured any young man who makes a moderate success of this business. EXERCISES 1. How do eggs compare with beef in nutritive value? in digesti- bility ? (See Farmers' Bulletin 142.) 2. How can the price of eggs in general be raised? (See Yearbook for 1910, pp. 461-476; for 191 1, pp. 467-478.) 3. How can you learn which of the hens in your flock are the best layers ? 4. How are eggs tested and graded? Should they be sold by the dozen or by the pound? 5. If the markets are distant, how can one carry on a profitable poultry business? (See Yearbook for 1912, pp. 285-292.) 6. Interview some poultryman. How many hens has he? What breeds? How much equipment has he? What expenses does he have to meet? Does he find raising hens for eggs or for meat more profit- able? In what way do you think his business might be improved? 56 OCCUPATIONS Market gardening. The vegetables you see on sale early in the spring probably come from the lower Atlantic coast, a great winter garden stretching from Savannah, Georgia, to the southern section of New Jersey. Often ^500 worth of berries are grown on an acre of this land, while yields of ^1000 per acre are by no means unknown, and near Wilmington, North Carolina, one grower harvested from a half acre lettuce to the value of ^1756. Only approximately I per cent of the land available is now under truck culti- vation, and the unprepared land can be bought for about ^10 per acre. 1 . Making the garden and growing the vegetables. Many gardeners have laid the foundations of their future careers by helping their mothers till the back yard at home. They en- joyed working with the potatoes, cabbages, onions, asparagus, tomatoes, cucumbers, and melons and seeing them grow from tiny seedlings to maturity. So they searched out a little plot of ground and commenced. It does not take a great deal of money to set up in business as a market gardener. A vacant lot is enough for a start and an acre or two will supply all the work you can do for a time. The garden should be laid out so that the necessary work can be done easily. No raised beds need be tried, since they take too much time and labor and waste moisture. Instead, after seeing that the soil is rich and well prepared, plant the vegetables in long rows so that the tilling can be done with wheel tools. Some artificial means for supplying water may work wonders with your garden even though the farmers around you never consider irrigation. 2. Marketing the products. Pack your vegetables when marketable in neat, small packages or baskets. Never dis- appoint your customers when they have ordered of you, and be careful that vegetables from your garden reach them in a clean, bright, fresh condition. Keep your market wagon painted and washed so that it will be attractive. A bright, AGRICULTURE 57 clean wagon inspires confidence and goes a long way toward making people feel that they are dealing with a successful young man. " ' " Unless you deliver the vegetables directly to consumers — which is impossible for most gardeners not doing a local business — the question of marketing is more serious. In fact, it is generally easier to grow vegetables than to market them successfully. Shipments go through a number of hands — transportation companies, draymen, commission merchants, jobbers, and retail dealers — before they reach the consumer, in each case additional time being consumed; and vegetables are perishable. Each middleman, also, charges for his services; so that the difference between what the consumer pays and what the grower gets becomes larger and larger. It is estimated by the Department of Agriculture that in the case of vegetables the producer receives only about one third of the price paid by the consumer. EXERCISES 1. If you should take up market gardening where you live, would you be likely to have Japanese, Chinese, or Italian competitors ? Could they raise fruit and vegetables more cheaply than you ? 2. Of what importance is good seed ? What are some of the leading seed companies ? 3. In what ways can you get vegetables on the market early in the season ? 4. Talk with your vegetable grower. How much land has he ? How does he keep it in good condition.? How does he cultivate? What additional vegetables or varieties might he raise with profit? What arrangements for marketing has he? Could he cut down expenses in marketing ? How ? 5. Call upon your vegetable dealer, or your grocer if he handles vegetables. How much does he have invested in vegetables at any one time? How often does he turn his stock? Where does he get his vegetables? From what distances does he sometimes have them ohipped? What per cent does he estimate is waste? 58 OCCUPATIONS 6. If you approached a city hotel manager with the proposition to supply him fresh vegetables, what arguments would you use to get his permanent trade ? 7. Could you develop standardized baskets of vegetables at 25 cents, 50 cents, and 75 cents, which housewives would come to know, depend upon, and order by telephone? Ask your mother what different vegetables and what proportions of each should be placed in such family baskets. The fruit grower. A good way to test yourself as a fruit grower is to begin on your home plot. If you have but little space, plant a row or two of strawberries, currants, black- berries, or gooseberries along the back-yard fence. You may have enough room for a grapevine, besides, and perhaps a peach tree or two. Or your plot may be large ; then see what you can do with apples, pears, or cherries. Here, of course, you must wait longer before getting any fruit. Set out first- class nursery stock, which costs so little more that it is effort wasted to begin with poor trees. Cultivate the young trees well, thinking not merely of the few small trees in front of you, but of the hundreds of heavily laden trees you may have to take charge of later on. Should your efforts succeed, plan to develop your business on a larger scale. I . Conditions for successful fruit growing. First of all you will find two things of great importance. The climate and the soil, for best results, must be suited to the particular fruit. "Apples thrive best," says Professor L. R. Taft, "on a strong, sandy loam soil, or a light clay loam. Pears require a rather stiff soil, and do best in a moderately heavy clay loam. Currants delight in a cool, moist soil, and cannot be grown successfully in the Southern States. Oranges, lemons, and figs are adapted to many sections of California, Florida, and Louisiana, but can only be grown under glass in the north- ern states." Your own knowledge, the experience of your neighbors, and the advice of the state experiment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture will guide you in selecting the fruits best adapted to your soil and climate. AGRICULTURE 59 It may be added that it is possible to modify somewhat both soil and climate. A hill, a north or south slope, a table- land, or a valley may be selected. This land may be drained, surf ace- worked in the usual way, or irrigated. It may be stated further that the various insect enemies about which there is so much talk need not unduly alarm you. They can all be conquered. But if you are new at the business do not invest your money in a fruit farm before giving these various matters full consideration. 2. Marketing the products. While you are studying soil, climate, what particular fruits to grow, and insect enemies, you must also think of another very important matter — the market. As in the case of market gardening, it is often easier to produce the fruit than to sell it satisfactorily. If you have gone into the raising of small fruits, such as rasp- berries, dewberries, currants, and strawberries, quickness of transportation and sale is essential, since these fruits do not stand up like apples or oranges. Truly surprising results in marketing are accomplished by the orange and grape growers of southern California, the peach growers of Colorado, and the apple growers of Oregon and Washington. The bulk of their product finds a market in the Eastern states, three thousand miles away, across lofty mountain ranges and wide deserts. It has been only by careful attention to packing, the develop- ment of the refrigerator car, and the guidance of cooperative fruit-growers' associations that this business, depending for its customers upon the opposite side of the continent, could be so successfully carried on. The fact that these details have been worked out and a business of millions of dollars developed should be an encouragement to all fruit growers. EXERCISES 1. Write, asking information regarding their fruit industry, cost of land, returns per acre, etc. to the following chambers of commerce: Grand Junction, Colorado; Fresno, California; Portland, Oregon; Middletown, Connecticut; Athens, Georgia. 6o OCCUPATIONS 2. Why has the cooperative movement been developed among the fruit growers in the West? What are its advantages? What dangers threaten it? (See Yearbook for 191 6, pp. 391-406.) 3. What fruits grow best in your neighborhood ? 4. Visit some successful fruit grower. How much has he invested in land? What do his trees cost him? On what crops does he make most profit ? What marketing arrangements has he ? 5. Call upon your local fruit dealer. Where does he secure his fruit ? How long is it in transit? What percentage is waste? 6. From what nurserymen do your fruit growers buy their stock? Are they satisfied with it ? 7. With the raising of what other products may fruit growing be profitably combined? OTHER AGRICULTURAL OCCUPATIONS Nurseryman. There are various other openings in agri- culture, some one of which may prove very attractive to you. If you find fruit growing to your Hking, you may turn your attention to producing young trees for other farmers. By adding numerous kinds of trees and shrubs, you may be- come a nurseryman. If you should desire first to learn how to care for young trees, you might later secure a posi- tion with some well-established nursery firm. Or you may be interested in the selling end of the business first, and after being a traveling agent for a time, finally take a part- nership in the firm. Seedsman. Somewhat similar to the vocation of nursery- man is that of seedsman. It should be the ambition of every farmer to grow and select good seed, yet no general farmer or even a market gardener can afford to spend the time and effort required to develop new varieties of plants and produce numerous kinds of seeds. This is the work of a specialist, the seedsman ; and certain firms, whose names on the little seed envelopes may be familiar to you, have made of it a successful business. AGRICULTURE 6l Landscape gardener ; floriculturist. Another opening — one of the newer professions — is that of landscape gar- dener. The number of openings available at present are small but increasing, and the salaries are good. Again, you may love flowers, and being a floriculturist would most likely interest you. It would mean taking care of or directing the care of flowers in parks and private grounds or in greenhouses. Beekeeper. But little capital is required to begin as a beekeeper. Two hives of bees and a limited equipment will do at the start, and if handled well they will themselves pay for whatever else is needed. Swine raiser. It is hard to imagine any successful general farmer who is not also something of a swine raiser. Not much land is required, but hogs have tremendous appetites, and to solve the problem of food supply usually calls for large corn acreage. Other positions. If you are well trained and able to run a farm with success, positions are to be had as farm man- ager, with salary ranging from ^600 to ;^2000 per year. The large number of agricultural high schools and colleges, almost three thousand of them, demand trained teachers. The position as agricultural teacher pays well as compared with other teaching positions. And last of the miscellaneous openings in agriculture that we shall mention is government work. " There is a very strong and steady demand for young men trained in the principles of agriculture," Professor E. C. Bishop of the Iowa State College writes us, "to direct the government and state work in surveying, forestry, irriga- tion, drainage, to serve as county advisers in the United States Farm Management Demonstration Work, and to take charge of other lines where a knowledge of the principles of agriculture is needed to direct the various lines of agricultural practice which the state and government are now so vig- orously and effectively pushing." Here is a line of work which, moreover, is certain to grow in importance. 62 OCCUPATIONS CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS TO PROSPECTIVE FARMERS It takes a bigger man to-day than it ever did before to run a farm successfully. It has not been many years since a pioneer could pick out one hundred and sixty acres of the most fertile land in the Mississippi valley and get it free from the government for the asking. A man of very ordinary push and brain could get along under such favorable con- ditions. But for some time land has been steadily rising in price, until in Iowa, for instance, ;^ 150 an acre is frequently charged for an improved farm. Besides horses, hogs, cattle, and chickens, considerable machinery must be owned. To manage profitably all these in combination demands good hard sense, special training, and executive ability. On the other hand, only about half the farm area avail- able has yet been improved. Scientific agriculture is making more and more a profit on cheap poor land as well as on high-priced good land. Thousands of fine openings in spe- cialized agriculture await the man who is alert enough to see them. In fact, the young' man whose interest is in agricul- ture n^ed not be discouraged, but should rather be optimistic because of the new demands under which success comes to him who is industrious, experienced, and scientifically trained. READINGS AND REFERENCES Books Bailey, L. H. The Country-Life Movement in the United States. The Macmillan Company, New York. $1.25. Bailey, L. H. The Nursery-Book. The Macmillan Company, New York. $ 1 .00. Burkett, C. W. The Farmers' Veterinarian. Orange Judd Company, New York. $1.50. • Burkett, Stevens, and Hill. Agriculture for Beginners. Ginn and Company, Boston. 90 cents. AGRICULTURE 63 CoRBETT, L. C. Garden Farming. Ginn and Company, Boston. DeLancey, F. W. Down-to-date Poultry Knowledge. Poultry Fancier Publishing Company, Sellersville, Pennsylvania. 50 cents. Henderson, Peter. Practical Floriculture. Orange Judd Company, New York. $1.50. HuEBNER, Grover G. Agricultural Commerce. D. Appleton and Company. $2.00. Hunt, T. F. The Young Farmer. Orange Judd Company, New York. $1.50. Newman, T. G., and Dadant, C. P. " First Lessons in Bee-Keeping." American Bee Journal, Hamilton, Illinois. 50 cents. Plumb, C. S. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. Ginn and Com- pany, Boston. $2.00. Robinson, John. Our Domestic Birds. Ginn and Company, Boston. $1.35- Tracy, Sr., W. W. Vegetable Seed Growing as a Business. Yearbook for 1909, pp. 273-284. ' Van Norman, H. E. First Lessons in Dairying. Orange Judd Com- pany, New York. 50 cents. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture. Ginn and Company, Boston. $1.25. Watson, G. C. Farm Poultry. The Macmillan Company, New York. $1.50. Watts, R. L. Vegetable Gardening. Orange Judd Company, New York. $1.75. • Waugh, F. a. Beginner's Guide to Fruit Growing. Orange Judd Company, New York. 75 cents. ' Waugh, F. A. Landscape Gardening. Orange Judd Company, New York. 75 cents. Wilkinson, A. E. The Apple. Ginn and Company, Boston. $2.00. Wing, H. H. Milk and its Products. The Macmillan Company, New York, jfi.oo. Periodicals American Bee Journal. Monthly. Hamilton, Illinois. $1.00 per year. Butter, Cheese, and Egg Journal. A weekly magazine. Milwaukee, Wisconsin. $i.oo per year. Fruit-Grower and Farmer. A semimonthly magazine. Saint Joseph, Missouri. $1.00 per year. Hoard^s Dairyman. A weekly journal devoted to dairy farming. Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin. j5 1 .00 per year. 64 OCCUPATIONS Horticulture. A weekly journal devoted to plant culture, landscape gardening, and kindred interests. 1 1 Hamilton Place, Boston. Ji.oo per year. Market Growers Journal. A semimonthly trade paper for market gardeners. Louisville, Kentucky. $i.oo per year. Poultry Fancier. Monthly. Sellersville, Pennsylvania. $i.oo per year. The Country Gentleman. Weekly. Curtis Publishing Company. Phila- delphia. $1.50 per year. Wallace's Farmer. Weekly. Wallace Publishing Company. Des Moines, Iowa. $1.00 per year. These last two high-grade periodicals should be on the reading table of every farmer. In addition he should subscribe to the leading agri- cultural paper published in his state. Good reading matter pays for itself over and over again both in dollars and in enjoyment of farm life. Reports and Bulletins Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Husbandry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., and various reports of your state experiment station may be secured free of charge. Bulletins are also sent out, among which the following may be mentioned : Lane and Whitaker, " Score-Card System of Dairy Inspection," Bureau of Animal Husbandry, Circular ijg ; Dodge, " Cropping System for New England Dairy Farms," Farmers' Bulletin Jj/. Send for list of bulletins available. Bulletins on stock raising are issued by the above bureau and by state bureaus. Write for lists ; some are very helpful. Farmers' bulletins, of which a large list is available. Write the agri- cultural department for this list; check off those desired and mail to your congressman, who will see that you receive them free of charge. Of the large number that are helpful, space will permit only two to be mentioned : " A Successful New York Farm," Farmers' Bulletin 454, and " How a City Family managed a Farm," Farmers' Bulletin 432. Vearbook of the Department of Agriculture, the annual report referred to in later pages as the Yearbook. Sent free ; write your congress- man for a copy. Young men planning to become farmers should by all means secure a copy of this book each year. The following arti- cles may be consulted in connection with the foregoing discussion : AGRICULTURE 65 "Farm Labor" (1910), pp. 189-200; "Farm Labor" (191 1), pp. 269-284; "Agricultural Education" (1905), pp. 193-218; "Agricultural Education" (1910), pp. 177-188; "Agricultural Edu- cation" (191 2), pp. 471-482; "Demonstration Work" (1909), PP- 153-160; "Marketing" (1909), pp. 161-172; "Farming for City Men" (1909), pp. 239-248. Articles Andrews, F. " Reduction of Waste in Marketing." Yearbook of 1 911, pp. 165-176. "A Home Vegetable Garden," Farmers' Bulletin 255. See also Bulle- tins 62, 220, 4JJ. BoNSTEEL, J. A. " Truck Soils of the Atlantic Coast Region." Year- book for 191 2, pp. 417-432. CoRBETT, L. C. "A Successful Method of Marketing Vegetable Products." Yearbook for 191 2, pp. 353-362. Dexter, W. H. and Others. " Opportunities for Dairying." Yearbook for 1906, pp. 405-428. (Discusses the various sections of the United States.) Farmers^ Bulletins 1^4, ig8, 2j8, 4^1. Jones, R. G. " Opportunities in the Dairy Business." Butter, Cheese, and Egg Journal, May 21, 191 2. Stubenrauch, a. V. " Handling of Deciduous Fruits on the Pacific Coast." Yearbook for 1909, pp. 365-374. CHAPTER V COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS Every man who studies along the fine and broad hnes of commercial enterprise to-day must recognize the fact that a business career is a pro- fession as noble in its way as that of the lawyer or the engineer. Men and women must be trained for it. — John Wanamaker The beginning and growth of commerce. Our vast com- mercial organization, with its retail stores, wholesale houses, stock exchanges, and clearing houses, may be traced in its rude beginnings to the makeshifts adopted for trading by such miserable savages as the Australian natives. When one native wishes to trade with another, he leaves his com- modity on a certain cleared space and hides behind a bush. The other native then examines the article, and after plac- ing what he considers an equivalent commodity beside that of the first, he also hides behind a bush. The first native then advances and examines the article left. If satisfied, he carries it away and the trade is completed. If not sat- isfied, he carries away his own article and the trade is thus declared off. Crude as such a plan is, it indicates some of the primary ideas upon which all commerce rests, namely : I . The desire for what others possess. The Australian, though a savage, possesses what is developed very nearly into a passion with civilized man, the desire for more things. It is because mankind is not satisfied with the products at hand, but, even to supply his breakfast table, wishes to draw upon the whole world, that commerce throws out its lines to distant Java and Japan and also orders European products by the millions. Progress is accompanied by a 66 COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 67 multiplication of desires, and it is the business of com- merce to satisfy them. 2. The sense of relative values. The Australian native, with the two articles on the ground in front of him, ponders from which he can get the greater satisfaction. This is the same mental process which the boy shows when with ten cents in his pocket, and the question of ice cream or fire- crackers before him, he decides to eat rather than to shoot. We also find much the same problem before his father when he decides upon an automobile instead of a yacht, or before the broker who refuses 160 shares U.S. Steel at 97 but buys 60 shares Union Pacific at 135. Shrewd business men have a keen sense of relative values ; their success depends largely upon it. 3. The special mechanism of trade activities. The paths through the forest, the cleared space, and the bushes were the machinery by means of which the savages traded. The paths have now become wagon roads, splendid railroads, and steamship lines, such speedy and cheap " paths " that bananas may be brought from Cuba to the village store in Oregon, and the nutmegs of Borneo to the frontier post in the Klondike. The cleared space and bushes have given way to stores and counters and clerks, coins and checks and banks, telephone and telegraph and letter, retail store and wholesale house and stock exchange. Just as a boy needs a knife to cut a stick, so commercial men need special machinery to transact business. 4. The protection of trade. When the products of the merchant are besieged by robbers on the land or pirates on the sea, he must sell these products at exorbitant prices to safeguard his risk, or otherwise quit business. The Austra- lians planned that the clearing should be a place of peace, that by the traders' hiding behind bushes the chances for hot words and personal combat would be lessened, and that no trade should be binding unless both parties had expressed 68 OCCUPATIONS themselves as satisfied by offering, taking, or leaving the proffered articles. Business men have always opposed war, — except a few armor-plate and gun makers, like the Krupps, — and their conviction that it is really at bottom " the great illusion " is some day likely to overthrow the war gods permanently. Modern nations throw protection over their citizen-traders, even though they go to the ends of the earth. Perfection of modern-trade conditions. In each of these four points, in which the savage paved the way, the modern business man has developed the process until it now well- nigh reaches perfection. Modern commerce has become : (i) Certain. The present-day merchant no longer takes a wild leap in the dark. He knows prices and can depend upon his orders being filled, delivered, and sold, all in a way no merchant has been able to do before. (2) Regular. In ancient India and China the grain markets might be glutted in one province while the people in an adjacent province were starving. During the pioneer days in the West, wheat at harvest time was almost worthless, while its price mounted skyward in late winter. But modern commerce can take ac- count of months rather than days, and in this way suppress considerably the fluctuations and secure regularity. (3) Eco- nomical. Little savings are beginning to count. When an American salesman cannot undersell a German salesman in the office of a Buenos Aires merchant, nor perhaps win even by a small margin a Johannesburg contract from a British salesman, the duty is forced upon the home office of discharging the slow-moving office boy and the wasteful shipping clerk. (4) Sensitive. This international competi- tion keeps the business kings of the world on the firing line, ever alert. A change of a quarter of a cent in the price of cotton closes a cotton mill in Manchester and opens one in Atlanta. With the advent of our beef scandal, down went the profits of the Chicago packers and upward soared the COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 69 daily output of the German slaughterhouses. When the com- mercial machine becomes so enormous, yet so sensitive, more skill is required of the directing hand and more efficiency from the rank and file. In this contest for world markets, no people have entered with more enthusiasm than have the Americans. The Yankee is a shrewd but aggressive merchant, as others have learned to their cost. But he has also 93,000,000 of home buyers, a vast multitude whose high standard of living provides a splendid market. Commercial occupations consequently have come to number their adherents by the millions; 9.91 per cent of the American nation is engaged in commercial pur- suits, a proportion exceeding all other occupations save agriculture. Almost half of our people live in cities and towns of over two thousand five hundred inhabitants, and the relative number is increasing. EXERCISES 1. Tell how our present system of money was developed. (See encyclopedia or history of commerce.) 2. What can you tell of trade among the Indians.? What did they use for money? 3. What rank does the United States hold among the commercial nations .■■ 4. What are our leading exports ? imports ? 5. Is commerce in your community more or less important than agriculture f Social standing, i . Former position of merchants. Per- haps you think that nothing need be said about the social standing of the business man, since everybody knows that he is looked up to in his community. But he has not always been so respected. The early merchants were a despised lot; The democratic Spartans believed that all citizens were equal — but the merchant perioeci were not citizens and 70 OCCUPATIONS had no political rights. The Athenians thought that such material matters as trading were fit for slaves. Their minds were turned toward art and philosophy, Socrates taught that to have few wants was godlike ; Plato would have no place in his ideal state for money, " nor much of the vulgar sort of trade," he says, "which is carried on by lending money." The opinion of Cicero indicates the Roman point of view. " Those who buy to sell again as soon as they can, are," he concludes, "to be accounted as vulgar ; for they can make no profit except by a certain amount of falsehood, and nothing is meaner than falsehood." According to the early-church fathers in the Middle Ages, " Agriculture was praised ; manufacture did not displease God ; but trade could not be pleasing to the Deity.'' Even to-day there are some of the narrow-minded who sniff at " crude materialism," and think to prove their superiority by disclaiming a knowledge of all things practical. 2. The merchant's services to society. The merchant, however, is a real producer, just as truly as anyone else. There is no such thing as " producing " in the sense of creating out of nothing a new product. The farmer causes plows, seeders, and binders to work — and produces wheat. The miller causes trains, elevators, and rollers to work — and produces flour. The merchant causes telephone, stock clerk, salesman, and delivery boy to work — and produces flour in Mrs. Brown's kitchen when she wants to use it for baking Friday morning. Each produces utility ; that is, some- thing which people want to use. Wheat is wanted; the farmer produces the desired result ; his labor brings about what may be termed elementary utility. Flour, prepared wheat, is wanted ; the miller produces the desired result ; his labor brings about form utility. Mrs. Brown wants flour in her kitchen when she needs it for baking ; the mer- chant produces the desired result ; his labors result in place and time utility. Such utilities are certainly important and COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 7 1 necessary for the well-being of all of us, and the merchant in supplying them is just as truly a producer as is the farmer or the miner. He is entitled to full respect and high social standing if he does his work well. A certain eminent man of affairs on being asked, " What does business mean to you .' " gave a fair statement of the facts of any honorable business, when he replied: "It has meant an effort to prove as far as possible worthy in a field whieh has been one of the major powers in the development of the life of the world. It has meant satisfaction attained by contributing to the upbuilding and prosperity of my com- munity. For the real business man is a man of constant service to his community. He is not a speculator, operating on capital consisting chiefly of ' nerve ' and paper-built schemes, who tries to make something out of nothing and that at the expense of those upon whom he can impose. He discovers and supplies a legitimate demand. He meets a real need with the substantial thing that will satisfy that necessity. Such a man cannot, by the very nature of affairs, become a mere money-grabber. He keeps an eye on the making of profits in business, else he must show his lack of good busi- ness capacity — but inevitably he works for the welfare of the community in which he moves." 3. The present social position of merchants. There are many thousands of such men who_ serve society well. Their opinions are eagerly sought in all important matters, their names and pictures are seen in the papers, they hold posi- tions of honor in public enterprises, and they are approved among men. While they often reap great rewards in money, society can well afford to see them become rich. For every dollar that they receive personally, many more go in a busi- ness way to all with whom they deal — their workers, those from whom they buy, and those to whom they sell. These men are thus public benefactors and accordingly occupy a position of high social standing. If you enter commercial 72 OCCUPATIONS life and want to be respected by men, serve them well and thus build a career of deserved success. You must not conclude from this, however, that just as soon as you take the president's dictation faultlessly, if a stenographer in a wholesale house, you become as prominent as he. If social esteem depends largely upon doing the work of the world well, there is surely such a thing as the relative importance of workers, since the efforts of one man are often of more importance than the efforts of other men. Highest honor in the business world is usually given to those who have been years in the service, and who continue to prove their ability to wear the spurs they have long since won. If you have the ability, the perseverance, and the character required of the successful business man, you will receive social esteem from an ever-widening circle as you go higher. WHICH BUSINESS SHALL YOU CHOOSE? The young man who surveys the commercial world has spread before him a great variety of business activities. It would require volumes to describe all of these even briefly — and some of these volumes have already been written. But in one book we can treat only briefly the most important of these kinds of business and leave with you a somewhat extensive list of references. On other pages the subject of positions will be discussed, but before you consider which position to choose think over which business you prefer. Study with care the exercises bearing upon this. When you discover that a certain business appeals strongly to you as a life-career, read some of the books treating it which are listed in the references. Subscribe now, before you graduate, for one of the periodicals devoted to this calling and read it regularly, so that much valuable time for preparation may be utilized. COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 73 Merchandizing. The pioneer merchant was the keeper of the old-fashioned, crossroads general store. He kept a little of everything, from the cinnamon bark in the tin carton to the manila rope he uncoiled from the cellar. But the farmers' wants outran his limited stock, so that now when they wish to buy everything of one concern they send an order to some mail-order house. It is the proud boast of some of these houses that they sell everything from a needle to a threshing machine. If the crossroads has become a city, those who still prefer to buy all their goods in one place patronize the department store. Here under one roof, with acres of floor space, miles of aisles, and thousands of clerks, is transacted such a mammoth business that compared to it the wealth of Croesus is a mere bagatelle. But the crossroads store has also split up into stores carrying different lines. And of these the number is. legion. There are separate stores for each of the following com- modities : hardware, implements, china and glassware, dry goods, clothing, furnishings, boots and shoes, fruit, confec- tionery, meat and vegetables, grain, flour, and feed, lumber and coal, watches, clocks, jewelry and optical goods, drugs, stationery, and the like. Moreover, the stores just mentioned embrace but the one phase of merchandizing, retailing. There are likewise numerous openings in wholesaling, not so well known, perhaps, but substantial callings nevertheless. EXERCISES 1. Draw up a list of the various commodities, such as dry goods, hardware, drugs, etc., which are sold in separate stores in your town, and place under each commodity the names of the firms who deal in it. 2. Talk with some leading merchant who handles one of these com- modities. Ask him how much capital is needed to stock such a business ; what the main expense items are ; the particular advantages ; the disad- vantages ; his opinion of this business as an opening for a young man. 3. Which particular line of merchandizing in the town offers you the best opening ? Give reasons for your answer. 74 OCCUPATIONS Printing and publishing. Most of the employees of print- ing and publishing houses are hand workers and hence come properly under the manufacturing classification. Still there remain almost 100,000 others, officials and clerks, whose work and total annual salaries of ^100,000,000 are essen- tially commercial. The publishing industry of any particular firm may be directed toward (i) general or miscellaneous book publishing ; (2) books sold by subscription methods ; (3) educational or textbook publishing ; (4) newspapers or magazines. The outlook for a young man entering this business is very good. The value of the product increased 34 per cent from 1904 to 1909 and the number of salaried officials and clerks almost doubled. " If one looks over the field," says a leading American publisher, F. N. Doubleday of Double- day, Page & Company, " one sees opportunities in abun- dance. One comes upon a great many men who have ideas, but the men who have the ideas and can work them out are many days' journey apart. In the next decade the sale of books will certainly be vastly increased, and these are the men who will do it." EXERCISES 1. What is the difference between a publisher and a bookseller? be- tween a publisher and a printer ? May one company combine all three ? 2. Name several of the leading publishers. 3. Is the publishing business increasing or decreasing in importance.'' 4. What opportunities are there in your community for entering this business ? Real estate. It may seem a simple matter to buy, sell, or lease farm lands, city lots, dwellings, and other iDuildings. But to carry on such transactions successfully many intricate questions must be solved, which in turn require specialized ability. This the real-estate man attempts to supply. He COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 75 studies carefully how to value the different kinds of prop- erty in which he deals, informs himself concerning contracts, leases, mortgages, taxes, and titles, and learns how to work to advantage with the owner, the prospective purchaser, the auctioneer, the surveyor, and the architect. In practice the real-estate man devotes himself to one of several possible kinds of work. He may specialize in office or store buildings, and how to manage them at a profit. In large cities especially such work claims the at- tention of many real-estate men. Instead of office or store buildingSj he may deal in dwellings, building, buying, or selling them, or serving as a renting agent. Other operators devote themselves to developing new tracts of land. They may buy a tract near some city, lay it out in blocks and lots, build sidewalks and at times houses as well, and then, by inducing people to move in, start a new suburb whose improved lots sell considerably higher than did the rough tract out of which they were formed. Of course such an operator must be far-sighted and shrewd in estimating ■ which way the city's population is to move, or his proposed new suburb may remain only a dream. However, population and industry are constantly- shifting in their location, and the real-estate man who is alert enough to buy and sell at the right time is assured of profitable returns. Since people attach great importance to their farms, houses, offices, and other buildings, the man who aids them in handling all such property with increased satis- faction to themselves performs a service well worth while. EXERCISES 1. Is there much buying and selling of real estate in your town ? Is property rising in value ? Are new building tracts being developed ? 2. How many real-estate firms are there in your town? In what branch of real estate does each specialize? 76 OCCUPATIONS 3. Call upon some real-estate man. In what ways does he make his money from real estate? Does he combine any other business with real estate? 4. What successful methods have real-estate agents followed in their business ? Which of these would not be advisable for you to attempt in this community ? Which would likely prove successful ? Insurance. One realizes, if he thinks over the matter for a moment, that Ufe is full of uncertainties. Train wrecks, sunken ships, fires, tornadoes, sickness — these are some of the things that prevent us from being sure we can do the thing we plan to do. It is considered necessary in business, however, that one have this sureness. For this purpose in- surance was developed. In the seventeenth century certain merchants who frequented the coffeehouse kept by Lloyd agreed among themselves that if a member should lose his cargo in the foreign trade, his loss would be made good by the group. In this way, each merchant could trade with assurance because the risk of loss would be borne by many, not by himself alone. -This principle upon which insurance is founded — mak- ing the individual secure because his risk is shared by many — has been applied to an ever-increasing variety of events. Accordingly we have such different kinds of insurance as fire, marine, tornado, steam boiler, plate glass, accident, sick- ness, and life. Insurance is coming to be regarded as a commodity, in much the same light as a suit of clothes, a house and lot, or an auto truck. In the home offices of the insurance companies, positions are available for actuaries, bookkeepers, file clerks, stenog- raphers ; in fact, one may say the beginner will find here a variety of clerical positions. However, insurance compa- nies are particularly interested in young men who show promise of ability as salesmen. They train these young men at their home offices and then assign them to some branch office where they are responsible to the local COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 77 manager. Insurance is by no means easy to sell, but those who show ability in this respect earn good commissions and may in time become branch managers. EXERCISES 1. Do insurance men secure business by opening an office or by field work? 2. Call upon some successful insurance man. Ask him how he locates his prospects ; how he makes a sale. 3. What are some of the advantages of this business ? the dis- advantages ? 4. Has some insurance company its home office in or near your city? What opportunities does it offer for employment? Banking. In buying and selling we require some sort of standard with which to measure the value of different arti- cles. Such a standard is called money. It is minted or printed by the government in vast amounts, and for the con- venience of its owners is received from them or paid out to them by the bank to whom they have intrusted it. Strange as it may seem, however, currency is too limited in amount and too inconvenient to serve the needs of business ; it must be supplemented by credit. So, as a matter of fact, to-day for every four dollars currency that passes from hand to hand in trading, ninety-six dollars credit is employed. In consequence, the bank's function of dealing in currency is much less important than its function of dealing in credit. It offers a business man its well-known credit in exchange for his less-known credit, and charges him interest for the accommodation. Such is the work of the commercial bank, the most numerous of all banking institutions. In small towns the banker also advises with customers concerning wills, mortgages, savings, and investments. In cities, however, specialization takes place, resulting in the development of trust companies, savings banks, and bond 78 OCCUPATIONS and brokerage houses. As a consequence, there is a variety of work available in financial institutions, ihe duties of the small-town cashier, for example, being quite different from those of the city bond salesman. The departments of a bank are as follows: (i) Receiving. The receiving teller accepts deposits from customers and after checking up the amounts turns them over to the next department for recording. (2) Bookkeeping. The book- keeper makes careful record of all transactions, since fraud and dishonesty must be guarded against and every account be kept in an accurate and systematic manner. (3) Loans and discounts. The bank makes its profits by loaning its funds at interest, but needless to say its officers must exer- cise care concerning the person who would borrow or whose notes are offered them for purchase. (4) Paying. The pay- ing teller examines the commercial paper presented him and if satisfied as to its genuineness, he passes out the bank's funds in payment. Other departments are collecting; corre- spondence, exchange, and advertising. Employment with these financial companies may impress the average young man as somewhat conservative, with advancement rather slow. In general, banking is a substantial business with good prospects for the future. EXERCISES 1. On what does a bank make its profits? 2. What financial institutions has your town ? 3. If any of your friends are employed in these institutions, ask them to tell you about their work. 4. Interview some leading banker. Ask him how he became a banker; what positions there are in banks for young men; what qualifications he considers essential; if he recommends banking as a good vocation for a young man to enter. COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 79 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR CHOOSING YOUR PARTICULAR BUSINESS Selection according to qualifications, desires, and capital. While choosing your particular business the following three suggestions may prove of value to you : (i) You may select that business in which your natural ability and qualifications make the possibility of success greatest. If your manners are good and your temper is genial, such a position as "trouble mender " in a retail market might be secured rather than work on the adding machine in a bank. (2) You may enter work which, to you at least, is interesting. If you like to deal with big, bulky packages and to see piled up all around you the results of your activity, you might become shipping clerk for a wholesale grocery house. (3) Should you desire to go into business for yourself, you can choose from the large number of available business enterprizes the one for which your capital is sufficient. Consideration of possibilities of success and failure. Be- fore engaging in business for yourself, however, give careful thought to the probabilities of your succeeding or failing in it. " Friction, and with it some loss of power or energy, is inseparable from the conduct of all business, as indeed of all other forms of human endeavor," says Bradstreet's Mercan- tile Agency, " and it is no surprise to find that in a country such as the United States, where many thousand new enter- prises are added each year to the business community, there should be thousands of failures. This business community, totaling in the year 19 14 some 1,749,000, naturally includes many poorly provided, in different ways, to embark upon business life." The number of failures among commercial concerns in 1914 is given as 16,769. Bradstreet's draw up the following table in which the causes of failure should have your closest attention : 8o OCCUPATIONS WHY MEN FAILED IN 1914 Cause of Failure Number Cause of Failure Number Lack of capital . . 4928 4705 2753 1593 941 494 Unwise credits . 411 371 304 148 121 Specific conditions Fraud . . . Inexperience . . Failure of others Extravagance Speculation . . Totil . . . Competition . 16,769 Run carefully down this list point by point, with your own prospective business in mind, and ask yourself such definite questions as these : Do I know enough to run this busi- ness ? Have I enough money to make it prosper ? Have I the interest in it and the push in me sufficient to escape the dangers of neglect and competition ? In short, have I all the necessary qualifications to make a success of this business even under adverse circumstances ? After a fair and candid consideration of these questions you will be in a better position to decide whether to start in business for yourself, or to work, at least a while, for some firm already established. Consideration of the effect of modern combination and competition. The general tendency is toward combination ; that is, the control of a greater share of the market by fewer but larger concerns. Unless you have a unique specialty or some other particular advantage, or you wish to remain in a small town, the chances are that the competition of the larger establishments will be a serious disadvantage to you. R. H. Macy and Company in their department store at Broadway and Thirty-fourth Street, New York, employ some 5000 people. One block away is the mammoth store of Gimbel Brothers, with Saks and Company between. At Eighth Street and Broadway is John Wanamaker's, with over 5000 employees, not to mention Wanamaker's other COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 8 1 great store in Philadelphia. In Chicago, Marshall Field and Company have an army of 10,000 at work. A similar tendency toward large companies is found in other com- mercial organizations, such as wholesaling and banking. Perhaps you are like most young men who survey the commercial field ; they find themselves unable to own one of these immense stores or banks and so plan to enter its service as an employee. And while deciding which par- ticular business to enter, they also think over the equally practical question. Which position do I prefer to hold > EXERCISES 1. Which particular business appeals to you as most attractive ? 2. What advantages are there in engaging in business for yourself .■' What disadvantages? 3. What advantages are there in entering the employ of others? What disadvantages? 4. Will different boys feel the same about the respective merits and drawbacks covered in ,the two preceding questions ? Give reasons for your answer. 5. What is the work of a mercantile agency? 6. Does your town need badly some special store which no one has yet opened? AFTER CHOOSING YOUR PARTICULAR BUSINESS WHICH POSITION SHALL YOU SELECT? Complexity of modern commerce. If you were to stand in one of the great department stores, or visit a gigantic mail-order house, or inspect the central offices of a large insurance company, you would doubtless be so confused by the complexities spread out before your eyes that you would not know until after careful study what position you would choose to fill. Yet each of these big concerns has a carefully planned organization in which each employee is fitted into some definite place and has certain duties to perform. It 82 OCCUPATIONS might aid you, perhaps, in thinking out what position you wanted if you knew something of this general organiza- tion and arrangement. While each concern has a some- what different plan ' developed to meet its needs, there are similarities of organization to be found in all concerns. This general plan which they have adopted may be indi- cated by the chart on the following page. Study this chart carefully. How many main divisions has this organization .? In what three ways are goods sold .? Under what main division of the business does answering letters come .■" How many kinds of accounts are there .'' If a Parisian milliner raises the prices of hats and so writes to the firm, to what department should these new quotations be sent ? Some goods are crushed in transit ; to what main division is this matter referred ? to what particular part of this division } Under which division would you work as a bookkeeper ? a salesman ? a stenographer ? an advertisement writer .' Selling division. It is the people employed in this division who represent the firm to its customers and bring money into the cash box. Most of them sell goods to the customer face to face, as personal salesmen employed in retail stores, as bank tellers, or out on the road selling insurance or representing a wholesale house. In all these positions there are certain things you can do to become a more successful salesman and thus build up a bigger business. I. Knowledge of the goods. In some cases this requires long preliminary training. In department stores boys of fourteen to eighteen desiring to become salesmen begin as stock boys or floor boys at ;^3 to ^4.50 per week and usually become salesmen only after several years of prelimi- nary training. In retail groceries boys begin as helpers, errand boys, and delivery boys, and learn the business in that way. It is needless to say that the young man who studies his goods learns more quickly to know them, and sooner be- comes ready to satisfy this first requirement of a salesman. COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 83 M (4 H H U M Pi Q w n h > « ~ — s c Ul 1^ S H s 84 OCCUPATIONS 2. Knowledge of the customer. The ordinary clerk lays goods before customer after customer in the same perfunctory way. The skilled clerk reads people like a daily paper and deftly adapts himself and his wares to each particular cus- tomer. His manners are good, he has tact, he knows how to hold his temper even before the most spiteful person. He dresses himself neatly, and he arranges his stock in a well- ordered and artistic way which pleases customers. He does not say, "I should like to sell you this coat for $\%" but " You would be pleased with this coat, I believe. It is un- usually good quality for the price." 3. Loyalty to the house. The house has built up a big business and needs to have a big organization. You are not merely Ben Smith, an individual ; you are a member of a concern, associated with hundreds of. other employees. You are called upon to fit yourself into this system and, in order to do so, you should comply willingly with the requests made of you. On the other hand, it is not an ideal salesman who completely effaces himself. You should always look out for the" best interests of the house. When in doubt, when instructions are vague, when the new thing faces you, remember that the house wants results and do your best. 4. The customers interests. The foundation of your company's prosperity is good service to customers. Cheat- ing, rudeness, poor advice, are like sticks of dynamite placed in this foundation. Of the assortment and prices afforded by your house you should see that your customer gets what will suit him best. As your customers move toward the door, think what opinions of courteous treatment and good service they are carrying away. 5. Remuneration of salesmen. Efficient salesmen are worth a great deal to any house. The salary paid the beginner ranges from ^10 to $\2 per week, while that paid the experienced man is from $15 to $20 per week. Payment is often conditional on the sales made, and COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 85 exceptional clerks receive salary increases accordingly. In the case of traveling salesmen this often mounts to highly satisfactory figures. Not a bad way to start as a salesman is to canvass for magazines, books, aluminum ware, soap, maps, or some one of a hundred other useful and attractive articles. Try this for a few days at least. You will prob- ably not make much money, but you will get rich returns in experience. Analyze each case, why you sold or why you failed to sell, and you will be attending the best school of salesmanship it may- ever be your fortune to find. 6. The advertiser. The advertiser does not meet the cus- tomers face to face, but puts the selling talk on paper and tries to catch their eye. The proper place to secure the ad- vertising men, it would seem, is from behind the sales coun- ter. Yet few clerks have the breadth of view required or the ability to set forth on paper a good sales talk. Hence more advertising men have come into the business by way of news- paper work. The helper to the advertising man is paid from ^3 to $6 per week. Those who have some training or who show ability as helpers may draw from $\2 to ^30 per week as an assistant. Assistant managers receive from $2.0 to $1^ per week ; managers, according to their ability, receive from ^40 to ^100 per week. EXERCISES 1. Observe salesmen as they sell to you. How do the most suc- cessful ones meet prospective buyers ? How do they find out what you want ? What plan do they follow when they do not have what you ask for? How do they close the sale? How do they take leave of you? 2. What advantages are there in the salesman's work? What disadvantages ? 3. Talk with an advertising man. Does he give all his time to this work? How did he learn the business? How long has he been in it? What salary does he receive ? 4. Study carefully the advertisements in some high-grade publica- tion, and draw up a hst of qualifications which the advertising man should possess. 86 OCCUPATIONS Buying division, i. Nature of the work. Before mer- chandise can be advertised or sold, the store must decide what it has to offer ; quotations on these articles must be secured, orders must be placed, and the stock cared for and prepared for sale. All these processes are in charge of the buying division. In department stores, for example, the work of this division is further divided into four subdi- visions : namely, the buying organization (the employees being buyers, assistant buyers, heads of stock, and office clerks) ; the receiving room (in which are the receivers, examiners, bill clerks, and porters, whose work is to receive the goods ordered by the buyers) ; the marking room (where goods are priced, the employees being termed markers) ; and the stock room (in which the surplus merchandise is stored until called for at the retail counters). 2. Remuneration and opportunities. Boys entering the lowest positions receive from ^3 to $8 per week. They can work up to assistant positions paying from $15 to $30 per week, and if they show exceptional ability they may receive annual salaries of from $1000 to many thousands. The outlook for well-qualified buyers is good at present. " But little attention up to this time," writes the editor of " Busi- ness Man's Library," " has been paid to the science of buying ; this too, in the face of the fact that there is no department that contributes any more to the success of a business than that concerned with the purchase of material, stock, and supplies. When it is considered that buying re- quires not only keen, shrewd, business judgment but also a vast amount of technical knowledge compactly arranged, it is evident that the systematization of the department of pur- chasing is worthy of careful research, study, and treatment." Large rewards are to be given the young men who are able to do this. COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 87 EXERCISES 1. Visit some leading store. Find out liow the buying is done. 2. Wliy are the problems of buying being studied so intently by commercial concerns? 3. What plan is followed in purchasing supplies for your school ? 4. A dry-goods firm in your town is about to buy a $40,000 winter stock. What problems must be considered ? 5. Think over the various things a buyer must know and do. What are the essential qualifications for a good buyer ? Office division, i . Complexity of the work and qualifica- tions demanded. There is a vast amount of routine connected with any big business. Thousands of letters, hundreds of telegrams and telephone calls, pour in upon the main house. The salesmen and the buyers require some sort of a clearing house for their operations. This mass of detail must be classified, attended to, and recorded, and it must be done with accuracy and dispatch. Such is the work of the office division. Among the employees in this division are office boys, stenographers, typewriters, clerks, paymasters, cashiers, assistant office manager, office manager, and often chief ofl[icials of the firm. There has been a great advance in office practice during the last few years. It is only by improved filing devices, better business-getting correspondence, more complete sys- tematization of routine, that big business can run in an orderly way. And the young man who aims at office work to-day should not merely write the old-time " good hand " and be " quick at figures " ; he should use a typewriter and an adding machine, and be informed on all the new methods of securing efficiency in office practice. Hundreds of boys will sweep out the office carefully, just like any mechanical broom ; hundreds of stenographers will turn out a letter with no more thought than a machine ; but the office boy who is a budding business manager and the 88 OCCUPATIONS stenographer who quickly becomes a private secretary are eagerly sought by alert business men. 2. Remuneration and opportunities. A capable young man may secure a position as office clerk or assistant at a salary of $?, to $\o per week. Or he may commence as stenographer and typewriter at about the same salary, and after several years advance to $2i, or $30 per week. Here let us quote briefly from two men who have met a large success in this field. " There is no calling," says E. V. Murphy, Official Reporter, United States Senate, " which affords such an opening for young men who are just starting out in life as that of stenography. The demand for stenographers is so great in the government departments that it seems impossible to supply it." "If I were fifteen years old again," are the words of Frederic Irland, Official Reporter, United States House of Representatives, "and wanted to be earning ^25,000 a year in some great business by the time I was thirty, I would study to become a good amanuensis and get into the manager's office as a stenographer. There is no quicker, easier way to " burglarize ' success." EXERCISES 1. Visit some large office division. Note the general arrangement. What efficient methods do you see employed ? 2. Talk with some successful business man. Learn how his corre- spondence is sorted for him ; how his telephone calls are arranged ; how his time is kept free from interruption. What other plans does he have for getting much work done easily ? 3. Learn something of each of the following : Weekly reminder pad, letter file, carbon copy, card index, multigraph, form letter, dictaphone, cash register, adding machine, mechanical calculator. 4. What is the test of a good business letter? of its style? of its arrangement on the page ? 5. If assigned to some manager as stenographer and typewriter, how could you become more valuable to him? What advantages over the usual stenographer's work has the position of private secretary? COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 89 Accounting division. Each day there must be a careful listing and checking up of all transactions. Every purchase made passes through a certain routine ; any inaccuracies must be detected and the account recorded so that it may easily be found if needed. Every sales order, whether turned in by the sales people or customers, must have the same careful attention and recording. Accounts with persons are to be kept and financial statements made. All this work falls to the accounting division which may be separate or, as is the case with many firms, merely a branch of the office division. The usual entrance to this division is as bookkeeper. The salary is about ^12 per week at the start and increases to ;^20 or ^25. Capable bookkeepers frequently advance to the better-paid positions of cashier, buyer, or head of the credit or cost departments, etc. The outlook is excellent for well-trained accountants. Credit division. If the firm is large or carries many charge accounts, there is need of someone to investigate the standing of customers who ask for credit, to approve or reject charge sales, to estimate the total credit risks carried, and to collect accounts. This is the work of the credit man, and if the volume of business is large he may have several assistants. The usual start in this department is as collector. Traffic division. Should the firm use railroad and steam- ship service a great deal, a series of problems arises regarding the best routes over which to have goods shipped, what sav- ings can be made in rates over different lines, and what are the relative advantages of freight, express, and parcel post. Such problems are in the province of the traffic manager, who may be an independent officer, or under the direction of the office division. He also takes charge of any damage claims in which the firm may be involved. . There are not at present so many good openings in this division as in the others. 90 OCCUPATIONS EXERCISES 1. Talk with a bookkeeper. Ask him how he learned bookkeeping ; how long he has worked at it; what salary and opportunities he con- siders there are for young men as bookkeepers. 2. What is the difference between a bookkeeper and an accountant.' 3. What is meant by the initials C.P.A. signed after a man's name? Of what importance is this title ? 4. Are there any general practicing accountants in your town? If so, call upon one, and ask him about his profession. 5. Visit some leading store or bank. Who has charge of the credit work ? Does he rank such a position as attractive ? 6. Name some commercial concerns that would require no separate traific man; some in which his work would be of considerable importance. CONDITIONS OF SERVICE IN COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS Variation of the hours. The hours per day in commercial work are much fewer, of course, than in agriculture. Only in small villages are clerks still required to " open up " at 7 A.M. and hold themselves in readiness to serve the last straggler until lo p.m. Grocery clerks as a rule still begin at 7 in the morning and remain until 6 or 6.30 at night, with evening hours Saturday. While conditions vary with the city and the season of the year, dry-goods clerks often work from 8.30 a.m. to 5.30 or 6 p.m. and to 9 or 10 p.m. on Saturdays, with an hour off for lunch. Stenographers, typewriters, and bookkeepers generally work from 8.30 or 9 A.M. to S p.m. Banking hours are the shortest, yet there is much to do both before the opening hour at 9 a.m. and after the closing hour in the afternoon. Condition of healthfulness. As to healthfulness, the con- ditions in commercial occupations are generally good. But in some grocery and drug stores and in the older dry-goods COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 91 stores, the ventilation is often poor, and the lighting is occasionally defective. The work of the stenographer, type- writer, bookkeeper, and retail clerk is at best nerve-trying, and the end of the day is liable to find the body full of fatigue poisons. The employer can do much to better these conditions, and many enterprising firms are doing this. The employee can do something to adjust himself, with mini- mum fatigue, to such conditions by maintaining proper habits of diet, recreation, and sleep. EXERCISES 1. Visit some dry-goods store. What are the working hours of the employees? Are vacations allowed employees? If so, are these vaca- tions with or without pay ? Find out the same facts about banks, drug stores, grocery stores, and confectioneries. 2. In which businesses are there seasonable fluctuations, with much help needed during the holidays and many men laid off during July and August? What might this mean to you personally? 3. In which is the demand for employment relatively steady ? 4. Have you ever worked in a store or been in one where the venti- lation, heating, and lighting were bad? where they were particularly good? HOW YOUNG MEN ENTER THE COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS Varying requirements for entrance. Since commercial work is so diversified in nature, the requirements for en- trance may also be expected to cover a wide range of qualifications. In some positions, as that of grocery boy, meager attainments will secure a place. In others, as that of accountant, a high-grade preparation is necessary. Quota- tions from letters received from the employment managers of two first-rank insurance organizations will be of interest in this connection. 92 OCCUPATIONS STATEMENTS FROM EMPLOYMENT MANAGERS CONCERN- ING ENTRANCE CONDITIONS With rare exceptions we recruit our force of men from boys of six- teen or seventeen years of age. Clerical positions requiring older and more experienced men are filled by promotions. Many of our boys have developed into officers and superintendents; some have graduated into cashierships at our agencies scattered throughout the United States; while others have become very successful solicitors. True these pro- motions are the exceptions, but nevertheless they prove that the opportunity is there. Salaries are on a graded scale, the general plan being to give some increase each year if possible. We pay $25 per month for the first year, automatically increasing this amount annually until $35 per month is reached. The ability of the clerk and the character of the work have much influence on the salary. From boys they graduate into the junior clerkship class at higher compensation. We always have more applications than can be considered. This fact enables us to make selection. Character, intelligence, adaptation, and education have first consideration. Every applicant before acceptance is examined in the fundamental principles of arithmetic and, in writing and spelling. We file all applications rated 75 per cent or better, the highest-rated boys, of course, being given first choice by us when a vacancy occurs. This plan necessarily requires a boy to have at least a thorough grammar-school education, and my experience has proved that the boy who attends high school for three or four years is far in advance of the grammar-school graduate, but the boy who has only attended one year at high school and left at a point where the high-school education was to do him the most good is less qualified than the grammar-school graduate. This may not seem consistent, but it is true from my view- point nevertheless. We provide instruction for selected clerks in advanced arithmetic, elementary and advanced algebra, and in the use of English with especial regard to correspondence. Ambitious clerks soon realize their shortcomings and many avail themselves of the evening classes in the grammar and high schools, and the courses in accounting and book- keeping conducted by the universities near us. It will be seen from the above that no especial training is necessary for our work. We want native ability with the elements of a general education. Upon this foundation we do our own training. COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 93 SUGGESTIONS TO PROSPECTIVE BUSINESS MEN No matter what business you choose or which commer- cial position you enter, there are two practical ways by which you can make the most of yourself. Self -preparation. Unless necessary in your case, is it not a mistake to begin as an office or stock boy at I3 a week and serve two or three years at a salary under $6 per week ? If you can attend high school or a business college, will not your time spent in study be worth much more to you in lay- ing the broader foundation which business men in this age surely need? If possible, go to college and study general economics, sociology, and political science. Take the spe- cial courses in commercial law, accounting, advertising, and business administration — courses which so few colleges offer at present that the supply of trained men cannot soon become too large. Still you may, although well trained, have to begin at the bottom ; but your advancement will be rapid, and in the end you will distance the poorly prepared youth who began years before you did. Let us suppose that upon graduation from college you enter the ranks of commercial stenographers. " What better way is there to learn a business than through stenography.? Trusted with most valuable business secrets, occupying close and confidential relations with managers and executives, opportunities for advancement in the business inevitably present themselves. Knowledge that many men now prom- inent in the commercial and political world, such as Cor- telyou, ex-Senator Mason, and many others, began their careers as stenographers will serve as an inspiration. A knowledge of shorthand will take from the college man that feeling of unpreparedness for the real battles that are to come. It will give him a grip, a hold upon the world of business that will strengthen his resolves and whet the edge of his ambition. He can always, in almost any event, 94 OCCUPATIONS earn a good salary ; and if he applies himself diligently to the study he can with little difficulty become a high-grade stenographer, the kind that business men seek, and, having found, are loath to lose, regardless of salary." Preparation for advancement. Once well qualified and in a good opening position, do not begin to fossilize. No barna- cles are welcomed on the ship of progress. If you are a sales- man, study to become an expert. Observe the other salesmen, look with deeper penetration into human nature, think over selling problems, read books and articles on salesmanship. If you are a bookkeeper and the years seem to find you at the same old desk with no prospects ahead, remember that there is the intricate but interesting and well-paid pro- fession of accountancy. And some books on accounting — of which there are many — will be a morning sun on your dark horizon. There is a man ahead of you who is your chief. Study him and find out his strong points. Consider what quali- fications are necessary for holding such a position and, so far as possible, make them yours. Read some of the many helpful business books. There are to be had first-class books on business management, corporation finance, accounting practice, business efficiency, almost any subject you need to study. Business men have learned that in books many of their hard knots are untied. And by studying the right ones you will learn how to fill successfully the position ahead of you. Some day your superior will have moved on or moved out, and opportunity will face the office force. Are you ready .' Here is a concrete case for illustration : Some young men in New York City decided to study evenings in a school of commerce. Their average salary earned during the day was ^75 per month. The second year it was $93 and the third year it had increased to ^120. The fact that their salaries were increased ^45 a month during the three years COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 95 when, in addition to their regular duties, they carried these commercial courses in the evening, indicates a decidedly promising future for them. Such cases may be found not alone in New York but in the United States as a whole. In our great arena of business there is work to do, much skilled, high-class work, and its rewards will go to the men of industry, ability, and training whose ideals are high. EXERCISES 1. How do you explain the fact that later in life high-school and college graduates overtake and surpass those who " begin at once " ? 2. Interview some successful business man you know. Make out a list of the different steps in his career. 3. Which business positions call for rather bookish study? Which for a study primarily of human nature? 4. What opportunities have you for studying successful business men and methods? READINGS AND REFERENCES Books Allen, F. J. Business Employments. Ginn and Company, Boston. $1.00. Brisco, N. a. Economics of Business. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1913. $1.50. Business Man's Library. Ten volumes. A. W. Shaw Company, Chicago, 1907. Carnegie, Andrew. Empire of Business. Doubleday, Page & Com- pany. Garden City, New York, 1902. $3.00. Cody, Sherwin. How to do Business by Letter. The Ronald Press Co., New York, 191 2. $1.00. Davis, R., and Lingham, Clarence H. Business English and Corre- spondence. Ginn and Company, Boston, 1 914. $1.00. Dawson, Miles M. The Business of Life Insurance. The A. S. Barnes Company, New York, 1906. $1.50. FiSKE, Amos K. The Modern Bank. D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1904. $1.50. 96 OCCUPATIONS Fowler, N. C, Jr. Practical Salesmanship. Little, Brown, and Com- pany, Boston, 1 91 1. $1.00. Handbook for Advertisers. International Textbook Company, Scranton, Pa., 1 910. 50 cents. HiGGENBOTHAM, Harlow N. The Making of a Merchant. Forbes & Company, Chicago, 1906. $1.50. HuFFCUT, Ernest W. Elements of Business Law. Ginn and Com- pany, Boston, 1905. $1.00. Klein, F. J. Elements of Accounting. D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1911. $1.50. Moody, Walter D. Men who Sell Things. A. C. McClurg and Company, Chicago, 191 1. $1.00. Phelps, Arthur, and Carnegie, Andrew. Transaction of Business and how to Win Fortune. Forbes & Company, Chicago. $1.00. Practical Real Estate Methods. Thirty Real Estate Experts. West Side Y. M. C. A. New York, 1909. $2.00. Pratt, Sereno S. Work of Wall Street. D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1912. $1.75. Prendergast, W. a. Credit and its Uses. D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1912. $1.50. Salesmen's Handbook. International Textbook Company, Scranton, Pa. 50 cents. Sheldon, A. F. Art of Selling. Sheldon University Press, Libertyville, 111., 1911. $1.25. Stockwell, Herbert G. Essential Elements of Business Character. Fleming H. Revell Company, New York, 191 1. 60 cents. White, Horace. Money and Banking. Ginn and Company, Boston, 1911. $1.50. Woolley, Edward M. Junior Partner. E. P. Dutton and Company, New York, 1912. $1.25. Pamphlets Accountancy and the Business Professions. Students' Aid Committee, 25 Jefferson Ave., Brooklyn, N.Y. 10 cents. Banking. The Vocation Bureau, Boston, 1911. 25 cents. Department Store, The. The Vocation Bureau. Boston, 191 2. 50 cents. Grocer, The. The Vocation Bureau. Boston, 1 911. 15 cents. COMMERCIAL OCCUPATIONS 97 Periodicals Advertising and Selling. Monthly. Advertising and Selling Company, New York. $2.00 per year. Buildings and Building Management. Monthly. Patterson Publishing Co., Chicago. $2.00 per year. Dry Goods. Monthly. Dry Goods Publishing Company, New York. $2.00 per year. Dry Goods Economist. Weekly. New York. $5.00 per year. Dry Goods Reporter. Weekly. Chicago, jts.oo per year. Grand Rapids Furniture Record. Monthly. Grand Rapids. j!2.oo per year. Hardware Age. Weekly. David Williams Company, New York. $2.00 per year. Magazine of Wall Street. Biweekly. New York. $3.00 per year. Modem Grocer. Weekly. Chicago. $2.00 per year. Office Appliances. Monthly. Chicago. $1.50 per year. Printers'' Ink. Weekly. Printers' Ink Publishing Company, New York. $2.00 per year. System. Monthly. A. W. Shaw Company, Chicago. With premium book $2.00 per year. The Business Educator. Monthly. Zaner and Bloser, Columbus, Ohio. $1.00 per year. The National Banker. Monthly. Chicago. $2.00 per year. The Real Estate Magazine. Monthly. New York. $2.00 per year. Articles Brett, George P. " Book Publishing and its Present Tendencies." Atlantic Monthly, April, 191 3, pp. 454-462. Chesebrough, William. " Real Estate." Careers for the Coming Men (by Whitelaw Reid and Others), pp. 145-156. Davis, H. " Department Stores." Everybodfs Magazine, Vol. XVII, p 312. DouBLEDAY, F. N. " Publishing." Careers for the Coming Men, pp. 219-226. Dryden, J. F. " Life Insurance." Careers for the Coming Men, pp. 157-170. Saalfield Company, Akron, Ohio. Frederick, J. G. " Advertising Man's Place in Selling Organization." Printers'' Ink, October 13, 1910, pp. 20-25. Jones, C. E. " Advertising Manager's Job." Printers'' Ink, Octohex ig, 191 1, pp. 58-62. 98 OCCUPATIONS Smith, Charles F. " Commercial Life." Careers for the Coming Men, pp. 45-52. SwEETLAND, C. A. " Behind the Scenes in a Department Store." Munsey, Vol. XX, p. 528. Thwing, G. F. " Insurance as a Business." Cosmopolitan, Vol. XXXIV, p- ns- Information on Business Books The Ronald Press Company, 20 Vesey Street, New York, publishes a pamphlet listing a carefully prepared " One Hundred of the World's Best Business Books." Sent free on request. CHAPTER VI TRANSPORTATION This may be called the Age of Communication, the circulation both of things, including men, and of ideas. — Lester F. Ward The fact that transportation makes our social order possible, that it is necessary for carrying on business, and that our political well-being depends upon it, causes us to regard the services of a common carrier as of a public nature. — Emory R. Johnson STEAM RAILROADING Without trains our great commercial prosperity could not have been developed. It is only because of the through freight that the Massachusetts boy may have California oranges for breakfast and the Saskatchewan farmer may become rich selling wheat in the Chicago grain market. But railroads do not merely ship freight ; they carry people. The total number of railroad tickets sold in 1912 would, if equally distributed, give eleven railroad trips to every man, woman, and child of our 93,000,000 people. Perhaps you took some of these trips yourself, and appreciate what it means to travel. The carriage at the door, the ticket office, the panting engine, the flying landscape — you dip over the rim of the previously unknown, and return broader minded than before. Beginnings of transportation. Long before James Watt mused over the rattling teakettle lid, even long before Marco Polo dreamed of a rich Chinese trade, primitive people lived such narrow lives that if they traveled one hundred miles they came to a foreign country with a lan- guage so different that they were compelled to use gestures and grimaces instead of words. These primitive people, 99 lOO OCCUPATIONS however, made the rude beginnings of the wonderful trans- portation system we now enjoy. " He who first, laying hold of a floating bough," says Tylor, " found it would bear him up in the water, had made a beginning in navigation. The rudest forms of floats, rafts, and boats may still be seen in A through express train This splendid train runs from New Yoric to Cliicago in eigliteen hours. Passengers can eat well-cooked meals, read the late magazines, and sleep in a comfortable bed while en route use among savages, and even the civilized traveler coming to a stream or lake may be glad to make shift with a log or bundle of bulrushes to help him across, and carry his gun and clothes over dry." ^ Anthropologists describe most interestingly how rafts on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers were supported by blown 1 E. B. Tylor, Anthropology. TRANSPORTATION lOl^ sheepskins, and how Egyptian potters brought their wares down the Nile in rafts buoyed up by their earthen pots. They explain the way men developed the first clumsy rafts into boats, and how the Phoenicians, the Greeks, the Cartha- ginians, the Romans, the Norsemen, added bit by bit to this line of development until their successors to-day cross the Atlantic in approximately four days, in a steamship supplying all the comforts of a modern hotel. They can also picture the remote beginnings of the wheel, the development of the rude cart, the war chariot, and the carriage. It is for the modern historian, however, to tell the story of how the car- riage and the steam engine were combined and a railroad was the result. Development of American railroading. The pioneer American railroad was the Baltimore and Ohio, its first rail being laid July 4, 1828, by Charles Carroll, the only man then living who had signed the Declaration of Inde- pendence. So relatively expensive was railroad building then that considerably more was spent in laying this road to the Ohio River than the entire wealth of Baltimore's citizens. And so ignorant were the promoters of this enterprise as to the nature of the undertaking that ""they had to appoint a committee to go and find out what a railroad was before beginning operations." The early builders of this and other lines were scorned by their conservative neighbors. When Oliver Evans at- tempted to get a patent for ""a steam wagon," the Pennsyl- vania legislators ignored his request "" as the hallucination of a disordered mind." His statement, "the time will come when people will travel in stages moved by steam engines from one city to another, almost as fast as birds can fly, fifteen or twenty, miles an hour," was ridiculed. An Eng- lishman proved to his contemporaries that rapid railroad travel caused a new disease, it being a notorious fact, he declared, " that the brains of business men were so addled I02 OCCUPATIONS by the swiftness of the journey from Manchester to Liver- pool or London that they often forgot what they went for, and had to write home to find out." " Strange as it may seem," said Henry Williams, one of the early railroad direc- tors, in a speech in Worcester at the celebration of the opening of the Boston and Worcester Railroad, July 6, 1835, "these enemies were to be found principally among the rich and powerful — the very class of men who pos- sessed the most ample means, and so might have been .r' www ^^B^^B^^BP^jj^Br ^^^^i^W^iSMM^UiSM . A powerful freight locomotive Its weight is 752,000 pounds, its boiler pressure is 200 pounds to the square inch, its drive wheels are 16 in number, and it can exert a continuous pull on the drawbar of 138,000 pounds expected to be first and foremost in advocating and prose- cuting an important, a notable public enterprise. Very many great men, very many rich men refused all participation, scoffed at our project, pointed at some of us the fingers of scorn and bandied such epithets as ' hare-brained enthusi- asts,' "visionaries," who 'almost deserve to be sent to the madhouse.' " But the railroad was based upon right principles and was bound to succeed. Its early advocates, however, made numerous mistakes and were subjected to many discourage- ments, but each decade witnessed an increased mileage. In 1830 there were 23 miles of track in the United States; in 1840, 2818; in 1870, 52,914; in 1900, 193,346; and TRANSPORTATION 103 to-day the main tracks, second tracks, and sidings total sucli an enormous length that they would send a double band of steel rails around the world fourteen times with several thousand miles of track left over. This exceeds the mileage of all Europe by 10 per cent, and is two fifths of the entire railway mileage of the world. Our railroads have a vast army of 1,669,000 men working for them, and of such em- ployees you may see fit to be one. Different phases of railroad work. When someone says railroading, you may think of an engineer leaning out of his cab window, a brass-buttoned conductor, or a brakeman on the top of some freight train. Yet there are many other kinds of workmen, a fact which indicates a considerable variety of openings. We can, perhaps, present this broad field of railroading most adequately by answering the ques- tion. What services must be performed by the entire organi- zation of a railroad company.? (i) Roads must be built, bridges thrown across streams, stations and section houses constructed. And after these are completed they must be kept in good repair. In addition, a large amount of equip- ment, such as engines and cars, must be bought and also kept in repair. Then these engines and cars must be made into trains, manned, and run over the tracks. These activi- ties constitute the most conspicuous phase of railroading, but they are only one part of it. (2) Business must be secured from shippers and passengers, and charges made. (3) Accounts must be kept with as much care as in a bank or department store, legal matters must be attended to, and the enterprise financed. (4) Supplies must be purchased, real estate bought and sold, insurance taken out, and vari- ous relief policies worked out in connection with the em- ployees. To see that these four general duties are properly performed, the railroad organizers create separate depart- ments. These will now be discussed in turn, and openings for young men pointed out. I04 OCCUPATIONS EXERCISES 1. Which service do you consider of greatest social importance-^ the carrying of freight, people, or messages ? 2. Of what governmental importance are railroads? Why did the Roman conquerors build roads? Why did the United States govern- ment give land bounties to Western railroads ? 3. On what railroad do you live? Who is its president? 4. Who appoints a railroad's president? Who owns a railroad? 5. If any of your friends have gone into railroading, what are their present positions ? 6. Secure if possible from your local railroad company its plan or chart of organization. What titles have the leading officials ? Operating Department This is the most comprehensive department in railroad organization. Different companies vary somewhat in the way they have organized this department, but the following diagram sets forth the general arrangement. Study this chart with care and find answers to such questions as fol- low. Who is the chief official ? What six executives are responsible directly to him ? Over how much of the road has the general superintendent charge ? If an engineer and fireman take charge of their engine at a certain town, they do not run on and on to the end of the line, but stop at the next division point ; one division is their run for the day. Here they rest for several hours and then return, hauling a second train back to their home town. This shows how roads are broken up into " divisions." Who is the chief official of the division ? Over what sub- departments has he charge ? There are three main parts of the operating department, each of which will now be described briefly. Roadway subdepartment. This is under the direct man- agement of the division road master. As a general rule he TRANSPORTATION lOS % ¥ ■§& s^ SK Sf e< a« S" H a 3 If , ^ *^ S- .2Pc 2 J3^ r?, h H c fc n a^ a. ni ■ia 3r^ Cfl WH 5? c e a 1 1 '■B s ^s ^ u'^ J C n r.": — am s u o^ ^" g o |x< ^ / .2 / V s ' ^ pi I s S \ o Q ta p; S p G s 1 ^ o '(3 •3 & *> c .5? U2 to io6 OCCUPATIONS does not take charge of the construction work, this usually being let out by contract and performed by other than rail- road employees. The same is true of the driving of new tunnels, the erecting of large new bridges, and, in some cases, the making of new buildings. Consequently boys in- terested in these forms of construction work should seek a position with some contractor specializing in railroad work. 1. Work of section and repair men. The lowest grade of employees under the road master are the section men or track laborers, each gang of whom has charge of keeping in good condition some six to eight miles of track. The section men's pay averages i^i.so and the section foreman's about $2 per day, but in addition the latter receives free of charge a house to live in, fuel, water, and oil for his lamps. His remuneration is thus quite satisfactory. While the work is hard physically, it is out of doors and healthful. The lower positions are generally filled by uneducated foreigners, but most roads employ also promising young Americans as assistant foremen at .about $i.7S per day in order to train them for the foremanships. Closely related to the work of the section men just mentioned is that of bridge-repair gangs, ballasting gangs, pile-driver gangs, as well as of those working with concrete, upon buildings, or in the water service. These activities offer good opportunities to learn the more desirable construction work. 2. Signal maintainers. The signal department provides work considerably different. For a boy who has an inclina- tion toward electricity this is a good place for practical ex- perience. Signal maintainers average about ^70 to ^75 a month, and the chances for employment are increasingly good since this department of road service is being steadily expanded every year. Machinery subdepartment. This is under the direct charge of the division master mechanic. His department includes three different kinds of work. TRANSPORTATION 107 1. Duties of car men. First, the cars must be inspected and repaired. This is the worlc of car men. When your train stops at division points you hear their hammers tapping on the wheels. After your train leaves they return to the car yards to repair the rolling stock damaged through long use or in wrecks. Their wage is from $2 to ^2.40 per day. 2. Work of roimdkottse men and mechanics. Second, the engines must be housed, inspected, repaired, and otherwise A railroad roundhouse The table on which the engines are turned is shown here in the center of the semi- circle. Each section of the building is termed a " stall," and this roundhouse will house about'twenty locomotives cared for at the end of each run over the division. This work is done by the roundhouse men, who are so called because their activities are in and about a house built for the engines in a semicircular shape around the turntable. Then there are the services of the machinists, blacksmiths, and boiler makers, skilled workmen, whose trades will be con- sidered in a later chapter. The other employees have no special training. They knock the fire out from the grates io8 OCCUPATIONS when the engine comes in, run it into the proper round- house stall, wash out the boiler, wipe the engine until it shines, and fire it up again when another trip is to be made. There are about 225,000 shop men doing such work, and their average pay is 1^2.25 per day. Part of this force is on the night shift and Sunday work is common. 3. Work and advancement of firemen and engineers. Third, the engineers and their firemen take charge of the engines and haul the trains to the next division point. Some of the firemen get their positions after working in the roundhouse as wipers, hostlers, and helpers, but most of them on the larger roads are either experienced men from other roads or inexperienced men who seem to have the proper qualifications to make good firemen. These latter run for several trips without pay as " students " and then are regularly assigned. It should be understood that for many railroad positions, including that of fireman, an applicant must be twenty-one years of age and able to pass a rigid physical examination, with tests for color blindness, proper vision, hearing, etc. Firing is heavy work. With the big engines, the long trains, and speed on some roads, it becomes a back-breaking task to shovel enough coal into the firebox. But the hours for the trip are short compared to the long rest periods be- tween, though at times the run may call for night work. The average wage of firemen is about $}, per day. During the time a man is firing he is studying the loco- motive and air brake, so that when the time for advance- ment comes he can pass the examination on machinery and air braking. After about three years of firing he is usually examined, and if successful is in line for a position as engi- neer. When there is need of a new engineer the fireman oldest in the service gets the place. If business is good many of the older firemen are put in charge of engines ; when traffic falls off they must go back to firing again. TRANSPORTATION 109 Since promotion is on the basis of seniority, the engineers oldest in the service get the best runs, driving the splen- did through passenger trains being the positions of honor. Further promotions may be to positions such as traveling engineer and somewhat infrequently to that of master me- chanic. The average visage of engineers is about $S per day. A switch yard Several switching crews are here making up trains. Such work keeps these men regularly at the same town, for taking trains to the next division point is a duty assigned to trainmen, not switchmen Transportation subdepartment. This is in charge of the train master. He manages the equipment and controls the moving of freight and passengers. This necessitates three kinds of work. I . Wor^ of yardmen. First, the trains must be made up. The yardmaster and his switchman — with the aid of a switch engine, engineer, and fireman sent to them from the mechanical department — rush back and forth upon the various side tracks, signaling, and shunting cars here and no OCCUPATIONS there until at last the train is ready for its trip. The yardmen then go to preparing other trains. 2. Work of trainmen. Second, trainmen — a conductor and his brakemen — take charge of the train made up for them by the yardmen and run it to the next division point. The work of switchmen and brakemen, while it is not heavy like the fireman's task, is extremely hazardous. The average wage is about ^2.90 per day. After several years of service promotion may be secured to yardmaster and conductor, whose daily wages average about ^4.20. 3. Work of telegraphers and tower men. Third, since all the trains must be run in proper order if wrecks are to be avoided, a numerous band of telegraphers arfd tower men are stationed along the line. They receive orders from the train dispatcher, who has his office at the division point and is responsible directly to the train master. The average daily wage of -the telegraphers is about $2.50. Nature of the work ; qualifications demanded. In the machinery and transportation subdepartments — in which young men are likely to be most interested — the demand for labor fluctuates somewhat. In the fall and winter months, when business is heavy, well-qualified men have no difficulty in securing employment ; but during the dull season there is a surplus of men on the extra list who do not have steady work. To secure positions in these departments men are re- quired to pass a mental and a physical examination. These occupations require a quick, active mind that can grasp a situation instantly and use good judgment. All men are re- quired to have a common-school education as a foundation, but the work cannot be learned except by actual experience. That railroad work is dangerous is pretty generally known. " The occupation of switchman is considered the most haz- ardous in the transportation department of railroads in the United States," writes the International President of the TRANSPORTATION 1 1 1 Switchmen's Union. " The average hfe of a switchman is about nine years, when he either is killed or has become in- capacitated from injury. We pay on an average of one claim every twelve months for every fifty-three members for death or permanent total disability." Some insurance companies " King of the telegraphers " This is the chief dispatcher, upon whose orders depend in large measure the avoid- ance of wrecks and the rapid moving of trains from station to station. He is at all times in touch with local telegraphers along the line refuse to take the risk on brakemen, conductors, firemen, and engineers at all, while those that do insure these men charge a very high rate. Other work under the operating department. The above comprises the work which is peculiarly of a railroad nature. The other branches of railroad work are not greatly differ- ent from those of commercial business in general. There are also in the operating department, it may be added, a 112 OCCUPATIONS number of clerical positions, such as timekeeper for the vari- ous gangs, clerk in the roundhouse foreman's office or with the master mechanic, train master, or division superintend- ent. These positions need not be discussed here, as clerkships will be considered in connection with a later department. Unionization of the operating department. The operating department is thoroughly unionized. Wages" are not set by individuals making terms with the company, but by collec- tive bargaining. Representatives from the union and the various railroad companies meet and arrange the wage schedule, hours of work, etc. So important is the transpor- tation service that a widespread strike would be a serious calamity. Hence the government often takes a hand in set- tling disputes. The operating employees have pressed their claims so well that at the present time few workmen are better paid for their services. This is a point worth consid- ering by the young man who thinks of railroading and has a mechanical bent of mind. EXERCISES 1. Ask your local section foreman how the track is kept in good condition. 2. Have you a roundhouse in your town.? a car-repair yard? a switch engine and crew.' a tower man? If so, find out what you can about their work. 3. If you are acquainted with an engineer, learn what you can of his life-career. 4. If you are acquainted with a conductor, learn what you can of his career. 5. Call upon some telegraph operator. Does he do railroad or com- mercial work? How did he learn telegraphy? How long has he been in this business? TRANSPORTATION 113 TRAFFIC DEPARTMENT Traffic Manager Passenger Traffic Mgr. Freight Traffic Mgr. Gen. Passenger Agt. Asst. Passenger Agts. Gen. Baggage Agt. Local Baggage Agt. Dist. Passenger Agts. ■■ Gen. Freight Agt. Asst. Freight Agts. Freight Claims Agt. Traffic Department A railroad has service to sell. It is upon the persons and commodities transported that its money is made. Need- less to say, the traffic department, under whose charge this business is con- ducted, is a very important part of the railroad organ- ization. The chief official, often a vice president of the company, is termed the traffic manager. The va- rious subdivisions of the traffic de- partment are here shown by the dia- gram. What two officials are directly responsible to the traffic manager ? The work of each will be discussed in turn, and in con- clusion three other activities of the traffic department will be pointed out. Passenger subdepartment. i. Duties of station agent. The official of the passenger department with whom you are probably most familiar is the local ticket seller. In small towns he is always found at the station, and in ad- dition to his duties as ticket agent he often has charge ■- Dist. Freight Agts. Trav. Freight Agts. Local Ticket Agts. Local Freight Agts. Organization of traffic department The railroad company has transportation services to sell, and this is the organization which deals with shippers and passengers 114 OCCUPATIONS of the freight, express, baggage, and telegraphing as well. But in the larger towns the station agent has several assist- ants, the man who sells tickets perhaps being a clerk. He may also have his office uptown and carry on his business much like a retail merchant. The average wage of these 38,000 station agents, in small and large towns, is about $2.20 per day. Their assistants, a band about four times as numerous, receive approximately ^1.90 per day. 2. Advancement. Promotion for the local-station agent may be in assignment to a better station or, in fewer in- stances, to a district passenger agency. The district pas- senger agent advertises summer resorts and outings over his road, arranges the trips and facilities for conventions and other special meetings, and keeps his superior, the gen- eral passenger agent, informed of the traffic conditions in his district and advised of plans for increasing the volume of business done. To secure all this information, however, often requires much traveling. Traffic must at times be personally so- licited. Hence, attached to the office of the district pas- senger agent and likewise to the local passenger agents are a corps of traveling passenger agents or solicitors. These men do business in much the same way as any traveling salesmen. Freight subdepartment. Considerably more important to the company than the transporting of passengers is the hauling of freight. For every passenger riding on the roads in 191 2 almost two tons of freight were shipped seven times as far. You may' have small consideration for the freighter which humbly sidetracks to let your passenger train go by, yet these red box cars yield a revenue three times as great as the luxurious coaches, the difference in 191 2 being ;^ 1,29 5, 000,000. The positions in this depart- ment, as you will notice on the diagram, are similar to those in the passenger department. But on account of this TRANSPORTATION 1 1 5 enormous volume of business there are excellent opportu- nities for men versed in the various kinds of rates, the methods of rate making, the forms used in traffic handling, the methods of traffic development, traffic association, pools, and other forms of railroad cooperation. A young man thoroughly trained in these subjects as they apply to rail- roading is also well prepared to manage the traffic depart- ment of commercial and manufacturing concerns. Advertising. There are a few positions to be had in the advertising departments of railroads. Here of course is re- quired a knowledge of the principles underlying advertising as well as its practical application. But one must also know the commodity to be sold, a knowledge which in this case requires practical experience in railroad work. Hence it is a specialized vocation with attractive openings for the few who are qualified. Mail service. This work, although under the supervision of the general passenger agent, is carried on under condi- tions determined by the United States government. The work of the government clerks which most nearly ap- proaches railroading — that is, the work of the mail clerks — will be mentioned in connection with the civil service. Express service. The express business is also not pri- marily railroad work, but is carried on under contract with various express companies. In the smaller towns the local- station agent has charge of the express business, for which he receives a commission in addition to his regular salary from the railroad. But in the larger towns and cities this service is carried on as a separate business with a manager, assistants, and delivery men. The competition of the United States parcel post has somewhat lessened the op- portunities for young men entering the express service. 1 16 OCCUPATIONS EXERCISES 1. Does it cost more or less to ship a five-hundred-pound stove than a five-hundred-pound buggy ? Explain. 2. How much per mile is railroad fare in your state? Who decides this rate ? 3. What have the passenger and freight solicitors to sell ? Are they allowed to make special prices on their commodities to individuals ? 4. Name the leading express companies. What can you tell of the way their business is carried on in your town.? Financial and Accounting Department The business secured by the traffic department and handled by the operating department must be systemati- cally managed. This gives rise to a variety of work which is intrusted to the department of accounting and finance. Notice in the diagram on the following page how many divisions this department has. Auditing division. The ordinary business man counts his money when he receives it. But this simple task becomes an elaborate process when instead of the business man we have a railroad company. All tickets sent to the various selling offices are carefully recorded, the local ticket agent's report of sales is checked up with the original, list, with the used tickets turned in by conductors at the close of each trip, and with the unsold tickets yet on hand. The freight waybills and the express and mail receipts are simi- larly checked over. In this way careful record is made of all money received. The ordinary business man would also count his money as iie paid it out. Just as ticket and waybill are the basis upon which receipts are computed, so the voucher is the basis upon which the disbursements are made. No money is paid for materials or wages unless authorized by means of this voucher, which bears the signature of some responsible official. TRANSPORTATION 117 FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING Vice-President Legal General Counsel General Solicitor Asst. Genei-al Solicitor Chief Claim Agent District Solicitor Financial Treasurer — ' Auditing Comptroller Auditor Freight Receipts Auditor Passenger Receipts L Chief Traffic Audit^i; > Traveling Auditors The head of the auditing division is called the comp- troller. This officer has three leading subordinates : the auditor of passenger receipts, the auditor of freight receipts, and the auditor of disbursements. Under them are a number of travel- ing auditors whose duty it is to check over the books of the local agents along the line. But to do the detailed work at the cen- tral offices a corps of clerks is needed, while to handle these vast sums, and from them prepare intelligent statements for the chief officials of the road and for the various reports published by the state and national governments, re- quires numerous trained account- ants and statisti- cians. Financial divi- sion. Although a record of receipts and expenditures is kept by the auditing division, the money itself is in charge of the financial division. Secretary's Dept. Cashier Asst. Secretary Chief Paymaster Assistants to Secretary Paymasters Transfer Clerks Asst. Transfer Clerks Financial and accounting department The work done in these departments of a railroad does not differ a great deal from the financial and accounting work of commercial concerns in general ri8 OCCUPATIONS This is really the banking part of railroad management whose head is the treasurer. His subordinates are termed cashiers, and under them are the officials that the railroad men know best, the paymasters. Legal division. There are many contracts requiring legal skill ; and railroads, like other great business enterprises A railroad headquarters In addition to its use as a passenger station, this magnificent building houses the financial, traffic, and auditing departments find certain legal controversies unavoidable. From the dia- gram find out who is head of this division. What are his subordinates called ? Secretarial division. A mass of correspondence is carried on between the railroad company and outside organizations and individuals, and also within the company itself. In addi- tion to the correspondence there are also many records to file and preserve. This work is in charge of a secretary, who is assisted by a great many clerks, stenographers, and typewriters. Altogether there are very nearly 80,000 clerks employed in railroad work, principally in the two departments last dis- cussed, whose average salary is about ^^2.50 per day. TRANSPORTATION 1 19 Auxiliary Subdepartments There are yet other enterprises in which a raihoad en- gages and which consequently must receive attention some- where in its organization. But since these are common to many other kinds of business, we shall here merely touch upon the most important of them. Purchasing subdepartment. Railroads are learning the ■worth of expert buying. Each department formerly pur- chased its own supplies, but this plan has now been largely superseded by the more economical one of employing a purchasing agent. He has several assistants, the number depending upon the volume of business, and under them he has also the storekeeper. Unlike most merchants the rail- road storekeepers do not sell anything, but distribute supplies upon presentation of the proper requisitions. Subdepartments in charge of insurance, real estate, and pensions. All companies own some real estate and there is much buying and selling of property, especially with the Western companies, which received large land grants. Two other lines of activity sometimes in charge of separate divisions are insurance and pensions. Naturally, however, the transactions in real estate and the insuring and pension- ing of individuals are not general but are strictly limited, the former to railroad property and the latter to railroad employees. EXERCISES 1. Like what corresponding branch of commercial business is each of the above divisions of railroad work ? 2. If you are personally acquainted with anyone employed in any of these divisions of railroading, what can you tell of his position ? I20 OCCUPATIONS How TO ENTER StEAM RaILROABING It is evident that railroading is a broad field and hence offers a wide range of positions. Directing a shovel gang, running a locomotive, checking up waybills, defending a damage suit, all have a place in railroad work. It is very likely that a young man inclined toward railroad service can find in it some position both congenial and worth while. Railroads, moreover, are highly organized. The nature of their business requires a somewhat complex organization with men held closely responsible. And the way to learn how to fill an important position, the railroad companies believe, is to fill a minor one of the same or similar kind. This means that the system of promotion characterizes rail- roads — that men "work up," and that emphasis is laid upon seniority. It means, too, looking at the matter from an individual standpoint that whatever the qualifications of a young man he will probably have to begin in what may appear to him a very humble position. The way of actual experience. Accordingly, the primary way of becoming fitted for railroad work is through actual experience. But this way is long and it has caused many a bright young man to become a mere cog in the machine. As a railroad expert writes to us, "I have said very little about these openings, as I should hate to advise any young man to bury himself in the accounting department of a rail- road. Of course there is opportunity there the same as anywhere else ; in fact, there is big opportunity for the right kind of man. But it is mighty mechanical, and unless a boy has all kinds of grit and perseverance he is likely to become an old man and still find himself a clerk." The apprenticeship system. The second method of se- curing training is through the apprenticeship system. The young man agrees to work for a certain number of years for less wages than he might otherwise earn, and the TRANSPORTATION 121 employer in return provides liim special opportunities to learn the trade. Apprenticeship on railroads at the present time is generally limited to the mechanical department, be- cause this work is specialized and lends itself best to such a method of learning. Courses of instruction. The third method is the school, a place where definite instruction is given. Sometimes^is instruction is offered by correspondence, the school hav- ing no particular, connection with the railroad company. At other times the work is done in residence schools, in the various Young Men's Christian Associations, and in certain high schools, as at Fitchburg (Massachusetts) and Altoona (Pennsylvania). Educational advantages offered by railroad companies. The railroad companies themselves are developing educa- tional work. The Union Pacific Railroad Company, for instance, has an " educational bureau " whose objects are as follows : First Object. Assisting employees to assume greater responsibilities. The bureau will offer any employee desiring to qualify himself to assume greater responsibilities a course of reading and study along the line which he may indicate. Second Object. Increasing the knowledge and efficiency of em- ployees. It is the purpose of this bureau to provide a means whereby any employee desiring information on any particular question or problem met with from day to day can send this question to the bureau for an answer. No limit is set on the number of questions that may be asked, and an employee may ask for information every day, if he so desires. Third Object. Preparing prospective employees for the service. It is the purpose of this bureau to assist in supplying men of good reputa- tion and character for vacancies and, where possible, to train these men as far as practicable in the duties of their prospective work before their employment. Improved conditions in railroad employ. From what has been said . it becomes evident that entering the railroad employ and succeeding in it as a life-career is a problem 122 OCCUPATIONS now being vigorously attacked from several quarters. Be- cause of the resulting advantages railroad service will gradu- ally become more attractive to young men of training and perseverance. As is pointed out by a former official of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, " The time will come when railroad employ for every man in the service will not mean drudgery, nor sinecure, nor ac- cidental opportunity, but an enlightened, stimulating, highly efficient service of the highest earning power, least uncer- tainty from accidental causes, largest free- dom for individual initiative, entire self- respect, and thor- oughly democratic spirit." Qualifications. As to the qualities which will bring success in railroad work, per- haps it may be well to consider what President Howard Elliott of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company said recently : " The only rule to success that I know of is hard work, honesty, sincerity, good character, and good habits. These are platitudes, but they are the principles of success. Whatever you do, do as well as you can, and do a little more than is expected of you if possible." Conductor giving engineer the " high-ball " This conductor came up from the ranks and, as the number of braids on his left sleeve indicates, has been in the service over a quarter of a century. The high standard required in railroad work is shown by the fact that this train, making a daily looo-mile run, was on time 355 times out of a possible 365 TRANSPORTATION 123 EXERCISES 1. Which phase of transportation appeals to you most favorably? Explain why this is so. 2. Tell how you can enter this department. 3. What future do you believe this particular position offers you? How might you secure promotion in this work? ELECTRIC RAILROADING Growth and importance of electric railways. You may be surprised to learn that electric railways carry almost ten times as many passengers as do steam railways. The amount received from each passenger is only a few cents, of course, yet electric railways earn in this way almost two thirds the income received from passenger trafific on steam cars. While the growth of cities is accompanied by a steady increase in the number of surface, elevated, and subway lines, one of the interesting developments of rural life is the building of inter- urban railways. In five and a half years, ending with 1907, the total mileage increase of electric railways was 53 per cent. But the increase of interurban lines was more rapid than that of city lines. Hence the young man who thinks of railroading as a career should by no means neglect con- sidering interurban lines as well as city car systems. Positions available. The various departments and positions shown in the diagrams of the steam railroad on pages 105, 113, 117, are, with certain modifications, to be found in elec- tric railroads. The average electric line has fewer employees and far less mileage than the average railroad, so its organiza- tion does not require the services of so many specialists. But one particular specialist it needs even more than the steam railroad needs a specialist, and this man is the elec- trician. His profession is treated in a later chapter, but at this point it is well to emphasize that the electric transpor- tation companies have much to offer him. 124 OCCUPATIONS Pay and promotion of conductors and motormen. Traffic is seasonal, being as a usual thing much heavier in the summer. To prepare for this increased business new men are employed during the spring. When first employed, a man serves on the extra list until vacancies above him, caused either by resignations or increased traffic, leave him a regular run. With the slackening of traffic in the autumn, the new or less desirable men are weeded out. The following rates of pay for conductors and motormen were in force July 4, 191 3, on the New York City surface lines : RATES OF PAY First year Second year Third year Fourth year Fifth year Sixth year After ten years 24 cents 24 cents 25 cents 26 cents 26 cents 27 cents 28 cents per hour per hour per hour per hour per hour per hour per hour By strict observance of operating rules and regulations, employees may earn the rate of the next higher grade one year earlier than the time specified in the preceding table. EXERCISES 1. What opportunities for electric railway service does your com- munity afford? 3. What are some of the advantages of the motorman's position? the disadvantages ? What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of the conductor's work ? TRANSPORTATION 125 INLAND AND OCEAN NAVIGATION You may live near the Great Lakes, on some navigable river, or in some great seaport. How does water navigation appeal to you ? What opportunities are there in it for a life- career ? Upon the inland waterways of the United States in 1906 the total traffic amounted to over 100,000,000 tons. Most of this was upon the Great Lakes and the St. Law- rence, but the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Hudson also have a notable volume of traffic. In addition, our im^ mense foreign trade means important ocean traffic ; a greater part of this, however, is under control of foreign shipping companies. The general organization and operation of inland and ocean navigation is so similar to land transportation that it need not here be further presented. readings ahd references / Books Carter, Charles F. When Railroads were New. Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1909. $2.00. Oewsnup, E. R., editor. Railway Organization and Working. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1906. $2.00. Eaton, J. S. Education for Efficiency in Railroad Service. United States Department of Education, Washington. Bulletin No. ^20. Free. Electric Railway Transportation. Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, Philadelphia, 191 1. jjSi.oo. Johnson, Emory R. Ocean and Inland Transportation. D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1905. $1.50. McPherson, Logan G. Working of the Railroads. Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1907. I1.50. Ripley, W. Z. Railway Problems (Revised Edition). Ginn and Com- pany, Boston. $2.50. Spearman, Frank H. Strategy of Great Railroads. Charles Scrib- ner's Sons, New York, 1908. $1.50. 126 OCCUPATIONS Periodicals Electric Traction. Monthly. Kenfield-Davis Publishing Company, Chicago. $ 1 .00 per year. Railway Electrical Engineer. Monthly. Wray Publishing Company, Chicago, jfl.oo per year. Railway Journal. Monthly. Chicago. jSi.oo per year. Telegraph and Telephone Age. Semimonthly. J. B. Taltanall, New York. {(52.00. Unions .^Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers. Reports. Cleveland, Ohio. Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen. Reports. Peoria, 111. Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen. Reports. Cleveland, Ohio. Order of Railway Conductors. Reports. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. CHAPTER VII CIVIL SERVICE To the victors belong the spoils. — William L. Marcy, in the United States Senate, 1832 A democratic republic such as ours represents the most gigantic of all possible social experiments, the one fraught with greatest possibilities alike for good and for evil. — Theodore Roosevelt at the Sorbonne, 1910 Andrew Jackson swept out of office the men who had served Adams, and filled their positions with political adherents. Term after term that pleasant-sounding but elusive phrase " rotation in office," joined with the foolish belief that all men are equally competent to fill any govern- ment position, seduced the American public. Meanwhile machine bosses chuckled and the heads of competent pub- lic servants, though poor politicians, regularly fell into the spoils basket. And the public paid the bill in the reduced efficiency of service. Popular demand for civil service. But it has gradually dawned upon people that after all the government is pretty much like a big business corporation. So much revenue is raised, so much service is rendered. When, as in the year 191 3, Congress appropriates 1^617,3 8 2, 178 for one year's governmental expense, the American voter begins to consider seriously just how this money is spent. And the American people, whether acting in their federal, state, or municipal capacity, are becoming actively opposed to having a crooked politician present his friends with fat jobs — a7id then send the bill to the public. This awakening means the growth in importance of civil service. 127 128 OCCUPATIONS Growth of civil service. The civil-service law was passed in January, 1883, its general object being "to regulate and improve the Civil Service of the United States." Its means for accomplishing this were three in number : First, compe- tent employees for the government were to be secured by ex- amination and appointment ; second, removals could not be made for political reasons ; third, advancement, like appoint- ment and continuance in office, was removed from political domination by being made dependent on fitness alone. Such a plan for securing government employees was considered revolutionary, and was for many years looked upon with suspicion. But as the system has continued to work successfully, it has grown steadily in favor. In June, 19 1 2, there were 395,000 persons employed in the United States civil service; and of these, 236,000 held positions subject to competitive examination. Number of federal positions. The following table lists a few only of the many positions open to young people who are prepared. It also indicates the number of persons ex- amined, passed, and appointed, and their salaries, for the year ending June 30, 19 12.1 Examination Exam- ined Passed Appointed Salaries at which appointed Minimum Maximum Clerk (departmental) . Draftsman Forest assistant .... Railway mail clerk . . Scientific assistant . . . Stenographer Stenographer and type- writer Subclerical Typewriter Veterinarian 1806 377 159 11,266 351 879 1525 1323 1170 392 510 92 91 3034 152 514 1099 744 i8s 37 20 59 770 19 33 417 463 307 109 $660 900 1200 900 600 700 480 300 480 1200 $1000 1500 1200 900 1620 1080 1200 720 1200 1400 ^ From Section 278, " Manual of Examinations," 1913. CIVIL SERVICE 129 State positions. Though the federal government is usually thought of when civil service is mentioned, the state governments are also offering more and more oppor- tunities under conditions similar to those of the United States. In New York State, for example, there are over 17,000 positions under the civil service. Among these may be mentioned the positions of accountant, bookkeeper, court attendant, clerk, copyist, engineer, examiner, fireman, game protector, prison guard, inspector, stenographer, store- keeper, and superintendent. The state of Illinois in 191 1 examined 2896 applicants, of whom 2262 passed and 1474 were appointed. Illinois also has a long list of positions from vAich to choose. Municipal positions. A similar movement for civil- service reform is found in cities. As an illustration of what, opportunities municipalities have to offer, the New York Municipal Civil Service Commission conducts examinations for positions in laboratories, hospitals, and asylums, clerical service, engineering, inspection, legal work, attendance ser- vice, police, prison, and fire departments, medicine, street cleaning, and ferry service. Desirability of the different positions. If you do not know whether or not the civil service offers a position which suits you, or which of several positions is the most desirable, write to the United States Civil Service Com- mission at Washington for their "Manual of Examinations," to your state Civil Service Commission at the Capitol for their ".Manual of Examinations," and to the Civil Service Commission in your city for a copy of their manual. Look these through carefully, and you will discover in detail the scope of civil-service work. Indeed, it would seem that among so many different positions open, it should not be difficult to select one worthy of your serious consideration. ISO OCCUPATIONS EXERCISES 1. What objections do you see to the " spoils system " ? 2. Has your state a civil-service commission? What positions do they have to fill? 3. Has your city a civil-service commission ? If not, ask some police- man, fireman, or clerk how city positions are secured. 4. How can you find out whether a position which interests you is open for application in the civil service? Securing a position. If you look through the manuals and select a position which you would like very much, the question arises, How can I secure it ? There is no need to look around for some powerful politicians to help you. In this case they are powerless. The proper way to go about securing a position may be illustrated by taking a concrete case, as follows : 1. Application. You are a stenographer and typewriter, let us say, and you wish to enter the federal service. You note in the Manual that applicants for a position similar to your present one are to be examined in a neighboring city on a certain date. Possibly you may have gained this informa- tion from a printed notice in the post office, since notices of vacancies and examinations in the civil service are always posted in public buildings. At any rate, you write to the Civil Service Commission at Washington, requesting an applica- tion blank. When this blank is received, fill it out with care, since it must be complete and just right, or you may be so delayed in correcting it that you will be oyiged to wait for a later examination. A card will then be sent you granting permission to take the examination at the place and date specified. 2. Preparation. Meanwhile you should be busily pre- paring to pass this examination successfully. You turn to Stenographers and Typewriters Examination in the index of the " Manual of Examinations " and, by consulting the CIVIL SERVICE 131 pages referred to, you note that the first subject required of applicants is stenography dictation. You find there a dis- cussion of what this examination is like and a dictation similar to that which later you will be called upon to take. You note that the second requirement is correctness in copying and spacing ; the third, making a good copy from a rough draft ; the fourth, making a good copy from a plain copy ; the fifth, the time you take in doing this type- writing; the sixth, showing proficiency in other subjects. In turning to the section to which reference is made, you see that you will be examined also in spelling, arithmetic, penmanship, geography, and the civil government of the United States. In making preparation for this examination you may be aided somewhat by knowing how the papers are marked. In the Manual you will find sections which explain how this is done. With these points of information as a guide, make your preparation. And on the date set for the examination appear in good physical condition and do your best. Chances for appointment, i. A high examination mark. If your papers when graded average less than 70 per cent, your application is rejected and reexamination is your only hope. But securing a grade of 70 per cent or over places you on what is known as the eligible list, and when a vacancy for a stenographer and typewriter occurs, the three names highest on this list are submitted to the appointing officer. He selects the person in his estimation best fitted, and the other two names are returned to the register to await the next appointment. The main thing, therefore, is a high examination mark. 2. The number of applicants from your state. There are additional factors which may increase your chance of ap- pointment. One is whether or not there are many from your own state seeking positions. Each state has a certain share of appointments apportioned to it. Persons from 132 OCCUPATIONS extreme Southern or Western states have better chances, for often these states — being so far from Washington that young people do not seek work at that distance — do not furnish enough eligibles to secure their share of appoint- ments. On the other hand, if you hve in Maryland or Delaware and want a position in Washington your chances are not so good. 3. Willingness to work in distant sections. Another fac- tor affecting your chance of appointment is whether you are willing to work in distant sections. A stenographer and typewriter who would accept an appointment in Washing- ton, on the Isthmus of Panama, or in the Philippines would be more likely to be placed than one who would go only to Washington. 4. Qualifying also for state and municipal positions. Another thing you can do, in case you desire an appoint- ment at the very earliest possible time, is to take similar examinations for state and municipal civil service. Then whichever position was first tendered could be accepted. Still another plan is to qualify for more than one position. If you pass the stenography and typewriting examination, you thus become eligible for an appointment as stenographer or as typewriter. Or you can take a second examination for field service, and thus widen your chances of appointment. 5 . Qualifying for more than one kind of position. All these plans apply even if you have only one type of qualifi- cations, such as those required for stenography and type- writing. But perhaps you are equally well prepared for two different positions. Or you may be undecided as to which position to select for preparation in the examinations. In this case the results shown by the commissioners in their manual will be helpful in pointing out in which position pros- pects are best. Suppose, for instance, you live in •Illinois and are interested equally in entering the Indian service as teacher or the departmental service as clerk. The manual CIVIL SERVICE 133 for 191 3 shows that 84 took the examination for teacher, 57 passed, and 29 were appointed, while the numbers for departmental clerk were 1806 taking the examination, 510 passed, and 37 appointed, so that this position is much less encouraging in its prospects of appointment. Distribution of national civil-service positions. The following table, which refers to male employees only, will indicate the various departments of civil-service work, the percentage employed in each, and the place of employment.^ Per Cent of Distribution Location of Position Character of Work District of Columbia Elsewhere Executive Frofessional, technical, scientific . . Clerical 1.2 5-S 67.2 4.9 18.0 3-2 Per Cent 354 22.8 6.1 33-9 16.5 1.8 10.5 Per Cent 64.6 77.2 93-9 66.1 Subclerical and manual labor . . . Miscellaneous 83-5 98.2 89.5 In which division are most positions to be had } If you did not specify the location, would you be likely to be em- ployed in Washington, or elsewhere ">. What per cent of the professional, technical, and scientific employees are stationed outside of Washington } What per cent do they fojm of the total number of employees ">. What per cent of the entire civil-service force is stationed in Washington .? The foregoing explanations indicate that there is consid- erable red tape in connection with securing a civil-service position, . and that it requires some little skill to plan the whole matter and, especially, to get the high examina- tion mark. For this reason you will find it well to study with care the " Manual of Examinations " and to read 1 Compiled from Tables 11 and 12, Census Bulletin g4, 1907, pp. 22-23. 134 OCCUPATIONS as many as possible of the references listed at the end of this chapter. If your preparation has been poor or was made some time ago, it may be advisable to attend for a short time some civil-service school or take courses from some correspondence school. These schools have no con- nection whatever with any civil-service commission, ■ — be suspicious of one that makes such claims, — but they follow closely the past examinations and appointments and can do much to prepare you well. The safest plan in selecting a good school is to find out from some person who has already profited by its coaching, or to write to several of these schools, and decide upon the one which is able to furnish the most solid proof of its reliability. Do not waste time and effort on a poor one, no matter how inexpensive its instruction may be. EXERCISES 1. Which of the civil-service positions listed interests you most? 2. In what subjects does it require an examination? 3. In what specific ways can you prepare for this examination ? 4. How many took the examination last year? How many passed? What number were appointed ? WHAT CIVIL-SERVICE WORK IS LIKE Once having secured a federal position, you begin work for '" Uncle Sam," who you will find aims to be a good em- ployer. He does not always succeed in this, of course, else everybody would be seeking civil-service positions. So, let us consider a few of the pros and cons of government work. Stability of employment. Government work goes on summer and winter ; there are no shutdowns for repairs, no holiday rushes. Only in a few special cases, as the de- cennial census taking, are fluctuations to be found. Nor are the civil-service employees discharged without cause at CIVIL SERVICE 135 the whim of some foreman or factory owner. Hence we conclude that this work is regular. Hours of work and absences. The day's work is rela- tively short, too, seven hours only being required. Employees may be called upon to perform extra services in times of special need, though this is seldom required of them. Thirty days' leave of absence per year with pay is usually granted. This vacation time may be taken a day or two at a time or consecutively, and in case of sickness leave with pay may be extended thirty days more. These three things make the hours of work and the absences very favorable indeed. Salary. By comparing the list of salaries given in the Manual with those offered by commercial concerns, it will be seen that government work clearly has the advantage. Clerks entering on salaries of from ^660 to ^1000 are better paid than similarly qualified clerks in dry-goods stores or banks. The minor executive positions, to take an- other example, such as chief clerk, office manager, inspector, etc., bring salaries from ^1800 to ^3000, several hundred more than may be expected in wholesale houses or factories. Advancement. Government work is on a carefully graded advancement basis, and higher positions are usually filled from the ranks by promotion. But here we find no big prizes to tantalize men, none such as fall to the preemi- nently successful lawyer, merchant, or manufacturer. Gov- ernment employees are beset by an abundance of red tape, which not only is wound around packages but also ties up • men's minds. Many clerks settle down to routine work and soon seem unable to resist the pull of the dead level. Hence government work is liable to be far behind the times, and the man who has been long in it runs the risk of becoming unfit for anything else and is often unable to hold his own in the swiftly moving commercial currents. Civil-servic6 positions as stepping stones. To truly ambi- tious young men, however, there is no need of fossilizing 136 OCCUPATIONS in Washington ; it is a splendid place to prepare for a pro- fession. The short working day permits these young men to spend many spare hoiirs in studying law, medicine, finance, politics, engineering, chemistry, etc., preparing themselves for a professional or business career. " The educational ad- vantages that Washington offers," says the Forum, "are not to be left out in a consideration of the opportunities in the civil service. Positions are often sought and obtained for the express purpose of securing means of earning a livelihood while prosecuting professional or scientific studies at the Capitol. The law and medical departments of Columbia, Georgetown, National, and Howard Universities have had their courses and hours of instruction especially arranged so as to accommodate students employed during the day in the executive departments. The Corcoran Scientific School of Columbia University, which offers courses to graduate as well as to undergraduate students, was started in order to supply the same demand. Several hundred young men and women graduate annually from these schools. Former de- partment clerks who are successfully practicing the legal and medical profession in every state and territory testify to the educational opportunities to those engaged in the civil service." An example of such advancement is seen in the career of George B. Cortelyou, who was once a stenographer in the Post Office Department on the usual beginner's salary. He was steadily promoted, finally became secretary to Presi- dent Roosevelt at $5000 a year, later served as Secretary of Commerce and Labor at ^8000 a year, and after filling successfully two other cabinet positions accepted the presi- dency of the Consolidated Gas Company in New York. Young men of initiative, however, do not need to leave the civil service to seek a career elsewhere. Government activity in this era of the new nationalism and the efficiency movement is widening its scope and improving its methods CIVIL SERVICE 137 of work. In several lines there are good opportunities, among which we shall treat briefly the following. Experts in administrative methods. The work done by the production expert, or the efficiency engineer, needs to be done in government circles as well. President Taft insti- tuted many reforms by means of his Economy and Efficiency Commission. If standards set by this commission are fol- lowed up as they should be, clerks who study better methods of getting results will be welcomed and promoted. Employees in business, railroading, and finance. The last few years have witnessed a great deal of activity in trust regulation, railroad and financial investigation. Men trained in business methods, corporation accounting, banking, and stocks are finding good openings. And they will continue to find such openings, for this work is steadily increasing. Engineering and technical positions. As an illustration of positions which the Civil Service Commission at times has at its disposal, we may note this announcement in the Railway fowKftal * POSITIONS FOR MECHANICAL MEN Editor Railway Journal: The Commission incloses herewith copies of announcements of exami- nations to be held for filling positions in the Interstate Commerce Commis- sion under the act providing for the valuation of the property of carriers. The examinations to be held are as follows : ^ Necessary expenses when absent from headquarters in the discharge of official duties will be allowed. It will be noted that positions for which the salaries are $1800 or more do not require the applicants to assemble at any place for examination. JOHN A. McILHENNY Acting president, United States Civil Service Commission Washington, D.C., June 12, [1913]. There are also positions for engineers in the geologi- cal survey and the coast and geodetic survey, as well as work for mechanical men other' than the valuation of the 1 See table on next page. 138 OCCUPATIONS Examination Salary Senior structural draftsman .... Senior mechanical engineer . . Senior railway signal engineer .... ... Senior electrical engineer ... . . Senior inspector of car equipment . Senior civil engineer . . . . Senior inspector of motive power Senior architect . . . . . .... Architect . . . .... Inspector of motive power ... ... Civil engineer ... .... Inspector of car equipment . . Electrical engineer . Railway signal engineer Mechanical engineer .... Structural engineer . J 1 800 to $4000 )fi8oo to $4800 $1800 to JS4800 JS1800 to JS4800 JS1800 to $3600 $1800 to $4800 $1800 to $3600 $1800 to $4800 $1080 to $1500 $1200 to $1500 $720 to $1500 $1200 to jSiSoo $1080 to $1500 JS1080 to $1500 $1080 to $1500 $1080 to $1500 property mentioned in the above quotation. The Depart- ment of Agriculture offers many opportunities for young men well trained in science. In the consular service. The consular service possesses an ideal merit system, and has many other interesting features in addition to the salary, which ranges from ^2000 to $12,000 per year. But "our diplomatic and consular service," says Congressman Fowler, " is still the football of politics, and many a good man and trained servant is compelled to make way for some less competent successor whose assistance in the presidential campaign was the price paid for his claim to the place." This situation, however, is being improved gradually. To the young man who wishes to advance, a con- sul's position is surely desirable, and the time will come, it is hoped, when only trained men, basing their appointments on merit, will hold these places. » In the field of statistics. The government is collecting a vast amount- of data regarding our national wealth, the movement of immigration, the relations between labor and CIVIL SERVICE 139 capital, etc. These data must be analyzed, classified, and ap- propriately presented. This is the work of the statistician, who needs a thorough grounding in statistics, mathematics, and the broader aspects of his work as presented in eco- nomics and sociology. Such a man should preferably be a college graduate, who during his course has specialized in these subjects and later has conducted some field investi- gations. As good a way as any, perhaps, is to begin as a census enumerator. The statistician's salary ranges from $1200 to ^3000 a year. These are merely a few of the many positions now avail- able, a number which will constantly increase. The federal government and the various states and municipalities are enlarging their functions in the service of citizens. The demand for efficiency voiced by these citizens can be satis- fied only by trained men, and civil service is the way to secure them. EXERCISES 1. Draw up a list of all the civil-service positions held in your town. 2. Interview some civil-service employee. Find out what you can about his work. 3. Why are government employees more liable than others to get into a rut ? 4. Discuss the work of President Taft's Economy and Efficiency Commission. 5. If you are personally interested in making government work a stepping stone to some more desirable vocation, how could you do this ? 6. What opening, if any, does the government offer which interests you as a life-career .■■ What do you regard as most desirable about this particular position ? I40 OCCUPATIONS READINGS AND REFERENCES Books FoLTz, E. B. K. Federal Civil Service as a Career. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1909. $1.50. Fowler, C. N. Public Service. In Careers for the Coming Men, pp. 171-178. Garfield, James R., editor. Public Service, Vol. VI. Young Folks' Library. Hall and Locke Company, Boston. Sold in sets of ten volumes. Manual of Examinations. United States Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C. Manuals of Examinations of your state and municipal civil service commissions. Report of United States Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C. Annual. Reports of your state and municipal civil service commissions. Periodicals The Chief. A weekly periodical devoted to the civil service. Publishes notices of examinations and lists of test questions and books designed to prepare students for various positions. New York. $2.50 per year. Army and navy information may be obtained from their respective departments upon request. CHAPTER VIII MANUFACTURING What a plastic little creature man is I so shifty, so adaptive I his body a chest of tools, and he making himself comfortable in every climate, in every condition. — Emerson For every wage earner employed in jgog the value added to raw prod- ucts by manufacture was $1291. — Abstract from the tliirteenth census Importance of modern manufacturing. Every morning all over the civilized world factory whistles blow. At the same time such an immense multitude assembles that were all American manufacturing employees to stand one behind the other, hands on shoulders, they would form a human chain two thousand nine hundred miles long. These American workers turn out annually a product whose value expressed in silver dollai^s would, if laid edge to edge, make a silver sidewalk four feet wide reaching five times around the earth. So progressive are our industries that this enormous annual product of more than ^20,000,000,000 represented an increase of 40 per cent between 1904 and 1909. What inconceivable sum may it become when you are mature men, for the manufacturing industry is not yet old ! When your grandfather was a boy, if the meat supply ran low they butchered a hog or a beef, salted down part, sold part to the neighbors, and then had fresh meat for several days. But now hogs and cattle are shipped to the great stockyards, which are lined with huge packing houses, and the meat- packing industry heads the list of factory products. Beginnings of manufacturing. There was a time when manufacturing was mainly women's work. The savage brave shot the deer ; his squaw removed the skin, tanned it, 141 142 OCCUPATIONS and made the moccasins. Likewise, while her lord was out upon the warpath, she gathered various seeds and crushed them in a mortar, thus laying the foundation for our great milling industry. But after a time, when hunting became poor and enemies grew peaceful, all the members of a family joined in working up their products for use. They Factory work Students learning at first hand how to manufacture electrical apparatus made shoes from hides, wove cloth from fibers, shaped reeds into baskets. And thus the home became a factory. All this work was done by hand. There was no machin- ery and only a few simple tools. Boys who study Latin can see how the word " manufacture " (manus, the hand ; facere, to make) tells the tale. But after many years there came a great change. Let us turn to England, where this domes- tic system, in operation for centuries, at length underwent its mighty transformation. Owing to the invention of the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves, in 1764, and the MANUFACTURING 143 improvements made by Arkwright and Crompton, spinning came to be done by machinery. Weaving too was removed from the control of the hand worker by Sir Edmund Cart- wright's power loom. The steam engine, able to furnish abundant power, had been so perfected by 1784 that it could be used for factory purposes. So quickly was the transforma- Interior view of a modern factory An example of specialization of labor and large capitalization. This particular factory is engaged in making electric locomotives for railroad use, especially in tunnels and city terminals tion brought about that in some twenty years all the essential inventions were made, and manufacturing began to leave the homes, to be done in big buildings with expensive machinery and strong engines. Thus was born the modern factory system. Nature of modem manufacturing. Very little manufac- turing is now done outside of factories. Instead, the hand workers have long since left their looms and spinning wheels, and are marching to the factories daily — a peaceful army 144 OCCUPATIONS 6,000,000 strong. No one of them makes an entire shoe or an entire book. An intricate division of labor has been developed, so that each worker specializes on one process. The young man wfho wants to enter factory work will find few all-round jobs. He will very likely be required to specialize so as to do some one thing well. He will find also that manufacturing companies are becoming larger and larger. For instance, the amount of capital invested in manufacturing during the ten years from 1899 to 1909 increased 105 per cent, but the number of establishments increased only 29 per cent. And while cor- porations numbered only 25 per cent of all the manufactur- ing establishments in the United States, still they employed 75 per cent of all wage earners. What does this mean to an interested young man .? It indicates clearly that it is much harder for him to-day to become an independent manufacturer than it was for his grandfather. The prospective manufacturer may have some special ad- vantages in entering his life work, such as living in a man- ufacturing center ; or he may possibly have the ability to develop a special product from the ground up, as young, Charles Hart did in becoming the largest builder of gas tractors in this country. While the young man planning to be a manufacturer may have it in his ambition to be an independent owner some day, for the present he must start near the bottom and learn the business, and he naturally wants a position with some well-established company. This raises the question, What sort of factory work is most attractive ? EXERCISES 1. Learn from some old man how manufacturing was carried on in his boyhood. 2. Do you know any community where this old-time system is still followed.? (See World's Work, Vol. XIX, p. 12704.) 3. Tell of the early history of the steam engine. MANUFACTURING 1 45 4. Select some line of manufacturing of particular interest to you and find out something of its historical development. 5. Would you call your community a manufacturing center? What different commodities does it manufacture ? 6. What is meant by " division of labor " ? Visit some factory and observe it in actual operation. WHAT WORK CONNECTED WITH MANUFACTURING IS MOST ATTRACTIVE? A manufacturing establishment, like a railroad or a whole- sale house, is a complex affair with many kinds of work to be done. The young man may be mystified by its organ- ization and uncertain as to what part is best for him. So let us simplify matters at once. Broadly considered, there are two main lines of activity : the production of goods and the selling of them. The manufacturer who can produce cheaply and sell profitably has done all that any good factory owner desires. But to do this, of course, requires organ- ization. Let us look first at the commercial or selling end of the business. The Commercial Department Here you will find an organization very similar to any commercial concern, though modified sojnewhat to meet the needs of the factory. For instance, the salesman for a packing house or steel plant performs very much the same sort of work as does a salesman traveling for a wholesale grocery house or one selling town lots. Con- sequently, the prospective factory salesman can read with profit in Chapter V, Commercial Occupations, the sec- tion on the selling department. He will also find at the end of that chapter a list of books that will prove of great value to him. 146 OCCUPATIONS Yet it must be emphasized that these positions should not be overlooked merely because they are not treated again in this section. While all factories need bookkeepers and stenographers, many offer positions as accountants, secre- taries, and salesmen quite as good as in any strictly com- mercial organization. The Production Department It is on the production side of the business that manufac- turing in its strict sense takes place. Perhaps you think that here every man wears overalls, handles big wrenches with greasy hands, and is making something. But production is a complicated process and covers a wide range of activities. The beginner is apt to be surprised at the great amount of work necessary in order to get ready to manufacture. There are three general lines of activity : preparing for manufac- turing, the manufacturing proper, and caring for the prod- uct when made. The diagram which follows indicates broadly the scope of production. Each division will be dis- cussed in turn, but parts of them only briefly, since the work of these parts is treated in greater detail under Chapter X, The Machine and Allied Trades. Designing. This division is in charge of a chief designer and as many assistant designers as are necessary. It is a work which requires (i) extensive knowledge of trade conditions, how to appeal to customers by a new-shaped shoe or automobile ; (2) technical skill, the means by which the design can be realized through labor and machinery ; and (3) initiative, the ability to strike out boldly, though sanely, on new lines. Such qualities, if of a high order, — especially the productive impulse, or initiative, — are rarely found combined in one person. Good designers consequently command desirable working conditions and large salaries. MANUFACTURING 147 H M •z, hn W « S rt N S < 2 < SO 1 Experiment and Modeling Chief Engineer 1 iE o Q w 1 w UJ / \ Sfii g-i el's 1 2 0(3 PO a c ^ § S ^ S i:^ ^ LaJ m - c nS 4> 'hiS •f= s M C Si '3 S| MS J< S ^ S U ,2 •3 >^ a -a e V. o 1^ c S -a §£; t E •s S E g a o. ^ 2 M e 148 OCCUPATIONS Drafting. The designs are turned over to the drafting division, where -working drawings or blue prints, as they are called, are prepared. This work — if the factory is large and many different products are turned out, for each of which new drawings must be prepared — requires a chief draftsman and several assistant draftsmen. It is a vocation requiring qualifications much more limited than does design- ing. Many so-called designers, in fact, are really only good draftsmen. Pattern making. When the design for the proposed prod- uct has been approved and the blue print made, the next requirement is the patterns. This division is in charge of a foreman and whatever assistants he may need. Tool making. The new pattern may call for new tools, the making of which is a highly important task when large orders are received requiring intricate processes of manu- facture. The foreman and his assistants may construct the tools, but if the task is too difficult for them they will receive help from others, especially the designers. Store room. A constant supply of materials from which to make the articles must be on hand. These materials when received are checked up by the chief stores clerk or his assistant clerks. They check out materials as needed upon receipt of proper requisitions. A large shoe manu- facturing company in St. Louis gives its beginning clerks $iS per week; when experienced, ^20 to $2$; and the chief storekeeper an annual salary of ^1560. A leading ' automobile firm in Detroit pays 25 cents an hour to start, 30 cents an hour as the average, and ;^20 to $2^ per week to the stores foremen. Engineering. To set and maintain the factory in oper- ation requires power, lighting, ventilation, and sanitation. These are the duties of the mechanical engineer. He has for his assistants the engineer, firemen, electrician, plumber, and so on. MANUFACTURING I49 Manufacturing. This is by far the largest and most im- portant division of production. Many factories require no pattern maker, have no tool room, and employ no designer. But no factory operates without a manufacturing division. The chief official in charge is a superintendent, who directs several lines of activity, which will be presented in order. Operating a disc grinder This workman is preparing piston rings for use in automobile cylinders. The high eificiency of our touring cars and trucks is dependent in large measure upon the intelligence of men such as he 1. Wage earners. In this subdivision are found the workers themselves, a vast army of 6,600,000 wage earners. They perform all sorts of tasks, from pouring metal, grind- ing plowshares, and killing beeves, to cutting cloth, sewing shoes, and printing books. Part of these workers are en- tirely unskilled, and upon them the burdens of industry ISO OCCUPATIONS bear heaviest. Their hours per day are the longest, their earnings per year the lowest, and, owing to the unhealthful surroundings in which they frequently work, their life careers the shortest. Such evil conditions have not prevailed for years, how- ever, in many of our factories. Manufacturers in large and steadily increasing numbers have been providing sani- tary buildings, with improved lighting and ventilation and often equipped with comfortable lunch rooms. Best of all, these manufacturers have been joining with the trade unions and the state in passing legislation which requires all factories to maintain that standard of working conditions demanded by public opinion. More than this is the changed character of factory work. The low opinion of wage earners held by some whose knowledge of factory work is limited would be consider- ably changed were these people to visit a number of repre- sentative plants. Wage earners will be found there in large numbers doing work requiring a high degree of intelligence, and if one engages them in conversation he will find them not only thoroughly trained in their particular tasks but well informed on topics of general interest. Such work- men prove to us that our manufactured products can be made under conditions which cultivate not merely the muscles but the minds of men as well. 2. Foremen, managers, superintendents . Here and there we find a workman who shows a better grasp of factory proc- esses than do his comrades, has ability to direct others, and is more loyal to the company's interests. He is likely to be promoted to the position of foreman, or, if these qualifica- tions are developed to a higher degree, to manager of some room or department in the factory. Foremen, as might be expected, receive better salaries than the general wage earners. Although no general statis- tics have been gathered by the United States Census Bureau, MANUFACTURING i S i a number of typical manufacturing concerns have told us what their salary schedules are. The lowest wage paid fore- men in any of these plants is ^20 per week ; the high- est, ^45. The annual earnings reported to us indicate that foremen receive about ^1500. Those who have charge of a department in the factory, such as erecting shop, tool shop, power house, foundry, etc., and whose title is division manager, superintendent, or head foreman, receive from ^30 -to ^55 per week, an an- nual wage indicated by our data of about ^2000. Should a division manager work up to the -next higher position, that of directing the work of the entire factory, his salary will be from $35 a week, the lowest reported to us, to $10,000 a year, the highest shown by our returns. The average man can expect from about $1800 to $3000. If a young man aims for an executive position he would do well to become for a while a workman in the ranks. In the meantime let him be observant and give himself seriously to the problems of the production expert, which will be discussed next. The books cited in the Readings and References at the end of the chapter supply informa- tion of great value to every prospective foreman, manager, or other executive. 3. Production expert. The production expert is a com- paratively new worker. The old-time factory management never thought of employing his services. The need for such services to-day, however, is being recognized everywhere. " During the past twenty-five years," says Dr. Brisco, " American industrial and business life has undergone many changes. Increased competition cut profits to a nar- row margin, and in order to lower costs, the managers have been driven to a study of factory conditions. The factory, therefore, is to-day the center of investigation and study. The wastes of time, energy, and materials revealed by this study amazed even the most successful managers. Efficiency, 152 OCCUPATIONS the modern watchword, demands organization, system, cost ac- counting, cooperation, and coordination, and touches business activities outside the factory, as advertising, buying, and sell- ing. No branch of industry has escaped investigation, and the result is a great awakening to the lack of method and system." Studying a turntable lathe This production expert is testing a new machine under various conditions of speed, hardness of metal to be worked, and the amount of metal to be cut at each revolu- tion. His investigations completed, he will have all the machines in this shop run according to the rules he has deduced To see that the work of the factory is efficiently con- ducted is the work of the production expert. He is trained in scientific management. He gathers from every possible source all the information he can regarding the ways of doing some particular task and then proceeds, like a true scientist, to determine the one best way. He next teaches the workmen this one best way. Finally, he places as much MANUFACTURING 153 as possible of the work upon the office instead of upon the worlcmen. For instance, a production expert figured out to a nicety just how to assemble an engine, even to the exact number of turns to give each bolt. After this, instead of letting each workman experiment for himself he had the office typewrite his direptions and furnish carbon copies to the men. A good production expert is a valuable man and is paid accordingly. As might be expected there are a number of these "business doctors" whose services are worthless and who tend to bring the professioii into discredit. The leading ones are not employed continuously by any one firm, but maintain offices from which they make calls, as a physician would, upon firms in need of their skill. But here is a point you should never forget even if you have no intention of making this your sole calling — every executive needs to be somewhat of a production expert. A broad, well-balanced, analytic . mind, some technical education, including a study of the books listed at the end of the chapter, will go far toward making you a production expert in fact, whether or not you ever adopt the title. 4. Cost accountant. Manufacturers formerly had no exact knowledge of just how much their production costs were, relying instead on experienced guesswork. But such hap- hazard methods are fast passing away. Manufacturers are keeping careful account of the cost of materials, labor, and overhead charges, in this way basing their success upon science instead of luck. To devise plans for accomplishing this purpose is the work of the cost accountant. It may seem at first that the cost accountant is merely a bookkeeper. While it is true that a knowledge of bookkeep- ing and accounting is fundamental in his work, it is also true that the profession of cost accountant has been devel- oped rather by production experts than by bookkeepers. To enter this field, consequently, a knowledge of general factory IS4 OCCUPATIONS conditions should be gained. This knowledge can be secured in one way by working for a time in different factory posi- tions. Added to this should be some knowledge of efficiency and accounting, which can be gained from the books men- tioned at the end of Chapter V and at the end of this chapter. A factory process requiring trained men These men are turning wheels for railroad car trucks. They must be carefully trained, since they have charge of expensive machinery and must produce the full day's quota of fifteen pairs of wheels without injury to the machine or spoiling the work 5. Office employees. To perform the clerical work for the production expert and the cost accountant, as well as to handle all the various records which are entailed by the regular run of factory work, numerous clerks, bookkeepers, stenographers, and typewriters are required. This work is so similar to that discussed under this head in Chapter V that no further discussion is required here. MANUFACTURING IS 5 6. Educational and social workers. High-grade em- ployees only can perform the efficient work demanded in many factory processes. Since skilled workmen are scarce, employers, in order to meet the demands, are in many cases developing men of their own by means of apprenticeship schools. As an illustration of what such schools are doing, the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company has a training school for apprentices, a technical night school, and a course of training for technical graduates. In the course for apprentices the trades of machinist, pattern maker, tool maker, and electrician may be studied. The course cov- ers four years, part of it being shop work and part class work. The shop work is supervised by a shop instructor with several assistants, and for the class work there are fifteen teachers. As an example of work somewhat less definitely educa- tional, the activities of the Dodge Manufacturing Company of Mishawaka, Indiana, may be cited. Their heads of de- partments are supplied with books and magazines bearing on economics, mechanics, and engineering. Daily papers, current books, encyclopedias, and- books of reference are placed on the library shelves. Weekly meetings are held at which papers are presented and discussed. What the Dodge Company does for its department heads, other com- panies attempt to do in a more limited way for all their employees. Another line of work includes recreation as carried on by clubs, athletic teams, smokers' conferences, dramatics, field days ; hygiene, the movement for better light, more air, purer water, laundries, bathrooms, rest rooms ; and mutuality, as seen in benefit associations, good-will asso- ciations, pensions. In pushing to the fore all such activities, there has been developed a new profession — that of the social engineer. He needs to be thoroughly grounded in practical sociology and to have some training in biology (especially hygiene). IS6 OCCUPATIONS a first-hand knowledge of factory conditions, and the ability to work with men. There are few such positions available as yet, but there are also few men thus qualified. Finished stores. When the manufacturing division has " done its work on the raw materials, they are sent to the finished-stores room. Sometimes they are to be kept here until called for by the assembling room, the finished pieces being sold not individually but as one completed machine. In this case the head of the division is called the chief ■ stores clerk. At other times the product when first sent to the stores room is completed, and in this case the head of the division is more likely to be called the chief shipping clerk. Experimental worker. A live manufacturer ever seeks to improve his product. He cannot wait for outsiders to come to his office with new inventions, but employs an inventor who sets about producing new ideas in a business- like way. Needless to say, the requirements of this man, the chief engineer, are not widely possessed nor have schools yet learned how to develop them satisfactorily. But a technical education, familiarity with commercial de^ mands, and initiative are qualifications of value. EXERCISES 1. Have there been strikes in your local factories ? 2. Interview some factory foreman. Learn how long he has worked in factories, what salaries he has received, and what are his present duties. 3. In the same way interview a head foreman or division manager ; a factory superintendent. 4. The production expert is sometimes called an efficiency engineer or business doctor. Who are some of these men ? (Their cards and advertisements appear in business and manufacturing magazines.) Are any of them located in your city ? 5. Find out what you can of Frederick W. Taylor, the famous production expert ; of ex-President Taft's Economy and Efficiency Commission. 6. Is welfare work carried on in any of your local factories ? MANUFACTURING 1 5 7 Becoming a Manufacturer Would you enjoy holding some one of these various posi- tions we have mentioned ? There are a large number of them, and while manufacturing to-day is a good business, in the next fifty years it will make additional giant strides. If you like machinery, have an inventive turn of mind, enjoy build- ing and reshaping and making things, it is likely that you would make a success in some form of manufacturing. Training. In your high-school course study earnestly the subjects that bear on the particular phase of manu- facturing that most interests you. Are you intending to be a cost accountant ? Delve deeply into bookkeeping and mathematics. If you wish to become a production expert, study your physics, mathematics, bookkeeping, chemistry, and history of commerce. But high-school courses alone will not fit you for the highest success in these positions. You should also study accountancy and scientific management. I. By way of technological schools. Suppose, however, you decide on manufacturing, but do not know which par- ticular work to select. The best training for you would be a general technical education. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a notable institution of this sort, and your state university also may offer a first-class course. If before enrolling you know something at first hand of manufactur- ing, the advanced training will prove of greater value to you. But after graduation you will be surprised to be offered wages of 1 7 and 20 cents per hour. The maximum salary paid to a young man, no matter how well qualified, when he enters the employ of a certain great steel company, is only ^50 per month. However, that is merely the opening; your real position is gained through advancement. Here the technical education proves its superiority, for although beginning at the bottom you will yet considerably distance the boy who entered the factory when you entered the technical school. 158 OCCUPATIONS 2. In apprentice schools. If high school and a college of technology are impossible for you, there are still ways of securing your training. Some manufacturers maintain an apprentice school, or have entered into a cooperative plan with some Y. M. C. A. or local technical school. Fifteen jewelry manufacturers of Providence, Rhode Island, have p'^^^^H |H jg^^g^fSt. V- s^^BI^BSBIitt^'^'^^^^^BSBBf^ H ^SpH H!m ' ''^pWi^^^^^SwL?MwBtflw5MS^fe^'^t!^ «K^,,^^wfi^^l I^^K^~ ' HEk' \ I^^JPI^^PI ^^m ^HVlnlJiP^^^^v^ A f^^^^ B^^^^ m ^^^^^^HBBHpi'', WMIBe ^^S'- ' ^^ ■ -^ .-^ - ^^^iHiSSk"''. ■ . ; „■ /•^•\:^>;y^*iii^>!«^f^K:lu^'&5ri-^^; -:/ .. ■._ '.._' ._ Apprentices at school These young men are learning how to build gasoline tractors, and their teacher is the foreman standing just in front of the big wheel at the right. (Courtesy of Factory) made arrangements so that their apprentices are taught one week in the shop and the next in the public day schools, which have provided special courses for these young workers. The National Cash Register Company has been cooperating with the Dayton Y. M. C. A., and the part-time arrangement into which the University of Cincinnati has entered with certain manufacturers has become famous. 3. After entering the factory. If, as may possibly be the case, all such privileges are denied you, certain other means MANUFACTURING IS9 of preparation are open to every young man. You can ob- serve and study critically factory processes. You can read some of the books listed in this chapter, and in various ways become better trained each year. The trade unions recog- nize the need of their men for additional training. They are not merely strike-machines, as some believe, but also great educative agencies. Unions are often alive to outside opportunities, and try in many ways to improve their mem- bers, sometimes maintaining systems of instruction for the younger workmen. Here is what one of the New York unions says of evening schools : Local Union 247 especially desires to impress upon our apprentice members the opportunity now afforded them for advancing" themselves, enabling them to get out of the rut and to insure more favorable pros- pects for future success than they can possibly expect by the precarious apprenticeship system now in vogue. Our union will excuse you from attending our meetings during the school term. Grasp your opportunity now. Enroll at once and endeavor to acquire proficiency in carpentry, architectural drawing, mathematics, and other studies the school affords. Principal Henry T. Wood will accord you all encouragement possible. You will incur no expense, and your time will be spent to your personal advantage and to the credit of your associates in Local Union 247. Advancement. " There is always a place for a man equally as large as he is mentally," the assistant super- intendent of the Pope Manufacturing Company writes us. " There is no way to go across lots to success, and -there is no short cut to knowledge. But there is always the long tiresome road of endeavor which so few follow consistently enough to arrive at any special destination that others have not attained." " The opportunity for advancement," a great steel company writes, " will depend upon the individual." "' Every person is dependent upon himself," the National Cash Register Company tells us, "and is advanced accord- ing to his ability. The company's policy is to promote i6o OCCUPATIONS from the ranks, and as a result of this there are employees holding responsible positions with this company who at one time were apprentices." I. Charles Schwab's experience. Some statements given by Mr. Schwab explaining his rapid promotion from a grocery clerk at ten dollars a month to the presidency of the Bethlehem Steel Company may sug- gest ways in which you may advance in manufacturing : In the first place I al- ways stood on my own feet — always relied upon myself. There was one thing I discovered very early — that it would be well to make myself indispensable, instead of continually looking at the clock. I thought and dreamed of nothing else but the steel works. In my own house I rigged up a laboratory, and studied chemistry in the evenings, determined that there should be nothing in the manu- facture of steel that I would not know. I attribute my first great success to hard and active work. I found that those who were quickest were those to be pro- moted. An employer picks out his assistants from the best informed, most competent, and conscientious. A man, to be successful even as a specialist, should have a good general knowledge, and, therefore, ought to read and study much, a well-informed man is always the brighter for it. All through my life I have read and studied. George Westinghouse — inventor, engineer, and business man Two of Mr. Westinghouse's greatest accomplish- ments were the invention of the air brake, now used on all railroad trainSjf and the alternating current electric motor^ He stood for high ideals in manu- facturing, and proved that such ideals can be made successful MANUFACTURING l6l 2. Andrew Carnegie's rules for business success. And America's greatest manufacturer thus sums up for young men his rules for business success : Aim for the highest ; never enter a bar-room ; do not touch liquor. . . ; never speculate ; never indorse beyond your surplus cash fund ; make the firm's interest yours ; break orders always to save owners ; concen- trate ; put all your eggs in one basket, and watch that basket ; expendi- ture always within revenue ; lastly, be not impatient, for, as Emerson says, " no one can cheat you out of ultimate success but yourselves." EXERCISES 1. Which one of the divisions of manufacturing interests you most.^ What reasons have you for this choice ? 2. What is meant by part-time education ? Is it found in your high school or college ? 3. What educational work is carried on by any local trade unions ? 4. How should you prepare for the particular manufacturing work which interests you most ? READINGS AND REFERENCES Books Carnegie, Andrew. The Empire of Business. Doubleday, Page and Company, New York, 1902. $3.00. Cheyney, E. p. Social and Industrial History of England. The Mac- millan Company, New York. $1.40. Emerson, Harrington. Efficiency as a Basis for Operation and Wages. The Engineering Magazine, New York, 191 2. $2.00. Gantt, H. L. Work, Wages and Profits. The Engineering Maga- zine, New York, 1910. $2.00. Taylor, Frederick W. Principles of Scientific Management. Harper and Brothers, New York, 191 1. $1.50. Taylor, Frederick W. Shop Management Harper and Brothers, New York, 1911. fi.50. ToLMAN,,W. H. Social Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1909. $2.00. WiLDMAN, John R. Cost Accounting. The Business Book Bureau, New York, 1913. |2.oo. l62 OCCUPATIONS Williams, Archibald. How it is Made. Thomas Nelson and Sons, New York. $1.20. Manufacturers. Abstract from the thirteenth census, 1910, pp. 433-536. Pamphlets Opportunities with the Western Electric Company. Distributed free on application to the Western Electric Company, Chicago. (This is a sample of pamphlets sent out by several companies giving informa- tion to prospective employees.) Articles COULSON, R. E. "Are $300,000,000 worth Saving.?" System, Vol. XXIII, April, 1913, p. 363. Dawley, T. R. " Our Southern Mountaineers." WotM's Work, Vol. XIX, March, 1910, p. 12704. Orth, S. p. "Battle Line of Labor." World's Work, Vol. XXV, November, 191 2, p. 49. Periodicals Factory. A. W. Shaw Company, Chicago. $2.00 per year with premium book. The Engineering Magazine. New York City. $3.00 per year. CHAPTER IX THE BUILDING TRADES In the elder days of Art, Builders wrought with greatest care Each minute and unseen part ; For the Gods see everywhere. — Longfellow Men have never before lived in buildings so comfortable and convenient as those to-day, and in consequence there has never been a time when a skillful builder was more necessary and his services more appreciated. In our country we find a million carpenters and joiners, a quarter million masons, over one hundred thousand plumbers, a third of a million painters and decorators, and, we might add, to complete this list of builders, thirty thousand or more architects and their assistant draftsmen. Who can estimate the immense service to our daily comfort of this army of peaceful tradesmen ? To them we say, in Ruskin's words, with ever-increasing confidence that they will not disappoint us, "I would have, then, our ordinary dwelling-houses built to last, and built to be lovely ; as rich and full of pleasant- ness as may be within and without." GENERAL SCHEME OF WORK OF THE BUILDING TRADESMEN The carpenter constructs the wooden framework above the founda- tions and builds the wooden part of the outer and partition walls, the roof, floors, doors, windows, and other woodwork. The mason lays stone, brick, or concrete foundations, builds chim- neys and the major part of brick, stone, and concrete buildings, blankets the iron structural framework of city skyscrapers with stone, cement, and brick, and does inside plastering and outside stucco work. 163 i64 OCCUPATIONS The structural ironworker builds the iron framework of large public buildings, factories, and skyscrapers. The plumber, steam and gas fitter, and sheet-metal worker attend to installing the heating, gas lighting, and sanitary systems as well as to the roof and cornice work. Sometimes there are three tradesmen who separately look after these different parts of the work ; sometimes there is but one contracting plumber. The practical electrician wires the house, block, or factory for elec- tricity and installs electric lighting and, if desired, power and heating. The painter and decorator paints the outside wooden (and some- times brick) surfaces of buildings, " fills " and " finishes " the interior woodwork, and papers or otherwise decorates the inside walls and ceilings. The building contractor holds the contract for the entire building operation and is usually a master carpenter or mason. He is over the subcontractors, who are in charge respectively of the carpentry work, the masonry, the plumbing and heating, or the electrical installation. On the smaller jobs, where no architect is employed, the building con- tractor may also draw up the plans and specifications. The architect (usually a professional engineer and not a tradesman) draws up the plans and specifications of all large building operations, oversees regularly the construction as it proceeds, and is the deciding authority on matters of difference between the contractor and the owner. This workman will be treated at length in Chapter XI, The Engineer- ing Professions. The janitor (not a building tradesman but every day an increasingly important workman connected with buildings) tends the heating, ven- tilation, and sanitary equipment, looks after the upkeep and minor repairs, and keeps the building clean and wholesome for its occupants. THE CARPENTER Of all the building tradesmen, the carpenter would surely come first to the mind of the average boy. At any rate, most boys are builders of something — whether windmills, waterwheels, wagons, sleds, boats, or other contrivances. So when educators decided on manual training as an excel- lent subject for interesting boys and for developing the dexterity of their hands, they very naturally introduced woodworking into the schools. We trust that you all have THE BUILDING TRADES 165 been so fortunate as to have taken such a course in your grammar-school days. Now let us get better acquainted with this interesting and very necessary tradesman, the carpenter. Rank of carpentry as a trade. Not only is carpentry pleasant because of its woodworking, but as a whole it is a high-grade occupation, healthful, stimulating, ennobling. According to a scale of measurement devised by Dean Herman Schneider of the School of Engineering, Uni- versity of Cincinnati, carpentry would rank very close to the 100 per cent point. He rates the work of the loco- motive engineer at 100 per cent because of its beneficial character and conditions. Let us take his analysis of the engineer's vocation and compare it part by part with that of the carpenter and note their similarity and the reasons for their high rating : 1. "The work of the locomotive engineer is done in the open air." So is much of the carpenter's work. 2. "It provides a fairly well-rounded physical develop- ment." This is just as true of the carpenter's activities. 3. "The constant improvements in locomotive design and railway appliances generally require continuous mental development." The improvements in building design, mate- rials, and appliances would have the same effect. 4. " Mental alertness is constantly required for emergen- cies." The carpenter, too, must keep his wits about him. 5. "A comprehensive grasp of the whole interdependent scheme of production (a railroad produces transportation) is essential." The carpenter should have a comprehensive grasp of the whole interdependent scheme of the house that is building, his work and that of the mason, the plumber, the electric wirer, and of the painter and decorator, as well as a grasp of the owner's wishes and personal traits. 6. " The conditions under which the same run is made are never alike." Could the conditions under which any two houses are built be exactly alike ? i66 OCCUPATIONS 7. " The work itself breeds in the engineer the highest quality of good citizenship ; namely, an instant willingness to sacrifice himself for the lives in the train behind him." To build houses conscientiously breeds in the carpenter good citizenship ; namely, a constant willingness to sacrifice his profits and to lose money, if necessary, for the sake of doing a thoroughly good job in " each minute and unseen part." Carpenters are not called upon as locomotive engi- neers may be, to give up their lives, but they are expected to build honestly, even though part of their work is covered by plaster and will never be seen. Nature and remuneration. As we have just seen, car- pentry is mostly open-air work ; it provides a fairly well- rounded physical development ; it requires continuous mental development ; it furnishes variety and interest ; it breeds moral qualities. Unlike some tradesmen, the carpenter re- quires but little capital except credit and skill to advance from workman to proprietor, or contractor. He will take first a small job as carpenter and contractor, and then, by making a reputation as a reliable, skilled tradesman, he may advance naturally to larger and larger jobs until he becomes a prosperous contractor. To one of artistic tastes who will take the proper courses of study, carpentry can also be. made the stepping stone to architecture, a well-paid profession. As for social standing, 'the carpenter and his family are privileged to move in the best circles, provided their personal worth, accomplishments, and financial standing warrant it. We find its most serious disadvantages to be lack of work for part of the winter and during business depres- sions, and competition with less skilled carpenters who either crowd the trade or lower the wages. However, as in most occupations, the more reliable and skilled work- men do not lose much time and are usually paid the highest wages. THE BUILDING TRADES 167 At this point it will be well to explain a few technical terms. To-day a young man may get his preparation for car- pentry as well as for masonry, plumbing, and various other trades by taking a course in a special school where these are taught, or- by contracting for a term of years, usually three, with a man already skilled in the particular occupa- tion to serve as his helper and thus to learn the trade. In this scheme, called the apprentice system, the skilled work- man is termed a journeyman and the youth learning the trade an apprentice. In the trade school the learner earns no wages and often has to pay a small tuition fee, while the apprentice is usually paid some wages from the -start. Because of the present insufficient number of these schools, and the fact that many young men cannot afford while learning their trade to give up two or three years with no wages, there are still many youths serving as apprentices. Now let us glance at the earnings of some of these learners both from the trade school and from the ranks of the apprentice. Within six months after graduation from a three years' course in carpentry at the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, near Philadelphia, the class of 19 10 were earning on the average ^19.59 a week. This is a fair sample of the wages received by trade-school grad- uates in one section, at least, after a course of from two to four years, during which time they are earning no money. Apprentices from 16 to 19 years of age often earn from $1 to ^1.25 a day the first year, from ^1.15 to ^1.75 the second year, and from ^i.Soto;^2.2S the third year, the wages de- pending very much upon the section of the country and the teachableness and industry of the workman. The journey- man receives commonly from I3 to $5 and, in some cities, even ^5.50 a day. Generally speaking, the demand for reg- ular employment of skilled, reliable carpenters is good, the most capable losing little time. The less competent might average from 225 to 275 days of work per year. i68 OCCUPATIONS In carpentry the opportunity for advancement is com- paratively rapid for young men of the right sort. There is also gain here in following the father's trade, although, should his father be an employer, the son must be careful not to put on airs among the men. If the apprentice makes himself popular with the foreman by willingness to do cheerfully and carefully all that is asked of him, he will be taught many things about working from specifications, and other fine points. At noon he can get the plans and study them and help himself to master their use. In some cities he can study architectural drawing at night school, and, wherever he may be, he can advance in value to his contractor by studying courses from correspondence schools. In many ways it is possible for the young carpenter of the right mettle to advance rapidly in his trade and make a good living. Natural qualifications and preparation. Of course, if you are going to be a successful carpenter, you must have a liking for woodwork, for mathematics (especially geom- etry), and for things mechanical. Quite likely also you know woodworking tools and have made many contrivances and repairs about the house. If this is the case, you doubtless have a natural bent toward carpentry. If you should choose this trade, what would be the best preparation for it ? First of all, you should complete a high- school course, paying most attention to business arithmetic, geometry, physics, free-hand and architectural drawing. Next attend one of the best trade schools, where they are more and more taking real contracts for their boys to work out under practically the same conditions as regular appren- tices meet, except that in the case of the trade school the "bosses" are all expert teachers. Therefore, if you have wise teachers and real houses to build, the trade school should graduate you as the best-trained carpenter. Many large cities have these schools, in which the courses are from two to four years, and the tuition is either free or very inexpensive. THE BUILDING TRADES 169 If you are a high-school graduate eager to add to your education nights and at odd moments, and if at the same time you can find an expert contractor who will take a real interest in you, then the apprenticeship system has one real advantage — you will receive wages during the three or four years you are learning the trade. In whatever way you may get your preparation, it would be well for you, in order to get into the atmosphere of your proposed life work, to talk to carpenters about their trade and their life, to read books on woodwork and carpentry, and, if possible, to borrow at least one carpenter's magazine from a carpenter friend, and later to subscribe for it. Facts concerning this trade by a prominent carpenter. We print here in part a letter from Mr. Frank Duffy, Gen- eral Secretary of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, who gives us the following expert information concerning his trade : One of the greatest advantages of the carpenter's trade is that it is an "out-of-door" occupation, and, if engaged in under proper conditions, is most healthful. It is interesting in many ways, particularly in that there are many opportunities to become a skilled mechanic in the work. There is much in this vocation that tends to the development of the mental and moral faculties. The salary, or wages, of the carpenter varies in different localities, and the remuneration of the apprentice and first-year man varies like- wise. In the city of Chicago, which may be taken as an average case, the wage for the first-year apprentice is $6 per week, for the second year $7, for the third year $8.50, and for the fourth year |ii. In Boston, Mass., the apprentice receives $7 per week for the first year, $8 per week for the second year, and for the third year not less than $10 per week. In Hartford, Conn., journeymen carpenters receive $4 per day for eight hours' work. It may be safely said that we have more old men in the ranks of our organization than any other craft. Being an out-of-door occupation, it is naturally healthful, and it is not putting it too strongly to say that the average active career is from twenty-five to forty years, or even greater. Compared with other trades, the opportunity for advancement is rapid, three years as a rule being all that is required to learn the trade I/O OCCUPATIONS and become a competent, skilled workman. There are many carpenters who, in the course of time, become contractors doing business for them- selves. We venture to say this happens more often in the carpenter trade than in any other manual occupation. A common-school education is absolutely necessary, that is, up to and including the eighth grade. Of course a high-school education, properly made use of, is of great assistance, particularly in its mathe- matical department. Fine carpentering or cabinetmaking. i. NaUire of the work. Until within a half century the carpenter not only built the wooden part of houses but also made all wooden utensils, furniture, and even coffins. Gradually these articles came to be made largely by machinery in factories, so that most of this work has been taken away from our tradesmen. However, there still remains to the finer workman of the craft a portion of this inheritance, the making of elaborate furnishings and massive furniture for palatial residences and of specially designed furnishings of wood for large offices, stores, and public buildings, and the repairing of choice handmade furniture. In every large village or city, and connected with every important firm manufacturing pianos or a high grade of house furniture or of wood furnishings for office or store, you will find one or more fine carpenters who are skilled cabinetmakers. While their work is with wood, it is very different in many ways from the work of the ordinary car- penter. The one is employed on fine work indoors, the other spends much of his time on coarser work outdoors. The one is a building tradesman engaged in constructing houses, the other is a maker and repairer of fine furniture for the interior of such structures. Cabinetmaking is allied to one phase of the arts and crafts work, furniture making, and perhaps somewhat less closely to pattern making (which is treated in Chapter X), since both have to do with woodworking. Cabinetmaking or fine carpentering is of interest to boys who enjoy doing THE BUILDING TRADES I /I exact work, who love beautiful furniture, and who are fas- cinated with creating artistic forms from the best grades of wood. 2. Renmneration. While the natural qualifications and special training of the carpenter and the cabinetmaker differ considerably, their remuneration is about the same, except that some few expert cabinetmakers who are of high artistic ability receive much higher wages. Again, the employment of the cabinetmaker may be more regular, since it is indoor work, and thus his yearly income would be greater. Then, too, there are some building carpenters who are also expert in fine workmanship ; these do odd jobs in cabinetmaking and thus fill in their spare time and add considerably to their income. EXERCISES 1. Find out from the carpenters in your neighborhood whether any of them are willing to train apprentices. If so, what sort of boys do they want, and how long will the term of apprenticeship be .' 2.' If a trade school is within easy distance of your school, send some member of your class there to investigate what trades are taught, and get the trade school's reasons for considering its graduates better trained than the apprentices. If the trade school is too far away for a visit, have some member of the class get full information on these points by ■ writing the principal. 3. What wages are paid the carpenters of your acquaintance ? How many days a year on the average do they work ? 4. Find out from some successful contractor how he advanced from carpenter to contractor. How much extra work did it require ? How much additional study ? What capital ? 5. Inquire of some prosperous architect whether he used carpentry as a stepping stone to his present profession and whether any of his fellow architects advanced from this trade. 6. Does the increasing use of concrete and structural iron in build- ing benefit or injure the carpenter's trade? Ask your carpenter and contractor friends about this. 7. Find out all you can about cabinetmaking as plied in your community. 172 OCCUPATIONS t;he mason If of the building tradesmen you naturally think first of the carpenter, you will without doubt think next of the brick and stone mason. As many of you know, this tradesman commonly builds chimneys, walls, foundations, abutments, etc. by laying, according to specified plans, bricks, stones, or cement blocks tier upon tier with mortar between. He also constructs entire buildings and bridges of concrete, blankets the iron structural framework of sky- scrapers with stone, cement, or brick, and does inside plastering and outside stucco work. In the country carpentry is of more importance than masonry because the woodwork in country buildings is the most essential feature of the construction. In the large structural work of the cities, however, it is the mason who has the main part to perform, and often he becomes the general contractor for the whole building operation. The ideal of good masonry is a structure that shall stand as the backbone of the building, firm and enduring, its com- paratively large cost at first insuring no further care or expense. Rank as a trade. Let us see how this trade, which numbers approximately a quarter of a million workers in our country, ranks as an occupation when compared with Professor Schneider's scale of measurement. 1. It is largely an open-air occupation. 2. It provides a fairly well-rounded physical development. 3. The constant improvements in building design, mate- rials, and appliances require continuous mental development. 4. Mental alertness is constantly required for emergencies. 5. The mason should have a comprehensive grasp of the whole interdependent scheme of the structure that is building, of his work and that of the iron structural worker, the carpenter, the plumber, and the electric wirer, as well THE BUILDING TRADES I73 as a ready comprehension of the owner's wishes and personal traits. 6. The conditions under which the mason works on any two jobs are never alike. 7. The work of the mason, if honestly wrought in each minute and unseen part, is conducive to good citizenship. He renders the community a most essential service in his building operations. If, in order to do an honest job and live up to his agreements, he is equally willing to make a profit or to lose money, then truly his work breeds in him a high quality of citizenship. Like that of the carpenter, the mason's trade ranks high in these essentials of a vocation. Advantages, preparation, and remuneration in comparison with those of carpentry. It requires at the start but little capital to advance from journeyman mason to small con- tractor. While his employment is somewhat less regular than that of the carpenter, his wages are enough higher to make up for this. His opportunities for advancement and his social standing are about the same as those of the carpenter. Young men planning to enter either of the two trades should have about the same natural qualifications — a lik- ing for tools, science, mathematics, and drawing — and the same thorough high-school education. Xo be successful in either trade they must be businesslike, industrious, ambi- tious, not loafing at odd moments, but constantly, steadily forging ahead. The wages per day for the mason are a little higher, but for the year they are about the same as those of the car- penter. From a letter received from Mr. William Dobson, Secretary of the Bricklayers, Masons, and Plasterers' Inter- national Union of America, we learn that the wage scale of bricklayers in Philadelphia is ^5 per day and that of stone- masons $4. The wages in the Middle West vary from $S.6o to $6 a day, and in the far West, at San Francisco, the wage scale is $y. These wages, of course, are for 174 OCCUPATIONS journeymen. The apprentices receive about the same as in the carpenter's trade, starting at ^i per day. Actual work of the apprentice. The apprentice is taught to make the various kinds of mortar by mixing lime or cement with sand or gravel and adding water. In order to make good mortar he is trained to use the right amount of each ingredient and to mix them together properly. He carries this mortar as needed to the journeyman mason whom he serves as helper, supplies him bricks, stone or tools, and helps him in every way possible, while he ob- serves closely how every part of the work is done. It may be months, however, before the apprentice is trusted to lay any bricks or stone in an actual structure, although much depends, of course, upon how quick the young man is to learn and how careful he is, and upon the willingness of the journeyman to have his helper advance in learning the trade. Step by step the apprentice advances from mortar mixer and general helper to brick and stone layer, at first on very simple pieces of construction, up through more and more difficult and responsible parts of the work, until after three years, as a rule, he becomes com- petent to build any ordinary structure of masonry and is thenceforth known as a journeyman or master mason. Perhaps it cannot be stated too often or too vigorously that practical tradesmen do not want in their employ young men who are at all superficial in their general education or in the special training received for their trade. These sen- sible men do not care what you know but what you can do, and what you will do when given an actual job. The contracting mason. The tradesman who receives wages is, of course, working for another man, but if he is ambitious and self-reliant he will, in all probability, after a few years become his own boss and himself hire workmen. Since contracting is a business enterprise, whether carried on by carpenter, mason, or other tradesman, it is impossible THE BUILDING TRADES i/S to state what income one could expect. He might make a few hundred dollars one year and lose it all the next, or he might steadily add to his capital, clearing a few hundred dollars from nearly every job until he had acquired a fair- sized capital. As it is, throughout our country there are many prosperous contracting masons who have accumulated considerable property. To the right man, first as journey- man and later as contractor, the mason's trade offers many advantages and ranks as a desirable vocation. EXERCISES 1. Find out from the contracting masons in your neighborhood whether any of them would care to take and train an apprentice. If so, what sort of boy do they want, how long will they expect him to serve as apprentice, and what wages will they pay him each year .'' 2. If a trade school where masonry is taught is near you, send for a catalogue and note the preparation required of those entering, and ex- amine closely the course of study and the plan of instruction as outlined. 3. If no such school is near, write to the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williamson School Post Office, Pa., for a cata- logue and their free bulletin On bricklaying, or for the free bulletin of the School of Applied Industries, Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa. 4. Find out from some successful contractor how he achieved his present prosperity. Did it require much outside study or extra work ? How much capital ? 5. Find out from the contracting masons of your acquaintance whether the increasing use of concrete and structural iron in building benefits or injures the mason's trade. 6. In your community are there more carpenters or more masons? Can you tell why? THE STRUCTURAL IRONWORKER Increasing demand for skyscrapers. As land soars in price, the buildings upon the land must also soar in height. While this rule is practically universal, its results are most interesting on or near the island of Manhattan, New York. 1/6 OCCUPATIONS In 1909 we find completed the highest structure of steel and masonry hitherto attempted, the Metropolitan Life Insurance Building on Madison Avenue and 24th Street, New York City, extending 50 stories above the sidewalk. Since then the Woolworth Building on Broadway and Barclay Street, the highest building in the world, has been At work on a skyscraper The ironworker can see far below him people on the street and at his right the Hudson River and ocean liners at dock. Only men of steady nerve can work at such dizzy heights erected, towering 55 stories above the street, or 750 feet in all. Some authorities declare that there is no good reason to suppose we have nearly reached the limit of perpendicular construction, and that we may expect much higher skyscrapers in the future. Carpentry and masonry alone, however, would never make possible such colossal buildings. The building's real support is an inner framework made of steel bars and THE BUILDING TRADES 177 plates riveted solidly together by the structural ironworker. While you may never care to enter the ranks of these so- called " cowboys of the skies," still they are so necessary to the building of huge city blocks, which are becoming increasingly common, that we must look somewhat into their life work. The work of the structural iron builder. His task is to raise by means of engines the steel trusses, girders, and beams, some weighing even 20 tons apiece, put them into place, and rivet them fast as parts of the whole skeleton of the building. Besides the frightful perils of this work, or perhaps to add to them, the men are urged on with their building operations under tremendous pressure. Think of a massive granite and brick fireproofed skyscraper covering two thirds of a block being urged upward at the rate of a story a week ! But such has been done. The men work in day and night shifts so that no time shall be lost ; for do you realize how great would be the daily or weekly interest on the millions of dollars tied up in such an enterprise? It is estimated that the Woolworth Building complete cost ;^ 1 5,000,000. At 5 per cent the annual interest on this sum would be ^750,000. What would be the loss for every day wasted in completing this structure ? Naturally, the contractor and foremen urge on the men to the limit of their speed, which means working under a severe nervous tension except at times when, for the sport of it, they vie with each other or workmen on neighboring skyscrapers in little trials of speed. To appreciate the terrible stress and strain under which these men labor, read " Skyscrapers While You Wait," by William Allen Johnston in Harper's Weekly of June il, 19 1 0. Preparation and remuneration. The qualifications for a successful ironworker are for the most part natural and inherent. He must be sober, cool, level-headed, quick of 1/8 OCCUPATIONS sense and action, daring, but still cautious. As for educa- tion, he must understand working from blue prints and know something about the mechanics of building. The graduates of manual-training high schools advance most rapidly to the positions of greatest responsibility and pay. The new recruits, for the most part, come from the ranks of bridge builders, sailors, and circus men, and, after some experi- ence, these " housesmiths " receive from $24 to ^30 a week. The foremen get from ;^3S to ^55 a week, but their employment as well as that of their men is somewhat irregular. Probably very few, if any, of you will choose structural ironworking for your vocation ; but since the services of these men are so necessary in our cities, we should at least know something about their lives, and we should do our part, whether from within their ranks or from the outside, to have their calling made as free from danger as possible. These men, like railroad employees and others engaged in any hazardous occupation, should be urged (and, if neces- sary, encouraged by reward) to practice " safety first," and then their employers should be forced by public sentiment and penal statute to safeguard in every way possible their building activities. EXERCISES 1. What features of the ironworker's life should you lilce? Which should you dislike? 2. From your personal investigations, which trade should you prefer, that of carpenter, mason, or structural iron builder ? Explain your reasons. THE PLUMBER Recent growth of this trade. While in 1840 the trade of plumbing was practically unknown, to-day there are in America over 100,000 plumbers. In i860 there were 170 factories manufacturing plumbers' supplies ; in 1900 there THE BUILDING TRADES 179 were 12,050 such establishments. In i860 the product of the 170 plumbers' supply factories was valued at less than ^2,000,000; in 1900 the product of the 12,050 factories was worth nearly ;$ 147,000,000, more than seventy times as much as forty years previous. The reason for this great increase in the plumbing busi- ness is seen when we consider that in no branch of me- chanical science has there been more noteworthy progress than in plumbing, heating, and ventilation, the province of the plumber. Heating and ventilation, once regarded as incidental features of building construction, are nowadays considered matters of extreme importance. Likewise, an intelligent public now appreciates the disastrous results from defective plumbing, and in order that all sanitary work shall be performed according to scientific principles, municipal regulations and ordinances have been quite gen- erally enacted to safeguard the public health by condemn- ing all plumbing and drainage systems improperly installed. This new order of things has made a technical education necessary for the man that hopes to hold a position of any prominence in the 'broad, intricate field of plumbing. And as a result, plumbing is assuming an ever higher rank as a trade fit for a brainy, technically trained man. Nature and remuneration. In his book " What shall Our Boys do for a Living," Mr. Charles F. Wingate writes : I would strongly advise young men to become plumbers. A first- class plumber must understand both the- theory and practice of sanitary science. He ranks with a machinist or an engineer. Within a very few years the trade has been revolutionized and there is a growing demand in all parts of the country for capable plumbers. A young man who is master of the trade has a great advantage over the ordinary, ignorant, unscrupulous plumber, and should have no difficulty in getting plenty to do. Not only is there a steady demand for new buildings in all parts of the country, but repairs and alterations are also going on continually, and the plumbers who can give satisfaction to customers easily succeed, l8o OCCUPATIONS One of them told me he had not lost a week's work in thirty years. He said there were four men in his shop who received fifty cents a day extra because they could follow plans and specifications correctly, could measure and order exactly what materials were needed, were able to explain clearly to customers just why certain things should be done, and could act with discretion in emergencies. Such practical sagacity and " gumption " count for much. The timid and indifferent workman who blindly follows orders when he knows they are wrong or need to be modified is the first to be laid off when work is slack. Plumbing is on the whole healthful and mentally stimu- lating, and offers a good livelihood to sober, industrious men of a mechanical turn. Because of the great variety of conditions and often perplexing difficulties under which systems of plumbing, ventilation, and heating must be in- stalled, the plumber requires much mechanical resourceful- ness, at times amounting almost to inventive genius. To the right sort of plumber there is steady employment, pay equally as good as that of the carpenter or mason, and the opportunity of at least steady, if not rapid, advancement. Many capable plumbers have advanced to contractors and dealers in plumbers' supplies, while a few have worked their way up to the position of sanitary engineer. Perhaps the most serious disadvantages of the trade are living down its bad repute in some localities because of former unscrupulous plumbers, and the occasional dirty work to be done in cellars, sanitaries, and sewers. Still, there is disagreeable work to be done in all occupations ; and the plumber of to-day and to-morrow will receive in- creasingly greater respect as he elevates his trade by giving *:o it more brain and better service. Since the province of tiie plumber has so much to do with our comfort and health, he has it in his power to render the community a vitally important service. Apprentices sixteen years of age or older receive as help- ers the first year from $i to $6 a week of forty-four to forty-eight hours, the second year from $6 to ^8, and the THE BUILDING TRADES l8i third year $7 to $10. Journeymen receive from ^3 to $6 a day, depending upon the man and the prevaihng wages in his locaUty. Natural qualifications and preparation. If you aspire to become a master plumber, you should be of a mechanical, almost inventive turn, and not adverse to soiled hands, face, and clothing, or dirty work that may interest or ab- sorb you. You must not shrink from dimly lighted, ill- smelling damp places if your work of properly installing a system of heating or of sanitation leads you there. As with the prospective carpenter or mason, you should have a liking for geometry, science, and drawing, and, if possir ble, should complete a high-school education before 'begins ning to learn the plumber's trade. Here also you should ' emphasize the mathematics, science (especially physics and physiology), mechanical drawing, and English composition. If you talk with successful plumbers about your education, they will tell you how easily you can- waste your time in school by skimming the top of many polite subjects instead of going to the bottom of a few related practical subjects and regularly applying the facts learned to everyday things. They will also strongly advise you to invest your spare time after school and during vacations in some business- like pursuit, preferably connected with some mechanicalor building activity. It is well to try out your supposed liking for plumbing oj" any other occupation by doing, if possible, some work at odd times in the trade itself. There are to-day many good trade schools where plumbing is taught on real contract jobs . in two-year, and three-year courses. Enroll in the one most con- venient, and consider yourself a real employee, ever algrt to serve your employer to best advantage ; and after completing the course in earnest fashion, you will soon be receiving a journeyman's wages and be well on the way to becoming a .prosperous contractor or a successful sanitary engii:ieer. l82 OCCUPATIONS EXERCISES 1. If a trade school where plumbing is taught is near you, send some member of the class who is interested in this trade to investigate the course and the kind of instruction, the sort of boys and instructors, and report fully to the class. 3. Let some member of the class write for a free catalogue to the State Trade School at Bridgeport, Conn., or at New Britain, Conn., or for the free bulletin of the School of Applied Industries, Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa., or for the free announcement of courses in plumbing, heating, and ventilation of the International Correspondence Schools, Scranton, Pa. 3. Find out from some successful contracting plumber what general education and what special preparation he considers best for a boy who intends to become a plumber. What sort of boys would he think best adapted to learn his trade? 4. What wages are paid the journeymen plumbers of your acquaint, ance ? How many days' work a year do they average ? 6. Which of the building trades in your community seems to be the most prosperous? Can you explain the reason? THE PRACTICAL ELECTRICIAN In this day of electric lights in practically all modem buildings and of electric power in many blocks and facto- ries, there is a great demand for well-trained electricians. There are many kinds of electrical workers, but here we shall treat only the one that is closely allied to the building tradesmen, the one who wires our buildings and installs the lights and, if desired, electric motors and heating equipment. Because of the great danger of fire from defective wiring of buildings, there is a code of strict rules made out by the National Fire Protection Association which in many states the electrician must observe. The prospective electrician requires a thorough technical training as well as much practical experience gained under skilled instructors in installing and wiring for bells, annun- ciators, arc and incandescent lights, motors, etc. before he THE BUILDING TRADES 183 can start as an independent journeyman. For many of us the service of this tradesman is as necessary to our comfort evenings as the light of the sun is in the daytime. Because of the conveniences in our homes provided by the practical " electrician, he easily deserves in our estimation a place by the side of the plumber. Natural qualifications and preparation. If you think of becoming a practical electrician, one who understands thor- oughly the work of wiring and installing electric lighting and power, you should first of all have an absorbing inter- est in electrical devices of all kinds. This includes, of course, a mechanical bent and some mechanical ability. In your high-school course you would naturally specialize in mathematics, mechanical and architectural drawing, and in physics, especially magnetism and electricity. While at- tending high school and after graduation it would be well if you could serve for a time as helper to a local electrician in order to get in touch with the practical side. Next, a two-year or three-year course in a good trade school would fit you as a journeyman. To the studious, persevering young man the trade of practical electrician may serve as a stepping stone to the profession of electrical engineer, one of the most attractive in the engineering field. Remuneration. Throughout the United States helpers and apprentices are paid from $1 to $s a day, and as high as $4 in certain cities. Journeymen receive from ^2.50 to $6 g. day, the highest wages being paid in Illinois, New York, and Massachusetts. Quite often the successful elec- trician conducts an electrical hardware store in connection with his contracting business, and thus adds to his income. Of all the trades connected with building operations, that of practical electrician is to-day one of the most attractive. It might be added that this branch of electrical work is as healthful as any of the other building trades and as free from accidents. 1 84 OCCUPATIONS EXERCISES 1. In your locality investigate and compare the trade of practical electrician with those of carpenter, mason, and plumber. Which of the four should you prefer ? Why ? 2. In what ways would you consider the work of the electrician who wires houses, blocks, and factories for light and possibly power more desirable than that of the linemen electricians ? 3. Do you know any practical electrician who has become a success- ful electrical contractor and dealer in electrical supplies or who has be- come a successful electrical engineer? In either case, inquire how he prepared himself as journeyman, and how he advanced to his present position. THE PAINTER AND DECORATOR The architect may plan a new house ; the building con- tractor and his assistants may build and equip it with mod- ern conveniences ; but for every house that in any given year is so erected and equipped, there are thousands that are redecorated both inside and out. In large measure the architect and builders make the building, but the decorators make the home. How large a part of our comfort and happiness depends upon the aesthetic satisfaction received through the sense of sight ! Is it not a reflection upon our people that of the trades centered about the construction and finishing of our homes, the painting and decorating trade, numbering in America a third of a million men, is the poorest paid, the most hazardous on account of disease, and requires the least preparatory education.? Training. In painting and decorating a home or other building, how essential that the master decorator should be well educated, cultured, and well grounded in the technique of his art ! So, while the ordinary painter and paper hanger has been getting along without even a high-school education or the special preparation for his trade gained from a trade school or from a full term as apprentice, it seemed a most THE BUILDING TRADES 185 auspicious step forward when Columbia University recently dignified the study of interior decoration as a profession by according it a place in the curriculum by the side of archi- tecture, engineering, law, and medicine. Columbia has done more. Recognizing the fact that many prospective or actual decorators could not afford the time or money for a college course in the science and art of decoration, this great university is offering special courses for tradesmen, shorter and more elementary, both for day and evening classes. We shall all welcome the day when more universities will follow the example of Columbia, and when every city and large community will have its experts in house painting and decoration, specially qualified as master tradesmen by a thorough preparation received in a university art school or in a good trade school. General conditions of the trade. To come nearer to pres- ent conditions of the trade, however, let us read in part what Mr. J. C. Skemp, Secretary of the Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators, and Paper Hangers of America, recently wrote in answer to questions concerning his trade. The most serious disadvantage of this trade is lack of steady -em- ployment, as many painters and paper hangers lose considerable tixnie through the winter months during the dull season. j The wages of apprentices are usually about #3 per week when they begin learning the trade. The salary of competent mechanics averages I4 per working day of .eight hours. The demand for regular employment is better in large than in small cities and painters as a rule average about nine or ten months steady work during the year. The average active career of this vocation is about twenty-five years. The opportunity for advancement is rapid, j No special qualifications are required except for decorator. Decora- tors should have a natural aptitude for drawing, and many have becorne experts through lessons obtained by correspondence courses. No' great amount of general education is required, although a general knowledgfe of minerals and painting materials is beneficial. In some cities,' espe- cially in Chicago, schools have been established by this brotherhood for teaching apprentice boys the trade of decorating and paper hanging. 1 86 OCCUPATIONS Disadvantages. To suggest some of the diseases incident to painting, a quotation from the July, 191 3, number of The Painter and Decorator will perhaps best serve our purpose : Men engaged in the painting trade come into contact with materials some of which are well known to be of a dangerous character unless used with intelligence. It has been shown that various vehicles such as turpentine, china-wood oil and other more volatile substances give off emanations which may produce ill effects unless there is adequate ven- tilation. Therefore the latter should be insisted upon. The use of lead in painting is so universal and of such ancient date that painters usually know of its dangers and how to minimize them. It has long been realized that personal cleanliness is absolutely necessary and that this eliminates much of the danger. There is a phase of the painter's work, however, that involves danger even to the man of per- fectly cleanly habits. This is the process of sandpapering down paint work. Here the fine dust may get into a man's lungs and stomach and do great damage to his health. Dr. Alice Hamilton, an agent of the United States Government, has suggested a common-sense method of lessening this, the greatest danger to painters from the use of white lead. She has found that the use of a volatile oil for moistening the sandpaper will prevent largely the dust flying. This oil is said to evaporate and leave the surface in perfect condition to receive the paint. A brighter outlook. We are glad to see that the dangers of disease from painting and decorating are being inves- tigated and as fast as possible prevented, for nearly all of them are preventable. It is a most hopeful sign that courses of instruction in this trade, which has the power of making our homes beautiful and delightful, are being established ; and doubtless before long there will be many excellent courses of this sort throughout the country. Then the public must appreciate more fully the valuable service rendered by the decorator, and, after providing adequately for his health and demanding an increasingly higher grade of work, it should pay him more liberally, or more fairly, for his services. We hope that with these improvements and advan- tages the trade of painter and decorator will soon take its rightful place near the head of the building and allied trades. THE BUILDING TRADES 187 EXERCISES 1. Do the painters and decorators in your town or city conduct, in connection with their trade, stores equipped with supplies for painters, paper hangers, etc. ? 2. Do the painters and decorators in your locality lose more days a year than the other building tradesman ? 3. How do painters and decorators compare in health with these other tradesmen? 4. Why do painters and paper hangers receive lower wages than the other tradesmen so far studied? 5. Do you think this trade will ever rank as high as that of carpenter or mason ? Give your reasons. 6. Do you consider the artistic decorating of a home or public building of much worth ? Explain why. THE BUILDING CONTRACTOR To be at the head of a large factory, a retail store, a rail- road, or an institution ; to be at the head of anything worth while ; to be able to do things and to direct others to exe- cute plans — this rightly appeals to young America. In the building activities there is for every big job such a head, who directs the work of construction and has charge of all its details. Nature of the work. When he has received from the owner the contract to construct a certain building, after a definite plan, to cost a set amount of money, then the building contractor, as executive in charge of the job, has the excavation dug, the foundations laid, the superstructure reared, the building roofed and inclosed, and the interior finished and equipped. In very truth, he is the real builder ; and as the building grows from day to day until it becomes perfect in its every detail and he turns it over to the owner, he must feel much satisfaction in creating from materials, with the help of his men, a magnificent house or a substantial block. f88 OCCUPATIONS Such a building contractor is a business man rather than a tradesman, although he must understand his own trade well and all the other trades cooperating on the work. A successful contractor, it is seen, is much more than a jour-, neyman carpenter or mason ; he has to be proficient in all J^ fl ,- i ■ ■ w Wr"J^^ '-l^fij^ '*^--